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r«9 BAWSOM E

AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE

ON

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE

WINE MAKING.

ETER

JtZuslrated with nearly ZOO Engravings drawn from Nature*

NEW- YORK :
Harper & Brothers, Publishers, Franklin Square.

1867.

*

M

ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by
HARPER & BROTHERS,

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern
District of New- York.

JOHN A. GR'A'Y-& GREENY-

FRUITERS,

10 & !8 Jacob Street, New-York.

f

R E F A C E

THE present volume has been prepared in compliance with the
urgent request of friends in various parts of the country.

We conceive that an elementary work on the vine, to possess
the highest practical value for the amateur, as well as the gar
dener and vineyardist, should treat of all the facts and principles
involved in the subject, laying them clearly in order before the
student, and linking them together with just so much of the
theory as is necessary to explain lucidly their relation to each
other, and unite them in the mind of the student in one harmo
nious and systematic whole. This is what we have aimed to accom
plish in the present work, indulging in no theorizing speculations,
and introducing nothing of doubtful verification. We have given
a simple record of our own practice and experience, stating no
fact that we have not repeatedly verified, and which may not be
repeated by others, with like results. We have striven to make it
a safe guide to all.

Although Grape Culture, and especially Wine-Making, are yet
in their infancy in this country, the principles and conditions upon
which success depends are so well established that, if we walk in
the full light of the knowledge we have, we need tread no doubtful
path. Though the work is strictly elementary, we have by no
means intended to make it in any degree superficial, and have
therefore labored to leave no important practical question unsolved ;
indeed, some points, that have heretofore been entirely neglected,
or very briefly noticed, are here treated with a degree of minute
ness somewhat commensurate with their importance, as will bs
seen, among others, in the chapters on " Varieties," " Ripening,"
and " Taste."

The engravings are so true to life, and so admirably executed,
that they may be said, in some sense, to present a treatise in them
selves, from which may be obtained a good knowledge of the
operations to be performed, as well as the manner of doing them.
Our acknowledgments are made elsewhere.

February 5, 1867. PETER B. MEAD.

31 35*3

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I. PAGE

INTRODUCTION, 5

CHAPTER II.
Climate — Location — Exposure — Shelter, 11

CHAPTER III.
The Soil and its Preparation— Manures, 20

CHAPTER IV.

Laying out the Vineyard, 29

CHAPTER V.
Planting the Vineyard, 34

CHAPTER VI.

Training — First and Second Years, 50

CHAPTER VII.

Training — Third, Fourth, and Fifth Years, .... 73

CHAPTER VIII.

Training — Guyot — Guyot Improved — Upright Stock with alternate
Spurs— The Bow System— The Jura, 89

CHAPTER IX.

Training — Thomery, '. . 121

CHAPTER X.

Training — Various Forms, ... 144

CHAPTER XI.

Description of Varieties, . . ..... 159

4: CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XII. PAGE

Description of Varieties — Continued, 171

CHAPTER XIII.

Taste, as applied to Fruits, 225

CHAPTER XIV.
When Grapes are Ripe, ........ 236

CHAPTER XV.
Propagation, 249

CHAPTER XVI.

Propagation — Continued, 27*7

CHAPTER XVIL
Additional Remarks on Planting, 295

CHAPTER XVIII.

Replacing and Renewing Spurs and Arms — Opposite Arms —
Length of Arms — Their General Management — Overcropping, 805

CHAPTER XIX.
Stakes and Trellises, 329

CHAPTER XX.

Cultivation — Winter Management — Marketing — Tying — Growing
Plants between the Rows — How to keep Grapes in Winter —
Shelter for Protection and Ripening — Manures — Non-manuring, 340

CHAPTER XXI.
Diseases and Insects, 374

Part Second.

CHAPTER XXII.

Plan of Quesnel — Modes of Bedding Vines — Plan of Charmeux —
Ground Training — Training without Stakes— Training on Trees
and Trellis combined — Ringing the Vine — A Mildewed Leaf —
A Rack for Stakes—" Heeling in," 399

CHAPTER XXIII.
Wine Making, ........ 420

CONCLUSION, . 469

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION.

THERE are few material interests that at pres
ent claim a larger share of public attention than
the culture of the grape. This is true, whether
we regard the grape as something that ministers
to our enjoyments, or fills our pockets with gold.
We have thought, therefore, that an elementary
work on the grape, plain and practical, would
now possess a certain degree of interest, and be
of some value to the public. It would not be
possible, of course, to exhaust such a subject in
an elementary work ; we must necessarily treat
it with much brevity, but we shall endeavor to
present such a resume of the details and prin
ciples of grape culture as will enable any intelli
gent person to grow good grapes, and even make
good wine. The subject, indeed, is worthy of
profound study for the sake of its own pure

6 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

and simple pleasures. It may at first seem a
little dry in its details to the uninformed ; but
in its fruition it possesses a degree of fascina
tion which can be claimed for no other culture.
Besides what may be termed its intellectual
pleasures, it has an interest of a more material
kind, which will address itself not only to
those who wish to grow their own grapes and
drink their own wine, but more especially to
that large class who look at the subject from
the stand-point of profit.

We do not propose to indulge in figures,
whether of arithmetic or the imagination ; but
we may say that grape culture is fast working
itself up to the first position among the pro
ductive interests of the country. The capital
invested in it may already be counted by mil
lions; and a time will come when the pro
ducts of grape culture will be found among
the exports of the country. It is not claimed
that we shall make better wines than those of
Europe ; but we can and shall make them
purer than most of those sent to us ; and pure
wines will always find a good market and high
prices wherever wines are used. Besides, our
best wines will possess a fruity bouquet natu
ral to but few of the wines of Europe ; a bou-

INTRODUCTION. 7

quet that grows upon the taste, and which will
make our wines sought after by all connois
seurs. It is safe, then, to say that the products
of grape culture will at no distant day have
an important commercial value, as respects our
foreign trade. They already have a very con
siderable value in our internal trade ; for, not
to speak of the vast quantities of grapes that
are consumed for the table, it is an indisputable
fact that American wines, some of them con
fessedly impure and of inferior quality, are to
day selling in New-York for higher prices than
imported wines of better quality. This is an
anomaly, however, which must soon necessarily
disappear. The purchasers of these inferior
wines are not found among those who know what
a really pure and good wine is ; and there are
unmistakable indications that the public taste is
happily being educated up to that point where
pure and excellent wines will be the rule, and
impure and faulty ones the exception. There
we may safely leave the subject.

Fears are sometimes expressed that grape
culture will soon be carried to excess ; that the
market will be overstocked, and prices, conse
quently, cease to be remunerative. More than
fifteen years ago we heard the same fears ex-

8 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

pressed in very much the same terms ; and to
day we have a sufficient answer in the fact, that
grapes are now selling for three and four times
as much as they did fifteen years ago. This is
readily accounted for in the simple fact, that
the demand has kept steadily in advance of the
supply, notwithstanding the largely increased
area of cultivation. A little reflection will con
vince the most obdurate of doubters that this
must continue to be the case for many years to
come. Let us for a moment look at some plain
facts, within the reach and comprehension of
any common-sense man. Taking the last cen
sus tables as a basis, we may safely assume that
our population will increase for the next hun
dred years at the rate of forty per cent per
decade. Let us then take into consideration
the fact, that the taste for grapes and other
good fruits is rapidly spreading among all class
es of the people, so that fruit consumers here
after will form a relatively larger proportion
of the community than heretofore. If we put
these two facts together, we may even take as
a standard the rapid increase in grape culture
which has been witnessed during the past five
years, and the conclusion will still be unavoid
able, that the demand will be far in advance

INTRODUCTION.

of the supply : the mouths will multiply faster
than they can be filled. This must be the case,
however large the number of propagators may
be, or however vast their facilities for multiply
ing the vine. The man has yet to be born who
will be able to purchase our best native grapes
for less than fifteen cents a pound. We know
that grapes can be profitably grown for much
less than ten.

From what has been said, we are justified in
concluding that grape culture is rich in the ele
ments of pleasure and profit. There is one
other point that may be glanced at before pro
ceeding to the more immediate object of this
work. A good deal has been said, at times,
about the morality of the subject ; the wicked
ness of growing grapes for the purpose of mak
ing wine. We do not propose to discuss this
point. The limits prescribed to this book will
not permit it ; besides, it is really not necessary
in this connection. We may remark, however,
that our efforts to benefit mankind will be suc
cessful just in proportion as we deal with them
as they are, and not as we would have them.
We usually fail because we begin by supposing
men to be what we only propose to make
them : an inversion which defeats our purpose.

10 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

JVJjea-will .drink wine of some kind, reason as
we may. Accept the fact, and strive to teach
them to drink only that which is pure, and thus
prepare them for the next higher step in moral
progress, the drinking of no wine at all, if that
be necessary, which some will doubt. Wine
is not the only blessing that is abused ; but it
can hardly be said that pure wine makes
drunkards. The wine countries of Europe
prove quite the contrary. We have no hesi
tation in recording our conviction, that grape
culture may be made the handmaiden of the
temperance cause.

CHAPTEE II.

CLIMATE LOCATION EXPOSURE— SHELTER.

I'S our Climate adapted to the Vine? — We
do not propose in this little volume to give a
botanical description of the grape vine. Those
who are in present need of that knowledge
may consult Gray's Botany, or some other with
in their reach. The question, however, natur
ally arises at the start, whether our climate is
adapted to the successful growth of the vine.
This question, often asked, may be answered by
pointing to the many successful vineyards scat
tered over the country. The vine, in fact, is in
digenous to almost every part of the American
continent. As it is the improved forms of our
native kinds that we depend upon, there ought
to be no doubt of the compatibility of our
climate with success. Foreign varieties have
been tried, and failed. Seedlings of the native
vines have been grown with eminent success.

12 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

Their relative merits will be discussed here
after.

Location. — Having determined upon plant
ing a vineyard, the first point to engage our at
tention will be the selection of a proper loca
tion. We attach more importance to this than
some others do. It is said that we need not
be particular on this point, since the vine is
found growing wild almost every where, even in
swamps. This is true ; but the fruit produced
upon vines growing in wet places is very ill-fla
vored ; redolent, indeed, of that peculiar odor
popularly called " foxy ;" the skin is thick,
tough, and acrid, and the flesh hard and indi
gestible. If the same vine be removed to dry
soil, and cultivated, these offensive characteris
tics become in a small degree mitigated ; show
ing conclusively the ameliorating influence of
culture and position. The fruit even of the
cultivated vine is more or less affected by what
is called a " wet season :" it is found to lose a
portion of its tenderness, and to deteriorate in
flavor. These, and other facts, must necessarily
lead us to attach much importance to the selec
tion of a location that is naturally dry ; and
the experience of the great mass of cultivators

LOCATION. 13

will be found to agree with this. An opposite
opinion will be found to prevail only among
those whose experience in the vineyard is of a
limited nature. If circumstances should com
pel the selection of a location not naturally
dry, then recourse must be had to artificial
drainage, and this should be of the most thor
ough kind. We should give a decided prefer
ence to tile drain. If tile can not be readily
procured, then we must use stone; and these
should be so well laid in the bottom as to pre
vent the possibility of their being disturbed or
clogged up by the adjacent soil. The location
must not only be dry, but the grade must be
such that no surface water can remain on it at
any season of the year. Surface water, espe
cially in the winter, is a prevalent cause of
the winter-killing of vines, both old and young,
but particularly the latter.

In selecting a site for a vineyard, low grounds
should, if possible, be avoided. There are many
objections to them, chief among which are
these : they are subject to heavy cold fogs and
vapors, and strong currents of cold air; they
are more or less damp in spring and fall, and
liable to early and late frosts ; all of which are
great impediments to the successful culture of

14 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

the grape. Hillsides have always been favor
ite spots for the grape; cultivators concede
their peculiar fitness with great unanimity.
Declivities, gentle slopes, in short, almost any
elevated spot free from dampness, may be se
lected as a suitable place for a vineyard. But
the best of all places is, undoubtedly, some ele
vated spot bordered by a large body of water.
Hence the fewer casualties, the greater certain
ty of the crop, and the superior quality of the
fruit grown in such localities as the Hudson
River and the Lakes. There are several reasons
for this, the chief being the ameliorating influ
ence exercised by the water. The temperature
of the surrounding air is very even ; sudden
changes being comparatively rare, or at least
shorn of most of their ill effects. Early and
late frosts are not of such frequent occurrence,
and the growing season is thus prolonged
These facts will account for individual cases of
failure or success, which seem at first to set at
naught all our efforts to refer them to any par
ticular cause ; though it can not be denied that
hidden causes are often at work, the results of
which may be seen, but can not well be over
come. The cause of disease being unknown,
the application of remedies becomes altogether

EXPOSUKE. 15

a matter of chance : we are just as apt to kill
as cure.

In selecting a site for a vineyard, wherein no
inconsiderable capital must necessarily be em
ployed, prudence would suggest that we seek
the advice of some experienced friend, whose
practiced eye would quickly detect most of the
conditions which are favorable or unfavorable
to the successful growth of the vine. We
have received many letters, asking whether
some particular spot is adapted to the grape,
to which we have but one reply: the con
ditions can only be safely determined on the
spot ; and it should not be concealed, that in
some cases, even where the best judgment has
been exercised, hidden local causes will operate
to defeat in a measure our purpose.

Exposure. — Having thus briefly treated of
the location, we pass next to the subject of ex
posure, by which is meant the aspect which the
vineyard should have in reference to the points
of the compass. On this point some diversity
of opinion exists among practical men, owing,
no doubt, to the fact that good grapes have
been grown in various exposures. There is a
pretty general agreement, however, that a south-

16 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

era exposure is best, some claiming a preemi
nence for one facing southeast, and others again,
but fewer in number, one looking to the south
west. Our own preference, all things consider
ed, is for one facing the southeast. But, after
all, the exposure must, in some degree, be de
termined by the local surroundings. A vine
yard may be safely planted with an exposure
ranging any where from east to south and west ;
but we should hesitate to plant one looking
due north, if we proposed to make wine. We
might, under certain circumstances, plant one
thus situated, and expect to get some good
grapes for the table, but ripening a few days
later than those having a southern exposure.

The objects to be attained by exposure con
sist chiefly in the admission to the soil and
vines of a due proportion of the sun's vivifying
rays, and shelter from prevailing cold winds ;
and here, again, we must bring to our aid the
exercise of a discerning judgment.

Shelter. — This is so intimately connected with
location and exposure, that we shall treat of it
here. It is a subject of very great importance
in its bearings on the well-beino; of the vine-

o o

yard, and one to which, strangely enough, vine-

SHELTEK. 17

yardists have hitherto given very little attention.
We know of vineyards that only require ap
propriate shelter to make them yield highly re
munerative returns. There are probably many
such all over the country, the owners of which
are mourning over their small success, while
their vines are a prey to early and late frosts,
mildew, tempests, and other casualties, which
could be measurably controlled by proper shel
ter. The object of shelter is to protect the vine
yard from high and cold winds, and incidental
ly to secure freedom from unseasonable frosts,
mildew, and analogous casualties. The atmos
phere that surrounds the vineyard should
be warm, and not liable to sudden changes.
The heat and moisture that exhale from the
earth should not be liable to be blown sudden
ly away. The leaves should not be torn and
twisted by strong winds. With all these, we
should avoid destroying the life of the air :
there should be gentle breezes passing around
and between the plants, the leaves, and the
fruit. Shut out rude Boreas, but let the
Zephyrs wanton as they will.

These leading objects can be measurably at
tained by affording proper shelter. A board

fence will often answer a good purpose, and is

2

18 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

always better than no shelter at all ; for simple
as it may seem, the influence of such a fence is
felt for several hundred feet. In some cases suffi
cient shelter may be found in the natural wood
surrounding the selected site; but in others, and
the great majority of cases, it will be necessary
to make the shelter by planting trees. Of de
ciduous trees, we should select the birch or
the maple. If the ground could be spared, we
should plant two rows of trees, though one row
will answer the purpose very well. The birch
we should plant three feet apart each way ; the
maple, four feet apart. Of evergreen trees, we
should select the Norway spruce, and plant
four feet apart. The evergreens will make much
the best shelter. The sheltering belt should be
so arranged as to afford protection against prev
alent winds, and these, in most cases, proceed
from the northeast, north, and northwest ; some
times from some point south. Wherever they
come from, let them be shut off by belts or
clumps of trees.

. A caution may be added, not to plant a belt
or clump of trees in too close proximity to the
vines. The roots of the trees will soon find
their way among the vines, and damage them
greatly. We have seen instances where at-

SHELTER. 19

tempts were made to check this evil by opening
trenches and cutting off the roots; but the
check proved to be only temporary. If large
trees surround the vineyard closely, ventilation
is materially interfered with. There are other
evils which we can not allude to here. The
distance at which clumps and sheltering belts
should be placed may be determined by the
kind of trees and the distances at which they
are planted apart. The proper distance for
belts and clumps is about fifty feet from the
vines. A hedge proper of Norway spruce,
planted for a height of ten to fifteen feet, may
be placed as near as twenty-five feet ; but forty
would be better, with the height of the hedge
increased to twenty feet.

We must not be understood as saying that
shelter is indispensable to all localities; we
know of vineyards that yearly produce the best
results that have no shelter ; but, notwithstand
ing this, there are many places which, owing to
their geographical position, are liable to sudden
changes and violent winds ; and for all such,
protection of some kind is a matter of great
importance.

CHAPTER HI.

THE SOIL, AND ITS PKEPAKATION MANUKES.

Soil. — The soil may next occupy our atten
tion. What is the best soil for the grape ?
This question has been variously answered.
Those who live in a district where clay
abounds say that a clayey soil is best ; while
those who live where sand prevails will tell
you that a sandy soil is best, and so on. The
solution of these answers may be found in the
fact that good grapes are grown in both
kinds of soil. Our own experience, and a
pretty extended observation among vineyards,
lead us to give preference to sandy or gravelly
loams. It has been said that any soil that will
grow good corn will grow good grapes. We
have no doubt of the truthfulness of the re
mark; and we should not hesitate to plant a
vineyard upon such a soil, if favorably located.
But we may go further, and say that good

THE SOIL, AND ITS PKEPARATIOK 21

grapes may be grown where good corn can not.
Some of the best vineyards about New- York
are planted in light sandy soils, to which muck
has been added with a more or less liberal
hand. There are many localities on Long
Island and in New-Jersey, where light sands
prevail, that could be converted into pro
ductive vineyards at a comparatively small ex
pense. We have never seen better grapes than
have been grown on similar soils properly
treated. The vine has such a wonderful power
of adaptability that the soil, whether light or
heavy, becomes almost a matter of secondary
importance.

Preparation. — Not so, however, its prepara
tion for the reception of the plants. This
should be most thoroughly done. In planting
a vineyard, we are doing a work that is expect
ed to last for generations ; hence, every thing
connected with it should be done in a manner
to insure good and permanent results. Some
soils will need more thorough preparation than
others ; but all will need more or less.

It may, or may not be, that some have recom
mended a more thorough and expensive mode
of preparation than the case calls for. We

22 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTUEE.

leave each one at liberty to judge for himself,
with the simple remark, that money spent in a
judicious preparation of the soil is capital well
invested, which is certain to return a good
interest. A vineyard well prepared will pay
better than one not so prepared : that may be
received as an axiom in vineyard culture.

There are three principal methods of prepar
ing the soil for a vineyard : trenching, trench
plowing, and sulsoiling. The first, except for
small vineyards, and under peculiar circum
stances, may be too expensive an operation for
general adoption : it is chiefly confined to the
garden. The second and third are exceedingly
useful, and may be adopted wherever a plow
can be run. We propose to give a brief de
scription of each of the three methods above
named.

Trenching is done with the spade. It con
sists in first removing the earth from a trench
to the depth that it is proposed to work the
soil, the trench to be of any convenient width,
(say two feet wide,) and as long as the plot of
ground to be trenched. To be a little precise,
we will suppose the soil is to be trenched to the
usual depth of two feet : the trench will then

THE SOIL, AND ITS PREPARATION. 23

be two feet deep. With a line, mark off a
slice two feet wide immediately adjoining the
open trench ; throw one foot of the top soil of
this slice into the bottom of the open trench,
and on the top of this throw the remaining foot
of bottom soil. By this operation the trench
has been filled, and the order of the soils re
versed ; the best, or surface soil, being at the
bottom of the trench, and the poorest, or sub
soil, on the top. We have at the same time
opened a new trench. This is to be filled in
the same manner as the first, and the operation
repeated until the whole plot has been trenched.
The last trench is to be filled with the soil that
was removed from the first. If the plot of
ground is large, some labor will be saved by
making the trenches half the width of the
plot, going down on one side and returning on
the other. The last trench will then be on a
line with the first, and there will be but little
carting needed to fill it. This is a brief de
scription of trenching, but we hope sufficiently
plain to be understood. It will be observed
that our operation has buried the good soil,
and brought the poor or subsoil to the surface,
which must be enriched with muck, manure, or
good surface soil from some other place, and we

24 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

shall have a soil that will bring any kind of
plants to their highest state of excellence.

Trench plowing is much less expensive than
spade trenching, and but little inferior to it,
when well done, putting the ground in fine
condition for growing grapes as well as other
crops. In trench plowing, oxen are to be pre
ferred to horses, their draught being steadier as
well as more powerful. There is no plow in
use at present specially adapted to this work,
and we must therefore take the best we can
get. The cylinder plow, on account of its easy
draught, is perhaps one of the best. Two
plows and two yokes of oxen are used; the
work will be better done, however, if two
yokes of oxen are attached to the second or
following plow. The first plow opens a furrow
as deep as the plow can be driven. The second
plow follows immediately in the same furrow,
and deepens it to the full capacity of the team.
There must be no balks or jumps; the plow
must be plunged in to the beam, and kept there.
Men with spades should follow the second plow,
to remove the stones, and keep the furrow open.
The lot may be plowed round, or in lands ; but
we prefer to return without a furrow, so that

THE SOIL, AND ITS PKEPAEATION. 25

the furrows may all be laid one way ; the work
will be more than enough better to pay for the
additional labor. The work will be easier at
the start, if both plows are run a second time
in the first furrow, and the soil thrown out with
spades ; the plows will move easier in the sub
sequent furrows, as there will be less resistance
to overcome. A common mistake in trench
plowing, (and in all plowing, in fact,) is cutting
the furrow slice too wide. It is true, that by
cutting the furrow slice twelve inches wide we
can get over the ground about twice as fast as
when it is cut six inches wide ; but in the lat
ter case the work is more than twice as well
done ; and since we can not do it but once, let
us do it well. Let the furrow slices, therefore,
be narrow, and the furrows deep. The work
will be all the better if the lot is cross-plowed
in the same way. The plowing may be repeat
ed with advantage as many times as can be
afforded. This would very well meet our idea
of thorough preparation with the plow. The
manures used may be spread on the surface,
and plowed in. The effect of trench plowing
is not only to deepen the soil, but to mix the
surface soil and subsoil together pretty
thoroughly, and thus afford a deeper bed for

26 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

the roots of plants to work in: but among
its most important results is the protection it
affords against the ill effects of sudden changes
of the weather, drought and wetness, heat and
cold, etc.

Subsoiling will next be described. This, for
the vineyard, is the least thorough of the three
methods named. It is but little, if any, less
costly than trench plowing, and should not,
therefore, except for very good reasons, super
sede it. The process of subsoiling is very simi
lar to that of trench plowing. Two plows
are used, the common plow and the subsoil
plow, which is simply a foot-piece in some
wedge-shaped form, attached to a narrow up
right shank. Of subsoil plows, there are
only two or three in use, either of which will
answer the purpose well enough if the furrow
slices are made narrow. Mapes's has the light
est draught. In subsoiling, the furrow is open
ed with the common plow; the subsoil plow
follows in the same furrow, and should be run
up to the beam to make good work. The lot
may be plowed round or in lands; sloping
ground, however, should be plowed up and
down the slope when the soil is at all heavy ;

MANUKES. 27

for the subsoil plow, in such soils, will leave an
opening at the bottom of the furrow, which
will for a time serve the purpose of a drain.
There is this marked difference between sub-
soiling and trench plowing: the operation of
the first is confined chiefly to loosening the sub
soil, while the latter not only loosens the sub
soil, but mixes it with the upper or surface
soil. The value of trenching, trench plowing,
and subsoiling, may be taken in the order in
which they are named ; and it is only the ex
pense of the first which should prevent its gen
eral adoption for fruit culture.

Manures. — A few brief remarks may here be
added on the subject of manures. The vine is
said to be a gross feeder. To some extent this
is true ; yet there can be little doubt that the
excessive application of gross manures is injuri
ous to the quality of the fruit, and enfeebling
to the vine, unfitting it, indeed, to withstand
the changing rigors of our variable climate.
All kinds of manures are said to be good for
the vine, nothing coming amiss. If they are
thoroughly decomposed, and have lost their
grossness and unhealthful qualities, which
produce distended rather than solid growth,

28 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

we shall not object. Coarse, unfermented ma
nures should not be applied to the vineyard,
except when they can be thoroughly and
evenly mixed with and through the soil.
On the whole, we know of nothing so good
as old, well-decayed barnyard manure, com
posted with muck. This, thoroughly worked
in and through the soil at the beginning to the
depth of eighteen or twenty inches, will leave
little or nothing more to be desired. Ashes,
bones, lime, poudrette, etc., have their value, but
should generally be applied as a top dressing,
though they may all be likewise mixed with
the compost last named. In preparing a vine
yard, the object to be aimed at is a thoroughly
good, but not excessively rich, soil of consider
able depth. Depth, indeed, is of more import
ance than great richness, though a pretty good
degree of fertility may be considered indispens
able for a productive vineyard. Where it can
be done, a good plan is to place the materials
of the compost heap in layers, and let them
remain so for several weeks; then turn and
mix them thoroughly, and repeat the operation
every week or so till the compost is wanted for
use. The oftener it is turned, the better it will
be.

CHAPTER IV.

LAYING OUT THE VINEYAED.

Laying out the Vineyard.— Something may
now be added, as to the best manner of laying
out a vineyard. The directions which the rows
should take is a matter of some importance, for
we have no doubt that the thrift of the vines is
sometimes more or less affected by it. Vine-
yardists are not quite agreed as to whether the
rows should run east and west, or north and
south. Local causes, no doubt, operate in some
cases to affect the results ; yet we believe the
weight of authority preponderates in favor of
running the rows east and west; and this agrees
with our own most matured experience. It is
not to be denied, however, that good grapes have
been grown both ways, which will sufficiently ac
count for any diversity of opinion. It must not
be supposed, however, that there is really not,
under given circumstances, some one way better

30 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

than another, though we may not "be able to
state it in general terms. If circumstances per
mitted, we should by all means arrange the
rows so that the morning sun should have free
access to the vines : the nearer this point can
be attained, the better. In the majority of
cases, this point can be secured by running the
rows more or less nearly east and west. On
hill sides there is a necessity, arising from the
situation, that the rows should run more or less
nearly at right angles with the slope of the hill.
" Let every thing be well ordered " will ap
ply to the vineyard, even in matters not affect
ing the health of the vine or the quality of its
fruit. A man's nature and habits may be seen
in the smallest matters of every day life ; a man
of refinement and taste may be as readily recog.
nized by the arrangement of his trees and vines
as by the neatness of his dress or the orderly
disposition of the contents of his library or
parlor. It may not enhance the value, but it
clearly adds to the beauty of the vineyard, to
have the vines planted in an orderly manner.
Some find a difficulty in getting their rows at
right angles ; but there are two or three simple
rules for doing this, which can be readily under
stood by any body. There ought to be no diffi-

LAYING OUT THE YIXEYARD. 31

culty in getting one straight line to begin with.
This ascertained, stretch a string along this line,
and let it project about eight feet beyond the
point or corner where it is proposed to form the
right angle. See Fig. 1. Drive a stake at this
corner, a, and eight feet from it, on both sides,
drive two other stakes, <?, d. With these two
stakes as centers, take a string ten or more feet
long, and describe an arc of a circle; a line
drawn through the point, 5, where the two arcs
meet, will be a right-an
gled line. Tie a loop at
the end of a string, place
it over the middle stake,
0, and stretch the string
so that it passes directly rig. i.

over the point, 5, where the two arcs meet,
and you will have the desired line. By meas
uring off the distances on these two lines, the
rows and the vines will be equally distant
from each other. We have named eight and ten
feet, but any distances will do, so that the last
be greater than the first.

Another simple method is by the use of a
ten foot pole. Ascertain one line as before,
and drive a stake where it is proposed to have
the corner. From this stake measure off eight

-f-

32 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

feet on the line, and put a pin in it. With a
loop attach another string to the stake, and
measure off six feet on it, marking the point
with a pin. Place one end of the pole on the
first string at the point marked by the pin, and
move the other string till the pin in it touches
the other end of the pole, and a right angle
will be formed. Both these methods are sim
ple and of easy application.

Distances at which to Plant. — Something may
also be said here in regard to the distances at
which the vines should be planted, which vary,
among different persons, from two to twelve
or more feet. The discrepancies which exist
among cultivators on this point may be re
ferred chiefly to the different systems of train
ing that have been adopted, and will disappear
as uniformity becomes more general, which un
doubtedly will be the case to a much greater
extent than obtains at present. Vines of dif
ferent kinds possess various degrees of vigor,
and the inference is natural that some kinds
should be planted closer together than others.
The question to be decided is, not how far
apart, but how close together vines may be
planted consistently with the objects we have

LAYING OUT THE YINEYARD. 33

in view in growing them. We shall answer the
question by saying, for general purposes, place
the rows six feet apart, and the vines four feet
apart in the rows, if two tiers of arms are con-
templated. If only one tier, then the distance
between the rows may vary from three and a
half to five feet, and the plants may be five or
six feet apart. For rank-growing kinds, a foot
more may be added in each case. If the vines
are to be trained on stakes, six by four is a
good distance. The nature of the soil and the
mode of training must have something to do
with the decision of this question. The vines
should be planted close enough to check re
dundancy of growth, but not so close as to im
pair their vitality.

CHAPTER V.

PLANTING THE VINEYARD.

Plants and Planting. — This part of the sub
ject would seem to come in naturally at this
point. We shall include under this head, the
Best Kind of Plants to Purchase, Now to Plant,
Best Time to Plant, and Time to Buy. In regard
to the first, vines are divided into, 1st, Plants
from Single Eyes, of which Fig. 2 is a very fine
specimen, and Fig. 3, on an enlarged scale, an
extra fine one, as good, indeed, as it is possible
to make ; 2d, Plants from Cuttings, of which
Figs. 4, 5, and 6 are good specimens of their
kinds from two, three, and four eyes; 3d,
Plants from Layers, of which Fig. 7 is one of the
best examples ; 4th, Plants from Green Wood.
We present these engravings, in order that the
reader may have the means of distinguishing
vines of the best quality from those that are
not. Further on we shall show how all these

PLANTING THE VINEYARD.

35

are made ; at present we simply wish to indi
cate which are best to purchase. For general

Fig. 2.

planting we recommend plants one year old
from single eyes: next, plants from cuttings,
and preferably those from two eyes, or at most
three ; for special purposes, the best form of
layers; and last of all, but especially to be
avoided for the vineyard, plants one year old
from green wood.

Vie. 3.

PLANTING THE VINEYAED.

A few remarks may here be offered in regard
to the relative value of vines one year or more
old. There seems to be a prevalent opinion, at
least among beginners, that, for planting, the
vine increases in value with its age; whereas

Fig. 4.

••c-

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

the very opposite of this is true. We lay down
the general rule, that a well-grown vine is in
its best condition for planting when one year
old. There are but few exceptions to this rule,
and some of these are only seeming exceptions.
The real exceptions are vines that have been

38 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

grown in large pots or tubs, and even these lose
their value beyond the third year. The seem
ing exceptions consist of plants that have been
root-pruned and transplanted when one year
old ; but these are substantially one year old
plants, better if the work has been well done ;
but if not well done, they are not so good.

Skillful nurserymen can, if they will, make
strong.plants out of weak ones by root-pruning
and transplanting; they can even make good
plants exceedingly good in this way, at an in
creased cost ; but they are still substantially
one year old plants. Fig. 8 is an example of a
root-pruned vine grown a second year in a large

Fig. 8.

40 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

pot, and receiving special treatment, with a
view of producing the best description of plant :
nothing could be better. A vine three or more
years old, that has not been transplanted, has
generally but little value ; and yet people very
often pay as much for one such vine as would
buy a dozen really good ones. They are gen
erally bought under the supposition that they

Fig. 9.

will get fruit from them sooner, and more of
it ; but they do neither. The results and
advantages of root-pruning and transplanting
are admirably shown in Fig. 9, a sketch from
life.

These different kinds of plants are not all
planted in precisely the same way, and our
purpose now is to point out the difference. We

PLANTING THE VINEYARD. 41

must here make the preliminary remark, that
the roots of the plants should not be allowed to
get dry. The roots are furnished with many
little mouths, and if these get dried up, they
never reopen. The plant has then to spend a
portion of its vitality in forming new ones,
which sometimes so exhausts it that it remains
feeble during the whole season. Every thing
should be so ordered as to secure, as far as pos
sible, the integrity of the vital principle of the
plant. When the vines are taken to the vine
yard to be planted, they should be covered
with wet matting or cloths, and removed only
one at a time.

First, let us take the single-eye plant. The
ground having been already prepared, we
have nothing to do but dig a hole of the prop
er size, and have at hand some good fine
soil to place around the roots. It is a com
mon practice among beginners to bed the roots
in manure ; a practice that is often fatal to
the best of vines, but especially to those that
are weak. We may remark, in a general way,
that we aim to place the roots from four to
ten inches beneath the surface, according as
the soil is heavy or light. We may also add
the caution, that the soil will sink, but the

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

vines will not. This may be avoided, to some
extent, by working the soil in firmly among the

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

roots, but without packing it. Now dig a hole
about eighteen inches wide and from six to ten
inches deep, according to the texture of the

Fig. 12.

soil, the greatest depth being for light sandy
soil. The hole will then be like Fig. 10, c being

PLANTING THE VINEYAKD. 43

the heap of soil taken from the hole. Next,
with the fine soil at hand raise a cone as shown
in Fig. 11, so that the roots shall be about
four inches from the surface. In the cut, how
ever, the cone is too sharp, except for very small
vines. Now prune or shorten the principal
roots as shown in Fig. 12, and place the plant
on the center of the cone. While the plant is
held in its place with the thumb and forefinger
of the left hand, the roots must be carefully
spread out, ray-like, with the right ; the assist
ant, with a spade, then sifts or shakes in some
fine soil, which must be carefully and firmly
worked in among the roots. By taking a portion
of the roots at a time, and using the unemploy
ed fingers of the left hand, a little practice will
enable one to so spread out and cover the roots,
that no one of them shall come in contact with
another. If the roots are abundant, and over
lap each other, as is the case with the best vines,
the overlapping roots must be held up while
those beneath them are being covered, so as to
place a layer of soil between them. The hole
is then to be filled up, and the cane cut down
to three eyes or buds.

Another plan, well adapted to light soils, and
also to prevent the ill effects of drought, is to

44 AMERICAN GKAPE CULTURE.

make the hole about five inches deeper, and
proceed in all respects as above, except that the
hole must not be entirely filled up ; an excava
tion of five or six inches
being left, which may be
filled up on the approach of
winter. A vine thus plant
ed is shown in Fig. 13.
This is also a good plan for
weak vines, which are very
apt to die if the roots at R

planting are covered as deep
as they should be permanently. As a rule,
the roots, in such cases, should not be covered
more than four inches when the vine is
planted. If water is needed in time of drought,
the hole gives the plant the full benefit of it,
and prevents rapid evaporation. The hole
should be filled in the fall, and the soil raised
around the plant so as to shed water, but should
be opened again the next spring if the growth
of the vine has been weak. A feeble vine thus
planted is shown in Fig. 14, B being the soil
covering the roots, C the depth left unfilled, F
the ground surface, and D the point at which
the cane is to be pruned.

Some kind of protection often becomes neces-

PLANTING THE VINEYAED.

45

sary for the newly planted vine. This may
be cheaply provided by nailing together two

Fig. 14

pieces of board one foot wideband from eigh
teen inches to two feet long, as shown in Fig. 15.
Place this so that the two boards run south
and east, with the plant in the corner or angle.
This will shelter the plant on the north and
west, the points where shelter is most generally

Fig. 15.

needed. Another and better form of shelter
may be made of three pieces of board, put to
gether as in Fig. 16, and placed with the open
side facing the southeast.

Next in order comes the plant made from a

46

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

cutting, which usually presents the appearance
shown in Fig. 17, when grown from a long

Fig. 16.

cane. It will be observed that there are four
tiers of roots. If the roots of the upper tier

Fig. IT.

are good, the lower tiers may be cut away, and

PLANTING THE VINEYAKD. 47

the vine will in that case "be planted as already
described. If the upper roots, however, are few
and feeble, the next tier must be retained, the
upper one shaved off, and the two lower ones
cut entirely away ; for if they were retained
and covered with soil, the lower roots would,
as a general thing, be too deeply planted. If
two tiers are retained, the upper must be held
up by the hand while the lower are being
spread out and covered; and then the same
operation must be repeated with the upper.
But there is no necessity for retaining two,
since the lower roots usually die in conse
quence of being placed so deep in the ground.
With the exception noted, the vine from a cut
ting is planted in the same manner as one from
a bud. When the plant has been made from a
cutting of two eyes, (Fig. 4, p. 37,) there is only
one tier of roots, and the treatment, of course,
differs in no respect from that first described.

Next in order comes the layer, which will
need some special directions. The rooted por
tion of a layer consists of a piece of cane which
has emitted roots from each joint. These roots
are evenly and regularly disposed along each
side, and overlap each other more or less.
These roots should be pruned or shortened to

48

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

about eight or ten inches in length. A layer
thus pruned, and laid in the hole, with the
roots spread out ready to be covered, may be
seen in Fig. 18. Fig. 19 is a front view of
the same vine. The hole should be dug some
six or eight inches deep, as before directed, and
twenty inches square, or large enough to admit

Fig. 18.

the roots when spread out. Proceed as fol
lows : set a stake firmly, to support the vine
while growing ; then place the vine in position
in the hole, and taking the roots on one side,
spread out evenly all that will lie on the soil
without overlapping each other, holding the rest
up ; cover them with an inch or so of soil, and

PLANTING THE VINEYARD. 49

then spread out the others in the same way,
and cover with soil. Having finished one side,
proceed with the other in the same way, and
then fill up the hole. It must be borne in mind,
that in all cases of planting, fine soil is to be
well worked in among the roots.

Fig. 19.

Lastly, we come to the plant from a green cut
ting. We would advise that this be left in the
hands of the skillful nurseryman for a year or
two more, to be manipulated by him into a tol
erably good vine. It is his business, and he
can do it cheaper and better than you can. At

50 AMEKICAN GKAPE CULTURE.

tliat time it may be planted in the manner first
directed. As for buying the vine the first
year — well, we would rather be excused.

We have cautioned the reader against put
ting manure in contact with the roots, and it
will do no harm to repeat the caution. After
the roots have been covered with two or three
inches of soil, all the manure necessary may be
added to the top. A finely prepared compost
may in this way be added with good results^
but care must be taken not to use stimulants
too freely. We want a good healthy growth,
commensurate with the vigor of the vine ; but
beyond this, what is called a " great growth "
is generally an evil, for the wood is made soft,
fails to ripen thoroughly, and is, in conse
quence, often winter-killed ; besides, there are
other and serious evils attending the too free
use of gross manures.

Time to Plant. — In regard to the best time to
plant, vineyardists are not all agreed, some fa
voring the spring, and others, and perhaps
much the largest number, the fall. In some
northern localities spring planting may have
predominating advantages ; but, as a. general
rule, we prefer to plant in the fall, and cover
the vines. If done early, the roots have

. PLANTING THE VINEYARD. 51

an opportunity of establishing themselves in
their new quarters, and are ready for early
spring work. We usually have more time in
the fall, are less hurried, and do the wOrk bet
ter. The vines in the fall are in their best con
dition for handling, and the buds receive less in
jury from the rough usage they generally meet
with in being planted ; in short, all the ma
nipulations incidental to planting can be better
done in the fall. In the spring the buds are
soft, and many of them are rubbed off, leaving
us dependent upon secondary buds and a small
er growth. Every thing seems to be "in a
hurry," and most things get " a lick and a prom
ise," the vines receiving their full share. A
succession of fears worry us from morning till
night; we are strongly tempted to slight our
most important work, and only too often yield
to the temptation.

Time to Buy. — Whatever may be said about
the relative advantages of spring and fall
planting, there ought to be no doubt about the
great advantage of fall buying. The buds are
then firm, and the vines can be handled with
out injury ; the atmosphere is cool and moist,
and the roots suffer but little from exposure ;
there is no danger of the buds swelling during

52 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

transportation ; every thing, in brief, is favor-
able to the lifting, packing, and shipping of the
vines, and they are received in good order. In
the spring, the very opposite of these conditions
exist, and it is no uncommon occurrence to re
ceive vines with the buds gone, bruised, or
started into growth, greatly to the damage of
the vines, and sometimes resulting in much
loss. Our advice is, to buy in the fall ; to plant
as long as the work can be well done ; to "heel
in" the vines that are left over, and finish the
planting early in the spring, or as soon as the
ground has become warm. We should prefer
to buy in the fall, even though we did not
plant till spring. From what we have said,
the reasons will be obvious.

The plants, when received, should be " heeled
In " as follows : select a dry place, where water
can not stand, and dig a trench eighteen inches
deep and from twelve to eighteen inches wide,
throwing the earth all on one side. In this
trench the vines are to be placed close together
in a slanting position, and the roots covered
with soil to the depth of a foot. Where a
large number of vines are to be "heeled in,"
the trench may be dug wider, and when the
roots of the first row are covered, another row

PLANTING THE VINEYARD. 53

may be placed in front of them. Several rows
may be placed together in this way. There is
no danger of covering the vines too deep, if the
soil is dry; the error of not covering them
enough is often committed. The earth over the
trench is to be rounded off, so as to shed water.
If the canes are mostly covered, so much the
better. For additional security, a little brush
or coarse litter may be thrown on the top.
Protected in this way, vines may be kept in
good condition during the severest of winters.

Where a cool cellar is at command, the vines
may be better kept with less trouble. In this
case they should be bedded in clean coarse
sand, that is just moist, but not wet. The
vines may be placed close together on the floor
of the cellar, and the sand worked in carefully
among the roots, which should be covered from
six inches to a foot. The vines maybe packed
in boxes in the same way. If the sand should
get dry, it must be moistened a little, but not
made wet. An advantage will be gained
by pruning the roots before packing them
away. The wounds will callus before spring,
and be ready to emit new roots immediately
after being planted.

Notwithstanding all the advantages of buy-

54 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

ing and planting in the fall, a large majority
will probably continue, as at present, to pur
chase in the spring. They will perhaps be
governed by a desire to save trouble, or the
fear of losing their plants through some mis
management of the details of "heeling in," or
the trying alternations of winter. Under such
circumstances, most of the advantages above
named may be secured for spring by proper
fall management of the plants on the part of
the propagator. The plants should be "lifted"
or dug up in the fall, and the unripe roots, if
any, cut off, and the healthy character of the
plants well ascertained. They should then be
carefully " heeled in " in clean sand in the
manner just described. Careful propagators
have a cellar or pit specially prepared for this
purpose, in which the plants keep admirably,
the conditions of safety being well understood
and thoughtfully provided. Where a cellar or
pit is not possessed, recourse must be had to
the open air. In this case, a place sheltered
from the south should be selected, and the
plants bedded in sand. This may be permit
ted to freeze a few inches, but the frost should
not be allowed to reach the roots. The whole
should then be covered with straw and ever-

PLANTING THE YINEYARD. 55

greens, to prevent thawing till the plants are
wanted in spring. In both these ways, vines
may be kept from growing in the spring for a
considerable time after vegetation has begun in
the open air. In this manner good vines may
be secured for late spring planting, after danger
from late frosts has passed, and with a certain
ty of a good growth, if the vines are carefully
handled, and the conditions of planting duly
observed. Ultimate success depends so much
upon securing a healthy, well-ripened growth
during the first season, that we have dwelt
somewhat at length upon this part of the sub
ject.

CHAPTER VI.

TRAINING FIRST AND SECOND YEAES.

Training. — If our directions thus far have
been clear to the apprehension of the reader,
and have been faithfully observed, we shall
have a good and durable foundation upon
which to build our superstructure. Unlike
many other superstructures, this one must be
built slowly ; as it were, one stone at a time.
The laws of vegetable growth are inexorable.
By no skill of ours can we alter them ; but by
studying their nature and operation, we may
gain as much knowledge as will enable us to
apply them to certain given cases in such a
manner as to produce their legitimate results
with great uniformity ; we may, by judiciously
cooperating with them, and affording the as
certained requirements, enjoy these results in
their most perfect form. It is our purpose
now to state what these requirements are, so

TRAINING — FIRST AND SECOND YEARS. 57

far as we have ascertained them by our own
experience.

There are certain technical terms, the use of
which it is hardly possible to avoid, even if it
were desirable. t The most of these will be
readily understood; those that are obscure
will be properly explained. There are a few,
however, of such various and loose application,
that their use necessarily begets confusion.
Such, for example, is the word lateral, which is
applied to any shoot growing laterally from
another, such as an upright cane, a horizontal
arm, etc. ; it is also applied to the little green
shoot which proceeds from the base of the
leaves, and here it is simply meaningless. Dr.
Grant has introduced the word ihallon for use
here. It is clearly from the Greek #a;Uo<r, mean
ing a small branch, sprig, or little shoot, ex
pressing precisely what we desire to say. By
the aid of a privative, we naturally form athal
lage, athallizing, etc., words expressing an ope
ration which has heretofore required an ungain
ly circumlocution. "We dislike the introduction
of new words as much as any body can ; but new
arts often demand, for the sake of precision and
brevity, the introduction of new words, and
their scholarly application, and there seems to

58 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

be a necessity for it here ; we propose, there
fore, to adopt these new words, in the hope
that their directness and conciseness will give
them general favor.*

We will now proceed with the subject of
training with all the brevity that is consistent
with clearness. There are still not a few per
sons who doubt the necessity or utility of
training the vine. Some will point with a
scarcely concealed look of triumph to the wild
vine clinging to some primeval denizen of the
forest, and wreathing it with festoons. We are
not insensible to the picturesque beauty of the
vine as it lovingly clings to some noble old

* The following are the words, with their definitions, which we
give in order that the reader may understand precisely how
they are used : Thallon, n. (Greek, tfaJUof .) A sprig or little
shoot, especially one proceeding from the base or leaf, as in the
grape-vine. Athallage, n. (a priv. and #a/l/lof.) The act or opera
tion of removing or pinching off sprigs or little shoots, either
partly or wholly. Atfiallize, v. t. To remove or pinch off sprigs or
little shoots, either partly or wholly. Athcdlizing, ppr. Removing
or pinching off sprigs or little shoots, either partly or wholly.
Athattized, pp. Having the sprigs or little shoots removed or
pinched off, either partly or wholly. Thus thattons, for our pur
pose, will mean the little shoots growing from the base of the
leaf on the green cane ; and athallage, the act or operation of
pinching off the shoots at one leaf from the base, etc. Each
time the thallon is athallized, an additional leaf will be left. In
Fig. 21, p. 62, the thallons may be distinctly seen proceeding from
the base of the leaves ; and it may be further seen that they have
been athallized a third time, the plant being a strong one. We
venture to hope that we have made the application clear.

TRAINING — FIRST AND SECOND YEARS. 59

tree, and with its beautiful drapery strives to
conceal the nakedness of its waning years;
but we would respectfully suggest, that while
it is a beautiful picture for some appreciative
artist to copy, it is hardly a fit subject for the
vineyardist to follow as a model. So, too, of
vines more properly located, and growing un-
pruned on apple and other trees. They will
produce some good fruit, but not as good as it
might be, and by no means as good as is grown
on vines judiciously trained ; the fruit fails in
quality, and dwindles away, from year to year,
becoming at last almost as hard and indigesti
ble as that grown in the woods. Besides, the
practice, if adopted, would be found an exceed
ingly wasteful one. The fact should be accept
ed, that training is a necessity to all who aim
at economy and the best results. It has the
great value of systematizing all our labors, plac
ing the vine within easy reach, and reducing the
necessary manipulations to their lowest terms.
By way of introduction, it will perhaps ena
ble the beginner more readily to understand the
details of practice, if we first give him a general
idea of the vine. The vine is composed of dif
ferent members or parts, known to cultivators
by names that have a more or less technical ap-

60

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

plication. These will be understood by an in
spection of Fig. 20, the left-hand side of which
is a vine pruned for fruit. The part D, proceed
ing from the ground, is called the stock or body
of the vine. The horizontal part, C, growing
at right angles from the stock, is called a horizon
tal arm. A, A, A, on this arm, are spurs:
B, B, B, are canes. There are other parts,
which the reader will learn as we go along ;

Fig. 20.

but these are the principal ones, and the en
graving shows their relation to each other.
The right-hand side of the engraving shows the
vine in fruit on the renewal system, with the
canes unpruned, which will be explained in its
proper place.

Double Horizontal Arms — First Year. —
There are many modes of training, some of the
best of which we shall explain ; but all good

TRAINING — FIKST AND SECOND YEARS. 61

ones start from one and the same point. We
therefore ask the reader's particular attention
to what we shall say of the vine during the
first three years of its life. That part of the
subject being well understood, the rest becomes
comparatively easy. We propose now to take
a single vine, and carry it through the first year
of its growth. At the time of planting, we
directed the vine to be cut down to three eyes
or buds. From these eyes three shoots will
grow. When they have reached the length
of three or four inches, the strongest must be
selected, and the other two rubbed off. It is
an object, however, to have the selected cane as
low down as possible ; if, therefore, the three
are nearly of the same strength, rub off the two
upper ones. The one selected must be tied to a
stake, and the tying repeated from time to time,
as growth progresses. It is an essentially bad
practice to let the canes grow on the ground.

We propose the first year to grow one strong
healthy cane, like that shown in Fig. 21. This
can only be done by tying the cane to a stake,
and having recourse to athallage. We thus
secure large and durable foliage, fitted to with
stand changes in the weather and the attacks of
disease ; better and more enduring roots ; and a

Pi sr. 22.

TRAINING— FIRST AND SECOND YEARS. 63

healthy, well-ripened cane. As the young shoot
progresses in growth, the thallons (0, C) make
their appearance, and must receive our atten
tion. To secure the full benefits of athallage,
it must be performed at the right moment;
this is when the first leaf on the thallon has
reached the size of a half-dollar, (if the reader
can remember how large that was ; to the best
of our recollection, it was over an inch in
diameter ;) the end must then be pinched off,
(not cutj) so as to leave only the single little
leaf. By athallizing at this early stage, we
avoid that shock to the action of the roots
which takes place when it is performed after
the thallon has made a considerable growth.
There is scarcely any check to the growth of
the plant ; the vital force, or action, which
would otherwise have gone to the extension of
the thallon, is now directed in part to the little
leaf and the bud at its base ; the leaf increases
in size and improves in texture ; becomes, in
deed, much larger than it would otherwise have
been ; the bud also increases in size, and finally
bursts into a new shoot. All this has taken
many days, but the thallon has not increased
in length. After the bursting of the bud, the
thallon is allowed to grow till the first new

64 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

leaf lias reached about the diameter of an inch,
when it must "be athallized precisely as before.
If the vine is growing strongly, -it may be ne
cessary to repeat the operation a third time,
after which the thallons may be allowed to take
care of themselves. We have spoken of one
thallon ; but there will be one at the base of
nearly every leaf, and all must be treated alike.
This is clearly shown on the vine in Fig. 21,
where the first thallon has been athallized
three times, and the others twice, with the ex
ception of one on the left, about half-way up.
We have said above that the vital force is di
rected in part to the little leaf and the bud at
its base ; the rest goes to increase the size of
the cane and its proper leaves, as well as the
buds at their base. The whole vine has thus
been benefited, both above and below ground.
The young vine, treated as above, is allowed
to grow till about the beginning of September,
when the extreme end of the growing cane is
to be pinched out. This will materially help
in ripening the upper portion of the cane and
buds, especially if the operation is repeated at
the end of two or three weeks. On the vine in
Fig. 21 this has been done twice, as may be
seen at A and B. With the exception of tying

TRAINING— FIRST AND SECOND YEARS. 65

up, the vine will need no further care in the
way of training. When the leaves have ripened
and fallen off, the vine will have the appearance
presented in Fig. 22. It may be regarded as
an example of a first-class vine. Let Fig. 23 be
taken as the same vine on a
reduced scale. In November,
or before the ground freezes,
the cane must be pruned to
three eyes, as indicated by
the cross mark. It may then
be bent down, and an inch or
so of earth thrown over it,
and thus left for the winter.
Fig. 24 shows how vines may '
be prepared for laying down
and covering. Cedar brush
may be thrown over the
plants instead of earth, or
the covering may be omitted
altogether in favorable local
ities, though it is always a
safe and prudent course to
give some kind of protection
to young vines. The pruning
may be left till spring, but it
is far better to do it in the fall.

Fig. 28. 5

66

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

Second Year.— In the spring the first thing
to be done is to uncover the vines. There is
danger of doing this too soon. In northern
and exposed localities, the vines should remain
covered till danger from late frosts is past, for
vines that are covered will not begin growing

• Fig. 24.

as soon as those that are uncovered. If the
pruning was neglected in the fall, it should be
done as soon as the vines are uncovered. We
shall say nothing here about cultivation, reserv
ing that for another place, but we shall suppose
that the ground has been plowed or spaded,
and the pruned vines tied to the stakes, ready
for growth. We propose to grow two good
canes this year. We left three buds at the time

TRAINING — FIRST AND SECOND YEARS. 67

of pruning, but one was simply intended to in
sure against loss by accident. When the young
canes have grown about three inches, one of
them must be rubbed off, and that should be the
weakest; yet it is desirable that the two that re
main should be on opposite sides. Usually, in
good vines, the three start about equally strong,
and no difficulty is presented ; but when it is
otherwise, we must either take both on the
same side, and submit to a little present defor
mity, or we must endeavor to restore the equi
librium by bending the strongest cane toward
a horizontal position, and growing the weak
one upright. In a large vineyard this would
involve considerable labor and skill, and the
reader may determine for himself what he will
do under the circumstances. Having selected
the two canes, they should be tied up to pre
vent their accidental loss. These canes must be
tied to the stake from time to time during the
whole season of growth. One bunch of fruit
may be allowed to grow on strong canes, but
the vines, on the whole, will be better if all
the fruit is removed. When the thallons make
their appearance, they are to be athallized pre
cisely at the time and in the manner directed
for the first year. The ends of both canes

68

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

should also be pinched out as was then di
rected. The whole routine of training, indeed,
is the same for the first and
second years, the only differ
ence being, that during the
second year we have two
canes instead of one.

If every thing has gone on.
nicely, as it should, at the
end of the season, when the
leaves have fallen, we shall
have a vine with two good
canes, like that in Fig. 25.
It will occasionally happen
that a vine here and there
will be weak, and not able to
produce two good canes. In
such cases, the proper course
is to grow only one cane the
second year. If, however, two
are grown, they will be too
weak to lay down for arms,
and they must therefore be
cut back to two eyes each,
and only two canes grown
the third year. Nothing will or can be gained
by attempting to keep weak vines up to the

Fig. 25.

TRAINING — FIRST AND SECOND YEARS. 69

advanced stage of growth of strong ones. It
will also happen that some vines will make
too coarse or rank a growth. When this rank
growth takes place, the wood is coarse and
spongy, and the buds that are chiefly wanted
for future use are imperfectly developed. In
such cases it will be well to let
three canes grow instead of two,
which will have the effect of
preventing this grossness, and
improving the quality of the
1 11
>

vme grown w three

canes is shown in Fig. 26. At
the time of pruning, the middle
cane is cut entirely out at the
cross mark. If the trellis has
been put up, it is a good plan to
lay the canes down horizontally
about the first of August ; it is
still better to begin to bend them
to a horizontal position early in
the season. The result is a bet
ter development of the buds
Fig 26. near the stock of the vine.
Our next labor will consist in pruning, and
putting down, the vines for winter; but, before
doing this, it becomes necessary to determine

70 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

what particular mode of training shall be
adopted ; for our pruning now must give shape
to this. There are several good methods of
training the vine, the best of which we propose
to explain. We shall begin with the double,
horizontal arm system, since a good knowledge
of that will pave the way to an easy under
standing of the rest. Our pruning at the close
of the second year will have in view the begin
ning of the arms. We say the beginning, be
cause, if we should form or lay down the whole
arm at one time, the lower buds, or those near
est the body of the vine, would break feebly,
and either remain weak, or disappear alto
gether. The vital force, or action, tends so
strongly to the end of the cane, that we must
in some way control it, in order to fill up the
entire length of the arm with fruitful spurs.
This can be done with certainty only by a grad
ual extension of the arm ; but even then the arm
must not be extended beyond a certain length,
or the vital force will overcome the restraint put
upon it, and defeat our purpose. As a general
rule, arms four feet long should not be in
creased more than one third of their length at
a time, and that only when the canes are good.
We will suppose our vines are four feet

TRAINING— FIRST AND SECOND YEARS. 71

apart for a double tier of arms ; each vine will
then have about seven feet of horizontal arm, or
about three feet six inches on each side of the
stock. In this case, the arms may be laid
down from a third to half their length, or from
fourteen to twenty-one inches. There will, how
ever, be here and there canes not stout enough
to lay down as much as one foot. From such
vines as may have three canes, the middle one
must be cut through the old wood below the
cross mark in Fig. 26, which will make the
vine like Fig. 25 ; the canes must be cut at A,
or from fourteen to twenty inches long. The
canes are now to be placed in a horizontal posi
tion, and tied there, as shown in Fig. 27. The

Fig. 27.

dotted lines show where the upright canes will
grow from the upper buds. If all the lower
buds, a, are rubbed off, the upper ones will
place the spurs at about the proper distance

72 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

from each other, except in a few kinds making
very long joints ; in these it may be desirable
to retain both the upper and the lower buds
for making spurs. The canes just bent down
may or may not contain the exact number
of buds represented in the figure; that will
depend partly upon the kind and partly upon
circumstances. The spurs should be from six
to twelve inches apart, according to the kind
of vine. The smaller distance will generally
answer for the Delaware, Rebecca, and kinds
of similar growth; while the longer distance
will suit the lona, Allen's Hybrid, etc. It
may be reduced to a rule, thus : the distance
between the spurs must be determined by
the habit of the kind. The object is, to have
the arms of about equal length, the same
number of spurs on each arm, and the dis
tance between the spurs just sufficient to ac
commodate the foliage. The reader must keep
this object constantly in view in forming the
arms. The two years' growth previous to the
formation of the arms will give him a good
idea of the habit of the kind ; but he must
make proper allowance for the greater vigor
of the vine during these two years. Fig. 27
is a Delaware vine, and the portion of arm
laid down is pretty nearly two feet long.

CHAPTEE VII.

TRAIOTNG THIRD, FOURTH, AND FIFTH YEARS.

Third Tear. — We will suppose that the vines
have been wintered as heretofore directed, and
proceed with the training for the third year.
The upper eyes on the arms in Fig. 27 will each
produce a cane, as indicated by the dotted lines,
and each cane will set two or three bunches
of fruit. Just here it becomes necessary to
decide how many bunches shall be left to ma
ture. The temptation to leave all is very great,
and it is often done, to the great and perma
nent injury of the vine ; in this way, indeed, it
is sometimes tasked so much beyond its power,
that the fruit not only fails to ripen, but the
leaves fall off prematurely, the roots and wood
in consequence fail to ripen, and the vine often
dies, or is winter killed. It is not necessary
here to state the physiology of the case, or to
present an array of reasons ; it will be suffi
cient to say, that, as a rule, not niore than one

74 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

bunch to each shoot should be left this year,
and on weak shoots none at all. A very strong
cane, however, may have two bunches.

We propose this year to grow a certain num
ber of upright canes with well-developed buds
at the base for spurs, and two good canes
to extend the arms. The cane which proceeds
from the bud on the end of the arm is for the
extension of the arm. It may be grown at an
angle of about forty-five degrees, or, better still,
when from eighteen inches to two feet long, it
may be bent toward a horizontal position, and
tied securely to the trellis from time to time as
it increases in length. All the canes intended
for the extension of the arms must be athallized
as directed for the first year's training. The
upright, or fruit-bearing cane, must be treated
as follows : as the thallons make their appear
ance, they must be athallized, and the operation
repeated two or three times, or as often as may
be necessary. We repeat here the injunction,
not to fail in doing it at the right time. When
the upright cane has reached a length of about
two feet, pinch out its extreme end, and no
more.

And just here let us say that it is a great fal
lacy to suppose that we wish to check the force

THIRD, FOURTH, AND FIFTH, YEARS. 1 5

of the vital principle ; on the contrary, we be
lieve that all checks are injurious, and just in
proportion to their violence. Our object is not
to check action, but to convert it all to use,
with as little loss as possible ; to concentrate it,
in short, upon those parts that are to produce
useful results, such as the fruit and buds. To
check the growth of the vine at this time,
would be like spending our labor and skill to
collect its vital forces, and then, just as they
were ready to perform their allotted office, to
take the readiest means to destroy them. That
summer pruning, or pinching, as generally per
formed in the vineyard, does check the vital
force, and inflict more or less injury, there can
be no doubt; but if summer pruning is per
formed at the right time, and in a proper man
ner, it is an exceedingly useful operation, and
almost indispensable to the production of the
best results. If we should allow this cane to
grow five or six feet long, and then cut or break
off two or three feet of it, as is commonly done,
we should undoubtedly do great violence to
the vitality of the vine ; but if we pinch out the
extreme end, the loss amounts to almost noth
ing. There is no interruption to the action of
the plant ; the vital force that would have gone

76 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

to the extension of the cane finds more useful
employment in improving the quality and size
of the fruit, developing and maturing the fruit
buds, and increasing the size and hardihood of
the leaves. Nothing has been lost, but very
much gained.

In course of time the buds at the ends of the
canes that have been pinched will begin to grow.
The young canes proceeding from these end
buds may be allowed to grow from six inches to
a foot long, when their ends must be pinched
out. The operation may be repeated even a
third time with advantage. Practice will in no
long time give considerable expertness in mat
ters pertaining to the summer treatment of the
vine, and its labor will thus be considerably re
duced.

Fig. 28 is a beautiful and truthful represen
tation of an Israella vine in the third year
of its growth, taken from life. Some of the
lower leaves have been removed to show the
fruit, of which there is rather more than a vine
at this age should generally bear. The thallons
are omitted, so as to give a better idea of the
character of the leaves. The fruit canes are
longer than they should be, but the wood was
wanted for a special purpose. The pinching of

78 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

the fruit canes is not shown for want of room
on the page.

At the end of the season we shall have a vine
with several upright fruit. canes, and two canes
at the ends of the arms for their extension.
The arms, as we have already said, should be
extended very gradually. The second and sub
sequent extensions should be even more gradual
than the first ; if the arms are carried out too
rapidly, there is danger of weakening the ac
tion of the part first laid down. As a general
rule, one foot will be enough for the annual ex
tension of the arms. In some cases it may be
more; in others less. We have already pretty
clearly indicated the nature of both these
cases. We shall suppose that about one foot is
to be added to each arm. The end canes must
then, of course, be cut to the required length.
The upright canes now remain to be pruned.
These we propose to convert into spurs. This
is done by cutting these canes down to two eyes
each. Fig. 29 shows the appearance of the

V'

Fig. 29.

vine when pruned and the addition made to
the arms, except that the addition in the cut is

THIRD, FOURTH, AND FIFTH YEARS

79

longer than it should be. The letter I shows
the point at which the addition was made to
the arm* ; and the letter a the buds on the un
der side which are to be rubbed off.

To make the matter plainer, we introduce
Fig. 30, a piece of an arm, with its cane, on a
full scale, a is the point
at which the cane is cut to
make the spur ; e and/ are
the two principal or pri
mary buds ; b and c are
base buds, so called be
cause situated at the base
of the cane. These base
buds vary greatly in num
ber, and in some cases are
not apparent. All the spurs on the arm are
sometimes formed to produce two canes, and
sometimes only one ; at others, again, these two
kinds of spurs alternate. If we wish to grow
two canes, the cut is made at a ; if only one,
the cut is made about half an inch above the
bud /. To save repetition, we will alternate
the spurs in the vine we are growing, pruning
every other one for two canes ; the canes, there
fore, will be cut alternately at a and about half
an inch above /. We shall thus illustrate the

80 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

double and single spurs at one and the same
time. The vines having been pruned, will now
be put down and covered for the winter.

Fourth Year. — We have now a vine with
one portion of the arms spurred, and another
portion newly added. Let us first follow out
the spurs with two buds. The buds e and/, in
Fig. 30, will each produce a cane, and each cane
will set two or more bunches of fruit. That
from e may be allowed to mature two bunches
of fruit ; the cane from/ should not be allowed
to bear any, all its strength being reserved for
fruit the following year. The base buds b and
c must be rubbed off. They would have been
very valuable, however, if the buds above them
had been accidentally lost. We could, indeed,
have pruned this cane just above the bud /,
and taken the lower cane from one of the base
buds ; they are not always strong enough,
however, to be depended upon ; but when they
are, it is a good practice to use them, as the spur
will then be a little shorter. We have reserved
the lower cane for next year's fruit spur, not
only because it is best situated for this purpose,
but also because the upper one will produce the
largest and best bunches of grapes. If the
upper cane were reserved for next year's fruit,

THIED, FOURTH, AND FIFTH YEARS. 81

the spur would soon become inconveniently
long.

When the growing canes have reached the
length of some two feet, pinch out the extreme
end, as above directed. Kepeat 'the operation
when the additional or new growth has reached
the length of six inches to a foot ; and still a
third time, if the action is very strong. Watch
the appearance of the thallons, and athallize
them at the proper moment. It will be under
stood that these directions apply to all the
spurs having two canes. The treatment of the
spurs having single canes is not materially dif
ferent. These may carry two bunches of fruit ;
when the canes have grown about two feet
long, the ends must be pinched out, and the
operation repeated, in all respects, as above.
Athallage must likewise be attended to as
above. This will complete the treatment of the
spurs. Fig. 31 represents a portion of an old
arm with its spurs, and the new canes growing
on them. It is a beautiful and truthful portrait,
taken from life. In this example, the canes and
thallons are ready for the operations of pinch
ing and athallage.

In regard to the new portion of arm laid
down, the cane from the end bud must be

6

82

AMERICAN- GRAPE CULTURE.

grown at an angle for further extension of the
arm next year. The buds on the lower side
must be rubbed oif ; and the canes from those
on the upper side are to be grown upright for
future spurs. The ends are to be pinched out
at the time and in the manner before directed.
Athallage, also, must be promptly and faith-

Fig. 81.

fully attended to. We have said nothing
about tying up ; but it will be understood that
the canes are to be tied as they lengthen ; some
care must be used, however, that the strings

THIRD, FOURTH, AND FIFTH YEARS. 83

do not cut and injure the canes : they should
always be loose.

These details will carry us through the sea
son, up to the period of pruning. In the best
vines the arms may now be completed. Lay
down the end cane, therefore, and cut it so that
there shall be an interval of about a foot be
tween the ends of the arms of adjoining vines.
If the ends of the arms should meet, there
would be no space for training the last fruit
canes. Passing along to the portion of arm
laid down last fall, the canes must be pruned

Fig. 32.

to one and two eyes alternately, in the manner
before described. Next will come the spurs.

84

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

An example of those having one cane is shown
in Fig. 32. The pruning consists in cutting off
the cane just above the bud I. The stump of
the old spur may be cut at a, a. All the spurs
with single canes are to be pruned in this man
ner. A spur having two canes is shown in Fig.
33. This must be pruned by first cutting the
left-hand cane entirely away at the mark a ; the

Fig. 83.

right-hand cane is then cut at the mark u,
which leaves two buds for the two new canes.
The reader will observe that two simple cuts
complete the pruning even for a spur of two
canes, and will no doubt be impressed by the
fact, that system not only simplifies labor, but
divests it of much of the forbidding hardness

THIRD, FOURTH, AND FIFTH YEARS. 85

that results from the constant exercise of per
plexing thoughts where system is not ob
served. Our vine is now ready to be laid
down for the winter.

Fifth Year. — With our good vine, we shall
this year fully establish the arms and complete
the system of training. The arms are now all
furnished with fruit spurs, except the small
piece at the ends just laid down. The training
is now only an extended repetition of the rou
tine pursued last year. Beginning at the end
of the arms, we must rub off the lower buds
from the part last laid down ; the upper buds
will produce the usual canes for fruit spurs.
These canes may carry one bunch of fruit
each ; the ends must be pinched out, and the
thallons athallized, as heretofore. The remain
der of the arm is furnished with spurs, which
are to be treated precisely as was done last
year. The canes growing from these spurs
(except the lower cane, where there are two)
may now carry two bunches of fruit. If,
however, there should be any weak ones, the
bunches must be reduced, or removed entirely.
The reader must learn to exercise his judgment
in regard to this and other matters that must
necessarily vary somewhat in their treatment,

86

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

as -they may be affected by circumstances. If
every thing has gone on favorably, at the end
of the fifth year we shall have a perfect speci
men of double horizontal arm training. The
pruning may now be done as directed last year,
and the vine laid down for the winter.

Fig. 34 will give a good idea of the appear-

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Fig. 34.

ance of the vine at this time, except that the
fruit canes are all single, whereas we have made
part of them double. It will be observed, too,
at #, that a bud has " missed," and its place been
supplied by a cane from a bud beneath. This
and other methods of replacing spurs will be
described elsewhere.

Double Horizontal Arms, with two Tiers. —
We have alluded to the double horizontal arm
system with two tiers of arms, one above the
other. This is formed as follows : in pruning
at the end of the first year, every other vine is

THIRD, FOURTH, AND FIFTH YEARS. 87

cut to the three lowest eyes, as described at the
time. The intermediate vines are pruned about
three feet six inches long, the canes from the
two upper eyes being selected to form the arms
for the upper tier. All the other buds are to
be rubbed off. It will sometimes happen that
a vine is not sufficiently strong to grow two
canes at this height. In that case it must be
cut lower for the canes, or even cut to three
eyes, and another year taken to grow a

Fig. 35.

cane that will be stout enough. There should
be no hesitation in pursuing this course. With
the exceptions here noted, the training is in all
respects like that for a single tier of arms.
Fig. 35 gives a good idea of the system when

88 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

complete, except that the arms are too short for
our description. In this figure the spurs are
shown as carrying alternately one and two
canes. The end vines must have only one arm
each, in order to fill up the trellis, as shown in
the engraving. The single arms will be on the
upper or lower tier, according to the number of
vines in the row. It is better to have both the
single arms on the upper tier, .where it can con
veniently be done. The trellis for this system
should be six to seven feet high from the
ground. The first tier of arms should be from
twelve to fifteen inches from the ground,
and the second tier midway between the first
tier and the top of the trellis. The interme
diate spaces should be filled by two or three
rows of wire. The manner of making a trellis
will be described hereafter.

CHAPTER VIII.

TRAINING GUYOT GUYOT IMPROVED UPRIGHT

STOCK WITH ALTERNATE SPURS BOW SYS
TEM THE JURA.

System of Guyot. — Inventions are sometimes
brilliant, and nearly perfect at the moment of
leaving the brain ; but often they result from
the long-continued study of rude examples of
the principle involved, and are only made per
fect by gradual improvements ; and the transi
tions are so simple and natural that we wonder
they were not made before. The plan advo
cated by Dr. Guyot seems to be a case of
this kind. Fig. 36 may be taken as one of
its original forms. It is an old one, and con
sists in taking, at the beginning, a fruit cane
from a bud on an upright stock, and bending it
in a curve to the ground, where the end is se
cured. This cane is renewed each year. The
whole arrangement is rude, the vine having no

90 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

support ; in fact, it is left to take care of itself.

Fig. 86.

The attentive observer, however, could not fail
to see how evenly the bending of the cane set

Fig. 87.

TKAINING — SYSTEM OF GUYOT.

91

the fruit along its whole length ; and this nat
urally led to the next step in advance, that of
giving some kind of support to the vine, while
substantially the same mode of training was
observed. (See Fig. 37.) To save expense, no
doubt, three vines were planted to one stake ;

Fig. as.

(clearly a mistake ;) but an improvement was
made in adding a spur for renewal, instead of
appropriating the cane nearest the stock.

A still further improvement in time follow
ed, as shown in Fig. 38. Here the vines are
supported by stakes and wire, and only one

92

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

vine planted at the stake. System and order
have now made their appearance in the vine
yard; let us hope, to abide there; for it is
a good place for them. In the engraving, the
end of the fruit cane has been " layered " to
make a new vine ; a practice hurtful to the
bearing vine, and not to be commended in
ordinary circumstances. Yet another step for
ward, and we have the plan of Dr. Guyot, pro
perly so called, into which he has introduced
the greatest degree of precision of which the
case seems to be susceptible, in so training the
vines on a wire trellis as to employ a system

Pig. 89.

TRAINING — SYSTEM OF GUYOT.'

93

of movable shelters, by which he claims to
have secured such a degree of certainty, as re

gards both the excellence and abundance of the
crops, as to place them beyond the fear of fail-

Fig. 41.

94 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

ure. The statistics which he presents, as the
results of trials continued during a series of
years, and on a large scale, would seem to war
rant his conclusions. The system of Dr. Guyot
may be understood in a good measure from an
inspection of Figs. 39-44. He has shelters to

Fig. 42.

be used at different seasons of the year, which
would require quite a number of engravings to
illustrate fully. Dr. Grant, however, just be
fore the appearance of Guyot's work, suggested

Fig. 43.

TRAINING — SYSTEM OF GUYOT.

95

a form of shelter having considerable resem
blance to his, and which is shown in Figs.
43, 44. On the right, in Fig. 43, the vine is
covered for the winter. In the spring the soil
is removed from the vine, and placed as seen
on the left. The bottom of the shelter rests on
the raised earth, and is supported just above the
middle by wooden pins on the trellis. A front
view is given in Fig. 44. A vineyard shel-

Fig. 44.

tered in this way is almost as well protected as
if the vines were under glass, and it is easy to
perceive with how much certainty the crop
may be secured. There can be no doubt that
this system of shelter possesses great advanta
ges for many portions of our own country, lia
ble as we are to sudden and sharp changes of
weather ; but there are few, perhaps, who will
for some time yet be willing to incur the addi
tional labor and expense. We may remark

96

AMEKICAN GRAPE CULTUKE.

that it is the system of Guyot without the
shelter that is practiced among us. In this
system, also, in its earli
est forms, may be seen the
germ of the horizontal arm,
which is the horizontal re
newal made permanent, and
in that respect an improve
ment, especially where excel
lence of fruit is concerned.

We propose now to de
scribe the training of Dr.
Guyot. This, for the first
two years, is like that al
ready described for horizon
tal arms, and need not, there
fore, be detailed here. At
the end of the second year
we have two upright canes,
as in Fig. 45. The cane on
the left must be cut at the
two lowest buds, to form a
spur; and that on the right
at the mark h; it should
not, however, this year be
more than two feet long.
The cane on the right is for bearing fruit, and

Fig. 45.

TKAINING — SYSTEM OF GUYOT. 97

must be bent to a horizontal position, as shown
in Fig. 46. From the spur on the left two
canes must be grown. The upper cane may
cany one bunch of fruit this year ; the lower
one, none. The thallons on both these canes
must be athallized as directed for the horizon
tal system. When about five feet high, pinch
out the ends of both canes, and repeat the op-

Fig. 46.

eration, in the manner before described. There
is a necessity for economizing action at all
points ; we want especially to ripen the lower
upright cane in the most perfect manner, as we
expect it to carry a large crop of fruit next
year. The two feet of cane that was laid
down horizontally must have all the lower buds
rubbed off; the canes from the upper ones may
carry one bunch of fruit each. More would be
an injury to the vine at this time. When these

98 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

fruit canes are about two feet long, pinch out
the extreme end, as before directed for fruit
canes. The thallons must also be treated in the
usual manner.

In the fall, the pruning will be as follows :
the arm on the right, that has borne fruit, must
be cut entirely away ; the lower cane on the
spur must then be cut about four feet long, and
laid down horizontally, to take the place of the
arm just cut away ; the upper cane must be cut
to the two lowest buds, for producing two more
upright canes. The reader will now doubtless
perceive a necessity for keeping this spur as
near as possible to the stock, since it must an
nually furnish a cane for laying down.

Fourth Tear. — This system may now be con
sidered as complete. The treatment this year
is only a repetition of that of last year, includ
ing pinching and athallage. The fruit canes
may now be allowed to carry two bunches
each, if the vine is in good healthy condition.
The upper cane on the spur may also carry two
bunches, and none of the canes, as a general
rule, should exceed this number. The lower
cane on the spur should never be allowed to
carry fruit. As the vine gets older, three canes
may be allowed to grow from the spur, but

TRAINING — SYSTEM OF QUYOT.

99

two are generally much better. The pruning
hereafter will be the same as last year: the
arm is cut off, the lower cane on the spur cut
to four feet and laid down, and the upper cane
cut to the two lowest buds for a spur. Fig.
47 shows an old vine in fruit on Guyot's plan.

Fig. 47.

There are three canes from the spur, however,
and too much fruit, at least for ordinary vines.
Two bunches are quite enough.

Guyofs Plan Improved. — We say improved,
because, in our hands, it has yielded better
results. The improvement consists chiefly in
making the axm permanent, instead of renewing
it annually, and was suggested by Dr. Grant.
It is one of the best systems for the vineyard.

100 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

After what has been said above, the manner
of doing this will be easily understood. There
is no difference in the plan up to the third
year, when the cane is laid down for the arm.
The spur is already pruned to two buds.
The portion of arm laid down, however, should
be only about fourteen inches long, or about
one third the length of the arm when complete.
Let us first look after the renewal spur. If the
base buds break nicely, select two of them in
preference to the buds left above them, which
should then be rubbed off. The object is to
get the spur as close as possible to the stock.
The arm is treated as follows : the cane from
the end bud is to be grown at an angle for the
extension of the arm, and should be pinched
when about four feet long. The canes from the
other buds must be grown upright, and may
carry one bunch of fruit each. When these
canes are about two feet long, pinch out the
end, and otherwise treat them as directed when
growing horizontal arms. The thallons must
have proper attention, and at the right time.
The treatment here, indeed, is just the same as
was given for fruit canes on a former page, and
we may therefore pass on to the end of the sea
son, and explain how the vine is to be pruned.

TRAINING — SYSTEM OF GUYOT. 101

The upper cane on the renewal spur is to be cut
off at Cj (Fig. 48,) the cut being made through
the old wood ; the lower cane is to be cut at d,
or the two lowest buds. The cane at the end of
the arm is to be cut about fourteen inches long,
and laid down for the extension of the arm.
The upright fruit canes are to be cut about an
inch above the lowest bud ; or, to prevent ac
cidental loss, cut above the second bud, and if
every thing is safe in the spring, rub the upper
one off.

The next year two canes are to be grown
from the renewal spur, and may carry two
bunches of fruit each. The cane from the bud
at the end of the arm must be grown horizon
tally for the extension and completion of the
arm. The buds must be removed from the
under side of the portion of cane just laid
down, and the canes from the upper buds
grown upright. These canes may carry one
bunch of fruit each. The rest of the arm is
spurred ; a cane must be grown from the lowest
bud on each spur, and may carry two bunches
of fruit each. The pinching, athallage, and
general treatment will be like that of last year.
Where the spurs are not too close together,
they should have two canes, the formation and

102

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

treatment of which the reader already under
stands.

The next pruning will be as follows: the
upper cane must be cut entirely away from the
renewal spur by cutting through the old wood,
and the lower cane cut at the two lowest buds.
Passing to the arm, cut all the canes on the
spurs at the lowest bud, if single spurs are
adopted, and at the second bud, if double spurs.
The arm is now laid down its full length, and

Fig. 48.

the system is complete. The pruning, pinching,
athallage, etc., will be the same each succeeding
year. The spurs may hereafter carry two
bunches of fruit, but more than this will not be
consistent with the permanent welfare and du
ration of the vine, as a general rule. The excep
tions to the rule must be determined by the

TRAINING — SYSTEM OF GUYOT.

103

kind of vine and its native disposition to bear.
In Fig. 48, the vine on the left shows the sys
tem of Guyot ; that on the right, Guyot's sys
tem as improved, a and l> indicating the points
where the arm was lengthened, the last addition
not being yet spurred. Fig. 49 shows the same
vines in fruit and leaf.

Fig. 49.

The improved Guyot system is one of the
best, both for the amateur and the vineyard.
Its safety-valves give us a control over the vine
which no system can possess without them. In
practice we have found them a valuable aid,
and in that light they are regarded by those
who have adopted them. They are valuable in

TRAINING — SYSTEM OF GUYOT. 105

other respects when understood, an important
one being the facility they afford for replacing
an arm without loss of fruit. The permanent
arm, in place of the annual renewal, yields a
better quality of fruit, which should be con
sidered of some importance, whether for wine
or the table.

In this connection we introduce Figs. 50, 51,
the most beautiful and perfect portraits of the
kind ever presented to the public. The vine on
the left is ihelona; that on the right is the
Delaware, the characteristics of each being finely
shown. The lower leaves have been removed
from one cane of each, to show the fruit.

This system may be used with a double tier
of arms, as shown in Fig. 52. In this case, the
vines must be planted at equal distances, and
the stocks buried and brought up together as
shown by the shaded lines in Fig. 53, which is
an example of the renewal system, which the
reader can study till we find time to explain it.
Upright Stock with Alternate Spurs. — This
is a neat and pretty mode of growing the
vine for the amateur and the garden. It has
a look of simplicity about it which will
commend it to many. The reader perhaps
thinks he has only to grow an upright

106 AMERICAN GKAPE CULTURE.

TRAINING — UPRIGHT STOCK. 107

cane, cut off the top, and the thing is done.
We shall probably undeceive him when we
state, that to grow the vine successfully in
this way is a rather tedious process, re
quiring several years for its completion. The
form is pretty, and it presents a good example
of how subservient we can make the vine
to our purpose. If we should form it from
a cane of one year's growth, it would soon
become bare at the bottom, yielding its fruit
only at the top, and giving us a great deal of
trouble to control it ; in short, it could not
be done. We have elsewhere explained that
the action of the vine tends strongly to the
top. The position of the vine in this case
strongly favors this tendency, and it is our
purpose now to show how it may be measur
ably overcome or held in check.

We shall take a vine that has been planted
and grown one year, as described elsewhere.
If the cane is not strong, it must be cut to the
lowest bud, and grown another year ; for we
shall have poor success here without a good
cane. The cane is to be cut about two feet
long, and tied to a stake. From the end bud
a cane must be grown for extending the stock.
The next bud below this must be selected for

108 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

TRAINING — UTRIGHT STOCK. 109

a fruit cane, and grown at an angle. Six inches
below this, but on the opposite side, select
another bud for the same purpose. Select
another six inches below, and on the same side
as the first, the object being to have the canes
alternate on opposite sides, with about one foot
between those on the same side. All the other
buds are rubbed off. The lateral or side
canes may carry one bunch of fruit each. The
upright cane and the side canes must be
pinched and athallized as usual; the upright
cane, however, must not be pinched till it has
grown about four feet. In the fall, the upright
cane must be cut about fifteen inches long,
which will allow of two additional side canes,
one on each side. The side canes must then be
spurred by cutting them off at the two lowest
buds, and the vine is ready for winter.

The next season, grow an upright cane from
the end bud for extending the stock On the
newly added stock select two buds for the two
new spurs on opposite sides. From the spurs
grow two canes, using a base bud wherever it is
strong enough. The upper canes from the spurs
may carry two bunches each, and the two new
canes one bunch each. Pinching and athalliz-
ing must be attended to as usual. The appear-

110

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

ance of the vine at tliis time may be seen in
Fig. 54. X is the point where the vine was cut

Fig. 51

at planting ; and A, where it was cut at the

112 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

end of the first year. The pruning will be as
follows, beginning at the lowest spur on the left :
the upper cane is to be cut off at m through
the old wood, and the lower cane cut at n, or
the two lowest buds. (The spurs on this vine,
in fact, are two years old, and the stump made
by last year's pruning is seen at ?•.) All the
spurs are to be pruned like this one. The two
upper canes are to be cut to the two lowest
buds for spurs. The treatment in succeeding
years is only a repetition of this. The stock
may be extended to the height of five feet ; if
carried much beyond this, the vine soon gives
out at the bottom. With a stock four feet high,
like that in Fig. 54, the vine may be kept in
full bearing many years. When fully estab
lished, all the canes may carry two bunches
each.

Fig. 55 is a Delaware vine trained in this
way, engraved from a photograph taken by
Mr. Morand at lona. At X may be seen
one method of replacing a spur. The vine
carried just the number of bunches seen,
but not without injury. Fig. 56 is the
same vine in leaf. Fig. 57 shows how this sys
tem may be applied for covering a trellis or
wall from eight to ten feet high. The inter-

Fig. 56.

114 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

mediate vines, X, are grown with naked stocks
up to the point A, and thence spurred to the
top of the trellis. In this way any amount of
surface may be covered.

The Bow System. — This system, as practiced
at the West, was introduced by German emi
grants, and in Ohio and other places is more
or less common, but seems now to be giving
way to other and better plans. Figs. 58, 59,
60 will make it quite plain to the reader. The
first year one good cane is grown, which is cut
down to the two lowest buds, from which two
canes are grown the following year. One of
these canes is pruned to a spur with three
buds, and the other shortened to about two
feet, as shown by the cross marks in Fig. 58.
The cane is bent and tied to a stake as seen in
Fig. 59. Usually, this cane is allowed to fruit
its whole length. From the spur three canes
are taken, which are also allowed to fruit.
The appearance of the vine at this time is
shown in Fig. 60. The pruning consists in
cutting away the bow or bent cane. There
are three upright canes left, the lowest of
which should be cut to a spur of three buds,
to produce three new canes. Of the two re
maining canes, one is cut off, and the other bent

\ \

Fig. 57.

116

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

or bowed, and tied to a stake. The same
treatment follows year after year.

Fig. 58. - Fig. 59. Fig. 60.

Mgs. 60 and 61 show a better form of the
bow system. In this the two canes, at the close
of the second year, are both cut to spurs, each
having two buds. From each spur two canes
are grown, and fruited. The next pruning is
as follows : the lowest cane on each spur is cut
to two buds for a new spur, and the remaining
canes shortened to about two feet, and bent as
in Fig. 61. The bows are fruited their whole

TKAINING — Bow SYSTEM.

m

length, and the canes from the spurs are allow
ed two bunches each. The appearance of the

Fig. 61.

vine at this time is shown in Fig. 62. Two
courses may now be pursued : first, to cut off
the end of the cane b at the lowest point

Fig. 62.

118

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

where it is tied to the stake, and prune the
lateral or fruit canes into spurs of one bud
each ; in which case the cane a should be cut
to its lowest bud for a single cane, to be treat
ed as a safety-valve. Second, (if this course is
pursued, the spurs should have two upright
canes instead of one,) cut the cane b entirely

Fig. 03.

away, bow one of the upright canes, and cut
the other to the two lowest buds for a spur.

Figs. 63 and 64 are examples of growing the
vine from spurs on low stocks.

A little study of Figs. 65 and 66 will show
how they may easily be converted into the bow,
Guyot, or horizontal arm system.

The Jura Plan.— This is very simple, and

TRAINING— JUKA PLAN.

119

will afford the reader a good subject for experi
ment as well as amusement. For the vineyard,
too, we prefer it to the bow system, as it is even

Fig. 65.

Fig. 66.

more simple, and will produce better fruit. The
vines may be planted three or four feet apart.
An inspection of Figs. 67, 68 will make the
treatment very plain. The first year a good cane
is to be grown, and in the fall cut down to
abont two feet. The second year four fruit canes
are to be grown, as shown at #, &, <?, d, in the
vine in Fig. 67. These are to be converted
into double spurs in the usual way at the next
pruning, and the system is complete. The prun-

120

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

ing thereafter will consist in cutting away the
upper cane, and pruning the lower cane to the
two lowest buds. The stock is not to "be

Fig. 6T. Fig. 68.

lengthened. This plan admits of a variety of
modifications, which the general principles we
have given will enable the reader to study out
for himself.

CHAPTER IX.

TRAINING THOMEKY.

Tkomery. — Notwithstanding all that has
been said and written about the Th ornery,
there are few who have any just conception
of what it really is. There has been a failure
to understand its details, or to comprehend it
as a whole. One thinks it consists in growing
vines in successive tiers, one above the other;
another supposes that it is some peculiar
manner of planting the vines ; still another has
an idea that it is some special or peculiar mode
of pruning, and so on ad infinitum. It is
simply no one of these, but all of them, and
more besides. The Thomery, in brief, consists
mainly of a happy selection and combination
of the best features of prevalent modes of
training, and their successful application to
overcome local difficulties of a trying nature.
This system takes its name from a little village

122 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

in France, called Thomery, where the system
had its origin, and where it still finds its best
exernpMcation. We hope, by giving an illus
tration, to make the system understood. In all
that has gone before we have relied upon our
own experience ; we shall still rely upon it
here, and also call to our aid some of the best
French authors, as wrell as the account of a
friend personally cognizant of the details prac
ticed at Thomery.

To Dr. C. W. Grant belongs the merit of
having brought the Thomery prominently be
fore the American public. It was he who first
studied and mastered it as a system, and suc
cessfully worked it out in practice ; and it is
not too much to say that he has furnished
the chief part of the material for nearly all
that has been written upon the subject in this
country. Candor and the amenities of litera
ture demand the acknowledgment of this much,
and we do it most cheerfully.

This method of training, and its appliances,
need careful study preparatory to undertaking
it. No part of it is obscure or difficult of execu
tion; but inasmuch as it is an extended Bys-
tern, each step of which, in its progress toward
completion, prepares the way for the next, it

TRAINING — THOMERY. 123

is important that the whole should be clearly
seen from the beginning. The success and
permanence of the result depend upon having
each step well taken.

The ground should be prepared in the best
manner, and the plants be uniformly of the
best quality. When plants of only moder
ate quality can be obtained, they may be im
proved by planting them two or three feet
5 from the wall, and bringing

them to it by one or more
"leddings" as represented in
Fig. 69. Each bedding will
delay the beginning of train
ing one year; but, if well
done, will secure plants of the
requisite character. It is much
Fig. 69. better, however, to be pro

vided with suitable plants at the beginning,
and avoid the delay. Fig. 3, p. 36, represents
a vine of the best possible character and qual
ity one year old. Fig. 8, p. 39, represents one
of the best quality two years old. These may
rank as nearly equal in value for our purpose.

As we proceed, each vine with its arms is sub
jected to the same treatment as that for the for
mation of double arms, (p. 60, et seq., and Fig.

124 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

25,) or in the two-tier system, (p. 86, and Fig.
35 ;) but, having greater regard to permanence,
from the greater disappointment resulting
from any degree of failure in the present case,
we proceed rather more slowly in forming and
lengthening the arms. While that is in prog
ress, more regard should be had to securing
a perfect bearing condition than to getting a
great quantity of fruit early. The former be
ing well done, the latter follows in due course.
Fig. 70 is drawn from life, and is a very good
representation of well-managed Delawares in
process of formation, only the stopping of the
canes, by which they were brought to the
proper length, is not shown, in consequence of
the small scale which the comprehensiveness
of the engraving required. For this, see Double
and Single Arm Systems, pages 86 and 87.
Although it is desirable to form all the

o

aims at the same time by equal steps, it is
scarcely to be expected. Some difference of
growth will take place, and the highest arms
in the system will ordinarily require one year
more of growth of stock than the lowest,
before being ready for the first laying down.
Thus D, Fig. 70, will require one year more
than A, for the formation of its greater length

TRAINING — THOMERY.

125

126 AMEKICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

of stock. In this matter the vigor and ability
of the vines must regulate the rate of progress,
according to the directions already given. The
vines with longest stock, although later at
the beginning, eventually become disposed to
the most vigor, and this must be regulated,
as before stated, by the quantity of bearing,
according to general principles.

Fig. 71 represents that part of the Thomery
system that is the most immediately related
to the main wall, which is all that we can con
sider at present, leaving fche full exposition
of the whole system for another occasion.

This suite consists of five rows, the first and
most important one of which we have just
reviewed ; but the first row here differs from
that in having only four instead of five tiers
of arms, and, consequently, allowing one fifth
more for length of cane for a wall of the same
height. This should be at least ten feet from
the ground to the top of the cap.

The first trellis stands about twelve inches
from the wall, and the vines are planted two
feet apart in the rows; this, it will be seen,
gives eight feet to be occupied by the arms of
each vine, the arms being made a little shorter
than the space, so that their ends may not touch.

128 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

The distance between tlie tiers of arms is
about two feet, affording room for canes of
that length.

The next row is seven feet in advance of
the first, and the plants two feet apart in the
row, as before; this leaves seven and a half
feet space for the arms of each vine, with
their tiers. The next row stands five feet in
advance of the last; and the vines being set
three feet apart, gives six feet in length for
the arms of each vine. The fourth row has
the vines trained on a different plan. See Fig.
45. It is four feet in advance of the last, and
the vines are set three feet apart. The fifth
row is three feet from the last, and is trained
on the single arm plan. The vines in this
also are three feet apart. This might with
about equal propriety have been with double
amis at the same distance, with the vines
four or five feet apart in the row.

The object of this graduation, which has
probably been already anticipated in the
mind of the reader, is to accommodate the
vines to the lessening influence of the shelter
as the distance from the main wall increases.

Fig. 72 was taken from life at different
periods, to represent different stages of prog-

Pig. 72.

130 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

ress during the season in one engraving. A,
B, C, and F represent the vines as they ap
peared in June at the time for first pinching.
D represents a vine at the first maturity of
fruit, on which all of the proper summer op
erations have been well performed. Some of
the leaves have been taken away at d, to show
the canes and the fruit as it is borne uniformly
throughout the vine. E is one like it late in.
the fall, with some of the bunches still hang
ing at f. The canes of the arm g are properly
pruned, as may be done in November ; but,
for safety, it is well to leave one bud more on
each spur, to be rubbed off at starting in the
spring.

At A is shown a vine that has been de
layed two years in its progress by having had
layers taken from it. The canes a and Z>, on
the vine C, are ready to be depressed (like
o on F) toward the horizontal position, to
finish their growth for the beginning of arms.
The student who has followed us attentively
thus far has found that this system is no
more difficult of comprehension than any other,
except that there is more of it. It is not
so well adapted for the vineyard as some
others that we have described, except where

TRAINING — THOMERY.

131

high and extended walls or close fences are
its attendants ; but it is very advantageous
for making the most of the shelter afforded in
yards, gardens, and by the sides of buildings,
and especially for arbors, on which the ordi
nary efforts always fail.

Fig. 73 is part of an arm of a large vine

.73.

trained with the aim of covering a high trellis
like Mg. 74. It has been planted twelve
years, and has already been cut back twice
in impracticable efforts to cover the whole ele
vation of about nine feet with bearing wood.

o

Four feet of elevation is about the limit to
which this can be done by ordinary means from
one vine. Fig. 74 represents the trellis covered,
which is quite practicable by the Thomery
system, and easily maintained.

132

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

In Fig. 75 is represented a vine that lias
been trained to cover a trellis twelve feet high.
The bearing wood, it will be seen, is all near

Fig, 74.

the top. If pruned for next season at the
cross marks, which is the usual course, the
bearing portion will be moved one step higher,

Fig. 75.

134 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

leaving another equal distance below unpro
ductive. "Cutting back" down to A, B, C,
D, E, would only be attended with the loss
of one season's fruiting, to go the same course
over again. This does not come from faulty
pruning, but from a radically defective plan.

The principal objection to the Thomery
plan for high trellises is the slowness with
which it is necessary to proceed, six or seven
years being required for its establishment in
full bearing. There need be, however, but
little if any delay in getting fruit beyond
that of any other permanent system, and none
at all when proper vines are obtained.

In Figs. 45 and 48 a more expeditious way
of covering a wall or arbor is shown, but
one promising less permanence. Fig. 76 is a
modification of the same, making it a renewal
plan, for which canes are provided as at P,
to be pruned at the cross mark, and laid
down to take the place of the arm O, which
is to be cut away. It may also be made
a system of permanent arms by pinching the
canes grown for renewal like the others, and
then pruning all the canes on the arms to
spurs.

Vines are very picturesquely grown on the

Fig. 16.

136

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

sides of houses in a sort of fan method, as
represented in Fig. 77, and at first are remark
ably productive; but they soon nearly cease
to bear, except at their upper and most dis
tant parts. This vine has been a European

Fig. 77.

celebrity of sufficient notoriety to attract vis
itors from a distance, one of whom (Mr. Hay
of Edinburgh) has recorded his disappoint
ment at the smallness of its crop by the accom
panying drawing, which he affirms is truthful.
Grapes may be easily grown in abundance
and perfection on the sides of buildings which
are exposed to the sun two thirds of the day.
The sides which have the morning portion
are the most advantageous. The shade of the

TRAINING — THOMERY. 137

vines of a well-covered trellis, standing about
two feet from the sunny sides of dwellings, is
most grateful in summer, and, unlike that from
trees, brings no dampness or unwholesomeness
of atmosphere with it. Well trained vines
are not only admissible, but highly pleasing in
almost every style of building, from the cozy
cottage to the elegant mansion. Fig. 78 repre
sents a small cottage with its southeasterly
and southwesterly sides sheltered by bearing
vines. Those only who have made trial of
them on small buildings can form an idea of
their comfort, aside from their fruit, in the
hot days of summer. This detail of the south
easterly side will soon be made clear to the
careful student of the Thomery.

Fig. 79 shows a more commodious dwelling
with vines on the side that is almost fully ex
posed to the east, but inclining a little to the
south. There is an iron trellis on its south
erly side, made of gas pipe, that is admirably
adapted, by its neatness of appearance as well
as by its cheapness, for the purpose. Some
wire is needed to make it complete for the oc
cupation of the vines. The side occupied by
the vines is 3G feet long and 24 feet high, 18
of which are covered with vines in six tiers,

TEAINING — THOMERY. 139

the first beginning three feet from the ground,
and all of them being three feet apart.
Twelve vines were set in a row two feet from
the house and three feet apart. The second
season these vines made a growth of eighteen
feet and upward. At the time for pruning,
the canes were bent along near the ground,
and, being gathered together, were bent up
ward through the little pedestals, three of
which are shown in the engraving. Four canes
were passed through each, trained up perpen
dicularly, and cut off at points one foot above
the height at which each was destined to fur
nish arms for the four upper tiers. The excess
of one foot was to be used the next season
in burying the horizontal portion six inches
deep, when little disposition to put forth roots
would exist.

Six feet further from the house another row,
containing six vines, was planted, and grown
two seasons to stakes. At the end of that
time they were led along the ground and up
through the pedestals, to form the two lower
tiers, in the same manner as those above.
Three vines occupy each tier; consequently,
each vine has twelve feet for the length of its
arms.

TRAINING — THOMERY.

141

Figs. 80, 81, 82, are on so small a scale
that the intricacy of the training will require

attention to follow it. The stable is 24 feet
long, and the height to he covered, including

roof, about 30 feet. For this purpose, eleven
tiers on the Thomery principle were required.
Three rows of vines were planted, each row

142

AMERICAN G-RAPE CULTURE.

two feet from the position it was intended to
occupy. The vines were all bedded once, as
represented by the dotted lines in Fig. 81.
The rows were six feet apart at the beginning,
and still maintain that relative distance. That

3 i H H II H I

Fig. 82.

is their present condition. It is now pro
posed to establish all the tiers as nearly at
the same time as practicable. The first row
will therefore be trained for the highest part
of the roof, the next following, and the third
nearest the ground. The second row must be
trained on stakes one year where the vines
now stand, to be led along the ground the
next year, and be turned up perpendicularly
as their length will permit. The third row
will follow in the same order. The manner of

TRAINING— THOMERY. 143

*

forming the arms lias been already fully de
scribed. The letters in Fig. 80 will enable
the reader to trace the course of every vine
from the ground to the arms. All of those in
the second and third rows are to be buried
about six inches deep as fast as the two year
old wood is formed, so that all will stand in
one- row along the side of the building. This
will be more clearly exhibited on a larger scale
elsewhere ; but the present will be found suf
ficient to enable any one who has mastered
the general principles to perform all the opera
tions successfully.

CHAPTER X.

TRAINING— VARIOUS FORMS.

The Renewal System. — This was so earnestly
advocated many years ago by Mr. Clement
Hoare, as to have had his name associated with
it ever since. It consists of two horizontal arms,
from which upright canes are grown in a serpen
tine course, the canes being alternately fruited
and renewed. Some have misunderstood it, or
modified it by growing the canes straight, and
thus destroyed its best feature. Mr. Hoare un
derstood how the action of the vine tends to the
ends of the canes, and advocated the plan of
growing them in a serpentine form to equalize it.
To take away this feature, therefore, is to dam
age the system.

The reader now so well understands the for
mation of horizontal arms, that we can pass at
once to the peculiar treatment of the spurs and
canes. There should not be more than four
spurs on each arm. Let us suppose that half

TRAINING — VARIOUS FORMS.

the arm has just been laid down. Two buds are
selected for upright canes, and one at the end

. 83.

for the extension of the arm, all the others

'

rubbed off. The two upright canes must be
grown in a serpentine form, like B, 'C, in Fig. 83,

and the end cane, for the extension of the arm.

10

146 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

must be grown straight, and all pinched and
athallized in the usual manner. In the fall, the
end cane must be cut of the proper length for
completing the arms, and the upright canes
pruned, one to the lowest bud, and the other,
this year, not more than two feet long. In the
spring, from each of the spurs grow a cane for
renewal, and also a small cane from one of the
base buds. From the alternate canes pruned
two feet long, grow as much fruit as the vine is
able to ripen, and no more ; and from one of the
base buds grow a small cane for a spur. From
the portion of arm newly laid down grow two
upright canes. The canes, in all these instances,
are to be grown in serpentine form. The fruit
canes are to be pinched two or three leaves
above the fruit, the renewal canes pinched about
the first of September, and athallage attended
to in the usual manner. The reader must, by
this time, so well understand these operations
that it is not necessary to repeat them in detail.
In the fall we shall have, beginning at the
stock, first, a cane that has fruited, with a small
cane at its base ; the old cane must be cut en
tirely away, and the small cane cut to its lowest
bud ; secondly, we have from the spur a long,
or renewal cane, which must be cut three or four

TRAINING — VARIOUS FORMS. 147

feet long ; and also a small cane from a base bud,
which must be cut low enough to get another
small cane from a base bud; thirdly, on the part
of the arm newly laid down we have an upright
cane, which must be pruned to the lowest bud;
last, we have another cane, which must be pruned
about two feet long. The other arm must be
pruned in the same way. The reader will get
a good idea of the system from an examination
ofMff.83.

In the spring the treatment will be as fol
lows, beginning at the stock, as before : from
the first spur grow a cane for renewal ; on the
cane on the second spur grow fruit, and take a
small cane from a base bud ; on the third spur
grow a renewal cane, and also a cane from a
base bud ; on the cane at the end grow fruit,
and also a small cane from a base bud. The
summer treatment will be the same as before.
The pruning and treatment in subsequent years
will be only a repetition of what has now been
described, each alternate cane being annually
fruited, and the others renewed. Fig. 84 shows
a section of the system complete, as arranged
for covering a wall six or seven feet high. This
system, though written about by almost every
body, is very rarely comprehended, and it must

148

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

be admitted to be a somewhat difficult one to
maintain in perfect order through a long series
of years. It is far less satisfactory in its re
sults than others that are much more simple.

Some depend for renewal upon the buds at
the base of the canes on the spurs, instead
of providing a small spur ; but the spur then
soon becomes inconveniently long, and the

TKAINING — VARIOUS FORMS.

149

buds often fail. As between the renewal and
spur systems in all their various forms, the lat
ter are much to be preferred, both on account
of their greater simplicity, and the better qual
ity of the fruit.

The Oblique System. — The French are inge
nious as well as prolific in the forms which they
give to fruit trees. The " cordon oblique " had
hardly been worked out on the peach and the
pear, when it was also applied to the grape, as

Fig. 85.

may be seen in Fig. 85, which is a copy from the
work of M. Forney, 1862. It has such a look of
the Frenchman about it that one would suspect
its origin at first sight. Our engraver has fol
lowed the original literally, instead of making
grape wood of the stocks, as he knows how to do

150 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

better than any body else. The system is very
simple, and the engraving shows quite plainly
how it is formed. The vines are planted two
or three feet apart, and grown obliquely at an
angle of about forty-five degrees, the spurs being
all on one side. With this exception, it is pre
cisely like the Upright Stock described at p.
107, and the directions there given may be fol
lowed here. The two end vines, it will be seen,
are somewhat modified to fill up the trellis ; the
one on the right being made shorter, and the one
on the left having two oblique arms. Any body
but a Frenchman would have left out the two
end vines ; but he understands the value of space
too well, and, besides, brings his good taste as
well as judgment to bear upon every thing he
does, always striving to unite the beautiful with
the useful. The trellis, too, it will be observed,
is a little peculiar. The uprights are oblique as
well as the vines, and do not stop at the hori
zontal top piece, but extend above it, so that the
canes from the upper buds may have something
to be tied to. Every thing necessary seems to be
provided in the engraving. We do not present
the system as being at all suited to the vineyard,
but as something that may gratify the amateur
in the garden, where it would have a pretty ef-

TRAINING — VARIOUS FORMS. 151

feet. The only improvement we would suggest
would be to bend the arms to a horizontal posi
tion, and grow them in tiers.

Something like this was done by Dr. May,
of Warsaw, 111., several years ago. He has two
systems, the double horizontal arm, and the
Guyot, with permanent arms. Beginning at
the ground, he takes the arms up to the wire
at an angle of about forty-five degrees, and then
horizontally along the wire. His idea was, that
he could in this way bend his arms down easier
for winter covering. Figs. 86 and 87 are from
a drawing furnished by Dr. May.

Reversed Horizontal Arms. — This plan con
sists in bending the arms in reversed order in
the first stage of formation. The ends should
be bent to the ground, and pegged there. Re
versing in this way tends to equalize the action
of the plant, causing the buds near the stock to
grow much stronger than they otherwise would.
To secure its full benefits, the end should re
main pegged down during a portion of the sea
son, or until the action of the plant has well de
veloped the canes near the stock. If they are
at the beginning well established in this way, or
by laying down a portion only of the arm at a
time, they will remain good pretty nearly as

152

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

TRAINING — VARIOUS FORMS. 153

long as any other portion of the arm, except the
extreme end. If they are weak at the start,
they will speedily decline. The reader will
comprehend this better when he has acquired a
knowledge of the physiology of the vine.

The Fan System. — If not complicated by the
addition of too many spurs, this system may
be neatly worked out on a small trellis. It is
easily formed, and will be readily understood

Fig. 88.

by referring to Fig. 88. The spurs should be
formed in two successive years, so as to secure
strength for the lower ones. The form is main
tained by repeated pinching, so as to restrain
the strong and encourage the weak. The prun
ing is the same as in the plan on p. 155.

Goblet, and other Forms. — This (Fig. 89) is
a very ornamental form in which to grow the

154 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

vine, and is presented to the novice as an exercise
or " study," that will give a good direction to
his taste. It would form a pretty feature on a
well-shaven lawn, where we have seen a similar
form used with pleasing effect. The frame
should "be made of stout iron wire, and braced
with cross pieces, as seen in the engraving. The
fruiting canes are grown from four spurs. A

brief description will assist the novice in work
ing his " study" out. The first year a single cane
is grown. In the fall this is cut down to the
height at which it is desired to form the goblet.
Two canes are grown the second year, and in
the fall each of the canes is cut down to the two
lowest buds. This will give four canes the third
year. These four canes must next be cut so as

TRAINING — VARIOUS FORMS.

155

to form four double spurs, which will give eight
canes. Figs. 90, 91, will show how this is done.
The principle understood, the reader can have

DECACAED

Fig. 90.

Fig. 91.

goblets, globes, urns, or any other form which
his fancy may suggest. Fig. 92 is an illustration
of the globe form. It may
be remarked that pretty con
stant pinching and athallizing
will be necessary to' keep the
form in its proper shape.

TrouiUefs Plan. — In the
East it has been the practice
Fig-92- from time immemorial to

grow the vine without stakes, and we have ac
counts of very old stocks of almost fabulous
dimensions. It is done by spurring, and M.

156

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

Trouillet's plain, shown in Fig. 93, will give
the reader a very clear idea of the principle.

Fig. 93.

The Hermitage Plan. — " Hermitage" wine is
famous wherever good wine is known. It may

Fig. 94.

interest the reader to know how the vines are
grown. The " system" is shown in Fig. 94. It

TRAINING— VARIOUS FOKMS. 157

Fig. 95.

Fig. 96.

Fig. 97.

158 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

might characteristically be called the " irregu
lar" system, so far as the planting is concerned,
for no order is observed in this respect.

Training on Trees. — Where vines are grown
on trees as a practice, it is usual to train the
trees into such form as will admit also of train
ing the vines. A good example of this is shown
in Fig. $5.

Training on Stakes. — The manner of training
on stakes from three or four spurs is prettily
shown in Figs. 96, 97. It needs no explana
tion.

CHAPTER XL

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES — ISABELLA GROUP.

IN an elementary work like this, it is not
desirable to give a full descriptive list of the
numerous varieties of the native grape. A
large portion of them have no value whatever,
and others are confined chiefly to the garden
or the curious amateur. "We shall confine our
descriptions principally to such as are generally
grown in the vineyard. A full list, with elabo
rate descriptions, is reserved for another place.

THE ISABELLA GROUP. — For present pur
poses, we shall divide our principal vineyard
grapes into two groups, the Isabella and Oataw-
ba, the last group being distinctively vinous
grapes. The characteristics of the Isabella
group are, a thick and acrid skin, a tough,
acid center, and a peculiar " foxy " odor. We
shall begin with the first group, in which
will be included the Isabella, Concord, Hart-

160

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES.

ford Prolific, C rev ding, Adirondac, Israella,
and Ives^s Seedling.

ISABELLA.

Description of Varieties. — The Isabella, of
southern origin, may be said to be the mother of
American grape culture. She performed her

Fig. 98. Leaf of Isabella.

work faithfully and well, and we would there
fore speak tenderly of her faults. A genera
tion has grown up around her, some of them
far less comely than she, but others of great
delicacy, refinement, and beauty. The Isabella

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE. 161

is a good grower, hardy, and submits pretty
well to treatment. The bunches are large,
compact, and shouldered. The color is dark
purple, with a light bloom. The berries are
large, and oval in form. The flesh is neither
melting nor tender, except near the surface,
and has a tough, acid center, that always re
mains, and must either be rejected, or swal
lowed whole. The skin is thick and rather
tough, with a certain acridity which produces
soreness of the mouth when the grapes are
eaten in quantity. Between the skin and the
tough center there is a sprightly, sweet juice,
that is really good. This goodness is increased
in quantity in the most favorable localities,
for the center then becomes somewhat broken
down. The Isabella has the " foxy " odor
peculiar to the native grape. It will not ripen
generally in the New-England States, except in
sheltered places. There is only one way of
eating the Isabella and similar grapes, that
yields much enjoyment, and that is, to break
the skin, and place the berry at the lips so
that the juice can be sucked in, while the skin
and tough center are thrown away.
CONCORD.

The Concord is only one remove from the
11

162 DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES.

wild native, and, with the native vigor and
hardiness of its parent, possesses also its
strongly marked faults. It originated with
Mr. Bull, of Concord, Massachusetts. The
vine is hardy, vigorous, and early, ripening its
fruit over a wide extent of country, which
alone would give it value, if we had not much
better grapes ripening about as early. The
bunch is very large, compact, and shouldered.
The color is dark purple, with a light bloom.
The berry is large, round, and has a thin skin.
The flesh is soft or buttery, with the fibrous,
acid center characteristic of this class of grapes,
and which only disappears when the fruit has
passed the period of maturity. The juice is
sweet, but without that vinous spirit that gives
so much enjoyment in the use of the grape.
In quality, it bears a close resemblance to the
Northern Muscadine. The fruit, even in its
best condition, has a strong "foxy" odor, which
is very offensive, and only becomes more so by
use ; this, added to its peculiar buttery flesh
and want of spirit, renders it any thing but an
agreeable fruit to tastes that have been culti
vated by the use of good grapes. It owes its
popularity to its vigor and productiveness, and
not to its goodness. When mature, the berries

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE. 163

often drop from the bunch, and are disposed to
crack; hence it requires to be sent to market, in
common with some others, before it is fully
ripe. Its tenderness of skin also unfits it for
distant transportation or close packing.

HARTFORD PROLIFIC.

The Hartford Prolific is a seedling from
the woods. It is hardy, a vigorous grower,
very productive, and very early, ripening
nearly two weeks before the Concord. The
bunch is large, and shouldered. The color
is dark purple, with a light bloom. The ber
ries are large, somewhat oval, with a thick
skin. The flesh has the usual tough, acid cen
ter of this class. The juice is rather sweet,
with more sprightliness than the Concord, but
has little or no vinous flavor. The fruit is some
what less "foxy" than the Concord. When
ripe, the berries often drop from the bunch. It
has been popular on account of its earliness and
large yield.

CREVELING.

The Oreveling had its origin in Blooms-
burgh, Pennsylvania, and is no doubt a seed
ling of the Isabella, which it resembles. It

164 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

lias about the same degree of hardiness and
vigor as the Isabella, but ripens about two
weeks earlier, or nearly at the time of the
Hartford Prolific. The bunch is large, taper
ing, and generally loose, with a small shoulder.
The color is dark purple, with a light bloom.
The berry is large, oval, with a thick skin.
The flesh has the usual tough, acid center.
The juice next the skin is sweet, and more
sprightly than either the Concord or Hart
ford. The fruit, also, has less of the " foxy "
odor. It has a habit, however, of setting
its berries very thin, owing to imperfect fer
tilization.

ADIKONDAC.

The Adirondac was introduced in 1863, and
had its origin among the Adirondac Moun
tains, N. Y., whence its name. It is no doubt
a seedling of the Isabella. In favorable locali
ties it is a good grower, but with us, and in
many places where we have seen it, it drops
its leaves early, and hence ripens imperfectly,
and gets winter-killed. How far this is ow
ing to imperfections in propagation, remains
to be seen. The bunch is large, compact, and
shouldered. Color dark purple, with a light

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 165

bloom. The berry is large, roundish oval,
with a thin skin. The flesh is tender, with
very little unripe center. The juice is sweet,
with a pleasant, but not strongly marked fla
vor. In the Adirondac we see the first de
cided step in the breaking down and ripening
of the tough, fibrous center, and the disappear
ance of the offensive " foxy " odor, more or
less characteristic of the Isabella group. The
skin, too, has become thinner and more ten
der. In quality, it is much the best grape
thus far mentioned. It ripens early, or soon
after the Hartford Prolific.

ISRAELLA.

The Isradla, also lately introduced, was ori
ginated by Dr. C. W. Grant, of lona Island.
The vine is vigorous, hardy, and productive.
The bunch is large, compact, and shouldered.
The color is dark purple, with a light bloom.
The berry is large, roundish oval, with a mod
erately tender skin. The flesh is tender, and
ripens fully, quite to the center. The juice is
sweet and sprightly, with a pleasant flavor.
In the Israella we have another step in advance.
One great desideratum in the grape, in common
with all fruits used as food, is thorough ripe-

Fig. 99-Israella.

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 167

ness in all its parts. Nothing less should
satisfy us in the grape, any more than in the
apple or the pear. In this respect, the Israella
stands at the head of the Isabella group. The
disagreeable " foxiness," too, has mostly disap
peared, and the fruit may be eaten without
offense to the taste or smell. It ripens quite
early, or about the time of the Hartford Pro
lific. It is a long keeper, the berries adhering
well to the bunch.

IVES'S SEEDLETO.

Iveds Seedling, just now becoming known at
the West, originated with the Hon. Mr. Ives,
near Cincinnati, something more than twenty
years ago, by whom cuttings were liberally dis
tributed. Dr. Kittredge was one of the early
growers of it, and for a time it took his name.
It is probably a seedling of the Isabella, which
it somewhat resembles. Its chief recommenda
tions are its hardiness and productiveness ; its
prominent defects, a large, tough, acid center,
and very " foxy" odor. Since the marked fail
ure of the Catawba in the vicinity of Cincin
nati, for which neither soil nor climate is well
adapted, the Ives has been gaining favor, and
Col. Waring, with whom the Catawba will not

168 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

thrive, lias pretty extensive vineyards of it. It
has not even the remotest value as a table
grape, but it is claimed that good wine may be
made from it. We think that attempts to
make real wine from any " hard-hearted " mem
ber of this family must end in a small measure
of success.

Comparison of Varieties. — We have now no
ticed such of this group as are prominently be
fore the public. We propose next to group
them together for certain purposes of compar
ison.

\st. Quality. — If we compare them in quality,
they will arrange themselves in the following
order: Israella, Adirondac, Isabella, Oreveling^
Hartford Prolific, Concord, Ives's Seedling.
The difference between some is quite trifling,
while between others it is very marked.

2d. for tlie Table. — If we compare them for
the table, as articles of food, goodness must
take precedence, and they will assume the same
order.

3d. For Market. — If we compare them for
market purposes, we must consider something
besides goodness ; because, if a grape, however
good, will not " carry" to market, it loses its

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 169

market value: it may be the best grape for
wine or for the table, for home consumption,
but it is clearly not the best for market, how
ever much it ought to be so. That is a rare
grape which possesses in itself all these quali
fications. We must look for it outside of this
group. We may, notwithstanding, find here a
grape that is best for both market and the
table. In time our group will no doubt settle
itself in this wise: Israella, Concord, Isabella,
Hartford Prolific, Creveling. We omit the
Ives, since it is clearly not a table grape. We
are at a loss how to place the Adirondac, be
cause we have seen it winter kill so badly. If
this is only a temporary fault, its excellence
must give it a place far in advance of the Con
cord. We think the Hartford a better grape
than the Concord ; but, though both have the
vice of dropping their berries, the Hartford is
much the greatest sinner, and we therefore place
the Concord in advance of it for market. If,
however, we add that the berries of the Con
cord crack pretty badly, it will reduce their
vicious habits pretty nearly to a level. The
Israella is as hardy as either of them ; ripens
before the Concord, is as early as the Hartford,
infinitely better than either, and free from their

170 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

vice of dropping the fruit. These qualities
give it the first position in this group as a
market fruit. We place the Isabella after
the Concord, only because it can not be ripened
over so wide a surface ; but where it will ripen,
it ought to take precedence of it. So, too, of
the Creveling. We make no comparisons for
wine, because we do not consider this group
true wine grapes.

CHAPTER XII.

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES — CONTINUED.

Tlie Catawba Group. — We now pass to
the Catawba group, which is composed of
grapes that are distinctively vinous. It must
not be understood, however, that all the grapes
of this group are of the Catawba family. Al
len's Hybrid, for example, clearly is not ; but
it is placed here for our present purpose, since
it is a truly vinous grape, and has but little
affinity with the Isabella family. The lead
ing characteristics of this group are, a flesh
more or less tender, with a sweet juice having
a vinous flavor. It is here that we find our
best table as well as wine grapes ; some, in
deed, of such excellence as to elevate the na
tive grape to a very high position by the
side of the best varieties of Europe. We
shall include in this group the Catawba, Diana,
Allen's Hybrid, Delaware, and lona.

172 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

CATAWBA.

If the Isabella was the mother of Ameri
can grape culture, the Catawba may be re
garded as the mother of American wine mak
ing. It has performed its mission equally
well ; it has done, indeed, all that it is

Fig. 100. Leaf of Catawba.

capable of doing, and might now very well
be laid aside as a pleasant memory, while its
place is filled by others better fitted to per
fect the work it so well began. The Catawba
had its origin in the South. Whatever of
goodness the Isabella may have is found in

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 173

the Catawba in a greater degree. The Isa
bella has sweetness nearly in its simplest form,
and, consequently, only a feeble or low degree
of vinous flavor, suited to tastes that are sat
isfied with sweetness chiefly, and look for lit
tle more. The Catawba has more sweetness,
but added to it, enough of the acid of the grape
to produce spirit and animation. It is also less
" foxy" than the Isabella. The Catawba, though
very far from faultless, is altogether a better
grape than the Isabella. It is hardy, and a good
grower. The bunch is large, moderately com
pact, and shouldered. The color is a dark
claret, covered with a fine light bloom. The
berry is large, round, with a thick skin. The
flesh has a large tough, acid center, between
which and the skin is a sweet juice, having
a spicy, vinous flavor. In the Catawba the
"foxy" odor has lost a considerable degree
of its offensiveness. The skin, however, is
acrid, and often produces soreness in tender
mouths. There is always some astringency,
and often also a peculiar bitterness, in the
Catawba, very unpleasant to the taste. The
acid center disappears more or less, accord
ing as the grape is grown in localities more
or less favorable to its ripening, but is

174 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

never wholly absent. There is a considera
ble degree of vinous spirit in the juice of
the Catawba; but, on the whole, there is
a want of purity that detracts greatly from
its excellence. The Catawba is so subject to
mildew, sun-scald, and especially rot, both
black and bitter, as to make its culture pre
carious, except under favorable conditions of
soil and climate. It ripens too late for the
New-England States.

DIANA.

The Diana originated with Mrs. Diana Ore-
hore, of Milton Hill, Massachusetts. It is a
seedling of the Catawba. It is hardy, and a
rank grower. The bunch varies from below
to above medium size, is very compact, and
usually shouldered. The color is a pale or
tawny claret. The berry is of medium size,
round, with a thick skin. The flesh has a
small fibrous center, becoming sweet when
ripe, and considerable toughness near the skin,
which, however, becomes pretty tender and
good when fully ripe. The flesh, indeed, is
somewhat meaty ; hence it is a good keeper,
and will make a tolerable raisin. The juice
is sweet, with a high vinous flavor. The Di
ana is sweet some time before it is ripe; in-

Fig. 101— Diana, from a specimen bunch.

176 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

deed, it is often sweet when not colored. It
has a peculiar animal odor before ripe, which
has been variously characterized, and some
times rather too broadly for good taste. This
odor, however, gradually disappears as the
fruit approaches full maturity, and almost
ceases to be offensive. When young, the vine
is disposed to overbear, and hence ripens its
fruit imperfectly. It is only as the vine ac
quires age that the sugary sweetness and high
vinous flavor of the Diana are fully developed,
and then we see its great superiority to the
Catawba. It requires peculiar treatment, how
ever ; and this is so little understood that it has
been a great drawback to its cultivation. It
will ripen in a considerable portion of the
New-England States, in well-chosen and shel
tered positions. We have said that the Diana
is hardy, but this is true only when its wood
is mature. In a soil too rich it makes a very
rampant growth, that is neither very hardy
nor productive. It needs a deep, dry, but not
rich soil.

ALLEN'S HYBEID.

Alleris Hybrid originated with Mr. J,
Fisk Allen, of Salem, Massachusetts, a gen-

Fig. 102— Allen's Hybrid.

12

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

tleman to whom grape culture is largely in
debted. It is a hybrid between the native
and foreign grape, its mixed character being
plainly seen both in the fruit and the leaves.
It is the first example of the kind of which
we have any knowledge, and in this respect
is one of our most interesting grapes. Mr.
Allen raised other seedlings at the same time,
but this is the only one that proved to be
valuable. The vine is not very hardy, but
a good grower, and yields readily to treat
ment. The leaves are well marked, having
a peculiar crumpled appearance not common
to any other variety. The bunch is large,
compact, and shouldered. The color is amber
green, with a translucent pearly bloom, and here
and there dots of claret. The berry is large,
nearly round, and has a thin, tender skin.
The flesh is tender. The juice is sweet, rich,
and spirited, with a pure vinous and mild
muscat flavor. The Allen is one of our best
table grapes. The flesh matures uniformly, and
the skin is tender and good. It is free from
" foxy" odor. The vine is not sufficiently hardy
to adapt it to cultivation in the vineyard, except
in sheltered localities. When exposed, it is
apt to mildew and be winter-killed. For the

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES.

garden, and places where shelter and ventila
tion are provided, it is one of the best grapes
we have. It ripens nearly three weeks before
the Isabella.

DELAWARE.

The origin of the Delaware is wrapped in
mystery. That it is a native grape, there
should be no more doubt than there is in re
gard to the Isabella and Catawba. The leaves
on young vines often show the characteristic
furziness; but seedlings which we and others
have raised from it show the native character
in fruit and foliage too broadly to be mistaken.
The question of its origin would never have
been raised, but for the excellence of its fruit.
It was thought to be too refined for a native ;
in fact, the native grape had become, in our
minds, so almost indissolubly associated with
the " fox," that we had learned to recognize a
native by its offensive smell and tough center.
Happily, the lona, which more than one old
grape grower has pronounced to be a Frontig-
nan, and which it certainly resembles very
closely, has stepped in to spoil the logic of this
kind of argument, and we may now claim to
have at least three natives free from this offen
sive taint. The Delaware is hardy, a vigorous

180 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

but compact grower, and few kinds yield so
readily to treatment. The bunch is small, very
compact, (the berries being often compressed in
consequence,) and has a small shoulder, very
much like a little bunch. The color varies
from bright to pale claret. The berry is small,
round, with a thin and rather tender skin. The
flesh has only a very small fibrous center, but
quite sweet when ripe. The juice is sugary
and sweet, with a pure, delicate, but spirited
vinous flavor. The berry is sweet some time
before it is ripe. This sweetness of the berry
before maturity is characteristic of the Diana,
Delaware, and lona. The early ripening and
hardy character of the Delaware fit it for gen
eral cultivation.

The Delaware has taken, and will always
maintain, a high rank among American grapes.
It was the first to give us a true idea of purity,
delicacy, and refinement, almost its only fault,
besides its want of size, being its small fibrous
center, which prevents it from being tender in
all its parts. That little center, however, is
sweet when ripe. It must be admitted, also,
that the bunch is too compact; so much so,
often, as to prevent the interior berries from
becoming fully ripe ; it makes it difficult, too,

DESCRIPTION OF YAEIETIES. 181

to pick the berries to eat. These faults conced
ed, it still remains a delicious grape. It has
performed the great and invaluable office of
educating the American taste up to the stand
ard of European kinds; it has at least done
this with a portion of the public, and prepared
others for a truer appreciation of real excel
lence in the grape. The mass are already begin
ning to perceive the difference between a grape
that must be shot down with closed eyes and
wide open mouth, and one that may be deliber
ately eaten as food.

IONA.

The lona originated with Dr. C. W. Grant,
of lona Island, K Y. The vine is hardy, a
vigorous grower, and yields readily to treat
ment. The bunch is large, moderately com
pact, and distinctly double shouldered or
winged. The color is a bright claret. The
berry is large, round, with a thin skin. The
flesh is meaty, melting, and tender all the way
through. The juice is sugary and sweet, spirited
and vinous, with a pure but delicate muscat
flavor. Just after " stoning," the berry becomes
so transparent that the seed may be distinctly
seen. The flesh is sweet enough to be eaten
nearly two weeks before it is perfectly ripe.

Kg. 103— lona.

DESCRIPTION OF YAEIETIES.

It is a long keeper, and dries into an excellent
raisin. The hardiness of the vine and the early
ripening of the fruit adapt it to general culti-

Fig. 104— lona.

vation. It is the best of American grapes,
both for the table and wine.

When the excellence of the Delaware had
become fully recognized and appreciated, the
wish was very generally expressed, that we
might be so fortunate as k> have a grape as
good as the Delaware, but twice as large. The
thought seemed to be, that nothing more could
be desired. This wish was soon more than
realized by the appearance of the lona, which,

184 AMEKICAN GKAPE CULTUKE.

in many respects, may be regarded as a Dela
ware greatly enlarged. There are some defects
in the Delaware, however, which disappear in
the lona. Some of these may here be noted.
For example, the small fibrous center of the
Delaware is replaced by thorough ripeness in
the lona; all the flesh becomes equally ripe
and tender, so that a berry, pressed between
the tongue and roof of the mouth, melts en
tirely away, leaving nothing but the seeds and
skin. There can be no perfection in the grape
till this point is reached. Both are exceedingly
delicate and refined ; but the lona has super-
added a pure and delicate muscat aroma, gen
erally wanting in the Delaware. The skin of
both is thin ; but that of the lona is so finely
woven together, that none of the goodness
within can escape : the berries never burst,
even when fully ripe, though the bunches be
piled thickly upon each other. A thin but
firm skin is necessary to all wine and raisin
grapes. The flesh of the Delaware, except the
small fibrous center, ripens into pure, sweet
juice, and thus it remains as long as the berry
retains its integrity ; but when a change takes
place, as in time it must, the animating spirit
soon passes away ; the small center finally

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 185

breaks down by decay, which vitiates the
whole mass. It is true that this does not
take place till some time after the berries are
ripe ; but ultimately it does. Hence the Dela
ware is not a very long keeper. The flesh of
the lona, on the contrary, ripens evenly and
thoroughly in all its parts; its uniform con
sistency is remarkable. It ripens into juice, it
is true, from center to circumference ; but this
juice is held together, as it were, in little sacs,
and has such a peculiar meaty consistence, that,
instead of decaying, it is slowly converted into
a rich sugary mass equal to the best Malaga
raisins ; hence it is a long keeper. It makes a
good raisin without the help of artificial means ;
the Delaware will not, even with their aid.
This property of gradually resolving itself into
sugar without evaporating all its juice gives the
lona great value as a wine grape. The juice
of the Delaware is rich in the peculiar sugar
and acid of the grape, and hence it makes a
fine wine ; its defect is the small fibrous center,
which affects the wine just in proportion as it
is more or less ripe : its presence contributes an
element which interferes with vinous fermenta
tion, and prevents the wine from attaining per
fection and maturity. The juice of the lona is

186 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

even richer than the Delaware in the peculiar
sugar and acid of the grape ; but, unlike the
Delaware, it has no fiber or unripeness to min
gle with the must, and hence it makes a perfect
and enduring wine. The must of the Dela
ware has been recorded at 105° ; it will prob
ably go a little higher than that. We have
seen lona register 130°, the must being from
grapes that had begun to shrivel. The must,
indeed, is so rich in vinous properties, that we
and others have made good wine from it in
pint bottles, in a warm room, without the
least disposition to acetous or destructive fer
mentation.

We present this brief but somewhat analyti
cal comparison of OUF two best wine grapes,
for the purpose of giving the beginner some
useful ideas in regard to those nice shades of
difference in the qualities of grapes, which not
only impress a distinctive character upon them,
but graduate their value for wine or the table.
It is the only way in which we can acquire a
real knowledge of the comparative excellences
and defects of grapes, and form a true estimate
of their value ; and we have often wondered
that it has been so entirely overlooked, more
especially since it is a chief element in those

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 18*r

questions already of general interest, the so
lution of which is so vitally important to all
who contemplate planting vineyards.

Comparison of Varieties. — We now propose
to compare the Catawba group in reference to
the following points: 1st. Quality; 2 d. Value
for the Table; 3d. Market; 4th. Wine.

1st. Quality. — In regard to quality, they at
once arrange themselves as follows: lona,
Delaware, Alleris Hybrid, Diana, Cataivba,
In making this arrangement, we are governed
strictly by the sum total of goodness possessed
by each kind. There can be no difference of
opinion in regard to it, except that there may
be a few who will prefer the Allen to the
Delaware. It is certainly one of the best of
grapes, but it lacks the pure richness of the
Delaware. We desire the reader to keep con
stantly in mind the goodness and defects of
each particular kind. All his plans must have
their origin and aim here, if he would attain
to the largest measure of satisfaction and suc
cess.

2d. For the Table. — For table use, we must
be governed by tenderness of flesh, high flavor,
general good quality, and long keeping ; hence

188 AMEKICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

we place the grapes of this group in the follow
ing order : lona, Delaware, Alleys Hybrid, Di
ana, Catawba. We look upon the grape as
a nourishing and refreshing foody all grapes,
therefore, that are not tender and digestible,
should be excluded from the table. It is only
the first three that fully meet these conditions.
3d. For Market. — We have already stated
the conditions which should obtain in grow
ing grapes for market. The following, then,
will be the order of this group : lona, Dela
ware, Catawba, Diana, Allerfs Hybrid. The
Allen is placed last because of our inability
to produce it in quantity. It will always
command a higher price than the Catawba.
If the treatment of the Diana should ever be
mastered, so as to insure its more general culti
vation, it will be found more profitable than
the Catawba : it is a better grape, and a better
keeper. We imagine, however, that it will be
chiefly grown for wine. In regard to the
others, enough is known to place their relative
market value beyond a doubt. It is by no
means the most productive grape that is best
for market ; that clearly is best which will
net the most profit. Up to a recent period
the market was monopolized by the Isabella

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 189

and Catawba, and other kinds could scarcely
be sold, chiefly because the people had become
familiar with the former, and knew nothing
better ; but all this is changing now ; the people
are breaking away from the bondage of names,
and are rapidly learning to appreciate a fruit
for its goodness and not for its name. Shrewd
men are beginning to perceive this, and are
wisely preparing themselves for the change.
Have we not chased the " fox " long enough ?
and is it not time that he were finally " holed ? "
We have no doubt that a time will come when
the merits of the last new fruit will be as
eagerly discussed around the stands of the
public market as they now are by pomologists
in " learned assembly met," and possibly with
nearly as much intelligence and good taste.

4th. Wine. — For wine, the arrangement
will not vary much from that for the table.
It is as follows : lona, Delaware, Diana, Al
len's Hybrid, Oatawba. Our placing of the
Allen is altogether guess-work, for we have
never made wine from it, and do not know of
any body who has ; yet there can be no doubt
that it will make a purer and much richer wine
than the Catawba. It is not at all probable,
however, that it will ever be grown in quantity

190 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

to make wine from, and it therefore becomes
a matter of small moment where it is placed
in this list. There may be some, however,
who would like to make wine from it in
small quantity for their own use, and it is
just as well that they should know that the
wine is in the grape.

We have included in this group all that
could be justly considered as having any claims
as true wine grapes; if the list were still far
ther reduced, there would be much gain to
American wine making. In all that we have
written, we have taken decided ground for
pure wine; we have warred against adultera
tions in all their multifarious forms, and we
shall do so to the end. Sugar, brandy, and
alcohol are adulterations, and we are only
grieved when we see well-meaning men pro
pose and defend them. "We do not mean to
countenance any thing "but the pure juice of
the grape. No kind, the pure juice of which
can not be made into an enduring wine, should
be admitted into the list of wine grapes ; other
wise we open the door, not only for sirups
and confections, rhubarb and elderberries, but
also for Gallizing, and other slow poisonings
and absurdities. If drinks will be made from

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. .191

such, tilings, give them their right names,
but do not call them wine. We may talk as
learnedly as we please about cane and grape
sugar, and the chemistry of fermentation ;
we can only make real wine from the pure
juice of the grape. We hope American wine
makers will accept this truth, and not tamper
with the public health and credulity. Our
list, therefore, necessarily excludes all grapes
that have large, unripe, acid centers, as well as
those that are deficient in the acids and sugar
peculiar to the grape, or in which these and
other vinous elements are not properly com
bined. American wine making is beginning
to assume such importance and proportions,
that a candid treatment of the subject could
not be passed over, even in an elementary
treatise on grape culture. There is another,
but small class of wine grapes, which will be
noticed elsewhere.

We head the list with the lona, not alone
because we have tried it, but because it pos
sesses in an eminent degree the qualities of
the best known wine grapes, in this respect sur
passing all other American grapes. This is not
a matter of opinion ; it is a verified fact. On
a small scale we have made excellent wine

192 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

from it; better than any that we liave seen
made from the Delaware, and that is great,
praise ; but we have seen wine made from it by
others in larger quantity, that was equal to the
very best German wines. It has the richness,
body, bouquet, and fullness of flavor that
belong to the highest class of wines. If
the fruit is good, so is the plant. This has
now been sufficiently tried, and the testimony
is pretty uniform in regard to its hardiness,
health, and vigor. It is easily trained, and
bears abundant crops of very beautiful fruit.
The bunch is just sufficiently open to permit of
the ripening of every berry. The skin, too,
though thin, has such firmness of texture as to
prevent even the ripest berries from bursting
and wasting the juice. The fruit may, in conse
quence, be kept without loss till the berries
begin to shrivel, when the expressed juice will
be found to be exceedingly rich. In young
vines, the bunches are sometimes a little loose,
especially if the vine is growing with great
vigor. We have given a fair description of the
vine and its fruit, from which the reader can
form an opinion as to its claim to occupy the
position we have given it at the head of Amer
ican wine grapes.

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 193

We place the Delaware second, because it
possesses wine qualities in a greater degree
than any other native grape, except the lona ;
besides, such wine has been made from it in
quantity by Mr. Mot tier and others as to leave
no doubt in regard to its proper place. To
our taste, Catawba is a flat wine compared
with the Delaware; besides, it is not half as
enduring. We find in the Delaware many of
the same wine qualities possessed by the lona,
but some of them less strongly marked. Just
that little fibrous center, and still more the
compactness of the bunch, sometimes make
the wine slightly imperfect. In good seasons,
however, and whenever the fruit ripens per
fectly, these imperfections disappear, and we
have a wine of great excellence. The vine
is admirably adapted to vineyard culture,
being so easily trained. A word of caution,
however, may here be added : the vine is
strongly disposed to overbear, and generally
sets more fruit than should be allowed to
remain. In all good seasons the bunches
must be thinned out as soon as they set.

The Diana we have placed third. It makes
a wine but little inferior to the Delaware when
the fruit is fully ripe ; it is not, however, so

13

194 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

pure and refined in its flavor. The peculiar
odor of the fruit of the Diana is objected to by
many who have not seen it when fully ripe
and in its best condition. This aroma is not,
it must be admitted, very pleasant ; the ripen
ing process, however, works it mostly off, and
the matured fruit becomes an excellent vinous
grape, but still slightly objectionable on ac
count of its odor. The Diana does not occupy
its proper place, and perhaps never will till
its treatment is better understood, and we are
content to wait for its best fruit till the vine
acquires age. It is, notwithstanding, a good
wine grape.

The Alleys Hybrid was placed in this group
because is to a good degree a vinous grape.
It is not, however, sufficiently hardy for general
cultivation. Its tenderness shrinks from the
open exposure of the vineyard, where it soon
dwindles and dies. It is really to be regretted
that such an excellent grape can not be made
more useful.

The Gatawba is placed last, because its
vinous qualities are the least of all the grapes
in this group. The fibrous, acid center must
always more or less impair the quality and
durability of the wine. Its wine is good ; but,

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 195

compared with. Diana, Delaware, or Ion a, is
wanting in purity, refinement, and life. It is
not a wine of high flavor in any true sense,
although it be strongly marked; it impresses
the mouth and lips, but passes the palate
with but little pleasurable sensation. Thus
we have found it always when purest and
best ; and even then it has not richness enough
to cover its rather decided acidity. The
crops of 1854 and 1859 ripened uncommonly
well, and hence the vintages of those years
gave the best Catawba wine that has yet
been put in the market. It was very good.
The truth is, a grape may be vinous in its
character; may contain in itself the chief
elements of wine ; yet, if these are not duly
combined, and the fruit does not ripen fully
and uniformly in all its parts, it can not make
a perfect wine. The imperfections in the grape
will appear in the wine, and not only impair
its goodness, but hasten the period of decay in
proportion as these imperfections may exist in
a greater or less degree.

We have omitted from the wine list the
Isabella and Concord, and all grapes of the
Isabella class. We always have a reason for
what we do ; in this case it consists in the fact

196 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

that they are not wine grapes, if we know what
wine is. The elements which make real and
durable wine are not combined in any one of
them in such degree and proportion as to
render the manufacture of true and durable
wine possible. Sparkling wines are made from
them, and also from cider ; but this does not
prove much. The majority of them have tough,
fibrous centers, that never ripen, and supply
an element incompatible with the manufacture
of good wine, the presence of which prevents
the perfection of the process. Others only
become tender at the center by the breaking
down of the in ass by incipient decay, and not
by ripening; and maturity acquired in this
way is not calculated to enhance the goodness
of any wine. The very few that do ripen make
a feeble, flat wine, and all of them soon run to
vinegar. These serious defects are in many
cases met and overcome by the addition of
sugar, alcohol, and other adulterations, which
at once place the resulting liquor outside of
our conception and definition of wine. All
attempts to make wine from such grapes must
necessarily end in failure. We would here
make a suggestion. There is always a good
market for vinegar : a fine article will com-

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 197

mand as high a price as poor wine. These
grapes, when not too "foxy," will make fine
vinegar. Let them therefore be devoted to
a purpose more consistent with their character.
It will pay very much better than to waste
capital and labor in efforts to make wine
where there is none.

But it is claimed that the Concord is an
exception. Let us briefly examine this claim.
It is said that the Concord at the West is a
much better grape than it is at the East. We
have been at much pains to procure the fruit
from the West, and we are compelled to say
that we can see no difference between a Con
cord of the West and a Concord of the
East, both being equally ripe. This claim has
no foundation in fact ; an equally ripened Con
cord is the same in both places. It is doubtless
true that it often ripens much better at the
Southwest than it does at the Northeast ; and
that has probably given rise to the impression
that it is quite a different fruit at the West.
It is also claimed that the Concord at the
West can and does make real and excellent
wine. We have tasted it doctored and mixed,
and know what it is in that state. We
have taken much trouble to have procured

198 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

for us samples of Concord wine from the
cellars of some of the best known makers
at the West, with the solemn assurance that
it was pure, unadulterated Concord ; and we
have no doubt of it. A recently procured
bottle of the pure Concord is before us as we
write. We shall not undertake the impossible
task of describing it, further than saying, that
this, at least, resembles any thing but wine.
We can not drink it ; neither can our friends.
It is certainly very peculiar. If the leopard
never changes his spots, neither does the
" fox " his odor. We wish to be good-natured
about it; but the fact is, we are positively
ashamed of our own face when we taste it.
As the result of our investigations, we are
forced back to the conclusion, that the Con
cord is not a wine grape, even at the West.

In addition to the leading varieties already
described, there are other kinds more or less
prominently before the public, which may be
briefly noticed here.

UNION VILLAGE.

The Union Village originated with the
Shakers of Union Village, Ohio, whence its

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 199

name. The vine is pretty hardy, and perhaps
the rankest grower of all our native kinds, the
wood, leaves, and fruit being of extraordinary
size. The bunch is extra large, compact, and
shouldered. The color is dark purple, with a
light bloom. The berry is extra large, (often
an inch in diameter,) round, and has a moder
ately thick skin. The flesh has a fibrous cen
ter, small in proportion to the size of the
berry, but is tender and juicy near the skin.
The juice is sweet, and a little sprightly, but
not vinous or high flavored. It resembles the
Isabella in quality, and is no doubt a seedling
from it. For a fruit of only moderate quality,
its large size becomes a positive fault. Such a
mass of flesh, of only negative goodness, when
taken into the mouth, becomes really distasteful
from its quantity. The bunch, however, is mag
nificent, resembling a well-grown Black Ham
burgh. The vine is somewhat tender when
young, and should always be covered. The
fruit ripens about a week before the Isabella.
The Ontario is identical with the Union Vil
lage.

REBECCA.

The Rebecca originated with Mrs. Peake, 'of
Hudson, N. Y., after whom it was named.

200 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

The vine is not very hardy, but a fair grower,
though the wood is not large. It is easily
trained. The bunch is of medium size, very
compact, and usually shouldered, except on
young vines. The color is green, tinged with
amber, which becomes quite deep on the sunny
side, and has a fine white bloom. The berry
is of good medium size, roundish oval, with a
thin skin. The flesh is tender and juicy, with
very little fiber. The juice is sweet and a
little vinous, with a very pleasant flavor.
There is a slight trace of the native odor in
the unripe fruit. The Rebecca ripens quite to
the center, and has consequently been much
esteemed as a table grape. In some localities,
generally where the soil is clayey, it has done
well ; but it is not recommended for vineyard
culture, and often fails in the garden. It
ripens nearly two weeks before the Isabella.

YORK MADEIRA.

The York Madeira is an old variety, and
originated at York, Pa. It may be remarked
here that there are two grapes known by this
name, a large and a small one, the latter being
the true York Madeira. The vine is not veiy
hardy, often losing its leaves, and consequently

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 201

failing to ripen its crop. The bunch is of
medium size, compact, and generally has a
small shoulder. The color is dark purple,
with a light bloom. The berry is of medium
size, roundish oval, with a tolerably thin skin.
The flesh has a fibrous, acid center. The juice
is very sweet, somewhat sprightly, and pleasant
flavored. In quality it is better than the
Isabella, and ripens a week before it. Canty/ s
August is the same.

ELSINGBUKGH.

The ElsinglurgJi came from a village of this
name in New-Jersey, beyond which nothing
seems to be known of its origin. It is hardy,
and a good grower. The bunch is large,
rather loose, and shouldered. The color is a
dark, purplish black, covered with a bluish
white bloom. The berry is very small and
round, with a very thin skin. The flesh ad
heres slightly to the skin, and is tender and
melting, with no fibrous center. The juice is
pure and sweet, with a rich vinous flavor. Its
excellent quality makes it desirable where va
riety is wanted for the garden. It ripens about
a week before the Isabella.

202 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

CLINTON.

The Clinton is supposed to have originated
in Monroe Co., N. Y. It is hardy, an exceed
ingly vigorous grower, has long joints, and is
very impatient of restraint. Color, dark pur
ple, covered with a light bloom. The bunch is
medium, very compact, and shouldered. The
berry is small, round, with a thick, very acrid
skin. The flesh has a tough acid center.
The juice remains sharply acid till after frost,
when it becomes sweet, with some vinous spirit.
It is not a table grape, and will only make a
poor wine, by the aid of sugar. It becomes
black early, but is not edible till touched by
frost. The Golden Clinton is a sub-variety,
differing in color, and producing a poorer
fruit.

TO KALON.

The To Kalon originated with Dr. Spofford,
of Lansingburgh, 1ST. Y. It is hardy, and a
vigorous grower. The bunch is large, moder
ately compact, and shouldered. The color is a
dark bluish purple, thickly covered with bloom.
The berry is large, varying in form, but is
mostly oblate. The flesh becomes tender al
most to the center, with but little unripe

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 203

toughness. The juice is sugary and sweet,
with a delicate and very pleasant flavor.
When grown under favorable conditions, the
vine is productive and the fruit excellent;
but the crop is often lost from mildew and rot.
It ripens about a week before the Isabella.

TAYLOR OK BTJLLITT.

The Taylor or Bullitt originated near Louis
ville, Ky., and was introduced by Dr. Taylor.
It is hardy, and a vigorous grower. The bunch
is small, compact, and sets unevenly. The
color is green, tinged with amber. The berry
is small, round, with a moderately thick skin.
The flesh has but little fiber or unripeness at
the center. The juice is sweet, spicy, and
spirited, but a little rough or harsh. The
vine is not very productive.

MILES.

The Miles originated in Pennsylvania, and
was introduced by Mr. Hoopes, of Chester. It is
hardy, and a good grower. The bunch is under
medium size, compact, and shouldered. The
color is a dark bluish purple, with a light
bloom. The berry is under medium size and
round. The flesh is tender, with but little
unripe fiber. The juice is pleasant, but rather

204 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

sub-acid than sweet, with very little if any of
the " foxy" odor. It is about ten days earlier
than the Isabella.

ANNA.

The Anna originated with Mr. Eli Has-
brouck, of Newburgh. It is a seedling of the
Catawba. It is hardy, and a good grower
The bunch is large, moderately compact, and
shouldered. The color is green in the shade,
covered with a thick pearly bloom, and dotted
with claret ; but in the light it becomes bright
amber. The berry is large, round, with a mod
erately thick skin. The flesh is somewhat
meaty, and has a fibrous center, which is very
tough and acid when only partially ripe ; but
when fully mature, the juice is sweet and vin
ous with a pure and spicy muscat flavor. It
begins to ripen early, but does not reach ma
turity till the end of the season. Like its
parent, it is disposed to rot in unfavorable
seasons, and is not adapted to general cultiva
tion.

EOGERS'S HYBRIDS.

jRogerds Hybrids originated with Mr. Rogers
of Salem, Mass. Much interest attaches to
these seedlings, though we can not accept the
idea of their being hybrids as fully established

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 205

by the character of the fruit or the habits of
the vine. They are all a great improvement on
the wild native vine, and many o^ them are bet
ter than the Concord ; but they all have the
native characteristics strongly marked, while
none of them possess the peculiar character
istics of the foreign grape. We may instance
Allen's Hybrid as being strikingly different, in
these respects, from any of Mr. Rogers's seed
lings. It is to be regretted that Mr. Rogers did
not test them all, and make a selection of three
or four of the best, instead of putting that office
upon the public ; and yet we can not blame
him for not having done this, well knowing
the expenditure of time and money it involves.
Our knowledge of these seedlings, acquired by
six years' experience, leads us to divide them
into three classes, according to color, making
No. 4 the type of all the dark ones, No. 1 5 the
type of the red ones, and No. 1 of the light
ones. No. 19 so strongly resembles No. 4, and
No. 3 so strongly resembles No. 15, that those
who have the former would find their collec
tion but little enriched by additional numbers.
There is such a strong; general resemblance

O o

among these seedlings, that we should not be
much surprised to learn that one parent had

206 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

produced them all. While in vinous spirit,
freedom from foxiness, and ability to ripen to
the center, non£ of them rise to the rank of first
quality, all of the four named may, in these
respects, be placed considerably above the
Concord. If they could be advanced another
step beyond that they have already taken from
the original, they would be very good indeed ;
and we think this may be done by a proper
observance of the well-known laws of thorough
breeding, though not, perhaps, in one genera
tion. We will now describe the three that
have been selected as types of color. We may
say that all of them are hardy, and good
growers.

No. 1 is large, of a light amber green color,
often with a shade of light crimson, and some
times mottled with dark crimson. The flesh is
disposed to tenderness, and has but a moderate
amount of impurity in its flavor; but it is
wanting in richness and spirit, in these respects
falling below Nos. 4 and 15. There are several
light colored ones, (commonly called white,)
but none equal, on the whole, to the best dark
colored.

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 207

EOGERS'S NO. 4.

No. 4 has large bunches, generally shouldered.
Color purple, with a light bloom. Berry large,
nearly round, with a rather tender but some
what acrid skin, with considerable " foxy" odor.
The flesh is buttery, with a fibrous, acid center,
which the ripening process never reaches. The
juice is sweet, somewhat sprightly, and moder
ately vinous, but with that deficiency in anima
tion that characterizes all of what we have des
ignated as the Isabella family. It ripens about
ten days before the Isabella.

EOGEES'S NO. 15.

No. 15, rather large bunch, moderately com
pact. Color, reddish copper. Berry large,
nearly round, with a ratiaer tender skin. In
other respects, the same as No. 4.

We notice next the group of small wine
grapes, alluded to on a former page. They are
of Southern origin, and are not extensively
grown, though they are true wine grapes.

HEEBEMONT.

The Herlemont is of Southern origin. It is a
very handsome vine, and not very hardy, espe-

208 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

cially when young, but a very strong grower.
The bunch is very large, very compact, and

Fig. 104L— Herbemont.

shouldered. The color is a dark bluish purple,
thickly covered with a light bloom. The berry
is very small, round, with a thin skin. The
nesh is tender and melting. The juice is sweet,
pure, and refined, with a rich, sprightly vinous
flavor. The Herbemont is an excellent table
and wine grape, but is not sufficiently hardy for
the vineyard at the North. It does very well
in gardens in the vicinity of New- York, but
young vines especially should always be covered

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 209

in winter. It is an abundant bearer, and re
quires a longer season than the Isabella for the
full maturity of its fruit,

LINCOLN.

The Lincoln is also a Southern grape. For
a time it was thought to be identical with the
Lenoir. The vine is a vigorous grower, more
hardy than the Herbemont, and ripens its fruit
earlier. The bunch is of moderate size, com
pact, and shouldered. The color is a dark pur
ple, covered with a light bloom. The berry is
small, round, with a thin skin. The flesh is
tender, and ripens quite to the center. The
juice is sweet and sugary, with a rich vinous
flavor. The Lincoln is an excellent table .and
wine grape. The bunches are not proportionate
to the size of the wood and leaf, and the vine is
consequently only moderately productive. It
ripens about a week before the Isabella.

LENOIE.

The Lenoir takes its name from Lenoir Co.,
North-Carolina, of which it is said to be a na
tive. It bears a close resemblance to the pre
ceding in the fruit and vine, but is readily dis-
tinguished by the leaves. The bunch is of me-

14

210 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

dium size, compact, and shouldered. The color
is a dark bluish purple, thickly covered with a
light bloom. The berry is small and round.
The flesh is tender, and ripens uniformly. The
juice is sweet and sugary, with a pure, rich
vinous flavor. It is an excellent table and wine
grape. It ripens nearly two weeks before the
Isabella.

NORTON'S VIRGINIA.

The Norton? s Virginia is likewise of South
ern origin. It is not very hardy, but a vigorous
grower. The bunch is large, quite compact, and
often double shouldered or winged. The color
is a very dark purple, thickly covered with a
light bloom. The berry is very small, round,
with a thin skin. The flesh is tender and melt
ing quite to the center. The juice is sweet,
vinous, spirited, and rich in extractive matter,
somewhat like that which distinguishes Port
wine. The Norton is grown chiefly for wine,
making a rather heavy, rough claret, free from
all " foxy " aroma. The must is rich, and is
often added to the juice of the Concord to im
prove it and make it durable.

The following may be simply noted :
JBland, (Southern,) long, loose bunch, good

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 211

medium sized, round, berry, pale red color, acid
center, pleasant flavor ; ripens late.

Brinckle, (Philadelphia,) large bunch, large,
round berry, purple color, tender flesh, some
what vinous flavor; ripens late; is essentially
foreign, and mildews.

Alexander, (York, Pa.,) large, compact
bunch, large, roundish oval berry, purple color,
tojigh, fibrous center, sweet ; ripens in mid-
season.

Canbtfs August, same as York Madeira.

Cassady, (Philadelphia,) medium compact
bunch, small, round berry, amber green color,
tough, acid center ; ripens late.

Montgomery, foreign; possibly a seedling.

GhiWs Superb, foreign seedling.

Clara, (Philadelphia,) medium loose bunch,
medium round berry, amber green color, pleas
ant flavor; ripens mid-season; claimed as a
foreign seedling by Mr. Raabe.

Emily, (Philadelphia,) also claimed as a for
eign seedling by Mr. Raabe, by whom two va
rieties were sent out bearing this name; one
proved to be foreign, and the other the Moun
tain Grape of Virginia.

Gcvrriguoa, . (Philadelphia,) in all respects

212 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

like the Isabella, except that it ripens a few
days before it.

Graham, (Philadelphia,) medium loose bunch,
large, round berry, purple color, tough center,
feeble flavor ; ripens late.

Hydds Eliza, (Catskill, N. Y.,) strongly re
sembles the Isabella, but scarcely equal to it.

Louisa, (Calrndale, Pa.,) ripens about a week
before Isabella, and much like it. •

Mammoth Oatawba, a large Catawba, but
much inferior in flavor.

Marion, large compact bunch, large, roundish
oval berry, purple color, tough center, austere
flavor ; colors early, but ripens late.

Headers Seedling is nearly or quite identical
with the Catawba.

McNeil, medium compact bunch, medium
oval berry, purple color, tough center, brisk and
pungent; ripens late.

Mo Cowan, bunch and berry small, flesh tough,
acid, and harsh ; has no value.

Albino, medium compact bunch, Small oval
berry, amber green color, tough center, low fla
vor ; ripens late.

Mary Ann, long compact bunch, large oval
berry, purple color, tough fibrous center, feeble
flavor ; ripens early.

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 213

Wright? a Isabella resembles Clinton, but has
larger berries.

Alvey, if not Lenoir, is so like it as to be
scarcely distinguishable.

Logan, large compact bunch, large oval ber
ry, purple color, tough center, low foxy flavor;
quite early, beginning to ripen about ten days
before the Isabella. It was first known as Ur-
bana, and re-named by Mr. Campbell. It has
also been confounded with Rulander, a foreign
grape.

Wilmington, (Delaware,) large compact
bunch, large round berry, whitish or amber
green color, unripe center, rich vinous flavor :
ripens very late.

Flora, (Philadelphia,) small, very compact
bunch, rather small round berry, purple color,
unripe acid center, sweet and pleasant flavor:
ripens a few days before the Isabella.

Honey Grape, (Philadelphia,) small compact
bunch, small round berry, small unripe center,
very sweet and sugary : ripens with Isabella.

Mottled Gatawla, (Carpenter of Kelley's Is
land, Ohio,) is like Catawba, except that the
berries are mottled.

Lydia, (Carpenter of Kelley's Island, Ohio,)
large compact bunch, large roundish oval berry,

214 AMEKICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

pale amber green color, unripe center, pleasant
flavor : ripens late.

Elizabeth, (Western New- York,) large com
pact bunch, large oval berry, dull green color,
unripe center, feeble flavor : ripens late.

Qolema/n?s White, medium compact bunch,
oval berry, pale amber green color, unripe center,
pretty good quality, but late and unproductive.

Cwyahoga is Colemaris White revived under
another name.

Maxatawny, (Pennsylvania,) compact bunch,
round berry, tough center, rich vinous flavor,
but ripens very late.

The Scuppernong is a Southern grape, with
a very small bunch, and large round berry,
tough, fibrous center, thick skin, sweet juice, and
a strong, unpleasant aroma. It is the Southern
" fox." The berries drop as soon as ripe. There
are two kinds, a light and a dark-colored one.

The Kansas July is a very early grape, from
Kansas, bearing small bunches of very small
berries, quite meaty and very sweet. The vine
is very handsome.

The Eureka is identical with Diana.

Manhattan, (New- York City,) small, compact
bunch, medium-sized berry, amber green color,

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 215

tough center, good flavor; unproductive, and
ripens late.

Aiken, an Isabella producing large fruit
under peculiarly favorable conditions.

Cunningham, a grape of the Southern family,
scarcely distinguishable from the Lenoir.

Rentz, (Cincinnati,) large, loose bunch, pur
ple color, large, round berry, with the flesh and
odor of the wild grape.

Yeddo, from Japan, and altogether too tender
for our climate.

Cynthiana, a purple grape, said to be from
Arkansas. It has the flesh and odor character
istic of the wild grape.

The Charter Oak, North America, Corail,
Northern Muscadine, Dracut (so-called) Amber,
UnderliilUs Seedling, Perkins, Sage, Massachu
setts White, Miners Seedling, et id omne genus,
may be disposed of in a few words as unmiti
gated " foxes " from the woods.

There are several seedling grapes that have
either just been given to the public, or probably
will be, in regard to most of which but little is
known.

It is much to be regretted that we have not
come means by which seedlings could be thor
oughly tested in various parts of the country

216 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

before they are sent out to the public. If three
or four unprofessional men, living in different
sections, could, by common consent, be selected
for the purpose of testing seedlings and newly
introduced fruits, much disappointment and
expense would be saved to fruit growers gen
erally. It would perhaps be difficult to find
competent and disinterested men who could
give the necessary time to the task, or who
would be willing to undertake the labor ; yet
it would be a profound satisfaction to know
that the fruit we are planting is precisely what
it is represented to be. We shall probably,
however, have to go on for some time yet, and
take our chance. Some seedlings stand for
years so exposed as to leave no doubt of their
hardiness and period of ripening under similar
conditions elsewhere ; but others are so covered
and walled in as to prevent us from gaining any
real knowledge on these points till it has lost
most of its value to the public. If those who
raise seedling fruits could be protected in their
rights by 'law, as authors and inventors now
are, the way would be opened for fully testing
fruits, and the public spared the mortification
and loss not only of planting inferior fruits, but
old kinds under new names, and the production

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 217

of seedlings would be encouraged, and the
number of good grapes thereby more speedily
increased. A man* who, through fraud or
otherwise, plants an inferior fruit, supposing it
to be a good one, loses so much of his life as 19
wasted in proving it: a loss which can never
be repaired. There is room for wise legislation
here.

The new grapes alluded to above are as fol
lows :

BRACKETT'S SEEDLING.

Brackets Seedling, large in bunch and berry,
and bearing a close resemblance to the Union
Village. It originated near Boston.

DIANA HAMBURGH.

The Diana Hamburgh was raised by Messrs.
Moore and Charlton, Rochester, N. Y., who say
it is a hybrid between the Diana and Black
Hamburgh. It resembles the Diana very closely
in quality, the flesh, however, being more meaty
in its consistence, and the skin thinner and
darker. It is supposed to ripen late. Of the
hardiness and general character of the vine we
know nothing.

FANCHER.

The Fancher is in possession of Mr. F. B.

218 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

Fancher, of Troy, N. Y. Having examined the
vine and the fruit on his grounds, we were led
to the conviction that it is identical with the
Catawba. We could perceive no difference in
the wood, foliage, fruit, and general habit of
the plant. It is affected by mildew and black
rot precisely as the Catawba is. The vine is so
situated as to favor its early ripening ; other
vines, similarly located, showed as much ma
turity as the Fancher. It is either the Catawba,
or a pretty exact reproduction of it, an opinion
which half a dozen or more examinations of the
fruit has only tended to confirm.

SARATOGA.

The Saratoga is also in possession of Mr.
Fancher. His published account says he got it
of Dr. James, of Waterford, N. Y., who received
it twenty years ago from New-Orleans, under
the name of Scaberan. This account leaves no
doubt whatever that the Saratoga and the Fan-
cJier are one and the same grape.

WALTER.

The Walter originated with Mr. A. J. Cay-
wood, at Modena, K Y. It is said to be a cross
between the Diana and the Delaware. It bears

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 219

a very close resemblance to the Diana, of which
we think it is a seedling. It has the same
sweetness, the same flavor, and the same con
sistency of flesh ; and the form, size, and color
of the bunch and berry are the same. Its value
will depend upon its hardiness, vigor, and early
ripening, of which we have no knowledge, the
vine having fruited only in the garden of the
proprietor.

MAETHA.

The Martha was raised by Mr. Samuel Miller,
of Calmdale, Pa. It is said to be a seedling
of the Concord. It is hardy, and a strong
grower. The bunch is of good size, and the
berry large, of a pale green, a little warmed with
chocolate or copper color. It has a buttery
flesh, an unripe acid center, and a sweet juice,
with some sprightliness, but no vinous flavor.
Like its parent, it has a pretty strong " foxy "
odor.

DANA'S SEEDLINGS.

Of Dana's Seedlings we know nothing, except
that some of them are said to be promising, and
bear a general resemblance to the Rogers's Hy
brids.

220 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

EUMELAN.

The Eumelan sprang up, some twenty years
ago, in the yard of Mr. Thorne, at the end of
the Long Dock at Fishkill Landing, where we
should little expect to find a grape. Mr.
Thorne died ; and his brother, perceiving its ex
cellence, determined to transplant it to his own
grounds; but it died in consequence of having its
roots badly broken off among the rocks. A few
cuttings, however, had been taken off, and from
these the present vines were grown. We know
but little of the habit of the vine, except that
it is hardy, ripens early, and bears good crops.
The fruit, however, is excellent, and entirely dis
tinct, resembling none of the Isabella family,
except in color, and is free from " foxy " odor.
The bunch is of good size and compact, and the
berry nearly round, of a deep purple or bluish
black color, and thickly covered with a light
bloom. The flesh is thoroughly tender and
melting, ripening uniformly to the center, and
the juice sweet, sprightly, and decidedly vinous.
It is a pleasure to meet a grape sometimes that
is in no danger of being confounded with some
thing else. It is now in the possession of Dr.
C. W. Grant.

Of most of the following new kinds we have

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 221

little or no personal knowledge beyond their
names:

Eva, Slack Hawk, Young America, and
Macedonia, seedlings of the Concord, raised by
Mr. Samuel Miller, of Calmdale, Pa.

Modena, a seedling of the Concord, raised at
Modena by Mr. A. J. Caywood. It is said to
resemble the Concord in quality, out is smaller.

PcBScheKs Mammoth, represented to be a
large fruit, ripening a week or so after the
Catawba.

Lorain, a seedling raised at Sandusky, of
which we know nothing reliable.

Hattus, (perhaps the same as Hattie^) a claret-
colored grape, said to be a seedling of the Ca
tawba, but of smaller size and quite acid.

Laura, raised by Mr. H. B. Lum, of Sandus
ky, Ohio, said to be sweet, but " foxy."

Framingliam, (Boston,) a purple grape, re
sembling the Hartford Prolific, but having
stronger native characteristics.

Doirfs Seedling, said to have been raised
from the Delaware, which, except that the
berries are larger, it resembles in form, color,
and bunch; but it has the coarse flesh and
strong " foxy " odor of the wild grape, and if
really a seedling of the Delaware, possesses

222 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

some interest; but we would suggest to the
originator not only not to name it after Mr.
Downing, as proposed, but also not to dissemi
nate it.

Canadian Hybrid, raised by Mr. Arnold,
C. W. It is said to be a hybrid, but the fruit
shows it to be a native of the Isabella family.

Arnold's No. 1, recently figured in the Gar-
denerys Monthly, and said to be a seedling of
the Clinton. The bunch and berry are large.
No mention is made of its quality.

Charlotte, said to resemble the Diana, and
ripen as early as the Delaware. .

Telegraph or CJiristine, represented as vigor-
oiis and productive, having a large bunch and
berry, and ripening before the Concord.

Neff, sometimes also called the Keiika,
medium sized bunch and berry, copper color,
with the flesh and " foxy " odor, of the native :
ripens rather early.

Salem, (No. 53 of Rogers' s Hybrids,) is said
by Mr. Rogers to be the best of his seedlings.
It is described as being hardy, vigorous, and
productive, having a large bunch and berry,
sweet and sprightly, and ripening as early as
the Hartford Prolific or the Delaware.

Carpenter, raised by Mr. Thompson, of Green

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. 223

Island, near Troy. It resembles the Black
Hamburgh, of which it is a seedling. Having
seen it, we are prepared to say that it is in all
respects inferior to its parent. It is totally un
fitted for vineyard culture, in common with all
the kinds that we have designated as foreign.
Mr. Thompson has a number of other seedlings,
both foreign and native, and of these the Ca-
tawba seedling is the only one that approaches
its parent in excellence.

Just here is a proper place for a few remarks
that will be of much benefit to the beginner.
The foreign grape has been so often and so
thoroughly tried, and so uniformly failed, that
we should regret to see the experiment repeated
under the supposition that it is still an open
one. There is scarcely a single variety of the
foreign grape that has not been tried in every
conceivable variety of soil and locality, and
under every kind of treatment ; they have been
tried, not by dozens or hundreds, but by thou
sands, over and over again. Skill and money
without stint have been lavished upon these
experiments, and they have been persisted in
for years, but always with the same results, and
there can, therefore, be no doubt of the unfit-
ness of the foreign grape for vineyard culture

224 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

here. This is the rule ; but, like many other
rules, it has its exceptions. Here and there in
cities, and in a few sheltered positions possess
ing peculiarly favorable conditions for growing
the grape, a few vines of the Early Black, Mil
ler's Burgundy, the Chasselas, or even the Black
Hamburgh, have been grown with tolerable
success, the fruit, however, falling much short
of its characteristic excellence, being, in fact,
quite inferior to several of our best native
varieties. We know, indeed, of several in
stances where the Chasselas, under such condi
tions, has for a number of years produced mod
erate crops of inferior fruit ; but such sporadic
instances do not in the least invalidate the fact,
that the foreign grape is wholly unfitted for
vineyard culture here. That fact will remain
intact until we can command a much more uni
form temperature than we now possess, and" the
hygrometric conditions of our atmosphere have
been considerably modified. But even if the
foreign grape were fitted for the vineyard,
wherein consists the wisdom of introducing

o

seedlings inferior to their parents ?

CHAPTER XIII.

TASTE, AS APPLIED TO FEUITS.

WE must add here some remarks on the
subject of taste, in its application to fruits ;
a subject that can only be fully treated in an
extended essay. We wish, however, to pre
sent some facts that may lead the general pub
lic to do what is as yet done only by com-
paratively few, to regard grape culture from a
higher stand-point than they have heretofore
done; and to point out to them the source
whence they can draw the greatest enjoy
ment in the use of the products of the vine.
And as an inseparable part of the subject,
we wish to indicate, also, some of the reasons
why good grapes only should be planted in
the future.

The grape, in its best varieties, is truly a
nourishing and delicate food, possessing val
uable hygienic properties, aM the public will

226 - AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

not be satisfied with those that are indigesti
ble and ill flavored, when they can just as
well have those that are tender and good.
While we had only the Isabella and Cataw-
ba, a necessity w^as laid upon us, and we were
constrained to be content with them ; but we
now have those which are far better, upon
which we can , really feast. We have only to
come prepared for their full and proper en
joyment : the table is set, and all who will
may come and eat of the best.

The public taste, so far from having been
cultivated, has been depraved by the use of
ill-flavored and indigestible grapes. The force
of circumstances has compelled it to remain
so for a time; but there is no longer any rea
son why this should continue. It has ceased
to be a matter of necessity, and has now be
come one of choice. Each one, therefore, in
his own interest, should seek to free his taste
from the bondage in which it has been held,
and rise to the liberty of a purer enjoyment.
Some have not been slow to do this ; and
the number has been much increased by those
accustomed to the use of the foreign grape.
Experience, gained by comparing the differ
ent kinds, will soon show the public the

TASTE, AS APPLIED TO FRUITS. 227

broad distinction between the good and 'the
bad, and they will not be slow to choose the
one and reject the other. We have only to
show them that, while the good yields both
nourishment and enjoyment, the bad yields
but little of either, and they will be at no
loss which to select. We have no more faith
in pandering to a depraved taste in matters of
food and drink, than we have in pandering
to a depraved taste in morals, literature, or
the arts. All are essentially bad, and equallv
to be condemned.

It is a fallacy to suppose that poor kinds
of grapes can be grown cheaper than good
ones, and that we must therefore grow the
poor kinds for the " million." No sensible man
should try to deceive himself with that spe
cious kind of reasoning. Good grapes, in
this happy land at least, are not to be a lux
ury for one class alone. They can, and must,
be placed within the reach of all, rich and
poor alike. Taste is the common inheritance
of man, and not, as is often supposed, some
thing which follows in the wake of wealth.
It is sometimes found as keen and apprecia
tive in the cottage as in the palace. It is
doubtless preserved in greater purity by some

228 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

classes of society than others, and always will
be ; but that should not content us ; it should
rather stimulate us, seeing how altogether
beautiful it is, to induce a healthy tone in
the taste of all classes of society. We must
dismiss the illusion that a poor man, simply
because he is poor, can not appreciate the en
joyments of taste ; and we must no longer do
him the injustice of growing for his special
use an inferior class of food. The " millions "
must have as good grapes and as good grain
as the " tens." It is their right, and they are
beginning to comprehend it. There is a power
at work which will at no distant day sweep
from the market every grape inferior to the
Diana. No greater service could be performed
for both grape growers and grape consumers.
We can already see the beginning of the
end. Many intelligent vineyardists, perceiv
ing the impolicy of spending their capital and
labor in the cultivation of inferior varieties
of grapes, are replacing them by better kinds.
Causes are at work which will in time, and
that no very distant time, effect a complete
revolution in our estimate of the value of
grapes for the vineyard. The change, indeed,
is now going on pretty fast, and it would be

TASTE, AS APPLIED TO FRUITS. 229

fit least wise to accept what must and ought
to be, rather than to fight against it. It is
better to accept the situation while we can do
it without loss, than to wait till it is forced
upon us, with its consequences. It would,
notwithstanding, in many cases, be a hard,
and in some perhaps an impossible task, to
convince those who already have vineyards
of poor kinds, that they would in the end
be gainers by immediately, or even gradually,
replacing them by better ones; and yet we
believe this to be strictly true. The change,
notwithstanding, will not be delayed; having
been begun, it will go on just as rapidly as
the material for effecting it can be produced.
It is for those, however, who are now plant
ing vineyards to choose wisely as to the part
they will take in carrying forward this reform
movement in grape culture. Happily, they are
aiding it to an extent that could hardly have
been hoped for, so largely are they planting the
good kinds ; and thus the movement goes on.
There will be a strong opposition to it, no
doubt, on the part of some who have vine
yards of poor kinds, since they will think that
it involves a sacrifice of their invested inter
ests; but herein they will most certainly be

230 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

wrong, as a little calm reflection can not fail
to convince them. Their trouble will consist
in preparing the way for calm reflection by
first casting aside their prejudices. Others
will continue to insist that poor grapes are the
grapes for the " million," and not deceive even
themselves ; but the " million " will insist that
they are not, by eating only the good ; and thus
the good, in the end, will prevail over the evil.

For many years the conviction was strong,
that American grape culture occupied much
too low a position ; and that an intelligent ap
plication of the means within our reach would
greatly improve both its modes and material,
lift it to a much higher level, and give it an
important place among the chief industrial in
terests of the country. Under this conviction
a movement was begun, and both in public and
private, we have not ceased to urge it on.
The movement was slow at first, but it has
gathered numbers, and is now becoming im
posing in its proportions. We propose to go
on, and "fight it out on this line, if it takes
all the summer " of life. Nothing but the best
of grapes, and an improved public taste to en
joy them, will satisfy us.

In partaking of food and drink, our enjoy-

TASTE, AS APPLIED TO FRUITS. 231

rnent is mainly a matter of taste. If the taste
be paralyzed to sucli a degree that the food
passes the palate as it were without a sensa
tion, eating has ceased to be a pleasure, and
fails, in a measure, to perform its function of
supporting the body. Eating and drinking
are necessary to sustain life ; but both were in
tended to be a pleasure as well as a necessity.
The taste may become so depraved as at last
to yield us no appreciable enjoyment in the
act of doing either ; and thus we may sink to
the level of mere animals in all that pertains
to what was intended to be one of the purest
pleasures of life. On the other hand, the taste
may become so vitiated and artificial as to re
ceive but little pleasure from natural flavors ;
it then depends for excitement upon stimula
ting and pungent compounds. We say excite
ment ; for the capacity to receive pleasure from
the normal exercise of the sense of taste is
so greatly impaired, that the nerves must be
sharply excited to produce a response, which
comes quickly and as quickly passes away.
These two extremes are by no means uncom
mon. There are persons to whom all flavors
are nearly alike ; and there are others who
have no perception of flavor except in its

232 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

intensest form. The last are insensible to
delicate and refined flavors, which are usually
the most delightful of all ; their nerves can be
excited by the flavor of our rankest " fox," but
remain insensible to the delicate and pure
flavor of a Front ignan. All this results from
abuse. The nerves of taste, when in their
natural and healthy condition, not only vibrate
to the most delicate touch, but the vibrations
linger like those of a musical chord, passing
away by such delicate gradations, that we
scarcely know when they cease. Our pleasure
is just in that degree prolonged.

If so much enjoyment may be found in the
natural use of the taste, it becomes a matter
of much moment to preserve its healthy tone.
We should do nothing that may deprave or
vitiate it ; but, on the contrary, do every thing
to give a healthful vigor to its tone. Still fur
ther, we should, as it were, so educate it as to
discriminate promptly and nicely between the
good and the bad in flavors, and thus increase
not only the amount but the degree of our en
joyment. In all matters of taste, whether re
lating to the intellect or the sensibilities, our
enjoyment must be more or less enhanced by
our ability to perceive even the nicest shades

TASTE, AS APPLIED TO FRUITS. 233

of difference in any object. There is a degree
of pleasure in the very consciousness of possess
ing the power to do so. The want of this per
ceptive power reduces all flavors, good and bad
alike, to one common level, and that level a low
one. ,

We have the evidence of this before us every
day, and marvel that it is so common. What
we wish to do here is to impress the reader
with the fact that, on the integrity and preser
vation of his taste, will depend a large measure
of his enjoyment. As grape eaters and wine
drinkers, the great mass have this important
lesson to learn. They have yet to learn that
there are simple, natural pleasures, arising from
the proper use of taste, which are far more sat
isfying and enduring than any derived from ar
tificial forms. Such knowledge would exercise
a beneficent influence on intemperance in both
eating and drinking.

But we must not be content with the power
simply to know what is sweet or what is sour,
or what is essentially good or essentially bad ;
we must not stop short of the power to perceive
all the gradations which connect these together.
We must know not only wherein one thing re
sembles another, but wherein they differ, and

234 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

in what the difference consists. We must be
able not only to recognize the excellence of
both, but to know wherein one is better than
the other, and why it is better. We must be
able not only to appreciate all the goodness of
the Delaware and the lona, but also to know
wherein and why the lona excels the Delaware ;
what, in fact, are the real excellences which
place the lona above all other American grapes.
When we can do this, we shall be the posses
sors of real knowledge, and know what its
pleasures are. All may not attain to this im
mediately, or by intuition, but all may and
should strive to reach it quickly by prompt and
thorough training of the taste. In all that
pertains to taste, no less than to knowledge, we
should seek for the substance, and not the
shadow: we should do our own tasting as well
as our own thinking, always happy in having
the intelligent in sympathy with us.

Our taste, at present, is at a very low stand
ard ; too many of us are content with the posi
tively coarse and bad, to the neglect of the
delicate and good. Forced by circumstances to
begin low, we are too easily beguiled into re
maining so. There is no longer any excuse for
this ; for we have now within our reach the

TASTE, AS APPLIED TO FRUITS. 235

means of gratifying the most refined percep
tions. Our taste for grapes really began in the
woods, and it is surprising how many still seek
its gratification there, unsatisfying as it must
be, while the good is so plainly in sight. But a
movement has already begun; the masses are
turning their faces to the light ; numbers have
already reached the outskirts of the woods, and
some may be seen wending their way up the
fair hill of culture, rosy with the excitement of
their new-found pleasure. This must go on till
the great body of the people are able, not only
to distinguish between a good grape or a good
wine and a poor one, but also to appreciate in
good grapes and wine those nice shades and
degrees of flavor which give a distinctive char
acter to our best grapes and wines, and from
which is derived the chief zest of our enjoy
ment. Then, and not till then, shall we be
able to put a just value upon grapes as a nour
ishing food, and wine as a refreshing drink.

CHAPTER XIV,

WHEN GRAPES AKE RIPE.

V

OKE of the most important parts of an ele
mentary work on the grape is that which relates
to the ripening of the fruit, more especially
when that work regards the subject from the
stand-point of food. The novice should be
furnished with so much knowledge as will
enable him to know when his grapes are ripe,
and in what ripeness consists ; indeed, it is
equally important to the grape grower and the
grape consumer. Such knowledge is important
to the grape grower, whether he purposes using
the fruit for his own table, sending it to mar
ket, or making it into wine. For all these
purposes, it is essential that the fruit should be
ripe; and we hope that all who read these
pages will be too conscientious to use grapes
for food until they have at least acquired a
tolerably good degree of ripeness, and in time

WHEN GRAPES ARE KIPE, 237

we hope we may add, full maturity. Those
who are careful to send to market only ripe
fruit, nicely put up, always obtain good prices,
and find fruit growing profitable: grapes
ought not much longer to form an exception
to the rule of ripe fruit.

In every city that has a market, there ought
to be a Board of Health, composed of con
scientious and honest men, like that instituted
in New- York last summer ; and it should be
their duty to see that no unripe fruit is offered
for sale ; for of all complaints that affect the
public health, there are none that run their
course more rapidly, or prove more fatal, than
those that have their origin in the use of
unripe fruit. Grapes are no exception: emi
nently healthy when ripe, they are just the
reverse when unripe. Each one, therefore,
should gravely ask himself, how far he can
conscientiously become particeps criminis in
destroying public health and life.

It becomes important, then, that those who
plant vineyards should have some means of
judging when the fruit is ripe. In the apple,
pear, etc., mellowness is a good external indi
cation of maturity ; but we have no such guide
in grapes, for mere appearance and touch are

238 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

no criteria, In our ordinary native kinds we
must accept an approximation to ripeness, and
not look for full maturity. If we judge by
what we see in market, the conclusion is in
evitable, that there are a great many vineyard-
ists who do not know when grapes have at
tained even this degree of ripeness. This is the
most charitable construction we can put upon
the fact that meets us every where. Some lots
are so positively bad that the best arts and
finesse of the agents can not " work " them off
upon the public, and they are sold at a low
figure to the " doctors " for making so-called
wine ! and not only so, but these " wine doc
tors" go about among the vineyards, and buy
up the worthless refuse for the same purpose.
We hope that a practice so utterly disgraceful
is not known out of New- York. Grapes that
are not fit to eat are good enough to make wine
of, forsooth ! Let those who buy wine bear
this fact in mind.

We have found two opinions quite prevalent
in regard to the ripeness of grapes : one, that
they are ripe when they are colored ; the other,
that they are ripe when they are sweet. But
being simply colored or sweet is not of itself a
safe guide. For example, the Isabella and Con-

WHEN GRAPES ARE EIPE. 239

cord are colored two weeks or more before they
are ripe, while the Diana and lona are sweet,
but only a little colored, a couple of weeks
before they are ripe. Color and sweetness are
both important elements of ripeness; but
there are degrees of sweetness and color, and
these must attain their full degree of force and
depth before they can be regarded as indicat
ing ripeness.

It will assist us much in understanding what
ripeness is if we first have some knowledge of
what the flesh of the grape is composed, and
what changes take place in it. The flesh is
composed chiefly of grape sugar, tartaric, tan-
nic, carbonic, and other acids, potash, etc.
These elements are contained in the juice ; the
juice is held in little sacs or cells composed of
cellular tissue, and the mass of cells are in
closed in the skin, and we thus have the berry.
The berry is increased in size by the multipli
cation of the cells. The changes that take
place as the berry proceeds to maturity are
vito-chemical. The fruit will be good or bad
as these changes are more or less perfect, and
it will depend chiefly for its flavor and spirit
upon the presence and due commingling of the
sugar and acid of the grape. Some varieties

240 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

of the grape are constitutionally incapable of
carrying the ripening process to maturity.

From what has been said we may derive
the following brief rule for ripeness in the
grape : The berry is ripe when it is tender
and melting in all its parts, without loss of
its characteristic spirit and flavor. If the spirit
and flavor are gone, we may conclude that
the tenderness proceeds from incipient decay,
and not from natural maturity. The berry is
then in the condition of an overripe apple or
pear. Ripening does not destroy the goodness
of the fruit ; it only carries it forward to a per
fect condition. And just here is presented the
line of demarkation between a good and a bad
grape. In the latter, the ripening process,
owing chiefly to constitutional causes, never
performs its office fully, and the berry fails to
mature ; a portion of the flesh remains tough,
and the acids unchanged; the sugar in the
juice is imperfectly elaborated, and there is a
marked deficiency of spirit and flavor, or they
are so poorly developed as to be scarcely ap
preciable. In the good grape, on the contrary,
ripening proceeds uninterruptedly to full ma
turity, and reaches all parts of the berry in
consequence of the more delicate texture of

WHEN GKAPES ARE EIPE. 241

the cellular tissue; tlie flesh becomes tender,
melting, or juicy, and thoroughly digestible.
The flavor will be more or less vinous and
spirited, according as the sugar and acids may
be more or less perfectly elaborated, and as
the aromatic principle may be present in a
greater or less degree.

But the reader may ask if there are no out
ward signs by which the ripeness of the grape
may be determined. There certainly are such
signs, and they have some value. The color of
the skin constitutes one of these signs; but
there are others which can be recognized by
the practiced eye alone. In purple grapes, like
Isabella, the color should be uniformly deep.
If, on holding the bunch up to the light, the
skin shows a tinge of red, the berries are not
ripe; but if the color be uniformly deep and
dark, with a thick bloom, it is a pretty sure
sign of ripeness. In dark claret-colored grapes,
like Catawba, the color should be pure and
deep, and covered with a thick bloom. In
light clarets, like lona, the color should be
bright and pure, and well covered with bloom.
Claret-colored grapes are sometimes described
as amber colored, but there is not a particle
of amber about them. In light or green -colored

16

242 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

grapes, like Allen's Hybrid, the green should
have a tinge of amber, which should be quite
deep on the sunny side, and the berry covered
with a bright, pearly bloom. In unfavorable
seasons and conditions the color will be im
perfect in all these cases, and so will the ripen

Though the condition of color above de
scribed indicates ripeness, the grapes should
not be cut for a week at least after this deep
color is established, if they are wanted fully
ripe. In purple grapes the color is deceptive ;
it will seem to be dark and pure to ordinary
Observation, but on holding the bunch up to
the light a reddish tinge will be seen, which
shows that the berry is not ripe. The longer
some kinds of purple grapes are left on, the
better, for they never get fully ripe. In some
of the light claret and green-colored grapes,
ripeness is also accompanied with a certain
degree of transparency ; the lona , however, be
gins to be transparent just after stoning.

But tasting is the surest and safest of all
means for determining ripeness in the grape.
The touch is of no use to us here. We can
not feel the ripeness of the grape as we can
that of the apple, the pear, or the peach, and

WHEN GRAPES ARE EIPE. 243

we must therefore have recourse to taste. If,
on tasting a grape, we find the flesh tender or
melting throughout, with a sweet and sprightly
juice, accompanied with the characteristic
flavor of the kind, it is ripe, and we may
place it on the table, send it to market, or
make it into wine, if it is a wine grape. If it
is not in this condition, it should remain on
the vine till it is, or be given to the pigs, (if
they will eat it,) or made into vinegar, but it
should not be eaten or made into wine.

There are only a few of our native grapes that
ripen their skins, so that they may be eaten.
They are not only generally sour, but often
acrid and pungent to a degree that can not be
tolerated by tender mouths. A few only of our
best grapes are free from this fault. It is only
when the skin ripens in common with the rest
of the berry, that it may be eaten like the
skin of the foreign grape. In certain condi
tions of the body, the astringent principle
that resides in the skin of the grape is a valu
able medicine, and the edible condition of the
skin therefore adds to the value of the grape.

"We shall get a better idea of ripeness if we
take the foreign grape as an illustration. This,
as a class, ripens uniformly, and hence its great

244 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

excellence. Its chief characteristic, that which
gives it its greatest value, is the perfection of
the ripening process, which reaches every part
of the berry. This is fully recognized, and
every advantage taken of it by the skillful
gardener. He not only places the vine under
the most favorable conditions for growth, and
carefully removes every cause which may inter
fere with the full development of the fruit,
but he applies his art in such a way as to facili
tate the development of the highest condition
of excellence that the vine is capable of attain
ing to. In a true sense, he becomes a co-worker
with nature.

Let us take an example, say the Chasselas
Musque or the Grizzly Frontignan, and see
how the fruit is developed into this excellent
condition. The vine, when started, is bent
down, to equalize the action of the plant, and
secure a good " set " of fruit along the whole
length of the stock or cane ; for the gardener
dislikes to see the bottom of his vine naked
of fruit. When the fruit sets, he finds he has
too many bunches, and the bunches are too
compactly set. His object is handsome, well-
colored, and high-flavored fruit; quality, not
quantity ; but still, all the fruit his vine will

WHEN GRAPES AKE BIPE. 245

carry from year to year without injury. He
judges how much the vine will mature
thoroughly, and removes the rest at once. But
the bunches left are too compact to have
the berries all ripen at the same time, or to
admit of their being eaten conveniently; he
therefore removes a half or more of the berries
while they are very small, and as the result he
has a bunch quite as heavy as it would have
been without the thinning; but the thinning
has admitted light and air to all parts of the
bunch, and the vital force having a fewer num
ber of berries to act upon, they are made
much larger, and the ripening process is more
thoroughly performed.

He wants the vine now to work principally
upon the fruit, and he therefore pinches out
the end of the cane a few leaves above the last
bunch, athallizes promptly, and thus concen
trates the action of the vine on the fruit and
the development of the buds for next year's
canes. The fruit swells rapidly, and recourse
is had to various means for securing handsome
bunches of fully-ripened and high-flavored
grapes ; and to this end, among others things,
water is applied in due quantity and at proper
intervals, and ventilation so regulated as to fur-

246 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

nisli fresh air without having a current blowing
directly on the vines, or causing a sudden change
of temperature. When " stoning " takes place,
it is accompanied by a beautiful translucency ;
the berries "clear," and the ripening process
has fairly begun. It is not confined to any
particular part of the berry, but involves the
whole mass at one and the same time, like fer
ment in a lump of dough. Air and water now
more than ever influence the goodness and
flavor of the fruit : the first is carefully regula
ted, and the last gradually withheld. Not a
bunch is disturbed till the ripening is com
plete, and then he has grapes of such excel
lence as to reward him for all his labor, beauti
ful to look upon, and exceedingly good to eat :
the flesh is tender and melting, the juice pure,
sweet, and vinous, with a delightful muscat
aroma, the skin quite edible, and there is no
waste except the small seeds. He eats his
grapes with great enjoyment, and both body
and mind are refreshed. Here skill, working
on proper subjects, produces its legitimate
results in a high degree of excellence.

Thus we see, in the best foreign varieties,
that all the elements of a good grape have been
brought together, as it were, in equilibria, and

GRAPES ARE KIPE. 247

so nicely adjusted under the most favorable
conditions, that when motion begins in one, it
is immediately communicated to all the rest :
all move, and each performs, its allotted task
in producing a perfect fruit. There are no
woody, fibrous barriers to impede or shut off
access to the interior, and which the ripening
process can not overcome, but it finds, as it
were, open doors and ready passages to lead it
to the remotest parts of the berry, and it thus
takes possession of the whole, converting it
into a uniform mass of goodness.

o

It is these elements, under precisely the same
conditions and operating in the same manner,
that have heretofore been wanting in the
native grape; and they had been so long and
so earnestly hoped for, that most people had
begun to think it impossible that they ever
would be found there; but the supposed im
possibility having been proved possible, we
may confidently look forward to the time when
truly good grapes will be as common in our
markets as poor ones now are. The structure
of our native grape is radically faulty : woody,
fibrous walls meet the ripening process at
every step ; it finds no open doors or ready
passages, but must perforce knock a hole

248 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

through the inosculated cells, the obstructions
becoming more formidable as the interior is
approached, till at last it is fairly turned back
by the impenetrable center, so weakened by its
fruitless efforts to overcome the obstacles op
posed to it, that it is incapable of completing
its allotted office. This is the general fault of
the native, and a complete remedy can only be
found in a new structure of the flesh, such as
we find begun in the Diana, greatly improved
in the Delaware and Allen, and completed in
the lona.

CHAPTER XV.

PKOPAOATION.

WE propose here to give a description of the
several modes in which the vine is propagated.
There are perhaps few of our readers who will
propagate their own vines; still, it is just as
well that they should know how it is done ; if
for no other reason, because it is an important
link in the circle of knowledge pertaining to
the vine. Nurserymen, who make propaga
tion a specialty, surround themselves with the
necessary appliances in their most approved
forms, and can therefore not only make better
plants, but make them at a much less cost,
than those who have nothing of the kind.

The grape vine is propagated from single
eyes or buds, cuttings, and layers, and also by
grafting. New varieties are raised from seed.
We shall take them up in the order in which
they are named.

250 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

Single Eyes. — The most perfect mode of prop
agating any plant is that furnished by nature,
which is the seed. The seed contains the per
fect plant in embryo or miniature. The near.
est approach to seed is the bud, which may
also be said to contain the plant in embryo,
with perhaps the single exception of the radi
cle; the germ of which, however, may be said
to exist, at least in some buds ; for if the bud
of a grape vine, and the buds of some other
kinds of plants, be carefully dissected or de
tached from the parent plant, and placed under
favorable conditions, they will develop into
perfect plants of their kind. We have conduct
ed a series of experiments with a view of
establishing a general rule for all buds, but we
are not prepared quite yet to state it. The
analogy, however, between a seed and a bud,
is a recognized fact. In the seed, the cotyle
dons support the plant while the mouths or
rootlets are being formed on the radicle. Now
if, in the grape vine, for example, we take
a small portion of the cane (or mother plant)
on each side of the bud, to support the infant
plant while it is forming mouths of its own,
we have something that answers to the cotyle
dons in the seed, and the analogy between the

PEOPAGATION. 251

two becomes almost perfect. If the beginner
will bear these things in mind, he will the
better understand the process of propagation,
and it will become invested with a new inter
est, The reader will infer, correctly, that we
esteem a grape vine made from a single eye or
bud the best that can be produced by any arti
ficial means.

Vines from eyes are propagated under glass.
In order that the reader's mind may not be
diverted from the main subject as we go along,
we will here notice an objection made to this
mode of propagation, and which, to many,
seems to have considerable force. It is object
ed that propagating plants under glass is an arti
ficial process, and makes plants weak and tender.
The sufficient answer to this is, that all modes
of propagating plants from cuttings are strictly
artificial, and that is clearly the best which
places the cutting under the most favorable con
ditions for its full development into a perfect
plant. This is so self-evident that it should need
no argument. Now, it is found, as the result of
repeated and careful experiment, that shelter,
shade, moisture, etc., are indispensable to the pro
duction of the best plants from eyes or cuttings ;
and it is further found that these, and all other

252 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

requisites needed, are best furnished by glass
houses constructed for the purpose. • In short,
better vines can be grown under glass in one year
than can be grown in the open air in the old way
in three years. Poor vines in abundance, how
ever, are grown in both ways. We want chiefly
a porous, moist, warm soil, and a moderately cool
but uniform and moist atmosphere. These con
ditions are needed with almost unvarying con
stancy, and are admirably supplied by a glass
house ; but in the open air we have them Only
" by fits and turns." The infant plant must be
nursed into a vigorous childhood before it is
exposed to the rigors of a changing climate, and
not stunted and dwarfed by exposure before it
is scarcely born. In breeding, this principle is
now fully recognized. Exposure and hardiness
were so intimately associated at one time, that
it was thought necessary to rear young animals
exposed to all the inclemencies of the weather,
no shelter being afforded against even the rigors
of winter ; but it is now found that the shelter of
a good barn gives a degree of vigor, health, and
general development, and consequent hardiness,
never attained in the old way. We must make
an animal healthy to make him hardy.

Single eyes are prepared in several ways, but

PROPAGATION

253

they are substantially alike. Some are cut with
an inch or so of wood above the bud ; some

with the wood below the bud ; and others,

254 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

again, with the wood equally divided on each
side, of the bud. Some place them in the soil
upright ; some at an angle ; and others horizon
tally. Various forms and modes are shown in
Fig. 105. When the cane on which the bud is
growing is large, it is usual to split it lengthwise
through the middle. It is well to prepare the
buds a week or two before they are used, and
pack them in moist sand or moss. The cut will
then have become dry, and be ready to " cal
lus ;" the eyes, indeed, by cutting early, may be
callused before they are placed in the propaga
ting bed, and a little time thus gained. The
eyes will root a little more readily if the bark is
removed ; but this is so troublesome, and the
gain so small, that it can not be thought of on
a large scale.

At the proper time, say from the middle of
February to the middle of March, the eyes are
to be placed in the propagating bed. Two or
three modes obtain here: some place a single
eye in a very small pot, and plunge the pots in
the beds ; others place the eyes about an inch
apart in large pots; and still others place the
eyes from one to two inches apart in the propa
gating beds. The eyes will root most readily
in pots.

PROPAGATION. 255

Just here we must stop a moment, and ascer
tain what are the conditions needed to convert
these eyes into strong and healthy vines. We
want a clean, sharp sand for the sake of its por
ousness ; one of the largest and most successful
propagators that we know is so particular as to
wash his sand thoroughly clean. We want a
suitable bed in which to place this sand. This
maybe made of planed or rough boards, so
put together as to form an open box from
three to five feet wide, and about one foot
deep, the joints in the bottom being covered
with thin slips or laths to prevent the sand from
running through. This bed should run along
the sides of the house, and also through the
middle, when the house is wide enough. The
top of the bed should come nearly up to the
sill of the house, and be supported by posts
and cross ties. The height of the bed, however,
in reference to the sill, must be regulated by the
form of the house. The pipes or tanks for sup
plying heat must run under the bed. If pipes
are used, then all the space, under the beds must
be boarded in for a hot-air chamber, with doors
at short intervals for regulating the heat. If a
hot water tank is used, no boarding in will be
needed, for the beds will rest immediately on

256 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

the tank. Next, sashes must be provided for
covering the beds. With a proper glass struc
ture covering these appurtenances, we have all
that is needed for propagating the best class of
vines, except the knowledge, skill, and care of
the propagator, which are brought into almost
unceasing requisition.

All things being ready, the sand is put in the
bed from three to six inches deep, and in this the
eyes are put from one to two inches apart, the
s'and pressed firmly about them, and gently wa
tered. If the eyes are put in pots, the pots
must be plunged in the sand. The sashes are
then placed over the beds, and the boiler fired
up. The sashes should be used chiefly for
shade, and should therefore, during most of the
time, be kept partly raised. On clear days the
sashes should be shaded during the middle part
of the day, by laying paper on them, which
should be removed as the sun declines, and kept
off entirely during cloudy weather, the object
being to admit as much light as possible to the
infant plants, but not the direct rays of the sun
till they have become able to bear them. If the
sashes are kept shut down, the plants are apt to
<]amp off. This matter will need constant atten
tion.

PROPAGATION. 257

The next condition to be provided is a warm
bed for the eyes to root in, and a cooler, but
moist and uniform atmosphere for the tops to
grow in. The heat for the bottom is obtained
by closing all the doors of the hot-air chamber,
which prevents the heat from the pipes from
escaping into the house. A good thermometer
must be used here, and strict attention paid to
the fires, so that the heat may not at any time
become too great. The bottom heat may go as
high as 70° or 80° with safety, but from 60° to
70° should be observed as nearly as may be.
The temperature of the house should be kept
about ten degrees below the bottom heat.
This is done by regulating the heat from the
pipes, and opening the ventilators of the house.
As the season advances, this matter will need a
good deal of attention. Changes in the weather
must be watched for and provided against, and
every precaution taken to secure and maintain
great uniformity in all the conditions named as
necessary to success.

Now, let us see what takes place in the bed.
In a few days the buds will begin to swell, and
then growth will begin ; but no roots have yet
been formed. After the first start, the motion
for a while is scarcely apparent : the cuts are

258 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

" callusing," and the infant plant is being nour
ished by the small amount of matter previously
laid up. In from eight to twelve days the pro
cess of " callusing " will be pretty well com
pleted, and soon thereafter the roots will begin
to appear. When these are about an inch long,
the eyes are taken from the propagating bed,
and put in small pots in a good fine soil, pre
pared for the purpose. They have heretofore been
shaded, and for a little while the shading must
be continued, when the plants should be exposed
to the light just as fast as they are able to bear
and profit by it, and no more. They must now
for a while be watched constantly, and not al
lowed to want for any thing. Water must be
given just at the moment it is wanted, and then
in sufficient quantity to go through the pot.
Special care must be taken not to check root
action. In two or three weeks the small pots
will be well filled with roots, and the plants
must be put in larger pots, and staked. When
these pots get filled with roots, the plants must
be changed to others still larger, and so re-potted
from time to time as they need it, until at last
they occupy pots holding gallons. The pots
must at no time be allowed to get so full of roots
as to check the growth of the plants: there

PROPAGATION. 259

must be an uninterrupted growth of top and
bottom. In the mean time, the plants must be
carefully watered, tied up, athallized, and grad
ually hardened by exposure and the admission
of more air daily.

In the best arranged places the plants, when
sufficiently advanced, are moved to unheated
houses, with movable top sashes, which are more
or less opened or entirely removed, as may best
secure the health and ripening of the cane and
roots. Sometimes the plants are turned out of
the pots and planted in the borders of this
house. At other times they are planted in the
open air. There are a great many advantages
gained by the use of the " hardening off" house,
as it may be called, chief among which are these :
the plants can at any moment be secured against
sudden and unfavorable changes of weather, and
the ill consequences that always follow such
changes ; and if the season proves short, with
early frosts, the sashes can be put on, and two
or three weeks gained in this way for the perfect
ripening of the plant. These advantages can
scarcely be overestimated by those who buy
plants. It is very seldom that they are secured
by open air propagation of any kind. Fig.

260

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

106 is a good example of plants made from sin
gle eyes.

Fig. 106.

Single Eyes in Hot Beds. — Very good plants
may be made by placing single eyes and two-
eyed cuttings in a common hot bed frame.

The frame of the bed must be made to ac
commodate the size of the sash, which maybe of
any convenient size. A sash four feet wide and
four and a half long we have found to be the
most convenient of all that we have used. It
is usual to make them long and narrow, and

PROPAGATION. 261

such can generally be bought ready made. The
front of the frame should be about a foot high,
and the back from four to six inches higher
than the front, according to the width of the
frame ; in other words, there should be just
slope enough to shed water. It is a very com
mon mistake to make the slope quite steep.
The frame may be made of common rough
boards, or it may be made of worked boards,
and painted, and put together with screws and
hooks, so as to be taken apart : there are vari-

Fig. 107.

ous ways of making them. A good idea of the
frame and sash, with its fastenings, etc., may be
got from Fig. 107.

A covering of some kind must now be pro
vided to protect the plants at night, and pre
vent the loss of heat. For this purpose, straw
mats are commonly used, as they are conven-

262 AMEKICAN GEAPE CULTUKE.

ient and easily made ; boards, blankets, carpets,
etc., are also used ; but the best thing we have
tried is a light frame made of laths and filled
with straw, and fixed to the back of the bed
with a bolt hinge, so that it may not only lie
flat on the sash, but be moved to any angle.
When placed upright, it forms a good protection
from northerly winds. It is in common use
among the French, who generally weave the
straw together in mats, which are stiffened by
wooden slips on the edges, and at intervals
through the middle, if necessary.

Hot beds are commonly made by using long
and coarse manure for the heating material;
but we must alter and vary the material in this
case, in order to produce uniform and good re
sults. For our purpose, dead leaves are the
best material. Manure alone makes too strong
a heat. Equal parts of leaves and horse manure
make a very good and durable heating material ;
but leaves alone make the "sweetest," most
even, as well as most durable bed, one five feet
thick sometimes retaining its heat for a year.
If leaves alone are used, they should be gathered
in the fall or early winter, and placed loosely
together, and under cover, if convenient ; or
boards may be laid over them to keep off snow

PROPAGATION. 263

and rain. It matters but little what kind of
leaves are used ; they may be gathered indis
criminately in the woods.

About two weeks before making the bed the
leaves should be prepared as follows: make a
layer of leaves about two feet thick, of any con
venient size, and just moisten them with water
from a watering pot, if they are dry ; they must
then be beaten down pretty firmly, and another
layer added, and treated in the same way. The
layers are repeated till the heap is finished,
when boards should be so laid on the top as to
shed rain. In from six to ten days the heap
will begin to warm.

Having the materials all ready, the bed should
be started somewhere from the first to the mid
dle of March, or even as late as the first of April.
Select a dry spot, where surface water will flow
off readily. Cart the leaves to the spot, and
proceed as follows: mark out the size of the
bed, which should run lengthwise east and west,
and be two or three feet wider than the frame ;
then spread a layer of leaves about a foot thick,
and beat them down firmly ; if they are dry,
moisten them with warm water before beating
them down. Repeat layer after layer in the same
way, beating each one down firmly, till the bed

264 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

is raised three or four feet high. Unless the
mass of leaves are put firmly together, it will
not only require considerable time for them to
heat, but the heat will be low and not uniform ;
and they will not heat at all unless they are
moist. These two particulars must therefore be
attended to carefully. If leaves and manure are
used together, they must be well mixed. The
operation should be performed quickly, in order
that the small amount of heat already in the
mass may not be lost.

Having laid up the bed of leaves, the frame
is put on so as to set level. For raising vege
tables, etc., the frame is placed with its front to
the south; but for our purpose we shall place
the front to the north. Leaves must then be
packed around the outside of the frame up to
the top. Next, clean sand must be put in to
the depth of about six inches, leveled off neatly,
and the sashes put on. All these things must
be done as rapidly as possible, in order that
there may be no unnecessary loss of heat.

The sashes must be left on for a few days be
fore the eyes are put in, in order that the sand
may become uniformly warmed. In conse
quence of the sashes facing the north, the sun
will have comparatively little effect upon the

PKOPAGATION. 265

heat of the bed; still it' will be necessary to
raise the sashes a little on warm days when the
sun is out ; they must not be raised too high nor
kept up too long just now. In ventilating a hot
bed, always raise the top or side opposite the
point whence the wind comes. In this way the
wind will never blow directly into the frame.
As the sun goes down the sashes must be well
covered, and the covering removed when the sun
is well up in the morning. This is a general
rule to be observed every day.

When the sand becomes warm, single eyes
or two-eyed cuttings may be put inj>recisely as
was directed for the propagating bed; there is
much advantage, however, in hot-beds, in put
ting the eyes in pots, and plunging the pots in
the sand. Cold water must never be used.

The frame will now need considerable care
and watching. The same conditions, as nearly
as possible, should obtain here as in the propa
gating house. Ventilation must be so adjusted
as to preserve a rather low, moist atmosphere
above the plants, without wasting the heat of
the bed. The sashes must therefore be raised
from a mere crack to several inches, according to
the state of the weather, and the advanced con
dition of the plants; but the sashes must be

266 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

raised at the top, bottom, or either of the sides,
according as it may be opposite the point whence
the wind comes. Water, also, must be faith
fully applied, but only when it is wanted, and
no more than is wanted. The wants of the plants
in these two particulars must be carefully and
constantly watched and ministered to.

No very precise rules can be given for shading
and ventilation. We have several times stated
the importance of having a uniform moist at
mosphere for the young plants to grow in, and
it seems hardly necessary to repeat it here ; yet
it is a point that must be constantly borne in
mind. The importance of a strong light with
out the direct rays of the sun has also been al
luded to : it is the colorific and not calorific
rays that are wanted. Ventilation and shading
must have reference to these two points. If the
sashes face the south, as is almost universally
the case, the sun heats the frame early, and by
mid-day it becomes almost seething. The plants
would speedily die if left to such conditions,
and it therefore becomes necessary not only to
ventilate and shade early, but to exercise the ut
most vigilance all through the day to regulate
the ventilation so as not to reduce either the
heat or the moisture below what is necessary

PROPAGATION. 267

for the wants of the plant. Each of these must
be nicely adjusted to meet the changes that are
constantly occurring. Painting with white lead,
sanding, etc., are usually resorted to ; but a bet
ter plan is given below.

By our arrangement of making the sashes face
the north, the necessary conditions are obtained
with much less labor, and with a much greater
degree of uniformity ; and this latter point is of
the utmost importance. Not having to battle
constantly with the direct heating rays of the
sun, less ventilation is needed, and the proper
degree of heat and moisture is more easily and
uniformly maintained. We have found the la
bor to be reduced fully one half, and the success
increased much beyond that amount; besides
which, the plants are of a better character.
A good plan for shading is to make a light
frame, of the size of the sash, and cover it with
thin brown muslin. By resting one end of the
frame on the sash, it may be adjusted at different
inclinations, so as to afford more or less shade to
the plants without obstructing the light entirely.
If a frame of this kind is not used, newspapers
may be spread on the sash at the times needed,
and secured there by laying strips of board on
them. They should be kept on no longer than

268 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

is necessary. If the reader bears in mind that a
constantly uniform moisture is necessary for the
young plants, he will by this time be able to se
cure it by a proper adjustment of shading and
ventilation, being careful not to carry the latter
too far.

The strong light in which the plants have
been growing will make " hardening off" an easy
process. This should be begun as soon as the
plants are well rooted, by admitting a little more
air from time to time, thus preparing them for
full exposure to the sun and air. When rooted,
the plants should be separated and put in small
pots, in soil prepared for the purpose, and the
pots placed in the frame. For a few days af
ter this they must be shaded from the mid-day
sun, and the sashes kept a little closer shut ; at
the end of which time the admission of air must
be daily increased, and the sashes finally re
moved, as the weather, by this time, will be suf
ficiently warm to continue the growth without
the aid of a frame. The plants may be shifted
from time to time into larger pots, and thus
grown during the season ; but they will become
stunted in pots unless protected in some way.
A better plan, therefore, is to plant them in
nursery rows, in well prepared soil, or to plant

PROPAGATION. 269

them where they are to remain. These direc
tions, in connection with what has heretofore
been said, will enable one to grow good plants
in hot-bed frames, from single eyes ; very much
better, indeed, than any that can be grown in
the open air.

By beginning later in the season, eyes may be
started in a cold frame, which is simply a frame
and sash without any heating material. The
plants, however, will not be so good, since they
will not make as good roots, nor have as long a
season to grow in. The cold frame is made as
follows : a dry spot is selected as before, and the
ground spaded up and leveled off. The frame
is then set on the ground, four or five inches of
sand put in, and it is ready for use. The treat
ment of the plants is substantially the same as
for a hot bed.

We have said that vines can be made better
and cheaper in regular propagating houses than
in the ordinary way in the open air ; but there
are certain adaptations or arrangements, by
means of which those who have time, and delight
in such employment, (and there are many such,)
may grow tolerably good vines ; better than can
be grown without their aid. A description of
one such has been furnished us by a friend, and

270 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

we give it in his own words. It afforded him
much pleasure in times past, and we have no
doubt will yield a similar pleasure to any one
who may try it. It is as follows :

"Domestic Propagation. — Good vines may be
produced with very little outlay, except that of
constancy of attention, by any one who will un
failingly observe the following very simple di
rections. We will suppose the ground already
well prepared, and so thoroughly mixed together
as to be strictly one homogeneous mass suitable
for inviting and entertaining the roots of young
plants. Have in readiness three pine box boards
about one foot wide and thirteen feet long,
or of any other convenient length. Nail three
battens, about two inches wide and eighteen
inches long, across one of them, placing one near
each end, and the other near the middle, leaving
the ends to project equally on each side.

"Dig aN little trench, three inches deep, with
neat perpendicular sides. Set one of the boards
on edge in the trench, at its southerly or front
side, and drVe three little stakes into the
ground on the trench side to keep it there.
Have the tops of the stakes a little lower than
the upper edge of the board, through which
drive one nail into each of the stakes. Drive

PKOPAGATION. 271

three stakes in a row close to the back of the
trench, placing them like those already driven
in front ; but these are to be set close against
the back, to keep the rear board at the surface.
Set the other board on edge, the lower edge rest-
ing on the surface of the ground, and nail as be
fore. Shut up the ends, and place the board
with the battens upon the top, and the house is
made. Two pieces with notches taken out to
form the slots for the end' battens should be
nailed upon the upper edge of each of the side
boards. (See Fig. 108.)

Fig. 108.

" The room inside is fourteen inches wide, to
be divided for three rows of cuttings, the first to
be set two inches from the front board, the next
two inches from the back of the trench, and the
third in the middle. The cuttings may be six
inches apart in the rows. Good two-eyed cut-
ings of the free rooting kinds will grow with a
great degree of certainty in this simple arrange
ment, and make good plants for the nursery in
one season, and very good plants for the garden

272 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

or vineyard the next, under the following man
agement :

"Plant as just directed. As early in the
morning as the atmosphere begins to be warmed,
take off the cover, placing it bottom side up back
of the l house/ to let the under side dry. At about
eight o'clock put on the cover, to remain till
four or five, if the day should be very hot and
clry, or windy. The state of the weather must
also regulate the time of taking it off in the
morning. A little before sunset it is to be put
on for the night. The cover should be placed so
that the opening on each side of it will be
equal ; that is, about an inch and a half each, if
the board is one foot wide, which is about the

Fig. 109.

right proportion. Notches in the battens may
regulate this with certainty.

" This arrangement may be continued to any
length desired, or maybe multiplied indefinitely.
It may also be made larger for the production
of stronger plants, as represented in the illus-

PROPAGATION. 273

tration. (See Fig. 109.) In this the number
will not be increased in proportion to the size,
but the plants may be made much better.
Every length of thirteen feet in the former will
receive about seventy-five cuttings at the dis
tances named, and about one hundred in the
latter. In the last, good vines for vineyard
planting may be made in one season. The first
of April, in the latitude of New- York, is gener
ally about the time for setting the cuttings.

"The conditions of success in management
are, ground always moist, and never wet ; water
not permitted to remain on the leaves for want
of ventilation, and no exposure to strong drying
winds, but careful increase of light and sun as
the plants are able to bear it. The space of an
inch and a half at each side of the cover will af
ford sufficient light to maintain healthiness of
the leaves during the early stage, if the most
advantage that can be had with safety is taken
of the early morning and evening sun, without
letting in enough sunshine to injure. After the
plants have become pretty well rooted, the cov
ers may be put on with the battens under,
which will nearly double the light. One hour
of sunshine that can be borne without injury is

18

274 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

worth several hours of shade for giving increase
and strength to the plants.

"The careful propagator meets with no acci
dents, but one act of negligence may be fatal to
the season's hopes. One of the first conditions
to success is good, well-ripened wood, and that
from strong vines, well grown in houses, is much
the best. One good cutting is worth more than
several poor ones. It is only very good ones
that are fit to use for this purpose, and these are
much less abundant than those that are toler
ably good or poor. The watering should be
done from a watering pot with a fine rose;
large streams act unfavorably upon the soil. It
is most properly done in the morning, in the
early part of theseason, and in the evening,
after hot weather is established. The quantity
should be sufficient to keep the soil always moist
through its whole depth, but it should never
be applied when not needed. In very drying
weather, if the plants begin to droop during the
day, and water seems to be called for, do not
hesitate to apply it from fear of injury in conse
quence of the sun shining.

" This arrangement is commended to all of
both sexes, who feel themselves willing to give
the requisite attention for three or four months,

PROPAGATION". 275

and who find enjoyment in observing and co-
working with nature in her most interesting
operations. Such will find the interest and de
light constantly increasing with increase of
knowledge and experience, and those who desire
it may reap a handsome pecuniary reward for
their leisure hours."

Single Eyes in the Open Air. — It is some
times asked whether the vine can not be propa
gated from single eyes in the open air ; and the
fact that the French have within a few years
succeeded in doing so, seems to have given some
interest to the question. About fifteen years
ago we tried the experiment in a very thorough
manner. A bed four by ten was prepared, and
eyes from about a dozen different kinds of the
native grape were put in, but the result was far
from satisfactory. The experiment was repeated
several times more carefully, and recourse had to
watering, mulching, partial shading, etc., with
much more gratifying results. Some kinds
rooted much better than others. The constant
care and labor necessary to success were ten-fold
greater than are demanded in growing eyes un
der glass, and the results so greatly inferior, that
we have not repeated the experiment since.
An enterprising nurseryman, however, at our

276 AMERICAN GEAPE CULTURE.

request, tried the experiment three years after
ward, but his success was far less than our own.
It is safe to conclude, therefore, that the native
vine can not be successfully, or at least profitably,
grown from eyes in the open air. Because it has
been done in France, it does not follow that it
can be done here. The climate of the two
countries is entirely different.

CHAPTER XVI.

PKOPAGATION CONTINUED.

Cuttings. — If we succeeded in giving the read
er a clear idea of how plants are made from single
eyes, he will readily understand how they are
made from cuttings. These consist of pieces of
cane having from two to five eyes or buds. A
cutting of two eyes is seen at the right, Fig. 105.
Cuttings are prepared by making a clean cut
close under the lowest bud, which is removed,
as is also the one above it when there are three.
The cane is cut half an inch above the top
bud, the slope of the cut being on the side op
posite the bud. Only thoroughly ripe canes
should be used for cuttings, and those of me
dium size are best. Cuttings of two eyes are
sometimes grown under glass. They are placed
in the propagating bed, with the upper bud an
inch or so above the surface, as shown on the
right in Fig. 105. Their management is then

278 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

the same as for single eyes. In small, short-
jointed wood, the bud should be just above
the surface.

Cuttings, however, are generally grown in the
open air, and some kind of preparation is neces
sary to secure a good degree of success. The
best soil is one that is light and porous, and at
all times free from standing water. If not por
ous, it can be made so by the addition of sand.
It should be worked deep, to insure against the
ill effects of drought. It can hardly be made too
mellow and fine. The cuttings having been
prepared as above, are to be planted as follows :
stretch a line, and along this line put in the
cuttings about one foot apart; they are often
put in much closer, but this is close enough.
As they are put in, the soil must be pressed
against them firmly. This is particularly neces
sary with two-eyed cuttings, to prevent them
from being displaced ; but, aside from this, it is
necessary to insure ready rooting. If the soil is
not quite mellow, a dibble should be used for
making the holes. The top eye of the cutting
should be about an inch above the surface of
the soil. Having completed one row, stretch
the line two feet from it, and plant another, and
so continue till all are planted. These distances

PROPAGATION. 279

are greater than are sometimes observed, but
none too great where good plants and much suc
cess are expected. Indeed, if they are not to be
transplanted, they should be three or four feet
apart. No weeds must be allowed to grow ;
the hoe should be used before the weeds are
fairly out of the seed leaf.

The cuttings should be put in as soon as the
ground can be thoroughly worked. When
warm weather fully sets in, but not before, the
ground may be mulched with straw, having
first been well weeded. In case of drought,
mulching will be found a great benefit. If the
ground is not mulched, it should be repeatedly
hoed to keep the weeds down, and make it mel
low. With watchful care, you may expect a
fair proportion of tolerably good plants. We
have seen acres of cuttings that did not
produce a plant fit to sell at the end of the
year. It often becomes necessary to transplant
them, and grow them a second, and even a third
year, to make salable plants of them.

Layers. — Though this is the easiest and most
certain method of propagating the vine, it re
quires some knowledge, if not skill, to perform
it in such a manner as to produce really good
plants : poor ones are very common. The

280 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

•mother plant requires some kind of prepara
tion, and should have age, before being tasked
-to produce plants in this way. No vine should
be expected to produce good fruit and layers
at the same time ; we may go further, and say
that no vine can produce good fruit and layers
for any length of time together. We say this
for the benefit of those who think they can per
sist in layering their vineyards without injury
to the fruit or the plant.

A layer consists of a portion of cane laid
in the ground while still attached to the mother
plant, where it remains while taking root, and
until the end of the season, when it is detached.
The vine from which the layers are to be taken
should be at least three or four years old, and
the canes should have been well ripened the
preceding year. The canes layered on the same
plant should always bear a small proportion to
those not layered; for example, a plant of three
canes should not have more than one layered.
A layered plant is shown in Fig. 110 The soil
around the mother plant should be made fine
and mellow. A trench is to be made some ten
or twelve inches wide, and six inches deep, but
it must not approach nearer than two feet to
the mother plant, to avoid damaging the roots,

PROPAGATION. 281

or having them interfere with the layer. The
cane to be layered should be cut some four or
five feet long. When the buds have broken,
the cane should be laid carefully in the trench,
secured there by pegs, and all the lower buds
rubbed off. Of the remaining upper buds, from
two to four may be selected for making the
young plants, the interval between the selected
buds being as great as possible. When the
young canes have grown about six inches, a
couple of inches of soil must be heaped about
each of them in such a way as to leave six or
eight inches of the layered cane uncovered be
tween each of the growing canes, which must re
main uncovered for a week or so; the object
being to cause the roots to grow about the
young canes, while the uncovered portion has
none. The root action, in this case, is concen
trated upon given points, and produces better
results ; and in the fall there is a naked portion
of cane that may be cut off without destroying
any roots. An inch or so of soil must be added
as the young canes progress in growth, till the
trench is finally filled. Stakes should be put
in at the beginning to tie the canes to as they
grow, as shown in Fig. 110. #, $, show where
layers have been taken from the plant in former

282

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

Fig. 110.

PROPAGATION. 283

years, e shows where the present layer is to
be detached. The thallons should be athallized
in the usual manner.

This is quite a different thing from laying a
cane in the ground, and letting all the buds
grow that will ; but it is the way to make good
layers. Not more than four plants should ever
be taken from one layer, and two or three will
generally be much better. This number can
not be exceeded with any hope of making good,
well-rooted plants. The plants must be taken
up in the fall, and divided by cutting off the
unrooted portion of the old cane.

Grafting. — The native vine is sometimes,
though not often, propagated by grafting. This
process for the vine possesses very few of the
advantages it has for the apple, pear, and some
other fruits. There is seldom any need for it,
for we can get fruit quite as soon by planting.
In the green-house or grapery, vine grafting
succeeds very well; but in the vineyard the
cases of failure greatly exceed those of success.
The union between the stock and graft is al
ways imperfect ; hence it is best to perform the
operation under ground, where the graft will
take root, and become an independent plant

There are several modes of grafting the vine,

284 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

two of the best of which we shall illustrate
and describe. They are both performed under
ground. The earth is removed from around the
stock of the plant, so as to lay it bare some six
or eight inches, as shown at A in Fig. 111. The

Fig. 111.

stock is cut square off four or five inches be
neath the surface. The graft is then prepared
by cutting it wedge-shaped at the bottom. It
should have two buds, one of which should be
between the wedge, as shown at b on the left of
the figure : the^ other bud being on the opposite
side, is not seen. The split through the middle
of the stock should be made with a thin-bladed
knife, and held open with a thin-pointed stick
while the graft is inserted in its place, so that
the bark of the stock and graft meet on the
outside edges. The operation completed is
shown in the engraving. A strip of bast
should be bound around the stock sufficiently
firm to keep the graft in its place.

The success of the operation depends very
much upon keeping the graft in its place ; great

PKOPAGATION. 285

care, therefore, should be used to prevent it
from being displaced. The hole should be
filled up very carefully, and without pressing
the soil against the graft. It should be well
protected from disturbance of any kind. About
a foot from the plant put in sticks at such an
angle that their ends will meet over the plant,
and about a foot above it ; tie the ends together,
and over the sticks put a piece of oiled paper,
muslin, or matting. If done right, it will look
like a miniature tent, and protect the young
plant from sunshine and weather as well as ani
mals. It should be removed when the plant
has got fairly started. If the graft is inserted
in the fall, it will be well protected by heaping
sand over it in addition to the above.

In the next method the grafting is also done
under the surface. The cut, however, is less
simple, but may be understood by examining
Fig. 112. The graft is first cut square off at the

Fig 112.

bottom. A thin chip is then pared from one
side to the bottom, d, and the knife next entered
at the edge of the bottom, and drawn up, so as
to cut a thin tongue where the chip was taken

286 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

off, as seen at d on the right of the figure. The
stock is cut nearly at an angle of forty-five de
grees, and split through the center at right an
gles with the sloping cut, and the upper edge
of the slit rounded off. The tongue is then in
serted in the split, so as to cover the surface of
the angular cut on both sides of the split. The
engraving shows the manner of doing this very
plainly. The graft should be tied in its place
with strips of bast or cotton twine. The oper
ation completed, the hole is to be filled up, and
the plant protected in the manner above de
scribed. The portion of the graft projecting
beyond the stock allows the graft to take root
more readily than the first plan, and in this
respect it is better ; but not being so simple, is
less likely to be well done, and its advantages,
in consequence, mostly lost.

There are several other methods of grafting
the vine, some of which answer the purpose of
amusement ; but there are none better than
those given above, and few as good.

Something may be said in regard to the best
time for grafting. It may be done in the fall,
early in the spring, or after the vines have
begun growing. It has been successfully done
at all these times, and so it has failed at all of

PROPAGATION. 287

them. There can be no doubt that success is
affected to a considerable degree by the weather,
climate, and condition of the vine. In the
grapery success is quite common ; in the vine
yard it is quite the contrary. This, and other
circumstances, would seem to indicate certain
hygrometric conditions as influencing success.
At one time it will be highly gratifying; at
others quite discouraging. All that is certain
is, that grafting the grape in the vineyard is an
uncertain thing. Far north, fall grafting is not
advisable ; where the climate is mild, however,
it may be practiced with tolerable success. Dr.
Massie's published experiments, conducted about
six years ago, went to show that the success of
fall grafting depended measurably upon the
kind of winter that followed, notwithstanding
all the care that was taken to protect the grafts
by various appliances. That is precisely our
own experience. To conclude, graft in the fall
in mild latitudes, or in early spring, as may be
most convenient, and do not expect any large
measure of success in either case; but if you
fail, do not mourn over it, for your loss has been
small. Grafting the native grape is at best but
an amusement, and should be so regarded. In
our climate, it will probably never be reduced to

288 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

a certainty ; and this is the less to be regretted
in a plant that produces its fruit so soon from
an eye or a cutting.

Seeds — Hybridizing. — It seems hardly neces
sary to remark that new varieties are produced
from seed alone. It has been thought by some
that we should look chiefly to hybrids between
the native and foreign grape for any marked
improvement in the quality of the former, while
others have doubted the possibility of getting a
hybrid between them. We believe it is pos
sible, though quite difficult ; but we are by no
means convinced that it is desirable, or that we
shall gain what we wish. The Allen may be
taken as an example. This presents good evi
dence of being a true hybrid. The fruit is ex
cellent, but the vine is tender and susceptible,
and withers away when exposed to the force of
our trying climate : in this respect yielding to
the fate that has always overtaken one of its
parents. No fact in grape culture is better de
monstrated than that the foreign grape is not
adapted to our climate. It has cost us many
thousands of dollars to prove the fact, and that
ought to satisfy us. Is it wise, then, to seek an
infusion of blood from a source that has been
proved to be constitutionally unfitted to our

PROPAGATION. 289

wants \ Can we produce a hybrid that will not
possess this constitutional failing? We think
not. It must appear, more or less, in the whole
race produced in this way. If we get enough
of the goodness of the foreign grape to make it
self apparent in the seedling, we shall just as
certainly get enough of the evil to make the
goodness of little or no use to us. The charac
teristics of one parent or the other will, as a rule,
predominate in any hybrids that may be raised
in this way, though we are not unmindful that
crosses, where both parents possess the requisite
hardiness, may, in time, be produced that shall
unite the most desirable qualities of both ; but,
aside from the remoteness of the possibility, it
may well be doubted whether such crosses will,
after all, be so well suited to our climate as to
possess any great value for general cultivation.
But we may be pointed to Rogers's Hybrids as
militating against this view of the subject. We
think they fail to reach it ; or, if it be admitted
that they do, they are only examples of the na
tive parent predominating in a very remarkable
manner, and thus support our view. But there
are good grounds for questioning the hybrid
character of these grapes. A very critical exam
ination of the wood, leaves, and fruit, fails to

19

290 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

detect the foreign element in either. They pos
sess, on the contrary, all the peculiar characteris
tics of the native grape in wood, leaves, and fruit.
The flesh of all of them is more or less " but
tery," like the Concord, though in several the
fibrous center ripens much better than in the
Concord, and, it may be added, they are much
better grapes. In a very few there is a little
of the meaty consistency seen in the Diana, and
these begin to be vinous in their flavor, and in
quality are the best of these seedlings. But in
all this we can not detect the mixture of any
foreign element. The experiments of Mr.
Rogers are exceedingly interesting, not because
he has failed or succeeded in producing hybrid
grapes, but because he has demonstrated that the
wild grape, through its seedlings, is susceptible
of a very high degree of improvement. That is
the source to which we must look for any valu
able results. We would not say one word to
discourage him in his efforts to produce hybrids,
but would suggest that he also use some of our
best native grapes of a vinous character in his
experiments. He will find less trouble in fertili
zing, and produce far more valuable results.

To Hybridize the grape is no easy matter;
yet there are scores of people who think they

PROPAGATION. 291

have succeeded, and the country is likely to be
flooded with their hybrids. There is one man,
indeed, who claims to have discovered a simple
way of hybridizing the grape, which makes the
process positively certain : he has learned the
" signs" by which we may know that hybridiza
tion has been really accomplished. This man
sent to a friend for some Black Hamburgh pol
len. This friend being somewhat of a wag, sent
him instead some pollen of the spinach. On
being written to for the result, the reply came
that " It had taken beautifully !" " There was no
mistake about it!" We mention this circum
stance to show how easily one can deceive him
self in supposing that he has hybridized the
grape.

The theory of hybridizing is simple enough,
and easily understood ; but its practice in the
case of the grape is not without its difficulties.
There are two important parts of flowers, the
male and female, the latter being the pistil, and
the former the stamens ; the last bear at their
ends the anthers, which furnish the pollen. It
is the pollen from the anthers, falling on the pis
til, which eifects fertilization, and the consequent
production of seed or fruit. To produce hy
brids and varieties, pollen is taken from the an-

292 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

thers of one species or variety, and applied to
the pistil of another species or variety. But, in
order to secure fertilization by the pollen used,
the stamens must be removed from the flower
fertilized before the anthers have shed their pol
len. It becomes necessary, therefore, to cut off
the anthers some time before the pollen is ripe.
In some kinds of flowers it becomes difficult to
do this, since fertilization takes place before the
flower expands, and the difficulty is greatly in
creased when the flower is so small that it is
almost impossible to handle it.

The flower of the grape, among others, is
difficult to fertilize artificially in the open air.
The first thing to be done is to remove the
stamens from the flower to be fertilized, and
this must be clone some time before it expands,
or sheds its envelope, or the flower will be fertil
ized in the natural way, and it is never fertilized
a second time. It is next absolutely necessary
to protect the flower, not only from the access
of insects, but also from the air, or the pistil will
be fertilized by the pollen that is always float
ing about the vineyard at this time. When the
flow^er has opened on the vine that it is proposed
to cross with, the pollen must be collected
from it on a fine camel's hair pencil, and brushed

PROPAGATION. 293

over the pistil of the flower previously prepared.
This is a critical moment ; for just as you re?
move the covering from the prepared flower the
pollen floating in the air may rush in and fertil
ize the pistil before you can touch it, and thus
your purpose will be defeated. The fact is,
there can be no certainty about hybridizing the
grape unless the vine is shut up by itself, and
all flowers removed from it except those to be
fertilized. Hence it is that many think they
have raised hybrids when they really have not,
and it is nothing but the imagination that sees
in them any thing of a hybrid character. The
hybrid business is being rather overdone.

Carefully conducted experiments in raising
seedlings and hybrids should be encouraged,
even to the extent, as elsewhere remarked, of
extending the protection of the law to all plants
raised in this way. Proprietorship, in this
respect, should be as absolute as it is in regard
to any other kind of property. If this were
so, it would make inoperative the excuse often
given for " coddling" seedling plants to a degree
that renders any real knowledge of their hardi
ness and period of ripening almost an impos
sibility.

It may be remarked, in conclusion, that seed-

294 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

lings from our cultivated varieties vary greatly
in their character. The great majority of them
will be inferior to the parent, showing a marked
tendency to go back to the woods ; some will
resemble the parent so closely as to be scarcely,
if at all, distinguishable from it, being, in fact,
simply reproductions ; and very rarely one may
be found superior to the parent. Seedlings
just like their parents are getting to be quite
common ; but we can not perceive any good
reason for multiplying kinds in this way. A
seedling ought not only to be better than its
parent, or than other kinds, but also have some
distinctive characteristic. Seedlings, again, will
often differ broadly from their parents in color.
Those from the Isabella, for example, are not
unfrequently green in color instead of purple.
It is characteristic of varieties to vary in this
way.

CHAPTER XVII.

ADDITIONAL EEMAEKS OK PLANTING.

Additional Remarks on Planting. — The di
rections already given are intended for general
application, and will meet the requirements of
all ordinary cases; but there are here and
there peculiarities and extremes which are best
treated by themselves ; for we could not, in
planting a single vine, stop to explain excep
tions to the general rule, without greatly en
dangering the clearness of the subject. There
are certain conditions of soil which call for
exceptional treatment in regard to the depth at
which the roots of the vine should be placed.
A very heavy clay, under certain circumstances,
may require the roots to be quite near the sur
face, while a gravelly, stony, shaly, or other
light or very porous soil, may require them to
be below the usual depth.

There are two quite common and fatal mis-

296 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

takes : one consists in planting too deep, and
the other too shallow, and it would be difficult
to say which has destroyed most vines and
trees. If vines are planted too deep, they be
come enfeebled, and are winter killed ; if they
are planted too shallow, the frost heaves the
crowns above the surface, and they are also
winter killed. The vines are then said to be
tender, and the variety, in consequence, suffers
in reputation ; whereas the cause of winter kill
ing often lies, not in the tenderness of the
vine, but in the want of knowledge or judgment
in the planter. There are other causes of win
ter killing, it is true, not related to planting,
but which, as we have remarked elsewhere,
are, to a good degree, within the control of the
vineyardist.

A very common fault in planting consists in
not placing the crown of the plant at the
necessary depth. We have seen many hun
dreds of vines with the middle and ends of the
roots six inches below the surface, while the
crown was scarcely two. The winter often kills
the roots of such vines, but it first strikes the
crown. Now, it should be borne in mind, that
when the roots (in this book at least) are di
rected to be covered four or six inches deep, it

ADDITIONAL EEMAEKS ON PLANTING. 297

is the roots proceeding immediately from the
crown that are to be covered four or six inches,
and not the ends of the roots ; the last, when
the work is well done, will be a couple of
inches deeper than the crown. The crown of
the plant, if the hand is taken from it before
the soil is worked firmly about it to the depth
of two or three inches, will commonly spring up,
often two or three inches ; and when the ground
becomes settled, the crown of the plant will be
found within two or three inches of the surface.
We have found this to be very common, espe
cially where vines are planted in large numbers,
and consequently in much haste. Thus it is
often the case that those who think they have
planted ten or twelve inches deep, have really
not planted more than six or eight, while those
who think they have planted five or six inches,
have not planted more than three or four. It
seems to be very little understood, also, that
the soil will settle without carrying the plant
down with it ; and this constitutes another ele
ment of deception, for which allowance is seldom

made.

These grave errors may be easily avoided
by observing the following practice : when the
hole or trench is dug, press the soil down

298 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

firmly, but without packing it; this may be
done with the feet ; then make a nice bed of fine
soil for the roots to rest on. The plant having
been put in its place, and the roots spread out,
it must be held there until two or three inches
of soil are worked in among the roots firmly ;
but if, in the act of removing the hand, the
plant shows any signs of springing up, the hold
must be retained, and more soil worked in. It
takes but an instant to ascertain whether the
plant will retain its place. When made secure,
the hole may be filled up rapidly ; but as the
soil is thrown in, it should be made just firm,
and no more. The technical term for this is
"firming." When planted in this way, about
an inch may be allowed for settling; in the
common way, three or four inches must gen
erally be allowed; that is to say, where the
roots are wanted about four inches from the
surface, they must be placed three or four inches
deeper than this. For example : when we say,
in planting, that the roots must be covered
about four inches, they must be placed three or
four inches deeper than this to allow for set
tling, if the common method of planting is pur-
sued ; but if the bottom of the trench or hole is
"firmed," as well as the soil as it is put in, not

ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON PLANTING. 299

even an inch need be allowed for settling ; for
the word covering, as we use it, means the dis
tance between the roots and the surface when
every thing has settled to its place. It must
be remarked, that some soils sink or settle
much more than others, and this condition must
also be taken into consideration.

In planting on hillsides, if they are steep,
we make a considerable departure from ordi
nary conditions. It is often supposed that the
roots here are a foot or more deep, when they
are really not more than six inches. We sur
prised a large planter recently by convincing
him that his roots were six inches deep, and
not a foot. Care must be used, in planting
here, to have the roots deep enough on the face
of the hill : the hole would be better if dug a
little sloping. If the reader will exercise a little
good judgment in these and similar matters, he
will have little or nothing to fear from the win
ter killing of his roots, provided there is no
standing water about the roots or the collar of
the plant. Where much planting is done, it is
a good plan to divide the men into sets, select
ing two good men to put the plant in its
place, with enough soil worked around it to
hold it there, while others follow and fill up.

300 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

In this way both skill and labor will be econo
mized.

The opposite or extreme conditions alluded
to above will be best illustrated if we select,
as examples, an account of two well known
vineyards.

At Kelley's Island the soil is generally clay,
with just enough limestone, sand, and gravel to
make it the most adhesive and compact possible,
so that the labor of first breaking it up is very
great, and not to be accomplished by the usual
means. The underlying rock is often not much
more than a foot below the surface, and pre
vents the escape of water in times of wetness.
Here the vines can not be set or covered deeply,
nor can the ground be deeply worked. If this
shallow soil should be worked and enriched
down to the point where water lodges, the roots
formed there in time of drought would suffer in
time of wetness, and the health of the vines and
the quality of the fruit would, in consequence,
be greatly impaired. Here the indications are,
to plant as near the surface as will permit of
shallow cultivation, and be consistent with win
ter endurance under the very favorable modify
ing influences of the lake, without which the
locality would be very unsuitable for a vine
yard.

ADDITIONAL REMAKKS ON PLANTING. 301

In contrast to this, may be adduced the steep,
gravelly hillside which generally prevails at
Hammondsport, where the drift soil has no prac
tical limit to its depth, and w^here water at the
roots is never feared. Their enemy comes to
young vines in the form of early drought, and
the indications in this case are as deep planting
as may consist with the avoidance of what is
very indefinitely called " smothering" the plants.
Four inches of depth at Kelley's Island would
not be more than equaled by eight or ten
inches at Pleasant Valley.

In that remarkable vine district occupying
a great part of the shore region of Lake Erie,
these two extreme conditions are often found
in immediate contiguity, and present a geo
logical study but little less interesting than
the Valley of the Walkill. The tenacious
clay and the deep gravelly drift meet in some
places as if on a dividing line, while in
others they run into each other by almost
imperceptible gradations. These soils, under
propitious circumstances, are so favorable to
grape culture, that the fortunate possessor of
any one of them, if we may judge from
what is said, thinks his own the best. Under
adverse circumstances, however, like those of
last winter, which are always liable to occur,

302 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

they will all suffer unless the treatment con
forms to the principles we have laid down;
and we may confidently add, as the result of
long experience and widely extended observa
tion, that when these natural principles are
mastered and judiciously applied, no such
deep discouragement as followed the effects
of last winter will again occur, nor will
young vines, soon after being brought to a
bearing condition, begin to suffer from ex
haustion. Success will always be best assured
by working with nature rather than against her.
In planting large vines, such as are represent
ed in Figs. 3 and 8, or any other, the roots of
which, after proper pruning, remain long, large
holes will be required. If the plants are to be
set as near as two or three feet in the rows, it
will be better to make a continuous trench, as
represented in Fig. 113. Preparatory to plant
ing in this case, a trench is made fourteen
inches deep, and in the bottom of it is placed
a little more than two inches in depth of good
surface soil, leaving it twelve inches deep for
beginning to plant. At the place for each vine
a little mound is raised about two inches
high, on which set the vines, and the planting
proceeds as we have already described, until
the trench is filled to within six inches of the

ADDITIONAL EE MARKS ON PLANTING. 303

surface. During the early part of the season,
and until the last of July, the trench is not
permitted to fill up. Fig. 114, at D, D, D,

Fig. 118.

represents the appearance of the vines about the
first of August, after having had all the sum
mer operations properly done. F (Fig. 113)
shows one of the vines as it appears when ready
for the first tying, which should not confine it
closely to the stake, but only be sufficient to
secure it from being broken by the wind.
When large plants are used, it is well to take
the canes from the second or third buds, so that

304

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

the subterraneous portion may consist entirely
of old wood.

In compact, clayey soils the vines may be set
two inches less in depth, and the basin left open

J)

H.HOUVH ENGR.tiy

Fig. 114.

one inch less in depth. In November, if it has
not been done before, the trench may be entirely
filled, and made a little rounding over the vines,
so that the water will run off. The work of
filling may be chiefly done with a plow, (prun
ing having been done as already directed,) leav
ing a small dead furrow midway between the
rows.

CHAPTER XVIII.

KEPLACING AND EENEWING SPUES AND ARMS —

OPPOSITE AEMS — LENGTH OF AEMS THEIE

GENEEAL MANAGEMENT — OVEECEOPPING.

Replacing Spurs. — When detailing the man
ner in which arms and spurs are formed, the
reader's attention was kept fixed directly on the
object before him, so that he might obtain a
clear idea of the principles applied, leaving
exceptions and accidents to be treated of sepa
rately. We therefore propose now to speak of
such of these accidents as the novice would not
be likely to remedy, with the limited knowledge
which he is supposed to possess.

When giving the details for the formation of
spurs, it was taken for granted that every bud
set apart for the purpose would grow and make
a spur ; but a bud will sometimes get accident
ally rubbed off, or the young cane will get
broken, or some accident will leave a vacancy

306

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

just where a spur ought to be. There are
several ways in which such a vacancy may be
filled, one of the simplest of which is shown in

Fig. 115.

Fig. 115. A is a portion of an arm from which
a bud is missing. Its place is supplied by tak
ing a cane from the nearest adjoining bud on the
under side of the arm, and bringing it up to the
place of the missing bud in the manner shown.
The buds/,/, are rubbed off, and a double spur
formed from the two upper buds.

In case there should be no lower buds from
which to grow a cane, as may be the case when

they are rubbed off, then the next simplest me
thod is shown in Fig. 116, in which A is a
portion of an arm. Cut an adjoining cane down

REPLACING SPUES. 307

to the two lowest buds, and grow two canes
from it ; if the cane next the missing bud be
from a base bud, so much the better. At the
next pruning, bend this cane down parallel with
the arm, and, selecting a bud over the missing
one, cut the cane at that point, as shown at #,
and tie it there -securely with bast or twine.
The buds e, e, e, must be rubbed off. A cane
will growr from «, as shown by the dotted line,
and this is converted into a spur. The cane/
will make a spur in its proper place. This arm
was extended from the point g^ and the bud
there " missed," and this method was taken to
replace it.

Fig. 117,

Another plan is seen in Fig. 117. In this
case, a chip is cut from the arm, as shown at C.
The adjoining cane is then bent down, and cut
off at the proper length. About one third of
the thickness of the cane is then shaved off, so
as to fit nicely the cut in the arm. It must then

308 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

be bound firmly with bast, but so as not to
interfere with the bud a. All the buds marked
e must be rubbed off. If the base bud, £, has
uot been injured, it will break strongly, in
which case grow a cane from it for a spur;
otherwise grow a cane from the lowest bud e,
as shown by the dotted lines. In many cases
the union will become so perfect by this me
thod that the connecting cane, at the next
pruning, may be cut off at Ti, li. If it does not
become thus perfect, the cane may remain as it
is. A cane will grow from a, as shown by the
dotted lines, which is to be converted into a
spur.

Still another method, but not very different
from the last, is shown in Fig. 118, A, as be

fore, being a portion of an arm. In this case,
bend down an adjoining cane, and cut it off at
the proper length. Next cut the end at an
acute angle, and from the extreme end cut a
piece so as to leave an angular face about one
third the thickness of the cane. Now cut
from the arm an angular piece that will admit

KENEWING SPUES. 309

the end of the cane exactly and evenly, as
shown in the engraving. It nrust then be
bound in its place firmly, and the cane also tied
to the arm in the middle, to prevent it from
springing. The buds e are to be rubbed off.
A cane must be grown from the bud b for
a spur, and another from a for the same pur
pose.

By one or other of these methods a spur
may be readily replaced at any time, and the
arm kept in full bearing. The union of arm
and spur is not essential ; the spur will do well
without it, as in the example first given. In
the examples above, the arms are young and
only just ready to spur; but the spurs may
be replaced on an old arm just as easily by
taking the lowest cane from an adjoining spur.
On an old arm, however, there is seldom a
necessity for replacing spurs in this way, if the
vine has been well used ; for dormant buds
seem to collect in proportion to the age of the
vine ; they would seem, indeed, to be a " pro
vision against old age."

Renewing Spurs. — It sometimes, however
becomes necessary or desirable to renew old
spurs. In time some of them may get to be
inconveniently long or ill-shaped ; and if for

310 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

this, or any other reason, it should be wished
to renew them, the reader should know that he
can generally do so. We present some exam
ples, all of them taken from life. It will give
the reader a clearer idea of the subject if we
describe what was actually done in each case.
Fig. 119 is from an arm. that had been laid

down one year. The A on the right shows
where the cane had been pruned. It was cut
low to start two base buds, but only one grew,
and the cane from this got so broken during
the winter that it became necessary to start
again. It was cut at the left A, and made a
fine cane for a spur. It is ill-shaped, to be sure,
but in two or three years, or as soon as elab
orated matter has accumulated at the junction
of the arm and the spur, it may be cut off at

RENEWING SPURS. 311

the point d, a, and renewed. We have had
several cases presenting this general appear
ance, but not all arising in the same way. All
we wish to do here is to make the reader
familiar with the principle and its applica
tion.

We may remark here, that as the spur in
creases in age elaborated matter collects at the
junction of the arm and spur, and is concerned
in the formation of many dormant buds. It is
no doubt also concerned in producing the in
creased flavor which we always find in fruit on

old arms and spurs. It presents the granular
appearance shown in Fig. 120. The little glob
ules at G are all dormant buds. The reader
will now understand how it is that we get new

312 AMERICAN GKAPE CULTURE.

canes when old spurs are cut down. The spur
in this example was cut down, and two canes
selected, the one seen and another at A. Two
canes having been allowed to grow, they were
both rather less in size than was desired. The
cane A was therefore cut off to strengthen the
one left. By pruning this cane just above £, and
retaining the upper base bud a, a good double
spur was formed. It might have been pruned
below 5, as there were two very nice base buds,
# a.

Fig. 121.

In the next example, Fig. 121, the spur had
become rather long, and was narrow at the
base, (not filled out like Fig. 120,) and not
satisfactory in several particulars. The base
being examined, and the appearance of dor
mant buds proving satisfactory, it was deter
mined to cut the spur entirely away, and this

EENEWING SPURS. 313

was accordingly done, as shown by the scar on
the top of the arm. Two or three little shoots
in due time made their appearance, but none
of them well placed ; the best, however, was
selected, and grew finely. The next season
a bud broke in a very good position, and the
new cane grown last season, after some hesita
tion, was cut off, as shown by the scar on the
side. The newly selected shoot made a fine
cane, as the reader may see. The progress of
such a case would naturally be watched with a
great deal of interest.

In the last example, ffig. 122, the spur was
cut off nearly half an inch above the arm, and

314 AMEBICAN GRAPE CULT UKE.

the cane a selected and grown. This cane was
cut to its lowest bud, with the intention of
using a base bud for a second cane ; but the
case was neglected for some time, and several
small canes grew from the remains of the old
spur, and spoiled the intention ; these little
canes, however, were at once removed, as shown
by A, and the cane from the renewed spur
made a very good growth. If it had not been
for this neglect, the little stump seen just be
low a would have made a good cane, and,
being well placed, it would have been taken
for this purpose.

We have now given the student a sufficient
number of examples to make him familiar with
the principle, and its application to a variety of
cases. In renewing spurs, the chief thing to be
looked after, in the first instance, is the appear
ance of the wood at the base of the spur. The
condition of the little protuberances or dor
mant buds will be a good index of success.
It is very seldom the case in old spurs, how
ever, that there are not dormant buds present.
In the second place, the young shoot must be
selected early, and all the others rubbed off, so
as to concentrate the action of the plant on

KENEWING ARMS. 315

this one, and not have it uselessly wasted on
many.

•Renewing Arms. — It sometimes becomes
necessary to renew or replace an arm from acci
dental causes, and our work would be very im
perfect if we failed to explain how it is to be
done. In the Guyot plan, with a permanent
arm, the renewal is comparatively easy. The
reader will remember that in this system we
have two or three long canes or safety-valves,
and these furnish the ready means for making a
new arm. Let us suppose the arm in Fig. 48,
p. 102, is to be renewed. If it has a spur or two
that will bear fruit, it need not be cut off yet;
but unless a few bunches of good fruit can be
got from it, it should be cut entirely away at
once. Now proceed as follows : Take the low
est-placed cane, d, cut it one third the length
of the arm, and lay it down horizontally. From
this point extend the arm in the usual manner.
If the old arm, or any portion of it, was left on
for growing fruit, it should be cut away at the
end of the first season. One of the advantages
of this system consists in the facility with
which an arm may be renewed.

Double Horizontal Arms. — As a general
thing, the best way to renew the arms is to cut

316 AMERICAN GKAPE CULTUKE.

each arm off at the spur nearest to the stock,
and grow a single cane from the lowest bud on
the spur. This cane must next be bent to a
horizontal position, and the arm formed by de
grees in the usual way. This severe cutting
back will cause a number of dormant buds to
break around the stock, all of which must be
rubbed off. They have been called "water
shoots," and are fruitless. If the spurs next
the stock are poor, then the arms must be cut
pretty close to the stock, leaving no spurs what
ever. There need be no apprehension in regard
to getting canes in this case ; there will be an
abundance of them, and the trouble will con
sist in making a choice and keeping the others
from growing. The canes grown under such
circumstances should early be bent to an angle,
and the end pinched out when the cane is about
five feet long. When the bud at the end
breaks, let the cane extend a couple of feet be
fore it is pinched again. The pinching should
be repeated three or four times. Unless these
precautions are taken, the lower buds will be
very small. More than the usual means will
be necessary to equalize the action of the plant,
as it will be exceedingly vigorous. In other

KENEWING UPRIGHT STOCKS. 317

respects, the new arm will be formed in the
usual manner.

When only a portion of an arm is to be re
newed, the cane for the renewed part must be
taken from the lowest bud on the spur situated
at the point from which the aim is to be re
newed. It will make the arm just a little
crooked there ; but this, aside from its being a
little unsightly, will in no respect be an injury
to the vine.

If, in double horizontal arms, each arm, as we
suggested some years ago, was provided with a
safety-valve, or upright cane, at some point be
low the bend in the arm, the arms in this sys
tem could be renewed just as easily as in the
plan of Guyot. Besides this, they have con
siderable value, when understood, in equaliz
ing action throughout the arm. "We consider
them an important feature in the horizontal arm
system.

Upright Stocks. — The way to renew theee is
to cut within a foot of the ground, select one
from among the many canes that will make their
appearance, and treat it in the manner in which
the stock was first formed. It seems not to be
generally understood that an old stock is full
of dormant buds, and that they will start into

318 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

growth just as soon as the vital force of the
plant is concentrated upon them by cutting
away the parts above.

Opposite Arms. — The French, with character
istic ingenuity and love of system, have a fond
ness for growing vines with the arms and spurs
opposite each other : they have utilized the
method beyond all other people. In the case
of arms, they proceed from the same level ; and
in the case of spurs, they are directly opposite
each other on upright stocks. It involves some
time and trouble, but will, no doubt, interest the
novice, and we therefore propose to explain and
illustrate the method by which it is done, leav
ing the reader to apply it according to his con
venience and taste.

Let us, for an example, take a cane at the end
of the first year, such as is shown in Fig. 23, p.
65, and cut it down to two buds. Select the
strongest cane, and rub the other off. When
the new cane has grown from twelve to eighteen
inches above the point where it is desired to
have the arms, cut the cane off at this point.
Action, in this case, has been arrested ; the vital
principle has been checked in its upward course.
For a moment, as it were, it seems quiet, but it is
only to gather at all points with renewed energy.

OPPOSITE ARMS.

319

The thallons make a vigorous appearance, and
would soon take the place of the cane that has
been stopped. But this we do not want. - We
are aiming now to develop and burst the buds
which, if left to themselves, would not grow till
next year. The thallons are, therefore, in our
way, and we remove them entirely. This con
centrates the action upon the buds ; they soon
begin to swell, and in no very long time break
into leaf, and our chief purpose is accomplished.
As soon as growth is fairly established in the
young shoots, we select the top one, and pinch
all the others entirely out, for we not only have

Fig. 123.

no use for them, but they would be in our way.
When the new cane has grown about eighteen
inches long, it will have the appearance shown
in Fig. 123 which also shows where the cane was
cut off. When the young cane has grown three

320 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

or four feet, the end should be pinched, and the
operation repeated as often as the new growth
has three good-sized leaves. The thallons must
be athallized the same as any other cane.

At the end of the season it will be found that
the base of the new cane is larger than the cane
that was stopped, and has come round on the top
of it, so as to be very nearly in a straight line
with it. At the base, too, will be found several
well-developed buds, on opposite sides, and also
some smaller ones, all on the same level. It is
from these base buds that the arms and spurs
are taken.

If we wish to grow an upright stock with

Fig. 124.

opposite spurs, the cane is pruned to the first
bud above the base buds. This bud, and two
base buds opposite each other, are selected to

LENGTH OF ARMS. 321

continue the system. When they get fairly
started, they will look like Fig. 124. About a
foot above the opposite canes two more are
formed by cutting at A, and proceeding as
before. In this way the stock can be extended
as far as wanted with opposite spurs, which are
formed in the usual way after the canes are
established.

If we want opposite arms, the new cane is cut

Fig. 125.

about an inch above the base buds, two of
which are selected for canes, as shown in Fig.
125, which is an exact representation from life.
Having thus explained the principle, we leave
the reader to work it out fully on the vine.

Length of Arms. — In this connection we re
iterate that arms can not be made much more
than four feet long, without greatly weakening

322 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

the spurs near the stock. The reader should,
indeed, determine his mode of training before
planting, so as to provide for the proper length
of the .arms. The horizontal arm, whether
double or single, is undoubtedly the best sys
tem. The plan of inaking double tiers of both
is a good one. Four feet is the proper distance
to plant for single arms, whether of one or two
tiers. Four feet is also the proper distance for
double arms of two tiers, the rows in both cases
being six feet apart ; but for double arms of one
tier, six feet is the proper distance, the rows in
this case being from four to six feet apart. With
two tiers, the upper one is a little more trouble
to cover. It is done as follows : lay down the
first tier, and cover by applowing, as elsewhere
explained; before turning the second furrow
slice, lay the arms of the second tier in the fur
row just made, and finish the plowing as usual.
General Management of Arms. — The reader
should be quick to perceive that he can only
attain a full measure of success, in respect to
both pleasure and profit, by first acquiring a
knowledge of the wants and capacity of the
vine, and then ministering to them with con
stant good faith. A watchful supervision is
needed at all times, and a few suggestions here

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ARMS. 323
will give a proper direction to this supervi

sion.

In the spring, in particular, when the vines
are beginning to grow, the vineyard should be
gone over frequently and carefully, to see that
every thing is going on as it should. It may
be that a cane has made its appearance by the
side of a spur, which it would be desirable to
retain to take its place ; or it may be that seve
ral little shoots are growing around the spur,
which would prove hurtful if not speedily re
moved. It will sometimes be the case, also, in
double spurs, that the lower cane, for spurring
next season, may be trained into a better posi
tion, if attended to in time. Sometimes, too,
there may, at first, be a want of action in the
spurs nearest the stock, which may be supplied
by lowering the end of the arm until the equi
librium is restored. If some canes are grow
ing stronger than others, pinching the strong, if
done early, will strengthen the weak. If you
want two canes on a stock to grow of about the
same length, and see one beginning to take the
lead of the other, bend it immediately toward
a horizontal position, and place the weak one
upright. If done at the right moment, success

324 AMEKICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

is quite certain ; if long neglected, the case is
somewhat difficult to manage.

We may state here that buds are sometimes
double, or even treble / that is to say, two and
three shoots will sometimes grow from the same
bud. As a general rule, one of these shoots
must be rubbed off when about an inch long,
leaving only one to grow. Sometimes double
buds can be advantageously used in forming
spurs, or even in extending the arms. In the
latter case, if both the end buds break double,
one shoot can be used for the upright cane, and
the other for the extension of the arm. On the
whole, however, it is best to follow the usual
course.

Tying up must not be neglected. The young
canes should have their first tying early, to pre
vent their accidental loss. Till the young canes
get to be about a foot long, they are easily,
broken at the base, some kinds more easily than
others. If, therefore, a young shoot is growing
angularly, and needs to be straightened, or is
growing straight, and requires to be bent to an
angle, it should be done by degrees, or there is
much danger of its breaking. In tying, the
string should be loose, or only just tight enough
to keep the cane in its place. Various things

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ARMS. 325

are used for tying, but, on the whole, we have
found nothing better than cotton twine.

The fruit, too, must receive attention. Re
solve at the beginning to become one of our
students, and grow only good fruit, ripe fruit.
As a general rule, no cane, in any arm or spur
system, should carry more than two bunches.
If all that set are left, the vine is overtasked,
and the ripening process imperfectly performed ;
but if part are removed early, the ripening pro
cess is strengthened rather than weakened, and
the goodness and ripeness which would have
been diffused and imperfect in four bunches, is
concentrated and made perfect in two. Here
and there a strong cane will be an exception to
the rule, and may carry three bunches ; here
and there, also, a weak one will form another
exception, and should carry only one, or even
none. The canes must all be examined, and the
fruit adjusted to its capacity.

The evil of overcropping, especially young
vines, is very great and very common, and is
sometimes indulged in by persons who should
know better. The vine, no matter how healthy
it may be naturally, is enfeebled and made
sickly by it. The vital force is weakened, and
is unable to perfect the ripening process ; the

326 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

fruit is consequently imperfect, and the vine it
self becomes a prey to mildew. When, there
fore, a person who has enfeebled vines a couple
of years old by letting them carry twenty or
more bunches of fruit, says to you that such
kinds " won't do well with him," you will un
derstand that the fault lies in his treatment,
and not in the vine. He has overdone the
thing, and the work of his own hands condemns
him. The ill effects of overcropping are not
confined to the grape; they are more or less
seen in all kinds of fruits. Let nothing, there
fore, tempt you into overcropping your vines ;
justice to yourself, to others, and to the vines,
demands this.

We may as well correct here a common mis
apprehension, that the largest wood is the best
for fruit. This is not so ; the best grapes are
produced on medium-sized wood, round, short-
jointed, and having full, plump buds ; and the
second bud from the base will produce larger
bunches than the first ; hence the advantage of
the double spur, in which we use the first bud
for wood, and the second for fruit.

A word or two in regard to the safety valves.
If there is one to each arm in the double arm
system, and there never should be more than

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF AKMS.

one, their management is easy. Many years
ago, in making some experiments, we found that
a cane left to grow below the bend in the arm
exercised considerable influence in equalizing
action in the arm ; in other words, we discov
ered a less disposition to extreme growth at the
end of the arm, the spurs near the stock being
about as strong as those near the end, and in
some cases even stronger. This, with us, was
the origin of the safety valve. "We were not
then as familiar with the effects of pinching as
we have learned to be in later years, and used
to bend the safety valve down to a greater or
less angle, as we wished to modify action in the
arm. Pinching or bending the safety valve, or
both, will give us a very considerable control
over action in the arm, if recourse is had to
them at the right time. This is the general
principle which governs the safety valve, and
the reader will be able to apply it for himself.

The upright canes in the Guyot plan should
be used in the same way, though we used the
safety valve years before we heard of Guyot.
We may remark here, that to obtain the full
benefit of the upright canes, the spur from
which they are grown should be below the bend
in the arm, and not, as in the Guyot proper,

328 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

above it. This is readily done by making the
arm from the upper cane. In this system, we
have found that two canes are as many as should
be used. If more are used, the action is diverted
too strongly from the arm. A friend, who grows
a part of his vineyard on the Guyot plan, meet
ing with the same difficulty, we advised him to
lay down one of the canes at right angles with
the permanent arm, and let it carry a little more
fruit. This he has done for four years past with
satisfactory results, thus combining the renewal
and the permanent arm. This would be a good
plan to follow in some cases, while the vines are
young. The rule should be, not to have more
than two safety valves. If more action is
needed in the arm, the uprights must be
pinched ; and if this is not sufficient, they must
be bent to an angle, but restored again if ac
tion becomes too great at the end of the arm.

In conclusion, a general supervision should
be exercised, to see that every thing is done at
the right time and in the right manner. Such
supervision should never be intrusted to negli
gent or incompetent hands.

CHAPTER XIX.

STAKES AND TRELLISES.

Trellises. — This is a subject of no little im
portance, not alone because it is a necessity,
but also because of its considerable cost, what
ever form it may take. Various forms have
been proposed and used, few of which need be
noticed here, since they are mostly wanting in
either durability or convenience. Something
" cheap " seems to have been the leading idea
in most of the contrivances that have been sug
gested ; that is very desirable in itself, but it is
not all. "What is wanted is, not something
that is cheap as a part, but something that is
cheap as a whole. We have seen some con
trivances in this way that " ate themselves up"
in less than ten years, and a good trellis be
sides.

Where stakes alone are used, there is nothing
so good and durable as red cedar and yellow

330

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

locust. The chestnut is next in value; the
oak, also, is tolerably lasting. The bark should
in all cases be removed from the portion put in
the ground, since, in decaying, it produces va
rious forms of fungi, some at least of which
are hurtful to the vine.

One of the simplest forms of trellis is that
shown in Fig. 126. If made entirely of cedar,

Fig. 126.

it will be quite durable; and by putting it
carefully and neatly together, it can be made
to assume a considerable degree of rustic
beauty. If cedar is not plenty, common " hoop
poles " may be used for the horizontal pieces.
If cedar or locust is not used for the posts, it
soon goes to pieces. When made altogether of
cedar, it is one of the best forms of wooden
trellis that can be used. If the system of
training should make it desirable, the poles can

STAKES AND TRELLISES.

331

be placed vertically instead of horizontally ; in
which case none but the top and bottom hor
izontal poles will be needed. This trellis can

Fig. 127.

be made of any height desired. The ends of
the posts should be cut off about three inches
above the top piece.

Fig. 128.

Another kind of wooden trellis is shown in

332

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

Fig. 127. In this the strips are upright, and the
posts quite stout. The construction is so sim
ple as to be easily understood from the en
graving. This kind of trellis will suit the
"fan" form of training, (Fig. 88, p. 153,) or
any other in which the canes cross the uprights
angularly. If used for horizontal arms, like
Fig. 128, (which is an example of reversed

Fig. 129.

arms,) it is exceedingly inconvenient, as the up
rights seldom come where they are wanted.
In this instance, however, the stock is to be
carried higher, as shown in Fig. 129, which is a

STAKES AND TRELLISES. 333

334 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

part of the very extended and complicated sys
tem of Bronner.

But the best of all trellises for the vineyard
is that made of wire supported by cedar or lo
cust posts. Its first cost is greater than most
other kinds, but it is cheaper in the end.
When well made, it is not only of great dura
bility, but it is always in order and always
ready for use. Fig. 130 is a trellis of this kind.
It was made for growing several tiers of arms
on, like the Thomery, and is consequently
much higher than is needed for vineyard use.

A trellis should be firm, the posts securely
set in the ground, the wires made so tight as
not to sway in the wind, and with the means
of being loosened in winter. We will explain
how this may be done. A hole should be dug
about four feet deep, and in connection with it,
and in a line with the trellis, a trench of the
same depth, and eight or ten feet long. A cedar
of this length, and of considerable stoutness,
should have a hole or socket at one end for
the end of the post to rest in securely, and the
other end notched for a brace, which should
also be of cedar or locust. The manner of fix
ing the post in the ground will be made plain
enough by an examination of Fig. 1 31, in which

STAKES AND TRELLISES. 335

the fine line denotes the ground level. It will
be seen that this arrangement fixes the post im
movably in its place. All the end posts are to
be fixed in this way. If the trellis is long,
smaller posts must be put in at intervals, but

sufficiently close to give proper support to the
wire, which will be twelve, fifteen, or twenty
feet apart, according to circumstances and the
weight of the wire.

336 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

Some good mode of tightening the wires has
always been a desideratum ; indeed, the trouble
and vexation of doing this has deterred some
from using a wire trellis. There are two or
three plans that will accomplish the purpose ;
but we are enabled to present one so simple and
effectual that it will be unnecessary to describe
any other. It consists only of an iron pin with
a square head, as shown at A in Fig. 132. It

Pig. 132.

should be about six inches long and half an inch
in diameter, or about the size of a common bed
screw. About two inches from the end it should
have a small hole pierced through it for holding
the end of the wire. It can be readily and
cheaply made by any blacksmith. The pin is
driven into the post about half its length, as
shown at B, which is a section of the post.
The pin being driven into the post, the wire

STAKES AND TRELLISES. 337

must be drawn as tight as it can be by hand,
the end passed through the small hole, and the
pin twined a few times around. If a bed wrench,
or any of the wrenches in common use, be put
on the square head of the pin and turned, the
wire can be made literally as " tight as a fiddle
string." This is a simple and effective contriv
ance within the reach of all. If the end posts
are not pretty stout, the top wires should be
tightened first, and it would be better to do so
in all cases. Turning the pin in reversed order
will loosen the wire as much as may be desired
in winter.

Fig. 133 is the form of trellis which should be
used for the Guyot plan of training. The small
posts that extend above the wires are for tying
the long canes or safety valves to, a vine being
planted at each post.

Fig. 134 is the proper form of trellis for
double horizontal arms. If two tiers of arms are
grown, it is only necessary to make the trellis
higher.

There are other forms of trellis, but they are
so much less desirable than those just given,
that it seems hardly worth while to illustrate
them.

In regard to wire, it is now used of much less
22

338 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

STAKES AND TRELLISES. 339

size than was common some years ago. The
numbers most frequently used now are from ten
to fourteen. It should either be annealed or gal
vanized, the last being the best, but costing
about double. There are two kinds of wire,
hard coal and charcoal. The former is very
brittle, and wears away pretty fast by oxyda-
tion, and is therefore not the best for the vine
yard. Charcoal wire is tough, pliant, and dur
able, and is the kind that should be used. We
have found No. 14 of this wire abundantly
strong.

If posts other than cedar or yellow locust are
used, the portion put in the ground should be
covered with coal tar, or, better still, plastic slate.
Both should be applied when the posts are dry,
and the coal tar will be more effectual if warmed
before it is put on. The plastic slate is mixed
with coal tar, and applied with a whitewash
brush.

CHAPTER XX.

CULTIVATION WINTER MANAGEMENT M ARKET-

INta GROWING- PLANTS BETWEEN THE ROWS-
HOW TO KEEP GRAPES IN WINTER SHELTER

FOR PROTECTION AND RIPENING — MANURES —
NON-MANURING.

Cultivation. — The object of cultivation may
be considered as two-fold: the intermingling
and ameliorating of the soil in such a thorough
manner as to make it a fit " house of entertain
ment " for plant food ; and keeping the surface
mellow and clean, so as to maintain a healthy
root action ; the two comprehending tillage,
which has in view the health of the vine, and
the ripening and excellence of the. fruit. The
first point is best accomplished by fall plowing,
which may be repeated in a very stiff new soil,
so as to more thoroughly break it up and inter
mingle it, and expose all its parts to the action of
the air, and the ameliorating influence of winter.
The second is accomplished by plowing again

CULTIVATION. 341

in the spring, and the proper use of weeders and
cultivators during the growing season. The
plowing should not at any time be so deep as to
cut the large or primary roots. The small hairy
or fibrous roots near the surface may be plowed
at the end of the season without injury.

It will give the reader a clearer idea of this
part of the subject if we repeat a part of 'what
has elsewhere been said. We have noted the
importance of having the primary roots pro
ceed from the crown of the plant, and of having
the crown at a suitable distance beneath the
surface, according to the nature of the soil in
which it is planted. If another system of pri
mary roots is allowed to establish itself above
the first, and take possession of the soil near
the surface, it will, by degrees, if left to it
self, appropriate the chief part of the root
action, and to that extent., weaken the lower
system, if not ultimately destroy it; besides,
cultivation is seriously interfered with, and
the vine made liable to suffer from drought.
Now, the young vine has a strong disposition to
emit primary roots from the stock very near the
surface. These, therefore, should be removed
when they first appear, and not left to attain
size. It is just here that a mistake is often

342 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

made, in allowing the disposition to "become es
tablished, and then a good deal of time and labor
.must be wasted in trying to correct it. It is an
accepted rule, that it is best to break bad habits
in childhood, since it is then easiest done. If,
when weeding with the hoe, the soil be drawn
from around the stock a few inches deep, it can
readily be seen whether such roots have formed
or are about forming, and it is a very easy matter
to remove them. It takes but a moment, and
is a very much better plan than to leave them
till they get large and in the way. By persever
ing, for a while, in removing the roots as they
appear, the disposition to make them will be
overcome, and will be assisted by the increasing
age of the plant. The object, then, should be
to keep the stock free from roots for a few inches
beneath the surface ; thorough cultivation, in
deed, up to the stock of the plant, would almost
regulate this matter of itself.

Let the novice remember that the primary
roots must not be cut and dragged to the sur
face, and we will proceed to describe two kinds
of plowing, the application of which he will now
readily understand. As plowing can not well
be done till the vines are pruned, this should be
done soon after the fall of the leaf. Of the two

CULTIVATION. 343

kinds of plowing alluded to, one consists in be
ginning next the vines and turning the furrow
slice to the vines, which may be called apploio-
ing, or plowing to the vines ; the other consists
in beginning in the middle of the row, and
turning the furrow slice from the vines, which
may be called deplowing, or plowing from the
vines. In deplowing, the dead furrow is left
next the vines ; in applowing, it is in the middle
of the row. When this dead furrow is needed
to carry off surface water, it should be finished
by hand with the hoe. The reader will get a
tolerably good idea of deplowing by examining
Fig. 40, p. 93, in which, however, there are
only two furrow slices, in consequence of the
vines being planted close together. The num
ber of slices will be in proportion to the width
of the rows.

In plowing, much time and many steps will
be saved by beginning and turning at the right
place. It will assist the beginner if we give an
illustration, by taking the space between two
rows of vines running east and west, and divid
ing this space by an imaginary line through the
middle, calling the space on the north the upper
side, and the space on the south the lower side.
We will describe the operation of applowing, or

344 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

plowing to the vines, which, will leave the dead
furrow in the middle, or where the imaginary
line is. Beginning on the upper side, enter the
plow three or four inches deep, and throw a
furrow slice to the vines. When the- end of the
row is reached, turn to the lower side, enter the
plow as before, and turn a slice to the vines;
after which, go to the upper side again, and
turn a slice into the furrow first opened; then
to the lower side, and turn a slice into the open
furrow there ; then again to the upper side, and
so repeat till the space between the rows is all
plowed. The dead furrow will be through the
middle. Deplowing, or plowing from the vines,
consists in beginning at the middle or the dead
furrow, and reversing these furrow slices, which
fills the dead furrow, and finishes by leaving the
ground as it was at the beginning. Having
explained and illustrated the meaning of ap-
plowing and deplowing, we shall now be able
to apply these terms without further circumlo
cution. We may remark here, that plowing
should never be done when the soil is wet.

Soils that are new, heavy, or stiff are specially
benefited by fall plowing, which mellows them,
makes them easier to work, and better fitted for
sustaining the vines. For such soils proceed as

CULTIVATION. 345

follows : Early in November, the vines having
been first pruned, deplow, and harrow well with
a coulter harrow or a cultivator. In from one
to two weeks, applow and harrow. The vines
are now to be laid down, and covered by ap-
plowing, and the dead furrow, where necessary
to carry off water, cleaned out with a hoe, re
moving the " balk" or little ridge left by the
plow. This may seem like a good deal of labor,
but for new or stiff soils the advantages are
sufficiently great to warrant the labor.

For ordinary mellow soils, the following is
the proper course: The vines having been
pruned as soon as the leaves fall, are laid down,
covered by applowing, and the ground har
rowed. The dead furrow through the middle
of the row is then put in condition for carrying
off water, and the vineyard is prepared for its
winter rest ; in some sense, it may be said to
have been put to bed and blanketed. In the
spring, deplowing will fill up the dead furrow
and uncover the vines, which should at once be
tied to the wires to prevent loss by accident.
The ground should then be thoroughly har
rowed. If the common harrow is used, the
ground beneath the surface is packed ; but with
the coulter harrow or a cultivator it is not only

346 AMERICAN GEAPE CULTURE.

broken up, but left porous. The cultivator or
the coulter harrow should, therefore, be used in
the vineyard instead of the spike harrow.

The operation that has just been described
combines so admirably the advantages of winter
covering and fall plowing, that it ought to be
universally adopted. The primary roots are
not cut and dragged to the surface, as they often
are, even within a foot of the stock ; on the con
trary, they are not only not damaged in this
way, but an additional covering is placed over
them. The ground is mellowed and aerated,
and when reversed in the spring by deplowing,
is charged with ammonia and other gases, as
well as the liquid manure absorbed from the top
dressing, all of which are placed within reach
of the mouths of the plant ready for appropri
ation, and the new growth starts with a healthy
vigor which it will maintain throughout the
season, unless checked by unusual atmospheric
conditions. These are great and substantial ad
vantages, which should not be lightly esteemed.
Those, however, who plow in the fall very much
as if -the vine were not a thing of life, and sen
sitive to the mangling of its vital parts, should
leave nature to take care of the roots during the
winter. When the vine is young and lusty

CULTIVATION. 34 7

with vigor, it may not harm it much to check
it in this way ; but the practice can not be per
sisted in without damage.

When the plowing is done, there will be a
narrow slip along the vines which has not been
moved by the plow. This must be thoroughly
broken up with either the pronged hoe (some
times called a potato hook) or the pronged
spade ; and which is best we have found to de
pend a good deal upon the countryman that
uses them. In stiff or stony soils, a stout dou
ble pronged hoe, like Fig. 135, is used. This

Fig. 135.

instrument is also used for working the soil on
steep hill-sides, where the plow can not be run.
It is in common use by nurserymen, and is a
very good implement to have at hand for various
purposes. In deplowing in the fall, the un-
moved strip along the vines must be moved by
hand at the time of plowing, so as to leave the
stock of the vines in the open furrow.

348 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

After the ground is plowed and harrowed,
there is one object which must be kept steadily,
in view, and that is, to keep the soil mellow
and free from weeds. For weeding, we have
used nothing so good as the improved horse-
hoe, made of steel, and fitted with an adjusta
ble wheel and clevis. It can be expanded from
one to three feet wide, and has different sets of
teeth, one for cutting weeds and stirring the
soil, another for turning one or two light furrow
slices, and so On. With a single horse it may be
run from one to three inches deep. With this
implement the soil may be easily kept clean and
mellow. The reader, however, should try va
rious implements as they come into use, and re
tain those which are best adapted to the pur
pose. Implements are not yet pel-feet. The
time to weed is just as soon and as often as the
weeds can be seen, or just as they are leaving
the seed leaf. The labor is then comparatively
light and easy, but it becomes very hard work
when the weeds get large enough to dispute the
ground with you. It is also desirable to stir
the ground as soon after heavy rains as it be
comes dry enough to work.

The slip along the vines not stirred by the
horse hoe must be weeded by hand. When the

CULTIVATION 349

soil ' is light and mellow, and not stony, the
pushing hoe will be found more convenient than
the draw hoe ; but better than either, and com
bining the advantages of both, is a recently in
troduced triangular hoe with a double cutting
edge, being an easy tool to handle, and very
thorough in its work. It is one of the few hor
ticultural implements in which the true princi
ple of cutting is introduced ; in other words, it
makes an angular instead of a square cut. All
square cutting weeders are imperfect, and in
ventors should bear this in mind. After mid

Fig. 136.

season, the skim teeth should be used on the
horse hoe. In general terms, begin the season
by running the hoe two or three inches deep,
and gradually lessen the depth, till at last only
the surface is stirred. The novice will soon
learn to adapt his implements to the purpose.
We introduce Figs. 136, 1 37, 138, 139, as ex-

350

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

amples of implements in use among the French.
We have never used them, but they have the
appearance of being good of their kind. Some

reader may take a fancy to some of them, and
have them made for trial. They bear a close
resemblance to implements' already in use
among us, which can doubtless be improved.
We have several times imported foreign imple-

ments, but never found them to excel our own,
except in clumsiness and weight ; and it would,

WINTER MANAGEMENT. 351

therefore, be better to have them made here
rather than import them. Fig. 136 is a plow.
Fig. 137 is used as a substitute for the plow,
turning two small furrow slices. Fig. 138 is a
cultivator, or weeder. Fig. 139 is
a triangular hoe, used for the same
purpose as Fig. 135, above.

Winter Management. — There
are some matters connected with
the winter care of the vineyard
which are too important to be
overlooked, chief among which is
covering. This, in some portions
of the country, is a necessity, and
Fig. 139. in most others an advantage suffi
ciently great to warrant the trouble. Its ob
ject is to protect the buds and wood as well as
the roots from being injured or killed by the
severity or changes of the winter. It is sup
posed by some that covering the vines causes
them to start earlier in the spring, and in that
respect is an advantage ; but early starting is no
advantage, and covering has no such effect ; on
the contrary, it retards the spring growth, and
that is a real advantage. Others suppose that
covering "makes the crop finer;" but it can
have no effect in 'making it finer : it can only

352

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

preserve what is already there. Its effect is sim
ply preservative, and in this respect it is very
important.

There are several modes of covering the vine ;
some use the spade and others the plow for
throwing earth over the vines, while still others
cover with brush. There has been a supposed
difficulty in bending the stock of the vine, and
several methods are used for overcoming it.

Fig. 140. Fig. 141.

One plan is to set the trellis from six inches to
a foot in front of the vines, and bring the
stock up to the wire at an angle. In this way
the stock is very easily bent to the ground.
Another method is to plant the vines as usual,
start the arms near the surface, and carry them

WINTEB MANAGEMENT. 353

to the wire at about an angle of forty-five de
grees before bending them horizontally. This
is the plan of Dr. May, shown in Fig. 87, p. 152.
Where only a few vines are grown, they are
pegged down and covered with the spade.
Vines that are grown against walls and build
ings receive from these generally as much pro
tection as they need ; but if more is thought to
be necessary, as may sometimes be the case,
they can be bent down and covered with earth
or brush. For this purpose nothing is better
than branches of hemlock or cedar. The vines
are sometimes bedded in straw, which affords a
good protection ; but there is this objection to
it, that it harbors mice, which often destroy the
vines. Manure litter is objectionable for the
same reason. If it should not be desirable or
convenient to lay the vines down, they may be
protected by laying straw mats against them
on the trellis. Buildings and walls, however,
present such favorable conditions for the growth
of the vine, that the wood becomes thoroughly
ripe and hardy, and hence, as a general rule,
needs no further protection than these afford.

Figs. 140 and 141 show a good plan of pre
paring the vines for covering, in which each
alternate vine is placed just beneath the sur-

23

354 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

face, as seen at a in Fig. 140, and the others on
the surface, as seen in Fig. 141. All modes of
covering are defective which expose the roots,
or leave the ground in such condition as to
favor the accumulation of water in any degree
whatever. After the vines are laid down, they
should be covered by applowing, or plowing to
the vines, as explained under " Cultivation''' In
this way, the roots as well as the tops are
covered and protected, and fall plowing thus
becomes an advantage instead of an evil, as it
is when done in the usual way. In the spring,
the vines are uncovered by deplowing, or throw
ing the furrow slices from the vines, as also ex
plained under « Cultivat-ion." In this way spring
plowing and uncovering the vines become one
and the same operation, and much time is

saved.

In the common method the stock is bent
down toward the middle of the row, covered
with the plow, and the finishing done by hand
with the hoe. When the vines are bent down,
they must either be pegged, or enough earth
thrown on the stock to keep it down. The
covering of soil need not be more than two
or three inches thick. Where cedar or hem
lock is abundant, the vines may be pegged

WINTER MANAGEMENT. 355

down and covered with brush. It is better to
place the vines so as to be covered with snow
than not to cover them at all.

In localities subject to late frosts, the vines
should be left covered as long as possible, which
generally has the effect of retarding the growth,
and thus secures a degree of immunity from in
jury from this cause ; besides, if not started till
the weather becomes settled, an unchecked
growth is made, which is in all respects a great
benefit to the vine. Care must be taken, how
ever, not to leave them down too long. When
taken up, they should at once be tied to the
stake or wire, as the case may be, taking every
precaution not to injure the buds.

There is a prevalent cause of " winter kill
ing," especially in young vines, which seems not
to be generally understood. We refer to stand
ing water. This should not be allowed in the
vineyard at any time. The water that accumu
lates around the stock in little pools is a source
of much injury, both in summer and winter.
Where applowing is not done in the fall to
cover the vines, or where brush is used as a
covering, a man should go through the vine
yard with a hoe before the ground freezes, and
round the earth up against the stock of every

356 AMERICAN G-RAPE CULTURE.

vine that has a depression around it where
water can settle.

The trellis wires should be moderately
loosened in winter. The bark of the posts
affords a convenient harbor for insects ; this
might, therefore, be stripped off in winter, and
the cracks and crevices filled with soap or coal
tar. A general supervision of the vineyard is
almost as necessary in the winter as in the
summer.

Marketing. — Those who grow grapes for
profit as well as pleasure will appreciate this
part of the subject. The object here is to get
the fruit to market in such form and condition
as to realize the highest price. Ripeness is the
first consideration. It is unnecessary to repeat
here what we have elsewhere said on this sub
ject. The grapes should be well ripened before
being gathered. Baskets and boxes are used
for receiving the bunches as they are gathered,
the ordinary bushel basket being in common
use in some places, but a shallow basket is
much better. The bunches should be cut with
scissors, and handled so carefully as not to rub
off the bloom. The best scissors for the pur
pose are those which hold the bunch when cut,
called grape-gathering scissors

MAKKETING. 357

When gathered, they should be carried to
the packing-house, or some other suitable place
under cover, where they are to be prepared and
assorted for market. There should be a smooth,
clean table in the room, on which the bunches
should be carefully laid as they are prepared.
The packer can then assort them without un
necessary handling, which destroys the bloom.
Having the bunches in full view, he is enabled
to take up the best, or the second best, as may
suit his purpose, and they are at once packed in
boxes without handling again.

The preparation is done as follows : Being
provided with a pair of sharp-pointed scissors,
called grape scissors, each bunch is taken up
carefully by the foot-stalk, and all the unripe,
imperfect, and bruised berries cut out. As this
is done, the bunches are laid on the table, and
the packer takes charge of them. They should
be assorted into at least two qualities, the first
comprising the largest anfl finest bunches. Par
ties can always be found who will take such
grapes at an advance that will pay handsomely
for the additional labor. This is one of the
chief secrets of success in fruit-growing. As
soon as it becomes known that your best and
ripest grapes are put up fairly and honestly, a

,358 AMERICAN G-KAPE CULTURE.

demand will be created for them ; they will be
sought after, and not have to go begging for
customers. It should be the aim of the novice
to establish such a reputation from the start.
It is only too common a practice to pack the
bunches as they come, with a few good ones on
the top as a decoy : a species of deception which
is sure to be discovered sooner or later, and fol
lowed by its appropriate reward.

There will be some bunches too small and
others too loose for market, besides." odds and
ends." The small and loose bunches can be
sold for a less price, or kept for home consump
tion, or, if the variety is a wine grape, those
that are thoroughly ripe can be made into wine ;
otherwise they can be put with the " odds and
ends," and made into vinegar, which always
commands a good price. There need be noth
ing lost. We hope, however, that no reader of
this book will attempt to make wine from un
ripe or imperfect grapes.

Boxes and baskets of various forms and sizes
are used for marketing. If baskets are used,
they should be strong, and have wooden covers,
provided with lock and key. Wooden boxes
are much to be preferred to baskets. There are
several in use which answer the purpose well.

MARKETING. 359

Small boxes packed in crates, however, are the
most convenient for marketing grapes. The
best that we have seen are those used by Mr.
Wagener. The crate is eighteen and a half
inches long, nine and a quarter wide, and eight
and five eighths deep. The ends are made of
inch board ; the two sides are formed of three
laths one inch and a half wide, one at the
top and bottom, and one in the middle ; and
the top and bottom are formed of two laths,
dividing each into three equal spaces. A nar
row strip of half inch stuff is nailed on each
end for handles or ears. The boxes are nine
inches long, six inches wide, and four and a
quarter deep, made of scale board an eighth of
an inch thick. They are made by French &
Co., of Pulteney, K Y. The boxes hold five
pounds, and the crate six boxes, making thirty
pounds. These crates are of convenient size,
carry well, and are easily handled. Their cost
is trifling, and they are not generally expected
to be returned. For small quantities of a few
pounds, fancy and plain pasteboard boxes are
sometimes used ; but they should be packed in
wooden crates, to prevent them from being
crushed, and the fruit spoiled.

It requires some skill and experience to pack

360 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

grapes so that there shall be no space to permit
of jarring in handling the boxes, and no crushed
fruit. Jt is a kind of knowledge that can be
acquired by practice alone. In handling, care
should be taken at all times not to rub the
bloom from the berries, and thus mar their
beauty.

We may remark in conclusion, that while
poorly ripened and ill-assorted grapes are often
sold with difficulty at low rates, those that are
ripe and selected with care are uniformly sought
after at high prices.

And here we would add a concluding word
to every fruit grower upon the advantage of
earning a good reputation for growing the best
kinds in their greatest excellence, and also for
fairness in all the operations of preparing them
for market, so that the " brand," when once in
troduced and known, shall be eagerly sought
after by all consumers. Such reputation and
superiority, it is true, can only be acquired by
high culture and a strict regard of the morali
ties as respects both the man and the business ;
but it produces that fine, manly development
of the faculties which should be the emulation
of all pursuits, and for which grape culture
affords such a generous scope. No one need

GROWING PLANTS BETWEEN THE Eows. 361

fear that a time will ever come when the supe
riority that results from a high degree of skill
in the management of the vine will fail to meet
a correspondingly high pecuniary reward.

Tying. — It will do no harm to repeat the
caution against tying too tight. Young canes
are often tied so tight as to "be cut nearly in
two as they increase in size. The object of
tying is simply to keep the cane in its place,
and the string should be sufficiently loose to
admit of a little play, which not only avoids
cutting, but prevents the canes from being
broken short off at the point of tying, an acci
dent which often happens. Arms, in being laid
down, sometimes require to be tied firmly ; but
in such cases the string must be loosened in
good time. A small rope of straw may be
used for tying the arms, and left to take care
of itself.

Should Plants le Grown between the Hows ?
— This question has no little importance, and
should not be overlooked. There seems to be
a great reluctance to give up the whole ground
to the grape, especially when it is young.
There can be no question that the vines will be
all the better for having the soil entirely to
themselves, and the best advice we can give is,

362 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

to grow nothing between the rows ; not even a
weed.

Hoio to Keep Grapes in Winter. — Grapes
have been supposed to be difficult to keep in
winter; but they are about as easily kept as
apples pr pears. All kinds, however, will not
keep any more than all kinds of apples or
pears. The keeping qualities depend upon
the character of the flesh, which must be
meaty to keep well; the Diana and lona are
consequently good keepers ; but one might as
well try to keep a Jargonelle pear as a Concord
grape. Some kinds will keep longer than others,
the best at the last drying into good raisins,
showing but little tendency to decay. The con
ditions are, a moderately cool, dry, still air.
These may be found in a suitable room (not
artificially heated) of a cool, uniform temper
ature.

Sulphite of lime has been successfully used
for absorbing the moisture of fruit rooms, and
this may be employed advantageously in any
room where much fruit is kept. The lime may
be placed in a trough standing on legs, and
fitted with a faucet for drawing off the water
absorbed. The lime may be dried and used
again. A refuse product from the salt works

How TO KEEP GRAPES IN WINTEE. 363

is used on a large scale. /, The French sometimes
make a rack, the cross pieces having circular
holes on the sides for suspending bottles by the

Fig. 142.

neck, as shown in Fig. 142. The bottles are
filled with water, in which a portion of cane,

Fig. 143.

with the grapes attached, is placed. In this
way they will keep good for some time. ' An-

364 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

other mode of keeping small quantities is to
suspend them from hoops in the manner shown
in Fig. 143. The hoops are provided with
small wire hooks, from which the bunches are
suspended with the stem end down. On a large
scale, a frame is made resembling an arbor,
from which the grapes are suspended as shown
in Fig. 144. By multiplying the cross pieces,
large quantities may be keut in this way.

Fig. 144.

In house rooms, under the conditions hereto
fore named, grapes may be kept in a closet, or
in a bureau drawer. Clean white paper should
be spread on the bottom, and the bunches
placed on the paper singly, so that they do not
touch each other. The drawer should be kept
partly open till the weather gets cold, when it

How TO KEEP GKAPES IN WINTER. 365

must be closed. But the best of all arrange
ments for keeping grapes in rooms is that
shown in fig. 145. It may be made of any
convenient size, so as to hold from one to three
hundred pounds of grapes. Its manner of con-

rig. 145.

struction will be readily understood from an
examination of the engraving. The drawers
should be deep enough for one layer of grapes,
or about four or five inches, and the bottom

366

GrKAPE CULTUEE.

made of slats. The bunches must "be carefully
laid on the bottom, and not touch each other.
When filled, the lid must be raised and propped
up, and the door opened, and remain so till
the weather gets cold, when the lid must be let
down and the door closed, and kept so. Venti
lation will not be needed except on an occa-

Fig. 146.

sional warm day, when the door and lid may
be opened for a while. A little frost will do
no harm; but if there should be danger of
freezing, it may be prevented by throwing a
blanket over the chest. In this way some kinds
of grapes may be kept till spring. Fig. 146
shows the chest closed.

SHELTERS FOR PROTECTING AND KIPENING. 367

For winter keeping, only the best and evenly

ripened grapes should be selected. All bruised

and imperfect berries should be cut out, and

the bloom preserved as far as possible, for it has

something to do with the keeping of the fruit.

The bunches should be gathered when they are

dry, and handled with care, so as not to loosen

the berries from the stalk. Whether suspended

from wires or laid in drawers, the bunches

should not come in immediate contact with each

other, and they should not be handled, except

to remove decaying berries. Ventilation should

be regulated with reference to a uniformly low

temperature, ranging from five to ten above the

freezing point. Much moisture in the air

should be provided against, either by removing

the cause of it, or, where this can not be done,

using some good absorbent, such as the sulphite

or chloride of lime. If moisture is deposited

on the fruit, it is apt to produce mildew. With

these precautions, grapes may be kept well

during the winter.

Shelters for Protecting and Ripening Fruit.
— It sometimes happens that a temporary shel
ter, even for a single night, will save a vine from
an early frost, thereby adding two or three
weeks to the season, and insuring the full matu-

368

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

rity of the crop. It may be some favorite vine,
the fruit of which is highly prized, or it may be
a new kind which we are anxious to test, and
an unseasonable frost, if not provided against,
will blight our hopes. In such cases, a shelter
like that shown in Fig. 147 will serve to protect
a single vine, or a whole row, as the case may
be. The cover can be made of straw, or thin
boards ; or a light frame may be made, and

Fig. 14T.

covered with brown muslin, which might hang
over the sides a foot or so with advantage. The
manner of bracing the posts is plainly seen in
the engraving. It is in use by the French.

Fig. 148 shows an arrangement for protecting
vines growing against walls. Though intended
for the first two rows of a Thomery, it can be

SHELTEES FOR PROTECTING AND EIPENING. 369

made narrower, and used for any wall. It is
the application that we want to illustrate here.
The projecting cap or eave, No. 1, is of itself a
good protector ; but if more should become de
sirable or necessary, then the sash, No. 2, may
be used, and will protect the two front rows.
It may be let down as shown at No. 4. If No.
3 is used, then we have a protection that can
not fail to secure the crop in full maturity.

ofl---""""

Fig. 148.

The principle may be extended so as to protect
a full Thomery. Where sashes and similar con
veniences are not at hand, straw mats, pieces of
carpet, or muslin, may be suspended from the
cap of the wall or fence. If protectors such
as we have described, or something similar, are
used in a small way, so as to make their ad van-

24

370 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

tages apparent, it will not be long before they
become somewhat general in the vineyard. If
it be first demonstrated on a small scale that
the gain is very much more than enough to
pay for the additional labor and expense, self-
interest, if no other motive, will in time make
shelter a necessary appurtenance of the vine
yard. To encourage such trial is the object of
introducing the illustrations.

Manures. — A few additional words on
manures will not be out of place. We should
depend chiefly upon barn-yard manure com
posted with muck. It should be prepared at
least one year before it is used, by being laid up
and repeatedly turned, till it has become thor
oughly decomposed or carbonized. The leaves
from the vines, or some from the woods, should
be added to the heap, as may also most other
things that go to the barn-yard, but all must be
thoroughly decomposed. And let it be always
remembered, in saving barn-yard manure, that
the liquid is always of very much more value
than the solid portion. Besides furnishing in
itself the most precious of fertilizing materials,
it performs the important office of a solvent,
thus rendering available many essential mate
rials already in the soil, but which can not be

MANURES. 371

appropriated till they are made soluble. Spe
cial manures, such as ashes, bone-dust, etc., are
best applied as top-dressings. The prunings
should be dried and burned, and the ashes
spread on the surface. We must apply nothing
to the vineyard, either in kind or quantity, that
will produce a gross, succulent growth. The
time to apply manure is in the fall, after ap-
plowing has been done. The fall rains will dis
solve a part of it, and carry it down a few
inches, and the remainder will be covered
when deplowing is done in the spring. There
is some waste, to be sure, but it can not
be helped ; for we can not apply and plow in
the manure as we would for a crop of corn.
The feeding roots of the vine adjust themselves
near the surface, and the rains carry the manure
quite deep enough for their appropriation.

How often manures should be applied will de
pend upon circumstances. In a soil that is natu
rally very rich and deep, it should be applied only
at long intervals, except it may be ashes ; while
in one that is lean it should be applied more
frequently. The condition of vigor in the vine
should guide us in some degree in the applica
tion of manure, but we should by all means
avoid letting the vines " run down" for want of

372 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

nourishment in the soil. Manuring the vine
yard is one of those cases in which we must be
guided chiefly by our good judgment, avoiding
the two extremes of rankness or poverty of
growth.

Non-Manuring. — We have already cautioned
the student against overmanuring, or making
the soil too rich. A word or two in regard to
the opposite extreme will not be out of place
There are some virgin soils so rich in plant food
as not to need the addition of manure at the
time of planting, and for some few years after
ward. There are others that need the addition
of but a small quantity, and so on. There are
those who have planted on naturally rich soils
who entertain the idea that no manures will in
the future be needed ; that plant food will be
perpetually furnished by the gradual resolution
of the mineral constituents of the soil. This is
a delusion that has been fruitful of evil, and
nothing but evil. It has reduced portions of
the country to barrenness, and will reduce
others to the same condition if persisted in.
With the fruits of it staring us in the face
daily, it is amazing that people will not heed
its lessons. Inexhaustible fertility is a chimera.
Nature has bountifully supplied large portions

NON- MANURING. 373

of the earth, with plant food, that man's first
and most pressing wants, in taking possession
of new territory, might be easily supplied ; but
she has given us to understand, plainly and
sternly, a thousand times over, that beyond the
first instance she will only work with us, and
not for us. This first supply of plant food
seems to us like a providential beneficence for
which we are not sufficiently grateful. If we
approach the subject with just views of the
economics of nature, we shall not only see the
impolicy of exhausting the soil of its fertility,
but the magnitude of the evil we are inflicting
upon our own posterity and the country at
large. As every crop we raise consumes a cer
tain amount of plant food, we can not, by any
kind of logic, escape the conclusion, that crop
ping without feeding will ultimately produce
barrenness and starvation. It will be wise,
therefore, to begin to supply food before the
stage of starvation, , with its attendant evils, is
reached. The wants of the vine, in this respect,
should be anticipated. If the supply of food
is withheld till the vines show their want of it
by feebleness and lessened crops, an injury will
have been done which can not easily be re
paired.

CHAPTER XXI.

DISEASES AND INSECTS.

Diseases. — The laws of health and- disease
are very much the same in animal and vegeta
ble life : plants, in common with man, will be
come liable to disease by an infraction of these
laws. The subject is so broad that we can only
treat it in a general way here. We wish to es
tablish the analogy, however, since it will do
away many illusions in the mind of the novice.
Different kinds of animals have their allotted
periods of life : in one kind it may be ten years
or less, while in others it may be fifty or more ;
the elephant, for example, lives to a much
greater age than the dog. Jt is so with plants :
some fulfill their life in a single year, while
others count " the years of their life" by thou
sands. The average life of plants is greater
than that of man. The existence of both is
shortened by violence in various forms, and
both are liable to disease. The average health

DISEASES AND INSECTS. 375

and life of man is greatest when he lives in a
condition of simplicity, supplying only the nat
ural wants of his appetites ; but when he places
himself under artificial conditions, he loses a
part of his hardihood, becomes more susceptible
to disease in its various forms, and recourse is
had to various means for restoring and main
taining, as well as may be, the operation of well-
known physical laws, which are necessary to
health. It is the same with plants. When
growing in their natural condition, they are
subject to few diseases ; but when placed under
artificial conditions, and made tender and sus
ceptible by injudicious hybridizing, crossing, se
lection, propagation, etc., they become peculiarly
liable to disease, and means must be used here
also to restore and maintain the operation of
those physical laws which apply to the case.
These brief allusions sufficiently show the gen
eral analogy between animals and plants in re
spect to those physical laws which govern life.
If the reader appreciates it as he should, he will
learn to study the diseases of the vine for him
self, and not look upon them as a sort of fatal
ity not to be overcome.

We will now confine our remarks to the vine.
The vine, like man, is subject to disease ; and as

376 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

some men are constitutionally more liable to
disease than others, so some kinds of vines are
constitutionally more liable to disease than
others. There are conditions which favor, or
even invite, the attacks of disease in men ; and
it is the same with the vine. All kinds of
vines, no matter what their constitution may be
are liable to disease, if placed under conditions
favorable to its attacks ; there is not a variety in
cultivation that has proved an exception, and
there never will be. When, therefore, it is said
that a vine is healthy, it is in the sense that we
say a man is healthy when he is not subject to
constitutional disease ; at least, that is the sense
in which we use the term. What we wish
the reader to understand is simply this : that
all kinds are liable to disease, some more
and others less; and that all kinds, without ex
ception, if placed under conditions unfavorable
to the healthy action of the leaves or roots, will
become enfeebled or diseased. He will then ap
preciate the importance of studying the condi
tions which are necessary to health or strength,
and endeavor to supply and maintain them ; he
will understand that the health of the vine is
in a great measure under his control, and that
he can judge of the hardiness of kinds only by

DISEASES AND INSECTS. 377

their deportment under reasonably favorable
conditions of growth. What we should all of
us do, therefore, is to study diligently the laws
and conditions which are concerned in the pre
servation of health in plants, or, in other words,
the conditions that are necessary to normal de
velopment and hardy growth. These we have
already so fully stated and so earnestly insisted
upon, that it is unnecessary to dwell upon them
here.

Mildew. — This is a wide-spread and destruc
tive disease, and difficult to manage when estab
lished. It is also known by the botanical names
ErysipJie and Oidium. In portions of Europe
the Oidium Tuckeri has at times been partic
ularly fatal. With us it has been much less
injurious. Mildew is a parasite in the form of
a fungus, and attacks the leaves, fruit, and
wood. It first makes its appearance on the
under side of the leaf, like a fine mould. The
mycelium penetrates the tissue of the leaf, and
destroys it, when the leaf becomes discolored in
spots, showing where the fungus is at work.
In this place we can not do more than state
briefly some of the causes and conditions which
produce the disease, with the remedies that
have proved most effectual in subduing it.

378 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

The reader will get a pretty clear idea of tlie
subject (and a general idea is all we can give
him here) if he bears in mind that the sporules
of this parasite are almost constantly floating
in the air, waiting for a favorable moment for
attack, and that the vine, to a very consider
able degree, is able to resist its attacks so long
as its vital force remains unimpaired and in full
vigor. Any cause whatever that impairs or
lessens vital action favors the attack of the
parasite. Hence sudden atmospheric changes
from heat to cold, cold rains following hot, dry
weather, cold nights following hot days, ex
treme drought, prolonged rains, and similar
causes that lower the action of the plant more or
less suddenly, are followed by attacks of mildew.
It is generally first seen on the leaf, next on the
wood, and last on the fruit, though some
times this order of attack is changed. It soon
enters the tissue of the leaf, and gradually de
stroys it. It also penetrates the cells of the
wood, giving them an inky appearance. The dis
ease has then become what we shall call consti
tutional, and admits of no cure except amputa
tion at some point below the parts diseased;
even this must not be too long delayed, for we
have found the disease to run through the cells

DISEASES AND INSECTS. 379

with a rapidity that would hardly be suspected.
It would be better to eradicate at once any vine
that has become constitutionally affected, for it
seldom recovers its health. Fortunately, this
stage of the disease is not as yet often seen.

Now, if the reader will bear in mind that the
parasite is favored in its attack by a lowering
of the vital force of the plant, he will recognize
the propriety of the remedies to be used, which
are twofold : first, to abate the cause, if possible ;
secondly, to apply some remedy that will kill
the parasite. The two must be combined ; for,
if the cause which invited the disease remains,
it will only favor the multiplication of the very
enemy we are trying to destroy. In the grapery
these remedies are more easily applied than in
the vineyard ; still, we are by no means help
less. The atmospheric conditions may be
against us, but we must not look idly on, like
fatalists. Some effort must be made to save the
crop. It may be that the soil is hard and com
pact ; if so, simply breaking up the surface a
couple of inches will be a great benefit, but the
utmost care must be used not to disturb the
roots. The whole vineyard, including the
drains, should be carefully examined to see
where and how something may be done to

380 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

restore the normal activity of the plant, by the
application of the principles elsewhere ex
plained.

At the same time we must have recourse to
some remedy that will destroy the active cause
of the disease. Eemedies without number have
been suggested, but, after long trial, only one-
has proved so effectual as to commend itself to
general use, and that is sulphur. It should be
applied directly to the parts affected, but espe
cially to the under side of the leaves. The
sulphur should be in the finest state of powder,
and dry; and it should be applied with con
siderable force, at least to the under side of the
leaves, so as to penetrate the furze which gener
ally covers this part of the leaf. Sulphur ap
plied in this state, being acted upon by the sun's
heat, would seem to combine oxygen enough to
form sulphurous acid, the vapor of which de
stroys the mildew. We have found consider
able advantage in adding a portion of finely
powdered lime, which increases the action of
the sulphur. In this case, sulphite of lime is
formed.

Various contrivances have been invented for
applying sulphur, one of the simplest of which
is the bellows of De la Vergne, which resembles

DISEASES AND INSECTS.

381

a common bellows without a valve, Fig. 149.
The sulphur is poured into the hole on the top,
B, which is stopped with a cork attached to a
string. The nozzle A, is about an inch in di

149.

ameter,made of tin, and curved upward, and the
hole at the end covered with wire gauze for
dividing the sulphur, and surmounted with a

Fig. 150.

spreading or basket-like end piece to give it
direction. A similar contrivance, but more
complicated, is shown in Fig. 150. The sulphur

382 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

is held in a circular tin box, which forms a
part of the nozzle, the arrangement of which is
shown on a larger scale. Still another form is
shown in Fig. 151. In this the sulphur is
forced through the nozzle by wind generated
by a fan-wheel. The first bellows is much the
simplest, and answers the purpose well, ena
bling one to apply the sulphur rapidly, and in
a very thorough manner

Fig. 151.

But sulphur is best applied as a preventive
rather than a cure; for if the disease is allowed
to become firmly established, it is exceedingly
difficult to eradicate. The proper course, there
fore, is to apply the sulphur thoroughly to all
parts of the vine early in the spring when vege-
tation begins : many gardeners apply it in the
grapery as soon as the vines are pruned in the
fall. It should be applied again in June, or as
often as we have reason to apprehend such

DISEASES AND INSECTS. 383

a change in the weather as usually favors the
attack of mildew, and before it has visibly ap
peared. If, in addition to this, we faithfully
preserve all the conditions that are necessary to
the health and well-being of the vine, mildew
will be robbed of most of its terrors, and
become a comparatively manageable disease.
In this connection, the young vineyardist should
especially see that no water is standing in or on
the soil, avoid weakening his vines by over
cropping, provide for a circulation of air among
the foliage by so tying the canes as to prevent
the leaves from becoming a tangled and impen
etrable mass; in short, apply faithfully the
principles that have been fully explained in the
progress of this work.

Rot. — Under this name, two or three diseases
are known, variously called brown rot, bitter rot,
black rot, etc., the names in some places being
interchanged. The brown rot, which is infre
quent, is a brown spot on the side of the berry
similar to those seen on the apple and pear, dis
figuring the berry, but not injuring the quality
of the fruit. The bitter rot, on the contrary,
destroys the quality of the fruit, rendering it too
bitter and acrid to eat. The black rot, the most
common and destructive of the three, makes its

384 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

appearance as a small diffused spot, which soon
spreads, and involves the whole flesh. The dis
ease spreads through the bunch, and continues
its ravages till the berries begin to color, when it
disappears. In appearance it resembles the
potato rot, and is about equally destructive. It
is of fungous origin, though its nature is not well
understood. There can be no doubt, however,
that the predisposing causes are very much like
those that produce mildew on the leaf. Some
varieties of the grape, as, for example, the
Catawba, are peculiarly susceptible to its at
tack, and in unfavorable seasons the fruit proves
an entire loss. The Diana, Isabella, Concord,
and others also suffer from its attacks in bad
seasons, but in a much less degree. We know
of nothing better calculated to arrest the disease
than the general course of treatment recom
mended for mildew, and sprinkling the bunches
with finely powdered lime, the treatment to be
used as a preventive. The berries, however,
should be removed when they become diseased,
carried from the vineyard, and destroyed. If
the disease is of fungous origin, it is plain that
leaving the berries on the bunch, or on the
ground as they fall, only serves to increase and
intensify it.

DISEASES AND INSECTS. 385

Sun Scald. — This makes its appearance on
the leaves in spots of greater or less size, and
destroys the tissue. It is of a brick-red color,
and this may have given rise to the absurd
brick-yard theory by which it was attempted to
account for it. Its cause is not certainly known,
but it is no doubt of atmospheric origin. It is
supposed, with some reason, that globules of
moisture are formed into lenses, and the sun,
acting upon these, burns the leaves. It does
not often affect the general health of the vine
seriously. We know of no remedy.

These are the principal diseases of the vine,
in regard to which it may be said, that they are
mostly of such a nature that remedies, to be
effective, must be used ^preventives rather than

cures.

INSECTS.

It would be somewhat difficult to say whether
the vine suffers most from insects or disease, but
we think insects might easily be managed by
concerted action. In every fruit-growing dis
trict there should be an " Insect Society," which
should have a grand spring and fall exhibition,
with smaller weekly ones ad interim. At these
exhibitions prizes should be offered for the " big-

386 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

gest bushel " of rose-bugs, the u largest quart "
of curculios, and so on. These prizes should
be liberal enough to enlist the services of men,
women, and children, among whom there are al
ways idlers enough to keep the " insect plague "
within harmless bounds. We have tried the
experiment with the best results. The insect
collectors had access to all the trees and vines
in the neighborhood, and they very seldom in
jured a plant. It is only by some kind of united
action that much good can be effected. With
its aid, the rose-bug has been made to disappear
from some localities, and so might other kinds
of insects.

The Hose-bug, (Melolontha subspinosa. Fig.
152.) — This is one of the most de
structive pests that troubles the vine.
It makes its appearance in great mul
titudes about the time the vine comes
Fig. 152. }nf.0 Blossom, whicn it soon destroys, f
and often injures the foliage. If the vine is jar
red, the beetles drop to the ground, but soon make
their way back. This dropping propensity has
suggested the best method of destroying them,
which is to hold a basin of water under them,
and jar the vine, when they immediately drop.
A couple of active men will soon go over an

DISEASES AND INSECTS. . 387

acre ; but the operation will have to be repeated
several times. When collected in this way, they
must be killed by crushing or pouring boiling
hot water on them, for they have as many
lives as a cat. We have kept them in a barrel
of water for hatf a day, and had most of them
come out alive. They are too stupid to know
when they are dead. Birds will not eat them,
for their hooked claws cause them to stick in
the throat. We remember once seeing a cat
bird have one in its bill ; it seemed to be deliber
ating whether it should run the risk of swallow
ing it, but we finally got tired of waiting the
result, and left. It has been said that poultry
are very fond of them, but any body can con
vince himself that this is not so. The only effect
ual remedy is the basin of water and a stout
foot. We have tried many others, but found
them all wanting.

May Beetle or CocMiafer. — There are several
of this family that are hurtful to the vine, but
the most numerous and destructive is the com
mon May Beetle, (PhyllopJiaga quercina of
Harris,) of a dark brown color, and about three
quarters of an inch long. At night the air is full
of them, and a light will entice large numbers
into the house. They destroy the fruit and

388 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

leaves in the beetle state, and prey upon the
young and tender roots of all kinds of plants
when in the larva form ; they are especially
destructive to the roots when the larvae get to
be three or four years old, when they are about
three eighths of an inch in di^neter, and quite
an inch and a half long ; the head is brown, the
body yellowish white, and the tail a dull blue.
Multitudes of the larvse are turned up in plow
ing and spading. Poultry eat the larvse as well
as the beetle greedily, and they should be al
lowed to run at large when these operations
are performed.

Late at night and about daylight in the morn
ing are the best times for destroying the beetles.
If the plant is jarred at this time, they will
generally drop, and may be caught on a sheet or
in a basket. At midnight and later we have
stripped them from the vine, guelder rose, etc.,
by handfuls, the plants seeming to be black with
them. In the evening they are on the wing.
It is only between midnight and daylight that
they can be found congregated together in this
way. Birds are very fond of them, but the
beetles conceal themselves during the day, and
are not easily found.

We have no remedy for the larvae, except ex-

DISEASES AND INSECTS. 389

posing them by turning up the soil, when large
numbers of them will be destroyed by poultry
and birds. The moles help a little, for we have
found both the larvae and the beetle in its stom
ach. Fortunately, all -the cockchafers prefer
grass land for their nidus, so that the depreda
tions of the larvae are confined mostly to young
vineyards made on newly broken land.

The spotted bug (Pelidnota
punctata, Fig. 153) is also an
enemy to the vine, destroying
the fruit and the leaves. It is
a large yellowish brown beetle,
with three dark spots on each
wing cover, and a similar spot
on each side of the thorax. They appear in
July and August, and, unlike the May beetle,
fly by day. They are usually found on the
under side of the leaf, and must be destroyed
by hand, like the rest. They are not numerous,
however.

About the size of this, but appearing as early
as May, is the golden bug, (Areoda lanigera,)
a very beautiful beetle of a bright lustrous
yellow. It sometimes eats the leaves of the
vine, and very rarely the berries. The larvae of
this and the Pelidnota are like that of the

390 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

May beetle. We have several times hatched
both these beetles from larvae found in old
manure heaps, thinking we had the larva of
the May beetle.

The Vine Cliafer, (Anomala ccelebs^ resem
bling a small May beetle, we have found one of
the greatest beetle pests that infests the vine.
They appear in June and July, are about three
eighths of an inch long, rather broad, and of a
muddy brown color ; we have sometimes seen
them blackish brown. On the least jar they
double their legs up quickly and drop to the
ground. Catching them on sheets as they fall
Ts the best way to destroy them. There is
another beetle resembling this in color and
form, but only about one third the length, that
eats the unexpanded bud. Some
times they are quite numerous.

Steel-Uue Beetle, (Hattica cha-
lylia, Fig. 154, enlarged four
times.) — In some seasons and
places this beetle, though quite
Fig'154' small, does a large amount of
harm, appearing in great numbers, and attack
ing the buds just as they begin to swell. They
sometimes bury their whole bodies in the bud,
eating out the young bunches and leaves. They

DISEASES AND INSECTS. 391

continue their depredations until the fruit has
set. Where they are numerous, grapes become
very scarce. They seem to be somewhat migra
tory in their habits. The only remedy that we
know of is to knock them off and kill them.
Vine Hopper or Thrips, (Tettigonia mils, Fig.
155, enlarged four times,) — This has
become one of the most formidable in
sect enemies that the vineyardist has to
contend with. Its general appearance is
like that of a cicada or locust, but it is very
diminutive in size, less than an eighth of an
inch, but as "lively as a cricket." It is of
a pale straw color or whitish yellow, with
two little red lines on the head. They be
gin to appear in June on the under side of
the leaf, and are then wingless. As they in
crease in size they shed their skins, and finally
become winged. They suck the juice from the
leaves, causing them to turn yellow, and un
fitting them for their functions to such a degree
as to impair the ripening of both the fruit and
the wood. They sometimes abound in such
myriads that, if the vine be disturbed, it is
impossible to breathe without inhaling them.
Some of the remedies proposed for their de
struction are altogether impracticable in the

392 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

vineyard. Of all the remedies we have tried,
we have found lime and sulphur to be the best.
Two parts of sulphur and one of powdered
caustic lime should be well mixed, and applied
with the bellows above described. It should
be thrown on all parts of the foliage, but espe
cially the under side. Under this treatment
they will cease to be formidable. Rain or high
winds will make it necessary to repeat the
application. The best time to apply it is in
the morning when the air is still.

The red spider (Acarus tellarius) is some
times .s found on the under side of the leaf, and
succumbs to the sulphur remedy above. It
should be applied when they first appear, for
they soon spin a fine web which is not easy to
penetrate. A species of black Aphis, Fig. 156,
is also sometimes found on the ends
of the canes, but is readily destroyed
by drawing tne cane through either the
rig. 156. gloved or naked hand.

Caterpillars. — Several kinds of caterpillars
are more or less injurious to the vine. The
large green caterpillars of some of the Sphinges,
like those so common on the tomato, are some
times destructive to young vines, in a very short
time consuming every leaf on the plant. Those

DISEASES AND INSECTS. 393

that live on the vine have been placed in a
group by Harris, and called Pliilampelus, or
lovers of the vine. Fig. 157 is the larva of
one of these, of the natural size. Killing by
hand is the only remedy.

Fig. 1ST.

The bluish brown caterpillar of the Eudryas
grata, which appears early in July, is a great
pest in some localities. It not only consumes
the entire foliage, but eats off the bunches of
fruit. They are so small at first as scarcely to
be seen, but grow fast. Lime and sulphur, as
well as a solution of whale-oil soap, or the
Gishurst compound, will destroy them ; but it
is difficult to make solutions reach them, and
hand-picking is tedious, as they conceal them
selves on the under side of the leaf. Birds are
very fond of them ; hence in the cities, where
there are no birds, these caterpillars make sad
work with the vine. The lime and sulphur
remedy may drive them off, but we have not
tried it. •

394 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

The caterpillar of the Procris Americana is
also a pest, but less formidable than the pre
ceding, since it is gregarious; the whole nest
keep together, feeding along side by side. It
first consumes the surface of the leaf. It is
yellow, with black tufts along its back.

The caterpillar of the Selandria vitis, a spe
cies of saw-fly, is also gregarious, feeding in
rows on the under side of the leaf. It is light
green, witli a black head and tail. Both these
kinds of caterpillars should be looked for early ;
being in schools, they are easily killed. They
may be found in July and August. Better
still, look for the eggs on the under side of the
leaf, and destroy them.

The leaves of the vine will sometimes be seen
rolled up. This is done by one of the leaf -roll
ers, a lively little green caterpillar, which, on
being disturbed, will speedily roll itself out
and fall down, suspended by a fine web. They
may be crushed in the leaf.

Early in the season, when the young shoots
have grown an inch or so, the young leaves will
be found drawn together so as to seriously in
terfere with the upward growth. If the leaves
be drawn carefully apart, there will be found a
small, brownish -yellow caterpillar, covered with

DISEASES AND INSECTS. 395

short hairs, Figs. 158 and 159. It destroys
the young bunches of fruit as well as the
leaves. The caterpillar is very tender, and a
slight pressure will crush it. The young leaves
may thus be pressed together sufficiently hard
to kill the caterpillar without injury to them,
and then drawn apart. In this way they can
be disposed of pretty quickly. Unless they are
killed early, the crop will be materially less
ened.

Pig. 158, Caterpillar. Pig. 159, Moth.

Occasionally the leaves near the end of the
growing cane will be found covered with pro
tuberances, which, on being opened, are found
to contain a small yellow slug, which seems to
be the larva of some gall-fly, but which w^e do
not know, not having yet succeeded in matur
ing them. They do not seem to materially
check the growth of the cane, but still it would
be well to destroy them.

Young vines that start from a bud under or
very near the surface are sometimes eaten partly
or entirely off by the cut-worm. Sometimes

396 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

the damage done in this way is quite serious.
The worm may be found near the plant, and
about an inch under the surface. Young vines
in similar condition are also, but not so often,
attacked by the wire-worm. The young vine
makes a good start, but after a while stops
growing, and finally sickens away and dies.
The mischief is discovered only when it is too
late. The course of the vine is similar to this,
also, when the roots are preyed upon by the
larva of the May beetle ; but the May beetle
preys upon the roots of young and old alike.

It would be curious to learn how much of
the damage to fruit trees, of all kinds, now im
puted to drought, winter killing, etc., really be
longs to grubs of various kinds constantly prey
ing upon the roots, and thus unfitting the plants
to withstand changes and extremes of any kind.
We are now investigating this interesting ques
tion, and have already reached the conclusion
that " drought," " winter killing," etc., are by
110 means as great sinners as they are made to
appear. A " scape-goat" has always been found
a convenient animal, and horticulturists have
two or three almost as big as elephants.

Those who wish to make themselves familiar

DISEASES AND INSECTS. 397

with the habits of insects should consult the
works of Harris, Fitch, Trimble, etc., and the
monthly publication called u The Entomolo
gist."

Delaware.

PABT SECOND.

CHAPTER XXII.

PLAN OF QUESNEL MODES OF BEDDING VINES

PLAN OF CHARMEUX GROUND TRAINING-
TRAINING WITHOUT STAKES TRAINING ON

TREES AND TRELLIS COMBINED RINGING THE

VINE A MILDEWED LEAF A RACK FOR STAKES

" HEELING IN."

WE have endeavored, as far as possible, to
preserve the elementary character of this vol
ume, and have, therefore, confined the subject
of training to the explanation and application
of its principles, and working them out on the
most useful forms, giving only a few examples
of what is commonly called " fancy " training, as
" studies " for the student, to aid him in a more
thorough application of the principles to forms
or systems in general. To this end we might
have added a few more in the body of the work,
but we wished to avoid distracting the reader's

400 AMERICAN GKAPE CULTURE.

mind with unusual forms or references till lie
had fully mastered the principles of training,
and hence no reference is made to this part.
The examples now presented will further as
sist the student in applying the principles of
training to a variety of cases that occur in the
surroundings of the home. He should study
the principle as well as the form.

Plan of Quesnel. — We have elsewhere al
luded to the ingenuity of the French in work
ing out forms to meet the wants of cases as they
arise, or rather to anticipate them. Fig. 160 is
an example. It is a literal copy from Du Breuil,
and shows, among other things, how the French
alternate the double and single spurs, a practice
quite common among them vnen the necessity
of the case calls for it, either for renewal or to
favor the length of the arm. It affords facilities,
also, for replacing an arm in the manner else
where described. It has been explained that
there is a difficulty in keeping arms in full bear
ing when extended much beyond four feet in
length. "Where there is a necessity for making
them longer, as in the example before us, the
introduction of the single spur will aid mate
rially in keeping them in full bearing. They
should be started, as a rule, from base buds ;

PLAN OF QUESNEL.

401

and with the attention that may always be
given to the limited number of vines grown in
this way, these single spurs may be kept reason
ably short. When they get long, they must be
renewed.

Fig. 160.

The form in Fig. 160 maybe adapted to high
walls, sides of cottages, extensions, stables, etc.
In the figure the wall is about twelve feet high

26

402 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

and twelve feet wide, and the vines are planted
two. feet; apart. The plants should be of the
best possible description, such as is shown in
Fig. 3,.p;-j*6J; Such vines will have stout canes,
which will hasten materially the formation of
the upper tiers. The "stocks that support the
upper tiers should be carried up so as to shade
equally the arms of the lower tiers, as shown in
the engraving. The arms are formed in the
usual manner. The vines are planted about a
foot from the wall, and the trellis set the same
distance from it, so as to allow of a circulation
of air between the vines and the wall.

Modes of Bedding Vines. — But vines that
are planted two feet apart, and only a foot
from the wall, speedily interfere with each other
by the intermingling of their roots; and the
weak are gradually overpowered by the strong,
llie soil being warmest next the wall, the roots
congregate and work there, so that the weak
vines have but a remote chance of recovering.
This difficulty is overcome, and the soil more
evenly filled with roots, by planting the vines
several feet from the wall, and bringing them
up to it by layering or bedding. The wall will
not be so soon covered, it is true,- but the vines
may be fruited while being brought to the wall,

MODES OF BEDDING VINES.,

403

and in this respect there need be no special
loss.

Let us illustrate the manner of doing this.'
Fig. 161 will help the reader to understand the.
operations to be performed. The vines may be
planted from three to six feet from the wall, but

Fig. 161.

in the illustration the lesser distance will be
taken. Proceed as follows : Three feet from the
wall, and parallel with it, dig a trench, and in
it plant the vines two feet apart. Put a stake
to each, and grow a single cane the first year, as
seen at A. In the fall prune this cane about

404 AMEKICAN GKAPE CULTUKE.

eighteen inches long, and lay it down for the
winter. In the spring of the second year move
the stakes one foot nearer the wall, and bed or
layer the canes to the stakes, bending up the
ends and tying them to the stakes. On the
end of the cane bent up select two buds for
canes, and disbud the rest. The lower bud
should be on the side facing the wall, and low
down, to facilitate the next bedding. The
bedded portion of the cane should be treated
as directed for layers. From the selected buds
grow two canes, as seen at H. They may carry
two bunches of fruit. In the fall, cut the
upper cane entirely away at the cross-mark a;
then cut the lower cane about eighteen inches
long, and cover for the winter.

In the spring of the third year move the
stakes one foot nearer to the wall, and bed the
canes to the stakes as before. Select three
buds for canes this year, like C, having the low
est bud on the side next the wall. The bedded
cane must be treated as usual. The canes may
carry two bunches each. In the fall, cut the
two upper canes entirely away at a, prune the
lower cane about eighteen inches long, and
cover for the winter. In the spring of the
fourth year, the canes are bedded to within a

MODES OF BEDDING VINES.

405

foot of the wall, and three buds selected for
canes on the vines that are to form the two
lower tiers ; on those for the upper tiers select
one bud. In this way all the arms may be be
gun at the same time ; for the vines are now so
strong that those restricted to one bud will

Fig. 162

make canes reaching to the top. of the wall.
Each of the canes may carry two bunches of
fruit. The upper canes in all the above in
stances should be pinched two or three leaves
above the fruit, and the pinching frequently re
peated. The object is to make the lower cane
as stout as possible, and to confine the action in

406

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

the other canes as much as possible to the fruit,
this being the only purpose for which these
canes are grown ; if the action is very strong,
they maybe bent down. In the fall of this
year, the vines will present the appearance
shown in Fig. 162. The upper canes must now
all be cut off at a, and the lower canes pruned
at the points where it is desired to form the
arms. To ascertain these points, the vines must
be bent to their places on the wall. The prun
ing finished, the vines are to be laid down for
the winter. From this point the training is
proceeded with as explained above in Fig. 1:60.

Fig. 163.

By the plan shown in Fig. 163, half the num
ber of vines may be saved, which is an object
where good vines are scarce; but it will occupy
a year more to establish the vines in full bear
ing. In this case, the vines are planted four

MODES OF BEDDING VINES. 407

feet apart instead of two, and brought to the
wall in the manner above described till the last
bedding is reached, when two canes are bedded
instead of one, and at an angle, as seen in the
engraving. The ends are turned up, and one
cane grown on each for stocks.

Still another method may be pursued, which
will be found very useful where the number of
stocks required is so great as to make very close
planting indispensable. Let us suppose we have
a building so high and narrow as to require the
stocks to be one foot apart in order to famish
the necessary number of tiers of arms. In this
case proceed as follows : six feet from the build
ing plant a row of vines two feet apart ; six
feet in front of these, or twelve feet from the
building, plant another row of vines two feet
apart. The vines in these two rows must alter
nate each other in the line of direction to the
building, so that the vines in the outer row,
when bedded, will come between the vines in
the first row. The first, or inner row, must be
bedded to the building. The second row must
be bedded to within five or six inches of the
line where the first row was planted. At this
point grow one good cane on each, and in the
fall prune it about six feet long. In the

408 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

spring, dig a very narrow trench, about six
inches deep, from these canes to the building.
Now procure some small round tile, pass the"
cane through the tile, lay the tile in the trench,
and cover, turning up the end of the cane about
a foot from the building. The object of run
ning the cane through the tile is to prevent it
from emitting roots, and interfering with the
vines planted in the first row, which are already
so close together as to need all the border adja
cent to the building. Instead of running them
through the tile, they may be grown above
ground till two years old, when the disposition
to root will be less ; but the best plan is to use
the tile, and put the vines in their places at
once. If the number of vines required for the
tiers makes it necessary, three rows of vines
may be planted, allowing five or six feet of
border for each row.

The manner of performing the operation
once understood, the reader will readily com
prehend how it may be modified and adapted
to a variety of circumstances. For example, we
may wish to grow vines on the side of a house,
but there is no suitable place for a border
within ten or twenty feet of it. In this case,
the canes may be brought to the house gradu-

PLAN OF CHARMEUX.

409

410 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

ally through tile, or the canes may be grown
along the border till they are sufficiently long
to reach the house, and then carried there
through the tile, and brought up through neat
earthen pedestals. There are many other cases
in which the plan may be usefully applied,
such, for example, as making a border on one
side of a house whue the vines are trained on
another.

Plan of CJiarmeux. — Fig. 164 presents an
other good " study," which may be applied to a
wall, a high trellis, or a house. It is another lite
ral copy from the French, showing the alternate
single and double spurs, and also an improved
arrangement of the stocks, by which the arms
in the lower tiers are more equally shaded. It
is the plan practiced at Thomery by M. Char-
meux. It was found, in the course of time,
that the shading of one arm more than another
produced an unfavorable effect, destroying the
balance of the arms, and the present arrange
ment was made to counteract it. It will be
seen, on examination, that the stocks of the
upper tiers shade the lower arms in about the
same place on each side. This is a matter of
more moment than would at first sight appear.
The stocks might, indeed, be carried up behind

GKOUND TRAINING.

the trellis, and shading the arms thus avoided,
but it would involve considerable trouble. The
reader will notice here, again, that the spurs are
alternately single and double; and this he will
find to be very often the case in French train
ing, where the arms much exceed four feet in
length, and in some cases where it does not.
By lessening or increasing the number of tiers,
this plan can be readily applied to a wall, trel
lis, or house of any height. The mode of
training the reader already understands.

Ground Training. — In Fig. 165 the reader will

Fig. 165.

find another " study," called ground training.
It consists of a system of three double spurs,
with the fruit canes bent horizontally in ray
form, and tied to low stakes, from twelve to
eighteen inches high. It is practiced in the
north of France. A good stout cane must first
be grown, and this pruned so as to get three
canes for spurs at the proper height. These
three canes must be pruned to the two lowest
buds for spurs, and the spurs bent down hori-

412 AMERICAN GKAPE CULTURE.

zontally, so as to bring them all on the same
level. To do the training neatly, at three feet
from the stock, six stakes should be driven in
at equal distances, so as to form a circle six feet
in diameter. Connect the opposite stakes to
gether by wires crossing each other in the
middle at the stock. From each spur two canes
must be grown, making a cane for each wire.
The canes may carry two bunches each, and

Fig. 166.

should receive their first pinching three leaves
from the fruit. Athallage will need pretty
constant attention. The fruit, in consequence
of receiving so much radiated heat from the
earth in the fall, will ripen finely. An early
frost may easily be kept off by throwing a sheet
over the vine.

Training without Stakes. — Fig. 166 is an ex.

TKAINING ON TREES AND TKELLIS. 413

ample of growing vines without stakes. It is
given for information, rather than as an ex
ample to be followed here. It was first pro
posed by M. Miramont. Its primary object
seems to have been to secure shade for the fruit
as much as any thing else. The vines, of

Fig. 167.

course, must be grown close together, and fur
nished with two single spurs.

Training on Trees and Trellis combined. —
Fig. 167 presents another example of French
training, by which trees and a trellis are so

414 . AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

covered as to form a beautiful rustic arbor,
affording a grateful shade as well as fruit. The
student will find a good deal of pleasure in
working this " study" out. The trees should
be planted at the same time as the vines, and
should be open headed, or made so by pruning.
Trees already planted may be adopted, however,
if they are suitably located. The soil should
have a thorough preparation; the vines must
be planted some five or six feet from the trees,
and brought t® them by bedding. There
should be three vines for each tree, except the
last, which should have only one. One of
these three should form an arm on the trellis
on the right of the tree, another an arm on the
trellis on the left, and the third trained over
the tree. The arms should be extended and
spurred in the usual manner. The beauty of
the arbor will be enhanced if a vine is planted
at each trellis post, and trained on a low stock
with one or two double spurs. With these
explanations, the student will, no doubt, be
able to work this " study" out, and apply it
wherever the conditions are found.

Reversed Horizontal Arms.— We present, in
Fig. 168, an example of the reversed horizontal
arm, in order to give the student a clearer idea

Fig. 1C8.

416 AMEKICAN GKAPE CULTURE.

of the manner in wliich it is formed. It is not
intended as a substitute for the gradual length
ening of the arm, but as particularly applicable
to such varieties of the vine as grow rankly,
and in consequence do not develop their buds
strongly on the lower part of the cane. It is a
very certain mode of getting strong canes for
spurs near the stock. "With the exception of
the reversal, the arms are formed in the usual
way.

Fig. 169.

Ringing the Vine. — This is a very simple as
well as a very old practice. It consists in re
moving a ring of bark from the fruit cane, just
below the fruit, or even from old wood or an
arm ; but is generally confined to the fruit cane,
since it renders the wood above the incision
useless. It may be applied to any fruit-bearing
tree. The operation is usually performed with

KINGING THE VINE. 417

a knife, though a peculiar kind of shears has
been invented, with which it is neatly and
quickly done. Fig. 169 is a copy of a fruit cane
on which the operation has been performed.
Two incisions are made half an inch or less
apart, nearly an eighth of an inch deep, and
extending entirely around the cane. The bark
between the incisions must be taken out clean.
If done early in the season, the bark will peel
off ; but on old wood it becomes necessary to
use the knife. By this operation the return
of the sap is mostly prevented, vital action is
intensified above the incision, and the ripening
process greatly hastened. As the result, the
berries are increased in size, and ripen before
their natural time; but the ripening process, in
consequence of being driven too fast, has elab
orated the juices of the fruit imperfectly, and
the fruit is, therefore, deteriorated in quality.
In other words, we have gained size and earli-
ness at the expense of goodness, which is no
gain at all. The deterioration will be in pro
portion to the earliness at which the operation;
is performed. It may be done at any time
between the formation of the fruit and the
period of coloring; the later the better, so far
as the quality of the fruit is concerned. It i&

27

418 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

one of those operations in horticulture which
the novice will do well to have recourse to only
as an amusement.

A Mildewed Leaf. — The beginner, unaided,
may not readily recognize the appearance of
mildew. To assist him, we have copied Fig.

Fig. 170.

170, from Du Breuil. This is a leaf in an ad
vanced stage of the disease, and gives a very
good idea of its appearance. It should first
be looked for in the angles made by the veins
on the under side of the leaf.

A. Hack for Stakes. — Stakes soon decay
when left on the ground during the winter.
Fig. 171 shows a simple and convenient rack
for keeping them.

"Heeling In? — We have elsewhere described

HEELING IN.

419

the operation of " heeling in." Figs. 172 and
173 will help the reader to a clearer idea of the

Fig. 171.

operation. Fig. 172 shows the trencn opened
and the plants laid in, ready to be covered.

Fig. 172.

Fig. 173.

Fig. 173. shows the trench filled and the plants
covered.

CHAPTER XXIII.

WINE MAKING.

IN this chapter we shall condense experience,
reading, «and the memoranda of one of the most
accomplished connoisseurs among us. A bib
liography will be furnished elsewhere.

Wine making is regarded by some as a
mysterious art, to be acquired only by a few
specially gifted for the purpose ; and by others
as something that follows in due course from
planting any kind of grapes, and treating them
in some fancied manner. Those who follow us
through this chapter will see that it partakes
of neither, but is a manly art, very simple in
its general principles, but exceedingly attract
ive in its comprehensive details when pursued
to its ultimate results. It needs no extensive
scientific acquirements for its successful prac
tice, and the following directions will carry
their reasons with them so obviously that no

WINE MAKING. 421

one need feel any doubt as to the proper course
to be pursued to reach a good result ; the best
results, however, will only be attained by the
utmost diligence and care.

The good housewife, who makes the best of
bread, exercises as much skill, and of as fine a
quality, as is required to make the best of
wine ; and in both cases there are few who are
able to appreciate fully the excellence either of
the product or the maker. The illustration
may be homely, but a better one could scarcely
be found. A loaf of bread, perfectly balanced
in farina and gluten, neither too moist nor too
dry, exact in lightness, with its fermentation
carried to just the proper point of sweetness,
is a work of high art ; nay, practically, of the
highest art, for it is the foundation upon which
happy and healthful living is built. It will
not do to say that this is an eveiy-day per
formance, for it is nothing of the kind. More
over, no matter what the skill and experience
of the housewife may be, she must have good
flour to make the best of bread. And it is just
so with wine. No matter what the skill and
experience of the wine maker may be, he must
have good grapes to make good wine, and the
best of grapes to make the best of wine.

422 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

Wine making is so new in this country that
its grand simplicity can scarcely be compre
hended by any of us. While chemistry has
done much in explaining the action of the
different processes, it has done very little in
directing how the operations should be per
formed. The only difficulty in the way of
uniform success in wine making, either for
family use or commerce, is that of persuading
all to begin the subject at the beginning, and
then pursue it in due order. Some will persist
in efforts to make good bread out of bad flour,
just as others will persist in efforts to make
good wine out of bad grapes.

For the first step toward obtaining good
wine, directions were given when we advised
the planting of good grapes. That is the only
step that leads in the right direction. Good
wine can come only from the pure, unadulter
ated juice of good grapes that have been well
ripened. The succeeding steps have also been
fully described, but it may be intimated again,
in view of its importance, that the bunches
should be left on the vine to attain the great
est measure of maturity that is possible, even
to the degree of shriveling in some cases. A
slight frost will not damage them. The grapes

WINE MAKING. 423

should not be gathered when covered with
dew or moisture. The bunches should be
o-athered without bruising them, using the

o

scissors before mentioned, and the baskets or
tubs usually made for the purpose. The
assorting must be done with the utmost care,
as elsewhere described. We repeat, none out
sound, thoroughly ripe berries must go into
the wine press.

The implements used in wine making are not
numerous, and consist principally of tubs,
crushers, press, casks, vats, saccharometer, ther
mometer, siphon, etc., all of which are made for
the purpose, and are readily bought.

There is one item largely concerned in the
manufacture of good wine, which, to save repe
tition, must be insisted upon from the begin
ning, and that is, the most scrupulous cleanli
ness, as respects the vessels, persons, and every
operation performed. Those who reflect that a
beverage is to be made, the goodness of which
depends in a great measure upon its delicacy
and purity, will at once recognize the absolute
necessity of this. Wine of high character de
pends for its excellence upon fine, pure, deli
cate flavors, and these are marred or destroyed
by want of cleanliness and the introduction of

424 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

foreign substances, or by suffering any thing
whatever but the juice of good ripe grapes to
enter the must. Wine making is a careful,
painstaking business, in which persistent and
conscientious well doing and right doing are
munificently rewarded.

The Cellar. — The cellar is of much impor
tance where wine making is largely pursued.
It must necessarily be modified more or less
by the location in which it is built. There are
three leading objects to be attained, and these
are pretty nearly of equal importance : first,
a considerable degree of evenness of tempera
ture, which is best secured by sinking the cel
lar in the ground, and building the walls hol
low. Second, freedom from wetness, which is
secured by selecting a dry spot for the cellar,
and, where this can not be fully secured in this
way, laying the walls in cement, and grouting
and cementing the bottom. Third, ventilation,
the means for which should be placed in the
upper part of the cellar, and so arranged that
the temperature can be altered gradually when
necessary, sudden changes being hurtful. The
cellar may be built over or not with rooms,
offices, etc., to suit the convenience of the own
er. The lower tier of casks should rest upon

WINE MAKING. 425

cradles, and be elevated from six to twelve
inches above the floor of the cellar. Under
certain circumstances carbonic acid gas will
accumulate in the cellar in sufficient quantity
to be detrimental to health. This must be
provided against by careful ventilation.

Casks. — Large casks, for very good reasons,
are generally claimed to be better than small
ones. They are not only more economical, but
a large body of wine will ferment more per
fectly than a small one. Still, we can not do
without small casks, and their size must, there
fore, be regulated by circumstances. They
should be made of well-seasoned oak, and fin
ished smooth inside and out to facilitate clean
ing. "When new, they should be soaked for a
week or so in water, and then rinsed with hot
water, to sweeten them ; or they may be washed
with lime water, and rinsed. They should
never be used except when perfectly clean.
If hot water will not cleanse them, they may
be washed with a weak solution of sulphuric
acid. First put the acid in cold water, pour
this in the cask, and then add the hot water.
After being well shaken, the cask should be
thoroughly rinsed with cold water. This is

426 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

used in France, and is highly recommended by
those who have tried it.

Bottles. — Bottles should be made of glass
sufficiently tough to withstand considerable
pressure. The style is very much a matter of
taste. They should be thoroughly clean. Shot
are often used for cleaning ; but they are not
safe, as the lead washes off. Clean coarse sand
has been found to be equally good, and free
from objection.

Color of Wines. — The color of wines is in
some measure an index of certain properties,
but affords no indication of quality. The col
oring matter resides in and near the skin, and
consists of various extractive matters, which
impart flavor and characteristics that are prized
by some, but which are neither agreeable nor
wholesome to others. White wines have a
purity as well as an animation that never be
longs to the red. It should be observed that
high color is often used as a mask for adultera
tion. There is an unfounded prejudice in favor
of the quality of red wines that is largely taken
advantage of by makers.

Wines are often colored with elderberries,
beets, Brazil wood, and other substances not
so innocent ; but the best color is the nat-

WINE MAKING. 427

ural one, or that obtained from the coloring
matter adjacent to and in the skin of the grape.
This is obtained by cuvage, or fermentation on
the skins. If the juice is pressed before fer
menting in this way, the wine will be white,
no matter what the color of the grape may be.

Fining or Clarifying. — Wines, particularly
the dry, usually clarify themselves, the impuri
ties gradually falling to the bottom when fer
mentation ceases. Isinglass and other sub
stances are used, but albumen or the whites of
eggs will answer the purpose well. The whites
of three or four eggs will usually be sufficient
for forty gallons ; some use more, but this num
ber is generally enough. The whites should
be " beaten up," mixed with some water or
wine, and poured in the cask, the wine being
well stirred up. It should be used, if at all,
after the second fermentation.

Several preliminary operations should here
be noticed.

Stemming. — This is done by hand, or by
drawing the bunches through teeth attached
to a grooved board, the purpose of the grooves
being to convey to the tub the juice that flows
from the bruised berries. Stemming is so much
a matter of circumstance that no general rule

428 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

for it can be given. In some cases wines are
found to be better with a small portion of the
stems in the marc ; in many red wines they are
not at all admissible ; while in most white wines
they are either admitted entire, or with only
the larger branches removed. In making Jo-
hannisberger the stems are all carefully re
moved, while in the case of some of the best
French white wines they are admitted entire.

Crushing may easily be done by hand in a
tub, where not more than a barrel full is want
ed ; but any way will do that crushes the ber
ries without breaking or bruising the seed.
Hollers like those used by grocers for crushing
sugar, only channeled, will answer the purpose.
In Europe it is sometimes done, even on a
large scale, by trampling with the feet. It may
be well and quickly done, however, by the press
mentioned below, being careful, however, to so
set it as not to crush the seed.

Pressing should be done with a press that
has neither copper nor lead about it. Presses
are made for the purpose, but a very good one
is the cider and wine press now so common,
which may be bought of any convenient size.
Directions for use accompany each. Only one
pressing should be put in the same cask when

WINE MAKING. 429

the finest and most delicate wine is wanted.
The juice that runs from the marc by its own
weight is called the " first running," and what
is really the " first pressing " is the " second
running." It is not safe to mix different kinds
of must, unless they are all good ; when this is
the case, one may be used to impart flavor or
color to another, or for some similar purpose.
In pressing, the marc becomes hard, and forms
what is called " cheese." This is cut down at
the side from time to time, and the parings
placed on the top of the " cheese " for further
pressing, so as to secure all the juice possible.

Racking— Its object is to transfer the wine
from one vessel to another in such a way as to
prevdfc the access of air, and at the same time
not disturb the lees which have settled at the
bottom. There are various contrivances for do
ing this, some of which are expensive ; but if
bought, directions for their use accompany them.
In Europe, Hilton's is thought to be one of the
best. While the wine is running at the bot
tom, air must be admitted gradually at the top
or bung, or the disturbance will be so great as
to muddy the wine. The siphon, however, is
often used, and it is both simple and good. It
is only a tube with arms of unequal length.

430 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

Some are made with a side pipe for starting
the flow. "When plain, it is first filled with
wine, the short arm put into the cask to be
emptied, and the long arm into the cask to be
filled, which should stand lower than the first.
When the siphon is filled, the finger must be
held over the hole in the long arm till the si
phon is inserted into the cask. Those who make
wine on a large scale will, of course, purchase
the apparatus made for the purpose.

Wines, briefly, are principally of two kinds,
dry and sweet. In dry wines the sugar and
acids are so nicely balanced that neither seems
to predominate. In sweet wines .the sugar is
in excess, and some, like Sherry and Madeira,
may be called spirituous or alcoholic 0ines.
Sparkling wines partake more or less of the
nature of both. Dry wines are the best, and
the only ones that are suitable for daily use, to
invigorate and refresh the body and mind.

With a view to make the details more read
ily intelligible, we propose first to describe the
process of wine making in its simplest form.

After stemming (if done) and crushing, put
the " marc " into a tub or any convenient ves
sel, and place it where a pretty equable tem
perature may be maintained, not falling below

WINE MAKING. 431

sixty -five degrees ; a range between seventy
and eighty will be very good. Cover the ves
sel with a cloth that will not admit insects ;
and for further safety, boards may be put over
the cloth, with an inch or two of space between
them for the admission of air, which the cloth
will permit with sufficient freedom. Crash
cloth is very good for this purpose.

Fig. 1T4

Fermentation will begin about the third day,
or soon after, which may be ascertained with
out uncovering by placing the ear near one of
the spaces between the boards. After this has
continued actively for twenty-four to forty-eight
hours, the free juice may be drawn off through

432 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

a cock prepared for the purpose, (as seen at a,
Fig. 174,) and put into a cask. The remaining
" marc " must be pressed immediately, so that
the juice may be put at once with the first.
The cask should be of such size as to be filled
without taking all the juice, some being left for
filling, from time to time, the vacancy that will
be continually forming in the cask in conse
quence of the slow fermentation, which will
continue for a length of time proportioned, in
some degree, to the strength of the must, and
also to the temperature. When the fermen
tation has so far abated that a bung may be
driven tight without causing pressure from the
collection of carbonic acid in the cask, the wine
may be said to be made, although a second fer
mentation will be necessary for its completion.
After the first fermentation has ceased, and
the wine become clear, which will not be later
than January, it should be drawn off from the
lees, and put into a cask of proper size, which
must be filled quite full. The second fermen
tation may be expected to occur about the fol
lowing June, or as soon as the heat becomes
sufficient for its excitement, and will continue,
if the must be rich, during most, if not all, of
the summer. In the following winter, after

WINE MAKING. 433

the second fermentation has ceased, the com
pleted wine may be drawn off and bottled,
when it is new wine, and ready, as such, for
use.

This, in brief, is the history of wine making
in its most simple form: a plain statement of
the processes without any attempt at explana
tion by theory ; and a general statement of
what is known of the chemistry of wine making
is quite as simple. The sugar of the grape, by
a chemical action called vinous fermentation, is
converted into alcohol, setting free carbonic
acid, which escapes into the air in the form of
gas, while the former remains dissolved in the
water of the grape with the other constituents,
chiefly unchanged. What fermentation itself
is, is quite another question. If the vinous
fermentation were perfect, every one hundred
parts of the sugar would be converted into
51*11 parts of alcohol and 48'89 parts of car
bonic acid. The action of the ferment depends
for its force upon the rapid absorption of the
oxygen of the air, without which it can not
take place.

Two modes of fermenting are practiced, above
and below. In the first, the cask is kept full,
so that the yeasty parts flow out at the bung.

28

434 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

In the second, a small vacant space is left at the
top, and the apparatus of Gervais is used, or a
sand-bag, or something similar, laid over the
hole ; in which case the sediment sinks to the
bottom when fermentation ceases. The appa
ratus of Gervais is seen in Fig. 174. In the en
graving the cask is represented as standing on
one end, this position being necessary to se
cure the advantages of its fixtures ; but ordi
narily it rests on the side in a " cradle " pre
pared for the purpose. The outlet of the cock
is covered at b with a perforated diaphragm,
to prevent the settlings from running off with
the wine.

In wine-making countries the must from rich,
well-ripened grapes goes through fermentation
so surely that acetous fermentation is not feared.
There are, however, large quantities of grapes
grown from kinds that are not rich, and not
calculated for making good wine, but which
will make poor light wine in such quantity as
to yield a valuable return, if it can be done with
out vinegar fermentation. In very bad seasons,
the best kinds, from imperfect ripening, fall into
the same defective condition in a greater or less
degree. Overcropping and premature cropping,
there as here, are constantly producing their

WINE MAKING. 435

disastrous effects, which are always shown in
weakness of must. These musts will not bear
the freedom of treatment that is not only safe,
but advantageous to those of better quality.
If some restriction is put upon the admission of
atmospheric air during fermentation, its violence
is abated in some degree, and the danger of the
formation of vinegar instead of wine is lessened
in the same proportion. Upon this the inven
tion of Mile. Gervais is founded. The bent tube,
with its mouth under water, permits the escape
of the excess of carbonic acid gas, but at the
same time keeps the surface of the wine covered
with it, and excludes the atmospheric air. On
trial, however, the apparatus was found to have
so little practical value, that it has been gene
rally laid aside in Europe. It has been used
here pretty extensively in fermenting the must
of the Catawba and other grapes, but with what
benefit does not appear.

A more recent question is, whether entirely
free or partially closed fermentation is most ad
vantageous for rich musts, and this is now gen
erally settled in favor of the latter, which is
usually conducted in pretty large vessels set on
end, with a movable outer cover, and an ad
ditional inner cover, as seen in Fig. 174. With-

436 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

out going into detail, the rule may be briefly
stated thus : rich musts are benefited by, and
even require, a freer admission of air and a high
er temperature than light and meager musts can
endure. Thorough fermentation is indispensa
ble for making wholesome wine ; not necessa
rily the conversion of all the sugar into alcohol,
but the conversion or deposition of all the yeast
or ferment with which the must is charged.
This is one of the prime conditions of that
" fineness" which is so essential for health as well
as enjoyment, that it may be said that no wine
can be good without it.

The temperature under which fermentation
takes place actively, ranges from about sixty-
five to one hundred degrees, and the quantity
of sugar decomposed decreases as the tempera
ture falls below seventy ; in other words, thor
ough fermentation requires at least seventy
degrees of temperature. When it is much
above eighty, there is danger that fermentation
will go on too rapidly, even to the destruction
of the wine, if the must is not rich in sugar,
and also free from the destructive elements
that belong to unripeness in the fruit.

Wine has heretofore been commonly treated
of as something without life, indeed, but unlike

WINE MAKING. 437

any mere mixture, and yet not a chemical com
bination. Dr. Guyot, however, speaks of it as
"a thing of life, which has youth and man
hood, old age and decrepitude." A late French
writer, M. Pasteur, attributes all the changes
which the juice undergoes by fermentation to
living action, and bases his discoveries upon
apparently good microscopic revelations. In
this country, a similar view was taken of the
subject by Prof. Gardiner some fifteen years
ago. It is a question of cause and effect, which
can only be determined by the most careful
microscopic investigations. We shall adhere
to established formulas, but propose to recur
to these discoveries hereafter.

We have given the reader a general idea of
the processes by which good grapes are made
into wine ; but there are minor details of no
little importance that claim our attention.

After the grapes are assorted, every opera
tion should proceed rapidly. The stemming
should be done speedily, as also the crushing,
and immediately thereafter the pressing, unless
we have in view fermentation of the " marc,"
or, as it is sometimes called, fermentation on
the skins. For this operation we need a short,
expressive term, and may as well adopt that

438 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

used by the French, cwvage, so called from
the vessel in which it is done ; literally, tub
bing. Whether immediate pressing or cuving
is to be adopted will depend mainly upon the
character of the grapes and the color of the
wine ; for it is from the coloring matter in and
adjacent to the skins that the wine derives its
color. When a white wine is to be made from
colored grapes, the skins should not be ferment
ed. The rule may be stated in general terms
as follows : kinds that yield light musts do not
require or admit of cuvage, and even in large
casks must be treated with care, both as to the
free admission of air and the temperature of the
cellar. Those kinds only are benefited by cu
vage that have rich and pure-flavored skins, and
yield a must of great general richness ; and these
are benefited also by a pretty free admission of
air. Fermentation in casks is always safe, and
should always be resorted to in cases of doubt.
If any of our " foxy" kinds are fermented on the
skins, the odor appears in the wine stronger, if
possible, than in the fruit. The Concord is bad
enough in this respect, but Ives's Seedling can
only be borne by those whose sense of smell has
lost its best points of discrimination. Cuvage is
admissible with the Delaware, probably also

WINE MAKING. 439

with the Diana, and is highly advantageous
with the lona. The skins of the Delaware
have very little decided character. Those of
the Diana have considerable aromatic richness,
but are rarely without some degree of their
characteristic offensiveness. The skins of the
lona are pure, rich in aromatic properties and
tannic and tartaric acids, and give the wine a
peculiar but beautiful rose color.

The need of expedition arises from the facil
ity with which small masses of the marc that
are not immersed in the juice take on acetous
fermentation. When the marc is put into the
tubs, it should be kept a little below the sur
face of the free juice by a false cover kept at
the proper depth by weights, or, better, by fas
tenings made for the purpose, as shown at d in
Fig. 174. A false bottom is also required, as
therein shown, and both this and the cover
should be made so open by perforations and
crevices as to permit the passage of the juice,
while the skins and the more solid parts are
retained.

The Catawba is not fermented on the marc,
and can not be successfully managed in the
manner described. Its juice has very rarely
any margin of alcoholic richness above the

440 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

point that is safe from acetous fermentation
when managed with the utmost care in the
best of cellars after immediate pressing. It
may be stated here that very little still Cataw-
ba wine, entirely free from adulteration by sugar
at least, finds its way into the general market ;
a great proportion of that which professes to
be pure is rather a sirup than wine.

After crushing, the marc is taken immedi
ately to the press. A considerable portion of
juice runs off before any pressure is made.
This is called "first running," and is carefully
tested by the saccharometer, and the degree
noted before putting it into the large casks for
fermentation.

When pressure is made, the juice takes an
other grade, which is also measured and noted,
and this is called " second running." This will
not measure so high as the first. When the
ordinary press is used, the pomace, called
" cheese," after receiving a strong application
of the screw, is cut down at the sides, and the
portion cut off piled upon the top preparatory
to the last pressing. This juice is also tested
and noted, and is of still lower grade than the
last in sugar, but contains more tannic acid.
This excess of tannic acid in the Catawba, al-

WINE MAKING. 441

though giving a degree of acerbity and bitter
ness to the wine, is indispensable to make it
enduring.

On comparing the degree of the different
" runnings," an estimate is made of the average
sugar of the whole ; and if this is found not to
be above eighty degrees, it is not thought safe
to trust to its own foundation of sugar, and
cane sugar is added to the must before fermen
tation, and, of course, an impure Catawba wine
is the result. The best Catawba wine that has
been made was from must that registered at
least ninety degrees on the average of all run-
ings.

In the vicinity of Cincinnati the Catawba
generally ripens early enough to ferment thor
oughly by the natural temperature of the cel
lars ; but further north, along the lakes, artificial
heat is required. To exclude the action of at
mospheric air during fermentation, the appara
tus of Mile. Gervais is used. (See Fig. 174, p.
431.

When the first fermentation has subsided,
and the wine become still, it is " racked," or
drawn from the lees ; and if much sediment
forms during the winter, it is racked again
before warm weather. After the second fer-

442 AMERICAN GKAPE CULTURE.

mentation, if every thing has gone on favora
bly, the wine becomes clear, and does not need
the operation called " fining."

Almost every maker of wine has some pecu
liarities of his own, but all dry wines are made
upon the same general principles. Let us next
present an example of making good wine in a
small or domestic way. We have some excellent
wine thus made from the Ion a. As we were inter
ested in the proceedings, we will detail them so
far as to enable the reader to repeat them.
The object was to test the wine-making capa
city of the lona under a variety of circum
stances, and specimens were, therefore, procured
from different localities, and gathered at differ
ent times, but all north of New-York.

The grapes were crushed by hand and the
juice strained through a cloth, a part of it,
however, having been fermented on the skins.
It was then put in clean demijohns and bot
tles, and these placed on a shelf in the room,
each specimen having been first tried by the
saccharometer, ((Eschle's,) and its degree noted.
All were above eighty-five degrees, and some
above a hundred. Some were reduced to
sixty-eight by the addition of water. There
being no proper facilities for maintaining an

WINE MAKING. 443

even temperature, the mercury ranged from
sixty-five to ninety-five. In the moderately
rich must, fermentation began in about three
days, and in the others later in proportion to
the richness.

Fermentation lasted more than a week in all
cases, and in the richest more than four weeks.
The " racking" was done by simply transferring
the wine very carefully from one bottle to an
other. The progress was naturally watched
with deep interest, and notes made daily ; but
we present here only the result, which was in
every instance a perfect wine, varying greatly,
however, in important characteristics, as these
were affected by the different times of gather
ing the grapes and by the different localities in
which they were grown, the first exercising
much the greatest influence, the last gathered
and ripest grapes producing far the richest
must and finest wine. These experiments de
monstrated not only that the lona will make
excellent wine in this way, but that the must
is free from those destructive elements which
produce acetous fermentation, a point of great
weakness in most of our native grapes. In
this way, small quantities of good wine can be
made from pure, rich must in an ordinary liv-

444 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

ing room, if care is taken not to let the tem
perature sink below sixty-five at night.

Let us suppose, here, that this new wine is
wanted for immediate use, and we may intro
duce the results of some of M. Pasteur's most
recent experiments. They can be easily re
peated by any one. In experimenting for the
destruction of fungi, which he supposed to
cause the diseases of wine, he found that they
were destroyed by heating it. His later ex
periments seem to show that a temperature not
exceeding one hundred and fourteen degrees
Fahrenheit is sufficient for the purpose. The
question is, Will this injure the wine ? and just
here is the point we alluded to. According to
M. Pasteur, it not only does not injure the
wine, but hastens its ripening, producing in a
few hours all the fine qualities that we have
been in the habit of expecting to come from
years of careful keeping in good cellars. The
process is applicable to all wines, and renders
them, he says, capable of long, if not indefinite,
preservation. We suggest, therefore, that the
experiments of M. Pasteur be repeated on
wine made in bottles,, to hasten its ripening;
for it may be that we can have good wine to
drink generally the first winter, instead of the

WINE MAKING. 445

second. It was so in the trial of the lona
above given.

To enable the reader to obtain a fuller know
ledge of the principles of wine making, we pro
pose now to give a connected summary of all
the various processes.

The grapes should in all cases be thoroughly
ripe. For making sweet wine, those that will
bear it may be left till they shrivel. They
should be gathered when dry, since moisture
on them will weaken the must, and our grapes
have generally no strength to spare. They may
even be kept some days in a suitable room.
They should be cut with scissors, received in
suitable baskets or tubs, and carried at once to
the cellar or house. They should next be care
fully assorted, retaining for wine only those
that are thoroughly ripe. The next operation
will be stemming, if this is to be done. As
soon as stemmed, the grapes are crushed, either
in tubs or by passing through the rollers of
the press. If crushed in tubs, these should
have false bottoms with small holes, a faucet,
and a cover, as already described. When
cuvage is practiced, the marc should remain
in the tubs from twenty-four to forty-eight
hours, when the free juice must be drawn off

446 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

by the faucet and the marc pressed. The tubs
should be covered as before directed, to keep
the skins below the free juice, and exclude dirt
and air.

The pressing is next in order, and should be
done immediately to prevent souring. The
press should be in the cellar, the temperature
of which should be kept from sixty-five to
eighty, and fire heat used if necessary. When
pressing for wine is done, water may be added
to the skins, and the juice used for making vin
egar ; or they may be used for making brandy.

As fast as pressed, the juice is put in casks
of suitable size, the larger the better, but not
so large that they can not be filled. The ad
vantage of using large casks consists in the
fact, that a large body of must will produce
more heat than a small one, and fermentation
may, therefore, be carried on at a lower temper
ature than would be consistent with a small
body of must. If the temperature of the cel
lar is too low, it must be raised by artificial
heat. The beginning of fermentation may be
hastened by the addition of warm must, in the
same manner that we hasten or restore the heat
in a hot-bed by moistening it with hot water.
When fermentation ceases, the cask must be

WINE MAKING. 447

bunged up. It will be prudent not to drive
the bung tight at first; for if fermentation
should not have pretty nearly ceased, gas would
accumulate and burst the cask. It must, there
fore, be examined occasionally. There will be
some leakage or waste in the casks, and the
vacancy caused in this way must be filled up.

After the first fermentation has ceased, which
will not be later than January, the wine must
be u racked" off, or separated from the " lees,"
oT settlings. In doing this the wine should not
be exposed to the air, or it will lose a portion
of its spirit and aroma by evaporation, if not
injured in other respects. The flow of the
wine must be stopped as soon as it ceases to
run clear. The muddy portion and the lees
are put in a separate cask, and generally dis
tilled into brandy. If much sediment settles
during the winter, the wine must be racked
again before warm weather sets in.

About the following May or June the second
fermentation will begin, and will continue a
greater or less length of time, according to the
richness of the wine. In our best wines it may
be expected to continue a greater part of the
summer. The casks during this time will need
watching, as the fermentation may in some cases

448 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

become so active as to endanger the cask by the
rapid accumulation of gas, unless it is allowed
to escape. In the following winter, after the
second fermentation has ceased, the wine will
be ready to bottle. In rich wines, however,
there are always left traces of sugar and fer
ment, and in consequence a slow, insensible fer
mentation will go on, in some cases for years,
during which the wine is said to be " ripening."
We are only just beginning to have that kind
of wine. This insensible fermentation may,
under favorable circumstances, become active,
and should be checked, which can usually be
done by " racking." Dry wines, it may be re
marked, generally fine themselves, and resort
need not be had to fining.

Bottling should be done in cool weather, and
not till fermentation has entirely ceased, other
wise the bottles will be liable to be broken by
the accumulation of gas. The wine is usually
drawn from the cask by a faucet, and passed
into the bottle through a funnel. The bottles
should only be filled to within a couple of inch
es of the mouth, so that, when corked, there
shall be a small space between the cork and the
wine. The corks should be of the best descrip
tion, and compressed at the bottom when put

WINE MAKING. 449

in. They should then be sealed by dipping
them in melted sealing-wax, and placed upright
till the wax cools. The bottles should then be
packed away in the cellar on their sides, so as
to cover the corks, which will prevent the accu
mulation of mould. A sediment will collect
after a time. If this consists of cream of tar
tar, it may remain ; otherwise the wine must
be transferred to other bottles, leaving the sedi
ment behind.

Wasting. — Even in the best of casks there is
more or less evaporation of the spirit and wa
ter of the wine, which leaves a vacancy at the
top. A vacancy is also caused by drawing off
portions of the wine. This vacancy should be
filled within a day or two. When this can not
be done, it is usual to sulphurize it from time
to time by burning a sulphur match. If, in
filling up, there should be mould on the wine,
the filling should be done through a small pipe,
the end being put under the surface. When
full, the mould should be carefully removed.

Use of HusJcs. — The husks are used for va
rious purposes, such as making vinegar, brandy,
potash, etc. If used for brandy, they must be
kept from the air, and worked up with as little
delay as possible. The pomace or " cheese " is

29

450 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

mixed with water and sugar, again fermented,
and then distilled. But nobody will under
take to make brandy without providing suita
ble apparatus for the purpose. If vinegar is
made, water must be added to the husks, which
must be stirred up, and fermented till vinegar
appears. If, however, the husks are " foxy," it
will be better to press the husks after water
ing them, and ferment the juice: there will
then be less of the "foxy" impurity in it.
Potash is also made from the husks, but they
are probably quite as valuable for manure for
the vineyard.

Sediment or Lees. — These may be distilled
into brandy or made into potash. The crust
or salt that collects on the sides of the casks
is crude cream of tartar, and as such may be
sold.

Changes or Diseases. — Certain changes take
place in wine, which are called diseases. What
is called souring is the commencement of ace
tous fermentation, which is generally remedied
by racking and sulphuring. Weak or watery
wines are very apt to sour on exposure to the
air. A remedy would be to add good wines
of greater strength. Where the disposition to
sour exists, suddenly increasing the temperature

WINE MAKING. 451

a few degrees will give it activity, or, in other
words, "bring on active fermentation. If a wine
poor in sugar and rich in ferment gets stirred
up, and the temperature at the same time in
creased, fermentation will be renewed, and soon
pass to the acetous state unless checked. In
this and similar cases, racking and fining should
be resorted to; and this is also the proper
course to pursue with wines that are oily,
sticky, or slimy. In. the case of mouldy wines,
the mould should be removed, and the wine
racked and fined. This is often caused by not
keeping the casks well filled. Cloudiness or
muddiness may be removed by fining.

M. Pasteur, however, a distinguished French
physiologist, at the instance of the French gov
ernment, has devoted several years to the study
of diseases in wine, and has arrived at conclu
sions which must be regarded as of very great
importance to the wine-making interests of all
countries. These results may strike some of
our readers as being quite improbable ; but ex
periments of a somewhat similar kind conduct
ed by others give a great degree of probability
to M. Pasteur's theory in regard to wines. We
can not here do more than give an outline of
the theory as applied to the diseases of wine,

452 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

which is as follows : That all the changes that
wine undergoes find their appropriate cause in a
specific vegetable fungus. Thus, " souring " or
" acetification," " mould," etc., are each produced
by a different vegetable parasite or fungus, which,
if allowed to go on to mature growth, will spoil
the wine. Before the germs of these fungi are
called into active life, no harm has been done,
according to his theory. His remedy is to de
stroy them by heating the wine. For this pur
pose he submitted wines to a degree of heat
reaching two hundred and fifty or more de
grees ; but his latest experiments would seem
to show that one hundred and fourteen degrees
of Fahrenheit are quite sufficient to insure the
destruction of the parasite. The question will
naturally arise, whether this degree of heat will
not injure the wine. M. Pasteur answers it by
saying that, so far from injuring the wine, it
hastens its ripening, and brings forth in a few
hours those fine qualities that we have been in
the habit of expecting only from many years
of careful keeping in good cellars. The pro
cess is applicable to all kinds of wines, and ren
ders them capable of long, if not indefinite,
preservation. There is good reason to suppose,
however, that these fungi will make their ap-

WINE MAKING. 453

pearance again if air is allowed access to the
wine ; but then the process is very simple, and
easily repeated. We commend this theory to
the consideration of wine makers, with the
hope that the experiment may be repeated.
M. Pasteur's book is embellished with many
fine microscopic illustrations, which materially
assist the reader in comprehending his theory,
and would seem to throw additional light on
the hitherto inscrutable mystery of fermenta
tion.

Adulterations ', Gallizing, etc. — Wine is the
fermented juice of the grape: nothing more
and nothing less. When a foreign substance
is added to it, it becomes, to that extent, some
thing else. The fermented juice of the grape is
essentially different from the fermented juice of
any other fruit. The elements of the grape,
during the process of fermentation, react upon
each other in some mysterious way that de
prives the alcohol of its chief consuming and
destructive qualities, and thus produces a
beverage that may be safely and beneficially
used for strengthening, invigorating, and sus
taining the body, while it gently exhilarates
and cheers the mind. This is wine, pure and
simple, and pure and simple we wish to keep

454 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

it. The poetry of words may surround it with
certain charms, but it can make nothing more
of it. It is one of those productions of nature
which man can not reproduce by any of the
means at present at his command, however
closely he may seem to imitate it; and it is
of these imitations, which are all more or less
hurtful, that we now propose to speak.

It will have become very plain to the reader
that we have taken uncompromising ground
against adulterations in all their various and
specious forms. "We did this many years ago,
after having witnessed their uniformly pernicious
effects, and we have neither read nor seen any
thing since to shake our faith in simple purity.
We do not mean to court popularity with any
class of men at the sacrifice of our conscientious
convictions; neither shall we forget our self-
respect by applying opprobrious terms to those
who may differ from us. Our position is not
such a bad one that it needs bad arguments to
sustain it. Notwithstanding, we shall state our
convictions very plainly, but without mean
ing to offend any one.

There are certain kinds of adulterations, prac
ticed especially in large cities, that are so gener
ally recognized as being destructively poisonous

WINE MAKING. 455

that it is needless to waste time on them here :
those who indulge in them are hopelessly be
yond the reach of argument as well as the influ
ence of moral law. There is another kind of
adulteration, however, of a more specious kind
that claims a brief notice. It is very largely
practiced, both by those who do not know that
it is an adulteration, and by those who do, but
who claim that it is not injurious. We allude
to the practice of adding sugar to the must, or
Gallizing, as it has more recently been called
after Gall, who enjoys ihe unenviable reputation
of having reduced it to a system. The practice
is an old one, having been in common use for
the fabrication of so-called domestic wines long
before the days of Gall, Chaptal, Maupin, etc. ;
but it was only at a comparatively recent
period, and by slow degrees, that men could
be educated into marring the noblest of all
beverages. The "golden argument" in this
case, as in too many others, alas, in the end
became irresistible, and the addition of sugar
to the must of the grape is now nearly as
common as the addition of sugar to the juice
of rhubarb or the currant.

What Mr. Gall has done is simply to tell us
how much sugar or how much water to add to

456 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

weak or strong must, or no must at all ; noth
ing more, notwithstanding all the mystery that
has been attempted to be thrown around the
subject. In other words, he has told us how to
make forty gallons of wine out of four, and
even how to make forty gallons of wine out of
no wine at all ; but in all this he has told us
nothing new. He and his confreres have re
duced the formulas to a tabular form, and pub
lished them to the world, and to that extent
have done what they could to make fraud an
exact art ; for to publish the formulas is only to
invite to their general practice. It is a pity that
the talents of these men could not have been
devoted to a nobler purpose. If we are told
that in bad seasons the vintage would be most
ly lost if some such practice were not resorted
to, we reply that this need not be so ; and even
if it were, it is better that a few men should
suffer a temporary loss than that many should
lose their manhood, and even their souls. Some
reader may expect to find these formulas here,
but he will be disappointed. Their publication
has been productive of nothing but evil, and
we do not mean to multiply it.

But it is said that some of our native
grapes will not make wine without sugar.

WINE MAKING. 45*7

That is very true ; and it may be added that
they will not make true wine with it. They
are clearly not wine grapes, and that is the best
that can be said of them. There need be no
argument about that. It is further said that
the addition of sugar is not injurious, and
many arguments derived from chemistry are
adduced to support this position, chief among
which is the assertion that cane sugar is nearly
identical with grape sugar, and potato sugar
quite so, and that the result produced by fer
mentation is precisely the same in all.

This is the little triangular argument that
supports the arch. Weaken this key-stone, and
the whole structure falls to the ground. Now,
let us look at a few facts. Chemistry itself
has much to learn yet, and its formulas are by
no means fixed. What a few years ago were
supposed to be simple bodies have been dis
covered to be compound. The elements of the
grape are not yet clearly and fully known.
Fermentation is a profound mystery, and at
best we only know its most striking results;
the most learned men are not yet even agreed
as to how many kinds of fermentation there
are, and, of course, never will be until it is first
ascertained what fermentation really is. It is

458 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

too soon, therefore, to say that grape sugar and
potato sugar are precisely identical, or to say in
what manner the peculiar elements of the grape
react upon each other in the process of fermen
tation. But suppose present chemical analysis
to reduce grape sugar and potato sugar to the
same elements, can we be certain that we have
all ? It is a well-known chemical fact that the
same elements are sometimes so combined by
nature as to produce quite different results;
and it is now equally well known that the
same element exists in more than one form.
The diamond is pure carbon; yet we can no
more make real diamonds from carbon than we
can make real wine from potato or cane sugar,
or bread from the maple. Aside from this,
however, we have the highest authority for say
ing that these sugars are not precisely identical ;
and each individual, without resort to chemis
try, may convince himself that they do not
produce identical results by fermentation. The
pure juice of the grape yields a beverage that
produces an exhilarating glow, at the same
time that it refreshes, strengthens, and satisfies.
The sugar of the cane and potato yields a bev
erage that stimulates to intoxication, at the same
time that it weakens, stupefies, and depraves,

WINE MAKING. 459

leaving an unnatural thirst for more. That is
precisely the difference between the effects pro
duced by the two beverages, and upon that dif
ference is founded our objection to the adulter
ation. It produces other evils by no means of
a minor kind ; but these are enough to condemn
it. The case might even be put so broadly as
to say that the one gives rise to drunkenness,
while the other does not, and it would by no
means be difficult to prove it. We put the
subject upon the broad ground of public health
and public morals, and affirm that no man has
a right to conduct his business in such a man
ner as to imperil either. In the name of Ameri
can wine making, we enter a solemn protest
against it.

But let us look a little further at the subject
of Gallizing, and see where it leads us. It is
claimed that by this method wine can be made
from green grapes. We reply, that in the same
way wine may be made from the stems, the
leaves, or the green wood ; wine just as good,
and in which the taste shall not be able to de
tect any difference. What matters it, then,
whether the fruit ripens or not ? Why not
give our whole attention to the production of
leaves and green wood, and make wine as abun-

460 AMEKICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

dant and cheap as water ? Why not 2 Are we
coming to this ? If so, then it would be better
at once to abandon the vine, and make plan
tations of rhubarb, currants, and the elder.
But, in fact, why plant any thing ? Gallizing
has already produced its legitimate results in
the fabrication of wine, into the composition of
which no portion of the vine enters. The imi
tation is so well done that the majority of those
who taste it say it is good wine. If nothing
but the taste were concerned, the subject would
not be worth a moment's argument ; but it is
the demoralizing effects which follow the use
of these beverages which should alarm us. No
man can study these effects as we have without
feeling deeply concerned for the future.

While we have an innate dislike for deception
in all its forms, we are at the same time jealous
of the character of American wines. So long
as we have grapes that will make a pure and
good wine, there is no excuse for growing those
that will not. There is a higher motive than
mere gain underlying this question, in which
every member of the community is personally
interested. We ask all, whether wine makers
or wine drinkers, to examine the subject in the
light in which we have put it ; to investigate

WINE MAKING. 461

the effects produced by pure and by adulterated
wines, and then decide, each one for himself,
how far he can conscientiously approve and
encourage the fabrication of factitious wines.
We ask chemists, who feel jealous of their re
putation, to consider, not how cleverly they
can produce a fraud, but how surely they can
detect one. We ask that science may be made
the hand-maiden of virtue, and not of vice.

CJiampagne, Sparkling, or Effervescing
Wines. — These form a distinct class, their
sparkling or effervescing quality constituting a
well-marked characteristic.

Champagne is so called from the district
of Champagne, in France, where many sup
pose it to be chiefly made. It has been
said, however, and we believe with no great
departure from the truth, that more so-called
champagne is made in New- York alone than
in the whole district of Champagne. The
name is commonly, though erroneously, ap
plied to any sparkling wine. With us, the
wine should take the name of the grape
from which it is made, such as Sparkling
Catawba, Delaware, lona, etc., and this has
already been begun.

The making of what is called champagne

462 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

is such a complicated art, and requires so
much observation and experience, added to
thorough knowledge, that it is proposed to
indicate only its general principles, with a
view to show what real sparkling Cham
pagne wine is, and how much more enjoy
ment there is in the true than the false, if
people could only be induced to look for
it where it may be found.

In the district of Champagne, still and
dry as well as sweet and sparkling wines
are produced. In the general use of the term
champagne only sparkling wines are meant,
which are divided into two classes, according
to the degree of effervescence, the more mod
erate being called "creaming," and the more
active "effervescing ;" but the general term
sparkling best meets the popular idea.

The body or foundation of Champagne
is still wine of the richest quality that has
undergone the first fermentation. In the
management of the second fermentation, a part
of the carbonic acid gas is retained, and, under
great pressure, induced to form some degree of
cohesion with the wine, so that when the bottle
is opened the gas escapes with much less free
dom than if it had not been firmly imprisoned

WINE MAKING. 463

in the wine. Science has given to this part of
the art, theoretically, a great degree of exact
ness: a given amount of sugar converted into
alcohol and carbonic acid will produce a certain
pressure, which good bottles made for the pur
pose are able to withstand. About two atmos
pheres, or sixty pounds to the inch, are deemed
the lowest admissible degree. This may be
considered a pretty high pressure, but the bot
tles are made to endure two-fold more than that.
If the pressure becomes veiy much higher, the
bottles burst ; if very much lower, the wine lacks
the force of effervescence that is deemed so desir
able. Our present knowledge, however, will not
enable us to control or precisely estimate the
strength of fermentation from given quantities
of material, and hence some loss will occur under
the best management. After the closest calcu
lation has been made, and the excess of sugar
reduced, there will still be much left to experi
ment. The second fermentation is brought on
in warm rooms, and carried to the point of
breaking some of the bottles. When it is
jduged that fermentation has reached the
proper point, two methods are resorted to for
checking it: first, sprinkling cold water on
bottles; the second, removing the bottles to

464 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

a cool cellar. The practice, however, varies,
some taking the bottles to the cellar first, and
the fermentation room afterward, according
to circumstances.

In the second fermentation there is one nice
point to be attained besides the proper degree
of fermentation, and this, to good judges of
wine, is of the first importance. At the end
of the first fermentation there is always, in rich
wines, a considerable quantity of sugar await
ing conversion by the second fermentation.
The " fineness" that is indispensable to excel
lence requires that this fermentation should be
carefully conducted to the proper point ; for,
as elsewhere remarked, pure champagne is wine
of the highest character with the sparkling
quality added. This may be a difficult point
to attain, but it is not beyond the reach of
painstaking skill. It is such wine that some
have learned to enjoy ; but it is not in demand
by the generality of customers in this country,
and special provision is therefore made for them
by various additions, the chief of which are
alcohol and sugar. Advantage is taken of this
fact, and champagnes for exportation are made
to suit the tastes of various nations, the makers,
of course, having due regard to their own in-

WINE MAKING. 465

terests. Thus it is that pure Champagne is not
made for general exportation ; much of the cost
and care consequent upon making it is rendered
unnecessary, and the excellence for which it was
praised has been lost under the mask of sweets
spirits, and flavorings. Under the circum*
stances, still wines of tolerable quality, and
without offensive odor or taste, are just as
good as those possessing the richest qualities,
since the effervescence, which has come to be
regarded as the chief consideration, is not made
to depend upon the natural sugar of the grape,
but solely upon that added in the operation
called "working," and the wines are hence
called " worked wines." This " working," which
consists in the addition of prepared liquor,
(chiefly alcohol and sugar,) generally aver
aging from twenty to thirty per cent, enables
the makers to keep their wines at nearly the
same quality, irrespective of the seasons. In
other words, the grape has much less to do
with it than skillful confection.

The most recent apparatus for adding this
liquor in exact quantity is one of the most elabo
rate and complicated pieces of mechanism used in
champagne making. It must take a partly
filled bottle, add just so much liquor, and leave

30

466 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

just so much space in the neck, and all this
it does like an automaton. Besides this, there
are many other kinds of apparatus used for
various purposes, of which a mere description
in words would be useless.

We have given but a brief glance at this part
of the subject, and can not avoid saying that it
has been the least satisfactory part of our labor.
We have not alluded,, in this connection, to the
making of sparkling wines in this country:
both the apparatus and the art, however, have
been imported. Our object has rather been
to serve American wine makers by showing
the difference between a true, and a spurious
Champagne, with the hope of leading the way
to the formation of a class who will create a
demand for American Champagne in its purity.
We live in the hope that a better taste will call
for sparkling wine that, like the best still wines,
will not only " leave the head clear and the
mouth cool," but also afford the stomach that
grateful refreshment from carbonic acid and
pure wine that we now look for in vain except
in wines of special importation. There are
many who would pay liberally for such a
luxury if they could learn its worth, and knew
where to obtain it.

WINE MAKING. 467

It is unnecessary to say any thing here of the
processes whereby such immense quantities of
drink, called Champagne, are made: we have
said quite enough elsewhere. It is only another
phase of Gallizing. The carbonic acid is added
by machinery, very much as it is added to soda
water, and it is made nearly as cheap. These
fabrications bear to pure Champagne the same
relation that Gallized wine bears to pure wine.

We have stated that there are two classes
of champagne, the dry and the sparkling. The
first is the best. Of the last, there are innu
merable brands, and two or three grades, being
more or less sweet or dry, and of these the
driest is best. There is a sparkling brand
called " Consular Seal," imported by Tomes &
Melvaine, of three grades, " dry," " drier," and
" driest," indicated respectively by a red, blue,
and black seal. The reader can prove for him
self that the driest champagnes are best by
trying the "Consular Seal," which lie will find
to improve as it gets drier. If he compares
the "driest" with the common brands, his
head will tell him the difference, if his taste
does not.

Israella

CONCLUSION.

OUR labor of love is now done, except a few
words of explanation and acknowledgment.
Some five years ago, in our " Hints," we prom
ised to write a work on Grape Culture, the
design then comprehending two volumes, and
we have been constantly reminded of it since ;
but circumstances unnecessary to explain pre
vented us, till within a few weeks past, from
even beginning the text. The engravings, how
ever, were put in hand ; but their execution
was so unsatisfactory that they were thrown
aside. There is but one man that we know
of who can make a really truthful engraving of
the wood of the grape vine, and he has ac
quired the ability to do so after years of
training under Dr. Grant. We refer to Mr.
Henry Holton, whose work is so truthful and
spirited in execution as to extort our praise.
There, has been nothing done in this country or
Europe to compare with it. Even copies from

470 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

the French, it will be seen, become new things
in his hands. To Mr. Holton, then, we had
recourse ; but for various reasons the engrav
ings " dragged their slow length along." They
might have been hastened by copying and
transferring ; but that would not quite suit our
sense of propriety. We therefore applied to
Dr. Grant for permission to take electrotypes
from some of his engravings, and got more than
we asked for. The answer came that we could
have whatever we wanted. It therefore be
comes our pleasing duty to make an acknow
ledgment befitting such generous liberality, and
we do it very heartily. It may not interest the
public, but it concerns us much whether we
make use of the property of others with or
without their approbation. It is thus that we
have been enabled to illustrate the present
volume with the most beautiful vine portraits
that have ever been given to the public, and
the minute truthfulness of which the reader
will find of material assistance to him.

One word more of encouragement to the be
ginner. There can be no doubt that grape
culture, under proper conditions, is one of the
most profitable departments of horticulture, and
may be entered upon without misgiving by any

CONCLUSION.

one who has a suitable location, and will study
and apply the conditions of success. "We can
not promise, neither can you expect, a full
measure of unvarying success from year to
year ; for grape culture, like all other branches
of industry, is occasionally liable to unfavor
able seasons, and at long intervals one that is
exceedingly so, like that we have just passed
through. But even such a season is not with
out its lessons. We may learn something, not
only of the reliability of varieties, but also of
the value of thorough preparation of the soil
and judicious training. It has given us re
newed confidence in our preferences and treat
ment, for we have heard of no cases in which
similar treatment has been adopted in which
the effects of the season were not comparatively
light ; and it has furnished additional evidence
of the greater reliability of our best grapes as
compared with the poor ones. There is nothing
to dishearten in adverse seasons like the past;
for they occur so rarely as to be but little
feared, and less with grapes than other kinds
of fruits.

When we initiated the movement which re
sulted in the formation of the American Porno-
logical Society, we had in view a central society

472 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

which should properly test new fruits in refer
ence to their excellence, healthiness, and hardi
ness, and indorse them accordingly. This duty,
honestly performed, would have been of incal
culable service to the public, and made the
society a great benefactor to the country ; but
it has been overlooked, and the public must
still continue to do its own testing unaided.
That the progress of fruit culture is greatly
retarded from a want of this kind can not be
doubted; but there is no present help for it.
The grape-grower, therefore, in common with
other fruit-growers, must test for himself such
new varieties as may from time to time appear.
In regard to those already before the public, he
must select some competent guide in whom he
may have confidence, and not allow himself to
be bewildered and led astray by a multitude of
advisers. The intelligent amateur may try all
things, if he can afford it, with profit to himself
and the public ; but the vineyardist, who grows
largely, will find his greatest profit ultimately
to consist in growing such kinds only as are
known to possess excellence of a high standard,
and eschewing all others; he should not, in
deed, waste his time in even testing any that he
has not good reason to believe possess such ex-

CONCLUSION. 473

cellence, much less plant those that are already
known to be wanting in the very characteristics
which constitute a good grape. We hope the
time for that has pretty well passed by. To
this end, we have given you ,the results of a
wide field of observation, as well as the benefit
of many years of experience devoted lovingly
to the subject, with the hope, which we trust
may not be a vain one, that they may be a safe
guide to you, as well as a source of pleasure
and profit, in all that relates to the vine.

One word more on this point. Having se
lected wisely, devote yourself faithfully to the
study and practice of those principles which are
essential to success in grape culture. In all the
pursuits of life success is measured by know
ledge, and the use we make of it. Fruit grow
ing is not an exception, however much the fact
may be overlooked. Too many seem to think
that they have only to put trees and vines in
the ground, and look idly on while the fruit
grows and ripens without thought or care from
them ; nay, there are not a few who begrudge
even the small labor that is necessary to
gather the fruit as it ripens and falls. This
might, perhaps, be borne if these very men
were not constantly moaning over their want

4*74 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

of success, and disheartening the beginner with
the mournful cry that " it won't pay." It
would be surprising if it did. How can fruit
growing be expected to pay where there is such
an utter disregard of the plainest conditions
which Nature has made necessary to success?
Fruit growing is a business, and, like other
kinds of business, has its laws, which can not be
disregarded with impunity; but, unlike other
kinds of business, it must be conducted as a
partnership, Nature always being one of the
partners. She, indeed, is " the head of the firm,"
having been so made in the first instance by
u Him who doeth all things well," with a prom
ise that she should remain so " through all the
ages." But this firm is in no respect a " close
corporation :" all who will may enter it. Na
ture receives each applicant with a gracious
welcome, and makes but one condition. She
opens her great Book of Laws, tells him to read
them, and then says, with an encouraging smile,
" Obey these, and you shall partake of our
pleasures and profits : otherwise, not." That is
the contract we make with Nature ; and as she
has never been known to fail in one of her
promises, we may be sure, if we come short of
the pleasures and profits, that we have been

CONCLUSION. 475

wanting in the performance of some duty.
This is the stand-point from which we must
view success in grape culture.

Further than this, as a grape grower, you are
under certain obligations to the grape consumer
to give him the best in its best condition ; and
you owe it to yourself not to regard the great
mass of the people, the " million," as an inferior
and degraded class, incapable of any but the
lowest forms of enjoyment, and for whom any
thing is good enough that you can induce them
to buy. That would be a gross outrage and
insult to our common humanity. If the masses,
from want of opportunity, have not yet attained
to the same knowledge of excellence in fruits
that you possess, remember that it is only a short
time since you knew as little in this respect as
they do now, and esteem it a privilege to help
them to the same measure and degree of enjoy
ment. Be assured that ail labor that tends to
the improvement of public taste by placing the
good within its knowledge and reach will meet
its appropriate reward, not alone in that which
makes rich, but also in that exalted conscious
ness of well-doing which riches can neither pur
chase nor take away. Attune yourself to the

476 AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

" key-note " that runs through this book, " Good
grapes for all" and do your part to hasten the
day when its vibrations shall be heard and felt
in every dwelling in the land.

INDEX.

PACK

Acarus tellarius, 892

Action, vital, 63, 70

, , should not be checked, . . 75

Adirondac 164

Adulterations, 453, 465

Advice to be sought, 15

Aiken,

Albino,

Allen's Hybrid,

, as a wine grape, .

Alvey, .

.215
..212
,.176
..194
..213

Alexander, 211

American wine, 6, 420

Angle, right, how to make, 31

Anna, 204

Anomala coelebs, 390

Aphis, 392

Applowing, 343

Arbors, 134

Areola lanigera, 389

Arms, beginning to form, 60, 70

5 must be formed gradually,. . .70, 78

, how to lay down, 74

, extension of, 74, 78

, in double tiers, 86

t reversed horizontal, 151, 414

, renewing, 815

? opposite, how formed, 318

, length of,

^ general management of,

Arnold's No. 1,

Ashes,..

Athallage,

__ — , benefits of,

Barnyard manure best, 28

Baskets, 358

Bedding, 123,402,406,407

Beetles, 387

Beginner, encouragement to, 470

Bitter rot, 383

Black Hawk, 221

Black rot, 383

Bland, 210

Board fence as a shelter, 17

Bones, 28

Bottles for wine, 426

Bottling, 448

Bow system, 114

, improved form of, 116

Boxes, -^S

Brackett's Seedling, 217

Brinckle, 211

Brown rot, 383

Buds, single, best plants made from,. . 35

__5 5 how to plant,

-^ , propagating from,

^ double and treble,

Bunches, how many on young vines, .
Bullitt or Taylor,

. 41
.250
.324

.203

Buy, best time to, 51

c,

Canby's August, 2H

Canadian Hybrid, 222

Carpenter, 222

Casks, 425

Cassady, 211

478

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

Catawba, 17

, as a wine grape, 19

• group, 17

, comparison of quality, IS'

1 comparison for table, 18'

, comparison for mar
ket, 18!

, comparison for wine, 1S[

Caterpillars, 302

Cellar for wine,

Cellar, how to keep vines in, 53

Champagne,

, adulteration of, 465

Charlotte, 222

Charmeux, plan of, 410

Charter Oak, 215

Checks injurious,

Child's Superb, 211

Christine, or Telegraph, 22

Clara, 21

Clarifying or fining wines, '. ... 427

Cleanliness indispensable in wine mak
ing, 423

Climate,

Clinton, 202

Cloudiness in wines, 450

Cockchafers, 337

Coleman's White, 214

Color of wines, how obtained, 4

Compost heap, 28, 370

Conclusion,

Concord, 161, 195

, not a wine grape, 197

Corail, 315

Covering in winter, 65, 346, 352

Creveling, 1(53

Crushing grapes for wine, 428

Cultivation, 340-851

, implements used, 347-351

Cunningham, 215

Cuttings, plants from green, 34, 49

, how to plant, 46

, how to make plants from, . . .277

Cut-worm, 395

Cuvage, or fermenting skins, 438

Cuyahoga, 214

Cynthiana, . t .215

D.

Dana's Seedlings, 219

Delaware 179

Delaware, compared with lona, 184

, as a wine grape 193

Deplowing, 343

Depth to plant, 41, 295

— of soil, importance of, 28

Description of varieties, 159-224

Diana, 174

as a wine grape, 193

Diana Hamburgh, 217

Direction of rows, 29

Diseases, 374

Distances to plant, ; 32, 322

Domestic propagation, 270

Domestic wine making, 442

Dorr's Seedling, 221

Double horizontal ar.ns, 6D, 70

, in two tiers, 86

Double spurs, 84

Dracut Amber, 215

Drainage must be thorough, 13

Dry location necessary, 13

Dry wines, 430

Dwellings, vines on, 136

E,

lizabeth,

Elsingburgh,

Imily,

214

201

.211

Eudryas grata, 393

iumelan, 220

Eureka 214

European grape, its failure here, 223

va, 221

xposure, 15

, southern, best, 16

, objects to be attained by,. . 16

Eyes or buds, how to plant, 41

, make the best plants, . . 35

, how to propagate from, 250

F,

'all planting, 50

i"an system, 153

"ancher, 217

^aulty structure of native grape, 247

'ence, board, as a shelter, 17

'ermentation, definition of, 483

— , first, 431

, second, 432

, above and belmc, 433

INDEX.

479

PAGE

Fining or clarifying wines, 427

Flesh of the grape, of what composed, 239

Flora, 213

Fogs, 13

Force, vital, 63, 70

, should not be checked,.. . 75

Foreign grape, fails here, 223

, how ripened, 244

Framingham, 221

Fruit, how much on young vines, 73

Fungi in wines, 451

Furrow slice should be narrow, 25

G.

Gallizing, 453

Garrigues, 211

Gervais, apparatus of, 434

Goblet form, 153

Golden beetle, 389

Golden Clinton, 202

Good grapes for all, 227

grown as cheap as bad

ones, 227

Grafting, 2S3

Graham, 212

Grape culture, its importance, 5, 7

, capital invested in,. ... 6

, its commercial value,. . 7

, steadily increasing, 8

-, rich in pleasure and
profit,

-, its relation to wine
making,

Grapes, demand for, 8

-: , as food, 225

, when they are ripe, 236

, of what the flesh is composed, 239

, faulty structure of native, . . .247

, how to gather, 356

, how to assort and pack, 357

, should be ripe when picked,.. 35S

, how to keep in winter, 362

, description of varieties, .. 159-224

, comparison of varieties,. 168, 187

Green wood, plants from, 49

Ground training, 411

Growing plants between the rows, 361

Growth, rank, not desirable 50, 69

, must not be checked, 75

Guyot's system, 89

, improved, 99

H.

Haltica chalybea, 390

Harrowing, 345

Hartford Prolific, 163

Hattus or Hattie, 221

Heeling in, 52, 419

Herbemont, 207

Hermitage plan, 156

Hidden causes of failure, 14

Hill sides favorite spots, 14

Hoeing, 347

Honey grape, 213 ,

Horizontal arms, 60, 70

, in double tiers, 86

Hot-bed, propagating single eyes in,.. 260

Houses, vines on, 136

Husks, use of, 449

Hybridizing, 288

Hyde's Eliza, 212

I,

Impediments to culture, 13

Implements used in wine-making, 423

Importance of grape culture, 5, 7

Insects, 385

Introduction, 5

lona, ; 181

— compared with Delaware, 184

as a wine grape, 191,442

Isabella, 160

group, 159

, comparison of, for ta
ble, 16S

, comparison of, for

market, 168

, not wine grapes, 170, 195

Israella, 165

, vine of, 76

Ives's Seedling, 107

J,
Jura plan, 118

Kansas July, 214

Keeping grapes during winter, 362

Keuka, (Neff,) 222

Kinds to buy, 34

Kinds of wines, 430

480

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

L,

Lateral, (see ThaHon,) 57

Laura, 221

Layers, how to plant, 47

, how to propagate, 279

Laying out the vineyard, 29

Leaf rollers, 394

folders, 395

blisterers, 395

, mildewed, 418

Lees or sediment, 450

Length of arms, 321

Lenoir, 209

Light soils, planting in, 44

Lincoln, 209

Lime, 28

Location, its importance, 12

, must be dry, 12

Logan, 213

Lorain, 221

Louisa, 212

Low grounds to be avoided 13

Lydia, 213

Macedonia, 221

Mammoth Catawba, 212

Manhattan, 214

Manures, 23, 370

, gross, injurious, 27

, how to treat, 28

, unfcrmented, unsuitable,... 2S

, must not touch the roots, 41, 50

Marc, 430

Marion, 212

Market, comparison of Isabella group, 1GS

• , comparison of Catawba group,18S

Marketing, 35G

— , boxes and baskets, 85S

Martha, 219

Mary Ann, 212

Massachusetts White,

May beetle, 887

May's system for covering, 151

Maxatawny, 214

McCowan, 212

McNeil, 212

Meade's Seedling, 212

Melolontha subspinosa, 38C

Mildew, 377

Mildewed leaf,... ...418

Miles, 203

Miner's Seedling, 215

Modena, 221

Montgomery, 211

Mottled Catawba, 213

Mould in wines, 450

Uuddiness in wines, 450

N,

Native grape, its faulty structure, ... 247

Neff, (Keuka,) 222

Non-manuring, 372

North America, 215

Northern Muscadine, 215

Norton's Virginia, 210

0,

Oblique system, 149

Opposite arms, how formed, 318

spurs, how formed, 320

Order in the vineyard, 30

Overcropping, 325

P,

Pasteur's experiments, 437, 444, 451

Pelidnota punctata, 389

Perkins, 215

Philamepelus, 393

Phyllophaga quercina, 387

Pinching, time to do it, G3, 64,74-76

Plant, how deep to, 41, 295

— , distances to, 32, 322

Plants and planting, 34

, best kinds to purchase,.... 34, 35

, best age to purchase, 37

from single eyes, 34,250

— — ^—— , how to plant, 34

from cuttings, 34, 277

, how to plant, 46

from layers, 34, 279

, how to plant, 47

from green wood, 34, 49

, relative value, 87

, how to keep during winter, 52-55

, best time to purchase, 51

Planting in light soils, ,44

, spring, 50

, fall, 50

, additional remarks on, 295

Plowing stiff soils, 344

INDEX.

481

Plowing mellow soils, 345

Poeschel's Mammoth, 221

Poudrette, 28

Preparation of soil, 20-27

Pressing grapes for wine, 428

Primary roots, 341

Procris Americana, 394

Propagation, 249-294

, single eyes or buds, 250

, under glass, 251

— , in hot-beds, 260

, domestic, 270

i single eyes in open air, ..275

, cuttings, '.'. .277

, layers, 279

, , grafting, 283

, seeds, hybridizing, 2S8

Protection for young plants, 45

Pruning the roots, 43

? summer, 63, 75

at time of planting, 43

at end of first year, C5

, fall, 65

. See Training.

Q.

Quesnel, plan of, 400

E.

Rack for stakes, 418

Racking wines, 429

Rank growth not desirable, 50, 69

Rebecca, 199

Red Spider, 392

Renewal system, 144

Renewing spurs, 308

arms, 315

upright stocks, 317

Replacing spurs, 305

Rentz, 215

Reversed horizontal arms, 151, 414

Right angle, how to make, 31

Ringing the vine, 416

Ripe, when grapes are, 236

Ripeness, signs of, 238

=_, rule for, 240

:, outward signs of, 241

Rogers's Hybrids,. 204

Root-pruning and transplanting, 88-40, 43

47

Roots must not get dry, 41

, furnished with mouths, 41

PACK

Roots, how to cover, 43

must not be buried in manure, 41, 50

Rose-bug, 386

Rot, 383

Rows, direction of, 29

S,

Safety valves, 103, 326

Sage, 215

Salem, 222

Saratoga, • 218

Scuppernong, 214

Sediment or lees, 450

Seedlings should be tested, 216

Seeds, plants from, 288

Selandria vitis, 394

Shelter, 16

•, its object, 1?

, various kinds, 1$

, for young plants, 45

, Guyot's, 94

, Dr. Grant's, 94

, for ripening, 367

Shortening or pruning the roots, 43

Single eyes or buds make best plants, 35

, how to plant, 41

, under glass, 250

, in hot beds, 260

, in the open air,. . .275

Soil, various kinds, 20

, best for the grape, 20

— — , its preparation, 21

— , importance of depth, 28

^ excessive richness objectionable, 28

Souring, 45Q

Sparkling wines, 430, 461

Sphinges, 392

Spotted beetle, 889

Spring planting, 50

Spurs, distance between, 72

, formation of, 78

, single and double, 79, 84,400

, replacing, 305

, renewing, 308

-, opposite, 320

Stables, training vines on, 141

Stakes, training on, 158

for vineyard,

, training without, 413

-, rack for,. 41B

Steel blue beetle, 390

Stocks, upright, 105

482

AMERICAN GRAPE CULTURE.

PAGE

Stocks, upright, renewing, 317

, low, 118, 158

Structure of native grape faulty, 247

Subsoiling, 26

Summer pruning, 63, 75

San scald, 385

Surface water, evils of, 13, 355

roots, 341

Sweet wines, 430

System, double horizontal arms, 60, 70

, double horizontal arms in two

tiers, 86

, Guyot's renewal arms, 89

, Guyot improved, 99

— , , in two tiers, 105

— , upright stock, alternate spurs, 105

, bow, 114

— , , improved form, 116

, low stock, 118,158

, Jura, 118

— , Thomery, 121

, — — :, for walls,. .125, 400, 410

— , , for garden, 127

, , for trellis and ar
bors, 132, 400, 410

, Thomery, for dwellings, .137, 400

410

, Thomery, for stables,141, 400, 410

, renewal, 144

, oblique, 149

, , of Dr. May, 151

, re versed horizontal arms, 151, 415

, fan 153

, goblet and other forms, 153

, Trouillet's, 155

— , Hermitage, 156

, on trees, 158

, on stakes, 158

, opposite arms, 318

, opposite spurs, 320

— , of Quesnel, 400

, of Charmeux, 410

, of ground training, 411

— , without stakes, 413

, trees and trellis combined, 413

T,

Taste as applied to fruits, 225

Taylor or Bullitt, 203

Telegraph or Christine, 221

Testing Seedlings, 216

Tettigonia vitis, 391

PAGE

Thallon, (lateral,) 57

, definition of, 58

Thomery system, 121

Thrips, 891

Time to plant, 50

to buy, 51

To Kalon, 202

Training, 56-158

, general remarks, 56-59

, its value, 59

, first year, 60

, second year, 66

, third year, 73

, fourth year, 80

, fifth year, 85

. See System.

Transplanting vines, 40

Transplanting and root pruning, 38-40

Trellis, 829

, wire, best, 334

— , mode of fastening wire, 336

, wire should be loosened in win
ter, 356

— , vines on, 131, 132

Trenching, 22

Trench plowing, 24

Trees for shelter, IS

— must not be close to vines, , 18

— , training on, 158, 413

Trouillet's system, 155

Tying must be loose, 82, 324, 361

II,

Underbill's Seedling, 215

Union Village, . . .198

Upright stock, alternate spurs, 105

, must be gradually

formed, . . 107

Upright stock, renewing, 317

V.

Varieties, description of, 159-224

, comparison of, 168, 187

Vine, parts of, 59,00

as a gross feeder, 27

, ringing the, 416

chafer, 390

hopper, (thrips,) 391

Vines, treatment of weak, 68

— , best age to purchase, 37

— should not grow on the ground, 61

INDEX.

483

Vines on trellis .131,132

on walls and arbors, 134

on dwellings, 136

on stables, (see System,) 141

from eyes, how to plant, 34

from cuttings, how to plant,. . 46

from layers, how to plant, 47

. See Plants.

Vineyard, laying out, 29

, how to form the rows, 31

, distances to plant, 32, 322

, planting the, 34

Vital force, 63, TO

-, should not be checked, . . .

w,

Walls and arbors, (see System,') 134

Walter,

Water, evils of surface,

, influence of, 1'

Weed, time to, 34"

Wilmington, 213

Wines, American, 6

Wine making,. 420

and bread making, 421

— , its simplicity, 422

, good grapes necessary

for, 422

, implements used in, 423

. , cleanliness indispensa
ble,

, cellar, 424

, casks, 425

....426

Vine making, kinds of wine, 430

, process of, 431

fermentation, 431-436

, cu vage, 43S

, skins of " foxy " grapes,438

, how Catawba wine is

made 439

, domestic, 442

, Pasteur's experiments,444

451

, summary of processes,445

-448

, bottling, 448

, wasting, 449

, use of husks, 449

, sediment or lees, 450

, changes or diseases,. . .450

, adulterations, Galliz-

ing.etc., 453

— , champagne, 461

, — — , apparatus

used, 465

5 , adultera
tions, etc.465
Winter, how to keep plants during, 52-55

- covering, 65,346,352

- management, 351

- killing, 855

Wire trellis, best, 334

Wood, largest not best, 326

Wright's Isabella,

, bottles,

, color, how obtained,. ..426

, clarifying, 427

, crushing, 428

, racking, 429

.213

Y,

Yeddo 215

Young America, 221

York Madeira, 200

Young plants, protection for, 45

THE END.

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