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^LEN AND GREENOUGH-S

Latin Grammar

FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES

FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR

ieiebfeelr anlr EnlargeU

BY

JAMES BRADSTREET GREENOUGH

ASSISTED BY

GEORGE L. KITTREDGE

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Boston, U. S. A., and London

GINN AND COMPANY

1891

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Entered at Stationers' Hall.

Copyright, t888, by J. B. GREENOUGH and J. H. ALLEN..

All Rights Rbsbkvbd.

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••• •••• • •

• • •

• • •

Typography by J. S. Gushing & Co., Boston, U.S.A. Prbsswork by GiNN & Co., Boston, U^S.A.

PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION.

The Publishers have again taken advantage of the opportunity offered by the necessary recasting of the plates of this book to cause such improvements to be made in it as the advance of gram- matical knowledge and the experience of the schoolroom have shown to be advisable. The revising editors have endeavored to simplify and make plain the statement of principles, so far as could be done without sacrificing scientific correctness ; but no concession has been made to the prevalent mechanical method of treating the science of language. Many additional explanations and suggestions have been made in the text and foot-notes, for the benefit of teachers and advanced scholars. The number and range of examples have been very considerably increased; and it is hoped that scholars will find no grammatical usage in their ordinary reading that is not provided for in the statements laid down.

The treatment of the formation of words has been much extended ; and new light, it is hoped, has been shed upon this difficult and ever- advancing branch of the science. In cases where comparative philol- ogy is concerned, the editors have endeavored to set down the sure results of the so-called ** New Grammar," but have been conservative about accepting doctrines which, though likely to be true, cannot yet be regarded as fiiUy proved, and are certainly not universally accepted. In conformity with the modern practice all naturally long vowels, known to be such, including those whose natural quantity is concealed by position, have been marked throughout; but many suspected to be long have been left unmarked, where the evidence did not seem sufficiently convincing.

Some new doctrines will be found in regard to the order of words, which, though not generally accepted, will, the editors are persuaded, meet with more general approval, the better they are applied and understood. This subject has only just begun to receive the con- sideration it deserves.

No changes of any account have been made in the numbering of sections.

In conclusion, the editors hope that they have made still more plain some of the devious ways of Latin grammar, and feel that if their new efforts meet with anything like the same favor that has been shown to the book heretofore, they shall be amply rewarded*

PREFACE TO THE EDITION OF 1877.

The editors have taken advantage of the re-casting of the plates to make some unproveraents in the present edition, which have grown upon their hands, until in fact a thorough revision of the book has been made.

The principal changes are the following: i. The matter of each

part has been cast in chapters, with sub-divisions by numbered

I paragraphs. 2. A considerable expansion has been given to several

I portions, especially to those on Phonetic Changes and the Forma-

I tion of Words ; inflectional forms have been more carefiiliy exhibited,

I and sections have been added on the Syntax of Pronouns and Parli-

I des. 3. Stricdy philological matter, not intended for class use, has

I been put in the form of marginal notes. 4. The several topics of

' the Syntax are introduced by brief pre&tory notes, suggesting what

e consider to be the tnie theory of the constructions ; these are

not designed for class use, and are not included in the numbered

sections. 5. Sotne important additions and illustrations have been

given in the Prosody, The substance of the book remains as be-

The form of expression, however, has been carefully revised ;

and a few sections have been transferred to a different connection.

The proof-sheets have been submitted to several experienced teach- ers, who have generously aided us by their criticism, and have con- tributed many valuable practical suggestions. The editors have pleasure in acknowledging, also, their special indebtedness to Pro- fessor Castde Harrison, of the University of the South, Sewanee, Tenn., whose correspondence has made a very fidl running cora- ;nfary extending over the greater portion of the book, including all the Syntax, with copious discussion of numerous incidental topics. His notes have been of the greatest service to them ; have

;times modified their views and constantly supplemented them have urged important points upon their attention, and have no seldom suggested valuable improvements through the very antago- nism of opposing doctrine. Material less easy to specify in detail, not less Valuable or welcome, has been received from Professor M. W. Humphreys, of Nashville, from the principals of the aeade-

s at Aadover. Exeter, and Quincy. and from others, lo whom cc dial thanks are due for the interest tliey have testified in the work.

I

I

Cauui

, >i71-

NOTE.

For the convenience of those who may wish to follow up more minutely the study of the subjects treated in this book, a list of important works is given below.

Allen, F. D. : Remnants of Early Latin.

American Journal of Philology, Vols. I. to VIII. and continued.

BoPP: Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, etc. [Indo-European lan- guages.] 4 vols. 3d ed. Berlin: 1868-70.

The original standard work on Comparative Forms. Later researches have corrected some erroneous details. English translation (poor). London: 1862. The best form is a French translation, with Notes and Introductions by Michel Br^al. Paris: 1866.

Bezzenberger : Beitrage zur Kunde der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen. I-I3-

Brambach: Laieinitche Ortkographie, 1868.

Brugmann : Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik, Vol. I. Strassburg : 1886.

Greek Grammar. See " MUller's Handbuch."

CoRSSEN : Aussprache, Vokalismus und Betonung der Lateinischen Sprache. 2 vols. 2d ed. Leipzig: 1868.

The greatest work on Latin alone^ treating the language in reference to its own individual development, particularly as to the sounds {Lautlehre), Must be used with caution.

CuRTius, G. : GrundzUge der Grieckiscken Etymologie. 3d ed. Leipzig: 1869.

Treats of Latin only by comparison, but is one of the most valuable works on the general subject

Erlauterungen zu meiner Grieckiscken Sckul-grammatik, 2d ed.

Prag: 1870. English translation ("Elucidations"). London: 1870.

Notes giving in connection with the Greek Grammar the simplest view of the doctrine of forms.

Das Griechische Verbum.

DelbrCck: Das Conjunctly und Optativ, im Sanskrit und Grieckiscken. Halle: 1871.

Origin of the Moods treated scientifically. Should be read in connection with a notice in "North American Review," October, 187 1, and "Analysis of the Latin Subjunctive/* by J. B, Greenough (Cambridge : 1870).

AbiatiVf Localis, Instrumentalis im Indiscken, etc. Berlin : 1867.

Origin of the various Ablative constructions.

r

Note.

\

FiCK: Vtrgleicitmla WUrtcrbuch der Indo-Cirmanisehen Sprachtn. GH- tingen; 1S70,

A Dictionary of Roots and Words suppoEed to have existed in the Indo-European tongue, with the corresponding words and derivatives in the various languages. It can be used mthout a knowledge of German. No such boolt, however, is safe to use without careful study of the laws of consonant and vowel changes, Hadleyi Essays, PhHolegicat ana Critical. New York (Holt & Williams).

1873- IlAl^W. G. : Cum Canstructions. [Cor tiell Studies.]

Tht Sequtnif of Ttnsts.

Hoffman: Die Cortslraction dir Lai/i>ti!chett Zeilpanikcln. Vienna: i860.

[Pamphlet.] -m

Marzi HilfsbUehleia fiir dit Aussfraihe. elc. Uerlio; iSSj. H

Meyer, G.: GritAiscke Grammatik. zd ed. Leipzig: 18S5. ^1

MOlLER! BandbuLh dtr A'lassiscitn Allerthums-ixiissemchaft. Vol. I. Gritck' '

ische und Latatdsche Sprachwissenschaft (by BrugnianD, Stolz and SchmaU,

and others), Neue: FormenlAre der Laleinischea Sprache. Stuttgart! 1875.

Storehouse of all Latin forms, izoo pages, containing the result of lale textual criticism. The alaadard work. PapilloN! a Manual ef CemparaHve Philology, as applied to thi lUusira-

Hon of Grttk and Latin Injlections. Osford : 1876.

Behind Iho times, but a convenient synopsis of the doctrine of forms. ROBY, H. J.; A Grammar of Ihi Latin Lnnguagf, from Plaulus to Sucloaxus.

London and New York (Macmillan): VoL I, 1871; Vol. II., 1873.

Some errorshavebeen pointed out In the "North American Review," January, 1B73, Schleicher: Compendium der Vergleichenden Grammatik der Inda-GV' '

manischen Spracien. 4th ed. 1876, '^H

Antiquated, but Indispensoble. ^|

Seeuxank, E.: Die Aussprache des Lalein. Heilbronn: 18S5. 5lEVEKS,E.: GrundiOge der PhoneCik. 3d ed. Leipzig: 1885. VaniSeK, A.; Etymologisches fVSrterhuh der Laleiniichen Sprache. Leipiig:

1B74.

SuggesflvB, but to be used with caution. Westphali Metrikder Criechen. ad ed. 1867. a vols.

The great authority on the metrical systems of the ancients, with full literair and musical llluslraliun. A convenient summary, with some modifications, will be found In Schmidts Rhythmik md Metrik, now translated by Prof. J. W. WHITK, and published \yj the publishers of this book.

Wheeler, B. T. ( Analt^ and its Scope in Language. [Cornell Studies] Whitnkyi Samirit Grammar. Leipzig; 1879.

The best grammar of the Sanskrit, without some knowledge of which languago It is dllGcuU to pursue the study of comparative grammar to advantage. ZEITSCHRirr fSr ver^ichende Sprackforschung. Edited by Uc. A. Kt'HN.

— .. . _._ BeclJji; 185 1 and subsequent years.

orrecl Iheoriei of individual Invcsligaton,

CONTENTS.

PART I. — ETYMOLOGY.

PAGE

Chapter I. — Letters and Sounds 1-13

Alphabet; Classification, Phonetic Variations 1-9

Pronunciation; Quantity and Accent .....'.. 10-12

Chapter W.'^^ Words and their Forms 13-18

Inflection; Root and Stem i3) 14

The Parts of Speech 15,16

Gender, Number, and Case 16-18

Chapter III. — Declension of Nouns 19-46

General Rules of Declension 19, 20

First Declension 20-22

Second Declension 22-25

Third Declension: Mute Stems 25-27

Liquid Stems 27-29

Vowel Stems 29-32

Irregular Nouns 32, 33

Greek Forms 33> 34

Rules of Gender 34» 35

Lists of Nouns 36-38

Fourth Declension 39> 40

Fifth Declension 40,41

Defective and Variable Nouns 42-46

Proper Names 46

Chapter IV. — Adjectives 47-62

First and Second Declensions 47-49

Third Declension 49-54

Comparison 55-58

Numerals S<^^

viii Contents,

PAGS

Chapter V. — Pronouns ••••• 63-72

Personal, Reflexive, Possessive, Demonstrative .... 63-68

Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite 68-71

Correlatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) 72

Chapter VI. — Verbs 73-121

Inflection 73» 74

Signification: Voice, Mood, Tense 74-78

Personal Endings 78, 79

Forms: Verb-Endings 79-^i

The Verb Sum 81-83

The Three Stems . 84

Regular Verb : The Four Conjugations 84, 85

Formation of the Three Stems . . . • 86-90

Synopsis of the Verb 90

Special Forms 91

First Conjugation 92, 93

Periphrastic Conjugations 93

Second Conjugation 96-98

Third Conjugation 98-103

Fourth Conjugation 104-106

Deponent Verbs 106-108

Irregular Verbs . • • • 109-1 14

Defective Verbs 114-117

Impersonal Verbs 117,118

Note on the Origin and History of Verb-Forms . . , 119-121

Chapter VII. — Particles 122-139

Adverbs 122-127

Prepositions 127-133

Conjunctions 133-139

Interjections • . • • 139

Chapter VIII. — Formation of Words 140-162

Roots and Stems 140, 141

Suffixes : Primary ; Significant Endings 141-143

Derivation of Nouns and Adjectives 143-156

Derivation of Verbs 156-160

Compound Words 160-162

Contents, ix

PART II SYNTAX.

PAGB

Introductory Note 163, 164

Chapter I. — The Sentence 165-204

Definitions: Subject and Predicate ; Modification.' • • 165-170

Agreement: the Four Concords 170

Nouns: Apposition; Predicate Agreement 170-172

Adjectives: Rules of Agreement 172

Special Uses 174-177

Pronouns: Personal and Demonstrative ...... 1 78-1 81

Reflexive 181-184

Possessive 184-186

Relative 186-191

Indefinite 191, 192

Alius and Alter 193, 194

Verbs: Subject, Incomplete Sentences 194-196

Particles: Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negatives . . . 199-201

Questions 201-204

Chapter II. — Construction of Cases 205-273

Introductory Note 205

Genitive: With Nouns 206-211

Possessive 207

Material^ Quality ...... 208

Partitive 209,210

Objective 211

With Adjectives • 21 1-2 13

With Verbs 213-217

Remembering and Forgetting . 213,214

Accusing, etc 214

Feeling 214

Interest and RSfert; other Verbs, 216, 217 Peculiar Genitives : Exclamatory, etc. . • • 218

Dative: Indirect Object with Transitives 219-221

Indirect Object with Intransitives ..... 221-225

With Compounds • • 225-227

Of Possession ; of Agency ....... 227-229

Of Purpose or End ; Dative with Adjectives . 229-233 Of Reference; Ethical ^. ■2'i'?>>'i'J><k

\

X Contents,

PAGa

Accusative : Direct Object 235-237

Cognate Accusative ; Two Accusatives .... 238-242

Idiomatic and Special Uses 242-244

Vocative 4 244

Ablative : its Several Uses 244, 245

1. Of. Separation and Privation 245-247

Source, Material, Cause 247-250

Of Agent ; of Comparbon 251-253

2. Of Manner, Means, Instrument, Accompaniment, 253-256

Of Difference, Quality, Price, Specification . 256-259

3. Locative : Special Uses 260

Ablative Absolute 260-26^

Time and Place ••••• 263-279

Use of Prepositions • • 270-273

Chapter III. — Syntax of the Verb • • • 274-305

Note on the Moods • 274

Moods : Indicative 275, 276

Subjunctive : General Use 276

^ Hortatory 277,278

^ Optative 279

" Deliberative 280

Imperative 280-283

Infinitive 283

Tenses: Introductory Note 291

Tenses of Continued Action 291

Present 291-294

Imperfect 294-296

Future 296

Tenses of Completed Action 296

Perfect 296-298

Pluperfect 298

Future Perfect 298

Epistolary Tenses 299

Tenses of the Subjunctive 299

Sequence of Tenses 300-304

Tenses of the Infinitive • • • 3^4

Participles: Z^^Z^^

Distinctions of Tense 307

Adjective Use 3°^

Predicate Use 3^9

Contents, xi

PAGE

Future Participle 312

Gerundive • . . • • 313

Gerund and Gerundive 314

Supines 318

Chapter IV. — Conditional Sentences 320-339

Introductory Note 320

Protasis and Apodosis 321

Classification of Forms 322

Simple Conditions 324

Future Conditions 325

Conditions Contrary to Fact . . • 327

General Conditions 329

Condition Disguised 330

Condition Omitted 332

Potential Subjunctive 332

Subjunctive of Modesty 332

Verbs of Necessity 333

Complex Conditions 333

Particles of Comparison 334

Concessive Qauses 335

Proviso • 336

Use of SI and its Compounds 337

Chapter V. — Dependent Constructions ....... .339-3^8

Relative Clauses : Introductory Note 339

Conditional Relative Clauses 339

Clauses of Purpose 340

Clauses of Result 343

Claases of Characteristic 346

Causal Clauses 348

Relations of Time 349

Fostquam, etc 350

Cnm Temporal • • 352

Cum Causal 353

Anteqnam, Friusquam 554

Dum, Donee, and Quoad 354

Substantive Clauses : Introductory Note 355

Infinitive Clauses 356

Clauses of Purpose • • • « . -^^^^

xii Contents.

Clauses of Result 362

Clauses with Qnod 366

Indirect Questions 367

Indirect Discourse : Introductory Note 369

Formal Indirect Discourse 370

Subordinate Clauses 372

Tenses in Indirect Discourse 373

Conditions, Questions, Commands 374

Informal Indirect Discourse 379

Integral Clauses 380

Important Rules of Syntax 381

Chapter VI. — Arrangement 386-393

GenefalRule 386

Special Rules 392

Structure of the Period 393

PART III. — PROSODY.

Chapter I. — Quantity 394-401

Introductory Note 394

General Rules of Quantity 394

Quantity of Final Syllables 396

Quantity of Penultimates 398-401

Chapter II. — Rhythm 402-406

Measures of Rhythm : Feet 402-405

The Musical Accent 406

Chapter III. — Versification 407-424

The Verse 407

Dactylic Verse : Hexameter 408

Elegiac Stanza ; Other Dactylic Verses • 410, 41 1

Iambic Verse : Trimeter 41 1

Other Iambic Measures 413

Trochaic Verse 413

Mixed Measures 414

Logacedic Verse 415,416

Metres of Horace 417-421

Index to Metres of Horace • • 420

Contents, jciii

PAGB

Other Lyric Poets 421

Miscellaneous 422

Early Prosody 423, 424

Miscellaneous: Reckoning of Time 425

Measures of Value 427

Abbreviations 428

Glossary of Terms 429-432

Appendix : Latin and Kindred Tongues 433-438

Principal Roman Writers 438, 439

Index of Verbs 440-448

Index of Words and Subjects 449 ff«

LATIN GRAMMAR.

Latin Grammar is usually discussed under three heads : i. Etymol- ogy* 2. Syntax; 3. Prosody. Etymology treats of the form of separate words, as either written or spoken ; Syntax of their function when joined together as parts of the sentence ; Prosody of their arrangement in metrical composition.

PART FIRST.— ETYMOLOGY.

Chapter I. — Letters and Sounds.

Alphabet.

The Latin Alphabet, as the language is usually written,

is the same as the English (which, in fact, was borrowed

from it), except that it has no w.

Properly, it consists, however, of only twenty-three letters : a (called ah), b {be \bay\), c {ke), d {de), e {e [^>%]), f {ef), g {ge), h (Jid), 1 {ee), k {kd) [see § 6], 1 (^/), m {etn), n (^«), o (<?), p (/^), q {koo\ r {er), s [ess), t (Z^), u, v {pd), x (/>), y {u Graeca ?), z (jsetd). Of these, y and z were added in Cicero's time to express the correspond- ing sounds (v, Q in borrowed Greek words (cf. Cic. N. D. ii. 37). 1 and u (v) have a twofold value, which is often in modern writing indicated by a double form : 1, j ; u, v. See § 4.

Classification of the Letters.

1. The letters are divided, with reference to their sounds, into Vowels {litterae vocdles) and Consonants {litterae con- sonantes). Two vowels united so as to express one sound are called a Diphthong.

r

Etymology : Lelti-rs and Sounds.

i§i.iP

a. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The resl of the letters are Con- sonants. The Diphthongs are ae (te), au, ei, en, oe (ca), ui, a.nii in Early Latin ai, oi, and ou.

Note. — All the divisions of ilie letters apply really lo llie sounds which (lie letters represent; but ai tlie iounds in Latin very nearly cotrespnnd lo the letters, no real conftision need arise if both are spoken of williout distinction.

b. Vowels are Open (a, o), Medial (e, u), or Close (i), according to the positioD of the organs in pronouncing them.

Note.— The vowel a. as In falktr, is the most opffn (i.i. the organs arc least

constnuned In pronoancing it). Starting from this sound, and narrowing the mouth

sidewise, at the same lime raising the middle of the tongue, we come tlirough

several gradations not always reeognured, but no doubt

a always more or less existent in speech, lo the sound of

/ \ e {as in ehT) and 1 («, as i in machine). This sound,

iitftal)^!aw> if enunciated rapidly with a following vowel, passes

/m-^ \<not> i"'" "•= ^°"°'' "f E"El'^l' y (consonant). If, on the

X \ other hand, the mouth is narrowed up and down, and

*^i^ ^j--- '""^ at the same lime the back of the tongue is raised, we

German sound (5) lo o. If. starling from u, we do the same, we come to French u, Germiui 11, Greek v, and Latin y. And this sound, in turn, approaches L These processes may be represented in a vowet scale as above.

2. Consonants. — a. p, b, c (k), ii, g, t, d, as also ab. and th, are called Mutes (Explosives, Momentary sounds).

These are produced by an entire stoppage of the breath and a subsequent explosion. They are classified as follows ; —

1. p, o (k), q, t, 8, are called Surds {tenuis). These are without vocal tone.

2. b, 6, d, z, are called Sonants {mediae). These are accompanied by a slight vocal tone.

3- oh and th are called Aspirates.

In these a breath follows the explosion. They are found chiefly in word.'; borrowed from the Greek, ph, which also was borrowed from the Greek, probably was never sounded as an aspirate in Latin.

b. m and n are called Nasals,

These are pronounced with the same position of the organs as b and a, except that the nasal passage is opened instead of closed. A third nasal, n adiiUeriniim (like n in ink), corresponding in the same way to

existed in the language, but had no separate sign.

§§ 3-5.] Classification of the Letters. 3

3. From the organs of speech chiefly used in the utter- ance of the mutes and nasals they are divided into Labials (pronounced with the lips), Palatals (with the palate), and Linguals (with the tongue).

Their relations are seen in the following table : —

Surd. Sonant. Aspirate. Nasal.

Labial, p b wanting xn

Palatal, c (k), q g ch n (as in ink)

Lingual, t d th n (as in reni)

a. Other useful special classes of sounds are distinguished as : —

Liquids: 1, m, n, r.

Fricatives (Spirants): f, ph, th (not aspirate, as in thin)^ h, s, z.

Sibilants : 8, z.

Double Consonants : x (cs), z (ds).

Semi-vowels: i, v (see J 4).

b, h is merely a breathing.

4. Semi-Vowels. — l and v (u) before a vowel in the same syllable are consonants and have the sound of Eng- lish consonant y and w respectively. (Cf. i and u in pinion, issuing, rapidly pronounced.) They are sometimes called Semi' Vowels,

Note i. — The Latin alphabet had no separate signs for the semi-vowels ; but used i for both vo^el and consonant i, and v or u (without distinction) for both vowel and consonant v (u) . The character j was unknown in classical times, and u was but a graphic variation of v. In mediaeval Latin j and V came to be used to indicate the consonant sounds of 1 and V (u) , and this usage is often followed by modem editors in writing small letters. In writing capitals, however, the forms J and U are avoided. Thus iuuenis, iuvenis, or juvenis, — but iwenis.

In this book vowel and consonant i are both represented by the same character, i ; but V is used for the consonant, u for the vowel sound of v (u). Thus itistus, vlr, iuvenis.

Note 2. — The English sounds of j and v did not exist in Latin in classical times, though consonant v (u) began no doubt to approach English v in many persons' speech.

Note 3. — In the combinations qu, gru, and sometimes su, u forms a com- pound sound with the preceding consonant, and is reckoned neither as a vowel nor a consonant Thus aqua, anfiruis, cdnsuetus. (Cf. English quill, anguish, suave,)

5. The Romans distinguished Long vowels from Short in sound, but had no regular characters to express the dif- ference. At various times attempts were made to mark this distinction, but none came into general ws*^.

4 Etymology : Letters mid Sounds. [§§ 3

In modera times short vowels are marked thus : S, ti i and long, ihus : a, § ; those that may be pronounced either long or short, thus ; 5, e. In this book all simple vowels not marked are supposed to be short. But final o and i are marked according to their prevailing length or shortness, though they sometimes vary from this quantity in poetry.

Note. — Vowels and cansonsnK iarenot separaled by ony shsrp line from each olher, but form a continuous scaJe from Ibe most open vowel (a.) to the mutes, for which the mouth is entirely closed. The general leodencj of phonetic changes in language has been from the livo extremes towards llie middle.

Early Fotiub.

6. The character c {surd palatal) originally stood for the sonant palatal (g). (Hence, a, b, o, but Alpha, BeU, Gamma.) This force it always retained in the abbreviations C. (forO-Siua^iand Cn. (GnaeuB).

Note. — In prehistoric times these two sounds were confounded, and O was used for both. The cliaracler k (surd palatal) was thus supplanted, except in a few words and abbreviations : as, Kal. (Kalendae), KartbaEO-

About 300 B.C. G was invented to distinguish the sonant again, but was put in the place in the alphabet once occupied by z, which at that lime had dropped out ol USB. When % was afterwards restored (in Greek words), it was put at the end of the alphabet.

7. Till al^er the age of Augustus the use of u (vowel) after n (v) was avoided. This was done either by preserving o, when but for this tendency it would have become ti, as in voltus (but culttia), ssrvfia (but dominuB), bu5b (but meus), quom (but turn), reliqafiB (but

H rellotua) ; or in case of quu, by writing on, as in cfir (for quor),

^H ecita (for equoa, later equna), com (for qnoni, very late qttum),

^B relloue (for reliquos, later retiquuB). Compare c for qu in cotldiB,

^h written for quotldiS. h

^B sigr

■ the

I:

Pbouetic VaiiattoiiB.

t. Variations of sound are of two classes : —

. Inherited differences of form in the same root (see § 22).

the language, so that its slniclute cannot be explained mdioii 2. Unconscious alterations of sounds developed in 1

: traces throughout It taking them into

course Of time in

the language itself.

Note.— Such alleraiions arise in every language after long articulation and an unconscious tendency lo iecure an easier i depend very ranch npon accent. Thla process is often called

: use from careless ilterance; and Ihey

»SS 9, 10.] Phonetic Variations.

9. Inherited differences appear in variations of vowelsj and less commonly in liquids connected with vowels.

Vowels vary between long and short of the same kind : as, emS, buy, Smi, I bought i \s%o, I read, lEg^ I read; tego, I cover, tSgula, tiUi aonS, t sound, persona, a mask (33 sounded through) \ regfi, / ruli, rSx, a kiitg; dux, a leader, dac6. / lead.

'. Vowels vary in qualify: as, pendS, I -weigh, ■^aoA'OA, weight., D, I eovtr, toga, a robe; RS-vx, faithful, foedna, a treaty. (Cf, fall, fell; bind, band, bound.)

c. Vowels vary between a short vowel of one quality and vowel or diphthong of another : mioar, -wretched, Aaixe, to give, dSatxm, gift ; asS, / lead, 6gi, / led.

d. Liquids are transposed with vowels, sometimes with change of the vowel: as, speniS, f spurn, BprSvI, /spurned; aternS, I strew, ■tr&vl, I strewed} gXguo, /beget, {%)n8.ttiB, a son ; tulgeG, / shine, flagro, /burn.

W 10. Unconscious changes occur in both vowels and con- sonants.

a. Vowels and diphthongs are weakened, usually in the directionfl marked on. the vowel-scale (see page 2) : as, factua, made, cSnfectn^ madeup; lubet (old) f/^J!?fij«j',libet (later); Elgmen, n viar^A, Sgminii of a march; oa.idO,/taie,iaoipiQ,/iegl»; lesO./pici,colUeS, /gather; oaedS, /cut, aecSAI, /Aayeatt ; aaliS. /leap. eiaaltO, / leap up and dovfn (for joy) ; pell5, /drive, pulaua, driven ; aervoa, a slave (early), servus, a slave (later); optumus, optdmaa (see g 12. U); ebotls, of ivory, ebnmenB, made of ivory i vortS (early), / turn, vertO (later), /turn.

Note, — When vowels seem lo be changed contrary lo the direclion of Ihe voK'et-scaJe, eilher both are changeii in differEni degrees from some common vowel higher up the scale, or the change Is due to some special cause : as, ienB, etintls (for tslona.i feiontla'); volentem, bm voluntBa (for volont.); BlmlllB, almul (lor almollB. eic.) ; aucepa, aucupla.

b. Two vowels coming together are very often contracted : as, c5g5 for 00-agC ; obit for obiit; nil for nihil (see § 347. t); dS-be5 for hibeS (de-babeo, see a, above) ; rOrsiiB, re-veraua () C below); amSrat (for amBverat) ; oUnctua (for coiunctus) ; sGrgS (for sub-rego).

if

I

s, ienB, etintla

ont.); BlmlllB, ^^^

:ed : as, cagS ^^H le-bed for de- ^^| e-vojans. see ^^^| :tUB) ; BfirgS ^^H

Etymology: Letters and Sounds. [§| 10, 11,

c. Vowels are often entirely lost between two consonants (syncope): , auda.oter for aiidSoiter; iurgiuiii for iGrigiuni ; disoIpUna for

discipuUna ; oaldus (popii!:tr), calidna (literary) ; or at the end of a word ; as, die for dice ; eatiu for eatiaae ; Ii3iunc for hSrunoe.

d. Vowels are rarely inserted between two consonants in the effort to pronounce a difficult conibinalion of sounds (cf. ellinit for eim) ; as, HeronlBa for HeiclSs, drachuma for draobma, aeer for aBr{o) (see § 38).

e. Vowels found long in the earlier language are sometimes shortened later : as, fidSI (later fldelj, amSt (later amat : g 375. g^).

11. a. Consonants are unconsciously substituted one for another 11 accordance with regular tendencies of the language. Thus : —

I . r for a between two vowels or before m or n : as, erani (root ES), generis (for fgenesis, from genus), maereS (cf. maestUB), dlrimo (dis-emo), dliibeS (dls-habeS), vetemus (vetus-ntia), oanuea (toaamon, cf. CaamSna). (Compare Eng, wiis. were.')

3, B for d or t, making an easier combinalion: as, cSaua (for oad-ttia), cSaaum (ced-tum), mSnaua (man-tua), paaaua (pad-tua and pat-trua), equeater (equet-ter).

b. Consonants are omitted : as, ez3iiieii (ez&gmen), caementnm (oaed-mentum), semeatiiB (ses-mestrls), ISna (luc-ua), dSni (fdsc- nl), hoc (abl. for hQd-oe), autumnua (auctunmug, root aug), fulmen (fulg-meu), pergo (per-regoj, lla*(atlla), oSr (fcotd), IKc (lact-), pfiB (fpeda).

1. Especially h: as, praebeS (prae-habefi), TlmSna (for Tehe-

2. And consonant 1 and t ; as, cSnioiO (oon-iaoifl), prfiraus (pro-

3. Also a at the end of a word after a short vowel.

Note. — This is limiiecl 10 early Latin and colloquial usage : pl5nui.a) fldel, q.u&Ust (qu&lla est).

e. Consonants are unconsciously inserted in passing from one sound to another: as, Bamfl, I take, sQmpBl, I took, aumptua, taken (for eQm-El, B&m-tnB); Iilempa, winter, biemiB, of ■winter. C£ T/iompion (Tom's ,a,i).

Note. — These are called Parasitic sounds.

d. Consonants are transposed : mlaceS, miztus (for mieo-taa).

p I

§§ 11, 12.] Phonetic Variations.

t. Consonants and vowels are unconsciously changed (^disnmUaiioii^ to avoid a repetition of the same sound in two successive syllable partlia (for pallUa, from PalSa), meiidiSa (for medl-diSa), plel (for tpUtas, as in carltaB).

Note. — la sorae eases this principle prevents cliangea which would cording 10 other tendencies of speech.

f, A consonant is changed by the influence of a neighboring sound,

1 . Into the same sound as the neighbor (complete assimilatioiC) : oeBsI(cSd-Bl),aummus (sup-muB), sella (sed-la), puella (puer(i la), pieaal (prem-sl), occidS (ob-oado). mltissimus (for mltii

2. Info a sound of the same organ or the same quality (or both) the neighbor (_ partial assimilation') (see table of mutes, § 3) tero (com-teiS, labial to lingual), ecilptna (sotlb-tUB, sonant tc surd), aSgmentunx (■faecmentum, surd to sonant), impet5 (In-perfl, lingual to labial).

Note. — Sometimes the first consonant governs [regressive aisim times the second {_frogressive assimilatiiin),

3. These changes affect especially the final consonant of the prepo^- n in Compounds: as, aocBdo (ad-oBdo), affioio (ad-facio), oc-

currS (ob-ourrS), oottuS (com-rud), efierS (ec-fero), auppoaS (sub-pono).

Note. — The rules for this assimilation may be given as follows; ad is assiml- laled belbre c, g, p, t; less tegulatly before 1, r, e, and rarely before m; while before f, n, q, the form ad is to be preletred. ab is not assimilated, but may lake the form a, au, or aba. In com (con, co), m is retained beforcb, p, m; is BsaimiJaled Ijeforel, n,r; is changed to n before O, d, f, g-, J. Q, a, T; sometimes becomes n before p; is sometimes assimilated (otherwises) befoitland r; con loses the liniU m In cSnectS, oSnIveC, cSottor, cfinQblum. changes n to m before b, m, p; before 1 the better orthography retains i eub are assimilated before o,f, ^, p, and somedmes before EU ; aub alsi Knd, in early Ijitin, b of these prepositions sometimes becomes p befc The inseparable amb loses b before a consonant, and m is sometimes assiniiiaied. circum. often loses m before 1. s of dis before a vowel becomes r, and before a consonant is lost or assimilated. The d of red and aSd is generally lost before a consonant. In most of these cases the later editions preter the unaltered forms throughout; but the changes given above have good authority. Others, which are corruptions of the middle ages (as aaauin for adaum), had belter be avoided, 1 Lexicons vary in the spelling of lliese combinations. |

12. Variations of Spelling occur in manuscripts and inscriptions, and especially in modern editions. In the fol- lowing lists the better forms are put first; objectionable I forms in parenthesis. ^

r

.1^

L

8 Etymuhgy: Letleis and Sounds. \_%% 12,

Note. — These variations are generally mere mislakes In spelling. Many ol Ihem are due to the praciice of noting from dictation, by which most MS. copies of the classics were made, A single reader dietaled to severa! copyists, whos^ spellitig was often corrupt. The tendency of the best editions is to restore, as normal, the forms of the late Republic op early Empire (the lime of Cicero or Augustus), — so far as these may be determined from inscriptions, etc., — but lo preserve. In each author, any peculiarities thai itiark the spelling of his lime. The choice among forms appears often to be arbitrary, for inscriptions ol the same [letiod sometimes differ considerably.

a. The letters and souniJs of oi and ti are interchanged before a vowel: nOntiS (nQnciS), contio (concio), dlciO (dltlO), condicio fconditio), BiiB[£ci5 (auapItiS), tribiinYoiua (tribtl- ultius).

Note. — This substitution b^anveiy early (Ina few words) while thee still had the sound of k. But generally it belongs to a later pL'riod of the language, and is due to the disturbing Influence of consonant 1; nfitlO {natyo) became Tuicha, or niaio, or iiashs. It is this disturbance that has produced the modem sibilant sound of C, as well as that ol tt : as, nation (through the French) from n&tiS ; sfecia, from Species.

i. Several words are writlen sometimes with atid sometimes without an initial h: as, harfina or (ar€na), ems or (herua), umerus or (hmuBmB}, fimoT or (hQinor).

c. In later Latin, S, ae, and oe betame alike in sound Qi\iR a\a fiUe), and hence they are often i:onfoiinded in writing: as, faeutu (fCnuB, foenus).

d. Other words variously spelled are: aduieacfns, adolSecSna ; ahSneua, aCneiia ; 9niilua, annulua ; artua, (arctua) ; autumnus, (auctumniia); caelum (coelum); cum, quom, (quum) ; epiatula, epiatola ; exaul, ezul ; fSoundus (fOGcuadua) ; fSmiua, (foemina) ; litera, littera ; labet, libet ; lubTdS, UbldS ; mHia, millia; nequT- quam, uequicquam, nequidquam ; paulus, paullua ; qnicquam. quidquam ; umquam, imquam; verto, vorto; voluua, tuIdus ; proclium, (praelium) ; voltus, vultus ; aerroa, servua. Also Ihe gerundive -form -endus or -uaduB, and the superlative -imua or

At the end of a few words d was anciently written t : aet for Bed, apat for apnd. f. Sojne variations in spelling mark the changes in §§ lo and il.

Comblnatloiu.

13. Two words are often united in writing, and some- times in sound. Thus, —

S 13-15.] Kindred Forms.

Ksu

^H a. Conjunctions or other particles and pronouns are sometimes coD-fl

^Hiected: as in etenim, QnoaquiBque, iamdfldum, lamdiQ, Biqnia, j

^^ alquidem ; also a few siiort phrases, as, quSrS, quamobrem, rfispabnfl

lies, iuBlitTaindunk, patetfamilias.

b. Tlie verb fest, is. is sometimes joined with ihe preceding word,J _ especially in the old poets, when the two would be united by elision iT^ Lbs, homSst, perlculamst, anauet, quSllBt (quails eat) (like thou'rt'm

. Similar contractions are found in vln' (vlane), Boln' (scIene),]

a (bI via), aSdea (ai audeaj, afiltia (al vultU). So in English,!

7tCt iwol ml).

Syllablea. 14. In Latin every word has as many syllables as it has i iwels or diphthongs.

In the division of words into syllables a single consonant between ■o Towels is to be written and pronounced with the latter.

Note.— This mle applies also )o T and consonnnl 1.

This rule is somedmes extended to double consonants, or ; combination of consonants which can be used to begin a word : bo-Bpea, mS-gnuB, dX-xit.

In compounds, the parts should be separated : as, ab-eat, ob- J

I:

>

C

i. A syllable preceded by a vowel in thii same word is caHtApure, \ pi'tiB; a syllable preceded by a consonant, impure, as oOa- 1

BUt.

Any syllable ending with a vowel or diphthong is called ofen alt others are called close. Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the ] second close.

Kindred Forms. 15. In English words derived from the Latin, the original letters j : retained (as ambitian from ambitifi).' But in native English I words which are cognate with the Latin (see Appendix), original sounds are rarely represented by the same letters in the two ' languages, but usually by closely related letters which regularly correspond.

Many words, bowever, coming tlirougli the French follow French changes: 'ashiea, fafon (laotlO) ; chivalry, cheval (oaballua} ; ckimney, c^eminit .mbiUB), J

irD (rarely)

Etymology: Letlers and Sounds.

\ qui, ■who^ cos, koHCi carpo, harvest; calo (1 daej, hail; cord-, heart.

\ genus, kiH\ genu, knee; gusto, choose.

: t^,thaH; tees, three; tenuis, /A(«.

; stare, stand; torreo, dry.

: duo, ^wo; d£n&, tooth; seAeo, sit.

: pultr, /other ; pullus,yofl/,- pzuci,/ezv.

• fero {ifttpui), bear; frater (i^iparj^p). brother.

: fores {dipa), doers; fera (ftjp). dier.

: veha, iva^n ! haedu&. goat ; hostis,^«/. i cons., V Y, W: iugum, j^iii?; ovis, «w. Sometimes 3. consonant lost in the Latin appears in the English word. Thus, (s)niT-, sncw; (\{)SjiM6T, goose; (s)iiervo-, snare.

HioTbh) I (for Jh)

L5, 16.

1

Sounds of the LetterH,

Note. — The pronunciation of Latin is differem us, il usually foUcnvs one oft^io ways, which nmy t>e called tbeSomoH (ai Phonetic) and the Eagliik method.

16. By the Roman (or Phonetic) method, every letter- has always the same sound.

Note. — A long vowel in ou difTerenl quality irom a short k.

Consonants, as in English, except that :

a as in father; 4 as in idea.

e as ehf (prolonged); they; i as eAt (clipped).

I as in machine; I as in holiest.

B as in holy; fi as in obey.

fl as 00 in boot; it as fiv ia foot,

y between u and t (German «).

as like ay; oe like oy; au like ew in now.

ei as in eight; eu as eh'oo; ui as lue (oa'ee).

a and g arc always hard, as in come, get.

I is always sharp, as in sea, tips.

cons, is like_>' inyoung; v (cons, u), like w in wing; qu as in English, ba is like/.!; oh like k; ph like/. n before a orf was combined with the preceding vowel somewhat as French nasal n, making the vowel long.

I as ds in ad^e.

b as in rathole, later as in thin. vi

I

S§ lfi-18.] Quantity and Accent.

Note i. — Id Ihc ancient prontiaciaiion. ph was distinguished from I by bdi sounded with (he lips onty, instead of Up aod teeth.

Note a. — In many words (asabletta. tenuia), 1 atid u consonant sound, though usually in such words reckoned as vowels.

Note 3. — Tiie diphthong oe was anciently sounded as otiove, but early in Ihe lime of the Empire acquired from popular or provincial use the long sound of a.

Note 4.— When two consonants come logether (as in OOndO, pOBteft). or a consonant is doubled (ai in onnUB, fUlua, mlCtfi), care sliould be taken to pronounce both letters distinctly. It was doubtless this distinct pronunciation ol consonants that made a syllable with a short vowel long by Position l^\ i3. d").

17. By the English method, the letters have the same sounds as in English; but —

a. Final a is proitounced as in America^ but in the monosyllables 3, dS, qua, stfi, sometimes as in pay\ e in open syllables as in me, in close as in men; i in open syllables as in Hi', in close as \a.pin; o in open syllables as in tone, in i:lose as in not; u as in pull or as in hull, without any definite rules, as Qllus (like gull us), butfuUS (like/W/ oh)\ ylikei'.

dose according to the posit:

b. The diphthongs ae, oe, are pronounced like «; aulike^iu',- eu like^w; ei and ui like i' in kite; es and (in plural words) Sa at the end of a word as in disease, ntorose.

c. The consonants o and g are made soft (like s and/) before e, i, y, ao, oe, ou; oh is always hard, as in chasm, chemist.

NoTF..^The English method should be retained in Roman names in English, viit viTsa: .ifirliori: vcni, vidi. vici, etc.

Qnantitj and Ac<;ent.

18. Vowels are long or short {as affecting their pro- nnnciatioti) only by nature. SyJIables {as affecting accent and metrical value) are long or short, according to their vowel, but are also made long by Position through the obstruction of consonants. The length or shortness in both cases is called Quantity (cf. § 347).

NoTB. — Some of the rules of Quantity affect length by nature only, some length by position only, and some both,

a. A vowel before another vowel or b is short: as in via, nihil.

b. A diphthong is long: as in aedSs, foedua. So, also, a vowel derived from a diphthong: as. ezclQdo (ex-claudo).

c. A vowel formed by contraction is long; as, n^ (oiiiWy

]

i mi

12 Etymology: Letters and Sounds, [§§ 18,19.

d, A syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants (ex- cept a mute with 1 or r), or a double consonant (z, z), is long by Position ; as in pingS, sazamy Mezentiua. Before nf and ns, gn and gm, and i consonant the vowel itself becomes long by nature : as in Infer5, praesSns, mftgntis, ftgmen, hiUuB.

e, A syllable in which a short vowel is followed by a mute with 1 or r is common ; i,e, it may be long in verse : as in alacris, latebrae.

f, A vowel before nd, nt is regularly short by nature : as, amSnt, am&nduB from amftre.

Note. — A vowel is lengtiiened before i cons, because another i (vowel) is developed as a vanish ; thus &0)yo becomes ftiO.

19. In Latin the accent in words of more than one syllable is on the Penult or Antepenult.

Definition: The Penult is the last syllable but one; the Antepenult, the last but two.

a. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first syllable : R5'ma, veliS, i'pse.

b. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult, if that is long: as, amTcos, praesen'tis; if it is short or common, on the Antepenult: as, do'mXnus, alacris, la'tebrae, conti'iitto, praete'- ritom, diasocift'biliJi.

Note. — In words of more than four syllables a secondaiy accent nsuaHr arises at a convenient distance from the main accent : as, Iiftvlcril"ti6'nibus, pectL'lift'ria^

c. When an Enclitic is joined to a word, the accent fidls on the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short : as, dS&'qae, imftrOe, tin>i'ne, it&'qae {and, . . so)^ as distinguished firom i'tftqne {therefore)* So (according to some) exclude, ec'qnando, etc

d. ElxCEPnoNS: I. Certain apparent compounds of facl5 retain the accent of the simple verb: as, benefft'cit, calefiL'cit (see § 169. a). (These were not true compounds, but phrases.)

2. In the second declension the genitive and \t>cadve of noons in 4iis. and the genitive of those in -iiun retain the accent of the nomi- native : as, ComSH, Vergill, inge'nl (see § 4a ^).

y. Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of the complete words : as, illTc for illfce, prddli'c for prddlice, sati'ii for sati'aae.

Note. — Tbe ancients reoogmxed three accents, mcmtt ( '^^grwet (" ). and at- iwm^tr (*^>« Accent no doubt originalhr consisted in a change of pi«:\ — eJera- tion. depiessioo, or both combined, — and not merehr in a mcvnf fozviKe utterance 0Ctus>. But in Laiin this pitch accent had been suppiuited br a s&^ess accent in htsioiical times.

12*21.]

Root and Stem.

Chapter II. — Words and their Forms. ^iflectlon. K Inflection is a change made in the form of ; ord, to show its grammatical relations.

loflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, 1 at the beginning, but oltener in its tErmination : as, vox, a

if a voice; vooO, / call', vooat, he calls; vooavit, ke hasm 'led; tangit, he touches ; tetigit, he touched.

Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings^ hich are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepo-H Ntions, auxiharies, and personal pronouns in English ; thus, in vocat, the terminatioa is equivalent to he or she; in vScia, to the preposition of ox the like ; and in vocet the change of vowel signifies a change ot

Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations

ise or mood, and correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in Eng-

franglt, he breaks or is breaking; frSgit, he broke or has

broken; morAet, he bites ; m.oaioz6it, he b/i.^

Root and Stem. 21. The body of a word, to which the terminations art

attached, is called the Stem.^

The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ; but,

except in the tirst part of a compound, it cannot be used without le termination to express them. Thus the stem v5c- denotes voice; h -a added it becomes voat, a voice or the voice, as the subject or nt of an action ; with 4b it becomes vocia, and signifies of aik e stem is in many forms so united with the termination th;

comparison with otlier forms is necessary to determine it.

1 The only fropir inflectians of verbs ate those of the personal endings : and le changes here referred lo are slriclly changes of Stem, but have become (the eystero of inflections.

n The name Stem is sometimes incorreclly given to Ihal part ot a Word — Bl ■TV- in servjs — which isuDchanged in inflection. TWsma^Xie taSvei^ne. b(ii«i

I I

i

t

r4 Etymology: Words and their Forms. [§§22-24,

£2. A Root is the simplest fonn attainable by analysis of a word into its component parts. Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense, and is common also to other words either in the same or kindred

languages.'

Thus the root of the stem v5e- is voc, which does Dot mean to call, oi I call, o\ calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used as a part of speech without tenninations. With H- it becomes voeS-, the stem of voolre (Ja call) ; with Svi- it is the stem of vocavit (^Ae called); with fito- it becomes the stem of vocStns {called) ; with Stlfiii- it becomes the stem of vocitioiiiB (o/a calling). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vBx (a voice: that by which we call). This stem, again, with -ilia added, means belonging to a voicci with -flla, a little voice.

Note, — In ioflecled languages, words are built up from Rools, which al a. very early dine were used alone )□ express ideas, as is Dovr done in Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, Ijecome Words. The process by which roots are modiGed. in the vaiious forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Sim-iuildmg. The whole of this piDcessisoriginallyoneofcomposiKon, by which s^tficant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronuncialion and conyeying a meaiting.

Roots had long ceased to be recogniied as such before the Latin existed as a sepaiaie language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Laiin roots nerer really existed in Latin, but are ihe representatives of forms used earlier.

33. The Stem is sometimes the same as the root: as in duc-ia, of a leader, fer-t, he bears i but it is more frequently formed from the rcwt —

1. By changing or lengthening its vowel: as in Bcob-a, joun/uj/ (scab, shai/e) ; reg-iB, o/a ting (reg, direct) ; vSc-ia, o/a voice (voc, call).

2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root) : as in ia^-a, fl^kl (FUG + a); fa^-*. you Jfy (FUG + ya); pangfi, / /aslen (pAG + na).

3. By two or more of these methods: as in d-^o-it, he leadi (duc+«), tolls, /raise (TUL+ya).

4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of development peculiar to the language. (See Chap. VIII.)

24. Inflectional terminations are variously modified by combination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem. leading to the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see § 32).

The Parts of Speech.

H

Note. — A lerminalion beginning with a vowel is called an n/cn afii one sinning with a. consonani, a clou affix. When a close affix \f, joined lo a oon- Ihere is mnally either a euphonic change, hs in rfixl for rsff-ai, or a •\ appears, as in rSg-l-buB. But, in mos( cases, what is called a connecting ] eally belongs to the stem, as in ^'oca-mua, regl-mUB (see § 133).

The Parta of Speech.

25. Words are divided into nine Parts of Speech: I

Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Participles, Adverbs,.!

Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.

. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea :

Jaesar; Roma, Rome; domua, a house; virHU,

'irttie. Names

(f persons and places are Proper Nouns; other n

ouns are called

"OMMON.

b. An Adjective is a word that attributes a quality :

s, bonnB,^(wrf;

ortia, brave, strong.

Note. — Elymologically. there is no dilTerence lietween a noun and an adjective, J both being formed alike. So. too, all names originally attribute quality, and any 'I name can still be used to attribute a quality. Thus, Kiitg William distinguishes ' ' William from other Williams, by (he altribute of royalty expressed in the n

c. A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or j iawithot3t either naming or describing it: as,lB,^f,* qui, wA0,-iifiB,a

d. A Verb is a word which asserts something; as, sam, I a>. ■mat, he loves.

Note. — In all modem speech the vei lylhing, and a verb is therefore supposed jictly. however, any adjective oi noun n ttne, make a complete assertion. In the ten no other means of asserting, as the

s usually 1

e only w

ly, by attribuliug a quality or giving a infancy of language there could hove ferb is of comparatively late develop-

e. A Participle is a word that attributes a quality like an adj'ec L being derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power I the verb to assert: as, Caesar conaul creStua, C^sar havir n elected consul; Caeaar PompSium metuSna, Casar fearing \

Pompey.

f. An Adverb is a word used lo express the time, place, ( ' an assertion or attribute: as, eplendldS raeoASiX, gloriously false; sdifi nStua, bom to~diy.

.It have become specialiied bj

\6 Etymology: Words and their Forms- [S5 2S-2&

g, A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun and some other word or words in the same sentence : per agrSB it, it goes over the fields ; 6 plfiribna finnm, cne euf of many.

i>ICiTE. — Pregiositions uc specialiied adverbs (cf. \ 15a), The rebtiDDS ex- pressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by cases.

h. A Conjunction is a word which connects words, phrases, or sen- tences without affecting their relations : as, et, and; aed, but.

i. Interjections are mere exclamations. They are not stricdy to be classed as Parts of Speech : beaa, halloo'. 8, oh'.

Note. —They sometimes express an emotion which aileclssiine other things mentioned, and so hiveaconneciion like otherwords: as, vaa VlcUB, woe to the cenqiuTidJ (alas (or the conquered ! )

26. Nouns. Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles have inflecdons oi declension, to denote gender, number, and case. Verbs have inflec- tions of conjuffition, to denote voice, mood, tense, number, and

Note. — Adjectives are often said lo have inflections of cmnfarisim 10 indicaic degree. These inflections ate, however, properly stem-fonnadons made by deriva- tion (ct } 89).

87. Those parts of speech which are not inflected are called Parti- cles: these are Adverbs. Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter- jections.

Note. — The term Panicle b sometimes limited to such words as nuin, -ne. an {iiitrmifalair). nBn, nfi (orfu/itr): B](ci»r<^ima/). etc., which are used simply

28- The genders distinguished in Latin arc three : Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter.

a. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammalkal. Natural gender Is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted : as, pnor, ^; pneHi^girl; AOaam. gi/i.

Note. — Many nouns have boih a masculine and lisminine (btm 10 distinguish 'ex: as, cemis, cervs. ita^-, doe; cliSos, cllenta, cliail: Tlctor. vlctrix.

Many designations of persons (as uata, sai/i>r), ttsually lb(iu|h not Decessarily male, are always Irealed as masculine.

General Rules of Gender. \)

b. Grammatical gender' is a formal distinction as to sex where nt actual sex exists in the object. It is shown by the form of the adjectivi joined with the noun: as, lapia magnua (M.), a great stone; nianni moa (f.), my hand.

Note. — A ftw nculer nouns are used to designate persons as belonging lo j class : ai, manciplum tuum, ynur ilave,

(M.). ociee (f), and &Bmen (N.) (F. pi.), traops.

Many pet names of girls (eis PaeB-niom, GlycSriuin) are tii

(Oeneral Sates of Gender. 29. I, Names of Male beings, Rivers, Winds, Months, and Mountains, are masculine.

2. Names of Female beings. Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees, and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most abstract Qualities, ^\t feminine.

Note. — The gender of most of the above may be rec.

a. A few names of Rivers ending in -a (as Allia), with the Greek names Lethe and Styi, are feminine ; others are variable or uncertain.

Some names of Mountains take the gender of (heir termination; as, AlpfiB (F.), the Alps; BSraote (n.).

Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun mSnsia, month, being understood : as, lamiSiriiia, January.

b. Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine : as, SulmS, Oabil (plur.) ; or neuter, as Tarentum, Dlyrloum.

A few names of Plants and Gems follow the gender of their termina- tion: as, oeiitaureum(N.),««/<7W;>'; acunthua (M.),6earsfi/ot ; opalus ;iii.). epal.

we call grammatical girder is in most cases the product of the imagi- rude age, when language was in the course of growth. Thus a River ir a Wind was felt, as a tiviag crta/uri. violent and strong, and so is and the iable of Alias shows how similar livi tig attributes were ascribed to Mountains, which, in Ibe northern tables, are the bones of giants. Again, the Earth, or a country or cily, seems the mothir of hs progeny ; the Tree shelters and ripens its fruit, as a brooding bird her nest of cggs^ and, lo this day, a Ship is always referred to by a feminine pronoun.

Again, in the East and South, the Sun, from its Rerce heat and splendor, is masealine, and iB paler atlendanl, the Moon, feminine; while, among Northern nadons, the Sun (perhaps for lis comforting warmth) is feminine, and the Moon (the appointer of worlts and days), masculine. The niles of grai nnly repeat and extend these early workings of the fancy.

i

I

r8 Etymology: Words and their Forms. [§

c. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as oouns, and words quoted merely for their form, are neuter: as, f5a, right; niMl, nothing; gumml.^i/w; ac'ixmta.^ia, your knowledge {Xa^i^a^); triate val6, a sad/arewtll; hoc ipaum diu, this very "long.''''

30o Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, according to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common Gender: as, exBul, exile; bSs, ox at cow.

a. If a noun signifying a thing without life may be either masculine or feminine, — as, diSa, day; finia, end, — it is sometimes said to be of Doubtful Gender.

b. Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, independent of sex. These are called Epicene. Thus lepus, hare, is always mascu- line, and viilpBB, fox, is always feminine. To denote a male fox we may say, Tolpfis mascnla; a female hare, lepus fSmina.

ITumber and Case. 31. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are de- clined in two Numbers, singular zad. plural ; and in six Cases, nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative.

a. The Nominarive is the case of the Subject of a sentence.

b. The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Pos- sessive, or by the Objective with the preposition of.

c. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object (§ 177). It may usually be translated by the Objective with the preposition to or for; but sometimes by the Objective without a preposition.

d. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of a verb (§ 177). It is used also with many of the Latin Prepositions.

e. The Vocative is the case of Direct Address.

/. The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with front, by, with, in, or at. It is also often used with prepositions.

g. All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, may be used as object-cases ; and are sometimes called Oblique Cases {oiaOa obllqul).

Note.— A more convenienlanangemeQl of the cases is Ihe following (see n.,p.aos); DiRECr CASES: Namiaalwi. yocalive, Acciaative.

Indirect Cases: Gaiiiive, Datevs, Ailaiivt. h. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another case (the Locative), denoting the place where.

i. Stillanothercase,the/nj'/r»OTen/ii/, appears in a fewadverbs(§ 148).

Note.— Aa Ihe proper infleclional Icrminaiions early became fiiaed wilh the stem in many cases, Lalin pari ol llie noun called and case-endings do nol stactly ci

§§ 32, 33.] Declension of Nouns. 19

i

«

5

Is

«

I or a Consonant

ils(iiis)

u

ii

ei

«

6

Chapter III. — Declension of Nouns.

32. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distin- guished by the case-ending of the Genitive Singular, and by the final letter {characteristic) of the Stem.^

Decl. I . Gen. Sing, ae Characteristic & (anciently &) "2. "

" 3.

« 4. «

"5. «

tf . The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant-stem, by omit- ting the case-ending ; if a vowel-stem, by substituting for the case-ending the characteristic vowel.

b. The Nominative of most masculine and feminine nouns (except in the first declension) is formed from the stem by adding s.^

Note. — But many, however, end in o, or in the liquids, 1, n, r, — the original 8 (sometimes with one or more letters of the stem) having been lost by phonetic decay (§ ii). In some (as in servus, st. servo-) the stem-vowel is modified before the final 8 ; or, as in agrer, imber, st. agro-, imbri-, a vowel has intruded itself into the stem.

33. The following are general Rules of Declension : —

a. The Vocative is always the same as the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns in us of the second declension.*

1 Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to differ- ent forms of stems, vowel or consonant The various phonetic corruptions in the language have given rise to the several declensions ; but it is probable that originally there was only one, with perhaps a few variations. The original terminations (answering to prepositions) can no longer be determined with certainty, except in a few cases. Most of the case-endings, as given in Latin, contain also the final letter of the stem.

Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed with them. But they have several peculiarities of inflection, and will be more conveniently treated in a group by themselves (see Chap. IV.).

^ The s of the nominative is the remnant of an old demonstrative sa, which is found (with modifications) in the Sanskrit persofial pronoun^ in the Greek article^ and in the English she,

* In the first and second declensions the vocative ends in the weakened stem- voweL Most of the words likely to be used in address are of these declensions ; and, in practice, comparatively few other words have a vocative. It is given in the paradigms for the sake of symmetiy, but may well be oxuitted Vo. Citc^m^^.

20 Etymology: Declension of Nouns, [§§ 33-35.

b. In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in the plural end in &.

c. The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in m ; the Accusative plural in s.

d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the Dative singular ends in I.

e. The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike. y. The Genitive plural always ends in am.

g. Final i, o, u of inflection are always longi final a is shorty except in the Ablative singular of the first declension ; final e is long in the first and fifth declensions, short in the second and third.

34, The Case-endings of the several declensions are the following, rare forms being given in parenthesis^ Greek forms in italics : —

Decl. I.

n.

III.

IV.

V.

Sing.

N. S, i, as, is

us, am, cr, OS, on, eUS S (or modified stem)

as, (1

68

G. ae (ai) es

I (ius) 0, u.

ei

\&,yos, OS

as (uia)

61 (fi)

D. ae (ai)

6 (i) ei, eo

I {t, rare)

ul(ii)

61 (fi)

A. am, an, en

um, on, ea

em (im) in^yn^d um, ii

em

V. S, /, a

g (I) er, eu

(as nom.) t,y

us, (1

68

A.^i

b,ed

6 (I), I, ye

a

6

Plur,

N.v. ae

I, a

§s, a, ia, is

Us, ua

68

G. &rum Cum)

5ram Cum, I

vccL\d

n iim, ium, eon

uum

6ram

d.aIIs (SLbus) 18 (dbus) ibus ibus (iibas) 6bu8

A. as OS 68 (is), a, ia, ds Us, ua 68

FIRST DECLENSION.

35. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends in a, and except in Greek nouns the nominative is like the stem.

Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus declined : —

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

NoM. stell^ a (or the) star, stellae, stars.

Gen. stellae, of a star. stellSLrum, of stars.

Dat. stellae, to {ox for) a star. stellis, to {ox for) stars.

Ace. stellam, a star, stellSs, stars.

Voc. -jslMm; thou star ! '"^StfStfUtKt/Mftrs !

Abl. Stella, with, from, etc., a star, stellis, 7vith,from, etc., start. Note. — The a- of the stem was originally long.

First Declension: Greek Nouns.

\ Gender. — Nouns of the first declension a I Exceptions : Nouns tnasculine from their slgnitication : as, nauta^l " r. So a few family or personal names : as, DSQiSua, Scaevola.> , Hadria, the Adriatic.

Q. Case-Forms. — a. The Genitive singular ancieotly ended in -ai, J h is occasionally found : as, auiai. The same ending o e dative, but only as a diphthong.

6. An old genitive in -Sb is preserved in the word familias, used in | the combinations pater (mSter, fniuE, fHia) familias, fathir, e of a family (plur. patrSs familiaa or familiSrum).

c. The Locative form (S 31. i^) for the singular ends in -ae; for Ihe | ^'plural in la : as, RSmaQ, at Rome; AthSuiB. at Athens.

d. The Genitive plural is sometimes found in -fiin instead af -Srum, (Specially in compounds with oSla and gCna, signifying dwilling a

, caelicolDm, celestials; TrolugonOni, sans of Trey; Leneadam, sons of yEneas ; so amphora and drachma.

. The Dative and Ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, j in an older foim -Sbus. So rarely with liberta, freed-womany mfila, she-mule-, equa, mare. But, except when the two sexes (as formulas, documents, etc.) are mentioned together, the form in -la preferred in all but dea and fllia.

f. The original ending of the Ablative -d is retained in early Latin 1 ^, praedSd, booty.

O-reek No una.

37. Many nouns of the first declension borrowed from I he Greek are entirely Latinized, but many retain traces J «f their Greek forms

tteourt(¥.). Electraiv.'). asynopsis{F.). Iheartofm

NoM. aulit

< Gen. aulas

DAT. aulas

Ace. aulam

V«6_aula— Abl. aula

Bleotii (a) epitome Electrae epitomSs

Electrae epitomae

Electram (aa) epilomBn - - -efHlome - Electra epitomS

masica (6)

j(Sn) milsin (S) mijsic5 (6)

I

23 Etymology : Declension of Xouns. [5S 37, 3a

Andromache (¥.). ^-Eneas (M.). Lfonidas (ts.). aPersian (M.).

Noiu. Andtotnach3 (a) ABnEas IieSuidas PeraSE (a)

Gen. Androniach§s (ae) Aeneaa Leonidae Persae

DAT. Andromachae Aeneae Leonidae Persae

Ace. Andrumach6ii(aiii) A«M3ii(am) Leoaidam Persea(i

Voc. Aodromache (a) AenSi (5) Leonids (3) Persa

Abl. AndromachS (S) Aenei Leonids PersB (Si

AncMses (M.)- ion of ^neas (m.) cornet (m.)- NOM. AnctalBfia Aeneades (&) comfitEs (a)

Gem. Anchisae Aeneadae cometae

DAT. AnchTsae Aeneadae cometae

Ace. ^nchTsSn (am) AeneadCii cometSa (aia)'

Voc. AcchisS (a, 5) AcneadS (S) cometi

Abl. AnchtsS (5) AeneadC (5) cometS (8)

Also Scipiadam, from ScipiadEa, in Horace.

a. Many Greek noucs var)' between the first, the second, and the third declensions : as, BoStae (gen. of BoStea, -ia), Tliuoydidas (ace. plur, of TtiScydid§e, -ia). See § 43. a and § 63.

b. Greek forms are found onlyin the singular; the plural is regular: as, cometae, -5x11111. etc. There are (besides proper names) about thirty-five of these words, several being names of plants, or names of arts: as, crambS, cabbage; mflsicS, music. Most have also regular Latin forms : as, comfita, but the oonunadve sometimes has the a long.

SECOND DECLENSION.

38. The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends in &' (as of tIt, vixd-; Bervos (-us), Berv6- ; dominnfi, dominfi-). The nominative is formed from the stem by adding a in masculines and feminines, m in neuters, the vowel 6 being weakened to tt (see §§ y and 10).

In most noims whose stem ends in tS- the a is not added, but o is lost, and e intrudes before t, if not already present (cf. chamber from chatnbre) : as, ager, stem agrft-. Greek dryp^i;. E};CCptions are heeperus. ictenia, iuniperus, m5rus, nomexna, tauma, umeniB, ntertis, vims, and many Greek nouns.

1 ThU b Ihe originnl masculine ft-slem cormponding lo Ihe ft-!iero ol Ihc

ftm dcelention ; but (he a had already approached O befaic ihe sepwalloa of IhB

^MMgES {see Appendii). M^

S 3B-40.] Second Declension.

atin nouns of the Second Declension -^re thus declined :-

Hng. slave (m.). bay {M.). field{it.). maH{ii..).viar {tH-)- ^NoM. Bervus (p8) pner ager vir /bellum .-

-Gen. servi pueri 3^ virl ' belli

JDat. servS puer5 'igffi vir 5 bell5

. Acc. servum (om) puerum agnun rinim bellum

I 'f"",^ iiH"*" vm; - bellwfa-

puer^ agro viro bell6

Ptur.

NoM. servl puetl agtl virl bella

-Cen- servStum puerorum agrfirutn virfirum beUSrum

DAT. servia puerui agri" viria bellia

, Acc. servoB pueroa agroa virSa •■ bella

VocK Bemi pmrf «grt ml 'bcHw

^AUL. servia puerla agria virIa belllB

Note. —The earlier forms for ntiminalive and accusalive were -OB, -on, and :5e were always relained after u and V up to Ihe end of the Republic The ■minaiions B and m are sometimes omitted in inscriptions : as, CorsSUo for imallos, Comeliom.

39. Gender. — Nouns ending in ub (os), er, ir, are Mas- dine ; those ending in «m (on) are Neuter. But —

a. Names of towns in us (oa) are Feraimne; as, CoijnthoB. /Uso many names of plants ajid gems, with the following : alvos, belly ;

irbaaas, lineti (plur3.1 carbaaa, sails, n.) ; oolua, distaff; humnB, ■oundi vaimuB, winntnmng-skgvel. Many Greek nouns retain their ■iginal geuder : as, aictna (p.), thePolarBear; methodua (f.), method.

b. The following in ua are Neuter ; their accusative, as of all nei the same as the nominative : pelagua (nora. acc. plur. pelagS),

poison; vnlgTia (rarely m.), the crowd; so cSti, sea-monslert plural without nominative singular).

40. Case-Forms. — a. The Locative form of this declension endsj r the singular in i : as, huml, on the ground; Coriuthi, at Carintkt, I the plural, in Ib : as, Pliilippb, al PMlippi. b. The genitive of nouns in iua or ium ended, until the Augustai ge, in a single I : as, fili. of a son ; but tlie accent of the

relained ; as, ingS'iii, of gemiis.^ The same contraction o the genitive singular and the dative and ablative plural of nou Insand-BiuB; as, QrSla, for the Greeks; PompSi, of Pompey.

1 The genitive in II occurs tnice in Virgil, and conslanlly in Ovid, but »

I I

24 Etymology: Declension of Nouns. [%% 40-42,

c. Proper names in -ia* lose e in die vocative, retaining the accent of the nominative: as. Tergl'll; also, nUus, son; eeuitu, di-viiu guardian: as. aadi, mi (HI, iuar, my san.

d. Gre^ names in -Tub have the vocative lot Adjectives in -iua form the vocative in -ie, and 4J|bF ^f these are occasionally used as nonns: as, laacedaemonie, oM SfmrtaH.

I. The genitive plural often has fim or (after v) 6m (cf. g 7) for Swusi.^peciatlv in the poets : as, defem. BUperibii, dlvom, 0/ the C^s, Tirfim, of HUH. Also in compounds of wir, and in many words of money, measure, and weight : as. s^virflia. of the Scviri, nummSm, of emus, inseTQm, of aeres.

f. ^w^god, has vocative dens ; plural : nominative and vocative del or dl {Jot iUXf; genitive deonun, deum ; dative and ablative deb or diB (for dilsY For the genitive plur. diram or dIvSm (from dlvna, divine) is often used. '

g. The original ending of the ablati\'e-d is found iaearly Latin; as, OnaiTSd (later, Giiae5). Cneius.

41. The following stems in ero-, in which e belongs to the stem, retain the e throughout : —

adulter, adulterer; ganer, son-im-^erar; ' pner, ioy;

eocet.fatha--in-laar; vesper, atrtiiig. Also, compounds in tex and gei (stem fern-, ed^o-) : as. Ifioifer, montingstar; annigvz, squire.

a. Some of these have an old nominative in -erus : as, sooeniB. So vocative puere. a boy, as from pueius (regularly pnei^

b. Vir. man, has the genitive viil-, the adjective Batnr. sated, has BatOrl; vespor, Avnin^. hasabl.veapere<loc. veBp«ii,iBf^nrRii>^).

c. IJber (a name of Bacchus) has genitive labeif : so, too. the adjective liber, /rw. of which libeii. cAiidrtB. is the plural (§ 82. b).

d. Ibfir and CeltibCr. barbaric names not properly belonging to this declension, retain fi throughout.

t. Mnlcibar, I'tthan, has -berl and -bil in the genidve.

42. The following not having e in the stem insert it in the nocni- oative and vocative singular. (Cf. g to. d.)

ageijle/d,st.mgio-: oolahat, snaie ; magistei, master 1 ^9

aper, toar; conger, sea-eel; minister, servaiil; ^H

arbiter, ym^; cultet. knife; oleaster, v.ilii-i>livt; ^V

».v»Wt, south wind; faber, smith; onager {-eixM),itiitd-ass;

cancer, crab; fiber, beaver; acotabvi {-braa), maeierel.

oaper, ff>at; liber. Soot;

~ 3 of .'Vtijeclives.sceChap.lv.]

§§ 43, 44.] Third Declefision. 25

43. Greek nouns — including many flames in -eu» — are declined as follows in the Singular, the Plural being regular: — •'

fable (m.). mock-sun (n.). Delos-^.). Athos (m.). Orpheus (m.).

NOM. m^thoB parSlion DSlos Ath5s(o) Orpheus

Gen. m x^hl parelil Dell Ath6 (I) Orphel (eos)

pAT. myth6 pareliS -aj^elS Ath6 OrpheT*

Ace. mython parelion Delon (um) Athon (um) Oi^ea

Voc. , my the parelion Djle AthSs Orpheu

Abl. myths pareliS D^IS Ath6 OrpheS

a. Many names in -§s belonging to the third declension l^ve also a genitive in -I: as, Thilc^didSs, T^iloydidl (compare §§ jf . b and 52).

b. Several names in -er have also a nominative in -us : as, Teuoer or Teucrus. The name PanthfisChas the vocative Fanthtt (§ 63. /).

c. The genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek ter- mination -6n : as, G«orgic5n, of the Georgics.

d. The termination -oe (for Greek -oC) is sometimes found in the nominative plural : as, Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence).

THIRD DECLENSION.

*

Nouns of the Third Declension are best classed accord- ing to their stems, as ending (i) in a Vowel (i), (2) in a Liquid (l, n, r), (3) in a Mute.

A few whose stems end in u, formerly long (grus, sIIb), were treated as consonant-stems.

• 1. Mute-Stems.

44, Masculine and Feminine nouns, whose stem ends in a Mute, form the nominative by adding -s. If the mute is a lingual (t, d), it is suppressed before -s ; if it is a palatal (c, g), it unites with -s, forming -x : as, —

op-is, ops, help; custod-is, cnatos, gjmrdian ; rSg-is, rSx, kmg,^

Neuters have for the nominative the simple stem (with some modifications, see § 45).

capit-is, caput, head; poSmat-is, poSma, poem,

1 In these the genitive is given first to show the stem as it occurs irv ^rafiVvo.^,

26

Etymology: Declension of Nouns. [§§ 45, 46.

46. The vowel -before the final consonant of the stem is often modified : —

a. Labials. — Stems in -Ip- have e before p in the nominative : * as, adip-is, adeps. Most stems ^ dp- are compounds of the root cap (in capio, take) : as, particip-is, particeps, sharer. In these the stem sometimes has the form cup-: as, aucup-is, axLceps^ fowler.

b. LiNGUALS. — Stems in It- (m. or F.) have e (short) in the nomi- native: as, hospit-is, hospes. The neuter capit-is has caput. Neuter stems ending in two consonants, and those ending in &t- (Greek nouns), drop the final lingual : as, oord-is, cor ; po6mat-iB, po6ma.

c. Pa«Iatals. — Stems in Ic- (short i) have the nominative in -eac, with a few exceptions (§ 67. e), and are chiefly masculine : as, apic-is, apez; indic-is, index. Those ill ic- (long i) retain I, and are femi- nine : as, cornic-is, comiz.^

c

46. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —

Sing, helpiy.) h'ng(M.), guide {z^^ soldier (lA,). head(j^,).

Stkm oi>-

reg-

duc-

lYiTlit-

capit*

NoM.

[ops]*

rSz

duz

miles

caput

Gen.

opis

regis

ducis

mllitis

capitis

DAT.

opi

regi

du(^

militl

capi^

Ace.

opem

regem

ducem

militem

caput

Voc.

ops

rex

dux

miles

caput

Abl.

ope

rege

duce

milite

capite

Plur.

wealth

NOM.

opSs

reg§s

ducSs

milit6s

capita

Gen.

opum

regum

ducum

militum

capitum

DAT.

opibus

regibus

ducibus

militibus

capitibuB

Ace.

opSs

reg6s

ducSs

mTlit§s

capita

Voc.

opSs

reg§s

duc6s

mllitSs

capita

Abl.

opibus

regibus

ducibus

militibus

capitibuB

1 In these cases e is a less weakened form of the root (§ lo. a), A few whose root-vowel is i follow the analogy of the others : as, indic-is, index.

8 In nix, nivis, the nominative retains a palatal lost in the other cases (original stem snig-, compare { 15. and ninfirit, § 146. a). Supellex (-ectilis) is partly a lingual-, partly an i-stem. Of apparent s-stems in I-atin, &s (assis) is an i-stem; and the original stem of OS (ossis) is osti- (cf. o<rr4op and Sanskrit as/At), Original s-stems have either (i) passed into r-stems (changed from 8 (§ 11. a. i)) in most of the cases, as honor, -Oris, corpus, -6ris (see iiguid stems) ; or (2) have broken down into i-stems, as mdlSs (c£ molestus), nCLbSs (Sanskrit Habhas)^ 8ed§s (c£ iSos), via (plur. vires), etc., but vfts keeps its proper form in the nominative. • Common gender, see } 3a

* The singular (meaning help) is not used in the nominative, except as the name of a divinity. The dative singular occurs but once.

$$ 47, 48.] Third Declension. 27

47. In like manner are declined —

prIncepBy -ipis (c), chiefs ariSs, -etis (m.), ram\

lapis, -idis (m.), stone i iudez, -icis (}&'), Judge;

custosy -5dis {c,), guard; corniz, -icis (f.), raven;

comesy -itiB (c), companion; poSma, -atis (jti.),poem (§ 47. b).

a. Many apparent mute-stems,^ having the genitive plural in -inm, are to be classed with i-stems (§ 54) .

b. Greek neuters (as poSma), with nominative singular in -a, frequently end in the dative and ablative plural in -is, and in the gen- itive plural rarely in -drum.

c. A few nouns apparent i-stems belong here : cania, or.CKnSs, gen. canis (stem orig. can-), dog,

2. Liquid-Stems.

48. In nouns whose stem ends in a Liquid (l, n, r), the nominative is the same as the stem, except when modified as follows: —

a. Stems in 5n- (m. and F.) drop n in the nominative : as in leon-is, leo, lion; legion-is, legio, legion,

b. Stems in din- or gin- (mostly feminine) drop n and keep an original 6 in the nominative : as, virgin-is, virgo, maiden. Also a few others:^ as, homin-is, hom5, man; turbin-is, turbd, whirlpool; ApoUin-is, ApoUS ; carn-is, C3xo,/lesk (see § 61) ; AniSn-is, Anio. Most other stems in In- have e and retain n: as, cornicin-is, comicen (m.), horn-blower; carmin-is, carmen (n.), song,^

c. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative: as, patr-is, pater, father; mStr-is, mtter, mother,^

d. Many neuter stems in er- and or- (originally s-stems) have -ns in the nominative: as, oper-is, opus, work; corpor-is, corpus, body. Some stems in er- have -is : as, ciner-is, cinis, ashes,

A few masculine and feminine stems have the nominative in -s as well as -r: as, hon5r-is, hon5s (or honor); arb6r-is, arb5s (or arbor), tree.^

Note,— For some irregular nominatives of this kind, see § 50,

1 That is, as would appear from the nominative.

2 All these had originally 5 in the stem.

* These differences are inherited from the parent speech, and depend upon dif- ferent modifications of the same original vowel ($ 10).

* These, no doubt, had originally ter- in the stem, but this had become weak- ened to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nom. and voc. sing, show the e. But cf. M&rspitris and Mfirspiteris (M&(r)s-piter).

< See Note 2, page 26.

28

Etymology: Declension of Nouns. [§§ 48-50.

e. Stems in 11-, rr- (n.) lose one of their liquids in the nominative : as, farr-is» far, grain ; fell-is, fel, gall,

49. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —

Sing

consul (m.).

lion (m.).

maiden (f.).

natne (n.).

Stem c5usal-

leSn-

Tirgin-

nomin-

NOM.

c5nsul

le5

virg5

nSmen

Gen.

consulis

leonis

virginis

nominis

DAT.

consul!

leonl

virgini

n5minl

Ace.

consulem

lednem

virginem

n5men

Voc.

consul

leo

virg5

n5men

Abl. '

" consule

le5ne

virgine

nomine

Plur.

NOM.

consul6s

leonSs

virginSs

nomina

Gen.

consulum

leonum

virginum

nominum

DAT.

consulibus

leonibus

virginibus

nominibns

Ace.

cdnsulSs

leonSs

virginSs

nomina

Voc.

consults

leonSs

virginSs

n5mina

Abl.

consulibus

leonibus

virginibus

nominibus

Sing.

dody (n.).

race (n.).

ivory (n.).

plain (n.).

St. oorpor-, orig. oorpos- gener- orig. genets- ebor- ^

aequor-

NOM.

corpus

genus

ebur

aequor

Gen.

corporis

generis

eboris

aequoris

DAT.

corporl

generl

ebori

aequori

Ace.

corpus

genus

ebur

aequor

Voc.

corpus

genus

ebur

aequor

Abl.

corpora

genere

ebore

aequore

Plur.

NOM.

corpora

genera

ebora

aequora

Gen.

corporum

generum

ebonuu

aequonim

DAT.

corporibus

generibus

eboribus

aequorlbus

Ace.

corpora

genera

ebora

aequora

Voc.

corpora

genera

ebora

aequora

Abl.

corporibus

generibus

eboribus

aequorlbus

50. In like manner are declined —

pater, patris {ia.)^ father; furfur, -uris (m.), bran ; opus, -eris (n.), work;

arbor (-6s), -oris (f.), tree. honor (-Ss), -6ris (m.), honor. pignus, -eris or -oris, pledge.

^ A foreign word forced into the analogy of tY\c r- ^a-') slem^

§§ 50-52.]

Third Declension,

29

The following apparently liquid stems have the genitive plural in -ium, and are to be classed with the i-stems : imber, llnter, titer, venter ; fiir, gUs, ISr, m&s, mils, [frSn] ; also vlr6s (pi. from vis : see § 61).

3. Vcw-el-Stems.

51. Vowel-stems of the Third Declension end in i- (as turris, stem turri- ; mare, stem mari-). The nominative, except in neuters, is formed by adding -s to the stem.

a. Thirty-five nouns change 1 to 6 in the nominative,^ and many others vary between i and 6: as, cIvSs or civis, citizen; canes or canis.

b. The nominative of a few stems in bri- and tri- does not add -s, but loses i, inserting e before r. These are imber, linter, uter, venter (§ 54, and of. ager).

c. The nominative of neuters is the same as the stem, with the change of I to S (as in mare). But when i was preceded by al or ar, the e was lost, as in animal (§ 53. c),'^

62. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : -

Sing.

thirst (p.).

tower (¥,),

cloud {¥,),

seat (n.).

animal (n.),

Stem siti-

turrl-

nubi-

sedni-

animftli-

NOM.

sitis

turris

ndbSs

sedUe

animal

Gen.

sitis

turris

nubis

sedTlis

animalis

DAT.

sitI

turri

nubi

sedili

animal!

Ace.

sitim

turrem (im

) nubem

sedlle

animal

Voc.

sitis

turris

nubSs

sedlle

animal

Abl.

sitI

turre (I)

nube

sedlll

animal!

Plur.

NOM.

turr6s

nubes

sedilia

animalia

Gen.

turrium

nubium

sedilium

animalium

DAT.

turribus

nubibus

sedilibus

animalibus

Ace.

turris (6s)

nubis (Ss)

sedilia

animalia

Voc.

turrSs

nubSs

sedllia

animalia

Abl.

turribus

nubibus

sedilibus

animalibus

1 These are acInacSs, aedes, alcSs, caedes, cautSs, cl&des, comp&gSs, contasrSs. famSs, f§les, fld@s (pi.), indoles, lg.bes, lues, meles, moles, ntlbSs, palumbSs, pr51es, prdpSLges, ptibes, sedes, saepes, sordes, strftgrSs, struSs, subolSs, tabSs, torques, tudes, v&tes, vehes, vepres, verr§s, vulpSs (aedSs has also nom. aedisV

^'Except in ausrur&le, coU&re, f Scale, mare, nlu^^\Q, i^Ti'aX.t^^, 3catsie, tibi&le; alve&re, caplll&re, cochleSLre.

30

Etymology : Declension of Nouns, [§§ 53, 54.

53. Nouns of this class include: —

a. Nouns of the third declension in -Ss or -is (mostly feminine) or -e (neuter) having the same number of syllables in the nominative and genitive {partsyllabic),

b. Those in -er, except pater, mSter, frSter, accipiter.

c. Neuters in -al, -ar (originally neuters of adjectives in 4Uis, 4Lris) which have lost a final -e.^

64. Many nouns with apparently consonant-stems were originally i-stems.^ These are —

1. Monosyllables with stem apparently ending in two consonants: as, urbs, m5ns (gen. montis), noz (gen. noctis), arz; together with imber, linter, nter, venter (§ 51. b).

2. Stems in t5t- (as civitSs, -Stis),* or in d or t preceded by a consonant (including participles used as nouns) ; also the monosyllables dos, [ffaux], fur, glis, lis, mts, mus, niz, [frSn], striz, vis, sorobs (cf. § 50).

3. Nouns denoting birth or abode, having stems in St-, It-, originally adjectives: as, Arpinas, -&tis (§ 164.^.), with penSt6sand optizuStiSs (§ 76. 2).

They are thus declined : -

—

Sing. city{F.),

night (f.).

age (F.).

mouse (m.).

shower (lA.),

Stem urbi-

nocti-

aetSti-

muri-

imbri-

NoM. urbs

nox

aetSLs

mus

imber

Gen. urbis

noctis

aetatis

muris

imbris

Dat. urbi

nocti

aetati

murl

imbri

Ace. urbem

noctem

aetatem

murem

imbrem

Voc. urbs

nox

aetas

mus

imber

Abl. urbe

nocte

aetate

mure

imbre (I)

^ These are animal, bacchanal, bidental, capital, cervical, cubital, lupercal, minatal, puteal, quadrantal, toral, tribunal, vectisral; calcar, cochlear, exemplar, lacunar, laquear, lacar, ItLminar, lupftnar, palear, pulvinar, torcular ; with the plurals dent&lia. front&lia, srenu&lia, rS.ni&lia, sponsalia; altarla, plant§.ria, specul&ria, t&l&ria; also many names of festivals as Saturnalia.

2 The i-declension was confused even to the Romans themselves, nor was it stable at all periods of the language, early Latin having i-forms which afterwards disappeared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in adjectives to gain them. The nominative plural (-is) was most thorouglily lost, next the ac- cusative form (-im), next the ablative (-i); while the genitive and accusative plural (4uxn, -Js) were retained in almost all. ^ These, however, more commonly have the gemt'ive p\\xTa\ *\w -'osxu

;

§§ 54-57.] Third Declension. 3 1

PlUP.

NoM. urb6s noctfis aetatSs murSs imbr6s

Gen. urbiuxn nocdum aeta turn (ium) murium imbrium

DAT. urbibus noctibus aetatibus muribus imbribus

Ace. urbls (68) noctis (Ss) aetatis (Ss) muris (Ss) imbrls (Ss)

Voc. urbSs noctSs aetatSs murSs imbr6s

Abl. urbibus noctibus aetatibus muribus imbribus

Note. — The declension of these nouns in the singular differs in no respect from that of consonant-stems, and in the plural in no respect from that of vowel-stems.

55. Vowel-stems show the i of the stem in the follow- ing forms : —

a. They all have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables lack it entirely). For a few exceptions, see § 59.

b. All neuters have the nominative and accusative plural in -ia.

c. The accusative plural (m. or f.) is regularly -Is.

d. The accusative singular (m. or F.) of a few ends in -im (§ 56).

e. The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines and feminines, ends in -i (see § 57).

56. The regular case-ending of the accusative singular of i-stems (m. or F.) would be -im : as, sitis, sitim (cf. stella, -am ; servos, -cm) ; but in most nouns this is changed to -em (following the consonant declension).

a. The accusative in -im is found exclusively —

1. In Greek nouns and names of rivers.

2. In bdris, cucumis, rSvis, sitis, tussis, vis.

3. In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as

partim ; and in amussim. b* The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, restis, turris, secQris, sSmentis, and rarely in many other words.

57. The regular form of the ablative singular of i-stems would be -1: as, sitis, siti; but in most nouns this is changed

to -e.

a. The ablative in -1 is found exclusively —

1. In nouns having the accusative in -im (§ 56) ; also securis.

2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : aequSlis, annalis,

aqutlis, consul&ris, gentilis, molSris, primipn&ri^ tribulis. J. In neuters (whose nominative ends in -e, -al, ^"i) *. ^^c.^'^X baccar, iubar, and sometimes (in verse") mare^rt^^.

32 Etymology : Declension of Nouns. \%% 57-4^|

b. The ablative in -I is found sometimes —

I. In avis, clSvia, febria, finia, Iguia,' imber, n3TiB, ovig, pelvis, puppis, BSmentia, atrigilia, turns.

z. In the following adjecli^-es used as nouns : aftlnin, bipennls, caufilis, familiaiia, uStSIia, ilvSIis, aapiSaa, tridSns, trii&mia, vSofills.

c. The ablative of famSs is always famS (5 78. i. e). The defec- tive milne has sometimes locative mSiiI (§ 77. 2, e) used as ablative.

d. Most names of towns in -e,^as Praeneate. Tergeate, — and Sdracte, a mountain, have the ablative in -e. Caere has CaerBte.

e. For canis, see § 47, c.

58. The regular Nominative plural of 1-stems would be -Is, but this is very rarely found in nouns. The regular Accusative -la is common, but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for both cases is -ffla (diphthong).

59. The following have -um (not -ium) in Ihe Genitive plural : canis, iuvenlB (originally consonant-stems); ambagBa, mare (once ouly, otherivise wanting), volucris; also (sometimes) apia, caedSs, olSdSa, mBnaia, aSdSa, atraSs, aubolSs, vStSa, and (very rarely) patrials in -as, -3.tte ; -la, -Itis ; as, ArpinSa, Arpmatum ; Samnla, Samnltum.

4. Irregular Kouna. flO. In many nouns the stem is irregularly modified in the nominative or other cases. Thus —

a. The vowel-stems S"^-. 8*l-i ^^^ -8 in Ihe nominative, and are in- flected like mute-stems ; grfla has also a nominative grtiis ; sua has both suibue and aubua in the dative and ablative plural.

b. In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes 5 in the nominative (boa, bfivia). In nBv- (nau-) an 1 is added (nSvia, -ia). In Ifiv- (= Z(U!) the diphthong (on) becomes 3 in ZQ-piter (for -pater), gen. ICvie, etc,

c. In iter, itlneria (k,), iecur, leclnorts (n.), aupeUez, aupellec- tilia (F.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem, in aenez, aeuis from a longer ; so that these words show a combination of two distinct forms. The shorter form is found in the genitive iooor-ia.

d. Of the many original s-stems, only vfts, vaeis (n.) (pi. vSaa, -Brum) (see p. 26, foot-note 2), retains its proper form in the nomi- native (see 5 48. rf).

^^ ' Always In Ihe form ula aquil et Ignl Interdict (^ m- b> .

[ 61. Some peculiar forms

s thus declined : —

:^(F.J.

bovem

bove

(u.).^ishiY.\boni{n.). for. E cars OB via

carnia ossis via (rare)

rnibua ossibus vtiibus

(sulbus)

caiih N,, A.,V. bovBa senfia

b., Adl. boboB senibua < (bubuB)

5. Case Forms. 62, The Locative form for nouns of the third declen- sion ends in the singular in -I or -e : as, rOri, in the country; ICarthaglnl or Cartbagfne, at Carthage ; in the plural iu -ibua : ^a5, TrallibuB, at Trailes. Note.— The Locative siDgular in -o appears lo have been first used in poeHy. I a. An old ablative is found ending in -d : as, oonventiBnld, dictS- Mred (cf. praedfid, § 36,/; Gnaivfid, § i,a.g\ maeilatratad, g 70. ky 6. Greeh Forma. I 63. Many nouns originally Greek — mostly proper ^arnes — retain Greek forms of inflection. a. Steins in in- (i long) : delphiniia, -I (m.), has also Ihe form delpbin, -Inie ; Salamb, -is (f.), has ace. Salamiua.

b. Most stems in Id- (nonn. -is) often have also the forms of i-. as, tieriB. -Idia (-idoa) or -is ; ace. -Idem (-Ida) or -im (-In) ; abl. -Ida or -t But many, including mosi feminine proper names, have ; -idem (-ida), abl. -ide, — not -im or -T. (These stems are irregular also in Greek.)

c. Stems in on- sometimes nSn (or AEamemnS). -Snis, accusative -dna.

d. Slems in out- form the nom, ir but a few are occasionally Latinized

e. Stems in ant-, eat-, have the nom. in -Ss, -Is: asadainas, -antla; Simols, -entis. So a few in fiiit- (contracted from oBiit-^ l\3"ie -iii as, Trapeaas, -SntiB. Occasi'on.iily the Latin form of iioni\T\a.>i."Jt

AOSaa, eSephSaa. as well as AtlSs, eXepliSia.

i.%. Again enir

I, borizSa, Xenophfin; I- (nom. -S): as, Draco,

mAun

Etymology : Declension of Non

f. Many Greek nouns (especially in the poets) have gen. -6b, art. -S; plur. nom. .£b, ace. -&b: as. 3Sr, aethSr, cr&tST, heios (-ois). lampas

■ -066), nSIs (-idOB), Orphet

-ya. '

■y, -ye.

, chelya, -yn.

(-5dlB or -&dOB), lynx (-<

see §43)-

g. A few in -yd have act -y ; CapyB, -yos, -yl. -yn,

h. Several feminine names in -6 have gen. sing, -fia, all the other eases ending in -o ; they may also have regular forms : as, Dido, gen. DldSniB or DidfiB ; dat. Didoui or Dido, etc.

i. Several Greek forms are irregularly retained in the vocative; as, Panthas, voc. PanthQ ; Orpheua, Orplieu ; AtlaB, Atla ; Daplinis, Daphnl; PericlSa, PeticlS {cf §43).

64. Some of these forms

are seen in the following

examples : —

Sing. heroiyL.). torch[Y.).

basc(Y.y

tigeriC). na

iad{Y.).fyre{Y.).

Si'EU hErS- lampad-

baitl-

liSrld- (tigri-)

nald- cHely-

N., V. herOs lampaa

baaiB

tigrls

nSia chelys

Gen. herotB lam pad oa

baseSa

tigrls(ido»

naidos

Dat. herol lam pad!

basi

tign

naidl

ACC. heroa lam pad a

basin

tigrin(ida)

naida chelyn

Abl. he roe lampade

basI

tigrt(ide)

naido(V.chely)

Plur.

N., V. heroiB lamijadfiB

basSa

ligrSB

naidSa

Gen, heroum lampadun

1 basium (

e5n) tigrium

naidnm J

D.,A.'her6ibuB lampadib

ua basibuB

tigribuB

naidibuB %

Acc. hcroSB lampadSa

basiB (ei

a J tigriB(idaB

naidfiB 1

NOM. Atiaa Dido

SimolB Capya

DaptmiB 1

Gen. Atlantia Didoni

(OS) Siraoentia Capvoa

Daphnidla 1

DAT. Atlantl Didoni

(5) .SimoentI Capjl

DaphnidI ^

Acc. Atlanta DIdone

m (6) Simoenta Capyn

Daphnim (in)

Voc. Atlas (a) Dido

Sin

ois Capy

Daphnl

Abl. Atlante Did one

(6J Simoente Capye

Daphni

Note. — The regular Lalin

fonns can be

used (or U10SI D( th

e above.

7. Rules of Gender.

65. The following are general Rules for the Gender of notins of the third declension, classed according to the termination of the nominative.

' Is 65, 66.] TMrd Declension.

a. Masculine endings are -6, -or, -oa, -er. -So (gen, -Idis, -Itia).

b. Feminine endings are -Sa (gen. -atia), -6h (gen. -i»), -i«, -ys, -j ■ (following a consonant) ; also. -do. -go, (gen. -inia), -16 (abstrai

I and collective), and -ila (gen. -iidia. -titia).

c. Neuter endings are -a, -e, -I, -y ; -o, -1, -t ; -men (gen. -mlols) a i-sr, -ur, -tU (gen. -eria, -oris}.

66. The following are general Rules for the Gender l:nouns of the third declension, classed according to their steiTts,

. Vowel-Stems. — Stems in i-, having -a in the nomin t Feminine, except those mentioned below (g 67, a). Those having B in the nominative and those in 'Ol and -ar (which have dropped he -o) are neuter.

b. Liquid-Stems. — Stems in 1- are Masculine, except an, UiL, niel,v nd sometimes 851 (n.). j

Those in mtn- are Neuter, except homS, nfimo, ft&men (m.). Others in in- are masculine, except pollen, unguen (n.). Those in §n- are masculine. Those in din-, gin-, ion-, abstract and collective nouns, are feminine. Others in fin-, with oardo, margo, ordS, ilnio, afinifi, quatemio. are masculine.

Those in r- preceded by a short vowel are Neuter, except about 30 given below (§ 67. b). Those in r- preceded by a long vowel are masculine, except soror, uxor, glos, telllia (f.) ; crCa, IQa, pOs, rOa, tfia (Uifla) (n.), in which the long vowel is due to contraction.

c. Labiai, Stems (no neuters). — Stems in b- and m- are Feminine, except chalyba. Stems in p- are chiefly masculine (exceptions helow, S 67. c),

d. Lingual Stems. — Stems in Sd-, 6d-, id-, fld-, aud-, nd-, are Femmine. except dromaa, vae (vadis), pSs, quadrupSs. obaaa, piaeaes, lapis (m.). Those in 9t-, ut-, are feminine, except patrials (as AtpInSs), and the masc. plur. penStea and optim3tSB. Those in 8d-, St-, are masculine, except merces and quiSa with its compounds (f.). Those in 6t-, It^, are masculine, except abiSa, merges, eegea, teges (f.), and those which are common by signification. Those in at- are neuter; those in nt- various (see list, § 67. rf); those in It-, I rt-, feminine. (For a few isolated forms, see list, § 67.) j

e. Palatal Stems. — Stems in c- preceded by a consonant or long vowel are Feminine, except oalx, decunz, phoeniz, atorax, vervSz (m.). Those in o- preceded by a short vowel are chiefly TWisoiwe (Iot eiceptions, see list, § 67. e); those in g-i masculme, cxte^V V\liax\,

\Jfix, pbBJmnx, syrinx; also nix fnivis) (f.). J|

I

36 Etymology : Declension of Noufis.

67. The following are the Forms of Inflection of nouns of the Third Declension, classed according to their Stems:

3. VOWEL-STEMS.

e list,§si.c), feminiiK

except tttdis, votes.

-8b, -!lfl : about 35 nouns (s ■verris, M.

A%, -la : about loo nouns, chiefly feminine, as ftii!, pelUs-

Exc. — aediiis,amnis, anguis, C.,anaSlis, antis (pi.), assis, axis, bUris, callis, c, candUs, c, cams, c, cassis, caulis, ctvts, c., clsm's, c, collis, crfnis, c, insis,/ascis,fims, c,foUis, funis, c.,fustis, Aostis, C, ignis, iuvenis, C-, lae/is (pL), C, iares (pi.), manes (pi.), Minsis, molSris, ndtalis, arbis, pSnis, pedis, C, piscis, poslis, sentis, c, sodalis, testis, c, terris, unguis, vectis, ueprls (pi.), c, vermis, M. [Those marked c. are sometimes feminine ; the rest are masculine.]

-S, -is : upwards of 20 nouns, all neuter, as mare, cubile.

-SI, -Uia ; -&r, -Sria : 34 neuter, with several used only in the plural, as animal, SSturnalia (see list, § 53. e; for those in -5r, -SriB, see Liquid Stems).

-er, -lis ; imber, linler, ater, venter, — all M. except linter, which is

commoniy f. [For other apparently consonant stems, see below.]

Peculiar. — griis, gruis, f. ; rkils, rhois (ace rium), m. ; sUs,

suis, C, ^irds, hirdis, M. ; misy, -yas, f. ; orys, -yos, f. ; cinnabarf,

gummt, sinipr, N. (indecl.) ; chilys, -yn, -y, F. ; b6s, boms, c.

b. LIQUID-STEMS.

US, masculiue, as cdnsul, sSt, except sll, and (sometii

.fin, .«iii»: [^rinl, spUn, K. -eo, -fiula: Hymen, K.

, as tiblcen; except palUn. unguen, giiiUn,

1

tanguen

ns, N. ; hni^ainen, m. ; aedoH, alcysn, ancOii,

; with many femily

-mSo, -mlnla (verbal), as agmen ; about 60 nc -fin, -6nla (Greek) ; caiidn, daemon, gnomon, i

sinddn, F. -C, -61118; about 70 nouns, all masculine, as j

-IB, -ISnia (material objects, etc.), a&pugio: about 30 nouns, masculine, -ifl, -iOnIa (abstract and collective), as legio, regie: upwards of 180, feminine, including many rare verbal abstracts, j^ -4 iCbZb.- Amv/}, (uriS, Mdmo, ApollS, m. ^^^^^

§ 67.] Third Declension, 37

-d6, -dinis : nearly 50 nouns, as grandd, feminine except cardd, drdo, M.

-g6, -ginis : about 40 nouns, as compdgd^ feminine ; with margd, m. or f.

-ar, -iriB : baccar, iubar^ nectar^ N. ; Idr, salar, M.

-€r, -riB : accipUer^ f rater ^ pater ^ M., mater, F.

-6r, -§ri8 (mostly Greek) : crater^ halter, prester, M., ver^ N.

-6r, -^ris : der, aether, M.

-Sr, -^ris : acipenser, agger, dnser, asser, aster, cancer, career, later, passer, vesper, vomer, m. ; mulier, f. ; acer, caddver, cicer, laver, papdver, piper, slier, siser, suber, tuber, tuber, fiber, verber, N.

-6s, -€riB : Ceres, f.

-Is, -^ris : cinis, cucumis, pulvis, vomis, M.

-dr (-6s), -oris ; nearly 70 nouns (besides many denoting the Agent, formed upon verb-stems), as favor, orator, all M. except soror, uxor^ F.

-dr, -dris : castor, rhetor, M. ; arbor, F. ; ador, aequor, marmor, N.

-5s, -5ri8 : flos, mos, ros, M. ; glos, F. ; os, N.

-tir, -Oris : fur, C.

-fir, -iiris : 9 masculine, as vultur; vfiihfulgur, guttur, murmur, sul- fur, N.

-ttr, -dris : ebur^ femur, iecur, rdbur (-us), N.

-tUi, -^ris : 20 neuter, as genus ; also, Venus, f.

-tts, -dris : 14 nouns, as pectus, neuter, except lepus, m.

-fls, -flris : mus, m. ; tellus, F. ; crils, ius, pus, rils, tus (thus) N.

Peculiar. — Anio, -ienis; delphln, -fnis; sanguis {-en), -Ms; senex, senis, m. ; card, carnis, F. ; aes, aeris ; far, f arris ; fel, fellis; mel, mellis; iter, itineris; iecur, iecindris (iecoris), N. ; glis, gliris, M .

C. LABIAL.

-bs, -bis : chalybs, M. ; plebs, trabs, urbs, F.; scobs, scrobs, c.^ -ms, -mis : hiems (often written hiemps), f.

-ps, -pis: 15 nouns, masculine, as prfnceps; except \_]daps'\, merops, ops, stips, F. ; forceps, stirps,^ c.

d, LINGUAL.

-Ss, -&dis (mostly Greek) : 14 nouns, feminine, as lampas ; except

dromas, vas, M. -€s, -Sdis : cupes, hires, M. ; merces, f. ; also, praes, praedis. -Ss, -Sdis : pes^ quadrupes, m. ; compes, F. -^8, -Idis : obses, J>raeses, c.

1 These five were originally 1-stems. 2 OngiiiaWv \-s\euv.

38 Etymology: Declension of Nouns.

-Is, -idi» : nearly 40 nouns (mostly Greelt), as cassh, aegt

-iH, -Sdis : cuslds, C.

•6b, -dtda : ttepds, m. ; c6s, dos, f. ; sacerdos, c.

-Uh, --QdiB : inciis, paliis, subsciis; with/rauj, laus, pec&s (^Udis), 1

^ -Stia (Creek) : nearly 20 nouns, neuter, a^ poenia.

-Sb, -atiB: about zo (besides derivatives), m., satiSs, p.; also, d

(-«"), c. -as, -StdB ; «i?j, lebis, ntSgnls, M. ; p«i'Jj, reqiiies, inguies, f, -6b, -«tlB : aries, paries, M. ; abiis, F. ■6a, -SUB : seges, leges, f. ; inlerpres, C, -Sb, -lUa : about 20, masculine or common, as stipes, hosfies. -fta, -GtU : iu-vsiitus, salas, seneclSs, servilSs, virtSs, P. -hb, -Qdis : frons, glans, iuglans, f. -na, -ntfa : nearly 20 (besides many participles used as nouns), (

mon, as infans ; dens, Jons, m6as, pons, m. ; frdns, gfns, lins,

-ra, -rtia (originally i-stems) : ars, pars, cohors, fors. Mars, mors,

-fa, .^dlB ; -B, -ntia (Greek) : cklamys, v. ; Atlas, -antis, m.

PECULlAa. — as, assis, m. ; l(s, litis ; nox, Hontis ; puis, pultis, F. ; caput, -itis ; car, cordis ; kipar, -atis ; Us, ossis ; vds, vasts, N. ; also, compounds of -pus, -pddts, M., (foot), as tripus ; lac, lactis, n.

e. PALATAL. -ax, -Sola : anthrax, cerax,fracis (pi.), panax, scalopax, m. | fax, styrax

(star ax'), P. -fix, -&oiB : cnSddx, cordax, limSx, thdrdx, m. ; pax, f. -ex, -Sois : sUx, M. or F. ; vervix, M. -ex, -Icis : upwards of 40 nouns, masculine, as apex, vertex, except

carex, farfex, flex, imbrex, nex ijiicis), peliex, f. (imbrexUsa h.) -ix, -Icia ; appendix, coxendlx, ftlix, fornix, larix, salix, sfruix, vSrtx, F. -Ix, -Icis : about 30 nouns, feminine, as cervix, rSdfx; besides many

in -trix, regular feminines of nouns of agency in -tor (§ 162. a). -53E, -Sols : celdx, 7/dx. f. ~H

-ux, -fiols : dux, c. ; crux, nux, f. ^H

-tkx, 'Hols : dalii.r, lux, f. ^H

■X, -qis; arx, calx,falx, lynx, 3nerx(de{.), f. ; calx, calyx, M. B

-x,-giB: conirix{-nx),grcx, rimex (gea.-igis), rex, M. ore; [ifrSx]

(def.), lex, phalanx, p.; with a few rare names of animals.

Otier nouns in -x are n/x, nivis: nox, noclis; supelUx,-€cliUs, e.\ onyx,

k ^«r*>, ST. and F. ; S/yx, Stygis, F. j

§§ 6a-70.]

Fourth Declension,

39

FOURTH DECLENSION.

68. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in n-. This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Mascu- line and feminine nouns form the nominative by adding -a ; neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but with tl (long).

Nouns of the fourth declension are declined as follows: —

kand(¥.).

lake (m.).

knee (n.).

Sing.

Stem luanu-

laca-

grenu-

NOM.

manus

lacus

genfl

Gen.

mantis

lactls

genfl (fls)

DAT.

manui (fl)

lacul (fl)

genfl

Ace. ,

Voc.

Abl.

•

manum

lacum

genfl

manfi

lacfl

genfl

Plur.

NOM.

mantis

lacfls

genua

Gen.

manuum

lacuum

genuum

DAT.

manibus

lacubus

genibus

Ace.

mantis

lacfls

genua

Voc.

ma^fig^ -"

fa€fla ■

''"**'->•«, SSiOSU^"^'^

Abl.

manibus

lacubus

srenibus

Note. — The fourth declension is only a modified form of the third. The rela- tion is seen in the following parallel forms, uncontracted (of the third) and con- tracted (of the fourth).

mauus

tmanuis (fls) manul (fl) manuzn manus

fmanue (fl)

manutis (fls) manuum (um) manubus (ibus) fmanues (fls) tmanues (fls) manubus (ibus)

69. Gender. — a. Most nouns in -us are Masculine. The following are Feminine : acus, anus, colus, domus, idus (pi.), manus, nurus, porticus, quinqu&trfls (pi.), socrus, tribus, with a few names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, arcus, penus, specus.

b. The only neuters are cornu, genu, pecfl (§ 78. i. e), verfl.

70. Case-Forms. — a. The uncontracted form -uis (sorsve.tkcvt's* -uos) is sometimes found in the genitive, as Ben€Ltu.ott\ ^xi*^ "aca ^^'^

(Irregular) genitive in -I is used by some writers ; as, oxiA^., %exLVa..

40 Etymology: Declension of Nouns. [SS '0-1

i. The nominative plural has rarely the form -uus.

c. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into -'

d. The following retain the regular dative and ablative plural -fiboB : artUB, partus, portnis, tribuB, -vers - also dissyllables in -ona : as, laons (but sometimes portibua, veribua).

e. Most names of plants, and coIub, distaff, have also forms of the second declension.

/. Domaa, Anuj-^, has (either origiaally, or bj mistake) two stems end' log in n-aod o- (cf gen. in -I, § fo. a), and is declined as follows:' —

NOM.

domua

domuB

Gen.

domOs (doml. loc.)

domnum (domiSrum)

DAT.

domui (domO)

domibuH

Ace.

domum

domSs (domSs)

Voc.

Ael.

domes (doma)

g. The only locative form of the fourth declension is domi But even this is rare, and doml is almost universally used instead.

h. An old form of the ablative ends in -d : as, magiatriltftd (cf. g 62. a).

71 . Most nouns of the fourth declension are formed from verb- Ktems, or roots, by means of the suffix -tua (^ua) (cf. § 163. t) : as, oantaa, song, ca:j, can3, sing; casus (for ead-tna), chance. CAD, oado, fall; exsulStus, exils, from exsulC, tti be an exile (exaul). Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy : as, cdnaiilB.tus (as if from fcfinsulS, -3re), senStus, inoeatua.

a. The Supines of verbs (§ 109. e) are the accusative and abladve (or dative, perhaps both) of derivatives in -tua (-aua) ; as, audttum, memo rata.

b. Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun ; as, lHaafl (meS), by (»y) command; so inlfiaau (populi), without (the people's) order. Of some only the dative ; as, memoiStuI, divlaul.

FIFTH DECLENSION.

72. The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in §-, which appears in all the cases. The nominative is formed from the stem by adding -b.

I

Fifth Dedcns e thus declined •-

|t§ 72-74.] These r i\-S.a.lhag (F.) PLUR. SING, day (M.) PLUR. /uf^

Stem tS- die- fldi

NoM. tSb I 5b digs difis Gd{

Gen. rSI i6ium diSI (diS) difinim HdS

DAT. r« TBbuB diei(die> diebuB fide

Ace. rem rSs diem diSa fid a

Jtee. — cfe rt» ^ difc-^ *s« fids Abl. tB rebua difl di6tnia fidfi

Note, — The 6 has been shortened in the genilive and dative singular o 8p59, res. bul in Ibese il is found long in eariy Latin.

73. Gekoer. — All nouDs of this declension are feminine, diSs (usually M.), day, and merldiSa (m.), noon. Di3a is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indicating a fixed time, and regularly feminine when used of time in general : as, longa dtSa, a long time; cSnatitata die, on a set day; also in the poets ; pnlcbra di6a, a fine day.

7-4. Case-Forms. — a. The Genitive singular anciently ended -Sa (cf. -fifl of first declension, § 36. b). The genitive ending -H waBi sometimes contracted into -S, -I, or -6 : as, dil (.^n. i, 636), and the phrases piebi-ecitam, tribiUius plgbgl. An old Dative in -I or -B also is mentiouEd by grammarians,

b. The fifth declension is only a variety of the first, and several nouns have forms of both : as, materia, -iSe ; saevitda, -ies.^ The genitive and dative in -SI are rarely found in these words,

c. The Locative form of this declension ends in -B (cf. dative -8 under a). It is found only in certain adverbs and expressions of time : as, hodiS (for hoi-diS, cf hulc), to-day; perendiB, day after to-mor- row; diB quarts (old, quaiH), the fourth dayi piidiS, the day before.

d. Of nouns of the fifth declension, diSa and rBa only are declined throughout. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative and accusative in the following: aciSa, effiglBs, eluvieB, faciSs, glaciSa, ssriEa, apeciBs. ap6a.^

1 jNouns in -tSa (excepi dies) a

1(eicepting rSe) corrupted a-stcm OlurnuB; &pS9 (cf. sperS). Som< iron : as. requiSa, satlSs (satlAs, gen, -fitis), plebSs (plSba, plSbis), ram€ (famfia, gen. -Ib), ^Tbe farms facISruin. specierum, speciSllua, BpBrwm., bb^^'^'^*i *^ flat bygrammariaiis, also apSres, spSribua. j

1

1

les ^^™

SB,

m

43 Etymology : Declension of Nouns. \%% 75, 76.

DEFECTIVE NOUNS.

75. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular number only {singuldria tantitm). These are —

1 . Most proper names : as, Gaeear, Casar y Gallia, Gaul.

2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass : as, aurum, golii; aSr, air; trltioum, wheat.

3- Abstract nouns: as, ambitiS, ambiiiotti foxtitiid6, courage; calor, heat.

But many of these are used in the plural in some other sense. Thus —

a. A proper name may be applied to two or more persons or places, or even things, and so become strictly common : as, dnodeoini CaBBaiBa, tht ivielve Cissarsf Oalliae, tke tim Gauk (Cis- and Trans- alpine) ; CaatBtBa, Castor and Pollux; lovfie, images of Jupiier.

b. Particular objects may be denoted : as, aera, bronze utensils, ulvSa, snowflakes; ordifferent kinds of a tiling; as, aerSB,a/yj (good and bad).

c. The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the quality, or the like i as, quaedam esoeUentiae, some cases of superi- ority ; otia, periods of rest; calSrSa, ftigora, limes of heat and cold.

76. Some nouns are commonly found only in the Plural {plur&lia tanttim (cf . § 79. c)). Such are —

I. Many proper cames: as, AtbSnae, Athens, ThQiiT, PMlippI, vail, names of towns, Adelphoe {Tlie Adelphi), the name of a play; but especially names of festivals and games : as, Olympia, the Olympic Games; Bacchanalia, yfoj-/ of Bacchus; QuiuqultrOa, festival of Minerva ; IfldI RSmanl, lie Roman Games.

■2. Names of classes: as, optimatSs, the upper classes; mSiSrCe, ancestors; llberl, children ; penatBB, household gads.

3. Words plural by signification : as, aLtma, iveapaas ; ai^^, Joints; divitiae, riches; HoSlae. stairs; -vairiAe, folding-doors; forfis, double-

These often have a corresponding singular in some form or other, as noun or adjective.

a. As noun, to denote a single object : as, Bacohanal, a spot sacred to Bacchus ; optimSs, an aristocrat.

6. As adjective : as, CatO Maior, Cato the sillier. ■ IT. la a sense rare, or found only in early Lalin ■. as, AcUa., a vslva, aaivr; artaa, ajoini.

77.] Defective Nouns.

77. Many nouns are defective in case-forms : —

f9a, nefas, Instar, neoflSie, nUill, opiu J

<}ptotes) : as, —

I. Indeclinable need). BeQtu. 3. Nouns found in one case only (,

a. \a the uom. sing. bISb, P.

b. In the gen. sing, diola, naucl. N.

c. In the dat. sing. memorStuI, M. (cf. § 71. b).

d. In the ace. sing, amussim, M.

e. In the abl. sing. pondS, N. ; mane, N'. (Both aUo treat

as mdedioable nouns. Of mane an old locative fo mSnl is found.) iuasu, iniassu, m. (g 71. b).

f. In the acc. plur. InfitiSs, suppetias. 3. Nouns found in two cases only {dipiotes).

a. In the nom. and ahl. sing, fora, forte, F. ; astus, astu. m

b. In the gen, and abl. sing, apontia. aponte, f.

c. In the dat, and acc. sing, vfinul (vEno in Tac), vSnum. i

d. \a the acc. sing, and plur. dioam, dicSs, F. and abl, plur. foiSa, forls, F. [cf. fotSa).

three cases only (tripiotei). m., acc., and abL sing, impettia, -um, -fl (m.) ;

>. -S (F.).

., acc, and dat. or abl. plur. ST^tSB, -IbuB (f.). gen., and dat. or abl. plur. iugera, -um, -ibns 1 the sing., cf, § 78. I, b). the plural, but defective in the

, Nouns found

a. In the 1

b. !n the no

c. In the ni

(n., but ifigernm, 1

. Nouns declined regularly i

. Nouns found In the sing., in gen,, dat., acc, abl. : dlciSnis, B (f.) ; frOgia, -I, -em, -e (F,) ; opia, -I (once only),

b. Nouns found 11 e, Nouas found in

- (F)- d. Nouns found i obioe (c, no

divinity, s

the dat., acc, abl. : preol, -em, -e (f,). the acc. and abL : cassem, -e (f,) ; aordem

the abl. 1

: ambagG (f,) ; fauce (f.) ; n the plural.

Nouns regular in the singular, defecdve ii

a. iQs and tils have only iura, tuia.

b. oalx, cor, c5s, crux, fax, faez, Iflz, nez, Sb, p9x, pix,

praes. rSa, sSl, b61, tOs (thQa), vaa, want the genitive plural. Most noum of the fifth declension waol tVie "fl^ioVt at ^aiX a\. ,tbe plural (see g 74. d).

i

ElytMchgy: DeileHsioH of Nouns. [SS "»

1

7. Nouns defective in both siiigvbraad plnraL

a. Nouns foond in the nom., ace ang. ; oom., ace., abl. pi

sentds, -em ; -Ea, -fbtia.

b. Komis found in the gen., ace-, abL sing. ; nom., ace., da.t, abL

plor. : Ticis, -em, -e ; -fis. -ibiM.

c. Nouns found in the gen., dat., ace, and abl. sing. ; gen.

plur. naDtiDg: dapis. -L -cm. .e. h

VARIABLE NOUNS. H

78. Many nouns var>' either in Declension or Gender. 1

1. In Declension {heteroclites, notnina abundantia).

a. colas (f.), distaff; domos (f.), house (see § 70./), and many ames of plants in -ns, vary between ttie second and fourth declensions.

b. Some nouns vary between tiie second and third : as, ifigemm, -I, bl. -e, plur. -a, -um, etc : Mulciber. gen. -beil and -beris ; aequea- Br, gen. -tii and -tris ; vSa, vasis, and vasuin. -I.

c. Some vary between the second, third, and fourth : peoua, penum, gen. -I and -oria, abl. penC

I. Many nouns varj' between the first and tlie fifth (see § 74. b). . leqnieB has gen. -Stis, dat. wanting, ace. -etem or .em ; famSa has abl. fam§ (§ 57. c)-, pKbSs (pAbis, puber) (u.) has -erls, -em, -e; pecuB has pecoris, etc., but also nom. pectt, dat. pecitl; pi. peoua, pecuum, pecubus.

f. Many vary between different stems of the same declension : femni (n.), gen. KJrl», also 4iii8 (as from tfemen); iecur (n.), gen. ieclnoilB, iooinorlB, iecoria ; mflnus (N.), pi. munera and mQaia.

2. In Gender {heterogeneous nouns).

a. The following have a masculine form in -us and a neuter in -um : balteus, cSseos, ollpeus, oollum, oingulnm, pIlsiiB, tergnm, vSllum, with many others of rare occurrence.

b. The following have in the plural a different gender from the singular balneum (n.), bath\ balneae (f.), baths (an establishment), oaeltun (n.), heaven ; oaeloa (m. ace).

oarbaauB (f.), a sail; carbasa (N.), sails (-arum). ^fl

deiioinm (N.).fi!easure; dfiUciae (F.),fie/. ^|

epulum (N.),/easi; epalae (F.),/easi. ^H

fifinum (n.), a bit ; frSnl (m.) or frCna (n.), a bridle.

locuH (m.), aj'cst ; iooa (n.), lool (m.).

rSBtnun (n.), a ra&e; rSatrl (m,), rSstra (n.).

JaooM (u.},^/afei loea (n.), loci tM.,usuaJli- (o()ics,sfotsV .

Variable Nouns.

b (old edition) see § 78. 2. a. *.]

79 [79. t: in old edition]. Many nouns have irregu-'l rities of Number either in their ordinary or occasionall

a. Many nouns vary in mea Plural : as, — aedes, -ifl (f-), templet aqua (p.), water; aTUrilinin (n.), ^Ipi boniun (n.), agaodi career (m.), dungeon; oaBtrum (n.),/w/; ofidiolllus (m.), bil of-waodi comitliim {^.'),place of assem cOpla (f.), plenty; fidSs (f.), karp-itring; lIniB (m,), end; fortfina (v.'), fortune;

ning as they are found in the Singular or J

aedCs, -lum, house. aquae, a -watering-pla, auxilla, auxiliaries. bona, property. caxcQifiB, barriers (of

cfidiollli, tablets. ; comitla, an election (lowi cOplae, troops. Ed§s, lyre.

fluSs, bounds, territories. fortiinae, poi

giStia {F.^.favcr {ra.Tf^f, thanks'); grStiao, thanks (also, the Graces). boTtUiJ (m.), agarden; horti, pleas iire-greiiniii.

Impedlmeutam (n.), hinderance ; impedimenta, baggage. Uttera (F.), letter (of alphabet) ; UHerae, epistle.

locna (m.), place [pL looa (N.)] ;

. Indus (m.), sport;

L nataiifl (u.). birthday;

Fopera (f.), vrori;

r [op.] opla (F.). A^lp (§ 46) !

pars (f.), a part;

pUga (f.), region ;

rSBtrnm (n.), ieai of a shiP;

sSl {M. orN.)- "f^^i

tabeUa (f.), tablet;

b. The singular of a noun

loci, topics. (In early writers the |

regular plur.) Ifidi, public games. iiUa.lBH, descent. operac, day-laborers ("hands"). opes, resources, ■mealth. partGa, part (on the stage), party. plSgae, snares. rostra, speaker'' s platform. BalSs, ■aiitticisms. tabellae, documents, records. usually denoting an individual is

times used collectively to denote a. group ; as, Poenus, the Carthagini aits; mDes, the soldiery; equeo, the cavalry.

c. Of many nouns the plural is usually, though not exclu&wtl'j ,ms?.4 (cf, § ?6): as, oezvloem, i4i ft^i ; QiiMtBa, Romans \ -ntacMa, /lesK',_

Etymology : Declension of Nouns. [§§ l%w

d. The poets often use ihe plural number for (he singular for metrical reasons, sometimes from a mere fashion: as, Ora (for 6a), the face i acEptta (for Bceptrum), sceptre; Bllentia (for BllentiaiD.), sUencc (cf. § 75. cj. j|h

PROPER NAMES. ^H

80. A Roman had regularly three names, denoting the person, the gens, and Xk^o, family.

a. Thus, in the name MSrcua Tullins CicerS, we have MSrcoa, the pranomen, or personal name (like a. Christiati or given name) ; TuUiiu, the nSmen (properly an adjective), i.e. the name of the gens, or house, whose original head was a (real or supposed) Tullus j Cicero, the cdgnomen, or family name, often in its origin a nickname, — in this case from oloer, a veleh, or small pea.

Note. — Wtien iwo p cognomen is usually pui ii

b. A fourth or fifth name ' was sometimes given. Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was PabliUB CameliuH Scipio AfricS- nus AemiltSnus : Afrio&nus, from his exploits in Africa; AemlliS- nua, as adopted from the ./tmilian gens.

c. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were known only by the itSmen of their gens. Thus, the wife of Cicero was Tereatia, and his daughter Tullia. A younger daughter would have been called Tullia secanda or minor, and so on.

d. The commonest pr:enomens are thus abbreviated : —

A, Aulua. L. Lucius. Q. QuIntUB.

App, Appius. M. Marcus. Ber. Servius.

C. (G.) Gaiua iCaius) (cf. § 6). M'. MSniuB. Sei. Seitus. Cn. (Ou.) aaaeus {Cneius). Maxn. MSmeicus, Sp. Spuriua.

D. DecimuB. IT. NumeriuB. I. Titus.

K. Kaeao (^Cizeso). P. Piibliua. Ti. Tiberius.

c. A feminine prsnomcn is sometimes abbrevi.ited with an inverted letter: as, a for Oaia {Cata).

§ 81.] Inflection of Adjectives. 47

Chapter IV, — Adjectives.

INFLECTION.

Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and declined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use. In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different forms in the same word, and correspond with their nouns in gender ^ ntimber^ and case. They are (i) of the First and Second Declensions, or (2) of the Third Declension.^

1. First and Second Declensions.

81. Adjectives of the first and second declensions (a- and o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus, in the Feminine like steUa, and in the Neuter like bellum ; as, —

bonus, good.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

M.

F.

N.

M.

F.

N.

Stem bono-

■ bonft-

bono-

NoM. bonus

bona

bonum

bonI

bonae

bona

Gen. boni

bonae

bonI

bonorum

bonarum

bonorum

DAT. bono

bonae

bono

bonis

bonis

bonis

Ace. bonum

bonam

bonum

bonos

bonas

bona

Voc. bone

bona

bonum

boni

bonae

bona

Abl. bono

bona

bono

bonis

bonis

bonis

1 Most Latin adjectives and participles are either o-stems with the corre- sponding feminine ft-stems, or i-stems. Many, however, were originally stems in u- or a consonant, which passed over, in all or most of their cases, into the i-declension, for which Latin had a special fondness. (Compare the endings -Ss and -Is of the third declension with the Greek -es and -as ; navis (nom.) with the Greek vo.vs\ $pax^s with brevis; corntl with bicomis; lingrua with bilinsruis ; cor, corde, corda, with discors, -di, -dia, -dium ; suavis with ifdis ; ferSns, -entla, with ^iptnv, -oj/tu.) A few, wblcU m olYvti \axv^"a;g&& "ax^ nouns, retain the consonant-form : as, vetus = iros, Compaia^ves ^s^ci \e\accft. tbe consonant form in most of their cases.

Etymology: Adjectives, a. The masculiae genitive siuguiar of Adjectives in -iua ends ii

and the ZiacedaemoaluB, il,

Note.— The possessii

83. Stems ending form the tnaiiCuUne declension (cf. puer, agar, § 3I miaer, wretched.

Bing. Stem lulBtno-, R-.o-

N.

Ac.

V. miser n

Ab. miserB n

Plur.

N. niiserl n

G. miserflrum n

preceded by 6 o They art

1 Nouns {<±%ip.b,c): ^

« masculine ml (cf. \ 98.3). . consonant (also aatur) IS in ro- of the second lus declined : — J^|

nlger, black. nigro-. B-, o- niger nigra

D.

seilB

Ac. miserfis V. miserl Ab. miseris

nigri

nigr6 igram nigrum

nigmm igra nigra

igrae nigra igrSrum nigrBrum igiia nigria igrSs nigra _^H igrao nigni ^H igriB nigift ^H a, propSruH, have

a. Stems in Sro- (as procErua), with n the regular nominative masculine in -us.

b. Lilce miser are declined asper, gibber, lacer, liber, prosper (also prospenie), aatvir (-ura, -urum). tener, with compounds of -fer and -ger ; as, saetiger, -era, -eium, bristle-bearing % also, usually, dexter. In these the e belongs Id the stem ; but in deztia it is often omitted; as, dextia manas, the right hand.

c. Like niger are declined aeger, Star, orSber, faber, glaber, Integer, liidicer, macer, piger, pulclisr, ruber, sacer, acaber. sinister, taeter, vafer ; also the possessive.^ noster, vester (p, 64, 3).

d. The following feminines lack a masculine singular nominative in cla^ic use : ofitera, Infera, postera, sapera. They are rarely found in the singular except in certain phrases : as, posterB die, the next day.

Note.— A reminine ablative in -0 15 found in a few Greek adjeciives: as. lectlcA oatophorS (Vbtt. v. ii).

83. The following o-stems with their compounds have the geni- tive singular in -lus (one only having -lus) and the dative in -I in all genders — -^^^^^H

Infieclion of Adjectives. • 49

, other, totus, whole, alter,' -terlus. the other. uUu9, any. neuter, -trlua, neither. unus, one. uter, -trlua, ■which (of two).

anum

uter

utra

utrtiin

iinius

utrluB

ulrlua

iitrlua

Dni

utri

utrl

utrl

uqS

utrS

utr5

QtrS

alind ^

alter

altera

alterum

allna

alteriuB

alleriuB

alterius

alll

alterl

alteil

alteti

aliud

allerum

alteram

altermn

aliS

alters

altera

altera

a. The plura! of these words is regular, like that of bonoB (§ 8i).

b. The i of the genitive-ending -In», though originally long, may be made short in verse. Alterius is generally accented on the ante- penult, as having the 1 permanently shortened.

Instead of alius, alterius is commonly used, or in the possessive' sense the adjective aliBnus, belonging to another, another's.

In compounds — as alterfiter — sometimes both parts are declined,

iwmetimes only the latter. Thus, alterl utrl or alterutrl, to one of

2 , Third Declension.

Adjectives of the third declension are of one, three terminations.

Adjectives of the third declension having stems -distinguished by being parisyllabic (§ 53. a) — have but one form for both Masculine and Feminine, and one for the neuter, and hence are called adjectives of tivo ter- minations. In the neuter the nominative ends in -e. They are declined as follows : —

The suffix -ter, In alter, uter, neuter is the same as Ihe Greek compara- suffix -T(po(i). The stem of alius appears in early Lalin and in derivativeb nil- in tlie i<na& alls, alld (For alius, allud), allter, etc. The i«gu1ar forms IB genitive and dative (as in bonus) nre also found in early writers. The genitive in -lua, dative in -i, and neuter in -d ateptonoinma.\(5.\.\vi'C\.

b

r

— n

50

Etymology. 16 via (stem

■ Adjectives. lovi-), light.

N.. V.

leviB

leve

levee

levia

r.ys.

levia

levia

levium

levium

DAT.

levi

levi

levibuH

levibuB

Acc.

lev-em

leve

lev-lB (Baj

levia

Abl.

levl

levl

levibuB

levibus

1

a. The following stems in ri- have the masc. noiti. in -er: 3cer, alaoer, oampester, celeber, equester, palftster, pedester, puter, BalQber, Bilveater. teneater, valucer, and are called adjectives of thru ttrmiiiatioas. So also, oeler, osleije, celere; ajid names of months in -ber (cf. § 51. *) : as, October.

These are declined as follows : — '^^H

3cer. keen. ^^^H

N., V. Seer Soris acre

ScrfiB acres Sorla

Gen. acriB aciia

acrU

acriam acrinni acriom

DAT. acrl acrl

acri

acrlbtu acrlbua acribUB

Atr. acrem acrei

n acre

acria (Ss) acilB (Sb) acria

AuL. acrl aeri

acrl

acribus aciibuB aciibuB

Note. — This fotmalion is tomparalively lale, and liEnce, early Latin, either the mflscultne or ihe feminine form of Ihese limes used fbr both genders : as, Ooetus aJocriS (t™.). In t raneUHa, llltistrls, lOffubris, ruediocriB, mullebrls, masculine form at all. Thus: —

in (lie poels and in adjectives was sorae- iihcTS, as tftonebria. there is no sepanile

illuBtrla

1, briUiant.

J

S1N,;UL

Stem

iUnstri.

1

m

N,. V. Ulnitris

tlluBtro

iUuBtrSB

illnBtria

Gen. illustrlB

illustiiB

illustrium

illustrinm

DAT, illustil

illustrf

illastribuB

tl!iistrtbllB

Acc. illuatrem

illustre

iilustriB (69)

illustria

Abl. illQstrl

illustrl

illuslribna

b. Case-Furms — Adjectives of two and three terminations, being true i-stems, retain in the ablative singular -I, in the neuter plural -ia, In the genitive plural -ium, and in the accusative plural regularly -IB (see I 55 and p. 30, n. 2). But the forms of some are doubtful. A'OTS. — For watricKl reascins, an at.laiivc in -o someiiroes otuvna "m ^oettj, . ^

ma B4. 8

Inflection of Adjectives.

I

c. celer, swift, when used as a noun, denoting a military tank, hasfl oelerum in the genitive plural. The proper name Celer h35 the abl&-4

■ml

The remaining adjectives of the third declension I are Consonant-stems ; but all except Comparatives have I the form of i-stems in the ablative singular -i, the nomi- native, accusative and vocative plural neuter -ia, and the I genitive plural -ium. In the other cases they follow the 1 lie of Consonant-stems.

Note.— The ablative singular otUieso words often lias -e.

These adjectives (except compaj-ative.s) have the same nominative singular for all genders, and hence are called adjectives of one termina- y All except stems in I- or r- form the nominaiive singular from stem by adding -b. . Adjectives of oue termination arc declined as follows: —

atrax,>CT'«.

egetiB. neidy.

St, atrfic-

5.. ecenl-

Sine.

M., F. N.

N., V.

atrSx

eg6ii«

Gen.

alrociH

egentia

' DAT.

atrocl

egenti

Acc.

atrocem atrox

egentem egcna

Abl.

air6(J or atroco

egenti or egente

Plur.

N., V.

atrocfis atiocia

egentSs egentia

Gen.

atrodum

egentium

Uat.

atrodbuB

egentibua

Acc-

atrocia (Ba) atroda

egentiB (Ba) egentia

Ael.

atrodbiw

egentibua

to«g

1 The reBulsr feminine of these adjectives, by analogy of cognate languages, would end in Aa : this form does not Bppear in Laiin adjectives, but is founti in nbstracii fimentia Ifrom amSiia), dgsldia (from tieaea), aSconlla (frotn eOcora), etc., and m proper names, as FlOrentla (cF. Greek ^ifaoaa. for fxpatr-ta). The neuter would regularly have in the nominaiive and accusative singular the simple stem, as oa.puI;, oorfd-J, eific, Greek iptpopM ; but m_a.\\ except XvojiA. \ ■u/ftieforni in -a has (breed itself not only upon fticTVt '■'■- alto, where It li wholly abnormal.

52

Etymology: Adjectives,

[§85

b. Other examples are the following : —

concors, harmonious. Stem concord- Sing. M., F. N.

N., V. concors

Gen. Concordia

DAT. concordi

Acc. concordem concors Abl. Concorde

Plur.

N., V. concordCs concordia

Gen. concordium

D., Abl. concordibus

Acc. concordis (6s) concordia

praeceps, headlong. Stem praeciplt- Sing. M., F. N.

N., V. praeceps

Gen. praecipitis

DAT. praecipiti

Acc. praecipitem praeceps Abl. praecipiti

Plur.

N., V. praecipitCs praecipitia Gen. praecipitium ^

D., Abl. praecipitibus

Acc. praecipitts (6s) praecipitia

ifins, going.

pftr, eqtud.

eont-

pftr-

M., F. N.

M.,F. N.

iSns

pftr

euntis

p^ris

euntit

paif

euntem lens

oarem par

eunte (I)

paif

euntfis euntia

parGs paria

euntium

parium

euntiLbns

paribus

eunai(6s) euntia

paris (6s) paria

dives, rich.

^iber, fertile.

dlvit-

uber-

M., F. N.

M., F. N.

dives

fiber

divitis

uberis

divitl

uberl

divitem dives

. uberem uber

dlvite

ubere

divitSs [ditia] uberfis ubera divitum uberum

divitibus uberibus

divitis (6s) divitia uber68 ubera

vetus, old.

Stem veter- (for vete"8-) SINGULAR.

N.,V. Gen.

DAT.

Acc. Abl.

M., F. N.

vetus veteris veterl veterem vetus

vetere

PLURAL. M., F. N.

veter6s vetera

veterum

veteribus veter6s Vetera

veteribus

Note. — Of these vetus is originally an s-stem. In most s-stems the r has intruded itself into the nominative also, as bi-corpor (for bi-corpo8), dSffener (for d6-gren@8).

^, A few adjectives of ont termination, used as nouixs^ have a feminine /brm in -a : as, clienta, iiospita, with the appe\\a\ivft'WjA^^'"gf&3iu

^ Given by grammarians, but not found.

87.] luflfctioH of Adjectives.

3. Compaxatiirea.

Comparatives are declined as follows;^

Sing.

M., F. M.

Mr N

N., V.

melior melius

— Plfi'

Gen.

meliona

plQt

DAT.

raeliorl

Ace.

inetiorem melius

plus

Ahl.

meliore or meliorl

plur

Plur

N.,V.

meiiorSi meliora

plur§8 plui

Gen.

meliomni

pluiium

DAT.

melioribnB

pliiribus

Ace.

meliotb (SB) meliora

pIurlH {6a) plut

Abl.

meliorlbua

pluribuB

:. The stent of comparatives properly ended in ob- ; but this became J in all cases except the neuiev singular (n., a., v.), where s is retained, J 6 is changed lo tl (cf. honSr, •oria ; coipuB, -fiiiaj. Thus com- \ rparadves appear to have two terminations.

b~ The neuter singular pliia is used only as a noun. The genitive i (rarely ablative) is used as an expression of value (cf. § 252. a). The 1 dative is not found in classic use. The compound complOrea, several, I etimes neuler plural complflria. All other comparatives are declined like melior.

4. Caae-FormB, 87. In adjectives of Consonant stems the foUowmg ]

BCase-forms are to be remarked : —

a- The Ablative singular commonly ends in -I ; but adjectives used aa

; (as auperstaa, survivor') have -e. Participles in •ua used a

ptcA (especially in the ablative absolute, § 225). or as nouns, regularly

; but participles used as adjectives have regularly -I.

The following have uniformly -I: SmSna, ancepa, concora (and

pother compounds of oor), cSnsora (but as a substantive, -e), dSgeuer,

lt«beB, ingCDs, inopa, memoi (and its compounds), pSr (in prose),

I peipea, ptaecepe, ptaepes, teres.

. In the following, -e is tlie regular form of the ablative ; caeles. loompoB, [td§aea], dives, hospea, pauper, particeps, priiiceps, KBDpersteB. Eoapes: also in pairial.s (sec g 54. j) a.tid sXevtia 'u\ iV, ft-.at-.rt; when used as nouns, and .sometimes wVien used a&atf^ftctwen

54 Etymolog)-: Adjectives.

e. The genitive pluraJ ends commonly in -iom. Tlie accusative plural regularly ends \a -is, even in comparatives, which are less inclined to the i-declension.

d. The genitive plural ends in ■nin : —

I. Always in divea, compos, luopa, partfcepa, piiDcepa, praepes, snpplex, and compounds of nouns which have -urn : as, quadru-pea. bl-color.

3. Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in -n» : as, BUentam con- cilium, a eeiincil of the silent shades (Virg.).

e. In vetue (gen. -Sria), pQbes (gen. -6rl8), aber (gen. -fiiia). ■ which did not become i-stems, the endings -e (abl. sing.), -a (neut.

noni, ace. plur.), -um (gen. plur.) are regular, (Ubet has also -i in ahl.)

f. I. Several adjectives vary in declension: as, graoilia ''-naj, hilaris (-as), iuermis (-Qb), bioolor (-SruB).

1. A few are indeclinable : as, damiiSe, friiBl (really a dat. of ser- vice, see § 233), nSqnam (originally an adverb).

3. Several are defective: as, (a)exapSa (only nom.), e3tlSx(exl6gem) (only nom. and ace, smg.), pemox (pernocte) (only nom. and abl. sing.); ifi) primoriB, sEminscI, etc., which lack the nom. sing.

4. PotiB is often used as an mdcclinable adjective, pote in the neuter.

5. Special iraea. 88, The following special uses are to be observed : —

a. Many adjectives have acquired the meaning and construction 0 nouns: as, amicDB, a frtettd\ acqnallB, <i contemporary j maiSrSs, ancestors (see p. 47, head-note, and § 188).

b. Many adjectives, from their signification, can be used only in the maacuhne and femlnme. These may be called adjectives of common gender. Such are adulSacSna, youthful; [fdSeea], -idia, slothful; InopB, -opia, ^opr,- sSspeB, -Itia, safe. Similarly, aenex, old man. and iuvonls, young man, may be called masculine adjectives.

^— c. Many nouns may be used as adjectives : as, pedes, a footman az on foot (see § 188. rf). Such are especially nouns in -tor (m.) and -trix (f.), denoting the agent (§ i6z. a): as, victor exercitua, the conquering armyj vlctili causa, tfii winning cause.

d. Certain forms of many adjectives are regularly used as adverbs. These are, the accusarive and ablative of the neuter singular (§ 148, (i^«) : as, multum, mnltO, much \ the neuter singular of comparatives (see § 92) : as, melius, better ; levlus, more lightly.

NOTIL— Adverbs ending in .S nnd -ter were also once case-formi: as.oArS, dearly; levltor, ligla^: acorrlmS, moti tagerh {\ 148. o, h\. ^^^^^^—

I

Comparison of Adjectives.

COMPARISON.

In Latin, as in English, there are three degrees of com-J : the Positive, the Comparative, and the Supfrla-*

1. Regular Cotnpaiiaon.

89. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -1 (neuter -ins ^). the Superlative by adding -iBHlmuB (-a, -um) to-fl le stem of the Positive, which loses its final vowel ; as, — \ cfinu, dear (st. caxo-) ; cSrior, dearer; cariasimus. dearest. levia, light (st. levi-) ; lerior, lighter; leviasimua, lightest. feilK, happy (st. fSUc-) ; fSl\tAox, happier ; fBlIciaaimua, //lyJ^/w/. j bebcB. i/»i7 (at. bebet-} -, bebetjoi, (/»//«/* ; hebetUaimua, i//i//i'j'/.

a. Adjectives in -er form the superlative by adding -: The comijaralive is regular : as, — Seer, keen; Scilor. 9cerriniua. miaer, -wretched; miaerior, miaerrimus. (gen. veteria) has superlative; veterrimua. froiJi the old

-form Teter ; and mStiirus, besides its regular stiperlative (maturia- simus), has a rare form iiiS.taiTiinaB.

For the comparative of vetua, vetuatior (from vetuattta) is used.

b. The folltiwing in -lla add -limua to the stem clipped of lis vowel ; ia.cills (st, faclli-), dlffioilla, almilis, dieaimllla, gracilis, bunuljs. The comparative is regular: as, facllie, easy; faoilior, facillimua,

c. Compounds in -dioua (saying)^ -ficua {doing)., -volua {■atilling), take in their comparison the forms of corresponditig participles in which were anciendy used as adjectives : as, —

male^cxM, slaiideroHS ; male die eatior, maledicentiaaimua malevolua, spiteful; malevolcntior, malevoleatiaBiinua.

d. Adjectives in -ub preceded by any vowel but u rarely have forms I of comparison, but are compared by means of the adverbs maeis, more^ I maaame, most: as, —

iddneua,^ ; magiB idSneus, mSzinie Idfineua. plus has pllaainiUB.

1 The comparaiive suffix (earlier -lOB) is Ihe same as Ihe Greek -iair, or the Skr. \

Thai of Ihe superlative (iBBitaus) is a double form: perhaps foi

lUiparativeaad sitperlallve). or possibly for -ist-timus (two superia

gs -IlmuB and -limua are formed by assimila.iioa (\ ii./) from -t

)S. The comparaiive and superlative thus formed are

56

Etymology: Adjectives.

[SM

Most derivatives in -Icob, -idus. -alis, -Sris, -HiB. -lUua, -undua, -tlmtu, 'Inns, -Iviia, -orus, with compounds (a*^ dBgener. inops^ are also compared by means of magis and maxlmS.

c. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared : as,-*

patiSuB, patient ; patientior, patientisBimuB.

apertns. open; apertior. apertds&imTiB. /, A lorm ol diminulive is made upon the stem of sora< tives : as, gran^us-calus, a little larger (see S 164. a).

2. Irregular and Defective Compaiisoa.

90. Several adjectives have in their comparison irrq lar forms: as, —

bonus, mellor, optimuB, ffiod, better, best.

maluB. pSior. peBsimuB, bad, worse, ivorst.

mSguuB, mSior, mSjxiTaxM. great, greater , greatest,

pamis, minor, mlnimiu, small, less, least.

mnltUB, plas (n.) (S 86. b), plfirimua, much, more, most.

moltl, plfirEs, pliiriml. many, more, most.

ufiquam (indecl,), nfiquior, nequiEsimaB, ivortkUss (cf, § 87./. 2)

frOgl (indecl.). frOgSlior. frugflliaaimua. useful, -worthy (s-i- % 87./ i\

dexter, dezteiloi, deztimiia, on the right, handy.

Note. ~ These irregiiliirilies arise from the use o! different slems (cf. \ 89. ^

91. Some Cotnparatives and Superlatives appear i out a Positive :^ —

a. The foUowiag are formed from stems not used as adjectives t ■ cIb, oltiK (adv. on this side) : olterior, citUnns, hither, hitkernt lu. intra (prep, in, within) : Interior, intimua, itiner, inmiut. prae, pr5 (prep, before) : prior. -px^xavA, former, first. prope (adv. near) : propior, proximua, nearer, next. OltiS. (adv. beyond) : Olterior, ^Ititaua, farther, fart/iesf.

b. Of the following the positive foiins are rare, except when used as - nouns (generally in the plural) ; —

1 The forms in -tr& and -teriia were originally comparative (cf. alter), so thai the comparatives in -terlor are liouble comparatives. InTeruB and BupeniS are comparatives of a sdll more primiiive form (ct the Englisli comp. in -ei).

'the superlatives in -timua (-tumua) are relics of old forms of comparison ; those in -muB like Imos, summua, primuB. are slill more primitive. Forms like extrSmuB are superlatives of a comparative. In fact, comparison has always been irealed wilh an accn mutation of endings, as children aay fiojAertr and filTtiirts/.

IS§ 91. 92.] Comparison of Adverbs. Si^^l

externa, exterior, eitremua |,extimuB). outer, outmost. ^H

[Inferua], loferlor, iD&mue (ImuB), lower, lowest (,§ 3i. li'j ^^^|

[poBterua], poaterior. poatrSmua (poatumua), latter, last. ^^^^

[Buperue], euperior, suprCmua or aummus, higlur, highest. ^^H The plurals, extetl, /aretgners j Inlerl, the gods below i poateiir^^H

posterity, aupetl, the heavenly gods, are common. ^^^

I

iaveuia, youth, senex, old man (cf. § S8. b), are formed the comparatives i-ouior, younger, aenior, older. For these, however, minor nStfl and mSlor nStQ are sometimes used (nSta being often omitted). The superlative is regularly expressed by muuinus and . mSzimua, with or without nStii. ■

Note.— In these phrases nlttQ is ablative of specification (see \ 353). ■

rf. In the following, one or otherof the formaofcompanson is wanting; 1

1. The positive is wanting in dSterior, dfiterrimua ; Scior. Scia- ■Imtia ; potdot, potlssitnua.

2. The comparative is wanting in bsllus, caeaiua, faleus. fidua (with its compounds), inolutoa (or incUtua), iavlctua, iavitiu, nOTua, pliiB, aacer, vafer, vetns (§ 89. a).

j. The superlative is wanting in actudaus, agreatia, alaoer, aroX- j nue, caecuB. difiturnua, ezHis, ingEns. iSlQuua, longinquua, oblE- J quus, optmua, proclivis, ptopTaquua, satnr. aegniB, aSrua. aupIniia,T ■nrduB, taciturnus, tempestlvi adjectives In -llis.

NOTE.^Many adjetiives — as aureua. galden — s incapable of comparison; bnl each language }i3e lis dm Thus niEer. gliuiy black, and oandldua, shkn'mg while, are ftter or olbUB, meaning aisolule dead black or wliiii^ (exce; bas fitiior).

3. Comparison of Adirerba.

92. The comparative of Adverbs is the neuter accusa-^ I* tive of the comparative of the corresponding Adjective'!, j f the superlative is the Adverb in -8 formed regularly frorD-f r the superlative of the Adjective : as, —

cStB, dearly (from oSrua, dear) : c3rliia, cSriasime.

miseifi (mioeritei), wretchedly (from niiBsr, wretched) : miaeriuB, I ■niserriinfi.

leviter (from levia, light) : levius. leviasimS.

ludScter (aud&citer) (from auda^, bold ) : audficius, audSoisaimS. I

bsnfi, well (from bonna, good ) : meliua, optimS.

malfi. ill (from malUB, iitd ) : pSiue. peasimB.

S8 Etymology: Adverbs.

The following are irregular or defective : — dlfi, long (in time) ; difltins. divitiBHimS. potiTiB. rather^ ■^o\asBxiaaTa, first of all, in prefi Baepe, often ; saepias, oftetter, again ; saepisaime. aatla, enough^ maMs», preferable. Boous, otherwise ^ seoins, worse. mnltom (mnltS), magis, mSxime. much, ninrt pamm, not enough, minus, Uss. minime. Uasl.

4. Slgnifioatioti. 93. Besides their regular signification (as in English), the forms of comparison are used as follows : —

a. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of a quality : as, brcvioT, rather short; audScior, too bold.

b. The Superlative {of eminence) often denotes a very high degree of a quality without implying a distinct comparison : as, majrimua DumeruB, a very great number. With quam, vel, or unua it denotes the highest possible degree: as, quam plurin^, as many as possible; quam mSxlmfi potest (mSxime quam potest), as much as can be ; virum flnum doctiBBimum, the one most learned man.

c. With quiaque, each, the superlative has a peculiar signification. Thus the phrase dItisBimuB quiaque means, ail the richest (each richest man) ; prtmuB quiaque, all the first {each first man in his

Two superlatives with quiaque imply a proportion ; as, — Baplentlsaimua quiaque aequiasimfi anlmS morltur (Cat. Maj. 23). the ■wisest men die -witk the greatest equanimity.

d. A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as admodum, valde, very, or by per or prae in composition (^ 170. c) ■■ as, valdS malua, very bad — peoBiraaa ; permSgnua, very great ; praealtuB, very high (or deep).

e. A low degree ofa quality is indicated by aub in composition: as, BubrOBtloua, rather clownish^ or by miuua, not very, mloimS, not at all; potum, not enough ; nSn aatis, not much.

f. The comparative mBiSres has the special signification of an- cestors (cf. §§ 88. a, 91. i:)-

^. The comparative mlnArCs often means descendants.

NUMERALS. 1. Cardinal and OidinaL 04. Cardinal numbers are the regular series of numbei used in counting. Ordinal numbers ^ are adjectives de- rived from these to express order or place.

Note, — Cardinal nimibers ar numbers, the question quotUB ? :

These two series are as follows : —

I

. duo, duae, duo, t-wi>.

. tres, tria, tMree.

. quattuor (quatuor)

5. quinque

■t Ires)

I

9. Dovem

ti. iindecim

12. duodecim

13. tredecim (decen

14. qualtuordecim

15. quindecira

16. sedecim

17. septendecim

18. duodevigititi (octodecim)

19. undevjginti (novendecim)

20. viginlj

Lginfl UDUS

{or Onus et vlginti)

primus, -a, ■a.m. first. secundus (aller), second. tertius, third. quartus quintus

decimu.s undecimus

quartus decimuf quintus decimus sextus decimus Septimus decimus

s (\igeDsimus) s primus (Ilnu.elvMn«ma.,«^.)

> Ttie OrdinaJs (except aecunduB, tertiua. octfivOB) are fo

of the same sullixes a? EUperlati«es, Thus decimus (compare the

may be regarded as the last oi a scries of ten ; primua is a. superla

ofprC; the forms in -tua (QU&rtuB, quintuB, eextua) maybe compared with

the corresponding Greek forms in -to!, and with irpwroi, superlative of rpi;

^K nOnua is contracted from novimua ; while the others have Ihe regular superlative

^Bending -slmua. Of the exceptions, secundua is a participle of eequor; and

^BalMr is a comparslive form (compare -ripat in Greek). The mulliples of ten

^H are compounds of Ihe unit with a fragment of decern ; as. ylBtntI - dvl-giatl

■ (duldecem-U?).

H

Bo Etymolog)

; Numemls.

[§9^H

CAHPINAU

ORDINAL. ROMAN-

UMERALS,

30. triginta

tricensimus

XXX.

40. quadraginta

quadragensimus

XL.

50. quinquaginta

quinquagensimus

L.

60. sexaginta

seiagensimus

LX

70. septuaginla

LXX

80. octoginta

octogensimus

LXXX

90. nonagfnta

nonagensimus

xc

100. centum

c

101. centum (el) unus. etc.

centensimus primus, etc.

CI

200. ducenti, -ae, -a

ducentensimus

cc

300. trecenti

Irecentensimus

ccc

400. quadringentl

quadringentensimus

cccc

500. quIngentT

quingentcnsinius

13, or D

600. sexcenti

sexCEnlensimus

DC

700. septingentr

sepdngentensimus

DCC

800. octingenll

octingentensimus

DCCC

900. nongenti

nongenCensimus

ncccc

itxjo. raille

CI3, orM

5000. qulnque mllia (millia)

133

10,000. decern milia (miUia)

deciens tnillensimus

CCIDD

100,000. centum milia (millia)

centiens millensimus

CCCI333

Note. — The forms id -Snaimua

ire often wriltea without the n

as, VlDS-

SimuB, elc.

a. For the m flection of Onus,

see § 83. It often has the

meaning

of same or otdy. Tlie plural is used in this sense ; but also, a

a simple

numeral, to agree with a plural

oun of a singular meaning

as, Una

Diutra, one camp (cf. § 95. *).

The plural occurs also in Ihe

phrase flnl et alterl, one party and ^B

the other (the ones and the other

).

■

b. Dno,' two, and ambC, both

are thus declined; —

■

L Nou. duo

dnae duo

■

^1 Gen. duorum

duarum duorum

■

H DAT. duoboB

duabus du6bu»

■

H Acc. duos (duo)

duaa duo

■

■ Abl. duobns

duabuB duobuB

.■

H c. TtBb, tria, three, is an i-ste

m. and is regularly declined like ttitt^^l

H plural of leviB (see § 84). The other cardinal numbers, up it

oauto^t^^l

■ {iool,are indeclinable.

H

1 ■„. I.™ ..-0 ,..,— ..»,

dual nnmier. which was lost m

Latin, ta

■

^L .is found in cognate langunges.

J

^

Bl§ 94, 95.]

Numerals.

1

^H The forms octCdecim, novencleoim are

rare, duodSvleintl, iiii- ^H

^f dfivleliia being used in

stead. Similar forms

for higher numliers are^^^

1 occasionally found: as

dnadaquadraelnta

thirty-eighi i flDdfceH^^^H

turn, nintlynitte.

^^1

d. The hundreds, up

to iDoo, are o-.'^tems,

and are regularly declined'^^^

like the plural of bonuB

^H

e. Mille, a thousand, is in the singular a

n indeclinable adjective.. ^H

In the plural (mHia or

millia. thousands), it

s used as a neuter noun, ^^|

with a genitive plural.

Thus, cum mille liomlnlbus, -with a thousand'- ■

jwen; but otun duSbus mllibufl bominum,

with two thousand »ten>

Note.— The singular millo is somelimes found

And accusative ; as, mill"

ci^eof ndlla: as. cum

octs nilllbue padltum

mllle equfCvim, vlUh lighl Hioinandfiot and a tAous

and horn. ^^H

f. The ordinals are o

-stems, and are declloed lilie bonus. ^^H

2. DiBtribntiveB.

^H

95. Distributive

Numerals are declined like the plural ^|

of bonus.

^H

Note. — These answer

0 ihe inlerrugilive quotCnl? himi ma«y ofiach, or atJ^^^

1. siaffiM,onebyoni

18. octoni deni <»-

loo. centem ^H

2. h\ia, iwo-and-two

duodevIcenT

200. duceni ^^H

3- temi. trinl

19. novenf deni or

300, treceni ^^H

4. quatemi

undeviceni

400. quadringenl ^^H

5. qulnl

20. viceni

500. quingeni ^^|

6. senl

21. viceni singuli, etc. 600. sescenl ^^^

7. septeni

30. trice ni

700. septingenl ^^H

8. octonT

40. quadrageni

goo, octingeni -^^H

9. noveni

50. quinquagcnT

900. nongeni ^^H

10. deni

60. sexageni

[ooo. milleni ^H

II. undeni

70. septuageni

2000. bina milia ^^^k

12. duodenl

80. octogeni

10,000. dena inllia ^^|

13, terni deni, etc.

90. nonageni

[00,000. centena milia ^^|

Distributives are used as follows ; —

■

a. In the sense of

so many apiece or or

each side ■ as, Blngola ^^|

■IngnllB, one apiece (

ne each to each one

\ agri eeptena iageia ^H

plBbl dIvlBa Bont, i.e. §lc.

seven ju^ra to each a

isen (seven jugera each), ^1

' Or, in POEI17, cum bis mllle homlsibuB, w

1(1 tu>i» .1 <h<.u>and m.n. ^H

Etymology: Numerals.

[5§ 95-^

. Instead of Cardinals, (a express simple number, when a noun is plural in form but singular in meaning : as, bina castra, two camps (duo caatra would mean two forti). But the plural fini is used (instead of olngull), to signify one (see § 94. a), and trlnl (not ternl) for thne.

c. In multiplication : as,,\iiM\i\a», twice two { ter septSnia difibna, in thrice seven days.

d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where or sets are spoken of: as, bina IiastsUa, two shafts (two in a set).

3. Numeral Adverbs. 96, The Numeral Adverbs answer the question quottSna (quotifia), how many times, how often.

t<a^m

I. semel, once.

12. duodeciens

40. quadragiens

2. bis, twice.

13. terdeciens

50. quinquagiens

._ 3. ter, thrice.

(4. quale rdeciens

60. sexagiens

4. quater

(5. quindeciens

70. septuagiens

5. quinquiens (-es)

16. sedeciens

So. octogiens ■

6. sexiens (-es)

17. septiesdeciens

90. nSDagiSn. J

7. septiens (-es)

18. duodeviciens

,00. ce„.B.. 1

8. octiens

19. undevlciens

200. docentiens

9. noviens

20. viciens

300. trecentiens

10. deciens

21. semel et vTcien;

i, etc. 1

000. milieus

II, undeciens

30. triciens

10,

,000. deciens mTliens

Note,— They are us.

:d, in combinaiion wr

ih mlUo

. lo express the hieher

umbers : as, ter et triolens (centena nulla) sestertiUm, ^.yxifro sestercn.

orros in -ne are often wr

iltenwilliouilhen: as,

, QuinquiBB.

I

4. Other Numerals. 97. The adjectives simplex, single, duplex, double, two-fold, triplex, quadru-, quincu-, aeptem-, decern-, centu-, sfiaqui- (l)j), multi-plex, manifold, are called Multiplica lives.

a. Phoportionals are ; duploB, tripIuB, elc, twice as great, etc.

b. Temporals; \ilrcfai,ttlai\M,oftTvo or three years' age; bionnlB, triennls, lasting two or three years ; bimSatrifl, trim&striB, of two or three months; biduum, bieunium, n period 0/ two days or years.

£. Partitives: blnariua, ternStiua. of two or threeparls. d. Fractions: dimidia pars (dlmidlnm),<i/fa{(';tettia para, aMf'M Note. — But fractions are regularly e.vpresspd by special words derived fiom M (a /»i«rf) and the numerals: a*, triSliB, o MiVrf,- Xita. tiee-thirds.

t. Other derivatives are: flniO, unity; blniS, the two (of dice); prOnSniiB, a/ /Ae JSrsl legion \ prImftrluB, of Ihi first rank\ dtniiiiui, » sum of 10 ajiesi hlnva (distributive), doulit. clc. _H^^^H

Chapter V. — Pronouns. U8. Pronouns have special forms of declension.

>r a niore primilive intra I

1. Peratmal Pionoans.

The Personal pronouDS of the first person are ego, /, uSa, ■ he stcoHd person, Wl, thou, -voa.ye at you.

NOM.

ego, /;

n6B,,^e;

Uen-

mel, of me;

ao8ttum(tri), o/kj;

Dat.

mihi (ml). Co

le; aoblB.laas;

Ace.

me, me;

DOS. us ;

Voc.

.

Abl.

mi, by me i

uobia, fy us.

NOH.

ta, thou ;

vSs'.v^orw;/;

Gen.

txil,yau;

vo8trTim,vOHtrI;TeBtrilm(trI)

DAT.

Ubi

T5blB

Ace.

te

vos

Voc.

ta

voa

Abl.

te

TfibiB

. The personal pronouns of the third person — lie, she, it, they — I are wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being someiimes used (see § lo ■. The plural hGb is often used for the singular ego ; the plural v er for the singular tO.

. Old forms are genitive, mis, lA ; accusative and ablative med, ted(cf. §70.A).

2. HefleziTe Froaouna. ■

Reflexive pronouns are used in the Oblique Cases to refer to the I Subject of the sentence or clause (see g 196).

In the first and second persons the oblique cases of the Personal 3uns are used as Reflexives : as. m6 contuli, / lueiif (I bcViiCi'A. myseifj; M laadSa, you praise yourself i n6Ma peiMiM.%to."a», wt kyvMiTOi' aurseivei. B

H 64

^M 6. The reflei

^H declined : — ■ Gen.

H DAT.

B Acc.

Etymology: Pronoufts.

[55 9

e pronoua of the Third Person ha^ a special form u;ed , the same for both singular aad plural. It is thus

Gen. boI, of himself, herself, themselves. DAT. Bibl, to himself, herself, thenm'.ves. Acc. bS (seae), himself herself, thet-.f elves. Abl. b6 (bBbS), by himself, herself, tliet/iselves. SIb (genitive) and sSd (accusative aad ablative) are an

3, Foaaeaalve Pronouna.

I

The Possessive pronouns are, for the first person : moua, my, noater, our; for the second person; tutts, thy, your, voBter, vester, ^o//r; for the third person ; Btrna, his, her, their. These are declined like adjectives of ihe first and second declensions (see g§ 81, 82). But mens has regularly ml (rarely meua) in the vocative singular mascu-

otily r

il patrem 31ub occldit, hi

% referring lo the subject. For a possessive

m Buum oocidlt, heiUUd his [ovm)fit/Ur; d ill (somebody else's) faihtr.

0». In the meaning and use of the Personal, Reflexive, and Possessive pronouns it is to be observed that —

a. To express Possession and similar ideas the possessive pro- nouns must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns (cf. § 19?. a). Thus, my father is pater meuB, never pater

b. The forms DOatram, voatrfim, etc., are used /crWiW/^; as, — - -^

unusquiaquB noatrOm. each one of us \ .so ^H

voatrum omnium, of all of you. ^H

Note. — The forms of ihe genitive of the persona] pronouDS are really Ihe genitives of Ihe possessives; mel, tul, Bul, nostrl, TOBtrl, gen, sing, neuter: uoatrflm, voatrdm, gen. plu. masc. or neuter contracted. So in early and Inter Ijtin we finrf ana veatrBrum, om sf you [Tnamiii).

c. The genitives mel, tul, anl, nostrl, veatrl, are chiefly used objectively (see § ZI3, R.) : as, —

memor bIs nosttt, be mindful of hs (me).

m6 tul pudet, /am ashamed of you. ^^^^^^^L

§§ 99, 100.] Demonstrative Pronouns, 65

d. The reciprocals one another and each other are expressed by inter s6 or alter . . . alteram : as, —

alter alterius 5va frangit, they break each other'' s eggs (one ... of the other).

inter s8 amant, they love one another (they love among them- selves).

e. The preposition cum, with^ is joined enclitically with the ablative of the personal and reflexive pronouns : as, tScum loquitur, he talks with you.

f. To the personal and reflexive (and sometimes to the pos- sessive) pronouns certain enclitics are joined for emphasis : -met to all except tS (nom.) ; -te to tu (tiite, also tutimet) ; -pte to the ablative singular of the adjectives, and in early Latin to the others: as, —

vosmetipsoB 'g^xo6iX^&, you betray your own very selves. sudpte pondere, by its own weight,

4. Demonstrative Pronouns.

100. The Demonstrative pronouns are hie, this\ is, ille, iste, that ; with the Intensive ipse, self, and Idem, sanie.^

a. Ble is a later form of ollus (oUe), which is sometimes used by the poets; a genitive singular in -I, -ae, -T, occurs in ille and iste.

b. Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste, etc., with the entire loss of the first syllable ; and the first syllable of ipse and ille is very often used as short in early poetry.

c. Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (for -pte, from the same root as potis) (cf. § 99./"), meaning self. The former part was originally declined, as in reSLpse (for rS eSpse), in fact. An old form ipsus occurs.

idem is the demonstrative is with the affix -dem.

1 These demonstratives are combinations of o- and i-stems, which are not clearly distinguishable. HIc is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstra- tive enclitic -co, which appears in full in early Latin (hice), and when followed by the enclitic -ne (hlclne). In most of the cases -ce is shortened to -c, and in many lost ; but it is often appended for emphasis to forms that do not regularly retain it (as htlitisce). In early Latin -c alone is retained in some of these (h5runc). nie and iste are sometimes found with the same enclitic : illic, illaec, illtlc ; also illOc (ace. or abl. : § loi. p. 67).

66

Etymology: Pronouns,

[5 J

101. The demonstratives are used either with nouns as Adjectives, or alone as Pronouns. From their signifi- cation they cannot (except ipse) have a vocative, Thet are thns declined : —

hio, thii. IB. ihai.

eSrum efinuii j

Ipsa ipsiini

ipatuH ipaiuB Ipaius

ipBi ipsl

a ipBam ipaum j

ipsa ipaum i

ipsa ipH5

ipaae ipsa urn ipBArum ipa€ru

. Idem eadem idem i Idem (ei-) eaedem eadem

G. eiu&dem Slusdem Siuadem eSrundem e&rundem eSrunder D, eidem eldem eldem eladem ar isdem

Ac. eundem eandem Idem i edsdeiu cSsdem Ah. eSdem eftdem e5dem eisdem o

Sing. M.

F.

N.

NOM. hic

haec

hac

Gek. hfiiuB

hfllus

hoioB

DAT. hnio

haic

taujc

Ace. hunc

haoc

h6c

Abl. 1i5o

hac

hoc

Plur.

NoM, hi

hae

baec

Ge,

K. hoium

hSmm

honim

Da

T. Ms

hiB

his

Act

. iiSs

has

haeo

Abi

1,. hiB

hU

his

Sin

S-

ille, liinl

No

I. ille

ilia

illud

Gk

V. lUIUB

Ultua

UlIUB

DA

r. illl

illl

illl

AD

-. illnm

illam

illud

Vo

Ab

,. illfi

iU5

iUo

P»U

r.

No

I. illl

iUae

Ilia

Ge

M. illorum

iliarum

illorum

Ua

r. illis

illls

illlB

Ac Vo Ab

. iU6B

iiias

ilia

. illls

illlB

illlB

late, ista, istud, Ihat (yonder), is declined like ille.

eSdem ^^^|

Kill

I

101, 102.] Demoustralivf Pronouns.

Tile and iate arc combined with the denioaslrative

~NoH. llllo illaec iI15o(illuc) iatlc istaec latSc (iatiic)

Acc. lUimo lllauc llloc(illuc) isttinc istauc istac (istac)

Abi_ illSc illSc illCc Utoc iatSc is toe

' nor.

Kf, Acc. illaeo ■ iataec

a. For the dative and ablative plural of blc ihe old form hibua is sometimes found; haoo occurs (rarely) for hae.

b. The normal forms iHT, iBtl (gen.), and illae, istae (dat.), arc found ; also Ihe nonilnacive plural istaece, lllaece (for istac, illae).

c. The plural forms I. Is, Idem, iBdem, are oflen wriltcn ii, ila, etc. Obsolete forni.i are oae (dat. for el), and eSbus or lbu» (dat. plur. for Is}. For el are found also SI and £1.

d. By composition with ecce or Bn. behold', are formed ecoum, eccam, ecoSa, ecc3.a ; eccUlnm, Cllum, Bllam. eilfis. ellila ; eociatam. These forms are dramatic and colloquial.

e. The combinations b^usmodl (hOiuacemodl), eiusmodl, etc., are used as indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to tEUia. suck: as, t6b eioHmodl, such a IMiHg (a thing of that sort: compare § 215).

103. In the use of these demonstratives it is to be observed that —

a. Hie is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, thought,

on the written page). It is hence called (he demoHslrative of the first person. It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometime.i for "the latter" of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writ- ing ; more rarely for " the former," when that, though more remote on the ■wrillen page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought.

6. Ule is used of what is remote (in time, etc.) ; and is hence called Hat demonslratwe of the third person. It is sometimes used to mean "the former" (see under hlc, n); also (usually following lis noun) of what is famous or vjell-kn<rwni often (especially the neuter lllud) to mean " the following."'

1 The inlersivc -Co is also found in numerous combinations; ns, hOlusce, buiice, bSrunce. h&rvmoe, hSsce,bIsce (i^f. n., p. £5), Ultusce, lace ; witli the inierrogaiive -□«, in hCclne. tiSecine, iBtQclne, tlllclne, cic. intensive -pse is found in ihc forms eapBe (nom.), eumpae, eampse, eSpBe, . etpsa (aU.).

r

68 Eiyviology : Pronouns. [S5 102-

)2-lt|^

c. late is used of what is between the two others ii en in allusion to the person addressed, — hence called Che demon- ative of the second person. It especially refers to one's opponent (in urt, etc.), and frequently implies a kind of contempt.

d. Ib is a weaker demonstrative than the others and does cot denote any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards

plained by a relative. It is used oftener than the others as a personal pronoun (see §98. 1. fl) ; and is often merely a correlative to the relative qui: as, etun quern, one whom; eutn conaulem qui n6n dubitet (Cic), a consul -who will not hesitate.

£. Ipse may be used with a personal pronoun of either person, as noa ipai (noametipBl), lue viirselves ; or independently (the verb con- taining the pronoun, or the context implying it), as ipai adestaa, jfn/i are yourselves present ; or with a noun, as ipal fontflo (Virg,), the very founlaitls.

Note. — :n English, Ihe pronouns kimii!/, etc., are used both intensively (as, hi will catHt hinuel/) and refieicively (as, hr ■will hll hlmstlf) : in Latin ihe former would be translated b; ipse ; Ihe [alter, by s6 or Bese.

f. The pronouns hio, ills, and is are used to point in either direction, back to something Just mentioned or forward to something about to be mentioned. The neuter forms are especially used to refer to a claii.se, phrase, or idea : as, est illud quldem vel maadmum anlmum vf dfiie (Tusc. i. 22, 52), that is in truth <z -very great thing to see t lie soul.

5.

Relative

Fronoima.

103.

The

relative

pronoun

qui, who,

iv/iicli, is

i thus de-

clined :

—

NOM.

qui

quae

quod

qui

quae

quae U

Gen,

ofiiua

ofiiua

□fliuB

qu5rum

quarum

quSnuifl

DAT.

cui

CTli

oul

quibua

quibufl

quibua ■

Ace.

quern

qnam

quod

qoSs

qu&s

quae ■

Abi-

qu5

quS

qu6

1 quibua

quibuB

quibns M

G. laterrogative and Indefinite Fronoima. 104. The interrogative or indefinite quia (qui), zvliich ? any, is tieclined in the Singular as follows ; - NoM. quia (qui) quae quid (quod)

Gen. oQlus cfiiua cGiua

DAT. cui cul oul

Ace, quern quam quid (quod)

^^K Abl, quo qufi qufi

„Jk

E„ ■ _ 04.] Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. ^^^H The Plural is the same as that of the Relative. The singular quia ^^| are as an indefinite (see § 105. d). ^^|

Note. — The Relati™, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are originally of the same Stem, and the foms for the most [,att are the same (i;oiiipare } 103 with { 104). The aiem has two forms, quo- and qui-.' The intertogative setise U doublless the original one.

Case-Forms. — a. The relative has always qui, quae, quod. The interrogative and indefinite have quia, quae, quid, siibstanti-jc:, and qui, quae, quod, adjective! as, quia Tocat? who calhf quid vidBa? •a/hat do you see? qui homfi vooat? what man calls f quod templum 1 videa ? u'hat iempU do you see? I

Note. — Bui qui is often used without any apparent adjective force; and qui* J is very common as an odjeclive, especially with words denoting a person ; as, qui. ■ uSmluat me? vi/io calls my namef quia dies fult? \Bhat dtty was itt quia I bomS? whaimanT hot often qui homO? what sari 0/ a man T neaclS quIriB, I / htma KOI who you ari. I

b. Old forms for the genitive and dative are quoiua, quoi. I

c. The fonn qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all >| genders ; but especially as an adverb {how, by which way, in any way), JUid in the combination quicum, iiriih whom, as an interrogative or an 1 Indefinite relative.

d. A nominative plural quSs (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. | The dative and ablative quia (stem quo-) is old, but not infrequent. 1

The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the « ive, as with the personal pronouns (§ 99. e) : as, qnSouni, qul> f quibnsoum. I

ITE. — But oceasionally cum precedes as with other wards: a?, cum quS 1 4. 9).

y. The accusative form quom, cum (stem quo-) is used only as )njunctive adverb, meaning when or since.

g. The adjective uter is used as an interrogative and indefinite rel ve. It is declined as an adjective of three terminations (see § B3).

Note. — This word is probably the comparative of 1 he stem quo-; cf. Inti

105. The pronouns quia and qui appear in various com- inations.

From qui- are formed quia, quid, quQm. quibua. qui (abl.) ; while qui, « (nom.), ate probably lengthened forms of qu8-. qufl- (see { 33, ded. i), nade t^ the addition of the demonstrative particle i.

J

JO Etymology : Pronouns. [§ 105.

Note. — This suffix, with Ihe same meaning', may be used with any relative: as, quaiiacumque, eftohalcvir lorl; qaandCcutailue (also rarely qU.andSq.ue). ,- UblcumQUe, lehtrrvir.

b. The interrogative form doubled makes an indefinite relative : a-^ qulaquia, •whoever (so uttit, howeiier, ubitibi, ■wherevir). Of quis- quiB both parts are dediaed, but the feminine is wanting in classic u:

r

H a. The adverb -cumque f-ounque) (cf. quiaque) added to the

H relative makes an indefinite relative, which is declined like the simple

^1 word: as, qulcumque. quaecumque, quodoumque, w/ine^vr, ■what-

^H ever: cOiuscuuque, etc

I

I

qaSquQ, The caBe-iurin quamquom i: . .

aUhoagh (strictly kmervtri. QulquI (nom. sing.) is an early and quHqua a laiL> form. The grammarians give also a regular genitive and Uaiive. Cuicuimodi is usFd like a genitive, but is probably locative.

c. Indefinite compounds are the following: qutdom, a, a eerlai'ii; quispiam, a/y; quivis, C]vSli\ie\., any yau pUasc ; quiaquam, rt/y h/ all. Of these the former part is declined like quia and qui, but Ihej- all have both quod (adjective) and quid (substantive) in the neuter.

d. The itidefinite quia, otherwise rare, is found in the compounds aliquia, sot/ie one, and the combinations ai quia, if any; ii6 quia, Ust OHy, thai iwnej eoquis, nam qviii, -whether any.

These are declined like quia, but have generally qua instead of quae, except in the nominative plural feminine. The forms aliquae, ecquae. nominative singular feminine, occur rarely.

Note, — The compounds quiepiam, aliquia, and qiiisqu&m are often used instead of quis with fa, nS, and num, and are rather more emphBtic, as a! quia, if BHy DKJ, sialiquie, Vsomc enc, si qulsquajn, \{ any one {ever,d.fi^.

NOM.

quisquia (qulqtilj

quidquid (qvioquid) '

Ace.

quemquem

quidquid (qoioquid) ,

Abl.

quoquo quSquS

quoquo

Plur. NOM.

quiquT

D., Abl. quibuaquibus

Note.— This.

compound i^ raie, except in th

eformsqulaquls, quicquid,!

I

These compounds are ihiia declined : — Slug. aliquia, some.

NOM. aliquia (aliqui) aliqua aliquid (aliquod)

Gen. alicQiuB

DAT. alicui

Acc. aliquem allquam aliquid (aliquod)

Abl. aliquo aliquS aliquS

iquod) ^^H iquod) ^^^H

rl05, 106.] Flur. NoM. 1 DAT. Ate. i Abl. The fnrme ir

aUqnl

Acc. The forms in -qui a

aliq.ua«

aliquibuB aliquS^

aliquibuB -quod are adject

aliquorum ^^M

allqua ^^H

ve ; those in -quis and ^^^ ■ gooiit/iiiij;i but allquid

-qnid, substantive: as, aliquod boi bonl, something good (sotncCala^ of good).

Note. — Aliquia is compounded with all-, <ilds(ein otaliuB (p.49, fo Bui Ihe meaninB ether usually disappears.

,»).

e. The enclitic particle que added to the interrogative gives a versal : as, qtdeqae, every one, uterque, either of two, or botii. In this] combination quifl is regularly declined.

In the compound flttusquiaque, ei'ery single one, both parts s declined, and they are sometimes separated by other words. ■'' ~\ Quotua quiaqus has ihe signification /liMt/ ma/y, /fey ^ often ii disnaraging sense.

/. The relative and interrogative have rarely a possessive adjectiW

^Bfltna {-a, -um), whose; and a patrial cuISb (oflist-), of what country

g. QuantMB, luni' great, qxiSliB, 0/11/hat sort, are derivative adjectiveiH

from the same stem as the interrogative. They are used as interrogativ««

or relative, corresponding to the demonstratives tantns, tUia (5106), F

A. QuiBquam, with fillus, any, unquani, ever, uHquam, anywhere, are chiefly used in negative sentences, or where there is an implied negative, as in interrogative or conditional sentences, or after quam, than; sine, ■wilhoiilj vix, scarcely: as, necquiequam ex 9.gmine tantS, and nobody from that great throng; Blqnisquam. oat timidua, la ego anm, if any one is timorous. I am the man; sine -0116 dommo, without any master; an quiaquain uBquam gentium eat aequfi ir? -why! is there anybody anywhere in ihe ■world so 'd)retc!ied i

mphatic: pray, who? ecquis and aumqiue are mpounded from the indefinite particle Sn and the interrogative num ; t -ivho, but any in a question : as, ecquia noa videt? doei 3. quid hoc dubit&a, do yon at all doubt this /

7. Correlatives. |

106. Many pronouns, pronominal adjectives, and ad- rerbs have corresponding demonstrative, relative, interrog- ^ive, and indefinite forms. Such parallel forms are called f They are shown in the following table: — .^

Elymolffgj: Pronouas.

[HUI6.107

\%,ihat

q»l,»,A^

taatoa, /d^rfa/qnaatn*

taila, mch

qnaUs

qiLSli> ? (qii31iftciimqae)

Ibi. tktri

nW

abi? ubinbi alicabi

Bfl, thilhtr

qaA

qno ? qnoquo aliqao

«a, thai -way

qna

qaS } qnSqiiii aliqu3

Inde, theme

unde

nDd«? < nndeciunqiiej alicunde

turn, /A-H

qaom, ca

tot, 10 many

quot

quot? qaotquot aliquot

totlf,)oo/txn qaotiSs

a. The forms tot (originally toti), somany, quot. hmv {as) many, aliquot, several, totidem, as tunny, are indeclinable, and may lake Any gender or case: as, per tot annfis, tot proeliia, tot imperStorEs (Cic), JO many cotnmanders, for so many years, in so many battles.

b. The relative word in a pair of correlatives is often lo be rendered simply as: thus, tantum aigeati quatttam aeris, as much (of) silver a, (of) cpM-

c. A frequent form of correlative is found in the ablative quS or quants, by how much ; eS or tanto, fy so much, used with compara- tives {rendered in English the . . . the)^ : as, —

qnS maglB oSnKrla, eS longjuB prSgredsiiB. the more you try, the farther on you get (by which the more, etc., by that the farther).

107. Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correlatively as conjunctions : as, —

ut (re!,) . . . Ita, rfc (dem.), as (white) ...so {yet).

tarn (dem.) , . . quam (rcl.), so {as) . . . as.

oum (rel.) , . . turn (dem.), both . . . anif's ■while . . .sn also ; not . . .but also.

Compare et . . . et, both . . . and; aat (vol) . . . aut (Tel), either . or s live C*flu) ■ - ■ alve ; utrum . . . an, whether ■ . . or

I

1 In this phriue /»i ts not Ihe delinile arlicie but a ] Anelo-Saxon H. Ilic in^lrumenlal case of Ilie pronoi I* iiHd both -IS demonstrative and relative. Thus lA

minaL adverb, bong the

onesponds eiaeily

§§loa-lO.] Inflection of the Verb: Voice, Mood, Tense, 73

Chapter VI. — Verbs,

I.- INFLECTION OF THE VERB 1. Voice, Mood, Tense.

108. The inflection of the Verb denotes Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person.

a. The Voices are two : Active and Passive.

b. The Moods are four: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive.^

c. The Tenses are six, viz. : —

1. For continued action. Present, Imperfect, Future.

2. For completed action. Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect.

d. Person and Number. — There are separate terminations for each of the three Persons, — first, second, and third, — both in the singular and in the plural.

2. Noun and Adjective Forms.

109. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included in the inflection of the Latin Verb : —

a. Four Participles,^ viz. : —

Active: the Present and Future Participles. Passive : the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive.^

b. The Gerund : this is in form a neuter noun of the second declen- sion, used only in the oblique cases of the singular. A corresponding nominative is supplied by the Infinitive (see § 114. note).

c. The Supine: see §§ 71. a and 114. d.

3. Defective Forms.

110. Special forms for some of the tenses are wanting in certain parts of the verb : —

1 The Infinitive is strictly a case of an abstract noun, expressing the action of the verb (p. 120./) ; but it plays so important a part in verbal construction, that it is properly treated as a part of the verb.

2 The Participles are Adjectives in inflection and meaning (see ^ qlc^. eV^^^ have the power of Verbs in construction and in distingmshitvg X\me.

^ The Gerundive is also used as an adjective, indicating necessity ox duty V>^^ / ^^S- ^)- In late use ft became a Future Passive Part\c\p\e.

[he Present (oi originally all tei

F.tytnolog}' : 1 'erbs.

mood waots the Future and the Future Perfect, these tenses are supplied without ambiguity by Imperfect) and the Perfect (or Pluperfect); for es of the subjunctive referred to future lime. In ant is supplied by the future participle witli the proper lense of the verb signifying to be : as, oum eeoiltfiruB ■it, since Its 111111 fallow.

b. In the Passive voice in all moods the tenses of completed action (Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect) are supplied by the Perfect I'articiple with the present, imperfect, and future of the verb signifying TO BE : as, oocIbus est, he was killed.

c. In the Imperative mood, the only tenses are the Present and the Future.

d. In the Infinitive mood the Present (active and passive) and the Perfect (active) only are formed by inflection, A Future in the active voice is formed by the Future Participle with the infinitive signifying TO BE: as, am&tOrus bbbs, to be going to love; in the passive, by the Former Supine with Irl (inlin. pass, of Ire. logo) : as, amatum M, to be about to be Im-ed. For the Perfect passive, see b above.

Il.-SIGMFICATION OF THE FORMS OF THE VERB. H 1. Voices. ^1

111. The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally correspond to the active and passive in English; but^

a. The passive voice often has a Reflexive meaning : as, induitot ve^teia, Ae puts an Ais (fiwa) chties ; Tamils vettitur, Turnus turns (himself).

corresponds vi

IK).

b. Many verbs are used only In the passive form, but with an active

or reflexive meaning. These are called Depo.VE.vts {d/pHHeittia). «.,

verbs which have laid aside (d/psnere) the active form and the pasuvav

meaning (see § 135). ^M

2. Mooda. ■

1 12. The Moods of the Latin verb are used as follows :

. The Indicative Mood is used for drreel assertiams and iKtrrrth goiim

vaUsne? valeO. are you wellf

§ 112.] Moods. 75

b. The Subjunctive Mood has many idiomatic uses, as in commands, conditions^ and various dependent clauses. It is frequently translated by the English Indicative ; sometimes by means of the auxiliaries nmy^ might, would, should; sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive; sometimes by the Infinitive ; and often by the Imperative, especially in prohibi- tions. Thus —

efimus, let us go.

cum vSnisset, when he had come.

adsmn ut videam, I am here to see (that I may see).

tu nS quaesieris, do not thou inquire.

nSmo est qui ita exlatiinet, there is no one who thinks so.

be&tuB BIS, may you be blessed,

nS abeat, let him not depart.

quid morer, why should I delay f

sunt qui putent, there are some who think,

imperat ut scribam, he orders me to write (that I write).

nescid quid scribam, I know not what to write.

licet e^,you may go (it is permitted that you go).

cave cadSLs, donHfaU.

vereor n6 eat, I fear he will go.

vereor ut eat, I fear he will not go.

bI moneam audiat (pres.), if T should warn, he would hear.

bI vocSrem audlret (imperf.), if I were (now) calling, he would

hear, quae cum dlzisset abiit, and when he had said this, he went away.

Note. — The Latin Subjunctive is often translated, formally, by means of the English auxiliaries may, might, could, would, etc., to distinguish it from the Indica- tive, because the English has no subjunctive in general use. But the Latin uses the subjunctive in many cases where we use the indicative ; and we use a colorless auxiliary in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb with more definite meaning. Thus, / may write is often not scribam (subj.), but licet mihi scribere ; / can write is possum scribere ; / would write is scribam, sciiberem, or scribere velim (vellem) ; I should write, {if, etc.), scriberem (rf) . . . , or (implying duty) oportet mS scribere.

c. The Imperative is used for exhortation, entreaty, or command; but its place is often supplied by the Subjunctive (§§ 266, 269).

d. The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the subject or object of another verb (§§ 270, 271. a). In special con- structions it takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by that mood in English (see "Indirect Discourse," § 335 ff.).

Note. — For the Syntax of the Moods, see \ 264 ff.

I

76 Etymology : Verbs. [S lia

3. FartioipleB.

113. The Participles of the Latin verb are used as follows: —

a. The Present participle (ending in -na) has commonly the same meaning and use as the English participle in -ing : as, vooftna, calling^ legentSs, reading. tFor its inflection, see e%%xa, § 85),

b. I . The Future participle (ending in -flrus) is oftenesi used to ex- press what is likely or about to happen.

NOTE.— When thus used with the lenses of the vpib To be il form; what is called the Firaf Periphrastic conjugatioii (see { 129) r as, urtiB est cKsOra, the city u ^oul Is fall; mKneOrue exam, / VKUgoatg lo ilify,

2. It is also used, more rarely, to express purpose (see § 393. d) : as, vSnlt audltilraB, Ae cawe to hear (about to hear).

£. The Perfect participle (ending in -tna, -ana) has two uses ; —

1. It is sometimes equivalent to the English Perfect Passive parti- ciple in -ED: as, tSotUB, skeltered; acceptua, accepted; Ictus, halving been struck; and often has simply an adjective meaning; as, acceptue, acceptabU.

2. It is also used to form certain tenses of the passive(§ iio.^) : as, vocatns eat, ie was (has been) called.

Note. — There ia no Perfect Active or Present Passive participle In Latin. The perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally used in an active sense, as aecntUB, having followed. In Ihe case of other verbs some different construciioa is used for these missing participles : ss, Cum vSnlBSOt, having come (when he had come} ; eqUltSitO praemtesO, having seitl firaiard lie cavalry {th<n:avs.\\y having been sent forward}; dura verberStUr, loAi/e he is (being) strMct

d. I. The Gerundive (ending in -ndus) is often used as an adjective implying obligation or necessity {ought or must) : as, audiendne eat, he must be luaid.

Note, — When Ihiis used with the tenses of the Terb TO BE it forms the Second Periphrastic conjugation dSIieerduB erat, he ought lo have teen chosea (} 129).

2. In the oblique cases the Gerundive commonly has the same mean- ing as the Gerund (cf. § 114, a), though its construction is different. (For examples, see § 295 IT.)

e. The Participles may all be used as simple adjectives ; and the present and perfect participles are sometimes compared as adjectives ; as, amSna, amantior, more fond; dllBotiiB, dUSctiaBlmuk, dearest.

f. The Present and Perfect participles are (like adjectives) often used as nouns, especially in the plural (% iSS") ■. aa, i«^«ii.tta, ruCtri

(those ruling); mortal, Ihe tiead. X

i 113-15.]

mf Siipih

g. As an adjective, the participle is often used predicarively [<

e special drcutnstance or situation ; as. moritOrl v5s BalfltB ' at the point of death (about to diej salute you.

4. Oerond and Supine. 1 14. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows : —

, The Gerund is, in fornn, the neuter singular of ihe Gerundive 1 a verbal noun, corresponding In meaning to the English verba 1 in-DJG (§ 29s): as, lo^neadl aa.\ia&. for Ifu sake 0/ speaking.

Note. — In Ihia use Ihe Gerund 15 found only in the oblique cases. A correiB onding nominative is supplied by the Infinitive: thus, scrftwre est Qtlla,^ itiig (to write) is Hseflil; but, ftrs acrtbendl. Ihe art ofvirUing.

. The Supine is in form a. noun of the fourth declension (§ 71. a),

found only in the accusative ending in -turn, -Bum and the ablative (or

dative, [ffobably both) ending in -tfi, -sfi. These are sometimes called

, the Former and the Latter Supine. The Former is used after verbs and ,

e Latter after adjectives (%% 302, 303): as, —

1. vBnit apeotatum, he came to see.

2. miiSbUe dicta, 'jjomlerful to tell.

5. Tenses.

lia. The tenses of the verb are of two classes, viz. : — ■

1. Of cottlinued action.

1. Present; aafiba, /am writing.

2. Imperfect; BorlbSbam, I ■was writing.

3. Future: aaxTbaxa, I shall •write.

2. Of completed action.

4. Perfect: aciipBi, /have ■written, f -wrote. ;. Pluperfect; Bcrlpseram, / had written. 6. Future Perfect; scripaerfl, f shall have ivritlen.

a. Tenses of the ludioatlve, . The tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same mea 1 the corresponding tenses in English; but are in some cases Btinguished differently in their use. Thus —

. The Future or Future Perfect is often used in subordinate clauses re we use the Present ; as, — bI guld babSbS dabS, if /have (shall have") any thing, I luiU gi-ue. venero BCtibam, k'/w; /cowe (shall have come.~), 1 will Tiirite.

Etymology : Verbs.

[I§ 115. 1

2. The Present and Imperfect are often used lo express continued action where the English uses tenses of compUUd mlion : as, — iam difi aeE^fitA. I have long been (aud still am) sick. iam ditt aegT3tS.bam, / had long been (and still was) sick.

Note.— Here the Perfect. aoerOtaTl, wouid imply thai I am now Pluperfect, that I was well at the past time designated.

b. The Imperfect is used to describe in past lime a ronlinued action or a condition of things: as, ^o.i^'Sa^X, he -was writing; ardCbat, ('/ ■was on fire.

c. The Perfect, having two separate uses, is divided ii>to the Perfect Definite and the Perfect Historical (or Indefinite).

1. The Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as com- pleted in present time, and corresponds to the English (present- or com- pound-) perfect: as, sciIpBl, I have -written.

2. The Perfect Historical narrates a simple act or state in past LJnse without representing it as in progress or continuing. It corresponds to the English past or preterite and the Greek aorist : as, Hcrlpsit. he wrote; fiislt, U blazed up. -^m

b. Tenses of the Subjunctive. I

d. The tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are chiefly used in dependent clauses, following the rule for the Sequence ofT«nses (see § 336) ; but have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax, §§ i66 ff., 2S3, 308).

III. -PERSONAL ENDINGS. 118. Verbs have regular terminations^ for each of the three Persons, both singular and plural, active anti passive. These are : —

Sing. ACtlVE. PASSIVE.

1. -ml-6or-iy.am-6. /toi'C. -r; zmo-i. / am loved.

2. -8: ama-B, thoii tovest. -lia or -ve : ama-Tia, thou art ic

3. -t; 3iaa-t, ie loves. -tur; ama-tur, Atf

Pliii

3- -nt:

a-tis, j'o* love, -mini r a-nt, they love, -ntnr ;

issive.

•ed. ^^1

ama-minT, you at ama-ntnr, Mg/n;

I These terminations are fragments of old Pronouns, whose significalion iri ihiis

added 10 that of the verli-stem (compare p. 19. note i). But the ending -mini in

the second person plural of Ihe passive is a remnant of ttie participial form fijund

'•n the Creek -fuiHis, and has supplanted the proper foim, '«\i\c\i does m

Jib thought by some sehoiars that -at has aaimi^aT oripn.

§§ 116-18.] Forms of the Verb. 79

Note. — The present indicative of the active voice has lost the -xn, and ends in the modified stem- vowel -0, except in sum and inquam (§§ 119, 144. b). This 5 stands for in blended in sound with a preceding vowel (amO = famft-xn). The perfect the future perfect, and the future in -b(5 have also lost the -m.

a. The Perfect Indicative active has the special terminations : —

Sing. 2. -stit : amav-i-sti, thoti lovedst,

Plur. 2. -stis : amav-i-stis, you loved,

3. -Snint or-Sre : amav-6nint (-Sre), they loved,

b. The Imperative has the following terminations : —

Sing* ACTIVE. PASSIVE.

2. — : ama, love thou, -re : ama-re, be thou loved,

2. -to : ama-t6, thou shall love, -tor ; ama-tor, thou shall be loved,

3. -t6 : ama-t5, let him love, -tor : ama-tor, let him be loved,

Plur.

2. -te : ama-te, love ye. -mini : ama-minX, be ye loved,

2, -t6te : 2Jti?i-\Ate,yes/ialllove,

3. -ntd : zmai'TLt^, let them love, -ntor : ama-ntor, let them be loved.

IV.-FORMS OF THE VERB.

117. Every Latin verb-form (except the adjective and noun forms) is made up of two parts, viz. : —

1. The Stem (see § 21). This is either the root or a modification or development of it.

2. The Ending, consisting of —

a, the signs of mood and tense.

b, the personal ending (see § 116).

Note i. — Thus in the verb vocft-vi-t, he called, the root is VOC, modified into the verb-stem vocft-, which by the addition of the tense sign -ul (-vl) Ijecomes the perfect tense voc&vi ; and to this is added the personal ending (-t) of the third person singular.

Note 2. — These endings are of various origin. In none of them, however, is the tense or mood sign strictly inserted between the root and the personal ter- minations. All verb-forms are either inherited from a time when the elements were still significant and could still be compounded, or are imitations of such inherited forms.

118. The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs for mood and tense combined with persouaY exvdA.w^?», -ax^ exhibited in the following table : —

8o Etymolog)': Verbs.

'•1

ACTIVK. PASSIVE.

■

Indic. Sub;, Indic-

SUBJ. ^B

^H

Sing. 1. -C -m

-or

■

3. -B ^^'-9 -B

-rUor-ze ^,

......„H

3- -t If; -t

-tur il

^H

/Vwr. T, -maa "j^-~ -mua

-mur -5 =

.„„ ■

;. .tds |22 .tl9

-mini .1 3

-mini ^M

3. -nt "'= -at

-ntur

-ntur ^H

n..I.<r/fof.

V

S/ng-. 1. ~ba-m -rem

-bar

-re-r

3. -bS-a -re-a

-b5-ris{-re)

-rB-ris (-te)

3. -bat -re-t

■ba-tur

-re-tur

Plur. I. -ba-mua -rS-mua

-ba-mur

-rS-mur

2. -ba-tiB -rS-tis

-ba-miiil

-rfi-minl

3, -ba-nt -re-nt

-ba-ntur

-re-ntur

Indicative. tnt^iv. Indicative.

Sing. 1. -b^5 ,.:-^

-a-m

-bo^r

-a-i '

It: m

-S^

-be-riH{-re)i^

^--ri8(-rB)

-e-t

bl-tur J =

-/-tur

I'lur. 1. -bi-mna?!'?!

-i'-muB

-.,.„„ «

-e-muT

.. -bi-tia nil

-(-tie

-bl-minl .1 S

-(--miiii

3. -bu-nt --si

-f-nt ' bu-ntur

-f-ntnr

iNDIL. SUUJ. rrrftd. ISDlt.

SUBJ.

i/«^. 1. -I -eri-m

(»\aa

aim

2. -i-a« -eri-a

-tuBtta. -turn) ™

s&

3. -it -eri-t

' eat

sit

/'liir. I. -i-mua -eri-mua

Lsuut

almaa

2, -i-atia -eri-tia

BltlS

3. -«ni-ut(;r-6re -orint

Bint

ylupfrfi-el.

Sing. I. -eta-m -is«e-m

""^■■f""

oBaem

2. -etS-» isaBB

esses

3. -ora-t -iaaet

' 1 er.t

easet

P/ur. 1. -erS-muB -isse-mua

I Brant

easSmUB

2. -era.t» -iaae-tifl

ewfitia

3. ^a-nt -ima-nt

auent

. L

»ii™v

118, 119.]

Forms of tlu Verb.

3

^r-S

-eri-t

' erit 1

Plur. I

-erl-mu8

f erlmuB Lerunt

2

-eri-tis

3

-erl-nt

Imperative.

Sing, z

— Plur

2. -te 1 Sing. 1. -re Plur. 2. -mini

2

-t5

2. -tSte [ 2. -tor 2. —

3

■t5

3. -ntfi 1 3. -tor 3. -ntor

For convenience a table of the Noun and Adjective forms of the

rbis here added.

Infinitives.

Prro.

re (Pres. stem) 1 i.ii.iv.-ri; iii. -i

rcrf.

laae (Perf. stem) \ -tus {-ta, -turn) essa

Fal.

tOruB (-a, -

ninj esse ( -turn Irl Participles.

JVes.

Dfl, -ntlB

Per/.

-tuB, -ta, -turn

Fut.

tOruB, -a, -

un Ger. -ndus, -a, -uia

Gerund.

Supine.

-M,

-d5, -dum

-diS

-turn, -tn

. McBtschol

rs regard

it as a

ngs, of pronoi

liar (0 Latin a

d Cellic

and of

Note. — The I oflhe Perfed, which in early Latin is always Jbi^f ticepl before -mus, is of doublful origin. It is probably in all cases a part of the stem, as il Is in dedl, etetl, where il talies the place of the vowel a. In the suffixes -vi (of un- known origin) and -el (akin to those of Greek tBci^a and Skx. ndikiham) , and in the perfects of consooanl-roots, it seems Id be. but probably is not, a mere connectine vowel The B before -tl and -tlB Is al&o ar remnant of BB; but II may be. like the persi

The Passive is a middle (or reflexive} fc

^h The Verb Sam.

^M 119. The verb aum, be, is both irregular and defective,

^Kaving no gerund or supine, and no participle but the

future.

^H Its coaJu£3tion is given al the outset, on accovkalQ(\\&i.m9tH^a.'CiaCkr|

^H> tAe inSection of all other verbs.

^^^^^

82 Elytnology: Verbs.

[sua.

Principal Parts: Pres. Bnni, Infin. eue, Perf. ful.

Fut. Part. futfiroB.

Indicative. Subjunctive.

Sing. I. axim,/am.

Blm*

2. ea, lAou art {you are)-

BjB

3. e>t, Ae (jAr. it) is.

sit

/'lur. I. BTiiaua, ive are.

sunns

2. BBtia.^oii are.

Bitia

3. Bimt, tA/ji are.

Bint

Imprrfect.

Sing. I. Oram, /iwar.

easem (forem)

3. eiSA, you -were.

eases (forSs)

3. etat, he {she, it) was.

esset ((otet)

Plur. 1, erftmna, ivev/ere.

esBSmua

2. exfitis, you were. ' easStia

3. eraut, (hey -a/ere. esaent (foront)

Ifulurt.

Sing. 1. ei5,IshaUde.

2. aria, you will be.

3. erit. he will be.

Plur. I. eritoM'&.'we shall be.

2. BA\ia,you-!vinbe. \

3. eruat, they will be. |

^^

J-cr/irt.

M

Sing. I. fnl, lioas (have been).

faertm

2. fuiaO, you were

fueris

H

3. fuit, A« was.

merit

s

Plur. I. fuimua. w^ zcirrf.

fueiimiw

2. futstia, you were.

fneiitU

fl

3. (u6runt,fu8re,WfC7(;«^'£.

fneiint

9

Ptuprrf^rt.

^

Sing. [. fueram, I had been.

fuisaem

2. Ixieiia, you had been.

fuiBsCs

S

3. fuetat, he had been.

fuisSBt

■

Piur. I. taer&mxM.we iadbeen.

faiasEmiiA

(■

2. ftier&tiB, ^0n >iad been.

fuIssBtis

tT

3. fuerant, they had been.

fnlBBent

fe ^vsn.

*«//«,-[

k~ .k

Fjg 119, 120.]

2'he Verb Sum.

83 1

Sing, I. tti6T^,f shall have been. Plur. i. faeriTa\)A,we shall havtbeen^^ z. iy\sr^,yntfwitthavebeen. 2, tueiiiia,voit will have deen.

3. tnexit, he will ha-zie been. 3. fiieiiat,th^ ■will have been.

Impebative. jveaefif. Sing. 3. 6b, be thou. Plur. 1. eate, heye.

titire, 2. eatBt f/roii shall be. 2. eatSte, ye shall ie.

3. SBto, he shall be. 3. enato, /hey shall ie.

Infinitive.

J>na«n(. esBe, /d fo.

rerfert. fuiflSB, /o have been.

Futwre. fore or fatnrUB esBe. 2'1'i j« about io be.

Participle. j-Vi(ure. futiiruB, -a, -inn, about to be.

a. The present participle, which should be faSua (compare Sanskrit 1 tant), appears in that form in ab-sSuB, prEie-aSna ; and as 6ns (cd pare uni) in pot-Bna. The simple form Sub is somelimes fouod in late j or philosophical Latin as a participle or abstract noun, in the forms | Sna, being; ontia, things which are.

b. Rare Forms. — Indicative; Future, eacit, eacnnt (strictly aa j inchoative present, see § 167. a).

Subjunctive: Present, aiem, Bi6B, Biet, alent; fOEun, fuSa, fnat, foant; Perfect, ffivimua ; Pluperfect, fflviaaet.

Note,— For eBsem, etc., forem, rorBs, etc., are often used wilhoul differe of meaning.

120. The verb eum appears in numerous compounds, which will be treated under Irregular Verbs {§ 137).

Note. — The root of the verb sum is ES, which in the imperfecl is changed to ER (see { II. a. i), and ia many cases is shoriened to s. Some of its modlfio " ■S found in several languages mote or less closely relalcd to l,a[in, may be s

(bllowing table, — the " Indo-European " being the primitive or Iheoredc [he form ^am corresponding to the Latin aim {BiemJ : —

H" The Perfect and Supine si ■ Wth Ibe Eoslish ^

ems.ful-.futOro-, ai

■e Itindred \

vith the Greek ^«, and

^^k 1 OM form. ^H

I

I4 Etymology: Verbs. [§§121,122,

The Three Btenu. 121. The parts of the Latin verb may be formed upon three different steins {partly real and partly supposed), called the Present, the Perfect, and the Supine Stem (see notes, pp. S6, 119 ff.).

:. The tenses of continued action, both active and passive, together witli the Gerund and Gerundive, are formed upon the Present Stem, and collectively are called the Present System.

b. The tenses ai completed action in the active voice are formed upon the Perfect Stem, and are called the Perfect System.

. The Perfect and Future Participles and the Supine are formed upon the Sopine Stem, and are caJIed the Supine System.

Note 1. — Since Lalin verbs are commonly spoken of under the form of their ireaent lease, the other parts are usually said to be derived from this. It is only in He verbs formed later in the language that this is vuc. Thus ormftTl, I Aavr rmid, does come from annS, /arm; bul bItI, /Aour ji/Zsumi/, does not come -om HliiS. / allow: but both ^nS and bIvI come from a, common source, the aat (see {{ aa, 123. 124), by different processes.

Note 2. — The Infiutitce of Analogy. Many Lalin verbs were not inherited from Ihe parent speech, hul formed during the separale existence of the language. The forms of these verbs are no( strictly compounds of root or stem and ending, but are ilions of verbs already enstingin Latin. For it is only by analogy thai elements (parts of words) not complete and signiGcant in themselves can be used lo form new irds in a developed language. When items are not felt as significant, Ihejr can- il be used far composition. Tbus a form like fugftbat could be made only from a eomplele word fUBa, or from some form in which fuga seemed lo be a complete word ; and must be regarded, not as a compound of stem and auiiliaiy, fusil- + bat (like arft- + bat), but as an Imitstion of forms like ar&bat, which originally were really compounds. Simple Perfects Uke ded! and compound forms like vBxJ have both influenced, by analogy, the production of new forms, like momortU from mordeB. mftnai from maneO,

V.-REGULAR VERBS.

Latin verbs are classed as Regular or Irregular accord- ing as they do or do not follow the inflection of the Four Conjugations.

122. Tliere are in Latin four principal forms of Present Stems, ending respectively in a-, 8-, 8-, I-. With this differ- ence of stem most of the other differences of conjugation coincide. ^

Regular Verbs.

85 I

a. Verbs are accotdingly classed in Four Regular Conjugations, di»» \ tinguished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the Present ] Infinitive Active.

b. The Principai, Parts of a verb, which determine its conjugation 1 throughout, are —

1. The Present Indicative [ showing Ih&present stem and

2. The Present Infinitive ) the eonjugation.

3. The Perfect Indicative, showing "Ca^ perfect stem.

4. The Supine (or the Perfect Participle), showing the supine

C. The regular forms of the conjugations are seen in the following : - First: Active, amS. amSrs, amAvI, amStum, /iiT/f . Passive, amoi. am3jl, am5tUB.

Present- and Verb-stem amS-, Perfect-slem amSv-, Supine stem am3t-. Second : daieo, daiSre, i3616vl. daetum, blot out. Passive, dSIeor, dSlSrl, dSlStus. Present- and Verb-stem dSlB-, Perfect-stem, dSlEv-, Supine- stem deiet-. Third: tegS. tegCre, tS^, tSotum, cover. Passive, tegor, tegl, tSotua. Root TEG, Verb-stem tegB-, Perfect-stem tfix-, Supin<

tect-.

Fourth : audl5, audlre, audivl, audltum. /tear. Passive, audiot, audirl, auditUB. Present- and Verb-stem audi-, Perfect-stem, audiv-. Supine- stem, audit-.

Ji the Second conjugation, however, the characteristic 8- rarely appears i& the perfect and supine r the type of this conjugation is, therefore — Second: moueo, moaSre, monuT, monitum, warn. mSri, monitua.

, In many verbs tlie principal parts lake forms belonging t tore different conjugations (cf. § [34) : as, —

1. 1, dotnS, domSre, domui, domitam. subdue.

2. 3, maueC, manere, dSnsi, mSnsuia, ranain-

3. 4, pets, petSre, petivi. petltum, seek.

4- 3, vinoiS, vlnolre, vinxl, vlnctum, bind.

o wh\c\i *he feraX ot "^vftsfoX-

Etymology : Verbs.

1. Preaeat Stem.

Note. — The parent speech from which Latin comes possessed verbs with present stems of three difTerent kinds. These verbs were formed as follows ; —

First: From roots, by adding the personal endings.

Second: From noun-stems, by adding the personal endings. These □oun-stems had been formed from roots by the addition of various suffixes, as a-, na-, ya-, ta-.

Third : From roots and stems, by adding a common suiKx (probably ■yaml, etc., later -yomi) which already contained the personal endings.

Verbs of all these forms were inherited by the Latin. Of the first class i, and these are counted as irregular, except such as have been forced into some one of the four conjugations. Examples are ; Sat, frttm edS ; fert, from fero ; dKa, from dd (clSre) ; flfimus, from fle6.

Of the second class a large number remain. In these the verb-stem ends in a short vowel, fi- (I-). This is a remnant of the original vowel S- (B-) of the noun-suffixes. Besides this, the consonant of the suffix is often preserved. Verbs of this form are often called primiiive verbs, because the language lost the power of making new forms of this type except in a few cases. They make up the third conjugation. Ex- amples are : fer3 (slem fero=-) for bher-o-mi (cf. fert in the first class) ; Bternlmue (stem sternoe-) for Btar-no-maB ; plectunt (stem pleoto=-) for plec-to-nti; pell5 (stem pello"-) for pel-yo-ml. So dlec3 (stem dlHoo=-) for dI(c)aco-ml. This last form became the type for a large number of verbs called inceptive (see § 167. a).

Of the third class, those verbs in which any vowel (except nj came in contact with the suffix (-yaml) suffered contraction so as to present a. long vowel, a-, 6-, I-, at the end of the slem. These became the types of the first, second, and fourth conjugations respectively. In imitation of these long vowel-stems numerous verbs were formed by the Romans themselves (after the mode of formation had been entirely forgotten) from noun and adjective stems. This came to be the regular way of forming new verbs, just as in English the borrowed suffix -ise can be added to adjectives to make a verb ; as, jrwdernize.

Those verbs of the third class in which a consonant or n came in contact with the suffix -yaml suffered various phonetic changes. Such verbs fell partly into the third conjugation, giving rise to an irregular form of it, and partly into the fourth, and some have forms of both.

Examples are: (oCn)8ptoi3, -epicere, for apek-yomi; veniS, venire, /or (g)-7en~yoaii \ ciipio, cupere, butcuplv^', oriot,oAiiM.T,\i\Aiyftn.. I ButpJaS, pJuere, /"or plu-yomi: and hence, by a.taiog7,a.Q>\6,acvi«6'

Present Stem.

many cross-analogies and errors as well a have been at work to produce irregularities, the traditional system -which may be practically repreaentw

The Present Stem is formed from the Root in all-l regular verbs in one of the following ways : ^ —

. In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a long J vvel (5-, S-, I-) to the root, whose vowel is somedmes changed: e (voc), mone-re (me.v, cf. meminl), Bopl-i'e (sop).

,s (se,

all really formed froD

. In the Third conjugation, by adding a s/iorS vowel (6-, t) ti : as, tegfr-re (teg), all-tiB (al). This vowel may be preceded — • I . By n, t, 8C, or the terminal consonant of the root repeated (a phonetic representative of original i) ; as, tomne-re (tem), plect-0 ■LEC), orSace-To (CRE), pell-o (forpel-io, pel), mItt-6 (MIt).

3. By i, which in most forms disappears in inflection (see § 126. c) : i, fuB-i-3, fug-S-re (fug), c. The root may also be changed —

1. By lengthening the vowel : as, dlo-e-ro (dic), caed-e-re (CAD?),

2. By the repetirion of a part of it [rtdupUcation) : as, gl-gn-e-r» L£gen).

3. By inserting a nasal (m or n) : as, find-e-re (fid) ; taug-e-: I[tag).

some verbs the present stem is formed from a noun-ste regularly treated as a root: as, Btatu-e-re (atatu-a), aestu-a-: |[ae8ta-8) ; cf. acno, acuere,

. A few isolated forms use the simple root as a present stem : a 1, fer-t; ee-ee; vel-le, vul-t. These are counted as irregular.

1 These fbtmation

:d In Ihe foil

Lg parallel

I, vRch-ayft^nl voc-{a)-i a.vah-ft-ml vrh-i s.pac-yft-ml ^c-4-i vach-aya^Ed voc-as vah-a-si vth-is pag-ya-al spic-i-s

vach-oya-ti voc-a-t voll-ft-tl vih-i-t paj-ya-tl spic-i-t

vach-ayft-mae voc-a-mus ■vaiiSrTaas v^h-i-mas ■p^.l-yi-TaoB -sfic-i-mas I vftch-ayo-ttia voc-d-lii vah-a-tba viA-i-iis pa^-ya-tha spU-i-tis TBOh-aya-ntl vac-a-nl vah-a-ntl veh-u-nt pag-ya-uti -spic-i-unl

p cases Ihem appears lo be 3 connecting vQvieV not cT^^Xalmei *««e\ nes from Ihe Irregular use of a 'vert)-alem in p\acc ol a. T«A, »*« iFua (cf. ortus), monlttis (cf. mens, mentta), ■

I I

88 Etymology: Verbs. [§§123-125.

f. A few have roots ending in a vowel. These generally use as present stem the root without additions, but sometimes modified : as, da-mus (.da), flC-mue (stem fIS-. root form unknowa), BlBtl-mus (sta). But others, as rui-mus (ru), are formed with an additional vowel according to the analogy of if.

2. Perfect Stem.

124. The Perfect Stem is formed as follows:^

a. The suffix v (u) (see fi. 120, c) is added to the verb-stem: as. vocS-v-l, audi-v-I; or to the root: as, sou-a-I (souS-re, root SON), mon-u-i (moufi-xe, mok treated as a root).

Note. — In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened (sec { 9. if ) : as. strft-v-I (BtemS, sfar), Bpr3-v-I [Bpem5. spar).

6. The suffix b is added to the root: as, earp-a-I (carp), tfix-I (for teg-s-T, teg).

Note. — The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the perfect : as, tlnz-I (PIG, present stem flngg-), eanx-I (sac. present stem sand-).

c. The root is rtduplicated\y^ prefixing the first consonant — gener- ally with 6, sometimes with the root-vowel: as, ce-cid-I (cado, cad), to-tond-I (tondefi, tond).

Note. — In fldJ (for tte-fld-l, flnd-S), scid-i (for tsci-Bcid-i. BcindS), the reduplication has been lost, leaving merely the root.

d. The root-vowel is lengthened : as. §6-1 (Sg-S), fug-i (fiig-i-5).

e. The root itself is used as the perfect stem : as, vert-I (vert-o, vebt), aolv-I (bo1v-5, solv used as root).

/. Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or imaginary stem:— as, petl-v-I (as if from tpeti-6, tpetl-re, pet). .jfl

3. Supine Stem. ^H

125. The Supine Stem^ is formed by adding t- (or phonetically »-) : —

a. To the verb-stem : as, amS-t-um, dfilfi-t-am, atidl-t-oin.

b. To the root, with or without 1: as, cap-t-um (caplS, CAP), moni-t-nm (moueS, mon used as root), cSs-um (for oad-t-um, CAD).

Note i. — The modificalions of the present siem sometimes appear in the supine: as, tinc-t-una (tlngO, tig), tfin-B-iim {ten-d-S, ten).

Note a. — The supine is sometimes from a lost or imaginary verb-stem : ns, potl-t-um (as if from tpeti-fi, tpoti-re. pet).

I

f 126.] Supine Stem.

126. The forms of the several conjugations from which,! by adding the verb endings in § nS, all the moods and] tenses can be made are as follows : —

a. The First Conjugation indudEs all verbs which add S-

the root to form the present slem:' as, amS-re; with a few whose 1 root ends ia a (dC, dfire; for, fSrt; flS, flfirs; nS, a&ra; atS, | BOre).

1. The stem-voi^d S- b lost before -5 (as, amS - fama-fi), and ia | the present subjunctive is changed to 6 : as, amB-B, amC-miia.

2. The perfect stem regularly adds v, the supine stem t, li present stem ; as, am&-v-I. ataa-t-um. For exceptions, see § 130-

b. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add 8- to the J root to form the present stem, as monS-re; with a few whose root I ends in B (fIe-3, fle-re ; ne5, ne-re ; re-or, rS-rl).

I, In the present subjunctive 5 is added to the verb-stem; as, mone-a-B, mooe-a-mns (cf. § ii3).

I. A few verbs form the perfect stem by adding t (n), and the

lupine stem by adding t to the present stem : as, del6-T-i, delfi-t-um.

form the perfect stem by adding v (u) to the root, and the

lupine stem by adding t to a weaker form of the present stem, having

I for S : as, mon-u-I, monl-t-uni. For lists, see § 131.

!■. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see S 137J which add 8- to the root to form the present stem ; as, tegfi-ro, oap8-re; with a few whose root ends in 6: as, ae-tS-re for |ae-Be-re (reduplicated from se, cf. aatum).

1. The stem-vowel 8- is lost before -5, becomes n- before -nt, and I before the other endings of the indicative and imperative: as, teg-S, teg-it, togu-nt ; in the imperfect indicative it becomes 6 : as, tegS- bam ; in the future, 6 : as, tegSs ; in the present subjunctive S : as, tega-a.

Verbs in -iS retain the i before a, 8. u, and fi : as, capi-at, oapi-unt, oapi-Ebat, oapi-Cs, oapl-et>; but lose it elsewhere: as, cap-it (do! loapi-it), cap-eret.

2. All forms of perfect and supine stems are found In this conjuga- tion. See lists, § 132. But the perfect is never formed from the present stem, but always from the root (g 131. n. i).

_ presi

1 The presenl slem is thus (he verb-slem. For exceptions, w * The geruniHre i-arfes between -endue and -undua (,\ la 'The Bin capiat, once long, was afterwards shortened.

!«,JI|^

90 Etymology: Verbs. \%% 12^

d. The Foufih CoDJagation includes all verbs which add I to the root to form the present slem : as. aadl-re.> In these the perfect and ■iipine stems rcj^lnrly add v, t, to the verb-stem: as, audl-v-t, ■ndl't>iim.' The endings of the third conjugation are added in the third pcnwn plural of the present (indicative and iraperative), in the imperfect and future indicallve, and in the present subjunctive: as, ■ndl-tint, ■ndl-Sbat, audl-StlB, aadi-at.

I. The PrcB. Impuralive Act, (second pers. sing.) is the same as the prcnent Mem: an. amfi, mone. teg6. audi. IJu^verbs in -iS of the third conjugation omit 1 : as, oapS (not foapiej.

f. The teniea d^ compUUd action are all regularly formed by adding the Icruc-cndingH (given in § 118) to the perfect stem: as, amav-i, ■mtT>«run, amSv-erS, amSv-erim, amav-lBsem, amav-isHo,

g. The lenacM ai cnmpteted action in the Passive voice are formed by adding to the perfect participle the corresponding tenses of £<7»/iVi»£i/ aetiatt o! the verb enne : as, perf. ama.tiis sum; \:>\up. amatua eiam, etc

4. Synopafa of the Verb.

1S7. The following synopsis shows the forms of the verba arranged according to the several stems. AmS, a regular verb of the first conjugation, is taken as a type.

Tkesent stem, amK-; Perfect stem, amav-; Supine stem, aiaat-.

PRUS. IMPEBK. FI:T. ; TERf. PLUPEHF. FUT. PERI

iNij. amO amI-bam amfi-bB 1 amav-I

Still, nma-in anil-rani | amSv-oxlm

Imi', 3. aniK amU-tO I

amt-ra ', amat-ams j amB.74aa«

Part. Aml-iu l^amat-Onia

Inp. amo-t amS-bar aniB-boi ;aniSt-uaBuii

SliH. anie-r aml-rsr ! ainSt-na Bim

tuisa>ainl-4r« am&tor ;- — —

Ink. iml-fl iam«-tumlil amSt-ma eaa<

Part. Of- ama-ndna ; amSt-us

'*»* h« an IbnMd fcwa aoiwMienis, u Ibd-r* (from Qnt«>, ud 1

Special Fonns.

128. The following special forms require notice : a. In teases formed upon the perfect stem, v between two vowels ii ^ften lost and contraction takes place. Thus, —

. Perfects in -avl, -Cvl, -fivl, often contract the two vowels into i^fl

I, fi respectively : as, amSaae for amSviase ; amarim for amaverim jT

VMii3asein for amaTiaaem ; oonaugrat for oSnauSverat ; flSatis tixm

J-flBvlBtiB; noaae for noviaae. So in perfects in -vi, where the n

a part of the present stem : as, eommorat for conunoverat.

(as amavl) ii n

Perfects in -IvI regularly omit v, but rarely c except before at and aa, and very rarely in the third person perfect: as, audieram for audiveram ; audlase for audlviase ; audiati for andlviBti; abiit for abivit. The forms alria, alrit, airitja, slrint, for aivoria, etc, (from aivero or siverini), are archaic.

In many forms from the perfect stem, ia, isa, aia are lost in like jnanner when 8 would be repeated if they were retained : as, dizti for diadsti (x = OS) ; trSxe for trSxisae ; SvastI for §vaslstl ; vixet for -vlxlsaet; 6rSpeemua for SrSpaiaaSmua. These forms belong to archaic and colloquial usage.

■. Four verbs — dico, duco, facio, fero — with their compounds, drop the vowel- terminadon of the imperadve, making die, diio, fSc, , ipounds in -fioiS retain it, as cSnfice. The forms dto«, ^ flfice, face (never fere), occur in early Latin.

d. For the imperative of acio, the future form solto is always used I the singular, and acltote usually in the plural.

e. The following ancient forms are chiefly found in poetry ; - I. In the fourth conjugation -Ibam, -ibo for -iSbam, -iam (future). J

•These forms are regular in eS, go (§ 141).

In the present subjunctive -im : as in dulm, peidaim (for den '^eideiii), retained in religious formulas. This form is regular i inm and vols and their compounds (§g 1(9, 138).

In the perfect subjimctive and future perfect -aim, -a5 : as fajcim, faxfi, iiisBo, recEpao, (= ffioetS, etc.} ; auBim (:= auaii ■Im).

:u the passive infinitive -ier ; as, vooarier for vocStI ; agler for

5, A form in -5bsS, -assere is found used as afutaTt ■^wltcV. -Jfi,

from amd; levaaoo, from levo ^ uupeU%a%«i«, ^<ST»^^^ ftr3; iSdicAsait, from ffldlco. "*"

W ^^M

H gz Etymology: ^^^^^H

H FIRST CONJUOATION.-ACTIVE VOICE. ^H

V PrinCipai. Parts: Pres. amB, Infin. am5re, Perf. amavl, ^H

W Supine amatum. ^H

Indicative. Subjunctivb. ^^|

Frraeiit. ^^|

amS, / /oj'.;.

amem ^^1

amaa, //jom /avast {you love).

a

amat, /« (^ske, it) lovts.

^

amftmua, w/ love.

amSmua ^^^

xiaUt^, yoH hvc.

ametis ^H

amant, they love. ~

^^1

amBbam, I loved. / atiifirem ^^H

aniSbSB,7,;«/az>^</. amSrea ^^|

amabat, ^i° ili^^i/. amSret ^^H

amab5mti8, we /(Wfrf. ' amaremuB ^^H

amabSti8,^0H/<w«rf. j amSiStia ^H

F^<u»f. J^^l

amabS, / shall love.

^^^^^^^H

am5biB,^e« -will Imie.

^^^^^^H

a.mS.hit. ie will love.

^^^^^^H

amabimuB, we shall love.

^^^^^^H

amabitiH,_j'au iidll love.

j^^^^^^l

amKbaat, they will love.

^^^^^^H

Perfect. "^^^^^H

amavl, / loved.

amaverim ^^H

amavistl, you loved.

amaveria ^^|

amavit, he loved.

amaverit ^^^|

amavimuB, we loved.

amaverimnfl ^^^|

amavisUs, /(!« loved.

amaveiitlA ^^|

amavenint (-6reJ, they loved.

aniaverint ^H

I'luperfect. ^^^|

amaveram, I had loved.

amavlsBem ^^H

7.ma.y^riM, you had loved.

amavlsses ^^^|

amaverat, he had loved.

^^^^^^^1

amaverSmnB, ■we had loved.

an,,.l..^..^^^H

aaia\'eratlB,j'ou kad loved.

amaviuKVift ^^^^^H

^^Svmraat, May Aad Im-ed. \ aT<\Avl&«eiA..^^^^^H

First Conjugation.

•INGFI.AR.

/ ilia// have loved. , fom ■will haw lovti ^thiaveitt, kt will have laved.

shall have loved. amaverjtia, ynit will have loz'ed. amaveiint, they ■will have loved. Imperatcve. 2. amS, love t/wu. i amate, love ye.

2. amSto, thou shall lo%'e. amat5te,^if shall love.

3. aniatd, he shall love. | amautS, they shall love.

iNFINITrVE.

JVeieiif, amJirB, to love.

Ferfect. amSTiBHe or amSsae, to havt loved.

jhiIh™. aniatiiniH esse, to be about to love.

Participles. Prvsenf. amSuB, -antla, loving. Future, am&tflrtis, -a, -um, about to love. I

Gerund.

Gen. amandi, of loving. Ace. amandam, loving.

DAT. amando./fw loving. Abl. amando, by loving.

SupiXE.

rarmer. amatTim T.aUtr. amStfi, to love.

S9. The so-called Periphrastic conjugations are formet by combining the tenses of ease with the Future Activftfl Participle and with the Gerundive : as, —

First Periphrastic Conjugation.

Indicative. SuBjuncTrvE,

amStfinia sum, f am about to love. sim

Jmperf, amatflrua eram, fvjas about to love. essem

Fut. amStaruB ero, f shallbe about to love.

Ferf. amStGruB fui. / -was about, etc. fuetim

Flttpirf. amatums fneram, / had been about, etc. fuiaBem

Fut. Per/. 3.mituiuatuezo,/shallhavebeeKaioul,etc.

Infinitive: Pres. amatOrua ease Per/, amatams folABe Second Feripbrastic Conjngatiou.

Frei. amanduB sum. / ai/i to be loved. aim

Jmperf. amandus eram, I was to be loved. essem

Fut. amanduB ^xa. J sliall be\yiQriSyj'\tobeloved.

Ferf. amanduB fui. / was to be loved. fuerim

Fluperf. ainaitdua fueram, I had been, etc. fuiaaeov

^^^amandwtineio. J shall havi been, etc.

>Vi-r, amanduB esse Perf. amanflLUB l\»si«.«

94 Etymology :

Verbs. I i

FIRST CONJUGATION.-

PASSIVE VOICE. /

Principal Parts: Pres. amor, Infin

amSiI, Perf. amatiu W

Indicative.

SUB/UNCTIVE.

amor, lam loved.

amer

amSriB (-ro),_yi)« are loved.

amSriB (-re)

arnStur, he is loved.

aroetnr

amSmur, ive are loved.

aniEmur

amBminl, you are loved.

amSminl

amantur, tkty are loved.

amentur

Imperfect

aniSbar, Ivias loved.

amarer

amBbariB {_-t«),you -mere loved.

amarerifl (-re)

amabatur, he was loved.

amSretur

amabamur, lue ttiere loved.

amSrSmur

amabamini, yoi* were loved.

araftbantur, tkey were loved.

Futurt.

amabor, I shall be loved.

^^^^^H

ainaberis (-re),_j'p« will be loved.

^^^^^^1

am&bitur, he will be loved.

^^^^^^1

amftblmiir, we shall be loved.

^^^^^^1

aitiftbimini, yoit will be lo^ied.

^^^^^^1

^^^^^H

Perfect.

^^^^H

amatus aom, / was loved.

amatus aim ^^^|

amatus ea,you were loved.

amatus bIh ^H

amatus eat, he was loved.

'B

amaS Bumua, we were laved.

amati slj^iu ^^H

amatl eitia.^dw were loved.

amatl sItU *^^|

amatl sunt, they were loved.

amatialnt '^H

FlMprrferl

>^H

amatus eram, I had been loved.

amatus easem ^H

amatus eiis,you had been loved.

amatus easBs '*^H

amatus erat, hi had been loved.

amatus easet ^H

amatl eramua, we had been loved.

amatl esaemua ^^|

nmSS ersaa.yau had deen loved.

amati eAnStia ^^|

aaidl2arant,iA^ Mad beat loved. 1

am&ti QBKBu.^ ^^^^H

^

^

First Conjugation.

matua ero, I shall have 6eeti loved.

IB, yiM will have, etc tna.tus erit, he will have, etc.

tl crimus. we shall have, etc. t) Biitia,_yott will have, el tl enint, they will have, e

Imperative.

2. amSre, he thou loved. [ amamlal. be ye loved, ut. 2. amStor.thott shall be ltmed.\

3. amStor, he shall be loved. \ amantor, they shall be loved.

Infinitive. Bl. araSri, to be loved. Derfect. amStUB ease, to have been loved.

■B. amattua Irl (amStiu foie), lo be about to be loved.

Participles.

Ferfeet. amStofl, loved (beloved, or having been loved).

Tntvre (Gerundive), amandua, -a, -um, to-be-hved {lovely).

130. There are about 360 simple verbs of this conjugation, n

of tliem formed directly on a noun- or adjective-stem : as, axmS, c

(aima, arms) ; oaeco, to blind (oaeoua, blind') \ ezaulo, be an exih

(b3csu1, an exile) (§ 166.0). Their conjugation is usually regular

like amo ; though of many only a few forms are found in use.

The following verbs form their Perfect and Supine si Those marked • have also regular forms.

. irregularly.

crepo, crepul, crepit-, resound.

CTibo. cubu^ onbit-, lie down.

I flC, clSre, dedi. d&t-,£ive (da).

^BomS, domu^ domit-, subdue.

Hc6, frioul, "friot-, rub. fenvO (ad-iuv3), iQrt ifit-,' hcl^. ^b5, -StI (no sup.), totter. ttiofl, miOTii (no sup.), fitter.

neoS, 'necul, *iiect-, Ml. plicS, •-plloul, *-piicit', Jbld. poto, pfitavi, •p6t-, drink.

sons, aonui, eonit-,' sound. ato, atetl, stat- (-attt-), stand. tonC, tonn^ tonit-, thmuier. vets, vettil -vetit; forbid.

Note. — Compounds of these verbs have ihe following forma;

crepSt dif-irrpul OT -crtpOL).

dS: ciraat; aiier-,ptsstim-,siiiis-,siiftr-,vlnBm'da,-dfi^,.ial-,<^S6is 1st conju- gation; o&eiDom^ai\iia,noityie3A,ascBndS,coMiilrc,cmdidi,i(nidUuBi, I

mloB : M-mlcSfn, -tKicSl-! i-micid, ..mical^

IdlcB : rf-, mi- (aifi-), niKlii-pHeS, .flitadt, .flicat-; ex-flicS (unfbtdl, -*), ->^,■ ' (explsin). .Srf, -5*,- im-flicf -5rf C-bO, -eoAm {-i/um),

BtS: cdii-s/3,-ifitl,-ilii-(-JiSt-); ad-.rt-i/S-.stiti.—,- an/t-(aii/i-),i>i/i

ta, -ittS, — >■ cimm-sf!, -tteH (-t/ift), — ; dl-iO, no perfett ot !.\i'5ii«.

iFi -I

•■ Participle in -MarMB.

1

Etymology: Verbs. SECOND CONJUGATION.

^1

^1 Principal

Parts: Active, monefi, monSre, monol, monitum;

K

Passi'oe, moneor, monErl, monitKa a

lun. -^^

■

ACTITE. PASSIVE. f^|

^H INDIC

SUBJ. IKDIC.

SUBJ. ^H

moneS, Iwc

rn. moueam

moneor

mo near

moneB,^o« -a

am. moneaa

monSrla {-re)

moneitriB (-re)

mo net, he ■w

rns. m on eat

monStUT

moneatur

monemuB

moneamoa

monemur

moueamvir ^^H

monetlB

moneatiB

monemlnl

moneSroiid ^^|

moaont

moneant

monentur

moneantur ^H

Imperfett.

^H

manebam

monSrem

monfibar

monSrer

monSbSs

monSrSa

moiiSbaria (-re)

monSiBria {-re)

mo neb at

mon§ret

monBbatnr

monfirfitur

mon6b3muB

monSrSmua

monebamur

monSremnr

mon6bStls

monSrStia

monebamini

monfirGminl

monSbant

monfirent

monebantnr

monSrentur

Wuturt.

^ ^^_

monebor

^^H

monebis

moneberia (-ro]

I^H

monebit

nionSbitur

S

moneblmiu

moneblnmr

s

monebltis

monSbimlnl

monebnnt

monSbvintur

S

Fttt^,rt.

monui

monuerim ; monitus auin

monitus sim ^^H

monuiBtl

monuetlB

monitus es

monitus ala S

nionuit

monuerit

monitus est

monitus alt ^

monuimUH

monuerlmuB

moniti Bumus

moniti slmua

monuiBtlB

monueriUs

moniti eatfa

moniti altls

monuenint

-re) monueriat

moniti sant

moniti Bint

Phtptrfett.

monuisBem

monitus oram

monitus esBem

Dionueras

monuiaaes

tnonitus eraa

monitus eBsfie

monuerat

monuiaaet

monitus erat

monitus eaaet

monitr erSmua

moniti esaemuB

monuerStia

moniilflBetiB

moniti ei:5.tt»

TtvoTiUi eaaetla

^ moauarant

monuisBont ' monill e ~*iit

vno'ovu cnMaAgi v

UiH.]

Second Conjugation.

9

iDonuerit

moniCus erS monitus eria monitus erit

1

montierimas

raonueiitiB monueriat

monitr erimTiB

raoniti erLtiB moniti emnt

ti

SING.

rna. 3. monS jF«4. z. monStS 3. monetS

Imperative, plue. sfng. inonSte monfire monetfite maiietor monentS 1 moDetor

PLUB.

monSminl moaentor

Infinitive. Pre*. monSre monerl Ferf. monuisBe monitua ease Ftil. monitilraB esse monltuin Iri

monituH fore)

Participles. Frtg. monBna 1 Ferf. monitus Ftit. monitflruH | fler. monemaue

Gerun-d. Slt monendi -dfi, -dum, -dO monitum

monitfl

131. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of this conjugation, most of them denominative verbs oi condilion, liaving a corresponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an inceptive in -bc5 (§ 167, a): as, oale5. be warm; calor, warmth j calidus, warm; calSacS, grmii warm; tinxe6,/i;ar; titaoi,/ear; timidxta, timid.

Most of the vert)s of the second conjugation form their perfect and supine lilte moneo. The following have -8vl and -Btum : d6Ie3, de-

— ang

E

stray; HeB, weep; neS, spin; vi jSU; -oleS, grow. The remainde algeS, als^ ie cold. SrdeS, arsi, flra-, burn. andeo, ausna sum. dare. angeS, auxl, anct-, increase. oaveO. oSvI, caut-, care. iBnaeS, ceneal, cBns-, value. \file3, ctvl, cit-, e^x^e.

ie3, docal, doct-, feach.

0, plat; and compounds of -pleB, I

faveS, favT, laxAr, favor. ferveC, fetvl (ferbul), ^iW. foveS, fovl, fot-, cherish. frlgeo, friil, be cold. fulgeo, faial. sliine. gaudeo, gavlsua aum, rejoice. haereS. haeel. ^aaa-, cling.

r

98

Etymology : Verbs.

[§13L

inbeS, IflBHl, i-OsB-, order. languefi, laneul, be faint. Ifquefi, UquI (-licul), mdt. IfloeS, luxl, -Inct-, shine. lugBo, liizi, Ifiot-, mourtt. maneo, mSnel, hiSjib-, viait. mlaceo, -cul, mlxt- (mist), mix. mordeS, momordl. mors-, bite. moveo. movl. mot-, move. mnlceo, mulal, miilB-, soothe. mulgeo, -bI (-rf), mulB- (-mfllct-),

niveB, -nlvl (-nlxl), t(;;hJ, paveS. p3vi,yiflr. peudeS, pependi, pSus-, hang. 'prandeo, praudi, prana-, dine. rIdeS, rial, tis-, laugh.

Note. — The following have a perfec maereS. it sad) have neither perfecl no

aroeO, ward off. egeS, need. QgiUBG, be skilful. Hoieo, bloom.

aedeS, aedT, seas-, sii. soleo, aolitua aiun, be 1 aoibefl, Borbul {sorpal), aoipt-,

apondeS, epopondl.

Btrldeo, atrldl, ivhiz. suadeo, au9sl, auaa*, urge. teneo (-ttned), tenul, tent-, hold. tergeS, terai, tSrs-, •wipe. toDdeo, totondl, t5Ds-, torques, torsi, tort-, t-wist, torreS, torrni, tost-, roast. turgeS, turai, swell. urged, Qral, iirge. Tided, Tidl, via-, se- voved, v5vl, v6t-,

-ul, t

ID supine.

It-, hold.

1

pateS, lie open, atudeo, attend to. ailed, be sUent. tlm.06, feai

horreo, shudder. cSneo, be while.

THIRD CONJUGATION- PRINCIPAL Parts; Active, tego, tegfire, Passive, tegor, tegi, tSctua ai:

teglB.j'ow . tegit, he ei

tegunt tegfibara

tegflbat tegSbflmna teffSbSOa te^ebaat

;gaa tegat

tegant

legerem tegerBa legeret :gerGinuB tegerStia 'egerent

INDIC.

tegor

tegimnr legiminl

SUBJ.

tegar

tegiriaO tegatur legamur tegaminl

tegantui

J

«r/8rt.

tegfibar tegorer

tegSbSria (-te) tcgerErle (■

legSbatur tegerfitur

tegEbamur tegeTEmor

legSbantux

.egerfitur ^^St egeTEmor ^^H

P"

r

Third Conjugation.

.1

^^1

^H INDIC.

SUBJ. Indic.

SUBJ. ^^1

"ttg«n

legar

^^^1

l^h

tegSria (-«)

^^^H

tegat

tegBtnr

^^H

UeEm»

tegemnx

^^^^^^1

Ugltla

tegSmlnl

^^^^^^1

tegent

tegentnr

^^^^^^1

mrfetit.

_EiI

texerim

tectus Bum

tgctos ^^^^^^H

■ex1.«

texeria

teclus ea

tectus SIB ^^H

p..

texerit t^xerimna

tectus eat tecti BumuB

tectus ait ^^H tecti Blmus ^^H

■ texiBtiH

texeritds

tccti eatia

tectr altls ^H

■ texSrunt (-re)

tcxerlut

tecti annt

^^H

f

PtMperfett.

^H

^ texetam

lexiHaem

teclus eram

tecttiB eaBGin ^^

texerSB

texiBH6B

tectus erSa

teclus esaea

texerat

texiBset

tectus erat

tectus eaaet

texeramuB

tgxise§mtiB

tcctI etSinuB

tccti easSmua

■ texeratis

tcxiaaetia

tecti eratia

tectY eaagtis ^H

■ Kxerant

texiaaent

tecti erant

^H

P

Fntvre Perfert.

^^1

■ texero

tectus eta

texorl*

tectus eria

^^^1

lEjtaiit

tectus etit

^^H

texerlmiu

tecti eiimus

^^H

IXOltlB

tecti eriias tecIT enmt

■

Imperative.

PLUR. SING.

^^1

fr". 2. lege, cover

tegite tcgete

tegitnini ^H

»tai. 2. tegito

legitSte tegitor

— ^H

3- teglta

tegunto tegitor INFINITIVK.

teguntor ^H

JVM. tegore

1 tegl

^^k

Ferf. lexiBse

tectuB eaae

«.f. lectGrua

esB« ' tectum Irl (tectuB fore) ^^1

Pr«. legBna

1 Per/, tcctua

^H

JFut. lectBrnM

1 Ci«r. legendUB (.-\ui&Qa'^ ^^H

Gerund: tegendT, -dS, -dum, -d5 SyPINE

^ec^uTO., \£.^'<^ ^H

lOO Etymology: Verbs.

Verba in -io.

Verbs of the third conjugation in -16 have certain forms of the present

stem like the fourth conjugation. They retain the i of the stem before

a, 5, n, and S, but lose it elsewhere except in the future and in the

participle and gerund. Verbs of this class arc conjugated as follows: —

Principal Parts: capifi. cap$re, o6pI, captom; capior, capl, captiu Bnm.

ACTIVE.

PASSIVE.

INDIC

SCBJ.

iNDIC.

SUBJ.

eapie, I take.

capiam

capior

capiat

capla, you take.

capias

caperia (-re)

capiariB (-re)

caplt, he lakes.

capiat

capitur

capiStar

capimua

capiJlmus

capimar

capiamur

capltla

capiatis

capimini

capiaminl

capltmt

capiant

capiuntur

capiantui:

caplSbam

caperem

1 capiSbax

caperer

caplam

capiar

capiBs

capifiriB (-re)

caplet, etc.

capietur, etc. rrrfert.

cepi

ccpsrim

Vhiperfeet.

captus aim ^

ceperam

cepiBsem

1 captus cram "utiii-e Terfeet,

captus euem

ceperS

1 captus ero Imperative.

Fret. 2. cape

capita

capere

caplmlnl

Fut. 3. capita

capitate

capitor

3. capita

capionto

capitor

capiuntor

Infinitive.

Pre*, capare

capl

per/- cepiBae

captuB eaae

Jftif. captaroH ease

captumlrl

Participles,

Fen. capifiuB I I'erf. captUB

J^f. captQrufl \ tier, capietidua

Gekvnd: capiendl, -da, -dum, -cl& Supraa. ca^tam,-*;

§ 132.] Third Conjugation. lOl

Note.— Verbs of Ihe third eonjugalion ending in -16 are Ihe following; capIO, caplO, rociS. (odis. fURlS, lacld. parifi, quatifi, rapio, Bapifi, wiih compouDds of -cutis, 41016, -iBpiciS. For their Principal Paits. see Ihe lists in §13=.

132. The following lists include most simple verbs of Ihe third conjugation, classed according lo the formation of the perfect

a. Forming the perfect si

ango. aniT, anct-, chobe. carpS. carpBl, oarpt-, plmk. cSdO: cSbsT, dsa-, yield. ciugo, ciuzi, cinct-, binii. cisago, cIeuijlL saurid. claudS, clauBi, claua-, shut. clep5. clepsi, clept-, sUal. cSmS, cSmpBl, cSmpt-, comb, deck. coquO, C03tl, coot-, cook. -cutis, -cuobI, -cubs-, shake. demo. dSmpal, Aim-^t-, take away. aicfi, dijcl, diet-, say. divido, divlal, dlvto-, divide. dilco, diirf, dfict.,^H/ab. ngS, fill, fii-./j-. fingo [fig], ffmrT, Rat-, fashion. fleets . flexi, flex-, bend. fluS. fliixi, flax-,_/iW. freodS, -frCBl. U^aa-, gnash. ftleO, frixl, ftlot- (ttlx-y/ry. B«Si e^sal. geflt-, carry. laedo, laeBl, laos-, hurl. -Ucio, -le^ -lect-, entke (elicul,

-licit-). UngS, liuxl, linct-, lick. Ifido, laal, IOb-, play. meigS, mSrsI, m6n*-, plunge. mltto, mlBi, mlBS-, send. nectS [s^EC], nexi (nexnlj, nex-,

DQbS, nOpmi, ajipt-, marry, pecta, peja(pexaS), pex-, comb.

s(x) (§ 124. b and note): ~

pSTgd, peirSzi, peri6ot-,£f i>n. piiigo [pig], pinil. plot-, paint. plaudo, platiEi, plaus-, applaud. pleotd, plSxi (-nil), ^\^^-,braid, premS, preset, presB-, press. prfimS, -mpar. -mpt-, bring ant. quatiS, (-cusal), quaes-, shake. r3d6, rSsI, rSs-, scrape. re go, rSrf, rSot-, rvU. iSpo, repal, rSpt-, creep. rodo, roai, ros-, gnaw. aarpoi sarpai. aarpt-, prune. acalpo, acalpai, acalpt-, scrape. BcrTbd, BCrlpai, script-, write. aerpS, aetpBl, aerpt-, crawl. apargS, 8p3rsl, spSrs-, scatter. -spiciS, -spezi, -spect-, view. -BtinguS. -Btinrf, -atinct-, quench. strings, striml, Btiiot-, bind. Btru5, atruzi, atruot-, build. sflmo, aiimpBi, aiinipt-, take. sQrgo, aurrSxi, aurrSct-, rise. tegd, te^, tect-, shelter. temnS, tempsl, -tempt-, despise. tergS, tSrsi, tSrs-, -wipe. tingo, tinxl, Hnct-, stain. trahd, traxi, traot-, drag. tiiida, tmal, trfls-, thrust. iiiS, iiflai, fiat-, burn. vado, -vasl, -vaa-, ga. trehS, vSsJ, vecV, draw. vivS, vi^ ■'rtot-, line.

I I

I

[02 Etymology: Verbs,

b. Reduplicated in the perfect (§ 124. e): —

[S 132,

cado, cecldi. cSi^, fall. caed5, cecldl, oaes-, ait. oanS, oeoin^ cant-, sing. ourrS, cuottnl, oars-, run. dlaco [uic]. didici, (dlBOitorus),

-do, -didi, -dit- (as in ab-dC, etc, with or6d3, vends), ^«/ [dha]. faUfi, fefelU, fale-, deceive. pango [pag], pSgT (pepi^), pSot-,

fasten,fix; bargain. parcS, paral, peperci, pardt- (p»l.-), star,.

pa.ri5, peperl, port- (paritiiTUB),

bring forth. pello, pepull, puis-, drive. pendo, pependT. p€iiB-, -weigh. pOBCo, popOBcT, (pOBcituma),

pungS [fuu], papngi, pilnot-,

aiflto [sta], atltl, Stat-, stop. tauga [tag], totig^ tSct-, touch. tends [ten], teteudi (-tendl), tSa»- (tent-), stretch. \beat.

tundo [TUD].tntudI,tvliiB-(-tilB-),

'.. Adding u (v) to the verb-rool (i alS, alul. alt- (alit-), nourish.

no, -orSvI, -or St-, decree. C0I6, oolul, cult-, dwell, till. conipaaco, compfiaoul, restrain. conaiilo, -lui, consult-, consult. orescS, orBvi, crGt-, increase. -cumbB [cub], cubul, cubit-, lie

depso, depaul, depst-, knead. excello, -celluT, -cela-, excel. fremo, fremui, fremit-, roar. furS, furul, rage. gsmo, gemui, gemit-, groan. gigno [gen], genui, genit-, deget. metS, mesaui, nieaa-, reap. molo, moluT, raaVit-, grind. oooulo, occuluT, ocoult-, hide.

24.0): — pasco, pSvI, p&Bt;feed. percello, -ouli, -cula-, upset. pono [pos], poaul, posit-, put. quigscS, qulEvt, quiSt-, rest. lapio, rapul, rapt- BCTacS, Bclvi, BOit-, decree. aero, b§vI, sat-, sow. aeto, serul, sert-, enlvnne. aioS, alvl, sit-, permit. aperoo, aprSvi, aprBt-, scorM. \ aterno, atravl, sti^t-, sir aterto, atertui (aterti), snore. atrepo, atrepul. atrepit-, sound. -au6ac5, -auBvi, -suSt-, be won/. tezS, tezui. text-, weavi tiemS, tremui, tremble. vomS, vomul, vomit-, ■vomit!^

d. Adding iv to the verb-root arceaao, -Ivi. arcesslt-, summo capGaso. capeaaTvi, undertake. oupifi, cnplvl cupit-. desire. IncesaB, inoeaalvl. allaik. lacesBS. laceaajvi, laceaait-.pi

I

t. S.!4-/):- peto, petlvi, petit-, seei. quaero, quaealvl, quaesit-, seei rudS, rudlvl, nidlt-, bray. aapio, saptvl (sapul), den tet5, trtvl, trlt., rub.

f^— H

[ 132.] Third Conjugation. lOj^l

e. Lengtheciiag the vowel of the root (cF. § 124. d) :— ^^|

&£»■ ^&- ^ct-, .i'-r^c.

lavB, ISvI, lot- (laut-), wujA (aiso^H

oapiS. cepi. capt^, take.

reg.oftslconj.). ^1

edfi. edi, esum. eat (see § 140).

lego,^ legi, lect-, galker, ^H

emS, Sml, empt-. A»/.

lino [LI]. l€vl (llTl), Ut-, jMeor.aH

facio. fScI, fact-, mof a (see 1 142).

linquo [Lie], -llqul. -Uot-, leave. ^H

fodio, fodi, foaa-, Jig.

□oaco [GN'O], ufivl, n5t-(c&«iil1»>^H

frango [fkag], ir6eT, frSct-, i«a4.

ft-gnit, ad-gnlt-), k/iiw. ^|

fngio, fflgl, fugit-./^^.

rumpo [RUP], rfipl, rupt, Swr«- ^H

fundo [FUD], fudi, Mb-, /our.

Bcabo, scSbl. scratch. ^H

iacio, ieoi. iact-, thrcTU, (-iciS,

vlncB [vie], vici, viot-, conquer. ^H

-ieot.).

■

/". Retaining the present stem or verb-root (cf. § 124, e): — ^H

arguS, -ul, -fltum, accuse.

pIusS, -bI, piDB- (plaat-, plat-),

bib5, bibi, bibit-, drink.

bruise.

-cendo, -cendi, -c8lia-, kindle.

prehendo, -dl, prehSas-, seize.

cGdo, -cfldl-, -c'as;far^e.

ru6, rul, rut- (ruit-)./u//.

facesBo, facessi, faoeasit-, e-ve-

BCando, acandl, acana-, climb.

ade.

BCindS [scid], acidi,* aoia*..

-fendo, -fendi -fena-, ward off.

tear.

findo [Kin], fidi,^ flM-, split.

flIdS, Bidi (sBdl), -BSsB-, settU.

loo. loi, let-, /«/.

aolvS, aolvl, solKt, loose, pay.

lambo. Iambi, lanibit-, lap.

strido, atridj, whiz.

loo, lui,liiit-. HW.t-4.

veUS, vein (vnlal), vula-. pluck-

mandS, mandT, rnSus-, chew.

veiTo, TeiTi, vera-, sweep.

aoS, noi, nuit-, «<irf.

verts, verti, vera-, turn.

pamdS, paudi, pane- (paaa-),

vise [vid], viai, vis-, visit.

open.

volvo, volvl, voiat-, turn.

NOIE. — The following have no perfei;! or supine:— ^H

clandfi, Ump. Yilaao.yaiun. ^H

ia.ta^cli.gape. laho. rave. ^H

fnlgS.^A. toUo (aoBtuU, sublStum supplied^H

tftoo5, .ra/*//. from auffero), raise. B

BlUbO, peel. TcrgS, ('nf//«r. ^|

IThe followinE compounds of legS have -ISxi: dniffO, IntellegO,

iwfflegO.

s IB iha» iJjB pertertswni is tJie same as the veib-iotrt,\ia'jin8\o». Vne tttee-ft- .

aOoa (-/ 12^ c. aole). ^

L^^ J

I04

Etymology ; Verbs. FOURTH CONJUGATION.

"^V

pRmciPAL Parts: AcU've. audio, audlre, audlvl, audltum;^^!

Passive, audior. audlrl, audltus b

^H

At

TI\-E. FAservE. ^^1

Indic.

SuBj. Indic

sijBj. ^^H

andifi, I hear.

audiam

audior

audlar ^^*

audlB, you hear

q>id1iin

audlrifl C-re)

audiSria C-re)

audit, he hears.

audiat

auditur

audiatur

audlmuB

audiflmiia

audlmur

audlSmnr ^^^

audlUs

audiatls

audiminT

audl&mini ^^H

audinnt

audlant

audiuntuj

audiantnr ^^H

audiSbam

audlrem audiSbar

audlrar

audiebSfl

audlrBs

audifibfiiia (-re

audlrSria (-ro)

audiSbat

audlret

audiSbatur

audtretur

audiebamoB

audlrBmuB

audiebSmur

audlremur

audiebStlB

audlretda

audiSbSmini

audireminl

audifibant

audiSbantor

audlrentur

.udl.m

^

audlar

^_

audtea

audiSiia (-re)

^^1

audlet

audiStur

^^H

audiemus

audlBmnr

^^^^^^^

audietia

audiSmlnl

^^^^^^H

audlont

audientnr

^^^^^^H

audivl

audiverim

audit us sum

audltus aim

audivisK

audiveria

audltus CB

audltus ala

audlvit

audlverlt

audltus eat

audltus sit

audivimuB

audlverlmuB

audi (I HumuB

auditi slmus

audlvlstiB

audiverltlB

audlll eatia

audlQ altia

audivBnmt (-re

) audlverint

auditi stmt

audiG siat

audiveram

audlviaaem

audltus eram

audltus easem

audiverSa

audiviaaSfl

audltus era*

audinis ess6a

audlverat

audlviaaet

audilus erat

audltus esaet

audlveramue

auditi eramue

auditi eesemuB

audiverStia

audlvisBetiB

auditi er5ti«

audfil esaStlB

audjvoiaat

audfvisBent \ auditi exaut

ii

Fourth Conjugation.

I audltus er5

auditus erlt audTtl erlmiiB auditl eritis I audit! emat

a. 2. audi audlte I. 2. audits audRSte 3. audits audiontS

JVM. audire rerf. audlvisBQ Fut. audltaruB e

JVeir. audlSns Fui. audltfirufl

audire auditor auditor

audiuntor

Infinitive.

audltUB esse I audltum Irl (audltus fore)

Participles.

I I'erf. auditua

I (ier. audiendua

133. There a this conjugation, ;

toe-

erSciS, croak. oOcfirifi, crow. IbulIiS, bubble.

■e — besides a few deponents and some regular deriva- 6BU1I0, be hungry (cf. § 167. e) —about 60 verbs of ] large proportion of them being descriptive verbs:

ganniS, yelp. Sl^ti&, gulp. sruuniS, gi-ii

^bitinoiS, twitter. hinniS, migh.

hiiriS, snarl. scatflriS, ^f A.

mugiS, bellow. tinnio. tinkle. muttiS, iiuiller. tUBsiS, cough. siugultlS, hiccup. vSgiS, cry.

Those verbs not conjugated regularly like audio, are the following:

femlciS, pTtifTT^ (-oul), amlct-,

clothe. aperlS, aperul apert-, oP<n. comperiS, -peil, oompert-.^/fftrf. faiciS, farBl, farct- {-tam), stuff. feiiS, j/zzftf ('noperltct or supine).

ftiloiS. fulBi, fult-, prop. hauiiS. hausi, hauBt- (haua-),

operio, operul, opert-, cover. raucio, lauai, laoa-, be hoarse. reperio, leppert, ^eepsT^, Jind.l

io6

Etymology: Vfrbs.

BaepiS. aaepsl, saept-, hedg^ in. aaUfi(-8iUfi), aalui(Bamj, salt-

(-ault-), leap. sanoiS [sac], satu^ sanct-, sane-

sarclS. aarsT, aart-, patch. The following are regulai caecdtiS, be purblind. dSmentio, be mad, ferficio be fiera.

S 134,1

aarrio, -IvI (-nlj, - aeutio, aeual, a&aa~,feel. aepeliS, sepeLIvI, eepult-, I aiagultid, -IvI, aingultum, fofiS

TinciS. viiud, vinct-, Mnd. the perfect, but have no supine stem- — I B^stiS, be ovetjayed.

B^5ci0, cluck (as a hen). I IneptiC, play Ihi irifler. Parallel Forms. 134. Many verbs Iiave more than one set of forms, o£ which only one is generally found in classic use: as, lavS, lavSre or lavfiro, wash (see § 133. i^. aoatfire, gush forth.

scate5, acatSie □

Ittdjfico, -Sre or Ifldificor, -5x1, mock.

fulgo, fuigSre or fnlgeo, fialgCre, sMng.

DEPONENT VERBS. 135. Deponent Verbs have the form, of the Passive Voice, with an active or reflexive signification : as, — 1st cooj. miror, mirari, mirStuB, admire. 2d conj. veteor, verEri, verit:ua, /^or. 3d conj. sequor, eequi, a ecutua, /o/Zoo'. 4th cotij, partior, partiti, paxtltus, share. Indicative.

I

Pres. mftor

vereor

seqnor

partdor

mirftria (-re)

verSria (-re)

sequeris (-re)

partltia (-r

mlratur

verStnr

sequitur

partltur

miramur

verBmur

sequimur

partlmur

mir&mini

vej6minT

sequiminl

partlmini

mlrantut

verentur

sequuntnr

partiuntnr

Imp/. mirSbar

verebar

sequBbar

partiSbar

Put. nilrabor

verSbor

sequar

parUar

Perf. miratuBsum

verltus Bum

secutuB anm

partitua bu

PJ»/: mlratua eiair

verltua eram

secutUB ecain

partituB er

j^j^. mirStaa erS

vciltus erd

seciitiiB eto

^'u\.\'C.tu «i

I

1 139.] Deponent Verbs.

1

Subjunctive.

^s, 1

i^ts. oiTrer verear sequar

Impf. mtrarer verErer seqiierer

paitlrer

Ferf. miratUB sim veritua aim secutus aim pailltua aim

PIup. mlrStUB essem veritus easem seciltus es

em partltua eaaem

Imperative.

^H

mirSie, -Stor, etc. verSre, -Etor sequere, -Itor partire, -itor ^^1

Infinitive.

m

Prts. mTrSrl verSrl sequt

partM ^

•Perf. mTratuB ease vetitua ease seciituB ea

B partltUB ease

Put. miratania eaae veritiSrua eaae secuturus

ssse partitutua eaae

Pahticiplss.

wL

Pres. miritns verGna sequSns

partiSna ^^1

Ful. mTrataruB veritflius secatQrua

partitQrua ^^|

Ptrf. miratUB Veritas secfitna

p.irtituB ^^1

Cer. mirandus verendua sequendaa

pardendiu ^^|

Gerund,

■

mlrandl, -5, etc verendl, etc. Bequeiidl,«

tc. partiendl, etc< ^^|

Supine,

■

mlratum, -tQ veritum, -ta secutum, -

u partitum, -ta ^H

a. Deponents have the participles of both voice

■

^e^vAoA, following. seoQtaruB, about to follow.

secOtuB, having folloTved. Bequendua, tc

b. The perfect participle generally has an activ

sense, but in verba

Otherwise deponent it is often passive : as, meroStus, bough! i adeptus.

ptined (or having gained).

c. The future infinitive is always in the active

form ; thus, aequor

has aecfiturna eaae (not eeoiitum irl).

d. The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is

found only in trans-

Jtive verbs, or neuter verbs used impersonally: as,

—

hflo ofinfitendum eat, this must he acknowledged.

moriendom eat onmibua, alt must die.

e. Most deponents are neuter or reflexive in meaning, corresponding

to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice (§ 11

.a).

f. Some deponents are occasionally used in

a passive sense: as,

O^minor, T accuse, or I ani accused.

g. About twenty verbs are, with an active meatiog, Imioi '■Hi\»'^_^

•ail's aad passive forms: as, mere o or meieot.

dtservt, _ ^^^^^^B

t^

^^1

r

Etymology: Verbs.

More Ihan half of all deponents are of the First Conjugation, and all of these are regular. The following deponents are irregular : —

nSacor, -I, nfttuH, he bom. nitor, -I, niBUB (nlma), strive. obllviaoor, -i, oblitus, forget. oppeiior, -Irl, oppertua, await. Srdior, -iti, orsus, begin. otlor (3dJ, -Irl, ortus, (orltaniB),

paolaoor, -I, pSctua, bargain. patior (-petior), -I, paaaus (-pea-

-plector, -1, -plexuB, clasp. proficiBcor, -i, profectuB, rri* rirfW queror, -I, qaestua, complain. ^^ reor, r6ri, ratua, think. ^|

revertor, -I, reversua, return. ■ ringOT, -I, riotua, marl. aequor, -I, seoutua (Beqnfitaa),

follow. tueor, -5rl, tuitus (tntua), defend. nloiaoor. -I, ultua, avenge. fitor, -I, uBoa. use, employ. Note. — The deponent comperlor, -Irl, compertUH, is rarely found for ComperlS, Revertor, unlil Ihc limc of Augustus, had regijarly Ihe active forms in the perfect system, revortl, reverteram, etc.

I. The following deponents have no supine stem : — dBvertor, -tl, turn aside (to lodge). I medeor, -Eri, heal. ^J

dlffiteor, -erI, deny. reminlscor, -I, call to mind. ^|

UquoT, -I, melt (ncul.). | veacor, -I, feed upon. ^

Note. — Deponents are only passive (or middle) verbs whose active has dis- appeared. Thera is hardly one Itiat does not show at some period of the language signs of being used in [he aclivc,

Beml-Deponenta. 136. A few verbs having no perfect stem are regular in the present, but appear in tiie tenses of completed action as deponents. These are called semi-deponents or neuter passives. They are : —

audeS, audBre, auaua, dare. gaudeS, gaudSre, gSvIsos, rejoice. HdiS, ffdSre, Obub, trust. ooleo, BolBre, AoUtMa, bi wont.

adsentlor, -Irl, adaeneus, assent. aplscor, (-Ip-), -I| aptuB (-eptua),

get. defetiacor, -I, -feaana, faint. ixpSrgiBCOT, -I, perrSctua, rouse. expertor, -iri, expertua, Ir)'. f ateor, -firl, faastta, confess. fatiscor, -I, gape. fnior, -I, fructua (fmitua), enjoy. fnagor, -I, functaa, fulfil. eradior(-gredior),-I,6re«3UB, step. Iraacor, -I, Iiatus, be angry. ISbor, -I, lapsus, _/a//. loquoT, -I, looQtue (loqufltua),

-miaiaoor, -T, -mentua, think. metior, -In, mSnaua, measure. morior, -i (-Tri}, mortaua (mori-

tflruB, die. nanciacor, -I, nactus (nanctus),

find.

j§ 136, 137.]

Deponent Verbs.

i09f

0 old subjunctive perfect atuim. The Ikou wilt, is frequent m the dramatists

From a,udeO tbere !s fonii 89d6e (for si audSs), a are elsewhere.

The active forms vSpulS, T9pulSxe, be /logged, aad vSneQ, vSaire, be sold (contracted from vSuum Ire, go to sale), have a passive Ineaning, and are sometimes called neutral passives. To these maj be added fieri, to be made (see § 142), and exsulSie, to be baniskeA (live in esile).

Note. — The followhlE verbs are soraelimcs found as semi-depon^nK ; mpfl, lOrftre. IQr&tUB, swear; nObS. nQbere, nQpta, marry; plocefi. placerft^

plaottuB,//faj

[For the regular Deri

of Verb;

e } .57.]

IRREGULAR VERBS. 137. Several verbs add some of the personal endin| of the present system directly to the root, or combine two Verbs in their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs (cf. p. 86). They are »«m, vols, ferO, edo, queO. eO, HB, and their compounds.

Sum has already been inflected in § I19.

a. Bum is compounded without any change of inflection with the

prepositions ab, ad, dS, in, inter, ob, prae, pro (prod), sub, Buper.

In the compound prfieum, pr5 retains its original d before 8.

Thus,—

Indic. Subj.

Pres. proBum, I kelp. piSsim

prSdea prosia

ptSdest prosit

pr5samas proalmus

prSdeatifl prositjs

prSsunt pro slut

Imp. pr5deram, Twas helping, prodeaaem Flit. ptSderS, I shall help. Perf. proful, / helped. profueriin

Fbipf. profueram, I had helped. prSfuiaaem F.P. ^loiaeTa, f shall have helped. Ihfer. piodea, prddestS, etc.

JWs. prSdesBB Per/. prSfuisBB Fui. ■^sXien^SxsxA «»» piSfattiiaB, about to help.

V

no

Etymology: Verbs

[§S 137, 138.

b. Sum la ^0 compounded with the adjecfive potls, or pote, obit.

making the verb posanm. This is inflected as follows : —

Indicative.

Subjunctive.

Pres. posBum, !can.

poBBlm

potea, jrou cart.

poss&

potest, A^ can.

poesit

poBsTmns

poteatis, _j'o7( can.

possltis

poBBunt, i/u^y can.

posBint

Imp. poteram, T amid.

poaaem

Fut. poterS

/ shall be able.

Ptrf. potul.

I could.

potuerlm

Plupf. patueram

F, P. potuero, I shall ha-ve been able

Infin. Pres. posse

Per/, potuisae

Pabt. potSns {z.Ay), powerful.

Note.— The forma potia Bum, pote sum,

etc., occur in early wrileis.

-et; potarint, potlait (far

poBBlt) ; potestur («iU

1. pass. inf. c£ j 143. a).

138. Vol5andit

compounds are inflected as follows; —

vols, velle, volul,

'diish.

^B

nai5 {for ne volS)

nSUe, nSlui, bi unwilling. ^|

mUS (for maglB or

mage void), mSlle, m

aiu!, wish rather, preftJ^m

Indic Subj.

Indic. Subj.

iNDtc Subj. ^^|

voia velim

nolo nolim

mSlS mfllim ^^B

vis vella

nSiiTia nollB

IU^tIb tnfilTg ^^^^

volt(vult) velit

nfinvolt nSlit

mSvolt maiit

volumus VGlTmoB

nolumus aoltmua

malumus milimua

voltiB(vii]-) velltia volunt velint

nonvultis nolltia

mSvultis mSUtia

noluut nolint

maiunt maiint ^g

voiebam Telle m

nSlebam nSlleiu

mSlebam m5U«in ^H

I Tolam

Fiitiirr.

malam ^|

■ voies, etc.

ufiies, etc.

Ferferl.

maiea, ^1

\ volul voluerim

nSIuI nSluetim

maiul maiuerim

volueram volulsBcm aSlueram nSlalBsem miUnenun malulsaem

yulure P«p/»rt.

voluaiO

1101 uer 6

mAl\i«T& '"^^^^m

138, 139.J

Irrtgnlar Verbs.

1

r«.

Imperative. nSli nSUto, do not.

■

Tut.

nSiltS nam^te, thou skaitnat.yiihall not. ^^|

nemo

Infinitive.

Telle voluiase

nolle noluiBBe mSile

maiulsBS

Pahticu'LEs,

Pr«t. voieao, ■mtting

nClSna, unwilling.

Gerund.

volendl (late)

Note. — The forms rfs for el via, aOltds farBlToltia

and the fbims nB

rol5; nevlB (dS-tIs), maKQ TOlfi, m^volQ. etc., occur in

early wrilers.

139. Fer5, ferre, tOii, latum,' bear.

ArTiTi

INDIC.

SUBJ. J.NDIC.

SUBJ.

Prts.

fero

etam

feror

ferar

fera

erSa

ferria

f erarU (-re)

'fert

erat

fertur

feratur

ferlmuB

eramus

ferimur

ferSjnur

fertfs

erSUs

ferimiul

feramini

fenmt

erant

feruntur

ferantur

tmfif.

ferBbam

eirem

fetSbar

ferrer

Fui.

feratn

ferar

Per/.

ttiir

nlerlm

IStua sum

IStue aim

Plup.

tuleram

tuliaaem

latuB eram

latua eaaem

e.p.

tulexS

latua Gio

Imperative.

Pris.

fer

erte ferre

ferimini

Fkt.

ferta

ertate fertor

fertfi

BFunto fertor

iNFlNiriVE.

feruntor

Pris.

ferre

[ ferri

firf.

tuliase

latna esae

put.

lltflruB DBBe

latum iri (13t Particii-les.

118 fore)

Pfes.

ferSna

1 Ferf. latus

Fut.

latflrua

1 Gtr. fereuduB ^^

Gerukd; feren

ai, -dO, -dum, -flO Supine

; Utum^-tU. ^H

' 7

e pcrfea tail is

for toCuII (whLch Bomelimcs occu

TS\ homTAl Viwa;^^B

IIB;

be supiae IStaia

/sfc.rttiatum(cf.TX7)TiO.

■

I

112

Etymology: Verbs.

1

140. Ed3, edere, Sdl, Csum, eat, is regula

of the third conju-

gallon, but h<

s also some forms directly from the r vowel. These are in full-faced type.

oot (£D) without the

characteristic

ACnvE. PABSrvE. 1

Indic.

SuBJ. INDIC. rregent.

SUBJ. 1

ed6

edam (edia)

edor

edar 1

edis (Sa)

edas (edla)

ederis (-re)

edaris (-re) J

edit (Bat)

edat (edit)

editur (§atur) edatur |

edimus

edam us (edrmua)

edimur

edamur 1

editis (fistie)

edatis (editia)

ediinini

edaminl 1

cdunt

edant (edint) eduntur

edantur J

edebam

cderem (SsBem) edeb^r

ederer

edebas

ederes (6saS») edebaris (-re

edereris (-re)

edebat

ederet (fiaset) edebaiur

ederetur (fiaaBturj

edam

edar

edea

ederis

edet, flfc.

edetur, etc.

edl

ederim [ esus sum

Pluperfe^.

Jsus Sim

ederam

Faturr l-erfxct.

esus essem

edero

1 esusero Imperative.

ede (8a)

edite (Bate) edere

edimini

edito (SatS)

editote (Satate) editor

edits (BstB)

eduQlo editor Infinitive.

eduntor

edere (Case)

edl

edbse

esus esse

esiirus esse

esum iri Participles.

p™.

edSna 1 JP"-/. esu

IH<(.

Ssfirus 1 Orr. edendus S

Gerund. '^xivvia. 4^|

edendT

•do, -dum, -do

e

wn,-tft^^^^H

I

Irregular \ 'erbs.

141. Ea, fce. Irt, Itum. ^o.i

Indicative.

Subjunctive.

Pres. S. eO, Ih, it

earn, eOa, eat

/". imua, ItiB, eunt

eamua. cStiB, eant

Imperf. Ibam, IbSs, Ibat

irem, IrCa, Itet

ib^mus, Ibatis, ibant

Ir6mua, IrSUa, Ireot

Future. Tbo, Ibis. Ibit

Ibimus, IbitiB, Ibunt

Perfect. IvI (il)

Iverim (ierim)

Pluperf. jveram (ieram)

ivisBem (Ibboiu)

Put. Per/. iTOra (iero)

Imperative.

I, Ite, Its, Its, itote

1, euntS

INFIN-ITIVE.

Pres. Ire /ir/ Iviaae (las

le) Ful. itOrua sBa<

Participles.

Pres. ienB, oimtiB Put. Itama

Ger. enndnm

Gerund: eandl, -do, -dnm, -do

Supine; ituiii,itfi

. adeor /mpf. adibar adliie Put. adibor

aditur Perf. aditna aoiii adlmur Plup. aditua eiam adOninl /'". P. aditua er5 adeantur

. The compounds adeo, approach, iaefi, enter, and some othen^ I They are inflected as follows in the passive : —

Prcs. adear Iinpf. adirer Pirf. aditus sim Plup. adituH eaaem INFIN. aditi, aditua eaae I'ART. aditua adeuadiia Thus inflected, the forms of e5 are used impersonally in the third person singular of the passive ; as, itum eat {§ 146. d). The infini- tive M is used with the supine in -um to make the future infinitive passive (S 147. C. I). The verb vSned. be sold {i.e. vinum e5, go la sale), has also several forms in the passive.

b. In the perfect system of eo the forms without v are more common,

and in the compounds are regular : as, adil, adieram, adiiaas (adlaaej.

compound ambiS is inflected regularly like a verb of the

urth conjugation. But it has also amblbat in the imperfect indicative.

(/. FtS with e5 retains its original d : as, prflde5, prodia, prSdlt.

tiC ,/ku;

rands for el, lengthened (Dxrn Qi v\

114 Etymology: Verbs. [§§142,141

142. Faoifi, facfire, fed, factum, uiaie_ is regular. But it ha^

imperative fac in the active, and besides the regular forms the future

perfect fax6, perfect subjuBCtive faarim- The passive of facio is —

fI5, fiii^ factns sum, be made, or become.

The tenses of the first stem of

flo

are regular of the fourth con

jugation, but the subjunctive imperfei

;t is Eerem, and the infinitivi

fieri.

iKDICATIVE.

Subjunctive.

Pres.S. fio, fiB,flt

flam, fSs, Sat

P. fimus, fitiB, fltmt

f»mu8, fratis. flaat

Imperf. nebam, Hebas, eti

fierem, fieiSs, etc.

Fulure. flam, fI6a, etc.

Perfect, factus anm

factus aim J

Huperf. f aotna eram

factus essem 1

^M/. /■<?/: f actus ero

1

IMPER. fl, fite, Kt5, fltote, Hunto K

Jntin, Pres. fieri Perf.

iactua Gsae Fut. factum M

Part. Perf. factua Cer.

a. Most compounds of facio with prepositions change S to I (preV'B It stem), or 6 (supine stem), and are inflected regularly : as

conficiS, cSnficete, confeci, ciixilBatxaa^ finish. oSuficior, conficl, confectua.

b. Other compounds retain a, and have -fiS in the passive ; as, benefaoiS, -faoere, -fScI, -factum ; pas.^. lieDefTS, -fieri, .factus, benefit. These retain the accent of the simple verb ; as, bene-f Jl'ds (§ ■9- '')•

c. A few isolated forms of -fifi occur in other compounds; viz., —

cSnfit, it happens, dfifit, it lacks. Infit, ke begins (to speak).

cSnfTet dSflunt influnt

cCnflat dWIot efflerl, to be effected.

cfinfieret dSflat iata^cTl. to perish.

cSufieri deSert inteiflat, let hiiii perish.

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 143. Some verbs have lost their Present stem, and use only tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected reg- uJarly. These are —

I

S5 143, 144.]

Defective Verbs.

"S

a. Coepi,^ I began ; IqAd, ooapiutt; Fut. Part coeptOrtis; Perf. I'asa. Part. ooeptUB.

The passive is used wiih the passive iniinitive : as, coeptua sum vocarl, /began la be coiled, but coepi vocBre, / began to call (cf. § [+(. g, note). For the present incipifi is used.

b. OdI, ffiaie;''' perfect participle Bsub, hating ox kaied {^xG%mm, i/tcrly hateful), future participle SButus, likely to hate.

c. ICemiuI, / remember i* with the fmperaitve memento, me- mentdte ; Part. meminSna.

Note. — OdI and maminl have a perfect form with a prc5enl meaning, an J are QaWei, prileritivi verbs. NOvI and cOosuevI (usuailyrelerrcd iQ nSaoO and cSneuesoB) are oflcn UEed in the sense of / know (have learned), and / am lucits- lomed (have become accuslomed). as piEleritive verbs. Many other verbs are occasonalLy used in the same way (see \ 279, Remark).

144, Many verba are found only in the present system. Such are maerefi, -Bre, be sorrowful (cf, maeBtue, sad) ; ferlS, -Ire, strike.

In many the simple verb is incomplete, but the missing parts c in its compounds: as, T&d5. videre, luvSsI, inv&Bum.

Some verbs occur very commonly, but only in a few forms ; as, ■

a. AlB, fmy: —

IlNulC. Fres. ai6, ais, ait ; — Siunt fmpf. SiCbaiu (^aibam), fiiebSs, etc. SUBj. Pres. 3158, 5iat, Slant like as,l

Part.

I

&ifins

. laquam, I say (used only, except in poetry, ii like the English quoth, which is possibly from the sa Indic, Pres. inquam. iuquia, inqult

iiiquiinus, inquitia (tale), ii Impf inquiebat Fut. inquiSs, -et Perf. Inqulatl, inquit Impeh, inque. inquitS

'. The deponent fSrl, lo spmk, forms the perfei (BtuB som, erani, etc. It has also — iNDIC. Pres. fatut, fantur

Fut. fSbor, fabitur iHFER. fare

Infin. fSrI

quiunt

.P {as m apiscor}

r

Etymology: Verbs.

Part. Pres. (dat.) fanti

P4rf. fatUB, halting spoken.

Ger, fanduB, to be spoken of. Gek. fandl, -do

Sup. fata

[§144.

Several forms compounded with the prepositions ei, prae, pro, inter, occur; as. praefatur, affarl, pr6f3tuB, interfatur, etc. The com- pound infana is regularly used as a noun (child). Infandus, nefaiiduB, are used as adjectives, unspeakable, abominable.

d. QuasBfi, /oj;^, itf^(originai form of quaero, 5 132. i^}, has — Indic. Pres. quaeaS, quaeBflmus iNFIN. quasBere

Past. quaeagnB

■ tft Ovaie, to triumph, has the following : — Indic. Fres. ovat SUBJ. Pres. ovet

Imperf. ovaret PjtHT. ovans, ovatGruB, ovatua

Ger. ovandT

[ /. A few verbs are found chiefly in the Imperative : as, —

Pres. sing. aalvS, plur. aalvSte, /w//.' (from Balvuo,

safe and sound). An infin. salvSre also occurs.

Fres. sing. av6 (or havfi), plur. avSte, Fui. avfito,

hail Qz farewell. Fres. sing, oedo, plur. oedite (cette),^"j/e, tell. Pres. sing, apage! begone! (properly a Greek word). g. QneO, / can, nequeS, / cannot, are conjugated like e5. They tre rarely used except in the present.

iNBIC.

Iqueo quit qulmm quItiH queuut

Sl'bj.

Indic.

que 5

que am

quia

queSa

quit

queat

quImuB

que am u

quItlB

quaatiB

queuut

queaut

qulbam

quire m

gurbat

quiret

2unaat

qalrent

nequeo (n5n queS) nequeani nonquTs nequeas

uequit nequeat

nequlmus nequeSmua

nequltis iiequeatia

nequeunt ue queaut

ne qulbam

uequ!rem

nequibat

ue quiret

iiequTbant

necivilTent

§ 144, 145,]

Impersonal Verbs.

qulbunt

qulvfirunt

nequlbunt

nequlvl nequiviatl

uequlvlt iiBquiv6riiat

quiBsent nequlsset

Infinitive. quire qu!:visse(qiiIsBe)iiequlTe nequlvisae ]

Participles. quifins, gaenntlB ueqaiSns

Note, — A fcw passive forms are used by old wrilers wilh passive i s. quitur, qultua, que&tur.queamtur.neqoitur.nequltum; t-f.poBaum and coepi ( j{ 137. note and 143. a).

Impersonal Verbs.

145. Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the third person singular, the infinitive, and the genmd. These are called Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal subject.* Their synopsis may be given as follows : — ^ ■

CoNj. 1. I]. rii. IV. Pass. Conj.i, ^^

iliiflain. Uisallouxd. ilckanars. itremUi, itisfimgkt. ^B

cCiiBtat licet acctdit Svenit pflenStm"

y

c6iiBtabat

Uo6bat

acoidSbat fiveniSbat

pugnabStur

cSnstabit

UoSbit [est

accidet Eveniet

pflgnabitur

cSuBtitit

liciiit, -itum

accidit Svenit

pflgni.tum est

lie ue rat

acciderat SvSnerat

pugnatum erat

cfinBtlterlt

licuerit

acciderit evSnerit

pugnatum erit

cSnatet

Uoeat

acddat Sveniat

pugnetur

cfinBtaret

lioeret

accideret Svenlret

pOguarBtur

cStistiterlt

licuerit

acoidetit Sveuerit

pfignatum sit

cfinstitiseet

Ucuisaet

accidiaaet 6v8niBBet

pugnatum esaet

cBnBtSre

UcBre

accidfire Svenlre

pugnarl

conatitiBBe

liCUiBBC

aocidiBBG evenisBC

pugnatum esae

-flt&tOrunieBe

le-iturumeBBt

) -tOrum esse pAgaatum Iri

Etyinology: Verbs. \% 14|

I

F

^H 14«. Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows : ^f a. Verbs expressing the operations of nature and the lime of days\ as. plult, it rains; nlagit, it shows; grandinat, it haih; fnlpust, h lightens; veaperSaoit (inceptive, g 167- a), it grows late; liScet bOo'l lam, it is gelling light now.

Note.— In these no subject is distinctly thoughtot. Somelimes, h verb I9 used personally with the name of a divinity as Ihe subject : as, IQppit^ 1 tonat, yupilcr IkuHderi. In poetry other subjects are occasionaily u tundaa Haxa p]uuiit, Ihe slinks rain stoms.

b. Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject becomes the object, as being himself affected by the feeling expressed in the verb (§ ixi. b). Such are: miseret, it grie^'es ; paenitet (pOAnltat), it repents; piget, it disgusts ; pudei, it s/iames ; taedet, it wearies : as, mlseret mfi, / pity (it distresses me).

NOTK. — Such verbs often have also a passive Ibrm : as. mlsereor, I pity (am moved to pity) ; and occasionally other parts : as, paenitOrus (as fhim tpaenlfi), pasnlteiuluB, pudendus, pertaeeuin est, plgltuDi eat.

c. Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their .subject (§5 270. t 330. 332. a): as,—

acoidlt, contingit, Svenit. obtingit, obveiiit, fit, it k

Ubet, il pleases.

lioet, it is pcrmilteci.

OBrtum eat, it is resolved.

c5natat, it is clear.

placet, videtur, it seems good.

decet, it is becoming.

delectat, iuvat, it delights.

opoitet, necesse eat, it is needful.

pracBtat, it is better.

interest, tfifert, il concerns.

vacat. there is leisure.

restat, supereat, (/ remains.

Note.— Many of these verbs may be . tha Ihe passive forms libitum (llcitui and llOfina are used as adjectives.

d. The passive tf intransitive verbs is very often uaed impersonally : as, pagnfttur, there is fighting (it is foughl) ; Itm, some one ^es (it is gone) ; paroltur mtlil, / am spared (it is spared to me, see § 230)-'

I

I

h

1°

L

I 5 147.] Origin and History of Verb-Forms.

Peripbrastic Forms. 14:7. The following periphrastic forms are found in thd inflection of the verb : —

a. The so-calied" Periphrastic Conjugations" (see 5 129).

b. The tenses of completed action in the passive formed by ti enses of esse with the perfect participle : as, amatus eet. '

c. The future infinitive passive, formed as follows : —

1. By the infinitive passive of e5, ^0, used impersonally with thel

supine in -tun: as, amatttm Mi.

2. By fore (or fntflrum esse), with the perfect participle Qa. amatiw fore).

3. By fore with ut and the subjunctive (cf. § 288. _/^.

NOTE. Origill and HiBtory of Verb-Forms.

The forms that make up the conjugation of a verb are composed of formations from a root, originally separate, but gradually grouped to- gether, and afterwards supplemented by new formations made on old lines to supply deficiencies. Some of these forms were inherited, already made, by the Latin language; others were developed in the couree of the history of the language itself.

I. Present Stem. — The Present slem is a modification or develop- ment of the root (see § 123). In regular forms of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations it appears in all the other parfs of the verb (ioduding noun and adjective forms) as well, and is accordingly called the Verb-Stem.

The tenses of the Present system are made from the Present stem as foUows : —

a. In the Present Indicative the personal endings are added direcdy to the present stem. Thus root ar, present- (and verb-) stem arl-; arfi-B, arft-miis, arA-tiB.

b. In the Imperfect Indicative tlie suffix -bam, -ba», etc. (originally a complete verb), is added, bam is probably the imperfect of the root BHlf (cf. ful, futflniB, Ho, ifiwi, be), meaning Iivas. This was added

complete word originally a case of a noun, as in I -was a-ploKghtng, hence arS-bam. The form probably began in the second or the third conjugation and from that was extended to the otiiers.

In the Future Indicative a similar suffix, -bo, -bia, etc., is added

(by the same process}. b6 is probably a preacnX itynn «i. 'iie «axMc

with a future meaning: as, arSi-bo.

I I20 Etymology: Verbs.

^P 120

^H This form once in use in all the conjugations was later supplanted ^H In the third and fourth by an inherited form, which was originally ^H an optative mood, differing from the present indicative only in the final ^F vowel of the stem (see § 126, c. i) : as, Bugi-bfi (old) ; BQgam, BtigB«. ■^ (later). ]

V d. In the Present Subjunctive the personal terminations were added

to another (orm of present stem of great antiquity with a different

vowel : as, amBm, moneain, audtam.

e. In the Imperfect Subjunctive a suffix, -rem, -res, etc., was added, -ram is doubtless a very old modal form of sum diverted from its original use.

f. The noun and adjective forms of the Present system were originally separate formations made from the root by means of noun-suffixe.s. These forms being associated with the verb became types for the formation of new ones from the present stem, in cases where no such formation from the root ever existed. Thus regere la originally a dative (or locative) of a noun like b6»ub, generis ; but as regere seems to be roge + re, so arS-ro was made in the same manner. Gerendua is the noun-stem gerSa-, i.e. GER+on- (gero, -&iitB, § 162. it) + duB ; but it seemed to be gere + adus, and thus gave rise to ama-ndne.

1. Pekpect Stem. — The Latin inherited from the parent Indo-. European speech preterite forms of two kinds

a. In the real perfect (perfect with havi in English) the proper terminations (see g Ii3) are added directly to a root-form, which was originally a reduplication (doubling) of the root with vowel change. Thus its, root STA, perfect atetl (for fstesti) ; cf. pnugS (root fug), pnpflgl (later pnpugl).

b. In other inherited verbs the perfect was formed by a verbal auxiliary (some form of anm) added to the root (or later to the present stem), Thus dloS. root DIQ perfect tdlo-al (dl»l). This auxiliary being a complete verb-form, conlained. of course, the personal tenni-

c. The remaining perfects were formed with a suffix -vj, of uncertain origin, but containing the personal terminations. But these formative processes had been forgotten long before the Latin language reached the stage in which we know it. The form in -vl. however, became the ^pe for new Perfects. By the Romans, the first person singular of the Perlect (however formed), losing its final vowel, was treated as a new

\ from which other forms were developed by the use of added r by an»log\' with those already formed, T\v\s svewv ii

*

Origin and History of Verb-Forms.

r called the Perfect Stem. Thus were formed the Pluperfect and the Future Perfect Indicadve, the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the Perfect Infinitive, The terminations of these tenses are parts of Bum Id some form or other, but precisely how they are made is

1

3. StiPiNE Stem. — The Perfect and Future Participles and the Supine, though strictly noun-forrns, each with its own suffix, agree in having the first letter of the suffix (t) the same and in suffering the same phonetic changes (by which the t becomes h, § \\, a. 2).

Hence these forms, along with several sets of derivatives (see S5 162. a, 163. *, 164. w<) used as nouns or adjectives, were felt by the Romans as belonging to one system, and are conveniently associated with the Supine Stem. Thus, —

pmg5, plctum, pictus, pictfiruB, plctflra, plctor. ■

TldeS, TlBum (for rid-tum), tiiua (part,), rlsua (noun), TlsUnu,. ] tisiS, riaor, rislbllls.

The signs of mood and tense are often said to be Inserted between the Root (or verb-stem) and the Personal ending. No such insertion is possible in a developed language like the Latin. All true verb-forms are the result, as shown above, of composition^ that is, of adding to the root or the verb-stem either pronouns (personal endings) or fully de- veloped auxiliaries (themselves containing the personal terminations), or of adding similar auxiliaries to the perfect stem ; or of imitation of such processes. Thus amSbamus is made by adding to amS-, originally a significant word, or a form concoived as such, a full verbal form 'fbSmas, not by inserting b& between amS- and -iaua>

Btymoiogy: Parikks.

Chapter VII. — Particles.

Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions are callem Particles.

In their origin these words are either (i) casc-for actual or extinct, or {2) compounds and phrases.

Particles cannot always be distinctlj' classified, for many adverbs i used also as prepositions and many as conjuDctions (§§ 153 ajid I,

l.-ADVERBS. 1. Derivation.

148. Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives as ' follows : —

a. From adjectives of tht first and second declensions, by changing the characteristic vowel of the stem to -C: as. cftrB, dearly, from oBruB, dear (stem oaro-).

Note.— The ending -S is a relic of an old ablative in -6d (ct f 36./),

b. From adjectives of the Ifiird declension by adding -ter 10 t' stem. Stems in nt- (nom. -hb) lose the t-. All others are treated a i-stems. Thus, —

fortiter, bravely, from fortls (stem forti-). brave. acriter, eagerly, from Seer (stem 5cn-), easier. vigilanter, watchfully, from Tigilana (stem vigilant-). prfidenter, prudently, from prudSne (stem priideiit-). aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem all-}. Note. — This suffix is probably the same as -tor in the Greek -Ttpoi Uter, alter (p. 49, n. i). It so, diese adverbs are nculer accusatives (cf. d).

e. Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs of both forms (-8 and -ter). Thus dflrua, ferrf, has both dfirE and dOrlter ; miser, ■wretched, has both miaera and miBeriter.

d. The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used as an adverb : as, multum, much ; facilS, easily; quid, why.

So regularly in the comparative degree r as. SoriuB, more keenly (positive acriter) ; faciliua, more easily (positive, facilS). Note. — These adveibs are slriclly cognate aceusalWcs l.sec tj 1^, a').

Derivation of Adverbs.

I

• neHter or (less commonly) fe

i, may be used adverbially ; as, i^^h, falsely i oltS, ^^uklyi rSota (via), straight {straightway); crSbrB, frequently { fort£, by chance} spontS, of one's own accord,

f. Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use : as, abtmdB, plentifully (as if from f abnndos, cf. abondS, abound) ; saepS, oftt (cf. Baepfia, hedge, and aaepiS, fiedge in) ; propS, almost (as if from tpropiB).

tn some the case is doi obvious, end in some it is doubtful. Examples may be

(comparative of fa), a second lim itsl.

P. Ablative or iaiidj ItitrK, viii iM vain ; f oria, cu/ tfdoi

7. Datives of adjccti degree; OltrS, iryoad; oltrB. this sidt (as end of motion) ; rotr5, back; OlBo I (for lllS-ce), weakened lo UlUc, /*iVA(r,

Remark. — Those in -trO are from comparative stems (cf. ills, cla, re

J. Ijjcalive forms: Ibl, lAeref ubl, where; pePBKrf (pere^rB), 1 hic {far ';)ia\-CB), here; Interim, BKoniaijVf (ot inter) ; indS. Men«.- 1 /(/.■61im[fromoUitB,oldfonnofll!e),i'«fr. Also the compounds extrinaeeuB, j BuUide; hodie (hoi + die), to-di^: naiaxiAiS, day after lo-vi^

f. Feminine accusatives: Btattm, dh iAe spot; aBJtlm, i Baltem), from last nouns In -tie (genitive -tie). Thus -tlm became a regui^ adverbial lerminadon: and by means of it adverbs were madelrom many noun anif

accusative b -tfm : as, separatim, separately, from separatue, separate. Som< adverbs that appear to be feminine accusative are perhaps localive: as, palam, epenfy: perparam, wrongly; tain, sa; quam, as.

i. Plural accusatives; as, ali&s, ehevihere; foraa, out of doors (as end oi

n- Of uncertain formation: (i) tliose in -tu9 (usually preceded by 1), within ■blaljve meaning: as, fUiidittlB,yrBm the bottom, utterly ; divlnltua, from alimie, frmiidenlially ; iataa, wilhm ; ■psatt.-aa, within ; {2) those iti -dem, -dam, -dS; as, quidem, indeed; quondam, ivicr,- QuandB (cf. dCnec), -when; (3) dum (probably accusative of time), m*i7e/ lam (perhaps locadve, cf. attro), bdm.

9, Phrases or clauses which have grown togelher into adverbs (cf, notaitistand- ingiHtverlheless, iesides) : anteft. oldantideEl, iefire (ante eft, probably ablative 01 instrumental) ; postniodo,/rzim/^ (postmotlo, a short time after) -. dSnilO, anmi (de novS) ; prSrsuB, absolalefy (prS vorsua, straight ahead) ; qaot- onolB, yearly (quot annte, as majiy yean as there art) : qtiam-ob-rem. nhrrifare; cOmlnua. hand to hand (Con mantis); Sminue al long range (ex manus] 1 ob-viam (as in Ire obvlam, logo to meet) ; pridem (cf. prae and-dem in I-dem). fir some time; foraan (fora aa [sat]) perhaps (it's a chance whether); forBltan (tors alt ao), perhaps (it wouid be a. chante whether): edUcet (bcI. Mcetl, lia! is to lay (.Vnow. 30M wiaijl-, -«\«J&fittV frldg. licet), ta ait (see, you may). ' "

1

I

Etymology : Particles.

2. Clasaifinatlon. 14». Adverbs are classified as follow

1

a. Adverbs of Place.^

1

hlo, h^re. hue, hither.

Mno, heuce.

li.a.ei,byihisivigt*

ibi, th^re. eo, thitha:

inde, thence.

e%by that way.

iBtlc. there. %MtZa.thither.ia'A-aQ, thence.

lftt&,6y that way.

Ullo, there. UlOo, thither

illinc, //iM«.

iUa(mao), "

ubi, where. tiM^^whiiher. irnde, uiheiice.

q}xSi,6yivhatway.

alicubi, somewhere. aliqii6,/(j,etc

alicuade,/ry/«

etc. aliquft, Ay, etc

ibl&.tia,in the same efidem

indidem

eadem

place.

alibi, elsewhere. aUiS

aliunde

aU5

nbinbi, iiihereiier. quoquo

undecuoque

quaqu3

nbivis, anywhere, quovia

uudique

quSvIa

tac\],tii,i/anywhere. alquo

aicuiide

alqua

nSoabl, ^ef/ >> nSqufi

nSounde

aequft

uBqae, all the -way to.

citro, /o

///V side.

uBquHin, aityujhere.

intrS, in

ivardiy.

noBqaam, nmvhere.

•patzt, further on. 1

flltrB, beyond (aT freely, i.e. be

-one! whal is required). fl

qufirBoin (for qnfl vorBum. whitlitr retrorsu

m, backward. m

turned?), to what endf

sOraum,

upward. ■

hSrBum, this -way.

deorsum

, dmuii'inard. \

pi6nvm,/i>nmrd {prorBiis. «/

crlyy aeoraum

apart. 9

iatrorsmn, inwardly.

aliorsum

, anotlier way. %

b. Advekbs of Time.

1

quandSf wA^a-i" (inierrog.) ; e

urn (quom. quum), -.fhen (relat.)i

ut, when, as.

nano, nmui tunc {Uiva), then ;

max.. presently.

iam. already; dum,

whih.

1

1 The demonstrative adverbs hlC, ibl, iatlc, Ullc, and their correlalives. cor- respond in signiRcalion with the jironouns hic, Is, iBte, ille (see { loa), and are often equivalent to these pronouns wiih a preposition t as, Inde ^ ab eS, etc. So the relative or intenogative ubi corresponds with qui (qiiie) , all-cubl with -allqule, ublubl with qulagula, al-oubl wiih alqula (see ^ 104, 105. with the table of Correlalives in } 106). All these adverbs were originally case-forms of pronouns. The forms m -bl, -Ic, -Ino, and -onfto ate locative, those in -S and

Classification of Adverbs.

^Vpilmum (prlmS), first; deinde (posteS), nej;t after ; poBtrimum4 H (poattSai5),fifiaUy; posteSquam, postquam, TiiAeK {after that, f

mnqiiaiii (unquatn), iver; numquam (nuuquatu), never; semper,

allqaando, at some time, at length ; quandCque (quaudSoumquD),

•whenevei' ; dCmqns, at last. qnotiSas (qnotiSH), haw often; totieua, so often; aliquotiSac

number of times, coUdiS (quoKdiS), every day ; in diEa, from day to day. nSodiim, not yet; necdum, nor yet ; vixdom, scarce yet; quam i

piinnun, as soon as possible; aaepe, often; arSbxZ, frequently i \

lain noQ, no longer.

c. Adverbs of Degree or Cause. maasa., haw^ as ; toni, so; quamvla, however much, although; quO-

modo, JtB^. cflr, quSre, why; quod, quia, quoniam (for quom-iam), because; ^

e5, therefore. ita, ale, so; ut (utd), as, how; utut, utoumque, however, qaamquam (quanquam), although, and yet; et, etlam, quoque,

d. Interkogative Particles. an, -ne, anne, utrum. utrumne, Hum, whether. nSoue, annOn, whether not ; numquld, ecquld, whether at all (ecquid i

intellogis? have you any idea f do you understand at all/). ntruin (num), -ne, whether; ... an (aanSn, necne), or.

Ie. Negative Particles. ^u, not (in simple denial) ; liand (hau, haut), miuimS, not (in tradiction) ; aS, not (in prohibition); uSve, neu, nor; uSdum, much less. nS, lest; nequB, neo, nor; n6 . . . qnidem, not even. nOn moda , , , viram. (aed) etiam, not only . . . but also. nSn modo . . . aed nS , , . quidem, not only not . . . bui not ei bI miiiua, if not; qu6 miaus (quominua), so as not. qala (relat.), but iJial; (interrog.), tvhy not? nS, aec (i" compos.), not; so in neacid, f hnmu not; negS, / say HO (313, I say yes) ; negStinm, business (neo fitiam); nBmS (uS bSmfi), no one; dS quis, lest any one; necofXiAtvM, unex^etlEd', ^H aeque eiiim.^or

K^" 'M 136 EtyiKology: Particles. \^% ^^^-^^H ^^P f. Adverbs of Manner (see g 148). ^^^H

HV g- Numeral Adverbs (see g 96). ^^H

%

3. Fecnllar tTaes of Adverbs. IBO. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative: as, —

nemo non audiet, every one %oi!l hear (nobody will not hear) .

a. Many cgmpounds of which nOii is the first part express an /«• definile affirmative : as, —

nonniillija, some; nonnuUi (= allqni), some fern. nonnihil (= aliquid), someOiing. nonnemd (= aliquot), sundry persons. nonniimquam (= aliquotiena), somelimes. necnSn, also (nor not).

b. Two negatives of which the second is nCn (belonging to the predicate) express a universal affirmative : as, —

nemo non, nnllus non, nobody [does] ho/, i.e. everybody [does] (of. nonnemo

above, not nobody, i.e. somebody). nihil non, evtrylking. numqunm non, never not. I.e. always (cf. noDnumquain above, not never,

Le. somelimes).

151. The following adverbs require special notice : —

a. Etiam (et lam), also, even, is stronger than quaque, also, and usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it ; as, —

non verbis solum sed etiam vi (Verc. ii. 2, 64), not only by words, but also

l,f.r„. hoc qnoquB maleficium (Rose. Am. 40), this crime bio.

b. Nunc (for Inma-oe) means definitely novi, in the immtdiate present, and is not med as in English of past time. Iain means now. already, at length, presently, and includes a reference to previous time through which the state of things described has been or will be reached. Il may be used of a«f time. With negatives it means {no) longer.

Turn, t/ieri, b correlative to cam, wfieu, and may be used of any time. Tuno, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of turn (ttnm-ce, cf. nuno). Thus —

ut iftin antea AM, a! [have already said before.

Eiiam satis aetatia etque roboris haberet (Rose. Am. 51, 149), if ke had allained a suitable age and strength (Ut. if ke now had, is he will bv andhy). non est ixra JenitSl! locus, there is no longer reom for mercy.

I ii 151, 152.] Prepositions. izri

F

^^H quod ia.m erat inslitatum, lahUk had cemt la be a priitliee (had now

^H cstabUsbed).

^^^k riimc quidem dilela est, tuna florcbut (Lxl. 4), null) ('tis true) sk*^

^H [Greece] 11 ruined, then ike was in ksr glory.

^^H torn com r^nobaC, al the time when he reigned.

^^P c. Certs means certainly i certS (usually), at any rate: as, certS

^M Bcio, I know far a certainty i ego ceitS, I at least.

d. Pnmum meansjfrj-/, ^^ firstly" (Jirst in order^oT far the first time)\ 3nd implies a series of events or acts. Pritnfi means at first, as opposed to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the diiference of time :

■ hoc primnni senlio, this / hold in the first place. aedEs prlmo mere rebamur, at first we thought the house ■was falling. In enumerations, primum (or prImO) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in the next place, or by turn, then, or by both in succession. Delude may be several limes repeated {secondly, thirdly, etc.). The series is often closed by dSniqne or pOHtrBmS, lastly, finally. Thus, — ^_ primiun de genete belli, dainde de magnitudine, turn de impecataie

^L deligendo (Mnnil. 2), first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude,,

^H iien of the choice of a commander.

^V e. Quldem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concesswV' ' meaning, especially when followed by Bed, autem. etc. : as, —

hoc quidem vid ere licet (Lad. 15), this surely one may see. [Emphalic] (seciiritas) specie quidem blanda, sed reapse inullis locis repudianda (idt

113), {tranquitUCy') in appearaiu/, 'tis true, allractitie, biilin reality tv be rejected for many reasons. [Concessive.] NS . . . quidem means not even or not . . . either. The emphatic word or words must stand between uB and quidem. senexQe quod speret quidem habet (C. M. 19), an old man has tior aay-i thing to hope for F.VE(^. '

sed ne lugurlha quidem quietus eral (Jug. 51), but Jagurtha was aotqid^\

II. -PREPOSITIONS. 162. Preposition.';^ are regularly used either with the I Accusative or with the Ablative.

Prepositions are not originally diEtinguished from Adverbs in form or meaning, but only specialized in use. Moil □[them aic mie case-forms; as. the comparative lis contra, infra, suprS. and the accusatives (c£ { 88. d) clrcum. coram, cum, clrciter, praeter (comp. ofprtie), propter (comp. of prope). Of Ihe remainder, versus is n pelrified nominative (participle of vertO\-, adversua is a compound of veraUB ; while the origin rf ftve ^itwi tocma. «2q. All, lis. ex, oil. (rSna, is obscure ,tnd doublfu\.

128

Etymology : Pariicles,

. The following are used with the Accusative : —

r

^H ad, to. extrS, oiUside.

^H advemus, againsl. in, into. ^H adveraum, towards. Infra, below. ^H ante, before. inter, among.

^V apud, al, near. intra, inside.

circa, around, luztS, near.

oiroum, around. ob, en account of.

oiroiter, about. penee, in the povjt

IoiB, oitiS, this side, per, through. contra, against. pSne, behind.

ergS, itnvards. b- The following are use a, Sb, abB, away from, by. absque, without, but for. cSram, in presence of.

[S§ 152. id

praeter, beyond.

propter, on account of. Becandum, next to. Bnb, under. BuprS, above.

altrS, on the further sidt. I versoa, towards.

i with the Ablative ';

as.froi

'.of

pra.e, in comparison pr5, in front of, for. Bine, without. flub, under, tenuB, up to, as far

e. The following may be used with either t!ie Accusative c Ablative, but with a difference in meaning: — In, into, in. aab, under.

Bnbter, beneath. Buper, aboiie. In and enb, when followed by the accusative, indicate luotien lo, when by the ablative, rest in, a place : as, —

venit in aedea, he came into the house ; erat in aedibus, he was in the house. disciplina in BritBiiniS reperta alquc inde in Galliun Ironslata esse existi- matur, the system is tAuught to have been diseovered in Great Britain and thence brought over to Gaul. sab iliee consederat, he had sealed himself under an ilex. sub leges mittere oibcm, to subject the world to laws (tn send the wurUl under laws).

153. The uses of the Prepositions are as follows : — A, ab, AWAY FROM,' FROM, OFF FROM, With the ablative.

«. or place : as, ab aibe profectus est, he set oat from the city.

b. Of tune (l) /-Dm- as, ab hora tertia ad vesperiun._/^tfHj i(; rfiri/ianr /i// CT/eiiiiig; {2) Just after.- as, ab eS magistratii, a/fer [holding] Ihiit

LI

For polam, etc, see ( s6i. i, e. .Ab signifies direction from the object, b 'v/f-nm, and ex, ant of.

n tataardi the speaker; com-

I

Prepositions. 129 I

malic ases; a reliqais difFeruiit, Uity differ from Ikt olhtrs; ab parvulis, frem early <hildhs<id : pcope ab urbe, Bi-af (not fat from) &e city, libeiare ab, to set frie from ; qccIsus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slair, by an enemy; ab hac pacle, ch t!iis side ; nb le eius, A> Ais odvanlagi , a repnblica.y^/' the interest of the state. td, TO. TOWARDS, AT, NEAR, with the accusative (cf. in, into). a. or place; ^s,tAia\x.'aiyixiV.,he catiii Is the city ; ad meridiem, Aiwun/i- rji south ; ad exercitum, with the army ; ad hostem, toward the enemy , ad orbem, near the city, h. Of time: o!,, aAnaaamhatam, till tkt ninth himr. c. With pecaons : aa, ad eum venit, he came to hint.

Idiomatic uses: ad supplicia descendunl, they resort la punishment; ad haec respondit, to tkit he answered; ad tempua, at the [fit] time; adiro ad rcmpublicam, to g» into public life; ad petendam pacem, to si peace; ad latera, on theflank; ad arma, to arms; ad tunc modum, this way; quera ad modum, hom, as; ad centum, near a hundred; ad hoc, besides; omnes ad unum, all to a man ; ad diem, on the day. Anta, IN FRONT OF, BEFORE, With the accusative (cf. post, after). . Ofplace: z,%^xAk '^Qx\^xa,in front of the gate ; ante exercitum, ik ffiA'a/i efthe army, _ i. Of time : as, ante bellum, before the :var.

^^tUomatic aseE: ante urbem captain, before the city was taken; aiite die ^K quiatum (a.d.v.) Kal., the fifth dny before the Calends (tbc 3d daf

^H before the last of the mcnth) ; ante quadriennium./aHr years before a

^^r ago; ante tempus, too soon (before the time).

1^^ Apnd, AT, BY, AMONG, with the accusative.

a. Of place (rare and archaic) : as, npud forum, at the forum (in the marlset

^^A With reference to persons or communities; as, apud Helvetios, among tk.

^^^L Helvetians ; apud populum, before the people; apud aliquem, at onf.

^^B house; apud se, at home or i» his senses ; apud Oceronem, in [ihi

^^H works of] Cicero.

^^ Ciroum,' clroS, ciroiter, ABOUT, AROUND, with the accusative.

a. Ofplace: circumhaecloca, fo/vaiflu/,- clrcase habent, Mfy^awjim'^iifw/.

*. Of time or number (circa or circitcr, not circum) : as, circa eandem hocam,

about the same hour ; circiter pasEus mille, about a mile. Especially about,

in regard to; circa quem pugnaest (Quintil.), with regard to -wham, etc.

Contra.' OPH>SlTE, AGAINST, with the accusative : as, —

contra Italiam, over against Italy; contra haec, in anSTC'er to thil.

Often as adverb: as, haec connS, this in reply; contra autem, but on the Btker hand ; quod contra, -whereas, on the other hand.

J Olroum is an accusative form : circft, Is inslruroental; otetttt«T, aKcaiaSn* J cf a eompamrive. For ihe slem, cf. clroua. {»Ctmtra Is insinimental comparative of Cum toon-").

130 E'ymology: Particles. \% 153.

Ciiin, wtTR, TOGETHER WITH, with the ablative. ^|

a. Of place; as, vade meciun,^!™* km,- coin onmibBs irapedimenlis, wi^B all [their] baggagf. •

h. Ofliinc; as, prima cnm luce, a/ *ar^ fl^™™ (with fiisl light). Idiomatic nscs : magno euro dtilore, mrf grtat sorrow ,- coromnnicSre aliquid cam aliquo, short somrthitig with some am ; cmn malo Buo, ia his earn hurt; confligetecum hoae, i»_^,pS/imM Ike en/my; esse cum telo, /o gt armed; com rilentio, in silencr. Di, DOWN FROM, FROM, with the ablative (cf. a'b, a'way from ; ez,

a. Of place: as, de caelo demissus, sent dinan frem heaven; di nivibus

deailire, la jump down from the ships.

b. Figuratively, coKCEiUJiNa, about, of;' as, cognoscit de Oodi caede, he

learns of the murder ofClodius; consitia de bello, /^ni efioar.

c. la a partitive sense (compare ez), ou/^ 0^' as,aDasdeplebe, ime of the people. Idiomatic uses : tnultii de cauEiB,^r many reasons ; qim de caiisa,^r which

reason; de improviso, of a sudden; de indostria, oh purpose; de integro, anew; de Eertia vigilia,yivi^ a/ midaighf (starting at the third watch); de mease Decembn nivigare, to sail as early as December, Ex, S, FROM (the midst, opposed to in), out of, with the ablative (cf. abanddfi).

a. Of place : as, ex omnibus parlibus silvae evolaverunt, they Jtevi out from

all parts ef the forest ; ex Hispania, [a man] y^-o/n Spain.

b. Of time: as, ex eo die qaintos, the fifth day from that (four days after);

e» hoc die, from this day forth.

Idiomatically or less exactly: ex consulatii, right after his consulship; ex cius

Bcutentia, according to his opinion; ex atqao, justly ; ex improvTso,

unexpectedly ; ex tua re, to your advantage; magna ex parte, in a great

degree; ex equo pugniire, to fykt on horsdack; ei iisn, expedient;

e tegione, opposite ; quaerere ex aliquo, to ask of some one; ex senatna

cotisallo, according to the decree of the senate; ex fuga, in ftheit]

fiight (proceeding immediately from it) ; unus e filiis, one of the sons.

In, with the accusative or the ablative. _

I. With the accusative, into (opi'osed to «z). ^1

a. Of place: as, easm siivas K\tixxiio.t, tbiy drove them back into the waodt..^^

b. Of time, TILL, (tntil: as, inlucem, ftV/i/ocAir^. ^% Idiomatically or less exactly: in meridiem, towards the south; amor in

(ergi or adversus) patrem, love for his father ; in iram confugit, he ficdia the altar (on the steps, or merely /o); in diea.yVoin day to day ; in longitudinem, in length; in haec verba iurare, to smear to these ■words; banc in modum, in this way; oratio in Catillnam, a speech against Catiline; in perpetuum, far ever; in peias, for Ike worse; in diem vivere, to live from hand to mouth,

cyoiiglaally bad Ihe same meaning as dB (oom^iai': ofTi-

■3.] Prepositions.

. With the ablative, in, on, among.

Ini

:ryvar

n the a

■p (cf, ad ci

n doabt.

im, by the ua 6elir.ii the h

near Ike camp'); in man, en the sea; in urbe c!

tempore, in leasan ; ii

I have it in mind; in

of this man; In dubio

Infra, BELOW, with the

r. or place: aa, ad maj'e ii

caelum, under Ike sky. . b. Figurativelyj as, infra Homerum, later than Homer; infra trea peiiia, lest

than three feet : \a^^ As^xn.^, smaller than aiefhanis ; infra infimn.

omnes, the loviesl of the low. later, between (with two accusatives), among; as, —

tm et ^a'plonem, between myself and Stipie ; inter 09 et a^T^m, between

the cup and the lip (the mouth and the morsel); inter hostium lila,

amid Iht weapons of the enemy ; inter omnes primus, jlrj/ a/" n//,- inter

bibendum, while drinking; inlet si loqauntur, they tali together;

inter nos, between ourselves. Ob, TOWARDS, ON ACCOUNT OF. with the accusative,

a. Literally: (r) of motion (ircliilc) : as, obEomaiji,/(ra«flri4 J('»i*(EnQiu»)(

obviam, /a rffrofli/ (preserved aa adverb, in the way of), (z) Of place in which, before, in a few phrases : as, ob oculos, before the eyes.

b. Figuratively, IN retijeN fok (mosLly archaic, probably a word of account,

balancing one thing against another) ! as, ob mulierem, in pay for the woman; oh tern, for gain. Hence applied to reason, cause, and Ihe like, ON ACCOUNT OF (a similar mercantile idea), for: as, ob earn cau3am,_^r that reason ; quam ob rem (quamobrem), wherefore, -why.

or, THROUGH, OVER, With the accusative.

f molion: as, per urbem ire, to go through the city; per muros, over tht,

\ h, Oftiioe: aj^frViemsTa, throughout the winter.

-. Figuratively, of persons as means or instruments : as, per homines idoneos, through the instrumentality of suitable persons ; licet per me, j'ou (etc.) may for all me. Hence, slat per me, it is through my instrumentality. So, per se, in and of itself. I d. Weakened, in many adverbial expressions: as, per locum, in jest; per specie m, j'n show, ostentatiously. Prae, in front of, with the ablative. I a. Liletally, of place (in a few conncctionG) : as, prae se portire, to earry in en/s arms; prae se fcrre, to earry before one (hence figuratively), e.i:- kibit, proclaim, ostentatiously make known. I b, Rgurativelj-, of hindrance, as hy an ol)stac\c w ?toiv\. t^>: /er): as, frae fiaudiJ conticuil, hetoas silent for joy.

1

4

^

I

132 Etymology: Particles. [§

, or comparison: as, prac magnkudhic corpoium suorum, fVi i ffin/ariVDR iktir awn griat siii. 'Sta.tittsx, ALONG BY, BY, With the accusative, t. Literally: as, praetet castra, by tht camp (along by, !□ front of); praetei ocalos, before the eyes.

. Figuratively, BEYOND, BESIDES, MORE THAN, IN At)Dmo« TO, EXCEPT: »B, praeter spem, beyond liepe; praeter alios, mare than olhers; praetei paucos, viith the ixeeplien efafew,

Pr5. IN FRONT OF, wjth the ablative ; as, — Beden* pro aede Castoris, silting in front of Ihe temple of Castor; pro populo,

in presence of the people. So pro roatris, oh [(he front of] the rostra :

pro contione, before the assembly (in a speecb). 1 vsnoos idiomatic uses: pro l^e, in defence oflhelaia; pro vitula, instead

1^ a heifer; pro centum milibus, as good as a [hundred] ttiousand;

pro rata parte, in due proportion; pro hac \k£,forlhis once; pro

conaule, in ptact of consut ; ^to virAias, considering Ais strength ; pro

virili parte, lo Ihe best of one's ability. Propter, near, by, with the accusative :

propter le sedel, *ir jj/r next you. Hence, ON ACCOITHT OF (ef. alt along ef)\ as, propter melum, Uiroughfear.

BecundllIIl,> JUST BEHIND, FOLLOWING, With the J. Lileially : as, ite secundum ine (Plant.), go behind me; secundum near Ihe shore ; secundum flumen, along Ihe stream (cf. secundo ilui dswn slreara), 2. Figuratively, ACCORDING to: aa,seaixii\imsia)^t^ra, according to nalt Sub, UNDER, UP TO, with the accusative or the ablative.

a. Of motion, with the accusative : as, sub monteni succedere, to come close te

the hilt. Idiomatically; sub noctem, towards night; sub luccro, near daylight; sub haec (iicta, lU (following] these words.

b. Of rest, with Ihe ablative : as, sub love, in Ihe open air (under Ihe heavi

personiRed as Jove); sub monte, at the fool of Ihe hill. Idiomatically: sub eodem tempore, about Ihe some time (just after it) Snpei," ABOVE, OVER, with the accusative or ablative : as, — Tolnus super vulnos, tpound upon mound ; sa^ilaAos, beyond the IHndoot, super tali re, about such an affair. SaprS,* ON TOP OF, above, with the

n, on the surface efihe earth. So also figuratively ; as, supra banc loriam, before our remembrance; supra morem, more than usual; a quod, besides.

" Comp. of sub. • lnstrimieota\ oi aw,-parMa, (, qi, fcj

ub

4

153. 154.] CimjuHctioiis. 133 J

TiEiui,> ACROSS, OVER, THROUGH, BV, with the ai

Of motion; as, trans tnare cuirunt, Ihiy run

ferce, to carry evtr a river; trana aelhera, ihrgugh Ike sky: tiim 1

caput iace, ihrvai micryeur head. Of rest: as, trans Rhenum incolont, Ikty live

Tiberlm, ncrass tie Tiber. 'ai1a:4, BEYOND (on the further side), with the ai ^ Padum Sltraque, Bit Ikis side a/lhe Po and beyond; ultra ei

viBrc than that namher ; ullta ildeni, incredible; ultra moduB

aioderate.

[For Prepositions in Compounds, see j 170.I

Ill.-CONJUNCTIONS. 164. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences.! They are of two classes ; —

a. Co-ordinate, connecting conirdinate or similar c eeSiSo.a). Theseare: —

1. Copulative, implying a connection of thought as well as of words; I

aa, et, and.

2. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast t

thought: as, Bed, 611/.

3. Causal, introducing 3. cause or reason : as, nam. /br.

4. Illative, denoting aa inference : as, Igitur, therefore.

b. Subordinate, connecting a subordinate or dependent clause ih that on which it depends (see §180. b). Theseare: —

1. Conditional, tlenoting a condition or hypothesis : as, si, ifi nial,

a. Comparative, implying compari.'ion as well as condition : as, ao

"'■"/■

3. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission ; as, quamquam,

atihough (lit. however much it may be true that, etc.).

4. Temporal ! as, postquam, after.

5. Consecutive, expressing result : as, ut, so that.

6. Final, expressing purpose ; as, Bt, in order thai; nS, thai not.

Note t. — Conjunclions, liha adverbs, arc eilher petrified cases of nouns, pro- nouns, and adjectives, or obscured phrases: as, aed.an old ablative (c£,TSd,pr6d) : quod.an old accusative; dum, an old accusative (cf. turn, cum) ; TSrfl,» nblaiive of vBruB; nihilSmlntie, Bflne Me /eji.- ■pToinAa.Wt.firwardJrom

Note a. — a phrase used as a conjunction is caUed ^ conpmctive phrasi quA i)TO[)ter. quS clrc&, whtrcfore.

Etymology : Particles.

[s

165. Conjunctions are more numerous and more accu- rately distinguished in Latin than in English. The follow- ing list includes the common conjunctions^ and conjunc«J live phrases : —

1. Co-otdinate. a. Copulative and DisjuNcirvE. et, -que, atque (ao), and. et . , et ; et . . . -que (atque) ; -que . . . et ; -que .

etiam., Quoque, neque n

), quloeti;

-que (poet.), u, itidem (Itemjjfl "//k . . . but aha- ,

I

qua . . . qu£, on oh

modo , . . modo, tiow . . . nc.

sive (sen) . . . slve, -whether ,

HBc (neque) . . . neo (neque) ; neque . . . i

(rare), neither . - . /mr. et . . . neque, &ol& . . . and not. nee . . . et : nee (neque) . . . -que. neither .

b. Adversative. aed, autem, vfirum, v§rS, at, atqul, but.

tamen, attamen, sed tamen, -vSrumtainen, but yet, nevertheless. nihilSmtuus, none the less. at v5r6, but in truth; eniniTSro, yir in truth. cSterum, on the other hand, but.

c. Causal anu Illative. nam, namque, enim, etonim, _/»>■. quia, quod, because. quouiam, quippe, oum (quom, quum), quandS, quaudSquldem,

elquidem, utpote, since, inasmuch as. proptereS (, . , q;ao&), for /his reason (. . . thai). quSpropter, qu3r6, quamobrem. quScirca, unde, ■where/ore, whence. ergS, igitur, itaque, ideo, idcirco, proinde, therefore, accordin^y.

Note, — Of ihese quia, quod, quouiam, quippe, ci ntmduce subordinate cinuses. As dU subordinate clauses -om douses once co-ordinale (p. i&fl,the diaiinciioti belwee iuns and subordinale la often obscure.

1, Blqufdem, often ve been developed

teotthess have been included in the classification of adverbs. See alio

■^

Conjunctions,

I

I

quidem. to be sure, it is Iriie.

2. Subordinate.

e. Conditional. al, if; Bin, but if; nial (nlj. unless, if not', quod si, but if. modo, dum, dununodo, si modo, if only, provided. dmamodo n8 (dum nS, modo n%), prmnded only not.

f. Comparative. at. uti. sicut, velut, prout, praeut, ceu, as, like as, tajnquam (tanquam), quasi, ntal, ac si, velut, velutl, velntal, asif.. I quam, atque (ac), as, than.

g. Concessive. n«tBl, etiamsT, tametsT, tamGnetsI, quamquam (quanquatn), ai-% though. quamvla, quantumvls, quamllbet, htrwever much. licet (properly a verb), ut, cum (quom, quum), though, suppose, whereas.

k. Temporal. cum (quom, quum), cum primum, abi, ut primum, pDntqaam

(poateSquam), ttihen. piluB . . , quam, ante . . . quam, before f nGn ante . . . quam, not

quaadfi, aimul atque (simut it), simul, as soon as. dum, nsqae duni, dCnec, quoad, nnlil.

t. CoNSECUTrvE AND Final. nt (uti), quO, so that, in order that.

ue, ut nB, lest {that . . . not, in order that not); nSve (neu), nor. qaln (after negatives), quOmiuaa, but that (so as to prevent) ,

156. The following are the principal conjunctions whose meaning requires to be noticed : —

a. Bt, and, simply connects words or clauses ; -que combines more closely into one connected whole, -que is always enclitic to the word con- nected or to the first or second of two or more words connected. Thus,

euin eoniugibua et liberiB, wilk [their] wivis and children.

ferto igniqoe, tu/fti fire and snaord. [Not as separate things, but as the combined means of devastation.]

•qua el ign! interdictia, farbidden Ae uu ofwattr and )ir(. ^■ft».\e!^ fomittla, wbete tbey are considered sepwalcY^.'i

136

Etymology : Patiicles.

[51

Atqae (ac) adds widi some emphasis or with some implied re- flection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so, and yet, and besides, and Ihen. But these distinctions depend very much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untrans- latabie: as,—

omnia boncsta atque inhonesta, evtryiiing honorable and dishenorailt (too, witliout the slightest distinction).

iisus alque disciplina, pracHci and theory beside (the more important or less expected).

atqne ego credo, and yil I believe (for my part).

In the second of two connected ideas, and not is expressed by usque (nee) ; as, —

neque vero hoc solum dixit, and he not only said lAis,

Atqne (So), in the sense of as. than, is also used after wards of comparison and likeness : as, —

B (aliter) i

IS my duly (in ac

isyau.

ciuni, they do jus

../

■jlky.

ought), aequi ac tu, « .

simul atque, as .

b. Bed and the more emphatic vStum or TSt5, but, are used to introduce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after negatives (not this . . . but something else). At introduces with em- phasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the others.

At enlm is almost always used to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown. At is more rarely used alone in this sense. Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, and often has hardly any adversative force perceptible. AtquI, hmutver, now, sometimes introduces an objection and sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod bI, but if. and if, now if, is used to continue an argtmient. Ast is old or poetic and is equivalent to at.

:oncessive is often follou'ed by an adversative either in a co- ibordinate clause: as, etlamal quoil acrlbfts nCn taabeble, n (Cic.) , thangh yoK have nolhiitg to wrile, siOI vritt all lie same.

NOTE.— ordinate or Bcrltiitfi ts

c. Aut, or. excludes the alternative; vel (probably imperative of vol6) and -ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this dis- tinction is sometimes disregarded. Thus, —

led quii ego sum ant quae est in ine facullas, iiU u/io am I er what special eafiatily have I? [Mere vel could not be used, because in fact a neg- IS implietl and liolh allernalives ate eiic\u4ta^.

I

I

ant nulla potiiu vilcluilinc. -aikal ftchlc health [be had], orB

raiatr noni al ail. [Here vd aiiglit be used, but would refer o '

(he expression, nol lo Ihc foci], ant hibat ant abeat, iti iim drini or (^if lie won't do that, then let him)J

jhH. [Here vel would mean, let him du either aa he chooses], viu talis fuit vel forluni vel glortS, /<i.( /i/e was such lilher in rtsptct i

forlHHt or fatal (vhicbever W»y yuii Ijok at it). SI propinquoB habeant inbedlUoiit vel animo vel fortun^ ifihty have re,

stives beneath &tm ritktr in spirit or in forlune (in either respec

for example), cum cogniti sunt at m4 d«»a« ant regum filii inventi, sons rilher of gads J

or of kings. [Hw* OBt oue would exclude the other.] implicttti tbI iJNl ^Intna Tel etiam ofEciis, entangled eitlicr by close, I

intimacy or eve» iy tUtg»tians. [HerB the second case might exclude I

the first.]

Sire (oeu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions {if either . if), but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with tt rnies for the same thing ; a.s, — idve arridens Mve quod ita putaret (Dc Or. i. 20, 91), either laughingly or because he really thought so.

Vel, even, for instance, is often used with no alternative force; as, —

vel minimus, the very least.

d. Nam and najiique,^r, usually introduce a real reason, formally CJtpressed, for a previous statement; enlm (always postpositive), a nportant explanatory circumstance put in by the way; etenlm you s£e ; for, you know, for, mind yoii) and its negative neqae inim introduce something selfevident or needing no proof.

(en vita) quae est sola vita nominanda. nam dum sutnus in his incliisi comp^bus corporis munere quodam necessitatis et gcavi opere per- fungimur. est enim animus caelestts, etc. (Cat. Maj. 21).

hartun trium sententiarum null! prorsus assentior. nee enim ilia prima vera est, for of course that first one isn't true.

I. Brg3, tlurefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has

5 weakened force. Igitux, then, accordin^y, is weaker than ergfi and

3 used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque,

trefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the

■iture of things rather than in formal logical proof.

All of these are often used merely to resume a train of thought token by a digression or parenthesis. IdciicS, far this r is accauni, is regularly followed (or preceded) by a correlative : a

I, quod, tl, ut, nh, and refers to the special ^voX \tiaad»):je&.Vj.J e correlative.

(J'

138 Etymology: Partklfs. [1

neaegri qaidem quianon omnei coiiviileacQat,ldoiro3anDalta mediciaaE est.

primum igitnr aut negaiidum est ei5e deoE ... nut qui deo9 esse con- cedaDt eis fatcndum est c5s altquid ^ere idque praEciirumi nihil est autem praeclarius mundi siIliiiinBtTilioiie, deucum igitnr cgnsilio administiitur. quod si alitor c^t, aliqnid profecto sit necesse est melius et moiurs vi praeditum qMin deut. . . . non est igitnr nalura deoram praepotens nequc enccHSli^ & qaidem ea subiecia est ei vel necessitali vel naturae qaa caelum ttuia teiTui ragantur, nihil est aulem praestanlius deo, ab eo igitor munrfum necene e^t regi. niilli igitnr est naliirae obocdiens aut aubiectu* dciu: omnem ergo regit ipse natHcatn. etenim si concedinius iDttlltf[cnfis esse deos, concedimus eliam providentts et rerum qaidem maximirain. ergo utrum ignorant quae res maxamae sint quoque eae modo trmctandae et tuendae an vim nqn habent qui tantai res sustineanl et geranl? (N. D. ii. 30.)

malum mihi videtur mors, est miserum igitnr, qnoniam malum, ccrtc. ergo et el qnibus evenit iam ut morerentur et el quibus eventurum est miseri. mihi ita videtur. nemo ergo non miser. (Tusc. i. 5.)

meministis enim cum itlius nefaiii gladiatoris voces percrebuissent quas, etc. — turn igitnr (Mur. 15, 50),

f. Quia, because, regularly introduces a. feet ; quod, either a feet or 2 statement. Quoniam (for quom iam), masmuck as, si-iue, ivhen

u, now that, has reference to motives, excuses or justifications, and the like. Quandfi, since, is mostly archaic or late.

possunt quia posse videntur, ikey can becavse they think tluy eaa. locas est a me quoniam ita Murena, volnil retraclandus (Mur. 26, 54),

must review the pointy since Murena has so wished. me repreheodis quod idem dcfendam (as he had not) quod lege piinierim

(Mur. 32, i>-f),yiiu blame me beeause Qas you say] / defend the same

charge which I have punished by the law. leprehendis me quia defendam (as he had) (Snll. iS, 50). cur igitnr pacem nolo? quia, turpis est (Phil. vii. 3, gj, lehy then do I not

lidsh for feaee f Because it is disgraceful.

In the denial of a reason, ndii qn6 is used as well as nCii quod, ii5a quia, and ufia quiu, but not nSn quoulam. Thus, —

ion quia multls debeo . . . sed quia sacpe concurrent sliquorum bene de

me meritorum inter ipsos contentiones (Plane. 32, 7S), net because I am

indebted to many, but because, etc ion. quin pari virlute et voluntate alii fuerint, aed tantam causam non

hnbuerunt (Phil. vii. 2, 6), not thai there were not ethers of equal

courage and good-will, but they had not so much reason.

g. Com (quom), -when, is always a relative, and is often correlative with turn (see h. t, below); quaudS, when (rarely since), is tised as

inierrogntive, relative and indefinite; as, quaadO? hodiS, •aikent to- r'~- ^IgaaadO,//'mer.

id

I

156.] Conjunctions ; Interjections.

r. Conjunctions, especially those of relative origin, frequently^ a correiative in anotlier clause, to wliich they correspond ; as ut (ementem leceris, ita melis, aiyou sow, so shall you reap. oti inidura, MC finis est, as is Ikt ifgtMning, so is tie end. turn cam Catilinam eiciebam (Cat. iii. 2, 3), at the lime when, etc.

Ofien the same conjuaction is repeated in two co-ordinate clauses^ I

^H iam . . . lam, now . . . now.

^B Blmul , . . Bimul, at once (this) and aha (that),

^B qua ... qua, bulk . . , anii, as well ... as, alike (tins) and (that).

^F (. The concessives (etsi, quamvls, etc., aUheugh') may introduce

^jKther a fact or a mere supposition, and are often followed \yj the cor-

I relative tamen, yet, ttcverlAeless j qnamquam is regularly used to

introduce an admitted fact and not a mere supposition. , Qnamquam (and rarely etal, tametsi), in the sense of though

I (and yet, but, however) are also used to introduce an independent statement made to limit or correct the preceding {quamquam corric- ttvum) : as, —

nie volt dia vivere, hie diu vixit, quarnqniuii, o di bant, quid est in bominii I vitttdiii? (Cat. M. 19, 6S), i/ie one wis/ifs to lii'e hag, the elier&as lived \ lang,though (after all) Good Heavens I what is there thai is long in lif,.fmanl

k. Antom, enlm, and vBrS are postpositive, /.*. they always follov one or more words of their clause; so generally igitur and often I

INTERJECTIONS. O, 6n, ecce, ehem, papae, v5h {a'i astonishment). io, §vae, Svoe, euhoe {o^ joy), heu. eheu, vae, alas (of sorrow). heuB, eho, ehodum, ho (of calling); st, hist. §ia. euge (of prnise). piO (oi atlestatian): as, pr3 pudor, shamel

I

Etymology: J-'ormaCioH nf Words.

Chapter VIII. — Formation of Words.

Note, — All fonnalion of words is originally a process of composilio: element significant in itself is uddeii lo another significant element, and thus the meaning of the two is combined. No other combination is possible tor the forma- lioa either of inflections or of stems. Thus, in fact, visrds {since roots and stems are significant elements, and eo words) are first juxtaposed, then brought under one accent, and finally fell as one word. This gradual process is seen in ua chiast, sea~nynph, uosidt. But as al! derivation, properly so-called, appeara as a combination of uninflecled stems, eveiy type of formation in use must dale back of inflection. Hence words were not in strictness derived either from nouns or froni verbs, but from slums which were neither, because they were in feci both ; for the distinction between noun- and yerh-slems had not yet been made.

After the development of Inflection, however, that one of several kindred words which seemed the simplest was regarded as the Primitive form, and from this the other words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of formation were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way tiew model o/deri- valiirn arose'. Thus new adjectives were formed from nouns, new nouns from adjectives, new adjectives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns.

In course ol time the real or apparent relations of many words became con- fused, so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often assigned to verbs, and others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to

Further, since Uie language was constantly changing, many words went out of use, and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many derivatives sur- vive of which the Primitive is lost.

Finally, since all consdoui word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps in derivation were sometitncs omittet^ and occasionally apparent derivatives occur for which no proper Primitive ever existed.

I.-ROOTS AND STEMS. ^|

157. Roots ^ are of two kinds: — fl

1. Verbal, expressing ideas of action or condition (sensi- ble phenomena).

3. Pronomimil, expressing ideas of position and direction.

Stems are divided into (i) Noun- (including Adjective-) stems, and (2) Verb-stems.

I 158-60.]

Primary Suffixes.

158. Words are formed by inflection :^ . From roots inflected as stems : —

. Without change : as, duc-ia (dux), dug ; neo-is (uez) ; ia. Id. n verbs: as, eat, fert, 68t (cf. p. 86), b. With change of the root-vowel: as, IQc-la (lax), Luc; pSo-la ' (pii). So in verbs : I-a for feiB, from cB, Ire ; Htur from for, fSrI, Note. — lo these casts it is impossible to say with cetlainly whether Ihe form ot root in aot'm i is the original one. But for convenience the above order ii

^k c. With reduplication : as, fur-fur, mar-mor, mur.mur. So in

^nerbs : as, sl-eto (root sta).

H 2. From derived stems; see § 159.

W 1

r from otlier stems

ll.-SUFFIXES.

159. Stems are derived from roots c by means of suffixes. Tliese are : —

1. Primary: added to the root, or (in later times by analogy) to verb-atems. The root has either the weaker or the fiiller vowel (c£ § ii«. fl. b).

2, Secondary: added to a noun- or adj'ecdve-stem.

Botti primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronom- inal roots (S 157. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin.

NCTTE. — Tlie dislinclion between primary and secondary suffixes, nol being orig- inal (see p. 140, head-note), is constanliy lost sight of in Uie development of a lati- gui^^ Suffixes DDce primaiy are used as secondary, and those once secondary arc used as primary. Thus In hoeticuB (taoBti -v cus) the suffix -cob. originally ka (see j 160, A) primary, as in paucua, has hetorae secondary, and is thus regularly used lo toim derivatives; but in pudlcuB, apriCUB, it is treated as primary again, because these words were really or apparently connected with verbs. So in English -aili was borrowed as a primary suffix, but also make^i ibrms like tluiiaile, lalailt: -some is properly a secondary suffix, as in toilsome, ianesomt, bnl makes also such words as meddUsome, T'en/aresome.

X. Primary Suffices.

160. Tlie words in Latin formed immediately from tlie root by means of Primary suflSxes, are few.

a. Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by the addition of other suffixes, as wc might make an adjective lone-ly-soiiie-ish, meaning nothing more than lone, lonely, or lonesome.

b. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compoaivi sM^i^e^ -«i:s* \ed which crowded out even the old types of AerwatTOTi-. ■&«.=. —

I

Mif>nn<

r

142 Etymolo^: Formation of Words. [§ 160.

A word like mCoB, meiitiB, by the suffix on- (nom. -S) gave mentio. and this being divided into men-f-tiS, gave rise to a new type of abstract nouns in -ti5 (phoni:ticalIy -st5) : as, ICgStlS, embassy.

A word like auditor, by the suffix Jo- (nom. -iua), gave rise to adjectives like andltoiitiB, of which the neuter is used to denote the place where the action of the verb is performed. Hence torlo- (1 -tOrlnm), m., becomes a regular suffix (% 164. i. ;).

So in English such a word as mechanically gives a suffix making telegraphically, though there b no such word as telegraphicalt

£. Examples of primary suffixes are : — I. Vowel suffixes : —

a,' found in nouns and adJEclives of a- and o-stctns, as a vagUB, acriba, toga (root TE<:).

i, less common, and in Latin f[e<iuently changed, as in rapes, or lost, as in scoha (acobia, root scab).

U, dinguised in most adjectives by an additional i, qs in sua-vis (for tBD&dns, cf, ifiit), ten-nia (root ten in tendo), and remaining alone only in nouns of the fourth declension, as aooa (root AK, iharf, in acer, aciea, ixiii), pecQ (root PAC, bind, in paciaoor).

z Suffixes with a consonant: —

n. ta (in the form to-) in (he regular perfect passive participle, as tectas, tectum; sometimes with an sclive sense, as in p5t(ls, pranaua: aod found in a few words not recognized as participles, as putns (cf. pu- ma), altos (aid). R. ti in abstracts and rarely in nouns of agency, as meBsia, vestis, para,

mens. But in many the i is lost. 7. tn in abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as

actoB, luctns. !. na, forming perfect participles in other languages, and in Latin making adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become noum, as magnna (= mactns, root MA<;), plenna, regnum. t. ui, in nouns of agency and adjectives, as ignis, aegnia. <

i. nn, rare, as in manue, tdnns. ^ft

Tj. ma with various meanings, as in animua, ahnua, firmna, formft. ^B B. va (commonly W0-) with on active or passive meaning, as in eqniu^

armm, oSnapicnua, exigaua, racTvaa (vacuna). t. ra (or la, a passive parlicii^le termination in other languages), 'usually

§^ 160-«2,]

Signi/icant Endings.

143 ^

«. ya (fbnnlng gemndivea in other languages) , in adjecliv

indtidlng many of Ihe lirst and fifth declensions, iia e)

Florentia, pemicies. A. ka, sometimes primary, as in paatn (if. i-aCpm), locus (for stlocas). 1

In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a

nant-stem: as, apex, cortex, loqaax. li. an (ia-, &a-), in nouns of agency and absiiacts: as, aBpergo, co:

(-Inia), gero (-dnia). v. man (men- : also used in (he form men- as a conscious derivative) I

expressing MtANS, often passing into the action itself:

finmen, i- tar, forming nonns of AGENCV: as, pater (i.e. froletlor), liitet I

(Le. mpporlsr), orator. a. tnt, forming nonns of MEANS : as, claUBtmm, molctnim, ir. tM (sometimes phonetically changed into er-, or-), forming n

actions : as, genua, furor. p. ant, forming ac

The above, with some sidiixes given below, belong to the Indo- ! iEuropean parent speech, and most of thern were not felt as living for- j s in the Latin,

2. SigDiflcont Endlnga. 161. Both primary and seconiiary suffixes, especially in fthe form o£ compound suffixes, were used in Latin with more or less consciousness of their meaning. They may therefore be called Significant Endings.

They form : i . Nouns of Agency ; 2. Names of Action ; 3. Adjectives (active or passive).

Ill.-DERIVATION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

1, Nouns of Agency.

162. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or

w-r of an action^ But they include many words in which

3ae idea of agency has entirely faded out, and also many

(rords used as adjectives. Their significant endings are : —

ir (-8or), M., -titE, F., added torootaor vetb-&tftta&^

' or i&er of an action.

144 Etymology : Fontiation of Words, [gj 162, ]

cans, sing (can, supine toanttim); cantor, singtr; oantrlz, ji

vino& (vie, supine victum), conquer: victor, Tictrti,^oHy»CT {victorious).

tondeS, shear (tond as root, sup. tonaum) : tSnsor, tonati' hair-cutter.

pets, seek (petl- as stem, sup. petJtttm) : petltor, candidate.

sen&tor (lost verb JBenS, -Sre), senator.

By aaalogy -tor is sometimes added to noun-stems, but these n >e stems of lost verbs (ef. senStor above) ; as, viator, traveller, from via, vay (but cf, invio).

Note i. — The terminalion -tor {-Bor) has ihe same phonetic change as llic supine ending -tum (-sum) (p. isi. 3I, and is added to the same form of root or verb-slein as that ending (see ^ 125),

Note 9. — The feminine form is atwaj^ -triz. Masculines in -aor lad feminine, except sxpvilsor (expultiiz) and tSuaor (CSnatrix).

Note 3. — tor is aji inherited tentiinaiion (ct f, p. 143). The feminine is*. further fbrmalion in -oa which has lost its final vowel (cf. { 16a. A).

b. t- (originally ta-, cf. § 160. a), C, added to verb-stems making nouns in -e» (-itie, -eOa, stem -it-, -ot-) descriptive of a character:

miles (verb-stem mile-, as in mills, thousand), a soldier (i

the crowd). tegea (verb-stem tege-, cf. tegS, cirver). a coverer, a mat. comes, -itis (con- and med,£ii, cf. ttSmea, aBmita), a comfianioM. c. -o (gen. -onifl, stem on-), u., added to stems conceii'ed verb-stems (but perhaps originally noun-stems) to indicate a person employed in some specific art or trade : as, —

gerS (ges in ^ttS, gerere, carry, but compare -ger

{squire), a carrier. com-bib5 (BIB as root in bibS, bibere, drink), a pot-compi

also used to fiarm many nouns descripdve erf per-

1^

2. Names of Actiona. 163< Names of Actions are confused, through their suffixes, with real abstract nouns and nouns denoting means and instruments. They are derived (1) apparently or really from roots and verb-stems {firimary) or (2) from noun-stems (s^^ondat^.

Names of Aclions.

I. Significant endings giving real or apparent primary 1 formations are: —

a. -or (at. 5r-, earlier 5b-), h., -8s (gen. -ia, st. i-, earlier ea-), F., (st. es-, earlier 68- or OB-), n., added to roata or forms conceive!

timeB._/^itr; tlm-or, dread.

aedeS, siti aCd-fis, seat,

decet, it is dicomiiig; deo-uB, grace, beauty.

jfaelnS (old form of faoio, do) ; facin-aa, a deed.

Note. — Many nouns of Ihis class are formed by airalogy from imaginary rt ■s, factnus above (from a supposed cool PAC[N).

b. -ia (sL i6n-), -tia (st. tion-}, -tara (st tfltS-), F-, -tus (st tu-), M., ( (phonetically -8i6, -sSra, -sua), apparently added to roots or verb- i stems, making verbal abstracts which easily pass into concretes.

leeSjgaiier, enroll; leg-ifi, a legion (originally, the annual conscription),

regS, direct; reg-i6, a direction, a region.

iDserS (sa), implant; Zaai-tlG, grafting.

voo5, call; Tooa-tl3, a calling.

molior, toil; mSlI-tifi, a toiling.

pingS (fig), paint; pio-tflxa, a painting.

BBntiS,/cel; afia-sua (for aent-tus, § ii. a. ■£), perception.

fruor, enjoy (for ffruguor) ; frilc-tuB, enjoy mettt, fruit.

NOTEl. — tlO, -tCras -tuB are added to roots or Terb-stEma precisely as -tor, with the same pbonelic change. Hence they are conveniently associated with the supine stem (see p. lai). They sometinies form nouns when there is no corre- sponding verb in uw : as, aenatua, unatt (ct senoi) ; mectlO, mintion (e£ mens); fetnrs, offspthig (d. (6tU8); lltterftttira, iUcruture (dL, Utterae) ; cOuBulatus, coHiutship (cC consul).

Note a, — Oftheseeodinga, -tua was originally primary (cf; § i6d. t) ; -10 is a compound formed by adding On- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally 1) ; as, dlclO (of, -dlcus nnd diets) ; -tiO is a compound formed by adding On- lo slems in tl-: as, pradatlO (cf. gradBtlm) ; -tOra. is formed by adding -ra, feminine of-ruB. lo stems In tu-: as. aafOra from n5tua; atatflra from Status (gf. flg'flra.,of like meaning, from a simple u-slem, tflBU-a; and matOrus, MfttOta).

c. -men, -mentum, -mSnium, N., -monia, f., apparently added to roots or verb-stems to denote acts, or means and results of acts,

AG, root of agS, lead; Sg-men, line of march.

wgl- (stem seen in tegS, direct) ; 5 ^^^-'^^'^^ "'^'^■

< regi-mentum, rule. So oola-men, pillar; mC-men, movement; nfi-men, namt. fruor, enjoy; txtk-Taentvaa, grain. teator, witness ; tesU-manluni, testimony. , queror. e^i/ijt/ar'n ; qiieri-infinia, complaint (bulMetiiV^,

146 Etymology: Formation of Words. [§ 163.

Abo flS-men (m.), a priest (from flS, blow, in reference to the sacri- ficial fire).

Remark : 'mSnlum and ~in6nia are also used as secondary, fonn- ing nouns from other nouns and from adjectives; as, sanoti-inonia, siai£tily (sanctnB, holy) ; mStri-moiiiuin, marriage (mater, mother).

Note. — Of these endinES. -men b primary (cf. } funherdevelopmeni of-men made by adding to-, and appears for Ihr laler in the language lha.n -taan ; as, mSniGn. movement (Lucr.) ; m (later). So elemeDtum. Is a developmenl from L-M-N-a, l-m-n's [letters of the siphabel), changed to elemeata along with other nouns !□ -men. -mSnlum and -mCnla are componnd secondary suf&ies formed from mo-, as in the series etao.-aa, fosttrin^ ; AlmSn, a river near Rome; allmOnia, support. But the last was formed from olC later, when -mSnia had become established as a sup- posed primary suthx.

d. -bulnm, -oalum, -brum, -orum, -trum, N., added to verb-stems or roots (rarely to noun-stems), to detiote means or INSTRUMENT : as, —

pSsco, feed i p5-bulum,/(fi/rfir.

Hto, stand; sta-bnlum, stall.

tua (gen. tiiris), incense j turi-bulum, a cittser.

TOoB, ealli vooS-bolum, a name, a "word.

lateS, kidti lati-bnlum, hiding-place.

veli5, carry i vehl-colum, ■uiagon.

•pia, purify \ pl3-culum, an expiatio/t.

cerno (orBvI), sift\ crl-bmm, sieve.

flO, blowi fla-bra (p!.), blasts.

candfila, a candle; candeia-brum, a candlestick.

ambuIO, -walki ^xnXixH^-crrxTa., place for walking.

sepellS, bury\ sepul-crum, tomb.

Bimvlo, pretend; BimulS-crttm, image,

claudfi, s^ut; clans-trum, a bar.

aiS, /plough; aii-trara, a plough.

A few Masculines and Feminines of the same fo nouns and adjectives : as, —

for, speak; ^-bula, tale.

ndeS, laugh; ridi-oulna, laughable.

faoiS, make; fa-ber, smith.

Ia.te5, hide; late-bra, hidingplace.

terC, bore; tere-bra, auger.

mnlgefi, miUt ; mfllc-ti'a, milk-pail.

ItrS, burn; Ano-ter, South wind.

Note. — These arc no doubt compound nomlaa] suffixes, bo- + 10-, eo- + Ia-, bo- 4- ro-, CO' + ro-, to- + ro-, but the series cannot be distinctly made out. They had became fully welded into independent su!&i.es\ic\oveftie\MWjra3!iv««>i

Toation occur as

1

Abstract Nouiis, 147

2. Significant endings entirely secondary forming Ab- ttract nouns are: —

t. -ia, -tia (-iSB, -tiBs), -tito, -tua, -tfldo, F., added to adjective stems and a few to nouns. So -do and -gS, p., but associated with verbs, and apparently added to verb-stems. Thus: —

aud^ bsld; audSc-ia, An/aJHwj. So fld11c-ia,c«4)!ij!»i« (ffiailx}.

prOdena, -wise; 'pi^&on-ti.a, wisdom.

BupBihuB, ^roKd i BMpeib-ia., ^iJg.

bbtiB, sad; trlsti-tia, sadness.

panper, poori pauper-iCs, poverty.

aSgnis, lazy; sSgni-tiSe, lashiess,

l>onjia,good; boDi-tiB, gotjdtt^s.

c/tria, tithen ; clvi-tas, diizcnship.

Benex, eld; senec-tuB, agg,

■5I11H, alone% iSli-tfidS, solitudt.

dulols, sweet ; dnlcC-dS, sweetness (probably from a lost stem duloS-, cf. dolcS-BcS).

cnpIS, I desire 'i cupl-dfl (as if from stem cnpl-, cf. oupT-vi).

ImnbuB, the loin} lumb3-go, lumbago (as if from fItimbS, -are),

plumbum, leadf plumbS-go, black kad.

robna, bramble (red bush) ; lUbl-gS, rust (redness).

prfiiio, itch ; pratf-gS, itching.

albuH, white; albfl-gO, a disease of the eyes (whiteness, as it from I falbuB).

I Stems ending in o- or 4- lose these vowels before -la (as snperb-la), r and change them to i before -tSs, -tfls, -tta (as boui-tSB, above).

Consonant-stems often insert -i before -tSa : as, loquSx (stem loqnac-), loquSci-tSs ; but honea-t5a, mSies-tSa (as if from old ad- jectives in -ea), ttber-taa, Tolnp-taa, o after i is changed to e: as, piuB (stem pio-), pie-t3a ; Hooiua, aooie-taa (see § 1 1, e).

Note. — Of these, -la b inheriled aa secondary (cf. { 160. k) ; -tla is formed by adding -la to slems v-iih s. tsuflixi as, sdlltla, from mfiea (s). ndllt-) ; molestla from OiolestuB; dementia from Clemens; whence by analogy, mall-tla, avftri-tia. -t&a Is inheriled, but its component parts, ta,- + tl-, are found as suf&xes in the same sense: as, senecta from senex; sgmen-tis from Bfimen. -tils Is tU- + tt-, ct aervltQ-da. -dfl and -gS oppour only with long vowels, asfi-om verb-stems, by 3 false analogy; but -dfl is do-t On-; ss.cupidue, cupldS; gravidua, ffravSdS (cf. gravS-scO): albldus, albedO (ct albe-acO) ; fonnlduB, hoi, formldS (cf. fOnnldulCsus), (iofJlaiAf) fiar; •e^ is possibly co- -t- Bn-; ct vora^x. vorag-S, but ct CethSg-ua. -tDd5 is compounded of -dfl with tu-slems. which acquire a long vowel from associalion with verb-stems in a- (cf.VDinmen, from VOlVfl); as. c6tlBViStt-fiB ,'Vb^\^ I fiS, bablta-dS, BoUlolta-dQ ; whence BervltUdfi (,cl.&eir>iV'C^B,-VU:^.

1

M

148 Etymology: Formation of Words. [§§163,

J. -ium, -Hum, added to noun- and perhaps verb-stems, forming neuter abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting offices and GROUPS: as, —

liDBpes (gen. boBpit-ie), aguestf hospit-imn, hospitalily, a» inn.

aarvus, a slave ; aervi-timn, slavery, the slave class.

coliega, a colleague i coliee-iiun, colleagaeship, a college.

auapex, a soothsayer; auapic-ium, soothsaying, an omen.

^onAeo, rejoice; g^ud-ium./y.

benefacio, be/iefil; benefio-ium, a kindness (but cf. benefious).

de-BiderO, miss (from fdB-aidBs, out 0/ place, of missing soldiers) ; deaider-ium, longing.

effugiS, escape; effag-ium, an escape (cf, profugua).

ad verbum, [added] to a verS; adverb-ium, an adoeri.

inter Iflnaa, ielween moons ; interlim-ium, time of new moon.

rSgIa i.-as^,fliglit of a king; r§gifue-lum,y?^:W of kings.

Vowel-steina lose their vowel before -Ium, as colieg-lam, from oollSga.

-Note. — Imn, neuletof-IUB() 164.^), -la (c£i), is an Inherited primary suffii {cf. } 160. «), bill is used with grcal freedom as secondary; -tlum is formed liltc -tia, by adding -ium lo siems wilh t: as, esdt-ium, eQult-lujn (cf. exitua, equltSa) ; so, by analogy, calvl-tlum, eerv!-tlum (from calvus, Horvua).

g. Less commonly -iiia,F,, -niani, -linm, -ciniam, N., added to aoun- slems, but confused with verb-stems: as, — ^^

peoil, cattle; pecfl-nia, money (chattels). ^^H

contJcescB, hush ; contici'iilniii, the hush of night ^^H

(ox^eS, increase ; auzi-lium, ^ir/^. ^^1

pecQ, cattle; pecfi-lium, private property (cf. poefilor, implying a

noun tpecaium). IStrS, robber; IStrO-cinitun, robbery (cf. lattOciuor, rob, implying

an adj, -flatrdcinuB),

3. AdJeoUves. 104. Derivative adjectives are Nominal (from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots or verb-stems). Their significant endings are : — J, NoinNAi. a. •olns (■a.-uin) (afteravowet-olti8).-culiu,-elliu,-llliiB, making an important class of adjectives, which are usually appropriated to one gender, that of the Primitive, and used as DlMlSinVJ^'Sovss-. a&,—

§ 164.] Nominal Adjectives.

iTrns, a brook j rlr-ulua, a streamlet.

gladioa, a sword; gladi-oliiB, a small siuord.

filina, a son; fni-olaa, a little son.

(Ilia, a daughter; HU-ola, a little daughter

Sbrium, a hall; Btrl'Olom, a little hull.

boms, a man ; bomtm-culiis, a dwarf.

aoriB, an ear ; auri-cula, a little ear.

mflnnfi, S., a gift; mOiJUB-cnliim, a little gift.

fpiiGra (cf. puer, a boy) ; puella (for fpuer-ula), a girl.

cSdex, a block ; oSdlo-ilU, ■u/riting-tablets.

miser, -a/retched; miB-elluB, rather -wretched.

liber, a took; lib-ellus, a little book.

aureus (-a, -um), gulden i aure-olus (-a, -um), golden.

parvus (-a, -um), little; parr-olufl (later parv-iilua), very small. '

mSior (old ra&iSa), greater { mfiiua-oulua, somewhat larger.

Note i. — These are all formed by adding JU8 (originally -rua, cf. } i6o. i> lo various stems, torming adjectives. The formadon is the same as that oF -ulua in /below. But these words became settled as diminulives, and relaired their con- Jicclion with nouns. So in English the diminutives w/tUisi, rtdiish, are of thesamo formation as iookisK and snafpah. -cuius comes from -lus added to adjectives in-cus formedfrom stems Inn- and H-: as, luvan-cus, Aupun-cuB (cf.Aurun- CUlSius), pria-CUfl, whence the C« becomes a part of the termination, End the whole ending is used elsewhere, but mostly with n- and 6-stems. in accordance with its origin.

Note a.— Diminutives are often used to express nffeclion.plly. or contempt: as, dellciolae, lUttt fet; mulleroiila, apoar (feeble) ■ummait; bomunoulua, wretchtd man.

Remark: -ci5, added to steins in n-, has the same diminutive force, but is added to masculines only: as, lioimin-ci6, a dwarf (bom homS,

b. -Bd6s, M., -aa, F., -idea, -IdSs, m., -is, -6iB, F, -*u«. -ous, m., added to proper names, forming Patronymics to indicate descent or relationship.

These, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all Ijecome nouns

Tyndareas : Tyndar-ldSs, Caster or Pollux; Tyndar-lfl, Helen,

daughter of Tyndarus. AOas : Atlaati-adSs, Mercury t AtlanU-adSs (Gr. pi.), the Pleiads. Sclpio : Scipi-adSB, son ofScipio. AnchlaSs : Aiichisi-adea, jEneas. Theseus : ThSs-IdBa, soti of Theseus, Tyaeas :Tyd-IctSa, D/omedes, son of J^deus, ■ OHeaa: AJSx OnSua, son of Oileui. ^^^

I

150 Etymology: Formation of Words.

TliaumSs: Ttaaumautl-Ss, Iris^ daughter of Thaumas. Hesperus: Hesper-ides (from Hesper-is, -idla), f. pi., the daughters of Hesperus, the Hesperides.

c. -Sniia, •SnUB, -inus; -Sb, -SubIb, -acus (-Sjdiih), -icuH ; -6ns (generally shortened to -Sub), -Eius, -iciuB, forming adjectives with

mons (st. monti-), mountain\ mont-anua, of the mountains.

vetuB (st. voter-), old\ veter-BmiB, veteran.

ante lilcem, before light; cLateluc-aiiuB, before daylight,

egeo, lack\ eg-Snus, needy (see note below).

terra, earth ; terr-SnuB, earthly.

sSruE, late; aer-Bmia, calm (of evening stillness).

colliB, hi/l; ooll-lniis, a/a hill.

Atvne,god; dlv-InuB, divine.

llbertUB, ott^s freedman ; libart-Inua, of the class offreedmen.

vituluB, a calfi vitul-iua (sc. car5), veal,

qulB, -wkof c<U-5b, of 'what country f

IntimuB, lowest; Infim-aa, of the lowest rank.

forum, a tnarket-plaee; for-Susia, of a niarket-piac,

uiBTum., pure ■a/ine ; mmi-iaaB, pure.

olvia, a citizen ; eiv-lcua, civic, of a citizen.

fulia, afuller; fuUSn-icua, of a fuller.

femiua, a woman % fSmlu-eua, of a worn

ISo, milk (st. lactl-) ; lact-euB, milky.

piebSa, the commons ; pieb-eiuB, oft/ie commons, plebeian.

■pAX,ei, father ; patr-ioius, patrician.

2. But especially from proper nouns (names of places, peoplt persons), denoting belonging to or coming from: as,— RCma : R5m-3nua, Roman. Bulla: Sull-BinS, Sulla's veterans. CyaicuB: Cjzic-Snl, CysiceKes, people of Cyzicuj. Liguria: lAgar-inua, of /Jgiiria. Arplaum: Arpin-Sa, of Arpinum (cf, Samnium: Sanmli

-itlB, a Samnile). Slotlia : Siclll-6iiaia, Sicilian. Iliuin, Troyi Ili-acus, Trojan (a Greek form). FlatO: PiatSn-Icus, Platonic. A.quila ! A.quil-Biua, a iioman name \ AcL\:^SYa., a town in

«,fi

l.h

5 164,] Nominal Adjectives. igr I

3. Many derivative adjectives with these endings have by usage become nouns. Thus, —

Bilva, Wii0(/j; Silv-anna, K., a god 0/ tlie ivootls.

membrum. limb; membr-Sna, F., stilt.

Aemilia (gSiia) ; Aemili-^uB, m., fiaiiie ofSdpio Afric

laniiiB, butcher i ISnl-Sna, F., a butcher's stall.

I Aufidius (Anfidos), m. ; Aufidl-Eaos, a Roman name.

Incola, an inhabitant % inquil-Inue, m., a lodger.

oaecus, bHnd\ Caeo-Ina, used as M., a Roman name.

galluB. a cock; gall-tna, f., a hen.

raS./all (no noun existing) j m-Ina, f,, a/all.

doctor, teacher^ dootr-Lia, f., learning.

Note. — Of Ihese terminatians, Anus, ^BtiuB, -InuB are compounded from -nus added to a. slem-vowel : as.arco, arc&nus; colliB. colIlnuB. The long vowels come from a coiiKisioawilbierI>slem3.asinpIg-iius, tlnl-tua, trlbQ-tUB, Bssisled by the noun-slem in &•: oa, BPcanuB, A few nouns occur of similar formation, as from verb-slems in S- (which were lost in tat later language) and in 0-: aa, colflnua (col9, c£ Incola). patrOmia (cf. patrS, -are), trlbtliiuB (o£ trIboO. trltniB),Portanua{c£,portua), VacOaa (ct vacC, vacuus).

d. -aito, -SriB, .eiia, -Ilia, --Qlifl, -nus, PERTAINING TO, of various modes airelation ox possession, but not used as Gentile adjectives : as,

nStOia, nature; nitur-aila, natural.

popaloB, a people I fap-al-iiiB,/ellow-coiitUryman.

patraaa, uncle; patTU-Slls, caitsin.

hoBtla, an enemy i boat-IUB, hostile.

cuiros, chariot i Bella cur-OUs, mruU chair.

vfir, spring; vBr-nuB, vernal.

Note. — nus is inheriied (cf. J 160, B) and used as secondary. The others ^ax weakened forms of ra- ({ 160. i) added lo various vowcl-slenis. The long

'el comes partly from confusion with verb-stems, cf. Aprilia (apertO), odHUs

10), and the suffix is afterwards used indiscriminately, as in bqhIUb (eenez).

-ter (-tris), -ester (-BBtrls), -tlmus, -emus, -urnus, -terniui (-tumuB), BELONGING TO, ol piocts, Hmes, and the like (but some are general adjectives).

paltlB, a tnarsA; pallU-ter, e/ the marshes.

^eA^a, a footman i peAea'toi, 0/ the Jbot.

■extnSnsSe, six months; sSmH-tria, semi-annual.

stlvB, a wood; sllv-eater, ellT-eBtris, -woody.

flniB, an endi flnl-tlmus, neighboring, on the borders.

Lert (old ^^fX), yesto'day ; tiBS-ternuB, of yesterday.

dlO, lang(S^ time), diflturnnfl, lasting.

hodlB. tff-dayi haSi-exaMo, ofto-^iy,

OiSm, dajfi dt-arauM, e&iify.

1 52 Etymology: Fonnation of Words. [§ in

rNoTK — Of these, -ester is formed by adding trl- (cf. tro-, § 160) 10 s Id I- or d- (phonciically B-). Thus pedet-trl- becomes pedestri-, and o follow ihe analogy, -emus and -urnas are formed by adding -dus 10 s-si as, dlur-nua (for tdlue-nus), and hence, by analogy, hodiemuH (hodiS].

f. -Itua, -ItuH. -atua, PROVIDED WITH, making adjectives partidpial ending, fotmed from nouns, but in reference to an imaginary verb-stem (cf. tlie English Iwrned, crested, kooked).

baiba, a beard; barb-Staa, bearded.

amla, an ear; aur-itua, long-eared.

Teraua, a lurningi vorB-utuB, crafty, adroit (flill of turns).

So -tua, added direcdy to nouns witliout reference lo any verb :

fGsiiB, death; fOnea-tua, deadly.

honor, kenor; honea-tnia, honorable.

fa.-vot, favor; faua-tus {(or ^ia-v ea-toB), favorable.

g, -ens, -ina, -Sceua, -Iciua, -aneua (neua), -ticna, made BELONGING TO, forming adjectives of very various meanings; as,-

a.-ai-ax&, gold i «ox-ti\i%, golden.

pater, a father; •p^.tz-ma, paternal.

uxor, a laife i uzSr-lua, uxorious.

xoaa, a rose; roa-aoeua, of roses.

later, a brick; latei-Iolus, of brick.

piaeaioM, present ; praesell^&l]eus, operating instantly.

extrS, ■without; extt-Sneua, external.

anb teirEl, underground; subterr-Sneua, subterranean.

iiillK, •aiillmv; sallg-neus, of willow,

Toia,^; vQ\S.-ticaB, winged (yalStoE, ajlighf).

domus, a house; domea-Ucua, ofihs house, dameslk.

■ilva, a wood; allva.-ticuB, sylvan.

Note. — iua Is originally primilive (f 160. k) ; -tcius and -ftoeuB are formed by adding -iua and -sua lo stems in I-C-, 5-0- (suflii CO-, oiig. ka-, } 160. X) ; -eus corresponds to Greek -not, -»o!, and has lost A y-sound (cf. ya~, } 160. '). -neua is no- + -eus (} 160, S) ; -fiaeus is [ormed by adding -neiia fo &-siems. For -tlous, see { 159. n,

h. -Arina, -tCiiua (-BCilua), BELONGING TO, making [tiaoy adjectives often fixed as nouns (see i).

firdS, rant, order; Srdln-Srlus, regidar.

■rgeiitum, silver ; argeatatlua, of silver or monef.

extrK, outside; extr-ariua, stranger.

merituB, earned; merl-tSriua, profitable.

A%vonua, turned aside; dSvor-aorina, i^<j« wi« (cf. t. s)- fiOTB.—Hen! -tua (f ifo. 1) is addf:dloslnineiio™!,m-to\*ai.a-W. »i, JtVoatOMua (from peoQ114riB). beUitOrtua ltrom\)eA»,«(rV

try

1 I

Nominal Adjectives.

'. Many fixed forms of the above adjective suffixes make noi e or less regularly used ia particular senses : as, — '. -Srlus (regular), /wjow employed about anything: as, — argent-Sriua, sil-uersmith, broker (from argeutum.).

2. 'Srla, thing connected with something: — aten-firiae, f. pi., sandpits (from arfina, sand). Aaln-arla, p., name of a play (from asinua, ass).

3. -3x111111 (regular), //a« 0/ a thing (with a few of more gen neaning): as,—

Ber-firiam, N., treasury (from aei, eopper) tepid-axinm, n., warm bath (from tepiduB, warm). Bild-&Tiaiii, N., a towel (cf. BddS, -are, sweat), sal-3Tiiim, N., saU money, salary (from aSl, salt). calend-Siinm, n., a note-book (frora oalendae, calends).

4. -toria (-B5ria) : as, —

Agita-tSrla, f., aplay of Plautus, The Carter (from agitator). Tor^Eoria, f., a tack (from voiHua, a turn).

5. -tSrium (-aorium) (regular), //^t^^ of action (with a few of n ' general meaniug): as, —

aSvor-BSrium, n., an inn (as from dSvorto, turn aside) aadl-toiium, n., a lecture-room (as from audiS, hear). ten-tBrium, u., a tent (as from teado, stretch). tSc-tfirium, n., plaster (as frora tego, tfiotua, caver). por-tdiium, n., toll (cf. portC, carry, and portua, harbor),

6. -De, animal-stall: as, —

boT-He, N., cattle-stall (bSa, bSvls, ox, com). ov-De, sheep/old (ovia, st. ovi-, sheep).

7. -9X (or -Sle, thing connected with '^tpTmi\^\\e: as,— capital, Nt headdress, capital crime (caput, head). penetr-aie (esp. in pi.), N., inner apartment (cf penetrB). Satnm-aiia S. pi, (the regular form for names of festivals), feasi \

of Saturn (from BSturntis).

8. -Etnm, K. (cf. -fitus. -tttua, %iQ f), place of a thing: as,— qaBTC-Btaia, n., cakgrove (from querouB, ooM).

^T^l-etam, AT., Tke Clay-fiit (from argilla, ciay"J.

154

Etymology : formation of Words.

9. -oua (sometimes with inserted i, genders, with various meanings : as, —

vlH-cuB, M., Tlll-oa, F., a steward (stewardtis) (fr

haitse). fabr-ioa, F., a workshop (frc bflbul-cnB, M., ox-tender (fr cant-icnin, n., song (from 01 mbr-Ica, F., red paint (iron 10, -euB, -oa, -eum, with varii alv-eua, m., a trough (ft

n faber, ■workman'). m bflb-ulna, dim., cf. boa, ca). QtuB, act of singing'). ruber, red). us meanings: as, — alvuB, the belly).

e (from caper, he-goai).

a bridal'veil (from flamma, _^aOTf, from its color).

1 1, -ium, confounded with the primary suffix (see % 163. y).

12. -ter (stem tro-) and -ter {stem tri-), -aster -eater: as,— AuB-ter, M., South •wind (from firo, burn),

eques-ter, M., knight (for -j-equet-ter, see e, note).

sequ-ester, M., a staie-holder (from derivative of BBquor.yo/foTf).

ole-aater, M., wild olive (from olea) (cf, surd-aster, from stirdoa),!

k. -5sus, -{o)15na, -(o)lentus, full of, prone to : as

flflotUH, wave\ flOctu-oans, billowy.

forma, beauty \ form-oaua, beautiful.

periculum, ^^n/; ■peiic-al.-Qa-aB, full of danger.

paaUA, pest ; peati-lSaB, peafA-leatMe, pestilent.

vlnuiu, vn'fte; Tlno-lentus, viu-oaus, given to drink,

II. Verbal.

/, -Bx, -IdaB, -uluB, -voa (-uus, -Iths, -Hvna), frqne TO, fitted TO, apparently' added to verb-stems, forming adjectives, to express the action of a verb as a quality or tendency. -5x, denotes a faulty or aggressive (endency; -tlvua is oftener^aj-j-/7«. Thus, — '

pQgaS, to fight \ p^s'^-^lX^ pugnacious. fl

aodefi, to darei aud-Sz, bold. 1

cuplS, to desiref oup-idua, eager.

bibS, to drink; bib-ulua, thirsty (as dry earth, etc).

prOterC, to trampU; proter-voa, violent, -wanton.

DooeO, do harm; noc-uus (noc-Ivua), hurtful, injurious.

oaplS, take; cap-tlvua, captive^ M., a prisoner of war.

TBoida, fall back i recld-Ivua, restored. ' The forms felt as verbat are, like the nominal lotms, dentci ininiTiQui«'«ta, coiutaiill/ confounded.

I

I

Verbal Adjectives. ISJ

Note. — Of Ihese, -axisareducllonof-acua (slem-VDwcl ft- + -cub), become independent and used with veib-slenis, Similnr fornis in -Sx, -fix, -Vs., and -Hz ue found jt i.nplLd in derivatives: ag, imbrex, M^ a rain-tile (from Imber) ; senex, eldifiom senl-e); leiOx, JSera {from forua); atrSi, savofr (from Bter. ilaci) : CelSx, F., a^acit (ct CellO) ; fSHi, Aa/tfy, ong. firlile (from fSUJ, tuci [?]) ; ndflcia, F., canfidiitce (aa from tfldOi); cfL aiso Victrii (from Victor). So mandQcnlB, cAnoing (ham mandS).

-idUB i; no doubt denominative, aa in berbl-dilB,^rj/ \,MToi6MB, swolltn (dl tumu-luB, Ai//; t\ua-al-taB,tiproaT); CBSHiMa, loagi, cunning {d. callum, laugh JUsh) ; mllci-duB, i/iai^ (cCnmQUS.j/iiRir); t&blduB, n«i//i^ (ct t&b6B, waning disime). But later it was used to form adjectives directly from verb-stems.

-iilUB Is the same suffin as in diminutives, but attached to verb-stems. Ct aemtiliiB, HvaUiiig (ct bnltor and imigS) ; BSdiilna, tilling by, eltcniivt (cf. doml-BBda, ^flffir-i'ay/'^. and aSdS, calm) ; penduluB. ;{i»,;i>^(ctpond8, abl., IB v)eight; perpBUdictllum, a plummet; appendix, an addition) ; strSgtilua, fffMi-Wjf (ct Btrftg-Sa) ; legulus, o^riiO,;r(cf.sftcr!-IegiiB, o/iirifrii^otlhings sacred). But they were thoroughly attached to verbs.

-VU8 seems originally primary (cf. { i6q. e),bul-Ivwsand -tlvua have become secondary and are used wilh nouns: as, aeatlvua, cf summer (from aeatiie, heal) ; tempeaijvua, limely (from tempua) ; cf. domea-tlcus (from domua).

m, 'Via, -'bUia, -lua, -tiUa, (-Bilia), expressing passive qualities, but occasionally active : as, —

frangO (frag), break} tra^-iliB, frail.

ndsco (gno), knmv^ no-bilia, well known, fa/noui,

eximS, take out., select f exim-iua, cltoice, rare (cf. e-greg-lua)

agB, drive; ag-illa, active.

hatieS, Aoldi bab-iliB, handy.

alo, nourish % al-tilis, fattened (see note) .

Note. — Of these, -lua is primary, but is also used as secondary (cf. ) 163./). -Uia Is certainly secondary: as, HimillB, liit (cL li^ot, Eng. same) \ agllla, active (ct prCdlgua, cypaTTiyh, so agO- + -Ub) ; facille, ea^ (cf. bena-flcua) ; rragilla,_i9-ovV (cE (oederl-tragua), -biila also is probably bo- + -11a (d; -bus in morbus, -butum,-buiii1iis,-brum,-brla; ctaiso-Uleand -tilla); in-tllie and -elUa, -11a is added to to- (so-), stem of the perfect participle: as, fOsBilla, rfitf Bfi (from tOssua, di^) ; voJatlUs, winged (Irom volfitua,/ifiW).

n. -minuB, -nmnB. These endings are property participial (cl. Greek -//eras, and am5-mini). They form a few nouns in which the participial force is discernible: as,—

tz. produce I fS-miua, 'woman (the producer).

ale, nourish ; alu-mnus, a foster child, Hursling.

«, 4idiiB (the same as the gerund-ending) forms a few lutivi or re- tfwiw adjectives: as,—

*equor,^/jW; seou-ndua, secanil (fi\e toWovnrt^, favoraile.

rots, whirl (from rota, wheel) ; rotu-ndua, round, ^^^w&as^y

I Compote volvendis menalbus, in ike reiiolw'g months V^'vt^^-

I

IS6 Etymology: Formation of Words. [§§164,161

Note.— Thi! sutfin Is no doubt on. + -<lU8; as, fserua (si. gcrS-, t armiger), gerB (at. e'erSa-), tBTerondua (e£. .'buiidua and -ctuidaB; turunda, a faslr-iall).

p. •bundua, -cundus, with 3. participial va&amag, but denoting « tinitanci of the act or quality,

loouB, a jest % iVl-cixnd'a.B, pleasant (cf. 1iit3, -Sre).

vlt5, shnni vltS-bundue, dodging about.

tremo, trembhi treme-bunduB, trembling.

morior, diei mori-bunduB, at the point of death.

for, speak ; fet-onndus, eloquent.

'Bi':, produce; K-cuadTiB,/ndt/i/l.

So ta, anger; Ir5-onndu8, irascible (cf. IrS-acor).

Note.— These must have been oriEinally nominal: as in the Sei red bush; rubldua (but no +rubleu9), rerf; Eubicou. A'frf A'imt ( river af Etrfria : ISiaiMa, a river of Lunlania) ; rublCunduB (as in Bverrun- CUa. hOmun-CulUB). So turba, ci>i';wo/ion,- tur' S, a top; turbidua, roily, etc. Cf. apexabS, lonK&bC, KravSdO, dulcedS,

III. Irregular Derivatives. q. The primary suffix on- (nom. -6) is used as secondary to form nouns denoting posskssed of (originally adjectives), and so expressing a character, and often used s,% proper namesi^ as, — opulae, a feast; epal-3, afeaster.

ii9bus, a nose; nas-S, ■aiilh a large nose (also as a proper name). -ToluH (In bene-volua), wishitig; vol-finSa (pi.), volunteers, IrGoB, forehead; front-5, big-head (also as a proper name). So oiitia, a curia; oilri-o, head of a curia (also as proper name), isBtiB, a rope; resti-o, a rope-maker, fveapertHiB, of the evening; veapertlli-B, a bat. r. Rarely suffixes are added to compound stems imagined, but not' used In their compound form: as, —

ad-veib'iuin, adverb; ad, to, and verbum, verb, but without the

intervening fadveibus. l%tl-fund-ium, large estate; IStUB, tvide, funduB, estate. Bu-ove-taur-illa, a sacrifice of a sheep, a swine, and a bull; alia, swtne, ovia, sheep, taurua, bull, where the primitive would be impossi- ble in Latin, though such formations are common in Sanskrit

IV.-DERIVATION OF VERBS. J6B. Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative.

I Thia suffix is (he same as in f 162. J, butnot cormecVedw\\iiB.ieAi.

I

IS 165, 166.]

Deiivation of Verbs,

: formed directly from as, f\ie,s., Jlighl i fugS,

I

I

, Primitive verbs are those inherited by the Latin from the parent speech.

, Derivative verbs are those formed in the development of the Latin as a separate language. They are of two main classes : —

, DENoMiNATn'E VERBS, formed from nouos or adjectives. b. Verba apparently derived from the stems of other verbs (see J 167).

1. Denominative Verbs. 166. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost eveiy form of noun- and adjective-stem.

Verbs of the first conjugation' ai regularly with a transitive meaning put tofiigkt.

Note. — No doubt originally particular forms of Elein formsd particular con-

gadons of verbs, but from changes of slem and from various cross-analogies the

elation belvcen conjugations and stem-forms became entirely confused. Thus

poena should make tpanare, but it realij makes pflnlre. in accordance with an

l-stem, as in Imptliil-a ; aervua makes aervBre in one sense, serviro In another.

Many verbs of the First Conjugation are formed fi^m o-steinSi changing the o- into S-. These are more commonly transitive. Thus, — ,

Btimuliis, agoad (stem stlmtilo-) ; stimulS (-3xe), incite,

aeqnns, even (stem aequo-) ; aequO (-5re), make even,

Iilberiiiis, of tlie winter (stem hrberno-) ; hibernO, pass the i

Blbus, white (stem albo-) ; albo (-3re), ■whiten.

pltiB, jJa« (stem pio-) ; pio (-Sre), expiate.

3. A few verbs, generally neuter, are formed by analogy from conso- nant-and n-stems, adding 3 to the stem: as, —

Ti6il,aa'<2^^; vigUe {^a),-watch.

exBul, an exile % exsuld (-Sre), be in exile.

blempa (slem hiem-), winter i hiemo {jixei), pass the winter.

aeetns, tide, seetMngi aestuo (-5re), surge, boil.

levlfl (stem levi-), light i levo (-5re), lighten.

b, A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally intransitive) are recognizable as formed from noun-stems, but most are inherited, or the primitive noun-stem is lost: as, —

conjugation are inheriled. These are (i) formed a vowel, asdfi-re (_D.\), Bt6.I6 l,?,-\K"\,Ti&te Vlif^i E6J, B9 voc&re ; 01 \X\ unceiVi

I I

I

^1 15S Etymology: Formation of Words. [§£ 16€,U^^H

^H albas, white ; albeS, be white (cE albS, -Sre, whitest under eu 3)^^^^|

^H oanoB (stem c3jio<), ^nar/; c3jie5, ^^(^izr/. ^^^|

^H tmnnlnH, i(»? (implying \ tumaa, swelling) ; tomeO, sweU, ^^^^k

^H pi5-TlduB,^^fjf<ri/r^j pio-'videQ,/ciresM. ^^^H

^1 But moneo, remind; cf. memiul, rem*mber. ^^^^k

^P algeo, jf fnit/; cf. algidos, cold. ^^^|

Note.— TliB, second conjugation has nQdoubledly been formed partly Ihrough the BEency of sterna like those of the fitlli dedension In S-, originally Ss-: as, tsordes, As, filth; SorileS, be dirty, cC Eng. iu>jr// tfibSs, -la, waiting: tabeS. wasle away (cf. also pQbSs, pQb8ac5) ; rea, tiing; reop, reckon. Bui the traces of Ihe original IbrmaJion of these verbs are almost lost from tlia

c. Some verbs in -uo, -uere are formed from noun-stems ia u- where probably an I has been lost : as, — ^^^

BtatnH, fosiiian ; etatuo, set up. ^^^^|

tzi.ti'baa,fear\ metnio. /fizA ^^^^|

Indu (old form of in). (», on\ InduS, put t/n. ^^^| So, by analogy, exnfl, do^, from ex, out of.

Note. — Many verbs in u ate inherited, being formed from looS in O: ss, fluS. fluere; ao-lvC, aolvere. Some raots have b parasitic Q: as, iDQUor, locQtua,

d. Many verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are formed from i-stemsta

molSs (-Ib), mass ; mSllor, -Ir^ toil.

HuiB, endf flnlS, -Ire, bound.

Bltls, thirst i sitiS, -Ire, thirst.

Btabllia, stablej stabilio, -Ire, establish. Some arise by confusion from other stems treated as if i-stems : a

bulla, bubble; bulli8, -Ire, boil.

conduB, storekeeper J oondio, -Txa, preserve.

InaantiB, piad; Insanlo, -ire, rave.

genW, gesture} gestiS, -Ire, shimi wild longing.

cuBtSs, guardian ; cuatSdl5, -Ire, guard.

Note. — Some of this form are of doubtful origin: as, Ordlor. i<yi>, c£ SrdS and ezOrdium. The formalion is closely akin 10 thai of verbs in -IQ of (he (bird conjugation (p, 100)

2. Verbs from Other Terba. 167. The following classes of verbs regularly derived from other verbs have special meanings connected with t£e/r terminations.

mi

of Vtrbs.

I

Inchoatives add -bcS to the present b verbs. They denote the beginning oi ^a action. Of some there b u simple verb in existence. Thus, —

cala6, be warm ; csl%^ob, grow warm.

labo, totteri Iaba-Bc5, bigtn,io toiler.

soi5, know; bcI-bcS, determine.

cupiS, desirei con-cupi-ecB, conceive a desire for.

alSj/eed; ale-Bc6, grrw.

So ba-scor, gei angry ; cf, IrS-tos.

iavene-aco , ^-ow young ; cf. iixveaiM, young man.

taIte-Bc6,grow milJi cf. mltis, mild.

vesperS-acit, it is getting late % cf. veBpei, evening.

Note. — Inceptives properly have only Ihe present stem, but many use the petfett and supine syslems of simple verbs: as, calSaco, calul; proflclacor, prof actus.

h. Intensives or Iteratives end in -t5 or -ita (rarely -95), and Acante. A forcible QT repealed zc&aa: as, —

iaclS, throw; iac-tS, hurL J

dicS, sayi dict-ita, keep on saying, H

qaatia, sAaie; quaa-sfi, shatter, ^\

They are of the first conjugation, and derived from the participle in -tua (stern fc

Note. — But they were originally denominativ

s properly denominative,

D of e)

\

tdlctStO, &oni diota.

called Meditadves, or >). These denote a ccr-

5, age, EiKltO (not-tactC) ; eo, dlctitS,

c. Another form of Intensives — vixha oi practice — ends in. -eaao (rarely tain ettergy or eagerness of action : as, —

capia, take; cap-eaao, lay /mid on.

facia, do; fao-essa. do (with energy).

peta, seek; pet-Uao, seek (eagerly).

These are of the third conjugation, usually liaving me perft

IBUpine of the fourth ; as, — lacesafi, laceeaSre, laceaalvl, laceaattam, provoke. d. Diminutives (derived from real or supposed dimw-vi'TOie. eod la -ills, and denote a feeble or pdly act\Oti

Etymology: Fonnation of Words. [§§ 167,

1

cants, st'ng; cant-illS, cii'rp or laar&le.

*. Desideratives end in -turlo C-Baii5), and express longing or kw*-' ing. They are of the fourth conjugation, and only three are la comraoQ

emS, buy; emp-turlS, want to hef.

edS, eati S-sari5, be hungry. ^

paxlS, bring forth ; par.turiS, be i» labor. I

Others are used by the dramatists. j

Note. — Desideratives are derived from i from emptor, iigier, YIbB, ^ ia in, la an

3. Camponnd 'Words.

A CompouniJ Word is one whose stem is made up of two or more simple stems.

Only noun-stems can be thus compounded. A preposition, how ever, often becomes attached to a verb.

168. New stems are formed by composition as follows ;'

a. The second part is simply added to the first: as, — Bu-ove-taurllia (sQs, ovla, tatirusj, the sacrifice of a h<fg, ihtep,

andbuU{ci.% 164. r). aepten-decim (aeptem, decern), seventeen.

b. The first part modifies the second as an adjective or adverb {Determinative Compounds) t as, —

lati-fundiiun (IStuB, fundus), a targe landed estate.

c. The first part tias the force of a case, and the second a verl>a1 force [Objective Compounds'): as, —

I In these compounds only the second pari receives InflecdDn. This U most commoni)' the proper inflection of the last stem ; but, ns lliii kind of composition is In fnct older tlian infleeiion, the compounded stem sometimes has an lliflection of ill own (as, coruloen, -ciuls; lucUer, -feil; index, -dlds), from stems not occurring in Latin. Espeeially do compound adjectives In Latin lake the form of l-s1ems : as, anlmuB, exanlmlB ; nOiTiiLa, abnOrmls (see tiote, p. 30). In composition stems iegular)y have their untnflecled form: as, tsnt-splcluln, divining iy Jlrt, But O-and K-alems weaken the fhial vovrel of the stem to 1-. as in Ul-p6s [torn Bla, si. fllft-) ; and 1- is so common a termiaation of compounded stems, thill il (s offen added to stems which do not properiy have it r as, fOAderk traruB (for ffOBder-Jragaa : toodUB, ttre.gviB'j, tnaly^rtakiiig.

i

P|g 168-70.] Compound Words. i6jj

agri-cola (ager, fcola akia to oolO), afartner.

aimi-ger (arma, \%&s akia lo gero), armor-deartr.

cornl-ceD (oorntl, -fcen akin to cano), hern-blower.

carui-fex (oard, ffex akin to faciS), executioner,

d, Compounda of the above kinds, ]n which the last word is a n acquire the sigDtficaliaii of adjectives, xntamag possessed ^tb« quali^ I denoted {Possessive Compounds'); as, —

au-p68 (aia, pSa), wing-footed.

mSgn-anlmas (magnue, oj^myM), greiU-souled,

con-cora (con-, cor), harmonious.

an-cepa (amb-, oaputj, double (having a head at both ends).

Note. — Many compounds of the above classesQppear onlyin Iheform oflorae ] ' Iher derivalive, the proper compound being ImpoSEible in Latin (c£ { 164. r).

169. In many apparent compounds, complete words — I lot stems — have grown together in speech.

These are not strictly compounds in the etyraoJogica! sense. They j are called Syidiutic Compounds. Examples

a. Compounds of faoiS, facts, with an actual or formerly existing ' noun-stem confounded with a verbal stem in e-. These are CAUSATIVE in force; as, oCnsuS-facid, habituate (cf. cSnsaS-soo, become ac- customed) \ oale-faci5, cale-facto, to lieat (cf. caI6-scd, ^O'.o warm),

h. An adverb or noun combined with a verb: as, bene-dloO (beao dlcB), to bless ; Bat-ago (aatia ago), to be busy enough,

t. Many apparent compounds of stems : as, £dl-lube6 (fidel Iv.'bKQ), io give surety t mSn-au§tii9 (manul suStus), /awi^j luppiter

I

(tJOa-pater) ; M3ici-por (Marcl puer), slave of Marcus. ^^M

d, A (ev phrases forced Into the ordinary inflections of nouns; as, — ^^|

piS-cSnanl, proconsul (for pro coaauU, instead of a consul), ^^B

^tiinm-Tir, triumvir (singular from txiuin vliSmin). ^^|

aepten-trio, the Bear, a constellation (supposed singular of aeptem ^H

txlonSB, The Seven Oxen). ^^|

170. Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefix- ^H

g a Particle to some other part of speech : — ^H

a. Prepositions are prefixed to Verbs or Adjectives. In these com- ^H

pounds the prepositions retain tlieir original adverbial

im, tr&ns, and gove (-s«^239. i. Rem.),

IT

62 Etymology: Fonnalton of Words. [§ 170.

fi, ftb, AWAY : au-ferre (ab-ferB), to take away,

ad, TO, TOWARDS ; at-tette (ad-ferS), to bring.

ante, sefoke: ante-ferre, to prefer\ ante-cellere, to excel.

olrcum, around: olromn-junnlro, to fortify completely.

oom-, eon- (oum), togetjier or forciblvj con-ferre, to bring

together i col-locSao, to set ^rm. dB, down, utterly: dB-apicere, despise^ dCstxaere, destroy. 8, ex, out: et-ferxo (eo-ler5), to carry forth, uplift. in (with verbs), in, on, against: In-ferre, to bear against. Inter, bet\veen, to piecks : inter-rumpere, to interrupt. ob, towards, to meet: of-ferre, to offers ob-veniro, to meet. ■ub, UNDER : Bub-otxnere, to build beneath. ■aper, upon, over and above: super-fluere, to overflow ^ i

i

ing

i

NOTK. — In Ihcse eompoands short B of Ihe root is weakened lol before one conionatii. to e befors tuo: as, laciC, cfliiflclfi, cflnfectus: laclO, SiciO, Blaotus. Bui long a Ii retained : as, perftctue.

k. Verbs are also compounded with the following inseparable parti- cles, which do not appear as prepositions in Latin : —

amb- (am-, an-), around: amb-&e, togo about (cf. ifi^ abauf). dla-, dl-, ASfSDER, APART ; dis-oSdere, to depart (cf, <lu5, two). por-, FORWARD: por-tendere, to Add forth, predict (cf, ponO,

rtd-^ re-, BACK, Aa«N; rod-b«, /* relumi re-clfldeie, J> (^w<

(from elands, shut) ; re-Gcete, to repair (make-again). •td-. sS^ APART ; sS-cetnfi. to stpiirate (dl sed, but). t. An Adjective is sometimes raodiSed bj an adreibial prefix. Of these, pel (less commonl)' ^i*»),veryi iib, MmtaJtati iar,mat, uc regular, and may be prefixed to almost any adjecdn: as, —

PART SECOND.— USE OF WORDS (SYNTAX).

INTRODUCTORY NOTB.

The shidy of formal grammar arose al a lale period in ihe history of language, and deals wi!h language as fully developed. The terms of Synian correspond accordingly to Ibe logical babitB of thought that have grovm up at such a period, and have therefore a. logical as well as a si mpl]' grammatical meaning. But Syntax as (hu5 developed is not essential lo latiguage^ A form of words — like 0 puerum pulcruml bA/ itaulijkl ioy—may express a thought, and in some languages might even be a sentence ; while it does not logically declare anything, and does □ot, strictly speaking, make what we call a sentence al alL

Al a very early period of spoken language. Roofs were no doubt significant in themselves, and constituted the whole of language, — just as to an in&nl the came of some &juillar object will stand for all it can say about iL At a somewhat later stage, two simple roots pot side by side' made a rudimentary form of propo- sidon : as a child might sayjf™ bright; horse run. With this be^ns the first form of Ic^cal distinction, that of Subject and Predicate; but as yet there is no dis- tinction between noun and verb either in form or function. Roots were presently specialized, or modified in meaning, by Ihe addition of other roots either pronom- inal or verbal, and Stems were formed; but the same stem could still be either nominal or verbal. In this period composition is the only form of syntax. Still later — by combination chiefly of different pronominal elements with verb-steins and with noun-stems — Inflections were developed to express /it/-jp», iense, case, and other grammatical relations,' and we have true parts of speech.

Not until language reached this last stage was there any limit lo the association of words, or any rule prescribing the manner In which they should be combined. But gradually, by custom, particular forms came to be limited to special uses, or were produced to serve those uses; and rules were established for combining words in what we now call Sentences. These rules are in part general laws or forms of thought (Logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar) ; and in pari are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language (Par/iailar Grammar), and making what Is called the SyntaK of that language.

most languages there still lemai s, for example, the nominative oi ission of the Copula (j ao6. c), > ofEUIipsis. Compare

le laarganhed forms of e^rei n Exclamations ({ 240. d), and i wrongly regarded e of Interjections generaUy.

164 Syntax: Introductory Note.

In the fully deirelaped melhods of expression lo which we are almost eiclusircly itcuWomurt, (he unit of eipression ts the Sentence'; that is, the completed slale- ment, wllh lli disdnci Subjecl and Predicate. OrigiQaily every sentence Is sioiple. But two liinple leatences may be used logether. wilhoul (he subordioatian of either, to express a more complex form of thought than can be denoted by one alone. Tills is /arfl/iwii (arranBeraeQl aideby side). In dme two sentences, thus habitu- ally used in connection, come to be regularly associated with each other, in certain reladoni, as parts of one logical idea, and the one is felt to dtpind upon the other. 'Hiis Is sytilaxii (arrangement together). In this way, through various courses ot dcvelopinen(, which correspond lo the growth of our habitual forms of thought, there are produced various forms of camflcr seattncis. Thus timeS He Id aooldat was originally two simple sentences: Jfiar. Lit Ikai not happen! and Iheie, becoming attached, formed the complex sentence: I /ear (lest) thai wac AaffiH, The results of these processes constitute the subject-matter of Syntax as shown in the annexed Oudine.

I. A Sentence may be elUier Simple or Compound :onlaining a slo, Predicate) ({ r. Containing two

i. SiMPLBj \ Containing a single statement (Subject and

I Predicate) ({ iBo).

a. COMPOUND- J (ilSo-")-

j *. Modified by Subordinate Clauses (compUi) ' (j 180. 6).

II, ThiEisenliat Purls of the Sentence are —

I. The Subject r consist- ( j. Noun or its equivalent (} 174, 1).

ing o( 1 *. Pronoun contained in verb-ending (J 174. a).

ia. Neuter (intransitive) Verb (} 175. a), i. Copula wldi Predicate Noun or Adjective (j 17a. no(e). f. Verb »i(h Object (} j 175, *, 177). 111. TtnSulijec( and Prediiale may be Modified as foUows:^ a. Noun in Apposition [j 134). *. AdjecHre or Participle ({ 186). «. Noun in ObliqiK Case (} 178. a, < d. Pnposillan wiih its cose ({ ato). t. Relative Clause ({ iS& t).

€ *. Adverb u Adveifanl Phrase (f f 179, :

& TImVbm (/)«&«*) bjiK Predicate Adfxtne (f 191).

1 1. Sabordinile Ouise (f iSc^ i). IV. H«M*t \ *> ^'^'^ "^ AOkBUItKT (Mf Aw^ Cmnr^ (f iBi),

I 171-73.] Subject and Predicate. 165I

Chapter I. — The Sentence.

1. DeSnltioiis.

r

■ 171. A Sentence is a form of words which contains a I

■ Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command, ^1

a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a DECLARATrVE ' Senteince : as, equua cuirit, the horse r\

b. A sentence in the form of a Question is called an InterrogativB ^LSentence : as, equuane currit? does the horse r.

H £. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an EXCLAMA- ^^^DRV Sentence: as, quam oeleriter currit equus! how fast the '

korse runs I

d. A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, Entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence : as, ourrat equuB, let the horse run ; i, ourre per AlpSs, £i7, run across the Alps.

172. Every sentence consists of a Subject and a Predicate.

I The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing J spoken of. , The Predicate is that which is said of the Subject, Thus in equuB currit, the horse runs, equua is the subject, and ■ ^nrrit the predicate. Note. — Every complete senlence must conlain a subject ({ 174) and a The verb ilself is usunlly Ihe predicate, but «hcn any form of 8um is used simply (o conned a noun or adjective as an ailribuie with the subject, such word is called the fredUatf notei or adjective, and sum is known as the copula (or conneciive) (j 176. a). Thus in Coesar oflnsul erat, C<i3ar -anis coasul, Caesar is the subject, Ofioaul the predicate noun, and evat Ihe copula.

~hjl Bum in the sense of exist malies a complete predicate alone. It is then d the substanHve verb : as, aunt Vlri tortSa, thrrc an (exist) irave mra.

2. Stibjeot and Predicate.

173. I. The Subject of a Finite verb is in the Nomi- native Case : as, —

equus curiit, tht horse runs. regina sedet, the queen siti.

12. The Subject of an Infinitive is in the Accusative |(Bee § 240./)-

■A Unite vCTb 13 a verb in the Indicalive, SiiOjiinc

1

1

66 Syntax: The Sentence. [§§ i74-7e.

174. I. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun or some word or phrase used as a Noun : as, —

uminum est errare, to irr i, human. J

uaeritar num mora malum ait, the guislion is ■whether death is an evil. ^H enit, iDcertum est unde, he came, where from is unterlain- ^^

:. But in Latin the subject may be implied in the ter- mination of the verb (see § 206. a, b) : as, —

sede-mua, inc sit, curri-tiB, you run. inqoi-t, says he.

175. Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive. a. An Intransitive (or Neuter) verb contains in itself an (

4

cado, //all (am faUing).

bol lucet, the sua is shining.

sunt viri fortes, there are bra-ue men.

b. A Transitive (or Active) verb has or requires a Direct Object to complete its sense (see § 177) : as, —

frittem cecidic, he slew his brother.

Note i. — Among transitlvE verbs Factitative Verbs are sometimes dis- tinguished as a separate class. These state an act whidi/rdifBCfi the thing expressed by the word which completes their sense. Thus mSnaam fSclt, he made a taiU (which was not in existence before), is distinguished from menBam percussit, he struck a lahte (which already existed).

Note a. — A transitive verb may often be used absolultly without any object ex- pressed: as, arat, hi is ploughing, wheie the verb does not cease to be transitive because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding, — quid, tohalt agrum Huum, his land.

3. Predicate Noun. 1 76. An intransitive verb is often followed by a noun or adjective to describe or define the subject. This is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective : as, — mortauB cecidit, he fill dead. Quintus s«det iudex, Quinlus sits as Judge. CaesajT victor incidit, Ctssar advances victorious (a victor), a. The copula atun especially is used with a predicate noun or adjec- tive (§ 172. note). So also verbs signifying to become, to bt made, to be named, to appear, whence these are tailed Copin.ATivE {i.e. coujiling^ verbs. NoTB. — A noun Jn agreement with some part ol liie pIe4\t»^e is tomwiiu'a a, Prediaiie Noun (see § 185. e}.

S 176, 177.] Object. 167I

b. A Predicate noun or adjective after the copula aum or a copulative irb is in tlie same case as tlie subject (see § 185. a). Roma est patria nostra, Rome is our country. stellae laddAa etant, the stars were irigAl (cf. stellae luceliant^ consul cceitus est, he leas elected consul. mors finis esse videlur, dea/A seems to be the end. dicil non omnes bonos esse beatoa, ke says thai not all good nun are happy, ]

4. Object

177. The person or thing immediately affected by the i action of a verb is called the Direct Object,

A person or thing indirectly affected is called the Ik- ' DIRECT Object.

Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object; but an I Indirect Object may be used with both transitive and in- transitive verbs {§§ 225, 226). Thus : —

pater vocal filitim (direct object), the father calls his son.

Tiiihl (ind. obj.) agmm (dir. obj.) ostendit, hi shovied me afield.

mihi (ind. obj.) placet, it is flensing la me.

Note. — The distinction between transitive and Intransitive verbs Is not fixed,

1 most transilive verbs may be used inlransllively, and many verbs usually in-

nsitive may take a direct object and so become transitive ({ 237. i).

a. When a transitive verb is changed from the Active to the Passive ice, the Direct Object becomes the Subject and is put in the nom-

Active: pater llUum vocat, tht father calls [hia] son. Passive: EUnsS patre vocator, rte jon is called by his father. Active : loaam et Stellas videmus, it>e see the moon and Ike stars. Passive: lona et itellae videntur, the mson and stars are seen (appear).

b. With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used rhere the English, from a ditTerence in meaning, requires the Objective.

hominem video, Isa the man (Accusative). hominl serviQ, I serve Ihe man (Dative, see § 227). hominis mlsereor, I pity Ike man (GENITIVE, see % 221. a). homine amico utor, I treat Ihe man as a friend (^A&LATlVE, see § 249). C. Many verbs transitive in Latin are translated in English by a atransitive verb with a preposition : as, — pctil apcum, ie aims at Ihe boar, laudeiD aSectat, Ae sirives after praise, curat taletHdinem, Ae lakes cars of his health.

Syntax: The Sentence.

Note. — One or more words, essenlial t tntence, but cicar enough lo the mind of a 1 ion is called ELLIPSIS, and Ihe sentence u, odeat, it is here; quia? (sc. adest), i

5. MocUficatioii.

178. A Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a single word, or by a group of words (a Phrase or a Clause, see §§ 179, 180).

The modifying word or group of words may itself be modified in the same way.

I. A single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an appositive (§ 184), or the oblique case of a noun. Thus in the sentence vir fortiH patienter fert, a brave man bears pal ieiiify, the adjective fortls, brave, modifies the subject vir, atan, and the adverb patienter, patienlly, modifies the predicate fert, bears.

b. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word to which it belongs. Thus in the sentence pueri patrem vide6, 1 see the boy's father, the genitive pueil limits patrem (by excluding any other father).

179. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or predicate of its own, which may be used as an Adjective or an Adverb.

Thus in the sentence vir fnit siunma nSbilltSte, he was a man c/ the highest nobitity, the words summa nSbilitate, of the highest nobility, are used for the adjective nSbillB, noble (or nSbilisBimaB, very noble), and are called an Adjective Phrase. In the sentence mSgnSl celetitate v§nlt, he came iviik great speed, the words mSgnS celerltSte, with great speed, are used for the adverb oelerlter, quickly (or oelerrimB, very quickly), and are called an Adverbial Phrase. '

180. Sentences are either Simple or Compound.

A sentence containing a single statement is called a Simple Sentence.

A sentence containing more than one statement is called a Compound Sentence, and each single statement in it is called a Clause.

r

Modification. 169 I

0. If one statement Is simply added to another, the clauses are said 1

be Co-ordinate. They are usually connected by a Co-ordinate Conjunction {§ 154.(2); but thisissometimes omitted (§ 208.^). Thus:

divide et iinper£, divide and conquer, llul, -

veni, vidi, vici, / came, I taw, I conquered,

statement modifies another in any way, the modifying '

ta be SuBoRDtNATE, and the clause modilied b called the '

.Main Clause.

This subordination Is indicated by some connecting word, either a ' Subordinate Conjunction or a Relative (§ 154, ij ! a

Dderiat dam luetuant, lei them kale so long as they fiar.

qaem secum habebat, he sent Die slave 'whom he had wilh him,

A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is sometimes

led Complex.

Note. — A subordinate clause may itself be modified by another subordinate

c. A clause introduced by a Relative pronoun or adverb is called a Relative Clause.

A clause introduced by an adverb of time is called a TEMPOitAL Clause, Thus : —

doia tacent clamant, vihile they are silent they cry atoud.

homines aegri morbo gravi cum iactantur aestii febriqae, ^ aqoam Eelidam biberint primo relevan videntur, men suffering -with a senere sickness, luhen they are tossing leiih the heat of fever, if thry drink cold ■water, seem at first to be relieved,

d. A clause containing a Condition, introduced by al, if, or some [uivalent, is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence containing conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence.

lus, al aquam ETslids ;) is a Conditional Seniei A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a FINAL

edo ut vivam, / eat to live (that I mjy live).

legatos qui diceretit, he sent ambassadors to say (who should say). A clause expressing the Result of aa action is called a Consecutive

.USE.'

,m longe abeiam nt Hon viderem, Iwas too far away to see (so far away that I didn't see).

1 Obsarre that the classes defined in ri-<f are not mutually exclusive, but that a jingta clause may belong 10 several of ihem al once, T\\ua a. ve\a)ine iiNa.\sseLia iaborxiiDa.se, and ma/ be at the same time coo^triatiai-, Bni vioQt^iKoUaL lay be co^idinaxe wilh each other. J

I

t/O Syntax: The Senlettce. [%% 180-84.

/. Sentences or clauses are regularly connected by means of CON- JUNCTIONS; but frequently in Latin — more rarely in English — inde- pendent sentences are connected by Relative Pronouns or Adverbs. In this case, the relative is often best translated in English by a con- juncrion with a demonstrative (cf. §§ 2ol. «, 336. #. Rem.): as, —

AQREEMENT.

181. A word is said to agree with another when it is required by usage to be in the same Gender, Number, Case, or Person.

182. The following are the general forms of Agreement, sometimes called the Four Concords : —

1. Theagreementof the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate (§§ 184, i8s).

2. The agreement of the Adjective with its Noun (§ 1S6).

3, The agreement of the Relative with its Antecedent (§ 198).

4, The agreement of the Verb with its Subject {§ 204).

a. A word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word impliid In that word. This use is called Synesis, or cBnstr&ctid ad sensum (construction according to sense).

I.-NOUNS.

183. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in Case ; as, —

Servius rai, Srrvius the king.

ad urbeni Athenas, is iht n'ly [of] Alltrm.

Cicero oSnatll crealur, Cicero is thosen connii

a

The descriptive noun may be either an Appositive (§ 184) or a Predi- cate noun (§ iSs). ■ 1. Apposition.

184. The descriptive noun, when in the same part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an Apposi- T/VE, and is said to be in ApPOsn:ioti -. a.s, —

i5 184, 185.] Ap'eement of Nouns.

m concordiae Tincttlom, inngebat ojiimoa (Ui fiar oflliffortigiitr, the chief bond of harmony, untied their kii [Here the deacriplive noun belongs to the su^ect7\ quattuor hie priDiimi omen equos vidi (■En. iii. 537), / saw here fo\

harm, the first omen. [Here both DOUia are in the Jiredicale:] lieieras Graeciis senex didia (Cat, M, 8), tlfarned Greek when an old man. [Here senex is in apposition with the anbject of didici, and expresses the time, condition, etc., of the act.]

a. An appositive with two or more douhs is in the plural : as, — Gnaeus et Publius Scipiones, Cnei%a and Ptdlius, the Scifios (Cneius and

Publius Scipio).

b. An appositive generally agrees in Gender and Number when it

1

Eequuntor naturam, optimam ducem (Lid. 19}, they fBllem nature, the it3f\

oniniuni doctrinainm inventricis Athenas (De Or. i 4% Athens, discevei

of all learning. Note. — But such agreement is often Impossible : as, — olini tmncna eram ficulnns inutile lignum, I once laas a Jlg-lree trunk, a

meUss kg (Hot. Sat. i. 8. 1).

c. A common noun in apposition nith a Locative {% Z5S. c) is put o the Ablative, with or without the preposition in : as, —

Antiochiae, celebrifinondam nrbe (Atch. 3), o( /^H/iDci, onceafamimscity. Albae conaliterunt in urbe miinila (Phil. iv. 2), they halted at Alba, a farti- fiedto^n.

d. A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and

e with an implied noun or pronoun (S 197. e): as, — in nostro omnium fletu (Mil. 34), amid the tears of us all. EX Anniani Milonis domo (Att. iv. 3) [— ex Anni Milonis domo], out of Annias Afilo's house.

t. A genitive is sometimes used instead of an appositive (see § 214./). So also a dative in certain constructions (see § 231. 6).

2. Predicate Agreement

The Predicate noun may agree (i) with the subject, being connected with it by the copula or a copulative verb (§ 176. a), or (z) with the direct object of a verb.

186. A descriptive noun used to form a predicate is called a Predicate Nominative ^oi ot^k&i ca&^ assKitSaisfe. to the construction).

I/Z Syntax; The Sentence. [SS 185, 186.

a. The case of the predicate aAer the copula and copulative verbs ts the same as that of the subject (5 176. *) : as, —

pads semper anctor fui (Lig. 19, aS), I have ahaays ittn an adviser of ftact. quae pertinacia ijuibusdam, eadem aliis conatantia videri potest (Marc lo,

31), 'Uthal may seem ohUnacy to some, may seem to alktrs consiilency. eius mortis sedetis nltorea (Mil. 29, 79), you sit as avengers efhis death. habcatur vir egiegius Paulus (Cat. iv. 10, 21). let Paulus be regarded as on

ego patronuB exstili (Roac. Am. 2,5), I have come forward as on aduocale.

b. A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is in the

ConsuleB creantar Caeaar et Servilius (B.C. iii. ij, Cssar and Strviiius an elected consuls.

c. For Predicate Accusative, see under that case, § 239.

II. -ADJECTIVES. 1. Rules of Agreement.

186. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case.

vir forlis, a brave man.

ilia mulier, that vmman.

urbium magnarura, of great cities.

cum ducentis militibus, with joo soldiers.

impecatoc victus est, the general was b/alin.

Note. — All rules for the agreement of adjeciives apply also lo adjeclive pro- nouns and lo participles.

Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate.

a. An Attributive adjective simply qualities its noun without the

intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied, bonus imperator, a good commander.

atellae liicidae, bright stars. I

6. All other adjectives are called Predicate adjectives. I

1. A predicate adjective, like a predicate noun, maybe connected

with the subject by OBaa or a copulative verb expressed or implied (see

5 i?6. .). »,,-

stellae lucidac eraiit, the stars were bright.

3. After verbs of naming, calling, making, etc., an adjective may be used as a predicative accusative like a noun (see § 239. a).

J. A predicate adjective may be used in apposition like a noun (see below).

|ni:

186, 187.1

Agreement of Adjectives.

173 ■

e. Predicate adjectives in apposition follow the rules of agreement of other adjectives (see § 186, above) : as, —

Scipionem vivnm vidi, T saw Scipio in his Hfitime (lit., living). d. With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but ^s agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive). Thus , Niaus et Euryalus primi (^n. v. 294), Nisus and Euryalus first,

Caesiris omm et gtalia et opibus fruor (Fam. i. 9), Itrtjoy all Casar'sfavoi

In adjective referring to two nouns connected by cum, is occasionaUjr I Labieno oapti (B. Afr, 51), Juba and LaMtnus -uitrt lak,

I

I

187. One adjective may belong in sense to two or J ; nouns of different genders. In such cases, —

An attributive adjective agrees with the nearest : as, — mnlt&e operae ac laboris, of much trauhle and toil. loresque mei, my life and characUr.

si vir, ai tempus nllnin Jignum fuit (Mil. 7), if any thing, if any an, if any linu ^«sfit.

2. A predicate adjective may agree with the nearest, if the r form one connected idea: as, —

faetuB est slrepilus et admunouratio (Verr. i. 15), a ttoise of assen

made (noise and muimur). Note.— This is only when the Copula agrees with the nearest subject (§2 b. But generally, a predicate adjective will be masculine, if nou different genders mean living beings ; neuter, if things withoul life nxor deinde ic llben amplexi (Liv, ii. 40), then his wife and children

embraced him.

lahor (m.) volnptaaque (f.), societate quidam inter se natiitilT sunt ioneta

(N.) (id. v. 4}, labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural

Note. — If nouns of different gendeis include both ma! nilhoul lile, a predicate adjective is sometimes masculine, si agrees in gender wlUi the nearest if that is plural:

beings and things

. xii. 50) , tie king and ike royal fleet

nilura inimlca sunt libera civitas et rex (id, xliv. 2/^}, by nature a free state

and a king are hostile. legitos BortcEgue oraculf exapect,andas (id, v. 15), that tXe unba^dan aa'/Mere/>/iisi^(iearacle should be ■wailed for, '" ''

174 Syntax: The Sentence. [§§ 187, isa

e. Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a predi- cate adjective la the neuter plural (cf. § 1S9. e); as, —

Etultitia et [emeritii et iniuEtitia . . . sunt fagienda (Fin. iii. it), /ally, rashness, and injustice are [thirgs] is ie shunned.

d. A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals implied {Syneds, % 182. 0)1 as,—

para certire pariti (.-En. v. 108), a pari ready ta conleneL dno milifl reliota (Liv. xxuvii, 39), iivB thousand were lift. coloniae aliquot deduclae, Prisci Latiui appellSU (id. i. 3), several cnhnies

were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins. inigna para laptae (id. i, 9), a large pari [of Ihe women] were seined. omnis aeCas currere obvii (id. xxvii. 51), [people of] every age ran to meet

e. A superlative in the predicate sometimes takes the gender of the partitive genitive by which it is limited ; as, —

vaocissimura animaium delphlnus est (PHn.), the dolphin is tie swiftest [creature] 0/ creatures.

2. Adjeotivea naed Subatantivelj.

188. Adjectives are often used as Nouns {substantively), the masculine usually to denote men ox people in general of that kind, the feminine women, and the neuter things

omnes, all men (everyhodyj .

maiorea, ancestors.

Romani, Jfomans. barbari, barbarians.

Ubeita, a freedaioman. Sabinae, Ihe Saiine vii

Eapiens, a sage (philosopher). amicus, afi-iend.

boni, the good (good people). bona, goods, property.

I

Remark,— The plural of ai in this use. The singular is rare except in a few words which have become practi- cally nouns. See below and j 189. a.

a. Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often modified by other adjectives. Thus, —

tnua vicinus yxotXmvs, your next-door neighbor.

propinqui ceteri, his other relatives.

meos aeqaalis, a man of my awn age.

famililris tuus, an inHmaU friend of yours (cf. % zi8. rf)-

^. When nay ambiguity would arise from the aubstantiv* use of an adjective, a noun must be added. Ttius, —

t las, 189.] Adjectives used Substanlively.

I bom, eif^uo'i',' omnia, nvr^Mfn^ (all thingi); bnt, — I poCentia omninin reram, /0avr over tverylAttig. [oi

. Many adjectives are used substantively either ii

auric like those in { iSg, a

adjective, and may then be ,

Africus [ventua], lAi saulk-ivnl wind. vilulina [carS], veal (calTs flesh), [bestia], a wild btast. ia Ctena], tht falhtrlattd. Gallia [terra]. Caw/ (the land of the Galll). hibema [castra], winter quarltrs.

"s [navis] , a Iht ee-iankrd galley, trirc argenlirius [faber], a silverstnitk. ■egia [domns]. Ike palace. Lalinae [feriae], Ike Lalin feslival. Tuaci [filndi], a Tuscan estate.

— These are specific in meaning, nol ge

d. A noun is sometimes used modified by an adverb : as, —

execcilus, Ihe vicUrious army. seivum pecus, a servile troop. admodum puer, guile a hoy (young), magis vir, more of a miH (more manly),

e. A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are; —

1. obviam : as, —

Et obviam, he goes to meet (becomes in the way ofl.

2. contiS, contradicting anaer repeating it : as, —

alia piubabilia, contra alia dicimiis (Off. ii prohnhle, others the opposite (nol probable).

3. palam : as, — palam res est, the thing is all out.

4. So also, rarely, by a Creek etl semper lenitas (Ter. Andr. l;

previous adjective, 0, ^e .

It (aiways) gentle-

189. Neuter adjectives are used substantively in the fol- lowing special senses : —

a. The neuter singular may denote uthet a un^e, (itiiwS. ™ ■*-f Slmtract qaality : as, — ■ ■■ •■ - — *- _»■,«. .—

I

1^6 Syntax: The Sentence. [§5 189, isa

rapid Tliere, lo livt iy flumJer.

In irido, BH dry ground.

honeMuni, an honorabU act, or virlui as a qnilitf.

opnt cM mituiala, Mcr^ I'j Hied ofhasU (cf. impersonal pi

b. The neuter ^/uro/ is used lo signify objects in general having tiie quality denoted, and lience may stand for the abstract idea: as, —

honeila, konarable dnJi (in general), ^H

praeteriCa, the pas! (lit-, bygones). H

omnes fortla laudant, all men f raise bravery {brave things), ^|

c. A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate^ noun with a noun of different gender (cf. § 187. c): as, —

turpitiido pcius est qunm dolor (Tusc. ii. 13), disgrace is [a thing] uifrse

trl»te lupus atahulis, lit Tool/is a grievous Ikittgfor lie sketpfeld.

varium et mutibile semper femina, woman is eoer a changing and fickle

thing. malum mih! videtut esse mots (Tusc. i. 5,9), dtatk scents la me to be an evil

(■bad thing). rf, A neuter adjective is used in agreement with an Infinitive or a Substantive Clause : as, —

hluc ipsum non ctsc (Tusc. i, 6, 11), thai very •' not lo be."

hunianuin est eirare, to err is human.

klind CM errarc Cacsarcm nolle, ftliad nolle misered (Lig. 5), ^iinrtfMinif

tv he HMwilliitg thai Cittar should err, another to ie un-willing tial kt 7

thouUfity.

3. PoHesalveH.

100. Possessive and other derivative adjectives are often used in Latin where the English has the possessive case, ur a noun with a preposition (compare §§ i%^ d, 197. »t): as,—

^Sna CVineDsb, lh*/ight at <'imim'.

U Blijt^ua Cumumt, Cairn Bl-tsiimi ofCumm.

•llcna Joniiu. mtoiher amm's htmir.

CMWjhia cehrilM (.ML svL 10). AyUnt Ur Omt*! CTIifmi qndc- B«a).

«. I'teMSUTC and otbo- derintit* adjcctms ve oAcn osed 9 ti<(vly to denote soaw specul cbo or ic^tion (see J 197. ^}: m

noMri Mr iifJijaac w atna ^Jf/mp.

re

t^e

4

:.] Comparatives and Superlativei

t

i 190-93.

i. A possessive or derivative a.djet:tive sometimes appears to be i )r the Objective Genitive, see § 2ij. a.

4. AdjeotiTes ivith Adverbial Foroe.

191. An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object I often used to qualify the action of the verb, having the \

Tce of an adverb : as, —

primus veoit, A/ cami first (was Ihe firsl to cooie).

nullus dubito, / «d ■way doiidl.

laeti audiere, Ihey vitre glad la krar.

cral Romae frequens (Rose. Am, 6), he taat oflen at Romr.

Berus in caelum redeas (Hor. Od, i. i), may'st theu return lale to heave

5. Comparativea and BuperlatlTeB.

192. When two qualities of an object are compared, )th adjectives are in the comparative : as, -

longior quam litior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line viat longer than it I mas braaJ (or, rather long than broad).

a. Where magiB is med, both adjectives are in the positive : a

clSri magis quam honesti (Jug. 8), rriare renowned than honorable.

b. A comparative and a positive, or even two pasitives, are sometimes ] connected by quam : as, —

claru maioribus quam vetnaiaH (Ann, iv. 61), of a family more famous

old. vehementiua quam caule (Agric. 4), viilh more fary than good heed. Note.— This use is rater and less elegant than those before noticed.

193. Superlatives (and more rarely comparatives) de- noting order and succession — also medius, oetertii, rell- quuB — usually designate not what object, but what pari of it, is meant : as, —

summus mons, the top of the hill. in ollimi pUtea, at Ihe end of the plate. prior actio, the earlier pari of an action. reliqui captiyi, Ihe rest of Ihe prisoners. in cotle mediS (B. G. L 2+>, on the middle of the hill. inter citeram plSnitiem (Jug. 92), in a region elseiuhere level. Note.— A similar use is found in such Bipressions as B6r& (multB,) nocM, late at nighi. Bui medium vla«, the middle of the m^ ; T&iitt'aatt 4^eL,««K>i

I

m^"

r

178 Syntax: The Sentence. [§5 194, i

lll.-PRONOUNS.

Note. — A pronoun indicales some person or filing witboirt eilher naming or describing il. Pronoun! are derived from a distinct cla&9 of roots, whicli seem to have denoted only ideas of place and directioa (j 157,3), and from which nouns or verbs can very rarely t>e formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when Uie person or Ihing, being present lo the sensesar imagination, needsonlylo be pointed ouL Soma pronouns indicate the object in itself, without lefetence to its class, and hare no disiioction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically for Nouns, and have Ihe same construction as nouns. Others designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the individuals of that class. These are called ADpmVE PRONOUNS. They stand for Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives. Others are used In both ways ; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the geader of the object indicated.

1. Personal Ftohouus.

194. The Persona] Pronouns have, in general, the same constructions as nouns,

a. The personal pronouns are not expressed as subj'ects, except for distinction or emphasis (compare § 346. d) : as, —

le voco, I call you ; but

quis me vocal ? ^ole voco, who is eallingme f /(emphatic) am calling you.

b. The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in -flm being used partitively {% 216), and that in -I oftenest objectively (cf. §213.2): as, —

maior Teatrnm, Ihi elder of you.

babeCis ducem memorem vestn, oblilum sui (Cat. iy. 8), jw« have a leader

■who liinis (is mindful) o/you and forgets (ia forgetful oV) himself. [jars noatrSra, a pari (i.e. some) of us. noatri melior pars animus eat (Sen.), the beHer farl of us (_i./. of man) is

US ex aula or tp^B (rarely 1, veBtrCtm are occasionally

used objectively (J 217); as, cupidua vestrOm (Verr. iii. g6) , /oad 0/ yjn ;

oQatBo voatrtlm (Cat iii. 12), thi guardian of you (your guardian).

c. The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except the reflexive (»§). The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or a Rela- tive (§§ 180./, 19s, 201. ^).

2. Bemonstrative Pronottna.

195. Demonstrative pronouns are used either adjec- tiucly or substantively.

As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement of adjectives (§§ i86, 187).

I

(

Demonstrative Pronouns.

I As substantives, they are equivalent to personal pro- \ fOuns. This use is regular in the oblique cases, especially ""of i». Thus : — . Persona] ; —

Caesar et eierdlus eiQB, Cicsar and his army {aoK^'i.M^. [Bui, Caesat ei

ercitum Bnuitt dimisit, Ctsar dishandtd ki$ [own] armi'.] »i obddis ab eis dnrenlur, i/Aoslages should bt given ty them (persons ju:

hia Caesar ila respondif, to ihrm Casar thus rtplUd,

ille minimimi propter adolescenti'am poterat, he (emphadi:) had very Utile

power, c» account of his yonlh. hi sunt extra provinciam trans Rhodanum primi, ihey ( those just mentioiied)

art the first [inhabitants] otrojj Ihi Rhone.

:. Adjective: — h5c proelio ^axXa, after tkis battle was fought (this battle having been, el eodem proelio, in the same battle. EtDS rei peiiti, men aefuainliJ with that business.

[For special signifiealions of the demonstratives, see J loa.]

a. The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns ofreferei |to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned: as, —

nuHam virtus aliam roercedem deaiderat praeter hano laudis (Arch, ii), virtue tfants no other reward ixeept that [just spolien of] ofpraisi

b. But the demonstrative as a pronoun of reference is commonly omitted, or some other construction is preferred: as, —

\

memoriae arlera quam oblivioiiis via\a, I prefer (like more) the art of memory to (than) [that] of forgetfitlness.

CaesBris exercitus PompeianoB ad Pharsalum vicit, the army of Ctesar de- feated that ofPompcy (the Pompcians) at Pharsaliis.

c. When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person or thing already named, is or Idem (often with the contressive quldein) used to indicate that person or thing: as, —

vincula, et ea sempiterna (Cat. iv. 4), imprisonment, and that perpetual. legionem neque earn plenissunam despiciebant (B. G. iii. i), they despised

the single legion, and that not a very full one. luus dolor hiimanus la qnidem sed, etc., your grief is human, to be sure,

et enm ei gladiatorio liido (AtL L 16. 5), by means of a single slave, and that too one from the gladiatorial school. Ti. Gracchus regnum occupace conatuB est, vel regnavit ia qnidem paucos "a fC M. 13, 40), Tiberius Graechvi tried to uswrf royal ^m ie /itheally reigned a few months.

l8o Syntax: The Sentence, [S X^H

d. Aa adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or predi- cate ncun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers (cf.Si99):i»,-

hie kbor hoc opu; est, thU is Iht toil, this the task [namely, Tevociire

gradum, which wonld regularly take a neuter pronoun], lecum caput hoc eraC, hie foils (Hor. Ep. i. 17. 45), ikis was Ihc kiedej

things, this the source. earn sapicnliun interpielantuc qaajn adhnc mortilis nemo est cansecutus

[for id . . . qaod] (Licl. 5), they explain tint [thing] to be ■aisdani

which no man ever yit attained.

e. Idom, the same, is often equivalent to an adverb or adverbial plirase (also, too, yet, at Ike same time) : as, —

oratio splendida et grandis eC eadem in pcinils faceta (Bml. 79), an oration,

brilliant, able, and very -willy loo. cum [haec] dicat, negat idem in Deo esse g^atiam (N. D. i. 43), vrhen hi

says this, he denies also that there is mercy wilh C<»/(he, the same man).

ie as in c. above, hul in this ease the pronoun n English.

self, is used with any of the other pronouns

turpe mihi ipa videbatur (Cic), even to nie (to me mysclQ it seemed dis-

id ipsum, that very thing.

quod ipsum, which of itself alone.

in eum ipsum locum, to that very place.

Remark. — The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English hyjusl, very, mere, etc. (see above examples).

g. Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as an emphatic pronoun of the third person : as, —

mihi satis, ipsia non satis (Cic), enough for me, not for themselves.

omnes boni quantum in ipns fuit (i<^.), all goad men so far as was in their power (in themselves).

beitos illoB qui cum adesse ipaia non IJcebat aderant tamcn (id.), happy they who, lahen it was net allowed then la attend in person, still were there. -m

di capiti ipmos geneiique reservent (i£n. vii.484), may the g^ds hold in re- serve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law's head.

k. Ipse is often used alone, substantively, to emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person : as, —

vohiscum ipni recordamini (Cic,'), rtmem6rr in your own minds (youiielvei

B 195. 196.] Reflexive Pronouns.

I

^B (. Ipse, used substantively, sometimes refers t( ^■Kmage, to distinguish him from subordinate persons

■ N(

■ k.

Ipse dixit (cf. ni-rit t^tC), UK (Ihe Master) said il.

Nomenlinua erat super ipauin (Hor.), Nomenlaiais -was abavi [the boat] '

■• -//[at table].

k. Ipse is often, is rarely, used instead of a reflexive. See under J Reflexives, § 196. /".

/. Ipae usuaily agrees with the subject, even when the real emphas in English on a reflexive in the predicate ; as, —

ma ipHB coraolor, I console mysrlf. [Not mi ipsttm, as Ihe English would lead US to expect].

m. For adverbs used instead of a demonstrative pronoun, see § 207. a,

3. Reflexive FronauiiB. 196. The Reflexive pronoun (aB),^ and usually its cor- responding possessive (auua), are used in some part of the j predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause :

virllis 86 novit, virtue inim/s tlsilf.

promialt ae veutiiruni [esse], ht promised that he mould come. Brutus amicum aoura occidit, Brutus killed liis friend. Caesar statuit aibi Rhenum esse Iranseundum (B, G. iv. 16), Casar decided \ rial hi must crass the Khine (the R, must be crossed by himself).

a. In a subordinate clause of a compound sentence there I )s a double use of reflexives.

The Reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its own clause {Direct Reflexivi) : as, —

ex qno indiciri potest quantum habeal in M boni constantia (B. G. i. 40), 1

from which it can be deltrmined haw much good Jirmnes! possesses (hat

in itself). [CaesarJ noluit Eura locum vacire, ne German! e saTs fiiiibus Irausireal

(B. G. i. aS), Casar did not wish (his place to lie vacant, for fear Ihi

Germam viould cross ever from their territories. si qua s^niEcitio viitiitia elaceat ad quam ai similis animus adplicet el

adiungat (Cat. M. 14, 48), if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a

rimilar dispesitioH may attach itself.

1 This leemi lo have been orieinally Ihe persona\ ptonouTi ol *» tr. jtia and Gr. •rf'Ts), but il came by use to be puie\] reft'^.Vje.

I

I

82 SyKtax: The Sentence.

2. If Uk subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the subject of the main riausc. the retlexive is regularly used to refer to that subject {J*dirtit R^Uxive) : as, —

peliiniiit at rild liccrcl (B. G. i. 30), lief ieggrJ Ikat it might be atlamfd

tkem (the pedlionen). Iccios nantiam ad cum roiltil, oisi snbiidinm ribi submiltitui, etc. (B. G. ii,

6), stinii him a mtssage thai unUu rilitfbe fitrnUhtd him (IccioB), elc. qaem aalatem snam credltunuii aibi (Q. C. iii. 8), mto shculd trust his safety

[Caesar] his ati eonqnirerent ct reducerenl, si «hi potgali esse veilent im- peravit (B. G. i. aS), Casar erdirtd Ihini (the Gauls) /» hunt up and bring iaci [the fugitives] // they (the Gauls) miihcd lo be free from fault loTBords Aim (Cesar).

bostinm Be habilunim numeto confirmal, si aut Ambiorigem aat eios legatos finibHS EOis lecepissenl, [Qesar] said that he should treat [them] as enemies if they received either Amiiorix or kit envoys into their territeries.

deoma 1^3 ei g^iis egiC, quod de ae optimum indidam fetHsset (B. G. i. 41), the tenth legion thanked him ieeaiae [they said] he had expressed a hi^ epinioH efthem.

si obsides ab taa (the Helvetians) dbi (Cxsar, wbo is the speaker) darentuc, se (Qesar) cum ras pflcera esse factQrum (B. G. i. 14), [Gear said] thai if hostages -aiere gi-uen him by them he would make peace with them.

Tarqainium dixisse ferunt hI intellixisse quos fldos amicos babuissel, etc. (C. M. 15, 53), they say that Torguin said that he tindenloed, etc.

Note. — Sometimes la or Ipse is used as an Indirect Refleiiva either from areless writing or to avoid ambiEuity (ct i) : as, —

qui si ex his minus [imidos exislimari veilent, non bS hostem vereri, sed angustiis ilineris et magnitiidineni silvarum quae intercederent inter ipaSa (the persons refeired to by Be above) atque Atiovistum . . . timere diccbant (B. G. i. 39), Ihasi efthem who wished to be thought less timid said they did not fear the enemy, but vrere afraid ef the narrows and the vast extent of the forests which were between themsehies and Ariovis- tus.

aodiatis naper dicere legatos Tyndaritanos Metcorium qoT sacris annlver- saiiis apad eos coleietur Verris imperio esse sublatum (Vetr. iv. 39), you have fust heard the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was -worshipped loxth annual rites among them was taken away, etc. [Here Cicero wavers between apud eoa colebator, ■ remark of his own, and apivd h§ coleretar, the words of the tegaii. e5s does not strictly refer to the ambassadors, but to the people — the Tyndaritaiii.]

3. If the subordinate clause does not express the words, etc., of the main subject, ibe reflexive b not regularly used, though it is occastonally

fouoti. TbuBi^

( 196.J Reflexive Pronouns.

sunt ita multi at eSa career capere non possit (Cat. ii. to, ja), Ihty are . many that tke prison cannat io,': Jiem. [Here 83 could not be used.

ibi in proximlg villis ita bipaitiio faecant, ut Tibens inter bos et pons leiesset [Cat ia. a, 5), ikire ihiy jtationtd themsdves in the neat farmheuia, in two divisiem, in such a manner thai the Tiber and the bridge viere betaieen ihem (the divisioos). [Here inter Be might be used, bar it would refer to a pnrposE of the soldiers.]

noD Cuit CO contentus quod ei praeter spem acuiderat (Leg. Man. 9, 35}, he was not loatent luilh that whiik had happened to kim beyond /tii\ hope.

Compare ; qui fiX Maecenas uC Dcmo qusm aibi sortem seu ratio declerit si fois obiecerit ilia contentus vivat (Hor. Sat. I. i. l), A<rw comes i^9 Macenas, Ihaf nobody lives contented with that lot -aihich choice hiu^k assigned him or dance has throvm in Ais icaj' ? [Here elbi is used to* pat the thought into the mind uf the discontented man.]

But, — Melellus iu eis arbilius qu&e ad Be defecerant praesidia impoait (Sail. Jug. 61), Metelltts posted garrisons in those cities mhich had revolted ta him. [The author vacillates between the thought of Metellus and his

b. The reHexive in a subordina.te ckuse sometimes refers to tbcS Wibject of a suppressed main clause: as, — I

Paetos, omnea libroa quos frater anna reliquisset mihi donavit (Alt. ii. l), 1 PiEtm gave me all tke books ■which (as he Said in the act of donation) his brother had left Aim (cf. a).

r. The reflexive may refer to any noun in ita own clause, which o emphasized as to become in a manner the su^ect of discourse (c£ J the note) : as, —

Sooratem cives BUi inlcrfecerunl, Socrates was put to death by his irwn/el-M

qui poterat salus ttae. ctuqusm non probari (Mil. 30, 81), how can arty 01 fhil to appravi his own safety? [In Ihia and the preceding example J the emphasis ia preserved in English by the change to the passive.]

hunc !H seeiili erunt sni comites (Cat. I. v. 10), this man, if his compnnioi

ftUam him.

Note. — Occasionally Ihe clause fo which the reflexive really beloogs is al

Mndeo wnare sibi ipsBB (Cat. ii. 8, 17), / am anxious to cure these me

for their own benefit {i.e. ut Bin! aibi sint). Buo Bihl gladio (Plautus), witli his own niiard. [Here the clause is tc

indefinite to be supplied.] ti. The reflexive may follow a verbal noun or adjective : as, — n^ tans, self-praise.

impotins Bni fQ. C.}, wilhaul self-control, bomina cum aoTsiniiljIjus servis (Phil. i. a), men uiilJi ilavei life* tKimsi

.rf^I

i

184 Syfitax; The Sentence. [§§ 196, 3i

t. The reflexive may rerer to the subject implied in an infimtive or verbal abstract used indefinitely: as, —

bellDOi est sna vilia iiossc {S^\z^,Uis ajiiie thing to hune on^s awn fauits. cui propoaila sit consetvatio Btli (Fin. 5, 13), eiu 'whost aim is self-priur-

vation,

f. Inter sS, among thetnselvis, is regularly used to express recipro- cal action: as, —

cohaerentia inter se, iMnp comittent laiib each other.

g. 8aiu is used for one's trwn as emphatically opposed to Ikai others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word iu it: as,—

BHia flammis delete Fidenas (Liv. iv. 33), dalroy Fidena wi/h its uwitjiret (the fires kindled by tfaat city, figuiativel)'). [Cf. Cat. i. 13, 32.]

h. For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases of the personal pronouns {mel, tnl, etc.) are used (see p. 63) : as, — morii mS obtidi (Mil. 34, 94), I have exposed myself to death. bine to reginae ad limina pcrfet (jEn. i. 389), do you go (bear yourself)

hence to Ike queens Ihreshold. quid est qood tantis hub in laborifans exetceimas (Aicb. 11,28], what

reason is there why wi sAouId exert ourselves in so great toils f riiignliB voKb novinoa ex turmis manipulisque vealri similes eligite (Liv.

"JO- ^1^1 f'"' ""^ of you pick out from the squadrons and ntaniftei

nine like yourselves.

i. Ipse is often (Ib rarely) used instead of an zndired reflexive, to avoid ambiguity ; and in later writers is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive (cf. a. 3 and 3) ; as, —

ciic de sail virlute aut de IpasB dlligentia desperarCDt (B. G. i. 40), why

(he aslied) should they despair of their aam courage or his diligence f

qui mortuo Dareo IpBaB tuereluT reppetisse (Q. C x. 5), id^ found one

(said she) to protect us afltr the death of Darius. omnia aut ipsos aut hostes populatos (id. iii. 5), [ihey said that] e they themsehies or the enemy had laid all viaste.

4. FoaseBsive Pronomis. 197. The Possessive pronouns are derivative adjectives, which take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they belong, not that of \.\ie: possessor : as, —

way hit loife.

t. pL, Ihoogtl

Caesar uxorem snam re

udiivi

, Ctcsar put azaajf hit tuife.

haec aaat fflea ornSm'^

til, th.

e are my jewels, [maa is n

ibc speaker is a wan

an.]

Possessive Pronouns.

nea deacriptio (C. M. 17. 59), mine are Ike raaa, the arraiigsmnit. [mea la fern., though the speaker is Cytus.] multa in nostro collegio praeclata (C. M. 18, 64), [there are] many fin* ikitigs in CUT celiegt. [noatro is neut. sing-, though mm ug lefeiredj la] a. The possessive pronouns are used instea.d of the genitive of a] personal pronoun.

1. Always instead of the Possessive Genitive; as, — domus mea, my kousi. [Never domuB mei.]

pater nosier, our father. [Never pater noatrl.] ^L patriraonium ta\iia, your inheritance. [Not tol]

^B Note i. — In difFerenl languages the ideas associated with possesslves are no ^R|]wtiys (he same, and hence idiomalic uses differ. Thus my tulogisi may, in Latin ^be laudator nostrl (Att i. 14. 6). or, like the English, laudator nOBtor (sei AIL i. 16. 5), with a different conception of the relation.

Note a. — The Possessive oQluS, -a, -UEQ, is rare: as, cQlum peouB? whusi jlMif The genitive cQlua is generally used instead.

2. Rarely instead of the Objective Genitive {§ 217, cf. note I, above). Thus, regularly: —

eni despiciens, disdainful of himself, '

riion solum sui deprecitorem, sed etiam accusatorem mei, not only a — '-'- lor for himself hU an accuser of m ' "" t occasionally, — ca quae faciebat, toa se fidacia facere dicehat (Verr. v. 68), tohat he iiias \ doing, he said he did relying on you (with your te neque negligeniia toa, neque id odio fecit too (Ter neglect or hatred of you. b. The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar to, or fa-uerabli or propitious towards the person or thing spoken of: as,—

[petere3 ut sua demenlii ac minsuetiidine utatur, they asked (they said)

thai he -aa-uld shorn his [wonted] clemency and humanly. tempore too pugnastf, didyoufighiat a fit lime! (lit., your own). I

ignoranti quem portom petat niillua sntti venlus est (Sen. £p. 70), lo hint \ vAo knows Hot what port he is bound lo, no -wind is fair (his own). ^L NOTK. — This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the pos-

•.c (Att ii. 8

3i6),/r«

. The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronounsj when ■e plainly implied in the context; as,— anicum gratnlitur, he greets his friend, [amicum Huum would he distin[> ] 've, his friend (and cot another's); su

i86 Syntax: The Sentence. [g 197.

d. Possessives are often used subslaAtivel; (§ 190. a) : as, — ^^|

nostri, our ^auHtrymin. or men cf our parly. ^|

iuoB coQlinebat [B._C. i. ii),ki hild hii mcH in thick. ^"

flamma eitrema meoruai (/En. ii. 431). iasl/ames efmy cattntrymtn. Note. — There is no reason lo suppose an eiiipsis here. The adjective becomes B noun like other adjectivea (see } 18B).

e. A possessive representing a genitive may have a genitive in appo- sition (§ 184. rf); as,—

mea solius causa, /b/- my saki only.

nostra omnium paltia, the country of tu all.

suum Ipsius tegnum, his oviii tingifom.

f. A possessive representing a genitive may serve as an antecedent to a relative (see § 199. 6. note). ^_

g. For the special reflexive use of the possessive suub, see § 196. ^^|

5. Relative Pronoona. ^H

Note. — A Relative pronoon is properly an Adjective, (n agreement with some word expressed or impUed either in its own clause, or (often) in the antecedenl (demonstrali™) clatise. The Ml construction would require the antecedenl to be expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corresponding dtftionsiraitui lo which the relative would refer: as, —

iter in ea locft facere c G. iv. 7), he began la the Germans were. But one of these nouns Is commonly 01 frequently (rarely in English) found in 1 in the antecedent clause. Hence relatives serve two uses; —

I. as Nouns (or adjectives) in their own clause: as, —

ei qnl Alcsiae obsidibantur, those vihii were buieged al Alesia.

T, Balventio, qui superiore anno primum pilum itiixecat, Titvs Balventio, •who lie year before had been a ceiilurion of Ike Jir si rani. In t>.!3 latter use they ore often equiviilent merely to a demonstrative with a con- junction ; as, —

qoAS cum ita sint (= et cum en ita sinl), [and] since these things are so. This connective force does not belong lo the relative originally, but is developed from an Interrogative or indefinite meaning specialiied by use. The clauses were originally co-ordlnalc. Thus, qui quietus &nlniO est, Is est BaplSne originally meant. Who is imdisluried in soulf Tint [man] is a sage.

A Relative pronoun inijicates a relation between its own clause ant3 some substantive. This substantive is called the Antecedent of the relative.

^ 198, 199.] Relative Pronouns.

Thus, in the sentence^

eiim nihil delei:labit, quod fas esset, nothing fliastd Aim which was right,

the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fS« J let, indicating a relation between the two.

198. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Gender J and Number ; but its Case depends on the construction of.a the clause in which it stands : as, —

pner qni venil abiit, Ihe boy leha came has goaf aioay.

liber qnam legjs meus est, the book you are reading is mine.

via qua Bmbulat dadt ad acbcm, Ike path he walks in leads to l!te di

This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are vari; form : as, quSUs, quaottis, qtilcamqne.

3TE. — The relative may be ihe subject or object of its dwu claus

:t (Phil. xiv. a relative has two or more antecedents, it follow; the agreement of predicate adjectives (§§ i86, 187): as,—

fTIiom et fniam, qaoa valde dileidt, uno [empore ImTsit, he lost a sen and am

daughter at the same lime, whom he dearly loved. grandes natu matres et parvuli Uberi, qaoram ntrorumqae at

diam nostram requirit (Ven. v. 49), aged matrons and little children, 1

whose time of life in each case demands our cii otium atqae diivitiae quae prima mortHea putant (Sail, Cat. 36), idltiusx .

and wealth which men count the first (objects of desire). e>e fiiiges et friictus qDOB terra gignit (N. D. iL 14), these frui,

which the ear A produces,

199. A relative generally agrees in gender and number 1 ■with an appositive or predicate noun in its own clause,/ rather than with an antecedent of different gender or 1 number (c£. § 195. d) : e

mare edaio qnam Neptunum esse dlcebaa (N. D. iii. ao), &e sea, too, lufwA I

you said was N'eplune. [Not qnod.] Thebae ipsae, quod Boeotiae caput est (Li?, xxiii, 44), even Thebes, which

is Ike ehitfcity of Bsotia. [Not qnae.]

NOTK.— This rule is occasionally violated r as, -

. 11'), a riuer tohUli « coUed ft*

1 88 Syntax: The Sentence. [§§199.200

a. A relative occasiooaJlj agrees with its autecedeDl ia case (by at- tratiion) : as, —

si aliqnid agis eomm qnomm eonsnesu" (Kam. t. 14), ij you ihould da ionulking o/ivhaT yoH are used to do. [For eoDUn quae.]

i. A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied axiie- cedent; as, —

quartuiD genus . . . qui acre vetere alieno vacillant (Cat ii. 10), a fourlh

class, that are staggering under old debts. iJQUs ex CO numeio qui pitati etml (Jug. 35), anr of Ike n-umber [of thorej

who -were ready.

, de qui [iJT. eoniuradone] dicam (SilL Cat. l8), a

I

Note. — So nsularly when the anlecedenl is implied in a possessive pronoun (cf.Ji97./l: as,-

nostia qui adsumus saliis, the Siiftly of iis luko are present. [Here qui agrees with the nOBtrum implied in nostra].

200. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both clauses ; but usually only in the one that precedes. Some- times it is wholly omitted. Thus —

a. The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause r

loci nitura etjt hacc quern loctun nostri delegerant (B. G. ii. 18), Sit nature of the ^ound ■mhtck our men had chosen was this.

b. The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause: as,—

quis rea In consulatii nostro sessimus altigit hie versihua (Arch. 11'), ie Am tomied in verse tie things -which I did in my consulship.

urbem quam staluo vestra esl (/En. i. ^-j^, yours is the city lohick I am founding.

Note, — In this case a demonsiralive (la, Ule. oihic) usually stands in Ihe .nlecedenl clause L as, — iitos caplivSa duos, beri quos eoii de ptaeda ... his indito catenas singula- rias (Plaut, Capl. 1 lO), those two prisoners thai I bought yesterday, — put fetters 0 J them. qoae pars civitilia calamitatcm populu Romano intuleral, ea princeps poenas pcrsolvit (B. G. i. 13), that fart of the slate -.uhieh had 6reu^ disaster BH the Roman people was the firsHo pay the penalty. Tn a lenience of this class ihetelative c\uisc iisiu.\V| sMndt font in LAdn (ct | I. e). as JD the ejtample. |

IS 200, 201.] Relative Pronouns. I

e. The antecedent may be entirely omitted, especially if it is efinite: as,— qni decimoe legiouis aquilam fercbat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man^ -akis h

tht eaglt of the Unlh le^on. qui cognoscerent raisit (id.i. 21'), htsenl [men] to reconnoitre (whoahould, |

etc.).

d. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) agreeing with it^'fl atecedent in gender and number may stand in the relative clause:^

n viderat {Verr. iv. 27), ihos. at /lis house. [Nearly equivalent lo I \r -Dfry beautiful attes.'^

vasa ea quae ptHcherrima apud e beavliful visstls which lif had set Ike vessels ofiuhich he had seen s:

e. The phrase id quod or quae rBa is used (instead of quod alone) J I refer to a group of words or an idea : — [obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam anne Pompeia? an utrique — -id quod es

virius? (Manil, 19), an affront is offered— shall I say la GaHnim

or lo Fompey ? or — which is mullmn sant in venationibus . . . quae lis vires alit (B.G.iv. i), Oiey spend ■

much time in huniing, which [practice] increases their strength. [Cf. |

B. G. ii. 5.] Note. — But quod alone often oocura: as,— Cassioi noster, quod mibi magnae voluplati fuit, hoslem leiecerat (Fan

10), ourjriind Cassias — mUich was a ^real salisfaction to me—

driven back the enemy.

201. In the use of relatives, the following points are to s observed : —

a. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often ia in English.

liber qnem milii dedisli, ike book you gave me.

is sum qui semper fai, I am the same man I always was.

eo in toco est de quo tibi locutus sum, he is in the place I told you of

b. A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other instruction in English ; particularly of a participle, an appositive, or a lun of agency ; as, —

leges quae nunc sunl, &e existing Iotbs (the laws which now exist). Caesar qui Galliain ricil, Ci^sar Vie conqueror of Gaul (who conquered

Gaul). JDBta gloria quae «t fcuctua virtntis, true glory [which is] the fruit of virtue. qui ^tgit, a reader (one who reads). ille qoi petit, /Ae f/aiKtiff (yts viVa 'i\^^. ' '

r

I

SpUax; TJu Senteitce. {% 201

the TctadTe clause usaally comes DOtm (cf. f 200. b): as, —

1 such cases olifi e ptWKW wtocti properij belongs io (he antecedeo

Wm i)n coniahe . . . eatct, dntiBc 11& d bene licet partum bene (Plaut. RuL la|D}, if aab ufa iiigaarJ, Jke may enjoy, etc

^ The antECcdeM bodd, when in a^^iositioii with the main clause, ot with scMBCvotd of it, b pot in the iclative clause: as, —

finn ■■ici, <VBi gwtril at nai|[iui pcnuna, jlatdfasC friend!^ a elass of

wkidk tttrt UgrtmtUd (c/vbidi das). (, A TclaliTe nnj sXxaA (ctcd nth another relative or an interroga- tnc) at the b^ianiiig of a sentence or clause, where in English a iff 180./): as,—

t, a»iAat wlt» ktardAis (vhich things). a Aae tiiiigj are m. qairani qaod sinuk bctsm (CaL ir. 8), 'xltat deed of Aeirs like Ikitf

f. I. \ relatiTe adverb is ngulariy 'ised in referring to an antecedent in the LocaiiTC otxe: as, —

■portms C&mi qnS si contoletat (liv. iL 2t), iatrii^ died at Cuma, wiidter it iad rttired. [Here in qnain nrbem might be used, but not

2. So, often, to express any relation of place instead of the fonnal idative pioDoan (c£ wluma, mktrtia, wiUrewiH) : as, —

k>cns qnS arditns noa ent, aftaet tB taiiei (whither) Here mas no acetss. ngjxt, nnde geniB dnds, Ae Hitgitm from oMckyoa dirioe your race. nnda petitur, Ae d^mdanl (he wherefrum somethiiie ia demanded, cf. §»;.-).

g. The relatives qui. qoSlin, qnnnlnu, qnot, etc., are often rendered simply by as' in Ei^jtsh (§ 106. ^ : as, —

idoD quod aempar, dte tamt ai ahtvys.

lilil dox qulam Huuubalcm novimas, smi a chief as -.nt tnow HanniiiU

[to h«ve been], tanta dimicado qaanta numqnam foil, sick a figii as ntver wai iefii lot mala qnot ^era, oj many troui/et as stars in the siy.

' Tbf £QgIisb as in this use ia atricAi ». re\aii™.ftio>i^ WixrUMft"'

^

t 201. 203.]

Indefinite Pronouns.

\ k. The general construction of relatives is found ia clauses iced by relative or temporal adverbs: as, ubi, quo, unde,

6, Indefinite Pronouns. 203. The Indefinite pronouns are used to indicate that ] mte person or thing is meant, without designating wliat I

NoriL — For tlie meanings of the compounds of QUI and Quia, see } 105.

o. Of the particular indefinites meaning some or any {quia, quia- 1

plam, neeoiS quis, aliquis, qaldam), the simple qois is least definite, |

qnldam most definite : as, —

dixeril quia (qnispiam), some one may say.

aliqui philosophi ita pulanl, some philosofhirs Ihitik so. [quidar

mean certain particular persons defined lo the speaker's mind, though I not nnuied.]

habitant hie qnaedam luulieres pauperculae, some poor ivomtn live ken J [i>. Jome women he Itnows of; somewomen or other yiayAi. be aliqusA J or neicio quaej.

b. In ^.particular negative ediqnls (allqnl) is regularly used, where ' .in a universal negative quiBquam (subst.) or fillua (adj.) would be required: as,—

iiislitia Qunquam nocet cniqnam qui earn habet (Cic), justice never does harm to anybody who possenes it. [alicui would mean lo somebody whe possesses .v.] sine aliqud melu, [you cannot do this] tvitkoiil some fear. sine Silo melii, [you may do this] iBithaul any fear. _ cum aliqnid non habeas (Tusc i. 36), when there is something you have not. m ■ Note. — These pronouns aie used in like manner in conditional and other | fci.lences(i.o5.i):as,- I

r si quiaqoam, ille sapiens fnit (LieL z), if any man was (ever) a Sage, he was. dum praesidia ulla fuetunt (Rose. Am. 4J), while there wtrt any armed

forces (till they ceased lo be). d qnid in te peccavi (^A.a.'m. 1$, ^^i r/ /have done Tarw^lowardt you

[in any particular case (see a, above)]. C, Of the general indefinites, quivia and qnllibet (any yott will), ntervla {either you ■will, of two), are used chiefly in affirmative, quio- n and Ollua {any at all) m negative, \ntMYOg,a,iive, t

^^uses

k

192 Syntax: The Sentence. fS 9

cni^^B potest accidere quod omquam potest, what can happin fa any [one]

man can happm to any man [^whatever], non eniviH homini contingit adire Corinthum, ii is nut every man'i luck to

ga to Catinlh. [nou cniqnani would mean not any man's^ minus habeo viiium qusm vcstrum aterviB, I have less strtn^ than either

of you. [For the form utervia, see g 83.] qnidlibet modo aliqaid (Cic), anything you will, provided it be seme-

cur cuiqaam misi prius, why did I send to anybody be/ore [yonj?

sT qaisquam est timidus, is ego sum, if any man is timorous, I am he.

cum haud cniqaajn in dubio easel (Liv. ii. 3), when ii was not a matter 0/ doubt to any one.

si tempus est allam iiice hominis necandi Qi\\o,^g), if there is any occasion whatever, etc

Note. — TIih use of these indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the i^exicon anil from practice. The choice among Ihem often depends merely on the point of view of tlie speaker, bo that they are often practically inEerchangcable. The differences are (with few eieeptions) those of logic, nol of syntax.

rf. The distributives qulaque (<W£^), utergue (fad), and flons qulBque (every single one), are used in general assertions. They are equivalent to a plural, and sometimes have a plural verb (cf. § Z05. c.

bonus liber melior est quiaque quo maior, the larger a good book is, the better (each good book is better [in the same measure] as it is larger).

ambo exercitiU suas qoisqne aheunt domos, both armies go away, every man to his home.

nterque ntrique erat exerdlus in conspectS, each army was in sight of tiu other (each to each) .

ponite ante ocalos untunqueniqne legnm, set before your eyes each of the

e. Quieqae is regularly placed in a dependent clause, if there is one :

quoqnisqne eat sollerlior, hoc docel iracundiu»(Rosc,Com. \l),tAekeener' willed a man is, the more imfa/ie?ttly he teaches (in »'hat measure each is, etc., in that measure lie teaches, etc.).

f, NSmS, no oni, is tised r —

1. As a substantive : as, — ^B cSmd lie repeolc turpissimus, no one suddenly becomes absolute// iase. .^H

2. As an adjective pronoun : as, — ^M vir nintO bonus (Leg. li. 16), no good man.

Note. — Even when used as a subslantivc, Ii6m0 may take a noun m apposi.

nemo scriptoT, nobo^ [who Is^ a v.<r\UT. -^^^^^^M

Alius and Alti

193 {

7. Alius and A.lter. 203. The expressions alter , , . alter, the one . . . tke% other, alius . . . allna, one . . . another, may be used in; pairs to denote either division of a group or reciprocity 0 action : as, —

alu gladiis adociuDtuT, alii frigmentia saeptocnin (Sest. 42), some make on | attack ■with swords, others ■milh fragments of the railings.

anna ab aliia posita ab alila erepta. sunt (Mbtc. 10, 31), arms were laid % dovm by some and werg snatched from others.

dnSbna Roaciis Amerinis quorum alternm sedere iu acciisalocuni aubselliil | video, altemm tris. hiiiusce praedia possidere audio (Rose. Am. 6, 17), I ftiw Roscii of Amtria, one of ■whom I see sitting on the benches of tit I prosecution; Ike other, J hear, is in possession, etc.

alteri dimicant, alter! victocem timeoC (Fam. vi. 3), one party fights, tht I other fears tht victor.

hi fritres alter alterum amant, these brothers love one another.

alina alinm percontamur, we ash each other.

a. Alina means simply other, another (of an indefinite number); alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; cfiterl and | ■yeJlquI, all the rest, the others; alteruter, one of the two. Thus,-

quid alind afiis, ishai else are you doing (what other thing) ?

cum etiom hi quibul ignoviati, nolint te esse in alioB miseiicorilem (IJg. J

5, 15), Tvhen even those whom you have pardoned are uniailli

ycH should be mtreifu! to olliers. ttHi epistnlae respoudi, venlo ad alteram (Faro. ii. 17, 6), one Utter I haut^

answered, T come to the other, OD1U atque item alter, one and then [Ukewise] another. (|Of an indefinite \

number, but strictly lefening only ta the second.] altenuu genus (Cat. iL 9, 19), Ae second class. iecissem ipse me potius in profundum ul oeterdi conscrvarcm (Seat. 2

I should have rather tkrmim myself into the deep to save the rest. horum nCro uti nolumus, altero est uCendum (Sest. 42, 92), whichever of I

the Add wi do not wish to have, we must take the other. Servilios consul, reliqnique magistcatos (B. C. iii. 21), Servilitu the eaiatU ]

artd the rest of the magistrates. cum sit Decease altemtmm vincece (Fam. vl. 3), when it must be that t

of Ike two should prevail.

b. AUhb and alter are often used (the other) of the objects referred to :

well as another

194 Syntax: The Sentence. [§g 203, 204.

c. AAliiB repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same tern, expresses shortly a double statement ; as, — alius iliud petit, one man setks one thing, one onolker (another seeks

Bnother thing), alius alia via civitSlem auxiruiit (Liv. i. 21 ), Ihiy enlarged ike Stale, each

mudigi,

1 used, especially with n^atJTes, in reTerence lo an In' is opposed lo all the rat taken singly : as, —

qui iltsrum incusal probri cum ipsum sc intueri opoctet {Phaed. i. 19), ke uiAo aecuses Ail neighbor of ^orang ought tg look at himself {&e Biker, Ihete being al the moment only two concerned).

dum ne sil te ditior »lter (Hot. Sat L 1, 40), so long as anolher is not rickrr tAaH yoH.

non ul ais£is alter, amicus (Hot. Sal. i. 5. 33), a friend such that no

IV.-VER8S. ^1

1. Verb and Snbjeot. ^H

201. A Finite verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person : as, —

ego stituo, / rrsoihr.

senitOS decrevit, the smatt orelereJ.

nient lega inter amo, tit laas are Jtimt im Hmt if war.

m. A verb hating a relative as it; sobject takes the posoQ of tbe exr iRSsed or implie<i antetedeat: as, — aiknmqni Ra r.Eii. ix. ^SJ\^ert^mIwi^J^fit. t. The Tab sonietiiDes agnes im a

Double Subject.

2. Double Subjeot. 205. Two or more singular subjects take a verb in thel ■ plural : as, —

pater et avus mortol Bnnt, hiifatkir and grandfather an dead. Note. — So rarely (by a eanalmclloQ according 10 the sense. } iBi) v

i. (xi), the general a,

si tu e( TulHi valetia egq et Cicero TalemoB (Fam. xiv. 5), if yea a Tultia are-aiell, Cicero and I are laell. [Notice that the first person is ahajirsi in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.]

Note. — In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule far predicate adjectives; see } 1B7. *, c.

b. If the subjects are connected by disjunctives, or if they are con- sidered as a single whole, the verb is singular: as, —

quern neqaQ fides neqne iiiaiiirBiiduni neqae ilium misericordia repressit

(Ter. Ad. 306), not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him. Senalus populusque Romanus mtellegit (Fam. v. 8), the Roman Senate

I and people understand. [Here the phrase Senitna, etc, 19 the officiil ^^^

desiguation of the government.] ^^H

C. A collective nouti commonly takes a verb in the singular : as, — ^^H Senalul haec intelligit (Cat. i. i, z), the Senate is aware of this. ^^H

ad biberna exeicitus redit (Liv. xxi. zz), tht army returns to Tninter-juar- ^^^| I. But the plural is often found with collective nouns when individ- ^^H

\

Mais are thought of; a

pajspraedas agibant (Jug- 32), a part braught in booty.

cam lanla multitndo lapides conioerBnt (B. G. ii. 6), -when such a crojcd

vias IkroToing stones. Note.— The point of view may change in the course of a sentence: as,- J

equitilum omnem . . . qnam habebat praemittit, qui Tidsant, (B. G. i. 15), 1 hi sent ahead all the cavalry he had. to see (who should see). H

:. Qnlaque has very often a plural verb, but may be considered as in apposition with a plural subject implied (cf § 202. rf) ; as, —

Mbi quisqae habeant quod suum est (Plaul. CuTt.'), Ift rufj onitetJlB* I atea (let tbeai keep every man his own').

rgfi Syntax: The Sentence.

d. When a verb belongs lo two or more subjetts separatefy, may agree with one and be understood with the others : as, — intercedit M. Antotiius el Ca^siua Iribuni plebis (B. C. i, z), AiUonji Canius, tribunes of Ihe people, inlerpose.

3. Incomplete Sentences.

206. Thesubjectof theverbissometimesomitted. Thu^'

a. A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless emph: Thus,—

loquor, I speak. But, ego loquor, it is I that sptai.

b. An indefinite subject is often omitted. This is usually a plural, as in dicunt, fenint, perhibent {they say)

but sometimes singular, as in inqnit (Tusc. i. 39), one says (1 to a class of leasoners just spoken of).

c. The verb is often omitted. Thus, —

1 . Died, facld, ago and other verbs in familiar phrases : as

quotsum haec [apectant], ivkal does this aim at? ex ungue leonem [cognosces], you roill hnme a lion ly Ail elaw. quid multa, what need of many words ? (why should I Say much?) quid? quod, wAal of this, that, etc? (what shall I say of this, that,

[A form of transition.] Aeolua haec contra (jDn. i. 76), jEolus thus [spoke] in reply. turn Cotta [inquit], then said Colla.

di meliora [duint], Heaven forefeitd (may the gods grant better thingi)l- unde [venis] et quo [tendisj, lahere are you from andvihere bound?

2. The copula aiiin, very commonly in the indicative and infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the subjunctive : as, —

tSconiSnx C^n. iv. llfj, you Xyx^l his wife.

omnia praedara rata (LseL 20> all the best things are rare.

potest incidere saepe contenlio et comparatio de duobus honestii ntrum honestiua (Off, i. 43), a comparison of two honorable actions, as to ■whiek is ihe more honorable. [Here, if any copula were expressed, it would be Bit, but rhe direct question would be complete witboul any.]

accipe quae peragenda prius (^n.vi. 136), hear -uihat is first to bi aeeoni- ptished. [Direct: quae peragenda prina?]

Cf., for omission of a Subjunctive, — cum ille fer5citet Bd haec [diceret] (Liv. i. 48), vpon his replying luitk insolence to this, that, etc.

V.-PARTICLES. 1. Adverbe,

207, Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives,

1

,u^^

V say) ; :ferrin^^

1

i)i^H

Adverbs. r97i

lerivadon and classiRcatioD of adverbs, see W 148, 149. : proper funclions of Adverbs, ss, peliified case-tonna, ia lodl^ Verbs: as. cslerlter Ire. /n ,fVi viitk spied, ll h from this use Ihat th^ I derive their name (advorblmn, from ad, la, and Verbum. vcri; see § 163./), 1 They alKi modi^ ailjeclives, showing in what manner or degree the qualltf I described is manifested ; as, Bplendide JnoTiA&i, gloriQusfy falsi . More Ihey modify other adverbs ; as, nimia ^raviter. taa smriiy.

Note 3. — 'Many adverbs, especially reladve adverbs, serve as connective are hardly lo be distinguished from conjunctions (see } 25, k. note).

a. A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent t> corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see § 201. f) : as, —

eo (^— in ea) impooit visa. (Jug. 75), ufian thtm (thitlicr, thereon, c

beasts) hi puis Iki cantf-ulinsils. eo milites imponere (B. G. i. 42), an Ikim (thereon) hi puis thi soldiirs. apud eos qao (= ad qnos) se contulit (Verr. iv. 18), among iha:

(whither) At resorlid. qui eum necasset nnde ipse natus esset (Rose. Am. 26), oni ■aiho should I

have kilhd ku mm father (him whence he had his birth). □ miseras condiciones adminislrandarum provinciamm nbi [= in quibus]

Kveritaa periculosa est (Flacc 87), ok! ■wrelchid terms of m

Ihe provincis, ■aihere strictness is dangerous.

b. The adverbs propiuo, near; proxiinB, next (like the adjectives proplor, prozimuB) ; piidiS, the day before; pOBtrldiS, the day after, are sometimes followed by the accusative {see § 261. 0).

The adverbs palam, openly ; prooul, afar% Bxra\d, at tie same lime, are sometimes followed by the ablative (see § 261. i).

Note. — PridiSondpoBtrldie are often used with the genitive (j 333.1.11.3). Clam, wilioHt Iht kmrmledge of, may take Ihe accusative, the abladve, or the get

c. Many perfect participles used as nouns regularly retain the adver! I which modified them as participles ; as, —

praeclate factum, a glorious died {s. thing gloriously done).

d. Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which contain a verba a(cf. § 188. rf): as,—

populuB lale rex (JFja. i. zi), a people ruling far and wide. hioc abitio (Plant.), a going away from here.

quid cogitem de obTia.ni itione (Alt. xiii. 50), whal I think about going t meet £biro]. ^Perhaps fell as a compound.]

For adverbs used as adjec

t Note.— In som adjective modifyi 1 adjective (as In

■ I

igS Syniax: The Sentence. [§ 20ft

2. Conjnnctloiis. ^^H

Note. — For ihe ciassificalion of conjunctions, see {{ 154, 153. ^^|

208. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect similar constructions, and are regularly followed by the same case or mood that precedes them : as, — acriptum senntui et populo (Cat. iii. 5, lo), wrih ut eas [parlis] sanarea et conrirmares (Mil. 25,6

strengthen those parts. neque mea priidentia neqne iumania consiliis fi ing neither an my av>n foresight nor an hum

a. Conjunctions of Comparison (as at, qoam, tanquam, quasi) ajso commonly connect similar constructions: as,—

his igilur quam physidB potius credendum exialimas (Div. ii. 26), do yaa ikini these are more to be trusted than ihe natural philosophers !

hominem callidioiem vidi neminem qaam PhonmaiiEin (Tcr.), a shrewder man I never taw than Phormio (cf. § 247. a).

65), as every wine does not sour •with age, so [does] not every natttre. Cf. perge ut inBtituIsti (Rep. ii. i'),^ on as you have begun. in me quasi in tyrannum (Phil. xi». 6, 15), against me as against a tyrant.

b. Two or more co-ordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often put together without the use of conjunctions {Asyndeton, % 346. c); as, —

orancs di, homines, all gods and men.

summi, medii, infimi, the highest, the middle class, and the tovtesl.

libecl, Becvi, freemen and slaoes.

1. Where there are more than two co-ordinate words, etc., a conjunc- tion, if used at all, must be used with all (or all except the first) : as, —

aut aere alieno aut magniludine tribulonim ant iniuiia potentiorum (B. G. vi. 13), by debt, excessive taxation, or oppression on the part of the powerful.

summa Sde ot constanlia et iuslitia, viilh perfect good faith, [andj consist- ency, and justice. [Not fide coDHta.ntia et iustitiS, as In English.]

2. But words are often so divided Into groups that the members of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups them- selves express the conjunction (or omit it) ; as, —

propudium illud et portentum, L. Anlonius insigDe odium omnium bomi- num (Phil. xiv. 3, S), that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the abominaltan af all men.

ntrumque egit graviter, auctoritale et oRensione animi non acerba (Lirl.

B/, 77), he acted in both casts with dignity, ■uiitkaut lott Oj

■i^a/i/A no hitterness of feeling.

i 208, 209.] Conjunctions ; Negative Particles.

3. The enclitic -que is sometimes used with the last member of « ;ries, even when there is no grouping apparent : as, — voce vultu raotu^ne (Brut. 1 10), by voice, exprenioiit and gtslrire. ciiiam consilium vigilantiamqtie (Phil. vii. 10), care, •misdom, a

multo sudoce Ubare vigiliisqiie (Div. 72), •milk mikh fatigue, 1

viaiing. qaocum auctoritalem d^;nititem voluntatemqua defetideras (Fam. i. 7, 2), I

■uiAosc dignity, honor, and wishes yau had defended.

c. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly coi oected by a conjunction ; as, —

mulloe et graves causae, many weighty reasons.

d. Many words properly adverbs may be used correlatively, and s iKcome conjunctions, partly or wholly losing their adverbial force (see 1 '5 107)- Such are, —

cum . . . tnm, nhils ...so also {both . . . and-).

tiua . . , tum, riffiu , . . HoiL\

modo . . ■ modo, 7iow , . . now.

Bimnl.. .aimal, at the same lime . . .alike same timt (at once . ..as well as),

qua . . . qua, now . . . now. .

Thus, —

com difficile est, turn nS aequum quidem (Liel. S, 26), not only is il diffi- cult, but even unjust.

erumpant saepe vilia amicorum torn in ipsos amicos ti 21, 76), the faults of fritnds sometimtt break out, friends themsehiis, now against strangers.

modo ait modo negat (Tec. Eun. 712), now he soys yes,

aimnlgralias agit, udmiI giitulatur (Q. C vi. t), he thanks him and at tht J lame time congratulates him. I

qna maris qnS fiminas (Plaut. Mil. 1 1 13), both males and females.

e. Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together 4he sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what pre- cedes: as, at T8r6, iul in truth, bill surely, still, hirweveri itaqne

accordingly then', namqae, for; et-enlm, for, you see, for of (5 i!6. i).

f. For conjunctions introducing subjunctive clauses, see Chap. V. I

3. Ifegative Particles.

Note. — For the list of neEalive particlea, see \ 149. e. 209. In the use of the Negative Partides.the fallQwiii^, nnts are to be observed : —

20O Syntax: The Stnte»£e. [§ 209.

a. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative, as in English (§ 150): as, ttCnio uSn videt, everybody sees. But ^general negation is not destroyed — I. By 3 ibllowing nS . . . quidem, not even, or nSn modo, not only:

noinqnam tu non modo otium, sed ne bdlum C[nidem nisi nefariam con- cuplati (Cal. i. lO, 25), nol only havtyou never desired repose, but you have never desirtd any a'ar txeefl otie inhich iiias itifameus.

i separate subordinate

3. By neque introducing a co-ordinate member: as, —

neqaeo satis mirari neqne conicere (Ter. Eim. 547), I cannot luonder

b. The negative is frequently joined to some other word. Hence the forms of negation in Latin differ from those in English in many ejtpressions. Thus, —

neqne (nee) (not et non), and no/, hut not (neither . . . nor).

nee quiaquam (nol et nemo), and no one (nor any one).

niilli or ueatri credo (not Don credo nlli), / da not believe either

(I believe neither). neg5 haec esse vera (nol dico non ease), / say this is net true (1 denji

that these things are true). eino alio periculo (less commonly com unllo), laith na danger (without

any danger). liTiil nnqnam audivi iiicundius, / never heard anything mere amusing

(nothing mace amusing tiave I ever heard).

i often made emphatic by denying its contrary ■ {Utotes): as,—

non haec sine niimine divani eveniaot (^n. ii. 777), these things da hM

occur -wilhoui the will of the gods. haec non nimis exquiro (Att. vii. iS, 3), not very much, i.e. very little.

tNoTC — Compare nSnailllua, aOnnSmS, eic. (j 150. a). d. The particle linmS, nay, is used to contradict some part of a preceding statement or question, or its form ; ia the latter case, the same statement b often repeated in a stronger form, so that immS be- comes nearly equivalent \fiyes {nay but, nay rather) : as, — caasa igitut non bona est? immo optima (Att, is. 7), ii the came then net agvudoneF on the contrary, the best.

i§ 209, 210.]

Questions.

order thai') , and I

.8 possunt, if they

e. Minus, Uss (especially with bI, if, qaS, in I, least, often have a negative force. Thus, -

[For quo minnB, see §§ 3"9- '. 331- '-ll inime (Rose. Am. i). am I the boldcsl\ of them all? by ho means (not at all).

[For do nol in Prohibilions, see { 269. a.]

Vl.-QUESTIONS.

210. Questions are either Direct or Indirect.

I. A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker

quid est P what is it f

z. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted 1 to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends < terb or other expression of asking, doubting, knowing, or the like : a;

Questions in Lati rogative words, and a words, as in English.

Note. — For the list of Inti

■Qgative Particle a. A question of simple fact, requiring the led by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word

mfearlhal? morietur (Mil. native lattdf

sign of inlerrogatioQ appears

c. When the enclitic -ne is nSntie, — an affirmatrue answer gests a negative answer. Thus, —

uGnne animadverli* (N. D. iii, 35), da you. hoI observe ? K nan! dabiuai at fRosc. Am. 37), tkere is no doubt, is Ihere?

are introduced by special inter- 1 ; not distinguished by the order of ]

202 Syntax: The Sentence. [JS 210, 211.

d. TTie particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly when added to some other word, has the force of noiuie: as. —

merainislme mi in senatu dicere (Cat. i. 3), don'l yau rsmtmber my say- XTig in Iht Stnali ?

rectene intcrpielat senlenliam tuam (Tusc. iii. 17, 37), du I tiol righlly inlcrprtl yeur meaning f

NOTK. — This was eyidentlj (he original meaning of -ne; but in most cases ihe negative force was lost and -ne was used nierelj lo express a question. So ihe English inwrtogative noT shades off inlo ehf

Remark.— The encliiic-ne is sometimes added to other inlerrogaiive words; as, utrumne, vikether; anna, or; quantane (Hot. Sal. iu 3. 317), kOTB iigf quOce molS \\ii.^i^),iyvi&.il curse f

e. A question concerning Jiiww spheral circumstaKce is formed by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb (§ io6j, as in English: as, —

qnid ell quad lam amplius exapectes (Cat. L 3), what is there for you &

look for any more? jd5 ieilur haec spectant (Fant. vl. 6), ■whither thtn is aH tiis tenttingf Icare, nbl es (Ov. M. viii. 232), Icarus^ where ariyauT Remark. — A question of Ihis form becomes an exclamatioa b; changing Ibr inSecrlon of Ihe voice: as, qUEUIs vir erati wkata man Aeimsf quot cola- mitatSa paaal aumua I Amo mimy misfortunts have vn safertdJ

f. The particles nam (enclidc) and tandem may be added to Inter- rogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis ; as, — qnianam aX, prayivho it itf [qnia tandem eat? would be Btronger.] ubiaam gentium sumiis (Cat. f, 4), laltere in the leorld are we! in qua tandem urbe hoc disputant (Mil. 3, 7), t» ivkat ei^%prajr, do Aey

mainlainlhisf Noi'E.— Tandem Is someCtmei added lo veibs: as,— aln tandem (Fam, k, zi),y0u don'l soy sof (say you so, pray?) ilane tanrlera, (juaeso, est (Ter. Heaat, 954), iV'j so, is il then f itane landenj uxorem du^it Antipho (Ter. Ph. 331). *" t^'". '^ ? AHlipho's

got married? Remark.— The form of Indirect Qiiesdons (in English Inlroduced by lehtlher, □r by an inletrogative pronoun or adverb) Is in Latin the same as thai of Dired; the difference being- only in (he verb, which in indirect quesliona regularly laket the Subjunctive ({334).

In indirect questions ntim loses its peculiar force () aio. <)'

Double QneatioiiB.

211. A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry

as to which of two or more supposed cases is the true

S 211, 212.]

Questions.

^W 211, 21

^1 In Double or Alternative Questions, ^^v^kether, stands in the first member; an, an

necne, or not, in the second ; and usually an

there be one : as, —

26), <

ntmm or 'net 1 me, or ; annSn, I in the third, if 1

ia, an pio nihaS Id pulas (Fani. x. 26), IJ it that you don't j ■ ds you Ihink Holhing of it?

. libetoa (Rose Am. 27), I ask TiiAclkcr ilavn or free. atmm hostem an vos an forlunam utriusque popuU ignoratis (Liv. xxi. 10, 6), is it tki enemy, or yourselves, or Ike fortuni of Ike two peoples, j that you do no! knsniif Remakk.— AnaOn is more common In direct questions, necne in indirect. a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first member; | which case -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second ; as, — Gabinio dicam anne Pompiio an utrique (M^nil. 19), shaU I say ti

Gatinius, or la Poinpey, or to both ? sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 18), are these your -words or not?

b. Soi lone :

m^a

the first member is omitted or implied, and an (anno) J

ks the question, — usually with indignation or surprise : as, ■

D. tii miseros putaa illos (Tusc. i. 7), what! da yea think t/iosc «

wretched? I

Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum ,

ask a question to which there is no alternative : as, — I

ntnun in claiissimis est civibus is, qucm . . . (Flacc. id), is he among lAt |

Holiest citizens, whom, etc.? J. The following table exhibits the various forms

utrum . . . annSn

Question and Answer.

212. There is no one Latin word in common use mean- Dg simply _]'^j or no. In answering a question affinnatively, the verb or some other emphatic word is generally ; peated ; tn ansvirering negatively, the veib, etc., Vv^ i a similar negative : as, —

r

Syntax: The Sentence. [% 212

valetne, is ht -will? valet, yts (he is well).

eralne tecum, wai he Toilh you ? nSn erat, »o (he was not).

numquidnam navl tktre is nolhing new, is tkert? niMl aane, oh! ni

a. An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is ties used lo answer a, direct question ; thus, "

uie quidem, jres, no douit, < its, so, Irtit, etc. ita eat, if u so, true, etc.

tane, surety (soundly), no doubt, doubtless, etc. certe, certainly, most assuredly, unquestionably, etc. factum, true (it was done), its a fael, you're right, etc. 2. For NO ; —

non, not [so]. nullo modo, by no means.

nunimi, not at all (in the smidlest degree, cf. § 209. e).

non qnidem, lohy, no; certainly not, etc.

non hercle viro, why, gracious, no (certainly not, by Hercules) 1

Examples are: —

quidnam? an laudaliones? ita, why, whaif is it tulogies ? jasi so.

But etiam aut D&n respondere (Acad. ii. jz, lO)), to answer (categorically)

yes or no. estne ut fertut foiina? BfinS (Tec. Eun. 360), ii [she] as handsome as they

say she is (is hec beauty as it is said) f eh .'yes. fugiane hinc? ego v5r3 ac lubena (Ter. And. 337), will you clear out from

here ? indeed I will, and be glad lo. miser ergo Acchelaus? certS si iniuslus (Tusc. v. iz, 35), was Archelaus

wretched then ? certainly, if he was unjust. haec canlemnitis? minime (De Or. ii. 73, 295), do you despise these things f

not at all. voluciibnsne et feria? minime vero (Tusc. L 43, 104), to tlie birds and

beasts? why, of course not. ex lui aniini sentenlia tu uxorem habea? Don tercle, ex me! animl sen-

tcnlia (De Or. ii. 64, 260), Lord! no, etc. b. In answering a double question, one member of the alterna- tive, or some part of It, must be repeated; as,-^

liine an fritec ecal, was it you or your brother? ego [cram], it -was I. Remark. — From double {allerniOive') queations must l>c distinguished Ihose which are in themselvea single, but of which jomfift/ji/o«^ is allernalivo. These have (he common disjunctive particles ftut or vel (-ve). Thus.—

qnaero num iniiiste aiut improbe feceril (Off. iii. 13), I ask whether He acted

unjustly or even dishonestly. Here there Is no double question. The ort^ \tu\u\iv \^ ~H\tfShei ft« man did ^ of the Iwo Ihings supposed, not which otlte wo\ie 4v4. J

I

r Construction of Cases. 20j ^^^|

Chapter II, — Construction of Cases. ^^H

i5 Iheirrelallonsto other words In Ihese

root? or stem

». Floir

1 ihls arises in lim

e composilion,

the growing together of sle

by means of.

which B.

complex expressio

s parts mutually depends

Thus such a

complc

X as Brmo-Bflro

an arm-itai-mg: fldi-co

fluymg on t).

i,/jr<.

Later. Cases an

; form.

neans of suflixes to expr

more definll.

ely such

L relations, and Syntax begins.

But the primillve meth

ofcompositic

m stiU a

iDtinues to hold ai

1 Important pli

ice even In the most hig

developed languages.

Originally (he ^mily of languages to ^^'hlch Latin belongs had at least seven cases, besides the Vocative. Bui in Lalln the Locallve and Inslrumental vfere lost except in a few words {where they remained without being recogniied as cases] and their functions were divided among the others (}} 224, 24a),

The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the oldest form* of case- relations {Direa dues, } Ji.g. note). The Nominative Is the case of the Subject, uid the -a in which it generally ends is thought to be a demonstrative pronoun (§ 32, n. a). The Vocative, usually without a lerminalion, or like the Nominative (f 33- "). perhaps never bad a suffix oi its own. The Accusative, most frequently formed by the suffix -m {doubtless another demonstrative), originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or adjective {see page 235, head-note).

The other cases were formed by combination with various pronominal suffixes, and at first probably expressed relations of place or direction {to, from, at, with: litdirtet Casts, f 31. f. note). But these original meanings have become confiised with each olher, and in many instances the cases are no longer distinguish- able either in form or meaning. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative; and its function was often performed by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the placi -wktre (j 358, /), To indi- cate relations of place more precisely, Prepositions (originally Adverbs) gradually became necessary. These by degrees rendered the case-endings useless, and so have finally superseded them In all modem languages derived from Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was slill expressed by case-forms. It

in ibm figuralivt uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation, } 143 : Ablative of Place and Time, {} 254, 236.)

The word C&B11B, case, Is a ffanslation of the Greek irruirit, a/ailing away (from the erect position). The term ttbiti! was originally applied to (he Oblique Cases (j 3i.,f), to mark Ihera as variations from the Nominative, which was called opH (casta rictus). The later name Nsminaiive (casus ndminaCivu!) is from ngmlng, and means the ■amifly ease. The other case-names (except ailalivt) are of Greek origin. The name Ctnilhic (casus geittCnjui) Is a translation of ^t¥^Kh [ttSois], from yiiiBt (class), and refers to Ihe dassXa which a thing belongs. Dative (casus daHinis, from dO) is translated from Sdtiic^, and means the case ol giving. Accusative (atcSsa/nms, from accflsfi) is a mistranslation of oirinTix^ (the case of cauiiag), from ahla, cause, and meant to the Romans Ihe case of accusing. The name yocatiae (vocathms, from vooO) is translated from kXijiikA (^(he caseoS tantng^. The name Ailatrnt {ailatiiais, from abl&ttlB, auIerG) means laJniif front, "Yi^ ■ oBSe the Greek had lost.

I

I

;o6 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [S 213.

I.-GENITIVE.

Note.— The Geniiive la r^^larly used to express the relation of one noun lo noiher. Hence il is sometimes called Ihe adjicliiic case, lo distinguish it (ram le Dative and the Ablative, which may be called aifoerju/ cases. Its uses majbe lassified a^ follows : —

1. Ot Possession (} 214).

>. OfSoutcedevelopedinloMaterUl(§»i4.*). 3. OtQtitility (fits).

Of the Whole, after words designating a Part (Partitive, i ai6). S. With Nouns otAcIion and Feeling (Jir?), 11. Genitive WLTH (1. Relative adjective (or Verbal) (jaiS. a.*). .^^

Adjectives: ] 9. (3fSpecificHtion (later use] \^s\%.c). ^^H

III. GENLTIVEWITH t I. Of Memorr, Feeling, etc. (§§ aig, aai-^). -^^H

VersS: la. Of Accusii^, etc (Charge or Penalty) (^ st2o). ^^|

1. Genitive with Noons.

213. A noun used to limit or define anotlier, and fwt meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive.

This relation b most frequently expressed in English by the prepo- sition of: as, —

libri Cicerpnis, the beats of Cicero.

talenluin auci, a laltnt of gold.

vir sommae virtutis, a man of the greattsi couri^,

pan mililum, a part of the soldiers.

cnllus deorum, viorsAip of ihr gods.

vacatio laboris, a respite from toil.

victor omnium gentium, eonqueror of all nations.

In mcst constructions the genitive is either Subjective or Objective.

r. The Stjbjective genitive denotes that to wliich the noun limited belotigs, or from which it is derived {§ 214).

2. The Objective genitive denotes that toward which an action or feeling is directed (§ 217 9i.').

This distinction is illustrated by the following example. The phrase amor patils, Imie of a father, may mean love felt by a father, a father's Imii (subjective genitive), or love tomards a father (objective genitive).

Note.— The genitive seems to have denoted originally that lo which something belongs, and hence it was originally subjective, llie objective genitive is a later development, through such expressionsas mellaiUdBitOrea, wf iufnirm, in which the admirirs are first conceived as bthngmg lo me, and afterwards felt as adwrninf me (ct § aij. note). For this reason the dislinntion between Ihe subjective and the objective geniUve is very unstable and constan\Vj\ow.si^'M,tStiA.>l vj], li^.

114.] Possessivi- Genitive. 207 ^^|

214. The Subjective Genitive is used with a noun to ^^H denote (i) the Author or Owner, (z) the Source or the^^H

Htfaterial, (3) the Quality. ^^|

^B 1. PoBseesive Genitive ^^^H

■ fa o

1. PoBseesive Genitive

I. The Possessive Genitive denotes the author or

pwner : as, —

ri Ciceronis, Ihf books of (wrMlea by) Cieero. Alexandri equus, Alexander's horse.

. For the genitive of possession n possessive or derivative adjectivi i often used, — regularly for the possessive genitive of the personal I pronouns (§§ 190. iijy.a): as, —

liber meus, my book. [Not liber mel,]

aliens peticala, other men's dangers. [But also aliomm.]

>SuIlina tempoca, the limes of Sulla.. [Oftener Sallae,] b. The noun limited is understood in a few expressions : as, — ad Castoria [aedM], to the [temple] of Castor. Hcctoris Andromache (vEn. hi. 319), Hector's [wife] Andromache. Flaccus Claudl, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius, c. The possessive genitive is often in the predicate, connected trith I its noun by a verb : as, —

haec domus est patria raei, Uds house tutelae nortrae [e^s] d^imus (Liv.;

11 my father's. ),TBe held them

[10

be]

frolec-

compeniK facere, to save (make of sa Incri facere, to gel tie benefit q/'{maki iam me Pompei tolum esse scia (Fair Fenipey (all Pompey's).

™g).

E of profit).

L.ii. .3),^««^,

,™

la

m now

allfor

Remark. —These

u a ptediiale noun t

genitives hear the : lears lo an apposiiivi

■- (hh 184, 1B5).

th(

. e*

mples

in § 2.3

d. An infinitive

or a chuse, when used as a no

■un.

is

often limited

a genitive in the predicate : as,^

neque BUi iudioi [eral] decernere (B. C. i, 35), nor was itferkisju^- I It to decide (nor did it belong to hia judgment). [a hominis eat errare (Cic), it is any man's [liability] to ei

\ (Verr, ii. zS), ke said it was not the (uslom 0/ Ifie GrtOa, f left /e o/i/ear ai guests (recline) at the banquets of nltn. ^ * ~

!o8 Syntax: Co?tstniction of Cases. [§§ 214, 2ia

timidi est oplire nEccm (Ov. M. iv. 15), (^ u for the coward to wish fir

dialh. aiulU eiaC sperue, suadcre impudentis (Phil. ii. 10), it was folly to kept,

tffroHtiry lo urgt (it was the part of a foul. etc.). sapientis (not aapiena) est pauca loqul, it is wist (the part of a wise man)

lo say Hull.

Remakk. — This conslniclion is regular with adjectives of the third declension 35lead of the neuter nominative (see the last two samples).

bnnianDm (for hominifl) est errare, it is man's nature to err (lo err ii

human).

2. Genitive of Material.

e. The genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a thing consists (compare §§ 216, 244) : as, —

talentum auri, a talent of gold. fliimina lactis, rivers of milk.

of source (cf. ei aurO factual, made [out]

f. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in appo- sition {§ 1S3): as,-

nomen lOBaniae {for nomen inaania), the word madness. Dppidum Antiochiae (^ar oppidum Antiochla, the regnlai foim), the city ofAntioth.

g. For the genitive with the ablatives causS, giS.\A&,for tfie sake of; exsfi, because of; and the indeclinable Inatar, M«; also with prIfliB, the day before; poHtildie, the day after; tenuB, us far as, see § 223. e.

h. For the genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive, see § 298.

3. Genitive of Quality.

216. The genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is modified by an adjective : as, —

vir Bumroae virliitis, a man of the highest icurage. [But not vir virtitia.] magnae est deliberationis, it is an affair of great dttiberation. magni formica lahoris, the ant [a creature] of great toil. iile aulem sai iijdici (Nep. Atl, 9), but he \v. ni»o^ of independent (hi" o wn) j'tii^miHl.

Hbtii

1^ 215, 216.] Partitive Genitive. 20g \

Note. — Compare Ablative of Quality (} 351). In expressions of quality, the Eenilive or the ablative may often be used indifferentlj : as, praoatantl pi^l- deDtl& vir. a man B/turfassiHff wisdsm ; mfixjmi animi bomS (Cic.), a '' tAr griatisl couToge. But in general the Genilive is thus used railier of •.t, the Ablative of special or tncidmlal characteristics. The Genilii ' was no doubt originally saijnlive.

The gemlive of quality is found in the adjective phrases Ciiis modi, cuius modi (equivalent to t&lis, such ; quSlia, efwhat sort).

b. The genitive of quality, with numerals, b used to define meas- ures ailength, depth, etc. {Genitive of Measure): as,—

(ossa Irium pedum, o trenih ef three fett [in depth], murus sedeeim pedum, a wait af sixteen feet [high] .

c. For Genitives of Quality used to express indefinite value, see

^H 4. Partitive Oenitive.

H 216. Words denoting a Part are followed by the geni- ^■tive of the Whole to which the part belongs, H" a. Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are — ^1 I, Nouns or Pronouns : as, —

V

pars militum, pari of the totdiers.

qnis nostrum, vihirh if us (cf. e, below) ?

nihil erat reliqui, there was nothing ieft.

2. Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words aliuB, etc.: as, —

I

alter consulum, ani of the [two] consuls.

iinus tribiinSrum, ont of the tribunes (cf. c, below),

plurimum totius GaUlae equititQ valet (B. G. v. 4), 11 strongest

of aU Caul. octavns sapientum (Hor.), He eighth viisi man (eighth of the Hispanocum slii vigilant alii student, 0/ the Sfc

■aiatek, ethers are eager. maior fralrum, the elder oj the brothers. animBlium fortiora, Iki stronger [of] animals.

3. Neuter adjectives and pronouns, used

lantiun spati, so much [of] space.

aliquid nummoruni, a few pence (something of

id loci (er locorum), thai spot 0/ ground.

id tempons, at that time (§ 240. b).

plana uibis, the level farts of the town.

gaid novi, n^a/ nearj (what of new)} «

2IO Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 216.

REMAKK.^The genitive of adjectiras of the third dtdemhti is rarely used panitively. Thus —

nihil novi (gen.), nothing ntw ; but

nihil memor&bile (nom.)> nothing worth mttttion. [Not nihil memo- rabiliH.J

4. Adverbs, especially of Quantity and Place: as, —

sULS pecuniae, money taoiigk (enough of money). ^^Dl

parum 8tl, not much tase (too little of ease). ^^H

inde \oa, next in ordtr (thence of pkce). ^^|

turn temporis, al that point of time (then of time), ^H

CO miseriirum (Sail.), to that [pilch] of misery. ubinam gentium »umus, -where in the -aiorld are loe (where of iiations)?

b. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case: as, —

sequimur te sancle deorum (.^^n, iv. 576), a/f /o/Zow thee, O holy deity.

[For sancte deoa.] nigtae lanirum (Plin. H. N. viii, 48), blaik wools. [For nig^ae lanae,] ilecti iuvennm (Liv. xxx- 9), chosen youths. [For electi iuvenes,] ciinctos hominnm (Ov.), a// men. [For cfinctoB homines, compare ;,]

c. Cardinal numerals regularly take the Ablative with 6 (ox) or dS instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quldam commonly, and other words occasionally : as, —

unua ex Iribunis, one of the tribunes. [But also, Shqb tnbDtLomm.j

minumus ex illis (Jug, m'), the you^eil of them.

medius ex tribus (ib.), Ike middle sne of the three.

quidam ex militibus, certain of the soldiers.

hominem de comitilius meis, a man of my companions.

d. ntorque, both (properly lacK), and quisque, each, with Nouns are used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns always take a partitive genitive : as, —

uterque conanl, bath the consuls; but, uleique nostriim, both of us. Unas quisque voBtriim, each one of you.

e. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any thing, take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So also words denoting a part when only that part is thought of. Thus, —

> nOB omnes, all of us (we all). [Not onmeB uostrnm.] ^_

^^^B quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there .' ^^H

^^^P CBvi inimicos qui niulti sunt, beware of your enemies, who are many. ^^H ^^^K ronJti inHiles, many of the soldiers. ,^^^H

^^^^^^Bora Romanas, not one Koman. W^^^^^H

^H$ 217. 218.]

Objective Genitive.

Objective Oenitive.

The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjective^J and Verbs.

SI 7. Nouns o£ action, agency, and feeling govern the 1 genitive of the object : as, —

desiderium oli, loHgiHg/or rcsl.

vacitio munetis, riHeffrom duly.

gratia benefxi, gra/iliti/t/iir kindHtss.

fuga malornm, rtfugc from duaster.

precatio deorum, frayer lo the gods.

contentio hondrum, struggle for o^i.

opinio virliitis, riputalion far valor.

Note.— This usage ia an eilension of the idea of *(/DWfvn.^ Co (Possessiv idve]. Thns in tlie phrase odium Caeaaria, halt of Caiar, ihe hate in a passive belongs lo Caaar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the oiject of it.

><(rf.i.i3.n

n of such ideas often v.

\

a. The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive o

ler derivative adjective (see g 197. a. 2) : as, —

mea invidia, my UHfefulariiy (the dislike of which I am the object).

nieus laudator, my eulosisl (one who praises me).

caedes Clodiana (Oc), the murder of Ciodius (the Godiaa mntder '),

metiiE hostilis (Jug. 41), ^dr nflAe e?iemy (hostile fear).

Note. — These possessives really represent possessive genilives (see note a.bove)

i. Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already limited I by another genitive : as, -

animi multiinun rernm petcursio (Tusc. iv. 13), tAe mind's traversiHg of \ many things. f

I c. A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objective I \ genitive: as, —

odium in Caesarem, hate of Cirsa-

mmtt »gi mi (ClcO, "«•«" e «<■

auxiliom adversua inimicos (id.), help against enemies.

impetus in me (id.), atlad on me.

eicMSOi i vita (id.), departure from life. [Also, excesstts vitae, Cic]

Note. — So also in late writers the dative of reference {cf. {336.*): us, —

longo hello materia (Tac. H. L 81)), resources for a long war.

II. Genitive with Adjectives. 218. Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern ithe objective genitive.

[Cf. odium Caeaaris, noti

212 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 2ia

These are called Relative Adjectives {adiecifva relottva) or Trans- itive Adjectives, and include the following: —

a. Adjectives denoting desire, krwa/ledge, memory, fulness, pmutr, sharing, guilt, and their opposites : as, —

avidos laudis, greedy of praise.

faatidioEus litteiamin, disdai»iHg leliers.

iiiris pcritus, skilled in law. [So also the ablative, if

sui o'0\\tm,/argeiful of himself.

ratiouis et orationis expeites (OIF. i. 1 6), devoid oj se

rei militaiis impEcitus, unskilled in military science.

voatri memor, mindful of yau.

plEnns lA^ifullofgaodfttilh.

cgEQUs omnis spei, deslitute ofallhcpe.

potens tempestatum, having sway over the storms.

impotens icae, ttngovernable in anger.

particeps coniiirationiE, sharing in the consfiiraty.

atHnis rei capitalis, involved in a capital crime.

iiisons culpae, innocent of guilt.

b. Verbals in -5i {§ 164. /) ; also participles adjeclives, i.e. to denote a disposition and not ^particular act: as,—

iuslum et tenacem propoaiti virum {Hot.OA.nS.l'j, a man jml and stead- fast to his purpose.

citcus capii popnli (Ov,), a circus big enough lo hold the people.

eibi viniqne capacissimos (Liv.),o very great eater and drinker (very able to contain food and wine).

si quem tai amanliotem c^novisti (Q. Fr, vt. 1), if you have become ac- quainted ivith any one more fond of you.

multitudo insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to war.

sitiens Bangninia, thirsting for blood {i.e. habitually bloodthirsty).

Note i. — Participles in -ns, when used as fartic^tts, ttiie the case regularly governed by the verb to which they belong : as, —

Tiberius sitiens Baogninem (Tac), Tiberius [then] thirsting for blood. Note 2. — Occasionally parlicipial foims in -nB are treated as participles (see note i) even when they express a disfosttmn or character : as, —

virliil quam alii ipsam temperantiam dlcuot esse, alii obtempeiantem tcm- perantiae praeceplis el earn subsequenlem (Tusc. W. 13, 30), ebservatU of the teachings of temperance and otiedient to her.

C- The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any adjective, to denote that vdth reference to which the quality exists {Genitive of Specification) : as, — ~

eallidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 31), skillid in soldiership.

panpet aquae (Hor. Od. iii. 30. 11), scant of-waler. nolus animi patetni (id. ii. 2. (i),fatnfd for a f ottrnal sfirtt. .

quality exists

His 218, 219.] Genitive with Verbs. 3I3^H

^V fessi lerum ^Ma. i. 1 7S), vitary of toil. ^^^^k

^H integer vilae scelcrisque pucus (Hor.), upri^it in life, and unstained iy^^^^k

W guilt. ^1

I Note i. — For (he Ablalive of Specification, Ihe prose conslruclion, see f 353.

Note a. — The Geniti*^ of Specification is only an extension of the construe.

lion with relative adjecdves. Thus Cftllldua denotes kKoviledgc ; pauper, 1110311!

pdruB, innettnci; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes unde

Remark.— Adjectives oi fieling are followed by the apparent genitive ac

(really locative, cf, f 393. c) : as, —

aeger animi, sici at biart.

confiisug animi, dislurhid in spirit.

"LSobyimitadon —

sanus mentis et animi (Plant. Trin. 454), sound in mind and heart. audai ingenii (late), bold in disposition.

d. For adjectives of likeness, etc., with the genitive, apparently ob- iJective, see § 234. d.

III. Genitive with Verbs. The Objective Genitive is used with some verbs.

3. fiemem'bering and Forgetting. 219. Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting take the I Genitive of the object when they are used of a continued \ state of mind, but the Accusative when used of a single 1 : as, —

recocdana snperioris trSnamiaiidnia (Att. iv. 17), r emembering year for n

I animus tneminit ptaeteritornm (Div. i. 30), llie soul rimembtrs the fast. venit mihi in mentem ilUuB diet, / bttkink me of that day (it comes into mymiudof that day), obliviscete caedis alque ittcendiomm (Cat. i. 3), turn your mind fram slaughter and coafiagrations. nee unqnam obliviscar iUiOH noctis (Plane. 42, io\) , and / shall never for- get thai night. 2. Accusative : — tolam oanHam oblitus est (Brut. 60), ie forgot the whole case. pueritiae mamoriam recordari (Arch, i), to reeall the memory of childhood. a. The Accusative is almost always used of a person or thing re- membered by aa eye-witness : 3«, —

meminerani Paullum (Lad. a), I rememhered PauU

.. d. Reoordor, reeoOect, recall, denotes a single oct 3.tii■^s fci«^\a«i ^ almost always followed by the Accusative

fxb^^^

often

k

214 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§§219.220.

recordoce canBensom ilium theiiri (Phil. i. 30), ritatl that unatiimoHs

agreement of ike [ttudieoce in tlie] Ikcatre. TCcordaininl oiniiis clvilis disBensioneB (Cat. iii. 24), recall all Iht dvil

c. Verbs of reminding take with the accusative of the pierson a genitive of the thing; except in the case of a neuter pronoun, which is put in the accusative (cf. § 238. *).

CaliliDB sditionebBt aliam egeatatia, aUnm cnpiditatiB suae (SnU. Cat. 21), Catiline remifided one of his f overly, another o/his cupidity.

unuin illnd raonere te poaaum, I can remind you of this one thing.

So admoueS, oommoneS, commonefaotS, oommoaefio. But moneO with the genitive is found only in late writers (cf. § 238. &.

Note.— AH these verba often lake d6 with the ablative, and the accusative ol nouns u well as of pronouns is somelinips used with them: as, —

saepins le admoneo de Byjtgrapha Sittiana (Faro. viii. 14), / rtminJ you

again and again of the bond of Sittius, offloium vcslrum ut vos malo cogatis coromonerier (Plaat, Ps. 150), to be

reminded of your duty,

2, Cbarge and Penalty.

220. Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting, take the genitive of the charge or penalty : as, —

arguit roe fnrti, he acraas me oftkefi.

peculatttB damnatus (pecflniae pQblicae damnatus) (Flac. 18), eon-

deniHedfor embeixiemenl. video non te absolutimi esse improbit«lia, sed illos damnilos esse caedia

(Vert. ii. 28), / Iff, not tlsat you -were acquitted of outrage, but that Ikty

Tuere condemned for hojnicide. a. Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are — capitis, as in ijamnare capitis, to sentence to death. mBJeBtatis [laesae], treason (crime against the digtiity of the Slate). repetundamm [renun], i!'jr/D'~i'i0R (lit.of an action for f/aimi>^^ai^:f money

wrongfully taken). voU, in damnatus or reus voti, bound [lo the payment] afone'! i

SHcceisfiJ in one's effort. pocfiniae (damnare, iudicare, see note under 3, below). dnpU, etc., as in dupli condemnnre, condemn fa pay twofold. i. Other constructions for the charge or penalty are —

The ablative of price : regularly of a definite nmoant of fine, and often of indefinite penalties fcf. § 252. note) ; as. — IhisinSles tertifi parte 3gr< damnati (Ui.x.\'^,iFif ftoffc o/ft-ij^w^ flS-wwrt/fto forfeit] a third part i^f their land.

oney Le.

4

1220.221.] Ge?iilive wtl/i Verbs of Feeling. 2i5i

vitia auteni hominum atquf fTaiides dainma ignSnunua vincnlls yeib»>« ribas eiailiiB morte damnantur (DeOr.i.43), iK/*4^w«aHrf,;n»Mll of men are punished -jiilh fines, dishonor, chains, scourging, t.xi!e, death. I

2. The ablative with d6, or the accusative with inter, in idio

de aXti, for gambling.

di ambilii.yiw' bribery.

inter Eicarios, as an assassin (amoig the assaaains).

de n et miiestatia damnati (Phil. 1,9, Zl), eonvielcd of assault and Ire,

3. The accusative vsith ad or in to express the penalty {late) : a

ad rooctem fTac), t-} death. ad (in) melalla, ts the mines.

Note. — The origin of these genitive constructions i3 pointed at by peoilniaA 1 flanmara (Aul. Gell. xx. 1,38), Iq condemn to pay maaey, in a case of injury person ; Qtiatitae pecOnlae laolc&tl eBsenC (id. xx. i. 47), haul much they vierc adjudged to pay, in a mere suit (or debt; cCnfeesI aerls fto dSblU iQdlO&tl (ibid.), adjudged to ouie an adoiilled sum due. These expressions show Ibat the genitive of the penalty comes from the use of the genilive of value lo enpress a. sum of money due cither as a debt or as a Sne. Since in early civilizations all ofiences could be compounded by the payment of &nes, Ihe genilive can used of other punishmenls, not pecuniary. From this Id the genilive actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a confusion txttveen J crime and penalty.

3. Verba of Feeling.

221. Many verbs of Feeling take the genitive of the tobject which excites the feeling. Thus —

a. Verbs of pity, as toisereor aud miserSscS, are followed by the J 'genitive : as, —

miseieadte regla (/En. viii. 573), /j'^ tlie iiiig.

miserere animl non digna ferentia (id. ii. 144), pity a snul tlmt endiiri

■worthy things. It miseror, commiaetor, bewail, take the accusative : as, —

communem condicionem miserati (Mur. 27, 55), hmiiail the common

b. The impersonals miseret, paenitet, plget, pudet, taedet (or 1 p«rtaesum eat), take the Genitive of the cause of the feeling snA the (

U:cusative of the person affected: as, —

hos hominaa inlamiae suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. i. tz), thete A

men are neitlier ashamed nor vieary of their dishonor. \Ci. it repenUlk I

kim of the evil.-] \

me quidem miseret pariettim ipsorum (Phil. \i.3%'),formyfartIfitytit I

T/ery loatls. 1

mS dvitatia inQnim piget laedetque (Sail. Jug. 4), lam siei and disgusted ]

vriA the -ways of the state. deeemvi^zaia ros pertaesum est (liv. iu. iffi^ yow lecftnu 6irti. a{ 4

"1

2l6 Syntax: Constniction of Cases. [§§221,222

e. Att infinitive, a clause, or the accusative of a neuter pronoun may be used with these impersonal verbs (except nlBerot) instead of the genitive of a noun: as, —

me punilet haec f eciase, / reptnt of having done Ihis.

nihil qnod paenilere possil (Cic), nolking that may cause rifmlance.

d. Miseret, etc., are sometimes used personally with a neuter pro- noun as subject r as, —

nonne te haeo pudent (Ter. Ad.), da tial these things shams you?

4. Interest and Refert. aaa. The impersonals intereat and rSfert take the geni- tive of the person (rarely of the thing) affected : as, — ClSdl intercTiit Milonem perlrc (Mil. 21), it itias the interest of Clodim

that Milo should die. hciundum esse aliquid quod jUornin magis qnam suS retolisse videretui > CJUB' 111)1 **"' something must be done lahieh seemed to be more fur

U their interest than his own.

video «niia quid mca intersii, quid ntrinaqae oostrSm (Fam.vii. 23),/iiry ! tee vikal is for my good and fir the good of us both.

The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive clause.

a. Instead of the Genitive of a Personal Pronoun the corresponding Possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after intereat or xMvtt: as,—

quid taa id referl? mogni (Ter. Ph. 7*3), kma does that concern yonf

much, [See also the last two enamples obove.] vehemenler inlererat vestrS qui palcEs C5lis (Plin. Ep. iv. 13), i^iMu/i/i^

very much to your advantage, yoa ■a'ko are fathers.

b. The accusative with ad is used with Interest and rSfert press tlie thing -with reference to which one is interested : as, —

miigni ad honorem noalrum irtereal (Fam. svi. l), it is of great conse\

tefett eliam ad fructna (Varr. R. R. i. 16), it makes a difference eu to the

Note. — Very rarely the Person is expressed by od and the Accusalivo, or (with rSfort) by the Daiive (probably a popular camiptioD) : as, —

quid id ad me aut ad meam rem refert (Plaut. Pers. iv. 3, 44), tohat dif- ference does that make to me or ta my interests? „ quid lefeiat intra naturae fines viTsntl (Hor. Sat. i. 1.49)1 vihat difference

1 does it maie to me ivho live within the limits of natural desire ?

I So, nil referre dedecori (Tac. Aun. m, 65), ikai it maka no differetKe as V /0 tie disgrace. — .^^^^^^

i

5 223.] Genitive with Verbs of Plenty, etc.

5. Verbs of Plenty and Want 323. Some verbs of Plenty and Want govern the geni-,1

live: as,—

quid est quod deffinaionis indigeat? (Rose. Am.

nteds dffente ? satagic remm suarum, he has his hands full Toilh hi

Note. — Bui verbs of pleniy and want more commonly lake the tS *43' "■ =4^' '■)■ except egreO, indlg'eS. sataKS.

6. Other VerbB.

. The genitive sometimea follows potior, get pos. always in the phrase potiri rfirmn, to be master o/qffaii

illiuB regnl potirl (Fam. i. 7, S), te bicome mailer of that kingdom Cleanthes solem dommiiri et remm potiiT pulat (Ac. ii. 41, iz6), Clear/Met u

IkinJks ike sun hatds sway and is lard of the universt. But potior usually lakes the ablative (see | 249).

b. Some other verbs rarely take the Genitive : —

1. By analogy with those mentioned in § 221 ; as, — nequc hiiius sis Veritas feminae primariae (Tcr. Ph. 971)' "'"' J""

Hff rei/ief/ for this highborn lady.

2. As akin to adjectives which take the genitive : as, — faslldit mel (Plaut. Aul. 243), he disdains me. fCf. faHtidi5siia.] Btudet tuT (quoted N. D. iii. zgj, he is zealous far yau. [Cf. atudioaus.]

3. In imitation of the Greek ; as, — iostitiaene prius mirer, belline lahSmm (/En. iii. iz6), shall I r>

admire [his] justice or his tails in war f neque i!le seposili ciceris nee longBe invidit avenae (Hor. Sat. ii. 6. S4), 1

nor does he grudge his garnered peas, etc, [But cf, invidua, pwctui.] T abslineio irarnm (Hor. Od. iii. 27. 69), refrain from wrath (but cf.J

§§223, 243./ Rem.), labomm decipitur (Hor. Od. ii. 13. 38), he is beguiled of his -woes. nee aennonis fallebat (Plaut. Ep. 240), nor did I miss the ionvenaiiau, me labonun levas (Plaut. Eud. H'j'),you relieve me of my troubles.

c. The apparent Genitive animi (really Locative) is used with i few verbs of feeling and the like (cf. g 2i8. c. Rem.); as, —

Antipho me eiciiiciat animi (Tet. Ph. 187), AnHpho tor/urei my mind \

(me in my mind). aidnu pendeo (PI. Merc. 127), lam in suspense. me »niiai falht (Lucr. i. 922), my mind deceivis me. So, by analogy, desip'iebam mentia (PI. Ep'vd. l^"). 1 "Jius c

r

t

2r8 Syntax: Comtriiction of Cases. f§ a2a

IV. Peccuar Genttives.

d. A genirive occurs rarely in ExclamatioDS, in imitation of the Greek {Genitive of Exclamatiok) : as, —

di immoTlalea, mercimonl lepidi (Flaut. Most, 895), goad keuvens ! what a

charming bargain. foederis heu tadli (Prop. iv. 7. 23), alas for the unspoken agreement.

e. The genitive is often used with the ablatives canaa,' grStia.yyr tke sake of; ergS, because of; and the indeclinable Instar. like; also with prIdiB, tke day before; postxidiS, the day after; tenua, as far

honoris causa, viili due respect (for the salte of honor).

TCrbi gratia, _/or example.

eiua legis ergo, on account cf this lain.

eqnus instar mantis {Xia. ii. 15), a horse like (the image of} a mounlain.

Note i. — Of these Ibe genitive with caue& is like that in nSmen Inaaniae (§ 314./). The others are of various origin.

NOTE a. — In prose of (he Republican Period pridlS and poStiidJB aie Oius used only in the eipressions prtdiS (postrtdie) eluB di§I, the day before {afier) thai (ci. the eve, the morrow nf thai day). Tacitus uses Ihe conslrucdon with other words : as, postrldlS InBldiarum. lie day afler the plot. For the ai } j6i. a. TenUB lakes also the abladve (} 360. e).

he Localive [c(. o^o-. at home.

.e poets (} 225. b. 3) and in i01e.>). anings : —

:d by the action, or direct^ :ciproca]1y sharing in (he acdon or in dedlt puerS llbrum, he gave the boy a book, 01 tSclC m\h\ Iniarlam, he did au a wrong, there la an idea of the boy receiving the book, and of my feelijig the ^iirong. Hence eipressions denoiing persons or things with personal atlriiutes are more likely lo be in the dative than those denoting mere things.' See eiamples under } 93^

This difference between Ihe Accusative and the Dative {i.«. between Ibe Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied in Ihe verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence verbs of similar meaning (to an English mind) often differ in Ihe case of their object (see } aaj. a and i).

The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which il ^fnies (see \ 333). This construction Is especially used with abstract expressions, ot implying an action.

11. -DATIVE.

Note.— The Dativ

'e seems to be closely akin

whh oDcy, to a house). 1

ind must have had the pr:

But this local mcanin

g appears in Latin only i

some adverbial forms (

as eO, Uia, thitier. cf } i^

In Latin die Dative

I. The Dative dei

loles an object not as e.

afected by it (Uke the

, Accusative), but as recip

^Compare Ibe Engiish/or hit sate, i " " 61 Span/sh Ihe dative is used w ~ -ee [10] Ike man.

S 224, 225.] Dative with Transitii'es. 21

These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases anil i ccasionally confounded, as in j Z34 (cf. especiall]' \ 234. b).

The uses of the Dative, arranged praclically, are the following: — I. As INDIRECT OBJECT f .. With Tr»nsitlves (§ 235),

(gCDeral use) : 1 a. With tnlransiUves ({j aaS-zB, 930).

.. Of Pas«ssion {with ease) {j =3.). „ ., ,,. , o. Of Agency (withGerundive) ({ 23a).

^ Specral or Idtoma.lc ^_ Of P^e or End (pradicaVL) (} ,33). *^"^- 4- Of Fitness, etc. {with Adje«lves)(j 334).

5. Of Reference {rffl/raai cflWMofi) (}}a35,a3fi).

224. The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected I (y an action.

This is called the Indirect Object {| 177). It is usually denoted in J English by the Objective with lo at for. Thus, - dat libcam puero, he gives a book to the boy. cedite tempari, j'lni/ to the oc

provincia Ciceroni obligit, the prmiinre fill by lot lo Cicero.

civitalis saliiti consulite, consult for Iki safety of the Stale. sic mihi videlut, so il seems to me. indicavit mihi Pansa, Pansa has made known to me. hoc libi spondeo, I promise [to] you this.

1. Indirect Object 'with Transitives.

225. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accu- k'Sative of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb Fwhose meaning allows {see § 177) : as, —

do tibi librum, I give you a book,

illud tibi affirmo (Fam. i. -j), this I assure you.

coromendo tibi eius omnia negotia (Fom. i. l), I put all his ago

your hands. dabis profecto miaericordiae qitod Irfioandiae negavisCi (id. ia^,yott will

rely grant lo mercy -what yon refused to wrath. litteris a te mihi slalor tuus reddidit (Fain. i. 17), delivered ta me a letter.

. Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use (§ 177.

note). These take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the

Dative alone : as, — ^^ banc pcciiniam tibi credo, I trust this money loyou. [Trajisitive.] ^^L ID bac ic tibi credo, I trust you in this, [Intransitive.] ^H h, Cert^ verbs implying motion vary in their construction between Affile Dative of the Indirect Object and the Acct»a.>Avt ol^'&^'o&.dL ^kotioa CS 338. f). Thus — J

I

r

L

220 Syntax: Coiistmciion of Cases. [§ 225.

1. Some verbs lake the Accusative (with or without a preposition) instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of Motion prevails

lilleias quas ad Pompeium scripsi (Att. iii.g)i the Ittler vrhick lAavevrril-

Un [and sent] to Pamfty. [Cf. non quo baberem qnod tibi scribecem

(Att. iv. 4), not that I had anything to ■a/rite to youI\ litteme extemplo Bomam scriptae (Liv. x!i. l6), a letter 'wai immtdialet)

arittia [and sent] to Rome. hoslis in fngam dat (B. G. v. 51), he puts the inemy to/tght. [Cf. ul mi

deal {aga» (AtL viii. 23), to take lofitght.'] Cui sseplus ad. mS litleras dedisses (Fam, iv. 4), why you had several limts

itirittm tetters [addressed] to me. nullis eis pcaeterquam ad tS eC ad Bratom dedi lilteras (id. iii. 7), I have

given to them (the messengers) no letters except (addressed) to you, etc. omnes rem ad Pompeinm deferri volunt (id. i. i), all wish the matter to

be put in the hands of Pompey. an ilerum le reddal in arma (;En. it. 6S4), or should tkrvvi himself agaia

into the fight (only poetic). 3. On the other hand, many verbs usually followed by the Accusative with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion is merged in some other idea: as, —

nee quicquam quod aon rnihi Caesic detulerit (Fam. iv, 13), and nuthing

■which CiESar did not communicate to me. mihi littecia mittere (Fnm. vii. 12), to send me a letter. earn libcnm tibi mlsi (id. vii. 19), I sent you that ioet. Catonem tuum mihi mitte (id. vii. 24), lend me your Colo. curia ul mihivehantur (id. viii. 4, end), taie care that they be conveyed to me. cum dUus alii subaidium ferrent (B. G. ii. z6), luhi/e one lent aid to another. quibus (copiis rex Deiotarus) imperatoribas nostris auxilia milteret (Dciot.

S, 22), viUh which (troops) king D. might send reinforcements to our

3. In poetry the End of Motion is often expressed by the dative (see §258. note 1).

c. For the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing after verbs o( threatening and the like, see § 227./.

d. Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative of the person and the Ablative of the thing : as, —

donat coronas huih, he presents wreaths to his men ; or, donat Buos cotoiuh, he presents his men viith wreaths. vincnla exuere dbi (Ov. M. vii. 772). to shake off the leash (from himself). onuiei armiB exuil (B, G. v. 51), he stripped them aU of their arms. Jrsffl BABgnine adspergere (N. D. tii. jfeS. '" ifnnklt At altar with UtM. irae ssnguuKun adspergere, to sprinklt fclood ufon the oltar. ^^1

SS 225. 226.] Dative with Intraitsitives.

Such are dSnC, impeitiS, indyiS, exuo, adapergC, Inspergfi, circmndS, oircumfando, prohibeS, interclfldo, and in poetry accIngS, implies, and similar verbs.

Note I, — InterdIcO,^r*irf, lakes cilher(i) (he dative of Ihe peraon and fha accusaliveof lhelhing,or(a) the dative of the person and the ablative of Ihe thing:

interdixit htstrionibas scaetiam (Suet. Dom. 7), ke forbade Ikt acton Qto

appear on] the stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors}, [Cf. in.

lerdictum est mare Autiiitj poptllo (Liv. viii. 14), the sea -,oas forbidden

to the people of Anlium.'\ feminis (dat.) purpurae dsq interdieemna (Liv. xxxiv. 7), shall Tue forbid

viomeit Ike wearing of purple f aqua et igni alicni interdiccre, to forbid the use of fire andvialir.

Note a. — The Dative wfth the Accusative is used in poetry widi many v( oJ prevsTifin^^ protect in^j and the like, which naualJy take the Accusative and Abla- tive. iDterolSdS and arceS sometimea lake (be Dative and Accus '

huce omnis aditfia ad Sallam inlercludere (Rose. Am. 38, 110), to shut these men off from all aicea to Sulla (close to them every approach).

[Cf. uli frumento commeatnque Caesareni tntercluderet (B. G. i. 4S)

tc skul Casar off Jr am grain and supplies.'^ hnao (oealtttin) arcebis pecori (Georg. iii, 154),j'iim shall keep this away

from Ihefiotk. [Cf. ilium arcnit Gallia (Phil.v, \z),ie excluded Aim

from Cfl«i] solatitinm pecori defeodile (Ed. vil. 47), keep lie summer heat from the

fiock.

e. Verbs which b the active voice take the accusative and dative ntain the dative when used in the passive : as, —

haec ll6Ma nuntianfur, Otese things art

tidbis nnntiat.] ClaBB& diviliae non invidcntur, Crassus is not envied for his wealih. [Active:

CraBB5 divitiaa non invidet,] decern (aleiita oppidaniB iniperantur, ten talents are exaeled of the to

people. [Active : imperat oppidaaia decern talenta.]

2, Indirect Object -with IntrajieitiVGB. 226. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used with any Intransitive verb whose meaning allows : as, — cedant arma togae (Pbil. i. 8), let arms give place to the gown. Caemri respondet, he replies to Casar, Caesaii reipondetur, Casar is replied la (see § 230). aedimiu nnnlio, we belitve the messenger, BantiS creditor, iif messenger is believed.

r

222 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§5 226, j

TCtpondi muiims crimuubin (PhO. 1 14), / km/e atawertJ lie keavied

tharges, at ita cuique eveiua.t (id. 46), Aal U may so turn out to each. Note I. — Intransillve verbi have no Direct Object. The Indirecl Object, therefore. In these cases Elands alone (bul c£ { 225. a).

N0T8 a.~C6dO,j'«/if. somelinies lakes the Ablative of the thing along with the Dadve of the peisoni as. —

cedere slicui poBsessione hortorum (Mil. 27, 75), ta give up te one Ou possession of a garden.

a. Many phrases consbting of a noun with the copula »om or a copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a kind of indirect object (cf. % 235) : as, —

auctor esse ^Cni, to aihiise or instigate one (cf. perEuadeo). quishuiorei testis est (Quinc, II), ifA? /«/)/« (is witness) /e/^ii/orf;' is finis populationiboB fuit (Lit. iL 30), His put an end to the raidt.

b. The dative is sometimeB used without a eoptdatlve verb in a sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. §§ 227. d, 235. a): as, —

le^tos Caessri, a lieulenaul la Ctesar (ij. a man assigned to Csesat).

heres frntri suo, his brother's heir (heir to fais brother).

ministri sceleiibus, agents of crime.

Note. — The cases in a and b differ from the conslnictions of { 33?. note a. and { 335 in that the dative ia more closdyoonnecied in idea with some singes -voni 10 which It serves as an uidirect object.

3. Dative with Speolal Terba.

Many verbs of apparently transitive meaning in English correspond to verbs intransitive in Latin. Thus: —

237. Most verbs signifying Xo favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries ; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare} take the dative : as. — h

cnr mibi invides, lohy do you envy tnef ^^^M

mihi paccit atque ignoscit, he spares and pardons me. ^^H

ignosce patrio doldri (Liv. iii. 4S), excuse a father's grief. ^^1

aontibuB opitulari poteram (Fam. iv. 13), I vias ahit to help the guiUy. non Onmibna servia (id. xvi. 13), I am not il servant le every man. cum ceieria lutn mihl Ipu displiceo (id. iv. 13), I dissatisfy elktr people andmyulfloo.

I These include, among others. Ihe fotlouing: adversor, credS, taveS. ndS, IgnOBcO, tmperfi, iDvldefi, IrSiScor. sQacenaefi. resists, noceO. p»ecO, p&rsS. places. servlQ. attideO, w^A^ io^c«<iKdoS), trnxqwiO, fabtomparS), dJctO audlBns aum.

I

( 227.] Dative with Special Verbs.

noD parcam operoe (id. xvi. 13), Ivsittspare no pains.

«c iniTii persuasl (Cat. M. 21), so Ihave persuaded myself .

mihi Fabius igniiscerc debcbit li minus eius f Amas paicere videbor quam I

ante consului (TulL 3), Fabius iiiill have to pardon me if I st

spare his refiulalion less than, etc. bnio legionl Caesar confldebat maxime (B. G. 1 40), in this legion Casar 1

trusted most. Nora I. — In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning rbus: iaviAAva,U em!y,tiai.oTi^o^y to toakaikaiue atoHe; eervlre is la bi , lave to; Su&dSre is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to one.

Note a. — Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like rerba of similar meaning. Such are — praestd esse, be on hand (cf. adease). marem geiere, humor (cf. mSrigeran), gratum facere, do a favor (cf. grati£csri). dicto audiens esse, ie obedient (cf. oboedu'e).

cui lidem habebat (B.G.i. 19), in whom he had confidence (cf. cBnfidebat). So also many phrases where no corresponding verb eiisls. Sucli are — bene (male, pulchre, aegre, etc.) esse, to be well (ill, etc.) off. ininriaiQ facere, do injustice to. dicra dicere, bring to trial (name a day for, etc.). agere gialias, io express one's thanks. habere gratiam, to feel ihanhfut. refene gtat'

damnum dare, inflict an injury.

acceptum (expensuro) fecre (esse), to credit (charge). |

honorem habere, to pay honor to.

a. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative. Such are iuvo, adiuvo, heipi laedo, injure \ iubeS, order %

dS&cio./ail; AfHoato, f>lease. Thus, —

hie pulvis ocQlam meum laedit, this dust hurls my eye. [Cf. multa octiHa nooont, many things are injurious to the eyes,']

b. Some verbs at^ med transitively with the Accusative or inlransi' ■lively with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning.

Such are advUor (generally accusative), aomulor (rarely dative), oomltor, dSapSto, praeatSlor, medeor, medicor. Thus,—

adulatuE est Antonio (Nep. AlL 8), he flattered Antony.

adulari Neronem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 19), to flatter Nero.

e. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransi- tively with the Dative with a difference of meaning.'

e, be nee,

'orepaya/a^, ■sary.

7enl6, cupiQ, tuslstA. 'ma.'an&^ ycBiB^WJiKJ ccsdB, caveO, ^l^JM^^^BdH

SjntMi: C^mUnKtum i^ Casts.

1

iiifiiiiifnj Im iiij). iiiifi 11/ iaii[iTji II

■ III BiiM^ iliiii CTii nil i).iiij/i iiir I I m i r [Soiiio

pmipidte filiilll (Cm. ir. s), iiov tygmrdfir lit State.

p—pt'*"' ^^»^ jmj.'tii; (liT.iT.4g), tifnridea iaiitation fornid agt.

N<n£. — na6>adeSBll(15,*«<takcMwTAeDalinorlheAbtaliTB: as,— k^Doii dec»ae cu qua ■■ii»~ coafldaM (B. G. i. 42), of tht taUk

b^tm, im wUet ie iaJtk mimmt amfiJatre. mBboDi BitixB kxi coaftdAul (B. G. L 9), Aff iadg^eat confidence in

Ar iliiMgit tfAeirfmMtm (die nataic of the place).

d- Some vobal boobs — as Timi8iae, ambush; Invidia, em/y^ take the dadre like tbe rctte from whicfa tfaej are derived : as, — inTidis coDSuti (SalL), iU-mll againU Ike consul (cf. iovideo). oblcmpcniio l^ibns (Leg. 15], attdiettct ta tie Jazas (cf. obtempero], ubi ipa [esponao (De Or. UL54), am amsteer to himself {<£. reBpondeo).

c. The Dative is also used : —

1. With the impersonals libct (Inbet), ii pita.

allowed: as, —

quod mihi mixiioe kbet (Fait quasi tihi non liceret (Fam. vi

2. With verbs compounded with satis, beno, and male ; as, — ^^| mihi ip^ numquam salisfaciS (Fam. i. 17), I never saHsJy myself. .^H optijno viro maledicete (Deiot. 10), to speak ill of a most excellent man. pulchrum est lienefacere reipublicse (SalLCaL 3), il is a glorious lAingta

benefit the Stale. Note.— These are not real compounds, bul phrases, and were appaienlly fcU as such by the Romans. Thus: —

satis ofBdo meo, satis tlloruin voluntati qui a me hoc petiverum factum

esse arbitribot (Veir. II. v. 49, 130), that enough has been done fi>r, elc

3. With the following : gratifioor, grStnlor, baereS (t^rely), Dflbfi, permlttS, platidiS, probo, studeo, snppllco, ezcellS: as, —

haptentem capitj coronam (Hor. S. 1. 10), a ■Kirtalh clinging to the head. Fompeio le gratilicari pulant (Kam. i. i), Ikey suppose they are dainf

Pompey a service. _ tibi petmitto lespondete (N. D. iii. 1), I gi-oeyoa have to aasuier. gtitalot (ibi, mi Balbe (Fam. vi, la), / can^alvXatt you, my dear Baltmi, mihi phudO ipse dotnt (Hor. S. i. i. 66'^, I nffloMd myself at Komt, JH

\

§§ 227. 228.] Dative with Compounds. 22J J

cuctibihoc non gritilicer nescio (Fam, L lo), ■why I skoidd nol gratify yettik

in this I don't kttimi. cum ininuci M. FontS vobis ic popul5 Romano minentor, amlci a

pinqui suppliceni vobu (Fonl, 15, 35), vihih the enemies of M. Fori- f

teitu are threaUning you and Uk Raman people loo,white kh friendl 1

and relatives are teseeeking yoti. at volaecint popttlB supplidire (L^. Ag. ii. 7, 18), wAeit ihey inished A

mate supplication to Ike people.

iomelimes lake Ihe dative (see { 148. u. Rem.),

/. Many verbs ordinarily intransitive often have an Accusative of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect (cf. § 225. a) : a

cni cum tex omcem minitaretur (Tusc, i. 43), when the king threatened 1

him -wilh the cress. imperat Dppidai^ decern talenta, he exacts of the totonspeople ten talents. omnia ribi ignoscere (Veil. ii. 30), la pardon one's self everything. CraaaQ divitiaB non invideo, I do not envy Crassus his wealth.

4. Dative witb CompoundB.

228. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con

inter, ob, poat, prae, pr5, Bub, super, and some with oiroum,

are followed by the dative of the indirect object : as, —

neque enim adsentior bib (Lael. '^,for I do not agree with them.

tempBHtati obseqiu arlis est (Fam. i. 9), it is a point of skill to yield to

weather. omnibus negotiiH non iaterfait solum sed praefuit (id. i. 6), he not only had 1

a hand in all matters, hit took tile lead in them. quanlum ualura homiuia pecndibuB autecedit (Of£ i. 30), so far as 1

nature is superior to irutes. nec nnqnam auccumbet inimiciB (Dei. \-g), he imll neotr yield to his fits. illia libelliB noraen suuin inscribunt (Arch. 13), they put their own

to Otose papers. cut mihi te offers, ac meis commodw oliicis et obstas (Rose. Am. 38), why

do you offer yourself to me, and then kinder and laithstand my ad

vanla^f

Note r. — In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but on iha compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence if the acquired meaning is nol suited to an indirect object, the original construction of the simple

hi calls his men tagether. the Idea of calliHg is not so modified as to make an indi- rect object appropiiale. So homlnem Interfloere, to make way viith a man (tdllhim]. Bui in praeflcere ImperatSrem beua, to put a man as commander- in-chief in charge 0/ a uiar. The idea resulting tromftie iioni^QKiS«JO.i&K0S»A\a«i 3 iadiiect object (see also a ^adc, and \ 3,-ij. d).

r

Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§§ 228, 229.

15 and 326; bul Ihe compound verbs make a convenifnl group.

r. Some compounds of afl, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired

ansitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf. § 237. rf) ;> as, —

LOS oppSgnal CFam. i. i), he opposa us. quis audeat bene comitatmn aggiedi (Phil. xii. 23), win TDOuld dart

tncountera man wea attended ? mnnUH obTre (Lael, 2), to attend la a duty.

b. The adjective obviaa ajid the adverb obviam with a verb take . the dative : as, —

si iHe dbvius ol faturua non erat (Mil. iS), if he isas not iniending to get

in his Toay. ,

mihi obviam venisS (Fam. ii. 16), yen eame la meet »i« £. V/hen place OT mo/iori is distinctly thought of, the verbs mentioned in §228 regularly take a noun withapreposition, instead of the dative: as, in nBceribna inhaercre (Tnsc. iv. 1 1, 14), ii remains fixed in tht vitals. honiini coniuncto mienm (Tnll. 2, 3), to a man united to me. convenit mihi cum adveraario (Tnll. 9, 23), my adversary and I agrti (it

agrees Co me with ray adversary). cum hSo concurrit ipse Eumenes (Ncp. Eum, 4, l), tnlh him Eumtnts

himself engages i« comial (runs together), quae a ceterSrum genlium more disscntiunt (Font. 13, 30), ■which differ

from Ihe custom of all other nations. inserite oculos in CDiiam (Foul. 19, ^Ji}, fix your eyes on the senate-hotae. ignis qui est ob OB ofTiisus (Univ. li^,thefireiBhich is diffused before the sight. ohicitur contra istonim impetus Macedonia (Font. 20, 44), Macedonia is

Sit to withstand their attacks. [Cf, si quis vSbis error ohiectus (C^,

3, 5), if any mistake has been caused you. sc iniectiicos vobia caoSBm

deliberandi (Oec. 2, 4), that they itioidd give you occasion far coh-

tidering."] in aegetem flamma incidit (jEn.ii. Tpt,"), the/ire falls t4j>0H the standing corn. Note. — But ihe usage varies in different aulhore, in different words, and often in the same word in the Eame sense. 'Mie dictionary musltie consulted for each verb,

229. Many verbs of taking away^ and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation (§ 243) t^ as, —

1 Such verbs are agffredior, odefi, antecSdS, acteeS, aategrodlor, oonvenlo, toeO, obeC, oftendO, oppHgnO, aut>ed, praecedB.

* The dalive in these constructions represents the action as done to the objecl, and is thus more vivid than the ablative.

rcfi verbs are compounds of ab, dB, ex, and afe« lAftA.

5§ 229-31.]

Dative with Cmnpounds.

ilium MC perioulo eripuit (B. G. iv. u), hf dragged him out of dan . Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing a preposition arc both used with the s;

mnlieii annlum detraxit, he look a ring from the -ai

bora miM abslulisli, j'ou have robbed me of my gains.

I vitam aduleHoeutibuB vis aufeit (C M. ig), violence depri

I nihil enim tibi delcaxit senectus (id. \),for age Aas robbed you ofnclking. I nee n''!'' hunc cnorem extorquen volo (id. 23), nor do I wish this err»r I

[ a. The distinct idea of motion, — and, in general, t Rquire the ablative with a preposition (§ 25S. a) :

[::■

Kth

I e. The dative is often med by the poets i would in pro-se require a noun with a preposition, verbs of contending {§ 248. b): as, —

contendis Homero (Prop. i. 7, f),you vie with Homer. [In pi

Homeio.] plaeitone eliam plignabis amori (.^n. iv. T,%),ioillyau struggle e^

a love UiaC pleases you! tibi certit (Ed. v. 8), via mth you. [tecnm.]

diffettHerni5nI(Hor. S. i. 4. 48),i^i^B»-j>-om/rDii, [fi aermone, g 243.] ' Bolslitium pecori defendite (Eel. vii. 47), t:eep the noontide lieat from the

flotk. [a pecore.] Jateri abdidil ensem (_Mn.ii. ^^3), buried /Ae swgrd in Us side, [in latere !

S 260. fl.] [For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see { 235. i. 3.] I

230. The passive of intransitive verbs that govern the dative can be used only impersonally (§ 146. d). Such verbs retain the dative in this use (cf, § 225. e).

ctti parci potuit (Liv. mi. 11), vMo could bt spared?

I Don moda non invidetur iUI aetati verum etiani faveli Upr (youth) is not only not envied, but is even favored. tempon aerviendum est (Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the exigency of ike ocea- liou (the lime).

5. Dative of PosBeBaion. 231. The Dative is used with eaae and si.m.\VM ■wwi'i.x.'i ,

ote Possession : as, —

228 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§§ 231, 232.

homini cum deo Biinilitndo est (Cic), man hai a Uiiness to God (Otcie is

qnibna opes niillae sunt {Sail. Cat. 37), [those] ivha have no vieallh.

est mihi domi patei (Eel. iii. 33), I have a father at heme.

Remark, — The Genitive or a Possessive wiih ease emphasizes (he /otjewor; tbe Dative, the fact of ponession : as, liber est meue, tie book is iKtne (and no one's else) ; eat mlhi liber, I have a ioak (among other things). The latter is the usual fnrm to denote simple fiaaeiiion, since babeO, iave, generally si(|;nifies iaid, often wilh some secondary meaning: as, —

legionem quara secum babebat (B. G. i. 8), the legion which he kept with him.

domitSs habere libidines (De Or.), to keep Ike passions under control.

a. Compounds of ease take the dative (except abesaa and pOHse) :

deest mihi pecunia, I lack money.

quid mihi proderit? in wial iiiiU it kelp me (what will it profit me)?

b. After nSmeii eat, and similar expressions, the name is usually put in the dative by a kind of apposition with the person .'as, —

cui A&jcano tiiil cognomen (Liv. xxv. 2), whose (to whom) surname was

pueto ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (Liv. i. 34), the name Egeriuswas given the boy from kis poverty.

c. The name may also be in apposition with ufimen ; or in later Latin in the genidve (cf. § 214./") : as, —

cui nomen Arethnsa (Verr. iv. 52), [a fonat] called Arelhnsa (to which

is the name Arethusa). pueto nomen est Marcos (MSrci), the boy's name is Marcm (to [he

Q. Metello Macedonici nomen inditum est (Vel. Pat. i. 11), to Q. Metellta the name of Macedonicus -was given.

6. Dative of the Agent. 23a. The Dative of the Agent is used with the gerun- dive, to denote the person on whom the necessity rests : as, —

haec TobiH provbcia est defendenda (Man. 6), this province it for yau te

defend (to be defended by you). mihi est piignaitdum, / have to fight (i.e. the need of fighting li to me:

compare mihi est liber, /have a hook, § 231. Rem.). Note. — This is the regular way of expressing ihe agent with the Second or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation ({ 113. d. 1). But when a dative is eipressed governed by the verb itself, and rarely at otbet twnes, live agjw. is denoted by the ■MlMfar with ab (} 246) 10 avoid ambiguitj ; as, — ^h

1$ 232, 233.]

Dative of tlie Agent,

qaibaa est a Tobu consulenduia (Manil. 2, &),for whom you must

(for H-hom it must be consulted bjr yoa). rem ait omnibiiB Tobia pruvidendun (Rab. 2, 4), tAat Ike malle

be altended lo by all of you. (Cf. isti pnndpes et aibi et ceteris popuU Romatu universi auc

parendum esse fateantui (ManiL 22,64), Itt (kese leading mm adn

M

after perfect pariiciphs (eape- :), but rare after other parts of the

I

a. The dative of the agent i cially when used in an adjectii

mihi delibetatum et constitutum est (RuU. i. 8), I Jucve ddiberaud and ri

solved (it has been deliberated by me). miM tes lota provisa est (Vetr. II. iv. 42, 91), thf mailer has been fully ^

provided fir by me. SIC dissimillimis faeatiolis commiiiiiter cibus quacritur (N. D. ii. 48), 10 l^ 1

very different creatures fnod is sc

b. The dative of the agent is used by the poets and later v after altnost any passive verb : as, —

neque cernitur tUli (^En. i. 440), nor is seen by any.

fell X eat dicta aorori (Ov. Fast. \\\.), she iBas called happy by ker si

c. The dative of the person wl after videor, seem: as, —

videtuc mihi, i

dia nliler visum [est] {J&n. ii. 428), it seem/d olksrwise lo the gods. vidcor mihi perspicere ipsius animum (Fam. iv, 13), I seem (lo myself) to I ser the soul (f Iht man hinisilf.

NOTB. — The verb probftre, o/i/foi'i! Dative of Reference {\ 335), wbich lias became so nrmiy aiiacDea ta with the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent : as, —

Ihaec sententia et ill! et a&bia probabatur (Fam. i. 7, 4), this his approval and mine (was made acceptable both to hiir mihi egregie probata eat oralio tua (Tusi satisfactory to me. Lnd •n :

7. Dative of tile Purpose c 233. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose 1 End.

This construction,

230 Sj'nfiix: Covstnt£tio7i of Coses. [§§ 233, 234.

a. The dative of an abstract noun Is used to show that far whick a thing serves or which it accomplishes (Dative of Service), often with another dative of the person or thing affected : ' as, —

rei publicae cladi sunt (Jug. 85), Ihey art ruin io Ihe State (for a disaster), magno asol nostria foit (B, G. iv. 25), itvias of great senice to our me*

(for great use). Icrtiamaciem nustris anhaidio misit (id.i. 51), he sent the third line as a

oama deeTa.nt quae ad reRciendas naves erant uani (id. iv. 29), all things viere ^panting mkicA ■mere cf use for repairing the ships.

evenit facile quod dia oordiest (Liv. i. 39), that comes to pass easily whici is desired iv the gods (is for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods).

Note. — The word tragi used as an adjective b a dalive of this kind : a?,—

cogisniedicereinimicumfriigi(Cic.),j'oucom/rfni^ftt^Bi!?pyi™™j'^iin«(.

homines satis fortes et place &iigi (Verr. ii. 3, 27), men brave enoiigk and ihoreugHy honest.

(Cf. ero fragi bonae (Plant. Pseud. ^6S),pro//aile to his master.^

b. The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a few tnilitar)' expressions, and with treedom in poetiy: as, —

leceptnl canere, io sound a retreat.

lacnm caatria capere, ta select a site for a camp,

optavit locum regno (^n. iii. log), he chose a place for a hingdam.

8. Sative with AdjeotiTeB.

234. The dative is used after adjectives or adverbs, to denote that to which the given quality is directed, for which it exists, or towards which it tends.

I The following characlerislics have been observed in the use of Ihe Piedicale Dadve (dative of Service}: i. Ihe noun is semi-abslract; a. it is so used only lu the singular; 3. il is "used predicaiivcly " ; 4. generally with eaae; 5. rarely qualified by an adjective ; 6. or by a genitive or a phrase; 7. but few nouns are used in this way; 8. Ihc use and its limilaiions appear to be governed by cuslons, not by any principle. It is common wiih about 40 nouns, and is found with 1S5 in all. Of these dSnO, m-Qnerl, vltiO, are noi used wiih ease. The verbs with which it exists are habed, dS, dlcfi, dQcQ. pSriS, Tsr-tQ, with ease nnd iis equivalents, as Herl,*lc. Tlie nouns most commonly found in Ihis conslniclion are. adlQ- mentO, auxlllfi. cordl. cilmlnl, cnrao. darnnO. decorl, dSdecorl, dSnfl. exemplC, exltl5,fra'udl (i/.inor^fj.honSri, indlciQ, Invldlae, Impediments. iBudl, IQdlbrifi, mats, morae. odiO, oneri, Smameiita, praedae. prae- aidlO, probrO, pudSrl, receptul, remea\6. bb.\^v\, aMtoaWia. torrerl VOJuptStI, asui.— Roby'sLatiiiGtammM.xV.i^ti.TO.M'^. ,-■

Dative with Adjectives. 231

K3..1

^Kt. The dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) ol fitne ^BVneiJ, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites : as, — W Biha e5t tam natiirae aptum (Ijel. 5), ncthiHg is so fitted to nature.

nihil difficile amanta puio (Or. 10), I think nothing hard la a lertr.

pompae quam pugnae aptius (ii 1^, filter for a procisHon than for balllt.

Tebos ipsis par et aequalis oratio (id. 36), a speech tqual and level w

oastria idotieum locnm deligit (B. G. i. 49), a suitable plate for a ca; tribSiii Bobii sunt amici (Q. Ft. 1. 2), &e IriivTtes are friendly to us. i«npidia lerum talium odioaniQ fortasse et moleBtnm est carere (Cat. Maj.

14, 47), to those who are desirous of such things, it is perhaps hateful

and disagreeable to do wilhoid them. aec eum . . . aut inviaam deo aut ntglectura a deo iudicemus (N. D. ii. 66,

167), and let us not Jeeni him either hateful to Cod or disregarded by

God esse propilius potest n5aiini(N. D. i, 44, 12^), he ean be gracious la nobody. eat hominura generi prosperus et aaliitaris ilje fulgor (Rep. vi, 17, 17J, that

radiance is favorable and beneficial to the race of m . ceterae res quae eipetaotur opporiunae sunt singulae rebus singulis (I.sel.

6, 21), all other things thai are sought after are suitable each la some

particular thing. magnis aulem viria prosperae semper omnes res (N. D. ii. 66, 167), but to

great men everything is aheays favorable. ■edes huic nostro non iraportiina sermoni (Dc Or. iii. 5, iS), a place not

unsuitable for this conversation of oars. advecsissimi aavigantibtiB venti (B. O iii. 107), winds most adverse for

those who sail. ted non quicquid tibi sudire utile est, Id mihi dicere necesse est (OfL iii.

12, ^2), but not everything that is useful for you to hear is necessary

for me to Say. eui fluids erat BfTints M. Tallius (Tull. 6, 14), to which estate M. TuUius

was next neighbor. I conveiiienter naturae vivere (OB. iii. 3, 13), to live in accordance z

nature (_i^o\oyouiiirut rij pioti'). eongiuenler naturae (Fin. iii. 7, 26), in harmony with nature. Note I, — So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, witli Idem ; as, — invilum qui servat idem facit Occident* (Hor. Ep. ii. 3. 467), he loha 11

a man against his vdH does the same as one who iills him. Note 3.— Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque (fto), at. So also ■ 'erbs aequS, parlter, similiter, eie. The pronoun Idem has regularly

I

parem Ecntentiam htc habet &c formam (Flaut. Mil. 1340), ifkehas se

tqual la his beauty (like as his beauty), suspicor eJadem rebus qntbna me ipsum coniiQO\«\.y;.M.,'^i'i. i.,Vy /^jus^e/jvu are liislurbed by Ike same things by wkiA I am. '

232 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [% 234.

b. Adjectives oi/llness or use take oftener [he Accusative with ad (0 denote the purpose or end; but regularly the Dative of persons: as, —

aplns ad rem miiitstem.Ji/ /or a iolditr's duly.

locus ad ipsidias aplior (Mil. 20), a place filler for lyiugin •atail.

nobis utile est ad hanc rem, it is of use la us for this thing.

c. Adjectives and nouns of inclitiation and the like may take the Accusative with in or ergS : as, —

comia in uxorem (Hor. Ep. l!. i), kind to His wife-

divina bonitis erga homines (N, D. ii. 23), the di'vine geodnts! towards men.

de bcDevoIentia qoam quisque habeat ergi DOS (Off. i. 15, 47). in regard

to each man^s good vtill "fDhiek ke has toioards us. gratiorem me esse in le (Fam. xi. lo), that I am more grateful to you.

d. Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often tal^ the Possessive Genitive.' Thus, —

qaod ut illl propriom ac pecpetuum sit . . . optare debetis (ManiL 1 6, 4S),

which you ou^tto pray may be secure (his own) and lasting to him. fuit hoc quondam proprinm populi Roman! (id. iz, 32), this was eitct &e

peculiar characteristic of the Roman people. id quod reo maxime necegaiuiuia est (Caec. iz, 38), a thing which is

tspecially necessary for the defendant. com ntncina ^s maximi uecesaarins (AtL ix. 7), since yeu art tspeciallj

ioundta both. piocuratoT aeque ntriasqae necessaritu (Quinct. 28, %fi), an agtni equally

closely connected with both. Note. — The genitive In this conslnicdon is not objective tike those above, but possessive (cl { S14. a).

1. The Genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are used wholly or approximately as nouns. Thus, —

amicus fjicvrbti, friendly to Cicero. But, Ciceronia amicus, a friend 0/

Cicero ; and even, CiceroniB amidssimus, a very great friend of Cicero.

Ccelicus et eins aequalis Paeon (Or. 64, 215), the Crelie and its equivalent

tie Faeon. hi eiant affines istatti (Vert. iv. 14), these were this man's fellows.

2. After BlmlliB, Hie, the genitive is more common in early writers. Cicero uses the genitive of living objects, and either the genitive or dative of things ; as, —

domini similis ea (Tet.) you're Hie your master (your master's like).

1 Sucli are aequaiia, aCBnls. anilcuB. cCa'nH.tua. communis, cSnsan- IffulneuH. dlspSr, famlliarlB, finltiniua. inlmicus, neceaBSrius. par, proplaquus. proprlua ^leguWVj geiv\\\ve),&\mUla,auDarBtee^ Alienua. coatrarlue. sacer. J^H

^|gp.

I 234, 235.] Dative of Reference. ^l%\

nt deBmra. dmilSa essemus C^.D.i. 35,97)^ that ■wi migil Be H&t ihi gBdk,%

Bimia quam siinilia lurpissima bestia nobis (N. D. i. jz, 91, quoted froniV 'e.'aa.'),kB'ai likt us is tkal wreUked icasl the ape !

si enimhoc ill! simile sit, es I illud hnic (N.D. i. 33, ^'), fir if this i that, thai is like this.

filius patn similis (Fin. v. 5, iz), a son lite hii father.

est Bimilis maiocuia suoro [Ter, Ad. 411), h^s like his ancestors.

e. The adjectives propior, ptoxlmus sometimes, and the adverbs J propitu, proximfi more commonly, take the accusative, as if prepo^ 1 tions, lilie props (see § z6i. a).

propius periculum (Liv, xxi. 1), nearer tv danger,

ptoxime deos accesait Clodius (Mil. 22, 59), Cladiut has come ver_

pcQximus Pampeium Bedebam (Cic), I was iitling next le Pompey. proximus mare oceanum (B. G. iii. 7), nearest the cctan. Note.— These woida take also the ablative with abl (cf. \ s6o. J)

9. DatlTO of Heference.

235. The Dative is often required not by any f articular Worii, but by the general meaning of the sentence : as, tibi araa (PI. Mere, L t'),youplough fir yourself. res tuas tibi habe (foriniila of divorce), keep ycur goods to yourself . laadavil mihi it^tte-ai, he praised my broAer (oi(t of regard for mej lauds'

Tit fratrem meam would imply no such motive). nieritM mactavit honores, launun Neptuno, taunim tibi, pulcber Apollo (j€n. iii. z\%), he offered the sacrifices due, a bidt to Neptune, a buU to thee, beautiful Apollo. Curioni nostro tribiinatus conglaciat (Fam. viii. 6), our friend Curio's

tribttneship is frozen up (the tribuneship is frozen up for Curio). Note. — The daUve in this construction is often called ihe Dative of Advantage ir Disadvantage (liatajui commas out i/Kantmodi), as denoting the p ' thing for whose benefit or to whose prejudice Ihe action is perfonnf meaning of the sentence is complete without the dative, which is n Ihe preceding constructions, closely connected with any single word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily disUnguishahli Ihe sentence consists of only two words, as in the fi

ta. The Dative of Reference is often used to qualify a whole idea, DBtead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word :

Poeula vel coqioribus auls obatmete (Cat. Maj. 20), to block the march of the Carthagiaians eiien with their own Indies (to block, etc., foe the disadvantage of, etc.), .

SC in conspectum nautiB dedil (Verr. vi 53), ke put himself in sight of tht i sailors (he put himself to the sailors info sight), ' This comes from llie/r original meaning of 0^, asvjeaa^ of NfiupQ'

I

Iht ^M

234 Syntax: Construction of Casfs. [§§ 235, 236

vcrBfltur tnilii nnte oculoa fid. 47), it cemts befort my eya (it comes to me

before the eyci). b. The dative is used of the person from whose point of view a dtu- ation or direction is deftned.

This construction answers to the English as you go in, and the like. The person is commonly denoted Indefinitely by 3 participle in tlie plurnli as.—

oppidiim primum Thessnliae venientibna ab Epiro {B. C iii. 80), Ihtfira

Imva ff I'hfSsaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.). I«eva parte sinum intrantibna (Liv. xivi. 26), on lir lift as you sail up lii

itil/{to ihuae enlering). e«t urbe igreaaia tumulus (^^a.il. 'jl^'),iAertii, as you cume out of Ihe city,

a maund (t>i those having come out). t. The dative of reference is (by a Greek idiom) rarely mtxJified by nSliiu, TOlBna, participles of ii51S, toIo, or by some similar word : as, ut qnibusquQ helium invitis nut voIantiboB etat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), as taek

mlghl rtcflvt Ikt war rcluctanlty or gladly. ut mlUtibus l«l>5> volantibuu essel (Jug. 100), thai the soldiers mi^

Oisumi Ikt task taitHngly, d. The dative of reference is used idiomatically without any verb In colloquial questions and exclamations: as, —

quo iniM fortfiniim (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), o/wkatuse to me is fortune f uni1e mlhi Inpidem (IIoi'. Sat, ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone? quo tibl, Tilli (Har. Sat. i, 6, 24), vikat use for you, TiUiusl t. The dative of reference is sometimes used after Inteijections; as, —

vae vlctll, HW* to Ike cvni/Hered.

em tibi, there, late thai Ohcre, for you) ! [Cf, % 236.]

belmlht, ak, me!

10. BthioBl DatiTe.

230. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a certain interest felt by the person indicated : ^ as, — quid mihi Cebus ngil (Hor.), pray ivhat is Ctlsiis doing f luo iibi servit palri (Plaul. Capl. Prol.}, he serves his awn fa&er. at tibi repenle venit mihi Cominius (Fam. U, 2), but, look you, of a sudden

hem tibi talenlum argenti (PI. Trin. v. 1), hark ye, a talent ofsiher, quid tibi lis, v.'hat vfould you have (what do you wish for yourself) ?

This construction is called the Ethical Dative idaltvus Itkkus), It is

really only a special case of the dative of reference.

■" Compaic '" I'll rhyme you so eigVit yeais vojeftvEi."' — -Ai Yen Lihill.

^■§236.237.] Accusative of Direct Object. 235 ^^|

^H Remark. — Toeitpress FOR— meaningi«J/tflrfo/;w<fe/Jiu:efl//n behalf of —^^^k ^^Hte ablative with prfi must be used ; as, — ^^^H

^B pco patria moii (Hor. Od. iii. 2), lo die for ont's country. ^^H

^H pro r^e, lege, grege (pror.},^r iing, lirw,peapti. ^^^H

^B ego ibopro li (Plaut. Most.), I will go instead of yau. ^^^^k

111. -ACCUSATIVE.

Note,— ThE Accusative originally served to connect the noun loosely with the verb-idea, whether CKpresscd by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjeelive. Probably its earliest use was to repeat the verlj-idea as in Ihe Cognate Accusative (run a race.fighi a ialtU, see § 03B). From this it would be a short step to the Facdlative Accusative (denotiag Ihe result of an act, as in niaie a lable. drill a hoU. d \ 175. note 1). From this last could easily come the common accusative (of Affecting, brtaka lailt,fltig a Aalt, see J 337). Traces of ail these uses appear In the language, and the loose connection of noun With verb-idea is seen in the me ^^H of stems in composition' (d. p. 305, head-note). ^^^B

The t;ses of the accusative may be classified as follows: ^^M

( I. DirecUy sflected by the Action () 237). ^^

uPw«ABYOB,.CTt 1 g^^^^j,^^^^^ .Thi^gproducedO^g?).

I ( Cognate Accusative ( j 23B),

f 1. Predicate Accusative (of Naming, etc.) (§ 839. a).

§a. Two Accusatives : J stOf Asking or Teaching (} 239, f).

l3.0fConcealing{}239.^).

(I. Adverbial ({ a^o. a, b). 2. Of Specification (Greek Accusative) (j S40. c), 3. or Extent and Duration (§ 240. /). 4. Of Exclamation (J 340. d). 5. Suhjaci of Infinitive (} S40./I.

1. Direct Object.

237. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in 1 the Accusative (§ 177). J

The accusative of the Direct Object denotes (a) that which is directly \ affecUd, or [V) that which is caused or produced bj' the actioti of the verb : as, —

(a) Briitiis CaeBarem intetfecit, Brti/us killed Ceesar.

(j) aedem faceie, to make a temple. [Gimpate proelinm pDgnare, la fight a battle, % 238].

Note. — There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished from intransitive. Verbs which usually lake a direct object (expressed or implied) are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or absolutely.

t Compare annlKer. armor-bearer, with anua Kecere, ta icar arnu ; fi.'ii' CBU, }yrf^i^er, with fidibus oanero, to (play on) sing to lfc( tft. CQniv«'^'i^^^ t&ctiS IPJauL), (At fact ofj touching her, witb llftHC lanRava.to towK tm-

v

^"•j'

236 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 237

Thus tlmeS, / fiar, is iransilive in Ihe sentence Itilmlcuin timeS, I fiar 117

rneray, bul inlransilivc (aisBlulc) in nOU timSre, don'l be afraid. Again, manr verbs are IiansiHve in one sense and intransitive in aaotlier: as, HelvStlSs BUperavBlunt ROmftot, tkt Komam tnicrcame the ffcltvliani : bui nihil BUperHbat, nothing remaiTltd (wai left over). So also manj verbs usuallj Intransitive may be used transitively with a slight change in Ihdr meaning: u. ildAe, yau are laughing; but 1116 tlASa.yaa're laiighing alme.

a. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative (5 177.0); as, —

Brutus CaeBarem itilerfecit, Brutus killed Casar,

Caesar a Biuto intcifectus est, Casar was kiUtd by Brutus.

domum aedificat, hi builds a house.

domoB acditicalur, the house is building (being built).

h. Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling, take an accusative, and may be used in the passive : as, —

meum caHlun IttotumquB doluerunt (^e^X.fi^'),lliey grieved \3X\ my calamity

si non AcriEiiltra risissenl luppiter et Venus (Hor. O. iii. 16. 5), ifyufiter

and Venus had not lulled [at] Acrisius. ridetur ab omni conventu [Hot. S. i. 7. 22), hi is laughed [at] by the wkote

assembly.

c. Verbs of tastt, smell, and the like take an accusative of the quality : as, —

vinum redolens (Cic), smelting [of] wine.

herbara mella sapiunt (Plin.), Ike honey tastes [of] grass, L Note. — These are properly Cognate Accusatives (} 238).

H li. Verbs ofmDtion,compounds ofciroum and trSnB,and a few others,

^^ frequently become transitive, and take the accusative (cf. g 338. a) : as, ^1 mortem obite, to die (to meet death).

^B consulatum ineunt (Liv. iii. 4), th^ enter upon the consulship.

■ ,i„io=m convim (Fun. I,. 14), / m,l n. .»,.

^1 si Insulam adisset (B. G, iv. 20), if he should go to Ihe island.

H transire flumen (id. 11. 23), to cross the river (ef. g 239, i).

H cTves qiu circumstant senatum (Cat. i. &), the cititens who stand aboul th^

I

'. The accusative is used after the imperaonals deoet, dCleotat, luvat, oportet, falllt, fugit. piaeteiit : as, —

on praeterit (Fam. i. 8), it does not escape your notice. il v5a deed (Plaul. Most. 714), so as b/fits you. \ pedibus dSectal claudere verba (Hor. SaL ii. I. a8), my delight is (it pleases me) to arrange laords in measure. ~ animi falliC (Luce. i. 13b), nor dan H ncapt my aOenlian (dude

^^m nisi mB ndiit, unltss I am mistaken (onless it deceives me).

^H iuvit me tibi tuns Ullctas profuisse (Fain. v. 21 }, il pltaied mi that yea

^^B Hterary studies had frofiltd yau.

Boafi

V lati

7,] Accusative of Direct Object.

0 after latet in poetry and post'Classical prose :

latel plerosque (Plin. il. 82), it is uninewit to most

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Note i. — These verbs are merely ordiaary tranaidTes with an idiomadc signifi- aliDD. Hence most of them arc also used personaliy (ct. j} 217. a, 239. d). Note a. — Decet and latet somelimes lake the dative: as,—

hostique propinquo Roma latet (Sil. It. xii. 614), and Hume lies hidden

from tkefae close by. ita nobiB decet (Ter. Ad. 928), ihm il befits us.

t

multa gcmens ignominiam (Georg, iii. 226), p'oaning muck at the dis-

grace. [Cf. doleo, § 237. i.] featinare fugam (Mn. iv. 575), to hasten their fiighl. [Cf. accelerd.] cotnptOB arsit crines (Hoc. Od. iv. 9. 13), she burned with love for his

well-tombed locks. [Cf. adamo,]

/. In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from transitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusa-

quid tibi banc tactio est (Plaat. Poen. 1306), what business have you la

touch her? [Cf. tango.] miiiibundi bestiam (App. Met. 4), /iill of wonder at the creature. [Cf.

yitnbundus Castra (Liv. ixv. 13), trying to avoid the camp. [Cf. vito.]

g. In early usage the impersonal gerundive vi^itb csae governs the accusative (§ 294. c): as, —

qnam nobis ingrediendnm sit (Cat. Maj. 2, 6), which (road) wi must enter

upon. [Here Ciceco purposely uses an archaic construction.] poenss in niDTte timendumst (Luce. i. Ill), we have to fear punishment in _ death.

^■^ >i. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used adsclulefy (p. 234, ^B^te), having their natural object in the ablative with dfi : as, —

L

priusqaam Fompoaius de eius adventa cognoscerel (6. C. iii. loi), before Pomfonius could learn of his coming. [Cf. elaa adventu cognito, kit arrival being discovered.']

£ For Accusative and Genitive after Impevsonals, see\ ai\.b.

33^ Syntax: Construction of Casa. [f a3&

2. Cognate AocnaatiTe.

238. A neuter verb often takes the accusative of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner.

This cons (ruclion is aHed the Cognate Accusative or Accusaihi ej Kindred Signification. Thus, —

vlltni tiitlareni vivete (Hor.), lo live a safer life.

Icflioui lam letiilcm hominum vivebat (Leel. lo, 31), ke was now living ihi third gmeralioH of men .

cpire tocielHlcm, lo [go logelher a.ai'] form an alliance.

scrvUulcm servire. lo it in slavery.

a. The Cognate Accusative is often loosely used by the poets:

hule error! slmilem [errorem] tDsioBe (Hor. Sal. IL 3. 6z), la suffer a Jelu-

sitH Hie this. ultaic Cxdopa (Hor. Sat L 5. 63), ta dance the Cyclops (represenl in

daiidng). ^^

nacchSnikliR vivere (Juv. ii. a), to live in revellings. ^H

AmarylUda rc«onare (Eel. i. 5), lo re-echo [the name af] Amaryllis. H inlmiuil laevuin (.^n, ii, 693), it Awndered on the left. ■

Hnlcc t^enlem (Hot. Od. i. aa. 33), neeelly smiling: ■cerba luens (Lucr. v, 34), IttHngfiercety. [Cf. Eng. " lo look doners."] NOTK. — In Ihe last ih™? eiamples the cognale aceusative has an adveriial ■ignincallon. See Adverbial Accuulive. { 140. a.

A A neuter pronoun or colorless noun or adjective is very common ai cognalc accusative (cf. §§ 148. d and 340. 0). Thus, —

Empcitvicleg multk ftlik peccal (N. D. i. 12, 19), Emftdocles commits many

eAer slips. ega illnd uaenltor Theophraito (Or. 3, 48), im Ais I agree miCk Theo-

phr/ulMS. moltnilt ic ofKuio Ula fefellit (Verr. i. 3S),y«t were mud deceived ist Ihis

exptclalitm (this e^)>ectalion deceive) you mach}. quid me isu laedant (Agr. ii. t i), aitHarm do Hose Mugs da me f ai Credo «ul grando qnipjUMa nocuit (N, D. iii. 35), if Avught or hail lua

dene «ny injury (hu harmed at all). hBo te moneo, [give you this miarninff (cf- note bdow). Mlaetnr, / rejoice of this (^c(. nott). 4«M bominet arant, nii-igant, etc. (Sail CmL a, fi, mUt a ii^, ati/tifff, etc So la many common phrases : as, —

«i qpU ille *e v«lit {KG.i. n), if it dt*mUu>tnl awytiii^e/ Urn Q mat him in isittune^.

i 238, 239.] Two Accusatives.

^B33

^H munqnid me via, can t do anything mere far you f (there is nothing you 1 ^B want of me, is Ihcte?). [A common form of leave-taking.]

^f quid possum, what can I [do] 7 id volet, it amaunU Is this.

Note. — In these cases subEtantives luiMu rf^/Kj/iffKawin^ would bi other conslnicdon: as,—

n hoc eSdem pcccat, he errs in this same poial. bonis rebus Inetari, to rtjoicc at prosperity. [Also ; in, de, or ex,_ de lestamenlo monere, /o remind one of tie wit!. [Later: genitive, § 219. cj ofiici admonere, to remind one of his duty. [Also ; de offioiB.] e. A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from a forcing of their meaning. Such expressions a

ferire foedua, to strike a treaty (ij. to sanction by striking down a victim). ^_ vincere iudicium (sponsionem, tern, hoc), to prevail on a trial, etc. [A» I ^L if the case were a diEculty to overcome; cf. vincere iter, .^Ji. vi. 68S.] [

^H tcrram navigire (Fm. ii, 34, 112), lo sail aver til land. [Perhaps quoted J ^H from a poet.^

^H aeqnor navigare, to sail the sea. [As if it were trinwre, § 237. 1/.] B mariaasperaiSro (*n.vi.3Si),/™^flrivM^ ro«£-i jMi. [The ai ^H live with verba of smearing is chiefly poetic]

^H noctes dormire, to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep). ^B Note.— These accusaiives are of various kinds. The last example approaches ^^■te cognate construction, cf. the second example under \ 233.

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3. Two AcousativeH. Some ti^nsitive verbs take a second accusative in addition to tiieir Direct Object.

This second accusative is either (i) a Predicate Ac- cusative or (2) a Secondary Object.

a,. Predicate Accusative. An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same person or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it, is called a Predicate Accusative (cf. § 185, head- note).

note J. ^_

a. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, show- ^^|

ing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the ilirect ^^|

CnW-ct: as,— ^1

I Sputace, qnem enim te potius appellem (Phi!, xiii. 10), O Sparlacus, ^H

for -whal else shall I call you (than Sparlacus)? ^^|

iceronem consulem creare, to elict Cicero conml. ^^|

■ct£t6rem dicere, fo name [a man] dittatoT {t^. Q)waViaYi!at^. ^H

!40 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 239.

me augnrem n5niinivenint (Phil. ii. 2, 4), ik^ nominated mt for at^ur. gratias agibat quod si oonsDleiii ficissel (Cic.), hi thanked him btcause ht

had madf him consul (supported his candidacy), homiueni prae eg uemmem puCSvit (fZic.'),iit eheu^ nobody a man in lem-

parison ivith himself. dncam se mililibua tuis praebuit (Val. 33), he offired himself to your

soldiers as a leader. omneB Catiliuia Acidin^ postei reddidit (At(. iv. 3), he has made all lit

Calilines [seem] Acidini. Note i. — The predicale accusative may be an adjective! as,— homitiea ex feriset inuaanibus mitea reddidit et mansnetos (lor. i, 2), has

made men from vtild and barbarous [creatures] gentle and mild.

Note a. — In changing from the active voice lo Ihe passive, the predicate sccusalive becomes predicate nominative {{ 185) : as, —

rex ab suis appellalur (B. G. vii. 4), he is calUd king by his [subjects].

b. Secondary Object. .

3. The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along with the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected by the action of the verb.

b. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions Bomerimes take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally gov- erned by tlie preposition : as, —

Caesar Germanos flnmen triicit (B. C. i. S3), Cesar thrmas the Germans a,:ross Ihc river.

Note i. — But with these verbs the preposition Is more commonly repealed, or sometimes the ablative is used : as,—

donee res suas trana HaJyn tllimen traicerent (Liv. xxxviii. 25), till they

should gel their possessions across Ihe river Hatys. (exercitus) Pado traiectus Cremonam (Liv. xii. 56), the army ■teat conveyed

across ihe Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, % 258. g). Note a. — The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb; as, — Belgae Bbenam IrSducii aunt (B. G. ii. 4), Ihe Belgians were led ever

Ihe Mine. Note 3. — Sometimes the Secondary Object appears to become the subject of a rb ; but this comes from a change of meanmg, and Ihe object is really

Remark. — The double cutislruclion indicated in i is possible only when ihe force of the preposition and Ihe force of ihe verb are each distinctly fell in the compound, (be verb governing the Direct, and ftie pteijoiiUon the Secondai^

Two Accusatives,

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\

But oRen rhe two parts of the componnii bEcome closelir united to (brm a transi- tive verb ot simple meaning. In this case the verb-element loses its power to govern the accusative, and the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue of its prepositional pail. Thus used the compound can have but one accusative, — the Banie which was ibrraerly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. So tr&lclfl comes to mean either (i) lo pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (a) la

(1) ^aS\aYiorcanera\.taieat, he pierced the man viilk a sword. [Here iainS

has lost all Irausitive force, and serves simply lo give the force of a verb to the meaning of traDS, and to tell the mannir of the set.}

(a) Rhodanum ttaiecit, ke trossed the Rhone. [Here iacio has become simply a verb of motion, and traicio is hardly distinguishable from tranaeo,]

In these examples homlnem and Bhodanuia, which would be secondary

objects if trftlSclt were used in its primary signilication, have become the direct

objects. Hence in the passive construction they become the subjects and are put

in the nominative. Thus.—

homo traiectus est gladio, tht man was pierced wilh a iioord. Rhodanus traiectus est, the Rhone a/as crossed.

The poetical trtUeotua lOra. (.En. ii. aijs). pureed witi thongs, comes from a

mixture of two constructions; —

(l} cum triiecit lora, ke rove Ihongs through him,' and

(2) earn traiecit lore, he pierced him wi/h thongs.

In putting the sentence into a passive form, the direct object of the former (ISra) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of the latter (eum) is made the subjecL

c. Verbs of asking aud leaching may take two accusatives, one of the Person {direct objecf), and the other of the Thing {secondary objecty. as, me senlentiam rogavit, he asked me my opiniou. olium divos rogal (Hor. Od. ii. 16. l), he prays the gods fir rest. haec cum praetorem pustulabas (Tull. 39), when you demanded this of the

aedilis populum rogite (Liv. vi. 42), to ask the people [to elect] adites. docere pneros elementa, to leach children Iheir A B Cs.

Note 1. — Some verbs of oji/i^take the ablative of the person with a preposi- tion instead of the accusative. So. always, petS {ab),poStUlC (ab),qaaei<i (ex, ab, dS), and occasionally others: as, —

pacem ab BomaniB petienint (B. G. il. 13), they sought peace from the

Eomam. quod qoaesivit ex mi P. Appuleius (Phil. vi. 1), lahai Publi-us Appuleim

asked of me. Note a. — With the passive of verbs of asking or leaching, "^^ person or tho '' Otag may be used as subject (ct d, note) : as, —

Caesar senlentiam rogalus est, Ciesar was asked his opinion.

id ab eo flagitabatur (B. G. i. 71), this loai urgently demanded of him.

1

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242 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§§ 239, 240.

i^F.MAKK.^The accusnlive of Ihe thing may be relained wilh Ibe pa£sive ol rOK^, and of verba of leaching, and occasion allif with a few other veibs: as, —

fuerant hoc rogati (Qcl. 64), ihty had besn ashed iMs,

poscor meum Laelapa (Ov. Met. vii. 771), I am asked for my Lulaps.

Cicero per legatoa cnncta edoctos (Sail. Cat. 45) , Cicero being informed 0] everything through the ambassadors. But with most verbs of asking In ptose the accusative of the thing becomes the subjecL-naminative, and the person is put in the ablative with a pcepositiDn: as, —

ne postolaDtur quidem vires a seneotute (Cat. M. 1 1), strength is not even expected of an old matt (asked from old age).

d. The verb c815, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the usually intransitive lateo, tie Aid, an accusative of the person (cf. § 337. e): as,—

non te celavi Hennonem T. Ampi (Fam. ii. 16J, I did not conceal from yoK the tali of T. Ampins.

nee lotuere doll fritrem luoonis (^En. i. 134), nor did the -wiles of Jiiao escape the notice of her brother.

NoTK. — All the double constructions indicated in c and rfarisefrom'lhe waver- ing meaning of Die verbs. Thus dooeS means both to shcui a thing, and to instruct a p<nson ; oelO, to lUep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing ; FOEtS. to qius- iiaa a pei^on, and to asi a gveilion 01 a thing. Thus either accusative may be r^^ded as the direct object, and bo becotne the subject of the passive (cf. c, note a, above), but for convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called second-

4. Idiomatic TTBea. 240. The Accusative has the following special uses: — ' a. A neuter pronoun or ailjective is used as cognate accusative with an adverbial force (^Adverbial Accusative, cf. § 138. 6): as, —

quid moror, ivky do I delay ?

dulce loquenlem (Hor. Od. i. aa. 24.), sweetly speaking.

acerba tuens (^n, ix. 793), looking cruilly.

torvum clamat (id. vii, 599), hi cries harshly.

Note, — This use does not differfrom the cognate accusative except that in some cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has bded out so that the words are real adverbs. But no fixed line can be drawn between Ih

b. The accusative is found in a few adverbial phra

Id lemporis, at that lime.

id (iatuc) aetalis, at that age.

id (quod) genus, of that (jvAat) Sort (perhaps origitially m

mcam yiceia, en my part.

maximam partem, /oi- the most part.

bonam partem, in a great measure.

virile secua, of tie male sex (probably originally in appositit

, in other respects, qaod si, iut (as to which) if.

^H

r

240.] Idiomalic Uses of the Accusative, 343

c. The so-called synecdochkal or Greek accusative is used by the poets to denote the part affected ; as, —

caput neclenlur (iEn. t. 309), Ouir head ihall be bcmid (Ihey shall tic

hound about the head), ardends octiJoa suffecli sanguine et %[)! (id. ii. 210), Iheir gl<a-ing ty/s

bloodshot and blwdng with Jtrc (suffused as to their eyes, etc.). tiiida geaa (id. i. 320}, bare la the knee.

Note, — In many apparendy similar expressions the accusative may he ri garded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice ({ ill. a): as, —

iniitiie femun cingitur (.*ji. ii. t^ia^, he girds en the useless steel. L nodo ainos colleota SaealSi (}d.\. 310), iavingAer Jloaiing /olds ga/A/red I in a knat.

I umeroB insternor pelle leonia (id. ii. 722), I toner my shoulders -with a I lion's liin.

prolinus indnitur faciem cultomque Dianae (Ov. Mel. ii. ^^.ferth-M she assumes the shafe and garb of Diana.

I

d. The accusative is used in exclamattoi

O fbrliiDalam rempiiblicain, eh, fortunate republic! [Cf. O fortunata moi

(Phil. xiv. 12, 31), nh, happy dialh! {§ 241. e).] me miserum, all, wretched me ! in quatuor aras (Ed. v. 65), lo,fo}ir altars I ellum (= en ilium), there he is! eccos (= ecce eos). there they are, look at Ikem ! pro denm %Acai, good heavens (oh, protection of the gods) ! hocine aaeclum (Tet. Ad. 304), oh, this generation ! hnociae hominem (Vert, v, 29), this man, good heavens ! O me infelicera (Mil. 37, loj), oli, unhappy II

Note 1. — Such expressions depend upon some long-forgollen verb. The us

f-ne in some cases suggests an original question, as in quid? whalf -ahyf tettm,

Note a. — The omission of the verb has given rise lo some other idiomalic ai

|.,

laliiteni (ac. dicit) (in letters), ^f^A'r^.

quo niihi foitunam, of what use is fortune? [Here no verb is though! of.J unde mihi lapidem, inhere cart I gel a stone ! le dius Hdius (sc. adiuvel), so help me heaven (Ihe god of failh).

e. Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusa- (see §5 256, 257).

f. The subject of the infinitive mood is in the accusative. This is especially frequent after words of knowing, thinking, telling, and per- ceiving {verba sentiendi et dedarandt. see % T,Ti).

g. The accusative in later wtitera b sometimes used in apposition jrilli 3 clause ; as, —

244

Syntax: Cotutmctioti of Cases.

§240-43.

I

deserunt tribunal . . . maaus ialentantes, caDsain discardiae et initiiUB annorum (Tac. Ann. i. ^f), finally tkiy abandon ihi tribunal ikakaif their fills, — a cause of diisemioa and the btginningof'Wttr. Note. — This oonslraclion [s an extension (under Greek influence) of i. uiagE more nearly within the ordinary rules, such as, —

Eumcnem prodideie Antiocho, pacia mereedem (Sail. Ep. Mith.), &ij

betrayed Eumenes to Antiachia, the price of peace. [Here Eomenei

may be considered the price, although the real price is the betrayal.]

h. For the accusative of the End of Motion, see § 258 ; for that

after poatridiS, propior, etc., see § 261. a.

[For ihe Accnsaiivo willi Preposilions, see \ 15a. o, c^

IV. -VOCATIVE. 341. The Vocative is the case of direct address: as, TiberinB pater, le aancte pcecor (Liv. ii. 103), O, father Tiber, thte, hatf

apposition with the used instead of the

fa* ]

subject of the imperative mood is

audi 15, popnlna Albanna (Liv. i. 24), hear, thou people of Alba.

b. The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used instead of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person: as, —

censorem trabeate lalillaa (Fers. iil. 29), robed you salute the censor.

c. The nominative may be used in exclamations (ef. § 240. d) \ as, —

en dextra fidesque (^n. iv, 597), lo, the faith and plighted toord !

d. The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase mScta eats (virtftto), success attend your (valor). Thus, —

iuberem te macte virlute esse (Liv. ii. fl), f should bid you go on and

prosper in your valor. Note.— As the quantity of the final e in mSote is not determinable, ii may be thattheword was an adverb, as in bene eat, and the like, (See American Journal of Philology, VoL 1.)

V, -ABLATIVE.

242. The Ablative is used to denote the relations

expressed in English by the prepositions from, in, at,

WITH, BV : £

liberare metii, la deliver from fear. ia, blind 1111111 avarice. 0, slain by Ihe sword. excaUus doclrina, Irainid in learning hoc ipso tempore, at this very lime.

J

§§ 342, 243.]

Ablative of Separation.

Note. — The ablative /9;-iKcon(ains three d expressing [he relation FROM; the Locative, IN; Thi3 confusion has arisen partly from phnoeiic three cas«s have become identical in foim, ai which they have approached one unother in mi like forms of llie dative and ablative plural, the uon (\ 74. a), and the loss of the original -d ir d, the phrases S parte deztrS. c

— the Ablative propi enlil, WITH or B

lEcay(j8),by

d pajtly from the development by aning. Compare, for the fitsl, the lid dative In -S of llie tifth declen- Ihe ablative (jj 36./ 62. a) ; and, Ihi right; Qiiam Ob cauaam.

1

M Tahick came: ad Rtmom, at (in consequence of) tki r ~he relation ofFKOU includes itparaiicn, laurce, lauu. agent, and camfarhon; of WITH or BY, accemfOBiment. initnaiani, miam, maiaier, gualily, undf^ici; of IN or AT, flaci, lime, etreamslann. It is probable that, originally, the idea comfaHimrnt had a scparale case, which became confounded with the ii tal before Latin was separated from the kindred tongues.

■eihel

\

I. Of Separation, Privalioti, and Want (J !!43). a. Of Source (participles of origin, etc.) () 044).

3. Of Cause {gaudefi, dlgnuB, etc.) (} 345).

4. Of Agent (with ab after Passives) ({ 246).

5. Of Ccmparison (than) (} 247}.

1. Of Manner, Means, and iDSlrumenl (j 148).

2. Of Accompaniment (with Cum) (J 24B. a).

3. Of Object of the Deponents tttor, etc. ({ 249).

4. Of Degree of Difference ({ 350).

5. Of Quality (with AdJEclives) (fast).

6. Of Price and Exchange (f 25a).

7. Of Specification ({ 353).

I I. Of Place where (commonly with to) {) 354). 3. Locative Ami.A- I a. Of Idiomatic Expressions (J 254. a). TiVE (.«, o«. al) : 1 3, Of Time and Circumstance (j 356). I 4. Ablative Absolute (} =55).

1. Ablative of Sepatatlon.

343. Words signifying Separation or Privation are fol- lowed by the ablative, with or without a preposition.

a. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and want, require the ablative : as, —

ocuIb si privavit (Fin. v. 29), he deprivtd kimself 0/ eyes.

legi'"'s solutua, reliciiid from the ehligalioK o/lmas.

omm Gallia inlecdidt Romanos (B. G. i. 46), 6e (Arioviatus) ban the Jtomans/rom ike juholc of Gaul.

ei aqna et igni interdicitur (Veil Pat. ii. 45), he is debarred Ihi use uf fire andwa/er.

voluptatibua carere (Cat. Maj, 3), to lack enjeymena.

non egeo medicina (Lasl. 3), Iwant no physic.

mi^o jne iDetu liberabxs (Cat. i. s), j-tfJI vAU reXxeot mi of grtot ftar.

Bphoraa calcSn'bus eget ((juiat.), EphoruS: needi the ifur.

r

I

246 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [{•243.

levamor superstitione, Iiberimur mortis melu (Fin. i. 19), we are reliroti

from superstition, we are fried from fiar of death. coDsilia Et aucloiiUte orban (Cat. Maj. 6), to be bereft of ceuititt and

a-utkority.

b. Verbs compounded with a, ab, dB, ox, take the simple ablative when M^zA figuratinely i but when used literally to denote separatim or motion, they usually require a preposition (see § 258). Thus, —

conalu degistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the aUempt.

desine comniiinibus Ipch (Acad. ii. 25), quit eommonplaces.

abire magistiatu, to leave one's office.

abstinere iniurii^ to refrain from wrong.

Bat, — aberrire a pioposito (Cic), la -wander from the point,

de ptovioda dceedere (Verr. ii. 46), to ■witAdraie frost site's province.

ab iuie abire (id.), to go outside of the law.

es civitate eicessere (B, G. vi. 8), they departed from the state. [But cf.

finibus suis excesserant (id. iv. 18), Ihey had left their ojon territory.'] a m^no demiasum nomen lulo (^n. i. 2SS), a name desiended (seat down)

from great lulus. Note. — For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see f 029.

c. For the ablative of the actual place whence in idiomatic expres- sions, see § 258. a, and note 3.

d. Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the abla-

urbs nuda praesidio (Att. vii, 13), theeity naked of Jefenee, ^^

immiinis militia (Liv, i. ^^,free of military service. ^^H

plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii- 3), the people deprived of tribuna, ^^^k

Note. — Some adjectives of want take the genitive (see j ai8. o), ^^H

e. Opua antl {taus, signifying tued, are followed by the ablative:'

magi strati bus opus eat (Leg. iii, 2), ihtre is need of magistrates. nunc viribus usu9 (_,¥ii. viii. 441), ame there is need of strength. Note. — Wilh Iheae words the ablative ot the perfect parlie^le, viilh or with- out a noun, is often found (} aga. b) : as, —

opus est tua exprompta memoria alquc astijtia (Tei. And. 733), I must have

your good memory and cleoerness set to work. properato opus erat (Mil. iq), themoas need efJiaste. facto Esus est, it is desirnile la do (there is need of the thing's beiag done). Remark. — Frequently optts is in Ihe predicate, with the thing needed \a the ■ ■ iubjecl:as.-

TWj coaslruction is properly aa ii id service, and the ablative • service rendeied.

^^^—

243, 244.] Ablative of Source and Material. 34/ J

dnx ooba et anotor opus est (Fam. ii. 6), wi need a chief and reifonsiitl J adviser (a chief, etc., is necessary fur us). T

^ quid ipsi opus esset (B. G. i. 34), if he himself wanUd anylking {^l aaj- i thing should he necessary for him).

quae opus sunt (Cato R. R. 14, 3), Ihtng! whick are reguired.

f. Bge5 and indlgeo are often followed by the genitive {§ 223) :

□e qois anxili egeat (B. G. vi. 1 1), lest any rehire aid.

quae ad consolandum maioris ingeiu et ad fetendum singulariE virtotia I

indigent (Fam. vi. 4), [sorrows] ■uihichfer thtir lemfarting need mart I

ability, and for ettdurance unusual courage.

Remark. — The Genitive is by a Gieek idiom often used in poetry ins e Ablative with all words oi afaratimi and want {\ 323. 6.3) I as. — ttbstineto iranun (Hot. Od. iiL 27. 70), abstain from wrath. operum soliitia (id. 17, xd), free from toili. desine moUiam querelatum (id. ii, 9. 1 7}, have done -aiilh iiieak lomplainb. \

2. Ablative of Soutoe and Katetial.

244. The Ablative with or without a preposition is used j jto denote the Source from which anything is derived, or J the Material of which it consists.

Rhinus oritur ex Lepontua (Ii. G. v. 4), lAe Rhine rises in (from) tk^m

country of the LeponlH, &b aliqDD sermd oritur (Ltel. I, 5), the conversation is begun by (arise*

ciiius rationis vim atque uttlttiCem ex iUo caelesti Epicuii volnniine accqn- mus (N. D, i, i5, 45), of this riasouing -me have learned Ike foToer I and advantage from that divine took of Epicurus.

suavilatem odorum qm aflliirentur i floribtu (Cat. Maj. 17, 59), i^r sjueel- ; ness of the odors vihici breathed from the flowers.

3. Material: —

erat totns ex frattde etmeo.dSiCi6lnctai(C[a. 26), he tvas entirely made up I

offra lid and falsehood. valvig m^nificentiores, ex anro alquc ebore perfeciiores (Verr, ii. 456), 1

mare splendid doors, mare finely leroughl of gold and ivory. factum de caulilinB antrum (Ov. Met. i. 575), a cave formed of rocks. templum de marmore ponam (Georg. iii. \i). Til bitiid a temple of marble. NOTS I. — In poetry the preposition is often omitted.

JVor« s.~The j^blaKve of Material is a deve^opmeW q( fco ^ai^^c ASCTasfc /««1 ■-'

248 Syntax: Constmction of Cases. [§ 244.

a. Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the Ablative of Source, generally without a preposition ; 1 as, —

love nitus et Mail (N. D. iii. za), son of Jupiler and Maia. edite t^bus (Hot. Od. i. i. l), discendatU of /rings. quo saoguine cretus {J&a. ii. 74), horn efvihat blood. genitae Pandlone (Ov. Met. vi. 666), dai^ilen af Partdion. Remark. — A preposition (ah, (15. ex) is usually eipreBseil with Ihe name dI the molker, a-ni often with tlial of otiicr anceslors; as, —

cum es ntraqne [uxore] filius natus esset (Dc Or. i. 40, 1S3), tac/i ifife

having had a son (when a son had been horn of each wife). Tros est generatus ah illo (Ov. Fasl. iv. 33), Tros 7oas sprung from Aim. ex me hie nSlus non est sed ex frStre me5 (Ter. Ad. 40), Ihis is not my son,

bat my brothtr's (not born from mc, etc.). Belus el omnes a Bal5 (.En. i. 730), Btlus and alt his descendants.

b. Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source : as,—

desidecivit C. Felginatem Flaceutia, A. Granium Fateolis (B. C. iii. 71),

he last C. Felginas of Haeeniia, A. Granius of I'uUoli. Note. — The Roman tribe 15 regularly expressed by the ablative alone: as, — Q. Verrem Eomilia (Verr. i. 8, 23), Quintus Verris of the Romilian tribe.

c. Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a preposi- tion. Such are constate, cSnslBtere, and contmerl.^ But with cdnat&ie, ex is more common. Thus: —

domiis anioenitas non aedificio seii Bilva consliibal (Ncp. Att. 13), the

charm of Ike house consisted not in the buildings but in the viBods. exanimo consianius et corpore (Fin. iv. S), we consist of soul and body. vita oorpore et apiritS, continetur (Marc. 9), life consists of body and spirit.

d. The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with faoere, fieri, and similar words, in the sense of do ■with, become of: as, —

quid hoc hoitline facialis (Verr, i. 16), what are you going to do viith this

quid Tnlliola mea fiet (jTaa.-Ai.tO.-whalTvill become of my dear Tidliaf quid te futiirum est (Veer. ii. 64), iiihat will btcome of you ?

e. The Ablative of Material with ex, and in poetry without 1^ preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun ; as, — ^H

oon pauca pocula ex anro (Verr. iv. 27), not a few cups of geld. ^H

BCOpnliB pendentibuB antrum (,^n. i. i65), a cave of hanging rocis. ^H

1 Such are nfttua, satuB, Sdltus, genltuB, ortus, prOanfttuB, gana- rAtus, cretus. creatua, orl undue.

« Tbe ablative with oOaaiBtara and coattoft-rt te IwaiivB la origin (ct )

K 244. 245,] Ablative of Cause. 249

f. For Genitive of Material, see § 214. e.

g. For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see § 31(3. c.

3. Ablative of Cause. 245. The ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to express Cause. ^

nitniu gandio paenc dcsipifljam (Fam. i. 13), I-aias almost wild from teg

much joy. neglegentiA pleclimur (Lael. 22), n'e art ehastiicd for negligince. gubemaloris BIS ntilitite non arte laudator {Ynm.i. i^^, ihe pilots still U

f raised for ils stniice, not its skill. certfe de cansu, for certain reasons.

ex vnlnere aeger (Rep. ii. 21), disabled by (.from) a wound. mare » Bole lueet (Acad. 4, 33), the sia gleams in Ike sun (from the aun). e3t Opportiinitate loci (Jug. 4S, 2), from the advantage of position. a. Certain verbs and adjectives regularly take the ablative of cause irithout a preposition. These are : —

. The adjectives dlgnns, indlgnua : as, —

it patre avo raaioribnB sais digiiissimus (Phil, iii. 10), a man mosl~jiortky

of his falher,grandfatktr, and ancestors. i omm honore indignissimum iSdicat (Vatin. 16, 29)> he judges you

tntirtly vmnorlhy of every honor, . The verbs dignor, labStS (also with ex), exsiliS, exauItS, bltimpIiO, lacrimS, SxdeS : as, —

hand equidem tSli me dignor honore (/En. i, 339) , / do not deem myself

leortky ofsitch an honor. doleo te aliis maliB labocare (Fam, iv, 3), I am sorry thalyeu suffer with ,

other ills. ex aere alieno laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under debt (lit,, fron

another's money), eisultare laetitia ac Iriumphire gaudlo coepit (Ciu. 5), she began to exult in

gladness, and triumph in joy. eiailui gandio (Fam, xvi, 16), I jumped for joy. iBCrimo gaudio (Ter. Ad, 411), I vie/p for joy. L delicto dolere (Liel, 24), to grieve for the fault.

■ ardere dolore et ira (Att, ii. 19), to be on fire loith pain and anger. w Note i. — For BOUdeS and alOrlor. see !j 254. 4.

' The auise, in the ablative, is originally source, as is shown by the use of ab,

dS, •»; but when the accusative with ad, Ob is used, the idea of cause arises

IraiDHiamtss, Occasionally, however, it is difficult 10 distinguish lietween came and

meoKi Iwbicb is the old /nslnimetilai Case) or tiralmitann (^\ciiaiia cVtosa**

IXiJtanVe or the Iastrumenta.U. A

I

SJO Syntax; Comlruction of Cases. [§§245.246,

Note s. — Dtgnus and Indlafnua aomelimes take the genitive in colloquial laage and in poetry ; as, — curam dignissimam taste virtatis (Balbus in Alt. riii. 15), care mssl

worthy of your noble iharacler. digitus saintia (Plant. Trin. 1153), taarlAy of safety.

mognonun baud umquam indignus avomm (./En. xii. 649), never un- worthy my great ancestor!.

with verbs, see \

b. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is expressed by the ablative of cause ; the object exciting the emotion often by ob 1 or propter with the accusative : as, —

non ob praedam aut apoljandi capidine (Tac, U. i 63), not for booty or

through lust of plunder, amidtia ex bS et propter se expelenda (Fin. ii. 26), friendship must lie

sought of and fir itself Note.— But these conslruclions are often confused ; as, ^ parere legi bus propter metnm (Parad. 5, i), lo obey the laws en account ej

fear. [Here metum is almost equivalent to " the terrors of the law,"

and hence propter is used, though the ablative would he more

natural]

c. The ablatives causEl and gratia,/or the sake of, are used with a genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement; as, —

ea C3.\i^ en account of this ; qiKi gratia (Ter. Ean. gg), for what purpose f mea causa, ^r my sake; meii gratia (Plaut.) , /iir my sake. ex mea et reipublicae causa, yiir my own sate and the repi^lir's. piaedictionis causa (N. D. iii. z, 5), by way of prophecy. ^H

exempli grStii (verbi gralii),/i.r example. ^^|

sui purgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing themsekies. ^^^^

Note. — Bui KT&tift with possessives in this use is tare. ^1

4. AblatlTe of Agent. 346. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is put in the ablative with a or ab : as, —

laudalur ab hia, culpitur ab illia (Hot. Sat. i. 2. 11), he is praised by these, blamed by those. \> animo tuo quidijuid agitur id agitur a t§ (Tasc, i. 22), whatever is done by your soul is done by yourself.

''hisase of ob was originally mercaTitiVe ; cS, oti iaewstfa ■•-«.«■» (seep. 131).

5§ 246, 247.] Ablative of Agent; of Comfiarisov. 25

a, filiiB in iudicium vocatns eat (Cat, Mnj. 7, za), he was trougkt to trial

cum a coscto conaeBSD. plausus esset multiplex datus (Cat. Maj. iS, 63), wliin great applause had &itti given by ihe whole audience.

ne virtus ab andicia vincerctur (Sest. 43), thai valor niiglil tint be trver- home by audacity.

Note.— This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The ^ent is conceived as the source qt aalhor fA'tiis action.

Remark. — The ablative ofthei^m/ (which requires & or ab) must lie care- fully distinguished from the ablative of inslntment, which has no preposition {{ =48.1.1), Thus —

occiBUS gladio, slain by a sword; but, occisus ab hoste, shin by an enemy.

d. The ablative of the agent with ab is sonietinies used al^er neuter verbs that have a p>aEsive sense: as, — periie ab Itoste, to be slain by an enemy,

b. The agent, when considered as instrument or means, Is ex- pressed by per with the accusative, or by opeiK with a genitive or possessive. Thus, —

Caesar certior factaa est a legatia, Casar ■mas informed fy the ambassadort

(inperaon). But,— Caesar certior faclns eat per lagatoa, Ciesar was informed by ambassadort

(I.C. by means of ambassadors), elaatoe opera Neptuni (Plant. Rmi. 699), ■waAedtlean iy the services of

Neptune. non mea opera evinit {Ter. Hec. 228), it hasn't happentd iHrou^ w*(by

my eiertions), Note i. — An animal is usually regarded not ai the ^fvn^, but as the (nAsir or insirumenl. Hence Ihe timple ablative li used. But ab sometimes occurs. Thu^ —

eqa9 vehi, Ai ride an ioriebati {be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not

ab equo.] But,— LueanS cum sic laceceris ah urso (Mart. Ep. 8), tinee yon are am

mangled by a Lucanian bear. Note a. — For the Dative of the AEcntwilh the Gerundive, see ( 933.

5. Ablative of Comparison. 247. The Comparative degree is followed by the abla tive^ (signifying than) : as, —

Cato est Cicerona eloquentior, Cats is more eloquent than Cieera. quid noblB duobuB laboriosius est (Mil. 2), what more burdened milk toil than we tivo f

1 This is a branch of the Ablative of Separation, The object with which an^- tb'mga compared Is the atarting-point from vilikh We TecVan. TWia," Cictro i *i%w«/"; bill starting /i-ain him we come lo Cato.w^vQ '^s^mort lo thwilwr J

!S<|

I

252 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [J 247,

vilius acgentum esl anrS, TirtutibnB nurum (Hor. Ep, i. \.^i),sibier isltsi prttiotis Aan gold, gold iltan virtue.

a. The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam Is used, the two things compared are put in the same case (cf. § 208. a).

The construction ivilh qnam is required when the first of the things compared is in any other case than the nominative or accusative. With those cases its use is optional. Thus, —

contionibns accommodaliot eat quam indiciia (Clu. -i). filler for pop uUir

assemblies ikan for courts. misericordia dignior cjuam contumelia (Piso 33), more loorlhy of pity

than of disgrace. non callidior ea quam hio (Rose. Am. 49),j'utf an not more cunning

definite antecedent never take quam

X crat Aeneas nobis, qu5 iiistior alter, etc. (.'En. I. 545), j^neai vias our

/ling, than Tnkom no other was more righteous, etc OTE. — The poets sometimea use the ablative of comparison where the prose ruction requires quasi; as, —

b. The idiomatic ablatives opIniSae, spS, solitS, dlotS, aeqnfi,

ciSdibill, andiiiBto are used after comparatives instead of aclause: as, gravius aequo (Salt.), mere seriously than vias right, celerina opinione (Fam. xiv. z^, fatter than one iBotiid think, amtiia aolito citatior (liv. xxii, 19), a stream nuifler than its iiiont. sinus spe omnium (Liv. xxvi. z6), later than all hoped (than the hope of all).

c. After t3ie comparatives pl-Oa, minua, amplius, longiaB without quam, a word of measure or number is often used with no change in

plus septingeiiti capti (Liv. xli. 1 2), more than 700 were taken.

plus tertia parte intetfecta (Css.), more than a third fart being slain.

ipatium non Aa\^l\imex.eea&Tom fedwsa. {^d..), a space of nol mare than

bcafeei. Note. — The noun takes faa case required by the context, without itrerence to becomparative, whichisrealljlnaaort ofapposltion,"f«wr hundred am lakin [and] mcre.-

d. Alius i."; sometimes followed by the ablative In poetic and colloquial ise'; in formal prose it is followed by ac (atque), nlel, quam. Thus,

§1 247, 24B.] Ablative of Manner.

nee quicquam Blind libertate communi (t'ain. li. :

common libtrty. alius Lysippo (Hor.), anolhcr Ihan Lyiippus. alium aapieote bonoque (Hor. Ep. i. i6. 20), nilier than Ihi lais alio ingcnio ac tii (Plaul.), of a diffircnl dispositiuH from yeu. ecat bistoria nihil lllind nifd annSHoni confectio (De Or. ii. 1

was nolhing tlsi but a compiling of records. nil alittt niri quod sibi placet (Plaut, Trin. -i^^), nolhing eist than iiihiA

pliascs him.

e. The comparative of an adverb is usually fallowed by qaam, rareln by the ablative except in poetry. Thus,-

tempuE te citius qtuun oratiS deRceret (Rose. Am. 89), Hmt vnmld fitil yitt

iDoner Ihan werds. But, — cur Sybaiis ollvum saugaine vipenuo caulius vitat (Hor. Od. i. E. 9), -why dots Sybaris skun oil iimr/ cartfiilly Uian vifrr's Mood?

6. Ablative of Manner. Note.— Accompanimenl. Manner, Means, and Instrument are denoled by Ihe instrumental abladve (Ese p. 245), but some of (hese mote commonly lake a prepo- . As Ihey all come from one source (the old Inslramcnlal Case) no sharp an be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves never thought of any distinciion. Thus in omnlbua preclbua Bribaat. they entreaicd with every [kind of] prayer. Ihe ablative is properly that of J» '

tingnished from manatr,

248. The manner of an action is denoted by the Abla-J live; usually with cum, unless a limiting adjective is useciv with the noun. Thus, —

cum csleritate venit, he camewilh speed. But, —

SDnuna celeritate venit, he tame -Jiith the greatest speed.

i\a\A refert qua me ratione cogatis (Liel. 8, z6), vlhat differe mate in -whal way you compel me?

Note. — But otim is otien used even when the ablaUve has a limiting adjeo- J

quants nun peifcolo id fecerit (B. G. i. 17), c DOn minBre com taedio rccubant (Flin. Ep. ix

Remark. —With such words of ma

■Ift, and with slock eipressions vrhich ha inlllriS), cum is very rare. Thus,—

apii Matinae more modoque cannina ftngo (Hor. Od. iv. 2. zS), liylt and manner of a Maliitian bee /fashion songs. So In poetry the ablative of manner often omits cum; as, —

in* aqnac sequilut cnmnl5 (<^n. t. 105!, a mauniam efvia(tr fnUmn a mats. [a. murmare (id. 124V, Timia (\4- va-i"l-'\

tht

254 Syntax: CoHsirticlion of Cases. [S ?*a.

7. AblaUve of Aocompanimaat.

a. Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative, regularly with cum : as, —

anBgres

crossed tht rifir v)ilk the arekirs and slingtrs. quae soppUcalio si cnm ceteris cdnferatiir (Cat. iii. 6, 15), if this lianks-

giving be compared ivitk othirz. qnae [lex] esse cum tSo velat (MiL 4. 1 1), d< Uxm whUkJariids [one]

to go armed (be wilh a weapon) . El Becnm suos eduxerit (CaL L 13, 33), if he leads eui iiHth Aim his assori-

Ma. [Fi)ti«oiun,ra5 99...]

NOTB. — The ablative is used wfiihout cum in mililary phrases, and here and Ihete by early wrilers; as,^

Bubsequebatiir onmibna copiis (B. G. ii. 19), ht foUovied clese with all its fir,,,.

hoc praesidio profeclus eil: (Verr. ii. 34), zeiA Aisforee he set out.

Remark. — MIbobO and iUnffO, «-i[h iheir eompounds, and coDfundS may take either (1) the Ablalive of Accompaniment with or wlfhoul cum, or (a) some- times the Dadve; as,—

mixta dolors voluptas {B. Al. 56), fleasu

with his mun. iletumque cmori miscuit (Ov. Met. iv. 14a), and mingled tears with blood. CBesHi eIs cohortes com huo exercita coniunxit (B. G. L 18), Ctesar

tmiitd those lohorls ■with his mim army. aec caniiinctua tema (Lucr. v. 562), air unilrdmiA earth. hiiiiiano ca,piH cetvitem equinam iungere (Hor. A. P. l), to join to a

b. Words of Contention and the like require oum: as, — armis cum hoste certare, to fight iviA the enemy in arms.

libenicr haec cum Q, Catulo disputarem (Manil. 22, 66), / should ^dty

discuss these matters ifith Quintus Calulus. Note. — But words of conlention may take the Dative in poetry [see j atg-i).

8. Ablative of Means.

c. I. The Ablative is used to denote the means or in- sirutnent of an action : as, . —

certantes pilgnui, oalcibus, nngaibas, morsn denique (Tusc. r. 27, 77),

fighting ■with fists, keels, nails, and even teeth, cam pngniB el calcibna concisus esset (Verr. iii. 56), wktm ht kmdttat fummelled with their fisis and hiets.

248, 249.] Ablative of Means.

m^ labSribtta inlcritu rcmpulilicam lilieravi (SulU, 33), Jf my toils I kt

savfJ iht ilaiefrom ruin. niultae istinim arborum mea mMta sunt satae (Cat. Maj. 17, 59), m

thasf Ireis wire scl oul with my bwh hands.

2. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives oi/iUiHg,\ ttioutiding, and the like : as, —

Deus faonia onmibuB cxplevit mundum (Univ. 3), Gad has filled the wor^

7vith all good Ihiag!. aggers et critibuB f^sas explent (B. G. vii. S6), they fill uptht ditckt.

■with earth and fastittcs. totum roontem hominibna complevit (id. i. 24), ke filled the ■aihoU^

•soimfain with men. opimus praeda (Veer. i. 50), rich with spoils. vita plena et conferta volnptatibuH (Sest. 10), a life filled and cro^adedm

with delights. Foram Appi differtum na,iiliB (Hot. Sat. i. 5. 4), Forum AppH crammed^

nrith bargemen.

Remark. — In poetry the Genitive is ohea used witli these words by a Greek! )<3ioni. Bui compleC, ImpleC, plenus and retertus aRen take the ) prose {cf. J 333). Thus, —

omnia plena luctia et maeroris fuerunt (Sest. 128), everything was /ull 0/^

grief and mourning. ollam dSnarionmi implete (Fam. ix. 18), to fill a pot Tisilh momy. [Her

evidently colloqui^ otherwise rare in Cicero.] convivium Ticinonim compleo (Cat. Maj. 14, 46, in the mouth of Cato), j I fill up the banquet -with my neighbors.

249. The deponents fitor, fruor, faugor. potior, veacor, I with several of their compounds,^ govern the ablative: as,

ntar vestra btaiigiiititB (Arch. 8), [-will avail myself of your kindness. sagScitate canum ad iitilititem nostram abatintnr (N. D. ii. 60), ive taigm

advantage of the sagaeily of dogs for our own benefit. ita mihi salva lepnblica vobisciun perfrnl liccat (Cat. iv. 6, 11), so may I 1

enjoy with you the stale secure and prosperous. anifiheros potittir (Ov. Met. vii. 155), the Aero lakes the gold, Nnmidae plecnmque laote et ferina cama veacebaJitui' Qug. 8

Numidians fed mostly on milk and game. fungi inani manare (.TJi. vi. 8S5), lo perform an idle service.

Note.— This is really an Ablative of Means and the verbs are really in the 1 tnlddle voice (J in. a). Thus Dtor signifies / employ myself, or avail myself by M I of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared from the language, leaving |

reabator. defltor, dSdinBor.dStmoi.pBTtraoi.-v

356 Syntax; Construction of Cases. [§§249, 250.

a. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase potiri rSrum, io get control 01 be master of affairs {§ 223. a): as, —

tdtius Galliae sese poUri posse aperant (B. G. i. 3), thry hnpe thry cam gtl fiassrssioii of the luhBlt of Gaul.

b. In early Latin, these verbs are often transitive, and take the ac-

Note. — The Gerundive of these verbs is used personally in the pasMve as U the verb were transitive (but ef. \ 294. i): as, —

Heradia omnia utenda ac possidenda tradiderat (Veil. ii. 46), kt hadgivin ever evtrything to Heractius for his me and possession (to be used and

9. Ablative of Degree of Difference.

250. With comparatives and words implying compari- son the ablative is used to denote the Degree of Differ- ence : as, —

duobus tnilibus pIQces, two thousand more (moce by two thousand).

quinque milibus passuum distat, it is five miles distant (it stands off by live

aliquot ante anois {Tusc. i. 2, 4), several years before.

aliquanto post suspexit (Rep. vi. 9), a while after A: looked up.

inulto me vigilare aciius (Cat. i. 8), that I-jialch much more sharfly (more

shaq)ly by much), nihilo erat ipse Cyclops quam aries prudentior (Tosc. v. 39, 115), fir lit

Cyclops himstlftuas not a itihit luisir than the ram.

Remark. — This use is espeoially frequent with the eblalives QuO . . . eB (hOo) ; quants . . . tantS {d. } 106. e) : as,—

qu6 minus cupiditalis, eo plus aucluritatis (liv. xxiv. zS), the less greed, thi

more weight (by what the less, by that the more). quants eral gravior oppugnalio, tanto crcbriores litterae mitlebanlur (B. G,

V. 45), the severer the siege Tims, the mare frequently letters were sent.

eO with a comparative even when they ha^ and approach the Ablative of Cause; as,—

eSque me mintia paenitet (N. D. i, 4, 8), and for thai rtason I regret less, etc, (by Bo much the less 1 regret) .

a. The Ablative of Comparison (g 347) and the Ablative of Dqjree of Difference are often used together with the same adjective: as,— multo divitior Crasso, much richer than Crassi

j§ 251, 252.] Ablative of Quality ; of Price.

2s;

^b la AblatlTe of Quality.

^P 351. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative ~ with a Modifier (either an adjective or limiting genitive). This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Qualify. ftnim5 meliore aunt gladiatores (Cat. ii. 12, 2(>), the gladialeri are a/ a

belter mi tut. qase cam esset dvitia aeqaiasimS ifire ac foedere (Arch. 4, 6), a

a city laili ferfectty equal eonUiSuiional rights. miilierem exinuii pnlchrituduio (Verr. i. 64), a vioman ef extra

beauty. Hortenaus memori& tantii fuil nl, etc. (Brut. SS, 301), Hcrlimius had ia

good a memory that, etc (was of Bo great memory), quam 6I£td animo est (Tberamenea) (Tusc. i 40, 96), ko^ bfly a spirit

Thtramena displays. Arislotelis, v!t BommS IngeuiS, scieutia, cOplS (Tusc. !. 4, 7), Aristotle,

a mail 0/ the greatest genius, learning, aitdgift of ex qaara tentll aat nfilla poCius valetndine (CaL Maj. 1 1, 35), -what feeble

health he had, or rather none at ail 1 de Oomitio dixit veraam Graccum sadem Benteatia (Deiot. 25), coHi

ir^ Domilius ht recited a Greek line cf the same Icnor, Note,— Tho Ablative of Qualiiy (like the Genin've of Qualify) modifies a iBiitive by detaihirfg il. It is Iherefnre equivaleot to an adjective, and may be ilher attributive or predicate. In this it dilTers from other ablatives, which a: quivaleut to adverbs. Compare, — mutier pulchca, a beaulifat -aioman.

inulier magna pulchritudioe, a woman ef great beauty, with —

mulier palcbiitiidiiie Troiam delevtt, by her beauty aiaoman dcstreyed Troy.

mulier encellens pulchritiidine (g 253), a woman prSminenl in beauty.

a. In expressiotis of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may often

>e used Indifferently; but/5^_CJiV3/ qualities are oftener denoted by the

Ablative (cf. { 215, note) ; as, —

capillo sunt promisso (B. G. v, 14}, thty have long hair. ut capite operto sit (Cat. Maj. 10, 34), to have his head covered {fa he of covered head).

U. Ablative of Frioe. 262. The Price of a thing is put in the ablative : as, — agrura vendidil sesieriium sex milibuH, he sold the land for 6000 si Antonius t^na addixil pectlnia (Phil. vii. 5, 15), Antony sold thrones for

logSi ridicnlost qui cSn£ poscit (PI. Stich. 22^\ jokes; whs wants theat

for (at the price of) a dinner/ raSgnSilli ea cunciatio stetit (Liv. ii. 36), that Hattalia-n tmt kin iva. A'OTE — ro li/s head /s (0 be referred the Ablallve o! toe ¥CTii\'q , 'l iio- Il A,

2S8 Syntax; Construction of Cases. [§ 352.

a. Certain adjectives of Quantity are used in the Genitive to denote indefinile value. Such are m&gnl, parvl, tanti, quantl, plfliii, minSils: as,—

est mihi tantt (Cat. ii. 7), it is worth thr price (it is of bo much).

mea magni iutereat, it is af great consequence to me.

illud parvi rEfeit (Manil. 18), this is of small aciBunl.

Verresne tibi tanU fuit (Verr. i. 77), -mas Verres of so much acamnt to

tanlone minBria decamae venierunt (Veir. iii. 106), Tvere lie tithes sold for so mack less f

ul te redimoE captum quam queas mlnimS : si ncqueas panlnlo, at qnuiti quels (Tcr. Eun. 74), to ransom yourself, when captured, al the cheap- est rate you can; if you can't for a small sum, then al any rate for what you can.

Note. — These are really genitives of qualily (J 215. f).

b. The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used in the same way. Such are mhlli, nolhingi IbbIs, a farthing', flood (a lock of wool), a straw. Thus, —

non flocci fac!5 (Att. Jtiit. 50), feare not a straio.

utinain ego bffic abs te factum nihlli penderem (Ter, Ean. 94), oA! thati

cared nothing for this being done by you! ego non flocci pendere (Ter. Eun. 410), / did not care a strata.

c. With verba o( exchanging, either the Ihiag taken at &elAiag given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are ; mfitajB. comm&t&je, penniitSTe, Tertare. Thias, —

fidem suam et religionem pecuniS commutaie (Cluent. 46, 139), te iarttr his faith and conscience for mcney.

vertere faueriboB triumphos (Hor. Od. i. 35. 4}, to ekange (he triumfH It the funeral-train (exchange tniunphs for funerals),

exsilium patria aede mutavit (Q. C. iii. 8), he exchanged his nalivt Imi for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land).

viloK amocnum saepe Lucrelilem mutat LycB«o Faunua (Hor, Od. i. 17. X), nimble Faunus often changes Lycaus for Lucretilis. [He takes Lucre- tills at the price ofhyaeas., i.e. he gac^from Lycseus to Lucretilis.]

Note. — With verbs of eitchangirg Oum is often used, perhaps wilh a differenl onceplionoflheaciion: as,—

ariea . . . cum ci:oce5 mutabit vellera IfltS (Eel. Iv. 44), the ram shall change his fleece for [one dyed with] the yellow Sap-en.

d. With verbs of buying and selling the simple ablative of price nusl be used, except in the case of tautl, quantf, plflris, minSiia :

quuM cam (mit? vHI . . . qwot minfe? (\«adraginia minb (PI. Epid. 4g), wha/ did he buy htr for ? Cheap. For h™ many mina I FoUrj,

f 253.]

Ablatwe of Specification.

-59 J

^H 12. Ablative of Bpecifioatlon.

^P 253. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in \

F respect to which anything is or is done: as, ■

virtiite praecedunt (B. G. i. l), itiy excilin courage. claudus allcro pede (Nep. Ages. S), lams B/cneficl.

Iliugaa haesitantes, v5ce absuni (De Or. i. 25, 115), kfsitatiisgin spitck, harih in voice, tanta ciiilos patriae est, ut earn nun eeUBU nostro aed salute ipsiui n: Smur (Tusc. i. 37), sucA is ear love 0/ country that we nieaiure it by our eri'/t feeling, but by kir awn welfare. soDt enim homines nSn re sed nomine (OfT. i. 30, 105), /ar Ihey a.

\»fau

muor natfi, older; hubot T^%.,younger (cf. § gi. e), inrirmus molH&que naturS (Lsl. zo, 75), iiieak and yielding by nature. paulimi aetate progresai (Cat. Maj. 10, 33), somewhat advanced in age. corpore senex esse poluiC animo nunquam erit (Cat. Maj. 1 1, 38), he nu

have been an eld man in body, he never will be [old] at kearl. nan solum re et aententia sed verbis ijuoque hoc interdiutum ita esi

compositura (Csecin. 85), this prohibition ■was so conceived not only 1

tubstante and egict, but also in language. homo meS sententia prudentiasimna (Cjecio. 22), a man, in my opinio.

eqnitatn pulsi erant {B. G. vii. 68), Uiey had been bealen in Iheea'nalryjight.

Note, — To this head ore to be referred many expressions where the abli expresses that h atcordance wilk which anylhing is or is done. But as the Ron had no such categories as we malie, it Is impossible lo classi^ all uses of the ab- I lative. Hence the ablative of specification Is closely akin to that of manner, many ablatives which have been developed from olher fundamental ideas. Thus,—

me6 iore, -with perfect right; but, meo modo, in my fashion.

mea sententia, in my opinion; but also mote formally, ex mea sententia. [Here the sense is the same, bu( the tiist ablative is specification second, saurce.'^

propnqnitate caniSncios atque natfira (Lsel. 14, 49), closefy allied by

I ttindred and nature. [Here the ablative is not differenl in sense from ]

[hose above, but no douht is a development of means.l qui vincit vmhus (Uel. 15, ii),who surpasses in strength. [Here it is 1 impossible to tell whether vTrihaB is the means of the superiority 01 that in respect to ■aihich one is superior.] neque enim nlla alia condicione betla gesserunt (R G. vii. if), fir et ether terms did they tarry on wars. a. The Supine id -fi, used chiefly with adjectives, is equivalent I( ablative of specification (cf. S§ 1 14. b, 303) ; as, — nurabile dicta, marvellous lo tell. NoTK.~In this use of ^ejtjjplBt^dMive and ublaflie cons^Turficros \ia.'iei^« J

26o Syntax: Coiistniction of Cases. \%% 254, 355.

13. Ablative of Place.

Note, — The Lecativi Cast was originally used (literally) to denote th£/J«( wkert and (figuralirely) lo denote the /imr aini (a developmeni from the Idea oi place). But this case was pnaerved only in names of towns and a few other wnrds, and tae filatt jnhert is usually denoted by the Ablative. In this constructiDn (he Ablative was, no doubt, used at fust without a preposition, but afterwards it became associated with in In most casei.

254. The Ablative is used to denote the /i/ac£ when (usually with the preposition In, § 258. c).

a. The ablative of the place where is retained in many idiomadc expressions (cf. g S59. a) which have lost the idea of place : as, —

pendemus aninula (Tusc. I. 40), lee ore in suifeiae 0/ mind (}d out min<b). socius pericallB vobiscum ariera (Jr^. 8$), / vrU/ ie present vid yen, »

tampanion in dangtrt. pcemit altum corde dolorcm (^n. L 2og), ke keepi down ^ pain dafbt

hit heart.

b. I. Several verbs are followed by the locative ablative. These are: acqnleaoo, dfileotor, laetor, gaudeS, glorlor, nltor, st<S, monaB, fido (CQsndS), oCDBlstS, contineor.

nomialbuH veterum glorianlur (Oral, jo), thry glory in the names af At ancitnls. [Also, de divitiis (in viclute, circa lem, aliquid, haec) gloriin.]

»pE nid (Att. iii. 9), Ic rily on hop,.

prudentia fidens (Off. i. 33), Irtuling in prudenee.

2. The verbals frBtaa, coutentua, and laetUB take the locatilC ablative: as,— JH

fretus gratia Brati (All. v. 2t), relying en Ihe favor cf Brutus. ^H

laetus praeda, rejoicing in Ike booty. ^^|

contentua sorte, content with his lot. ^H

Remark. — The ablative with the above veria sometimes takes the prepodlkl* ' In (but ndO In is lale) : as,—

in quibus causa nililur (Crel. 25% en ivhom ike case depends.

With leveral of these verbs Ihe neuter accusative of pronouns Is ofien fotind,

14. Ablative Absolute.

25B. A noun or pronoun, with a participle,^ may be

put in the ablative, to define the time or circumstances fS.

an action : as, —

■ In this construction the noun was originally in the Locative Case, and dmoHd

considered as place or time. Alierwards a participle wu added to

idify the noun, and the Iwo words became fused in a single idea equivalnil to

It contaiaed in a subordinate clause (cf. ati urba condlC&,y!-«>i IktfHmdbig^

"jf^Mt JrotH the fouKied tity). Mei *e tQn!,ttutl.iQo. *m cWabUshed, oBwt

-- )l locative no doubt became coiilQUnaei-«Vii\\ie -reel Ai\»a,-«»A>rt^^

Ablative Absolute.

I TooSUs ad se nndique mercatoribna (B. G. Iv. zo), having calUd to him I the traders from all quarters (traders having been calledj.

L qnitma rebiu cognitis Caesar apud mllites conduaalur (B. C. L 7), having [ Itariiid this, Ca:sar makes a speech la the soldiers.

I ac si iU5 aablato depelli a vobia omne pericutuin iudicBrem (Cat. fii. 2,4), and if T Ihaugkt thai wilk his removal (he being removed) all danger, etc. indum hleme cSufectS (B, G. vi. 3), Oifo, impress! conaliis suIL5 tamnltS publics concitato (Cat,

attempts -were put down vnthoui txHlitig any general alarm. i vobls quidem omnibus re eliam turn probata (Cat ii. 2, 4), sinee at thai lime the facts were nol yet proved even lo all of you. Y impradeatibaa uoHtna aCque ocoapatls tn miinitione castroruni (B. G. v. 15), while BUT men were off their gitard and busy in the fortification cfthe camp, fu^to omni equitatu (B. G. vii. 68), all the cavalry being pal to flight. inteifecto lodulioniaro (B. G. vL 2), upon the death of Indnliomarus.

a. An adjective, or a second \ in the Ablative Absolute

orlgui parte aestalis reliqua (B, G. iv, 30), Tvhen bat a small part of the summer was left (a small part of the summer remaining).

M. MessBa et M. llsone conBalibna (id. i. a), in the consulship of Mess and Piso (Marcus Mcssala and Marcus Piso being consuls). [The regular way of expressing dates, see § 259. e.'\

i, A phrase or clause, used substantively, absolute with a partidple or an adjective ;

;5 quid peterent (Uv. ntviii. 36), as it ai« at (it being uncertain, etc.). imperto vanum esse farmidinem (Tac. Ann. i. 66), w/ien it w the alarm was groundless.

262 Syntax: Construction of Cases.

d. The Ablative Absolute in its developed form often takes ihe place of a Subordinate Clause. In such cases the noun is equtvaleni to a subject, and the other word to the predicate. So may be re-

1. Temporal clauses (§ 322. ff.) : as, —

patre interfecto, [hii] father hailing bitn hilled. [This corresponds in cmn pater interfectns esaet, lohen hisfatitr had bren killrd.'\

reeenlibus sceletis iius vcsligiis (Q. C. vil. 11), vihile the tracts of Ikr crime were fresh. [Cf. dmn reoentia annt TBstigia.]

2. Causal clauses (g 331): as, —

Bl c\ qui Alesi&e i)b5ldeb3.nlur praeterita die qua anxilia saomm eispcc- taveianC, coneampto omni frnmeutS, condlio coicto conaoltabuil (fi.G.y\\. ■J-]), but those wha ■were imdir siege a etc, had expired, and Iheir grata had been «w«ci/(Eee5below), eonsulted together. [Cf cnm dies praeteriisut,

Alexander, deapSrata paca, ad reparanills vires intendit snimum (Q. C iv. 6, 23), Alexander, since he despaired of peace, devoted his tHerpis A recruiting his forces.^ [Cf. cnm pacem. desperaret.]

3. Concessive dauses (§ 313)1 as, — at e5 repugnante fiebut (consul), immo vero eo fiebot magii (Milo 13,

34), btit though he (Clodius) opposed, he (Milo) was likely ta be tUctd

consul; nay, rather, etc.

4. Conditional dauses (§ 304) : as, —

occurrebat ci, mancam eC debilem practuram fntumn smun, eSusnla MUone (Milo 9, 25), it occurred to him that his praelorship would it maimed and feeble, if Milo were consul. [^ Milo oonsnl OBSet.]

qnS (regione) attbaotfi licibit decorrere in illud mare (Q. C. ix. 38), ^ this region is subdued, we shall be free ta run down info that sea.

qua quidem ditracta (Aich. 1 1, 2S), if this be taken away.

5. Clauses of accompanying circumstance : as, —

ego liaec a Chrvsogono mei sponte, remoto Sex. BoMoQ, quftero (Rose. Am. 45), of my own accord, without reference la Sextus Jteseius (S. R- beingput aside), I ash these questiotts of ChrysegoHut.

nee impetanle nee sciente nee praesente domino (Milo 10,29), ■o'ilhoul their master's giving orders, or knowing it, or being present.

F

255-57.]

" At Hit, Mirmissi ipafia, impra- " Bui they, AaviKf pttutd a ipaet,

daUiiHS iKitris. alque occupalls in wii/e our men viere unawartBJiaiisicd

monltione caattotum, subito se ex silvis in (orii^ng the camp, suddenly threw

eiecetunt : imfe^qwe in eds facto, qui Ihemaelves out of the woods ; then mak-

erant in alalione pro castr!s collocaii, ing a« allack npon IhosB who were on

Scriter pugniveiunt; ditaiusgiit rn'issis guard in front of the camp, Ihey fought

subsidi5 coiortiius a Caeaare, cum fiercely; and, though twa cohorts had

hao (ficrtxigud Mcrmiiso loci ipa/ia been sent by Ctesar as reinforce roenls,

inter se) conalidssent, novo genere afterthesehadlakentheirposition (i

pugoae ferterrU'is nes/ris, per medios in^ very little space of ground betw

audacisaime permperant, aeque indc (tiem), as our men vrere aIanBed\iyt^K

incolumea receperunt." — Cssak. B. G. strange kind of fighting, Ihejr das'

,.v. If. most daringly through the midsl them, and got off safe."

[For the Ablative with Preposilions, see } 15a.]

VI.-TIME AND PLACE. 1. Time.

256. Time when, or iviihin wliich, is put in the Ablative ; sne how long in the Accusative : as, — Ablative: —

an Ike appointed day ; prima luce, at daybreak. quota hota, at what o'clock ? tertiS vigilii, in the third toatck. tribus proxuinia annia (Jug. 11}, within the last three years. 2. Accusative; —

dies continuos tiigiiita,y^r thirty days together. cum triduum Iter ficiaaeC (B. G. ii. 16), when ht had marched tkree days.

Note.— The ablative of time is locative in its origin ({ 354, head-note) ; the accusative is the same as Ihal of the extent o/ipace (§ 257),

a. Tlie Ablative of time luilhm which sotnetimes takes In, and tlie Accusative of time h<rjj long, per for greater precision : as, — in diibus proximis decern (Sail.), within the next ten days. in brevi spalio (Ov. Met. L \li), within a brief space (of time). Hdi per decern dies (Cat. lii. 8), games for ten days,

h. Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative ; as, mllilis qoinque boris proelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the men had s

tained the fight Jiue hours. Note. — In this use the period of time is regarded as that vritAin tohich the I is done, and it is only Implied that the act lasted through the period.

2. Space. SifT. Extent of space is put in the A.ccu&at\\& -. ■as,,-

264. Syntax: Construction of Cas^s.

losaas qi^doaim pedSs latis {B. G. vii. 72), tnnchfS fiftten feet bread.

in omnivLta sna quemque a recia consciencia transversiun uiLgaemnoj opotlet diicEdere (quoted in Alt. xiii. 10), in aU on^i life, ene shaaii noldiparta nail's br/adlhfraitt itraighlforward ca

a. Measure is often expressed by the Genitive of Quality (§ 315. b) ;

vallo pednin duodecim (15. G. ii. Jo), in a rampart of twelve fill (in lieight).

b. Distance when considered as extent of space is put in the Ac- cusative ; when considered as degree of difference, \a the Ablative (S 250); as,—

quinqae diemm iter abest (Liv. xxjt. 29), il it dislaiU Jive days' march. triginti milibas passuum infra eum locum (B, G. ri. 35), thirty mills beima that place (below by thirty miles).

3. Place from 'Which, and End of Motion.

258. The place from which^is denoted by the Ablative with ab, d8, or ex ; the place to which {the End of Motion) by the Accusative with ad or in : as, —

1. Place from which ; —

a septentrione, from the north. Jj^^H

cum a vobts discesaero (CaL Maj. 21), when /teaznyeM, ^^^H

de pTovincia decedere, ia comi away from one'i prooinee. J^^H

di monte, down from Iht mountain. .^^1

negotiator en Africa (Verr. ii. I, 5}, a merchant from Africa. inHSxit E Graecia riviilua (Rep. ii. 19), Ihtre floToed in a rUl from Greece. ex Britannia obsidcs miseriuit (B. G. iv. 38), lAey sent hostages from Britain. Mosa proBuit ex monte Vosego (id. iv. 10), tht Menu (flowa from) riia

in the Vosgel meunlaiHS. quas (nivis) ex Pictonibus ct Santonts celiqniaqae pacitis tegionihua con- venire iuaaerat (id. Hi. 11), the shipt -which he had given orders should collect front the [country of tlie] Piclimes and the Santoni and from the other conquered regions.

1 Originally all these relations were expressed with all these words by the cases alone. The accusative denoted the end of tnoiion as In a certain sense the object of the action (cf. IlOma.m petllt), and the ablative in its proper meaning of sepa- ration denoted the place from which. The prepositions, originally adverbs, were added lo define more eitaclly ihe direction o( tootion, as in (o 01 mvd, limard m, and by long association became indispcnsab\e exce;* a* \ii4\ca\e& Amm. ^^

8.] Place from Which; End of Motion.

»

^^k 2. Place to which : —

^^P ad finis Hytcaniae penelrat (Q. C. vi. 4), hr penelraUi ■ Jfyrcania.

II odibam ad Islum fundum (Csec 29), 1 was going to that eslali (cf, § nyj. d).

ID Afiicam navigivit, he sailed to Africa. in Italiam piofeclus, gone lo Italy, le^tum in Trevetoa mittil (B. G. iii. 1 1), he sends his lieutenant into

[counlry of tlie] Treveri. in Hraea com exissem (Att. vi. 9, 1), wHen I hnd landed at the Pira [Admitted by Cicero htmEelf lo be wrong, the Finsus being a tc (see t, below]. Tbe passage is discussed by him in Alt. vii. 3.]

Note i. — In poe(i7 the end of motion is often expressed by the Da «=iS.*.3): as.-

it clamor caelo (^n, v. 451), a skmtl goes up la Ike sky.

Note a.— With the name of a. country, ad denotes to the borders ; In, into Ihe conntry itselt Similarly ab denotes oiooj' from the outside; ei, oat of the oilerior. Thus ad Itallam pervenlt would mean, ie came to the frontier, regard- less of die destination 1 In Itallam, he loent la Italy, i.e, to a place wiihir Rome, for in5la.nce. So ab Italia proCectuS est would mean, he cami from the fnnlier, regardless of the original starting-point; ex ItaJift, h, from liafy, from vrithin, as from Rome, for instance.

ta. The names of towns or small '^\3.ads from which, as abo domua j d itls, are put in the Ablative without a prepositioa: a Roma profectus, having set out from Rome, riire teversus, having returned frsm the country. Roma abesse, to be absent from Rome. domo abirc, to leave home. No' mth :. pro

Note i.— With names of towns, eic, ftb is often used, commonly |<

:/»;/)< 0/.- as. -

it a Mutilm discEderet (Phil, xiv. 2, 4), that he should retire from (which be was twsieging).

a Gergovia despectus in castra (B. G. vii. 45), t/iire -uias from . I view into the camp. profccli a domo (Uv. x!. 33), setting out from horn/. loca quae a Brundi^o piopius abaunt (Att. vili. 14), places wi 'o Brundisium (nearer from).

Notes.— The ablative without a preposition is used lo dem m*iV* in certain idiomatic cipressions; as, —

cessisset patria (Mil. 25), he ■aiontd have left his country. patcia pellere, /a drive out of the country. mann mittcre, to emancipati (let go from the hand). Note 3. — The poets often omit the preposition where it wou

■ mania Acbeconte vemissos (.En. v. <jg)i the spirits retUT<\

266 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§ 25B.

b. The Dames of towns or small islands to which as also domns and rua, are put in the Accusative without a preposition ; as, —

Romam rediit, hi riturntd to Rami.

Delo Rhodum navigace, lo sail from Dclos te Jt/iodes.

lus ibo, I shall ^ into the country.

Aomwra'aX, he wsnt home. [So, suas domos abire, logo lo Iheir homes !\

Note i. — In this use domum maybe modified by a possessive prononn or»

genilive. Wbenolhenvise modified, domum requires the preposition la. Thus,—

doinum regis (Deiot. 6), to the kings Aousf. [But also in M. Laecu

doraimi (Cai, i. 4), to M. Lisia'i hi)nse.'\ But, — in domuni magnani venire, lo lomi into a large house.

NOTE 2. — Wilh ihe names of towns, etc, ad may be used in tbesenuol iBviards. to the luigkiorhood of; ss. —

ad Alesiam pcoficiicuntur (B. G. vii. 76), thiy set out /or Alesia,

ad Alesiam perveniunt (id. vii, 79}, tkey arrive at Alesia (come through to)i

ad Athenas navigare, to set sail for Athens (landing in the harlior).

Note 3. — The general words, urba, Oppldum, Insula require a preposftian in either construction [lo vihich at from ii/iicA); as, ad Urbem, ab urbe, ad urbem BSmcuii, BOmam ad. urbem, ex urbe B6m&.

Note 4. — Two or more nouns are sometimes expressed after one verb as limits of motion (see §=59. A).

Note 5. — The poets often omit the preposition with any noun: as, —

Italiam Lavinlaque venil litora (^n. !. 2), he came to Italy and the Lovin-

finis Italos niiltere (id. ill. 440), you skali be allimred to reach tht Italian

boundaries. lerritQ Hespcriam venies (id. ii. 78iJ,_j'iib shall come to the Hesperian land. Remark. — The preposition is omitted with the supine in -Um {{ 303) and iu the following old phrases; —

exseqnias ire, logo to the funeral. infitias ire, to resoti to denial. pessum ire, to go to ruin. pessum dare, to ruin (cf, perdS).

venum dare, lo seU (give to sale). [Hence venders.]

venom ire, lo be sold (go to sale). [Hence venire.] ^H

foriia (nsed as adverb), out: as, fotas egredl, logo out ofdoart. ^H

4. The Place 'VThere. ^1

c. 1, The place where is denoted by the Ablative with the preposition In {Locative Ablative) : as, —

in hoc urhe vitam digit, he passed his life in Ihit city, si in Gallia remanerent (B. G. iv. 8), if thty shauld slay in Gaul. dum haec in Venetis genintur (id. lii. 17), ■aihile this -was going on among Me P'eneti. ■ oppidum in Insula positiitn (id. fii. ^81, n lon'" siluudil o« an laand. ^M

■asa] The Place Where. 267 1

But names of towns and small islands are put in the I Locative Case.

This has In the first and the second decleasion singular the £a.mel as the Geoitive, in the plural and in the third declension ths," «anie form as the Dative or Ablative : as, —

Romae, at Rome (Roma), Rhodi, al Rhodes (Rliodua), Sam!, at Samas, Tiburi orTlbnre. al Tibur. PhilippJE, at Philipfi.

Albenis, atAthfns (Athenae).

Cypri, at Cyprus. CSrilia!, et Cures. Caprels, at Capri (Capreae).

REMARK. — Large islands, and all places when thought of as a lerrU. as a locality are treated like naines of countries; as, —

n Sicilia, in Sicily.

in Ithaca lepores illat] mortunlur (Plin. M. N., cf. g 256, a), in Ilkaatt hares when carried there die. f Ulysses lived al Ithaca, would require Ithacae.]

Note i.— With all ran d. or apud with Ihe Acci olrcK with the Accusative ;

es of places AT, meaning (leor (not iii), is expressed by 1 salive. in the ncighborhiod of may be expressed ly 1 among, by apud with the Accusaiive. Thus, —

pugna ad Cannas, thejighl al Cannae.

conchas ad CSetam legunt (Or. ii. 6), at Caiila (along the shore).

ad (apud) Inferos, in the world below (neat er among those below),

ad fores, at the doors. ad iaouam, at the door.

apnd GraecSs, among the Greeks. apud me, at my house.

apud Solos (LrCg, ii. i6), al Soli. circa Capuam, round about Capua

apud Xenophontem, in Xenophott. But,- in Xenophontis Oeconomico, in Xenopho;

d. The Locative Case is also preaer

'i (Econcmicus,

'ed ]n the following common \

domi (rarely domni), e belli, mOitJae (in conti hnmi, on the ground. foria, eul'of-doors.

These a abo,—

sed like r

harl i-t)), yesterday, Infelici arbon (Liv. !. 26), i

), abroad, in military service.

terra mairqne, by land and sei [owns, without a. preposlttoa.

veapBtl (-&\ in the cuMhii^.

268 Syntax: Construction of Cases. [§§ 258, 2

e. The locative domi may be modified by a possessive adjective \ limiting genitive ; but, when It would be otherwise modified st s used instead of the Locative. Thus, —

dond Caesans, at Cmat'i house.

donu suae vel alienae, at his own or aiiothtr's house. But, — •

in Marei Crass! castiaaima domo (Cx\. 4, g) , in the chaste Aome of Manus

Crassus. [Cf. Bx AnDiana Milonis domo, £ 1S4. </.] /. The place -ajhere Is denoted by the Ablative without a preposition

1. Regularly in many indefinite words, such as loc3, parte : as, — quibus loco poaitis (Or. iiL 38), lolun these arc set its position.

qna parte victi erant (Alt. ix. 11), on the side where Iheyaiere beaten. But, exeicitum ca.atriB conlinuit (B. G. i. 4S), he kept his army in camp, [Here tlie cansttuclion is inHucnced by means^

2. Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regu- larly when totua is used) ; as, —

media uibe (Liv. i. 33), in the middle of the city.

tota Sicilia (Vetr. Iv. 43), throughout Sicily (in the whole of Sicily). So,—

tQta Tartacina (De Or. ii. 59), in oil Tarracina (cf, e. s. Rem.)-

3. Freely in poetry: as, — _

litore CDrvo {J^a. lii. 16), an the -minding shore. ^|

snlio aecluaa relinquit (id. iii. 446], she leaves them shut up in the eavt. ^^k Epiro, Hesperia (id, iii. 503), in Epirus, in Hesperia. ^|

g. The nvay by which is put in the ablative without a preposition: viabreviore equiles praenim (Fam. x. 9), / sent forward the eatialry by a

Aegaeo mari trsiecit (LIv. xxxvii, 14), he crossed by toay ef the .Mget, provehimur pelago {Miu iii. 506), vie sail forth aver the sea.

Note.— In this use the viay iy viiich is conceived as the means of passa

5. Special Usee of Time and Place. 259. The following special uses require to be ob-

1

served : — ■

a. Many expressions have in Latin the where in English the main idea is rather o^ places as, — pSgna Conncnsi (or opud Cannas), in the fight at Canna. ludis RomSnis, at the Roman games.

" 'S Callicis belli, in all the Gallic wan.

if lime w/un.

S 2S9.] Special Uses of Time and Place. 26

b. la many idiomatic expressions of time, the accusative with ad, In ir Bub is used. Such are the following : —

Bupplicalio deciela est in Kalentlas lanuariSs, a thanksgiving wm voted fn

Ike \sl 0/ yanaary. convenerunt ad diem, they essemhkii at the [appoinlcd] day. &A vesperum, till evtning; sub vesperum, towards evening. aub idem tempus, abnul the same time. sub noctem, at ntgit-fail.

e. Time during which or ■mihin •which may be expressed by thi ablative of a noun in the singular, with an ordinal numeral : as, - —

quinto die, within |juEt]/o«r days (lit., on the fifth day). [The RumiB

counted both ends, see % J76. d^ regnat iam sexlum annum, he has reigned going on six years (he istcigninj

now the sixth year). But also, — regnavil iam sex annoa, he has already reigned for six years.

d. Distance of time before or after anything is variously expressed

post (ante) tres BI11109, post tertium annum, lies post aonos, annum, tiibus post annis, tertio post anno, three year: after

tribus annis {lertio anno) post exsilium (poslquam eiectus est), three yeart after his exile.

his tiibuB proximis annis, within the last three years.

panels annis, a fern years hence.

abhinc annoa ties (ttihus annis), ante hos ties annos, three years age.

triennium est cum (tres anni sunt cum), il is three years since.

octavo mense quam (see § 262. note 2), llie eighth month after.

e. In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition ; and phrase itself may also be governed by a preposition.

The year is expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablativB absolute, often without a conjunction (§ 255. a) ; as,

is dies eiat a. d. quintum Kalendaa Aprilis L. Pisone A. Gabiniii consalibns

(B. G. i. 6), that day was the Sth iefore the calends of April (March

aS), in the consulship ofPiso and Gaiinius. in a. d. v. Kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 3), to the S'h day iefore the caiinds of Novi

her (OcL 28). XV, Kal. Sexfflis, the l^th day before the calends of August (Jtdy 18),

[Full form: qointo decimo die ante Kalendas.]

f. For AT, meaning near (not in), see

Ncn-E. — Fai TO and from ivilh names of plf

zyo Syntax: Construction of Cases. [If 259, 260.

g. When motion to a place is implied in Englisli, though not ex- pressed, the accusative with or without a preposition must be used m

coniiirati in cnriam cotirenerunl, Ihe lonipiratBTS mit in &e Senaic-iouir,

(came together into the SeDate-honse). concilium domain Eaaic convocavtl, Ae called a coaiieil at Ail own hauif. h. When two or more names of place follow a verb of moliou, each must be under its i

qnadridno quo hacc gesta sunt res ad Cb^BOgonuin in castra L. Sallie Vol&terrM defcttiir (Rose. Am. 7), ■wilhia four days afitr this twj dme, thi sialler viai reported TO Chrysogontis IN Sulla't camp AT Volaterrii.

VII.-USE OF PREPOSTTIONS. 260. Some Prepositions are used with the Accusative, some with the Ablative,^ and a few with both. Note. — For the list of Prepositions, see § 151

a. Verbs o^ placing, though implying motioti, take the construction of the place in wltich.

Such are! ponS and its compounds (except ImpSti5), locS, ooUooO, statud, cOnstituo, etc.

qui in Bade &c doni5 collocavit (Parad. iii. 2), vAi put [one] iiUa kit

place and home, statuiluc cques Rominus in Aproni conviviO (Verr. Hi. 61), a Soman

knight is brought into a banquet of Apronius. insula Delos in Aegaeo man posica (L^. Man. jj), the island of Dclos,

situated in At j'Egean Sea. si In un& PompeiS omnia pooeietis (id. 59), if yau made every^ing

depend on Pompey alone.

b. Position is frequently expressed by the Ablative with ab (rarely X), properly meaningyViij/: ; ' as, —

a lergo, in thi rear.

a parte Pompeiana, en the side of Pompey, ^^B

a sinistra, on the left hand. [Cf. hinc, on this side^ ^H

ex altera parte, en the other side. ^H

magna tx parle, in a great degree (Jrem, i.e. in, a great part). ^H

1 The force lies strictly nilh Ihe Case, aod the preposition only Indiotei more dearjj' direction at place,

tM\y Ihe direction whence the kumoiu WfieuVia <»

1 260,261.] Use of Prepositions. 271

c. Buper in the sense of conctrning takes the Ablative ; in all other !iises it takes the Accusative: as, —

hac super le (CicOi conctrning this thing. super tali causa miss! (Nep. Paus. 4), sent en suck an errand. led hie te sapet mmis (AtL x. S), but more than eneugk an that poinl. super eulmina tecti (jEn. ii. 695), aiove the houie-top. super vallum praedpilari (Jug. 58), to he hurled over Ike rampart. super lateris coria indiicuntur (B.C ii. 10), Af'Ai are drawn over the tricks. super Numidiam (Jag, ig), tej/Dnd Nitmidia, super lerrae lumulura (Legg. 26), en the mound of earlh. super vinum (Q. C. viii. 4), over [hia] wine.

Note. — The ablative Is used in poEliywilh super in olher senses: as, — ligna super toco large reponens (Hor. Od. L 9. 5), fiHng logs generously I ike fire. super media {N^. ix. 59), afier midnight.

d. Bnbter takes the Accusative, except sometimes in poetry. Thus, sublet logani (Uv.), under his vianlh. But, —

Bubter litore (Calull.), below the shore.

. TsDaa (which follows its noun) regularly takes the Ablative, but ^metiines the Genitive (§ 223. e). Thus, — TEuro lenus (Deiot. 13), as far as Taurus. capulo lenus (.?En. v. 55), up to the hilt, Corcyrac tenus (Liv. xxv. 24), as far as Corcyra.

ed with the (eminine of an adjective pro-

hactetius, hitherto ; qualenus, so far as.

de hie re haclenus, so much for that (about this matter so far).

261. Many words may be construed either as Preposi- tions or as Adverbs : thus, —

a. The adverbs pridle, poatrldie, propius, pTOxlmS,! tuque — dso (less frequently) the adjectives propior and proaimus — may be fallowed by the Accusative (cf. g§ 207. b, 234. e): as, —

pridie Nonas lunlis (Cic), Ike day before the Nenes of June (Jane 4).

postcidie ludos (Att. xvi. 4), the day after the games.

ipse propior montem suos collocat (Jug. 49), ke stations his men nearer

the hill. pro^ilme Pompeium sedebam (Alt.i. 14), I sat next to Pompey, [Cf. proxi' moa Pompeium sedebfun]

< CC prope. \ t^a. a.

2/2 Syntax: Constrtutunt of Cases. [S 261

p«* mmilae qou nt propid*ioGioccii^ CK& fr. aS),iie part ef iki

idanJvAitk it ntarrr Oe wot (nmset). tenniDoi luqac libjse (Jiut.), le At bottndt ef Libya.

Note.— PtMIS and poetildia lake aho Ihe Genitive <) aas. c. nole a). Proplar, propius, prozimiis, and prozlinS, lake also ihe Dsiive, or Ihc Ablaiive wiLb Bb. Uaque h comnuml; IbllaiFed by ad. Tbus, — propiu* Tlberi (Nep.), nearer the Tiber. ptxjpios ab otbe ( I'lin.), nearer the cily luque ad mare, te the tea,

b. The adverbs palani, proctil, eimal, may be used as prepositions and take the Ablative: as,—

rem credilon pakra popnlfi coHt (LSr. tI. 14), he paid the debt in tit

preiente of Hie ftopU. hand procul castns in modam mnnfdpii exstratda (Tac H. iv. 22}, not far

frem Ike tamp, built up like a town. simul nobis habilat barbams (Ov. Tr. v. lo. 29), close among as dinells the barbarian.

Note.—

Thu».~

proeolSmari.^r/rom Aetea.

noblscum limul, at the tame time milk ounetva.

e. The adverb olam is found with the Accusative or Ablative, rarely with the Genitive or Dative : as, —

clam matrem suam (Plaut.), tintn<nBn to his mother-

clun mihi (id.), in secret from me.

clam pallia (id.), -withcut his father's hmnoledge.

dam vobis (B. C ii. 32), -aiithoul ycttr kno-dedge.

ei. Preposidons often retain their original meaning as adverbs. So especially — I, Ante and poet in relations of time : as, —

quae paulo ante praeeepta dedimus (Cic), a Unit while ago, c post lribusdiebiis,rt<-/ei/Bj'jo/5',rf (cf. § 259.1/).

z. AdverBus, oontrB, circlter, prope: as,—

Bdversas reaiatere, to hold out in epposition.

Aeolua haec contrS, Aut Molus in reply,

circiter pars quarta, abaui At four A part.

prope cxanimalus, nearly lifeless. 3. In general those ending In -S: as,—

forte fuit iiSxta tumulu.'i, Ihere happened la be a mound chte fy

NOTK — Clam and versUB arehj ma^n^ eictaded ftom the list of preposillon P^'or the use of Preposiiions m Coip^o^'i'.mn, ™e \ i-pCi

I

siltona.

J

F

262, 263.] Use of Prepositions. 273 1

262. Some prepositions or adverbs which imply Com- parison are followed, like comparatives, by quam, which ] may be separated by several words, or even clauses.

neque anta dimlsit euni quam fidem dedit (Ijv. jxxix, 10), nor did hi Ut I

Aimga until he gavs a pledge. post diem lerdum quam dixerat (Man. 16), the third day after he said it. Note i.^Such words are ante, prius, post, prfdi$, poBtridlS; also I and profi in compounds ; as,—

Cato ipse iam servu'e qnam pugniire mavnlt (Alt vii. 15), Cate himself fy \ this time leauld rather be a slave thanji^.

si iam pcindpalum Galliae obtinere non possint, Gallomm quom Romi

rum imperia proefeire (B. G. i. 17), if they eatt no longer hold Ihe chief j rank in Gaul, [they] prefer the rule of Gauls 10 that of Romans.

NOTE a.— The ablative of lime (} 256) is EOmedmes followed bj quam In Iha I

octavo niense quam (Liv. xxi. 15), -wilhin eight months after, etc.

263. For fi or ab with the Ablative of Agent, see 246.

Note. — The following prepositions sometimes follow their nouns: ad, oltrR, QircS, contrR, as, S (ex), inter, IQxta, penes, projiter. Ultra, t (regularly), and occasionally others: as, —

[usus] qneni penes arbitrium est et ius et norma loquendi (Hor. A. P, 73), custom, under whose control is the choice, righl, and rule of speech.

cuius a me corpus est creuiitum, qaod contra decuit ab illo meum (C. M, 23), whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], iBhile on Ihe contrary (lit. contrary to ■which') mine should have been burned by him.

Chapter [II. — Syntax of the Verb-

1, — MOODS AND TENSES.

Note. — The Syntax of the Verb relates chiefly Ic

the u

of Ihe ^

ved) and the Tenses (ejpiess- n mood and

I

Ing the time of Ihe action}. There is no difference in origin b lenae. The tnoods, except Ibe infinitive, are only speeiaiized tenses ; ana Hence Be uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus Ihe tenses someliiDes hive modal significations (compare indicattre in apodosis, \ 311, e; future lor imperative,} 369./); and the moods sometimes express lime {compare subjunc- tive in fiitiire condilions, \ 307. b, and notice (he want of a future subjmicIiFe ii,o.a).

The parent language, besides the Imperative mood, had two distinct forms with modal fliKnification : ihe Subjunctive, expressing an action as wilUd or vividlj (0»- lavtd; and the Optative, expressing an action as wishid far 01 vaguely cemeived.

Of these, the Subjunotiva was developed from a Preaeot Tense, by which ai action continued in present lime was represented as fiilure : compare in EngBi, Ue army marches to-mwroio. Such an action came to be conceived on Ihe one hand as command; compare Ihe military order, Ihi regiment will advance; aad on the other as a possibillly or a mere conception ; compare aHyioify will under- ilandUiat.

The Optative has had a similar development. It was originally a lense-fonn compounded with YA,and probably denoted past time (cf. Eng. should asiAvvuld): but like the subjunctive, it lias acquired Ihe two meanings of conception and com'

11 must not be supposed, however, [hat in any given construction either Ibe subjunctive 01 the optative was deliberately used iecauit it denoted conception ot possibility. On the contrary, each construction has had lis own line of deveiopcnent from more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal; and by this process the mood used comes to have In each case a special meaning, which k afterwards habitually associated with It in that construction. Thus in English lh« expression Itoeald de thii has become equivalent to a mild command; while by analysis it Is seen to be the apodosis of a present condition contrary to fact (f 30S): if I were jou, etc. By further analysis, / mwb/i/^ is seen to have meant, originally, / iheuld have wished (or / did leish) toga.

In Latin, the original subjunctive and Ihe optative became confounded in form and meaning, and were merged in the present subjunctive. Then new lensc-formi of (be Eubjunclive were formed by composition ; ^ and <o these the original as well ail the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see \ 36$). All the iuitpeniail uses of the Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for.

The dependtnl uses of the subjunctive have arisen in evciy case (torn the employ- ment of some ixdependeul subjunctive construction in co-ordituition with a main nent. In time the two clauses have so grown together as to form a

V

j 264.] Tke Indicative Mood. 375 ^^k

relations loward ihc olher clause. The original meaning of Ihe mood has disap

peared, and a new meaning has aiisea by impUcalion. Thus, mlalt Igg'StSs qui

dicerent, he seat amiassadsrs to sa.^ (■>. who iiieHid Jaj in a supposed cHse).l ^^

Simiiar processes may be seen in Uie growlh of Apodasis. Thus, toUo hano ^^H

with grief: U. if you remove, elc). ^^H

The InRnilive Is originally n verbal noun, modifying a verb like other nouns; ^^H

VOl3 vldero, lit. " I wish for-seeiDE": compare English whatiocnt ye nut fir t» ^^H

lee f But in Latin it has been suipiisinf^y developed, so as to have forms for ^^^|

tense, and some proper modal characteristics, and to be used as a subsHtule for ^^H

other moods. ^^^|

ways, which are treated under their respecdve heads below. ^^H

1 I. tKDlCA-riVB: Direct Assertion or Question () 264}. ^^|

B

«. Independent: j Wish. E^ortaUon, Command, Question ({ ^H

^H

I. Purpose '(with ut, nS) {j 317). ^|

a Result (with ut, ut nOn) (} 319). ^H

3. Characteristic (Relative ClauseJ (j 330). ^H

i Dependent 4' Time (with oum) (} 3=5). ^H (C^nvw .r.„di,lnnJFuture(lessvi.id)(}yv.A,0. ^M

^^B ^ tConiraiyloFact (J3oa). ^^H

^H e. IntermediatellndirectDiscourse) (^3)1). ^^H

^^r 7. Indirect Questions or Commands (|j 334, ^^^|

■ ^H

^H ri. Direct Commands [ollcn subjunctive) ({369). ^^1 ^■k Imperative: a. Statutes. Laws, and Wills (§ aSg. rf). ^H

^1

b Obiective f '■ Complementary Infinidve (} 371).

Constructions- "■ ^''^'""''^ Discourse (with suhj^t-accnsa- ■ I live) {} 272).

^H Infinitive:

, .. Purpose (poetic or Greek use) (( 273).

■. ' Usesr 1 ^4).

^^■^^^ 1 3. Historical Infinitive ( j =75}.

^^^^^B ^^1

^^^^^f^ I. The Indicative. ^^|

2e4. The Indicative is the mood of liirect assertions or

questions when there is no modification of the verbal idea

except that of time. ^^

^K, a. The Tenses of the Indicative generally denote time, ^% present, ^H

^^t»j/, ax future, with reference to the speaker (§ a;6 ff.). ^|

^1 J Compare note on /he developmenl of lynMrJj iiom f aralicii,?- if^V ^^|

276 Syntax: The Verb. [§5 264, aes,

NcrTC — Time Ihm draoted is oReo called atieltitt lime, as dm being relalin 10 ani' other lime than Ihe speaker's own.

6. Tbe Indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom nwild suggest the Subjunctive : as, —

longum est, it would be Icdiota [it, etc.], ■alius etat. it woulii have been better [if, etc], persequi paiisum, / mighC/oliaar up [in detail].

c. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the Imperative

■d. The indicative b used in some tdnds of conditions (see g§ 306, 308).

t. The place of the indicative in narration is sometiraea supplied bj the Historical Infinitive (§ 275).

f. In Indirect Discourse a narrative clause has its verb in the Infini- tive (see S§ 272, 336).

II. The SuBjiracTivE.

265. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea with some modification^ such as is expressed in Eng- lish by auxiliaries, by the infinitive, or by the rare subjunc- tive (§ 112. b).

The uses of the subjunctive are independent or depend- ent (cf. head-note, p. 274).

a. The Subjunctive is used independently to express —

1. An Exhortation, Concession, or Command {^Hortatory. % 266).

2. A WUh {optative, % 267).

3. A Question of Doubt or Deliberation (Deliberati-ve, % 368).

Note.— These conslruetions (wilh Ihe esceplion of some forms of Deliberalivt Suhjunclive) are merely diflerent phases of the same use.

Remark.— In the conclusion [apedasis) ot Condllional Sentences, the subjunc- tive ia grammatical ly independent, though logically il depends on some condition expressed or implied ({304), The so-called Potential Subjunctive comes undei this head (see { 311. a),

i. The aubjuncdve is tised in dependent clauses to express —

1 These modificalions ate of various kinds, each dT which box had its own special development (compat« introductory note, p. 274). The sulijiuiclivc in tJitln haa also many idiomatic uses (see clauses of Resull and Time), where Ihe EntUsh does not niod% the vertnl idea at all, but expresses it diiectlj ; but in rAes* cue* rhe Latii) rnetdii takes a ^Buua <i^eii <A ^:Ml a«iiaK,aad hai devet opad tb cAiiiIrvcdon diflenntly tioin the EnK^x^ "^m

i 265, 26G.] Hortatory Subjunctive.

1. Purpose {Final, § 317).

2. Result {Consecutive, § 319).

3. Characteristic (§ 320).

4. Time {Temporal, § 325). 5- Indirect question (§ 334). 6. Condition : future or contrary to fact (§§ 307. t, c,

c. The subjunctive is also used with Particles of Comparison (§ 31 2)^8 and in subordinate clauses in the Indirect Discourse (g 336).

1. Hortatory Subjunctive, i. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used to express an fX/iortatioti, a command, a concession, or a condition.

The Present tense refers to future or indefinite time; the Perfect, to past time or completed future time; the Imperfect, to present or past time; the Pluperfect, to com- . pleted past time : as, —

liQs latrones interficUtmia (B, G. vii. 58), Irt caveant inlEmperaotiain, meminerint verecu

shHH exciss and ehtrisk modesty. Epicurus hoc videtit (Acad. ii. 7), lit Epicun

Note i. — The simple subjunctive of exhorlBIian and command lakes the pres- ' triK leuae, less commoDiy the perfect. The Perfecl represents an actioQ as com- pitted Iti future time; but in most cases is hardly to be distinguished from the Present. Other tenses are used in some varieties of this constmclion (see c.

Remark, — The negative particle used with the hortatory subjunc

. The Second Person is used only of an indefinite subject, except Injl prohibition, in early Latin, and in poetry (cf. g 269. b"). Thus,—

initiriiLS fortunae, quas fecre neqne&, defugietido rellnqniU (Tusc. v. 4t),'^

heTBrongs of fortune, which you cannel tear, leave betiind iy^igkt. ezoriire oliquis ultor (id. iv. 625), rise, son: a-oenger. lo bono utare dum adsit, cum absit ne requlr&a (Cat, Maj. 10), use tk

tlessiHg while it is present; Tiiien it is ivaating, do not regret it. i confer&B culpam in me (Ter. Eun. 387), don't lay the blame an me. oihil IgnSveris (Mur. 2^'),parAin nothing.

doceSa iter el sacra oslia pandas {/E.-a. vi. 109), shoJo us lie way and lafM fen Ike sacred portals.

b. In Prohibitions addressed to a definite persao, the ^rfect t& morail D than the present (cf. § 269, a) :

278 Sy/irax: The Verb. [j 366-

hoc lacilij: hoc ni fSceria (Div. ii. 61), Ihou shall da this; then shahm

do Ikal. tu ne qaaesieTis (Hor.), do not inquire, □ec mihi Ulad dizeris (I'm. i. 7), and do nut say that la me.

c. The hortatory subjunctive is especially used to express a ConCes- Sio.v, sometimes willi ut, nC, quamvia, quamlibet, or similar words (cf. §3i3.fl):as,-

iiierit aliis! tibi quando esse coepit (Vcrc. i, 41), suppost he ■u'a; [su] Is

eikei-s, alien did he begin to be to you ? nt talionem Plato oiillam aflerret (Tusc. i. ji), lAough Plata addueidm

nemo ia nnquam fuit: ne fnerit (Or. 29), there never was sueh a one [you

will say] : granted (let there not have been). uS Edt sumtnum malum dolor, malum eerie est (Tusc. ii. ^"^j granted Ikal

fain is Ttot the greatest evil, at least it is an evil. qnsmvu sceleiati ill! iiiisseiit (De Or. i. 53), ieteeaer guilty Aey migAl

have beetle qaamvis comis in amicitiis tuendls faerit {Fin, ii. 25), amiable as he may

have been in keeping his friendships (let him have been as amiable »i

mfleted fshire time, the Plupeifeel 10 comfleled action in fast ti in being usually unlrue]. Note a. — The Indicative is oRen used in concessions (see J313).

d. The hortatory subjunctive may be used to denote a Proviso (see § 3"4).

e. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive denote an unfulfilled obligation in past time ; as, —

moreretar, inquies (Rab. Post. 10), he should have died,you viill say. potius dlceret (Off. iii. 22), he should rather have said. ne poposcisBeB (Atl. 11. i), you should not have asked.

saltern aliquid de pqndere ^triiiasBt (Fin. iv, 20), al Itatl ke liauldhaoe taken something from the laeight.

Remark. — This useoflhesubjun use in apodosis {poleHtial, { 311. a). T should or CBghl (not looali).

Note. — f n this use the Plnpeifect dWcTs from the Im^ifcel aoly in own clearly represenling the time (or action a^ monscnlcay ot a* post, _^^^^^_

I

optative Subjunctive. 279, j

2. Optative SubjuuctiTe. 2B7> The Subjunctive is used to express a Wish. The I ■ present tense denotes the wish 2&possible, the imperfect as 1 unaccotnplisked in present time, the pluperfect as unacconf | plished in past time. Thus, —

ita Tivam (Att. v. 15), m may I live (as true os I live).

ne vivain si seio (id. iv. ih'), I wish I may not ii-ue if line

tli te perdnint (Deiot. 7), tkt goJs confiunii Itite !

valeajit, v^leant, cives mei; TfileaJit, waxt incolumes (^lil. 34), farewell I

[he says], my felleiu-cilixens ; may Ihty ht if cure /rem harm. I

di facerant sine patie (brem (Ov. Met. viii. 72), would thai /kt gods allowed 1

metabe viilhout a fal/icr (but Ihey do not) 1

a. The Perfect in this use is antiquated : as, —

male di tibi faxint (Flaut. Cure. I3l)> '""y the gedi do Ihee a mischief. quod omen di aveiterint (Phil, xii 6, 14, in a religious formula), and 1 may the gods avert this omen.

b. The Optative Subjunctive is often preceded by the particles utl I (ut), utinam, o si: as, —

nt pereab positum riibigiae teluui (Hoc. Sat. ii. l), may the weapon

used perish with ritst, falsua utinam vales aim (Liv. xxi,), Iiiiisk T may be a false prophet. utinam P, Clodius viveret (Mil. 38), -would that Clodius were now al utinam me martuum vidisaes (Q. Fr. i. 3), wouldyou had seta me dead. o M angulus ille acoedat (Hor. Sat ii, 6. 8), vh I if that corner migUM

only he added.

Note 1. — The subjunctive wilh uM, etc., was ongiaaWy deliierati-ae, n haw aay !, ele. ({ 96B), The subjunctive with 5 sl {fcelical) is a protasis (f 31a r) ; hI alone is someliines used to express a wish in the same way : as, — a none se nobis ille aureus ramus oetendat (^n. vi. iS;), if now thai

golden branch -jioutd only show i/self la us I Note a. — The subjunctire of Wish without a particle la rarely found !n the iperfecl or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse ({ 386):

: veneriila Ceres ita cuhno Hiirgeret alto (Hor. Sat. i!. 2. 124), and Ceres worshi/tpcd [with libations] thai so she mighl rise with tail stali. [Di- rect : ita BOrgas.]

. Telim and vellem, and theu- compounds, with a subjunctive or e often equivalent to an optative subjunctive; as, — di Menedemo vellem veruin fuisset, de rcgina velim verum «dt (Att. ir. 16), ab^Ht Menedemta I wish it had betjt irvt ; about the q«cm 1 liejfe 1/ ma_y it.

28o Syntax: The Verb.

nBUem acddisset tempos (Jam. iii. lo'i, I wish the time never Had eomi.

miillem Cerberum memeres (Tiisc. i. 6), I had ralher have kaJ you ajrai' of Ctrbfna (I shonld have preferred Ihat yon feared C.J.

Note. — VBllin,elc..in ibis use.areslricllyapodoses with ihe protasis omineJ (} 311. i). The Ikmgvntkti is leaUy a substantive clause used as abject ol tbe verb of wisliing ({ 331. i).

[For Concessive Subjunctive, ser { 313 ; for Pole^al Subjunctive, 5ee \ 311.]

3. Deliberative Subjnnctive.

268. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (i) doubt, indigHation, or {2) an impossibility of the thing being done : as, — ■

quid hoc homine &cias? qnod supplicium dignum libldini eius ilkVenUi (VeiT. ii. 16), tekat art yeu le do teilk this man t vihal fit penalty can yeu devise fir hii tiiantenaess?

an ego non Tenirem (Phil. ii. a), lokat, should I not have come?

quid dicerem (Alt. vi. 3), iBhalmos I to say f

mibi umquam boiioEuni piaesidium defutiinuii pntarem (Mil. 34], caulJ 1 tiini lhat the drftnte ef good mtn -would ever fnil tntt

quia eniiti cel&verit ignem (Ov. Her, xv. 7), who could conceal thefiame f

Remark.— This use is apparently derived from the Hortatoty Subjunctive: Quid Iftciainus? = tacl&mus [oUauid], qi:iJd7 lilusdo — lahalf Onceestob- lished, it uos readily transferred 10 the past: quid faclam? what AM I toi»f quid facerem? vAatyiki I to doT Queslioiw implying impossibiiily. however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis (cE { 305). ^^

Note.— The Deliberative Subjunctive is somediiies called Duiilative. ^^H

III. The Imperative. ^^|

269. The Imperative is used in Commands and En- treaties : as, —

conBolite vobis, proBpicIte pBtriae,cSnierviitevas(Cat.iv. 2), itoivacitrr

fir your sfh'es, guard the country , preserve yourselves. die Maice Tulli aententiam, Marcus Tullius, stale your opinion, ie ipsum concnte, examine yeursilf.

Tive, vftleqne (Hor, Sal. ii. 5. iici), farewell, bless you (live and be well) ! miserere animi non digna feientis {Mn. ii. 144), pity a soul hearing un- deserved mots. Note.— In Negative Commands {prohliitions) the PieBCOt Imperalive with nS is used by early writers and the poets: as, — ne time (Plaut. Ctu-c. 520), don't be afraid

nimium ne crede coloii (Eel. ii. 1 7), trust not too mtuh to eomplexian. e^uo ne credite (^n. ii. 4S), trust not the horse. ^^■riUte Future Imperative wiihiiBinla>*'3 anafoima\-5iece^,Vita,'i.\i*5™\

g ae9.J The Imperative; Prokibilion. 281

a. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose; —

1. By ne with the second person of the Perfect Subjunctive: as, — DC teiritus fueris (Tac. H. 1. 16), dott'l A- alarmed.

nS'vos quidem iudices ci qui me absolviatis murtem timueiitiB (Tusc. L 41), nor mtatyouftar death, you jud^a ihat, etc.

2. By nSH with the infinitive : as,—

noli pntire (Fam. liv. 2), ds not suppost (be unwilling to suppose), nolite cogere socioa (Verr. i. 82), do not compel Ike allies. Note.— The poets frequcndy use instead of nOlI olher words of similar m*»tf to8{cf, §a73,()! OS,—

parcepias scelciare manus(jSi, iil. 4a), jtrfcnr A) difiU your piaushamA. cetera nutte loqui (Hor. Epod. 13, ■j'), forbear to say the rest. fllge quaerere (Hot. Od. i. 9. 13), do not inquire'.

3. By oa-ve with or without 118 (colloquially fao nS) with the Present or Perfect Subjuactive • (§ 266. d) : as, —

cave pules (Att. viL 20), don't tiini.

cave dixeris, don'l say so.

cave faxiB (Ter. Heaut. 187), don't do it.

fac neqaid aliud cutea (Fam. xvi. 11), see Ihat you alliitd lo nothing else. I Note. — Olher nCEativea aomelimes [ake the place of OS : as, — B non dubilaveria (Sen. Q, N. i. 3, 3), you must not doubt. W^ nihil ignoveria (Mur. 6^), grant no pardon (pardon nothing),

6. General Prohibitions addressed to no definite person are regularly expressed by the Present Subjunctive with 116 (cf. c, below) : as, —

denique islo bono iJtare dum adait : cum obsit ne requiraa (Cat. Maj, 10), ttt shor/f use this good vihiU present ; ivhen ivantingt do not regret it.

Note. — The poets and early wtifers sometimes use the Present Subjunctive iih d3 in prohibitions not general: as, — inolcslus ne ais (Plant. Most. 771), don't be troublesome. ne sis patruus mibi (Hor. Sal. ii. 3. S3), doiCt be a [hatsb] uncle to me. c. The third person of the imperative b antiquated or poetic : — oUis saliis populi supceina, ISk estS, &e safety of Ike people shall be their

first law. iijsla impetia eantS, eisque elves modesli parentfi (Leg. iii. 3), let there

be lawful authorities, and let the citizens strictly obey them. NoTK.— In prose the Hortatory Subjunclivo is commonly used instead (f a55): as, haec Igrtor lex in amicitia Banciatur (Lxl. iz), let this lajo then be laid of friendship.

\ 1 In prohibitions the Subjunclivf v.iili nS is honatOY^ ■, &aX •nftv'SK^* 'i* «»■ MJect claiae (originally hoilalory, cf. } 331./ Rem.l. ^^J*^^^^^"

282 Syntax: The Vtrb. [S 269,

d. The Future Imperalive is used in commands, etc., where there is R distinct reference ta/itliire time: viz., —

1. In connection with some form that marks a condition precedent (as 7i future, a. future-perfect, or an imperative'). Thus, —

Pliyllida mitle mihi, meus est natalis, lolla; cum faciain vitula. pro frugibiu ip»e venitA (Kcl. iii. 76), undPhyUii to me, it is my tirttuiay, Mas: u-Atn I [shall] sacrifice a keif cr for ihi harvisl, came yourself

die quibus in lerris, etc., et Phyllida solus habeto (id. iii. 107), felt in nJlul lanilSt etc., and have Phyllis for yourself ,

2. With adverbs or other expressions of Time: as, —

eta» petita, ilabilur (PI. Mere. 769), asli lo-merrirw [and] il shall degipiH.

3. In^fM/'d/f/tm'fMWj, as Precepts, Statutes, and Wills: as, — cum vklctQdini consulueris, lum consolito nSvigationi (Fam xvi 4), vAe*

ytu have attended to your heallh, then took lo your sailiug. 1) luris civilii ciislos esto (Leg. iii. 3), let him (the prastor) be the guardian

tf civil right. DoTei flante, ni ftiatO, semen ne iaeitfi (Plin. H. N. xviii. 77), -^ehen du

Korlh teiiut iltnvs, fflou^'A not nor loui your seed.

t. Tlie verbs boIB, meminl, and habea (in the sense oi consider), rcgulftrly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present: as, — filiolo me auclum •cit6 {All. \. 2), learn that 1 am blessed -aiitk a Utile hey. Bie hftbitiO, nii Tito (Fam. xvi. 4), so understand it, my good Tire. de pnlla memento, amabo (PI. Asin.), pray, dear, remember aioul tit

f. Tlie Future Indicative is sometimes used for the imperative; and quln {why noti) with the Present Indicative may liave the force of a command: as, —

u quid nccidetit novi, fkciea ut sciam (Fam. xlv. S), yeu will let me knew

if anything new happens. quin accipis (Ter. Heaul. iv. 7)? here, take it (why not take il?).

g. Instead of the simple Imperative, ctlrS, tac, or velim, followed by the subjunctive with or without ut (§ 33 1-/- R.) is often ui especially in colloquial language : as, —

curi ut R5mae sis (Alt. i. 1), lake care to be at Rome.

&C cSres Qt 5ri3 (Ter. Eun. 500), do try to induce [him].

fao ut valeludinem cures {Fam. xiv. 17), see that you take care of yom

health. [Cf. Tus eo. fac, amabo (Ter. Eun. 531), I'm going into tit

country. Ho, flense, donu adsltis faoite (id. 505), tc at home, do. earn mihi velim minis (Att. v"m, i\), I luisH jou ■mould

fym ntotii

J

IS 269, 270.] The hifimtive. 283:

' h. In the Indirect Discourse all imperative forms of speech are rep*] esenled by the Subjunctive (see § 339).

i. The Imperative sometimes has the force of a Conditional Clausftl [see § 310, *).

IV. The Infinitive.

Note. — The Infinitive is properly a noun denoting llie action of the verb ab-

tradly. II diflers, however, firom otlier abslmct nouns in the following points:

1} it admits in many cases of the dislincUon ol lense; (aj il is modihed by od-

tris, not by ad/iclivts: (3) it governs the same case as its verb ; (4) il is limited

The Lalin Inlinilivs is the dative (or locative) caie of such a noun and was >riginally naed to denote Purpose; but it has in many consiruclions developed into L substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use.

In its use as a verb, the Infinitive may lake a Subject- Accusative (f ^40,/), priginally (he object of another vetb on which the Infinitive depended. Thus iU't)eS tB vaJSre a ]iieiBi\y, I a/nmand you fir dcrng tm/Ucf. substantive clauses, ^330],

1. InSiiitive as Subject, etc. 270. The Infinitive, with or without a subject -accusa- tive, may be used with est and similar verbs (i) as the Subject, {2} in Apposition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative. Thus, —

1. Subject; as, —

dolere malum est (Rn. v. 28, 84), /o iuffeT pain is an evil. bellum est sua vitia nosae (Alt. ii. 17), il's a fine thing la know one's owm

fault! . pulchrmn est benefacere rei publlcae (Sail. Cat. 3), it is a noble thing is

htnejil the state. motos praestat componere Hiictiis {Ma. i. 135), it is better to ealm tkt

Irouiled waves. hoc facers illnm mihi quam prosit nescio (Alt. ii. 1 6), / don't know kw

his doing this ben/fits me.

2. Itt Apposition with the Subject; as, —

proinde quasi iniuriam facere id demum esset imperio iitl (Sail. Cat. iz), just eu if this, — to mmmit injustice, were to tise power. [Here facere is in apposition with id.]

3. Predicate Nominative : as, — id est convenientec naturae vivere (Fin. iv. i;, 41), that is to live in coit-

fermily with nature. [Cf. ttti in the last example.]

284 Sj'n:ax: The Verb. [| 270.

tkit vtry fkirtg iHBst -airttifud, not Ib it ahtn em has been.

utvidere, gestire. laetiii, hacc omoia morbos Graed ippdlant (Tusc nL 4, 7], lb feci fity, envy, deiire, jay, — all lAeu lAirfp Ai Greiis eaS diieatei.

Note a. — An Apposilive or Predicale noun uied wilh an tnlinitiTe in anj of ihese constiuctions is pui in the Accusative, whether the infinitive has a subject ei- pressed or not. Thus, —

non esse CapidDin peconia (Paiad. 63), to be free from desires (nol U be desirous) is money in hand.

a. I. The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and simQar verbs. (See examples above.)

Note. — Id this use the abstract idea expressed by the infinitive is represented as haiHng mBU fualigi or bihnging to sone Iking.

3. But occasionally, especially in less careful writers and in poetry, the infinitive is used as the subject of verbs which are apparently more active in meaning; as, —

quos omnis cadem capere, eadem Sdisse, eadcm metnere in iinuni coe^l

(Jug. 31), allafTukem the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the

same things has united into one. ingenuis dididsse fideliter arlei emollit mores (Ov. ex P. ti. 9. ^),failk-

fvlly to have learned liberal arts softens the manners. pOBSe loqui eripitUT (Ov. M. ii, 483), the power of speech is taken away, non cadil invidere in sapienletn (Tosc. iii. id, zi), the sage is not liable to

envy (to envy does not fall upon the sage), iitiic nihil dolere non sine magna meccede contingit (Tusc. iii. 6, 12}, that

apathy is not ta be had except at great cost (does not fall to one'l

lot).

b. The infinitive is used with many impersonal verbs and expressions, partly as subject and partly as complementary infinitive (§ 371).

Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet, piBBt, necease eat, opus eat, etc.

id primum in poetis oerni licel (De Or. iii. 7), this iiiay be seen first is

p«ls. reperiebal quid (Kdopus esset {Gtvt. $•)), he favnJ U'hal needed to be said. haec praescripta servanlem licet magnilice rtvere (Off. L i6), one miff

observes these precepts may litt nebly. C>to negal ius esse qui miles non sit pngiMre cum hoste (Off. I. tO>

Caf says it is net right that one who it not a sotSer iMomU fi^ aiA

est morf (Tiisc. ii. 1). it is tucesvtry ta die. ^^^^^H

270, 371.J Complementary Infiiiitive.

quid Bttinel gloriosc loqnl nUi conitanter loquare (Fm. ii. 27, 89), loAo/'l good dors it do ta talk boastfully unless you sprak eimsistinlly ?

noQ lubct enim mihi deploriire vllam (Cat, Maj. 23. 84),y^r it does net \ please me to lament my life.

neque me nxisae paenitet (id. 23, 84), / do not feel sorry lo have lived.

iam pridem gttbemirB me taedebat (Alt. ii. 7, 4), I had long been iirtdti/% ieing pilot.

Note i.— These are not generally real cases of the infinilive used as subject, ' Jnu approach Iha! construction.

Note a. — For the subject of such infinitives, and ; djecdves agreeing with the subject, see f f aji. c, 373. a,

e. Rarely the infinitive b useil exactly lilce the accusative of a

beate Tivere alii in alio, vos in yoluptite ponitis (Fin, ii. 27, 86), a iafpy \

Ufe different [pliilosoplieis] iase on different things, you on pleasure. quBin multa . . . facimuE causa amicorum, precari ab indigno, suppUciurs 1 etc. (LecL 16, 57), hoai many things vie do for our friends sake, ask 1 favors from an unworthy person, resort to entreaty, etc. nihil explo^tum habeas, ne amire quidein aut amari (Lcel. 26, 97), j*!

have nothing assured, not even loving and ieing loved. Note. — Many complemenlary and other constructions approach a proper J ccusalive use of the infinitive, but their development has been different from \ dat of the examples under c. Thus,— avaritia . . , superhiam, cradelilitem, deos neglegere, omnia venalia }is,bei« | edocuit (Sail, Cat. 10), avarite taught pride, cruelty,to n/glici the gods, and to hold everything at a price,

2. Complementary InfinitiTe.

271. Verbs which imply another action of the same sub- ject to complete their meaning take the infinitive without 1 a subject-accusative: as, —

hoc queo dicere (Cat. Maj. 10), this I can say.

mltto quaereie (Rose. Am.), I emit to ask.

veteot laudare praeaentem (N. D. i. 21), I fear lo praise a face (one who is present).

oro Bt matiires venire (Att. iv. 1), I begyou leill make haste to a,

oHivisci noa possum quae volo (Fin. it. 32, 104), / eaiinot forget that J ■which I wish.

desine me id docere (Tusc. ii. is, 29), eease .

audeo dicere, / venture to say.

tloqiu posse coepi (Cic), / tegan to be able lo Such are verbs denoting to be able, dare, undertake, remember, for- , be tUCttstomed, iegitt, continue, cease, Aesitaie, leant-, kitovl kow^ •r, 2nd the like.

Syntax: The Verb. [g 271. I

Note.—

Bijecls can hardly be dislinguished from this consi subject exp[E55ed. Thus T0I6 dicere and volo me dlcere mean the same thing, Iwishlo sfeak; bm the laller is objecl-infinilive, while the tbimet is mn apparently different in origin and cQn5iniciion from quefl dicere [cemplemaitari injSniUvt), and again TOlfl eum dicere, / ictiA Sim to speai, is essentially dit ferenlftom either,

a. Many verbs take either a subjunctive clause or a complementary infinitive, without difference of meaning. Such are verbs signifying •ttiillmgKess, necessity, propriety, resol-ve, coiMmand, prohibiiicn, effort, andthelikeCcf. §331): as.-

Btudent eioellere (Off. i, 32), l&ey aim lo excel.

catn statuisacm Bcribere ad te aliquid (Off. i. z), when I had resehed h

addrea something to you. islam ezheredare in animo habcbat (Rose. Am. iS), he had it iu mindto

depriiie him of Ike inheritanee.

Note i,— Whh some of these verbs an infinitive be used as object, taking the place of a comfteiaealat subject of the infinitive and that of the main verb are c

Note a.— Some verbs of these classes never lake ilie subjunctive, but are quos tneri debenl deaeruat (Off. i. 2), they forsake those whom they ihavli

non lubet fugete aveo pngnare (Alt. xviii. 3), / have no desire to rvn aviity, Pm anxious tofighi.

b. Some verbs of these classes — iubeB and vetfl regularly — may take (as object) the infinitive with a subject' different from that of the main verb (see § 331. a): as, —

ragua Inferrl inbet (Liv. xlii. 39), he orders the standards to he advaHced. Pompeius . . . rem ad atraa ditlflci studebat (B. C i. 4), Pomfey was

c. A Predicate Noun or P takes the case of the subject (

fierique studebam eiu» priidcntia doctior (lal. 1, 1), f loas eager to ieconie more vise through his wisdom.

1 This construction, though in many cases different from the two preceding shades off imperceptibly into them. In none of the uses under f aji is the infini- tiVeswierflySubject or Object; butilsmeaTimg,ii4ENe\05e4bow. the orif^nal oh of^nr^e (cf. § 273. a). *^H

§5 271, 272.]

Infinitive with Subject-Accusative. :

scio qnam soleas ease occnpatni

i' bravia esse laboto obHcnrus fio

^B become obscurt.

(Hot. A.

vi. 21), / knim Ami: iusy you P. 25). Jslrusgl/ to he briif. 1 \

Hi Note.- If 1

is impersonal, a predicate n :.. see J >rz. a. a). Thiis.-

1

fpetegnni oEGctum est caiaime xa alien! esse cepiiblica coiioanm (Off. i. 34), J 1/ ii titi du^ o/a stranger In ie by ns means curUus in a foreign state, 1 d. For the infinitive in poetry instead of a substantive clause of X rpose, seeS33i.^. 3. Infinitive with Subject-Acoueative. 272. The Infinitive, with Subject -Accusative, is used I with verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, ] telling, and perceiving {Indirect Discourse, § 336) : ^ as, — (licit montem ab hostibus teneii (B. G. i. 22), kt says that the kilt is hetd

by the enemy. [Direct; mons ab hostibus tenetnr.] Remark. — The Infinilive Clause may he — i. (he Dlrec! Object of the verb: Hs, Oaesarem adesae nnntlftvlt, he rrported that Casar was present; 3. ihe Subject of the same verb in the passive; as, Caeaarem adesse n" oat, (/ lofli reported t&at Casar was present; 3. the Predici

a. I. With certain impet^onal verbs and expressions that take the infiifltive as an appareni subject (5 270. b), the personal subject of the action may be expressed —

II. By a dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase : or, 2. By an accusative expressed as the suliject of the infinitive. Thus, rogaiit at id aibi facere liceat (B. G. i. 7), they ask that ii be allowed them to do this. SI licet vivere enm qnem Sex. Naevins non voit (Quinct. 94), if it U alimaed a man to live against the luill of Sextus Nxvius (whom S. N. does not wish). ijuid est tam secundum naturam quam aenibuB emoci (Cat. Maj. 19, 71), what it so mud in accordance with nature as for aid men to die? exstingni bomim suo tempore optabile cat (id, 23, 86), it is desirable for 9 man to die at the appointed lime.

2. With Uoet regularly, and other verbs occasionally, a predicate noun or adjective following the infinitive may be in the dative : as, —

■ t

!S8 Syntax: Tlie Verb. \%% 272. 273,

licuil esse otiSsO Thcroislocli (Tuse, i. 15, 33), Thcmiitaclet might ham

i/m itiaelizii (it 11 as allowed to T. to be inactive), mihi n^legenti esse non ^KiX.^M,t.\.\^), I must noi bitugiigtnl. [But

also D^legeDtem.] cur his esse HberoB noD licet (Flacc 71), aikj/ is il net aUewtd that nn

Ub,fr,,t ron est stantibns omnihus necesse dicere (Marc 11), it is noi neciisary

for all to sptak standing. ^-

expedit bonis ease vobis (Ter. HeauL ii. 4, 8), it is for your admintagi le '

be g0t}ti. mediocribus esse poetis non homines non di coocessere (Hor. A. P. 37a),

neiihtr gods nor men ha-oe granted to ordinary men to be poets.

\e, atr^5^\

vcl pace vel bcllo clunia fieri licet (Sail. Cat. 3), anr can become illuslrioia

b. In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Nouq or Adjective in the indirect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the mMi

vir bonus et sapiens ait ease paratos (Hor. Ep. i. 7), a good and wise man says he is prepared, iK. [In prose: ait aa ease paratum.]

sensil medios delapEma iu hostes (/En. ii. 377), he found himself /alien among the foe. [Id prose: ae esse delapanm.]

4. Infinitive of Purpoao. 273. In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original meaning of Purpose.

a. The infinitive is used aAer luibeS, d5, miniatrO, in isolated passages instead of a subjunctive clause : as, —

tantum habco polliceti (Fam. i. 5), so mueh I have to premise. [Here

(he Tnore formal construction would be qnod pollicear.J ul lovi bibere ministcaret (Tusc, i. 26), to serve Javr^itk wine (lo drink), meridic bibere ilalo (Cato R. R. S9), give (to) drink at noonday.

b. ParStua, BuGtus and their compounds (used as adjectives) take the infinitive, like the verbs from which they come: as, —

id quod parati aunt facere (Quin. 2), tliat which they are rrady to do. adauefacti auperSri (B. G. vi. 24), used lo being conquered. currii stiocadere sueti (.Cn. iii. 541). accustomed la being harn/ssed to the fAariat. copiSs beMre consuetas (B. Att. ii), form «i(il lo JigMl*

Infinitive of Purpos

\

\

Note. — These words n conarucHon (J 396 ff.) eilhe Thus,—

alendis liberis sail! (Tac. Ann. xiv. 27), accialBnted lo supporting children.

insnetus navigandi (B. C. iJi, 49), unttsed to making voyages.

corpora inauita ad onera portanda (id. i. 78), bodies unaccialomed le carry

{, In poetry and later writers almost any verb may have the infini- tive, after the analogy of verbs of more literal meaning that take it in

furit le repcriro (Hot. Od. i. 15. 17), he rages lo find Ihee. [A forcible

way of saying cnpit (| 271, 3).] ■aevit exslingucre nomen (Ov. M. i. 200), ht rages to blol out the namt. fuge quaerece (llor. Od. i. 9. 13) forbear lo ask (of. % 269. a. 2. note), parce icelerare (^^n. iii. ^^, forbear lo follule.

d. Many adjectives take the infinitive in poetry following a Greek

Idurua eompSnere versus (Hor. Sat. i. 4. 8), harsh in eompasiag verse. cantari dignua (Eel. v, 54), viarthy lo bi sung. [In pcoae ; qui caatetnr.] forlis Iractare serpentis (Hor. Od. i. 37. 26), iravi to handle strpenls. periti canlace (Eel. x. 32), skilled in sang. fadlea aurem pracbere (Prop. ii. 21. 15), ready to tend an ear. lescia vinci pectora (jt^n. xiL 527), hearts not knowing how to yield. e videre aegroti (Plaut. Trin. 75), sick 0/ seeing you.

: The poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express purpose when there is no analogy with any prose construction : as, —

loricaim donal habera viro (.^n. v. 262), he gives the hero a breastplate to I luear. [In prose: habendam.]

IfiHus turn inlroiit videre quid agat (Ter, Hec. iii. 2, 10), tlu son Ihin wen/ in to see what, etc. [In prose : the supine viaam.] non fenro Lihycos populire Pcnilea venimus (.^n. i. 527), wi have no! come to lay wasle with the sword the Libyan homes. Note. — So rarely in prose wrilers of the classii: period. f. For the infinitive used instead of a substantive clause of purpose, see §331.0-^.

Note, — For tompue est abire, see } 298, nole.

g. Rarely in poetry the infinitive is used to express reiuUi as, —

Ifiagit equum tenera docilem cervicc magisler il 2. 64) , makes the horse gentle so luc levSre . . . pauperem laborihus mien caUe<f, Aesn, so as to relieve, e

290 Syntax: The Verb. [|S 273-75.

NOTB. — These poetic consUiiclions (fi-g) were no doubt or'-g^nallir rcgnki and belong to the Inlinitive as s, noun In the Dative 01 Loi^live case (p. 2S3, head-nelt). They had been supplanted, however, by other more fonnal conslnictioiiB, aflerwacds restored through Greek influence.

h. In late or poetic usage the infitiitive occasionaJIy occurs a: noun limited by a possessive or other adjective ! as, — nostrum vlTBre (Pers. Sat, 1. 9), our lift (to live). scire tQum (id. 27), your knomUdgt (to know).

5. ZizclamatoTy Inflnlttve.

274. The Infinitive, with subject-accusative,' may be used in Exclamations (cf. § 240, d) : as, —

te in tan^ aenimnas propter mi incidisBa (Fam. xiv. I ), alas ! &at yat

should have fallen into such grirffor me. mene incepto deaiatare victam (JEa, \. 37), ii^t! I beaten desist from n/

purpose f Note. — The Present and the Perfect Infinitive are used in this construaiMl with their ordinary disliiiciion at time.

6. Hiatoiloal Infinitive.

275. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the nomi- native : as, —

turn Catilina polliceri novas tabulis (Sail, Cat. 3i), then Catiline promised

abolition ef debts (clean ledgers), ego inatara ut mihi reapondecet (Vert. iL 77), / kept urging Aim W

pais cedere, alii inaeqaX; neque signs neque ordines BerrSre; aU quemque periculum ceperat, ibi reaiatere ac pTopulsare; arma, leli, equi, viii, hostes atque cives penniitij nihil consilio neque imperia a^; fors omnia regere (Jug. 51), a far! give loay, others press oh; they iold neither lo standard! nor ranis; where danger overtoek, Ikerl each ■wottld stand and fight; arms, ■aieaptms, horses, men, fie anJ friend, mingled in eonftition; nothing ■wait by counsel or eemaioHd: chanee rulid all.

Note.— This

lis constmction is elliptical I that is, the thought is quoted In Indirect Dii- though no verb of laying, etc., appeais, or perhaps is Ihought of {compare the French dire que') . Passages Uke ti&itc^ae ego Bd Tern n&toji) mlsarui imorfibfi (PlauL Rud. 1881? point to (tie o\\^ii oV&e cooaxioj^ssa, ^h

((.-TENSES.

Note. — Tbe numbEi of possible Tenses is scry great. For in eacli of tha Ibree times, Present, PasI, and Future, nn action may be represented as going compleled, or beginning; as habhual or isolated; aa defined in time or iadeSnile {aoriitii) ; as determined with reference to the time of the speaker, or as not itsell so determined but as relative to some lime which is detetmined; and the past and fiiture limes maj lie aem or remole. Thus a scheme of tKlny or more tenses might be devised,

Bui, in tbe development of foims, which always takes place gradually, no language finds occasion for mar; than a small pail of these. The most obvious disdnctions, according lo our habits of tltought, appear !□ the following scheme:^

rl. D£nNiT£ (fixingihe time of the action), a. INDEFIKITB.

Present; a. lamwriting, 8. I ham wriittn. v- I-ariii.

PAST: 0.IwasiBritms. e. t had ■wrUtm. S.ItarBU.

Future; y. I shall it virUmg. C 1 shall hioii writtm. i. 1 shall writi. Most languages disregard some of these distinctions, and some make other dis- tinctions not here giveiL The Indo-European patent speech had a Present lenss lo express a and 1, a Perfect to express 3, an Aorist to express fl, a Future to express f and i, and an Imperfect to express S. The Latin, however, confounded the Perfect and Aoriat in a single form (the Perfect SCilpal}, thus losing all distinc- tion of form between S and 9 and probably In a greal degrea the distinction of meaning. The nature of this confusion may be seen by comparing dixl, dicavl, and dldicl fall Pctfccts derived from the same root, DiC), with «.i£a, Slir. adikiham, HiltiXa. Skr. rf/Afn. Latin also developed two new forms, those for t (scrfpserajn) and f (BcrlpserS), and thus possessed six tenses, as seen in

The lines between these six lenses in Latin are not hard and fast, nor are they precisely the same that we draw in English. Thus in many verbs the form corre- sponding to I ham -atitttn (!) is used for those corresponding to I am iBritiag (a) and I write (i)) la a slightly different sense, and the form corresponding to / had mriHtn (c) is used tn like manner for that corresponding to / leas writing {B). Again, the Latin often uses the form for 1 shrill ha-JS lerilten (f) instead of that for IihalltBrili (i). Thus liSvI. I have Uamrd, is used for / tnoja: cOnstiterat, hi had iaien hiifaiition, for he stood : cagn6ver8, 1 shall ham liamed, ibr / shall it aaare.

L I. Tenses of Incomplete Action.

K 1. Present (Oeneral Use).

' 276. The Present Tense denotes an action or state (l) as now taking place or existing; and so (2) as incomplete in present time, or (3) as indefinite, referring to no par- icular time, but denoting ^general truth. Tlius, —

s haec intelliglt, consul videt, hie tamen vivit (Cat- I l), tht Smate knoxm this, tht consul stcs il, yet this man lives,

diclls poBtqiliie (Tei. A.ad. &wV even nma -jm rfectiag, etc.

1

I I

I

292 Syntax: The Verb. {% 276.

tibi c6nc8dB meas sedea (Div. i. 46, 104), r give you my seat (an offer

which may or may no! be accepled). exapecto quid velia (Ter. And. 34), f await your pleasure (wbal fog

™h).

tii ictionem inititnia, ille aciem inatmit (Mur. 9), you arrangt a caa, he arrays an army. [The present is here used of regular emfl^

minora di neglegnnt (N. D. iii. 35, 86), Ihtgods disregard trifia. [Of 1

general tr«lli. J obsequium amicos, viiiias odium ptirlt (Ter. And. 68), flattery gaini

friends, truth hatred. [General Iruth.]

a. The Present, ivilh expressions of duration of time, especially iatn diu, iam diiduiii, denotes an action continuing in the present, bul begun in the past (cf. § 277. b): as,—

iam diu ignoro quid agas (Fam. vii. <fi,for a long lime I have not iiiffitn

vihal yoa are doing. te iam dudum hortor (Cat I. 5, 12), I have long urged you. patimnr iam mullos annos (Vetr. vi. 48), we suffer now Aese many years.

[The perfect would imply, we no longer suffer^ aiiDi sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (Clu. 30), it is now ti^ years

thai Ihis cast has been in hand. annum iam audla Cratlppum (Off. i. i), for a year yot^vt been a iearirtf

Cralippus. Note i. — In this use the present Is commonly lo be rendered by Ihe perfect in English. The difference in the two idioms is thai the English states the Ijcgin- ning and leaves the continuance 10 be interred, while the Latin states the coq- linuance and leaves (he beginning to be in/erred. Compare ; ht has long sufferii (and still suffers) with f ; still suffers (and has suffertd) long.

Note a. — Similarly the Present Imperative with lam dQduin indicates thai the action commanded oyght to have been done or vias wished for long ago (ct the Perfect Imperative in Greek) : as, —

iam dudum BDmite poenas (/En. ii. 103), exact Ike penally long delayed.

b. The Present sometimes denotes an action attempted or begun in present time, but never completed at all (CffwaiiVf/VeJin/, cf. § 277. f):

iam iamque manu tenet (Mn. ii. 530), and now, even nirw, he attempts to

grasp him. densos fertnr in hoitis (id. i. 511), he starts to rush into the thickest of Ihi

/•■■

deiKTiiS quinquaginta dierum supplication cs (Phil. xiv. 11), I move for fifty days' thanksgiving. [Cf. Benatas deeravit, ^senate ordained.]

e. The Present, especially in colloquial language and poetry, is ofien used for the Future : as, — iinnMie sessum (DeOr. iii. 5I, sAaHw* mfee o Kot! (,a:lft■wcl'sv■Bl^a<*-T^

Present Tense.

I luud milts (actam (Ter. And. 40], / ih nolwish to

trying to change). I quod si fit pereo funditus (id. 244), i/lkis happtns, 1 am utterly ttudcHe. ■a ^as {\&. '^'2.1'), are you to bt married lo-day? ftbin hinc in malam lem (id. 317), viiUyoube off f go and ie hanged ! si pereo hominmn manibas petiisse iuvabil {Mrt. iii. 6o5), if 1 ferish, ii'\

■wilt be pleasant lo perish a! the hands of men (cf. g 307. a, n ecquid me adiuvaa (Clu. 26), woiClymt give me a little help ? " "" "" "neo. noais (PI. As. 48o)?/ji Jwen'tgo. Yoa won^i?

Note, — BO and ifc

re you going to Remark.—

ions ({ 307), c

jounds are especially frequent

2. Historical Present.

lively narrative is often ui^ed for the Historical

d. Tiie Present Perfect {^Historical Present) : as,

affertnr niintius Sytaciisis; ciirritar ad praetocii quam nox erat, lamen in publi

Geomenes, quam- erat, lamen in publico esse non aadet; includit se domi (Veir. vi. 35), ibe news is brought to Syracuse; they run to head- \ quarters ; Cleomenes, though it titas night, dees not venture lo be abroad; he shuts himself up at home.

JOTE. — This usage, con

ts as, going on before our eyes (rep?

3. Present ■vritli dnm. . Dum, while, regularly takes the Present Indicative past events.

In translating, the English imperfect Thus,— ^k haec dnm agnntnr, intecea Cleo H vi. 35), while this was going

■ la ike cpast at Elorum.

^B hoc dtun narrat, forte audivi (Te

nse wilb dum (usually so long as) oast. But a lew irregular cases of dum with il is intended. Thus, —

enim dnm aiam vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat. Maj. us), while I -aias -wM yeu, you couldn't see my soul. \_'fteit'i^ "Snon'^'Dii be was alive is contrasted with that attei his deaA.'\

294 Syntax: The Verb. [§§ 276, 277,

cootta est pugna, par dam coDatabant otdines (Liv. xxii. 47), a enj^d

bigan, well malcked as long as the ranks stood firm. But, — dam oimjIos hoslium ceitamen averterat (id. xxxii. 24], vjkiU tki

strugglv kfpt the ly/s of Ike rntmy turned amay. dnm unum adscendcre grndum coBfttiw est, vinit in periculuni {Mur. 27),

while he allempled to dimb one step [in rank] he fell inla danger.

f. The present is regularly used in quoting writers whose works are

Epicurus vera ea dlcit (Tusc. ii. 7), hill Epicurus says such things. apud ilium Ulises lamentatnr in vulnere (id. 21), in Aim (Sophocles)

Ulysses beivails mier his wound. Polyphemum Homerus cum ariete colloquentem fadt (Tuac. v, 39, 115),

Homer brings in (malies) Folyphemus talking-mith his ram.

4. Imperfeot. 377. The Imperfect denotes an action or a state as continued OT repeated \n past time: as, —

hunc aadiebant antea (Man. 5), they used to hear e/Aim before. Soctales ita cenaebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 30), Socrates thoagid so

(habitually), and so he spoke (then), priid^ns esse putabatur (Lxi. 2, 6), he was (generally) lAou^l wise. [The perfect would refer to some particular case, and not to a state oi things.] iamque rubeacehat Aurora {Mn.m. 121"^, and H0-.0 the dawn vias Hushing. ara vetus atibat (Ov. M. vii. \'), an old altar stood there. NOTE.^ThB Imperfect is a descriflive tense and denolea an acdon cancerved as inprogress or a slate of Ihings as acltially oiiinied. Hence in many verbs it does not differ in meaning from tlie Perfect. Thus rSx erat and rSx (ult maj ofieu be used indifferently; but the former descriiei the condition while the laliet only slates it. The English is less exact in distinguishing these ma modes of statement. Hence the Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Prcierile. Thus: —

Aedui graviter ferebant, neque legatos ad Caesarem mittere andSbant (B. G. V. 6), the Mdui were displeased, and did not dare, etc. [Here the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But, — id tulit factum graviter Indntiomarus (id. v. 4), InduHamarus Teas dis- pleased, etc. [flere the Perfect merely states (he fact.] aedificia Yicosque bababant (id. iv. 4), they had iuildings and tiillages. Remark. — The Imperfect represents a present lense transferred to past Hme. Hence all the meanings which the present has derived from the continuance of the action, belong also to the imperfect in reference to past time (see details below).

a. The Imperfect is used in descriptions ; as, —

. . . motii a\\\ss\TOiw \m.-5ei\a5i\ifcV (^, ^i. v Sy, ■lay^ ... 1 -veTy hig'i imjunlain oTjirXuHj. ^^H

S 277.]

Imperfect Tense.

b. With lam dtfl, iam dfldnm, and oiher expressions of duradoi if time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the past h

begun at some previous time (cf. g 115. a, 2) r as, — iam diidum flebajD (Ov. M. iii. 656), 1 had beta loeiping for capias quas dia eompariibant (F'am. x. Ij), Ihe fercn -which ihty had U

btert gelling ready. Note.— In this consfruclion the Imperfect is rendered by (he English Pliti

pertect. Compare Ibe Presenl in similar ph cases (J 276. a).

c. The Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun (^Incepim Imperfect), or as attempted or only intended {Conative Impcrfsci (cf. §276.*):

in exsilium eiciebam quern iam ingrcEEum esse in'belliun videbein (Ci

ii. 6), viits I sending (i.e. trying lo send) into exiU one tvia / sc

already ^ne into tiiar ? banc igilur diem sVo\ prnponens Milo, ciuentis manibus ad ilia augugttf

centuiiarum auspicia veoiebat (Mil- id), was Milo earning (,i.e.

Ukely that he would come), etc.? si licitum essel Teniebant (Verr. vi. 49), Ihey -were coming if it had ieOf^

alltnoed (they were on the point of coming, and would 1

so if, etc.). Note. — To this head may be referred the imperfecl with lam, it tegwHing a{ an acWan OS aaXs: as,—

iamqne arva tenebant iilliina (.-En. vi. 477), and ninu lluy lucrt /ad ■

gelling to the farthesi fields.

d. The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise a present discovery of a fact already existing: as, —

O tii quoque hie adarSB (Ter. Ph. 858), oh ! yea are here loo. ehem paler mi, In hie eras (Plaut.), -ajkat! you here, father! ah miser ! quanta laborabaa Charyhdi (Hor. Od. i. 27, 19), unhappy boy, .1 ■what a ■whirlpool you are struggling in £and I

e. Tile Imperfect is often used in dialogue by the comic poets wherft I later writers would employ the Perfect: as, —

ad lunicuni Calliciem quoi rem alhat mandosae iiic suam (Plaut. Trin. 956),

to hit friend Callicles, to viliom, he said, he had intriisled his properly. praeMglbat animus fruslri me ire quom exibam domo (Plaut. Aul. 2zs),

my mind mislrnsled when I went from home that I went i> NOTB. — So also, in convErsation, the imperfect of verbs of aaying (ct as /fl uts a-sayiag) : as,— at rocdici quoque, its enim dicebiis, saepe falluntur (N. D. iii. 6, 15), _/

Ihaf was w&alyou were saying jusi now. haec mibi fere in mentcm veniebant (id. ii. 67, 168), this is about la.

etevrrtd to me, etc J|In a stiaightfaiwaid nana^n. thJa «aa!4. \

- - IBt]

1

296 Syntax; The Verb. [§§ 277-79,

f. For the Imperfect Indicative in apodo»s contrary to fact, see § 308. b.

g. The Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the English mxi&sx^ could aT would : as,—

itaquE (Damocles) nee pulchros illM ministratorea adapiciebat (Tust v, zi,t),tA/rt/brt he cottld ftot lB6k upon those heaidiful slaves. [In Ihis case did nol would not express the idea of continued prevention of enjoyment by the overhanging sword.] nee enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatia (Cat MaJ. 22, 79), for, you knovi, Ttlhile I was laith you, you could not see my setil. £Here [he Perfect would refer only to one moment,'] h. For the Epistolary Imperfect, see § 282. 5. Fnttue.

278. The Future denotes an action or state that will occur hereafter.

12. The Future sometimes has the force of an Imperative (see S 1S9./).

b. The Future ia often required in a subordinate clause In Latin where in English futurity is sufficiently expressed by the main clause!

cum ftderit videbil, -wkin he is there he will see (cf. § 325. c). sanabimur si volemua (Tusc. iii. 6), we shall ie liealed if we unii (cf. § 2P1- "')■

II. The Tenses of Completed Action. ^^|

1. Perfect. ^H

279. The Perfect denotes an action either as no-a/ com- pleted {Perfect Definite), or as having taken place at some undefined point of past time {Historical or Aoristic Perfect). Thus,—

(1) at ego fed, qui Graecas litteras senex didici (Cat. Maj. 8), as I Aait done, -who have learned Greek in my old age- diiitumi siienti finem hodietnus dies attulit (Marc. \'),tkis day has put aa end to my lojig-eontinued silence. (z) tantum helium eslrema hieme apporavit, ineunte yere snacepit, mediii aeslale odnfecit (Man. 12), 10 great a war he made ready for at the end of winter, undertook in early spring, and finished by midsiimmeT. NOTK. — The distinclion between these Wo uses of Ihe perfect, which is rapre- aeoled by two forms in most ofher Indo-Eurofwan languages, was almost If nol wholly lost to the minds ot the Romans. \lTO>35(\>e ■nmicei.^iwut'jtt.on.oocQiuil t^lbe laatlced disdaetion in English (see aVso Ij iit,- c\. ^

I I

5 279.] Perfect Tense.

a. The perfect is Gometimes used emphatically to denote tha.t x\ thing or condition of things that once existed no longer exists : as

filit ista. quondam in hac re puhlica viriiis (Cat. i. l), Ihere was once sudk I

z-irtue in this common-wealth. tiabnit, non habet (Tusc. i. 36), hi had, he hat no longer. (ilium habeo . . . immo hobiUi nunc habeam necne incertumst (Ter.

Heaut. 9^), / have a son, no, I had one ; -aiAether J haiie one m

not il uncertain, tmmaa Troes, fiilt Ilium {vEn. ii. 325), we have ceased to be Trojans,

Troy is no more.

b. The Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general I truth (§ 276), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause refer- f ring to time antecedent to that of the main clause : as, —

qui in compedibus corporis semper faeront, etiam cum soluti Btmt (aidiui ingrediontnr (Tu3c. i. 31), they -ako have aheays been in the fetters of the body, even ■when released move more slowly. haec morte eflnginntor, eliam m non evenenutt, tamen quia possont evenire (id. 36), these things are escaped by death even if they have not [yet] happeiud, etc. ^mul ic mihi collifaitoio est, prae^to est imago (N. D. i. 38), as soon as I have taien a fancy, the image is before my eyes.

protasis of general 1

\

c. The perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially w .negatives (finomic Perfect): as,—

qui atudet cootingece metam multa tnlit fedtqne (Hor. A. P, 412), ht I

Toho aims to reach the goal, fist bears and does many things. |

noD aeris acervus et aud didnxit corpore fibres (id. Ep, i. 2, 47), the file I

of brass and gold removes not fever from the frame. Note. — Tile gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time; bul ia use implies lal something which never did happen in any knoun case, never does happen, and ' Ijtever will (ct the English " FaiiU heart never won fair lad/') ; or without a nega- I ' lal has once happened will atways happen under

tl. The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying a fga/ion, where in affirmation the Imperfect would be prefer) dicebat melius quam Bcripait Hortensius (Or. 38), Horlensius spoke beller

than he -wrole. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison;

compare the use of qnisqaam, uIlUB, etc, (§ 303. f), and the French

ne after comparatives and superlatives.]

e. The completed tenses of some verbs are ei^ulvakut W ttt w ifcfe tenses of verbs of kindred meaning.

298 Syiilax: The Verb. [§§ 279-31.

Such are the preteritive verbs OdI, I hale; memial, /remember; novi, f know, oonauSvI, /am accustomed,'^ with others used preieri- tively, as vfinerat (= adexat, he was at hand, etc.) (see § 143, noK). Thus,—

qui dies aeslus maximos efficere conHuevit (B. G. iv. 29), which day ginit-

ally makes the highest tides (is accualomed to make), cuius splendor obsoUvit (Quinc. v. l8), ■aihese splendor is new all fadid

(has become old). Remark. — Many olhar verbs are occasionally so used : as,— dum oculos certamen iiverterat (Liv. xxxii. 24), -JikiU the conlat iai turned their eyes (kept them turned), [Here averterat = tenabat]

2. Pluperfeat.

280. The Pluperfect is used (i) to denote an action or state completed in past time ; or (2) sometimes to denote an action in indefinite time, but prior to some past time referred to ; as, — ■

(1) loci natura erat baec, quern locum nosCri castiis delegerant (B.G.ii.18},

this teas the nature of the ground which our men had chosen far s camp. Viridovix summam imperi tenebat earum omnium clvitatum quae dafece- raJit (id. iii. 17), Viridmiix held the chief command of all Ikssi tribes which had revolted.

(2) neque vero cum aliquld mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. iii, 7), tul

when he had given a thing in charge hi did not look on il as done. quae si quando adeptik e9t id quod ei faerat conoupltnm, tani feit alacci-

tiilem (Tusc. iv. 15), ifil (desire) ever has gained what it had \^^en-

ously] desired, then it produces joy. a. For the Epbtolary Pluperfect, see § 282.

3. Future Perfect.

281. The Future Perfect denotes an action as com- pleted in the future : as, —

uC sementem feceriH, ita metes (Or, ii. 65), as yen sow (shall have sown), Sa shall you reap.

camiina torn melius cum venerit ipse canemua (Eel. ix, 6;), then shall wt ling our songs hitter, when he himself has come.

si illius insidiae clitiorea hac luce fnerint turn denique obsecribo (Mil. 2, 6), when the plots of that man have ieen shown to be as clear as day- light, then, and not till then, shall I conjure you.

iS 281-84.] Epislolary Ttiiscs; Tenses of Subjunctive.

ego certc meum ofiicium praestitero (B.C. iv. 25), I al Itml ■wil dt>ite my duty ^i.g. when [he time comefi to reckon up the rnatteCi be found lo have done it, whatever the event).

Remark. — The Fuwre Perfect is med wiiii much greater exBctneas in han in English, and may even be used instead of the Future, fram the fbndi the Latins for representing an action as completed : as, —

quid inventum ait paulo post videro (Acad. ii. 24), what has bien_

out I iiiiU sec presfntly. qni Antonium oppreaserit helium taeterrimum confecerit (Fam. x

Ttrhofver eruskfS (shall have crushed) AnhnyioiU finish (wUl have

finiated) a most loathsome war. NOIE. — For the future perfect in future conditions, s<

III. Epistolary Tenses.

282. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect may be used for the present, ami the Pluperfect for any ■past tense, as if the letter were dated at the time it is supposed to be received: as, —

Deque tamen, cum baecsciibebain, eram nescius quantis oneribuspremerere (Fam. V. iz), nor white I tarile this am I ignorant under what bur- dens you are aietghed down.

ad tnas omnes [epistulas} Teacripaeram pridie (Att. ix, 10), / [have] answered all your letters yesterday.

cum quod icriherem ad te, nihil habereni, tamen has dedl litleris (Alt. ix. 16), rifltgr* I have nothing la -arite you, still I write this letter.

Note. — In this use these lenses are called the Epistolary Imperfect and Pluper- fecl. The epistolary lenses are not tised with any unifbrmily, but only when alten- tioti is particularly directed to the timi Bfwrit'mg. (So espei;ially acilbetiam, dabam, etc.),

IV. Tenses of the StJBjirNcrivE.

283. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent j Clauses denote time in relation to the time of the speaker. 1 The Present always refers Xa future time, the Imperfect to | either past OT /ircseut, the Perfect to either _/"«/wrjr or fa si, \ the Pluperfect always to fast.

284. In Dependent Clauses the tenses of the Subjunc- tive were habitually used in certain fixed connections c termined by the time of the main verb and the time <

le dependent verb together.

I

300 Syntax: The Verb. [§§ 285, 286

Note. — The leases of the Subjunctive were origlnaJIy used in Dependeni clauses (as in IndepeDdent), each wilh its own time in relatiun to Ihe point of view of the speaker; but in consequence of Itie natural tendency of language lo lefeial the parts of a complei sentence to oni lime, — namely, thai of the speaker,— Iho conDectionE in which these tenses were used became fixed. Hence the rules foi the Seguttice of Tin3£S. These are by no means rigid, but allow many varieties, es is patund from their origin.

SequeDce of TeDses.

285. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent clauses follow special rules for the sequence of tenses.

With reference to these rules all tenses when used in Independent claiises are divided into two classes, — primary and secondary.

1, Primary. The primary tenses include all forais that express present or future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future Perfect Intiicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the Present and Future Imperative.

Note. — The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary, but see { 287. j.

2. Secondary. The secondary tenses include all fonns that refer to pasl time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the Historical Infinidit.

NOTB I. — To these may be added certain forms less commonly used in Inde- pendent Clauses. Such are; (i) Primary: Present luEnitive in Exclamations; (a) Secondary : Perfect Infinitive in Exclamations (see j sB/. a. note).

Note 3. — For the Historical Present, see § =87, <; for Uie Imperfect Subjunc- tive in Apodosis, see } sSj.j.

286. The foliowingis the general rule for the SEQUENCE OF tenses; In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main

clause is followed by the Present or Perfect in the depend- ent clause, and a secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect : as, —

scribil at nos raoneat, he wri/cs lo warn iit.

scribet at no* monest, it will virile to ivarn us.

scribe (senbito) ut nos moneas, virile Hal you may vmrn u

scripsit nt nos moneret, he wrote to warn us.

scribit quasi oblitns sit, ke virilts as if he had forgotten.

scripsit quasi oblitus esaet, he -wrcle as if hi hadfirgoUeH.

rogo quid factiirus sis, I ask whatyeu are going to da.

Note.— The beginner must observe that the nils afftets only the tenses of ih Subjunctive in dependent cl^ises. The tenses of the other moods and (hose of ih Sabjaoctive in independent CDnslmctiona (.as \n a.-^6<«;\s ujoMan \b ^i«., 4 ™b ■Jfccled by Ihe sequence of tenses. tBa\ ct- ^'l ^i^- a

;ct Of

I

s of the

i, 287.]

Sequence of Tenses.

I

indary tense, but 1

Remarc — In applying the rule Tor (he sequence of tenses, observe (i) whether the main verb is (a) primaiy or (^) Becondaiy, (a) wbelher the dependent verb is

plete (»^. present or fiiliire with reference

(a) If the leading verb \!, primary, the dependent verb must be in the Frisetii^ | It denotes incompttte actisH, in the Ptrfeci If it denotes compUttd action.

(b) If the leading verb is «coHa!flf7, the dependent verb must be in the Impei- ficl if ll denotes hicompUte aclioH, in the Pluperfict if It denotes (omptetid action. Thus,—

he ■uiriltl (priroary) /o viarn pncompletej in, SCtibit Dt nos moneat. / ask (primary) vihalyou vire doing (now past), rogo quid feceris. Notice that the /^iiAiTir/VT^ff denotes action completed (at the time referred I to), and hence is represented in tlie Subjunodve by the Perfect or Pluperfect [ Thus.—

implUhcd, rogo quid perfecetis. aecampluhfd, rogavit quid petfedaset,

387. In the Sequence of Tenses some special points are to be noted : —

a. The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a allows the primary sequence when the present writer's mind. Thus, —

ut satis esBst praesiili proTisam est (Cat. ii. \i), prevision hat htm

that then should be ample guard. [Secondary sequence.] addiixl hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationlbus pOBsetis (Verr. 1. 1),

/ ha-ve brought a man in luhose person you can make salisfaci'

foreign nations. [Secondary sequence.] eat enim res iam in eum locum adducta, vt quamquam muUum intersit I

inter eorum causas qui dimicanl, tamen inter victorias nan muUum \

fntcrfutiirnin pntem. (Fam, v, ar, 3), for affairs have been Itrougkt U

atch a pass that, Ihtn^h then is a great digirenee between the causes af J

those who arc fighting, still I do not think there 11101 be much different J

between their trietories. [Primary sequence.] ea uDiibltia doctrina est quae vel vitiosiBsimam naturam excolere poasli 1

(Q. Fr. i. I, 7), such instruction has been given as can train even

faultiest nature. [Primary sequence.] Note. — The Perfect Infinitive in eiclamations follows the same rule: as,— adcon rem redisse patrem u< extimescam (Ter. Ph. 153), to think fft^ \

things have come to such a pass that I sliould dread my father.

h. After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive Is regularly used to

denote *ny past action. Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent,—

I. A Perfect Definile: as,—

non dubilognin omnes tui Bcripaerint (Favn. v.S"!, I ilo j/omr/HetKA Aai/i written. [Din

302 Sj'fUajtr: The Verb.

qtiare non ignoro quid accidat in nltimis terns, cum andierim in Inlii quetelis civium (Q. Fr. I. I, 33), Ikire/ore I knirai well what kappaa at tki ends e/ Ike earth, ■ai/ica I have heard in Italy the eemplaii lilizens. [In e. direct stalemeat, aodiTi.]

2. A Perfect Historical: as,—

me auteni hic laudat quod retnlerim, non quod paiteficerini (Alt, xii. ii), me he praises because I brouslit the matter ([before the Benale], iM because I iroiighlit to li^. [Direct statement: retDlLt.3 I

3. An Imperfect: as, —

si forte ceciderint torn intellegitot quam fuerlnt inopra amicomni (L^ I J, 53), if iji chance Ihey fall Quivti fallen), then one can see howpsor they were in friend!. [Direct question : qtiara inopea erant T\

qui status rerum faerit cum bos litteras dcdl scire poieris ex C, Tidlo Stcabone (Fam. xii. 6}, vhat the coHdition of affairs ■aias ■when Iwrali this letter, you can learn from Strata. [Direct quealion : qui erat?]

qnam civitali cirua fderit maeroce fHiieras Indicatum est (Lxl. 3, li),hs» dear he was to Ike Stale has been shown by the grief at his funeral [Direct qnesticin: qoam caiua erat?]

ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fherit PlutoniB auditor (Or. 4), it may he understood from his letters haw constant a hearer he taat ^ Plats, [pirect question: qnam freqnena erat?]

Note. — Thus the Perfect Subjunelive may represent, not only a Perfect Defin- ite or a Perfect Historical of a direct Btatemenl or question, but an Imperfect is well. This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive to eiprsj continued action afier a primary lense. Thus, miror quid tecerit may roran (1) I wonder what he has diiae,(s) I wonder what he did (hist, pert), or (3) I VTonder whal he was doin£.

c. In clauses of Result, the Perfect subjunctive Is very often (the Present rarely) used after secoiidary tenses : as, —

Hortenaius ardebait, dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nilllo unquam t^agrantiiu studium yidBrim (Brut. &&), fforlensiusivas sa hot with desire af speak- ing that I have nez/ir seen a more burning ardor in any man. Siciliam Vecris per triennium ita vexSvit ac perdidit, ut ea restitid id antiquum statum niillo modo poBBit (Verr. i. a^.for three years Verris so racked and ruined Sicily, that she can in no -way be restored to her former stats. [Here the Present is used in describing a state of things actually existing.] videor esse tionaecntuB ut non possit Dolabclla in TtaBam perrenitt xii. t^).T seem to have brought it about that Dolaiella tanHOl <lo Italy.

Remark, — This cotialmction emphasiies the result; the regular conalraetion

^H liib<

^^^B Note, — There Is a special Eocdnesiioi ttie ¥«^«ASi'JEisancA:qB^o ^gyqaat

^^B Pti^t Indicative. Thus,— ^h

Sequence of Tenses. 3031

lliDrius erat ita non supersticiosui uC iUa plutima in soa patria ct tacriHcia et lana contemneret; ita non dmidus ad mortein ut ia acie ait ob re pQblicam interfectaa (Fin, IL 20, 63), Thorita was so Utile sup, (ieus that he ii!u/t'jn/ [contemnebat] the many sacrifices and skrin kii tottntry ; so Utile timorous about dfolh that he was tilled [intet-fl rectus est] in ialllt, in defence of the State. 4

Zena niillu modo is erat qui necvos viitiitis incideiit (cf. g 279. i/); sedl cont^ qui omnia in una vlrtule ponerat (Acad. i. la), Zeno was fy n means eai to cut the sinetni of virtue ; but one, on the contrary, % made everything defend On virtue alatte. [jncndit . , . ponSbftt.]

eranl enim nobis periraH, quasi quicqnam di nostra saliilc decraviBBeniM "[ quod non idem illts censaissemus ant quasi utilius rei piiblicae fiierit COS etiara ad bestiannn auxiliom confagere quara vel emoii vel cum spe vivere (Fam. a.. 6, i),fiir th/y were very angry vrilk us, just as if loe had voted for anything in regard to ear own preservation which a had Hot advised theni also, or as if it were more advantageous to & slate for them to fly fir help to brutes than either la die or to live i hope. [Without quH.81, decreveriunua and fnit would have been used.]] j

d. A general iriiih after a past tense follow.s the sequence of t(

I

ex his quae Iribuisset sibi quam mut^ilis esaet ceputibat (Q. C iii. 9),

from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on hint, he reflected how into:

slant she is. [Direct: matiibiliB est.] ibi qaanlam vim ad slimulandos animoa irn haberet appacnit (Liv. xxxi

37), here il appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. [Dircctfl

habet.] Note. — In English the original tense is more commonly tepL

e. The Historical Present (§ 276. 1/) is sometimes felt as a primary,\ \ secondary tense. Accordingly it is followed by either J

*he primary or the secondary sequence, more commonly by the second-J BTj'. Thus, —

TOgat ut caret quod dixisset (Qdnct 5), he asks him to attend to the thing J

he had spoken of castella comma nit qua facilius ptohibere poaaet (B. G. i. S), he streugi

the forts that he might more easily keep them off. Note.— After the hislorical present, cum lemjioral with the subjunctive How the secondary sequence.

f. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in conditions contrary to fact 1 (8 30S) are not affected by the sequence of tenses : as, —

quia tale sit, ut vel si IgnSrJirent homines, etc. (Fin. iJ. 15, 49), hteause it is such that even if men WERE ignorant, etc.

£• The Imperfect Subjunctive in present conAifioia cnWowrj Xa Wj^ '§ 308) is regiH^rly {oMo-vi^d. by the secondary setpencft-- ^a, — ^

304

Syulax: The Verb.

[§S 387, 3BB

li alii coDsoles essent, ad te potiaslnum, PauUe, nutterein, nt eoi mOii (juam amicissimos redderaa (Fam. xv, 13), if there tuere oti/r lanmls, I should send le yau, Paaim, in prrference 19 all, that you laighl mat/ Iheni as friendly to mi as fossttle.

si CDS (^cerea miseioE quibus monendum eieet, neminem exciperes (Tusc. i. 5), if you called thost -wr etched wha must die, you would except na oni,

h. The Present is sometimes followed by a secondary sequence, seemingly because the writer is thinking of past time {Synesis) : as,—

sed si res coget, est qniddam (ertinm, qund ncque Selicio nee raihi dispii- cibat; ut ne<]uc laceie rem pateremur, etc. (Kazn. 1. 5. a), but if the case shall demand, there is a third [course] which neither Selieius nir myself disapproved, that -we should not allow, etc. [Here Cicero is led by the time of diapllcehat.]

sed tainen ut srarea haec tibi scnbo (Fam. niii. 47), but yet that you maj know, I virile thus. [As if be bad used the commOQ epistolary imper- fect Bcrlbehani <§ 3S2).]

tribuerettir (Leg. i. 22), such is the force of this precept, that it -•lai

ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god. [The precept was in

old one-]

Note. — The rules for ihe sequence of tenses must not be regarded as inflen-

ble. They were ofteu disregarded by the Romans ihemselves, either from careless.

*'. When a clause depends upon o becomes secondary as soon as the ti any form that represents past time :

seii lanien qua re aceiderit ut ex me

s already dependent, the sequence e is thrown back into the past by

I superioribus litteris id suspicKrirs ■tspected Ikts

nescio (Fam. ii. 16), but yet hovi it happened that yoi

from my previous letter, 1 don't know. tantuiu profecisse videmur ut a Graecis ne vecbocum quidem copia vlnn-

Temor (N. D. i. 4, 8), we seem la have advanced so far that eoen in

fulness of words vie are not surpassed by the Greets. But, — bcale radsse videor quia cum Scipionc Tixerim (Lael. 4, 15),/

seem to have lived happily in that I have lived with Sdpia (who had

just died). Note, — For Ihe application of (his rule to Indirect Discourse, see 5336. B.tiote.

28&

^^ theyd

V, Tenses of the Infinitive. 288. The tenses of the Infinitive denals present, past, ■future time, relatively to the time of the verb on which they depend : as, —

8se inferioies ititeWexit (,^. G. \\. %"), ht lucertafiurf AUf mt not inferior. tDviect-. iralA.A

Tenses of the Infinitive.

30s

IF- I qaam ISao feituc tetria magis omnibus ooluissa {J^. i. 15), whick Juno I I ii taidto hast ckerishtd above all lands. [Direct ; oolebat.]

spirant se miximuni fructum esae captaroa (Luel. 21), ihey hope they shall 1 receive iht greattst advatUage. [Direct; capiemuB,] a. After past tenses of verbs of necessity, propriety, and pnssibUUf I (as potui, dEbuI, and oppoituit) tlie present infinitive must be ren- dered by the Perfect infinitive in English ! as, — ■tare potuit (Milo, \-f), ht might have knonm.

qui videbiliir omnino mori non dehuisse (Arch. 3), -Jiha snmed [one that] flight not la have died at all

h. For the tenses of the infinitive in Indirect Discourse, see § 336. A. c. Except in indirect discourse, the Present is the only tense of the infinitive in comtnon use. It has no distinct reference lo time. Thus, — ^

:e Ait elders.

S vereri (Off. i. 34), il is [the duly] of a youth

', After verbs of vjishing, necessity, and the lilce,' the Perfect Passive ifinitive is often used instead of the Present : as, —

^BDfini

^1 nollem f(ictnin,/»-igrrf(i'(I could wish il not done). [The lUtin form

■ ./..%,.]

^H domestica ciira te levatiua [esse] volo (Q. F. iu. 9), / wish you relieved J

^H of household care.

^H quod iam pcidem factum enaa oportuit (Cat. i. a), which oa^t te have been I

I

domestica ciira te ^f household ca quod iam pcidem factum enaa opoctuit (Cat. i.

doat long ago (cf. a, above) . Note.— The paniciple in this case is rather in predicate agreemenl (with o wilhout ease) than used to form a strict perfect Infinilive, though Ilie full form cai hardly be dietinguished from that construction ; cf. m&tar&tC Opua oat, there i need of haste {} 293. A) and I p-ay thee have me excused,

ReuaEK. — In early and lale Lafin, and in poetry, rarely la good prose, Ihi tfecl Active Infinilive is also used insfead of the Present, and even after other | Hertjs than those of loci^iiir^ and the like : as, —

conunlHiBH cavet (Hor. A. P. 16S), he is eaatioas of doing.

baud equidem ptemendo alium me eitnlisao vellm (Liv. xiii. 59), Iwaiild j

not by crushing another exalt myself. lunC qui nolint tetigisBB (Hor. Sat. L 2), there are those who iBouldiiol

statim viciaae debeS (Rose. Am. 27), / ought lo win my case (I must be

regarded as having won it). Bollem dixisse (Verr. v. 20), / would net say

After verba oi feeling the Perfect infinitive is used, especially by poets, to denote a completed a

Syntax: Tin: Verb.

[gg 384889.

So also with satlB est, aatls babefi, melias est, contentua aum, and in a few other cases where the distinction of time b important. Thus, —

non pa.eiiitebat intercapedinem scribendi fEcisee (Fam. xvi. 21), Iiaas M

iorry to have made a respile of writing. pudet me non praeatitiaBe (id, xiv. 3), I aia ashatited not to have siavm. sunt qiiDS curriculo pulverem Ol^picum <!ollegisae luvat (Hor. Od. L I. j),

Ihire art thine -.vUo dtligAI, etc. qniease erit meliua (Liv. iii. 48), U will lit teller ta have kepi quiel. nil ego si pccccm possum neaciase (Ov. Her. xvii. 47), if [ shauM go wrm^,

I catinet have done il in ignorance (a.m not able not to have known).

/- The Future infinitive is often expressed by fore (or futuium eaae) ut with the subjunctive; so necessarily in verbs which have do eupine stem (cf. §§ 302. Rem., 332, e). Thus, —

Epero fore nl contingat id nobis (Tusc. i.), I hope that wilt be our hapfyltl.

II. — NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS, eral Noun and Adjective forms associated with the verb ai

Present Perfec

nd

Future

''

AtlribulLve (} =91 and a). Simple Predicate {{ agi. *). Periphrastic Perfect [passive) (§ 3i}I. R.). Predicate of Circumstance [^ 393). Descriptive<In(Iirecl Discourse) ({si9a.().

Periphra:

B(}»

3. a).

Ls Objeci

Periplirastic with ful (= Piupertecl

junclive) (} =93. 0. As Descriptive Adjective ({ 394. a). Periphtastic with esse ({ 394. 1). 3. Of Purpose with certain verbs (} 394. li).

e Genili

;({!

Dalive.wilhAdjectives (of Filness), Nouns. Verba <} 399). Accusative, with certain Prepositions {} 300). Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions

Former Supine (in -um), with Verbs of Motion (} 301). Latter Supine (in -Q), chiefly with Adjectives (} 303.)

I.-PARTICIPLES.

389. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form of an Adjective ; but has a partial distinction of tease, and may govern a csl^c. ^^^^^^^

Va89,290.] Distinctions of Tense in Participles.

Note. — Thus Ihe parficiple combines all tlie funeiioQS of an adjecii of Ihe functions of a verb. As an adjeclive, ii limits subslantivcs, ant them in gender, number, and case (J iS6). As a verb, it has distinct M 390), and often takes an object.

P I. Dlstlnctioiis of Tense.

" 290. Participles denote time ^s present, fast, or ftitiire with respect to the time of the verb in their clause.

Thus the Present Participle represents the action as in progresi at the time intiicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as completed, aoi3 the Future -as, still to talte place. -. a. The Present Participle has several of the special uses of the Present Indicative. Thus it may denote: —

I. An action continued in the present but begun in the past <5 276- «):"•.-

qnaeienii mihi iamdiu certa res nulla venieba.t in menlEm (Fam. iv. 13), though I had long iouglit, no certain thing camt to my mind.

13. Attempted action (§ 276. *) : as,— C Flaminio teatitit agrum Picenlem dividentj (Cat. Maj. 4), hi misted Flaminius lohen attempting to divide Ihe Piiem territory. 3. Futurity (§ 276. f) : as, — iena in Pompeianum bene mane haec scripsi (Att, iv. 9), /write this when about going very early la my plan al Pompeii.

b. The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs is used nearly in the sense of a Present.

Such are, regularly, ratus, Eolitms, veiitus ; commonly, flsus, ausus, BecfltuB, and occasionally others, especially in later writers. Tlius, —

cohortatna mililes docuit (B. C. iii. 80), eneonragiHg the men, he she-.oid

iratna dixisti (Mur. lp),you spoie in apassion. ) obUtuB auspicia (Phil. i. \i),/argeltiHg the auspices. ft insidias veritns (B, G. ii. 11), /earing aaiiuscnde. ■ impcrio potitns (Liv. »xi. 2), holding Ihe cemmand. I ad piigtiam CongresBT (id. \i. 10), meeting infi^.

rem incridibilem rati (Sail. Cat. 48), thinking Ihe thing imredible.

c. The Ladn has no Present Participle in the passive. The place of such 3 form is supplied usually by a clause with dum or oum,. rarely by the participle in -dna (cf. p. 3 [4, foot-note): as, —

nullis evidcntibus causis obiere dnm calceantnr matiitino duo Caesarel

(Plin. N. H. vii, 181), from no obvious cauu Iwc Catari ditil -mkiit

I iai/if^ lieir sAoes put on in the morning.

308 Syntax: The Verb. [SS 2 id. 291

meque tsta delectant aaxa Laline dloimtiir (Ac. Filor. i, 5), liose Aingi

pltasi rut ToiiH they are spoktH in Latin.

crucibus adfixi aut flammandl (Tftc Ann. xv, 44), crucified or let en fat (in Samei),

Note, — The constructions withduia and cum see often used when a pardd- ple might be employed: as, —

dk, hospes, Spait^e, nos te hie vi^sae iacentes, dnm Sanctis patriae Iq^bu obseqnimnr, tdt it, stranger, al Spar/a, that you saw us lying hiri ot'cdient lo OKf country's sacred laias. [Here dum obseqnimnr is a tranalation of the Greek present participle rtiflrf^ti'Di.]

dum [Ulixes] sibi, dam sociis redilnin parat (Hor. Ep. i a, ai), Ulysiis, ■while securing the return of himself and hit companions. [In Greek:

d. The Ladn has no Perfect Participle In the active voice. Tbe defidencyis supplied —

1, In deponents by the perfect passive form with its regular active meaning ; as, —

nam singulis [naves] nostri consectaU expiigniviriint (B, G. Hi. I5)>/"' eur men having overtaken Ihem one by one, captured them by boarding-

2. In other verbs, either by the ablative absolute with a change of voice C§ 255- d, note) or by a clause (especially with oum or dam): as, —

itaque oouvocatls centimdmbiui milites certioies facit (B. G. iii. 5), aHd so, having called the centurions together, he informs (he soldiers (the centurions having been called together}.

cum vinisBet animadvertit collem (id. vii. 44), having tome (when he hid come), ht noticed a hill.

Note. — The perfect participle of several deponent verlre may be either actJTt or passive in meaning ({ 135. b).

2. Adjective Use. 201. The Present and Perfect participles are used sometimes as attributive, nearly like adjectives : as, — cum antiquissimam sententiam turn comprobalam (Div, i. j), a viea at

once most ancient and -will approuid. signa nunquam fere Smentientia (id. 9), si^ns hardly ever deceitful. Buspiciis Stantor coaotla (id. 15), Ihey use forced auspices. a. Participles often become complete adjecdves, and may be com- pared or used as nouns. Thus, • —

quo mulieri esaet res cautior (Cscin. 4, 1 1), that the mailer migil be mere (nMsarlibuspr»eBt*ntiawmtt»tpeOi.\. t)0,a\i^, fi

i 291, 292.] Predicate Use of Participles. 309 j

vbi indolgentis et corpori diBervientfis (Leg- i. 13), thi lelf-indulgmti I and slavei la Ihs body (indulgiag themselves and serving Ihe body).

recie facta paria esse debent (Par. iii. i), right ditdi (things rightly done) I eu^t to be like in value (see § 207. c).

mile part* male dUibaQtur (Phil. ii. 27), ill got, ill afenl (things at I acquired, etc).

c5n5iiitSd5 Talentia (De Ot. ii. 44), the kahii of a man in health.

b. Parljctplea are often used aa Predicate Adjectives. As such ihey I □ay be joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb (see §§ 186. b,

Gallia est divTea (B. G. I. i), Caui is divided. «

locus qui nunc saeptna eat (Lir. L 8), tiie place which is naio enclosed.

videtis ut senectus sit operosa et semper agena aliquid et molieua (C, M. S) ymt see hsvi busy eld age is, ahaays aiming and trying at something.

nemo adhiic convenire voluit cui fucrim occapatus ((^t. Maj. 10, 32}, noiody hilherlo hat [evei^ wished to converse with me, to vihom I heme 1 been "engaged."

Remark. — From this pretticale use adse the compoand tenses of the p

the participle of completed action with the Incomplete lenses of esse developing 1 : idea of past time : as, Interlectus eat, In laas (or has been] hilled, \\U, he it %aDing-teea-iilled {^.e. already slain).

In Ihe best writers (as Cicero), the perfect participle, when used with ful, et tetains lis proper force; but in later WTilers the two sets of tenses (as EUnKtUS Mora orlul} are often used indiscriminately to form Ihe tenses of the perfect sj^tcm fcl the pas^ve : as, —

[leges] cum quae lataa sunt turn vero quae promolgatae faerunt (Sest. 25), Ike laws, both those which were frsposed, and those which viete published, [The proposal of the laws was a single act ; heuce lataa I Hunt ia a compound perfect. The publishing, ot posting, was a COU' 1 tinned state, which is indicated by the participle promulgatae, and | fulrant b the perfect of the copula.] I

anna quae fixa in parietibiis faerant, hum! invenla annt (Div. L 34), tkt J ariHtTvhich had been fastened on the walh -were found upon the ground. ' [Cf. occnpati anat et fulrant (Off. i. 17), are and have bten engaged. The difference between this and anna quae, etc., is, that oocupatua in this sense is used only aa an adjective.]

3. Predicate tTae. 292. The Present and Perfect paitJciples are often used J Ss a predicate, where in English a phrase or clause would I te usual.

In this use the participles express time, cause, occasion^ \ ptmdition, coTicession, characteristic (or description\y manncTyj W^a^s, af/^/ic/a/t/ circumstances. TVius, -

310 Syntax: The Veti. [s 392.

volveutea hostilia cadavera. smlcum reperiebant (Sail. Cat. 61), mifb

relHiig ever ike corpses of the enemy Ikey foand a friend. [Time.] paululam commorSitaB, signa canere iubeC (Sail. Cat. J9, 1), afier delaying

a Utile Tiikiie, he orders to give Ae signal. [Tiioe.] loDgiui prosequi Teritna, ad Ciceionem peivenit (B. G. v. 52), decause lu

feared to foUaw further, he came to Cicero. [Cause.] quo sclret laiis dare iaanu habenia fJEs,. \. 63), mhf mi^ know kme It

give them loose rein when bidden. [Occasion.] danmatom poenam sequi oportebat (B. G. i. 4], if etmdemneJ, fimisk-

otenl mast overtake him. [Condition.] Balutem InapSrantibna reddidiali (Marc 7), you have restored a safrlj

wA^A we did not hope. [Conceaaion.] Dardaniua caput ecce puer detectua {^En. x. 133), Oit Trajan boy uirf

kii head uncovered. [Deacriplion.] nee ttepides in iisum poacentia aevi pauca (Hor. Od. ii. 11. 5), kiKl

anxious for Ike nleds of age that demands little. [Characteristic] indtaU fuga montci allissimos petebant (B. C iii. 93), in headlong figil

tkey made for the highest mountains. [Manner.] mililes Hublevati alii ab aliis magnani partem tlineris conficerent (B. C 1.

G8) , the soldiers helped up by each other, etc. [Means.] hoc Ia.udans, Pompeius idem iuravit (B. C. iii. S7), approving &is. Pirn-

Pey took the same oath. [Attendant circumetance.] ant HedloB aut BmbatmnH disputabam (Tusc. f . 4, 7), / conducted the dii-

cussion either silling or Tvaliing. [Circumstance.] Remark. — These uses are especially frequent in (he ablative absolute ({ s^i-d]. A co-ordinate clause is someiimes compressed into a perfect participle: as, — Inairueioa ordines in locum aequum deducit (Sail. Cat. 59), he drans »}

the lines, and leads them to level ground. ut hos transduclos necacet fB. G, v, 5), that he might carry them ever anJ

put them to death. Note i. — A pardciple with a negative often expresses (he same Idea which in English is given by viithuut a.ai a verbal noun: as, —

miserum est nihil pro&cieutem angi (N. D. iii. 5), it is wretched la vex

oneself laithoul effecting anything. Note a. — Acceptum and eipBnaum as predicates with terre and reterre are book-keeping terms: as, —

is expensBB (Vcrr. ii. 170), ■what sums he ckarg/J

a. A noun and a passive participle are often so united that the parti- ciple and not the noun contains the main idea: 'as, —

conditam condendamve urbcm (Liv. Pref.), before tlie eily -was b^ill building.

Compare Ihe participle In Indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin's Greek Grammar, i 2B0) ; and the E.ne\U\\. "'T^as av ftie tcisl ^eaSi fir Pirtw^w" (DrydeoJ, u. for the conquest of Persia. '"^^^^^^M

B > Cor.

^B^ Grammar ^^(DtydeD).

I 292.] Predicate Use of Participles. 3 1 wk

Uli libectiteni eivium Romanorum inuninatam non tulerunt; vos vitom erepttkin neglegctis (Manil. 5), l&ey did nal endure llie infringimcnl of the cUisins' literly : will you disregard Ihi deslruclien of their life?

post homines natoii (Brut. Gz, 224), since the creation of man.

iam i conditi ucbe (Phil. iii. 9), even from the founding of the l

b. The perfect participle with a, noun in agreement, or in the neutti 5 an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opuB, need (ef. S 243- 0 : ^. -

opus tactO est viatica (Plaat. Ttin. 887), there is need of laying i

maturato opus est (Liv. viii. 13), tlitre is need of haste.

Note. — The omission of Ihe noun in agreement gives rise to comple* cm

quid opus factost, what must be done? [A mixtore of qnid opus eat fieriZ

and quo facto opoB eat ?]

e. The perfect participle with habed (rareiy with other verbs) baa

almost the same meaning as a j>erfect active, but denotes the costtintui

effect of the ataion of the verb ; '

Bdem qnem habent apectatani iam et diii cognitam (Div. C. 4), my

fidelity, -aikich l/iey haxe proved and long knoTon. cohoites in acie Ixxx. cQuHtlttttaa habebat (B. C, ii

cohorts stationed in line of battle. nefirioB duces captoH iam 1 1 comprehinsoa tenetia (Cat. iii. 7, 16), yoU have captured and hold ill custody the infam,

d. A verb of effecting or 1 he like may be used in combination witb the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that verb more forcibly: as, —

praefectos suos multi uubbob feeerunt (Verr. iv. 58), many diseharg,

their officers (made dismissed), hie tranaactam reddet omne (Plant, Capt. 345), he will get it all dotU

(restore it finished). ademptnm tibi iam fexo omnem melum (Ter, Haut. 341), Iioill relieve

you of all fear (make it taken away), illam tibi incenaani dabo (Ter. Ph. 974), T iidll tnahe her angry with yau^ Note. — Similarly TolS (with its compounds) and CUplC, with a perfeol' participle without esse (ct } =38 d. note ) : as,—

me ejtcnsStnm volo (Verr. i. 40), I wish to be excused (I want myself e:

cused, ef. T pray thee have me excused). qui te conventnm cupit (Plant, Cure, 304), who wants to meet you (wan

1 TbB perfect wilb have, in modem languages of LaUq s-toek,, bas ^ravm oi^

312 SjiHtitr: The Verb. [§§292,293

e. After verbs denoting an action of the senses the present participle in agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive of indirect discourse (§ 336), but expresses the action more vividly: as,—

Note. — The same construciion is used after foclO, IndQcO, and the like, is-ilh Ihe name of an aullior as subject: as,—

Xenophon facit Socratem diBputantetn (N. D. i. i;), Xcnofkon rtfratnli Socratts disfiuiing.

4, Future Participle.

393. The Future Participle (except futnrna and ventfinu) is rarely used in simple agreement with a noon, except by later writers.

a. The fiiture participle is chiefly used with Baae (which is often omitted) in the active periphrastic conjugation (see § 129) : as, —

morcte, Diagora, non eaim in caelum adBcensoma ea (Tusc. i. 46), dii,

for you are nol liiely to i-isi to heaven. aperat adoleacens diii ae Tictnnun (Cat. Maj. 19), tlu young vian hofrsli

Hoe long (that he shall live long), neque petitama unijuam consulalum videretur (Off. iii. 20). and did net

setm likely nirr la be a eandidale for the eensulshifi.

h. By later writers and the poets the future participle is also used in simple agreement with a substantive to express ; —

1. Likelihood or certainty: as, —

aufius est rem plus famae habituram (Liv. ii. 10), he darid a thir^ wkiik ■would have more repute.

2. Purpose, intention, or readiness; as, —

cum leo regem invoBDraa ineurrcret (Q. C. viii. 1), ToAen a Uoh ruiAtdoH

to attack the king. rediit belli casnm de integro tentatiirus (Liv. xvii. 6i), Ae relitriudto try

the chances of war anew. dispeisos per agros milites equitibus inTaBoira (id. xmi. 36), -while thi

horse were ready lo attack the soldiers scatlertd through IkefitUs. [A

rare use of the Ablative Absolute.] si peritoras abis (^u. ii. 675), if you are going a-ojay to perish.

3. Apodosis: as, — dedit mihi quantum maximum potuit, datoma ampliut i^ potuisset (Plin.

Ep. iii. 21), he gave mi as much (U fu <ould, rtady la (iiie aw MMfv 1/ Ae had been able. - ^^^^^^^^m

I

iH 293, 294.] Gerundive {Future Passive Participle). 313 1

With past lenses of eaae, the iiiture participle is often equivalent I the pluperfect subjunctive (see § 308. d }.

. Gerundive (Future FasBive Participle).

NOTE.— The participle in -due, gomnionly called the Gerundive, hi linct uses ; —

(1) Us predicate an

(2) Its use with thf

294. The gerundive when used as a Participle < Adjective is always passive, denoting necessity q\ propriety, I

In this use of the gerundive the following points are to 1 be observed («-«

a. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect participles, in simple agreement with a. noun : as, —

fuctem et conserraiidiiiri virum (Mil. 38), a brave man, and -worlhy la

h. The most frequent use of thb form is with ease in the second \ • {passive) periphrastic conjugation (see § 129) : as, —

■aaa agitajida res erit (Verr. vi. 70), taill not the thing havt t

c. The neuter of the gerundiv witli an object. The object is i] verb. Thus, —

s occasionally used impersonally 1 e case regularly governed by the 1

agitandtunst vigilias (PI. Tr. 869), I have got to stand guard. 'a quam nobis ingTediendnm sit (Cat. Maj. 2), thi way we have to enter.

:h laliG Iheir object in the dative i

legibus parendnm eat, llie laws mast be obeyed. ntendnm execcitiiionibus madicis (Cat. Maj. u

e mederalfm

^L No

■ >eg ■

^P d. After verbs signifying to gfve, deliver, agree for,

undertake, demand? a gerundive in agreement with the object is used to express purpose ; as, —

1 Sometimes called Nominative of the Genind. Compare Greek verbal in -Woi {Goodwin's Grammar, f 281).

I Such verb? are accipiS. adnStS, attribuQ. condQcfl, cflrS, dSnCtS,

dSposcB, dS, diTidS, dSnS, SdlcS, 3doceS, ferS, habeS, locO, mandO,

oblclO, permltta, peta, pdaS. praebeG, pr&pOiA. reaoigpS . Toa^ . bo*-

V alptO, trSdS, voveO.

fell

[I4 Sjii/ax: The Verb. [§§ 294-M.

ledemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faoiendam (Div. ii. ai)< l^'

contractor -.vho had vndcrlakcn to make that column. [The regular

construction with this class of verbs.] aedcm Casloria habuit tnendwn (Vcrr. ii. ^o) , At kaJ Iht letnflc 0/ CaMr

lo take care of. naves atque oncra diligenter adservanda curabat (id. vi. 56), he looi rdR

tiat the ships mid cargaes should be kept.

II.-GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.

295. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in

the form of a verbal noun. As a noun the gerund is itself

governed by other words ; as a verb it may take an object

in the proper case. Thus, —

ars bene disserendi ct vera ac falsa diiodiivuidi (De Or. ii, 3S), Iht ari

of discoursing well, and dislingiiisking Ihe true and false. RIMAHK. — The nominalive of the gerund is supplied by the infinitive. Thus

in the nominative, would be eipressed by the infiniiives dlsaerero and dlitl- dlc&re.

290. When the Gerund would have an object in the accusative, the Gerundive^ is generally used instead. The gerundive agrees with its noun, and takes the case which the gerund would have had : as, —

paraliores ad ainnia pericula Bulietuida (B. G. i. 5), readier la undergo aU dangers. [Here sabennda seiees with peticnla, which is itself gov- erned by ad. The construction with the gerund would be, ad Hubeun- dom pericula; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing the accusative perlcttta.]

exercendae memoriae gratia (Off. i. 15), for the saie of training Ike memory. [Here the gerund construction would be memoriam eier- cendi gratia.]

plerisqne in rlbua gerendia tarditas odlosa est (Phil. vi. 3), in the con- ducting of most business, sloth is odious.

1 The gerundive construction is probably the original one. The participle in -duH seems lo have had a present passive force (as in aate condendam urbem (}39a.a).rotundus,voIveadadieB [Virg.),flMi]mcuuII(Tac.).} 390.0 Iron which the idea of necesEily was developed through that of futurity, as In the devekip- tnent o( the subjunctive (see p. 374). COnelUum urtila dfilendae would have meant a f ion of a city ieiiig diitroyid [in process of destruction] . then aioul la be it- 'Ihytd. then to be destroyed, Iben a plan 0/ dtstroying the c>tj,\'nE\MiQ-«wd&beCM-

~ fo^reiher as in ab urbe coTid.VA. ^^^|

a 296-98.] Gt'mnd and Gerundive. 3lf

Note.— In ibis use Ibe gerund and Ihe gcruodive are translaled in the same

1, bul have really a differenl conslruclion. The Gerundive ia a paisivi particl-

. and agrees wilh its DDiin, though in tianslatioa we change the voice, jusi as

may Iranslale vlerillae ag'taiiilaa Bunt {guard must bs kspl) by / nmit

aand guard. The Gerund is (he neuter of the gerundive used impersonally, but

letaining the verbal Idea sufficiently to govern an object, as in agttandiiQiBt

Vlsill&B(j 394.;). It may therefore be considered as a noun (cC opuB est

matUrftta, i 29a. i) wilhaverbalforce(tf. banc tactlfi. p. 335, foot-nole). See

3.4. foot-note.

The following examples illustrate the parallel and gerundive : —

\hi allends la tilling the Jitlds.

Abl. tcrit tempu* J ^"^endo epislulaa 1 ^^ ^^^ ,.^^ .^ u.riHng Ult^,. "^ I scnbendis cpislulia i

Rgmakk. — In the gerundive constmclion Ihe verbs Otor, fruor, etc., are Irealed like Iranaitive verbs governing the accusadve, as they do in early 1-atin {1 149.*): as,-

expetuntnr divitiae ad perfmendas voluptates (Off. i. 8), riches an ssi^dl for the tHjoymcnl of flcasHres (for enjoying pleasui

&07. The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the oblique cases, in many of the constructions of nouns.

1. Genitive. 208. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive i&

used after nouns or adjectives either as subjective or objective genitive : as, —

neque consilit babendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G. iv. 14)*, time bdng given neither for farming flans nor for latins arms, [Objective.] ne aonBervandae quitiem patriae cauaa (Olf. i. 45), not even for the satt

of saving the cBuntry. [Originally subjective genitive.] Vivendi finis eat optimus (Cat. Maj. 20), it is the best end nf living. [Sub-

non tam commiitandarum rerum quam evertendarnm cupidos (OCT. ii. i),

desirous not so much of changing as of destroying Ihe stale. [Objective.]

Note.— In a few phrases the Infinitive is used vfith nouna ■

rre xhe genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive, Tims \«IEB'^

3i6 Syntax: The Verb. [§§298.299.

qaac res Tertend&e reipublicae aolent esse (Vert. iii. 53), things lAiA generally tend to the mierlhrBio of the cammQmaealA.

si arborum ttunci deiciendi operis essenC missae (B. G. iv. 17), in can truiiis of trees should be sent dawn [with the object] of BVertArim/itii Ike -work. [Peed. gen. like quas anl commodi fecerat (v. 8).]

Aegyptum pioliciscitnr cognoscendae aatiqaitatia (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), ir sell out for Egypt lo study old times.

nc id aaaentandi magis quam quo habeam gritum facere existimies (Tcr. Ad. 2-;o), for fear you should Ihiiti that I da it more far the saie ej /lattery than because, etc.

a. The genitive of the gerund is occasionally limited by 3 noun or pronoun (especially ani) in the objective genitive instead of taking a direct object: as, —

eias videndi cupidus (Ter. Hec. 372), eige' to see her (eager for a leeiog

reiciendi triom iiidicam potestis (Inv. ii. ^jjthe fovier ef ehalienging Ikrii

jurors (of the rejecting of three jurors). Bni coUigendi facultis (B. G. iii. 6), the opportunity to recover Ikemuhies. Note. — This construction undoubtedly arose from the fact that the genini,

noun (or adjective) governing an objective genitive [cf. f 317. i). Thus sul col- llgecdl faeultaa would be literally, a chance of a recovering ef theirs. Tins consiniction is easily disdnguished fiom that of the gerundive by the feci that llit gerund does not agree with the substantive in gender and number.

b. In genitive constructions the Gerund and Gerundive are abc equally common.

c. The genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive is used with causS gratia to denote purpose (see § 318).

Note. — Thip is merely a special use under the main hsad of \

2. Dative. 299. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive after adjectives^ which take the dative and rarely after 234. a) : as, —

1 The dative of the gerund and gerundive occurs most commonly after the

adjeciives accommod£tua, aptus, Ineptue, bonus, habills, IdfineuA. p&r,

, ataia, lallCUia. But the accusative wtfti bA ia tommon tiVSi wjw. o( Uteu

i3e^^

I 299, 3O0.] Gerund and Gerundive. 317J

;nus arniorum aptnm tegendia corporihna (Ijv. xxxli. lo), 1 armBr sitittd to the dtfence ef Ike body, sociam siudeo acribendia veraibna esse {Luer. i. 25), / dedre b IhoH (Venus) be my farltier in inriliHg verses. reliqua tempoia demetendis fraetibas ct percipiendia acoommodUa 1 sunt (Cat. Maj. 19), Ae other seasons are Jilted to reap and gathir in Ike harvest. perfereadia mllitum mandatJB idonens (Tac. Ann. I, 23), suilabU for carrying out the insirutlians of the soldiers.

, The dative is used in a few expressions after verbs ' ; as, —

diem ptaeslilil operi faoiendS (Vetr. ii. 56), he appointed a day for doing the work. -aeesse agto colcndo (Rose. Am. l3), to take charge of cultivating the

■.e 8olvend5, to be able to pay (to be for paying).

i. The dative is also used ii

I

the office, etc. : as, —

comitla coosulibos togandia (Div. i. 17), elections for nominating consuls. triumvir coloniia deducundis (Jug. 42), a Irivmvir for planting colonies. triomviri relpublicae constituendae (title af the Triumvirate), triumviri (1 commissinn of three) f>r settling the government.

3. Accuaative.

300. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used only after the prepositions ad, inter, circa, ob (and rarely m and aute) ; most frequently after ad, denoting Purpose (cf. § 318. b): as, —

4

t

INoTC — Tlie Accusative of the gerund widi a preposition never lakes a direct [ed, the Ablative of the gerund very rarely. The GerundivB is used instead 396}.

is ad Bcribendnm (Or. la), you summon me to write.

in ad deponendam sed ad confirmaiidaia attdaciam (Cat. i. you live, not to put off, hat to confirm your daring.

IS aditiis ad ea conanda (Ii. C. i. 31), having found means to ua. take these things. T agendum (Eel. Ix. 24), while driving.

i Sacb are praeeBtte, operam dare, dlemdioare.'Vocinn cK^etfe.

318 Synlax: The Verb. [SS 301,301,

4. AblatiTB.

301. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used (i) to express Manner,^ Means, Cause, etc.; and (2) after Comparatives; and {3) after tlie prepositions ab, dS, 81, in, and (rarely) pt3 and oum : as, — ■

(1) muUa pollicendo persuadet (Jug- 46), he persuades by largi promise!. Latine loqaendo cuivk par (Brut. 34), equal ta any man in sfeiiinf

nuUu viitutis prieceptis tr£dendli (Off. i. 3) , -wiAoul delivering any

precepts of virtue (by delivering no pteceptK) . his ipsis legendu (CaL Maj. 7), by reading these very things. obscjiram alque humilem conciendo ad be mullifiidineai (Liv. i. 8), calling

to them a miati and obscure /nullitude.

(2) niillum ofRcium rsterenda grmtia msgis neccssiiriuTn est (Off. i. 15), hi

duty is mare important than repaying /avers.

(3) in re gerenda vetsari (Cal. Maj. 6), to be employed in conducting again. Note. — The Ablalive of Ihe Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely os«l

with verbs and adjectives : as, —

Appius non abstitit oontiuaiuido magistralum (Liv. in. 34), Appius did not

desist from continuing his magistracy. Remark. — The gerund i^ often found co-ordinated with nominal ci in apposition with a noun : as. —

(1) in foro, in curia, in amicorum pBricolis pulsandia (Phil. vii. 3), in Ihi

forum, in the senate-house, in deftnding my friends in jeopardy.

(2) ad les diversissimas. parendnm atque imperaudum (Liv. xxi, 3}, for At

most widely different things, obeying and commanding.

Ill.-SUPINE.

NOTB. — The 3uplae is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension (f 71. u) , having

no distinction of lense or person, and limited to two uses. (1) The farm in -um

is the accusative of Ihe end 0/ motion [5 358. *, Rem.), (a) The form in -Q is usually

dative oipurpase (j 333), though probably the ablalive has been confiised with it.

302. The Former Supine (in -um) is used after verbs of motion to express purpose. It may take an object in the proper case. Thus, —

I In this use the ablative of the gerund is, in later writers nearly, and in medieval wrllers entirely, equivalent to a present participle : as, cum Qnft difirum flendO BSdlsset, quidajn mtlea generfislis IQxta earn E<;)it(TAM>0 T&nlt (Gesia Romftnorum,66 [58J), as one day she sat weeping, a certain knight came riding (Compare f 301, fifth example.) From the gerund used as ablative of manner Ihe ifaJiaJi and Spanish forms of 1,\ie pirsraA v"*'^^^* *.»* -maiulinidi.aft- rue participial form becomitig a.u ad'iM&vc\w'emiK\M.ts>atpi. ^-

r

302, 303.] Supine.

quid est, imusne sSssnm? eUl monitiim venimus tS, riaa flagitfitom CI^I m. S}, hownow, ikall wt ht sealed f though we have loml to remind,^ to entreat you?

nuptnm date (collocare), lo give in marriagi.

veneiunt queatam iniuriu (LJv, iii. 25), they came to lomplain of wrongu. \

RKMARK. — The supine in -utn is especially common willi eS; and willi tt passive infinitive tri Torms llie fulura infinitive passive. Thus.—

fuiie cives qui Tempiiblicam perditum irent (Sail. Cat. 36), there wer§ %

eitiiens viho ivent about la rain the rspnUii (ef. % 258, b. Rem.) noa Graig gervitum malribusibo {/i.-a. ii. 7S6), I shall not go to be a slavt A

lo the Grecian dames. d Ecisset Be tmciditom in (Div. ii. 9), i/Ae (Pompey) had inmoH that ■

ie was going to be murdered. [For the more usual form of the future J

inHnitive, see g 147. c.']

303. The Latter Supine (in -fl)^ is used only with 1 ■few adjectives, with the nouns fas, nefSs, and opus, and I .rarely with verbs, to denote an action in reference to which I the quality is asserted : as, —

O rem non modo nan foedam, sed etiam aatHtu (Fhit. ii. 25), a thing net J only shocking to see, but even lo hear of.

quaerutit quid oplimum faotu sit (Veir. ii. 27), they ask what is lest

hiiminnm factn aut inceptii (Ter. Andr. 236), a human thing It

si hoc ias esl dictfi (Tuac. v. 13), if His is lawful to say.

vidctis nefas esse dictfi, miseram fuisse talem senectiitera (Cat. Maj. 5),

you see it is a sin to say that such an old age was wrelcked. pudet diota (Agric. 32), it is shame to tell.

Note.— The lalter supine is thus in appearance an ablative of specification 353), but see { 303, hEad-note.

Remark. — The supine in -H is found esped ally with such adjectives as indi- te an effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, dificully, A the like. But with faollie, dIfflclliB, lucundtiB, od with the gerund ii ore common. Thus,— necTisa facilis nee dicta adflbilis ulli (.^. iit. Bzi),

for any man lo look nl or address, didtcilis ad diBtrngaendiml siniilitudo (De Or. il 53), a distinguish. With all these adjeclives the poets often use the InHnilive in Ih faciles aurem ptaebere (Prop.), indulgent to lend an eai

> The only lalter supines in common use are aUdltO, dicta, facta, inventa, Bwmoi4cn, nfttQ, tIbO. Jn classic use this supine i& iound.ui ailkjis-^wnto)- rrbs. Jl is never followed by an object-case.

I

Syntax: Conditiotiat Seiiteiices.

Chapter IV. — Conditional Sentences.

Note. — THh Conditional Sentence differs from other compound senleii«si» this, that the form of Ibe mala clause (APODOSIS) is detetmined ii by the nature of the subordinate clause (PltDTASls), upon ths truth of whidi the whole statement depends. LJke ali compound sentences, however, the Condilioiul

time became so closely united as to make one rnodified stalemcnL Thus — i]»Mi Ihr wordi up) strvant thall it iialedis an earlier farm of expression than l/lia sptak the word, tic.

The CondidonaJ Particles were originally independent pronouns ; thusd,i/iii a weak demonstrative of Iho aame origin as bIo, jd (^-oe like M-ce, see fool- notes at pp. 65, 67), and Leis the primitive meaning of in that -may, or in so<Ht auf.

Id its origin the Condition was of two kinds. Either it was assumed and slaial as a fid, or it was expressed ai a mild cetamand. From the first have came all the uses of the Indicative in protasis; from the latter all the uses of the Subjancliic in protasis. The Apodosis has either (i) the Indicative, expressing the concIusiHi a] afict; and the Present and Perfect Subjuncdve, expressing it originallj u /»A<w— andhencemoreorleESifaB*(rti/— or (a) the Imperfect and Pluperfect Sub- junctive expressing W-a/ifiiluram iafratterUi} andm >oi/uI/!I2ed in the present or past Thus lides, millSre CadJnnS concutitur, you latigA, he liaits wiH marl bo'ulirous lausMer, is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and apodosis; bI lldSS originally means merely you hmgk it some loay et o/irr. and so, later, w you laugh. So toeqs ArtatSnem, De^t, aiiAttsto,/U -would S{^ns, is the original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis; b1 rogSa would tae3:atak in some-wayer other. In rf rogftrea, neBftret, the Imperfcti rogftrBs transfers the command of rogea to past lime,* with the raennmg supfase you hoi aj&rf, and rf would have the same meaning as before; while negftret transfers the future ideaof noget to past lime, and meases he was geir^lo deny. Now the slating of this supposition at all gives rise to the implication that it is laitrtie in feint a/faa. — because, if it were true, there would ordinarily be no need to stale it as a sup- position : for it would then be a simple fact, and as such would be put in the indic- ative.' Such a condition or conclusion^ originally past, raeaaxag svfifioieyou had asked [yesterday] , A( was going to deay — caraeto express an unfulfilled condition in the present; suppose (or if) yoaioere how asiing,hev/ov!d\Tiavi\ rfn^-jusl as in Eng- lish oMghl, which oiigiaally meant owed,* has come to express a present obligation.

1 The fiitHrum in praelerito is a tense future relatively to a lime absotulily fast. It denotes a future act transferred to the faint of view o/pait liMe, and hence is naturally expressed by a past tense of the Subjunctive : thus dlxlsset, he would have jaii/= dicttlnia fuit, ke was aioni ta say [but did not]. As that which looks towards the future from some point in the past has a natural limit in present time, such a tense (the Imperfect subjunctive] came naturally to be used to express a present condition purely ideal, that is to say, coutrary to bet,

i Co-nipaTc-^oVlxaSlcerai, he should rather have said {^ 266. e).

S There are, however, some cases in which this implication does not arise: as. aeciSns centSca dedlsaea, lA erat in loculls (Hor. Sat. L 3, 15), if you'd

*"Thetevas a certain lender wYikh ou^^am &re \«iE&re4 \ivtKiet." — 7j»

304.] Protasis and Afodosis.

Conditional Seotences may be classified as follows; — I. Simple Present or Past Conditions, noihing implied as lo fulfilment I US'*)- ■"

S. FUTURE CONDITIONS: ( f ?'°" _!"!¥ ^ S"?)- ii. Less vivid ({31^),

3. Conditions Contrary f 0. Preseni ( j 308).

TO Fact: U. Past (} 308).

4. General Conditions : f f" '"'''^''""f ^"'jJ^Jf 3=9- ■>).

I i. Repealed Aclion (} 309. S. c),

f I. in clause of Fact, Wish, Commando 310. i,0. 2. inPailicipialExpre:

1. Protasis and Apodot

304. A complete conditional sentence consists of two clauses, the Protasis and tlie Apodosis.

The clause containing the condition is called the Prota- sis; the clause containing the conclusion is called the I Apodosis: as, —

ai qui enire volunt [protasis], conivere possum [Apodosis] (Cal. H. 11),

if any mish lo depart, I can kctp my eyes shut. Ei est in exsilio [protasis], quid amplius posiulatis [apodosis] (Lig, 4),

if he is in exile, what mere dtiyau askt Note. — It should be carefully noted Ihal Ihe Protasis is Iho ettpendntt ettuat, a. The Protasis Is regularly introduced by the conditional particle 1 (if) or one of its compounds. '

Note. — These compounds are bIq. nlal, atiama!, etal, tamstBl, tamenetd (see Conditional and Concessive Particles, } 155. e,g). An Indefinite Relaiive, or «ny lelative or concessive word, may also serve lo introduce a conditional clause (see {316).

^Lr b. The Apodosis is often introduced by some correlative word or B))hrase: as, bIc, Ita, tnin, ea ooudlcifine, etc. Thus, —

^B ita enim senectiis honesta est, si si ipsa dcfendit (Cat. Maj. 11), en (Air

^H eaniiitian is eld age honorable, if it defends itself.

^K n qnidem me amaret, turn istuc pr^dessel (Ter. Eun. 446) , if he loved me,

H then Ail would be f>ref table.

H KOTE. ~ In this use sic and ei coodlclSne ate ra

1

I

322 Syntax: Conditional Sentences. [§§ 304. 305.

C. The Apodosis Is Ihe principal clause of the conditional sentena, bul ma/ at the same time be subordinate to some other clause, and m be in the form of a Participle, an Infinitive, or a Phrase; as, —

Ecpultuca quoque prohihitEirl, ni rex human iusBisset (Q. C viii. 2), tVuM^ ing also la deprivi him of burial, unless thf king had ordertd him lik interred. quod SI praeterea nemo seijuaLur, tomen se cam sola decima legionc iturlB [esse] (B, G. i. 40), iuli/ne one ilse taould fiHinii, he -would go wiA Ar l/nlh Ifginn alone. N quos adversum proelium cominoverel, hoa reperire posBe (id. J, if the las

of a bailie alarmed any, Ihey might find, elc. Note. — When the Apodosis ilself is in Indirect 1 conslruclion, Ihe verb of Ihe Protasis is regularly in I two of Ihe above examples, see J 337).

d. Conditions are either (l) Particular or (2) General.

1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts occurring at some definite time,

2. A General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which may occur (or may have occurred) at any time.

2. ClasBificatioil. 303. The principal or typical Forms of conditional

setitences may be exhibited as follows: —

a. Simple Conditions, with nothing implied -s^ to fiilfilment.

1. Present, nothing implied. Present Indicative in both clauses.

si adest,! bene est, if hi is [now] hire, it is ■will, •

2. Past, nothing implied. Some past tense of the Indicative in both

si aderat, bene erat, if he was [thenj hire, it mas wtU.

si adfuit, bene fuil, if he has been here, it has teen tveli.

I. Future Conditions (necessarily as yet unfulfilled).

I. More vivid.

(a) Future Indicative in both clauses.

si adetit, bene etit, rfie is (shall be) Aeri, it will bi ■aiell.

(i9) Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in apodo- sis (condition thought of as completed before conclusion begins).

Cf. the Greek forms -. — a. I. .; ,pA<,aii toCto, «aA£. txti.

!. ti lirpaooe toEto, koXus tlx'"' «' ^irpajt Toiro, KaKws fax*'- ' iity irpiaTit tai'to, KoXas i^tu 2. ti itpoijaai tovto, voXut &v fx^'

•I twpaanf toIto, KaXus \v «txtv. i. tl (T(iat« Toiro, uiUit &•< ttxtt,

S 305.] Classification. 335I

si adfaeiit, bene erit, if hi is (shall h&ve been) hire, ilwill [tbea] ti weB'

(but it will not begin to be well until he actually ia here). 2. Less vivid.

(a) Present Subjunctive in both clauses.

si adsit, bene sit, if hi should be (or were to be) here, it wiiuld he wiH. (;3) Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apodt Rconditioa thought of as completed before conclusion begins),

i adfuerit, bene sit, if Ae sAould It (ahould have been) Aere, it loauld tiben] 6e -.uell.

: Conditions Contrary to Fact.

I. Preseut, contrary to fact. Imperfect Subjunctive in both dauses.

li adessel, bene esset, if he -mere [nowj here, it -mould be ■aieU (bnt he is

NOT bete). !, Past, contrary to fact. Pluperfect Subjunctive in both dauses. i adfuissel, bene fuisscf, if he had [then] been here, it tmuld ham been

well (bul he was not here). d. General Conditions. Usually not differing in form from Par- ticular Conditions (a, b, and c) ; but sometimes distinguished in the cases following : —

I. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time), (a) Present Subjunctive second person singular in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis,

I si hoc dicas, creditur, if any one [ever] says this, il is [always] believed. (j8) Perfect Indicative in protasis. Present in apodosis. si quid dixit, creditur, if he [ever] says anything, it ii [always] believed. 2. Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time). (a) Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis, Impterfect Indicative in apod-

.1 quid diceret, credebatnr, if he [ever] said anything, it was [alwajj]

believed (= whatever be said was always believed). (^) Pluperfect Indicative in protasis. Imperfect in apodosis. i quid dixerat, crcdebalur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always]

believed.

Remark. — The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he h aiivt new is a PRESENT condition, fo be expressed in Ijtin by the Present Indicative; if he is alive next year is a FUTURE condition, expressed in Latin by the Future Indicative. Again, if he were here now is a present condition con- trary to fact, and would be expressed by llie Imperfect Subjunctive ; if he were la a FUTUHE condition less vivid to be expieMeA'b'^ fts^riSK*.^"*!- ) too, t/yau advised him, he would atUni ma^ tie ViB.\Hi\ew.-iw^&^J

324 Syntax: Condiliona! Sentences. [S SOi

3, Freaent and Fast Condltfons — Xfotbing Imjiliecl.

306. In the statement of present and past conditioDS w^ose falsity is not implied, the present and past tenses of the Indicative are used in both Protasis and Apodosis, Thus,—

Bi tu exerdtosque valeCia, bene est (Fam. v, 2), if you and iht army an will, it is ■anil. (^Present Condition.]

huec igitur, si Romae es; sin abes, auC etiam si ades, haec negotia sic sr tibent (Alt. v. l8), Ihis, then, if yea art at Rome; but if you art a-aiay — or evett if you are then — these mailers are as feWns. [Present.]

si qoi ntagnia ingeniis in eo genera exstitecunt, non sails Graecoruni gloriu respondcnint (Tusc. I. z, 3), if any men Have appeared of great gtmia in Ihat branch, iHty have failed to compete wilk Sie glory of the Grith. [Past Condition.]

accipi Goma sineepistula tim fasciculum littetarumin quasi modaTatoutti et Romae foisK Philotlmi dnco esse cuipam non tuam (Att. v. 17), I have received from Rome a bundle of tellers ■aiilhout any from you, ■aihich, provided you have been viell and af Rome, I take to be tki faidt of Fhilotimus, not yours. [Mixed; Present condition and Past con- clusion.]

qiuB littecas, si Romae ea, videbls putesne reddendas (Alt t. iS], m A this letter, if you are at Rome, you v4U see whether in your opinion U ought lo be delivered. [Mixed! I^esent and Future.]

st nemo impetravit adcoganter rogo (Ijgar. 10, 31), if ho one has lui- eeededin obtaining il, my request is presumptuous. [Past and Present.]

a. In these conditions, the apodosis need not always be in the Indica- tive ; but may assume any form, according to the sense. Thus, — si placet . , .yide£iQlu (Cat.*lBJ. l"), if you please, let us see. [Hortalotj,^ faerit hoc censoris, si iudicabat (Div. i. 16), si^pose it was Che ctnior'i

duty, if he judged it false. [| Hortatory Subjunctive.] si nondum satis cernitis, roDOrditmilu (Milo, 23, 61), if you do net yH ui

clearly, reicllecl. [Impetativc.J SI quid haties cerlius, velim. scire (Alt. iv. 10), if you have any trust-

worthy information, I should like to inaw it. [Subjunctive of Mod-

«t7.§3"-M Note. — Allhough the /arm of these conditions does not imply anything as to the Irulh of the supposition, the sense or (he context may or couise have some such

L in nostro omnium llelii niillam lacilmam aspexiertia Miloms, hoc a ei parcere (Milo, 34, 92), da not, if am ul the weeping of us all hase seen no tear [to llic c^ea\ «/ Milo, ifari Inm (iw teu ^

i 306, 307.]

Fiitttre Conditions.

3251

petimos a vobis, iiidices, si qua divina in Eanlis iogeniia comtncodslia debet esse, ut euro in veslcam nccipialis tidem (Aicb. 12, 31), let ask

.JiWi j'"^S'h if Ihtrt ought la be anything in iiici genius to rccommtad U to ta as by a reeommendaliou of thirds, that you recmi him undtr \

your freterlion.

In these two passages, the protasis reall; expresses cause : but the cause is I the speaker in (he fonn of a non-commillal condition. His hearers ai raw the infecence for themselves. Id this waf the desired impression is mads \ 1 their minds more efTectiirely than if an outspoken causal clause bad been J

4. Future CondlUons.

307. Future Conditions may be more or less vivid.

1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a i distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis express- I mg what will be the result,

, In a less vivid future condition, the supposition i less distinct, the apodosis expressing what would be the I result in the case supposed.

, In the more vivid future condition the Future Indicative is used ] !tti both protasis and apodosis : as, —

sanSbimni si volamuB (Tusc. iii, S), we shall be healed if we wish. qaod si [egere aut audite vnletia , , . reperietia (CaL Maj. 6), ifyeu ■aiiU \ [shall wish to] read or hear, you -01111 find.

Note. — Id English the protasis is usuallj' expressed by Ihe Present Indicative, | «jely by the future with SHALL. Often in Latin tlie Presenl Indicative is fo ' ' : pcolasis ofa condition of this kind (cf, \ 276. e) : as, —

u cesaerimas, eadem illk | er, all things will be safe \ \ same things will becomt \

advoisa fient (Sail. Cat. 58, 3), if -we for vs ; but if ive yield through fear hostile.

A pereo bominutn manibus peiiisse iuvabit (/En. iiL 60G), if I perish, it I v)iU be pleasant to have perished at the hands of men.

i. In the hsi vivid [\iVaTe condition the Present Subjunctive la used ] I both protasis and apodosb : as, —

haec SI lecura pafria loqufitur, nonne impetrarc debeat (Cat. L i/ your eounlry should thus speak with ihee, oughl she not to _

quod si quis ieas mihi largiatttr . . . vaUe lewLaem (,C»X, ■^fcwj, I'i^, rytf/iu jv,/ Ti^^re /ogratil me this, I should iivully rej\

Syntax: Conditional Sentences.

[}307,

REMARK.— The presen

C. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Future Indic- ative in protasb, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present Subjunc-

tiill excaieytt.

a Ihe apodosis of a liiliKC

sin cum poluera, Don venero, turn erit inimicus (Att. ix. 2), tut i/Idt lu CQOit when I can, he will bt unfriendly.

si noD feceris ignasc^m (Fam. v. 19), if you Jo ni

Remark.— The Futuie Perfecl is very often used ii conditian: as, —

vehemenler mihi giitum feceria, ^ hunc adolescentem hiiiiianilate tH comprehenderis (Fam. xiii. 15), you iBtU do (will have done) au ( greatfavor, if you receive Ihis young tnan iBilkyour usual courtesy.

d. Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in ihe apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in -dua and -mo, and verbs oi necessity , possibility, and the like: as, —

alius fin in conBtituendaa eat ^ prins quid maxime reprehendece Scipio solilas sit dixeto (Lsel. 16), anoOter Hmit must be set if I finl sldU jvhat Scipio -mas -wont most to find fault -with.

si me piaeceperit ^tum, vus mandisse memento, if fate cuts me off If soon, do you remimherthat I ordered this (Q. C, iic. 7, Ii).

nki ocidis videritis insidias Miloni a Ciodio factas, nee deprec4tnri somia nee poatnlitnri (Milo, 2, 6) , unless you see inith your crwn eya lit plats laid against Mlto by Clodius, I shall neither Ay nor demand, elc.

nSn possum istura acciisare si cupiam (Vor. v. 41), / cannot accuse kim if I skotdd desire to.

e. Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used In apodosis with a Present or even a Future in protasis, to represent the conclusion rhetorically as already accomplished: as, —

si hoc bene fixum in animo est, vioiatb (Liv. wii. 44), iftkis is welt fid in your minds, you have conquered. \Yi>t you wilt have conquered.']

si enndein [animuro] babueritis, vioimna (id. 43), if you shall *aw t^ the same spirit, ve have canjuered.

f. A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time, with- out implying that it is contrary to fact (§ 30S). In such cases the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used ; as, —

1 II often depends entirely upon the view of the upon Ihe nature of the condillon. whether ll shali e proverbial " If Ihe sky lalls, we shall calch larl licalty pal in Ihe vivid form, to WusWaW condilion slated by some one else.

t the moment, and ni

15 307, 308,] Conditions Contrary to Fact. 32;:]

non poterat niat vellet (B, C iii, 44), imi hoI able un/ist he wished (c

Cacsac si petetet . . . non quic<juam proficeret (Hot, Sat, i. 3. 4), (/ Cissar were le ash he would gain nothing. [Here ihe coaatructit not contrary to fact, but la simply si petut nott proflclat, thrown past time.]

Imnolus apparuit . . . u lace palam iretnr hoslia prat^venturus etat ( nil, 24), a hitt appiand . . . if Ihey sAoiildgo eptitly by light, the ei ■uiBuld prrvenl. [If independent of appjiruit, this would be, si eitur, praeventaruB eat (forpraeveniat),]

Note.— This conslruction Is not common excepf in Indirect Discourse {} 337),

5. Couditloiis ConttarT to Faot,

308. In the statement of a supposition known to be\

false, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, are used]

both Protasis and Apodosis.* The imperfect refers t(>; Present Time, the phiperfect to Past : as, —

quae m exseqnl neqairem, lamcn me Icctulus oblectaret mens (Cat. Maj, I

11), if I could not [nowj^^uio iliis (an active \\ifi), yet my couch loowWB

afford me pleasure. [Present.]

nisi tu anuEiases, nunquam recepissein (id. 4), unless you had lost it, I'M

should not have recovered it. [Past.] El meum consilium auctoril^ue valnisset, til hodie eg§r&, nus liberi 1 eBsemiiB, respnblica □□□ tot duces et execciliis imlsisset (Phil. iL 15}, ] if my Judgment atid authority had prevailed [as they did not], _ would this day be a i/ggar, we should be free, and the republic would not have loil so many leaders and armies. [Mixed Present and Past.] qui nisi levertiaget, in eo conclavi ei cubandura ftdsaet, quod proiiinia nocte conruit: niina igitur oppreasoB eeaet; at id neque si fatum fuerat eHogiwet, nee si non fuerat in eum cisum incidiBBSt (Dir. ii. 8), ifii had been decreed by fate, he imtdd noPhave escaped, etc, [TTie Bpodosis of faeiat is not efingisBet, but the whole conditional sen- tence of which effagisaet is the apodosis; the real protasis of efiSgia- aet is cevertisBot (cf. § 31 [. </).] a. In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to ^luf'l lime, both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a. repe- Mnued actiott is denoted, or when the condition if trut ■would still fl .Mxist: as,—

]

- The iropllcaiion of fiilsiiy, in this consnuclion, is not inherent In the L_..jiu«.^ _ Itre; but comes from tie transfer of a fixture coadition ta past time. Thus lh«.l ^'niefor the happening of the condition has, at Ihe lime of writing, already passed; J that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to &ct. So pafl:] ■ms implTJnj a future frequently take the place o{ fticEKbyiacjareiB ' ' ' ! coDslruction (see d, below, and head-note, p. 320^,

Sf/Kax: Conditional Settlences. [§ 31

btc si mends easet suae, ausus esset iducece exercitum (Pis. ai), ifht vitrt ofsani mind, ivbuIJ ht havi dared le lead out Ihe army f [Here eoat dcnolea a continued state, past as well as present,]

non canddissent, nisi illud receptaculum dassibus nostcis p«iteret (Ver. iL I ), [t^B ^ower of Carthage] taould net have fallen, anless that staluii had been open to eur fleets. [Without the condition, patebat]

Remark. — This use necessarily arises from (he fact that the pluperfect is equivalent lo a future perfect in fraetrrilo, and so represents the action as com- pleted and iKomcHbuy, rather than as continuing.

b. In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the Past tenses of tlie Indicative may be used to express what was intended, or liktly, or already begun; as, —

si licitum esset mattes veniebaJit (Verr. vi. 49), the mothers were coming

if it had been all<nved (see § 305. c. 2). in aniplexus filiae mebat, nisi lictorea obstitissent (Tac. A.xvi. 32), he was

about rushing into his daughters arms, unless the lictors had oppcsid. iam tuta lenebam, ni gens crildelis ferro invasisset (£n. vi. 35S), / inu

just reaehing a placi of safely, had not the fierce people attacked me. Note. — In such cases the apodosis any be regarded as elliptical. Thus, — mitres veniebant (et venissent) si licitum esset, the matrens inert coming

(and would have kept on) if it had been aWmied. [And so in the

other examples: tilta tenebam (et Cenuissem) si, etc.]

mperfect indicative corresponds in lime lo the :t or pluperfect indicative to the pluperieci suojuncuve.

c. Verbs and expressions denoting necessity, propriety, possibilily. duty^ when used in the Apodosis of a condition contrary lo feet are regularly put in the Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative instead of the Subjunctive 1 as, —

^ila puta3«et certe optabilins Miloni fait (Mil. 11, 31), if he had tioH^

so, surely it would have ieen preferable for Milo. El Romae priviitua esset hoc tempore, lamcn is erat deligendtu (Manil, 17), if he (Pompey) were at this time a pri-uale citizen at Rome, yd

he ought to be appointed. quod ease caput debebat si probati posset (Fin. iv. 9), what ought lo k

the main point if it could be proved. nam nSs decebat lugire (Tusc. i. 48, ii^), for U would befit us to mourn.

1 Such are poBaum, deoet, oportet, dSlieo, and the Second Penphrastic CoaJugatiOQ. Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of fiiturily {ci, note above). Thus, docet m5 [hodlB] Ire CrOs, means it is proper for ml [lo-day] lo go to-morrow ; and, decSbat mS [herl] , Ire hodlS, it was propir ~ ■ mt {yeUtiiXa.y\ logo to-day, yxi\^Xi'j w\& fee vrnv^itaiitm vWl f haut not gent ai

K 308, 309.]

General Conditions.

il is only the thing m elf. U ihe Hiceaify Tbs. "ITie difference i

fuarv (etc.) Ihit is ci self is conditic aflen imperceptible, I

Note 1.— In

I the necessity ii bjunclive is used as with nlher > y be seen in the following eiam quid farere pottdssem niu torn consul fuissem? consul a

potni nisi eum vilae cursum lenuissem a pucritia (Rep. i. 6), ;

roald 1 Aaiie done if I had not Iheit been comul ; and hmo could /M

have been censidif I had not followed Ihal courst of lift from boyhood, j Note a. — This eonslrucliDn is sometiinea carried still further hi poety : d HOD allum jactaret odorem, lanrus erat (Georg. ii. 133)1 il -were a lauril^ 1

bul for giving vut a different odor.

d. The participle in -finiB with eram or fnl may take the place (rf J an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the Apodosis of a conditloil \ contrary to fact : as, —

quid eaim f^torom fait [= fuisset], si . . . (Liv, ii. i), vihat ■mould havg 4 happened if, etc.

neque amhigitur quin ... id factama fnerit, si . . . (id.), nor it litre a\ question he would have done it if, etc. [Direct: feciaaet.]

ex quo intellegi potest quam aciiti nitHra »nt, qui haec sine doctnua oredi- tnri fiiermt (Tusc. i. 21), hence il may be underslecd how keen tkey are by nataref who, without instruction, vronld have believed this. QHete the condition is contained in Ihe words sine doctirin&.]

adeo parata sidilio fnil, nt Otbonem rspturi fderint, 1 '

timuissent (Tac, H. i. 26), 10 far advanced was the conspiracy that J Ihty woald have seised upon Olho, had Ihey not feared the hanards of 1 the night. [In a main clause : ra.pDiBsent ui timoiseent.]

Note.— This construction is regularly used when the apodosis

Discourse ti:dsse replaces erom or ful (i

'. The Present and Perfect subjunctive are

Indi

poetiy I in the protasis and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact : as, —

ni comes admoneat, inruat (.'^. vi. 293}, had not his companion warned \

hint, he lOBuld have rushed on. ni facifct, maria ac terras ferant (id. i. 58), unless he did this, Ihty looald I hear aioay sea and land.

6. General Conditions.

309. General Conditions (§ 304. d) have usually the | same fomis as Particular ContJitions. But they are some- j times distinguished in the followmg tViiee CEAe,?.'.-^

33° Sytitax: Conditional Sentences. {%% a^^.ZVl

a. The Subjunctive is sometimes used in the second person sitigular, to decote the act of an Indefinite Subject (^yau — any one}. Here the Indicative o{ a. general truth may stand in the apodoais : as, —

men) prope ati fecrom est : si exerceaa couieritur; nisi axerceit, ribi- ginem contraMt (Cato de Mot.}, Ihe mind is very like iron : ijyox sue it, il wears aiuay ; if you daiCl use il, it gathers rust.

viiliitem neccssario gloiia, etiimi» tii id non agia, conse^oitur (Tusc. L ^^t glory neeessarily follows virlue, even if thai is not one's aim.

si piohilnta impane trmnscendBriB, neque metus ultra ncque pudor ett fTac A. iii. 54), if yen tmci overstep lie bounds viilA impunity, there il no fear nor shame any more.

si (^eiea placabilis (Tac Ann.), \keviits\ easily appeased if one yielded.

b. In later writers (not in Cicero), the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect Indicative in apod- osis, to state a repeated or customary action in past time ; as, —

■cciisalotes, si faculras tuoideret, poenis adCcietiaiitnr (Tac. k.-rLyi),lki accusers, whenever opportunity ojered, viere visited with puniskmenl.

c. In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes the Perfect, and tlie apodosis the Present Indicative. For past time, the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in the apodosis. Thus,—

H quoB aliqaa mcmbroram parte iaiililis notivSmnt, nccan iabent (Q. C. i*- '» 3)> if they fever} mark any infirm in any part 0/ their limh, Guy [always] order them to be put to death. [Pcesenl.]

si H persequendu hostes detenere neqniveiaiit ab lergo circDinvemEbaJil (Jug' 5°)» 'XLevet] Ihey were unable to prevent the enemy from par- siiing, ihey [always] surrounded Ihem in the rear. [Past.]

d. In all other cases, general suppositions — including those intro- duced by Indefinite Relatives — are not distinguished in form from Particular Conditions.

7. Conditton Disguised.

310. In many sentences properly conditional, the Prot- asis is not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated in some other form of words or implied in the nature o! the thought. Thus, —

a. The condition may be implied in a Clause or in a Paiticiple. Noun, Adverb, or some other word or phrase. Thus, —

facilE me palercr — illo ipso iudice quaerente — pro Sex. Roscio dicere (Rose. Ara. 30, 85), / should readily allow myself to speak for Koiiim iftiat very judge taert conducting (lie irial. ^tssent. conmry to boll siquAereret, etc.^

3ia] Condition Disguised. 33I

con mihi, nisi admonito, venisseC in mentem (De Or. ti, 42), it svi kaue come into my mind un/ess [I had beenj rtminded. [Phi triiiy Co fact : nisi admouitna eaBem.] _

nulla alia gene tanta roole cladia non obcula esset (Liv, xxii. 54), tAire il~ na oiker fiopU that wonld not iavi itm crushed by such a joHghl of disaslcr. [Past contrary to fact: n alia fniuet.]

nemo unquam Bine magna spe immortBlilatis, se pro patiia oETeiret ad moitem (Tusc. i. 15), no am, ■without great hope of immortality, evir expose himself It) death for Ais country. [Present contrary ti nisi magnam Hpem liabeiet.]

quid banc pauconun aiiDorum aecessio iuvare potuisset (Lxl. 3),

goad could the addition of a few years have done kirn (if they had been added)? [Fast contiHcy to fact : m accsBHiBaent.]

qui igituT mihi feiaruni lanialug oberit niMl sentientl (Tusc. 1. ij, 104), ■aihat harm laiH the mangling by wild beasts do me if I don't feel any- thing (feeling nothine)? [Future more vivid: Bi nihil aentiam,]

incitiita semel proclive labunlur (Tusc. iv. 18), if once given a push, slide down rapidly. [Present General ; a incitata stmt.]

b. The condition may be contained in a Wish {optative subjuttcii or expressed as an Exhortation or Command {hortatory subjunctive^ imperative) : as, —

ntioam quidem foiaBem ! molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii. 3), / wiilt

I had been [chief] : he would not now be troubling us {i.e. if I had

been). [Optative Subjunctive.] naluram expelliui furca, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. to. 24) drive out

nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return. [Hortatory.] rogea enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 25), for ask Aristo, he would deny. manentingemasenibus, modo pennaneat sludium et industria (Cat. Maj. 7),

old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep ihtirstal and iHli-

genee (§ 366. d). [Hortatory.] tolls haoc oplnionem, Inctum susluleris (Tusc. i. 1 3), remove this notion,

and you ■aiill have done away with grief. [Imperative.] Note. — The so-called concessive subjunctive wilh ut and nS is really hortatory, id often has the force of protasis ({ 313. a): as,-^ nt enim rationem Plato nullam afferret, ip

i. zi, 49). even if Plato gave no re,.

e. Rardy the condition takes the form of an iniiependent clam

ridlH: maiore cachinno concutitnr (Juv. iii. 106), you laugh; he thai wilh louder laugiter (= if you laagh, he shaUes).

t This usage is probably the origin of

an iDdefiniie pronoun (see head-note, p. saol,

1

re tr^^

Mof

t ad

oouiilr^^m fact^H

04). any-

n

Sytitax: Cofiditiotial Sentences. [SS 310, 31L

wntiei (Tasc. iv. 24), sHr him vp \«B.ii\ ytm'U find, etc. de pauperlats agitnr: muUi patientes psuperSi commeniorantnc (Tiuc.

iii. 24), -we speak nf poverty ; many patient poor are mentioned. d. The condition is often contained in a Relative Clause (see § 316}. Remark. — For the use of a participle as Apoimsis, see j 304. c.

8. Condition Omitted. 311. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but maybe I inferred from the course of the argument. Thus, —

potetat Sexlilius impune negare : quis enim redargueret (Fid. ii. 1 7], Sis- lilius might kaiie denied with impunity ; for iiiho -aiould prove him wrong (if lie had). REMARK. — Under this head belongs the so-called POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE. I. POTENTIAl. SUBJUNCTIVE.

a. The Potential Subjunctive is used to denote an action not as actually performed, but as possible.

In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to the immediatey«/«^« ; the Imperfect io pas/ time. The second person is common, indicating an Indefinite Subject (cf. § 309. a). Thus, —

hie qnaerat quispiam (N. D. ii. 53), here some one may ast.

asaimilire frelo poHsis (Ov. M. v. 6), you might rompare.

ut aliquis forta5se dixerit {Off, iii. 6), as one may perhaps say.

foraitan haec illi mirentnr (Verr. v, 56), they may perchante marvel at these things.

turn in lecto quoque vjderei susucro* (Hor. Sat. ii. 8. 77), Aen ore each couch you might hear whisperings.

NOTE!.— ThePreBenllsBomelimeatispdforlhelDipertte: as,—

migranlis cetnas (JED.\\,^\),yotf might have seen them mavittg.

Note 2. — The Pluperfect is rare ia Ihis construction. Its place is supplied by

putftsaSa eius luctiia aliqnem finem esse debere (Sen. Dial. 6j 13), yeu vould have thought there ought to be some end to his grief .

Bubjunclive with forsltan does not differ in meaning from the ealiy an Indirect Question ( j 334. g).

unciive is strictly an apodosis wilh omlned , may be easily supplied, but often none is cr. So also the Subjunctive of Modesty (i.

II. SUBJUNCTIVE OF MODESTY". . The Subjunctive is used in caulious, modest, or hypothetical ijifltements (coniunctlvus madestiae). THs use is capeciaUy commaa apofite wish, with velim or 'veU.em. '^us., — ^^^^^^_

I 311.] Cojidttioit Omitted.

pu:e tni dizaim (MQ. 2S), Iwemldsay iyyvur Ittmt.

hsud sdunan (De Or. i. 80), f Aould inciint la tidiii.

lu velimsic eidslimes (Fam. xii. 6), I iheuld lilu yeu ta ikink le.

vix auBun ciedere (Ov. M. vL 561), I ikould kardfy dart itlieue.

vellem adesset M. Anlonins (Phil, i. 7), / lould jeisi ArUeny a

[Here vellem implies an imrDlfilled wiib in pccsent time; Tola nolo would express s peremptory wish.]

haec erant fere quae tibi nala esse Tellem (Fun. xii. 5), this is aioul Teial I shimld Hie you to know. [Here vellem is simplj velim transTcrred to past lime on account of enX (epistolary), 1^ sequence of tenses, and does not impl; an impossible wish.] '

m. VERBS OF NECEESITV. C. The Indicative of verbs signifying necessity, propriety, and the like, may be used in the apodosis of implied condidoDS, either future ir contrary to feet : as, —

longom ert ea diccre, scd . . . (lis. to), it would be iedioui to tell, etc.

[Fulure.] _ illud e»t uptiaB, aequum cuique concedece (Fin. iv. 1), it would be more

JiUitig to yield each one his rights. quanto meliOB fnerat (OSl iiL 25), how much better it ■mimid hai

quod centra decnii ah illo meum [corpus cremari] (Cat. Maj.), wluru

on the other hand mine ought to hat-e been burnt by him. ipsum enim exspectare magnum fait (Fhil. ii. 40}, -mould it have been c-J

great matter to wail fir the man himself? nam nos decebat domum lugire ubi esset aliqois in liicem editus (

48), for il were fitting to mourn the house where a man has bet

(but we do not).

erat dapibaa aodales (Hor. Od. i. 37. l), i.e. it would be time (if it were for us to do it, but it is a public act).

Remark. — Notice that, in Ihi? conslmction, the Imperfect indicative refers lo resent time; the flaperi leans ;/ oiigkl la it [no»

X tbird example above).

9. Complex Conditions. '

d. Either the protasis or the apodosis may be a complex idea iti which the main statement is made with expressed or implied qualifica- tions. In such cases the true lo^cal relation of thft gatts Is s disguised: as, —

1

Ide^H

I

Syntax: Conditional Sentences.

si qui& horum dixisset , . . e! veibDm de lepublica fedsset , . . inulU plura dixisse qnam dixissel put^ritur (Rose. Am. l), i/ any of Ihesi had spoktn in cast he had said a ■word aboui polities, he woatd br lia^l to have said much more than he did say. [Here tbe apodoaU nf dixiaaet is tbe whole uf Che following statement (si . . . putaietor), which is itself conditioned \fj a protasis of its own : ^ Terbnm, etc.],

qaod si in hoc mundo Retl sine deo nan potuit ne in sphoern quidcm eosdem motiis sine dIvTno ingenio potoisset imitiri (Tnsc. i. 25), turn if thai cannot be done in this univtrsi ■widtaiit divine agency, no tmrt eeidd [Archimedes] in iis orrery have imitated the same revoluHoni ' without divine genius. [Here u potuit (a protasis with nothing im- plied) has for its apodosis the whole clause which follows, but potoisset has a contrary-to-fact protasis of its own implied in line . . . ingenta,]

peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. Sat ii. I. 6), confannd me (may 1 perish wretchedly) (/ it wouldn't be better. [Here peream is apoilosi* to the rest of the senteoce, while the true protasis to opttmniu era,t, t-ontraiy to fact, is omilled.]

10. Partdclea of Comparieon (Conolueiou Omitted). 313. The particles of Comparison — tamqnam, tamquam tX, quael. Seal, utsl, velutEl, veluti, and poetic oon (all meaning as if), and quam bI {than if) — take the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, unless the sequence of tenses requires the Imperfect or Pluperfect. Thus, —

lamijuam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia were closed.

lamquam ai claudus aim (Plaut. Asin. ii. 4, il"), just as if I viere lame (i.e.\ta\

as it would be if I should be lame), ila bos [honores] petunt, quasi honeste Tixerint (Ja^. 85)1 they teek tken

(officSa) _/'ai? oj if they had lived honorably. quasi vero non specie visa iudicentur (Acad. ii. tS), at if forsooth visiMt

things TOere not Judged b}' their appearance. similiter fads ac si me TOgea <^.%.i\\.fi,youdo exactly as if you ashed me. aeque ac si mea negotia eaaent (Fam, siii. 43), as much as if it were my

own business. velut si coram adeaaet (B, G. i 31), as if he were present in person. ceu cetera nnsquam bella forest (-En. ii. 43B), as if&ere were nofigkHag

elsewhere. magis qnam si domJ eaaea (Att. vii. ^, more than if you were al home. Remark. — The English idiom would lead us to expecl the Imperfect anil Ruperfect Subjunctive with these particles; but the point of view is different in the two languages. Thus the second example above Is translated just as if I teert lame,— as if it were a present condition contrary 10 fact; but it really means/iut as [il would be] 1/ / sioK/d [at some future lime] ie laae, and so is a leu mid future condition requiring the present subjunctive. Similarly Quaal Iioiiastfl vtxeriat,as if they had lived honorably. \i. TeaWT m \.ftiwi ■«wjld do In the '

m

Concessive Clauses. 335 ^^H

Note. — These subjonclfve clauses are really future conditions with apodosis implied in the particle itself. Thus in tarotjuara al Olaudua Eim the protasis , is Introduced by A, and Ilie apodosis implied in tamquam.

^L 11. ConcGSBivQ Clauses. ^^H

H 313. The particles of Concession (meaning although, ^^|

^granting that) are the following: quamquam, qnatnlibe^ ^^|

qaanrvls, qnaotiim. vis, nt, nS, onm, licet, ets^ tameto^ ^^|

etiamBt ^H

^Some of these take the Subjunctive, others the Indica- ^H

ve. Thus, — ^H

a. Qnamvls, nt, and nB take the Subjunctive (§ 266. c) ; as, — ^H qnami^ ipsi infantes Hint, tamen , . . (Or. 23), however incapable of

speaking they themselves may he,yct, etc, ut neminem alium rogaBSet (Mil. 17), irvea if he had ashed no ether,

nBsit sSnesummum dolor: malum certe est (Tusc IL 5, M^, suppose pain ■

I it net the greatest evil, still it surely is an evil. ^^^

Note. — Quamvis means literally, iuiR»i:4ajjv»»></A Ttius in ihe cxampla ^^|

tfMve, Ullheta be as incapaile as yon will, still, etc. Tlie subjunctive with qualii- ^^|

via andnfi Is hortatory; that with ut is of uncertain origin. ^^|

b. IiicBt (properly a verb) takes a Substantive clause in the Sub- ^H

Junctive (§ 331. c) : as.— ^H

licet omnes in me terrotvs pcticulaque impendeant (Rose Am. 1 1), theiigh ^^|

all terrors and perils should menace me. ^^|

Note.— The subjunctive with licet is by the sequence of tenses necessarily ^^|

limited Id the Present and Perfect tenses. ^^|

c. Xitel, ettamnT, tamets^ even if, take the same constructions as •I (§305): as.-

etsi abeat maturitas (Fam. vi. 18), Aougk ripeness of age is wanting. ^^^

ctsi Dunquam dubium fiiit (id. v. 19), although it has never been doubtful. ^^H

etsi stataeram (id. v. 5), though I had determined. ^^H

etsi nihil aliud abstulisBetia (Suit, '^i'), even if you had taken away nothing ^^B

" else. ^H

ctiam^ qaod scribas non habSbls, scribito tamen (Fam. xvi. z6), even if ^^H

you [shall] have nothing to write, still write. ^^H

sed ea tametsi v5s parvi pendebatia (Sail. Cat. 52), but although you re- ^^H

garded those things as of smalt account. ^^^

d. Cum concessive takes the Subjunctive (see § 336) : as, —

onmmibi non omnino eTcidisBet (Fam. v, l^^t^u^h it had nut itUirelf

tur/tsiei/ [from loy mind].

r

336 * Syntax: Conditional Sentences. [§§ 313, 4

Note. — In eariy LaUd cum (ijaam) concessive osuallj lakes ihe Indies*

nil qnom eat nil defit tamcn (Ter. Eun. Z43), vihiU I Savf no/king, iHU

Holhittg is wanliMg. [See also § 326, note 3.] (. Qnamquam introduces aa adtnilted fact and takes the Indica-

omnibus — qa&inqnam mit ipse sais cladibus — pestem dennntiat (PbiLidv. 3), though hi ii ireaking do-am under his disasters, still he threaleHS alt with destructien.

f. Qnamquam more commonly means and yet, introducing a new proposition in the indicative ; as, —

quamquBm haec quidem tolcrabilia. videbantur, etsi, etc. (MiL 2S), ani yel these, in truth, seemed now bearable, though, etc.

g. The poets and later writers frequently use quEunvb and quam- gnam like etal, connecting them witli the Indicaiive or the Subjunctive, according to the nature of the condition. Thus, —

quamqnam moreretoT (Liv. Kiivi. 34), allhoagh he was moved.

PoUio amat nnstram, quamvis eat tSstica, musam (Eel. iiL S4), Pollio lova

my must, though she is rustic. quamvis perveneriia (Liv. Ii. 40), though you had came. Note, — Even Ocero oceaaEonallj uses quamquam wilh the Suhjunclive;

quamquam ni Id quidem suspicionem coitionia habuerit (Pli

net even Ifiat raised any suspicion of a caalitiim. k. The Relative pronoun qui is often used with the Subjunctii express concession (see § 320. e).

i. Concession Is often expressed by the Hortatory Subj'i out a particle (§ 266) : as, —

Bit clarus Scipia, 6metnr eximia laude Africanas, habeatnr vir egregins Paullus . . . erit profeclo inter hoium laudea aliquid loci nosttac glJriae (Cat. iv, 10, ai). '■'' S'ipi'' be rtaawned, let A/ricanus be honored with especial f raise, let Paulas be regarded as a remarkable man. [still] Aeri will surely it some room for my glory amid the fraiitt of these

13. Fro via o. 314. Dum, modo, dummodo, or tantum, introducing a Proviso, takes the Subjunctive; as, —

oderint dnm meittttni (Off. i. aS), let them hale, if only they fear. valetudo modo bona ait (Brut, id), provided the health is good,

\odQ inter me alque te mucuj iDietnt (i^t'^' ^V t^amded ffm^ du waU (of Ihe city) i; betaitcn ui. ^^^^^^H

Aoi^

i^ valel

S 314, 315.]

Provh

•e proviso n5

modo He sit ex pecudum gen

not oftht htrd ofiaUU.

id facial saepc, dum ne lassoin

provided he den not get tir,

a (severitaa) ne vaxietur (Q. Fr.

used, with or without modo, <

: (Off. i. ia-).fr^idfd [in pleasure] *

nafc(CBioR. R.v.4),/f/ d.

) , prmidid only il

). only let ,

lo is hortatory ( j 266. if) ; that wi

se of ihe Subjunctive with dum in temporal .

10 loitg as my htallh is good, 1 don'

2 without i

it (Ov. M. is. J

Note.— The Subjunclive wilh mo

modo, a development from the

;, j 33E (compare Ihe colloquia

b. The Hortatory Subjuncti' presses a proviso (see § 266. rf);

sint Maeccnates, non deerunt, Flacce, Mi

Iie Matctnasts, Virgils will not bs lacking. Note. — - For a clause of Result expressing provi 13. Use of SI and ita Componnda. 315. The uses of some of the more common Conditional rticles may be stated as follows : —

a. I. SI is lased for affirmative, nial (nl) and al nfin for negative I conditions. With niai (generally unless) the apodosis is stated a versally true exceft in the single case supposed, in which c (impliedly) not true. Thus, —

niai Conon adest maeieo, unUss Conon is here, I mourn (i.^. I am always I

ia B state of grief except in the single case of Conon's presence, i

which case I am not). With 8l nSn {if nof) the apodosii tive) case supposed, but as to other c;

ri Conon non adest maereo, i} Conon is not here, I mourn (i.t

ihe single case of Canon's absence, nothing being said as to other a

in which I may or may not mourn). Note. — It often, however, mates no difference in which form the slfltemont

2. HI is an old form surviving in

leappearing in poets and later writers.

Sometimes niai si, except if, utiless,

noli putare me ad quemquam longioris epialuli me pliira scripsit (Fam. xiv. 2), «f«^/ in cay

b. HiBl vBro and niai forte regularly introduce exception iraiiua/fy, and take the Indicative ■, as,—

338

Syntax: Conditional Sentences.

nisL vSr5 L. Caesar cnidelior viani eat (CaLiv, 6), unless indeed Z- Casar

seemed Ino cruel. nial forta Tolnmas Epicuteomm apmionem sequi (De Fato, l6), unlus lo

be sure we choose in/otimo Ihe notion of the Eficurtani. Note. — This islhe r^ular way of Introducing a rfi/u-dM ad atmrdiim in Latin. Nlel aloneis sometimes used in this scDBc; as, —

niai unum hoc faciam ut In puteo cenam coquant (Plaut. AnL 363), uhUh

J da this one thing, [make them] cook dinner in Ihe latU.

c. SIve (aeu) . . . sive (sea), whether ,, .or. Introduce a condition in the form of an aitcr/iative. They may lie used with any form of condition, or with different forms in the two members. Often also they are used without a verb. Thus, —

nam ilia loco fibentissime soleo nil, mve quid mecum ipse cogil5, mve quid aut Bctibo aut lego (De I^g. ii. i), for I rajoy myself most in that place, ■whether I am thinking by myself, or am either writing or reading.

Note. — SIve . . . seu and mea . . . bItq are tate or poetic

d. KiBi is often used loosely by the comic poets in the sense of

ecce autem cle integco: nisi quidquid est volo scire (Ter. Ad, 153), M there it is again ; only whatever it is I want to knaai il. '^"

Chapter V. — Dependent Conslructions.

I.-RELATIVE CLAUSES.

The Relative, behig In origin a weak demonslraiiTe (or possibly, in some caseSr D inleiTogalive) , may be used indifferently with cither the indicative or the sul>* Janctive. A simple relative, inlraducing a merely descriptive feet, takes llie Indicative, as any demonstrative would do. Thus, tellQa quae fuerftt nldla, Bui many relative constructions take the subjunctive to indicate a closer logical connection between Ihe relative clause and the main clause.

These constructions have grown up from Ibe future meaning of the subjunctive, each with its own special development. In geoerat they are of two kinds, which are no^ however, very distinct in meaning : i, clauses where the implied logical connection is that of Purpose; b. clauses which express more or less distinctly some Characieristio of the antecedenU Of these last Ihe most common Is the ordinary clause o[ Result. Besides these two classes, however, there ate general relalJTes ot Protasis, in which the indefinite relatives lehotxvr, whtncucr, etc^, are r^arded ^ oondidonal expressions, equivalent to, ifiotf one, if at at^ lime, etc.!

Dependent Relative Clauses may be thus classified: —

1. Conditional Eelafive Clauses (j 316).

s. Qauses of Purpose {Final Clausn) (j 317).

3. Clauses of Characteristic, iocludiag —

a. Simple Result [CamecuthK Clausn) {j 319),

i. Clauses of Characteristic (including iauseaad Aiadraact) (}) 310. 321).

tt. Clauses of Time ({ 322 ff.). 1. ConditiODoI Relative ClauHes. 316. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb may be treated as a conditional clause and take any of the constructions of Protasis^ (§ 305): as,

■ qui enim vitiis modum apponit, is partem su^cipit vitiorum fTusc !v. i8),

H ie whe [only] sett a Hmii to fatdis, takes up the side of Iht faults.

H C— ^ 1"^^ apponit.]

B qtiicqtiid potnit, potuit ipsa perai (Agr. 1, 7), ivkalever ptniier she had,

^F the had by herself. [— si quid potuit.]

^K qnod qui &ciet, noa aegritiidine solum vadQnt, led, etc. (Tusc. iv. 17},

V aad he viho does [sliall do] this, wiU be free not only, etc. [= A qnis

H bdst.]

^K qnisqnis hue venerit vapulabit (Plaut. Am. 153), ■whoever tema htre

^1 shall get a thrashing. [= bi qnis venerii.]

B 1 As in the Greek U i-, 5™, etc.; and in statutes ^u Yx.\ ^mfbiases i/'a^pensu liall And w*of!/(r lAaJf are used \nd\RticB.\\-

I

340 Syntax: Dependent Constnu-liotis. [fg 316, 317

philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempkis ^i^lis »iie molc&tia possil degere (CaL Maj. ij, pkUosofhy, ■which \s anyotu should obey, hi ■would be able to spend his lahsle life ■without vexation. [7= la quia

poreat.] quaecamqile causa vos hue altulisset, laetaier (De Or. u. 4), / shnuIJ it glad, whatevir cause had ireughl yott here (J.e. if any other, as well a* the one which did). [= ^ . . . attuliBset.]

Note. — The relative iu this consltudion is always Indefinite In meanbfg.tt^ usually lufintHi

a. The special constructions of General Conditions arc soraelimes found in Conditional Rela.tive Clauses : viz., —

I. The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive in the protasis with the Indicative oK s. gentral truth in the apodosis (§ 309. a) : as, —

bonus aegnior fit, ubi neglegaa (Jug. 31), a good man becomes less dilipat

taken you don't ■waleh him. 3. In later writers the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the protasis and the Imperfect Indicative In the apodosis (g 309. b): as, —

secuni trahebat (Liv. vi 8), whertvtr

*Tied victory ivith him.

3. The Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative in the protasis and the Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (§ 309. c); as, —

cam ad villam veni, hoc ipaum nihil agere me delectat (De Or. ii. 6), ■whenever I tome to the ■villa, this very doing rtuthing delights me (when- ever I have come, etc.), [Present General Coodition.]

cum tosam viderat, turn inciperc vir arbltribSlar (Verr. v. lo), irhenertr he saw (had seen) a rose, then he Ihoi^hl spring -was BegiMning. [Past General Condition.]

2. Claueea of Purpose.

iG of Purpose has arisen either from the oiigiiul or from its hortatory use. Sther affords a satis- factory analysis. If developed from Ihe hortatory subjunctive, the Subjunctive ol Purpose has come through a kind of indirect discourse construction (for which sec (340). Thus mlBit 1€k3.C53 qui dlcerent means either he sent amhaisadors who would say (future use), or, he siiil amiassadors -who should say, i.e, Utlhtm i^ (ct hortatory subjunctive ia past tenses, } a56. e, and hortatory clauses in lodirecl Discourse, \ 339).

As ut (uU) is of relative origin, the construction with Ut Is the same u thsl of relatives. That wilh ne is, no doubt, in origin, a forta/oiy subjunctive.

317. A clause expressing purpose is called a Final

I

Clauses of Purpose, 34I J

Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by «tl F(nti), negative nS (ut hb), or by a Relative pronoun 1 adverb.

Final clauses may be divided into Pure, Relative, and Substantive.

Pure Clauses of Purpose are introduced by nt (uH) or dS. They express the purpose of the main verb in the form of a modifying I ' clause.

Relative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the Relative pro- ] qnl, or by the Relative adverbs ubi, unde, qn5, etc. The ante- I It is expressed or implied in the main clause.

Substantive Clauses of Purpose are introduced by at (utl), negative nS. They differ from Pure tinal Clauses in having the construction <A a. substantive. (For Substantive Clauses of Purpose, see § 331.) Examples of Pure and Relative clauses of purpose are : —

ab aralTD abdiiitecunt Cincinnatum, tit dictolor eaaet (Fin. IL 4), Ihgi

troagkt Ciruinnaius frain thi ploiigh tliat hi might be dictator. ne qna SiiU adventiis procul significalio fiat (B. G. vi 29), that no iig»

e/his arnval may te madr at a dUlanfe. nt ne dt impune (Mil. \z), ikatiibi not with impunity. sciibebat oraliones qnas alii dicerent (Bnit. 56), ke wrote spe^chis for other

men to deliver. nihil habeo quod BCnbam, I have nothing lo write, to exstinctu furs unde dlBcerem neminem (Cat. Ma;. 4), that ■when |

Ac was dead there would be noiody from whom (whence) / eould I

baic DC ubi consiateret quidem contra te locum leliquisti (Quinct. 32),

you have left him no ground even to make a stand against you. habebam qno confugeTem (Fam. iv. 6), I had [a retreat] ■aiAither I migit'l

[ = iit la (etc.), Ubl = ut Ibl, ani

r conjunction lias a correlative in the I

legom ideirco omnes servi sumus, nt liberi ease poasimna (Qu. 53), far^

this reason we are all subject to the laws, thai we may be free. eo consilio , , . ut (regularly), with this design, that, etc. e£ causa . . ■ ne,/or this reason, lest, etc. 1^ consilio ut mooiium legerentut altitudiue (Ne^, WiU, tj'j.iiri.lh ih^vfl fiutfssi, Mateiej' might be protecttd by the height 0/ Ihe mount

r

342 Syntax: Dependent ConsinicHons. [55 31T,

^ 318

^^^ var

^^L the six

Ik

^. The ablative qu5 (= ut eG) is used as a conjunction i clauses which contain a comparative :

Kbrrtate iiEus est, qu6 impiinius dtcan esaet (Quinct. 3), he tcok advattt I// liberty, ikal Ai might bluster with mare impunity Qiy which lie

Note i. — So quBminus {= ut e8 mlaus} introduces a subjunctive clause afier vsrbs ot hindering (see { 331. e) .

NOTK s. — Occasionally qtlS introducea final clauses which do not coalabi a compatadve: as, —

qno sibi (exerckum) Fidum fiiceret (Sail. Cat. ti), in order it make At

army devoted to himself. C. The Principal clause, on which a final clause depends, is often to be supplied from the context. Thus, —

ac ne longum sit . . . iossimus (CaL iii. 5), and, net lo be tedious, we ordered,

etc. [Strictly, in order net to be tediem, I say, we ordered^ sed ut ad Dionysium redeimus (Ta'iC. v. zi), but lo return to Dianyaus. aed ut eodem revetlar, causa haec fuiC timoiis (Fam. vi. 7), but, to return

lo the same point, this toas the cause of fear. satis inconsideraCi fuit, ne dicam audacis (Phil. xii. 5), it inas the act of one

rask enougk, not to say daring. Remark. — By a similar ellipsis the subjunctive is used with nSdum (same- 'imKsv.i), still less.ttotto menHoK that: as, —

aednni , , . salvi esse pos^nns (Cu. 35), muck less could we be safe. nSduin isti , . . non statimcouquisitiiriiiDtaliquid sceleriset fi^ti (Lcg.Ag.

ii. ^e^'jifar more-will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and scandal. nSdmn in man et via ait facile (Fam. xvi. 8) , still less is il easy at sea, and

quippe secundae res sapientium animos fatlgant; nS illi corrupls moribus victotiae temperarent (Sail. Cat. 11'^, for prosperity overmasters the soul even of the wise ; muck less did they with their corrupt ntorals put any ehect on •uictory.

Note. — With nedum the verb i

aptius huminitaii luae quam to aSi ')i fiH"" far your refine ofPatra.

Remark. — Clauses of Purpose are sometimes rendered In English by /*tf. or aiwoVr Mi:;, with may or m(jA/,- but more frequently by the Infinilivcwith to: as.—

veni ut viderem, I came to see (that I might see).

318. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in various ways ; but never (except rarely in poetry) by the simple Infinitive as in Eu^Ush (^ 273').

sentence, they came to seek peace, mi-^N^.tew&.tx*

rlfls often omitted: as,—

Petoponnesns, nedum Pair ent than all Peloponnesus, to

ae (Fam. vii,

■ say nothing

S 3ia.] Clauses of Pmfose; of Result. 3431

(i> vinSrnnt nt pieem pelerent, [Final clause will) at (§ 31 7).]

(a) yenerunt qui pacem pelerent [Final clause wiih Relative (§ 317).] (

(3) [veneruDtadpetendumpacem.] (Not found with transitive verbs (§ 300 note), but cf, ad parendiim aeii^taL) [Gerund with ad(g 300).]

(4) venerunt ad petendam pacem. [Gerundive with ad (§ 300).]

(5) venerant pacem petendi causa (gratia). [Gen. of Gerund with can

(6) venitunt pads pete ndae causa (gratia). [Gen, of Gerundive with 01

C§ 298. 0-]

(7) venerant pacem petituri. [Future participle (§ 293. b) : not in Cicero.]'J

(8) vEnerant pacem petitum. [Former supine (§ 302).]

These forms are not used indifferently, but — a. The usual way of expressing purpose is by nt (negatively n8), I closely connected with some one ward, in which^ Thus.—

V

Arria gladium dedit mnrito nt ae intcrticeret, Arria gave htr husiand A

sword to as himself ^}baX he might kill himselQ. Ania gladium dedit marilu quS se interliceret, Arria gave her husband »^

rmardto MH Aimsalf vvra (with which he might, etc.).

b. The Gerund and Gerundive constructions of purpose 3 limited to short expressions, where the literal translation of the phrase, 1 though not the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or strange.

c. The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of motion, d in a few idiomatic expressions (§ 302),

d. The Future Participle used to express purpose, is a late construc- tion of inferior authority (§ 293. i),

3. Clauses of Reeult. Note. — The use ot the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its use in ■Clauses of Characteristic. The clause of Characteristic is a development peculiar to Latin, and has its origin in ibufolintialxas of the subjunctive ({^ti. a). A Protasis was, perhaps, originally itnplied, though this is not necessary to ibe analysis. The difference between the Subjunctive in such clauses and the Indica- tive of simple description is that the subjunctive expresses what would hafpen fti a apposed cast, while the Indicative states what does or dtd isfatt take place. The most common and obvious use of this construction is to express a quality ot characteristic of an Indefinite antecedent (either expressed or bnplied). Thus, M' [Epkurua] qui pOnftt summum ioaum in validate would mean, literally, vio aumld (/■ ally SKfifioiaile cast) mate the highest good eonsist in pliasure. Thl( serves lo express a characteristic of the indefinitG person referred to by is. making him one of a class ; while Is qui pflnit would meati ths man (Epicurus) icfc tn fact does, etc. So, not sum Ita hiies Ut ita dlcam would mean, literally. I am not iuB in the mamer (degreel in viieh I should lay that. Since in these charao- taisilc clauses the ^ality often appears in the (oTra o( a suf fostd resutl.'&m ttmclioa readi/j- passes over into Pure Resist, viifti i\0 \4ea tA c'oaiaKMi'taSif

I

1

344 Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

tiDtos lerror namea occupavic at etiam ipse icx ad flumen perfngi great panie Stiad all that Oil king himstlffltd

319. A clause that expresses Result is called a Con- secutive Clause.

Consecutive Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by nt, so that (negative, ut nSn), or by a Relative (pronoun or adverb).

Consecutive Clauses may be divided into Pure, Relative, and Substantive (cf. § 317).

1. Pure Clauses of Result are introduced by nt or nt nOn. They express the result of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause.

2. Relative Clauses of Result are introduced by the Relative pro- noun qnl, or by the Relative adverbs wbl, unde, qaJS, etc. The antecedent is expressed or iniplied in the main clause.

3. Substantive Clauses of Result are introduced by Dt or nt nou. They differ from Pure consecutive clauses in having the construction of a substantive. (For Substantive Clauses of Result, see § 332.)

Examples of Pure and Relative Qauses of Result are, —

tanla vis piohitalis eat nt earn in haste dUigiimna (CaU M. 9), so great is

the fewer ef goodness that we love it even in an enemy. nam est innocentia afTectio talis animi, qnae noceat nemini (Tusc. iii. EJ,

far innoeerue is such a quality of mind as to do harm to no ene. sunt aliae causae qnaa plane efficaant (Top. 15), there are ether tausis

such as to bring to pass. nulla est celeritas qnae poaait cum aniiiu celcrilate contendere (Tusc. L

I9i 43). there is no swiftness which can compare, etc. Note.— The Relative In this coTisln; sponding demonslialive. Thus, qid=>u. { 317. now).

a. A negative result is regularly eitpressed by nt or qui with uSn, ofimS and similar negatives (not aS). Thus, —

multis gravibusijue vulneribus confectus nt iam se sustinitc Hon poaaet (B. G. ii. 25), used up juilh many severe wounds it that he could no longer stand. nemo eat tam scnex qol se annum nSn patet posse vivere (Cat. Maj. 7, 24),

nobody is so old as not to think thai he can live a year. Note. — When ihe result implies oTt ((f<clinl(iulei(,T>oi.3. v.m^"iftTpBV5«t\^i " ~ ■ 1 a5\)emg^ess'[>os\tVje'i:natv'>iJ."aB^-, »5,^ JH

I 319.]

Clauses of Result.

It (Fan

i. 7), CDtrcil Ike hook i

that I

F

^H [librom] its corrigis ta mihi ^H it may nol kurlnif.

\ b. Frequently a clause of result is used in s reslrictive sense, and a

amounts to a Proviso (cf. § 314) ; as, —

hoc est ita utile ut ne plane illiidamui ab accu^toribus (Rose. Am 20]

J this is sa far ustfulthat wi arc not alttrty meckid iy the accusers (i.i

I useful only on this condilion, that, etc.).

I nihil autem moleEtum quod non desideres (Cat. Maj. 14, 47), iiit nolkitig I is troublesome lehich (= provided that) yau do r, tlti

I \

. The subjuDctive with the Relative quSminns (— at eS minua) I Inay be used, to express a result, after words of hindering at refusing , Lirf-§3'7-*. notei): a

nee ael^ impedit quominuH agri colendi stadia teneamns (Cat. Maj. \-f), nor does age prevent us from retaining a\

d. A clause of result is introduced by quln after general negatives, where quia is equivalent to qui (quae, quod) n5ii ; so also after negative clauses of hindrance, resistance, doubt, hesitation, and the

e. Thus, —

nihil est illocum quin [= quod non] ego illi dixerim

tiure is nothing of this thai I have not told Mm. non duhito quin, I do not doubt that (cf. the Eng., I da not doubt but thai). aegie (vix) abslinui quin . . ., T kardiy refraimd from, el nihil impedit quin , . ., there is nothing to prevent, etc. abesse non potest qnin (Or, 70) , it cannot be but that.

Remark. — It is lo be observed that the eonslniclions of Purpose and ResuH

[In Latin are precisely alike in ihe a^nnafiM.bul (hat in ^enegative Purpose taltes

Result ut nOo, etc. Thus,—

»cape.

\

maid sunt imhedlli seni Maj. II, 35), many old i duties to society.

(Off. i. I, 5), -who has so

3 nt nalliim ofGci munus exsequi possint (Cat. ten art so feeble that tiiey cannot perform

tituit nt nihil babeat cum viiliite coniiin ulthdlke highest good that it has nothin

u quis contingeic posset (_jEn,\. ^\'Sl.

34^ Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§§ 31^3

ns qnando liberis ptoscriplorum bona p&tria reddoa tut (Rose. Am. 50,451),

Icit tvtr the patrimony of Ihe proscribed should be reslored to their

children. ipse ne quo indderein reverti Formias (An. viii. 3, 7), Aat I mi^ ki-1

ceme upon him anyaihere. dispotiSs expliiratoribus necabi Raniiiii capias Iranaducerent (B. G. vii. 35),

having stationed scouts here and thtre test the Romans should liad tiuir

troops across anywhere. tu taTnen eas episloliu conccrpito nequando quirl cmanet (Att. x. 12, 3],

lest anything ever leak out. The clause of Result Is sometimes expressed in English by Ihe Infinitive with TO

(am longe aheram ut non viderem, Itbos toe far a-aiay to see (so fai ihnt I

did not see; cf. § 320. 0- Note. — Result is never ejipressed byihc Infinitive in Ijtin eicepl by Ihepoeis in a few passages [§ 273. Rem,).

4. ClauHes of Characteristic. - 320. A relative clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, where there is no idea of Result (see § 319^ head-note)

This construction is especially common where the antecedent is otherwise undefined. Thus, —

neque enim Cn is_es, qni neaciia (Faro. v. l3),foryott are not tuek a one,

multa diciitit quae vix intellegaut (Fin. iv. i. i), they say many Aings

■which (such as) they hardly understand. paci quae nihil habitura sit Insidianim semper est consulendum (OfT. L 1 1),

we must aheays aim at a pea\.t lehich shall have no plots. unda agger comportarl posset, nihil erat reliquuin (B. C. ii. 15), there aa) - nothing left, from vthicA an embanimenl could be got together.

a. A relative clause of characteristic 's used after general expres- sions of existence or non-existence, including questions implying a negative.

So especially with Buut qui, there are [some] -who; qols eat qui. who is there ivhof Thus, —

sunt qni discessum animi a corpoce putent esse raorleni (Tusc. I. 9), Iheri

are some isho think that the departure of soul from body constitutes death.

erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Ann. ivi. 29), Ihert ■were same toia

pitied Helvidius. [CC. eat cum (§ 322, Rem.).]

q>n» est qui id non raan'imia eSeiai \aua\\nii IJsA. i"^, mhg i\ Aw* ^

not extol it ■with (A* AigrttK faisef

32a]

Clauses of Characteristic.

3471

Bant aliae causae qaae plane efficiant (Top. i;), then a

which clearly effeet, e(C. Note.— These are Bomedmes called Relalive Clauses wiih an Indefinite Ante- j ictil, but are lo be carefuUy dislingulslied from the IndeHnil *h 316).

b. A relative clause of characteristic may follow fintu and solua;

nil admlriii prope ces est ana Bolaqns qaae posait facere et servire b tum (Hoc, Ep. i. 6. l), lo laonder al nothing U almost the sole and 01 thing that can maie and keep one kafpy.

sSltLB es cuius in victoria oeciderit nemo nisi srmatus (Deiot. 12, 34), you 1 are the only man at lokose victory no one has fallen unless armed.

c. A clause of result or characteristic with qnam ut, quam qui, tnay be used after comparatives : as, —

maiSrSs arboiis c^cdebant quam qaas fcrre miles poaaet (Uv. xniii. 5), j

they cut larger trees than what a soldier could carry (too large for a

soldier to carry). Canaclu aigna rigidiora sunt qaam ut imitentur verilatem (Brut, iS),

the statues of Canachus are too stiff lo refreitnl nature (sliffer than J

that they should), Note, — This consttuclion corresponds to the English ton

d. A relative clause of characteristic is used in expressioas of Re- Btriction or Proviso (cf. § 319. b): as,—

quod sciam, so far as T knojv.

Catonis otaaones, qnaa quidem invenarim (Brut. 17), lie sfciekes of Calo,

at least such as I have discovered. semis est nemo, qui modo tolecabilj condicione ait servitutis (Cat. iy. 8), I

there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable coniiition of slavery,

e. A relative clause expressing cause or concession takes the sub- junctive (§5 313. h, 321. b) : as,—

virura siinpHcera qui nos nihil cilet (Or. 69), oh I guileless man, whe

hidts nothing from -us! [Causal.] peccasse nuhi videor qui a ti dijcesseritn (Fam. xvi. l), I seem to myself to

have done wrong because I have left you. [Causal.] ^omet qnl sero Giaecas littecas attigisBem tamen complures Athems dim sum commoratos (De Or. \^), I myself though /began Greek literaturt ] Iate,yet, etc. (lit. [a man] who, etc.). [Concessive.] Note i. — In this use the relative b equivalent lo Cum Is. etc. It is ofiea 1 'preceded by Ut, utpote, or qutppe : as,— J

: consul, at qui id ipsum qnaesTaset, mornin certaniLui fecit (Liv. xtil. •} nor did the consul delay the fight, since he had sought thai very ti (as [being one] who had sought, etc.). DOS, ntpote qui nihil contemnece BoleamoB, noii ^ei^v tt 24, 4), as iiing men who are accustomed to dcifui

348 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§§ 320, 321

convivia cum patrp nan inibat, qnippe |]iu tie in oppidum quldem nisi perrito venvret (Rose. Am. 18), since ke did not irvcn eami, etc.

Note a. — The Relalive of Cause or Concession is merely a varie^ of ita CharacleiiBtic conslruction. The qualily expressed by the subjunctive is conneaed with the Kctlon of the main verb either as canst on accoiml of-aihich (since) or as kiadrance la spite a/which (ALTKOUaH).

f. Dlgnus, indlgniiB, aptus, idSnena, take a clause of result with a relative (or rairely with ut) : as, —

(ligna in qTiibna eiaborirent (Tusc. i. i, i), (things) ■aiorlh spcndiHg Ikeir

toil Bit (worthy on which ihey sbould, etc.). digna [cs eat nbi tu neivos intendas tuos (Tec. Eun. 313), ikt affair ii

■u-ortky of your sirdching your sinfws (worthy wherein you should,

«c.). indignus eras qui faoereB iniiiTiam, iV was beneath you la do a wrung (you

were unworthy who should, etc.). idoneus qui impetrel (Manil. I9),jil to obtain. indigni ut redimeremtlr (Liv. xxii. 59), unworthy to be ransomed. Note. — Wilh these words the poets often use the Infinitive : aa.— diEnum notari (Hot. Sat. L 3, 24), ■worthy to be stigmatiwd. fons [ivo dare nomen idoneus (Hor. Ep. L 16, 13), a source fit to give a

actas mollis el apta regi (Ov.), a time of Hfe soft and easy to be gjiidtd^ ^_

5. Catisal CUubsb. ^^

Note. — Causal clauses lake eilherthe IndlcaliveortheSulijunctive.accoKUng to Iheit construction ; the idea of Cause being contained, not in the mood itseH but in the form of the argument, or in the connecting particles,

321. The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quonlam take

the Indicative, when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker ; the Subjunctive, when the reason is given on the authority of another: as, —

1, Indicative; —

cum tibi agam gralias qnod me vivere ooSgiaU (Att. iii. 3), when I may

thank you that you have forced me to live. qoiapoattema aediScata est (Vert. iv. 53), became it -uias bvill last. qnoniam de iitilitate diximus, de efficiendi latiune (Or. Part. 26), sinii ti't

have spoken of its advantage, let m speak of the method of effecting it.

2. Subjunctive: — mihi gratulibate quod audiBBea me meam pristinam dignitatem obtinctc

(Fain. iv. 14, 1), you tangralulaled me tttauii ^»» -^a.iaid^ jw« iW

§§321.322.] Causal Clauses i Relmion^ of Time. 349^

noctu ambulabat Themislaclcs quod somnum capere nSn posset (Tus

ig), Tktmisloiles usid to iBttlk about at nighl btcaiae \sa be said] he { lautd not sleep. mea malcr iiata est quia dod Tedierim (PlauLCist. i. 1, 103), nty milker a

angry beeause I didn't return. nan qconiain Ldc ait Decease (Verr. ii. 9), not thai this is neicssary. Note 1. — The Subjunctive in this use depends on Ae principle of Intermediate I Clauses (f 34.. d).

Note a. — Under this head *ha.1 the speaker himself Ihoughl u circumstances may have the Subjunctive (i 341. d. Rem.): as,—

ego laeta visa sum qoia soror venisaet (Plant. Mil. 3S7), I seemed (in n\j 1 dream) gtad because my sister had come. So with quod even a verb oi laying may be in the Subjunctive: as, —

rediil quod se oblitum nescio quid dioeret (Off. i. 13), he relumed teeaia

he said ke had fergotlen something. N0TB3.— The Subjimclive with aula is rare. The causal panicle qotuidS 1 takes the Indicative: as, —

qnando ita via, di betie vortant (PlauL Trin. 573), since yon so jaisi, r.

the gods bless the undertaking. REMARK. — NSn quod, ii9ii quia, nfin quoniatc, introducing a rea tfressfy to dtny it. lake (he Subjuncllve. NOn quO and nOn quin introduco 1 Result clause, but with nearly the same meaning (i 341. d. Rem.). Thus,— pngiles ingemiscunt, non qtiod doleant, sed quia omne corpus iutendittir (Tusc. ii. 23), boxers grosa nol hiiause Ikey are in pain, but because, etc non qnia philosophia percipi nan posset (id. i. i), not that philosophy

eannot be acquired. non qnoniam hoc ait necesse (Verr. ii. 9), not thai this is necessary. non qnin enitendum flit (De Or, ii. ^i), not thai pains must net be taken.

a. Causal Clauses introduced by quod, etc, take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, like any other dependent cJause (see § 336).

b. A Relative, when used to express causi, regularly takes the Sub- junctive (see § 320. e).

c. Cum causal takes the Subjunctive (see § 326).

Note. — In earl; Latin Cum causal lakes the Indicative (J 336. note 3).

6. RelatiouB of Time.

Note.— Temporal clauses are introduced by particles which are almost all of relative origin. They are constnied like other relative clauses, except where they have developed into special idiomatic constiuclions. (For list of Temporal Parti- cles, see p. 114.)

322. The particles ubi, ut, eum, quandS, either alone or compounded with -cumquo, may be used as Indefinite Rela- tives, and have the constructions of protasis (cf. § 316). Thus, —

r

3SO Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§§ 32J

oom id maJiuD esse negas (Tusc. ii. 12), wkm yau (the uidi\-iduBl S^

pulanl) dmy it to be on evil. [Ptcsenl, nothing implied (cf. § 306).] quod profecto cum me nulla vis oogeret, facere ndn andeceni (FhiL v. iS).

which I ■aiouiJ surety not venture to do, as long as no force comfcllti

me. [Present, contrary lo faotj cf. \ 308.] cam videaB eos . . . dolore non lirang! (id. 27), -when you see thai those art

not broken by pain, etc. [General condition! cf. § 309.0.] id ubi dixisaet, hastam in fines eonun emittebat (Liv. i. 32), when kehad

said this, he used lo rail the spiar into their territories. [Repeated '

action : see g 309. *.] cnm rosani viderat, turn incipere yex atbitrabatur (Verr. y. 10), vihennvr

ke had seen a rose he thought spring had begun. [Past general con- dition: cf. § 309. c.~\ Remark, — The ptiraseaOBt cum, fuit cum, etc, are used in general eipna- EioD5 like eat qui, sunt qui (J 320. a) : as, —

ac fuit quidem eum mibi quoque initium requi^cendi fore iiistum aibitiarer

(De Or. i. l)> and there was a lime when I thought a beginning of rest

TBould be justifiable on my part.

323. Temporal clauses have two uses : ^ —

1. They themselves liefine (with reference to the time of the speaker) the time of the clause on which they depend.

2. They describe by its circumstances the time of the main clause, which is defined not by them, but by the main clause itself.

Thus, in: When did Ike Emperor Frederid die T He died while the fitople mre still mourning Ike death of his Jalhit,X\\fi Ume of the main clause. -!;■ died, i« defi- nitely fixed by the temporal clause, while the people, etc., as is seen by the feet thai thelenlporalelaiiseanswerBthequ«tion,WHENrfl'rfi<rf«? But In: Tie Emperor Predirici died while the people were ttUl mourning the death of his father, iae lime of the main clause is not defined by the temporal clause, but is r^arded as suffi- ciently definite in itself (or from the context). The temporal clause is added to describe that time by the circumstances oF the people's grief.

These two sorts of temporal clauses the Romans distinguished by means of the mood, invariably using the ladicative in the first and the Subjunctive in the second. They commonly also used the paiticles and the tenses in accordance with this division.

1. POSTQUAM. UBI, ETC.

324. The particles poetquam (poste&quam), ubi, ut (at prl- mum, ut semel), aimul atque (simul So, or simal alone) take the Indicative (usually in t\\<i perfect or tht historical present): as, ■

• The terms Absolute and Relative Time naturally applied to these two uses have lieen abandoned in this book because they have given rise to misapprehension aad hare often been used by lesjnen as p\%eoD-^D\e n.ficui\aits ta conceal awut afltnowledge of the subject.

PosTQUAM, I/bi, etc. 351

milites postquam victoriam adept! annt, nihil reliqui victis fecere (5all..| Cat. 11), whin the armies Aadwan lAc victory, lAey lift nothing Ct

poHtaaqaam fotum attigLali (Fam. xv. 16}, since you came to Ikt^ fir, "

nbi aninea idem sentire intellexit (B. G, iii. 23), whia hi understood thai I all agreed (thought the same thing) .

Catihna ubi eos convinisse ridet secidit (Sail. Cat. zo), when Catiline fl sees Ihiy karue come together, he retires.

quod (sc agmen) nbi pergere vident (Q. C. V. 3, 12), and iiiken Ihey 11

Pompeiin nt equitatum saum pulaum vidit, acie exeesait (B. C. iii. 94), '

wAea Fompty saw his csTialry beaten, he left the t simul ac persensit (.En. iv. 90), as soon as he perceiz

Note, — These panicles ate appropriated to time dtjuied, and laie the histori- 1 cat tenses in accordance with the distinction sel forth in { 303. When they take I the descriptive lenses (see a, below), they do not describe the time by its circum stances, but still define it, referring it to a then-existing stale of things {Imperfect') 01 the then-existing result of o completed action {Pbiperflct).

a. These particlea less commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect I indicative. The Imperfect denotes a continued state of things; the | Pluperfect, an action completed in past time. Thus, —

poitqtuun instrncli alrimqae stahant, duces in medium procEdnnt {Liv. i. 23)1 vihen Ihty stood in array on both sides, Ihe generals advance into the midsi.

P. Africanus posteaqnam ■when Africanus had bt consul and censor.

poHtqaam id dif^ciUus visiuil efft, neque facullos perficiendi dabatur, ad FompEJum transierunt (B. C. iii. 60), when this seemed toe hard, and no means of effecting it were given, Ihey passed aver la Ptmtpey.

pott diem quintiun qtiam barbari ilerum male p&gnaverant (= victi sunt), legafi a Boccho veniunt (Jug. no), Oii Jiflh day after the bar- barians were beaten Ihe second time, envoys tome from Bocchus.

haec inventiitem, ubi famillE^es opes dSfeoeiant, ad facinara incendebant (Sail. Cat. :3), when their inherited resources had given out.

nbi pericnla virtiite propulerant (id. ft), when they had dispelled Ihe dangers by Ouir valor.

h. Rarely some of these particles seem to take the subjunctii

posteaqnajn maximis aedificasBel ornaBsetqae clashes (Manil. 4), imiing 1 built and equipped mighty fleets (after he had, etc.). [But the n approved edilians have pontea Cttm.^

I

353 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [j^

II. CVif TEMPORAL

325. Cum (quom), TEMPORAL, meaning ivhen, takes the Imperfect and Pluperfect in tiie Subjunctive, other tenses in the Indicative. Thus, —

cum servili bclla premeritur (Manil. 1 1), ifhtn the (Ilaly) inas unJcr

Hit load oftht Servile War. cam id nSntiiltiuii eaaet, miturat (B. G. L 7], ■when Ihishad bteit rtferltd,

he made (makes) hasle. com occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fiiirunt scrvi (Rose. Am. 61), mhat

Soscitts was slain, the slaves were en the sfol. ncmpe c5 [litno] regioncs dicexit turn com. utbem condidit (Div. L 17}, he traced with it the quarters [of the sky] at the time he founded Ike eity.

[For eiumples with Ihe Future, see c below.]

Note. — The Present lakes the Indicative, because present time is geneially, from its very namre, defined la the mind; and It Is only when the circumstances are described as causa! or adversative (see below, { 316). that the Subjunctive 13 used. The Perfect taltes the Indicative as Ihe letise of nairalion, as with poat- quam, etc. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are, from their nature, fitter lo descrikr than to de/ine the time^

a. Cum, temporal, sometimes takes the Imperfect and Pluperfect Indicative to indicate a definite past time s as, —

lis cum bacc sciibebam eraC in extremum adducCa discrunen (Fam lii. 6), at tJie time I write (epistolary) ihe affair has been braag^ info great hazard. quem quidem onm ex urbe pellebam, hoc providebam animo (Cat. iii. 7). ■when IioaJ trying to force him (conative imperfect) from the city, ! looked forward to this. fulgetites gladios bostitun videbant Decu ottm in aciem eorum inmebant (Tusc. ii. 24), Ihe Decii saw the /lashing swords of the enemy when they rushed upon their line. luoi cum in Asia res mi^^ permulti amiserant (ManiL 7), at thai time,

when many had lost great fortunes in Asia. Note. — The distinction explained in } 3:13 is unknown to early Latin. In Plaulus quom always has Ihe Indicative unless the Subjunctive is required for some other reason.

H i. When the clauses are inverted, so that the logical temporal clause

^h becomes the main clause, and the main clause becomes the temporal

^H clause, the Indicative must be used with cum ; as, —

^^^^ dies nondum decern inlercesaerant, cum ille alter filius inflni aecitnr

^^^h (Clu. 9), ten days had not yet passed, when the ether infant sen wai

^^^B iitled. [Instead of, whin ten days had not yet passed, etc.]

^^^B hmqae liix apparebat imm procadit ad milites (Q. C vii. 8, 33), and dof

^^^E awflj already damning whin ht afpcan bcfart r'-- — "- —

SS 325, 326.] Cum Causal and Concessive.

i familiac repente in publicil

e. To denote future time cam takes the Future or Future Perfect \ idicative: as,— (

nijn dubit3})5 dar« operam ut <i videam, cnm Id satis commade fBcere i

potero (Fam. xiii. i), /shall nut hesilate la lake fains Id see you, when '

lean da it convenieulfy, longiim niud tempns cum non crB (Alt. »L iB), that long time vihen 1 \

skaB be no I'lore. cum. veneris, cognosces (Fam. v. 7), iiAen yau come (stall have con

yoa will find out.

III. CVM CAUSAL OR CONCESSIVE.

326. Cum CAUSAL orcoNCESSiVEtakes theSubjunctive: j

cum solitudo . , .Insidianim et metus plena sit (Fin. L 20], since soHludt 1

is fidl of treachery and fear. [Causal.J 1

com inilio non amplius duobus milibus habuisset (Salt. Cat 56), though

at Iht ttart he had had not more Ikan two thousand, [Concessive.] cum prind ordines . . . concidisBent, lamcn acerrime reliqni resistebant '

(B. G. vii. 61), Ihoiigh the first ranks had fallen, slill Ike others reHsled

vigorously. [Concessive.] Note i. — Cnm ja Ihese uses la oHen emphaatied by nt, utpota, quippe, '

nee leprehendo; qtlippQ cam ipse islam reprehension em non fagerbn 1

(Att.x. 3), I find ns fault: since ! myself did not esci^ thai ilame, NOTSb. — These causal and concessive telaiions are merely variations of the . Idea of time. The altendani circumstances are regarded HS Ihe cause of the action, or as tending to hinder it (cf. qui causal and concessive, ) 320. e).

Note 3.— In early Latin cxaa (quom) causal and concessiva nauaUy takes the Indicative: as. —

qaom tna res distrahitnr, utinam videam (Plaut. Trin. 573), since your property is torn in pieces, ok ! that I may see, etc [See also § 313. d, '

ReMAKIC— Cum causal may usually be translated by Jiff«; oum concessive by although or while.

a. Ciun in the sense of quod, en the gnmnd thai, frequently takes the Indicative! as, —

gritulor tibi otun tantum ralSa apud Dolabellam (Fam. i\. I4), Itangraiu- laleyou that you are so strong with Dolaiella.

^•Hdlr.

354 Syntax: Dependent Cotisiriictions. [§§ 326-2a

b. Com , . . turn, signifying b^h . . . and, usually takes the Indica- tive ; but when oum approaches tlie sense of ■ai/it/e or though, it may have the Subjunctive (§ 326). Thus, —

com multa non probS, tam illud in primTs (Fin. i. 6), wkiU Airi art

many things I A' not approvf, there is this in chief. But, — cam res lota ticts. sit puerHiter, turn ne efRcit quidem quod vult (lb.), ■uihile the ■whole iking ii childishly gel up, he does not a'en make hi! point (accomplisii what he wisteal,

IV. ANTEQVAM AND PRIUSQUAM.

327> Autequom and prluaquam, before, have in narration the same construction as oum temporal (§ 325) : as, —

antequam tuas legi litteras (Att. ii. 7), be/ore I read your lelter.

neque ante dimisit eum quam Hdeni dedit adulescens (Liv. xxxix. 10}, ike

did not let the young man gs till he picked his failh. antequam homines nefarii di lueo ailventu audice potaiflBent, in Mucc*

doniam petrexi (Plane. 41), before those evil men could leant of my

coming, I arrived in Macedonia.

a. Antequam and prlttsqaam, when referring to future time, talce the Present or Future Perfect Indicative ; rarely the Present Subjunc-

prinaqnam de ceteris rebus reapondeB, de ainicitia pauca dicam (Phil. ii.

I ), before I reply to the rest, I ivill say a little of friendship. non defatigaboc anteqaam illorum aucipiles vias perciper5 (De Oi. ilL

36), I shall not -aieary till I have traced oui their doubtful Ways. antequam veniat litteris mittet (Ag. 2, 20), before hi comes, he will send

a letter.

b. In a few cases the Subjunctive of protasis Is found with autoquan and priuBquam (cf, § 309. a) : as, —

priusquam incipiai conEulto et ubi cotisulueris mitiire facto opuii c^t

(Sail. Cat. 1), before beginning (before you begin) ^j-ph nerd reflection,

and after reflecting, prompt action. in omnibus negoliis prinsqnam aggrediare, adhibenda est piaeparalio

diligens (Off. !. 21, 73), in all undertakings before yeu JiroceeJ ii

action, careful preparation must be used.

V. VUSr, J30.VEC, AND QUOAD.

3B8. Dum, dSnec, and quoad, implying purpose, doubl,

or futurity, take the Subjunctive, otherwise the Indicative, I. Subjunctive: as,^

ex^ectBS tbrtasse dum dlcat (Tuac ii. -j^, jiou an MiaiHng perhtfi fir Aim to say (till he say).

I 328, 339.1

Substantive Clauses.

355

f (CO

itis sublrahendi sunt e colligant (Tusc. iv.

EneSii morando snalinuit dam genitor ptotectui abtlet (^Mxi. Ti. Soo), ht J

kfpt yEneas in cheek till his father could get away in safely. duxjt lougE donee curvSta coirent inlcr se capila (id. xi. S6o), and drn it (ihe bow) until the eurved tips touched.

pominondas cxercebaty plurimum Ikictanda ad cum finem quoad stan complecti poBBet atque conlendete (Nep. Epam. 2), Epamincndas ' trained himself in Toreslling so far as ta be able to grapple standing j anJfgil (in that way).

2, Indicative (cf. a, below) : as, — 3c feci drun licnit, interniiBi quoad nonlicnit fPhU. iii, 13), I did this se

long as it was allowed, I discontinued it so fang at it mas nut, lusas innecle morandl duiu pelago desaevit hiemps (.*ji, iv. 51), weave excuses for delay until Ihe storm upon the sea hath spent its rage. donee rediit silentium fuit (Liv. ixiii. 31), there was silence till ht

quoad potnit reslilil (Cat. Maj. 4, I i), he resisted as long as he could.

Note i. — Qutundid takes ihe Indicalive only : as,—

SB oppido lam dju (enuit qnamdia in piovincia Parthi fnemnt (Fani. xii.

»I9), he kept himself within the town so long as the Parthians were in ' Ihe prmiinie. Note a.— Foe dum and dummodo introducing a proviso, see { 314. a. Dum in Ihe sense of whiU usually takes the Present Indicative to indicate a continued action In past time, if that time is not contrasted with any other (g 276 e. and note) : as, —

dum haec geruntur (B. G, i. 46), while this was going on.

tNOTK, — Dutn, dOneO, and quoad in later writers sometimes take Ihe Sub- | DEC obstilit fals^ donee tempore ic spatio vanesoerent (Tac. Ann. ii nor did he contradict the falsehoods until they died out from lapse of '

Iiepidibant elephanti donee Ci

(Liv. iid. 28), the elephants iheiaed no nlnr.

they went over Ihe continuous bridge, as it weri

Remark. — With all temporal particles the Subjuncd

ing on some other principle of construction. (See Inti

p. 378.)

is often fou

e Clauses below,

II. -SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. ' 320. A clause useti as a noun is called a Sui.batisi.\.v»

356 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§§ 329. 33a

A Substantive Clause may be used as the Subject or Object of a verb, as an Appositive or as a Predicate Nom- inative or Accusative.

Note. — Many ideas which In English lake the rorm of sn abstiacl noun may be rendered by a suijstantive clause in Lalin. Thus, he demanded an inveitigaliot. may be postlilUbat Ut quoostiS boberetur. The common English cipres- sion FOR with the infinitivE also corresponds lo a Lalin subslanlive clause: m, rlremains/ar me tB sfeako/ tie piratic -lear.rtMttaaxa out Ut d6 bellS dicam pIr&ticS.

Remark.— When a Sulistantive Clause is used as Subjecl, Ihe verb lo which it is subjecl is called impirsoHul, and Ihc sign of Ibe constiuciion in English is Ihe so-called e^letine IT.

Substantive Clauses are classified as rollowsi—

Clauses ■ \ "' '"''"''''^ clause as Subject {} a^o). ' 6. Infinitive clause as Object ({ 3,-- "'

a. Subjunctive Clauses r , _ ^f Purpose (command, wish, fear) {} jji).

3. Indicative Clause with quod; Faei. Specification, Feeling.

4. Indirect QuestIOKS: Subjuncllve, introduced by Inleirogalive Word.

1. Infinitive Clatues.

330. A. The Infinitive with Subject-Accusative maybe used as the subject of sum and of many impersonal verbs (sec § 270).

B. The Infinitive with Subject- Accusative is used as the object ^ —

I. Of all verbs and expressions of hiirwing. thinking, telling, and perceiving {Indirect Discourse") (§ 272).

mi spero Uberatum [esae] metu (Tusc. ii. 27), I Irust f have bei» friii

dicii moatem ab hostibus teneii (B. G. i. li), kt says that Ikt keig^U is

held by the enemy. negat tlllos patera portns (I,iv. xxviii, 43), he says thni ae forts an open.

' The accusative with Ihe infinitive is found with about 80 verbs and verbal phrases, Ihe most common being: (t) acciplS, afnnnS, aninliMlYertO, orbl- tror. audiS, ceciseO, cSgltS, dicS, disputS, doceS, exlatlma. fftma est, (ateor, intellBKB, memlnl, nirrB, nag's, puts, rscordor. rOmor flW, aentJS,ap6r5,8usplcor.tradltur,vSriim6at,Tlde8,Tid8tur; (a) lub«a, VBtS. patlor. cSgS. elnO ; (3") ciip\6,VO\R,"ii6W,inM.^\ VfiN 4&iiat, blTi' asguum eat. oportot, opviB est,pVB.C6t,WiiS6a^,ii6TO»«*.,'a««Mp-" ■*

UsmmI^^H

Infinitive Clauses.

357

. Of Inbed and vetS, and rarely ai other verbs of commanding, ^requesting, admonishing, and the like (§ 331. a). Thus, ^

vetuere [bona] reddi, vetuere in pnblionm redigi (Liv, ii. 4), Ihey far- bade Ike return a/ the goods (that ihey be relurned), etc,

LabienomiugummontisadscBniiereiubet {'&.GA.2l),he erdtn Labi to ascend Ike ridge of the hill.

3. Sometimes of verbs of WMAi>(f (§ 331. li) ; as, —

in^cem me esse non doclorem volo (Or, 33), / wish to be a judge, r

REMAkK. — The Infinitive with Subjecl-Accusative.IhouEh nol stricily a Clause,

a. If the main verb is changed to the Passive, either —

I. The subject of the infinitive (like other objects of active verbs)

becomes nominative, and the infinitive is retained (^Personal Canstruc-

mons didtui ah hoslibus teneri, the mountain is said to be held by the

e iubetur, Labiinus 1.

\

I Labienua iugnm montis a I the ridge of the hill.

2. The passive is used impersonally, and the clause retained a subject (^Impersonal CoHstruction) : - —

dkiluc montcm ab hostibus lencri, it is said that tht mountain is held by tie enemy,

ships oflkepiriUes a. I. Verbs ai saying, thinking, the Personal or the Impersonal

complete action. Thus, beate vixisse videor (Lid.

n pottu (Verc. v, 24), il is told that Ikt

I.

, may take in the Passive either But the Personal con- egularly used in Ihe tenses of in-

_i_5). Ise.

I

rm to have lived happily. fidibus praeclare ceciniaae dicitur (Tusc. i. I, 4), Epaminon- lid to have played excellently on the lyre. multi idem facturi esse dicuntar (Fam. itvi. 12), many art said to be about

da the same thing. [Active : dicant mnliwH fa,d,iiros (esM).] prinu Iciduntur arte quadam verba vjnxisse (Or. 13), they first are related le have joined -words with a certain skill.

alur ia esse constilutus ex mannore (Arch. iS, 2i),he is thought to have been set up in marble. Bibului audiebatur esse in Syria (Att. v. iS), it was heard that Bibu- tus was in Syria (BibuluB was heard, etc.). [Direct: Bibulna esf Biae Illyrici legiones secStiirae apKtabantur (Tac. Hist. \\. "i^"^, tht ^M^ f/giens o/niyricum were ejpecled to fallow.

\

358

Syntax: Dependeytt Constructions.

»1

videmui enim quieluri fuisse nisi fssimus IncessUi (De Or. ii. 56], it itenti thai we should knve kept quiet if tat had not been molested ^we seem, etc.). [Direct: quievisaemna . . . niai easemns lacesaiU.]

2. lubeS and vetS always take the personal construction of the

iussus es reniintiari consul (Phil. ii. 32), ymt were under orders to be

declared consul. Nolani mucoa portasque adire vetiti sunt (Liv. latiii. 16), the men of Nola

■aieri forbidden la go to iiisit the walls and gates.

c. In the comfjound tenses of verbs of saying, etc., the imper- sonal construction is more common, and with the gerundive is regu- lar: as,—

Iraditum est ctiar

Q Homenim ca

a fuisae (Tas

C. V.

■ 39). '■'' ■

is a tradition.

too, that Homer was blind.

ubi

tj'ra.nnua est

. ibi noQ vitio

sam.

aed dicendi

im

est planl

i niillBin esse

rempiiblicam

(Rep. iii. 31),

■whe

re there Is a

■.ty:

•■ant, it

must be said.

is e%

■il, but that ii

■doi

ri not exi

Isl at ail.

\

d. The poets and later writers extend the persona] use of the passive to verbs which are not properly verba senliendi, etc. ; as, —

coUigor domlnae placuisse (Ov. Am. ii- 6, 61), iV is gathered \bom this memorial] that I pleased my mistress.

e. The Infinitive with a subject may depend on any word implying speech or thought, though not strictly a verb of saying, etc. (see § 336,

f. Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing, and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse, contrary to the English idiom : as, —

minalur Bese ahire (Plaut. Aain. iii. 3}, he threatens to go away. [EHrecl :

abeo, J am going away ^ ex quibus sperant se maximum friictum esse aaptaroa (Lxl. 21), from

■which they hope to gain the utmost advantage. [Direct : c&piemiu. j qaem inimicissimum fntdrnm. ease promitto ac spondeo (Mar. 41), -mko J promise and warrant iiiill be the bitterest of enemies. [Diceel:

I. 2T),pain threatens

dolor fortitiidinEm le debilitatonun minatur (Tusc to wear doTun fortitude. [Direct; debiUtiibo.] Note.— These verbs, however, often take a simple Complementary Infinilii'e (} 271). So regularly in early Latin (ejicepl BpSrO). Thus,-

poUicentur obsidcs dara (B. G. iv. zi), lA/y promise to give hostages.

[Compare the Greek aorist infinitive after iimilar verbs]. proioM dolium vini dare (Raul. Cisl.ii. 1. 1"), r ^amiwf It give ttjmt ^ o/vdHe.

^K 331.] SubsCaftlivf Clauses of Purpose. 359

^^P 2. Clanaea of Purpose.

^V Note. — daiises of Purpose may be used substantivEly ■ (i) 05 the Object of ^^mpa\&al admontshing, tie. {\ 331) ; (a) asihe Subjecl of Ihescsameverbsinthe pa*- ^^bve (} 331. i), as well as of cerlain impersonal verbs and verbal phrases (( 311. 1); ^^^^) in apposition with anotliec suljstanlive, or as predicate nominative, etc.

^B 331. Substantive Clauses of Purpose with ut {negative. nS) are used as the object of all verbs denoting an action directed toward the future?

Such are, verbs meaning to admonish, ask, bargain, command, decree, . determine, permit, persuade, resolve, urge, and wish. Thus, —

monet at omnes suspiciones vitet (id. 20), he warns him lo az'sid a,

le rogo alque oro nt euro inveB (Faro. xiii. 66), / 6tg and fray yen le

aid him. Ms nt conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), hr ordsrtd them ft search. persuadet Castico ut reenura occupiret (B, G. i. 3), he persuades CasHcu

to usurp royal fmnir. a. lubeB, order, and -veAJ^, forbid, take the Infioitive with Subject

itive(§33oB. 2): as,- ^eniB adse addiiij iussit (B. G. ii. 5), he ordered the children to be brought

ITE I. — Some odier verbs ol camnianding, etc., occasionally lake the Infini-

monet cavere (Sail. Cat. 52), Ike occasion warns us lo be on our gua Verbs of •wishing take either the Subjunctive or the Infinili

The Infinitive is more common when the subject remains the san

the Subjunctive, when it changes. Thus, —

1. Subject of infinitive same as that of main verb : qoos non lam nlcistn studeo (]usm sauiire (Cal. ii. 8), wliom I do

eare so much lo punish as lo cure.

2. Subject of infinitive different from that of main verb :

cupio ut impetret (Plaut. Capt. 102), /udsA he may get if.

mallem Cerbcrum metnerea (Tnac. i. 6), / iiisuld rather you fea<

\

- Such Verbs or verbal phraies are Id ago, ad Id veolS, caveO (nS).

cgnsefi, cokS, concSdO, oSnstltufl, cQro, decarnS, 6d!c5. fiaglto,

hortor, imper5, inatS, mandS, matiiB (n6), moneS, negStium dS,

operam d5, 5r6, persuadefl, petO, poetulS, praectpio, ?tqoot, ^i;5.

I aHatiS, guoerS, rog-o. scfaco, tlmeQ, veveor Ijioi, ■q\4B&,-^o'iJi,

360 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [S J

NoT£.-~VolO and CuplS, bDwever, lead !□ lake Ihe Accusative and Infinilhe rather than Ihe SubjunL;live, even when Ihe subject changes. When U remains Ihe same, Ihe subjecl-accusalive is rarely found. Thus, —

vim volumus exstingii) (Sest. 42, 92), lae wish violence io befui dmnn. te tui frni virlute cupimus (Brut. 97, 331), we wish yau is nap Ai fruits

of your virluf. indicem me bbbb, noa doctorem volo (Or. 33, 117), / wiih to be a jiiJ^t,

tint a teacher. cupio mS eaae cleHientem (Cat. i. 2), / desire lo he merci/u!. [But tegu- kily, cupio esse cleminH (see § 271, o).]

c. Verbs iA permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive. Patior takes regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative ; so often ainS. Thus, ■ —

petmlsit at partes faceret (De Or. ii. <)d), permitted him lo make divisieni. concedant nt boiu vid fuerint (Lxl. 5, iS), let Ihem allow them I9 have

nullo bS implicari negotio pasEUa est (lig. 3), he suffered himself la he

vinum imporlan non sinant (B, G. iv. 2), ihiy do net allow Toini to be

d. Verbs of determining, cleereeiHg, resoliiing, bargaining; take either

the Subjunctive or the Infinitive : as, —

constituerant nt L. Bestia qnereretnr (Sail. Cat 43), thiy had dt thai Lucius B/stia should complain.

proelio anperaederB statuit (B. G. ii. 8) , hf determined la refuse battb,-^

de bonis regis quae reddi censuecant (liv. ii. 5) , about Ihe kings geeil, ■which they had decreed should be restored.

deceroit nt consules delectum habeant (Sail. Cat. 34), decrees that the con- suls shall hold a levy.

edicCo ni quia iniiissu pSgnaret (liv. v. 19), having commanded thai none should fight lailhoat orders.

pacto nt viclorem res Beqnerltnr (id. xxviii. 3l), having bargained that ihe property should belong to the victor.

Note i, — Different verbs of these classes with the same tneanitig vary la Ifaeir construction. For verbs of iargainirrg with the Gerundive, see { 394. d.

Note a. — Verbs o( decreeing sni. voting often take the Intinitive of the Second Periphraslio conjugation: as, —

Regains captivos reddeodos [esse] nun censnit (OE i. 13), Segulm voted that the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his for- mal opinion : caplivi oon reddendl sont.]

e. I. Verbs ni caution and effort take the Subjunctive with nt. But oSnor, try, commonly takes the complementary Infinitive. Thus. —

cora nt quam primum intellegam. C^V&ro. iva. \a^, Ut tut know as soon ml pojsiili (lake coie that I may underaianOi^ . ^^H

; taKe eitner f delem^^^M tse batHa.'^^^^

331.1 Substantive Clauses of Purpose. 361

dont operam ut liabeant (SalL CaL 41), i!t<r laMt paius te have (^ve Ihnl ,

altentioE that, etc.). Impcllere nt Caesar uominaretnr (id. 49), to iitJucr tkem to name Casar

(that Caesar should be named), si trinBire conatentuc (B. G. i. E), if tAy skaulJ try lo ^khs.

a. G. i. B ; cf. miror Bi. etc.. } 333. effort (cL

erbs of c

Rem.). Note a. — Ut n8 o

ciica et piovide ut ii§quid et desit (Att. ii. 3), laie care and see that he nothing.

2. Verbs denoting an effort to hinder take either (1) a Subjunctive luse with quCminoH or n6, or (2] the Infinitive : as, — non detenet sapientem mora qnominuB . . . (Tusc. i- 38), death does not

prevent the -wise man from, etc. n5 faoerem impedivit (Fat. i. \), prevented me from doing. obslitisti ne tranaire copjae poasent (Verr. vi. z), you oppmed the passage

of the troops (apposed leat the troops alioald cross), piohibet accSdere (Qcc. \i>), prevents him from approaeking (_to approach). Note. — For verbs of hindering T\eg3,\\vei {noltfi iiKder), see } 332.^. /. Verba oi fearing take the Subjunctive,* with nS aifirmative I nSn or ut negative. Thus, —

timeo ne Vcrres fecerit (Verr. vi. l), T fear that Verres has done, etc ne animum offenderet verebatur (B. G. i. 19), he feared that he should

hurt the feelings, etc. ori^or metuu ne langaSscat senectute (Cat. Maj. c|, 2S}, I fear the 01

grows feeble from old age. vereoc ut tibi posaim concedere (De Or. i. 9), / fear \thitt'\ I ea

grant you, liaud sane periculum est ne nBn mortem optandam pntet (Tubc. v. 40),

Aere is no danger that he -jiill not think death desirable. NOTB, — In this use nS is commonly to be Itanslaled by that or lest, u qB d5d b; thai not.

ReuaKK. — The particle Qt ia often omitted with some verbs of the classes. So generaliy after verbs of viishimg, necessity, permission; aftei fao. and frequently In Indirect Discourse after vertis of commanding ai

i (All,

1 With verbs of Fearing the subjunctive with ne is horlalory in origin : tlmeO nS

acctdat is iilerally I /ear, let it not happen. The subjunctive with Ut may have

been either hortatory or dBliberalive.— //«ar, let it Aajf 01, ot I ftar; Ktnu mm

\jitAaAi>e>rf^ / Aofie if will happen, bat I fear il will not.

362 Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

fac dilieda (Alt, lii.), do lifiii. die exeat, tetl him toga out.

Mnesthea vocal, clasaciii aptent aocii (^itji. iv. 289), ke calls Afna^ [and orders thai] his comrade! shauld matt ready tkt pt^\ 9 339)- Note.— SimilarlynS is omined after cava in Prohibitions (ot } afig. a g. With any verbs of the above classes the poets may use the live instead of an object clause : as, —

hoilamuc fari (^n. ii. 74), ivt urge [him] to speak.

ne quaere doceri (id. vi, 614), seek not to be lotd.

lemptal praevertere (id. i. 721)1 J*^ ollempls to turn, etc.

h. A Substantive clause of Purpose used as the object of a verb be- comes the subject when that verb is put tu the Passive. Thus, ~~ "^H

imperatum est nt iter facerent, it was ordered that Ihty lAautJ marclL^^M penniEsum est at iisat, permission was given that they should go. ^^^k mihi persuadelur ut exetun, / am persuaded to go out (it b persuaded ^^ mt).

I. The impersonals lioet and oportet take as subject either a Substantive clause of Purpose, or an Infinitive with or without subject- accusative. Thus, — ^^k

Bint enim opottel (Tuac. i. 6), tkiy must exist.

Note i. — The Subjunctive wilh oportet omits Ut, excepl in later writers (see {33,./ Rem.).

Note a.— IJcet may take the Subjunctive, usually without ut, to denote con- cession [see { 313.*).

Note s. — Lioet may take (i) the Subjunctive; (i) Ihe Simple Infinitive; (3) the Infinitive widi Subject Accusative; or (4) the Dative and the infinitive. Thus. / may go is licet eam, licet Ire, lloet mS Ire, or Ucet mlhl Ire.

3. ClanseB of Sesult. ^H

Note. — Clauses of Result may be used substantively.! (i) as the objeC(j| (OciS, etc. ( j 332) : (2) as the subject of these same verbs in Ihe passive. lU well as of other verbs and verbal phrases (} 332. a, d} ; (3) in apposition wilh another substantive, op as predicate nominadve, etc (see } 332./).

ese cases the clause is not strictly subject or object The main verb

inally conveyed a meaning complete in itself, and the resiilt clause was merely

' I. This is seen by Ihe frequent use at Ita and the like with the main verb

OCCfdit ut, etc.). In like manner 7u[';iouc\a>ntsaie only apparently sutjea

object ol the verb with wUch tlicj aie comwOfiii. _^h

332.] Substantive Clauses of Result. 363- J

332. Substantive Clauses of Result with nt (negatived

t n6n) are used as the object of verbs denoting the*

itccomplishme?it of an effort}

Such are especially faoifi and its compounds (efficio, cSnflciS, eta). Thus,-

efficiani nt intellBgiitiB (Cluent. 3), I will mait you utiiicrsliinJ {\\l.i^etx\

that you, etc.). [So, faciam ut intellegatiB (id. 4),] commeatus at portari possent efEciebal (B. G. ii. 5), maJc it possible tkafX

supplies cotiM be brought. qiue Ubeilas at laetior esaet regis superbia fecetM (Ltv. ii. 1), At a

gami of the last Htig had atadc Ihis liberty ntore ittilcomi. iviDCunt iDStando n.t litterae darentnr (id. 4), by insisting they gain IheirM

Peitil, — that letters should be sent. [Here evincunt = effieiunt.] a. Substantive Clauses of Result are used as the Subject of the fol- I lowing ; —

1. Of passive verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort: as,-

impeUrilnin est nt in senatQ Tecitarentnr (litlerae) (B. C. i. i), Ihey si

ceidid in having the Itltir read in Iks s/nali (it was brought about 1 lhal,elc.).

2. Of Irapersonals meaning it happens, it remains, it follows, it it\ flecissary, ii is added?- and the like : as, —

accidit at esaet luna plena (B. G. iv, 29), '' happened to be full moon (it 1

happened that it was, etc.). [Here at easet ia subject ofacoidit.] reliquum est quarla virlSs at Bit ipsa frugalitaa (Deiot. i), il remains tk.

the fourth virtue is thrift. [So also restat.] scquitur ot doceam (N. D. ii. 32), t/ie next thing is to s/tmi (il foUoWS^

that I should show), acccdil nt contnrher (Deiot. 1), besides this I am troubled (it ia added

that, etc.).

3. Of est in the sense of it is the fact thai, etc. (mostly poetic) : as, est nt viro vir laliua ordinet arbusta (Hor. Od. iii. 1. 9), il is the fact that

one man plants his vineyards in wider rows than another. ■

d. A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows qoam, J dfter a comparative (but see § 336. c, note 2) ; as, —

perpcssua est omnia poliui quam indicixet (Tusc. ii. 22), Ae endured all rather than betray, etc.

Verbs and phrases taking an ut-clause of reBull as subjudl or object are accedit, aocldit, addltur. altera est rSs, commltta. cBnaequor, con- ttaffit, afflcia, evenlt, faclQ. fit. fieri potaat. lore, impetrO, ItitBKrum eBt, mOa est, mfinus eat. neceaae eat, props est, rSctum eat, relin- qnlttir. reliquum eat, restat, tantl eat, ta.n6»im 8.beat,a *Sm the (Vapersonals in the lial above.

364 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [s 332.

£. A result da.u3e, with or without at, b often used elliptical ly, in exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced by the inter- rogative -na Thus, — '

quarnqnam qaid laquai? te nt iilta les frajigat (Cat. i. 9), yeltuhy da 1

sptakt [the idea] lliat anylhiiig should linid youj egoncut le interpellem (Tusc. iL i8), what, I interrupt you f ego te viderc noluerim (Q. Fr. i. ■^, I unioilling ta see yeu f

ually refers \a samelhing mplaled.

d. The phrase tantmn abest, it is so far [from being the case], regularly takes two clauses of result with nt: one is subsiantivt, the subject of aboBt; the other is adverbial, correlative with tantmn. Thus,—

tantum abest ut no^lra nurSmur, nt usque eo difHcile* ac morosi simns, nt nobis non Batiafaciat ipse Demosthenes (Or. 39), sa far from admir- ing my own -woris, I am difficult and laptiout ia thai degree^ Ihat net Danosllienej hinmlf satisfiu me. [Here the first nt-clause is the su!>- Ject of abest (§ 332. 1); tlie sccand, a result clause, after tantum (9 3'9)i "'^'l '^^ third, after naque eo.]

e. The expressions facers ut, oommlttera nt with the subjunctive, often form a periphrasis for the simple verb ! as, —

in Vitus fe(^ at Flaminium e senatii elcerem (Cat. Maj. tz), Uwaiwiek rt-

luelanet dial I expelled Flaminius from die senate. Note.— With this maybe compared foraut for the fuiuie infinitive ({ aSS,/]. /. Rarely, a thought or an idea is considered as a result, and is expressed by the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and in- finitive (§ 336. i). In this case a demonstrative usually precedes j as, —

praeclaium illud est, nt eiis . . . amemns (Tusc. iii. 29), this it a iteilt

thing, that lot should love, etc. verisimile non e^t at ills anteponeret (Verr. II. iv. 6), il is not likely Aat

he preferred.

g. A Relative clause of Result with quia Is used after verbs or other expressions ol hindering 3.mL the like when these are negatived. Thus,

faccie non possniu qnin . . . (Att. xii, 27), I cannot avoid, etc,

nihil praeteimi^ quin acnbam . . . (Q. F. iii. 3), 1 kavi Itfl nething undone

ta write. ut nulla le impedirer qoin (Alt. i», a), dial I might it hindered by noAing

noa humann ijlla ncque dmoa cA»tanl i^om (,SalL E\^ Mith. 17}, fM Jkumutt or divine lawi frevenl, but thnt,«^ ''^~

f 332.] Sitbstantive Clauses of Result.

Nr>TK I. — The n^alive ma; be expressed (aslnihe examples ebore) or t implied (as la qulfl Impedtt q,ula ean), tv^ (Lev nobody] Uiidtra mt fhigr).

:specially wllti Ihs phrase nOn dubltO. /A'l *.— nun dnbitabat qnln ei crSderimna (Alt. li. i), ie did not doiM that u

htlitvrd him. illud cave dubiles quia ego omnia fadiiii) (Fam. v. 20), do Hal doubt that \

I will do att. quis ignorAt qnin (flaci;. 27), viho is ignorant that, etc. 7 neque ambigituc qoln Brutus pessimo publico id faetSma tberit ti priS- rum regum alicui regnum estorsiaset (Uv, ii, l), nor it Aert ttnjl quel- Hen thai Brutus, if he had lurnted tkt Hngdom frem any one eflhi former iings, itiould kavi done U isith Ike toorsl results It tht ttatt. [Direct slatement: lEcisset.]

nee dubitare iHuni sppellSre sapienlera (Lsel. i, :), and ttt la kesltatt l» I

call Aim a sage. dubitandum non existimavil quin proGciaeerStnr (B. G, IL a), St did net I

lAini he ought to hesitate to set out.

h. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of I saying or as verbs of commanding, effecting, and tiie like. Thes* I bke as their object either a Substantive clause of Purpose or Result] itt an loiiiutive with subject accusative, according to the sensevl

sequitut ilico esse canaai immutohiles (FaL 11), it follems direetly th^M

three are vnaUerable causes. [Result clause, the reeulac ConittuctiollJ

with sequor when used of a logical stquetice.] laudem sapieotiae slatuo esse maximam (Oiv. v. 13), / hold that the glory M

of ■wisdom is the greatest. staCuunt nt decern milia hDminuin mittAdtnr (B. C vil. Zl), they retahit\

that 10,000 men shall be sent. [Purpose clause, cf, | 331, 1/,] res ipsa monebat tempaa ease (All. x. %), the thing ilielf warned that it M

was time. [Cf. monere ut, warn to do tomelhing.'\ fac mibi ease persuaanin (N. D. i. 27), suppose thai / am persuaded b/M

Hat. [a. facete nt. aaomplish thai.-] hoc Yolunt pcrsuSdere, non interire animos (B, G. vi. 13), they wish A

eonvince that souls do not perish. bnic persiHdct uti ad boslei transeat (B. G. iii. iS), persuades him A ' pass ever to the enemy.

Note. — The infmiliTe wilh lubjecl accusa(i»e In this cnnilruclion is Indlree IHscmme, aail is to be distinguuhed firsm lYic siiD9\e\T£»i KfiA ibcsc veriis instead of a subjuDciiTc clatue.

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

4. Indicative with Qaod.

333. A peculiar form of Substantive Clause consists quod causal with the Indicative,

The clause in the Indicative with quod is used w the statement is regarded as a fact : as, —

altecum est vilium, quod quidajo nimis magnum studiiun coniieroilt (OH. i. 6), it ii another fault thai some beslma loo much ttal, etc. [Here Ot (wnferant could be used, meaning that some should bestow; or the accusative atid infinitive, meaning lo besltnn (abstractly); qaod makes it a fact that men do bcstnw, etc.]

intei inanimum et animal hoc maxime interest, qaod animal agit aliquld (Ac. ii. 12), Uiii is til chief difference, etc., that an animal aims al somethi,^.

qnodradilt nobis mirSbile videtuc (Off. iiLji), «a3r^«(Regiiliis) returtui seems ■amtsderful te us.

veins illud Catonis admodom Rcitum est, qiu mirari se aiebat qnod n5n nderet haruspex haruspicem cum vidisset (Div. ii. 24), 'tis an old and shrewd saying of Cato, that he -aiandired a soothsayer did net lavgi n^en he looted another in the face. [Here ridiret is in the subjunc- tive as being a subordinate clause of indirect discourse: see } 336.]

NgTE. — Like other substantive clauses, the clause with qnod may be used in apposition with the subject.

a. In colloquial language, the clause with quod sometimes appears as an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English WHEREAS (cf. §326.0) L as,-

qood de domo icnbia (Fam. xiv. z), as to vikal youiorile of the home.

quod mihi de nostra statil gratnlirifl, minime miiamur te tuis praeclaril operibus laetiri (Alt. i. 5), as to your congratulating me on our <■«•• dilion, no wonder you are f leased -aiith your mob noble -works.

b. Verbs of feeling and the expression of feeling take either quod, quia (Causal), or tlie accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse):

qaod acribb . . . gaudeo (Q. F. iii. l)> ! am glad that you mritt.

facio libenter qnod cam non poranm pcaeterire (L^. i. 24), I am glad Aai

I cannot pass it by. qnae perfecta esse vehcmenter laetor (Rose. Am. 47), I grtally rgoiet

that this is finished. Remark. — MIror and similar expressions are sometimes followed b; a clause pparently substantive, but really protasis (ct f 331. e. 1. note i).

1 Ct. tVie Greet ^•ix<^^ si.

.tsofS

when

fS 333, 334.] Indirect Qu

miror n qnernqoam amicum habere pt» tver have a friend. [Originally, 7 5. Indiisct Q Note.— Aq Indirect Question is any s> object of ^ verb, or depends on anv exprBssii grammatical fonn. txclamalory senlencej art (^e the third example below).

Indirect Questions.

it Bi qnemqoam amicum habere potnit (La;!. 15), liiiondir ifht i T have afr^ind. [Originally, If this is so, I Toonder al »V,]

Indiisct QuestloilB.

Note. — Aq Indirect Question is any sentence or clause which i ;c.),andwhicii is iisetft n implying uncertaintj' c not distinguished from

introduced I e subject or 1

An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Sub- ] ^junctive : as, —

quid ipse aentiam eiponam (Div, i. 6), I mi// ixflain what I l/iin

[Direct : qnld sentio.] id poBBfltne (ieri conauluil (id. 7), he comu/led luhclher it coti/d be dan

[Direct: poteatne.] ClUJWa ria audax omnea intellegere potuerunl (Rose. Am. 31), a// can

vnderst'ind how bo/d yon are. [Direct; qnam ea andSxl] doleam uecne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. iz), il is of no aecon;

■whelker I suffer or not. [Double question.] Togat me quid Bentiam, he asis me mhat I Ihink. [Cf. rogat ne tseaiei

tiam, he aski me my p/ibi'dh.] hoc dnbiom eat, uter noatriim sit verecundior (Acad. ii. 41, 126J, Ikis is

douitfui, ■which of us ftfw is ike more modest. incerti quitenas Volero exerceret victoriam ([,iv. ii. 55), uncertain hua

far Voltro ■woii/d push victory. [As if, dabitantea qDateaiui, etc.] Note.— An Indirect Question maybe the subject of a verb (as in the lonrtt I lample), the direct object (as in the first), the secondary object (as in the fifth), I -■'e (as in the sixth). '

The use of tenses in Indirect Question is illustrated by 1 ^the following examples : —

:q quid fadam, / te/l you -what I am doing. o quid facturua sim, I ttl/ you what J ■aiitl do. dico quid feceriio, I te/l you what I did (have done, 'Was doing; had done). dixt quid facerem, / told you lahat I was doing. dixi quid fecisscro, / told you what I had done. J dixT quid facliirus essera, I told yon what I would do (was going to do). |L dhi quid facturiu fuerim, / told yon what I would have done.

^P a. Indirect Questioris referring to fiiture time take the subjunctive (rf |

Bftie First Periphrastic conjugation ; as,—

^B pcospicio qui concursus futuri sint (Div. in Csec), I foresee what throng} \

H there will be {UancX: qni emnt?]

^t quid ait fulurum eras, fuge quaercre (Hot. Od. \. q'l, /orbtar lo ailt ■

V wi// ie OH Ihe morrow. [Direct: cinid eTit ot to.WHM.-Bi ^A-T^

\'

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>

I

368 Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

Note. — This periphraslio future avoids the ambiguity which would be causeil bj using the present subjunctive to refer lo future time in such clauses.

b. The Deliberath'e Subjunctive (see § 26S and examples) remains unchanged in an Indirect Question, except Boroetiraes in tense ; as,—

[quaerilur] ntmm Carthago d&nfttiir, ar Carthaginiensibus redditni

{De Inv. i. la), [the question is] shal, Carthage he datroYid, ar ri-

stand lo the CaTihagimam. nee quisquam satis certum habet, qnjd aut aperet sut timeat (Liv. xiii.

7), nor is any one weU assured what he shall hope or fear, [Here iht

future participle with ait could not be used.] incerta quid peterent aut vTtarent (Liv. xxviii. 36), since it -was £>ublfm

(abl. aljs.) tohal they should seek or shun.

c. In colloquial usage and In poetry tlie subject of an Indirect Ques- tion is often attracted into the main clause as object {accusalivi of aniicipalion): as, —

nosti Marcallam quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10}, you tnno Ami/ stew Mareellus is. [For noati quam tardus ait Marcelliu. Cf. / tnin/ thee who thou art.^

C{. potestne igitur earum rerum quare futiirae sint iilla esse praesiosio (Div. ii. s), can there be, then, any forekiiawlidge as to those IhingSy -why thty will cccurP [A similar use of the objective genitive.]

Remark. — In some cases the Objett of aHlicipalloa becomes Subject by a change ofvoice, and an apparent mixture of relative and inlerrogalive conslrucilon is the result; as, —

qiudam saepe in parva peciinia perspiciontur quam sint leves (Lacl. fj), il is open seen, in a Irijlitig matter of money, Jtoui unprincipled soiat people are (some people are often seen through, how unprincipled they

■"'■

qucmadmodum Pompeium oppugnacent a ine indicaLi sunt (Leg. Ag, i. 2), it has been sioain by me in Tvhal way thty attacked Pompey (they have been shown by me, how Ihey attacked).

d. Indirect Questions often take tbe Indicative in early Latin and in poetry: as, —

non reputat quid laburis eat (Plaut. Am. 172), ke does net consider what a

task il is. vlneam quo in agro conseri oportet sic ■aihal soil a vineyard should lie set you it. :. A few interrogative expressions are used parenthetically in indefinite sense and do not take a subjunctive. Such are —

nescio quis (and kindreil forms), T knew not who, somebody or other, el nittum (nimirum) quam, marvellously (marvellous how), mirum quantum, tremendously (marvelloui how much). rnuDane quantum, momlrousty (monsUoiaVo-* ane quam, immensely. vaide t^viani

^

Indirect Discourse. 369

Examples

qiu iitam neaciS qnam indolentiam inignopere laudant (Tus.

grtacly txlol thai freedem from pain, -a^lever ikatis

rum qHantum pcofuit (Liv. ii. i), it idptd prodigiou

fato neicio qa6 conligisse arbitior (Fam. xv. 13), I think it hafpened

IB iy somt fatality or other,

n sues Talde qaam paucos habet (Fam. li. l^'},for ki has uncommnnly

few efkis own.

18 qnam sum gavisua Ci'^-)i '^wai intmeiuffy glad.

o et lucecnis Medus Eicinaces immane quantum discrepat (Hor. Chi. i.

jl), is monstreusly at varianct.

f. An indirect question is occasionally introduced by bI in tiie se ■whethtr (like if'va English, cf. § 333. b. Rem.) ; as, —

circumfundantur hostea si quem aditum teperire poasent (B. G. vi. 37),

tht tnimy pour round [to see] if they can find entrame. visameadomi eit (Ter. Heaut. iiV), I -mi 11 go see if he is at home.

iuaUy no Apodosis is thought oF, and

g. Forsit, fotaltan, forsan, fortaese, fortaese an, pci'haps, i often followed by the Subjunctive : as, —

Iforsilan qnaerilfis qui iste tenor sit (Rose, Am. i), you may perhaps 1 quire what this alarm is. Note.— The Subjunctive Clause in Ibis case was originally an Indirect Ques- tion. Thus, il would be a chance mkctier, etc. PortaBBe is also followed by the ^^^ InfiniUve with Subject Accusative in Plaulus. ^^H

lll.~INDIRECT DISCOURSE. ^^|

Note. — Tbe use of (he Accusative and InRniUve in Indirect Discourss ^^H {araiio oiligtia) is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in the Lalin ^^H and Greek only, and perhaps separately in each of them, II Is wholly wanting in ^^H Sanskrit and Zend, but some forms like It liave grown up in English and German. ^^H

Thees5enlialchara.cterof Indirect Discourse Is, that the language of some other ^^M person than the writer or speaker is compressed into a hind of Substatitive Clause, ^^H the verb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modi^ing clauses, as well ^^H as all hortatoiy forms of speech, take (he Subjunctive. The person of the verb is ^^U necessaiily conformed to the new relation of persons.

The construction of the Indirect Discourse, however, is not limited to reports of the language of some person other than the speaker; it may be used lo express what any one — whether the speaker or some one else— loyj, Ihinis, ot periiivis, whenever that which is said, thought, or perceived is capable of being expressed in Iha form of a complete sentence. For anything thai can be laid, etc., can also 6i ported hidirectly as well as directly.

The use of Iho Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use as to complete or modify the action expressed \fj ttvc vtrti oi Ktjiug.evi^ rt together. Tljis object in lime came W to Tc^aiaei ie,,v.TifiL\i.\aiS. ^H

r

370 Syntax: Dependent Constnictiof

to bII Interns became, the subject of the infiniSve. A iransi

Sanskrit, which, though it has no indirect disoou

predication after vef bs of saying and ihe like, by means of a predicative appoMlioti.

in such expressions as, " The mnids told the king [that] his danghter [was] beidt

The simple fonn of indirect slalemcnt -with the necusadve and infinitive «-as afterwards amplified byintrodudng dependent or modifying clauses; and in Latin it became a common construction, ond could he used to report whole speeches, etc., which in other languages would have the direct form, (Compare the style of reporting speeches in English, where only Ihe person and tense are changed, as is also occasionally the case in Sanskrit.)

The USB of the Sabjuncdve In dependent clauses in Indirect Discourse probably came bora regarding the statements contained in them as not absoltMfy true, but as csnfi^fuij upon the tmstworthiness of the original speaker; that is, as Apodosis with an implied Protasis (i/wt miy telievt iht tftaiir,arVae\ik.e). So the Freodi conditional is often equivalent to "it is said"! as, aimi it aittaii & fia fris dsutU, "it is said 10 have nearly doubled," lit. "would have doubled," i.e. if we should believe the report C;f. in CJerman, Er soil trunk siin, " he is said to lie sick," ht., " he ought to be sick, unless the story is false,"

The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech in Indirect Discourse is simply Ihe usual hortatory subjunctive, with only a change of person and tense (if necessary), as in the reporter's s^le, and in Sanskrit.

335. A Direct Quotation gives the exact words of the original speaker or writer.

An Indirect Quotation adapts the words of the speaker or writer to the construction of the sentence in which they are quoted.

Eemars. — The term Indirect Discourse iSratia obllpta) Is used hi two senses. In the wider sense it includes ail clauses — of whatever kind — which express Ihe words or thought of any person oidirccthn that b, in a form different from that in which the person said the words or conceived Ihe thought. In Ihe narrower sense the term Indirect Discourse is restricted lo those cases In which some compUtt proposilion is ciled in Ihe form of an Indirect Quotation, which may be emended 10 a narrative or an address of any length, as in the speeches repotted by Caesar and Livy. In this book the term is used In Uie restricted sense, ^^-

I. Formal Indirect Discourse. ^^|

336. I. Verbs and other expressions of knowing, thim^ ing, telling, 2jn^ perceiving} govern the Indirect Discourse.

'Such are: (i) imi-.ving, acl8, cBgnSacfl, comportum habeO, etc.; (2) Ihiniing, pTJtC, eiiatimO. artiltror, etc.; (3) ttUmg, dloO, nfllitlS, reterO, polllceor, prSmlttO. certlSrem faciB, etc.; (4} pmervin^, bod* tJS. comporlQ, VideS, audio, cic. So in gcneml any word thai denotes thought or menial and visual peicepRotv en Ihriw c^nesian. m».i gorem the ^direct Discourse,

I

Indirect Discourse : Subject Accusative. 371

. In the Indirect Discourse the main clause of a De-

iratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject

Accusative, All Subordinate clauses take the Subjui

Thus, —

Epcro mS Hberatum [egae] de mctii (Tusc. iii. 37), / trust I have 6tiH

/r„d/„„f„r. [dicil] SEBe noniiQllas quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B. G. i.

he sajis Ihert art somt, xehost infiueHU innsl preeailt. [In direct di»-

cooise i sant nonnulli , , . Ttilet.] iiisi inrasBet, scelus se factarum [esse] arbitrabatur (Verr. i. 47), kt

thaugkt he should iniur guilt, unless ht sAoulJ late the oalh. [Direct!

nisi inravero, faciam.] Scoici nfgant quidquam [esse] bonum, uisi quod hoiiestum sit (Fin. ii.

31), the Stoics assert that nothing is good tut what is right. [The verb

&eg5 is used ia preference Co dlc5 with a negative.] Note i.-~ra [he slalemenlorall speech or thought, (he Romans leaded to use : Indirect Discourse, etc., with verbs of the classes mentioned, liut ; Inguam, y/ (etc), is appropriated to the Direct Discourse eicept in poetry. Note a. — The verb of saying, etc., is often not expressed, but implied in some 'ord or in the general drift of the sentence: as,— consnlis alteiius nomen invisum civitati fuit: nimium Tarquini^ regno

adsueue; initiutn a Frisco factum; regnasse dein Ser. TuUititn, etc.

lIAv. a. 2), tie name of the other consul was hateful ta the state; the

Tarquins [they thought) had become too much accustomed to royal

power, etc. [Here iTlvisDin implies a thought, and this thought is

added in the Indirect Discourse.] orantes ut urbibus saltern — iam enim l^roa deplorStos esse — opem

Ecnatus ferret (Liv. xvi. (>), praying that the senate -would at least bring

aid to the cities— for the fields [they said] -were already given up as

lost. Note 3.— Verbs ol framisins. hopini the like, regtJarly take the construction

1. Snbject Aoonaative.

a. 1. The Subject of the Infinitive in Iniiirect Discourse must reg^^ •

rly be expressed, even if it is wanting in the direct; as, — orator sum, T am an orator; dicit se esse oratarem, h Note. — But the subject is often omiiied, if easily under: ignoacere impriidentiae dixit (B. G. iv. 27), he said he pardoned their

rashness. rogavi petvenisaentne Agrigentum; dixit pervenisBa (Verr. iv. . asked whether they (the curtajns) Aoif conu (a Agrigmtiun U L jaiered tiitl they had.

I

372 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [f 336.

Remark. — After a rektive. or QUBm (Mm), if the verb would be the sme

tE suspicor nsdcm rebus quibus meipaiini commovcn (Cat. Mitj. t), / iiu- ftcl thai you art dhlarbed by Iht same /iin^s as I.

2. When the verb oi saying, etc., becomes passive, the construction may be either Personal or Impersonal.

Note i. — For rules in regard to the choice between rhese constmctioiis, aDd (or examples, see } 330. a-d.

Note i — An Indirect Narrative begun In the personal constructiDii continued with the Infinitive and Accusative.

, Subordinate Clauses.

"»l|^

b. A subordinate clause merely explanatory or containing which are regarded as true independently of the quotation, taltes Ihe Indicative: as, —

quiB neget haec omnia qQEie videmaa deurutn potestlte administrari (Cat.

iii. 9), who can deny that alt Ihtst things till see art ruttd by the fmner

ef At gods? ciiius ingenio putibat ea qnAe geaaerat posse celebrari (Arch. 9), by aiair

genius it thought that those deeds which he had done could be ctUhralrd.

[Here the fad Expressed by qnftB geaBerat, though not explanatory, is

felt lo be trne without regard lo the quotation : qnae geBaisaet would

mean, what Marios claimed to have done.] Note. — It often depends merelyupon the feeling of Ihe writer whether he shall use the Indicative or Subjunctive in such clauses (cf. } j 340-342),

c. Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a demon* strative with a conjuaction are not properly subordinate, and hence take the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (see § 180. y") :

Marcellus lequtsivisae dicitur Archimedem ilium, quern com aodisset iuter- feotum permoleste tulisse (Verr. iv. 5S), Marcellus is said to h/n'e sought far Arthtmedts, and when he heard that he was slaiit, la hai-t becK greatly dislrtssed. ,

Ctiumqnemque nostrum censent philosophi mundi e»se partem, ex qnS [= et ex eo] illud nStura conaequi (Fin, iii. 19), the philosophers say thai each ant of us is apart of the universe, from iiihich this naturally follows.

Note i,— Really subordinate clauses occasionally lake this construction ; as.—

qnemadmodum sT non dedatur obses pro nipto b5 foedus hahltnram, sic deditam inviolalam ad luos remissurum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] as in fast tie hostage is notgivm «f Jit shall considtr At treaty as brettn,u i/given up ht will return her unhariind to her frw»ds.

f 1331

f

,] Tenses in Indirect Discourse. 373

Note a. — The Infinitircconslructloii Is regularly condnued after a

h quarn : as, —

addit se prins occisom in ab eo qnam mi Tiolatnni In (Att. ii. so), kt

adds &at hi kivisclf imU bi kiUtd by him, before I shall be injured. NOTB 3. — The Suhjunciive with or without ut also occurs with <iuam (m '133^*}.

d. A subordinate dause in the Indirect Discourse occasionally takes the Indicative when 'Aa/ocI is emphasized: as, —

factum eius hostis periculum . . . cum, Cimbris et Teatonia . . . pulsis, non

minorem laudem exercilus quam ipse imperalor metltus vidahatar

(B. G. i. 40J, that a trial of this enemy had been made when, etc.,

tie army seemed, etc.

3, TenssB of the tnfinitlire. 6. A. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future In- finitive is used in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future with reference to iHie verb of saying, etc., by which the Indirect Discourse introduced. Thus, —

ceciderS, I shall 1 dicit fore ut ceciderit [rate], he says he shall have fattt

have fallen I dixit fore ut CBcidisset [rare], he said he should have Note i. — AH varieties of past time are usuallir expressed In Indirect Discourse , the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imperfect, the Perfect, or the Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct. Bui sometimes continued or repeated action in past time is expressed by the Present Infinitive, which in such cases stands for tbe Imperlect Indicative of (he Direct Discourse, and is often called the Imperfect iHjnilive (so regularly afler meminl, cfl { 383. f): Thus,—

\£ taerawi ^cere, I reniemher that you said. [Direct: dicebH.] Note s. — For various ways of expressing the Future Infinitive, see S 147. e.

\ 4. Tenses of tbe Subjunctive.

336. B. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Dis- course follow the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (§ 2S6), They depend for their sequence on the verb of saying,

[etc., by which the Indirect Discourse \a \u\.TQ6.\iiie.i.

1

:■ I

I

r

374 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [§§336,337,

Thus In the sentence, dixit bS Romam itDmin ut cSnaulem TldEret, he said he should go to Rome in order that he tntght set (he etmsut, vidEret follows Ihe sequence of dixit without regard lo the Future Infinitive, itOrum [esse], on which it directly depends.

Note i. — Tliis rule applies not only lo Ihe subjunctive in subordinale clauses in indirect discourse, but also to that which stands for the imperative, etc. {see ei- amples in { 339), and to that in questions {) 338).

Note 2. — A subjunctive depending on a. Perfect Infinitive is commonly in Ihe Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of laying, etc., is in a primary tense (rf.i.S7 0. Tl,«.-

Tarquinium dnisse fernnt tam exsulantem se intellexisae qnos fidos amicus habaisaet (Lael. 15), Aey tell us that Tarquin said that then in his ixili III had found out what faithful friends he had had. [Here the main verb of saying, fBTOnt, is primary, bat the time is carried back by djxiaae and intellBxiaae, and the sequence then becomes secondary.] tanlum profecisse videmur at a Graecia ne yerborum quideni copia TincB- rimna (N. D. L 4, 8), -jie snm la have advanced sn far thai evin in fulness ofiaords we are not surpassed by the Greeks.

a. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in dependent clauses of the Indirect Discourse even when the verb of saying, etc, is

dicebant . . . lotidetn Necvios (polliceri) qui longissime absint (B. G. ii. 4^ Otey said that ihe Nervii, wke live farthest iijf,f remised as many.

Note I. — This constmclion comes from Ihe tendency of language lo refer all lime in narration to the time of Ihe speaker {RipraismlStia). In Ihe course of a long passage in the Indirect Discourse the lenses of the subjunctive often vary, sometimes following the Sequence, and sometimes affected hy Repratstntilii. Examples may be seen in B. G. L 13, vii. ao, etc.

Note 2. — Certain constructions are never affected by Rtpraesent^hS. Such are the Impetfecl and Pluperfect Subjunctive with cum temporal, antequam. and prluaquam.

5. Conditions in Indirect Disooorae.

337. Conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are expressed as follows : —

1. The Protasis, being a subordinate clause, is always in the Sub-

2. The Apodosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative, is always in some form of the Infinitive.

a. The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid future con- ditions (§ 307. A) becomes the Future Infinitive. Thus there is no dis- liuctJon between more or less vivid future conditions in the Indirect IXscourse. ,^^

337.]

Conditions in Indirect Discourse

375

Examples of conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are : —

1. Simple Present Condition (g 306). (dixit) si ipse populo Romano non praeBCriberet quemadmodum sua iiire

nteretur, non opori«re sese a popolo Romano in suo iure impediri (B. G. !. 36) , hi said that if he did not dictate to tht Ronmn ptople him ' Hey shoidd use their rights, he eught not to it interfered with iy tht Soman peopit in the exercise of his rights. [Direct: a non praB- , scrlbo , . , nSn oportet.j praeiiicavic . . , ai pace uli velint, iniquum esse, etc, (B. G. i. 44), he as' serled that if they wished to enjoy peace, it -mas unfair, etc, [Direct: Hi volnnt . . . eat. Present tense kept by RepraesentatQ (§ 336. B. a, note .)■]

2. Simple Past Condition (§ 306). non dicam ni illud quidem, d maxime in culpa fiieTili Apolloniui, ta

hominem bonealissimae uvitatis honcstissimum tam graviter animad' I veiti caasi indicta non oportoiaae (Ven, II. v. S, ao), / will not say this either, that, even if Apollonius was greatly in fault, still an honor' able man ought not to have been punished so severely, etc. [Direct ! A fnit . . . non oportuitN]

3. Futm^ Conditions (§ 307). Aeduis se obsides redditiirum non esse, neque eis . . . bcllum iU&tSmm, n

in eo maiiirent, quod convenisset, stipendiumque quotannis pende- { rent; si id non feciBsent, longe eis fralernum nomen populi Romoai abfntartun (B. G, i, '^d'), he said thai he would not give up the hostages la Ike jEdui, but would not mahe war upon them if they observed tht j agreement, etc., and paid tribute yearly; but if they should not dt tht name of brothers to the Roman people would be far from aiding Hem. [Direct : reddam . . . inferam . . , n manebnnt . . . pendent i a non fecerint . . . aberit.] (dixit) quod 31 praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen si cum sola decinia legione itnrnni (B. G. i. 40), but ifnohoiiy else should follow, still he would go ■with the tenth Itgion alone. [Direct: si aeqaetar . . . ibo. Present

id Dalamet tit audivit, sensit, si in turbam exisset ab homine tam necessa- lio se Telictum, Attornm [ease] ut ceteri consilium aeqnantnr (Nep. Dat, 6), if it should get abroad that he had been abandoned by a man so closely tonneclid with him, everybody ebe would follow his example. [Direct: A exlerit . . . aeqaentor.j

(diiemnt) nisi me civilate expnlisaeat, obtinere se non posse liceatiam capiditatum suanun (Att. x. 4), they said that unless they drove me out of Ike state, tkey eoidd not have free play for their desires. [Direct! nioi (Ciceronem) expnlerimiiB, obtinere n5n poterinmH.]

b. In changing a Condition contrary to fact (§ 308) into the Indirect , SSscourse, the following points requite nolice.

3/6 Syntax: Dependent Constructions. [5

1

1. The Protasii always remains unchanged in tense.

2. The Apodosis, inactive, takes a peculiar infinitive farm, mad( combining the Participle in -iirua with fuiase.

3. If the verb of the Apodosis is passive or has no supine stem, the periphrasis fittflrum falaae ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must

Examples are : —

nee se supetstitem fllise fntnrnia fniaafl, nisi spem ulciscendae morlis avs in aunilio cominilitonum habaisaet (Liv. iii. 50), and ikal he skeuld no! nmo be a survivor, elc, unltss ie had had kope, etc. [^Direct; non anperetea esKem. nisi habuissem,]

illud Asia cogitet, nuUam a ae neque belli eilerni neque discordiarum domeiticamm ealamitatem abfutiiram fuisse, si hoc imperio nSn lenere- tur (Q. Ft. i. 1, 1 1), Itl Ana (personified) Ihink o/lhis, that no disaster, etc., woidd not be htrs, if site were not held by this govimmenl. [Direct: abeasem, a non tenerer,]

qaid inimidtiarum credilis eKceptamm fnuse, si insontes lacessissem (Q. C. vi. 10, 29), tuhal enmities da you think I should have iniurred if I had wantonly assailid the innoeint. [excepisaem . . . Bi laces- BiHsem.]

ancensemus, siFabio...1audi datum esset quod pingerel, non multoseliam apud nos fnlDrSa Polycletos et Panhasios fnlsse (Tasc. i. z, 4), or do ■we think that if praise had been given to Faiius because he painted, there woald not have been many a Polycletns and Parrhasius among us too? [Direct: ^ datum asaet ... ii5il fniasent.] invitnm se dicere, nee dJotfirnm fuisae, ni caritas rei publicoe vinceret (Liv. ii, 2), that ht spoke unTBiUingly and should not haze spoken (al vXX), did not love for the commonwealth prevail ? [Direct; neo dlxia- sem . . , nl vinceret.]

quorum si aetas potuisaet esse longinquior, ftitfimm fiiisie at omnibu« perfectis artibus hominora vita, erudiretoT (Tuac. iii. sS, 69), if life could have been longer,human ejtislence would have been embellished fy every art in ils perfection. [Direct: emdita esaet.]

Note i, — In Indirect Discourse Present Conditions contrary (o lacC are nol distinguished in the apodosis from Past, but the prolaiu may keep Ihent distinct. NOTIia. — The periphrasis futOrum lulsae ul is sometimes used from

NOTEj. — Very rarely the Future Infinilive is used in the Indirect Discoune to express the Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary to fact. Only four or live examples or this use occur in classic authors : as, —

Titurius clainabat si Caesar adesset neque Camiites, etc., neque Eburo- nes tania cimi contemplione nostra ad caitra TsotfiToa eiM (B. G. v. 29), Titurius cried out that if Casar v>ere present, neither teeutd the Carnu/es, etc., nor woutd the Ebui-ond 6( (oming (0 our camp tidet t»cA contempt. [Direct ; al adeaact . , .■^emicn.V:\ ^^H

Ess 338, 339.] Qiiestiotts and Commands.

Bss3

^B 6. Questdona in Indirect DiBGonrse.

^ 33S. A QuestioD in the Indirect Discourse may be j either in the Subjunctive or in the Infinitive with Subject J Accusative.

A real question, asking for an answer, is generally put 1 in the Subjunctive ; a rhetorical question, asked for effect \ and implying its own answer, in the Infinitive, Thus, — quid sibi Tollot? cur in suas posessiones venlret (B. G. i. 44), ■what did J he -ujanl? why did hi comt ia/a /lis Urrilsricsf [Real question.f Direct: qnid-riaT cfir renia?] J

tium recentiam iniiiriinini memoriam [se] depiSuere pOBse (id. i. 14),,] could he lay aside the memory of r/cent wrongsT [Rhelorical Que tioD. Direct; nam poaanu 7] quern ^gnum dnCurum fugientibus ? quern ausucum Alexandro succedete (Q. C. iii. 5), tiiAa will give the signal on the retrial? taha wll dare sficcetd Alexandtr f [Rhetorical. Direct: qois dabit . . . tilidebit. ] NOTBl. — No sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the Infini- tive in questions in the Indirect Discourss. Whether llie question iato be regarded ai rhelorical 01 rtjl ofitn depends merely on liie writer's point of view. Thus,— ntrtun partcoi regni petitortim esse, an totnin erepliirum (LIv. xlv. 19),

v/illyeu ask ptsri of lie re^l pmiicr (he said), or seize the ■aiholtf quid tandem praeluri faciendum faiBse (id. xxxi. 48), what, pray, eughl j

a prater In liave done ? quid repente factnm [esse] ciir, etc. (id. xxxiv. 54), -what had suddeufy |

happened, thai, eic.l

Note a. — Questions coming immediately after a verb ol asiin^ ore treated U

Indirect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see j 334), This is true even when

die verb of asking serves also to inboduce a passage in the Indirect Disoounc

The question maybeelther real or rhetorical. See quaealvlt, etc, (l.iv. ixxviL rj),

Note 3,— For the use of tenses, see § 336. B, note 1.

a. A Deliberative Subjunctive in the Direct Discourse b always I retained in the Indirect r as, —

cfir aliquos ex suis Smitteret (B. C 1. 72), luiy (thought he) should At '

Use seme o/his men ? [Direct : Onr imittam?] '

7. Commands In Indirect SiooouTaa. 339. All Imperative forms of speech take the Suhjunc- live in Indirect Discourse : as, —

renuniaceritOT velcris Incommoili (B. G. i. 13). remember (said he) t

ancient disaslir. [Direct: reminiBoare.] nnem facuit (id. 2o), lei him make un eni. y)\<tW, ^»*r\

iJS

Syntax: Dependent Constniciions. [|5 339, 340

ferrent ojwni, adinTirent (Liv. ii. 6), l^i them bring aid, l/t ihim help.

Remark,^ This rule applies nol nnlylo Ihe Imperative of Ihe direct discourse, bul 10 Ihe hortatory and the optative subjunclive a^ we!l.

Note i.— Thoueh these subjiinclives stand for independent clauses of the direct discourse, they follow the rule for the sequence of tenses, being in kxX dependent on Ihe verb at saying, etc. {cf. }} aSS, 336. B, note i).

Note 2, — A Prohibition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed by nS with the Subjiincdve, even when n3Ii with the InfinitivE would be used in Ihe Direct: as,—

nc pcrlurbarenlur (B. G. vii. 29), do not (he said) bf troubled. [Direct: nolite pertnrbiri. But sometimes ndUet is found in Ind. Disc]

The following example illustrates si a connected address ; —

INDIRECT DISCOURSE. Si picem populua Rominus cum Helvetiis faceret, in earn partem itu- ] roH atque ibi fatoroa Helvatioa, ubi COS Caesar constitaiaaet atque esse voIiiiBBet 1 sin bello persequi perse- veraret, TeminisceTetiir et veteris incomraodi populi Romani, et piisti- nae virt^tis Helvili5tuni. Quod im- proviso iinLiin piguiu adortus asset, cum ei qui niimen tran^aent suis auiilium fcrre non poasent, ne ob

tuti tribaeret, sut ipsoa deapiceret ; ae ita a pa.tribu; maiocibusquc eitis didicisse, ut magis virtute quam ilolo contenderent, aut inEidiis nltereu- tur. Quare ne conmiitteiet, ut ia tocus ubi constitiBsent ex calatnitatc populi Romani et internecione exerci- tiis nomED capeiet, proderet. — B. G. i. r

e of the foregoing prindples

Si pacem populus Rotnanus cum Helvetiis faciet, in earn partem ibuiit atque ibi amnt Helvetil, ubi eus tu conatitaeriB atque esse volneria : sin bello persequi peraevBribiB, remini- fwere [inquit] et velerts incotomodi populi Romani, et pristinae virtuti^

Helvet pagum adorti

Quod i.

lUn ei qui tlum silium ferte n. 1 rem aut ta,

i tribtieriB, q

inaioribusque noalris didicimna, ut magis virtute quam dolo contenda- muB, aut insidiis nitamnr. Quari noli committere, ut He locus uli coQEtitiinas ex calamitate populi Ru mani et internecione exerciCus nomei capiat, aut memoiiam piodat.

<. Clauses. 340. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive, when it expresses the thought of some other person than the speaker or writer (Jnfonnal Indu-ect Discourse), or (2) when it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equivalent Infinitive^ {Attraction).

§

1 Seem

It head qI Induced

is 341.] Informal Indirect Disctm

VS34

^K X Informal Indirect DiscouTae.

H 341. A subordinate clause takes the subjunctive whei H it expresses the thought of some other person than tbi H writer or speaker. Thus : —

V a. In subordinate dames in formal indirect discourse (§ 336) ; I also in Informal Indirect Discourse in the following cases {b-d): —

b. When the clause depends upon another containing a imsh, a cc taand, or a question expressed indirectly, though not strictly in 1 form of Indirect Discourse; as, —

animal aentit quid sit qnod deoea.t (Off. i. 6), an animal feels vAat il thai is fit.

honcsilH exanimascriipaluni, qui si dies noctesque stimnlet ic pnngat, u eveUatis postulat (Rose. Am. z), he itgs you /o pluck fron, this doubt that goads and sHitgs him day and night. [Her live clause is not a part of the. Purpose expressed in eveUStia, but il an assertion made by the subject of postulat.]

c. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb o taying, or some modifier of it :

«i quid de his libus dicere vellet, feci polestitem (Cat. lii. 5, ll), ifii ■mished to say anything about these matters, I gave him a ehaHce.

tulit de caede quae in Appia viii facta esset (Milo 5, 15), he passed a eanctrning the murder which (in the language of the bill) taoi floA in til Afipiau Way.

ni£ileBtibiiBHenlstatnas,vehementeTeisniinatar(Ve[r. iii. df), hi threatens them violently unless they should restore i/it statues. [Here the main claute, " that he will inflict punishment," is contained in minBtm.]

eis BDxilinin auam pollicitus si ab Suevis premereattuc (B. G. iv. 19), he fremised them his aid if Ikey should be molested by the Suevi, [= pol- lieitoB se aoxitinm latonun, etc.]

piohibitia tallendi, nisi pactas easet, vim adhibebat paction! (Verr. iv. 14), the fiirhidding to lake away unless he came to terms gave force to the bargain. I

d. When 3 reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a relativej or by qaod (rarely quia) (see § 321)' Thus, — \

Paetus omnes libros qa5a pater suus rel^iuBset mihi donavit (Att. iii. l],

Patus f resettled me all the books lohich (he said) his father had left.

Remark, — Under this head even what the speaker himself thought under

Iher circnmslances may have the Subjunclive. So also wiih quod even the verb

of jaymj' may be in the Subjunctive. Here belong also nfin quia, nOa quod,

introdncinE a reason expressly to dci^ it. (See ^ 3^1. Rem. and note a.)

380 Synlax: Dependent Constructions, [§ 342.

2. BubjuaotlTe of Integral Fart (Attraotioii).

343. A clause depending upon a Subjunctive clause or

an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part of that clause : ^ as, —

impecat, dam res adiudicetor, hominem ut adscrvcnt : cum iudicaUim ait, ad Be addQcant (Verr. iv. 22), At orders Ikem, till Ike affair should be decided, to keep the man ; vihen he isja^ed, ta bring him to him. etenim quis tuin dissoluto anima est, qui haec cum videat, tacece ac negle- gere possit (Rose. Am. 11), for leho is so reckless of spirit, thai, tt'kiH he sees these things, he can keep iUfnl and pass them byf mos est Athenls laudari in contione e^ qui Hint in proeliis inlerfccli (Oc. 44), it is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly ttdogiied ■bAo have been slain in bntlle. [Here laadaii is equivalent to nt landentoT.] a. But a dependent clause may be closely connected grammatically with a -Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, and still take the Indicative, if it is not regarded aa a necessary logical part of that clause : as, — quudam laaAa postulat nt, quemadmodum eat, sic eliam appelletur, tynm- nos (Att. X. 4), IK a manner he demands that as he is, so he may be called, a tyrant. a mea in te essent ofticia solum tanta quanta magis a te ipso pracdicici quam a me pondetiri aolent, verecundius a te . . . peterem (Fam. ii. 6), if my good seruicis to you were only so great as they are wont rather to be called by you than to be estimated by me, I should, etc. natura fert ut eia faveamtis qui eadem pericula qnibns noi perfonetl anmna ingcediuntur (Mur. 2, 4J, /la/H/'^/foin/Wli us to fiel friendly tovmrcb tkoii svho are entering en the same dangers which we have passed through. ni hosles, quod taiitum mullitudine poterant, suos ciicumvenire possent (B. G. ii. 8), lest the enemy, because they were so strong in stumpers, should be able to surround his men. Note. — The use of the Indicative !n such clauses sometimes serves to emplia- siie the fati, as true independently of the statement contained in the suhjunclive or intiniilve clause. But in many cases no sucti dbtinctSon between (he Indicative and Subjunctive Is percepdble,

1 The Subjunctive In this use is in a manner of Ihe same nature as Iho Sub- jutictive in Ihe main clause. A dependent clause in a clause of Purpose ia really a part of thepurpose.as is seen from the use al should and other auxiliaries in English. In a Result clause this is less clear, but the result constmetion is a branch of the characteriitic, to which cslegoty the dependent clause in this case eridenlly belongs, when ft takes the Subjunctive.

It Is often difficult to dislinguish between Informal Indirect Discourse and tiie Integral Part. Thus In ImperKvlt ut eft tlerent quae opus eaaent, eaaeDt may stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse, being a part of the thou^l. but not a part of Ihe order; or il maj stani Sm •TMJiS.B.wUhen will be Inl^fal Part, ^Ing a part of the order itscll, ^h

Syn[ax: Important Rules.

IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX.

t. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it In Case (g 183). . Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles agree with Iheii gender, mmher, and ease (§ 186).

3. A Relative pronoun agi^es with its Antecedent '\a gender and nuatber,

but its case depends on the construction of the clause in which it slanda (g 19E).

4. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in number and fienan (§ 204).

5. Superlatives (mote rarely comparatives) denoting order and succession

also mediiu, oeterna, reliquna— uauaUy designate not viae ebj, but ■what part efil, is meant (J 193).

6. The Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that

-nm being nscd/flrft/ii'?/i', and that in -i ofleneat oiiyW/iVf^ (§ 194.*),

7. The Reflexive pronoun (hS), and usually Ihe coriesponding poa

(miiB), are used in some part of the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause (§ 196).

8. The Possessive Pronouns are used instead of the genitive of a personal

pronoun: (i) always instead of the possessive genitive, (2) rj

stead of an objective genitive (§ 197. a). . 9. A Possessive representing a genitive may have a genitive in apposition L (!i97-<)-

I lo. Adverba are used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs (§ 207), f II, A question of simple fact, requiring the answer YES or NO, is formed hf

adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word (§ 210. a).

12. When Ihe enclitic -db is added to a negative word, — as in nonne,—

affirmative answer is expected The particle nnm suggests a negn- ftW answer (5 2.0.0-

13. Thesubject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (§ 173. «).

!•(. A nonn used to limit or define another, and net meaning the same perso or thing, is put in the Genitive (g 213).

15. The Subjective Genitive is used with & ngun to denote (i) the Author e

Owner, (2) the Source or the Material, (3) the Qnallly (§ 214).

16. Words denoting a Part are followed hy the genitive of the Whole t

which the part belongs {Partitive Genitive, % 216).

[17. Noons of action, agency, and feeling govern the genitive of the object {Obj'eHve Genitive, | 817). I& Adjectives denoting- Arir/, knuvile^e, t/iemtry, fulness, power, sharing, guill, and their opposite*; verbals in -ai, and participles in -ni when used aa adjectives, govern the Genitive (| 2 * 19. Verbs of rimembering, forgetting, take the Genitive of the object whea they aie used of a continued state of mini, but the Accuiatlve ntien used o/a single act (J zig).

r

382 Syntax: Important Ruhs.

JO. Verba of accusing, condimning, and acquitting taka the Genitive of Ihe Charge or Penalty (J 220),

21. The Dative b used of the object indirectly affected by an action (^Indi- rect O^nl, % 224),

Z2. Mostverb»ineaningtoj^nwf,i,r^,/itai^,A-»ar,Bnd theirconttaries; also. to iih'eiv, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, enny, threaten, farjon., and spare, take the Dative (§ 227).

13. Mnsl verbs compounded with &d, anie, oon, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, Hnper, and tome with oircaro, are followed by the Dative of the indirect object (§ 2z8).

24. Many verbs of taking a'oiay, and the like take the Dative (especially of a

pertari) instead of tlie Ablative of Separation (§ 229).

25. The Dative U used with esae and similar words to denote Possesion

« 231).

26. Tbe Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive, to denote the

person on wham tbe necessily testa (§ 232},

27. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often uilli another

Dative of the person or thing alTecled (J 233. a).

28. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of fitness, near-

ness, service, inclination, and their opposites (g 234. o)

29. The Dative is often required, not by any particular word, bat by (he gen-

eral meaning of the sentence {Dative of Eeference, % 235),

30. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative (f

31. A neuter verb often take* an accusative of kindred meaning (§ 238).

32. Verbs of naming, choeHng, appBinting, raaiing, esteeming, sA»wing, and

Ihe like, iriay lake a Predicate Accusative along with the direct object t§ 239. o).

33. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addi-

tion to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by the preposition (| 239. S).

34. Verbs of asMag and teacMrig may take two Accusative^ one of the fer-

sun, and the other of the tfiiiig (g 239, <).

35. The subject of an Inlinitive is in the Accusative (f 173. 2).

36. Duratba of Hme atid Extent of Space are expressed t^ tbe Accmadve

(S 240. *)•

37. The VoCATIVEiithecaaeof direct address (j 241).

38. Words signifying sepafbtien or prioation arc followed by the Ablahv^

with or without a preposition {Ahlativi cf Separation, % 243).

39. Opm and ftsns, signifying need, are followed by Ihe Ablative (§ 243. r).

40. The ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to denote the seure*

frota which anything Is denved ot (Wi mokriot tiJ ^VahMtcoa^sa

Synlax: Important Rules.

383 1

a preposition, is used to expre^ c

w

The Ablative, with 01 (S 245).

IHgniia and iudignns, coatentns, laetas, praeditns, etc., take the Abla- tive (5 245- «)■

The Voluriary Agent after a passive verb is put in the Ablative with ab (§ 246).

The Comparative degree is followEd by the Ablative (signifyiug Tli

(S Ml)-

The Comparative may be followed by qttam, Ihan. When qaam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case (g 247. a).

The manner of an action b denoted by the Ablative, usually with cum, unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun (§ 24S).

AaompanimiiU is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum (J 24S.B).

The Ablative is used to denote the means or inSlrtuKent of an aclioD (|

248. <. I).

The deponents, (Ltor, fhior, fimgor, potior, and veacoi-, with

of their compounds, govern Ihe Ablative (g 249), With comparatives and words Implying comparison the Ablative is used

lo denote the degree of difference (S 350). The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with a moditieri usually

an adjective or limiting genilive (§ 251). The/ri« of a thing is put in the Ablative (§ 252), The Ablative of SpeciGcation denote* that in respeet lo which anything u

oxUdontt^ 253). A noun or prononn, with a partidple, may be put in the Ablative, to

define the Ume or tircunutancet of an action {Ablative Atsoluli).

An adjective, or a second noun, may take (he place of the participle la Ihe ablative absolute cooatmctloa ({ 355 and a). Time when, or iniSiin tuhicA, is put in the Ablative; time hoai laisg in the

Accusative (5 256). The place /mw wiich ii denoted by the Ablative with ab, d^ or ex; the

flact b vAieh (Ihe end of motion), by Ihe Accusative with ad or in

(MsS.<).

The names o[ towns or smalt islands ^nin lotifA, as also domoa and rOe^

are put In Ihe Ablative without a preposition (j Es3, a), Tba names of towns or imalt Islands 'i>u';iic4, as also domus and rOs.arB pal la the Accusathrc without a prepoatlon ({ 353. i). T^zphee whrre (s denoted by the Ablative with the prepowtlon In {leca- livt Atlaiive)\ but names of towns and smaU island* are put In the Locative Case (g 258. e).

The Locative Case is also preserved in doiI)i,\MMIl,Ti£^MtAiB.\»:idiv totia, rtlrl, terra trtarlqiia U 258. ^

■ I

I

384 SjinCax: Important Rules.

58. The Infinitive, with 01 wilhout a subject accusative, may be used with al

and similnr verbs (1) as Ihe atbjecl, (2) as in apposition with the snb- jecl, or (3) aa a.pridicale neminative (g 270).

59. Tbo Infinitive, withoat a subject accusative, is used with verbs wliich imp!)'

another action of the same subject to complete their meaning {Comple- mentary Infiiiitivi, I 271).

60. The Infinitive, with subject accusative, is used with verbs and other expres-

sions of knowing, Ihitiking, htling, and perceiving [^Indirect Disciurse, see S 272).

61 . llie Infinitive is ofien used in narrative for the Imperfect Indicative, and

takes a subject in the Nominative (Jiistoricat Infinitive, § 275).

62. Sequence of Tenses. In con'.pleic sentences, a primary tense in the

main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive; a leain- dary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect (g aS5).

63. The tenses of Iha Infinitive denote time as present, past, or future with

respect lo the lime of the verb on which they depend (g 288).

64. Paktictples denote time ts present, past, qt future y/\lh respect lo Ihe

lime of the verb in their clause (g 290).

65. The Gekuno and the Gerundive aie used, in the oblique cases, in many

of the constructions of nouns {§ 297). For particulars see {{ 298-301.

66. The Former Supine (in -nin) is used after verbs of maiion to express

Purpose (§ 302).

67. The Lalter Sui'lNE (in -fi) is used only with a. few adjectives, with the

nouns faa, nefas, and opns, and laiely wilh v'erbs, to denote an aclion in reference ta ■which the quality is asserted (§ 303). 6S. The Horlatoty Subjunctive is used to express an exhortation, a tern- mand, a ceneession, or a condilisn (g 266).

69. The Subjunctive is used to express a wisk. The present tense denotes [he

wish as possible, the imperfect as unaeamplisked in present lime, the pluperfect as unatcmnplished in past time {Optative SMijunciiiie, % 267).

70. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying dvutt, indiptaiian, or

an imposnbility of the thing being done {DeUberalive SubjuneHve, 5268).

71. Prohibition b regularly expressed in classic prose (0 ''y ^ ^^'i ^^

second person of the Perfect Subjunctive, (2) by uSli with the Inlini- live, (3) by cave with the Present or Perfect Subjunctive (g 269. a).

72. The Potential Subjunctive is used to denote an action not as aclually per-

formed, but as /WliJJIf (§ 311. a),

73. Data, modo, dominodo, and tantnin, introducing a Proviso, take the

Subjunctive (5 314). /f PfNAL clauses take the Suhjiinctwe introduced by nt fnU), negative u

Cat na), or by a Relative tpioTvowo or sAfwW^ ^.\ '^n'^v^^^^^

Syntax: Important Rules

38s ,

, Consecutive ctanses take the Subjunctive inCioduced by at, so thai (neg' 4 alive, lit nCn), or by a Relative (pronoun or adverb) (§ 3(9).

I. IKgnm, md!gniiH, aptuB, and iddnena, lake a clause of result with a | relative (rarely with nt) (g 320./).

. The Causal Particles quod, quia, and qaouiam take the Indicalive | when the reason is given on the authority of the speaker or v, the Subjunctive when the reason is given on the authority of ana/Her

(5 3"i)-

1. Cnin TEMPORAL, meaning xuhen, lakes the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, other tenses in the Indicative (§ 325). ^ Ctun CAUSAL or concessive Ukes the Subjunctive (g 326).

For other conces^ve particles, see } 313. :^ In the Indirect Discourse the main elause of a Declaratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive (g 336, 2), . In the Indirect Discourse a real qaesliBit Is generally pat in the Subjunc- tive; a rhelorical question in the Infinitive (g 33S). iS2. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect Dis- | ot,™ 0 339).

. A Subordinate clause Ukes the Subjunctive when it expresses the Ihaught I of tome other person than the writer or speaker {Jnformal Indire, Discourse, § 34i}> 'S4. A clause depending on a Suhiunclive clause or an equivalent Infinltlva 1 will itself take the. Subjunctive if regarded as an inligral part of that I clause (AUraition, \ 34*).

For Prepositions and fhelr cases, see §§ 15a, 153, For Conditional Sentences, see g 304. ff. (Scheme in § 305.) For ways of expressing Pubfose, see § 31S.

I

Sj'fitax: Order of Worth. [§§ 3«

Chapter VI. — Order of Words.

impartancE of (he ideas in

343, As in other languages, the Subject tends to stand first, the Predicate last. Thus, —

PanBaniaa l^cedaeraonius magnos homo sed varius in omm genere vitae fliit.

Note. — This happens because from the speaker's ordinary point of vie* the subject of his discourse is the most important (hing in it. as singled out from all olher things to be spoken o£

There is in I-atin, however, a special tendency to place the verb itself last of all after all its modifiers. But many writers purposely avoid the monotony of this arrangement by putting the verb last but one, followed by some single word of the predicate.

344. In connected discourse the word most prominent in the speaker's mind comes first, and so on In order of prominence.

This relative prominence corresponds to that indicated in English by a graduated stress of voice (usually called emphasis).

Note. — This stress or emphasis, however, in English does not necessarilyshow any vlolenl contrast to the rest of the words in the sentence, but is infinitely varied, constantly increasing and diminishing, and often so subde as lo be unnoticed excepi in careful study. So, as a general rule, the precedence of words in n Latin sentence is not mechanical, but corresponds lo the prominence which a good spfraVer would mark by skilfully managed stress of voice. A Latin Twillen sentonce, (herefbre, has all the clearness snd expression which could be given to n ifoitn discouise by the best aclor In English,

Rrmark.— Some eieepfions to this rule «in be treated later.

Thus the first chapter of Cksm'i GaUv; War rendered so as to bring out so fir as possible the shades ot em^>Ms\5,'SQ'Ai-TO'o. *»?.-.— ^^

1 344.] EmplMsis. l%f

H|34-

^1 GAUL,' in Ihe widest sense, is di- Gallia est omnis divisa in paitii

^K vided' into tLree /ar^," which are tres, quarum iinam iiicoiunt Belgae,

f tMAabiliJ* (as follows) ; one '■ by the aliam Aqaitani, terliam qui ipEonim

Belgians, another' hy the Aqaitani, lingua Celtae, nostra Galii appellan-

Uie third by a people called in ihtir lur. Hi omnes lingua, insiiiulis, leglr J

bwh' language Celts, in ours Gauls. bus inter se differunl. Gallos i"

These,^ in their laiigaage,^ institu- Aquitanis Gacumna flumen, a Belgis fl

tiona, and lawi are a// of them'" dif- Matrona et Sequana dividit. Horum ■

ferent The GAULS" (proper) are omni\im fortissimi sunt Belgse, prop. 1

separated'^ from the Aquitaoi by terei quod a cullil atque bunianitit« I the liver Goranne, Grom the BelgiaoH

by ihe Marne and Seine. Of these'" (tribes) the bravest of all" are the \

f Bel^ans, for the reason that they live ^theat'^ away from the c

' GAUL: emphatic a!

1 Divided; apposed to the tajse conceplion (implied in the use of omujs) that I country called Gallia by the Romans is one. TTiis appeal fact that Csesar later speaks of the Galji in (he narrower se other two tribes, who with Ihem inhabit Gallia In the wider ' Parts: continuing the emphasis begun in lilvlsa. Not W I to any other number, but \Mo parts at all.

* Inhaiited: emphatic as the nejrtEubject,"7Hf)Hifl*(i'3/i/ioflhesepartsare,ete." 0 One : given more prominence than it otherwise would have on account of its I close conaeclion with gu&rum.

> Anolber, etc : opposed to ii«i._ I

' Zt/ir-ffom, dHTj." strongly opposed <o each other. I

« These (tribes) : the main sabject of discourse again, collecting under one head ■ : names previously mentioned. ^

» IiansruaiSG, etc. : these are the most prominent Ideas as giving the striding I points whitJi distinguish the tribes. The emphasis becomes natural in English il I we say " these have a different language, different institutiiini, different taws."

» Alt of Ihem : the emphasis on all marks the distributive character of the I Adjetftive, as if it were " every one has its own, etc."

■1 GAULS: emphatic as referring to Ihe Gauls proper in distinctloQ from the I Other tribes.

'* Separated: though this word contains an indispensable idea in the connection, I yet il has a subordinate position. II is not emphatic in Latin, ss is seen ^omlhe&ct ffl»t it cannot be made emphatic in English. Thesenseis: The Gauit lie between J P Qie Apiilani on the one side, and the Be/ga on the other. ■

M Of THESE: the subject of discourse. I

M AU: emphasizing the superlativeideain bravest; thcy,asGauls,areassumed H lolM warlike, but the most so of all of Ihem are the Bedpans.

" Farthest aa^; one might expect abauot (are away) to have a more em- phatic place.bat h is dwarfed in importance by the predominance of the main idea, the effeminat'sng iijlutiicts from which tliE Belgas are said lo be free. It is not thai they live farthest off that is insisted on, but that the civilaatios of the /rai-iJKj, etc., which would so/iiit them, comes less in their way. Il is to be noticed also that abeust has already been anticipated by the construction of OiUttl and »tin more by longisBlme, so that when il eomes it amounts only to a formal part of the sentence. Thiis because the (™';U(rfi«l,etc,,rf ttie ■StOT™*V^'Wi'3& ■^'siii- t^en tbem) is fir/iesi from ' '~

r

I

Syntax: Order of Words.

[§344.

le absuni, n

of the Prov- ince, and because they are least of all of them subject to the visila i fr«fltrj,"and to the (consequent) in portalion of attot thinga as'' tend I soften " Iheir warlike spirit; and ai also naarost*' lo the Germans, wi live acroi! the A'iiHf,^^ and with whom they are incesiaiifly^ For the same reason the Hglvetii, as well, arc superior to all the olier Gauls in valor, hecause they are en- gaged in almosl daily battles with the Germans, either defending their own boundaries from titta, or theinselveB making war on those of ike Gera Of ALL TKis country, one part, the one which as has been saiii the Gaul! (proper) occupy, begins at the rive Rhone. Its honndarieB are the rive. Garonne, the ocean, and the eonfint! of the Belgions. It even reaches on the side of the Sequant and Helve- (iani the river Rhine. Its general dirietion is towards the north. The Belgians begin at the extreme Um- (i^ofGaul; they Teach (on this side) as far as the lower part of the Rhine. They spread lo (he norlhwarii and eastward.

Aqihtania extends from the GaroDue to the Pyrenees, and that part of the ocean that liea towards Spain. It raui off westward and northward.

provinciae longissii que ad eos mercatores saepe corn- meant atque ca quae ad elfiminandos animos pertinent, important, proximi- que sunt Germanis, qai trans Rhcnnm incolunt, quibuscutn continenter hel- ium gerunC, Qua di causa Helvelii quoque reliquos Gallos vlrtilte praece- nt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis m Germanis contendunt, cum lul is finibus era prohibent, aut ipsi in rum finibus helium gerunt. Konun a pars, quara Gallos obtinere die- ■n est, initium capit a fliirainc Rho- dano; continentiir Gammna Riimine, Oceano, finibus Belgorum; attingit n ab Sequanis et Helvetiis flumen Rhenum; vcrgit ad seplenlrioncs. Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur: pertinent ad inferiorem pat- tern liiiminis Rheni; spectant in Sep- tentrionem et orientem sotem. Aqui- lania a Gammna fliimine ad Pyre- naeos montes et earn partem Oceini, quae est ad Hispaniam, perlinet; spectat inter occasom soils et septen-

<n Latin order, — the tkiaimia (see mas opposed lo culttl and hfl.

M Least: made emphatic here by a cm /p-390).

W traders: the fourlh member of the 1 mftnlt&te.

IB Such thiSKS ftS: the impoitsnce of Ihe nature of the importations overshadows the fact that [hey are imporltd. which lact li anticipaled in

U Hofltn: cf. what is said in note 15, They are hrasit because they have less to aoftm them, their nafivo barbarily laeing sssamed.

* Nearest i the same idiomalie prominence as In 16, bul Varied by a ipe- cia] usage (see f, p. 390) combining thiasmus and anapkera,

1 Across the Rhine ; I.e. and so are perfect savages.

■ licessanify: the continuance of the watfere becomes the all-impanant Idea, as if it were, "»nd not ft 4b3 -^um^ \tt ••\iVii \'t«i am t -

special Rules of Order. 389

Remark. — The more important word is never placed last for

lemphasis. The apparent cases of this usage (when the emphasis U

I'ed) are cases where a word is added as an afterthought,

■ cither real or aiTecteiJ, and so has its position not in the sentence to

■ which it is appended, but, as it were, in a new one. . In any phrase the determining and most significant word coraet

. Adjective and Noun : —

;cet, EVERY man ought (opposed to aome who do not). IS Catilina nobili genere natus fuit migni vi et animi et corporis sed ingenio roaJo piavoque (Sail. Cat. 5), Lucius Catiline viai born of a E family, viilh great force of mind and body, but with a katube ttta! -was evil and depraved. [Here the adjectives in the first part are the emphatic and important words, no antithesis between the nouns being as yet thought of; but in the second branch the noun is meant to be opposed to those before mendoned, and immediately takes the prominent place, n by the natural English emphasis, thus making a ckicamus^ . Word with modifying cui tei magis Epaminondam, ThebonSmm imperatorem, quxm vlctSriaa Thebanorum consulere dccuit (Inv. i. 38), ivhal should Epaminondas, ., toiamandir of the Thebans, have aimed at more than the VICl^OKY a/

L the Thebans f '

■ lacriioa nihil citius arescit (id. i. 56), nothing dries piicier than a tear.

P nemo fere landia cupidus (De Or. i. 4), hardly any one desirous of CLORir' ' (cf. MaoiL 3, avidi laudis, eager for glory).

6, Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative, relative, and interrogative pronouns and adverbs, tend to precede the word w words to which they belong : as, —

tcum aliqua perturbitione (Olf. i. 3S), ivith some disiuriance. hoc ijno praesfamus (De Or. i. 8), in this one thing wi excel. ceterae fere acles, tie other arts.

Note.— This happens because such words are usually emphalio; words connecled with Ihem are more so, and in such cases the prono the emphatic place : as, —

caiua aliqua (De Or. i. 5S), some case.

Iatilna die tnus (id. i. 60), that STYLE of yours (in an andthesis; see pu> j sage). Romam quae asportita sunt (Verr. iv. 54), ooio/ were carried to RoME (in contrast lo what remained at Syracuse). c. When anin is used as the Substantive verb (§ i?^, note), it regu- larly stands first, or at any rate before its subject : as, — est viri magni piinire sontes (Off. ). 14), tV is Ikt duly of a grtut n /iimisAtAe guilty.

I

r

390 Syntax : Order of Words. [% i

d. The verb iray come first, or have a prominent position eitlitr (1) because the idea in it is emphatic: as,—

dieabat idem Cottn (Off. ii. 17), Coiia und to&Kf lie same iiing (ofpiiKi

to others' boasting) , idem fecit sduliscens M. AntQniu9 (id. ii. 14), the saint thing ivas liosi

by M. Antonias in his youth. [Opposed to dixi just before.] facia henigni (Lsl.), you act iindly. [Ci. ben^[ae iaoia, yau art very

KIND (yoa act KINDLY}.]

(fi) or because ih^ predication of the -uihole sttttemtHt \a emphatic: as,

propensioT benlgnUas esse debehit in calamitos^ ni^ forte emnt digni

calainitate (Off. Ji. 18), unless perchance they REALLY DESEKVK tkiir

praeierlira cum Bcrihat (Panaelius) (id. iii. 2), especially is/ien hi does SAY (in his books). [Opposed to something omitted by hun.]

(3) or tlie tense only may be emphatic; as, —

flumuH Troes, faitTlium (J?a.n.'i2^,'we have ceased te be Trojans, Tray loquor autem de communibus amicittis (Off. iii. 10), hut I am speaking

e. Often the connection of two emphatic phrases is brought about by giving tlie precedence to the most prominent part of =ach and leav- ing the less prominent parts to Ibllovi' in inconspicuous places : as, —

plurea soletit esse causae (Off. i. 9), there are usually several reasons. quos amisimus civis cos Miirlis vis peiculil (Maic 6J, what /eUata-citiiens ■we have lost, have been slriciia dawn by the violence efioar.

'bi omnea gratias agimus (Marc. 11), aw ALL render you the

hacc res iimus est propria Caesaris (Ware. 4), this exploit itlangi to Casar

obiurg^tionis etiam ndnnunqua

f. Antithesis between two pairs of ideas is indicated either (1) by placing the pairs in the same order {atiaphord) or (2) in exactly the opposite order (c/iiasmus^). (0 rernra copia verbonim copiam gignit (De Or. iii. 3. 3 1), abundance 0/

MATTEH produces Ci:iPIOI!SNESS o/" EXPRESSION.

(a) leges supplido improbos afficiiint, defendunt ac tuenlur bonos ( Fin. iii- 5)1

/.(C /nWJ VISIT PUNISHMENTS B/OB rft WICKED, 4B/i*/ GOOD l-*y UEFEND

. 344.] Special Rules of Order.

Note. — Chiasmus is very common in Lali taatllficial consiniciion. In an artless narrative on «I1 drituMtd, ihey laiiid the men,"

non igitiir utilitatem amicitia sed utilitas amlcitiaiii consecuta eat (Liel. 14), ilii not then that fritndskip has fsllmutd upon advantage, but advan- lage ttpcn frifndship. [Here the chiasmus is only grammatical, the ideas being in the parallel order.] (See also in (he example from Cxsar, p. 3SS ; longiBsiml, mini me, proxiai.) g. A modifier of a phrase or some part of it is often embodied within he phrase (cf. a) : as,—

de communi hominum 7iicmoria (Tusc. i, 24), in regard !s the UNlVEBaAL

mimory of man. h. A favorite order with the poets is ^^interlocked, by which the attri* liuteof one pair comes between the parts of the other {synchykis): as,— et supeiiecto pavidac nataiunt aequore damne (Hoi. Od. i. z. 1 1). Note. — This is often joined with chiasmus : as, — anna nondum expialis uncta cruoribus (Id. ii. i. j;). (', Frequently unimportant words follow in the train of more emphatic ones with which they are grammatically connected, and so acquire a prominence out of proportion to their importance ; as, — dictitabat se horlulos aliquos emcre velle (Off. iii. 14, 5S), gave out that kt wanted lo buy some garden!. [Hete aliqnoa is less emphatic than emere, but precedes it on account of the emphasis on hortnlos.] J. The copula is generally felt to be of so little importance that It may come in anywhere where it sounds well ; but usually under cova if more emphatic words: as, — cotisul ego quaesivi, cum vos mihi essetis in consiho (R. P. iii. iS, 2S), comal I held an invesligatien in lehickyeu attended me in eouncil. falaum est id totuni (id. H, 15, 28), that is all fake, k. Many expressions have acquired an invariable order: as,— res publica; populus Romanus; honoris causa; pace tanti viri. Note. — These had, no doubt, originally an emphasis which required such arrangement, but in the course of lime have changed their shade of Thus, aenfttuB populusque BSmftaua originally slated widi emj: ■official bodies, but became fixed so as to be the only permissible form of expressi

/. The Romans had a fondness for emphasizing persons, name or a pronoun often stands in an emphatic place ! as,—

[<U)dt} venalis quidcm ae hortos non habere (Off. iii. 14, 5S), [said] &at\t £dn't have any gardens far sate, to it sure. [A representation of the direct, I have no gardens, etc.] m. At the end of a sentence the Romans arranged the wotrds so to give an agreeable succession of long atid sWrt ^-jWiHwii.

^

I

the

..

the^H

]

392 Syntax-: Order of Words. {%%

Special Rnlsa. 345. The following are special rules of arrangement

a. r. Prepositions (except teniu and Tersua) regularly precei their noUQS ; 2. but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed between a noun and its adjective or limiting genitive : as, —

([ucm ad madum; quarn ob rem; magno cum roetu; omnibus cum copiis; .1511:1 in r5 (cf. § 344- 0-

b. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence or clause ; enim, autem, v6r5, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third if the second word is emphatic ; quldem never first, but after the emphatic word ; nfi ■ . . quidem include the emphatic word or words.

c. Inqnam, iuquit, are always u^ed parenthetically, following one or more words. So often orCdo, opinor, and in poetry sometimes precor.

' d. The negative precedes the word It especially affects ; but if It be- longs to no one word in particular, h generally precedes the verb; if it b especially emphatic, it begins the sentence. (See example, 344./, note.) e. In the arrangement ofdauses, the Relative clause more often comes first in Latin, and usually contains the antecedent noun : as, —

quoB amislmus cjviH, eos Martis via percalil (Marc. 6), those cilisens ivhsm ■me have lost, etc

Straotiue of tlie Period.

Note. — I^lln, unlike modem languages, expresses the relation of words to each other by infiecthn rather Ihati by fmition. Hence its atruclure not only admits of gieat variety in Iho arrangement of words, but is especially favorable 10 that form of sentence which is called a Period, In a period, the sense ia eiipreascd by the sentence as a w4o/«,and is held in suspense IlU the deliveiy of the last word.

An English sentence does not often exhibit this form of structure. It was imi- tated, sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose; but its etiecl is belter seen in poetry, in such a passage as the following; —

But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly give short clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by Itselt In Latin, on the contrary, the story or argument Is viewed as a whole; and the logical relation among all Its parts Is carefully Indicated. Hence—

340. In the structure of the Period, the following rules

are to be observed: — a. In genera] the main suV^ecl ot oViiert \a -^V la the niaia cbuse, not in a subordinate one (accordvtvg lo% -i^Vl'- »»,— ,^^^^^1

If 346.]

Structure: the Period.

Hannibal cum lecensuiaset auxDia Gu1i« prafEctuB est, itihtit Hannihal\ had rtvieaieJ, etc.

VotscI exiguun spem in armis, alia undique abscissa, cum tentassent, prae< let cetera adversa, loco quoijue iniquo ad pugnam congressi, iniquiore ad fugam, cum ab omnI parte caederentui, ad prec& a certamine veisi dedilo impecitore traditisque armis, sub iugum miasi, cum singulis vesli- mentis, ignominiae dadisque pleni dimittunluc (Liv, iv. lo). [Heie the main fact is lAc return efihe I'olsdans. But tLe striking circum- stances of the surreniler, etc., which in English would be detailed in a number of brief Independent sentences, ate put la the several subardi- nale clauses within ihe main cla,uae, so that Ihe passage gives a com- plete picture in one sentence.]

b. Clauses are usually arranged in the order of praminence la the rinind of the speaker; so, usually, cause before result; purpose, itiatt-

tier, and the like, before the act.

c. In co-ordinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequentljr omitted (asyndetsn). In such cases the connection is made clear by some antithesis indicated by the position if words,

tl, A change of subject, when required, is marked by the introduc- tion of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. But such change is often purposely avoided by a change in structure, — the less important being merged in the more important by the aid of parti- dpies or of subordinate phrases : as, —

quem ut barbaii inccndium eflugisse viderunt, telis eminus emissis into fecerunt, Jiiheit ihe lariariam saw dial ht had escaped, THKV threw darts at KIM and iiUed am.

celeiiter confecto negotio, in hiberna legiones icvetlirant, tie matter woi seenfiniAed., and &e legions, etc.

e. So the repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a pronoun for |(it. Is avoided unless a different case is required : as, —

dolotetn si non potero frangete occult abo, if T cannot conquer 6u pain, I viillhidevr. [Cf. if f eannol conquer ! will hide Ihe Jiain.}

393^1

nniiat: ^^^H

prae- ^^H iauiore '

I I

PART THIRD. -

PROSODY

VERSE).

(RULES

Chapter I. — Quantilv.

I

Note. — Thepoetty of the Indo-European people seems originally to have been somewhal like our own, depending on accent for its melie and discegarding tlic natural quantity of syllables. Tlie Greeks, however, developed a form of poetry which, like music, pap close altention to the natural quantity of syllables ; and the Romans borrowed their metrical tbnns in classical times from the Greeks. Hence Latin poetry does not depend, like ours, upon accent and rhyme ; but is measured, like musical strains, by the length of syllables. Especially does It difler from our veise in not regarding the prose accent of the words, but subslitudng Tor that an entirely different system of metrical accent or JcAa (see {358.11). This depends upon the character of die measure used, foiling regularly on certain long syllables. Eacli syllable is counted as either longer short in Quantity;! anda longsyllable is gen- erally reckoned equal in length to two short ones (tor exceptions, see \ 355. c-t).

The quantity of radical or stem-syllables — as of short a in lAtOr or of long a in m&ter — can be learned only by observation and practice, unless detenniued by the general rules of quantity. Most of the rules of Prosody are only arbitrary rules devised to assist the memory; the syllables being long or short iecaustihi imcimis pronounced fhem so. The actual practice of the Romans in regard to the quantity of syllables is ascertained chiefly bam the usage of Ihe poets; but the andent grammarians give some assistance, and in some inscriptions the lorg rowels are distinguished in various ways, — by marks over the tetters, for ioatance, or by doubling.

Since Roman poets borrowed very largely from Ihe poetry and mytholt^ of the Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part of Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accordance widi the Greek, and not the Latin, laws of quantity. Where these laws vary in e 11 be noticed in the rules below.

1. Oeneral Rules.

347. The following are General Rules of Quantity (cf. § IS):-

a. Vowel. A vowel before another vowel or h is short: as, Tia, trShS.

I 347.1

General Rules of Quantity.

395 1

I

Exceptions, i. Th the genitive form -iua, I is long, except usually I b alterius. Thus, utrlus, afllHua. It is, however, sometimes made J bhort in verse (§ S3, b).

. Id the genitiveand dative singular of the fifth declension, e is long .1 jetneen two vowels : as, diei; but it is short in fidfil, rfii, spfit

Note. — It WHS once long in these also: as, plSnus fldH {Ennius, at c I'&exameler).

Lisalsolong before lin the old genitive of thefirst declension :as,BtilU. ^ . In the conjugation of KB, 1 is long except when followed by e: 1^, fI5, fifibatn, flam, but fieri, fletem ; so also flt, by g 354. a. 3. .. In many Greelt words the vowel in Latin represents a long vowel w diphthong, and retains its original long quantity ; as, Troes (Tpiots), llTbalia (0aXeot), hBroae (j/paias), ftSr (aijp).

ei:k u'Ord'i a.re more or less Latjaized in this respect : as, I AcadSmSa, ctaoria, MalSa, platSa.

5. In Bheu and diua, and sometimes in DIKna and Sho the first vowel is long.

b. ^KHIKGtH;. A Diphthong is long: as, fOfedoo, cui, dEIade. Exception. The preposition prae in compounds is generally i shortened before a vowel: as, pi&e-uBtia {M.n. vii. 524), prie-euutd J (id. V. i36).

Note. — D following q, b, or sr, docs noi make a diphihong wUli a fol

=l(see}4.

=)■

CONTKACTION. A vowel formed by contraction (crasis) is long:

«s, nil, from nihil ; ourrOs, genidve for oulrula.

But often two Eyllablfs are united bj Synasresis without eonlraclion: as wliaii

j(B>riatIli(iB is pronounced /ao'''"*"*'

d. Position. A vowel, though short, followed by two cotisonants ] a double consonant, makes a long syllable : as, adventua, cortex.

followed by 1 or r the syllable I :) ; as, alaorla or alSoria ; patria I

ong syUabie (eitcepl ii

^ (lie vowel w

But if the may be either long or short (c or piltila.

Note i. — Any vowel before t bnugls, quadiSuBla).

But it is probable tliat In all such rfilciO, e(c. (from rS-lociC), cf. note 2.

Note a. — The compounds of laciO, though wriltEO with one 1, ci

I before a. consonant, and lengthen the short as if by PosiUon. (But Ijllablea were pronounced is uncertain.) Thus,- QbtolB hoBtl (at the end of a hexameter. Ma. jr. 549) . Jnlcit et BaltQ {at Die beginning of ahexamaei, ffi.ti.'\x.^ija>,. prBicB tSiamantt (at the beginning uf aUesame^et, iE.w.V\.^-5fil

r

396 Prosody: Quantity.

The later poets aometimes aliorlen the prepositfon in Irisyllaliic Ibnns, ncted as If the " "

(i) lurpe pu|lSs abljci (Ov. PonL ii. 3, 37).

curan|Dos 9bi|ci5 (Claud. Cons. Hon. iv. 364). (2) i^cS cSlpe1l£s (EcL iii. 96, at end). Remark.— They otwsound resulting from jjWfErii/r has the effect of a con- sonant in making position: as, nbietla (abyetis), fluviSniin l^fiitvyorum). Con- versely, when the semivowel becomes a vowe!, position is lost; as.sllQaiB.lorailvae. e. In early Latin, b at [he end of words was not sounded, and hence does not make position with another consonant.

Rf.MARK. — Aj^'/ZdJ/fmadelonEb; the mie in if. but containing a short iviw/, is said to be long hy Position : as in dooStne. Tlie rules of Position do not, in general, appiy to Gaal vowels.

2. Final SyUablsB. 348. The Quantity of Final Syllables is determined by the following Rules: — -

1. Words of one syllable ending in a vowel are long: as, m8, tfl, hl,ne.

The attached particles -n5, -quS, -vfi, -cS, -ptB, and rS- (rSd-) are short; sS- is long. Thus, sBofidit, ezercitiimquS rfidflcit. But re- is often long in rSUgio (telUgiC), tfitull (rettuli), rSpuU (reppuU).

2. Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are long: as, b51, 5a (firiB). boB, p3r, via.

Exceptions. c5r (sometimes long), fei, 15o, in61, Ss (oBaU), vir, tSt, quSl.

3. Most monosyllabic Particles are short; as, 5n, In, ola, n6o. But So, crSa, citr, Sn, u5a, quia, ala ^ with adverbs in c : as, blc, taao, Bio — are long.

4. Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the ablative singular of the first declension ; in all other words final a is long. Thus, ea BtellS (nom.), cum e& atellK (abl.) ; frOstra, vooft (iroperat,), poBtea, trigiiita.

Exceptions. 618, itS, quiS, puta {suppose): and, in late use. tilginta, etc.

5. Final e is short, as in nilba, dfloltS, laepi. Except —

1. In nouns of the fifth declension: as, fidfi (also famS), hodie (hoi die), quSiS (quS r6J.

2. In Greek nettters plural of the second declension ; as, cStO.

3. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declen- sion, ivilh others of like foni\-, as, alte, laiaeiB, apeitC, BK«piBum&

So ferS, fermS, probably of same ougLU. ^^m

i 348.] Quantity of Final Syllables.

In the Imperative singular of the second conjugation : as,

I

Exceptions. To 3; benB, male ; InfernS, enpemS. To 4: some- itimes, cstB, habS, tacS, valS, vidS (cf. @ 375. b"). Final i is long: as in tnini. fQT, audi.

t it is common in mihi, tibl, albi, ibl, abi ; and short in nial, quasi, oul (when making two syllables), and in Greek v( Alezl.

7. Final o is common ; but long in datives and ablatives, also, almost invariably, in verbs, and in nouns of the third declension.

Exceptions, cite, modO, ilicS, profectd, dummodS, imni8, OE^i du8, octd.

8. Final u is long. Final y is short.

9. Final as, eB, OS, are long ; final is, UH, ya, are short ; as, nefaa, tflpgH, aervoH (ace), honSs ; hoBtls, atnlcfia, Tetbya.

Exceptions, as is short in Creek plural accusatives, as lampadls;

ea is short in nouns of the third declension (lingual) having a short vowel in the stem'; as, mllBs {-itiB), oba63 (-Wis), — except abiSs, arifis, paiiea, pfis ; in the present of esse (Sb, adfie) ; in the prepo- sition penSs, and in tlie plural of Greek nouns, as lifiroSs, lam-

OH is short in compfia, impSs ; in the Greek nominative ending, as baxbitSa ; also, in the old nominative ending of the second declension, as aervfia (bter servua),

is in plural cases b long, as in bonis, nObb, vobb, omi^ (accusative plural).

Is is long in Ha, sla, vis (with quivia, etc.), tbITb, mSllB, ndlls ; in the second person singular of the fourth conjugation, as audli (where it b the stem-vowel) ; and sometimes in the forms in -eria (perfect subjunctive), where it was originally long.

ua b long (by contraction) in the genitive singular and nominative, accusative, and vocative plural of the fourth declension; and in nouns of the third declension having fl (long) in the stem : as, virtSs (-fltia), incilB ('ildia). But peoSa, -Qdia.

10. Of other final syllables, those ending In a consonant, except -c, are short. Thus, amSt, amS.ttlr ; but. istSo, SlSc.

ExcEPnOKS. dSaSc, Ac, nSo, sometimes hlo ; &6r, aetliBr, oratSr, liBn, aplBn.

J TTie guanlilyo/the alem-vowel may be seen in ftve gpiivuse vm^ias.

[98 Prosody : Quantity. [§§ 349, 350.

3. Fenultlmate Syllabloa.

34J1. A noun or adjective is said to increase, when in any case it has more syllables than in the nominative sin- gular.

A verb is said to increase, when in any part it has more syllables than in the stem. Thus, ami-tis (stem, ami-), tegi-tifl (stem, tege-), capi-unt (stem, oapi-).

In such words as atellarum, corpSris, amStis, tegltis, Ihe penitl- imate syllable is called the incrsmenty In itinSribnH, amSvSiitis, the syllables marked are called the first, second, and third increments of the noun or verb.

Note. — In such words as Iflppitor, IQviB ; Benai, eBnla, (he syllables ivhoM Yowel-quanlity la marked are called inerEmEnta. These forms must be referred In '3st nomlnadTes from the same stems [cf. {J 6d, 6l, Ibot-note} . So Itlnerlbus bai eally only two increments as from "titlnuH,

350. In increments of Nouns and Adjectives, a and o ire generally long ; e, l, u, y, generally short: as, —

aet3s, aetStla ; honor, honSrie ; eervoB, aerrSriun ; optu, opS- la; oatman, carmlnia; murmur, murmiiria; pecus. pecfidis; oMamys, chlamydia. Exceptions are ; —

i: short in baocar (-Siia), hBpar (-Stia), jubar (-aria), ISr (Jaria), mSa (mSris), neotax (-Sris), pSr (pSria), sal (aSlia), vaa (vSdla), dapa (dapia), faz (facia), anthrax (-Scia).

o : short in neuters of tlie third declension (except fia, 6ii«) : as, oorpaa (-Sris) ; also in atbor (-Sria), aerobe (ecrSbie), ops (fipis), bSs (bSvia), memor (-Bria), lOppiter (Iflvia), Hector (-Bris), and compounds of-pfla (as, triptts, -pBdia).

e : long in increments of fifth declen.sion : as, diSa, diBi ; also in h6rSa (-edia), lex (ISgia), locuplEa (-etis), mercSs (-Sdis), pleba (plSbia). qulBB (-eUs), rSx (rBgia), vEr (vfiria), ciSter (-Sris). But see § 347. 3.

1: long in most nouns and adjeclives in iz: as, fSUcis, radicia (except mix, nix, atrix) ; also in dls (dltia], gUs (gUria), He (Iltia), via (virea), Quiritea, SajnnltSa.

a: long in forms from nouns in -fia: as, palfla, paladia; tellite, tel- Ifliia; virtOa, virtfltia ; also in Iflx, lucia; [frilx], frflgiB; fOr, fOiis.

1 The rules of Increment ate purely atbittary, as Ihe syllables are long or short according to the proper quantity of the Stem or of the formative terminadoos. The quaodly of noun-stems appears in the schedule of the third declension (see } 67) ; and (Tie quantity of Inflectlon-endrngs is seen under Ihe varioos inSectiona, wbera iV is better to leam it. For quamiVieBQiGteeV stem*, ™k\^ ^_

Ij§ 351, 352.J Penultimate Syllables. 399 ]

351. In the increment of Verbs the characteristic \ ^Vowels are as follows : —

, In the first conjugation 5 : as, amSie, amatnr.

. In the second conjugation S : as, monSre, monBtnr.

, In the third conjugation B, I : as, teggre, tegJtur,

, In the fourth conjugation i; as, audire, audltur. Exception, do and its compounds have S: as, dSre, circnmdSbat I

. In oilier verbal increments (not stem-vowels) — a is always long: as, iiioi]ea.ris, tegSmua. B is long: as, tegebam, audiSbar.

Note. — Bme is short before -ram,-rlm,-rS; in the future personal endinj B6riS,-b5re; nnd somerinics in tlie perfect -firunt (as 8t6t6runtque Ooma

i is long in forms which follow the analogy of the fourth conjugatior as, petlvi, laceseittis (in others short : as, tuonltaB) ; also in tl subjunctive present of Bsae and velle (alniua, veUmue) ; and (rarely)

I in the endings -rimua, -ritia. It is short in the future forms amabltis, etc. o is found only in imperatives, and is ahv.iys long: as, monetS, etc. u is short in aftmua, vollimua, quaeattmua ; in the Supine and its derivatives it is long ; as, solfltflma. b. Perfects and Supines of two syllables lengthen the first syllable: as, iiSvI, latum (iavo), vidi, visum (vlde5) ; fBgi (fOgio). Ekceptioss. bibl, dSdI. Hdl, acldl, atfiti, sMtl, tOli; — oltum, dlltiun, Itum, lltum, quitum, rStum, rQtum, sStum, situm, Bt&tum. In some compounds of ato, statum is found (long), as prdstatum. c. In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short ; the following syllable is, also, usually short; as, cficldi (o5do), dIdlcT (dbo5), pHpfigi (pungS), oiiouiTi (ourrS), tStendl (tendfi), mSmordl (moideS). But cficIdT from caedS, pepSdl from pEdB.

(353. The following terminations are preceded by a long Vowel. I. -al,-ar; as, vecHgal, pnlvlnar. Exceptions, animal, cSpltal, iiibar. 1. -brum, -crum, -trum : as, l^vacrum, dElabrum, TerS.triim. 3. -dfl, -ga, -gS; as, formido. aurlga, iraSgo. ExCEPTioss. cSdo, divIdS, 6dfi, mSdo, sdlldS, apadS. trCpIdB ; oallfa, ffiga, tSga, plSga ; 3.g3, t6g5, nfigo, rSgo, harpSgS, llgS, IBgo. So Sg5.

-lea f-ies), -Ua: as, anoUe, mUea, Cii^6.%'aa,VQ!i<S6a.-

L

4DO prosody: Quantity, [55 352,353.

Exceptions. mdlS ; Indfiiea, HfibSlfia ; graoIUs, bOmllla, slmillB, BtStSia ; and verbal adjectives in -Ilia ; as, dScIliB, facllia, tenlb:- lia, itoabllia.

J. -ma, -men, -mentum : as, poSma, fl&niea, inmentum.

Exceptions. Snlma, lacrlma, victima; tSmeo, colfimen; with ifigiroen and the like Iroiii verb-stems in e-.

6. -tnua, -nua, -rua, -aua, -tua, -neus, -rius : as, extrSmua, afipl- QUB, octSnl, aSvfirua, fumoaua, pCritus, senSrius, extrciiieuB.

Exceptions, (li.) I before -mua : as, fmltimua, mSrltlmaB (except bimus, trlmus, quadrimUB, opTmua, mlmua, lltnua) ; and in supei' latives (except Imua, prlmua) : also, dSmua, httmua, ii6iiias, caiS- mus, thaiKmna.

(i.) I before -nua ; as in oraatlnuB, frajclnua, etc. (except dlvinuH, m^tuHnuB, veapertlnua, tSpentinos) ; Sclnua, Salnua, cfiminua, cfiphluUB. emlnua, ddmluus. faciuits, fraxluue, prStlnua, termt- uua, vitlcInuB ; also, manua. 5ce^us, pllit^us ; ggnua, T6nua. So S in bdniiB, Caua, sfinua, tOnus.

(f.) S before -raa (-ra, -rum) ; as. mfirua. hSdSra (except procE- rtia, aincSrua, sBTBrua). In lilie manner, barbSrus, chSrua, nOxus, plrus; aStlra, amphSra, ancfira, IJra, p?ta, purpiira ; fSrum, BuppSbnm, gdj'um, pcLrum.

[d.') IStuB, mStua, vgtus, anhslltua, digitua, aervltaa, aplrltiis ; qafitOB, tStuB ; arbKtus, liSbltue, and the like. . 7. ~iia, -ne, -nis : as, caiTna, mSne, inania.

Exceptions, ad v Sua, angina, dSmlua, ffimlna, mBchlna, mlaa, gfiia. pSglna, pStlua. aatclna, trCtlna, and compounds with -gena ; bSne, aine; cSiiia, cluis, iavguia.

E, -re, -ria, -ta, -tie: 3.%, altSre, aSlfitails, mSnSta. immltta.

Exceptions. mSre, MiaxlB, rata, nSta, satis, sltlB, pStda, and most nouns in -Ita.

9. -tim. -turn, and syllables beginning with v: as, prlvStim, queroBtum, Sliva.

Exceptions, affatim, ata.tlni ; nlvia (nix) ; brfivia, grivia, ISvfa {li^i)\ nSvuB, nSvem ; and several verb roots (as, iiivo, fS.vefi) ; also, 8vU, bSviB, Ifivia.

10. -dez, -lex, -mex, -rex, -dix, -nix: and the numeral endings -ginti, -ginta : as, ifldex, Hex. rSdIx. vlgintl. trtginta.

Exceptions, oillex, allex, rfimex.

353. The following terminations are preceded by a short vowel: —

Ml 353, 354.]

Penultimate Syllables.

401

■ H 3

H I. -CQA, duB, -lua: as, rOstlcua, cUIdus, gl^difilui

P Exceptions. SpSouB, Amicus ; aatlcua, aptlcus, flcus, mendl- cus, pOBtScus, pQdlcas ; fidua, nidus, Bidue ; and Q before -diia : , .T.S. ctfldua, nuduB ; S before -lus, ^a phiUelus (except gfilua, Bcfilus) ; Sallua ; liicus.

2. -n5, -nor, -ro, -ror, ia verbs : as, destlno, crimlnor, g6r3.

Exceptions, dlvlno, featmo, prfiplnd, Blgino, Spioor, inoliuS ; dCclaiS, epSrS, spiro, oro, duro, mirar.

3. -ba, -bfi, -pa, -p3 ; as, ISha., bIbS, lilpa, cr6p5. Exceptions, glfiba, ecriba ; bub5, nQbS, Bcrlbo ; pSpa, pflpa,

rlpa, acSpa, stapa; cap5, rep5, stipS.

4. -tSfl (in nouns), -ter and -tus (in adverbs) : as, civItSta, fortl- ter, pSnitua.

5. -culuB, 'CelluB, -lentuB, -tild5 : ss, faBCicillus, ficellua, IQcil- lentus, magnltado.

354. Rules for the quantity of Derivatives are :-

a. Forms from the same Stem have the same quantity: as, SmS,

amSTlBti; gSunB, gSneri:

Exceptions, t. bBs, 15r, mSs, pSr_ pSa, aftl, vSa — also arbO»

— have a long vowel in the nominative, though the stem-vowel is short

fcf. genitive bSvia, etc.).

2. Nouns in -or, genitive -oria, have the vowel shortened before the final r: as, lionSr, (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that in Plautus and inscriptions these nominatives are often found long,}

3. Maay verb-forms with vowel originally long shorten it before final -r or -t : as, amSr, dioergr, amSt (compare amSmua), dIcerSt. audit, fit

Note. — The final syllable in -t of the perfect seems to have been otiginallj

ong, b,

;r this

4. A few long Stem-syllables are shortened, apparently under the influence of accent : as, 5oer, Scerbus. So dS'iSro and pe-i6rS, weak- ened from iilro.

i. Forms from the same Root often show inherited v quantity (see § 10) : as, dioS (cf. maledlctie), dfloS (diicifl), Hda (perfldus), vSoia (vSoS), ISgia (legO).

c. C0MP0t;NDS retain the quantity of the words which compose them : as, oo-cldo (oadS), oc-cido (oaedo), in-Iquua (aequus),

d. Greek words compounded with trpo have o short: as, prSphSta, praiSgiiB. Some Latin compounds of pro have o short; as, prBEeia- cor, prSfiteor. Compounds mtb nS vary: aa, iifi^a,a8g'9,a!S^i)ft&- BSquiB, aSqaam, ' ~

Prosody: Jihytkm.

Chapter II. — Rhythm

I

Note. — The essence of Rhylhm in poeliy is ihe regular re pronounced with more stress Itian those intervening. To produce (his effect In ite perfection, precisely equal times shonid occur between the lecurrcnces of the stress. But, in the application of rhythm to words, the exactness of these intervals is sacri- ficed somewhat to the necessaiy length of the words ; and, on the other hand, Ihe words are forced somewhat in their pronunciation, to produce more nearly the proper Intervals of time. In different languages these adaptations take place in difierent degrees; one language dlErt^arding more the intervals of time, another

The Greek language early developed a very st in which the intervals of time were all-imporlant. hand, — as in the Salumian and Fescennine verai Ihe purely metrical forms were afterwards adopted from the Greek, and supplanied the native forms of verse. Thus the Latin poetry with which we have lo do fol- lows for the most part Greek rules, which require the formal division of words (like music) into measures of equal times, technically called Feel. The strict rhytlim was doubtless more closely followed in poetry (halwasjui^ than in that which was dtclmmed or inlontd. In neither language, however, is the lime per- fecdy preserved, even in single measures; and (here ere some cases in which Ihe n^larity of Ihe time between Ihe ictuses is disturbed.

The Gieeks and Romans disdngulshed syllables of two kinds in regard to (he lime required for their pronunciation, a /i>;rj' syllable having twice the metrical value of a shioioa^. But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length, or even that in a given passage each long had just twice the length of ihe condguoos shorts. The ratio was only approximale at best, though necessarily mote exact in singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables thai are found. In some eases a long syllable was prolracled. so as lo have the lime' of three or even of four shorts, and often one long or two shorts were pronounced in less than their proper lime, though doubtless always distinguishable in time from one short (see {355. c, rf). Somerimes a syllable naturally short seems to have been slighdy prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the apparent irregularity can be otherwise explained. In a lew cases, also, a [lause takes the place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of Ihe mcas- This could, of course, take place only at the end of a word; hence the impor-

tance of Ciesura and Diaeresis in prosody (set

}358).

j^^^^ciei

1. Heastire*.

355. Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound

into MEASURES Or FEET.

The most natural division of musical time is into meas- ures consisting of either two or three equal parts. But the tcienfs also distmgma'heilmea.^vKesci^^Nt ewpiiiigMNA^^

^Sf 355, 356.J

Measures.

403,

REMARK. — The divisions of musical lime are marked by a siress of voice o one Qr Ihe olher pari of (he measure. This slresB is called the ictUB (beat), a metrical accent (see { 358).

a. The unit of length in Prosody is ove short syllable. Tliis i called a Mora. It is represented by the sign ^, or in musical nota tion by the quaver (P).

d. A long syllable is regularly equal to two marie, and is represented J ■ by thesign _, orby thecfofc^/ (P).

c. A long syllable may be protracted, so as to occupy the time of "I tfluree or four mora. Such a syllable, if equal to three mora, b repre- j '(ented by the sign l_ (or F-); if equal to four, by i_j (or!*').

d. A long syllable may be contracted, so as to take practically the time 1 of a short one. Such a syllable is sometimes represented by the sign >.

e. A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one I

y. A pause sometimes occurs at the end of a vers Terses, to fill up the time. A pause of one mora in a 1 cated by the sign A i one of two mora by the sign 7\-

g. One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper 1 beginning of the measure. Such syllables are called an AnacrOsis or J preluded

The asacrusb is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the J

350. The measures most frequently employed in Latin I I verse, together with their musical notation, are the follow- ; I ing: —

a. Triple or Unequal Measures (J).'

I. Trochee (£ w =^f)- as. regis.

2 Iambus (^ — = f ^) : as, d^cis.

3. Tribrach* (,i w ■^ = fTD ■ ^ Mmlnts.

I The same thing occurs in modem poelry, and in modem music any cenled syllables at the tx^inning aie treated as an anacrusis, ij. Ihey make an incomplete measure before the first bar. This was not Ihe case in andent music, Theancients seem lo have treated any unaccented syllable at the b^ianingas belong, ing lo the following accented ones, so as to make with them a fool or measure. Thus it would seetn that the original form of Indo-European poetry was iambic Id its structure, or at least accented the second syllable rather than the first

5 Called diplasic, the (wo parts (Thesis and Arais) being in the ratio of a lo i.

* Not fennd as a fundamenlal foot, but only as the cesolutioo q( a. tvaiiwi <».

404

Prosody

Rhythm.

[»

3$&

«

Double or Equal Measures (J).

A

I

Dactyi,

t^-"-rD'

: as. cBnsiilU.

■

3

ANAPjEST

c-^-^-trr

■

3

Spondee

c. Six-timed

as, r/^/A Measures (J.>

1

I

Ionic a tna

(■^-r ( w w =

p |» ^•) ! as, cSnflclrlU.

■

a-

lasicamt

^r/(w ^

f* * p ; as, ritulisseni.

■

3

CHORIAMBUS (_ vj w _ =

• ff p) i as, cSntaUrani

■

d. Quinary or Hemiolic' Measures (|).

1. Cretic C_ w _ = p f fj ! as, cSusSlis.

2. ^san primus (^ i> ^ \j =* T_T_f^' ^' '^^"^"^^^i^^'

3. P^ON quSrtus ( vvy ^ _ = ^ ■ * p : as, »r«iVf.

4. BaccHIus (u _ _ ■= r r P) ! as, imlcSs.

i. Several compound measures are mentioned by the grammarians,

viz., Antibacchius ( i_;), Proceleusmatic (^ w vj u), the 2d and

3d Paofi, having a long syllable in the 2d and 3d places, with three short ones; 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th EfUritus, having a short syllable in the 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th places, with three long ones. None of them, however, are needed to explain rhythmically all the forms of ancient

/. Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy the same time in the measure, but may be contracted or prolonged to suit the series in which they occur. They are then called irrational, because the thesis and arsis do not have integral ratios. Such are: —

Irrational Spondee : _ > = J J* ■

Cycuc Dactyl: — ww = J > N (or nearly > t ^)i

* CsUed Aemiolic, the two parts being in toe ra

1

i, 357.]

Cyclic AsAfssr: = the same reversed.

Irsatiokal Trochee : _ > = J h •

JiCfTS, — Of fce( £.nd combinalions ot feel (somelimes cjctend d controlled hy a. Bingle leading accenl), (he following Lmlng 1 10 be the uail of muaica] time : —

Nartatlve poetry was wrilleii for rhythmical recilatioo, or Chant, with instru> mental accompaniment; and Lyrical poetry fbr rhythmical melody, or singing. It must be borne in mind thai in ancienl musio— which Id this differs widely from modern — Ihe rhylhm of the melody was identical with the rhytlim of Ihe le^tt. The lyrio poetry waa to be sung; the poet was rruslciaa and composer, as well as author. To this day a poet is said conventionally to " Eing."

Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical slniclure of Ihe Verse gives ul the eiact Umi, though not Ihe tii«e, to which It was actually Bung. The exact lime, however, as Indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied according to certain hws of so-called " Rhythmic," as will be explained below. In reading andent verse II is necessary to bear fai mind not only the variations In the relative length of syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to Ell out the meas- ure; and to remember that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the words should be distingoished carefiillf, and the Mnse preserved. Do not scan, but read metrically.

367. In many cases measures of the same time may be

substituted for each other, a long syllable talcing the place of two short ones, or two short ones the place of one long one.

In the former case the measure is said to be contracted ; in the latter, to be resohed. Thus : —

a. A SponiJee ( ) may take the place of a dzctyl (_ ij ij) or an

anapiest (v u ) ; and a Tribrach (>j ^ vj) may take the place of a

Trochee (_ "j) or an Iambus (\j _). The optional substitution of one long syllable for two short ones is represented by the sign cc.

i. Another form of daclyl when substituted for a trochee is repre- sented thus, 1^.

A spondee, similarly substituted for a trochee, is represented thus, _ >■

c. When a long syllable having the Ictus (§ 358. a) Ls resolved, the ictus properly belongs to both the resulting short syUables; but for convenience the mark of accent is placed oa the first: as,— _ , Bdnc expeciar / sftn' aceto ( tibi cot act' \n\-pfec\.OTe.—

I

6 Prosody: Rhythm. [S 3sa

2. The Musical Accent.

358. That part of the measure which receives the stress of voice (the musical accent) is called the Thesis; the unaccented part is called the Arsis.^

a. The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis is called the ICTUS {peat). It is marked thus : ^ w w

*. The ending of a \vord within a measure is called CjEsura, When this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called the Cxsura ol the verse, and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm.

c. Ths coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure in Prosody is called Dleresis.

1 The Thesis signifies properly, itic pullirig dawn {B4aa, from tWtjju) oflfie fool in beating time, in Ihe marcli or dance ("downward beat"), and llie Arsis, Ihe railing {&pait,boTri adfw) of the foot (" upward tjeal"). By the Latin grammoHuts these terms were made to mean, tespecliveiy, the ending and banning of a meas- ure. By a misunderstanding which has prevaiJcd tilJ lecently, since the time of Bendey, their true signification has been reversed. They will here be used in accordance with Iheir andent meaning, as has now become more common. This metrical accent, recurring at regular intervals of time, is what constitutes Ibe essence of the rhythm of poetry as disiinguished from prose, and should be constantly kept

Chapter III. — Versification.

1. The Vetse.

350. A single line of poetry — that is, a series of meas- Ipres set in a recognized order — is called a Verse.^

Note. — Most of Ihe comr

Wmchs') , bul Ihe joJDt between th

Ijr the Diaresis, in Dactylic He

, A verse lackiog a ! is, having a pause t< i not lacking, the verse

em is often obscured, ll is marked In Iambic ver xamelei by the Ccssura.

ij-llable at the end is calleti CATALEimc, ] fill the measure; when the end sylkble is called Acatalectic, and has no such

b. To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according t( I the rules of quantity and versification, is called scanning o (Bcansio, from scando, a climbing or advance by steps).

Remark, — In rtading verse rhythmically, care should lie taken the measure Di time of the syllables, bul at the same time not to destroy or ranfuie \ the words themselves, as is often done in scanning,

e. In sianning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (ualcsB ] an interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with I a vowel or with h. This is called EiisiON (bruising).^

In reatiing it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. Strictly, however, they should be sounded lightly.

cailed by Ihe Greek i

Remark. — Elision is s {smioting).

Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse when 1 HTOwel: this is called Synapheia (iiading).

1 The word Verse {vtrsus) signifies a turning bach, i. manner, as opposed to Prose {fronus qt frovirsas), whic s The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and Fn times adopted in English, particiJarly In the older poets : as,- T inveigle and invite th' unwary sense. — Com In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending Iti s often loses it(cf. jia.ijras.- senio confectu' quiescit. — Rrmwa (C.'^. ^.

: Sytial^^ha

muL

408 Prosody : I 'ersification.

d. A fin^ -m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like man- ner when the next word begins with a vowel or h;* this is called ECTHLiFSis (squeesirig otif) : as, —

roonstr"" honend""", inform', ingens, cid lumen ademptum.

— j^n. iii. 658, Final -m has a feeble nasal sound, so that its partial suppression before the initial vowel of the following word was easy.

Remark. — The monosynable;; dS, detu. epe, apem, aim, etc, etecQ, qui (plural) are never elided ; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic verse. Eli»on is often evaded by skiirul collocation of words,

e. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a Towel has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This omission is called Hiatus (gaping).

The final vowel is sometimes shortened in such cases,

f. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before 1 pause : * it is then said to be long by Diastolsi as, —

noslror""' obruimur, — oriturque miserrima caedes.

g. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short isyllaba ancaps).

Forms of Verse. 360. A verse receives its name from its dominant or fundamental measure : as, Dactylic, Iambic, Trochaic, Aiia- ptesHc ; and from the number of measures (single or double) which it contains : as, Hexameter, Tetrameter, Trimeter, Dimeter.

Remark. — Trocliaic, Iambic, and AnapKBtic verses are measured not by single feel, but by p3.irs [dipsdia), so thai six Iambi malce a TVimiltr.

301. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a deiinite num- ber of verses ranged in a fixed order.

Many stanzas are named after some eminent poet : as, Sapphic (from Sappho), Alcaic (from Alcasus), Arckilochiati (from Archilochus), Horatian (from Horace), and so on. 1. Dactylic Hezameter.

362. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theoretically of six dactyls. It may be represented thus : —

» Hence a final syllable In -m is said 10 have no quanliiy of 1(8 own— its vowel, in any case, being eilher elided or else made long by Position.

' This usage is compaialWdj raic, raoal. cawa ■w\«:it \!l bi;i^bus to be fanDd being caused by the retention of an oii¥.\iia.\\-j \(ine oi>i«o!Qq- "^H

Dactylic Hexameter.

or in musical notation as follows : —

is\rd\nis\tu\riS\r^,-'\

a. For any one of the feet, except the fifth, a spondee may be si Btituted, and must be for the last.

Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth place ; the verse is then called | ■ spondaic. Thus in Ed. iv. 49 the verse ends with incrementtim.

-Wllab

iiallys.

xcipal c.

ss commonly h o parts in sensed ■

n the second,!

*. The hexameter has always one fri. wo — almost always accompanied by a pause in the '.

The principal Kesum is usually after Ihe thesis he arsis) of thd third foot, dividing the verse into , and rhythm.

It may also be after the thesis (less commonly h fourth foot. In this case there is often another cks foot, so that the verse is divided into three parts ; as, —

parts fe [ r5x II 5r I dEnsqu' ocu | lis 1| et | siliila | coUa. — -««. v Remark. — Often Ihe only indication of ihe pnrtcipat among a number ot| lesuras is the break in [he sense.

A csEsura. Dccurring ailer the fjrsl syllable of a foot is called masaiii^t. Eesura occnrring alter the Eecoiid syllable of a foot is called fctainme (as in 1 fifth fool oT the 3d and 4th verses in f). A csesura may also be found in any foot"! of Ihe verse, but a proper cttsuralfame could hardly occur in Ihe Srst or sixth. ■ When the fourth fool ends a word, Ihe break (properly a dixresis) is somelinial J ' Impropetly called bueolic acsxra, from its frequency in pastoral poetry.

. The introductory verses of the .Cneid, divided according to the.l

foregoing rules, will appear as foUow.s. The principal c

verse is marked by double lines : —

AmuL vi|Tuini]UG ca|nD || Trojiae qui { primus ab { gris ltaS|am fa|to piofulgus II La|viiii3que j venit Klora, I mult''"' ill' j et ter|ris |1 iacjtatus et | alto vi EupSlrim saelvae Ij m5m5]rem ISInonis ob I iram; mnlla qao|qu' et bel|Io paa|9us || dum | conderet | urhem, tnrerJTetqui df|os Lati|o, || geniis | unde Lajtlnum, AIba|niqu2 pi[tres, H atjqai altae | raoeiiia | RoEoae. Yhefemtmne casura is seen in the following : —

DSs genii li p3t!i|ere: II telnent medi|" aronia | silvae. — ^w. vi. ; Note.— The Heiameler is thus illuslraled in English verse : — " Over the sea, past Crete, on the Syrian shora to the southward. Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired jElhiop people. Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer a SJtiJ/i(I,butfeebIeof heart; forlheyVnoi

^

prosody : Versification. [SS 3fi2, 361

Lovers of men ; neilher broad-browed Z«U5. nor Pallas Athene, Teachet of wisdom lo heroes, beslower of might in Ihe battlE; Shaie not Ihe cunning of Hermes, nor lisl lo Ihe songs of Apollo, Fearing Ihe slari of the sky, and the roll of the blue sail wafer."

— Khigsliy's Andtorntda

2. Elegiac Stanxa.

363. The Elegiac Stanza consists of two lines, hexameter followed by a pentameter.^

The Pentameter verse is the same as the hexameter, except that it omits the last half of the third foot and of the sixth foot. Thus, —

I

'ij\'ts\' AriS\^u

a. The Pentameter verse is thus to be scanned as liuo half-iiirsii. the second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a single syllable.

b. The Pentameter has no regular Ctesura; btrt the first half-verse must always end with a word, which is followed by a pause lo complete the measure-^

vill illustrate the forms of the Ele^c

m subit I illijuE tns[tisatma | noclia i|migo qua nubi | supre | mum X II tempus In ] urbE fu \ it,

m repe|t5 noc|tem qui | tot mihi | cara rejliqul, labitur | ex ocu|liE /? || nunc quoquS | ^tta mfjiF.

n prope | liix adejrat qua | me dis j cc^^ere | Caesar finibiis [ extrB{mae TT || iiissGrat | Ausonijae.

—Ovid, Trisl. i.

Note. — The Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexai (of which it is a mere modification) by its division into Disticbs, each of which must have its own sense complete. It is employed in a great variety of composi- tions.— eplEtolary, amatory, and moumfijl, — and was especially a favorite of llic poet Ovid. It has been illustrated in EInglish verse, imitated from Ihe Germaji: — " In the He3[[ameter | rises the [ fountain's | silvery | column; In the Penllameler | aye || falling in | melody | back."

1 Called frntamrlrr by the old grammarians, who divided il, formally, into live feet (two dacEyb or spondees, a spondee, and two anapssts), as follows: — ■

r, may be filled by the frottaclisn of the pre-

I

fc\

iS 364, 365]

Iambic Trimeter.

4H

3. Otliei Dactylic VerseB.

304. Other dactylic verses or half-verses are occasion- ] ally used by the lyric poets. Thus : —

a. The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates witli the hexwneter, formiag I the Alcmatiian Strophe, as follows : — ' O forltes pelioraque | pass!, I inecum | saepe vilri ]| none | vino { pelllte | curnsi I crn9 inlgens itelrsbimus | aequor. , — lIuR. Od. i. 7 (ao i8; £/. I2).

NOTE. — This verse is a single viemare, its lime being represented by V |} 356. 1 /nole).

b. The Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) consists of half a pen tameter verse. It is used in combination with the Hexameter to forn the First Archilochian Strophe : as, —

difTQIgere nih'es {| ledelunt iam | gramina | campis,

arborijbuaque colmae; miilat 1 lerta vilces || et | aecrea | cenliB 1 ripas

flumina. 1 praetere|unt. — HOR. Od, iv. 7. [For the Fourth Arohilochiaa Strophe (Archilochian Heplameler, alteniatinj*J wilh iambic trimeter cataleclic), see f 372. 11.]

4. Iambic Trimeter. 365. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of J dramatic dialogue. It consists of three measures, each | containing a double Iambus {iambic dipody). Thus, —

It is seen in the following :

• efiica

s|s.

supplcK el 5|to regna per | Proserpinae, per et Dialnae non in3ven|(]a numina, ' p2r alquE li|br55 carminum | vilentiuin

defixa cac|lS dSvac^jrS udSra, Canidia parlcS vocibua | tandem Mcris, cilumquS re|lr3 retro sallvS lutblnem. — Yiav.. Epod. l^.

The last two lines may be thus translated, to show the I movement in English : —

" Oh ! stay, Canidia, slay thy rites of sorcery. Thy charm unbinding backward let Ihy swil^ wheel fly ! " a. The Iambic Trimeter is often useii in lyric poetry, al with the Dimeter to form the Iambic StrophA:

412 Prosody: Versification. [§ 369,

b^tua ajK! qid pr3cnl [ nSgotus, ^^|

ut piiscEL gens | mortaliDiu, ^^H

paterna culra bubus exjercet suis, ^^H

soliitus om|ni fenorif;

n£qu' EXCitB|tur cliaslco | miles Cruel,

nSqu' liorret i[rBluni mat£. — HoR. Epod. z.

b. In the Iambic Trimeter aa irralional spondee (> ) or its equiv- alent (a cyclic anaptest kj \j~ or an apparent dactyl > ^^ ^j (| 356./)) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody. A Tri- brach (v/ (j w) niay stand for an Iambus anywhere except in the last place.

In the comic poets any of tliese substitutions may be made in foot except the last ; as, —

O lucis al|mS tectur |I eC | caelt dSciist

qui alterna cui-|ni spatia |l Ramltnifei^^ambieDS,

illdstre laejtis 1| fxsJEris { tents caput.

— Seneca, Here. Far. 592-94. quid quaeiis ? an | nos |I sf xagin I tS nitus es.

— Terence, Heaul. 10. bomo s""; humijni H nihQ a. mP aliliofini pu(5. veI mf monejr/ hoc n v^ peicon|tatt piita.

— Ifcaut. 77, 78,

c. The Choliambic (Jaaie famiic) substitutes a trochee for the last iambus : as, —

aequ= est bealtuB ac poejma cfira scribitt tarn gafidet !□ | se, tdnique s* iplse nuratur.

— Catoll. xxil. 15, 16.

d. The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows : —

It is used in comblnatloa with other measures (see j 372. 1 1), and is showaia the following! —

Vulciuus ar|den9 uiit ofl ficinas. — Hor. Oif.i.4. or in English : —

"On purple peaks a deeper shade descending." — Scatt,

Note, — The Iambic Trimelar may be regarded, melrically, as "a single fool" (its time being represented by V)> consisting of three dlpodies, and bavtog its principal accent, probably, on Ibe second syllable of Ibe verse, though ibis is mailer of dispute. The spondee in Ibis verae,' irratieBol, and must be shortened to ta toe

I

:Iasl

1

SS 366, 367.] Other Iambic Measures.

5. Other Iambic Measttres.

366. Other forms of Iambic verse are the following : -

a. The Iambic Tetrameter Cataleclic {SepUnBrhis), This coikJ sts of seven iambic feet, with the same substitutions as in lambicj Trimeter. It is used in lively dialogue : as, —

nsHi idcfrc^ arceslsor, nfiptiSs ] quod ml £dplia|ri stnsit. qmbus quldlm quam facijl? pdtuecat ] qmesci si hie | quiSsaeCI — Ter, Aitdria, 690, 691. The rhytliin of the Iambic Septenarius may !« thus represented I according to our musical notation (see p. 403, foot-note l) ! — llci^^„^|^v._..|^w_ wli An

icircrPircr:ircrcirT-^i

lis movement is like the following : — "In goSd ting Charles's gulden days, when liSy ally no hSrm m

— Vicar of Bray, h. The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic (DfWw^rjwf). This consists J of eight full iambic feet with the same substitutions as in Iambic Tri- \ Iter. It is also used in lively dialogue : as, — hucin&t hama|niim f£ct* aut iii{cepti? lii^cineat oflfTcitim pacrie? quid (lliid est? pro [ dedm fidcm, | quid eat, si h6c nCn CDn|IuniiliaBt? — Andria, 236, 237. C. The Iambic Dimeter, This may be either acataleclic or catar- \

I. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It.l

used in combinatioii with some longer verse (see § 365. a).

i. The Iambic Dimeter Ca tale ctic consists of three and a half lambic'i

feet It is used only in choruses: as,—

\'&. Ma£nii, praecjps lnio{r? s3§vo, rapltdr quod im[potenli Ecindsparat | fiu-Sre? — Sen. J/a/^ii, 850-853,

6. Trochaic Verso.

367. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the I Tetrameter catalectic {Septenarius), cpnsj sting of four 1 dipodies, the last of which lacks ^^|H^Jt is repre* 1

seated metrically thus, —

[

aea

I

414 Prosody: Versification. [§§ 367, 36a

ll:l^_>l^v>_> ll:Lw_>|^w_Ml or in musical notation,

ircrcircrcircrnrcr-i

td P advenio, spem, salulcm, II cfinsili*"" adxaii"" expeten — Ter. Andr.

In English verse : —

"Tell me not in mournful numbers life is but an empty dream."

— Longfillaai.

a. The spondee and its resolutions can be substituted only In the even places; except in comic poetry, which allows the substitution in any foot but the last : as, ^

Ftiidr'n habet pela|s«'" Sc vestitum: [ tim consinulist | atqu' ego. ^^H sfira, pes, sla|Iiirs^ tonsus, ) dculi, nasum, | vjl labra, ^^^k

milae, mentum, | blirba, collus; | iStosI quid ver|b(s opust? ^^H si lergum d { cttncoBum, | nihfl hoc similist | slmilius. ^H

— Plaut. Amphitr. 443-446.

b. Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, in combination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of lines:

n6n ebur ne|qu' adreum. [Dimelec Catalectic.J ^^H

m^ renijdet tn domolla dinar, [Iambic Trimeter Catalectic.] ^^|

— HoK. fV. ii. t&^H 7. Mixed Meaaaies.

Note. — Different measures may be combined in Ihe same verse in two difleiem ways. Either (i) a series of one kind is simply joined to a seiies of another kind (compare the changes of rhythm not uncommon in modem miiHc) ; or (3) single feet of other measures are combined with the presailing raeaaures. in whicli case tliese odd feet ate adapted by changing their quantity so that they become irratioHal (see 5 356, Note).

When enough measures of one hind occur to form a series, we may suppose a chan^ of rhythm ; when they are isolated, we must suppose adaptation. Of the indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry.

368. The following verses, combining tiiffercnt rhyth- mical series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry : —

I. Greater Archilochian (Dactylic Tetrameter; Trochaic Tripody) : —

Il_i5c|_ivrjl_;^l^ooll_wl_ty |_>ll

Bolvitur I acrishi|emsgra|tirfce II viris | eC Fa|voni. — HoR. Orf. i. 4.

,YoTE. — It is possible that the dact;)\s 'were lJ^^l\lE^.^l^i■^bad^^a^|i aim

probable. . t

5§ 368-70.] Logamdic Verse. 415 J

2. Verse consbting of Dactylic Trimeter caialectic {padylic Penr I themim)\ Iambic Dimeter: —

scribere | versicu|los i| amore per]calsuni iuvat. — id. Ep. l

8. Iiogaoedic Verse.

369. Trochaic verses containing in regular prescribed I positions, irrational measures or irrational feet, are called I LoGAtEDic. The principal logacedic forms are : -

1. Logacedic Tetrapody (/oz«-/^i-/) : Glyconic.

2. Logaffidic Tripody {Ihrecfest) : Pherecratic.

3. Logacedic Dipody {tivo feet) : this may be regar(3ed as a shariA Pherecratic.

Note. — Irrational measures are those In which the syllables &a not correspond' itrictlylQthenornial ratio of length (see i 335). Such are the /rrH^ioBo/S/BBi' (he Cyclic Dactyl. This mixture of various ratios of length gives an effect approadi- ing Ihat of prose; hence the name Logacedic (Aifyoi, ioiS^). ~ originated in the Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted by the Romans, All the Roman lyric metres not belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactyli ayalems, were conslrucled on the basis of thethreefotrasgiven above; vi die systems consisting respectively of four, three, and two feet. The so-called Logacedic /Vii'ti^t^ consists of live feel, but is to be regarded of the others,

370. Each logaceciic form contains a single dactyl,* which may be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be catalectic or acatalcctic. Thus, -

Gfyionic. PhtrecroHi.

i. ^ w 1 _ w I _ w |_ (w) II ^ w 1 _ w I _ Cw) II

ii._w |-^w|_wUCw31l^w |^wl_C^)ll

iii. _w |_w|^w|„Cw)ll^^|_(w)ll

Note. — The shorter Pherecratic {rfi^oi^i) , if catalectic, appears to be a simple

Choriambus {_\j\j 1 A); and, in general, Ihe effect of the logacedic forms is

Choriambic. In fact, Ihey were so regarded by the later Greek and Latin melri- , and these metres have obtained the general name of CHOKIAMBIC, But are not true choriambic, though they may very likely have been feW to be such by the composer, who imitated the forna without much thought of Iheir origin. ' may be read (scaimed}, therefore, on that principle. But it is better to read as hgaadic measures; and that course is K:>llowed here, in accordance with lost approved opinion on the subject.

Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard lo the place of Ihe dactyls, >o a large number of verses arose, each following a. fcled by Ihe Komans as distinct metres.

I

4i6 Prosody: Versification.

371. The verses constructed upon the several Logacedic forms or models are the following : —

1. Glvconic {Second Glyconie, catalectic) \ —

'-"|-"|-"|-"ri;ir5circir-<"r-^i

Romae [ prindpis | urbilum. In English : —

" Fonna mote real than living raan." — Shellty. Note. — In Ihis and most of the succeeding forms ihe first foot ii alwiji irralional in Horace, conasling of an apparent spondee ( >).

2. AriSIOPHAnic (First Pherecratic) : —

'--"'—'-^'c-ecircirn

tempernt [ oia | ftenia. — Hor.

Note. — It ii very Ufcely that this was made equal in time to the prece protracting the last two syllables I ihns, —

"-"'-"'-i-^'Tscircifirii

3. AuoKic {First Pherecratic, shortened) : —

'--!-=• cenrti

Terrult ] urbero. — Hbr. Or perhaps t —

4. Pherecratic {Second Pherecratic) : —

'-='-'"_"7^"'^'r_cic"5cir"ir^i

eras donaberis haedo. — ■ ffor.

5. Lesser Asclepiadic {Second and First Pherecratic, both cata- lectic) ; —

MaecenSs atavfs Sdite tJgiblSs. — Nor,

6. Greater Asclepiadic (the same, with a Logacedic Dipo^ iai posed} : —

e qunesieris — scire neffis — quern mihi quem tiU. — Har.

7. Lesser Sapphic {Logaiedic Petttapody, with dactyl in ll place) :—

Il_^l_>l^^\_^l^la AB (nteger vitae scE\ei\i.i\ue ij4tu^. — Hor, «

^L 7. Les ^K place) :-

I

i

.ingty

I

aU

I

f 371, 372.] Melres of Horace.

It in English:—

"Brillisnt hopes, all woven in EMgeoufl tissues." — LangfiUow.

8. Greatek Sapphic {Third Glyconki First Pherecratic):-

||_ul_>I^v^[i_ll^w|_wli_loAa

iS defls oiS Sybarin || cftr propctSs amando. — Hor.

I. Lesser Alcaic {LogaiEdic Tetrapo^, two dactyls, tw

vtginibfis pucrfsque canto. — Har. a Englisli (nearly) : —

"Blossom by blossom the Spring begins." — Alalanla in Calydon. I. Greater Alcaic {Logaadic Pentapody, catalectic, with Ana- ■ crusis, and dactyl in the third place, — compare Lesser Sappkic) : — U ^ ■ _ v^ ! _ > 1 -^ vy 1 _ w I ^ A II iust"™ *!t tenScem propositi vitfim. — Nor. Note. — Only the above XjigaiediE forms are employed by Horace,

11. PhaLjECIAN {Lagaasdic Pentapody, with dactyl in the second pbce):-

ll^>l^wl_wl_wli_l_AII

quaenani 1* mala mSns, miselli Riaidi,

agit praecipit'"> In meos iainbos? — Calull, xl.

In English: —

"Gorgeous flowerets in the sunlight shining." — Longfellow,

12. Glyconic 'V-iK-ES.Y.c^P^'ic (^Metr urn Satyr icufn): —

ll_wl^y^l_wll_II_wl^/wll_l_AII 0 Col6nia quae cupis || p6nte liSdere Iflngo. — Calull. xvii.

9. Metres of Horace, 372. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties of

stanza ; these are ; —

I. Alcaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (lo), one Trochaic Dimeter with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9) ' : as, —

iiistim et lenacem propqaid vicflra

non cfvi"™ Srdor prSva iubentiilni

non vlSltus Instantts tyranni

m^nte quatft solidi nequ' Adstcr. — Od. iii. 3. (Found In Od. i. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 3t, 34, 35, 37: ii. i, 3, 5, 7, 9, 1 13,14,15,17,19.20; iii. 1.3,3.4,5,6, 17,21,33.36,29; iv.4, 9, 14, ij,),

t J The figures refer lo the ioreftoina'"!* IJi'ST'i-'l-

4i8 Prosody: Versification. \% 372.

Note. — The AlcaJcSirophe was a special (avorite with Horace, of whose Odes Ihirty-SEven aje in lhl3 farm.' It is somelinies called Ihe Horatiaa S/ania. The verses were formerly described as, I, a. spondee, bacchius, two dactyls ; 3. spondee, bacehius, two trochees; 4. two da.clyls, two irocbeES,

3. Sapphic {minor), consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and one Adonic (3) : as, —

ilm sath tents nivis Atque dtrae ^^m

grindinrs niTsIt pater et nibfnte ^^^U

dfxterS sacrSs iaculitus arces ^^^|

terruit drbem.— Oii. L 2. ^^|

(Found in Od. L 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 31, 38; ii. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, i6)

iii. 8, u, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27; iv. 2, 6, 11. Carm. Sac.')

Note. — The Sapphic Slania Is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos,

Odes — more frequently than any other except the Alcaic The Ltsscr S^kic vecsewas formerly described as consisting of aChorlamhus preceded by a trochaic dipody and followed by a bacchius.

3. Sapphic {major), consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and one Greater Sapphic (S) ; as, —

Lydia dtc, pec 6mnes iS deoa orS, Sybarin ci5r propcr6s amando. — Od. i. 8.

4. AscLEPiADEAN I. {minor), consisting of Lesser Asclepiadies CS) : as,-

fciegi monumSntKw a^ce pec^miillis tSgalfquE si'i — pyramid""' altilis. — Od. iii. 30. (Found in Od. !. l; iii. 30; iv. S.)

5. ASCLEPIABEAN II., consisting of One Glyconic (l) and one Lesser Asclepladic (5) : as, — ^^1

NSvis quae libi creditdm ^^|

dtbea Virgilidm, — ffnihusAtdcfa ^H

rSddas fncoluraem, precdr, ^^

^t aervSs animae ~ dimidifira meal, — Od. i. 3,

(Found in Od. i. 3, 13, 19, 36; iii. 9. 15, 19, 24, 25. 28; iv. 1, 3.)

6. AscLEPiADEAN 111., Consisting of three Lesser Asclepiadies ,(< and one Glyconic (i) ; as, —

Qu's deafderiS sit pudor alSt modds tim cart capitis? — praecipe lllgubtfe cinliis, Melpomene, — cut liquidam patir v8cem cfim cythaiS dedtt. — Od. i. 24, (Fonnd in 0(1. i. 6, 15, 24, 33; Ii. 12; iii. 10, 16; Iy. 5, 12,)

1 See the lndes\ie\ow V??- ^™. 'i**^'

^d i. 3.

1; iv. I, 3.) Asclepiadies ,CS^^

Metres of Horace.

f. AscLEPiADEAtr IV., consisting of two Lesser Asdepiadics (5), I e Pherecratic (4), and one Glycooic (1) : as, —

O (ons Bindusia.^ spl jndidifr vhrfi, dlilci dtgnc merS, non sine floriUds, eras donaberis ba£d3 col frons Ilirgida cdriubds. — Od. (Found in Od. 1.5, 14, 21,23; '■• 7J "i- ?• ': 1. AscLEPiADEAN V. (major'), consisting of Greater Asdepiadics I

(ft tie quaes! eris — BcIce nefSs! — quem mihi, qi ffncm dt dedertnt — LeSconoS — nic BabjloniSs tfntarts numerSs. — Od. i. 1 1. (Found in Od. L 11,

g. Alcmanian, consisting of Dactylic HcKameter (g 362) alteroadng 1 with Tetrameter (§ 364. a). (Od. i. 7, 28 ; Epod. 1

10. Arckildchian I., coasisting of Dactylic Hexameter alteniat* J ing with Trimeter Catalecdc {Dactylic Fenthembn, see § 364. i),l^ (Od. iv. 7.)

It. Archilochian IV., consisting of a Greater Archilochiau I

(hcptanuter, § 368. l), followed by Iambic Trimeter Catalecdc I

(S 365' ^)- The stanza consists of two pairs of verses: as.-

EiSlvitur tcris hiems gritS vice [] VSris et Favdai,

trahlintqiie aiccos m!icbinae carinas; tc neque i&m stabults gaud^t pecus, || afit arSlar ^t, ncc prita citnis filbicant prutnis. — Od. i 4.

12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see § 365). (Ep. 17.)

13. Iambic Strophe (see § 365- «)■ (Ep. i-io.)

14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter:

n&t erat, £t caelS fulgebat Iflna serSno

inter minora stdera, cfim tii, mSgnonSm niimen lacslSra deSruni,

in verba iiicabSs raea. — Epod. 15. (So in E

15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (§ 365) ; a

altera iam leritdr bellfs clvflihos actas, suis et ipsa E5ma viribfis ruit. — Epod, 16.

16. Verse of Four Lesser Ionics; a

ori I date ludraa \ T*CQp.t &aici.

Prosody : X'ersificntion. [§ 372.

: Penthemim (g 364. b) ;

8. Dactylii (§ 364. b) ■■ aa

e vereiculos — amflre perculsfim gravi, — Epod. I Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic

hdnida tfmpestts caelflm conti&iit, ct Imbres nivSsque deducdnt lovem: nflnc mare, nfinc ailOae. . . _ Epod. 1

»

ig. Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic

Trimeter, eacli catalect

j.b).

INDEX TO THE

Lib,

, :.

pF HORACE.

1. Maecenas alavis : 4.

ao.

Vilepotabis; a.

3. lamEaOsterrii: a.

Dianam lEEerae: 7,

3. Siowaifars.

33.

Integer vitae; a.

4. Solvimracrishiemsr 11.

33.

Vitas hinnuieoi 7.

S. Quismulta: 7.

Qiiisde5iderio;6.

6. ScriberisVarioi 6.

35.

Parcius iunclas: a.

7. Laudabuntalii: 9.

36.

Musis amicus: r.

8. Lydiadic:3.

az-

Natisinusum: i.

9. Videsulala: i.

28.

Te maris: 9.

10. Mercmi bcnnde nepos: s.

=9-

IccibeaHs: i.

II. Tunequaesietis: B.

3°-

0 Venus: a.

13. Quem viium : a.

Bi-

Poscimur; a.

14. 0 navis : 7.

as-

AIbi ne doleas : 6.

IS, Pastor cum iraherel: 6.

34-

Patcus deorum; i.

16. Omatrepulcra: i.

33-

0 diva: I. ■

17. Velou amoenum : i.

36.

Et ihure : 5.

18. NullamVare: 8.

37-

19. Mater saeva: s-

Persicosodi: a.

. Motum ex Metell

4. Ne sit ancillaE : a.

■4-

Eheufugaces: i.

S. Nondumsubacta: i.

^5-

lampauca: i.

6. Scptimi Cades: 2.

16.

OliumdiToa; i.

7. Osaepemecum: I.

8. UUflsiiuris; a.

Nonebur: 19.

9. Non semper Imhtes; 1.

. ■6awi.um'm.i«»B«M

a. Rectius vives' 3-

a. ■»oTi«4ttB\a.-. l.^B

'

'

H 372. 373.] Index to

Metr£S of Horace. 421

Ub. rii.

1. Od< profanum : I.

■6. Indu5amDanaen: 6.

a, Anguslamamic-e; i.

.7. Aeliveiuslo; i.

iB. Fauna nympharum ; 2.

4- Descendecaelo: i.

19. Quantum distet r 5.

5- Caelalonamem: i.

ao. Non vides: 3.

6. Delinamaiorum: i.

7- Quid fles ! ^.

33. Montium cuslos: a.

B. Martiiscaelebs: a.

33. Caelosupinas: i.

9. Donee Eratus ; 5.

W. ExtremumTanaln: &

as- Quo me Bacche : 5.

a6. Vixipuellis: i.

la. Miseraruraest: i5.

a7. Impiosparrae: a.

13. 0 foD5 Bandusiae! 7.

aB. Festoquid; 3.

14. Hetculisrilu: 2.

ag. Tynhena regum ; I.

15. Uxor pBupeiis ; 5.

Lib. IV.

I. Inlermissa Venus: 5.

9. Ne forte credas! 1.

a. Plndanim qui^uis: 3.

10. Ocniddissdhuc; 8.

3. Quern lu Melpomene; 5

II. Estmihinonum: 3.

4. Qualemminiswum: i.

13. lamveriscomilesre.

5. Dlvis orte bonus r 6.

13. Audivere Lyce: 7.

6. Dive quem proles : 2.

14. Qua ciira pattum: i.

7. Diffi^ereniyes; 10.

15. Phoebus volenlem : i.

8. Donarem paleias ; 4.

Carmm Satculart: 2.

Epodes.

I. njlsIJbuniiSi 13.

IQ. Malaaoluta: 13.

0. Beatusille: 13.

II. Pecti nihil: 17.

3, Parentis olim: 13.

13. Quid libi vis: 9.

4. Lupiselagnis; 13.

13. Horrida lempeslas ; 18.

5. Al 0 deonini : 13.

14. MolUs inertia: 14.

6. Quidimmerenles: 13.

7. Quoquoseelesti: 13.

16. Altera iara: 15.

a, Rogare longo: 13.

17. lamiameaicad: la.

9. Quanda reposcum : 13.

873. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the ^|

above-mentioned verses.

Thus,- H

a. Glyconics with one Pherecratic (both imperfect) : m, — ^^

Di5|na

sumus 1 in fidE ^H

pud 11-

etpuerMinl^gri: ,^H

Dialna

■a, piierl | inlegri ^|

puelllaeque ca|na|niuB Catull. 34. ^H

A Jfl/>A/M,Inaseriesofs

ngle lines, closing with an Adonici as, — ^H

^^^^^ Anmalgiaili

ri ttEm\i\eie \ Maiiei ^^^^^^B

^^^^L

\ sum c^ia \ VnKVotxmx ^^^^H

li

Prosody : Versification. [5§ 373, OT*.

fn^t I abrapltis trSpildus cSltenis? fsllilmuti laeltevenit ] eccX \ vultu, qnein lu I lit Pae I as ; liumelrisque | tela gestat I et n5|tEs popullts phalcFtras

Hercnlis 1 hires. — Sen. If/rr. (El. 1600-6.

c. Sapphics followed by Glyeonics, of indefinite number (id. Hi Fur. 830-874, 875-894).

^gj^_

10. Miscellaneous. 374. Other measures occur in various styles of poetry: viz., — -^

a. ANAP.ESTIC verses of various lengths are found in dramatic poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted for the anapsst: as,—

hie homo3t | omnixm homilnum praelcipiios Toliiplaltibus ^u|i!iTsqu< an{t£p5tens, ^k

ita comlmoda quae { cupi^ e{veiiiunt, ^|

quod ago | s^lut. ad | secue | sSquIlur : ^|

itaEBuldium suplpEditat. — PiAirr. Trin. 1115-19. I

b. Bacckiac verses (five-timed) occur In the dramatic poets, — very rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus, — either in verses of two feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated very freely, as are alt measures in early Latin. The long syllables may he resolved, or the molossus (three longs) substituted : as, —

multaa res 1 simit* in 1 meo corldg vorso, mult"" in colgifando | dolor"" ioldipiscor egdmet mc | cog^ et malcec* et de|fatigo; niSgister t niih' exer|dl6r i.m|mus nunc est

— PiAUT. Trin. 213-226.

€. Cretic measures occur in the same manner as the Baccbiac, with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete: as, —

amor amilcus tnihi 1 ne fias | unquam. his ego I d' artibua | gralinm | facio. ni! gg" isltos moror | faeecos 1 mores. — id. 267, 293, 297.

d. Saturnian Verse. In early Latin is found a rede form of w not borrowed from the Greek like the others. The rhythm is Iambic Tetrameter (or Trochaic with Anacrusis), but the Arsis is often sjnt pzted, especially in the m\dd\e aoA a*. \\\& ctiA at vhe verse ; as, — dabfint 1 raaWm \ ■^IrteWW — WSs.fe-A\^i^\;a>*-

■

rilh

L

5 375.] Early Prosody.

11. Early Prosody. 375. The prosody of the earher poets differs in severa respects from that of the later.^

a. At the end of words s was only feebly sounded, so that it dc not makt: position with a following consonant, and b sometimes cut before a vowel. This usage continued in all poets till Cicero's tii (§ 347' «)■

b. The last syllable of any word of two syllables may be made shi if the £rst is short. (This eifect remained in a few words like pnti^ oavS, valB, vidB; cf. §348.) Thus, —

Ibeal (Ciii, ii. I. 12); apiid test (^Trin. 196); s3r5r dxctast fBWu. 157I] honas (^Slich. 99); domi dSaeque (^Psiud. 371; dami (^Mil. 194).

:. In the same way a long syllable may be shortened when precedf by a short monosyllable : as, —

Id &t profecto (jl/<"/-f. 372); 5ril et tib' Sioptatum (jW/. 1011); m quid' h3rcle (^Ji«, 414); quid esl si hoc {jhidria, 237).

d. In a few isolated words position is oftea dbregarded.* Such a; Hie, jHte, lode, llnde, nempe, Sase ( ?). Thus, —

Acquis his in aedibuEl ^Baeih. 5S1).

e. In some cases the accent seems to shorten a syllable preceding a word of more than three syllables, as in BenSctriltr, SyrScfiaae. /. At the beginning of a verse many syllables long by position stao

for short ones : as, —

idne tii (,Pseud. 442); eslne consiinilis {Epid. v. i. 18). g. The original long quantity of many final syllables b retained. Thus; —

Final -a of the £rst decletision b often long : as, —

nl eplstultt quid"" fllla sit In aedibus {Asin. 762), Final -a of the neuter plural is sometimes long (though there seems no etjTnological reason for it) : as, —

ndnc et amico ] prosperab' cl I gfnio meo mul | ta bona faciam (^P'rs. 2G3]

1 Before the I.atin language was used ia lilemture, il had become macb changet by the lou of final consonants and the shortening uf final syllables under the influence of accent (which was originally free in its posilion, bul in Latin became limited lo the penult and antepenult), lliis tendency was arrested by the study of grammar and by liierature, but shows itself again in the Romance languages. In

Ihis change was slill in piogiess in <,he ime c>{\\ke ^i^.tV) '^ot^.

3 are nolyel agreed upon the principte at Vne eiJ.tWiA'Wa\Tt'aei«i«'

424 Prosody: Versification.

3. The ending -or b retained long in nouns with long (original r-stems or original a-stems) : as, —

mi^do qiiom diet" in mt ingerebis 6diuni non iix5r eram (Adn. 937). i\3. m' in pcctoir itque coide, facit amQr incendium {Merc. 500). aique quanto n^ fuisti 16iigi5r hiic prdxumi {Ampk. 548).

4. The termination -ea (-itifl) is mllfiB, HuperstSs.

5. All verb-endings in -r, -o, and -1 vowel is elsewhere long in inflection :

1

retained long, may be retained long where the

gredi5r«ud

^udtsse me {Capl. loaj); £lqu< ut a4 Tueris et qui nunc (id e nSniinat haec {Epid. iv. I. 8); faciat ut semper {Poen. iL ^£)\ infuscabal, amiba (Crctics, Cist. L at); qui amel {_Mert. 1021); at nt in bcllo capitur alter filius ((Tn//. 35); tibi sit nd me revtul (J-™.:. 11.4.79)..

h. The hiatus is allowed very, fteely, especially a ense, or when there is a change'of the speaker.'

among scholars ; hut in

b^ J

^^^M MISCELLANEOUS. ^^H

1. Reckoning of Time. ^H

Note,— The Roman Yaar whs designaled, in earlier limes, byihe names of the ^^ insula; bul was afletwMls reckoned from the building of thenar (oj Hrie tfendita, axni uriii coniiiiae) , the dale of which was assigned by VarWio a period correaponding with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Romun dates to those of the Christian era, titytar of the city iilo hi avbtracted from 754: e.g. A-U-CCgi f (the year of Cicero's consulship) = B.C 63.

Before Cesar's reform of the Calendar {B.C. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355 daysi March, May, Quintilis 0"'y)i ""^ October having each 31 days; Feb- ruary havhig aS, and each of the remainder99. As this Cajendar year was loo short for (he solar year, the Romans, in Bltemate yaarSial the discretion of the Pontifices, inserted a month of varying length (mSniii iaitrcalSrii) aiter February 23. and omitted the rest of February, , The "Julian year,"by Cesar's reformed Calendar, bad 365 days, divided into maaths as at present. Every fourth year the a4lh of February (vl. leal. Mart.) wa^ counted twice, givinf 29 days to that month ; hence Ibe year was called BisajcfiHs. The month Quintltis received (he name fiiliai (July), In honor of Julius Ciiesar; and Senilis was called .^it^vifiu (August), in bonor of his successor. The Julian year [see below) remained unchanged till the

Bdoption of the Gregorian C^endar (A.D. 1582), which omics leap-year three times

Jn every four hundred years. I

37G. Datfe, according to the Roman Calendar, arcB reckoned as follows :^ I

a. The^nt day of the month wa-s called Kalendae (Calends). I Note. — Kalendae is derived from CEtl&re, lo fa//, — the Calends being tbaJ

day on which the pontiffs publidj announced the New Moon in the CsmiHa Caim^-M which Ihey did, originally, from actual observation. M

b. On ^tf-fteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the /Au^ UtHth of the other motiths, were the Idus {Ides'), the day of Full Mood. I

C. On the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the fiflh of the other months, were the NSnae {Nones or ninths).

d. From the three points thus determined, the days of the month were reckoned backwards as so many days before the Nones, the Ides,

or the Calends. The point of departure was, by Roman ci in the reckoning, the j«:(>«rf day being /ArMilays before, e the following rule for determining the date -. —

r

426

Miscellaneous.

If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days in th

month preceding, ^ if Nones or Ides, add one lo that of the day d'

which they fall, — and from the number thus ascertained subtract^

given date : thus, — J

viii. Kal. Feb. (33 - 8) - Jan. as. I

iv. Non. Mar. (B -4) -Mar. 4. ^

iv.Td. Sepl. [14-4) -Sept. la '

For peculiar constructions in dates, see § 259. e. e. The days of the Roman montli by tlie Julian Calendar, as thu ascertained, are given in the following Table : —

I. Kal. toj. Kai_ Feb.

a. IV. Non. lan. IV. Non. Feb

March.

Kal. Martiae

VI. Non. Miitl.

4. prtd. ■* " prid. " "

5. NoM. Ian, N6n. Feb.

6. viii. Ta ISn. Vlll. Id. Feb.

Non. AprIlK^ VIII. Td. Apr,

ijs IXn. Idus Feb.

K. KaL Feb. xvi. Kal. Marliis

Note. — Observe that a date before Ihe Julian Reform (B.C. 46) la K not by the above lable. but by taking Ihe earlier reckoning of Ihe number of di In the moalh.

4Z]S

, but

■0-

-half

1

5S 377-ai.] Measures of Value, etc.

2. MeastiTes ofValue, eto.

377. The money of the Romans was in early times wholly of cc^^ per. The unit was the as, which was nominally a pound in weight, but actually somewhat less. It was divided into twelve uuciae (puttees).

In the third century b.C. the Ks was gradually reduced to one-hall of its original value. In the same century silver coins were introducedM — the Dinarius and the Sestertius. The Denarius = Sestertius = 2}j asses.

378. The Sestertius was probably Introduced at a time when the ■ Ss had been so far reduced that the value of the new coin (2^ asses) was equivalent to the original value of the 3b. Hence, tht^estertius (usually abbreviated to liSor HS) came to be used as the unit of value, and nummuB, coin, often means simply seslertius. As the reduction of the standard went on, the sestertius became equivalent to 4 asses. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to loo sesterces. The value of these coins is seen in the following table : —

z^ asses = i sestenjus or nummas (ks), value nearly 5 cents. 10 asses or 4 seiterlii = I denarius ..." " 30 "

Note. — The word BSetertlua is ttirrf one, a half. The abbreviation 11! iaif.

379. The Sfistertiiim (probably originally the genitive plural of ■Catertius) was a sum of money, not a coin; the word is inflected regularly as a neuter noun ; thus, tria sSstertia = $150,00.

When sestertium is combined with a numeral adverb, centina mllia, i hundreds of thousands, is to be understood : thus deciins sesferiiumm (deciins hs) = f so-ooo.

In the statement of large sums sestertium is often omitted: thutl texSgilns (Rose. Am. 2) signifies, sexagiens \cenliua mliia^ sestertium^ (6,000,000 sesterces) = $300,000 (nearly).

380. In the statement of sums of money In cipher, a line abowa the number indicates thousands ; lines above and at the sides al3<v9 hundred-thousands. Thus HS. DC. = 600 sistcrtU ; HS, DC = 6oo,oo*J tlsterlif, or 600 slstertia ; h.S. [dc] - 60,000,000 slslertit.

381. The Roman Measures of Length are the following! — 13 inches (uneiae) — 1 Roman Foot {pis .■ I r.65 English inches).

Iji Feet = I Cubit (rt(*iV«w). — 2}^ Feel= 1 Degree or Step (fra^nsV J Feet - I Pace (^sjjhs). — looo ¥acw (_iniU( f as5uum^ =

'T

The Roman mile was

The Ifigiritm, or unit

leet long and 120 broad

Miscellaneous,

[S5 3

4850 English feet of land, was an area, of 240 (Ron little less than | of an English acre.

382. The Measures of Weight are —

12 unciae jounces) — one pound Qiira, about \ lt>. avoirdupois). Fractiotial parts (weight or coin) are —

1. (A). «»«■<.. 5. i^^-),qutncun:c. 9. {%■), dodrSnl.

2. Ci), sexlin,. 6. (S), ""."". »0. (I), d.xia,,^.

3. Q).fHaJra?u. 7. Wi), "J>"""- "■ (!!).■'"""■

4. (i)^rKw. 8. Cf),WM». la. a».

The Talent {laletilum) was a Greek weight (roAaiTtni) = 60 lih-ae. \

383. The Measures of Capacity are —

1 2 c^alhi = I sixiarius (neaAy a pint). 16 seiiliiii= I modius (peck), 6 aeitarit = 1 congius (3 quarts, liquid measare)>

384. The following are SOI

ne of the commonest abbreviations found

1 Latin inscriptions and somei

times in editions of the classic authors.

A., absotvo, nnAfuo.

P. C,patrfs conscriph.

A. v., aiiao uriis.

^\..pmu. ^m

A. u. c, ai urbe condita.

pont. msx., pentifix maximas. ^^^|

pQp.,/0/«/»J. ^H

cai.,cBHsul(,consuU).

P. R.,p<'pulus Komantis. ^^^

COS!., eonsuHs (coHoiHbus).

pr.,firatA>r.

D., dtvus.

pToc.praidnjii/.

D. D., dond dedit.

Q. B. F. F. Q. s., good ienum fitia

D. D. D., dal, dical, didicat.

fauslumgui sil. _^^

des^ dcagnatus.

Quic, Qu'inSs. ^^1

D. M., i/ii manfj.

resp., respibluo, rtspondtl. ^^H

eq. Rom., eques Romania.

S., satiilem, sacrum, stnatus. ^^|

¥.,filiu!,fastus.

s. c, scnalus consHllum.

Ictus., iurisconsullui.

s. D. P., salulem didi pliriinam.

Id., Idm.

S. P. Q. R, 5^«a/«i Papulusqui Hi-

imp., imperalar.

manas.

1. 0. M., /i^ 0^010 maxima.

s. V. B. E. B. v., li fOi&t f^H/ enl, igc

valto.

N., ne/ffs, Hi/aslut.

V\. ^^., ti-itimu f Siti,

S.L.,„3nligu.l.

\3.(U.f.^),uliri>eu. ^^^^^^H

GLOSSARY

OF TERMS USED L

Note. — Many of these tenna are pedantic names given by early grammariansfl to forms of speech used naturally by writers who were not conscious that they we: using figures at all — as, indeed, they were not. Thus when one says, " It gave n no little pleasure," he is unconsciously uung Ulotes; wheo he says, "John weiit4 op [he street, James down," AtitiiheHs; when he says, " High as the sky," Hyptry^ Hie. Many were given under a mistaken notion of the nature of tlie usage referred ~n to. Thus mSd and tSd (\ 98. c) were supposed to owe ihdr d to Paragtgt, eDmpsI its p to Epenlhtiis. Such a sentence as " See my coat, how well it iits I " was supposed lo be an irregularity to he accounted for by Pntepsis,

Many of these, however, are convenient designations for phenomena which often ir; and most of them have a historic interest, of one kind or another.

3S5. I, GrammAticai. Terms.

Anacoluihom a chatige of construction in the same sentence, leaving' I the first part broken or unfinished. ' Anastrophes inversion of the usual order of words.

Apodosiss the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protasis),

Archaism i an adoption of old or obsolete forms.

Asyrtdeions omission of conjunctions (§ 2o8. b).

Barbarisms adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms.

Brackylqgy: brevity of expression. . Crasis: contraction of two vowels kito one (§ 10. c).

Ellipsis: omission of a word Or words necessary to complete the sense I ' (§ 177. note).

Enallage: substitution of one word or form for another.

Eptnthesisi insertion of a letter or syllable (§ ir. c).

Hellenism : use of Greek forms or constructions. j Hindiadys {%v iA Ivoiv) : the use of two nouns, with a conjunction, J , instead of a single modified n

I Jiypallage: interchange of C'

Hysleron protiron : a reversing of the natural order of ideas.

This term was applied to cases where the natural sequence of events is violated

in language because the later event is of more importance than the earlier and so

comes first to Ihe mind. This was supposed lo be an atliiicial embellishment

in Greet, ond so was imitated in I^tin. It is u\\\ to\m&. va uC«£& T>xm!»t«~t >&■

"Bred and Bom in a Brier Bush " (Uncle Remua>. j

430 Glossary.

Metathisht transposition of letters in a word (§ ii. d).

Paragogei addidon of a letter or letters to the end of a word.

Partnthesist insertion of a phrase interrupting the ci

Periphrasis ! a roundabout way of expression (circumltKution).

Pleonasm: the use of needless words.

Polysyndeton i the use of an unnecessary number of copulative con- junctions.

Prolepsis i the use of a word in the clause preceding the one where it would naturally appear {anticipaSion).

Protasis t a clause introduced by a conditional expression {if, ivken, ■whoever), leading to a conclusion called the Apodosis (§ 304).

Syncope: omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a word

(§■'•«)■

Synesis {cdnstrUctid ad sinsum): agreement of words according to the

sense, and not the grammatical form (§ 182). Tmesis; the separation of the two parts of a compound word by other

words {cutting).

This term came from the Earlierseparatjon of prepositions (originally adverbs) froni ihe verba with which ihey were afterwards joined ; so in per ecestorscItUB ly\iBT,avery_^iiiy,fgjdt As Ihis was supposed [0 be inlentional, ii was ignoranily

ated in Latin; as in cere- oomminult -brum (Ennius). Zeugma: the use of a verb with two different words, to only one of

which it strictly applies {yoking).

386. II. Rhetorical Figures.

Allegory: a narrative in which abstract ideas figure as circumstances,

events, or persons, in order to enforce some moral truth. AllileratioH : the use of several words that begin with the same sound. Analogy: argument from resemblances.

Anaphora : the repetirion of a word at the beginning of successive clauses (§ 344./). ~

Antithesiss opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis : § 344)1 Antonomasia : use of a proper for a common noun,

Bint Maecenatia non deernnt Flucce Maronla, so there be falrens (lI

Maecenas) , foets (like Virgil) will not hi lacking. ilia, fiiria et peatis, l/ial fury and plagiie {i.e. Cbdius) ; Homeronuutix, scourge of Homer (i.e. Zoilus). Aposiapeiis : an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect. Catachresis : a harsh metaphor (abiisis, misuse of words). CAiasmus! a reversing of the OYder of words in corresponding paire of ies(§344-/)-

. ni^^

Glossary.

'! a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of meaning. \. Euphemism : the mild ftiq>ression of a painful or repnlsive idea; as, — |

to, quid el accident, if anylJiing kapptHS io Mm {i.e. if he dies). m^phonyt the choice of words for their agreeable sound. \Hyperbatcm! violation of the usual order of words. ^iJyperboU : exaggeration for rhetorical effect. ^ony: the use of words which naturally convey a sense contrary b

WUtotes : the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary (§ 209. c). T Metaphori the figurative use of words, indicating an object by som resemblance. Melanymy: the use of the name of one thing to indicate some kindred |

thing. Onomatop<Eia : a fitting of sound to sense in the use of words. Oxym&ron ; the use of contradictory words in the same phrase ; ;

InBaniens aapientia, fooluh leisdom. Paronomasia! the me of words of like sound. Prosopopmiai personification. Synchysis: the interlocked order (§ 344. ^), Synecdoche: the use of the name of a part for tlie whole, or the reverse. |

387. 111. Terms of Prosody.

I Acaialtctic: complete, as a verse or a series of feet (§359. a).

I Anaclasisi breaking up of rhythm by substituting different n

I Anacrusis: the unaccented syllable or syllables preceding a versel

(§3SS-^)-

Antistropke: a series of verses corresponding to one which has gon« 1

before (cf. strophe). Arsis: the unaccented part of a foot (§ 358). Basis : a single foot preceding the regular

Ceesura: the ending of a word within a metrical foot (§ 358. b). Catatexisi loss of a final syllable (or syllables) making the series (

cataUctic (incomplete, § 3S9. a). Contraetiom the use of one lOng syllable for two short (§ 357). CorreptioK! shortening of a long syllable, for metrical reasons. Dueresis: the coincidence of the end of a foot with the end of a

C§ 358- •■)■

\ Dialysis: the tise of I (consonant) and v as vowels (siliia^silva; I g 347. d. Rem.).

.' the lengthening of a short ajWaiAc \>'3 em^\a^'ei ^^ Vfl- J^-

432

Glossary.

1 -m before a word

Dimeien consisting of two like Dipodyi consisting of two Iil:e feet. Distich: a system or series of two verses. Ecthlipsisi the suppression of a final syllable

beginning witii a vowel (§ 359. d'). Elision : tlie cutting olF of a final before a following initial vowd

(§ 3S9- <:')■ m

Heptameteri consisting of seven feet. ^H

Hexameter: consisting of six measures. ^H

Hexapody: consisting of six feet. .^1

Hiatus: thenieetingoftwovowelswithoutcontractionorelision(g359.*). Ictus: the metrical accent (g 358. a). Irratiotialz not conforming strictly to the unit of time (§ 356. note).

axdie: varying in rbytbm, making the effect resemble prose {§ 369). Monomtten consisting of a single measure. Mora: the unit of time = one short syllable (§ 355. a). Pentameter, consisting of five measures. Penlapody : consbting of five feet. Pentbemimeris : consisting of five Aa^'^erf.

Protraction : extension of a syllable beyond its normal length (g 3SS- Resolution: the use of two short syHables for one long (§ 3S7l- Strophe: a series of verses making a recognized metrical whole (j/oMsa),

which may be indefinitely repeated. SyHoresis: 1 (vowel) and « becoming consonants before a vowel. Synalaphu : the same as elision (§ 359. c. Rem.). Synapkeia: elision between two verses (§ 359. e. Rem.). Synisesis: the combining of two vowels in one syllable (§ 347, e). Syncope: loss of a short vowel. Systole: shortening of a syllable regularly long. Tetrameter : consisting of four measures. Tetrapody: consisting of four feet. Tetrastich: a system of four verses. Thesis: the accented part of a foot (§ 358). Trimeter: consisting of three Trifiody: consisting of three feet. Tristich : a system of three verses

IW

^

APPENDIX

Latin was originally the language of the plain of Latimn, lying I south of the Tiber, the first territory occupied and governed by tha I Romans. This language, and, together with it, Greek, Sanskrit, Zeitd-fl (Old Persian), the Sclavonic and Teutonic families, and the Celtic, araJ shown by comparative philology to be offshoots of a common stock, I a language once spoken by a people somewhere in the interior of Asia, M whence the different branches, by successive migrations, passed Europe and Southern Asia.

This Parent Speech is called the Indo-European, and the languages I descended from it are known collectively as the Indo-European Family. ' By an extended comparison of the corresponding roots, stems, forms, as (hey appear in the different languages of the family, the I ori^nal Indo-European root, stem, or form can in very many cases determined. A few of these forms are given in the grammar for ci parison (see, especially, p. 83]. Others are here added for fiirthet | illustration: —

1. Case Forms (Stem yak, Tfoue).

ImcEim.

SANSKurr.

Crssk.

u™.

Sing. Ndhi.

■viksl

viks

S^

Gen.,

vaki»

vichSs

M,

vocis

Dat.

vakii

v5ch6

irl

Ace.

vikam

vicham

Swa

vocem

Abl.

vakat

vich&i

(gen.o

dat.)

v5eo(d)

Loc.

vaki

vichi

(dat.)

(dat.)

Inilr.

vakS

(dal.)

(abl.)

Plub. Norn.

vSkas

v^chas

fcf«

Gen.

vakim

vSchIm

iw£y

Dat.

vaUbhynms

vagbhyds

i^i

v5cibQS

Ace.

vakams

vSchSs

Km

Abl.

vSkbhyams

(as dat.)

(gen.o

dal.)

vocibus

Loc.

vaksvas

vEkEd

(dat.)

(dat.)

Tnstt.

vakbhia

vSgbhfa

(dat.)

(abl.)

1 To avoid

unsellled ques

ons of Comparati

e Grammar, the

stem-vowel ti

here given aa

a, IhouEh .he

vowel undoubledi

had app

raachcd o before tha

(nu ^WRV w^aaix.

1

Appendix.

^H

■

2. Cardinal Numbers.

^H

iZr

[;"]"

^H

2 dva

3 tci

dva

duo ^^M

4 kvatval

chatur

T^op.,

qualtuoi ^^^H

5 kvankva

panchan

TflT.

^^H

6 ?

shasb

•-{

7 septip

saptan

iwri

septem ^^H

3 aktam

Bshlun

hrrA

^M

io d=kra

dasan

Si^a

decern ^^H

12 dvadckm

USlK

^^^1

13 tridekm

Irayo-dasan

Tp.O*

liSfHa

^^H

20 dvideknta

vinsati

fhoat

^^1

30 ttideknlB

ttinsati

ICO kntom

5a.am

iKa.T6r

^m

3-

Familiar an

D HOUSEHI

DLD Words. ^|

INDO-EUE.

Sanskwt.

GsaEK.

^^^M

/art^r.

palat-

[■iui-

waH?

^^1

Molhir.

matat-

matri-

p.'fymp

FalAfr-in-laiB.

svakuia-

^vagura-

ix-vit

soccc ^^^1

. snnsha-

Bnusha-

Wj

Brathtr.

bhratar-

bhrilri-

fpdrw'

^^^1

Sister.

EvaEar- (?)

svasar-

[ia,x^]

Eoror ^^H

MasUy.

pati-

r&Ti,

^H

muse.

ti^c.

domus ^^M

Sent.

Ead^is-

Sadas.

J!o,

•^^..jM

Field.

agra-

ajra.

iyji.

agcr "^^1

Ox, Cmu.

gau-

go-

fioui

H

Sheep iEwe).

s«

H

Swiiu (_Smv).

Sf.ai'

Vaie.

yuga-

yuga-

i^i'

iu^m _^H

Wason.

[SMta]

rola (^.^.tjfH

MiddU.

rnadhya-

medius ^

SweeL

svidu-

svSdu-

*K.

suivis

The emigrants

\¥ho peopled

the Italian

I peninsula

abo divided inlo

|» several branches,

and the language of each branch had

1 its own develop-

^^ ment, until all the rest were

crowded out by the

dominant Latin.

^^^ These dialects have left no literature, but

fragments

of some of them

^^^B^ C\aiismKD. .^^^^^^^^^Bi

Appendix.

I liave been preserved, in inscriptions, or as uited by Romaa a.iitlqi prians! and other fragments were probably incorporated in that ]>op- I ular or rustic dialect which formed the basis of the modern Italian. I The most important of these ancient languages of Italy were the . of Campania, and the Umbrian of the northern districts. D these should be added the Etruscan, which is of uncertain origin, ^ome of their forms, as compared with the Latin, may be seen in the jHowing : —

I

Umb

alteri (loc.) slttrci

daodedm

factnd fefacust

ibi

Imperatoi ■ Intel

magistio

mcdiui

_ [mlgiatui

L^ulCacG

tieque nep

per petum

quodrupedibus quattuor petora qui n que pomtis qui, quis

Umbr

pis

putrespe

inscriptions dating back a; and some Laws a

L

Fragments ot early Latin are preserved

the third century before the Christian era; ar attributed to a much earlier date, — 10 Romulus (B.C. 750), to Numa (B.C 700) ; and especially to the Decemvirs (Twelve Tables, B.C. 450) ; but in their present form no authentic dates can be assigned to them. Specimens of these are tisuaJly given in a supplement to the (See also Cic. De Legiius, especially ii. 8 ; lii. 3, 4.)

An instructive collection of them is gvea in " I >LaOn/'fc/F. D.Allen: Ginn & Co.

nt to the Lexicon. ^^^

436 Appendix.

Latin did not CTcist as a literary language until about B.C. 2so. The language wa.s then strongly influenced by the writings of llie Greeks, which were the chief objects of liteiary study and admiration. The most popular plays, those of Plautus and Terence, were simply translations fi-om the Greek, introdudag freely, however, the popular dialect and the slang of the Roman streets. As illustrations of life and manners they belong as much to Athens as to Rome. Thus the natural growth of a genuine Roman literature was very considerably checked. Orations, rhetorical works, letters, and histories, — dealing with practical ailairs and the passions of politics, — seem to be nearly all that sprang direct from the native soil. The Latin poets of the Empire were mostly court-poets, writing for a cultivated and luxurious class; satires and epistles alone keep the flavor of Roman manners, and exhibit the ^miliar features of Italian life.

In its use since the classic period, Latin is known chiefly as the language of the Civil Code, which gave the law to a large part of Europe ; as the language of historians, diplomatists, and philosophers during the Middle Ages, and in some countries to a much later period ; as the official langimge of the Church and Court of Rome, down to the present day ; as, until recently, the common language of scholars, so as still to be the ordinary channel of communication among many learned classes and societies ; and as the universal language of Science, especially of the descriptive sciences, so that many hundreds of Latin terms, or derivative forms, must be known familiarly to any one who would have a clear knowledge of the (acts of the natural world, or be able to recount them intelligibly to men of science. In some of these uses it may still be regarded as a living language ; while, conven- tionally, it retains its place as the foundation of a liberal education.

During the classical period of the language, Latin existed not only in its literary or urban form, but in local dialects, known by the col- lective name of lingua riistka, far simpler in their forms of inflection than the classic Latin. These dialects, it is probable, were the basis of modem Italbn, which has preserved many of the ancient words without aspirate or case-inflection: as, orto {hortus), genie {genient\. In the colonies longest occupied by the Romans, Latin, in its ruder and more popular form, came to be the language of the common people. Hence the modem bnguages called "Romance" or "Romanic''; vii., Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French, together with the Catalan of Northeastern Spain, the Provencal or Troubadour language of the Sbutii of France, the " RDUTnan" or Wallachian of the lower Danube i), and the "RouKiaustV ol same fivii.Ac'is. o'v^-^-Sj

■

P

Appendix.

1

A comparison

if words i

several of these tongues with Latin nQ^^|

serve to

illustrate that proce

ss of phone ti

dec.

o which referenoS^H

has been made in

the body

of this Grammar (§ 8

2), as well as ths'^H

degree i

n which the substanc

of the language has remained unchangedv^^H

Thus, in

the verb

ia bt the Romance languages have preserved fron^^H

the Latin the general tense-

ystem, logeth

er with botji the stems OI^^H

which the verb is

buiJt. Th

personal endings are

omewhat ahradedJ^H

but can

be traced

throughout. The following table shows the fortna^^

by MM ir

five of the Romance languages.

In the others, the ^H

alterations are mo

e marked.

■

Latin.

SPAHSH

PqI.TL'G1..B5H

PsOVENtAL. ^H

■am

so no

sjy

sQu

suis

■

cs

sei

eres

es

es

ses (e.1) ■

est

Eumui estis sunt,

Biamo

ir

hi

s5mos

s3i3

es (eO H Bern (em) ■ c>^ (cs) ■ sont (son) ■

«.m

er>

«a

era

£tais(tlsTA)era ^^k

wM

ell

e.T

erT

ilail

eta

eramiu

eravama

^ramo5

6ranio9

aions

eratn

eiitis

erais

ireis

erali

rrant

it3.no

eran

JraD

£laienl

eran

fax

fui

fui

fui

fus

fui

fuisti

tosti

fuiste

fSsle

fua

fust

fuit

(u

fue

IBi

fut

fo (fon)

Fiuioua

fuinmo

fuimos

fSmos

ran.es

fum

fuislis

fosle

fSslos

fQles

fotz

fuerunt

ffiroiiD

fueron

forao

futent

foren

.im

9ia

sea

seja

sois

sia

MS

tit

sia

sea

seja

aoit

si a

atis

siana

sejamoE

sejaiE

sejao

^oyel"

si am sian

fiiissem

foiai

fuMC

fSsse

fu3se

fi«

faissSs

fossi

fueses

ISsaea

fusses

foissct

fosse

fuese

ffissc

fill

foMB (fot)

his^maa

fossirao

fufseiD

« rasaemos

fussion

fwnem

fosle

fuescis

fQxieis

fussiei

foiWlI

tmaeni

fdssero

fuesen

(Bsfltni

luswii

\«v«^

I

438 Appendix.

PliJNCIPAL ROMAN WRITERS. Republican Writsbs.

T. Maecios Plautug, Comidiis

Q. Ennius, Annals, Satira, etc. (Fragmeiila)

M. Forcioa Calo, Ifusiandiy, Antigui/ies, etc.

M. Pacuvjns, Tragidiet (Fragments) .

P. Terentius Afer (Tkrence), Comedies

C. Lucilius, Satins (Fragmenls)

L. Attius (or Acclus), Tragedies (Fragments)

M. Terentins Veno, Httsbandry, AniiquUies, etc

M. Tullius Cicero, Oralions, Letters, Dialogues

C Julius Gesar, Commentaries .

T. Lucretius Carus, Poem " De Recuin Natura "

C Valerius Catullus, Miscellaneous Poems .

C. Salluatius Ctispus (Sallust), /histories .

Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Famous Commanders

Wki

E Alia

P. Veigilius Maro (Virgil), Eclogues, Georgia, JEneid Q. Horalius Flaccus (Horace), Satires, Odes, Epistles

Albius Tlbullus, Elegies

SextuB Propertius, Elegies

T. IJviua Patavinus (Liw), Roman History P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid), Metamorphoses, Fasti, e M. Valerius Maximos, Anecdotes, etc. . C. Velleius PatctculuB, Roman History Pomponiua Mela, Husbandry and Geography

^^ A. Feisii ^^^b L. Anns ^^H M. Ann?

Writers o

A. Peisiua Flaccus, Satires .

L. AnniBus Seneca, PkiUsapkical Letter!, e

M, Annreus Lucanua (LucAN), Historical

Q. Curtitts Rufus, History of Atexandir

" Secundus (PUNV\iValiii-ai HisWj.ete.

B.C.

154-184 139-169 134-149

I95-:S9 148-103 170-75 116-2S iofr-43 100-^(4 95-52 87-47

7CKi^

Appendix.

439

C Valerias Flaccos^ HeroU Poem " Argoiuuitica "

P. Papinins Statins, HeraU Poems " Thebais," etc.

C Silios Itaficns, Heroic Poem ** Pmuca" .

D. Joniiis Jnvenalis (Juvexal), Satires

L. Annxas Floras, Hisi4frual Abridgmeni .

M. Valerias Martialis (Mastial), Epigrams

M. Fabias Qnintilianas (QinNTOiAN), RhetorU .

C Cornelius Tacitns, AnnaJSj History^ etc .

C. Plinins Caecflins Secnndas (PuxY Jonior), Letters

C Suetonias TranqaOlos, The Twelve Casars

AppnleinSy Pkilosophical Writings^ ** Metamorphoses

A. Gellins, Miscellanies^ •* Noctes Atticae "

i»

-88

25-100

40-120

-120

43-104 40-118

60-118

61-115

70-

IIO-

about I So

Writers of Christiax Period.

t Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus (Tertlxlian), Apologist 160-240

t M. Minucius Felfac, Apologetic Dialogue about 250

t Firmianus Lactantius, Theology 250-325

D. Magnus- Ausonius, Miscellaneous Poems -380

Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History -395

Qaudius Qaudianus (Claudian), Poems, Panegyrics, etc. . -408

t Aurelius Prudentius Qemens, CiftrMA'aw /V^^/wj . . . . 348-410 t Aurelius Augustinus (St. Augustine), Confessions, Discourses, etc. 354-430

fHieronymus (St. Jerome), Homilies, Dialogue:, Epistles, etc. -420

Anicius Manlius Boethius, Philosophical Dialogue . . . 470-520

Maximianus, Elegies about 500

t Christian writers.

^^^V OF ^^M

H Is this indei Bre gLv™ all Ox limplt irrtgular vetbj that !he snidml wUI find in tU

^P rcadbg. Conipoundi are to be looked Tar under siinpk vrtlx. If Ihc ilmple vrcb it giicn

the simple verb a compound form » added (ws "statoC [cSiiBtltDO]"], t>>e cooipoundi

vaiy from Ihe simple veib, at may be seen under the pmtioular compound mentioned. If

aie appended lo (he .imple «ib (see e.f.BKt)' Full-face figuiei (Ihui, 91) dcngnUe the

_ moBunportani among senral references. Refeiencei ate Lo Mction*. unless '■ p." is used.

1 ab-do, 3, -didi. -dhuni , 130. N.

regular conips., see ad-igo ; for olheis,

■ ab-eo, see eo.

see cjigo, eircum-. per-, sat-ago.]

■ ab-nu5, 3, -QUI, -nuil.m (-nGlum) I-nu3].

Bio, IB./ N. 144. a.

■ abKileo, a, -evi (-ul), -ifum. 131.

Blbeo, a. -m. —, 166. i. ^^M

■ alM.lEsc5, 3. -evi, - [aboleo] .

Blbo,I,ng..l(A.a.l.i. ^^M

■ abs-ctmd5,3,-di(-didr),-diluni [candq.

aJesco, 3. -ui, — , 167. a. ^^H

^r HiH:eno, see aixesso.

algeq, a, ala, -, 181, 166. i. '^H

" aoddil (impera.) , 14S. 146. -;.

sl-IegS, 3. -^Ef. -swum [1^ - ^^

tto-ei6.4,reE. [-do].

al-licio, 3, -lexi, -lectum I-Iicio],

ac*ol5,3,-ut.-[«)lB].

al5, 3,aliu, altutn (aUtum), 133. i. 13B. e.

ac-eredo. see credo.

ambio. -ire, -ii (^n). -itum <aiDbIbalJ,

ae-cumbo. 3, -cubut, -ilum. 132. c.

141. e, 170. *.

^ acuo. 3, -ul, -utum. p. 86, 123. A

amiciS, 4, amiri (-cul), amictum, 133.

■ ai*5, see eo.

an.5, pp. 92, 95 r {} laa. f, 125, a. u5.

■ ad.lg5,3,-egi.-5cwmri.g51.

tt, (>-^, 137 (synopsis), p. 120, p. iii

1^ ad-lmo, 3, -etni, -emptum [emo] .

(amit, 9. e, 37$- ^- S'< amarat, 10. i.

smins. 113. 1 ; amarim, amasse, amis-

ad.*iu5,3.-nui,-iiQtum[-iiH.

sem. 128. a. i; amassis, 138. t. 5;

ad-oleo, 3, -evi (-ul), -ullum, 131.

amaliinis sum, amandus sum. lag, p.

ad^leaoD, 3, -eri. -ulram [adole5].

157. foot-n.).

ante^apio, 3, -cepi, -captum [c^«6]. ,^^

ad..3perf[5. 3, -spersi, -spersum [apargEJ] .

BDte-cella, 3. — . — [-oello]. ^^^1

ad^Jlo, i.-alifi,— . i3aN.

BDte-fero. Uke lero, 170. o. ^^H

ad.3utn.-eEse,-fi£,ii./3.».

aole-sto, I, -stetf, — , 130. N. ^^H

aequo, i, reg.. 166. 0. a.

Bnli-sta, I. -sleti. — , 130. N. ^^M

aestno, i, reg., 123. d, 166. a. 3.

aperio, 4, apenil. apenum, 133.

af.Sri, aflSlus, 144. c.

apiscor. -I, apms [ad-ipbcor] , 135. *■

af-fero. -ferre, attuli, allalum, 170. 4

af-fligo, 3, -a. -ctum IBigo] .

arceo, a, -iJ, — [co*rceb] , 131. K.

^. ag-gredior, -i. -gresaus, 135. i.

areesso (accetsS), 3. -iri, arcessilum.

^k agilo, I. teg., 167. *. N.

13a. rf.

■ l^osco. 3, -ovi, ggnlium, 13a. c.

Stdeo. a, itsl. aisiun, 131.

^L ago, 3. egf, aclum, 9. e, m. d. \%%. t.

■1

^^^^^P Index of Verbs. 441-^1

H*ro, I, reg., pp. 119, lao.

certum est (impers.), 146. c.

^B ■r-rigo. 3. -reii, -rectum [rego] ,

cieo (^5). dSre (^Ire). oivl, cihuOi

^^ aspicio, 3, -eii, -cctum [-spicio].

131 [ac-cio.e)i-do].

^V ■BSuiD, lale Ibrm of adsuin, 11. f. N.

cingo, 3, ciiua, cinctum, 132. a.

H aMoUS. 3, — . — polio] .

-cio,3eecie6.

^B Audeo, audeie, ausus, 136 (ausim, 128.

circmn-ago, 3, -egi, -actum [ago].

H rf,3; sodSs, 13. £).

ciicum-dD, -dire, -dedJ, -dilum, 13a. N,

■ ■udio, 4, audivi. auditum, pp. 104-a.

■ }} 122. c, 124. 0, 125. fl, 126. li, p. lao

circum-slo. I, -sleb (-slili), — , 130. N.

■ (conlrarted ibrais, 128. a. a).

elango. 3. clanll, -, 132. a.

B anfero, -ferre, abstuD, ablatuni, 170. a.

claudeo, a, — . — . see claudo (lioif).

^F augeo, 2, auid, auclum, 131.

Clauds [ia^). 3, — . -. 132-/ N-

^ avE{hftvE),ayae,aYEl5, 144./

claud5 (dose), 3, claust, clausum [ea*

ave5.2,-,— . 131. N.

diidS], 13a. a.

clepo, 3, clepa, cleptum, 13a. 0,

bene-dico, 3, -h, ■dicliun, 169, *.

clueo, 2, — , — , 13E. N.

bene-facio. 3, -fed, -faclum, 19. d. i.

co-emo, 3, -emi, -emplum, 13a. a.

bibo,3,bibI,bibinin., 13a,/

coepi, -isse, -plums, 143- «■

ballio, 4. reg., 166. d.

co-erce5,a,-m.-iwm[arceo].

c5-£no5CO, 3, -gnovt, -gnltum. 13a. t.

cad5.3,cecld!, caaum [oc-cldo], 138. 6.

togo, 3, co-egT, co^ctum, 10. d [ag5].

ir.o.2,isi4.i. las.*.

collieo, 3. -legi. -ledum. 132. i.

caeco. I, r^., 130.

col-loco, I, reg,, r7o, a.

caecutio,4,4vI.— . 133.

Colo, 3, eolui, cultum [ei-. ac. i&.],

caedo. 3, ceddt, caesum [oc-cldol , 10. a.

133. e.

IJ3. c. 1, 18S. b.

comburo, 3, -Bssi, -iistum [iir5].

cale-fecio, like &ci5, i6g. o.

com-roiniBcor, -i, -mentus, 135, k.

calefect5,i,-.-,i69.o.

como, 3, compH, coraptum. 13a. s.

caleo. 3, -d!. caUtSrus, 181, 167. a. N.

cal&co. 3. -ui, — , 181, 167. 0. N., 169. 0.

comperior, -M, compenoa, 135. k. N.

calle6.a,-ui.— ,181. N.

coni-pesoo, 3, -cui, — , 132. c.

<aneo,3,-iii,18lN., i66.i.

com-pleo, a. -«vi, -etura, 131,

cano,3, cecim.tcanmm [con-cinoj, 133. £.

coiQ-pango, 3, -nri. -nchro lpungo|.

oantUlo. I, r^., 167. d.

con-lino, 3, -ui, t-c«itum [cano].

capesso, 3, capessivIi-Itimi.lSB. ft. 167. c.

con-cupIscB, 3, -cupM, -cupltum, 167. a.

In^ipiss6,3,— .— .

con-culio, 3, -cusBi, -cussum, 132. a.

oapiD, 3, cEpJ. caplum [ac^:ipi5, e(c.;

condio, 4, reg., 166. d.

also anle-eapio], 125. *, la6. j, 132. r.

con-do, 3, -didi, -dimm, 13a n.

p.lOO(capia.p. B9,foot-n.3).

c5-nedo, 3, -nexui, -nexum, 11. / N.

■ qareo, 2, -ui, -ilCrus, 131. N.

con-fero. -ferre, -tulF. eol-latum, 170. a.

■ caip5, 3, -psl, -ptum [di-ccrpo], 124. i.

eon-fido, 3. -fed, -fecium. 17a a. M.

■ 13S.a.

eon-eteor, -eri, -fessus [faleor].

W caveo, 2, <avl. cautiun, 131.

con-grTi5.3.-iu,— [-^nio].

cavillor. iri, -atoa, 167. d.

cou-icio, 3, -iecT. -ieotum {iacio], ir. *. &

cedo (Imperalive), cedite (celle), 144.;^

co-nitor [nitor],ii./N.

ced5,3,ce3si,ii./i.c&™n.,u.fl.a,138.

co-myeB[-nlTe5].ii./N.

a;ac-ced5,.i./3.

con-stat, ^je, ^(urum, 146, 146. e.

-cello, 13a, c (only in comp,, see per-

con-sliluo, 3, -id, -stitutum [statuo].

cello, ei-call6, ante-celia, prae-cello).

con-slo, t, -«liff, -«tilum (-slatum), i3aW.

-cendS, 3,-cend!,-ceiisuDi (ooly in comp.,

e5n-su5-6ci3, like faciS, 169. a.

•sin-cendo). 133./

cEnseS, s, -ui. censom, 131.

laS.a.T.'i.VWC-'*--*** ^^^

■ eerao. 3. cretf, crelum, 13a. f.

\ con-t,u\o, \, -\\&,-«v&'airo.'i^^^^^^^^H

r

Index of Verbs.

P

■ripio. 3. -ripui, -reptuin [rapio] . OOP ruo. 3, -ui. — [raoj, 11./.3. credo, 3, didl, dltum [-do], crepo, i.-ui, -itum, 130.

Criminor, -£ri, -alus, 135. /

grod5,4,— , -, 133.

Cuba, I, •□!, oubllum, 130.

cucurlo, 4, — , — , 133.

oudo, 3, -oiidl, -cusum [in-ciido] , 13a. f.

-cumbB [cun], (see ac-cumbo), 13a. c

cupiu, 3. cufdvi, cu^atiun, 13S. d,p.it

-cupisco, 3, see con-cupisco.

ciUTO, 3. cucum,'cursmn [in-curro] , 133. *.

cuslodia, 4, reg., 166. d.

dSbcD, 1.

de-fetiacor, -1. -fessuB, 132.^ f de-hisc5, 3, -hivl, — [hi5eo| . deleclBt (impels.), 146. c.

3, 131.

I, -Ivl. -

■33-

ipsi, dEinplum. 13a. a.

depso, 3, -sui, -slum, 13a, i,

de-scendo, 3. -dl. -aum [scando],

de-silio, 4, -sflui, -aulium [salio],

de-sino, 3, -^vi, -silum [sipo] .

de-aipio, 3, — , — [sapio] .

dMisio, 3, -aiifl, *5iiium [siBlo],

de-spido, 3, -speii, -spectnm, 17a a.

de-spondeo, a. -dl, -sam fspondeo] .

de-slnio, 3, -struifi, -Mriiclum, 170. a.

desuin, -esse, -fill [sum].

de-vertor. A. -aus, 135. i.

dico, 3, dixl, diElum, 133. c. 1. 182. a. 169. ', p. 130. (dixli, ia&.i; die, laS.e).

diclilo, I. reg.i 167. i and N.

dif-fero, -ferre, dia-tull, di-lStum [feto].

dif-filcor, -eii. -fessua, 135. i.

dl-^osco, 3, -^ovl, — [nosco].

dl-ligo, 3. -lexl, -lectum, p. 103. fool-n. (di-leclus as adj., 113. «).

lil-iao, 3, -lui, -liJIum [luoj. iS-mico, I, reg., 130. N. " " " — ,-I1uni, II. a. 1 tha.'beS\.

11, 4ecluni [iacio]. dis-pando, 3. -di, -pinsum (-pessug

[pand5]. dis-sideo, a, -sSdl, -aEssum [aedeoj. I

i

»57-

1

' domo, I.-ui, -itum, 122. il, 13a duco, 3. dux!, ductum, 1S2. a, ^ (due, 138. t).

ebullio,4,— , — , 133. do, 3, edi, Eaum, tat, 133. r, p. S6, iH 138. 1, fl.

-do, 3, -didi, -AMara, put firth. 130. N. ef-fero, -ferre, emuli, elSlum. 170. o. egeo, a, -id, — ,131. N. o-icio, 3, -ied, -ledum. 170, a. N. [iacio]. E-ilcio, 3, -4U, -dtum, 133. a. e-mico, I, -micaii, -micatum, 130. N. e-mine5, a, -ui, — [-mlneo].

3, emi, emplum [ad-, eo-. dir-imol. 3. 112. «. emplurio, 4, — , ^. 167. e.

as (in pot-ens, aee sum), iig. a.

a. Ire, Ivi (ii}, Hum, laB. e. 1. 1«, 158. \.i; (Kbiit,elc., taS.', a; adiase. i. R.| ilum est. 141.0; ilur, impers., 14& if; adeo (adeoi), 141.0; ambir prodeo, -ire, -ii, -Ilum, 144. d).

soil, eicunC (see suni), 119. '.

St (see sum}; 'st (in homSst.etc),

-vido, 3, -visi, -vasum, isB. t. e^renlt (impers.), 14s, 146. c. "" 4, -il, -Jtum (-Hum) [-eiO]. 5. 3, -celiiu, -celsam, 13a, e. AQ.-i,-ii^\,-«!.5sum [claudl

I

^^^^^p Index of Vfrbs. 443^H

^F ex-erceo. a. -col, -citum [nrcEo] .

(praeGiur. affari, profSlus, inletfStn*

■ expUc6.i,(w.>M)..uI,-ilmn: (iajitoB).

etc.. 144.0.

■ ^vi, -awm, 130. N.

fore, forem, etc. (see sum). 119. *. K.J

■ ax-plodo, 3, -El, -sum [plaudo].

fore, 147. c. 2.

H ex-stiugao, 3, -sttnxi, -sdnctuin. 132. a.

fbveo, a, fovi, fStum, 131.

■ exsulo. I, reg.. 130, 166. a. 3.

baago [FRAG], 3, fregi, friclum [pen

■ exu5, 3. -uT, -Smni, 166. <:.

fringe], 133.*.

fremo, 3, fremui, fremilnm, 13a. c.

frendo. 3. frSsi. fressum, 13a. a.

167. <:.

frico, I. -m, friolum (fiiciilura), 130,

bcia,3.!£d, factum, 132. f , 14S, 170, a. N.

frigeo, 3, tin, — , 131.

{tc, laa. c; &xB. -im. 198. ^.3 : afficio,

fngo, 3, frud. frldum (frixum), 132. a.

_ H./3-. cBixfil, defil, infil. eifieri, inler-

trilinnio, 4,— ,— , 133.

L fiert, inleriiat. superfio, 14a. i ; eonfioio

fruor. -i. frSclus (IVuiluB), 135, i.

H aDd<ithE[Comp5.m-iicio, 142,0; bene-

fuam,-5s,elc. (seesumj.i.g.*.

■ &do etc.,i4a.i; consuefacio, 169, a;

ftigio, 3, fugl, iiigitum, 23, a, laj. i. a, la*

■ calefacio, id.; cale&cto. id.).

d.lS2.e.

■ -bclc, I (in compounds), 169. a.

rugo, 1. reg., 156. a, I,

■ fe116,3,tyell),&lsura, 13a.

fillcio, 4. fulsi. fullum. 133,

■ fercio, 3, &rai, fardum (-mm) , [re-fercio] ,

fulge5,2,-5r,-,131.e.d, 134.

\ 133-

fi.lgo,3.-.-.138./N..134.

■ bleor, -eri. fassus, [cSn-fifeor] . 135. *,

fulgurat (impere.), 146. a.

6.S«j5,3.-,-,I3»./N.

fmido [FUD] , 3. fudi, fusum, 13a. t. ,

faveo, a, fiW. ^mum, 131.

fungor, -I, f ijnetus, 133. A.

-fendB,3,-feQd>,-Gnsura, 13a./ (See de-

furo, 3. fond, — . 13a. c.

fendS.)

fiivimus. f5vlss« (see sum), 119. i.

L ferio, 4 (no perfett or supine). .33,

•

1 144.

gannio. 4, — , — , 133.

■ (ero, fetTE, lull, latum (fer, 128. c\ 23,

gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, 131, 136.

1 123. e, 158. I. a [af-, ttu-, too-, dif-.

gemo, 3, gemui. gemitum, 13a. ^.

et. in- of-, re-fero].

gero, 3. gessi, gestum, 13S. u, p. lao.

fcrocio, 4, -ivE, — , 133.

g«tio.4,-M,— ,133, i66.rf.

terveo, 2, ferbni, — , 131.

glgno [GF,N],3,genuI,Ei;nilum,9.rf,ia3,«(

fido, fidere, feus, 132. / N, 136 [con-

3. 132. 0.

fidol.

glisc5,3,— ,— . 13S./N.

figo, 3, fixi, fixum, 133. a.

glodo,4,-Iv,-._ ,33.

findo [fib] , 3, fidi, (issum, 123. c. 3. 124.

glSbo.3,_,-,,3a./N.

<:.N.,I88./.

giati3.4.reg., 133.

fingo [Fit;], 3, Bad, ITctuni, 132 a, I24.#.

gradior, -i, grcBsus [ag-gredior], 135. iL

grandinal (impers.), 146. a.

(inio, 4, -M, -Itom, p. 90, foot-n. 1,

-gruo, 3, see con-, In-gruo,

166 d.

fio, fiert, actus, 14a (see fecio), p, 119

habeo, 2. ^,-llnm [in-hlbeo; debe&{

(fiI,iniperE..i46.«).

dir-ibeo].

flecto, 3, flExi, ftemrn, 132, a.

haereo, 2, haesT, hacsum, 131,

fl«. 3, -evi, -etum, p. 86, ^3. / .26. i.

bauiio, 3, hausi, ban^tum (haus-), 133.

I81(flelis.i28.a,.),

havS. see avS.

Jigo, only in comp., see af^lliEo.

hlbemo, I, reg., i56. a. a.

flo, -ate, -avi, -alum, ia6, 0.

hEemS, I, reg,, 166. a. 3.

fl6re5.3,-ui,-,i3i.N.

hInni5,4.-.-.I33-

fluo, 3, fluid. fl5ium, 132. o, 166. c. V.

hirti5,4,— ,— , 133.

fcdio, 3, f5di, fossom, 13a. c.

hisco, 3, -, - tde-hi5c5\. 13.». f. S.

[forJ.fSii. G(U5, 126, a, 144. c. IsB. 1. t\\voneo, i.\iOTOi\.-,i-b,\.-A. ^H

J

H 444 Index of ^^^^H

H Ic5,3.M.Ictiim.i3a./

laedd, 3, laesl, laentm [il-ltdS], I3K.^^^|

^H ignoscD. 3. -novi, -nolum [nosco] .

lambo. 3, Iambi, lambilum, 13a./; ^^H

H il-Hdo, 3, -5si, Jlium [Uedo] .

laagueo, a, langui, — , 131, "^^H

^H hnbuo, 3, -ul, -ulum (cf. acuo).

lav5,-ere,lSvI.lolum (laulum) (akoT^^™

H im-mmeo, -ere. — , — [-mineo] .

of isl con].). 132- '. 134-

H impero, i.i^.. ii./a.

legB, ., 3, l£gi, iSclum [colligS. 10. d; see

H im^llo, 3, -pull, -pulaum [pell6].

also dellgo, ditigo, intellega, neglegoj.

^H im-peiro, i, leg. (-asserc, laS. f. 5}.

■31 ', 9. 0.

■ im-pingo, 3, -pegi, -laotum [pango].

ievo, I. -avi, ^tmn (-is»3, laS. *. 5).

^B itn-plica, i, -avi (-uI), 4luin (-ilum).

libel (lubef, 10. fl), -ere, -uit, 146. c. (lilH-

■ 13°. N.

tuniesl.[d.N.;libgns. id.).

■ in-cend5,3,-di.-5Ura..3*/

licet, ^re. -ilurum, 145. 146. c. (lidtuni

V incessa, 3, incEssTvi. — , ija. d.

est.I46.i:. N.: Ui^ns, id.).

W in-cidB,3.-ciiJi,.casuni [cttd5].

.Iicio.3[t.nlyiiicomp..seciil-lido.e-lid6.

■ incipio, 3, -eepi, -ceplum, 10. d. 143. 0.

pel-licio],.3a.a.

P in-CQl6,3,-colur.-[i:Dlo].

lingo. 3. linid. linctum, 133^ a.

■ in-cudo. 3, -cudi. -eusiun [cudo].

lina[u],3,le»I(U-*I),litiun,i3a.t . ,

In-curro, 3, -cum f-cucurri}, -ciirsum

linquo [uc] , 3, Eqm, -lictum, 13a. «. ^^J

[=urr5].

Uqueo, a, Kqui (Ucul),— , 131. ^H

induigeo, a, indulsl, tadulhini, 131.

liquor, -I, — , 135. i. ^^H

ioduo, 3. -ul, -utum, III. a, 166. c.

loquor. -i, locutus (loquutus), ISB. )k,.

ineplio, 4,-iri,— .133.

166. c. N.

in-fero, -ferrc. -luli. illalum, 17a a ; pro-

IBceo, a, ISxi, Juchmi. 131 {liicet, impers..

nunciation, 18. d.

14G. fl).

tn-R[, see Ho.

ludo, 3, luai, lusnin, 13a. a.

In-«ru5,3,-uT.-[.«ruo].

lugeo, 2, liixi, luduni. [31. ^^^_

fn-hibeo, a, -ui, -ilum, 131 [habeo].

lua, 3, lul, lultum [de-luo], 132./ ^^^1

inquam, 144. *.

Insanio, 4, reg., 166. rf.

maereo, a,— , — , 144. ^^^1

intelltso, 3, -lexi, -ledum, p. 103, fool-n.

mand5, 3, mandl, mansum, 132./. ^^

Inler-do, -dire, -dedi, -dalum, 13a k.

maneo, 2, micsl, mansum. [per^maneo] ,

inlereal, -esse, -fuit (impers.), 146. c.

... a. 2, lai. N. a, 188. d. 131.

inler-falur, 144. c [t lor] .

medeor, -eti, — , 135. i.

inler-nimpQ, 3, -rupi, -ruptum, 170. a.

men.ini(-t5,-t6le,-«ns),i43.«-

inter-slo, i, -steS, — , 130. N.

mereo or mereor, meteie or -rl, merita^ '

in-tueor, -eii, -tuitus [tueor]. in-vSdo, see vido.

135- .f- m^ metga.a, mersi, mersuro, 13a. a. ^^H maior, -in, mensum. 135. *. ^^

irbcor,-i,iritus,i3S.*.i67.fl:

meto, 3, messui, mcssuro, 13a. e. 1

iaoeo, a. -ul, -itiiras, 131.

metuo,3,-ui.-utuni. 166.*:.

lacio, 3, ied, lactum, 13S. t. 17a a. N.

mico, I, mioul, — , 130.

[c5n-ici5, etc.; dis-icio. porriciB].

-mineo, a, -ul. — [e-. iro-, pi5-mine6] .

hibe5,3,iussl,iuuuni,i3i(iiissD, 138.^.3}.

-miniscor, 4, -menlus, 135. k [com-, re-] .

ludico, r, r^. (4[!sit, laS. e. 5}.

rainuo, 3, -m, -iilum (ot acuo).

iungo, 3, iunn, iiinctum.

miror. miraiT, mirStus, 135.

iuvenescor. 3, -venul, — , 167. a.

misceo, a, -cui, mlaum {mfelum), 11. d.

iuv3 (ad-), I, iihri. liilum (-itums), 130.

ISl.

roisereor, -eri, mlserituB (misertus), 146.

labfcE6.3,— .— , i67.fl.

i.».

labo, l,-5vi.— , 130.

miseret.i46.A

lEbor, -I, JSpsus, 135. A.

mllesco, 3.— .— , 167. a.

lacesso. 3, lacessivi, lacesaUum, \Vl. d.

\m\«o,^,uoa,ttSs«HO,1«v*- 1.1st.*

i^.t.

^^^^^B Index of Verbs. 445 ^H

^^no15, 3, molnl, molilum, 13s. e.

odi, odisse, nurus (perosus). 143. h.

B moneo. 3, -ui, -ifum, laa. (, pp. 96-97,

■ \\ 133. 0, 124. a, las. b. 136. *. I. a. (,

of-fero, -ferre, obtull, oblitum. 170. a.

■ i6£l b, p. 130.

-oleo igtovi) [see ab-, ad-], 131.

^■-jBUTdeo, 3, momotdl, morsum. 121. N. a,

oleo [saiea). a. olui, — , 131.

■ ISl.

operio, 4, operui, operlum. 133.

■ morior, -i (-In), mortuus, (monlurus).

opoctei, -ere. -uil (impers.) , 146. c.

r I3S- ^■

op-pang6, 3, -pip, -pictum tpango].

moveo. 3, movi, motum, 131 (commSrat,

opperior, -iri, oppertus, 135. *.

138. 0. I).

ordior, -M, orsus, 135. A, 166. d. N.

muEio, 4, reg., 133.

orior (3d), -iti, orWs, (oriturus) (so

mulceo, a. mulsi. mulsum, 131.

comps.). 13S. ft, p. 86.

_ mulgeo, a, -si l-xi), mulsum (mulclum),

\ 131-

Hi mulli-plico, I, reg., 130. K.

ov*re, ovalus, 144. t.

[dciscor, A, pactus, 135. h.

■.Biutti5,4,-lvl,— , 133.

paenilet (impers.). -ere, -uil, 146. i

r

(-tarns, -lendus. 146. &. N.).

nandscor, -I. nactus (nanctus) , 135. *.

pando, 3, pandl, pansum (passum, 11. A

DBSCor, -!, nalus. 135. h.

3).[diS-].I33./

necesae esl (impers.). 146. c.

pango [PAG], 3. pSgi (pepigi). pSdiun.

neco, I, -Qi, neMum, [e-neco]. 130.

[im-pinEo; op-pango]. 13Z. 6, 33. a.

nectS [NEC], 3, nexi (nexui), nexum,

parco, 3, peperci (parsi), parsum. 13a. J

133.0.

(parcilur. impers.. 146. rf).

negli^o, 3. neElexi, -ledum, p. 103, fool-

pareo, a, -ui, pariliirus, 131,

pario, 3, peperi, parlum (paritunu).

oeS. 3, -Evi. -etum. ia6. *, 181.

[com-, re-perio] , 13a, b.

nequeo, -Ire, nequiOis, 144. g (nequitur,

parlio. 4. reg.. but see next word.

etc, id. N).

partior, partTri, partitus, 135.

□lugit (impers.), nlnxit, 146. a.

panurio, 4, -ivi. — , 167. t.

>.!lor..I,i.Bas {nl»ua) [c5-nilor]. 135. *.

pasco, 3, pavi, pastum, 13a. c.

niveo, a, niri {niid), 131.

pateo.a, palui.— , 13.. N.

no, I. nari, — , laS. a, p. 157. foot-n.

paiior, -i, passus [per-petiorl II. a. at

n5sc5 [GNO], 3, novi. notum [Sg-, co-,

13S. ft.

di., Ig-nosco] 132. s, 143. f. N. (nasse.

paveS, a. pivi, — . 131,

laS. fl. I).

peelo, 3, pea (pesui). p&ram. 133. a.

nubo, 3, nupBi, niiptum, 133. 0.

pel-licio, 3, -led, -ledum [-licao].

nSaeio. lale form of niintio. la. a.

pello, 3. pepulf. pulsum [ira-pello. re-

nuntio, i. reg.. la. a.

pello] , 10. a. p. Si5. 133. b. i, 132. b.

-nuo, 3, -nul, nullum [ab-, ad-nuo] , 133./

pendeo, a, pependi, pensum, 131.

pendo, 3, pependi, pensum, 13a. i.

per-ago, 3, -egi, -Sctum, 170. a. N.

obs-olesco. 3. ^vi, -«nis (adj.) [-oleo] ,

per-cell5, 3, -culi, -culsum. 133. c.

oMngil (impers.), 146. c.

per-cio, see -do.

ob-tineo. 3, -m,-lenlum [teneo].

pet-fringD, 3. -fregi, -friictum [pango].

ob-tundo, 3, ^di, ^Qsum (tQnsum)

petg5, 3. (11. *), perrEri, perrectum.

[lundo].

132. a.

ob-venio, 4, -veni, -venlum, 170. a.

per-ie6o,3,-leg.-.-le<:tum[leE5].

ob-venit (impers.), (46. ■:.

per-roaneo. a, -mansTi-manaum [maneo].

oe-dd3, 3, *idi, -cSaura [cado] , ii. / 3.

per-osus [odj] , 143. h.

oo*Id3, 3, *.-di-. ^esum [caedo] .

per-petior, -I. -pessus, 135. h.

OCCnlD. occului. occullum, 13a. c.

per-terre3, a, -uI, -itum, 170. c. S.

oc-cuRo, 3, -ounf (-cucurri), -cursum,

pessum-d5. -daie,.dEi^,-dttp~ Tg»i!!i»

■ t'-/-3-

\l>cti&^,^,-,-.v«n-<.- ^|B|^^_

446 Index of Verbs. ^^^^^^H

pelo, 3, pefivi, pEBlu.i), IBB. A, 124./

pio-videS, a. •WdT, -visam, [66. c. ^^^^^k

135. b. ». 3, ISB. d.

piibesco, 3, pubui. 166. i. N. ^^H

piget (impG.s.),-ere,piem., .46. * (pigi-

pndel (impers.), pudere, 146. * (pndenddCFn

fum est, id, N).

id.N.),puduitorpuditumesi. ~ '

pingB [FIG], 3, pinil, pictam, 188. «, p.

pugno, I, Kg.

pugnatur (impets.), -ari, -alum. 146,

pinso, 3, -ai, pna- (pinatum, ptstoin), 13a./

T46. d.

pio, .. reff.. 166. a. 2.

pungo [puG],3,pupu^-,punctum [com-],

placeo, a. -1^, -Slum (placer, impers., 146.

132. K p. lao.

0.

pSnio, 4, 4vr, -Hum, 166. a. i. N.

plango, 3. planrf, planMum. 13a. a.

pkudo, 3. Plausi. plausum [ex-pl6d5,

qiiaero,3,quaeByr.quaesrium [re-quito],

elc; ap-plttudo], 13a. a.

13a. d {c£ qoaeso).

pleclo, 3, plexl (-xui), plexum, 123, *. 1.

quaeso, -ere, 144. rf {cE quaero).

182. a. p. S6.

quasso, !, reg,, 167. i.

^lector, -1, -plexus. 135. *.

qualio, 3, — , quassum [eoo-euliS]. 133.*

■ple5, a, -plevi, -pletum (only in comps.,

queo, quire, quivi, quiius, 144.^. (qnibj^^—

» as com-p1e5). 131.

etc,ueque5,id.N.). j^H

plico. I, -plicul, -piiciium, 130. N. [com-

queror, -1, questus. 135. h. ^^^H

pounds]. 130.

quiEsco, 3. quievf, quiStum, 133. c. ^^H

pluit. 3, pluit (pliivit), p. 85, IM. 0 (plu-

unt, id. K.).

rabo, 3, -, -, .32./ N.

pono [Pos], 3, posul, positum, 131. c.

rido, 3, rSd, raaum. 13a. a.

porr-icio, 3, no pert, -rectum [iado],

rapio, 3, rapi^, raptum, 132, c (erepse-

17a*.

mus, laB. *) [cor-ripio].

poscfl, 3, poposci (posciliinis) , 132. b (50

raucio, 4. rausi, ramum, 133.

comps.j.

re-ci[u6, 3, -cepi, ceplum [capio] (re-

possideo, 2, sedi, sessum [sedeo] ,

ceps5, laB. (. 3).

posBum, posse, polul. — , 137.

re-cmd5, 3,-si,-sum, 170.*.

po(-ens, 119. 0 (see sum).

red-dS. 3. reddidi. redditnm [do].

potior, -iri, pofitua.

re-fcrdo, 4. -fetst, -fcrtum [fareioj.

poto, (, ivi, potoro, 130.

reJerS, -fcrre, rettuH (retuS), re-lStara

praebeo [ii. i. i], 3,-uI,-itum.

[fcrii].

prae-cello. 3, no petf., no sup. [-cello] .

re-fert, *rre, -flilit (Impera.). 146. c.

prae-falur, 144. c.

re-fici5,3, -fed, -tectum, 170. b.

prae-Iiga, 3, legt, lectum peEo].

rego.3,teii, 04. N., rectum [ar-iigo, etc. :

prae-sHns. 119. a (see sum).

pJrgo, EurgcG,lSB. «,p.iacL

praestat (impers.), 146. c.

re-linquo, 3. Hqul, -licwm [Unquo].

prae-smn, .esse, -ful, 137, 347. *.

rerainiscor.-I,-, 135.*: ,

prandeo, 2, prandi, piSnsum, 131.

reor, tetf, ratus, ia6. *. 13B. *, 166. ijl^j

prehendo (prendo), 3, -dl, prehensuiu.

le-pello, 3, reppull, repuUum (peU^.J^^I

n'^-f-

repetlo, 4, repperf, reperlum, 133. ^HH

premo, 3, ptesst. 11./ i.press- [re-primo] ,

,e-pUc5. 1, r^.. 130. N. TH

133.0.

repo, 13a. a. repai. leptnm, 13a. a.

ptendo, see prehendo.

pr5d-e6,4.-ii,-itum. 144. ■'.

re-quiio. 3, -sM. -atum [quaeio] .

pto-tilus, 144. c

re-sipisco, 3, -siptvi (-aipui). - [wplo].

pro-ficio, 3, -fed, -fcclura.

pro-ficiscor. -i, profeclus, 13B. h, 167. 0. N.

restat (impers.). 146. c. .^^H

pro-fiteor, -eti, -fessus.

resto, I, .Slid. — , 130. N. ^^H

_ pro-mineo, ^re, — , — [-mineoj.

reverter, -i, reversus. 135, k (B. H,},c^^H

^^^orSiDO, 3, -mpsi, -mplum. tga. a. \6aeo.a,flfi,«SQin,VKi.,^2£_J^^^H

3, sarpsi, sarptai

4.-M(-m), - sal-^0, 3, like ago. satis-do, -daie, -dedi, -daium, 13a. I acabo, 3, scabJ, — , 133. e. scalpo. 3, scalpEi, Ecalplum, 132. a.

. 133-

-, 134-

||.*caDdo, 3, scand!, I '3a-/

f Kan' (-sdsne), 13. e, Edndo [sciii] , 3, scii N.,l!8./.

.(*C]

laS. d). rascS, 3. 5<nvi. scitum, 188. e. 167. a.

~ scrlptum,ii./a.l33.« L aculpOf 3, sculpsi, aculpliun, \^ a. 3, 3, -crevi, -cretum, 170. i. ., 'i^, secluoi (a)sa secaturus) , 130. 3, sedf, seESum [dis-, pos-sideo, super-aedeo] , 131. s, ilg. a (la piaesena, abseos). '~ 4, aeiisf. seDSum, 132. 4, sepellvT, SEpultum, 133. «quor, J, aeciitus (aequutus), 135, A. aero, 3, semi, soitum, enfviini, 132. c, sero, 3, scTi, satuin, Jaw. taS. c, 13B. e. aerpo, 3, scip^, serplum, 133. a. aervio, 4, -ivi, -Itum, 166. a. i. n. aerro, i, -IvI, -ilum, 166. a. 1. N. aido, 3, aldl (sedi), -aeaaum, 13a./ 6. aiem, sies, siet, ajent, 119. i (see aura), sileo, a, -ul, — , 131. N. initio. 4, -Irf, aingultum, 133.

llsto [: I fooi-

., 133. a

t. 18S.

p. 77._foo

sponde(i.3,spapondi,;panaum [re-], 13T. I 'sf, for est (in homost, etc.). 13. i.

slatuo, 3, -ui, -uitim [con-stituo] , 123. i< I

(, isa. <■,

. I3». '■

r(slerfi),- imulo, I, reg., 16S. a. a. linguo, 3, -BlinKi, -slinclum [only ii oomp., as ex-] , 13a. a, - ' - ■ 'i-). 180, p. 14.

foot-n. I, III

p. ISO, p. 157. fool-n. [bompoonds,

130. K.]. Bttepo, 3, strepui, atrepitum, 13a. ft strideo, a, stridi, — , 131. slTido, 3, stndi, — , 133./ 5lringo. 3, strinii, alriclum, 13a. a.

sludeo, 3, -ui, — , 131. N. suadE6, 3, aui^. suasum, 131.

sub-struo, 3, -struiti, -structum, 170. a.

-sueaco, 3, -luevi, -suEtnm, 13a. (.

auf-fero, ct lollo.

lugo. 3, aGid, sucfum (aflgeba, p, lao).

>uliia (=5i vullis), 13. c (seevolo),

mm, ease, 133. c; iiii. 119, laa N., 13S. t. a. p. 119, p. 110, p. lai, 15B. I. a (aiem, 1:19. i ; fote, 147. ft 3 ; eaci^ escunt, iig. b\ fcrem, iig. b. H.; fuam, iig. b\ fuvimua, luTOset, 119. *; ~ 119.11: homost, etc., 13. j).

iiimo, 3, sumpal, aiimpnini, 11. c, 13a. £,

auQ , 3. sui, ^5*TOO , WK wivR ,

I

448 Index of Verbs. ^^^^^H

super-flno, 3, — , — [fluo] .

turgcii, 2, lursi, — , 131. ^^^^^|

super-sedeS, Uke sedeS.

ti.sEi5,4.-.- .33. ^^m

super-sio, i,-sleG, — , 130, N.

super-sum, see sum (auperest, impers.,

ulciscor. -I. ultuB, 135. A. ^^^

Hfi. ().

iup-plico, I, wg., 130. N.

urgeo, a. ursl, — , 13..

uro, 3, US51, ustum {so compa.. cf. also

comburo). 132. a. ^^^^

l5beo,a,-uI.— , 166.*. H.

-i, usus, 135. A. ^^^M

taedel (Impers,), -ere, laeduit, pertaeaum

vacal (Impcrs.}, 146. c. J^^^

esl. 146. *.

vado, 3, viai. -vasura [S-] , 132. a. >4^^|

Iang5 [TAG],3,letigT.(aclum [con-tingo],

1=3,^.3, 18B.S.

veho.' 3^ v^-, tectum. ISB. a. p. 87.

lego, 3, lexi, teclum : laa. c. 123. *, 114. b.

foo(-n.

.36.^..,i3».'..PP.9B-99.

vcllo, 3, vein (™1m), vulsum, 13a./

lemno. 3, tempa, lemplum. 123. *. i.

ven-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 238. *. R.

138. a.

YEneo, 4, Avi. -Stum (*« i/>id}. 258. «. R.

tendo [TEN], 3, tetendi {-lendl}. 132. 6;

venio, 4. veni, ventum (come). 133. p. 86,

teasum (lenlum), 135. b. n. 1.

YBDmn-do, -dSre, -dcdi, -datum, 130. N,

leneo (-tineB) , a. lenui, tentum [ob-tiaeB] .

vereor, vereri, veritus, 135.

131.

«rE5.3.— — . '3a-/"-

tergeo, 2, lersl, lereom, 131.

verro, 3, verri, versuro, 133./

tei^, a, lersi, lersum, 13a. 0.

verto (Torto.io.i0,3,vcni.veraum,13a.

lero, 3, trivi. trituin, 13a. d (con-, 11.

f; mid., III. a, ia4. *.

/a).

veseor,-l.-..3S.i.

leno, 3, texul, lexWm, 13a. <;,

vesperasd. (impers.), 146. a. 167. a.

timeo, a. -ui, — , 131. N.

veto, i,-ui.-inim,.30.

tings (lingud), 3, i!nxl, linctum, .25. i.

video, a. vidl, visum. 13I.

N. J, 132. ..

videor.-eri,visus(«™j tvidelur. impen.

tinnio, 4. reg., 133.

•46. 0- ji^i

lollo, 3, sushili, sublahim [at-tollo] , 132.

vieo, — , -«IUm. 131. ^^^H

/N.

yigll5, 1, reg.. i6fi. a. 3. ^^H

londeo. 2, tolondi, lonsum, 131.

vin {- vlsne. see yolo). 13. c. ^^M

lono, I, -ui, -iium, 124. c, 180.

vind3, 4. vinri, vioctum, 122. .f, IBB. ^^^

torqueo, a, lorai, lortum, 131.

vineo [vie], 3, via, viclum, 133. *.

torreo, a, lorrui, losWm, 131.

viso [VID], 3. via. visum, 133. /, .67.

tralio. 3, Dajd. U^lum, 133. a (Oaxe.

128. *).

vivo. 3, vtxT. victuro, 13a. 0 (vixel, 123, *).

Iremo, 3, (remul, — , 132 c.

voco, I, -avi, ^tum. see p. 87. tool-n., p.

(ribuo, 3, tribnl, tributum, ct acuo.

157. foot-n. (voiarier, 128. e. 4).

truda. 3. triisi, triisum, 132, a.

volo, velle, voluT, 133. *. 12B. t. a (vuH

tueor, -erf, luitua (Hitus) , 135. * [in-lueor] .

ia3.i: sultis, 13.^; -rtn. I3.().

tumeS. a, — ,— , 166.*.

volv5, 3, volrt, volStum. 13a./ ^^H

lundo [tud], 3, tuludi, IQnsum (-[Gaum)

vomo. 3, vomuT, vomilum, 13a. e. ^^^1

voveo. a. vovi, voluu, 131. ^^^^|

^^^^^^^^^H^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^vl^^H

W INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. H

^M HoTE.— T)ia nmnsricn] cefcRDca aie 10 leclions, witfa a feir ««ptiiins in which the '^^H

m Keourk. AbL. =. nblitlve; ace -= accuullve; adj. = adjudve: adv. » adYCrb; apod. > ^^

Eend.-Ecndei; Eod-diK. >^bi<IIrect dlicounx: !»<:.'■ Incative: prep. .^ pcepoiiliDa ; hqIiJ.-

freedom, etc., id, (; w, opuB and ^^M

lilyafafinal,348.4.

llBiia, id. e. Source and material, ^^H

& or 0. Indo-Eur. vowel, p. 14s. foot-n.;

primary suffiit, 160. c. i.

stKre, etc., id. c; w. facere, id. d; ^H

a, charaderislic of decL I., 3a; ace of

w. nouns, id. /. Cause, 345 ; w. dl(r-

Gr. nouns Id. 63./: m nom. ending.

inia,eic.,id.a; causa, gfrStia, id. e.

deoL III, gend., 65. c, 67. rf.

Agent, 345. Comparison, 347 ; Oldnl-

ft, in dec!. I., 3a; slem-vowel of conj. I.,

Bno, sp6, etc., id. i; w. allua, id. d;

123, 133, ia5. a, i56. a; In subjunclivB,

w. advs., id. I. Manner, 348 ; aceom- ^_

ia6, A-rf; prepa. in -ft, adv. use of,

paniment, Id. a; means, id. e; w. ^H

a6i.rf.

dQufl, etc., 335. if; w. Qtor, fnior, ^^^|

ft (ab, aba), use, 153. i, ]S3, 260. i, 363 ;

etc, 249. Degree of difference. 350; ^^H

compounded wilh vte,, 170. a; with

qua . . . 88, 106. ^, 350. E. Quality. ^M

abL of agenl, 146; with place from

sji; price, 353; charge or penally.

which. 358; with names of towns, id.

320.*. Specification, 353. Place, 354:

a. H. I : expressing position, aSo. * ; in

w. verbs and frStuB, id. t. Abladve

conip., with dal., aag; with abl., 343.

absolute, 955 ; adverbial i;se, id. c; re-

*; with abL of gerund, 301,

placing subord. clauses, id. <i; supply-

Abilily, verbs of, conalr., 371; in apod..

ing place of pert ael, part.. 39a J. Abl.

308..:.

of lime, 356; of titne w. quam, a6i,

Abbreviations of pra^nomens, So. d;

N.3; of place from which, 258; names

other abbreviations, p. 438.

of towns, domus, rOs, id. a; ex

ABLATIVE, BfymirlBgy; meaning, 3t./;

iirbe BOm&, id. i. S. 3; Locative

in -ftbuB, 36,*; in-d,35./ ^o.g.6:..

abL, id. e,/; way by which, id.;; wdlh

■1,70.^: of l-slems, ded. III., 55. i;

transitive compounds, 239. i. K. 1;

rules of form, 57! tiouns having abl.

time within which, asg.e; distance of

in J. 57. 0, *; of dee!. IV., in -ubuB,

70, d; abU used 03 supine, 71. a; of

153, i, c. sfa-b^ ; with ex for part, gen..

«dja, decL 111.. 87.fl,i; prepositions

3i6.f; with pro (« difinct of). 3^6.

R.; with palum, etc, 36i.i; abL of

o^ 148. *, ct 3J. p.

gerund. 301; equi^r. 10 ptes. Dart., id.

ABLATIVE, ^m/ax (}} 343-355) ; mean-

fool-n, (See N., p. 245.

ing and classiGcation, 343 and N. ;

Abonnding, words of, w>

Separation. 343; w. vbs. of freedom,

EBT.., aa^.

ere. Id. a ; w. comp., id. i ; w. adjs. of

Abaeuce.Nbs.tA,-"-"

■

f

4S0

Index of Words and Subjects.

Absolute uso of vb, 175. i. N, a, 337. N.i absolute case, see e.bt. absolute.

Abstract nouna, gend.. ag. 2; in pi., 75. c\ endings, 163. i, i,/\ w. neut adj, 1EI7. (, 189. a, i; abstract qualltir de- noted by neut. adj,, 189, a.

abaum, conslr.. 231. a.

-&buB, in dat and abl. pi., decl. I., 36. e.

Ko, see atQue ; Be d, see Bed.

accSdlt ut, 33a.

Accent, rules of, 19: marks of. id. d. v.;

in decL Il.,40. i; in comps. of faclO,

143. i ; musical, 35S. acceptum, sga. n. x. Accidents, p. 163, fool-n. 2. aocldit. syncqrais, 145 : consfr, 33a. a. acoingO, constr., 335. A accommod&tuB, w. dat of E^mtid,

etc., 399, Ibot-n. Accompaniment, abL of. 348. a; orig.

separate case, p. 345. Accomplishment,vbs.of, w. snbjunc, 33a. AcctMATiVE, Efymotogy, 31, d\ in -m

and -a, 33. c; origin of-ni,p.20s; in

Jm. decl. III., 56. a. i; in -la (pl.),s8 ;

in -9., 63./; ace. of decL IV., used

supint

I4S.i/,cf. N..; fem. usedasa AcctraATIVE, ^alax, 237-40 (see notes pp. 20s, 335); V. verbs of rememberinE. aigando.i; and gen, w. vbs. of remind- ing, id. c; w.lraperaonals,a2I./,337. «; w. dat, 3z5;w. com pound] of ad. ante, Ob. 338. a; verbs varying between ace. of end of motion and dat., 925. b\ w. B4l, for dat., 334. h ; afier proplor, etc., id. t ; direct object. 177. 337 ; w. 1ut8, etc., 337. a ; ace or dat. w. vbs., 337. *, c\ aoe. w. verbs alfielaig and tasti. 337. *, c ; with comps. of cir- cum and tFftOS, id. d; aognate ace.,

pass, of verbs of taking, etc, 339. K. ; adverbial use of, 340. a, b \ syuecdocb- ical Bcc., id. c; in exclamations, id. d\ duration and extent, id. t. 356, 337 ;

domuB, rQs, id. b; &flinam ad urbem, id. N,3; ate. w. ante diem, 359.?; subject of int., 173.3,0;

330; w. prepositions. 15a. a.

or In to denote penalty, ^k

ad w. rSfert, etc., 333^ * ; w. prid proplna. etc., 361. a 1 ace. ofgeiu 300; of anticipation, 334. c\ snbjeci indirect discourse, 336. end ii. Accusing uid acquitting, vbs. of, coni

Acer, decl., S4. a; conip., 89. a.

'Ilceiis, adj., ending. 164.^.

aoiSe, decl., 74. d,

B<:(iul68CS, with abl,. 254. b.

RchI, with subjunc, 312.

Actions, camesof, 193; nounsof.w.p

e, loS. a

317. Active 1

Acts, nouns denoting, 163, e.

aeuB. gender, 69, a.

-acuB (-ttcua), adj. ending, 164, «.

ad. use, 152. a. 153; in eomp., 170. a

ace., 22B. a\ w. ace w, adjs., 234. i; endof motion, 358, cC 23^. J; iv.namet of towns. 358. j. N. 3; w, names ol

gilsm

1, 363. N. ; w. gerund.

decl, 63.,. addltur, conslr.. 331. ^^^b

ade3 (verb), conslr., 338. a. ^^H

adeS ut, 319. K. ^^^1

-adSa. patronymic ending, 164. t, ^^^H adlmis, constr., 331). ^^^1

Adjective phrase, 179. Adjective pronouns, see Pronouns. AdjbcTIVES, Efynohgy. Definition, 35. b\ formed like noitns, P.47J stems, id. foot-Q. I, Declension, 81-87; "J"!- ■■ and II., 81-83; decU III,, 84-87; detl. 111., three terminations, 84. a; one lermination, 85, Comparison, 89-91 ; decl. of comparative, 86, a ; advi. de- rived from adjs., 148; numeisl adjs., 94. 95 ; derivative adjs., 164. ABJEirrtvES. ^/ax and Kit. As advs.. 88. d (cf. 93). 14S. d, I. 191 : as nouns 8B. a, 188, 189, 318. d; masc. adjs.. 88. i; adjs. of com. gend., 88. i; nouns used as adjs.. 88. .;, 1B8, d; advs. used , e.^ ad^&., 1.88. t; participles used si e-. •N.aa.'i ails., *)V. Kpfieostw. <A *fi<^^s6,,

of neut. adj)., 1B9; two compara- s with qiiam, iga. Adja. w. ad- bial force, igij adj, pronouns, 195- . Gell,ofailjs.ofdecLin.inalead lom., 214. d, K. Adjs. w. pari, gen., ; w. dal., ^4; w. ace. 037. /; w. inf., 373. rf; w. supine In -11, 303. Po- ■ n of adjs., 344. a, i. Adjecdve se. 179. »diuvS, w. ace., axj. B. I odmodiim, use, 93. d, I admoueS, c

Index of Words and Subjects. atflnla, decl., 57, S;

I Admonishing, [ Adonii

■ otc e, 371. 3.

[■ adaperffC, conslr., 335. d.

ftdOlor, conslr, 337. *. Adverbial ace, 340; a, i, d. 338. a. V. Adverbial conjunctions, 33. i. N. Adverbial phrases, 148. N. #, 179. Adversative conjunctions. 154. a. -. adveratts, 13a. foot-o. ; w. act

155-^

\

■emiHor. constr^ 227. i. AeaSodeB, decl., 37, AeneSa, decL. 37,

aequ&lle, decl., 37. a; constr. w. gen., ai3. d.

aequS &c, 234. a. n. 2.

aequo (abl.), w. camp., 247. i,

osquor, decU 4^.

ftBr,decl..63./; U5B0fpl.,75.#.

I aee, decl., 67. ^ ; i^se ofpl., 75. J.

I aetKs, decl.,54.

[ aethSr. decl., 63./.

V Adverbs, defined, 25./; formed from

■ adjs.. 88. rfand N.,92, 148; ease-forms or phrases, p. 123. N.; comparison ol advs., gai numeral advs.. 96; correlar live advs. used as conjs.. 107, 208. d. Classilicationof advs., 149; correlative forms of advs. of place. 149. fool-n. Advs. used as adjs.. 18S. i; adjs. w. adverbial force, 191; adverbial ace, ; adverbial abl. abs., 233. c. Special uses, 150, iji. Syntax, saj-

advs., siS. a. 4; dal. w. advs.. 234. a ; comp. of adv. followed by quam, a^. ex Bffr. as protasis, 310. a. w,o(p.335.

Agent, dat. ■ perf, parts.,

Offer, decl, 3 aeEredlor, conslr Agnom

J, farms of, o

nonns, 19; 197; of r

id open, 2+, N,

5 of, 162 ; rel. clause eqnlv-

'f, '»• gerundives. 332; w. ^^H , id. a ; abl. of, 346 ; ageot ^^H \ means, id. bi animal B**^^!

>,.ilM,«,5.,. ^H

u of. Viith gerundive, 394. <'^^^|

li; fornis of, 182; ofnouiu, ^^^| ios„ 1S4; in predicate, i8Si "^^^

1. P- =9.

rophe,364.fl iding, 164. i. ;

1, 83. foot-n.

sllSnua, for ]

83. i, 190, 214. a. allqid (.quia), decl.. 105.1/; derivatlaii

and use, id. N. ; meaning, 20a. a, b. aliquot, indeclinable, use, 106. a. -fills, -&riB, adj. endings. 164. d, alius, decl.. B3 and foot-notes; gen., id.

^,c£9i4.ii; compounds, 83. j; alius

wlih abl, fi.o, uiBl, quam, 247. d. alius . . . alius, alter . . . alter, 203. Alphabet, p. I; vowels and diphthongs.

; table of vi

arly forms of letters,

w

^r 452 /tidex of Words and Subjects. ^^H

altar , . . alter, am.

altera eat rSa ut, 331, (oot-n.

Antithesis, 344. y^ ^^^|

anuB, gend., 69. a. ^^H

alteruter, decl., 83. b-, use. 303. a.

■Anus, adjs. in, 164. c. ^^^H

Although, hQw expressed, 313, 3*i e.

Aorist (- hist, perf.), 115. c. a, 379-^^H

alvoB (alvua), Bcnd., 39. a.

apase, 144-/. ^H

am-, see Bjnb-.

aparte, i|a. N.; !i6o. J. ^^^H

amb- (am-, an-), insf^parable preRi,

apertua. comp. of, 89. e. ^^^|

170. b; -am, adv. ending, 148. N. t.

aplB, decl..S9.

ambages, deel., 59.

Apodosis, defined, 304; inlroducedbycor-

ambO, decl., 94. h.

rel., id. i and N. 1 rosy be subord.. id. i ;

amens, decl., 87. a.

forms o(, 30s, 306 n.; potential subj..

ampllua, wiihouf quam, 147. c.

311. aandB.; subj. of modesty, id. * ;

verbs of necessity, etc, id. c ; complex

an-, see amb-.

an, anne, annOn, in double queaiions.

apod, iti Ind. Disc, 337.

■ an (In, on), primary suffii, i6a. ^.

^H AHOcrusis, 'i^t,. g.

183, 1S4. b\ w, locative, id. c; gen. as

W 374-1.

" A«apk«r<,.^f.

gen. used for app., 214./ so dal., 231,

anas, deol. 67. d.

b ; rel. clause equivalent to appositive,

anoepB, decl., 87. a.

AnchisSB, deol., 37.

f ; appositive instead of voc, a4I.<i;

AndromachS, decl., 37.

app. in connection with inf., 170. N. 2.

■ -aneua, adj. end[nE, 164-i'.

aptua ad, 234. b; aptus. w. dat ol

^H animal, decl,, 53.

gerund, etc., 299, foot-n.; aptua qui,

^1 Animals, gend. of names of, 29. 2, 30, id.

320./

^1 A ; regarded as means, 246. b. N.

apud, 152. a : use, 153 ; in quoting. ^8.

■ anlml (loc). w. adjs., 218. c. r.; w.

■ verbs, «3- '^.

aqu&lls, dec!., 57. a.

■ AnlS, decl., 67. i».

-ar. nom. ending, decl. III., 51. e, 53. r.

■ anoRliB, decl., 57. a.

57. n;p.3o, foot-n. 1; gend., 65. 1.67.0.

■ Answers, forms of, a.a.

-ar, -aria, nouns in. 67. *. ^^_

aat, primary auffiit, i6a .; ant-, ent-.

arbor (-Sa), decl.. 48. d. ^^^M

aroeS, constr.. 225. d. N. a. ^^H

ante, 159. u; uses, 153; compounded

Archilochian verse, 368. ^^^^H

arctus, gend., 39. a. ^^H

aaS, w. ace., id. 0; adverbial use of.

arous, gend., 69. a. ^^^H

a6i. d\ followed by quam, a62.

ftrdeS, w. BbL, 245. a. a. ^^H

ante diem, 359. e.

-&ria, suffix, 164. 1, a. ^^^^^

Anlecedenl, ils use wilh relative, 198, 200;

-aria, adj. ending, i^. d. ^^M

undefined, conslr., 310; see indefinile

■B.rlam. noun ending. 164. i. 3. ^^H

anlecedent.

-AriuB. ad), ending, 164. »; noun.f^^H

antecedS, constj., aaS. 0.

Arisiophanic verse, 371, a. ^^^^|

anteeO, consir., aaS. a.

Arrangement of words, 343-^46. ^^^^|

antegredlor, constr., aiB. a.

Arsis and thesis, 35S and foot-n. ^^^^|

Anlepenuit, 19. dtf.

Arts, names of. detd. I., 37, i. ^^H

antequam,3a7; in ind. disc.,335. B. u.

arCuB, decl., 70.1& ^^^1

as, primary suffix, 160. .. ^^H

k AiifiiacMus. 356. t.

\Jfia,ma=c.,V.<.tGt. nouns, 63./.^^^

^^L^AnricipalJon, ace. of, 334. c; become

H Iti^ex of U'imis and Subjects. 453 ^^^

H (end. of nouos in. 65. b: -Ss, -fitla,

bacoar, decl., 57. a.

^K 67. i', see &t- : adjs. in -as, 164. c.

Bacchiac vene, 374. i.

HKb, decL 67. rf; value of, 377; gen. of.

Bacaius, 356. d.

K asii.

-bam, lense-anding, p. rig.

■lAscIepiadic verse, 37". 5. 6,

HABking, vbs. of, w. two aoc.sqg.c; w.

294. d: clause, 331. d.

W abl., 339. <r. N. I; w. subjunc. clause,

Baae.p. i3,foot-n.3,3i.<-. N.

■ 331-

baale, decl., 64.

Aspliales, a. a. 3,

-asaere, in fuC perf.. laS. «.

Believing, verbs of, with daL, 227.

Assertions, direct, in Indie., in, a.

bom, locative use of, 25B. d.

bellum, decl.. 38.

belluB, comp., gt. d. 2,

&BBlH,Een. of value, 952. i.

Belonging, adjs. of, w. gen.. 234. d.

-ftBsS, -&Bsere, in fut. pert, laB. (. s-

aat. isG. *.

constr.. 227. t.

-aster, as noun ending, 164. i. 12.

Benefiting, verb5 of, conslr.. 227,

aetua, delect., 77. 3.

-ber, names of months in, decl.. 84. 3.

Asyndeton, 208. i, 346. c.

bi-color, decl., 87. d,/.

At, meaning near. 25B. c. n. i.

bi-corpor, 85, 6. N.

at. use, 156. *; atenlm, id.; at verS,

-bUlB. verbal adj.-ending in, 164. m.

203. *.

bipennla, decL, 87. t.

&t-, pattial stem-ending. 54. 3 ; decl.,59',

Birds, gend. of names of, 29. a.

Sl.i.

Birth or origin, nouns of, derivation. 164.

fiter, decl., 8a. c\ not compared, 89. N.

i: parts, of, with abl., 334. a.

AtMa, decl., 43.

-bO, tense-ending, pp. 119. lao.

Atlfta, decl., 63. e, 64.

bonua, decl., 90; w.dat. of gerund, etc.

atque (50), use, 136. a; after adJEi.

2gg. (oot^.

of likt-'ness, 334. a. v.; aflet allue.

bSa, decl.. 60. i. 6!.

m-d.

brl-, slems ending in, 51. *; adjs. in,

atdul, use, 156. i.

84. a.

atrSx, decl., 85. a.

-brum, Buffix, 163. d.

Attraclion of cose of relative, 199. a.

-ba, nouns in, 67. c.

Aflraclion. subjunctive of, 340, 342.

-bulOTQ, suffix, 163. d.

Attributive adjective defined, 1S6. a ;

-bundua, verbals in, 164. p: w. aec.

number, 186. d; takes gender of near-

237-/

est noun. .87. «.

barie, decl., 56. a.

-atua. adj. ending, 164./

Buying, verbs of, conslr., 252. d.

at vSrO, so3. e.

audacter, comp., 92,

0 for K, in early use and as abbreviation,

aula, decl.. 37.

6; forqu,7; gend.of nouns In -C, 65.

auTQUS, not compared, 91. d. N.

c; quanlily of final syllables ending in,

auaua as pres, part. 290. i.

348- to-

aut. use. Is6.e; 212. R,

oaedSa, decl., 59.

autom. use. 156. *, *: 345. *,

c»ei§a, decl.. 87. b.

Aulhority in Prosody, p. 394.

caelum, niih masc. pi., 78. 2 *.

Author w. apud, 95S. c. S. 2.

Caere, decl., 57. a.

aviB, decL, 57. i.

caeelua, comp., 91. d.

-Ax, verbal adj. ending, 164./; adjs. in,

Ciesura, 35B. *; masc. and fern, 36a. *.

With gen., 218. d.

R.; bucolic «esura. id.

Calendar, Roman, 37G.

1, AVA. as origin of verlJ-forms, 123. fool-

Ca\end&,^(i. a. .^^^^^^^^^^^^_

k

\ calT., dec\., 1-7. b. ^^^^^^^^^^H

^M 454 /rit^ex of Words and Subjects. ^^H

Ceasing, vbs. of, w. complem. inl^^^H

G6da, constr., 226. N. a. ^^H

■ canalla.decl..S7.*.

oeleber, decl., 84. a. ^^^1

H oante, decl. and slem, 47. c, 51. a.

osier, forms, 84. <i, ^^^|

■ CAP. root. 45. a.

CSIS, w. ace, 939. d. ^^H

■ Capacity, measures of. 3S3.

CeltlbSr, decl., 41. d. ^^H

^T Cftpltla, gen., with verbs of actusing.

csaaefl. constr., 331 and d. ^^H

certe, certO. use, 151. c\ In ansiS^^

caput, decl., 46.

CapyB, decL, 63. j-, 64.

cSte, Greek pL, 39. h.

CarbaBua, gend., 39. a ; plur.. 78. 2. *.

cStera, 82. d\ adverbial use. 240. i;

Cardinal numbers, 94., replaced by dis-

-UB, use, 193; -I, use, 203. 0.

Iribullves, 95 h, d.\ infleclion of id.

cou, use.3ia.

iM\ with ex., 116. c.

-OOU3, ad., ending. 164..?.

OftrS. oomp., CB.

Oiaructeristic. clause of, 320.

Cbaracleiistic, expr. by participle, 291

cirua, compared, 89.

Characteristic vowel, 32, 351. _^^H

Charge and penalty, gen, of, 22a. ^^^^|

Case-endinip. 31. 1. N.; final vowels in,

cbelys. decl., b^.g, 64. ^^1

33.^; table, 34.

Ckmtau!. 344. / and H. ^^H

Case-forms, words defect, in, 77.

Cases, defined, 31 ; position of modifyng case, 344. a. a; agreement in, 1S3; origin and meaning of, p. 205 ; case of

Chooair^, vba. of, w. 2 hcc„ 239, <>-^^^|

Chotiambic ver^e, 370, N, ^^^^^^| Ckariambus. 356. t. ^^^1

rel. pron., igB, 199. a; same case after

Qi and tl. Interchange of, 12. a. ^^^1

as before certain conjs., ao8. a. Con-

-clnlum, noun ending, 163./ ^^^^H

□iiuia.baTl. indecl. 67. a. ^^H

ais-aas; Dative, 224-236; Accusative,

-ciS, diminutive ending. 164. a. lU-^^H

s37-a40i Vocative, 241; Ablative, 243-

oip-, stems in. decL 111.. 45- a- ^j^^H

ass: time ai"l p'ace, 256-259; cases

c1tc&, circum. ctrciter, use, ipH^^

with pteps., 260, 258. foot-note.

153; as advs., 261. <;.

caasem, dec!.. 77. 5.

circa, after a noun, 263. N. ; w. gerund.

castruta, costra, 7B. c.

30Q.

Catalectic verse, 359. a.

oauaa. w. gen. 223. e. 245. c; w. gen. of

dat. w. such comps., ia8; ace., ^d^^

gerund. 318.

clroumdO, constr., aas- d. -^^1

Causal clauses, w, indie, or subj., quod,

Circumflex accent. 19. N. ^^fL

quia. {cf. N. 3), quoniam, 32.; w.

clroumlundB, consir.. 335. rf. ^^M

quBiiidS, id. N. 3; w. qui, 320.^; with

Circumstances of act, 355 and d, 5 : pal^

cum, id./; n6n qula.nOn quod.

ticiple implying, 39'.

etc.. in the denial of a reason, 321. R.;

Ola, oiterior, 91. a.

causal clause replaced by pan., 393 ; by

Cities, gend. of names of, 39, a and ».

abl. abs. 255. d. 2.

cltra, after its noun, 363. N. ^^_

Causal conjuQcIions. 154. 0, 3, 155. c.

cirla, -6a, decL, 51. a. -^^^k

particles, 321.

cl&d6a, decl., 59- ^H

Cause, abL ol, 245,

clam, constr., 361. i, ^HH

Cause, adverb of, 149. c.

Classes, names oi; gend. of, BE. d; «H» |

Caution and elfon, vbs. of, constr., 337. t.

in plu.. 76. 2.

oeive, in probibiiUms, 269. 0 ; nS omit-

Clauses, defined, kinds of, iSo; repluLi-.l

ted after, 331./ S.

by abl, aba.. 355, d; used as nouns.

OSVed, eonsfr,, 331.

i.\\. d: dependent, syntax of, 316-341

^^^Htatdilic. too and foot-n., 101. a aiv4\ \uc\.'. «>«&•««,■*.,,*., ««<.!.. ^jiug^

Index of Words and Subjfcts.

tempoial, 33>-338; sabstanttve, 33^ 339 incl. ; infinitive clauses, 330; sub- maotive clousf s of purpose, 331 ; of re- anll, 33a; indie, with QUOd, 333; in- direct questions, 334; Indirect dis- couise, 335-34a-

oiavla, decl., 57. b,

DllBnta (lem. form), 38. b\ 85. e.

Close syllables, 14. d.

ooeid, 143. a.

1.. 237- '

Cognomen, So. a.

Collective noun with pi, verb, 205. e,

ooluB, gend,, 69. a; ded.,78. i. a.

ipounded w. vbs.. 170.

Coral

13 of w.

comittum. CI comltor, constr., 927. Command, see Imperil

subj., a66. Commanding, vbs, o^ f-. 330- =

(of. 331. i).

., al8. d.

commUiiiB, w. aODUnllt&Fe, conslr., 23a. e. Comparative eonj unctions, 154

ia conditions, 313. Comparative suffii. Bg. fool-n

148. (/. Comparalivea, dccl., 86; ste

osillve

Btives, 193; comp. quam, id. ; abl. w. comp^ 347 j quam w. comp., id. a; compar. w, quam (ut), Quaia qui, 320. c, 33a, b.

Comparison, conjunctions of, ao8. a.

Compartson of adjs., E91 irregular, 90; detecllve,9i:w.ina^andm&xllu3, 89. d\ of ad vs., 9a; prepositions im- p'jinfi'. "I''' quam, 363.

Comparison, particles of, tamqi

Complementary infinil.

subject, id. N. ; pted, noun or ad]^

aher. id. c \ inf. partly subject, partly

complementary, ayo. b. Completed action, lenses or, 115;

formed, \^.f,g\ in the pass., 14

compleS, constr., a4B. c. R.. 223. Complex conditional sentences, 311. Complex sentence, 180. b. oomplQr69, oomplOiia, 36. b. compos, deck, 87. b, d Composition, all word-tdrmalion a

cess of) p. 140; comp. to express

tions of words, pp. 305. 335. Compound sentence, defined, iBo. Compound stems, imaginary, 1G4. r Compound suffixes, 160. b, 161. Compound verbs, 170; comps. of faclO,

I

r adji^

7-*;

\

;ompounds of preps., V d6, ex, aag; w. ace quantity of, 35+. c.

.f'^SH

Conailve present, 376. *; imperfect,

377. e. conofidS, constr.. 331 and c.

c (cf, 3r3. a. i) I particles of, yi; quamvlB, ut,BS,3i3. a; lloet, \A.b\ etsl, elc,id. c; Cum, id. d; quam- quam, id. i, g\ quftmvls, w. indie, id.^j vbs. of, w. Ut, 331. e; abl. abs, for concess. clause, 355. d. 3; conces- sion implied in part., 39a; qui con- cessive, 330. e. Concessive clauses, see Concession. Concessive conjunctions, 154. b. 3, 155, d, g\ foil, by adveisative, 156. b. N, ; particles, use of, 313. 1

Conclusion, see Apodosis. J

Concords, the four, 183. I

concoFs, dec!., 85. b, 87.11. I

Condemning, vbs. of, constr., sao. Conditional clauses, defined, iSo. d. Conditional cottjunclions, 154. b. i,

"55. '■ Conditional s \ 4ffie\o^tw

4S6

Index of Words and Subjects.

and apodosls, 304 : classificalioii, 305; Pres. and Past, nolhing implied. Future conditions, 3C7 ; fiit mote i id. B. (; fut, less vivid, id. *, i; perf. indie, in ftil. cond, id. c\ Conltaty to bet, 308 : indie, in cont. 10 ^1 condi- llan, id. j, cC c; General candician, 309 1 eondition disguised, 310 i as pa; etc., id. a\ as exhortation or co mand.id. ; protasis omitted, 311; Potr liaj Subjunc., id. a; Subjucc. of Mod- esty, id. b ; vbs. of neceaaily, etc., id. c eoniplex conditions, Id. i; Particles d Comparison (conclusion omitted] ,313 Concessive clauses, 3r3; Proviso,3i4 use of sisnd its comps.,315; eondl tional relative clauses, 316; tempoTal 33a, 327, i\ conditional sentences li ind. disc, 337.

Conditional Partictcs, 312.

oflntldS, conslr., 254 b. and N.

Conjugation, defined, 26. Conjugation of verbs, 123-147; bow distinguished, 139, a\ regular fbrms of, 125. c\ mixed forms, id. (f; parallel forms, 134 ; stem- vovielsof conjugations, 122-195: stems of the four conjugations, how modified, 116; paradigms of the four r^ular con- jugations, pp. 92-105.

Conjunelions, defined, 25. h ; classes of, 154; list ot iss; use of, 156; correla- tive use, id. h\ conjs. repeated, id. Syntax of conjs., 208; amitied.id.*; use together, id. e.

Conjunctive adverb. 25, h. H.

Conjunctive phrase, 154. H. a.

ConiancHvia rxedcs/iae, ^ii- 1.

Connectitig vowel (so-called), p. 87, foDl-n,

Conn

Consecutive clauses, defined, iSo. t; of

I', 319, 3'

3, 154.*. 4, 155.1.

Consf

cSnsequor uli, 332.

cOnsistere, w. abL, 244. c, foot-n.,

"54 *■ Consonants, classification, b; changes,

ii; omission, id. i; insertion, id. c;

Iransposilion.id. d. 124. a. N.*, tjissimi- latlon, XI. <; assimilation, M. f; v^o-

5 apparentlf ending ia

of adjs., B; case-forms, 87 j of verbs, 166. a. 3. Consonant suflixea (primary), 160. c. 3

ibL, 244. c cOiiBtitiiO, eonsir.. 331. rf. ConitrUctid ad shtsuM. See ^nttis. CBttslruclii fratgaoHS, 338. i. Constructions of cases, 213-263 (sc

under abl., etc.). cSnsiiert, use, 379. e. cCdsuI, decl., 49. cOnaularia, decl., 57. a. cSneulS, w, dat or ace.. Contention, words of, 1

w. abl,, 354. i \ w. pert

ContinSrl, w. abL, 344, e, foe oontlnslt at. 33X Continued action, tenses of, i Continuing, vbs. of, w. compl. Contrft, derivation, 14S. N. ^

a. 153, i8fl. e. a, 354. i; as

position , 063. K.

«

n prosody, 347. f ; of ayllnble^,

Copula, J;

3+1./ Copulative

176. a; poutic

ictions, 154. a. I

ao8 ; use of, aoB.

.,176 a.

Copulative verbs, 179. . decl, 67. 4. 77. 6.

corpus, decl., 49.

;latives, 106, 107; rendered

>. i; by tht.,.tAt, id. 1:-. sdvs. ol

■■■ "49- "

onjs..

V final

f Countries, namea of, gcnd,, sg. i and t as end of molion, and place trocr which, 058. N. 3. o I

Index of Words and Subjects.

\

Drater. decl., 63./: Crfber, decL, 89. c. crfidlbill, w. comparative. 247, i. crBdO. posilion of, 343. e.

toot. 356. rf; veirse,374.A or charge, gen. of, 330. -CFum. noun-ending, 163. d. X, decl., 77. 6. iiomlB. decl.. 56.0. cvdculmodi, Tos.i. N. cillSa, ctUua, 105./ cOiusmodl, 215. a. -culUiB. noun suffix, 163, d. -cuius, dim. ending, 1&4. a. Ouiii,quam (conj.),fD[m, 104./; mean- ing, is&f: cum , . . torn, 107. 136. A, x^.d't with clause for part., 290. f,

d; causa] or conces., 336; temporal,

chatige, 351 c; w. abL of gerund, 301. -comiiue, added to relatives, loj. aand

a. ; lempoial particles with, 33a. -CUudoa, verbal adj. ending, 164./. GU|^-. stem-ending, 45. a. CuplS, conslr., 331. i and N. Cflra, constr.. 331; cflra (imv.), use,

-CUB, nouns in. decL lV.,70.rf; -CUB, suf- fix, 159. N., 164. i. g. Customary action, 377. 309. i. cUBtSs, dccl., 67. d.

D changed 10 B, It. a, s; -d final denlly t, 13. e\ -d in abL, decl. I., /: decL U..v>.g; decl. HI., 63. decl. IV.. 70. H; mfid, ted, 98. i -fi in advs. originally .fid. 14B. -d as neul. proo. ending, p. 49. 9 ; loss o( -d, p. 345.

Dactjlio Terse,36o| hexntneti giac stanza, 363 ; other forms. 364.

-dam, adverbial ending, 146. ~

danmRa. indecl. ad]., 87./.

t>Bplme. decl., 37.

Daphala. decl., 63. 1, 64,

daps, defect., 77. 7 ; Increment of, jgoh.

Dales, haw expressed, 369. t, 376.

Dating, vbs. of, w. compl. inf., 371.

Dative defined, 31. 1;; in-fil.ded. I..3G. a; in-ft'bus, dccl. I., 36.^; in -Is for -Qa, decl. II.. 40. i; in -ubus, decl, IV., 70. d; in -1 (of UnuB. etc.), 83; as adv., p. 133. N. v. .Dativk, Syntax, 33:4-336. WHirecl ob-

ilves, 335: use of dOaO, etc, id. d\ in pass., 335. t; with intransillves, 336; Willi phrases, id. a; like gen., id. i\ with intransitives, verbs mean- ing/itv<»-, etc., 337; veriM having dat. or occ. 337. e\ with verbal nouns, id. d; with comps. of aatla, etc., id. e; with comps. of prep, ad, ante, etc., 338 ; with comps, of ab, d6, ex, 3391 poetic use, 339. c\ with pusslvs used Impersonally, 330. Of Possession. 331 ; with comps. of eeae, id. a; with nOmen eat, id. i. Of Agency, 333. Of Service, 333; with adjs. or adverbs, 334; with adjs. of Rlness, etc., 334, u ; wilhslmlUB.id.R. Ol Reference, 33s ; ethical dat, 336. With -words of con- tention (poetic), 348. t. Of End of Motion, 358. N. 1; w. InRn., 373. a; dat of gerund, 399. (Note on, p, biS.) Dafivia commadi tail iKCBKimadi, 335. N, IS* *, 153; In comp. w. vbs.. In comp. w. v1»., w, dal., 339; ip. *■ vbs., w. abL, 343. i; w, utead of part, gen., 3I& t; w. reminding, 319. f, N.; w. abl.

1

'^'Oyl. 55S- ': «7cJic. id

Index of Words and Sitbjefts.

Declension defined, 96: clmraclei »(. 33; general rules for, 33; len iions,34. Of Nouns, I, 35-37; II.,38- 43; IIIt«-67; 1V.,6B-7I; V.,72-74; decL IV. compared wilh III., 68. N. ; dccl, V. comp. wilh I., 74. t. Of Adjs., decL 1.-11, ei-83; decl. III., B+-B3; of comparatives, 86; of participles, E5. a,i.

Dccrcting, verbs ol, 331. d.

dftdl, as rtduplicated slem, 1 17. M. i quanlity of pcnuU, 351. *.

Defective nouns, 75; in number, 76; in case-forms, 77; of deoL IV,, 71, i; al decL V, 74. d.

Defective adjectives, 82. d, t^,/.

Defeclive comparison, 91.

Defective verbs, 143-144.

Defeclive verb-forms, no, 143, 144.

dSFendS, conslr., 2x7. b.

dSflciO, constr., 337. a.

Definite perfect, 113. c. i, 379; aeqi

0f,2i

DefiniU.

I-lBl: offigun

\

d6greD«r, 83. i, N., S7, a.

Degree, adverbs of, 149, i. Degrees of Comparison, 8g, Degree of difference, abl. of, 250; dis-

lance expressed by, 237. deiade, dSnique, in enumerations.

■St. d. deiectat, constr., asf. t. deieotd, w. ace., 027. i. dglector, w. abl., 934. i, Deiiberatlve subjunctive, 263; In indlr.

questions, 334. i; in indir. disc, 338. a. dSllcium, -la, -loe, 7S. a. i. Delivering, vbs. of, w, genilive, a^ d, DeiOB. decl, 43. dolphin, decl., 63. a, d. 67. b. -dem, adverbial ending, 14S. h, >i. Demanding, vbs. of, vr. gerundive, 394. d, Demonsltalive adverbs, as correlatives,

107 ; equivalent to demonslr. pron. vr.

prep., 307. tt. Position, 344. t, Demonstrativepronouns, loo-ioa; decl.,

loi ; of ist person, 102. a; of ad pers.,

id. c of 3d pers., id, i ; supply pli otpers. protis. of 3d. pers., 194. ibrniBlion, p. 65, foot-note.

'1

195; in relative clause, 901. i. ir n>

sition, 344. i. dSn&rluB, value of, 377, UenDminative verbs, 165, i65. Dependent clauses, subj. used in, 263. i. Dependent construct] cms, N., p. 237, Deponent verbs defined, iii. i; how

conjugated, taa. H,; paradigms, 135,

participles, id. o; fiit int, id. e; used

refleidvely, 135. t; in passive sense.

id. /; list of irreg. deponent verbs,

135, A; defeclive deponents. idL 1;

semi-deponents, 136. Depriving, conslr. vrilh verbs of, 243. a. Derivatioa of Words, 157-170. Derivadve forms of nouns, i6a, 163; ol

adja, 164: of verbs, 166, 167. Derivative verbs, defined, 165. Derivatives, quantity of, 354. -dea, nouns in, 164. *. Description, impeit used in, 113. f'i

scription implied in part., 392. Descriptive abJ., see abl. of quality. dSses, decl.. 87. i, Desiderative verbs (in -uriiS}. 167. t, Desire, adjs. of. <K. gen., aiB. fl. dSapfirB, constr., 337. i. deterior, comp. of, 91. d. Determinative compounds, 16S. i. Determining, vbs. of, constr., 321, A 1 deuB. decl., 40./ dexter, decl., 8a. i ; comp. 90. tli-scedia-.

dio, imperative, 138. c

diciCnlfl, defect., 77, 5,

dIcO, forms of, omitted, xA. e.

diets, w. comp, 347, i. _

imparison o^ B9, <v DIdB. decL, 63. h. 64.

dlcere, w. dat, of gerund, etc.

299. J

decl.. :

gender, 73; fbrm dtl,

degree of, 250.

ditflclllB. comparison, 89. b\

lacB I Clause, 320. / 195-.\V)meWt,\™\i

^H

Index of Worih and Subjects. 45^^|

Sg. f; Doani and adjeclives, 164. a\

■verbs. 167. rf.

duo. decL. 94. b, ^^H

flln-, slem-ending, 4B. *.

dCtpli, with verba of condecnning. 3ao,l^^^|

Duration, ace. of, 240. r. 256; abL SS^

li^, le. i, 347. *.

^H

Diptotes.77.3.

^us, participle in. See Gerundive. ^H

Direclcases, 31.^. K.

Duty, vbs. of, in apod., 308. c. ^^^k

Diiecl object. 177,337,

duz, decl., 46. ^H

Direct qacEtiDii, defined, p. aoi.

Direct quotation. 335 and H.

e. inserted in decl. 1I„ 43; abl. of neu-

Direct reflexive, 196. a. x. i.

ters in, 57. B. 3 ; final, quantity ol, 348.

Direction, 233. b.

S; i, stem-vowel, conj. II., 12a, 123. 0,

i die- (dl). inseparable prefix. 170. h.

126.*! 1, stem.vowel. conj. HI.. 122.

Disjunctive conjunctions. 155. a \ case of

.23. h. .26. L.

nouti after, ao8.

B as adv. ending. 148.0, e.

-e neuters in.deol. m.. 57.0, 65. e,67.n.

aiBalmlliB. conip.. 89. 4.

Distance, ace. or abl, 357. ».'. of time.

84. «■ "-. ss. 37. a. -^m

=39- A

6 shortened in future, p. 89, foot-n. 3. ,

Distributive numerals, 95; n^e, 95 £.

6 in stem of decl. v., 73.

Distributive pronouns, uoa. d. e.

S (prcjiosllion). See ex.

<lia, comp., ga.

-6.Gr.voc.,63.i; in gen. of decl. V..^

dives, dec!.. 85. a. 87. A

a; indat.,id.

divam (divSm). for deOrum. 40./

-S forae (oe), la. c, 16. N.3.

dO. vrilh Inf.. 273. s.

ea oauaft, 3.7. a.

-dO, adverbial ending, 148. N. ,.

.ebuB, 107. c.

-dO, nouns in.fiom SI. dlii-,48.i;Eend.,

6s-*;67-*-

Early foims of alphalict, 6-7; ofptusoilj^

doceO, eonstr., 339. c and d. N,

p. 413.

domi, locadve, 25S. d.

ebur. decl.,49.

domua. Bend. 69.0; ded., 70./; double

Bcoa (ecoum, etc.). loi. rf.

stem 0^70./! locative fomi,7o. ,?, p.

eciluis. decl.. 105. d\ menning, i.

40, fool-n.

Ecllilipsis, 359. d.

domum, 358. Id. a ; domS, id. h.

edlcS, eonstr.. 331. d. 2.

dSneC, 337; with subj., 328.

edC (ifl/), conj., 140.

dSnS, double conslr. of, 235. d.

Effecting, verbs of, with perf. paH., aji]

d08, decU 54- 2.

d \ with tlt-clauae, 333. k.

Double consonants, 3. o. iB. d.

efBctO ut, 333. '

Double questions, 211; answers to,

elHetl. 143. c.

3X2. j.

efflffi58,decl.,74.rf.

Doubting, vba. of, eonstr., 319. d.

Effort, verbs of, with perl part., 392, i;

Doublfid gender. 30. 0.

with clause of result, 331. *.

Dualforms,p.6o,foot-n.

eSfSiiS, decl., E5.

Dubitative suhj.. see Deliberative.

effflO, eonstr., 223, =43-/ ^

dubita an, 210. /R.; non dubltS

effo, decl., 9S. ^H

qjjn, 332.^, R.; nOn dubit6,w. inf,

el.diphthong,!! soundof.16.17.ft ^^H

id. N. 2.

\ dQc, imperative, I2B, c.

dum, derivation. 148. N. t, ; with present,

-eius.adj. ending, 164. c; in Prosoi^^H

276. §\ with past. id. N i wiUi clause for

^H

pretend peitpErtic.,290.*, if; W.aub-

eiuamodl, lot. f, 3<s. 1 ^M

juncllva of proviso, 314, 328 ; of time,

EllQCtTe.,dad.,'>.7. ^^M

1 527; 0/ purpose, 3 sB.

\^\^^^^^^^^^^v^.^^ ^^^^^m

46o

Indtx of Words mid Subjects.

^llB. ^nuB, adj.

ndings.

164. c. d.

Elision, 359. c.

Ellipsis, 177. c. N.

Elliplieal senlence

177. 1. ^

Cllum, etc, loi. d

-eUuB. diminutive

ending.

64.0.

eiuvlSa, decl,74.

d.

Empliasis, 344.

-6n. nouns in, 67.

i; -8n, nouns in, id.

in, M>. demonslrati

™, toi. d.

EncJitics, accent, 19, * ; qua

ntity,343. i;

cum,99.,f. ta|.

t,-te,-pte.

99./;-pBO.ioo.

.p.67.foot-n.j-que,

rd.

End oi motion, ac

of.ss8

w.vbs.lhal

Endings, signification of, 161-167; SI'S-

ings of verb, 117.3, jiS, See Personal

Endings, ond Terminaiions. English derivatives from Lai., spelling

of, is; Eng. words cognate with I.al.,

id. English method of pronuhclaljon, 17, eolm, use, 156. d\ position, 156. k,

345- *■ -6iiBliiiu3 (or -Seitaus], numeral adj.

ending, 94. N. -€iial9, gentile ending, 164. c. Enumeiation, prlmum , , , delnde,

15.. d. -Snua, adj. ending, 164. f. Ejivy, verbs of, w, daL, 227. e6, used w, supine in 'Um, 358. R.,

302, R, eO, used with quC. io5. c; w. compar..

350, R.; approaching abl, of cause,

=50. N. eO cOiiBillS Ut, 317. a. Epicene nom Epistolary tei BpltomS, dE epulum, pi, -ae, 78. 2. h. equester, decl., B4. a. er, primary mffiit, see as. er-, siem-ending, 4S. A, -er, nom. ending, decl. IT., 41-43; decl.

lll.,48. c,S3. *, 54.1; gend., 65. .1,67.

a, i; -er in adjs., 62, S4, a; comp. of

these, Sg. a. grgt, w. sec. afler adjs.. 934. <;■

,282.

er^B, use, 156. t\ w. gen., 333. », -erioi, -erd, as tense-ending. -emUB, adj, ending, 164. t. Bro-,noun stems in, decL II., 41; SrtS,

-6a, in nom. pL of Gr. nouns, .63, /; gend. of nouns in, 65. a.

-ea.-liUa (4tia); -Sa.-adis; •es,-€diB; -Sa, -6tlB; -Sb, -Stls, nouns in, 67. d.

-£b, nom, ending, 67. <i; Usi of nouns in, 51, fooi-n.; gend., 65. i; formalion, .63.1.

-Sa, gen. of Greek nouns in, decl. It., 43. a; gen. ending, decl. v., 74. a.

ease, conj,, 119; forms of, in other lan- guages, p. 83. note; compounds of, 130; case after, 176. i\ dal. of poss. w.,a3t: future part, w., 393. o, c; po- sition of forms of, 344. i,j.

eat, united with other words, 13. i; eat quI,33o.ii;eBt cuin,3aa. h.; estut, 33a. a. 3.

Esteeming, verbs of, constr.. 339. a.

-eater (-estrla), adj. ending, 164. t; a noun-ending. 164. i. 12.

et, use, 156. a; et . , . et, 156. A pealed or omitted, 208. i. i.

Ethical dative, 336.

313. c

I

Euphonic change, see Phonetic changev -sua, Greek names [n, 43; -eua (-6ua), ronymic ending, 164. i; adj. end-

E (S), 152. i; use, 153, ftfio. *. 244. «.

vr.. Instead of part, gen„ 916. c; ex- pressing position, 260. S; in vbs. w. dat.,a29; to express place from WhJch, 358; after its noun, 963. N.; w, abl. "t

-Sx (^i), nouns 10.(7. lUfl, w. dat, 327. a. Exchanging, vbs. o^ 35!!. Exclamation, form of.

m

Index of Words and Subjects. 46^^H

Exclamatory sentences, 171. e\ ace In,

■fer. compoundi of. 41 ; decL. Sa. I. ^H

S40.<(:i>om.in.a4i.f.

ler, lluperalive, taB. c. ^^^M

Exctainalory questions, asa. e.

ferS, conj.. 139; acceptuTQ (expft^^H

Existence, general expressions of, 320. a.

Biun) feire, 392. n. 3. ^^H

Bilei,delect„B7./3.

Festivals, plural names ot, 76. i. ^^H

Expecting, hoping, etc., vbs. ot w. inBn.

-flcUB, adjs. in, comparisoo of, 69. c. ^^^|

clause, 330./

fldSB, dec!.,7a. ^H

expeusum. 29a. n. a.

fldO (cOnfldfi), semi-deponenl. isA^^I

Explosives, see Mules.

with abl., 254. i. "^H

exslUO, exeultO, v. abl., 245. a. a.

fldUB. comp.. 91. d. ^^M

exepea, defect, 87./

fieri, coustr. vrilh abL, 344. d. ^H

eXBultO, w. abl.. 245. a. 2.

Fifth declension, 72-74. ^^U

Oiteri, use, gt. I.

OUa, decl.. 36. 1. ^H

exterior, gi. i.

fniuB, voc, 4a e. ^^H

eitremOB, form, p, 56, fool-n.

FilUng. words of, with abl., 248. c. a. W^M

Final Clauses, defined, iBn.e; constr.^^^^

317, 31S ; as subst. clauses, 331. 1^^^|

(aber, decL. 8a. c.

Final conjunctions. 154. >. 5, 155. i. W^M

(bc. imv., laB. c, 14=: use, 869. jf; fao

Final syllables, rules of quantity, ifi^^M

US, in prohibition, 269. a.

vowels, id. IS. ^H

faciSa, deoL. 74 A

flnla, decl., 57. t. ^^M

faciUs, comp., 89.*; eonstr., 303. R.

Finite verb, defined, 173. N.; subject olj,

facie, forms oi, omitted. ao6. t; w. nbl..

■73' ■■

344, d; accent of comp. of, ig. rf. i ;

fI5. conj,, 14a; in compounds, id. J; de-

raclS, w. names of authors, S92. r. N. ;

fective compounds o^ id. c; quantity

tocere ut, 333 and .;.

of i in, 347. a, 3.

Factiwtive ace, p. 135; verbs, 175.*. N.

First declension. 35-37.

-facts, in compounds, i6q. a.

First conjugation, prin. parts, 133.^; pres.

faenebrlB, decL, B4. a ».

stem, how formed, 123. a; formation,

faex,decl.,77.6.

fault. w.Bcc, 337.*.

verbs of, 130; verbs 0^ how foime^l^H

f»l8a8,comp.,9i.rf.

166.0. ^m

famSs, abl. of, 57. c, cf. p. 41, fool-n. i.

flHUB, as pies, part, 390. i. ^^M

fammarifl,decl.,S7.*-

fit Ut, 333- "■ ^M

f amlll&e. in pater famlllilB, etc., 36. i.

Fitness, sdjs. of. w. dat., 334. a, t. ^^M

far, decU, 67. «

fl&eltS, eonstr., 331. ^H

ffts. indecL, 77- IT w. supine in -Q, 303.

flocci, gen. of value, 23a. I. ^^M

faux, decl., S4- a. 77- S. 79- <^-

For. when expressed by prO, 336. K. ^^M

Favor, verbs of, w. dat., 327.

forftS.77.3>HB.N.f. ^M

fax. decl., 77. 6.

fore, 147. c, fore ut. 388./ 333. t. ^^M

Fearing, verbs of. w inf., S71; (a6, Ut).

foi^m, 119. R. ^H

331-/

forga. pi. only, 76. 3. ^H

febria,decL,56.*.S7.*.

Forgetting, vbs. of, 319; w. inf., aji. '^^^

f Fee!inB,noun30f,wilhgen.,ai7; imper-

forla (locative). 77. 3, i+B. N. P. 358. A^^H

L Eonal verbs of, 146. i, aai. i; aalml,

Formation of words, 157-170. ^^^H

■ with adjs.of, aiB.^. F.; gen. with verbs

Forms of the verb. 117. ff. ^^M

P of, 321 i anlml, w. vbs. of, 223. c, bcc.

tons. tone. 77. 3. ^H

' with,237.i; with quod-clause, 333. *.

f oraitan {tora alt an) , 148. n. « j ((OP- ^B

Feel In Prosody, 355-35?: N., p, 405.

(ol, decl„ 67, i.

Founh Conjugation, prin. parts, laa. c;

fSlIx, eorap., 89.

pres. stem, how formed, 133. a, laS. if;

Fem/nine, rule for gender, 39.

Tiataai\™i. -Q, Aai,\ ■*«■ * ""*»i "^"SS-

1 Aanur, decl., 78.1./ \ ncAa.Wi-h V^'i^t^^.'^S^i^^^^^H

H 462 Index of Words and Subjects. ^^^|

65; according to stems, fi6] of ooiuu.

■ Fractional eiipressiors, 97. d. 382.

decl. IV., 69J decl. v., 73: Syntax.

W Freedom, adjs. of. with abl., 243. d; «l)s.

■ oC 243- a-

1S4. b; of adjs.. 186; adjs. with nouns

of different genders, 187, ct 1B9. £; oi

French, derivations through, 15, foot-nale.

pbL, 199. b.

tretus, with ohl.. 254. b.

General conditions, defined, 304. d.\

Fricaiives.i".

coustr. of, 309; relatives in. 316. a.

■ frtlel, deTect. noun, 77. 51 as adj.. 87,

General truths after past tense (in

B /; eDmparison.tc: cou5tr..a33. o. N.

sequence of tenses), 387. d\ in pres.

H fruop, fungor. with abl., 249; w. ace.,

276; in general condition, 309. a.

W id.*;gEn.ndiv>.,296.R.

Genitive. Efymohgy. Definiiion.^i.j;

" fuglt, w. ace. 237. i.

terminations 0^32; plural iti-nm,33;

gen. in -U and -Ss, decl. T.,36.a,^;

I'ulncss, adjs, of, alB, a.

in-IforiI,decl.II..4o.*: in -I of prop.

rUnebriH, decl„ B4. a. N.

nounsofdecLI1I.,43.fl; gen.plut. in

fungor. see fruor.

-Qm (-Sm), for -Arum, 40. e\ -tun

rar, decl,, 54- '^

for-luiil,decllII.,59i -SB for -is. 63.

Future Conditions, 307; in ind, disc..

/i contracted in ded. IV.. 68. N.; gen.

337. a-

plur. in -um, 70. c; in -t or -S Ibr -ei.

Future Tense, use. 113. a, 1. 27B ; of in-

decl. v., 74. a; gen. plu. wanting, 77.

finitive pass., how formed, 147. c; Indic-

6; of adjs. ia -lua, 83: gen. plur. in

alive for iniper., 064. e. 269. /; of

-ium or -um. 87. c, d.

GiiNITlVE. Synl,ix. 213-^133: general

indirect questions. 334. a ; ful. ind. for

use, 213. Subjective gen., 214. Pos-

_ iniv..269./

sessive gen., id. o-rf; inappos-w.poss.

K Future Perfect, 115. a, i; use of, a8i;

pron., 197. i; compared w, dat., 331.

K.; gen. in predicate, 914. e, d\ gen.

■ tlons, 307. c.

of adj. for neul. nom., 314. R. ; gen. of

■ Future IniinitivG, bow formed, 110. d.;

substance or material. 314. t; for ap-

B eipressed with fore or futtlrum

positive, 314. /; gen. of quality, 915.

■ eese. 28B. /; (rarely) in contrary .a

Partitive, 2i5. Objective gen., 317 ;w.

■ (kcl conditions in ind. disc., 337, b. N.

adjectives, 3i8, 334. rf; »-, verbs of

\

memory,319; charge and penalty, aao;

~ Future Participle, use, 113. i, sijo, 293,

of feeling, aai ; w. impers, miseret,

3o3. d\ ful. pass, part., 394.

etc, aai. b; w. rSfert and Inter-

Future PerfetJ Subjunc. wanting, 110. a.

eat, aaa; of plenty and want, 323; of

l-^ulure Subjunctive wanting, 110. 0.

exclamation, 223; w. potior, id. a : w.

f utDrum esse Ut, see fore at ; futQ-

other vbs., id. i ; w. egeS and indlg-

rum fuisse ut. 337. ,*. 3 and N. a.

e5.3a3.a43./: gen. for abl., id./ R.t

Fulurum atfratenlo, p. 320. foot-uole.

gen. replaced by dal., 336. *; of value.

215.^,352. a,*; gen. of gerundive, 396.

G (the character). 6.

geiduB, voc. of, 4a c.

Games, plural names of, 76, I.

gens, or lamily, names. 80. a. ^^m

gaudeB, conj., 136; with abl.. 234.*; w.

Gentile adjectives. 164. C ^^^1

auod or ind. disc, 333. *.

gentnia, 57. a. ^^^M

Gems, gender of, names of. a and b, 29,

genQ, decl., 68 ; gend., 69, *. ^H

39.<«.

genua, decL, 49. ^^

Gender, kinds of, aB; general rales for.

29; common, doubtful, epicene, 30;

Gerund, form, 109. *; use, 114. a; gei^

cftange ofgend., p. tit, fooi-n,-, nouns.

uTiAVitt ijwid instead, 396. SYNTAX,

I^ded, ;.,gend.,a5;ded.n..y>-,tioun5,\ aqs"^'. .»^- ^ "^; V'-'^- ™'

^B|^;., gend. accoTding 10 ending^.X v-v.?^, v4- ■»-■, •«. ^^V- ^^^-^^i^J

Index of Words and Sulijects.

. of, 399 1 i" '^'*' pbrases ; etc., id. * ; . of^ 3<U| B^A, of, 301; gerund \a apposition, 301, r. Gerundive, meaning and form, 109. a, I., 113. d; in -enduB or -Un- dtlB, 12. d, p. Sg, tool.n. a ; of dep. , 135. d; use as part, or adj., of Otor, id. c; lo denote puip. certain vbs.. id, d; used for

I in coses, gen.. 298; dat.. 299; 300: a.bl., 301. Impersonai w, I. w. ace, xij.g. Bibber, decl., Sz. i.

item-ending. 48. i. Giving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294.^, g]ab«r, decl., 83. ^ (rlaciee. decl.. 74. d. fflls, decl., 54. a. fflSrlor. w. £dil., 254. f, Glyconic verse, 369. 370, 371. i, 12. Gnomic peifecl, 279. c. -SC. nouns in, fiom stem sin-, 49, i;

geud., 65. j, 67. 3, BraCiUa.decl., 87,/; conip., 89.*. Grammar, how developed, pp. 163. 164. Gtammatical gender, z3. c. gratia, w. gen., 223. t, 243. c; v.: gen,

of gerund, 318, err&tlae, defect. 77, 4. grUtlflaor, vr. dal.. 227. c, giiXvUoT, w, dat, 227. c. Greek accusative {syntcdachical), a^a. c. Greelc forms compared w, lalin, pp. 14,

19. sa, 26, 47, SI, 55, 59, 7S, fli, 83. 113.

119,183,143,143,152,155. I Greek nouns, dec]. I., 37; decl. il.,43;

decLIlI.,63,64. Greek proper names, quantity of, 347.

ffumml, indecl., 67. a.

H (breathing), 3. h\ omitted in sound 11. i. I; omitted in spelling, 12. b; ii Prosody, 347, a ; 359, c.

babefl, with infinitive, 273. a; with pet feclparticiple,a9a.c; fultue imperaliv habStO in sense of considir, 396. t.

iiablltB, IT. dat. of gerund, etc., 291

bactenus, a6o. K. Hodria, gender, 35, baeo for hae, loi. a. baer©5, w. dat, 237. d; w. abl., id. m Happening, verbs of, constr., 33a. a. Have, peri with, origin, 093. c, i bare (av5), defeciiire verb, 144./. Having, vljs, of, w. gerundive, 214. d. bsbsB, decl., 87. a; comp, 89. Help, verbs of, with dat, 227, Hemiolic measures, 356, d. hepar. deeL, 67. d.

Hen hSrSH, d

e,36=. ^1..fi4-

Hial

■. 359. '.

bibus, 1

hie, p. 65, foot-note; decl,

io2.n,/| quantity, 343. 10, Eit. hlempa (for hlemB), 11. c, (rj. c hllariB (-Tia).87,/ •

//iwjs^(lpB6. ae), 102. N. Hindering, verbs of. with nfl or quO-

mlnufl, or Inf., 341, c. a; 331.

c.d. Hindrance, verbs of, with quSmlnvus,

319. c; with negatives, followed by

qtdn, id. rf; 33a. j. Historical infinitive, 375. Historical present, 276. d\ followed Oy

primary or secondary lenses. 387. c _ Historical perfect, 115 ;. 3, 379. .^k

hodie, loc. form, 74. c, 148. N. 8. ^^

honor (-Ba), dec!., 318. d. ^^

Hoping, verbs of, With Infinitive clani^l

33a/. Horace, metres of, pp. 287-291. horlzSii, dec)., 63. d. Hortatory subjunctive, 266; in conces- sion, id. c (c£ 313. i); in proviso, 314;

in obligation, 266. a ; w. force of, prot

hortor, constr,, 331.

hoapea, decL, 87. b.

boBplCa. (fern, of hoapea], 85.

haiusmodi, loi. t.

bumi, 40. a, locative use of, 258. d.

464

^^M I, as vowel and as cons., p. i, 4. ^^M 1, primary suffix, 160. c. i. ^^M I, in Greek vac, 63. 1,64: for S in conj. ^^1 11., ia6.i.a; for -S in conj. III., 19&

^B c. i; vbs.iDiO-orconj.III., id. e; in ^^1 verb replaced by cons., 123. i. i ; in-

^^M serted In vb. slem, id. a; Eupprftscd in ^H ol^loit, etc., 10. d; I (linglt) in gm. of

^H nouns in -luB (-lum), 40. i; in gen.

^H of noun in -€s, 43. a ; in abl. of decL

^1 III., £7; in neut. nom.. 65. c; in gen.

^r dccl. IV., 70. a ; in gen., dal., decl. V.,

74, a; in dal. of Qntis, etc., 83.

-I, in perfect, 118. N.

1- stems, decl. 111., 51-59; confused,

Index of Words and Subjects.

signs

tives, Bi, foot-n., 84; 1 B4- *, cf. 53, 57, 87. a ; 136. d.

of, 5;

in adjec lainiug -1

I

Ibfir, dect., 41. d. -IbS for -iam, 138, c

-Iciua, 164. ,p. /ftor. 19 i. N., 164.^

-ICUB, -loiUS, 164. C,

Id-, Stem-ending, 63. Id genua, aja i. id quod, aoo. t. Id temporlB, ai6, a idOlrcB, as correl, 1 Idem, decl., loi ; w. dat, 034. or N. I id. M. a; used en '., id. e.

se, 360; Irimeler, 365; oihe

S.

6. a.

-rSbam, conj. IV., ij8. r.

calij, I

Ides (13th or 151I1 of monlli), how ret

oncd. 376. *. -IdBa, (-IdSs) In patronymics, 164. i: IdOneuB, comparison, 89. d: w. dat of

gerund, cie., 299, fooi- idSneuB qui, 320./ Idas, decl. IV., gendi

Ides.) Jdtu, verbal adj. endin of adjs. in -1

ending in.

lena (pBtl of efl), dec!., 85. i.

•ler in inC pass., 138. <!. 4.

-lea, in decl. V. = -la, decl. 1.,

sucli ate ft-sfems, id. fool-n. -ISs, nam. ending, 163. e. JglCui*, meaning, 156, e; position Ignia, deel., 37. i. a. Ha, for I, Is, from is, 101. c. -a {or -1), in gen., decl. II., 40.

foot-n.; of adjs.. Si. K. -He, noun-ending, 164. 1, 6. JllS, -blUs, verbal adj. ending, 164. n. -His, nominal adj. ending, 164. d. Illative conjunctions, 154. a. 4, 155. c. lUe, forms 100. a; decL. I

ilUc. de

-ilia, ve

lIlUB, diminudve ending, 164.

illtiatrlB, d( " "

-Im, accus. ending, decl lit., p. 20,1 ''■=;SS.5S-

-tm in pres. subj.. ra8. t, a,

imber, decl., 5r. i. 54, 57. i. 67.

imm&ne quautuin, 334. t.

imrnO, how used, 209. d.

Imperative mood, loS. 5, tenses of, 110. c; how used, iia.i; terminations, 116. i, 196. t; w. lam dUdum. 376. a. n. a; in commands.a69; 3d.pers.,a69. f i forms in indirect discourse. 339: luL, 069. d. e; lUc, dHo, fac, fer, laS. c: some verbs used chiefly in, 144. /; variotrs periphrases Jbr imv., id. f,g\ Imperative as protasis, 31a t.

Imperative Sentence, 171. d.

Imperfect tense, defined, 115. i\ use, Z77; in descriptions, id. a; with lam dID, etc., id. 6; inceptive and cona- tive, id. c; with lam, id. n.; of»r- >rirf, id. if; in dialogue, id.<; — etuid. etc., id./; epistolary, 38a ; represented by peri subj.. 287. i. 3: imperf. subj., sequence, 287./^.

ImperB, conslr., 331.

Impersonal construction of pass. w. infin. clause, 330. a. 3, #. I, c.

Impersonal Verbs, synopsis of 145;

classified. 146; passive of intransitives,

146. c, 330; impeisonais, mlearet,

etc., with gen., 331. *; llbet. llcM,

\ wrfn iax., isci. t\ aEs.-«. 4,«oat, etc

I

Index of Words and Subjects.

ImpetrO, cDnsir^ 331.

Impetue, defect^ 77. 4.

bnpleO, constr^ 033. 248. c. S.

Implies, constr, aas d.

ImpanS, conslr., aSo, a.

Impure syllables, 14. c.

Imus, p. 56, toot-D.

In, neg. prrSx, 17a c.

In, prep., use, 15a. c. 153 ; comp. w. 170. a; In, w. ace or abl., B59. i (cf. a6o.'i); w. Bcc, penalty, 330. i\ comp., w. dal., aafl ; In w. acc^ w. adjs., ■05. 358. c. a. (

w. abl. of gerund, 301. hi-, slem-eniling, 48. i; In-, 63. a. In, priniaiy sufRi. See an, Inceplive or Inchoative verbs, 1G7. a. Inclination, adjs. ot constr^ 034. a, c. Inolutue, comp. 91. d.

d action

nable t

s o£ ;

of, ag. c

Indefinite aniocedent, relative with, v,-ith subjunc, 330. a and N.

IndeSnils proDOuns.decL, 104,105. Syn- lai, ana, 303 ; Indef. relative may Intro- duce conditional clause. 304.11. H., 316.

Indefinite subject omitted, 306. J; use of ad person for, a66. a ; in general con- ditions, 309, a; lloet cl&nun fleii.

Indefinite value, 252. a, b.

Indicative mood, loS. b \ bow used, Ila.

;1, 308. b, c, 311. c\ in causal clauses, 311 ; in clause with quod, 333.

IndlgeS, with j^n., 333, 343./

bidlgnua, with abL, 345. a ; w. qnl and subjunc, 310/.

Indirect Cases, 31. N.

Indirzct Discourse, origin, etc, nole, p. 369 : list ol verbs thai take Ind. disc., p. 370, foot'Ti. i direct and indir. quola- 11011,335. Moods in ind. disc, 336; verb of saying implied. Id. N. a. Subj. ace. id. a. Subord. clause wben eiplHna- tory, id. i; clauses w. rel. which is egiuV, (o demonslr., id. c. Tenses ol

inlin. In ind. disc, 336. A; subjunc, 336. B; subjunc. dependii on per£ lot, id. N.i prea. afler secondary tense (,Rtprmsad3r lid), id. a. Condillonal sentences in ind, disc, 337 ; Questions in ind. disc, 336; Deliberative subiunc in, id. a; Commands in ind. disc, 339; prohibi-

1

I, id. I

laformal ii

-, S+o.

Indirect Questions, defined, p. aoi; syn- o..M=./R..334;I"l.lm.«l»,W..; deliberative subj. In, id. i; Indic in (early Lai.), id.rf. (See Note, p. 367.)

Indirect quotation, 335.

Indirect object, 177, 224, and N. aas, afl6.

196.0.

IndUcS, w.nai Indue, double

Ineptus, conslr., 399. foot-n,

inonnlB or -us, 87./

Infera, defect, 8a. d, cf. p. 56. foot-

loCeil, use, 91. b. iaterior, compaiison, iji.a. Infinidve used as noun, gender,

with gen., ar4,rf. (See, also, I r

Mood, SyntiLi.)

\

Mood, Etymology. 108, b, .; tenses oC no. d\ how d\ how

inf. of .^

and Jbot-

pass. in -ier. laS. e. 4; tul deponents, 135 i, f: subject 373. a, 840. / Infinitive Mood, Syntax, 370-275; used as subject, 270; complementary inf., 371 : verbs having subj. or inlin., id. o, cf. 331; inf. for subjunc. clause, 33r.f ; with subject ace, 273; case of predicate noun, id. b\ inf, of purpose, 373; w. adjs., in poeUy, id. ^; of re- sult, ii f i as pure noun, id. i; in exclamations, 274 (sequence, 385. N. i). Historical inf., 375. Tenses of jnt, a88; perf. Instead of pres., id. d, t; lore nt, etc. for fiit. itif., id,/ Int in Indir.disc.,336; tenses,336.A. (Nole oii!ii6ii.,p.a8'i\

1

■ 466

^B Inflect:.

■ U

^F inBuen

/neifx of Words and Subjects.

; of decl. and

s. of, w

I

I

Informal Indirect Discourse. 340, 341.

Infra, use, 152. a, 153.

IngSos, decL, 87. n ; cump., 91. if.

1 nherilcd differences of form, S. 1 1 in

vowels, 9, a-d\ transposition of vowel

and liquid, id. d. Loldrtft, as abL of manner. 248. R. tniOBsn, defect., 71, *. Inope, decl., 67. a, d. InQuam, loqult, 144. b\ position of,

345. c\ in direct quotation, 336. N. i. Inseparable particles, 170. b. Insertion of consonants (p in sQmp^),

II. t; p.429. N. Inaldloe, dat with, 227. d. iQspererS, constr., 215. d. IllBtEU*, inded., 77. i ; w. gen., 233. r. InstS, constr,, 331. Inaulam. ad, 25S. b. n. 3. Instrument, abl. of, 348. c. Instrumental ease, 31, ( [cf. pp. 205,

243) ; as adv., p. 133. lt.^\ source of j^ several abl. constructions, 343. head-n. [Integer, deck, 3 3. c. rintegral part, subjunc. of. 340, 342. jlntegrum eat ut, 333. I Intensive pronoun, 100. c. 102. e. and N., 1, i93->-'. Intensive verbs, 167. i (cf. c). Inter, use 152. n, 153 ; in comp., 170, a :

vbs. comp. with, 238 ; position, 263. N :

liiter bS, 99. d, I'^f; Inter slcftrios,

220. i:; Inter, w. gerund, 300. Inter aS (reciprocal), 99. d, 196./ InterclDilS, constr., 225. d and n. 3. InterdlcO, constr., 325. d, N. i. Interest, constr., 322; with ad, id. b. Interior, comp., 91. a. Interjections, def., 25; list, p. 139: w.

dal..H34.c, Interlocked order of words. 344. h, InterraeiliHte Ctanses, Syntax of, 340-342. InlctTOgatlve advs., use, 210. e\ position.

Interrogative pronouns, 104, 105; u^e,

210.^; position, 344. J. InieirogBtiVB sentences, 171. b; forms of.

Intrfi (Interior), 91; derivation, 143.

5 ff.; u

- . /(cf.237... -Inua, adj. ending. 164. in&tllis, w. dat. of gerund, etc,

Invictus, comp., 91. d. InvldiEi, w. dat., 227. d. invitue, comp., gi. d. ■10, noun-ending, 1^. b; gend., ^

67.3. -13, verbs in, conj. III., 123. *, 2; foiros

of. 136. c, i\ paradigm, p. 100; conj.

1V„ 126. d\ derivation, 166. d. Ionic measure, 356. ^; verse, 372. 16. Ip-. stem-ending, 43. a. Ipee, formation, 100. c\ decl., loi; use.

I02.if and N., 195.^: used instead ol

reflexive, 196. a, 9. N. i. tri, in fill, infin. pass., 141. 147. e. Ironical statement not diff. in form from

Irrational

la, decl., emphatically, 195. ■ reflexive, 196. a, 9.

3S6, N., 369. N.

., 65. *

list o

ords, 67. a; -ia, -erla, 67. *;

-Idia, id. d\ -la, patronvmic, 164. ^. -Is-, -iaa-, -Bis-, dropped in perf., laS. b. -la, nom. and ace. pi., decU HI., 58 (et

p. 30, fool-n. b} ; of adjs,. 84. b, 87. t;

Greek nom. ending, 63. e, -l8,S«It-. Islands, names of. loc use, 258. c, a and

K. ; to whieh. 258. i, from which, a. -iase. -Issem, verb-ending.aee N., p. 1 19 ff. -IbbO, verbs ending in, 167. e. iate, shortened toBto.ioo. 4; deeU lol,

iWe/rpgative particles, \isl ol, !«■ ''"A a-, \ta.M.t.,^it).»

lersonals. 145, foot-n. B.4S-*; deeU, 59, 87. *. It, 107; la Bn«wers,Bii.

■ Index of Word

s and Subjects. 467 ^^H

Ktwiue, BCCEHt. 19. c; compared wilh

Kindred forms, Latin and English, 15, A ^^H

P ofbO, 156. <; used wilh ersO. 308.^1

Appendix. ^H

m position of. 34S. h.

Kindred significaiion, ace. ot; 338. ^^^H

iter,stemot6D.c,cf.M9.3.

Knowing, verbs of. w. aec. and inf., 271, ^^1

[leralive verbs (-t6. -ItO. -85), 167. b.

273. 330-1- ^^B

-itO, verbs in, 167.*.

Knowledge, adjs. of. w. gen., ai3. a. ^^H

-itua, adj.-ending, 164./

■L: nouns in -l.Bend., 65.^,67.*; adj.- ^H

-llim, gen. ptur, decl. lit., 55. a; of

stems in S5- ^H

adj5., 84. *, 85, B7. c.

see ra. ^H

-luB, gen. sing, ending, 83; quanlity, id.

Labia!s,3: stems. decl. III.. 45- a; geiid„ ^^^|

fbol-n.,347.0, 1.

66-^; f6rmsofiniiecdons,67.,;. ^^1

Jus, adjs. in, gen., voc., 81. a.\ forniaiion

labOrO, w. abl. :H5. a. 9. ^^H

ofadJ5.in,i64.^, »..

ia<;, dci:<.,67. </. ^^1

-Iv-, in perf., 13a. a.

lacua, deel., 63; dai. and abl. pi. in ^^1

-Ivus, verbal adj.-ending, 164. k.

-ubns. 70. d. ^^H

■IX (-IX), nouns in, 67.'!.

laedO, conslr., w. ace, 227. a. ^^1

laetor. laetus, w. abl., 354. b. ^^1

J (the cboractec), 4. N. i; Eng. sound.

lampaa. decl.. 63. / 64. ^^1

id.N.x

lateS. w. ace, 239. d; w. dat, id. n. 2. ^^H

ictet, w. ace, 237. e. ^^H

w. itnpeif., 377. c. N.

latUim(llum,i6B.J. ^^H

lamdlD., w, prea., 276. a; w. imperii,

=77.*-

forms of; earlier forms ; languages do- ^^H

ioindttdum, w. pees., 276. a; w. im-

pecf., 177. *; w. impetalive, 276. a.

l&tus, part, derivation, 139, foot-n. ^^H

Learning, verbs of, w. inf., 271. ^^^H

iecup. decl.. forms from differenl stems,

Length, expressed by gen., 315. b. ^^H

60. f, 78. 1./

iocuB. pi. in -1 or -a, 78. 2. *.

leS. decL, 49. ^^H

lubar, decl., 57. 0.

I,eO[itdas.decl.,37. ^^H

iuboO, «. ace, 227. a; «. inf., 271. i«.

Letters. classL^icalioii of, 1-5. ^^^|

330. 2. *, 2, 331. a.

levlB, decl., 84; comp., 89. ^^^^|

lueundua. conslr., 303. R.

levlter. comp., 93. ^^^^

lUgerum, defect, 77. 4; decL.yS. i. b\

liber, adj., dec!., 41. c, 83. t. ^^^|

measure. 381.

Uber. decl., 41. c. ^^1

Julian Calendar, 376, head-n. ; 376. e.

llberl. noun, 41- <;, 76- a. ^^1

iunBO, w. abl. or dat., aa?. f. N., 248.

Ubet, impers, 146. <f ; w. dat. 337. #. ^^|

a. R.

inpplter, stem and decl.. 6a*; plural.

w.dai., 397. i\ w. predicate dat., 37a.

75. 0.

a; w. subjunctive, meaning although.

las. decl.. 67.*, 77. 6. a.

313. ^; licet earn. Uoet me Ire.

IObbO defect., 71. *, 77. a.

licet mlhl Ire, 331. i and N, 3. ^^_

ittatO, w. compar., 247. b.

Ukeness, adjs. of, w, dat, 334. a; w. ^^H

luvat, w. ace. 337. i.

id. ^H

luvenla, masc adj., 88. b\ how com-

IJmiling vrord, meaning of, 17B. i. ^^^H

pared.gi.c; decl., 59.

Unguals, 31 stems in. decl. 1II„ 45. *; ^^1

luvO, wilh ace, 337. a.

gend. of, 66. d\ forms of inflecdon, ^^H

iQxta. position, 263. N.

^H

lluter. decl., 51. f . 54. i ; gend.. 67. a. ^^H

K, suppUmfed by 0, 6. N.

Uqmd3,3.a: stems of. decL III., 48-^0; ^^H

Icsy prfjjaiy luffiit, 160. A.

send, ot, 6b. b\ Visa^^ "A. \-i&>:.t'w3«J^^^B

SioJendse. 371}. a.

V

468 Index of Words and Subjects. ^^H

■lis, adjs. in. comp., Bg. b.

mftlS. ^^H

UttU!. aoj. e.

maluB, comparison, 90. ^^^H

mao, primary suifix, 160. v. ^^^^|

U-, as slem-ending, 48. e.

mandS, constr.. 331. ^^^H

Locative abl., 354. 258. c. t\ Idiomatic

mane, defect, noun. S7- -=. 77- * ^^H

use, id. a; adverbial forms, 14S, N. i.

maneS, vrith abl.. 254. b. ^^^H

Locative case, 31. *, p. ai8 ; akin to dai.,

mfinauettiB, 159. c. ^^^H

id.; in abl.,p.a45, p. 260; of decL 1„

mantiB, dec]., 68 ; gender, 69. ^^^

36. c; decl. 11., 40; ded. Ill, 6a;

Manner, adv. of. 148. AbL of. hard lo

decl. IV. (domi), 7o./:foot-n.; decl.

distinguish from specification, 253. K.

v., 74. c\ as adverb, tjB. N. J; forms.

Matiner implied in part.. 392.

as3.f.a,A With nbl. in apposition, 184.

Manner, abl. of. 248. and B. ^^^

c\ re]ative adverb i:sed to refer to, aoi.

mare, decl.. 37. 0.59. ^^H

/; fttilml, 218. c. R.. 333. c. Localive

marl, loc., 358. /. ^^H

compared with dat, 334. N.; locative

mas, decl., 54. 2. ^^^1

used 10 express -mhert, 358. c\ doml.

Masculines, rule for gender, 29. ^^^^|

etc., id. d.

looS, Willi prep., 360./; wllhont prep.,

Masculine cseaura, 36a. R.

id. a.

Material, adjecdves denodng, 164. g\

locum oapere. w. dat of gerund, etc..

gen. of, 214. e,f\ abl. of, 344. and i-t.

399.0,

lootia, pi. -I or -a, 78. 2, *.

Miy, how expressed In Lalin, 31a. b. N.

Logaoedio Verse, 3^37"- No'e "".

Means, nouna denoting, 163. e; abl. of.

369.

248. and c; participle implying means.

Long and Short, see Quaniiiy.

292.

longluB, wiihom quam, 247. c.

Measure, gen. of, 215. t (cf. 357. a).

lOtUoer, decl., Ba. c

Measures in Prosody, 355-357; names

1US8, defect., 77. 4.

"^1 35^: conlracled or resolved, 357.

lQ3(,decL.77.6.

Measures of value, 377-38°; of ^rnffb.

lynx, decl.. 63./

381; of weight, 382; of capacily, 38J.

medeor, medicor, with dat. or ace.

M, tinal, elision of, 359. b. K., d-. inserted

227.*.

in verb-root, 133. c. 3,

medlocrla, decl.. 84. a. N.

-m, sign of ace., origin, p. 005 ; omitted

Meditrflive verbs, 167. ,:. ^^^

medlUB imiddUparlBf), 193. ^^^H

mediuB fldlviB, 240. </. n. a. ^^^H

ma, primary suffiit, 160. t^.

mel. decl., 67. b. ^^1

macer, decl., Sa. c.

meliar. decl., 86. ^^H

mftcte TlrtQto, use and eonslr., 241, d

melius est. with infin., a88. e.

memiDl.conJ.,i43.i;inpres. sense, 143.

maKla, as sign of comparative, 89. d\

comps. of, w. quam. 26a. N.

tnlDl Hith pres. infin., 336. A, N. I.

maKn), gfn. of value. 25a. a.

memor. decl., 87.0.

m&snUB, comparison, 90.

Memory, adjs. of, constr., 218. a ; verb*

Main clause, defined, 180. b.

of, constr.. Big.

mEUestStis, with words of accusing,

men, primary suflii. i6g. ,..

etc., aaa j.

-men. -mentlim, noun-endiogs, tfi^tj

m&lor QfttH. tji.c.

-men, gend., 65. €, 67. i. J|H

mSlOrea, significalion of. 76. a, 76. b.

mSnsls, decl, 59. ^^H

93-/

merldiee, gend., 73- ^^H

B A/at/ng, verba of, constr., 335. a.

-m«t (endidc),g9./ ^^H

k mala comp. 03* compounds of. '<N\^'^\'^^E^:AV'ne!:<&.ll.d,1.1vW^^^^^^^■

Index of Words and Subjects.

469

metuS, with dat. or ace, 227. c ; w. sub- junc, 331./^

metus, with dat. or ace, 227. c.

xneus (voc. ml, 81. a, n.)» 40. c, 81. a, 99. a ; syntax of, 197. a, 214. a.

Middle voice, iii. a, and N., 118. N., 240. c, N., 249. N.

Mile, English feet in, 381.

miles, decl., 46.

Military expressions, dat. in, 233. b ; abl. dat. in, 233. h ; abl. of accomp. without cum, 248. a. N.

mHitlae (locative), 258. d,

mille (milia), decl. and constr., 94. e,

-mini, as personal ending, p. 78, foot-n.

minimS, compar., 92; use, 93. e\ w. neg. force, 209. e\ in answer ("no"), 212. a,

ministrO, w. infin., 273. a,

minor nfittl, 91. c,

min5ris, gen. of value, 252. a, d,

min5r@s, signification, 93. f,

minus, compar., 92 ; use, 93. e ; with si and Qu5, a not^ 209. e ; constr. without quam, 247. c,

-minus, -mnus, verbal adjective-end- ings, 164. n,

mlj^or si, 333. b, r.

mirum quam (quantum), with in- dicative, 334. e,

mIsceS with abl. or dat., 227. e, N., 248. a, R.

mis, tis, 98. 1, c,

miser, decl., 82 ; comp. 89. a.

miserS, comp., 92.

misereor, with gen., 221. a.

miserSsco, with gen., 221. a.

miseret, 146. b\ with gen. and ace, 221. b ; other constr., c^ d,

miseror, with ace, 221. a.

misy, decl., 67. a,

-mnus, see -minus.

Modem languages compared with Latin, see Appendix.

Modesty, subjunc. of, 311. ^.

Modification of subj. or pred., 178.

Modifiers, position of, 343, 344 ; of nega- tive, 345. d,

modo . . . modo, 208. d,

modo (modo n§) with subjunctive of proviso^ 314.

mod5 as abL of manner, 248. R.

molSLTia, decl, S7 ^

moneS, conj., p. 96; constr., 219. c, 238.

b. N. -mSnia, -mSnium, noun-endings, 163. c, Monoptotes, jj. 2. Monosyllables, quantity, 348. 1-3. Months, gender of names of, 29. i and a ;

decl. of names of in -ber, 84. a ; names

of, 376, head-n ; divisions of, in Roman

Calendar, 376. Moods, names and uses of, 108 b, 112:

note on origin and nature of, p. 274 ;

Syntax of, 264-275. Moods in temporal clauses, how distin- guished, 323. Mora, in Prosody, 355. a, mSrigrerus, decl., 82. a. m5s est ut, 332.

Mother, name of, w. prep., 244. a. R. Motion, how expressed, 225. b, 229. a,

243. b ; indicated by compounds, 237,

d\ implied, 259.^. Motion, end of, see End of Motion. Motive, how expressed, 245. b. Mountains, names of, gender, 29. z

and a, -ms (-mps), noun in, &/,c, Mulciber, decl., 41. e. muliebris, decl., 84. a. N. multfi nocte, 193. n. Multiplication by distributives, 95, c, Multiplicatives, 97. multum (-5), comp., 92. multus, comparison, 90. manus, decl., 78. i./; manus est ut,

332. mas, decl., 54, cf. 54. 2. masica (-€), decl., 37. Musical accent, 358, mtlt&re, constr., 252. c. Mutes, 2. fl, 3; mute-stems, decl. III.,

44-47; apparent, 47. a, 54. m^thos, decl., 43.

N, 2. ^ ; n adulterlnum, id.

N as final letter of stem (leOn-), 48. a,

n, preceding stem-vowel of verb, 123. b. 1 ;

inserted in verb-root (frangrG), 123. c,

3 ; 124. b, N. na, primary suffix, 160. 6, nfiis, decl., 64.

nam (enclitic), in questions, 210.^^ nam, namque^ use^ ic/S, <£^7o&, e. \ Names oi vcveii axA v^orn^exv^^ci.

^H 470 Indfx of Words and Subjects. ^^H

H Naming, »bs. ^ vr. two .ccs.. =39. a.

nequeO, conj., t44.f.

^H Nasals,s.j, 3:inser1cHiinverb-ioot, 133.

n8...qiiidem, use, 151. e; after nOn,

V

209. a; position of, 345. i; after nOn

^ nfttUlB,decl.,57.^.

modo. 149.^.

oKttl (m&tor, mlmar) , 91. ;.

nSquIa, decL. 103. d.

natUB, etc., w. abL of source, 144. a.

nesciO an, xia./. R.

navla,ded..57.A.

neBcia quis, use, aoa. a; as indefiniie

-nd, -nt, vowel short before, iB./

without subj., 334.,.

-BdllB, verbal adj.-endjng, 164. o\ ger-

-neua. adj.-ending. 164.^.

nndlvo in, 113.1/.

Neuter ace as adv.. 148. d, cf. t. N.

-no Ccnclitic), use in quesUons, 3id. a^;

Neuler adjs.. special uses of, 1B9.

in double questions, an; w. force of

n6nnB. 310 ; orig. meaning, id. H. ; in

cases alike in, 33.*: endings of decL

tiiy, 348. 1.

III.. 6s. c.

116, neg. of hortatory subj., a56. R.; w.

Neuter pron. as cogQalo ace. 338. *,

subjunirtive of proviso, 313. a\ in

Neuter passives, 136,

Neuter verbs, 175, 1761 wllh cognate ace.

313. a; in final clauses, 317; -nS-

33B; having passiva leniie, with f.b.

346. fl.

wilh verbs of hindering, 331. ». 3; of

Neuter passives, 136;

fearing, id. /; omitted after cave,

nex,decL.77.6.

id.N.

nl, primary suffix, 160. ..

nS nOn, w. vbs. of fearing, 331./

nl, nisi, 304, V. ; use of; 315. a.

Nearness, sdjs. of; with dat, 234. ■>; w-

-nla -Mum, noun-endings, 163./

gen., id. d.

nlgrer, decl„Sa) distinct from ater,9[.

nee enlm, 156. d.

d.H.

necesse, indecl., 171; neoeeee est

nibll, IndecL, 77. i ; oontr, to nH, 347. c.

Ut,333.

ndhiJl gen. of value, 352.*.

Necessity, verbs of, with pert pass, Inf,

nlmlnim quam, used as indefiniTe

a8e.if; inapodosis,3o8.f,3ii.i:; with

without subjunc, 334. i.

Tit-clause, 331. c.

□inslt, 146. a.

necne in double qaestions, an.

nisi and sl nOa. 315, a; nisi sI. Id.;

nedum, 317. c. R. and H.

nlsl v6re (forte}, id. J ; slsl in sense

neraa, indecl., 77. i; with latter Bupiee,

of only, id. d.

303.

nisi v6rt5, nlal lorte, 315, *.

Negation, perfect preferred in, 279. d.

Ditor, widi abL, 354. *.

Negative answer, 310. c; sia. and a.

nix (stem and decl.),p-aG. fool-n; plur.,

Negative particleE, list of, 149, 1% (wo

13- <•

n^alives, 150, aog. a; use of, 209;

itfb. in answers, now expressed, 911.

form dlfierenl ftom English, aog. i;

nOH. in prohibilioni, 369. a.

neg. answers, aia; ncg.proviso,3i4.o;

nfilS, conj.. 138; part., as daL of refei^

neg. conditton. 315. 0; purpose, 317;

ence, 335. e.

result. 319. a, d, R.; position of. 343. d.

iiSmeii,decL,491 »3«in«,denQtinggBni,

nagO, better than dloB . . . nOn, aog.

'. 336(3l^quo'a''°'')■

n5raen eat, with pied, dat., 331. *, e.

tlesfittutn dli ut, 331.

tiSmO,useof;aoa./i nBinfi aOn, 150. #.

Nominal adjectives, 164. a-*.

neque (nee), and nsl, 156. a; noQue

Nominative defined, 3i.a; howfatmeil

onlm, use. 156. d; neque after a

from stem, 3a. f j nom. suffii. p. 305 ;

neg., aog. a.

nent. pi. 00m. and ««. alike. 33. i; in \ 6sc\.\\..tv.,-?.ib\\t,4Bd, 111,44,

n§guam, fn dec!,. By./; comparison a\.

Index of Words and Subjects.

in a^tens, ded. IV., p. 40, n.; in B-stems, decL V., p. 32, N. NOHIHATIVE, ^lax (tee p. 303) : Bs sahject, 173. 1 ; in predicale, 176. *.

185; verb-agreemenl wilh, ao4; used

id. c (cf. 240. d) : Viilb opua in

predicate. 343. t. E.; nom. of gerund

supplied by ace.. 395. R. nSn, derivation. 148. N. «; compoandi

of^ 150. a, ^ k in answers, aia. d. nSa dubteS dulo. 319. d; 333.^. R. n5a modo, afier a aegaiive, 339. a. aSa modo . . . ne , . . quidem, 149. t-

nSii nemo, nOn nQllua. cic.. 15a a. nflQ quia. nOa quod, nfln qu8, nCn

(luin,etc.,i56./33i.B. aOn Batls, 93. t. Nones (nOnaa). 376. c.

'irego, 98. 1, i.

r. for 1

s. gen.. 99. u,

objecdve gen., 99. c, 194. i. as parlidve gen., 99. J, 194. h.

naTendecim, 94. c.

Noun and adj., farms of verb, 109, p. lao.

Noun^stem. treated as root, 123. d.

Nouns defined, ly. a; in decl,, gend.. 39. ff; declension of, 33-78; deriwative forms rX, 161-163 \ "^^ ^ adjectives, 88. ', 188, d\ lule of agreement. 1S3-. w. part gen., ai6i w. obj. gen., 3171 governing ace, 337. /; notin as piol-

Nouns of agency,

BOX, decL. 54.

-116, as noun.ending, 67. d\ as adjective- ending. 85. a; participles in, ded., 85, 87. d', VI. gen., aiS.i; «. BCC, id. N. lands.

-at. stems in. dec!., 87. i.

nabea, dccL, 5a.

nabS. with dat., 327. 1.

nOUue, decL, 83.

num, force of, 31a c ; in indirect ques- tions, id./ R.

Number, 31 ; nouns, defecl

6.76; id.*, e

triable I

,79.

inveibs, 108. rf; agree- at; Willi appositives, 184. a; , 1S6, 187, d; with verbs, 204,

M-97: ' 94 ; distributives. 95 ; advs.. gi 97. Position of numeral adjs., 344. *. nomqula, decl.. T05. d- meaning Emd

1

bers. [.6.

I

O or a, Indo-European vowel, p. 141,

foot-n, p. 433, foot-n. o foraarteruotv,7i in decL 1I.,38. N. -6 final in ain8 = &+ni. iiG. .N. -5 in nom., 48. a; gend., 6s. a, bj. i; in

fem. abL of Gr. adjs.. 8j. rf. K. -0. -5iila, nouo-enditig, 163. e, 164. f. o-5!em3, decl. 11., 38, p. sa. fooT-n.; in

adjs,,B3, 83: tabs bom o-slems, 166.

O ^w.subjuncof wbh,367. 3. and N. i. ob, use, 153^0, 153; in coQip.. 170. o; in

comp. w. vbs., w. dai., 338 ; to express

cause, 345. i; w. gerund, 300. obeO, conslr., 338. a. Obeying, vbs. of, say ; w. ace, id. n. Object cases, 177. *.

Object clauses, infin., 330; subj.,33i,33a. Object defined, 177; becomes subject of

pass., id. a, 337. a; ace. of direct w,

dat of indir. obj., 395 ; secondary obj..

339.3; obj. of anticlpalion, 334. c. Objective case expressed in Latin by

gen., dat.. act, 01 abl,, 177. i. Objective compounds, 16B. £. Objective genitive, mel, etc. ,99.f; defined,

a[3.a; with nouns, 317 ; wilh adjs., ai8. Obligation, tmfulfilled. hort subj., a6& t. Oblique cases,3i.f; origin of names of,

P.30S-

Numeral advs,, g6.

5oior, comp., 91. d. Occasion, expressed by participle, 293. oatSdeclm, 94. c.

Odl, conj., 143. o; w. meaning of pres- ent. 379. '■ oe, writicn a (long), 11. c; for -I in

nom. pi., decl. II., 43. d. Offends, constr.. 338. a. I Old (ociDsof pronouns; ndB.tls.t^.i-f;

H 472 Index of Words and Subjects. ^^^k

^B ^16na, -olentus, adj. endings, 164. *.

-5a, -Odifl, 67. rf.

H oUus(me), 100.0.

OB-. Stem of comparative!, 86. a.

^P -oluB, diminmive ending, 164. a.

-OB for -UB. in nom. sing., decl. II.. 3B.

^ Omission, of oonsonani, 11. *: of pos-

N.; as Greek ending, 43; as, gen.

sessive, 197. e; of anieeedent, aoo. c.

ending in Greek nouns, decl. III.,

oinn9B; nBa omn6B ( instead of omnSs

63./

noatrQm), 316. e.

Oa, Brla, docL, 77. *.

-On. Greek ending, dec). 11., 43.

oa.oealB,5lem,p.96,fbol-n.a: decL,6i.

-On, -finla, nouns in. 67. *.

Oscan forms compared with Latin. Ap-

-On.gen.plur., dec]. II.,43.c.

pendix, p. 435.

-8n, nom. ending, 63, c, d.

08BU, osaua (det). 69. (oot-n.

-Ssue, -olens, -olentus. adj.-ending^

H Sn-. slem-ending, 63,/.

164. k. i^^

K ont,non..-5n.63.i

ovat (defective), 144. '. ^^H

■ onyx, decL, 67. c

DVlB, dEcl., 57- ^^H

■ Open ayllables, 14. d.

-ox. nouns in, 67. €. ^^H

1 oper&, wilh gen., 246. b.

0x7s, decl., 67. a. ^^^H

oporamdO.w.dal. of gerund, e1e.,a99.

a; wilh subjunc, 331.

P, paiasilic aflerm (aOmpal). tr.i^^^|

Operafions of nature, 146. 0.

pftCtO, as abl. of manner, a^Z. R. ^^^H

Paeon. 356. d. ^^H

oiOiior, position of, 345. (.

paeniWt, 146. *: constr., aat. *^

oportet, 146. c\ wilh ace. of object,

palam, as apparent adj.. 188. t. 3: wilh

337. <; in apod., 30B. c; impetfeel re-

abl., 207. b. 361. i.

fers to present, plupf. to past, 311. c. r.;

Palalais, 3: stems, deel. III., 45. ,:;

w. subjunc. or inf., 331. i.

oportult, w. pres., inf.. 288. a.

67.*.

palHBter, decl.. 84. a.

oppQgnS, w. ace. aaB. a.

Panthfls, vocative of, 43. f, 63- 1.

opa, deel..46; defect., 77. 5.

pSr, dec1.,8s. *. 87. a; with gen., aig.rf;

w. dal. of gerund, etc.. agg. faat-n. J^^^H

H subjunc., p. 274.

Parallel verb-forms. 134. ^^H

H Oplatiye subj. (mtiA), 067; w. Utlnam,

Parasitic sounds, i ^^^1

H elc, id. i\ velim, etc, w. subjunc.

Parataxis, p. 164, p. 874. ^^H

■ equiv. to, id. c.

parKtua, with intin.. 973. i. ^^^H

■ optlniRtSB, 54. 3, 76. a. fl.

Pardoning, verbs of. with dat., 1197. ^^H

■ OpUB, indecl., 77. 1; optia and Qaua,

parSllon, decl., 43. ^^^^|

■ w. abl., 243- '; as pred. nom., id. k.;

Parisyllabic nouns of decL 111.. 3>!^^|

■ w. participle, 29a. 6; w. supine in -fl.

adjectives, 84. ^H

3°3'

parlter, use.a34.a.N. 3.

or, suffix, see as.

partem, adverbial use. 34a. i.

or-, siem-endine, decl. III., 48. d.

■or. noun-ending, 163. a.

258./

or, -6ria, nouns in, 67. i.

pwOoepa. decl., 87. *, d.

or or -Oa, nom. ending, 4B. d; gend..

Participia! clause Implying condition.

63. a, 67.

Oratii ehn^a, see Indirect Discourse.

Order of words, 343-346.

of, 89.*; number of, log. 0; how used.

L Ordinal Numbers, 94; decl., 94./

113: as adjs.. Id. <; as nouns, id./;

1 -Jtrius, adj.-ending, 164. k.

used predicalively as adjs., id.g; parts.

in -UB, used as adjs., with gen.. ajS. t;

^MfTPlieus, decl., 43.

c\aaae E<vi\-i3i«it. W ijaxt^ aox. 1 1 puta.

^^K(nom.ending,48.^.:eend..6s.a.&7.b

V as. ^ id.

1. I86 ai

/«(/cT of Woids and Subjects.

'yntax, 388-a94; agree

m special 1 suppliei

pres. pass. pari, f ; peif. acl., how supplied, id. d\ parts, of deponent verbs, 133. ii, b, 290. h. d\ adjective use, 291 ; predicate use, aga; with OPUB, id. b; perf. with habeO, id. c\ present with faOiS, id. e\ future part, 393 ; with past tenses of esso, id. c; gerundive, use as pait. or adj., 394; future part, in indirect questions, 334. a\ pan. as protasis, 31a s. Particles defined, 37; forms and classi- licalion, p. 122; note on formation, p. 123; interrogative, 145. d\ nega- tive, id. t, 309: in compounds, 170; Syntai, ao7-2ia; use of interrogative

Parti

99-*- Pans of Speech, 35. partus, decl., 70. a. pamm, comp., ga ; meaning, 93. t. parrt, gen. of value, 352. a. parvtlS, comp., go. I l^usive voice, loB. a ; origin, i iB. fcol-n.

(fbrms wanting in, no. i-, signification in; reflexive meaning, id. K., ii8. (J. deponents, iii. b\ completed lenses how formed, 126. g\ passive used im personally, 141. o, 146. d\ 330, ct 330 «-f, 331- A. pater tamlliaa, decl., 36. b. patifiDB, comp. of, B9. 1. potior, consir., 331. i.

Ishi-E

I-. 54- 3. B

5 (-adsB, -ides, -Sua, etc.),

pecQaloe, gen., w. vbs. of occusis

pedsBt&r, dec!., 84. a. pelagUB (plur. pelaKS), gend, ol pelVlB, decl., 57- *. Penalty, gen. of, 220 and N.; abl.o PenatSs. decJ.,S4.3 (cf.76,3).

penee, following noun, 263. n.

Pentameter verse, 363.

Penult, defined, 19; rules of qtiantity, j 349-354-

ponuB, gend., 69. a ; decl., 78, i.

per, prep., 153. a; use. 153; w.

agent, 246. *. Adverbial prefix, w. adjs., 170. c (cf. 93 rf); w. verbs, 170. c. N.

Perceiving, verbs ot oonsir,, 273, 330,

parendie (loc.), 74. c. 14B. w. ».

Perfect panioiple, used to form lense! iiai; other uses, 113. c.i; of depo- nents, 135. i; used as nouns, adv., 007. c\ dat. of agent with, 23a. a\ ahl.w. opus and Dsue. 343. e, 29a. b.

Perfect Tense distinguished from im- perf., 115.^, e; pert deC and perf. hisi id. c, 379; personal endings, 116, a origin of I and S in, iiS. N. ; stem, hw formed, 114, ia6; of conj. I., 136. 1 3; contracted perl, ia8. a, h; peiC J sat>j. in -slm, laS. e. 3; irreg. tbrms of ■ conj. I., 130; of eonj. II., 131; 1 of conJ. III., 13a; of eonj. IV., 133. I

PERFECTTENsE,i)n«/aj-. Pert lod.. use, f 279 ; m fiit conditions, 307. e \ eral conditions, 979. b, 309. c\ gnomia I perf., 27B. c. Pert Subj., horlalory, a6fi j in prohibitions, afi6. i, 269. a ; c^tativo, 367. a ; in ful. conditions, 307. c ; polen- I tial,3ir.o. Perf. Inf.. in exclflmalions, -f 374. N.; special uses, 288. d,e; inn diBc.,336.A. N. I. Sequence of Tei pert ind., 187. s ; subjunc, id. *, ( ; 335. B. N. ».

Pericles, decl., 63. 1,

Period, 346 ; note on, p. 39a.

Periphrastic conjugwions, 113. b. N N.; paradigms, I39i periphrastic fc in conjugation, 147 ; use in contrary to , 308,^1 in ind. queslioni.

334-'". ■erinission, vbs. of, coi [lerniittS, w. dal., 227 permUtfl. w. abl., 25a pomoi, decl., 87./ perpsB, decl., 87. o. Pore^B, decl., 37.

, 108. d\ agreemi

., 33I. «■

204 ai

:h differe

L

r

I

I

I

474

Index of Words and Subjects.

Personal endings, ii6, and foot-n., i Personal pronouns. 9B, 99, p. 178, "bea Syntax. 194; omitled, 194. 3,306.0; pi., id. *; 3d p^ra., id. c. perau&deS, constr.. 331. Persuading, verbs of, wilh dal„ aaj.

Phrase, dcfiaed. 179.

Phrases, neut.. ag. e ; phrases a grown inio advs.. 148. N, «; phrases^ 179; phra&es iimile 214. d\ phrase or clause in 355. *.

Physical qualilies, abl., 251. a.

plg^r, decl., Sa. e.

piget, coDStr., zai. b-d.

Pily, verbs of, consir., aai. d.

plus, eomp., 39. d. »., 91. rf.

pU. deel,, 77. 6.

Place, advs. of, 149. 0; relalii quire prep., 939. u, 258. a, c birth, abl.. 344. i ; place c, d ; place to or from »

■here, 354, 358. ich,as8; prep. -n.,a.*./^i

Placing, vbs. of, eo ■ of n,

B, 78. 1. B.

decl. of plant ns

plaudS, w. dat., 237. t.

Plautus, use of fttrior, 89. N; of quom w. indie, 315. a. V., 3^. H. 3; pro- aodial forms, 367. a, 374. *, 375.

Pleasing, verba of, consir., 227,

pISbSs. decl., p. 41, fool-n, i.

Plenty, rerbs of, constr., 3J3, 348. c.

plSnus. conslnicllon, 333, 248, t. R.

■plo*. numeral adjectives In, 97.

plult (impers.), 146.^; used peisonally,

Id. N Huperfect Indicartve. tohuy, aSa; plup. indie.

cont, lo (acI,3o8. f ; in genera] cond!' tions, 309. t. Pluperf. Subj., honaloiy, 3ti6.e; optative. 367 : in conditions, 30E (sequence, 3B7./I; potential, 311. a. N, Plural, wanting in decL V., 74. d; used in Eense different from sing., 75. o-t, 79. f ; pi. alone used, 76 ; plur. ace. used as advs., 148. t; neut. pi. of adjs., 1S9. j.

plQrlS, gen. of value, plOa, decl., 86 and i.

out quam. 547. c. poenitat, see paenltet. poSma, decl.. 47. i, pandO, detect, 77. a. pOnS, w. abl., afio. o. por-, prefix, 17a *. portlcaa, gend., 69. a. portus. decL, 70. d. Position, expressed by ab. ex, 36a i Position in Prosody, j8, 347, d ; does

affect final vowel, id. e. R. posse, as fill, lot, 28a,/ Possession, how expressed. 99. ui (

ot, 331; compared w. gen., id. R. Possessive compounds, 167. d.

E, 314. a-d; dat.

" J

refere

i. a3S- "

id. i; omission, id. e; used substan- tively, 19a. a, 197, d; used for gen., 214. a ; for obj. gen., 19a i, 217, a. 'ossibilily, vbs. o^ in

.308.^

pOBt, vbs. c

post, adverbial nse of, a6i. d; nM

quam, 36a. /H

postera, defect., Sa. d; comp., 9I> jH

poatetl. 91. i. jH

posterior, 91. a, i. ^^

Postpositive conjunctions, 156. JL *

postquBjn (poete&quain), in leni'

po8tr8m5. in enumerations, 151. d. poatridlS. with gen., 333. <; wiili ncc,

207. i. 361. 1 ; with quam. a6a. poBtolO ab, 339. e.H.f. poattilO ut.

33t. ?(AeM,\i\ mood, how

Index of Words and Subjects.

potla, pote, 87./ +

potior (adj.), camp.. 91. d.

potior (verb), conj., 135 ; wiih gen., 323.

I

a, 2«. fl

'-.149;

gerundive, 396. R, potliia, comp.. 93. potui, w. pres. infin., 3SB. a. Power, odjs. of; vr. gen., aiS. d. Practice, vbs. of, 167. c. prae,i52.j; use, 153; in comp., 93. ^;

in comp., w. dat., aaS; in comp., w.

Qliam, 36a. H. II quanlily of, in

compounds, 347. b. praeoedS, conslr., aaS. a. praeoepB, decL. 83, h, 87. a.

praeotplB, constr.. 331.

PrBfiiamen, 80, a ; abbreviations, id. d. i.

pnwpes, deci,, 87, rf,

praea, decU, 67. d, 77. 6.

pra«etSIor, constr., 337. b.

praesum, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299. a.

proeter, use, 15a. a, 153.

praeterlt, w, ace, 237. f.

preol, defect., 77. 5.

preoor". conatr., 331.

Predicate, pp. 163, 164; defined, 173; modified, 178; pred. noun or adj., 173. K., 176; case, 176, b\ pred. nom., etc., 1B5; pred. noun refening to two or more sing, nouns, iJ. i ; adjective, jB6. h, c, d-, agteement in, 1B7. a, t; in rel. clause, 199; pred. adj. in neuC. pi., 187. e\ pred. ad], in rela.tive clause, aoo. d; pred. ace, 339 and a; adj. as pred. acc.,id.N.i; pred. ace. becomes pred. nam. in the pass., id. N. 2; predicate gen.. SI4. c, d; predicale use of parti- ciples. 399;

Predicate noun or adj. after inf., 070. N. 3, 271. (, 37a. a. a and N., i.

Prepositiota, assimilation of, 17./; de- fined, 25. g\ derivation oi, p. 137, (bot-n.; listofpreps.w.acc., 152.0; w. sbl., id. i; with either, id. c\ how dis- tinguished from advs, p. 127, (bol-n.; idiomatic uses, 1531 compounded w. vbs. and adja.. 170. a. c \ noun w. prep., instead of obj. gen.. 217. c; in compo- sition w. vhs., w. dat., 338,339; actio compos., 239. 6; v. abl. of separation.

243. a

i of

place, 358. a, l,/,g\ use of, a6o-a&i',

preps. followingthe noun, a63.N,; usual position of. 345. a. (See N., p. 205.)

Present Participle, decL, 85 ; use, 113. a.

Present stem, how formed, pp. 86, 119:

trom

1. 123-

tense, wilh lam dill, etc., 276. a; conarive, id. i; for fut., id. e; his- torical, id. d; with dum, id. i; in quotations, id. /; sequence, a86, 3S7. e.h; pres. in£ w. potuI, etc., 388. a; participle, 390-392. Pres. inf. in ind. disc, referring to past time, 336. A. N. i.

s, 143. N„ 279. e.

adv., 2G1. a ; with qoam, a6i. Primary suffixes, defined, 159, 160. Primary lenses, 285. i, 2B6. pilmipll&ris, d

s. 165.

Primi

- IS'-* 1 piimSria, defect., 87./ ^^H

piimue, form. p. 56, foot-n. ^|

prIncepB, deck, 87. i. Principal parts of verb, laa. A, d. prior, comparison, gr. prius, with Quam, 262; prluBquam

336. B. B. N. 3. ' ' Privation expressed by abi., 343. prO, 153. b\ use, 153; In comp,, w, dat,

228 ; to express for, 236. R. ^^

PTobO w. dat., 337. t\ 332. c. N. ^^1

Proceleusmaiic, 356. t. ^^|

procerus, decl., 82. a. ^^M

prociJ with abL, 261. i. i^^f

prohibeS, constr. of. 225. d. Prohibitions, 266. i, 269 and a, i, K.; in

ind. disc, 339. H. Promising, etc.. verbs of, 33a^ Pronominal roots, 157, 139; as primary

suffixes, id. Pronouns defined, 25. c; decL of, 98- 105 ; personal and reflexive, 98 j gen., howused,99.fl-c; demonstrative, 100- 102; relative, intetrog., and indef., 103- ros; pron. contained in verb*nding, 116. foot-n,. 174. 3. Pronouns, Sjittax, iq^-ao^-. PscMoal,

Index of Words and Subjects.

t. t; Ipsa. id. f-i: Reflexive, i PoBcssve, 197 ; Relative, 1S6. N.. i nlBHve in proMsIs, 316; Indefir Tax. Prons. w. part. gen.. ai6. Position of prons, 344. /, 345. e. K on Iheit ose and meaning, p, 178. Pronuodation, Roman melhod. 16; E lish method. 17^

,91. a

': 33'-

I

proi>e set u

Proper names, Bo : plur, 75. 76. i.

propenia, deeU, 83^ a. proploquua, with gen.. ai8. i. propior (propiuB). comparison, 9

of, ii

I

proprius. with gen., 134. d.

propter, use, 153. a, 153 ; poiilion. 363. N. ; denodng moiivt, 245. i.

Prosody, p. 394; rules and defiBlilbns, 34/"-375; "riy peculiarities, 373.

prosper (-us), decl., Sa. i.

prosplclS, w. dat or ace, 317. c.

Protasis (see Conditional Clauses), 304 ff. ; loose use of lenses in Eng., 303. R. ; relative in prol.,316; temporal panicles in, 333 ; &nta-qua,m, priuequam in, 327. *; pro!, in ind. disc. 337. r.

Protmcdon of long syllables, 335. .:. prSvlde6, w, dat. or ace, 237. e. Proviso, sub], used in, a66. if; introduced

-., 307. i, a6r. a, 334. t.

foot-n

lic).99./i£

pQbSa, decl., 7S. 1. 1. 87. t. pudet, I4fi. b ; constr., 321. i-d. pilar, decl., 38 (cf. 41. a). puloher, decL, 83. e. puis, decU ^- ^ Punishment, sbl, of. 330. i. pupplB, decl.. 56. *, 57. i. Pure and impure syllables, 14. «. ; 373; exF

re afer certain vbs.. 294. d

und OTgemndivc as predicate gen., ^9. R.; waysofeipressing.srB, Clausesoi, iSo.fi defined and classified.317; use of quS in. id. 6 ; main clause omitied, id. c: nBdum, id. n. and n. Sub- slantive clauses of. used after ocilaln verbs, 33r: of wishing, id. *: of per- mitting, id, «; of determining, id. J; ol caution, etc, id. <; of tearing, id, (Note on, p. 34a)

Purpose or end, dat. of, 333.

-pQB, compounds of, 67. d.

puter. decl.. 84. a.

qu& . . . quft aoB. d. quadrupSa, decl., 87. d. quae res (or id quod), aoo. e. qua«TO, constr. (ex or 1I6), 339,

subjunc, 331.

'^

quaesS. conj., 144. i/; positioi

Qualities (abstract) . gend,, 39.

Qualities of an object compared, 193.

Qualttj, adjs. of, 164. l\ gen. of, 315, 251. a; 10 denote price, 353. a, k\ abl. of, =5. (etais-N.).

quam. with superlative, 93.f; rXymo\oSf of. p. 133. i; correlative w. tam, 107; w. compor. and positive or w. two pos- idves, 193. t't with comparadves, 347. a, t; after allue, id. d; w. compar. of advs.. id. t-, with ante, poet, 362; with subj. after comparatives. 330. f ; followed by tesidt-clause, 33X * ; in in- direct queslions, 334, i\ in indirect dis- course, 336. a. R., c. N, a. ^B

quamdia, 338. N. I. ^M

quamlibet, concessive, a66. e, 313. ^^k

quam ob CBUsam, a^a. V. ^H

quam qu3, quam ut, widi subj^ 330, *,

quamquam,ios. J.N.; use, 156. 1 ; with indie. 3t3. t; introducing a proposi- tion=n»rfj^. id./: w. subj..id.^.

quam SI, 313.

quamvlB, use, tjfi, i; snbj, with, a66 t, 3'3- ". g-

quandS (interrog.), derivation, 11: meaning, 156. jf: inttef., id.; carnal («■««), sat. N.3: temporal,3» ""

quantl, gen. of price. 353. a.

Quantity, gen, of adji. ot deno

1

^^^^P Index of Words and Subjects. 47;^H

^F- eial rales of, 18, 347; nat.ire of, p. 394.

quia, dat, or abl. plur., 104. d.

■ N.; lina1syllablG5,343; p<^Dull!ma<G5yU

qulBnam, .05. i.

f lables, 349-354.

qulBpiam, 105. c, use of. 105. d. N,

quants, w. tantfi, 106. c, 350. r.

quiaquam, decl.. 105, c; use, 105. i.

question?, 334. r.

N., id. h, 20a. *, c.

QuantomT^, conccssivE. 313.

quiaquB, form and decl,, T05, e; use

QUWatUB, IOS.f.

with superlative, 93. c; in general as-

dliasl, with primary tEnses. 31a. R.

sertions, ao2. d; in dependent clause.

QtiaseO (inlensive), 167. *.

id, t\ wiih plural verb, ao5. c. a.

-que (enclitic), added to indeGnites, 105.

quisquis, decl., 105, i.

t; as conjunction, use, 156. a, ao8. b. 3;

qui^ia. decl., 105. c; use, aoa, c.

■ quantity, 348- 1-

■ queO (defective). M4-i--

quB in final clauses (=ut eO) with

■ qaSs, old nom. plur.. 104. d.

subj,, 317. b \ aOn qui!. 311. n.

W Questions, direct, in indio,, 112, a. =10-

quB . , . e5, 106, e; 10 denote deg. of

■ aia; indirect, id. / r; double ques-

difference, 250. R. quoad (purpose, etc.), 328. quod for id quod. aoo. i. K.

sult clause in exclani. questions, 33a, c ;

mood in indirect question, 334; in in-

quod (conj.). 156./; mood with. 321;

direct diacourae, 33S ; in inlonnal ind.

in indirect discourse, id. a\ subst.

disc.. 341- "■

dause with, 333; as ace. of specifica-

qid (teiadve), decL, 103; (inlerrog. and

tion, id. a; with verbs of feeling, id. b\

quod in inleimedime clauses, 341. c.

qui— ut is. with subj., 317, 319 ; qui

andK.

quod aclam (proviso). 320. d.

qid (adverbial). 104. c.

quod ai, use, 156. b, 240. b.

quioum, 104. c.

quoin(seeCUD0),7, 156./,

quia, use, 156./; causal, 321; w. verbs

of feeling, 333. i; in inlermediale

of hindering, 317- *■ N- 1, 319- C 33i- '■

clauses, 341. rf.

quicumquc, docl., 105. a.

clauses. 321.

quid, in excL, 240. d. N. I.

quoque, use, 151. a ; position, 345. *.

quldam, decl., 105. c; meaning of. ao=.

quot, indeclinable. 106, a.

Quotation, forms of. w. apud and In.

quidem. use. 151. i\ wiUi le ot idem,

258. e, a, N. a ; direct and indir., 335.

195.1; position of, 345. *.

quotua qulsque. 105. t.

qunibet, decL, 105. e; use, 20a. f.

quu-(cu-),7.

quin. w. Indic. equivalent to command,

quum (conjunction), 7 (see cum}.

269./: in result-clause (=quInBii).

319. d; w. vbs. of hindering, 33a. g\

B subsl. for B between sonants, 11. a. p.

nOn dubita quin, 333.^-. R.

26, fbol-n. a; r- in adj. stems, 85; ir-

Quinary or hemiolic measures, 356. d.

inuoun^tems,4B...

ra (la), primary suffix, 160.1. ^^H

76.1.

rftatrum, plu. in -a and -I, 78. a. *. ^H

quippe, vrith relative clause, 3S0. e.s.i-.

ratifine, as abl. of manner, 248. K. ^H

with cum. 3j6. K. i.

ratufl, as pres. part, ago. b. ^H

Qumtea, 79. c.

rftvia, decl., 56. n.

quia, decl.. 104; distinguished from qu]

re- or red- (prefii), 170. b.

in use, id. a. and N.; compounds of

rsRpae, 100. c.

(aliqulB. etc.). .05; quia with al.

Receiving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294. rf.

num, nS, 105, d; indet use of. aoa. 0.

qtiis est qui, 320. a.

I

Index of Words and Subjects.

reoordor, witli ruc. zig. i. Fflotum ent ut. 351. nd-. we ro-.

Reduplioition, T13. c.la4.«,p.iao, isB.f; inporfcctolcDDJ. lll„id,;liBtofverbs, 131. # ; losi In fidi, etc., id. 133. / n, ; rule for ijuanlily, 351. c.

rfrtrt, with gon, or possessive adj.. aia; iilliBr aomt.. Id. i.

Kelerancc, otijcci of, aiB.

RefEienuD.pranouns of. 195.0; comrnonly omlltfld. Id. t\ dative o(, 335; gen. of «pflcincHlion, aiS. e.

Rpflaxlvo pronouns, 98. a. a, i, loa. r. N. ; Syntax of, 196; of 1st and ad person, Id. A,

Kpflcxlve verbs (deponent or passive), 118, fool-n., 135. <; use of pHstive, III, N. t ; with object ace., 340. N.

RofuilnB, vbt. uf, w. quflmlnua, 319. c.

Regular verb, isi-136.

Rolatlonahlp, tiount of, 164. i.

KelatlveadJoctlvH, w.gen,. 9:B,wIlha,^.

RaluUve advorlis, mod correlatively, 107 : lued lo contiect Independent sentences, 180./ BOI, *; - pronoun with prep., aof.n; relisrrinf lolooadvB.aot./; used Instead olrcl.proa..ld./a, 307, a; used In reintlvB olauses of purpoM.st?; of reiuli, 319; position, 301, c.

Rolatlve ciauBei, defined, iSo. e; w. rela- lWe»il<i».,3Ci..A. ^jmtax, ^16-316; con- ditional, 316; final, 317,318; consecu- llve, 3191 choraclerlslic, 310; cntisal, 311 1 temporal, 033-398 ; rel. clauses In Ind, dise., 340; position of rel. clause, 345. 1. (Note on origin and olassllica- tlon, p. 339.)

Kclalive pronouns, dec!.. 103 ; forms how distinguished fi^m interrogative and Indof.. 104.0; compounds of, 105 ; rela- tivesasconnectives, 180./ .^j«/<u.i9S- 301; rules of agreement, 198. 1991 w. Iwo antecedents, 198.0; rel. in agree- ment w, appos., etc., 199: use of the antecedent, aoo; ipeciai uses of rel.

nil. In L verb agreeing w., 004. a; ab after conip., 347. a. N. ; positlo Note on, p. 186. reUnQoitur ut, 333. a. reJiQuuia est ut, 331. <i. 'tqaua, ase, 193 ; r«llquV u

s-of

Remembering, vbs, o£ e

in£,;z7i. Reminding, vbs, of. consir., 319. c. Removing, vbs. of, «, abl., 343. a. [r8n],decl..s4.3. repetundBiruin. tji. a. Repeated aciion as general con;

309- *■ RtptaatHlalia, 376. i K.; in ind. di

336- B. a. Requesting, vbs. of, consir.. 330. a. requlfia, deel., p. 41. fooi-o. i ; 78. 1 r6B. decl., 71.

Resisting, vbs. of, constr, 317, 319. A Resolution of syllables in Prosody. 357. , coostr. (sobjuna ~

int.), 3

withu

roBtie, decl.

Restriction in subJunctivB clause, 330.

Result, clauses oi, 180, e, p. 343; se- quence of tenses in, 387. c; infie. of, 373. g. Subjunctive witli relatives 01 ut, 319; negative result with ut &C11. etc.. ill. a, d. iu ; result-clause equiva- lent to proviso. Id. t; with quOml- nus, id. c\ with Qulo, Id. d; o( characteristic, 330; with expressions

I

id. a

with Qdub and eOlus, id. i\ comparatives, id.<;; wilhcUgrmxa, id. /. Subst. clauses of result aftei faclfl, etc., 33a; as subject, id. quam.id.j; in etclamatory quest id. c; tantum e,t>est ul " thought as result, \i./.

Result, ivouns, denoting, 163. e.

rfite, decl.. 57. a.

rSx, decl., 46.

Rhetorical questioni In ind. disi

rhtls, decl.. 67, a.

Rhythm, development of. Note, p. nature of, 355.

Rhythmical reoding, 359. ».

rt-, adj.-stem5 in, 84. a.

rttO, abL of manner. 348. R,

rivMlB, decL,S7.*.

Rivers, names o^ gender, 39. i and a.

ro-slems, decl. 11.. 38: adj.-stems, 83.

1

^B Index of Words and Subjects. 479 '^^H

Kftoman writers, Appendix, p. 439.

Saying, verbs of, constr,. 330 ; in passive,

KKomance (gr Romanic) languages, Ap-

id. a. i. 336.

■ pendii, p. 437 ; eomparalive forms, id.

BC preceding stem-vowel of verb, 113.

Root, deBnod.aa, iS7:orvbs.. 117.1, N. ;

*. I.

flcaber, deel., 82. c.

Scanning, 359. *, 356. N.

of rools lost in Lat. aa. N.: root used

acillcet, derivation, 148. N. ».

H as stem, 123. i, / 158 ; as word, p. 163.

Bclii, contracted form for aclans, 13, c.

K«Bb, deeL, 77. 6.

SclpladgB, 37.

Kiv, as stem ending, 48. '.

8ClO, imperative ol. 269, i.

V^. nouns in, 67. d.

sciscO, e.instr., 331.

» W-, stems in, deel., 87. b.

setts, BCltSte, imperative forms, 128. c.

ruber, decL, Ba. c.

369.*.

rOri, locative, 6a, 258, d.

-ecO (inceptive], verbs ending In, 167. s.

rOB, 67. K 77. 6. a; constr, 358. 4, *, d.

sorobs, deel.. 54. 2.

eS- or afid-, insepar. prefix, 170. 6.

■ 8 changed 10 r. 1 1. a. i ; p. a6, foot.-n. 3 ;

ae, reflexive, ded., 98. a. b; use, 196;

k substituted for d or 1. 11. 0. a ; 8 final

Inter aS, 99. d.

■ elided, II. i(. 3: -e as sign of nam., 39.

P t, ^^. iA, T^ 85- ft""-"- p. »s; -a

pres. stem, bow fonned, 133. a; forma-

■ omitted in inscriptions, 38. N.; -B,

tion of conj. II., 1=6. b; paradigm, p.

noun-ending. decL III., gend., 65. b;

Second Declension, nonns, 38-43; accent

in early Lat., 375. a.

of gen. and voc of nouns in -iua, 19. d, a.

B- as stem-ending, 48. d, 60. d: p. 4.1,

Secondary accent, 19. b. N.

foot-n. I ; of adjs., 85. 6. N. ; of com-

Secondary object, 339, a.

paratives, 86. a; appareni a-stcms.

Secondary suffixes, defined. 139.

p. a6, (ool-n. s.

Secondary lenses, 285; rule ^r use ol.

B as sufBi of perfect, 114. *; list of vbs.

2B6 ; pert def. more commonly sec-

ofconj.m.w.pert.inB,i32.fl.

ondary, 287. a ; perf. subj. in clauses of

safer, deel., Ba. c\ comp., 91. d.

result used after. 2B7. c; hist, pres., id.

t: imperf. and pluperf. subj,. id. / f.

aftl,decl..77.6.

present used as if secondary, by syiuiis,

SalomiB, dec].. 63. a.

id. A.

aalQbor, deel., 84. 0.

Beoundum, 132. 0; prep, use, 153. ^H

Balvfl, defective, 144./

BecQrlB, deel., 56. 6, 57. a. ^M

B&ne Quam, 334. *.

Becus, indecl. noun, 77. i ; use, 240. *. ^H

BaBffUis, deel.. (r;. b.

aecua (adv.), comp., 9a. ^H

Sanskrit forms, see notes, pp. 14, 26, Si,

eecQtUB (as pres. part.), 390. 6. ^^|

B3, 433. 434-

Bed-, see a6-. ^M

Bapleos, dec!., 57. b.

Bed compared with verum, etc, 156. i. ^H

Sapphic verae, 371.6.7.

aedes, deel., 59. ^M

Batagffi, with gen., 233.

eedne, deel., 52. ^H

satl&a, deel., p. 41. fbot-a. i.

Selling, vbs. of, 252. d. ^H

eementta, dec]., 56. i, 57. i. ^H

dat., 227. i; nOn sailB, 93. i; com-

Semi-deponenis, 136. ^^

pounds of, w. dal.. 207. e; aatlB

eeb (satlB habeS), uith per^. inlin..

Semi-vowels, land T(u), 4.

aenatl, seoKtuoa, forms of gen. In

Bat Vtr, genitive of, 41. b; deel., 8a, b\

deel. IV., 70.

comp., 91. d.

Beme-x,dec\„to. c.fev. -i*Lvwa&>i-,'««'-V^^_

Sularmm vaae, 374. 0.

\ com^a.ruran.s^-'^- ^^H

48o

Index of Words and Subjects.

bSds, 03 participle of esae, tig. a. Sentence, deifelopment, p, 163; defined,

171; simple or compound. 180 (com- pare Nole, p. 339) ; incomplete, ac*. aentla, decl., 77. 7. Separation, dat, of, after comps, of ab,

d$, ex, and after adi^S, sag: ah\.,

343 ; gen. for abL, 323. i. 3, 243. / K. Sequeneeoflenses, 385-237; inind.disc.,

336. B.; in conditional aenlencei, in

ind. disc, 337. i. sequester, decl., 7S. 1. 1. sequitiir, with ut, 333. a. aequor, conj., 135. aSrft nocte, 193. N. aeriea, decl., 7+. d. Service, adjs. of, w, diL, 334. a. Service, diL of, 333. a. with tbot-n. Serving, verbs of, uilh dal.. 337. serruB (eervoe), decl., 33. aSstertium, BSeteittua, 377-379 ; how

wrilien in cipher, 380. Beu(alvo),is6.ir,3rs.£. Sharing, adjs. of. with gen., ai8. a, Shavld (auiUlar]'), how expressed in Lai,,

Ml. *. N. Showing, verbs of, with two aces., 339. a. -A, perfect ending, 118. N. bI, p.3Kii w. subj. of wish,s67. #. N. i; A

and its compounds, use, 304. 0, N., 315 ;

A nSa distinguished bom nlal, 315.

a ; al ^ ahtlhtr, 334. /; miror al,

333- "■ Sibilants, 3. Blc.correLwithut, 107,319. R.; with Bl,

304, i, siem (Bim), 119. b. Significant endiogs, 161-164. aUentlS. without preposition, 24S. R. -alila, adj.-ending, 164. n. BilTBBter, decl., S4. a. -aim, old form of pert subj., laS. e. 3.

dat, 234. d. a. almlllter, use, 33 I..fi4-

, iflo.

Simple !

almul with abl,, aor. »,

elmul, Blmul atque (So), 334. Blmiil . , . slmul. 3o8. d.

oinAfiJ, indecL, 67. a. L '^aht, nouns defect, ia, 77. 5.

SbigiUaria latUuri, 75. BlnlBter, dect., Sa. a. BiniS, cotistr,, 331. c. •BiS, noun-ending, 163. t, Eiqula, tied., 105. d. -BiB-, dropped in perf., Ia8, i, sltis, decl, 5a, cf. 56. a. Situation or direction. 335. *. bIvo (bou) , . . Mve, use, 156.

-sS, old form of fuL perfect. laS.

BSdSs (al audSB). 13. c, 136. a bOI, decl., 77. 6, BoleS, semi-dep., 136. BolltS, with comp., 247, i.

aSluB, dsci., 83; with relative

SSracte, decl., 57. d. aordom. delect., 77. 5. Source, expresKd by abl., 044. -sSria, noun-ending, 1&4, 1. 4 ;

adj-ending, id. ^ ; .sOrlnlQ, n

ing, id. i. s. Soapita.. fem. adj. form, 85. <:,

Soun

e Pron

of, expressed by &(%,■ Sparing, verbs of, with dac, 337, 8i>6, with comp., 347. i. Special verb-forms, 133. speciSs, decl., 74. d. SpecificaliDu. gen. of, with adjs.,

aec. of, 240. c ; ab). of, 353. apecua, gend., 6g. a. Spelling, variations o^ 13. apea, decL, 7a, N., p. 41. fool-o. & 3

127-

!S [em-building, aa. I 6t5. w. ablative, 35; Btrig-lllS, decl., 57. Btrix, decl., 54- a.

atruSs, decl., 59. studeS. w. dal., asj. Styx, decl., 6j. i. BU&deO, w. dat., aa?. sub, use, 15a. r, 153;

eub-, in comp. w. adJB.. 93.

verbs, 370. a. c, M. EiUbefi, w. aec., aaS. a. Subjeci,pp. 163,164; define

expressed, 173. 174: mo

vh. agrees w., 204 ; Iwo or

905 ; subj. oirdtted^ 2^ ;

372; in indirect discourse

tion of subject, 343. Subject clauses (infin.), 370, 330; (sub-

junc). 331. tiead-n.

a,d. Subjt

914 Subji

d Iranslali

d; vowel of pres, subj., 116. a. 1, i. I, c. I, d, p. 120, Classificaliop of tises, a6s ; general use, 265 ; hortatory sub]., 366; optative subj., 367; delib- jf subj., 283-287; temporal clauses, 384; polenlial subj., 311. a; subj. of modesty, Id. i; subj.

I inind,(Usc., 336; in Informal Ind. disc,

I 341; ofinfegral part, 341.

I BUbOiea, decl., 59.

I Subordinate clauses, defined, i8a J; use,

[ 316-328 : in ind, disc., 336, 339.

F Subordinate conjunctions, 154. i. 155.

Substance, gea. of, 314. e; abl. of.

^f Sy1labl<

Index of Words and Subjects.

ing, vbs. of, conslr., 238. c, 330./ rales for division of, 14; pure open, etc„ id. d. i; long and slion, iS Synaresis, 347. c. Sjrnaloapha, 359, c, K. Synchysis, 344, k. Syncope, 10. e. Synecdoche, defined, see Glossary.

Synopsis of le

Synlactir

Syntax, 171-346; hisiorical develop-

menl of, N., pp. 163, 164; outline, p.

164. Important rules of !:iyn[ai, p.

3Biff. Syntaxis and parataxis, p. 164.

T changed to 8, ii. a. a, 135; t for d (set. aput). la. e\ t preceding stem- vowel of vb., 123. 4. i; V(B-). supine

toedet, impersonal, 146. J; consli., aai.

b-d. taster, decl., So. e. Taking away, vbs. of, sag. Talent, value o( sBa. tails, 105. g, 106, tallB ut, etc., 319. R. tain, correL wilb quam, 107; correl.w,

ut, 319. H. tamen, 156. 1. k\ as correlative, id. L tametal. concessive use, 156. i, 313. e. tamguam, in conditional

%. id. R.

I

;a/

3'4-

tontum abeet ut, 33a. d.

tantuB, .05.^. 106; tantu

tar, primary suffix, 160. {.

-(Ss, -tlft, noun-endings, it Tflsle, verbs of. with ace, s tSt", as siem-ending, 54. 3.

-te (enclitic), 99.^ TeaL-hing. vbs. of (twi tegS, conj., p. 9S.

Temporal clauses, d(

1

aces.), a3»i^^^H

v.poBtquain,ele.,3a4: w.oum.aas; id prtusquam. 337; 1, d3nec, quoad, 338; re- ■j abl. absolule, 355. d. numerals, 97. b\ conjunctlans,

>st abire, 298. V.

portidpleSj

clossificBlion, mnui- _ 1 of the ind., id. fl-c; ofthesubj..id. J- endings. tiB; forma- tlonof. iad./j,^i sycopsisof, 127; Ind. for Eng. subjunclive, 364. 6; of Ind..

Tenses. ^iCax, 376-183; classified, p. 291; Present tense, 376; Imperieci. 377: Future, 37S; of Completed action, xjif-Ai. ; Epistolary lenses, aSa ; of subjunctive, 283-385 ; sequence rH. 885- 3S7; tenses of the infinitive, a88; tense emphatic, 344. d. 3; leases of inf. to ind. disc, 336. A; tenses of sutjunc^ i> ind. disc, 336. B; afieded by r^r*- imlalia, id. a; in condition in ipd. disc, 337. Notes on origin of synm, pp. 374. ^i.

«. gen., :

.abl.

adv. ending, 148. *, c. terea, decl.. 87. a ; comp.. 91. <^ -terlor, ending, p. 36. (bol-n. Terminalioru of inflection, meaning ol

9o. i; open and close affiles, 34. N

lerminations of nouns, 34; of verb;

Ii3. (See Endings.) -temuB, as adj.-ending.i&|. f : as noun

terra mailque, 358. d, terreater, decl.. 84. a. terus. ending, p. 56. fbot-n. ibic. 366. 0, ,>w™ t-EfiBSsed, !i47.

\Th,.

I Thinking, vbs. int, 173, 330.

' d conjugation, of verbs, ptln, parts. res. stem, how formed, 133. j; 1, 133. i. laS. e\ paradigm, p. S, parad^m. p. loo; list, p. list of veibs, with principal I parts, 132; derivation of vbs. in -uO,

Index of Words and Subjects. :onstt, nlth ace and

483 I

liquid

13,44-67; D

), 51-59; case forms. 56; peculiar forms, 60, 61; Greek nouns, 63, 64 ; rules of gender. 65. 66 ; forms of inflection classified by stems, 67. Tliaiigh, see Altkougk. Tliought. considered as result. 333. / Tbrealening, »b5. of, sar), ^Jp-f.

-tia (-tiSB), noun-ending, 163. (,

-ticuB. adj.-ending, 164.,^.

tigrlB, dec]., 64,

-tills, adj.-ending. 164. m.

-tlm, adverbs in, 56. a. 3, 14B. N. >.

Time (see Temporal Clauses), 264. a;

Time, advs. of, 149. b.

Time, duration of, 356 and b ; time ■mhtn, 356; conesponding to Eng.^/ate, 259. a; time during or within which, w. ordinal, id. c\ distance of time, id. d; abl. abs. lo denote time, 355. and d. i.

Time, mode of reckoning, p.42S.

tlmeO, w. dat., or ace. 337. c ; with sub- junctive, 331./

•tlmua, adj.-ending, p. s6,faot-n.; 164. f.

-tlS, noun-ending, i6a, b, 163. b.

-tl8 (-818). -ttSra.,-tQa (-tfltiB), noun- endings, 163. b.

-tium, noun-ending, 163./

-tiTUB, verbal adj.-ending, 164. /.

--tB,-ltO, frequentative verbs In, (67. b.

To [kos to), 319, d. B.

7.W.,

-top (-Bor) , -trii, nouns of agoncj in.

163. a: used as adjs., BS. c. 1B8. d. •itfirift, noun-ending, 164. 1. 4. -WJrium, noun-ending, 160. b. 164. i. j. -tOrlus, adj.-ending. 160. b; as noun- ending, 164, *. tot. use. 106 and a. totlaom. use, 106. a.

tOtuB, dec!., 83; nouns w., in abl. wllh- oul ptep. (fliKe wheii), 358./ a.

Towns, names of, gend.. ag, 39. 0 ; rtames of towns in -e, decL, 57. d\ locative et, 353. f. 3; as place fiam which, id. a; as place to which, 358. *.

tr-, stems in (pater, e

trfilciS, cor ISra, id.

trans, 153. , ace, 337. and R

, 160. 0.

; liUectua

; adjective:

Trans Transi

use, 175. *. U. !

114.0.

'owel and liquid, g. 4 j

tp6B, decL 94. c.

trl-, stem-ending of nouf

of adjs,, 84. a. Tribe, abl. of, 344. *. K. Tribrach, 356. a. tribQllB, decl., 57. i. tribus. gend., 69. a; decl tiidSns. tied., 57. *. Trimeier. Iambic, 365. Tripioies, 77. 4. trtrSmla, decl., 57. b. •trls, adj.-ending, 164. i. trlumptiO, w. abl., 245. a -trfi. see -tor.

Trochee, 356. a ; irrational, id. N., 369, -tnim, noun-ending, 163. d. Trusting, vbs. of, constr., 237.

t<l[ decl., 93. 1 (see tOte, tQtimet). -to, -bQ. supine-endings, 114. *. -tadO. -tOB. noun-endings, 163. t. tml (tetull). 139; derivation, id., fbob

n. ; quantity. 351. b. Ex. -turn, -Bum, supine endings, 114. 3. turn, tUDO, use.i49.f; correl.w.oiun,

107, 156 *. turn . . . turn, aoS. d. -tfirB, -tna. noun^nding, 163. A -turlO. vbs. in. ^St], t. tuttto, 4tc\- ^1 VkX-<}i.*\-

^m 484 Index of Words and Subjects. ^^H

-urlS, desiderative verbs in. 167. t.

■ 7>.163...

-urnuB. adj. -ending, 164. *.

H -tue, adv.-etiding. 14S. n. ...

-Oros. tuL pari, in, itj. *, 293; w. tul.

H tas (thOo). decL, 77. 6.

H tuasla. d™1..56.a.

a \ -QraA miaae, in ind. disc.. 337. i.

H tatO,99./; tfltlmet, 99./

■Ufl,nom.-ending.decLII..a8,39; -uflfor

■ Two accusatives, 339.

-er in Gr. nouns, decl. II., 43. b; -oa

^1 Th'o datives, ^3. d.

nom.-endingindecl.IIL.48. rf; gend.,

■

6s. c, 67. *; decL IV., 68; gend.. 69;

^B D (t) , ^ consonant. 4 ; afler d, ff , s. 4.

^1 N. 3 ; noi 10 follow u or V, 7 : u fur a

-OS, Gr. uom.-ending, 63. t; -Ob. -fldle.

■ inconj. III,. I96.C.I.

67. d; .Ob. -OtlB. id. ^^

^B U. primary auffii. 160. c. I.

Use. adjs, of, constr.. 834. #. ^^M

H u-stetns, of nouns, decl. III., 60.0.61;

ueQUELin. use, 105. h. ^^^H

H d«l IV.. 63; of verbs, p. S6, 123. d.

UBQue, w. ace, 961. a. ^^^H

W 166. a. 3. <:■

OSUB (mtd). w. abl.. 243. 1. 4^H

liber, decl., 85. *, 87. f.

utd, derivHiioo. 148. N. a ; in temporal

to denote concesson, 11S6. c, 313. a ; w.

clauses, 333, 334.

optative subjunc, 367. i ; in clauses of

ublubl. loj. *.

purp., 317; of result, 319; Tit na,id.fl;

-ubus, in dat. and abl. pL, decl. IV., 70. d.

331. «, I. N, : iitn0n,elc.,3i9.if.R.; ut

-Ul8 (-UOB), In gen., decl. IV., 68. H.,

■70. fl.

clauses w, ut, 331, 33a ; omission alter

-ails, adj.-i;nding, 164. d.

certain verbs, 331. / It., ^ N. i and a;

flllUB, decl., B3 : use, 105. i, 203. t, c.

w. verbs of fearing, 331. / and foot-n. ;

Olterlor, comparison. 91. a.

nitril,i5a.fl: use, 153; following noun.

Ut. utpote, quippe. w. relative clause.

»63.N.

320. r. N. 1 ; w. Ctinl, 3=6. N, 1.

Ut pritnum , 324,

adj.-endlnE, id. 1.

ut somel, 384.

-am for ^rum, 36. d; lot -6rum, 40.

uter, Interrog. and indef. pron., io4.f.

*; -Qm in gen. pl- "i persona] prons.,

ater, decl., ji. *. 54. i, 88. a.

194.*; -Urn for -ium. decl. III., 59:

Uterque, form and decl., loj. ; ; use.

in gen. pi. of Qdjs., S7. d\ for -uum,

aoi d; constr. in agreement and as

decl. IV., 6B. N., 70. c.

utorvto, use. aa2. c.

435-

utl, utlaam, w. sub;, of wish. 067. i.

atlllB. w. dat. of gerund, etc., 199. IboMi.

Unorganiied forms of enptession, p. 163

utpote qt^, 320. *. N. 1. ** fl

and tbot-n.

ator, etc., w. abl., 349: w. >cc. iib,4faj

unquam, use, 105, h.

gerundive use of, 394. <:. N, agt ''•H^M

flat-, slem-cnding. 63, e.

utrum . . . an.aiiand<l -^H

QnuB, ded.,83; meaning, 94. 0, 95. *.

utd, constr., 312. and R. ^^H

llnue q<Sl, w, £ubj., 330. i.

-iltOS, adj.-ending, 164./ ^^H

QnuB qulsquo, decL, 105. / ; use, aoi rf.

utut. 105. i. I^H

uo, suffix, see va.

-UUS. rare nom.-ending, decl IV.. «JBH

-uO, vb3. in, 166. c.

70. i : verbal adj.-ending, 164. i, --' ^

-uos, see -UlS.

-ui (-Or), nouns in, 67.'.

-ur. nouns in. 63. (; -Or. -firla. 67. *;

-ttr, -arlH. -Qr, -arlB, id.

V (ul, p. 3; 4, 7; omitted. «. *. a; ia

—Oft ded.. 54 : use in Klaxons otplace.

tenuis, 16. N.; suflix of pert, IBf.^

^^^^Krbs. of, withut, 331. \ p««eim'e^'A.,i&.o.-,-*».A;||^™

m'

4

■ /fidex of Words and Subjects. 485!

conj. III. w. V in pert., 13a. c\ V ofien

336; passive use of, 272. R.. 330. a-e;

om. in peri', of eS and it* comps..

in poets and later writers, id. d.

141.*: Vbysyn atresia, 347. t.

Verbal nouns wilh dal., 227. d.

TB. primary suf&i, 160. ».

Verbal nouns and adjs. wilh refleiiv(^

vafer.decL, to. e\ comp., 91. A

196. i

TsJde. use, 93. rf; valdS quam, 334, *.

Verbal adjectives, 164. l-p\ in -fti.wUh

Value, gen. of indefinite, 252. a.

gen., 218. b.

Value, measures of; 377-3B0.

Verbal roots. 157. t.

Tannua, gend., 39. a.

vereor. with gen., 333. 6.1\ w. subjuBc

vfipulO, neutral passive, 136. 4.

33t-/

Variable nouns, 78. 79 (cf. 74.*: p. 4r.

verituB. as pres. part., 390. h.

fbot-n. 1).

ver5. 156. 4, k; in answers, aia. a; post-

Variations, see Phonetic Variations iind

.ion of, 343. 4.

Inherited Differences.

Verse. 359.

Variations of spelling, 13.

Versification, 359-375; forms of verS(^

tRs, deoL. 77- 6.

350.

vBs, decl.. 60. d\ 7S. I. 6.

versus, position of, 345. 0.

vRtS8, decl., 59.

verta, constr., 252. c.

-ve, vel, use, 156. c, aia. r.

Vei^l, gend., 69. i ; decl., 70. d.

vel {see -ve), w. superL. 93. *.

vorum or Verfi, use, 156. *, A

voacor, with abl., 249; w. ace, id. i\

vellm, vellem. w. subjunc. (=opi.).

gerundive, 294. c. N., 396. R.

267.<:(=imv.),s69.i'.

veaper, decl., 4t. b.

Tellem, see vellm.

vesperi (loc.),4j.*.2s8.rf.

velutl, velutel. 31a.

vester. decl., 82. c (see p. 64).

vSaeQ (venuin eS). 136. b, 258. b, e.

vesEil as obj. gen., 99. c, 194. i. 1

renum, defect., 77. 3 {ct vSnoO).

veetrtlm as part, gen., 99. b. 194. *, cI N.

TSaemt = aderat, 279. e.

vet3, w. ace. and inf.. 271. h. 330. a, and

\ mm. Etymology. Verb, defined, 25. li ;

inflection. loB-iia; noun and adj.

vetUB, decl., 85. *, 87. e; comparison.

forms of, 109: signiEcadon, of forms.

89. 0. 91. d. 1

111-115; personal endings, 116; forms

-VI in perfect, 118. N.

of the verb, 117. 118 (note on origin

via, abL of manner. 24S. K.

and hist of vb.-forms, pp. 119-izi) ;

vioifl. decl. 77. 7.

_ table of endings, 118 : the three stems.

Vicem, adverbial use of. 240. *.

^L lai i InSuence of analogy, 121. N, 2 ,

vlclnuB, with gen.. 21B. d.

H n^larverbs, I2!!-I36; the fbutconju-

H gatlons. laa and a ; prln. parts 0^ 122. i.

video ut. 331.

vldeor, with dat. 232. c.

H lemi-deponeats, 136; frrqpilar verbs,

vin (TlaQ»),i3. e.

H 137-143; defective, 143, 144; imper-

vlr. decl.. 3a. 41. 4.

■ sonal, 145. i4-. periphrastic forms,

vlr^S. decU 4*

W 147; compound verbs, 170; vowels in

viruB, gender of, 39. 4.

■ comp. verba, 17a a. N. Derivation of

vis, stem. 54.2; decl.. 61.

verbs. 163-167.

viscera, 79. ^

Verbs. Syitlax. Subject implied in end-

vlaS, 167. 1.

'"Br 174- a; rules of agreemenl, 214-

vocailB, decl., 37. b.

ao6:Terbnmitled,si)6.i-; rules ofSyn-

Vocative, 31. e; form. 33. 0. 3; in -I of

tax. 264-342. Cases w. vbs.. see under

nouns in -lUB, ded. 11., 40. e, rf; ot

Accusative, etc. Position of verb, 343,

sdjs. in -lus. Si. a; of Greek nouns.

344-'',/ (See under the names of the

43. h. SyHtai, 241.

Moods. e(c)

Voices, 108. a, wv, iiAM!* >ia\ER,,Vi. 1

■ ftria seniitnin et dUlaranSi, 37a, 530,

lva.S.,\-iV«'

4S6

Index of Words and Subjects.

comps., con]., 13S; w, hifin,, .[ part of, as dal. of reference. ; ; w. pcrC part.. i83. d and H., 399. 1 w. EubJ. or inf., 331. i and N. Tolucer, decL, S4. a. volucrlH, decl., ^. -volua, adj. in, comparison, 89. t.

vBtJ daJnnfttUB, 230. a.

Vowels, I : long and short, how marked, 5; vowels and consonants tbnn icale, id. N.; inherited difTerencei in.g; eon- traction, 10. i \ syncope, id. e ; insei^ tion, id. d; shortening, id. t; dissimi- lation, II. t; pronunciation, 16, 17; long and short, iS; quand^ of Biial vomrels in case-endings, 33. g; vowel modiSed In nouD-slcms, decl. III., 45; lengthened in root, 133. c. i, ia(. d, 15B. *, and N. ; list of vba. w. vowel- lengthening in perf, eoa]. III., 133. r.

s, la6, a

inges, I Vowel-roots of ve Vowel-sufllies (p Vowel-stems, dccL III., S'"59i

163 and foot-n, VlllBTUS (TOlerUfl), gend., 39. *. -TUB, verbal adj.-ending, 164. /.

W, not in Latin alphabet, p. i. Want, words of, with abl., 04.3; will aaa. "43-/

Way by which (abl.), 358,/-.

Weight, roeasurei of, 38a.

Whole, gen. of, B16; numbers expressing

the whole, 216. e. Willi, tut. imv, in, 369. d. 3. Winds, gender of names of, 99. Wish, expressed by subj.. 267; as a

condition, 3ro, A; wish in Informal

ind. disc, 341. f. Wishing, Tcrbs o^ with in£, aSa. d (tl

37E. a) ; with subsl. clause of purp.,

317. d, 331, i; with ace and infin.,

330- 3. 33'- A Wil&BHl, with verbal noun, 993. H. i. Women, names of, 80. c. Words, formation of, 157-170 ; arrange-

menl of, 3')3-346. Would (Eng. auxiliary), how expressed

ya (primary suffii), 160. n. Year, p. 435; months of, pp. 435. 436; date, 059. 1, 276.

, of Gredc origin, p^ I, 6. H.

ABBREVIATIONS

USED IN CITING AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS.

Appuleius: Met, Metamorphoses,

Caesar: B. C, Bellum Civile, B. G., Bellum Gallicum.

B. Afr., Bellum Africa- num,

Cato: R. R., De Re RusHca.

Catull., Catullus.

Cic, Cicero : Ac, Acad., Academica, Arch., pro Archia, Att., ad Atticwn, Caec, pro Caecina, Cael., pro M. Caelio. Cat., in Catilinam, C\\i,^pro Cluentio,

C, M., Cat. Maj., Calo Major,

Inv., de Jnventione. Deiot, pro Deiotaro. De Or., de Oratore. Div., de Divinatione. Caecil., Divinatio in Cae-

cilium, Fam., ad Familiares, Fat., de Fato. Fin., de Finibus, Flac, pro Flacco, Font., pro M. Fonteio, Ad, Her., [ad Heren-

nium^ Inv. R.y de Inventione

Rheiorica. Lael., Laelius {de Ami-

citia), Legg-. ^ Le^ihts. Leg. Agr., de Lege Agra-

ria.

Lig., pro Ltgario,

Manil.,/r^ Lege Manilla,

Marc, pro Marcello.

Mil., pro Milone,

Mur., pro Murena,

N. D., de Natura Deo- rum.

Off., de Officiis,

Or., Orator,

Par., Paradoxa,

Part. Or., ^<tf Partitione Oratoria,

Phil., Philippicae,

Plane, /rtf Plancio,

Pis., «« Pisonem,

Quinct, /r<7 Quinctio,

Q. Fr., <w? ^. Fratrem,

Rabir.,/rtf Rabirio.

Rep., ^ Republica,

Rose. Am., /r^ Roscio Amerino,

Rose. Com., /r^ Roscio Comoedo,

Sest, /rtf Sestio,

Sulla, //-<? 5«//fl.

Top., Ti^iVfl.

Tusc, Tusculanae LHs- putationes,

Univ., <jfe Uhiverso.

Vatin., in Vatinium.

Verr., ii« Verrem, Ejin., Ennius. Gell., A. Gellius. Hor., Horace :

A. P., De Arte Poetica,

£p., Epistulae,

Epod., Epodes,

Od., Odes,

Sat., Satires, Juv., Juvenal.

Liv,, Livy, Lucr., Lucretius. Mart., Martial. Nepos. Ov., Ovid :

F., FasH,

M., Metamorphoses,

Epist ex P., Epistulae ex Ponto,

Trist, Tristia, Pers., Persius. Phaed., Phaedrus. Plant, Plautus.

Am., Amphitruo,

Asin., Asinaria,

Aul., Aulularia.

Bac, Bacchides,

Capt, Captivi.

Cist, Cistellaria.

Cure, Curculio,

Epid., Epidicus,

Merc, Mercator,

Mil., Jl/i7^J Gloriosus,

Most, Mostellaria.

Pers., Persa,

Poen., Poenulus,

Ps., Pseud., Pseudolus,

Rud., Rudens,

Stich., Stichus,

Tr., Trin., Trinummus.

True, Thtculentus, Plin., Pliny, senior :

H. N., HistoriaNaturalis, Plin., Pliny, junior :

Ep., Epistulae, Prop., Propertius. Q. C, Q. Curtius. Quint, Quintilian.

\

488

Abbreviations Used.

Ep. Mhhrid., Epistula

SU. It, Silius Italicus.

Mtthrtdatts.

Suet, Suetonius.

Heaut, Hem^

Jug.. Jvgurtha.

Tac., Tacitus:

memos.

Sen., Seneca:

Agr., Agricola,

Hec, Hecyreu

E^.. Epistulae,

A., Ann., Annales.

Vh^ PManmo,

Here. Oct., Hercules Oe-

H., Histartae,

ViignVirga:

taeus.

Ter., Terence :

Mii,,jEsui4L

Q. N., Quaestiones NtUu-

Ad., AdelpJU.

EL, Eclogue,

rales.

And., Andria,

G.,GeorgueL,

ADVERTISEMENTS.

n

n

j

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