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University of California.

Mrs. SARAH P. WALSWORTH.

Received October, i8g4.
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ARTS AND SCIENCES.

COMPRISING

AN ACCURATE AND POPULAR VIEW

OF THE PRESENT

IMPROVED STATE OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE.

BY WILLMM mCHOLSOJV,

Author and Proprietor of the Philosophical Journal, and various other Chemical, Philosoi^cal, and
Mathematical Works.

ILLUSTRATED WITH

UPWARDS OF 180 ELEGANT ENGRAVINGS.
VOL. XII. SUR ZYG.

THILADELPHIA :

PUBLISHED BY mTCHELL, AMES, AND WHITR

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SURGERY.

likely to allay the constitutional irritation.
He must then wait until the operations of
nature have separated the sloughs caus-
ed by the urine, endeavouring", however,
to introduce an elastic catheter, where
he should allow it to remain. Poultices,
fomentations, and the warm bath, should
be resorted to, if there are any appear-
ances of inflammation ; and abscesses, or
accumulations of urine, should be open-
ed early and freely.

Incontinence of vrine. Sometimes this
fluid dribbles away without any sensation
of the patient. Here paralysis of the
bladder is the cause, and may be induced
in various ways, as from injuries of the
spine, over distension of the organ, &c.
In the latter case, the urine should be
carefully drawn off at regular intervals ;
cold bathing, bark, blistering the sacrum
or perineum, electricity, tincture of can-
tharides internally, &c. will be of service.

Sometimes the patient can hold his
urine to a certain degree, when an irre-
sistible propensity. to evacuate it comes
on. Here irritability of the bladder is
the cause, and may be induced by bad
piles, fistula in ano, &,c. Opium, the
\varmbath, fomentations, diluting drinks,
&.C. may be resorted to when no obvious
cause appears.

Imperforate vagina. Sometimes the la-
bia have their opposed surfaces grown
together, leaving perhaps merely a small
opening, through which the urine is im-
perfectly discharged, but marked with a
line, showing the proper distinction.
This may be congenital, or the effect of
disease. Sometimes a thia membrane
closes both the meatus urinarius and va-
gina in newly born children. In both
these cases the use of the knife is neces-
sary ; and lint should be interposed be-
tween the divided surfaces. There is
another form of the same mal-formation,
in which the vagina alone is closed ; and
no symptoms appear until puberty, when
the menstrual discharge does not How.
The uterus swells, and at last a kind of
labour pains comes on. Here the mem-
brane miist be divided to discharge the
accumulated menses, and the edges of the
cut kept asunder.

Imperforate amis. The part may either
be closed by a membrane, or be too con-
tracted to allow the feces to be evacuated.
It may be rightly formed at its outer ])art,
but terminate in a cul desac; or tliere
may be no vestige whatever of anus. In
the first species, a divi.sion of the m^em-
braneis the remedy ; and in the second,
a dilatation of the contracted part by the

VOL. VI.

crooked bistoury. If an obstnietion
should be discovered within the gut, it
may be perforated with the trochar, in-
troduced according to the course of the
intestine. The latter species is attended
with very httle hope of saving life. The
surgeon may cut in the situation of the
anus, and follow his dissection along the
sacrum, in order to find the end of the
gut, which, when found, should be punc-
tured.

Fistula in ano. Any formation of mat-
ter near the anus is very likely to termi-
nate in this complaint; the suppuration
extends in the fat and cellular substance
round the rectum, and sinuses form, hav-
ing small external apertures, and seldom
healing without an op'^ration. The com-
mencement of the disorder may be a
phlegnkonous abscess, attended with con-
siderable sympathetic fever; or it may
have a more erysipelatous character,
spreading more widely, being more su-
perficial, and attended with depression
of the powers of the constitution. The
former is seen in young, strong, and
healthy subjects; the latter in weakened,
intemperate, and unhealthy constitutions.
The parts in the neighbourhood of the
disease are often affected ; and henee re-
tention of urine, strangury, j^rolapsus and
tenesmus, piles, &c. are produced. The
complaint sometimes begins in an indu-
ration of the skin near tiic anus without
pain. This hardness gi-aduajly softens
and suppurates. The matter may either
point in the buttock, at a distance from
the anus, or near this latter part, or in the
perineum. It muy escape from one open-
ing, or from several. Sometimes there
is not only an external aperture, but ano-
ther internal one, communicating with
the cavity of the intestine.

A soft poultice and fomentations are
the best means of treating these abscess-
es ; which, if they are phlegmonous,
should not be opened until the skin has
become thin ; but, when they are of the
erysipelatous kind, should be punctured
immediately, to prevent any further ex-
tension of the malady. The general
treatment must correspond with the na-
ture of the constitutional disturbance. In
all abscesses about the anus, the incision
should comjn'ehend all the skin covering
the matter, as the cavity is then most
likely to fill up from the bottom. The
dressing should be small in quantity,
light, and unirritating. If, however, the
case passes into a fistula, it will be neces-
sary to make it an open wound by cutting

SURGERY

hollow to the amiij. A probe having
been introduced at the external opening
of the fistula, serves as a vUrector for the
prube-pointed knife, wliich will be felt
in the rectiun by the surgeon's left fore
finger. If the fistula should not have pe-
netrated the gut, the bistoury should be
pushed through its side. The probe may
now be withdrawn, and the operation
completed by bringing the knife out with
its point applied to the finger which was
in the intestme ; and thus all between the
edge of tlie knife and the anus must be
divided. A soft piece of lint should now
be placed in the wownd, and remain un-
til it is loosened by suppuration, and all
the future dressings should be mild and
unirritating. The callosities, of which
surgeons have complained so much in
these cases, arise from injudicious treat-
ment, and particularly from the use of
caustic and stimulating applications.

Prolapsus aui. The internal coat of
fhe gut may f>e protruded through the
sphincter ; or a portion of the intestine
with all its coats may descend. Causes
which weaken the sphincter, and such as
force the intestine downwards, contri-
bute to this affection. Costiveness, te-
nesmus kept up by hemorrhoids, as-
carides, fistula in ano, stone, &c. are of
this kind. I'he cause should be removed
when that is practicable. The gut must
be replaced, but previously clysters, fo-
mentations and poultices, or leeches, and
cold washes, are necessary. Horizontal
posture, and avoiding costiveness, are
very important points. A compress and
bandage may be necessary to retain the
replaced gut ; and astringent clysters
have been advised. If the protruded
part has become indurated, thickened,
and painful, and will not admit of reduc-
tion, it may be extirpated. Sometimes
an introsusception, commencing at the
caecum, has protruded at the anus. This
case is quite beyond the powers of art.

Prolapsus, inversion and retrovevsio uteriy
are considered under the article Miu-

WIFJERY.

IITHOTOMT.

The existence of a stone in the

blad-

der causes various symptoms in the blad-
der itself, and others in neighbouring
parts. The former are frequent incli-
nation to void the urine, which some-
times stops suddenly from the stone me-
chanically obstructing its passage ; pain
in making water, and particularly after
the discharge, from the bladder contract-
ing on the foreign body; mucus, and

sometimes blood in the urine, and pain on
exercise. The latter are an uneasiness
and itching at the end of the penis, lead-
ing the person to draw and elongate the
prepuce ; sense of weight in the perineum;
tenesmus ; numbness of the thighs, &c.
These symptoms come on in fits. In order
to ascertain the fact, a solid steel instru-
ment, shaped hke a catheter, and called.
a sound, is introduced into the bladder,
where its point, meeting the stone, gives
decided information to the surgeon. It
must be moved in various directions after
its introduction, as it may not immediate-
ly or easily come in contact with the stone.
The operation should never be performed,
unless the stone can be plainly felt before
the operation : the rectum should be pre-
viously emptied, but it is more advanta-
geous for the bladder to be full. The
patient is to be placed with his pelvis at
the edge of a table, and the staff intro-
duced into the bladder. The thighs and
legs are then bent so as to enable him to
grasp the soles of the feet with his hands,
and the limbs are retained in this position
by broad garters, doubled and placed by
means of a noose round the wrists, carri-
ed over the back of the hand, and inside
of the foot; then brought up again, and
continued round the wrist and ankle, and
firmly tied. The staff is shaped like a
sound or catheter, and has a groove for
conducting a cutting instrument into the
bladder. An assistant standing on the
patient's right side holds the handle ot
the staff with one hand, making its con-
vexity project in the perineum, and draws
aside the scrotum with the other. An in-
cision should be made through the integu-
ments, commencing on the left side of
the raphe of the perineum, just opposite
to the membranous part of the urethra,
and continued obliquely downwards and
outwards for about three inches betweew
the anus and ischium. The transversalis
perinei should then be cut through, and
the membranous part of the urethra free-
ly opened, so as to expose the groove of
the staf?". The beak of the gorget is now
introduced into the groove, ami the ope-
rator takes the handle of the staff into his
left hand, holding the gorget in his right.
He then thrusts the gorget into the blad-
der, keeping its beak in close contact with
the groove of the staff, and bringing the
handle of the latter instrument downwards
and forwards, in order to raise its point,
and make its direction coincide with the
axis of the bladder. The cutting edge
of the gorget, by this mode of introduc-
tion, divides the prostate gland and neck

SURGERY.

of the bladder. This instrument is used
of various figures by different surgeons.
The best perliaps is that in which the cut-
ting edge of the instrument extends hori-
zontally from its beak, from which it may
be carried to the length of three quarters
of an inch. A good anatomist may perform
the operation with a scalpel, which nistru-
ment will enable him to divide the parts
with more exactness. The escape of the
urine shows that the bladder is opened.
The staff should now be withdrawn, and a
proper pair of forceps passed along the
concave surface of the gorget into the
bladder, for the purpose of seizing and
extracting the stone. This instrument is
first employed as a probe to ascertain the
position of the stone, which being accom-
plished, the blades are to be expanded,
and moved in such a direction as to grasp
it ; and the instrument, very firmly held,
may then be slowly withdrawn, being
moved from side to side, in order to bring
the foreign body through the wound. If
the stone be very large, it may be expedi-
ent to dilate the wound with a curved
knife, or to break the stone in the blad-
der, by means of forceps constructed
for that purpose. In the latter case, and
in instances where the stone is broken in
the operation of extracting it, the bladder
should be washed out with lukewarm wa-
ter, to remove any small fragments.
Careful examination with the finger is ne-
cessary, to ascertain that nothing is left
behind. A compress of lint, pledget, and
T bandage, may be put on, but they are
of little service, as the urine escapes
through the wound. Since peritoneal in-
flammation is the occurrence most to be
feared after lithotomy, great attention to
the state of the abdomen is required, and
on the least indication of such a conse-
quence, venesection, leeches, warm bath,
warm fomentations, blisters, emollient
clysters, and purgatives, should be resort-
ed to, according to the symptoms.

This mode of performing lithotomy is
called the lateral operation ; it has been
performed with an instrument called a li-
thotome cache, instead of the gorget.
This is a long narrow knife, concealed in
a grooved instrument, which is passed
into the bladder along the groove of the
staff exposed in the way already describ-
ed. A spring being then compressed,
makes the knife rise out of the groove,
and the instrument is withdrawn in this
state, cutting the prostate and bladder as
it recedes. In former times an opening
has been made into the bladder above
the pubes, particularly in young sub-

jects ; this was called the high operation,
but has long been disused.

Spina bifida is a swelling situated on the
spine of infants at the lime of birth. It
consists of a sac, filled with an rqueous
fluid, and composed of the integuments
and the membranous sheath of the spinal
marrow, protruding through a fissure
caused by a deficiency in the bones. The
subjects are generally weak; diarrhoea,
paralytic state of the lower limbs, and ina-
bility to retain the urine and feces, often
attend. The tumour enlarges, inflames,
and ulcerates, and then the patient dies ;
but this occurrence takes place at differ-
ent periods. No treatment has hitherto
been of any service.

Caries of the vertebrae. This is a disease
of the spine, generally attended with a
degree of curvature, and with a paralytic
state of the lower limbs. It is most fre-
quent in children, but not peculiar to
them. The affection of the limbs is first
observed. There is an unwillingness to
move about, and the patient often trips
and stumbles. The legs involuntarily
cross each other. The power of directing
the feet to any exact point is then lost,
and the natural sensibility of the legs and
thighs becomes much impaired. At this
time there is usually a more or less mark-
ed bending of the spine forwards, occa-
sioning an angular projection of the spi-
nous processes. The general hj. Uh be-
comes much affected, and the urine and
feces are discharged involuntarily. The
cause of all these complaints is the dis-
eased state of the vertebrae, which are
softened, and more or less absorbed,
affecting the inclosed medulla spinalis.
In the progress of the disorder the bodies
of three or four vertebrae may be entirely
destroyed, so as to lay bare the front of
spinal marrow. We are indebted to Mr.
Pott for proposing the only treatment that
has ever afforded relief in this affection,
viz. that of making an issue on each side
of the diseased portion of the spine. This
can be best accomplished with the
calx cum kali puro. Several pieces of
sticking plaster are to be stuck together,
and a hole should then be cut in the mass,
corresponding to the size of the intended
issue. This is applied on the back, and
a thin layer of the caustic placed in the
hole, and covered by another piece of
plaster. In four or five hours the plastet*
should be removed, and a poultice appli-
ed until the eschar separates. The issue
is then filled with peas or beans, confined
by adhesive plaster, over which pressure
should be made, by firmly binding on »

SURGERY

l^iece of sheet lead. The issues must be
kepi- open until the complaints have en-
tiiely disappeared.

AMPUTATION.

In whatever part this isperformpd, tl)e
surgeon's object is tlie same, viz. to save
enough of the surrounding soft parts to
cover the extremity of the bone, and
enough of skin to cover the wijolc The
stump is always treated as a wound which
should be united by the lirst intention ;
its sides are therefore brought together,
and retained in apposition by straps of
adhesive plaster, and appropriate banda-
ges. By this, which is the improved me-
thod of modern surgery, introduced
by Mr. Alanson of Liverpool, the wound
made by removing a thigh is often agglu-
tinated in forty-eight hours, and the pa-
tient consequently escapes the dreadful
pain and irritation, and vehement sympa-
thetic affection of the constitution, which
almost invariably attended the old prac-
tice of dressing the stump with dry lint as
an open wound, and consequently healing
by means of granulation and cicatrization,
instead of adhesion.

In amputation of the thigh, surgeons used
to cut at once down to the bone, and saw
that through ; but in order to save more
soft parts, and thereby to avoid the pro-
jection of the bone, which commonly at-
tended that method, the double incision
was devised ; by which the skin and mus-
cles are divided separately. More diffi-
culty is experienced liere than in any other
amputation, in saving muscles enough to
cover the bone, which, in this particular
instance, is especially desirable, from the
the pressure which the end of the stump
must experience in supporting the weight
of the body. The soimd leg should be
lied to the table, and the tourniquet ap-
plied on the inside of the thigh. Tlie
limb should be cut off as near to the knee
as possible. A circular incision should
then be made by the surgeon, standing on
the Outside of the limb, through the
skin and adipous substance. The integu-
ments should be drawn upwards by an
assistant, and any cellular connection that
prevents their retraction should be divi-
ded. A cut should now be carried through
the loose muscles, at the part to which
the skin has been withdrawn, and when
they have retracted, those which are fix-
ed to the bone should be divided at the
point to which the former had retracted,
i'lie latter may be separated from the
surface of the bone, for a short distance,

by a common scalpel, to alio v/ of the bone
being sawed higher up than it could be
otherwise. Tliis part of the operation
sl)ould toliow, tiie surface of the wound
being kept out of the way of the saw, by-
means of a retractor, which is a piece of
linen somewhat broader than the stump,
torn at one end, in its middle part, to the
extent of about eight or ten inches. It ia
applied by placing the exposed part of the
bone in the sUt, and drawing the ends of
the linen upward on each side of the
stump. Besides defending the surface
of the wound from the teeth of the saw,
the retractor will undoubtedly enable the
operator to saw the bone higher up than
he otherwise could do. The femoral ar-
tery should be drawn out by means of a
pair of forceps, and tied separately ; other
large arteries should also be secured,
without including any of the surroimding
soft parts. Smaller branches must be
taken up with the tenaculum. It is ne-
cessary to slacken the tourniquet, in or-
der to discover the vessels. The wound
should then be thoroughly cleansed from
all coagulated blood, by means of a soft
sponge and water, and one end of each
ligature removed. The skin and muscles
are now to be placed over the bone, in
such a direction that the wound shall ap-
pear only as a line across the face of the
stump, with the angles at each side, from
which the ligatures should be brought
out. The skin is supported by long strips
of adhesive plaster, applied at right an-
gles to the line of union of the wound ;
the Tigatures are guarded by lint spread
with spermaceti-cerate ; and a linen roller
is carried round from above downwards,
two cross pieces having first been put
over the end of the stump. The dressings
should not be moved for four days.

In amputatijig the leg, the bones should
be sawn through, about four inches below
the patela. The tourniquet is applied in
the lower part of the thigh. After cutting
through the skin, which should be drawn
upwards, it must be reflected from the flat
surface of the tibia, and front of the leg,
so as to cover those parts which could not
be covered by any large muscle- The calf
is then to be cut through, by an oblique
incision slanting upwards ; the rest of the
muscles, and the interosseous hgament,
should be divided by a double-edged knifej
called a catlin, and the bones sawn, after
the previous application of a double tailed
retractor.

In ainputating the arm, or for e-aivn, we
should preserve as great a length of the
limb as the case will allow.

SURGERY

imputation of the shoiiUler-jvint has been
done in various ways. An incision should
'be carried tltroup;^li the skin and deltoid
Hiuscle down to the bone, i'vom the front
of the joint, a little below the clavicle, ob-
liquely downwards and outwards. The
deltoid sliould then be turned up so as to
expose the head of the bone, which must
be brought entirely into view, by dividing
tlje orbicular ligament all round. One cut
of an amputating knife will then separate
the limb. The axillary artery should be
immediately tied. This vessel must be
firmly compressed, by an assistant, above
the clavicles, during the whole of the ope-
ration.

The fngers and toes should be removed
at their joints. Make a circular incision
through the skin, about one third of an
inch below the articulation; draw the
integuments up, and cut through one la-
teral ligament of the joint, which you can
then dislocate. The remaining connec-
tions are easily divided. Bring the skin
together over the end of the bone. Ifyou
arnputate at the first joint, make two cuts,
one at the back, and the other towards
the front; these must meet when the bone
is removed. It is sometimes necessary
to tie the arteries.

Paronychia, or irhitlotv, is an abscess oc-
curring about the nails, or still more
deeply under the soft parts of the fingers.
3n the latter case, swelling of the arm, in-
flammation of the lymphatics, and con-
siderable constitutional disturbance, fre-
quently attend. The complaint is always
very painful, attended with great throb-
bing ; and often terminating in the loss of
the nail. We should, if possible, prevent
suppuration, by the employment of local
antiphlogistic means. If these do not suc-
ceed, a soft poultice may be used, and the
collection should be opened as soon as pos-
sible.

Venesection. When a vein is to be open-
ed in any part of the body, pressure must
be made on the vessel, between the place
where the puncture is to be made and
the heart. This prevents the return of
blood through the vessel, makes it swell,
and become conspicuous. As the sup-
ply of blood is still continued through the
arteries, the vein bleeds freely when it is
opened; but care must be taken, particu-
larly in the arm, not to apply the ligature
so tightly as to stop the pulse. The ban-
dage should be placed a little above the
elbow, and the most prominent and con-
spicuous vein may be opened ; excepting
that if equally convenient, one would avoid
tlie vessel lying over the brachial artery.

The vein may be fixed by placing the
thumb of the lek hand a little bo'Tow the
place where it is designed to introduce
the lancet. That instrument should be
pushed obliquely into the vein, and when
its point is a little within the cavity, the
opening may be rendered sufficiently large
by carrying the front edge forward and up-
ward, so as to bring it out of the part. In
many cases, where we wish to make a sud-
den impression on the vascular system, we
make the opening longer than usual, that
the blood may be withdrawn more sudden-
ly, and cause fanUing. The stream may be
accelerated, by pulling the muscles of the
fore-arm into action. It stops when the
ligature is removed, or, at least, if the sur-
geon press with liis left thumb below the
vein. The sides of the incision should be
placed in contact, and maintained in that
condition by a small compress of linen,
bound on with the bleeding fillet applied
in the form of the figure ofeiglit. In
opening the external jugular vein, the
pressure must be made with the surgeon's
finger ; and the compress should be fas-
tened by means of sticking plaster. The
temporal artery may be opened by a sim-
ple puncture ; and the bleeding may al-
ways be stopped by a compress fastened
by means of sticking plaster. The ope-
ration of bleeding may be followed by
various unpleasant consequences ; as ec-
chymosis round the vein, inflammation of
the integuments, absorbents, fascia, or
vein itself. The former symptom generally
disappears of itself in a week or ten days ;
the others may be treated according to
the general principles of surgical practice.

PARTICULAR FIIACTUUES.

We shall say a few words on the most
common and important kinds of fracture.

Fracture of the lower jcnv may be delect-
ed by introducing a finger into the mouth
and pressing on the front portion of the
bone, while the fingers of the other hand
are applied on the outside to the back of
the bone. Alternate pressure in these
situations occasions a very distinguishable
crepitus. When the broken ends are
adapted to each other, some wetted paste-
board is to be applied along the outer
surface and base of the bone ; and over
this a bandage, with four tails, should be
placed. The centre of this bandage is
applied to the chin, the two posterior
tails tied together at the top of the head,
and the other two more posteriorly. The
wet pasteboard adapts itself to the figure
of the part, and constitutes, when dry, a
splint exactly accommodateU to the tbrrn

SURGERY,

of the jav. All motion of the broken bone
should be avoided : hence talking, chew-
ing, Stc. are improper ; hence, too, the
food siiould be soft, and introduced by a
spoon.

The fracture of the clavicle is attended
with a displacement of the bone ; its sca-
pular portion being drawn downwards and
forwards. In order to restore it, let the
slioulder be drawn backwards, and the
arm raised ; tiien the surgeon should
place the fracture in as even a position as
he can, cover it with a piece of soap plas-
ter, and keep the shoulder back by means
of the figure of eight bandage ; the fore-
arm and elbow being well supported by a
string. A leather apparatus lacing be-
hind, and having straps to pass in front of
the shoulders, similar to the instruments
used forgirls with the view of keeping the
shouldeps back, is a more elfeclual mode
of accomplishing the object.

It is often difficult to detect /rac^wre of
the ribs. By placing the fingers where
pain is felt, or where the blow was receiv-
ed, a crepitus can be distinguished in ma-
ny cases, on making the patient cough ;
yet, if the matter be doubtful, the sate.st
plan is to treat the patient as if his ribs
were broken. It will be readily seen how
emphysema, extravasation of blood, &,c.
may occur when the bone is displaced in-
wardly. Our object is to keep the broken
ends motionless. Hence, after a piece of
soap plaster has been applied externally
on the situation of the fracture, a broad
roller should be put firmly round the chest,
or we may apply an apparatus made ex-
pressly for the purpose, consisting of a
broad girth, with three or four buckles and
straps, which may be tightened at plea-
sure. Bleeding is proper, unless particu-
lar circumstances contraindicate it.

Ivt fractures of tlie os brachii, after re-
storing the limb to its natural figure, and
putting on a piece of soap plaster, apply a
splint, lined with a pad of soft materials,
from the acromion to tne external condyle,
and another from the margin of the axilla
to the internal condyle. Some add two
others, one before and one behind. They
must all be carefully fastened with tapes,
and the fore-arm and hand should be well
supported by a sling. There is always a
distinguishable crepitus in fractures of the
fore-arm. After a piece of soap plaster has
been applied, two splints must be employ-
ed ; one is to be placed along the inside,
and the other along the outside, of the
fore-arm. The limb is to be in the mid
state, between pronation and supination ;
ftnd the inner splint should reach far

enough into the hand to support it, and
prevent it from falling into the prone
state.

In fractures of the olecranon the elbow
must be placed straight, to approximate
as much as possible the broken ends,
and the limb must be continued in that
position until the patient has recovered.

When the osfemoris is broken, there is
severe local pain, an incapacity to move
the limb, a distinguishable crepitus on mo-
tion, and deformity of the part from re-
traction of the lower portion. The lat-
ter appearance will occur more readily,
in proportion as the fracture is more ob-
lique ; and it arises entirely from the ac-
tion of the muscles which are fixed in the
bone below the fracture, together witli
the flexors of the knee. Besides the short-
ening of the limb, produced by the re-
traction of the lower portion of the frac-
tured bone, there is another deformity
arising from its being rotated outwards ;
an eftect produced by most of the large
muscles of the thigh. The higher the frac-
ture, the more difficult is it to prevent
displacement. When the neck of the
thigh bone is broken, there is severe pain
in the groin, much aggravated by motion
of the part. The extremity is shortened,
the limb turned out, and the trochanter
higher than usual towards the pelvis. Yet
the limb may be drawn down to its natu-
ral length, in doing which a crepitus is
sometimes perceived. In order to relax
as much as possible the muscles which
tend to displace the broken bone, a bent
position of the thigh and leg was recom-
mended by Mr. Pott. He recommended
that the patient should lie on the side of
the fracture, with the thigh bent on the
pelvis, and the knee half bent. A broad
splint well padded should be placed un-
der the thigh, from above the trochanter
to below the knee, and another should
extend from the groin below the knee on
the opposite surface. Narrower splints
should occupy the intervals between
those on the inside and outside of the
thigh. The sphnts should be fastened as
firmly as they can be borne, by means of
leathern straps, A patient with a broken
OS femoris should by no means be placed
on a soft bed, as the trunk of the body
depresses it into a hollow, and by slid-
ing downwards increases tlie displace-
ment.

Fracture of the patella is generally caus-
ed by violent exertion of the muscles,
whose tendons are inserted into this bone,
and not by direct violence. The upper
end of the bo^ie is drawn upwards by the

SURGERY,

muscles, and a total inability to extend
the leg is generally observed. The mus-
cles should be relaxed, by extending the
knee, and bending the thigh on the pel-
vis : they may also be surrounded with a
roller, a compress being placed just a-
bove the upper portion of the broken
bone. The newly-formed substance
which unites the broken ends is of a liga-
mentous or cartilaginous nature, and not
bony.

Fractures of the leg. If they affect both
bones, there can be no doubt of the na-
ture of the case ; but the symptoms are
more uncertain, when the fibula alone is
broken. The limb should be laid on its
outside, with the knee moderately bent.
Japanned iron, or wooden splints shaped
to the part, and covered with soft pads,
are employed. The leg having been
placed in the above mentioned position,
extension is made, if necessary ; and the
under splint, covered with its pad, and
having an eighteen-tailed bandage laid on
it, is passed under the limb. Having ob-
served that the ends of the bones are in
exact contact, the surgeon places his soap
plaster over the fractured portion, and
lays down the bandage. Another soft pad
is then put over the upper surface of the
leg, and the other splint applied. The
leather straps attached to the splints are
fastened with sufficient tightness, to pre-
vent any motion of the fractured part.
M'^hen the pressure of the splints is pain-
ful, soft pads are necessary.

Ruptured tendo AchilUs. The large ten-
don of the muscles of the calf of the leg
is sometimes torn asunder by the violent
exertion of those muscles. An inability
to extend the ankle, and a consequent im-
paired power of progression, follows.
The ends of the tendon may be approxi-
mated by straightening the ankle and
bending the knee. The foot may be
kept in this position by the assistance of
bandages. The case requires about the
same degree of confinement as a fracture.
Some persons have not kept their bed
for tliis accident, but have walked about
with a high-heeled shoe. The tendon of
the plantaris muscle is sometimes rup-
jfurea, and the accident is attended with
the symptoms as if the tendo AchiUis
were torn.

PARTICULAR DISLOCATIOSS.

Lower ja-vo. This bone can only be lux-
ated forwards, when the condyloid pro-
cesses advance beyond the eminentiae arti-
culares. In this case the mouth remains

open, and cannot be shut ; there is pain ;
impaired and almost destroyed articula-
tion and deglutition, &c. One or both
condyles may be displaced. To reduce it,
the thumbs, well covered, should be intro-
duced as far backward as possible along
the grinding teeth. The surgeon then
elevates the front of the bone with his
fingers, and the palms of his hands, while
he depresses the condyles with his
thumbs ; and the latter prominences are
thus forced back into the glenoid cavities
of the temporal bones.

Dislocations of the head and vertebra
are probably imaginary occurrences, as
we know hitherto of no well-attested ex-
ample of their occun'ence.

i'he OS humeri is probably luxated more
frequently than any other bone. It may
be displaced downwards, forwards, and
backwards. In all these cases a vacancy
is distinguishable under the acromion, in
consequence of the absence of the head
of the humerus from the glenoid cavity
of the scapula. The head of the bone
forms a preternatural tumour in some
situations. The elbow cannot be carried
close to the chest, nor can the limb be
elevated, without extreme pain, to a line
with the acromion. Great pain is caused
by the pressure of the head of the bone
in its unnatural position, particularly
when it lies in the axilla. Our object is
to dislodge the head of the os bruchii
from its unnatural situation, in order to
bring it on a level with the glenoid cavity
of the scapula. To accomplisli this pur-
pose, extension must be made ; that is, the
limb must be drawn forcibly outwards ;
and the bone itself should be made to
operate as a lever, which can be best ef-
fected by the surgeon's knee placed un-
der it towards the head, v/hile he depres-
ses the elbow at the proper time, so as to
raise the head towards the glenoid cavity.
The patient's body should be fixed, by
placing a broad towel round the chest,
and tying it to some immoveable point.
The extension should be gradual, and
kept up unremittingly, which can be
best effected by means of pullies. The
elbow should be bent, and the extending
power applied just above the condyles of
the humerus. When the surgeon finds
that the head of the bone is drawn out of
its unnatural position, he may allow the
extension to be remitted, and depress the
elbow. The arm should afterwards be
kept quietly in a sling, a piece of soap
plaster, and a spica bandage, being appli-
ed to the shoulder.

Elbcni\ Dislpcations at this joint are

SUR

sun

very difficult to discover, from the swell-
ing', which comes on so quickly. The
radius may be displaced forwards ; and
here the flexion of the elbow is almost
entirely destroyed. The ulna may at the
same time be driven backwards : it may
also be pushed inwards, so as to occupy the
place of the radius. AH these are easily
reduced, when they are ascertained.
Leeches and cold washes should be em-
ployed afterwai'ds.

IVrist. The distortion consequent on
a displacement of the carpus is so consid-
erable, that the nature of the case is ren-
dered immediately obvious. The" reduc-
tion is easy ; and after it has been accom-
plished, the hand and fore-arm should be
bound on a splint, and supported by a
sling:.

Thigh. The os femoris may be dis-
placed downwards and inwards, so that
the head rests on the obturator foramen ;
upwards and outwards, when the head is
towards the sacro-ischiatic foramen, and
the trochanter forwards ; and upwards
and forwards, so that the head rests upon
the OS pubis. In the first case, the toes
are turned out, and the limh elongated.
In the second, the limb is shortened, the
foot turned inwards, and the buttock
more prominent. Great pain is excited
by attempting to move the limb in all
cases of luxation, and a vacuity is dis-
cernible in the natural situation of the
head of the bone. The patient should be
placed on the side opposite to the acci-
dent, and his pelvis should be fixed by
means of a sheet passed under the perine-
um. Extension may be made by fixing a
broad towel, or the pullies, just above
the condyles. When the head of the
bone is on the dorsum ilii, the extension
is to be continued until it has been
brought to the acetabulum, into which
the surgeon must guide it. In the dislo-
cation on the obturator foramen, we
should make a lever of the"" bone, by pass-
ing a towel under the thigh, near the ti'O-
chanter, and elevating it after a slight
extension has been made, the condyles
being at the same time depressed.

The patella may be dislocated either in-
wards or outwards. Its reduction is very
easy, when the muscles inserted into it
have been relaxed.

Tlie knee hardly admits of complete
luxation, without such injury of the parts
as would render the loss of the limb ne-
cessary. The nature of the accident
must be obvious from the altered figure
of the parts, and replacement is perfectly
easy. Inflammation must be guarded a-
gain»t afterwards.

The a7ikle may be dislocated outwards,
the fibulae being at the same time broken.
This is generally a compound luxation ;
the extremity of the tibia, when displaced
from the astragulus, very often penetrat-
ing the integuments. Formerly this ac-
cident was considered as a cause of am-
putation ; and many practitioners have
been in the habit of sawing off the pro-
jecting portion. Yet by replacing the
bone, closing the wound, keeping the
parts quiet, &c. the injury has been
often recovered. Luxation may also oc-
cur in the opposite direction, and for-
wards. The latter is very diflicult to re-
tain in place, as the muscles of tlie calf
are so apt to move the foot.

SUllIANA, in botany, so named in ho-
nour of Joseph Donat Surian, a genus of
the Decandria Pentagynia class and order.
Natural order of Succulentse. llosacese,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx five-
leaved ; petals five ; styles inserted into
the inner side of the germs ; seeds five,
naked. There is but one species, viz. S.
maritima, a native of the sea coast of
Soutli America, and the islands of the
West Indies.

SURRENDER, in law, a deed or ii:-
strument, testifying that the particular te-
nant of lands or tenements for life, or
years, doth sufficiently consent and
agree, that he whicli has the next or im-
mediate remainder, or reversion thereof,
. shall also have the present estate of the
same in possession ; and that he yields and
gives up the same unto him ; for every
surrenderer ought forthwith to give pos-
session of the things surrendered. Where
a surrender is made in consequence of a
fresh lease, and that lease turns out inva-
lid, the surrender is considered as not
valid, and the former lease is establish-
ed. Surrender into the hands of the
lord is the mode of passing copyholds,
and a surrender to the use of a will is
necessary, in order to pass them by a
will.

SURROGATE, one who is substitut-
ed or appointed in the room of ano-
ther ; as the bishop or chancellor's sur-
rogate.

SURSOLID, in arithmetic and algebra,
the fifth power, or fourth multipUcation
of any number or quantity, considered as
a root. See Root.

SuRSOui) problem, in mathematics, is
that which cannot be resolved but by
curves of a higher nature than a conic
section, v. gv. in order to describe a re-
gular endecagon, or figure of eleven
sides in a circle, it is required to de-
scribe an isosceles triangle oh a right

SURVEYING,

ilne given, whose angles, at the base,
shall' be quintuple to that at the vertex ;
which may easily be done by the in-
lersectton of a quadratrix, or any other
curve of the second kind.

SURVEYING. This important art,
however difficult its attainment may ap-
pear, is nevertheless to be comprised
within a very few general rules. The ac-
curacy of the work must depend entirely
on the correctness of the instruments em-
ployed, the steadiness of the hand and
eye of the operator, and the faithfully
tracing the given lines and angles on the
paper designed to exhibit the estate, or
premises, under examination. The fol-
lowing leading principles will give an in-
sight into the mode of displaying the re-
sults, whatever may be the means em-
ployed for their computation. First. We
are to reject the actual curvature of our
globe, in all land surveys ; thafls, where
no current of water, d^r the level of any
fluid, is under consideration : such curva-
ture amounts to about eight inches in
every mile, either of latitude or of longi-
tude. In brief, we consider the earth to
be flat, instead of spherical. Secondly.
We must ever carry in mind, that every
triangle is equal to half a parallelogram
ef equal base and altitude ; as shown un-
der the head of Gkometby. Thirdly.
That wherever there is a deviation from
the horizontal, there will be a greater ex-
tent of si^rface displayed on a scite than
if the same were horizontal. To illustrate
this, let an orange be cut through in the
middle, and the flat part, i. e. the section,
be placed on a level table : it is evident
that the round surface of the half orange
will oft'er more surface than|the fiat section
which lays upon the table : but, if it were
required to build on the semi-spherical
surface, it would be found that no more
houses, &c. could be raised thereon, than
would stand on the extent of the flat sec-
tion. The reason of which is, that no
more perpendiculars can be raised on
one than on the other. This shows how
fallacious is the mode of purchasing what
is called side-long, or hanging, land by
the acre. The greater the deviation from
the horizontal, the more is the base di-
minished. Fourthly. The surveyor must
recollect, that all planes, of whatever ex-
tent or formi may be divided into, and be
represented by, triangles of various forms
and dimensions, whose aggregate will
amount to the measurement of the area
thus partitioned off": for, as'Euclid justly
observes, " All the parts, taken together,
are equal to the whole." It will be for-
\ 01.. VI,

ther seen, that every figiwre may, either
directly or circiiitously, be commuved
into a triangle, of corresponding area :
but it may be necessary, at the same
time, to observe, that the squaring of
the circle has not hitherto been per-
fected ; though we have ariiv-ed so near-
ly to the completion of that object, as to
leave no room for regret at -the want of
absolute precision.

These points being completely undejv
stood, the learner may proceed to the ru^
diments of surveying; supposing him to
be grounded in the few preliminary prob-
lems which enable him to describe the
ordinary figures : should he not have ob-
tained any previous information on that
subject, we recommend that he turn back
to the heads of Gkometry and Mathe»-
MATicAi insinanents ; under which he
will find various items indispensable to-
wards his progress.

We shall submit a few propositions
which the student may work with his
compasses, plain scale, and protractor :
when able to do all that may be need-
ful on paper, he may then try his hand
with one or other of the various instru-
ments in use among surveyors.

Proposition I. " To ascertain the con-
tents of the square field ABCD, fig. 1.
Plate XV. Miscel." Here litde is to be
done ; one of the sides being measured,
say 70 yards, and multiplied by itself,
will give 4,900 square yards for the area ;
or oue acre {i. e. 4,800 square yards) and
100 square yards.

Proposition II. ". To survey the field
ABCD, fig. 2." This figure having the
sides AB and CD parallel, and at right
angles to AD, add tlie lengths of those
parallels, say 70 and 90 yards, together ;
divide half their sum {i. e. 80) and multi-
ply that half by the depth of xVD, say 70 j
which being multiphed by the medium
length, GF, gives an area of 5,600 square
yards. The parallelogram, ABED, might
have been computed by simply multiply,
ing its length by its breadth ; and th^
triangle, BCE, might be taken separate-
ly, thus : the depth, (or altitude) BE, 70
yards, to be multiplied by half CE, {i. e.
10 yards) this would give 700 ; and the
produce of AB, which is 70, by BE, which
is also 70, would be 4,900 ; making in ajl
5,600, as above sliown.

Proposition III. " To sun'ey the in,-
cliaed parallelogram ABCD, fig. 3." It .
is to be observed that, in all inclined fi-
gures, the altitude i^ ascertained by a per-
pendicular from the base, as at C, to the
parallel of that base, as at E, un tbe line
T t ' ' ^

>^ Of THB ^

'UF 17 BR SIT 7]

sus.

Proposition XL "To carry a line of
Sight or a level, in the direction of AB,
over the rising ground C." Ascertain
where the line of sight strikes the hill at
e; carry the instrument to that point,
and, in'the exact direction of the former
sight, take a second sight from e to a, or
toany conveniejit spot, where a pole and
target should be fixed. SccLevkls. As
this survey for a canal is to be taken by
means of a spint level, the exact altitude
of each sight must be taken, by noting
the height of the target from the plain,
AB, at every sight, or by following up
a regular succession of levels, each of
which will be the height of the instru-
ment above the last. Thus the hill will
be ascended : the descent on the other
side is effected by the inversion of the
foregoing mode ; always taking the de-
scending levels of the target for canals; but
for roads, or for laying down a meridional
line, when once the summit is gained, a
long sight may be taken to a distant object:
thissubject is pleasingly exemplified in a
new work published by Longman and Co.
<hititled "Mathematics simplified, and
practically illustrated," in which a great
variety of instructive and useful matter will
be found, together with a description of
a new instrument, on a very simple con-
struction, said to be equal to every branch
of surveying.

SUS, the hog, in natural history, a ge-
nu's of Mammatia, of the order of Belluse.
Genei-ic character : four front teeth in
the upper jaw, converging; six in the
lower, projecting ; two tusks in the up-
per jaw, short ; two in the lower, standing
out ; snout truncate, prominent, and
moveable : feet cloven. These animals
are allied by their teeth to the carnivo-
rous quadmpeds, and by their cloven feet
to the ruminating ones. They feed almost
indifferently upon animal and vegetable
^bstances, devouring with avidity what
is most nauseous and di.sgusting. They use
their snout for digging up the ground-in
c^iest of roots, are fond of rolling and wal-
lowing in mud, and are distinguished by
extreme fecundity. There are six species,
of which the following are the most im-
portant :

S. scrofa, the common hog. All the
varieties of this animal originate in the
wild boar, which is found in most of the
temperate regions of Europe and Asia. It
is smaller than the dftmesticated animal,
and uniformly of a dark grey colour, ap-
proaching to black. It is armed with for-
midable tusks, sometimes ten inches, or
even more, in length ; those in the under

jaw curving inwards, and capable, from
their size, strength, and sharpness, of in-
flicting the most dreadful wounds. Before
these animals attain their third year they
are gregarious, and, when danger is at
hand, particularly, they muster in nume-
rious parties, and with great promptitude,
at the signal of alarm. Uniting thus, they
present so formidable an array, as speedi-
ly to disperse the enemy, few creatures,
or none, daring to commence an attack
against such a combination of strength
and valour as they exhibit. When the
wild boar is complete in growth, he de-
pends upon his solitary exertions for his
protection, is seldom seen in society,
ranging the forests alone ; rarely com-
mencing an attack, as his food consists al-
most solely of roots and vegetables, but
repelling one with all the fiercenes of
courage, and all the resentment of reta-
liation.

These animals are often hunted by dogs,
particularly of the mastiff breed. After
many pauses in their progress, in which
they turn round, and defy their enemies
to the attack, which, however, is gene-
ralfy declined, they at length refuse to
proceed, and halt for the grand and final
conflict; in which, though eventually
overpowered by the number of dogs,
and the speai-s of the hxmters, they de-
fend themselves with the most astonish-
ing intrepidity, perseverance, and energy;
and, regarding their case as absolutely
desperate, determine, at least, not to die
unrevenged. See Mammalia, Plate XXI.
fig. 1.

The common hog has smaller tusks and
larger ears than the wild boar, and is
generally of a dull, or dirty, yellowish-
white. It is clumsy in its shape, filthy in
its manners, and gross and ravenous in
its food, devouring almost every variety
of rejected animal or vegetable substance,
and distinguished by the quantity nearly
as much as by the rankness of its food.
The offal of the kitchen, garden, and
barn, furnishes it with an exquisite
banquet. It was rejected as unclean both
by the founders of the Jewish and Ma-
hometan religion, as unfit for human sus-
tenance, for which, it is, nevertheless,
most admirably adapted, and of incalcula-
ble#alue. The sailors of the British navy
are in a great degree supported by the
flesh of that animal, which Moses and
Mahomet decided to be unfit for the food
of man ; and in most countries of Europe,
it is an important and indispensable arti-
cle of the food of the inhabitants. The
hog is possessed of an acute smell, and is

sus

SWE

highly agitated during the violent blow-
ing of certain winds, uttering the most
dreadful screams, and exhibiting the
highest restlessness, apprehension, and
turbulence. It is fattened to an extraor-
dinary size, and has been known to attain
the almost incredible weight of 1215
pound*. It produces two litters in the
year, and in each from ten to twenty
young ones. The male must be kept at
Vi distance from these, as it will other-
wise destroy and devour them, and the
female herself has often acted this unnatu-
ral part, and is particularly apt to do it,
if observed attentively, during the crisis
of parturition. The hog was unknown
in America when that quarter of the
world was discovered by the Spaniards,
but now abounds in every part of it. The
Chinese breed is most valued in England.
There is an accidental variety of the do-
mestic hog with undivided iioofs.

S. Ethiopicus, or the Ethiopian hog, is
very similar to the last. It is fierce and
formidable in the highest degree, and
' burrows in the ground, in deep recesses,
which it prepares with both its hoofs
and nose. It is particularly distinguish-
ed by a large lobe, or wattle, beneath
each eye.

S. baby-roussa is remarkable for the
fbrm and situation of the upper tusks,
which are placed externally, and turn
upwards in a curve towards the forehead.
It abounds in the Indian islands, lives
solely on vegetables, and rests itself, in
sleep, by hooking its upper tusks round
the bi'anch of a tree. It can swim with
rapidity, and is valued for food.

S. sajassu, or the Mexican hog, or pe-
cari, is the only animal of the genus na-
tive of America, where it is gregarious,
fierce and dangerous, and is occasionally
seen in herds of several hundreds. It
feeds on fruits and roots, and also on
serpentsi lizards, and toads ; and will at-
tack and devour the rattlesnake, we are
told, without the slightest injury. It is
less than the common hog, has bristles
nearly resembling the prickles of an
hedge-hog, and is also distinguished by
an orifice on its back, from which per-
petually issues a most fetid watery hu-
mour. The pecari will skin snakes by
means of its teeth and feet, beftrre it
devours them, with great dexterity. The
common hog is reported, on good au-
thority, to attack and eat the rattle-snake
with the same impunity as the pecari.
For the baby-roussa, see Mammalia, Plate
XX. fig. 2.

SUSPENSION, ov Points of Suspensioji,

in mechanics, are those points in the axis
or beam of a balance, wherein the
weights are applied, or from which they
are suspended.

SusPKNsiON of arms, in war, a short
truce agreed on by both armies, in order
to bury the dead, wait for fresh instruc-
tions, or the like.

SuspKxsiox, in rhetoric, is the carrying
on a period or discourse, in such a man-
ner as to keep the reader in expectation
of something considerable in the conclu-
sion. But great care must be taken that
the reader's expectation be not disap-
pointed ; for nothing is more contempti-
ble than to promise much and perform
little ; or to usher in an errant trifle with
the formality of preface and solemn pre-
paration.

SWABBER, an inferior officer on board
ships of war, whose employment it is to
see that the decks are kept neat and
clean.

SWARTZIA, in botany, so named in
honour of Olof Swartz, M. D., a genus of
the Polyadelphia Polyandria class and or-
der. Essential character : calyx four leav-
ed ; petals single, lateral, flat ; legume
one-celled, bivalve ; seeds arillated. There
are six species.

SWEDEN BORGIANS, a religious so-
ciety, who have been so called from
Emanuel Swedenborg, in whose theologi-
cal works are taught the doctrines which
they receive. He was born at Stockholm
in Sweden, Jan. 29, A. D. 1689 ; and died
in London, the 29th March, A. D. 1772.
His father was Jesper Swedberg,
bishop of West Gothia, and president of
the Swedish church in Pennsylvania and
London. In the year 1716, at the age of
28, he was associated by Charles XII.
witli the celebrated Polhamman, called the
Swedish Archimedes, to assist him in the
direction of buildings and mechanical
works, and without solicitation appointed
extraordinary assessor to the Royal Col-
lege of the Mines, the King having given
him the choice either of this office, or
that of professor in the Royal Academy
of Upsal. *' An universal knowledge in
the belles letters (says Monsieur Sandel,
in his eulogium delivered in the name of
the AcADEMi of Sciences at Stockholm)
and a remarkable degree of learning, had
at that time, made his name known both
within and without the kingdom." " You
may find in him at once, (says the same
gentleman) a happy assemblage of an
excellent memory, a prompt conception,
and a most clear judgmeat, united to a
desire that was never cloyed, and the

SWEDENBORGIANS.

strongestjnclination of an assiduous study
after acquirements of the most certain
kind in philosophy, in almost all kinds of
mathematics, natural history, physics, che-
misery, anatomy, and finally theology,
wiiho'ut enlarging on the t^asiern and
European languages, in which he was
very well versed." In 1718, at the siege
of Fredericksall, he executed a work
of the gi'eatest importance. By cutting
through the mountains, and raising the
valiies for two miles and an half from
Stromstad to Idef-jol, which separates
Sweden from Norway, he caused two
gallies, five lai'ge boats, and a sloop to be
sent there ; by which Charles Xll. was
enabled to have all the great artillery
for the siege carried to Fredericksall.
In 1719, he was ennobled by Queen
Ulrica Eleonora, and named Swedenborg,
and took his seat with the nobles of the
equestrian order. His various works in
philosophy, the belles lettres, mathema-
tics, mechanics, natural history, physics,
chemistry, and anatomy, amount to 24
articles, one of wliich, his Opera Philoso-
phica and Mineralia, published, part at
Leipsic and part at Dresden in 1734, com-
prehend three folio volumes. Prior to
the publication of this work, the Academic
Consistory and the Society of Sciences at
Upsal had requested him to sohcit the
place of professor of the sublime and ab-
stracted mathematics, which had been
filled by Nils Celsius. This he however
declined. He was enrolled a member of
the Society of Sciences at Upsal, of the
Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, and
of the Academy of St. Petersburg. His
works furnish the editors of the Acta
Einiditorum, published at Leipsick, with
many articles, and the whole of his Trea-
tise on Iron, and the preparations of
steel, was inserted by the authors of the
Description of Arts and Trades at Paris, in
their collection of the best things writteji
on those subjects.

Nearly all his works are written in the
l.atin language. After occupying himself
until the age of 53, in the investigation of

Shilosophical and natural subjects, he
edicated himself wholly to spiritual
things. In his letter to the King of
Sweden, he sajs, " I have already inform-
ed your majesty, and beseecii you to
recall it to mind, that the Lord our
Saviour manifested himself to me in a
sensible personal appearance ; that he
has commanded me to write what has
been already done, and what I have still
to do : that he was afterwards giaciously
pleased to endow me with the privilege

of conversing with angels and spirits, and
to be in fellowship with them." " When
ray writings are read \rith attention, and
cool reflection, (in which many things
are to be met with as hitherto unknown)
it is ciMjy enough to conclude, that I
could not come by such know ledge, but
by a real vision, and converse with those
in the spiritual world." " If any doubt
shall still remain, I am ready to testify,
with the most sulemn oath that can be offer-
ed in this matter, that 1 have said nothing
but essential and real truth, without any
mixture of deception. This knowledge
is given to me from our Saviour, not for
any particular merit of mine, but for the
great concern of all christians' salvation
and happiness ; and as such, how can any
venture to assert it is f ilse ?" From the
year 1744, he continued to write, and
from 1747, to publish his theological
works in the Latin langUMg?. These, if
collected in an uniform edition, would
perhaps fill in the English language 30
octavo volumes of 500 pages. His two
most extensive works are his Arcana
C?elestia, in 12 octavo volumes, in which
he explains, verse by verse, every word
in the books of Genesis and Exodus, ac-
cording to what he calls the spiritual
sense; and his Apocolypsis Explicata,
(published since his decease), in 6 octavo
volumes, wherein he treats of the book
of Revelations in the same manner. The
doctrines exhibited in his writings are to
the following purpose ;

1. Contrary to Unitarians, who deny,
and to Trinitarians, who hold, a trinity
of persons in the godheat^ the Sweden-r
borgians maintain that there is a divine
trinity in the person of Jesus Christ, con-
sisting of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost,
just like the human trinity in every in-
dividual man, of soul, body, and opera-
tion ; and as the latter trinity constitutes
one man, so the former constitutes one
Jehovah God, who is at once the Creator,
Redeemer, and Regenerator.

2. That Jehovah God himself can>e
down from heaven, and assumed human
nature, for the purpose of removing hell
from man, of restoring the heavens to
orde;*, and preparing the way for a new-
church upon earth ; and that herein con-
sists tthe true nature of redemption,
which was effected Sjolely by the om-
nipotence of the Lord's divine humanity.
But Swedenborg declares, that this divine
humanity is from the Father, and is in
itself like unto its divinity, and not like
the humanity of another man ; for, " with
tlie Lord, the former forms, which were

SWEDENBORGIANS.

di

from the maternal principle, were alto-
etlur destroyed and extirpated, and
iviue forms received in their place ;
for the divine love doth not agree with
any but a divine form ; all other forms it
absolutely casts out ; hence it is, that tlu;
Lord, when glorified, was no h)nger the
Son of Mary."

3. They hold the notion of pardon ob-
tained by a vicarious sacrifice, or atone-
ment, as a fundamental and fatal error ;
but that repentance is the foundation of
the church in man ; that it consists in a
man's abstaining from all evils, because
they are sins against God, &c. ; that it is
productive of regeneration, which is not
an instantaneous, but a gradual work,
effected by the Lord aloue, through
charity and faith, during man's co-opera-
tion.

4. That man has free-will in spiritual
things, whereby he may join himself by
reciprocation with the Lord.

5. That the imputation of the merits
and righteousness of Christ is a thing as
absurd and impossible, as it would be to
impute to any man the works of creation:
for the merits and righteousness of Christ
consist in redemption, which is as much
the work of a divine and omnipotent Be-
ings as creation itself. They maintain,
however, tliat tlie imputation, which
really takes place, is an imputation of
good and evil ; and that this is according
to a man's fife.

6. That the doctrine of predestination
and justification by faith alone is a mere
human iavention, and not to be found in
the word of God.

7. That the two sacraments of baptism
and the holy supper are essential institu-
tions in the New Ciiurch, the genuine
and rational uses of which are now dis-
covered, together with the spiritual
sense of the holy word.

8. That the sacred scripture contains
a threefold sense, namely, celestial, spi-
ritual, and natural, which are united by
correspondences ; and that in each sense
it is divine truth, accommodated, re-
spectively to the angels of tlie three hea-
vens, and also to men on earth.

9. The Word is inspired, not only as to
all the particular expressions, bat also as
to all the particular small Letters which
compose every expression, and thus as to
the smallest dot and tittle, and inwardly
in iiself, has stored up the arcana of hea-
ven, which do not appear in the letter,
when set in each of those things, which

^ the Lord himself spake when he was in
the world, and which he before spake by

the prophets ; there are things celestiat,
and altogether divine, and elevated from
the sense of the letter ; and this not only
in each of the expressions, but also in
each of the syllables of the expressions,
and in each of the apexes of every sylla-
ble. Hence the books of the word have
an internal sense, and are the following :
the five books of Moses, Joshua, Judges,
Samuel, one and two. Kings, one and two,
the Psalms, the Prophets, Isaiah, Jere-
miah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, Ro-
sea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah,
Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai,
ZeCharlah, and Malachi ; and in the New
Testament, tli^ four Evangelists, Mat-
thew, Mark, Luke, and John, and the
Revelations.

10. That in the spiritual world there is
a sun distinct from that of the natural
world, the essence of which is pore love
from Jehovah God, who is in the midst
thereof; that the heat also proceeding
from that sun is, in its essence, love ; and
the light thence proceeding is, in its es-
sence, wisdom ; and by the instrumenta-
lity of that sun, all things were created,
and continue to subsist, both in the spi-
ritual and in the natural world.

11. They maintain, that there is not in
the universal heaven a single angel, that
was created so at the first, nor a single de-
vil in all hell that had been created an an-
gel of light, and was afterwards cast out
of heaven ; but that all both in heavcR
and hell are of the hunwn race ; in hea-
ven such as had lived in the world in
heavenly love and faith, and in hell such
as lived in hellish love and faith.

12. That the material body never rises
again ; but that man, immediately after
his departure from this life, rises again as
to his spiritual or substantial body, (which
was inclosed in his material body, and
formed for his predominant love, whether
it be good or evil,) wherein ^e continues
to live as a man in a perfect human form,.
in all respects as before, save only the
gross material body, which he puts off by
death, and wliich is of no further use.

13. That the state and condition of
man after death is according to liis past
life in this world ; and the predomitiant
love, which he takes with him into the
spiritual world, continues with him for
ever, and can never be changed to all
eternity ; but if evil, he abides in hell to
all eternity.

14. That true conjugal bve, which can
only subsist between one husband and
one wife, is a primary characteristic of
the new church, being grounded in the
marriage of goodness and truth, and cor-

SWE

SWI

responding with the mai-riage of the Lord
arid his church ; and therefore it is more
celestial, spiritual, holy, pure, and clean,
than any other love in angels or men.

15. That the science of corresponden-
ces, (which has been lost for some thou-
sands of years, but is now revived in the
Theological Works of the Honourable
Emanuel Swedenborg,) is the only key to
the spiritual or internal sense of the holy
word, every page of which is written by
correspondences, that is, by such things
in the natui-al world as correspond with
and signify things in the spiritual world.

16. That all those passages in the scrip-
tures, generally supposed to signify the
destruction of the world by tire, Stc.
commonly called the last judgment, must
be understood according to the above
science, which teaches, that by the end
of the world is not meant the destruction
of it, but the destruction or end of the
present Christian church, both among Ro-
man Catholics and Protestants of every
description, and that this last judgment
took place in the spiritual world in the
year 1757.

17. That the second advent of the
Loi-d, which is a coming, not in person,
but in the spiritual or internal sense of his
holy word, has already commenced ; that
it is effected by means of his servant
Emanuel Swedenborg, before whom he
hath manifested himself in person, and
whom he hath filled with his spirit, to
teach the doctrines of the new church
by the word from him ; and that this is
what is meant in the Revelation by the
new heaven and the new earth, and the
new Jerusalem thence descending.

These doctrines, to say the least of
them, are ingenious. Many persons, in-
deed, of great respectabiUty, and not a
few men of learning and talent, even of
the present day, believe that these doc-
trines are something more than ingenious.
It is, however, not a little extraordinary,
that, although the Swedenborgians open-
ly deny the commonly received doctrine
of a trinity of persons in the Godhead,
and believe, as they certainly do, that
to assert that doctrine is nothing less than
tritheism ; and when it is also considered
that the system of the highly-illuminated
baron has excluded that other orthodox
doctrine of a vicarious sacrifice by the
death of Christ, we say, under these con-
sidemtions, it is not a little to be wonder-
ed at, that there should be found any
persons still in communion with our esta-
blished church, who profess themselves
members of the New Jerusalem church,

as revealed by Emanuel Swedenborg.
But the wonder increases much, upon
the consideration, that some, even of the
regular clergy of the EngUsh Church,
are to be found among the disciples of
the honouriible baron ! The present ve-
nerable and respectable minister of St.
John's, Manchester, the Reverend Mr.
Clowes, is not only an open professor of
the faith of the New Church, but is also
the well-known translator of all the ba-
ron's theological publications ! The for-
bearing temper of many of our present
ecclesiastical governors, and the liberal
spirit of the times, are circumstances not
a little honourable to the national charac-
ter in general, and to our national clergy
in particular. May this spirit and this
forbearance continue to increase, until
no discrepancy of mere opinion whatever,
while unaccompanied by errors of con-
duct, or depravity of heart, shall be made
the foundation of hatred, or the pretext
for exclusive civil and religious privi-
leges !

SWERTIA, in botany, so named in ho-
hour of Eman. Sweert, a genus of the
Pentandria Digynia class and order. Na-
tural order of^ Rotacex. Gentianse, Jus-
sieu. Essential character : corolla wheel-
shaped ; nectariferous pores at the base
of the segments of the corolla ; capsule
one-celled, two-valved. There are six
si>ecies.

SWIETENIA, in botany,, wahogany-
tree, so named, in honour of the illustri-
ous Gerard, L. B. a Swieten, archiater to
Maria Teresa, Empress of Germany, a
genus of the Decandria Monogynia class
and order. Natural order of Trihilatee.
Meliae, Jussieu. Essential character : ca-
lyx five-cleft ; petals five, nectary cylin-
dric, bearing the anthers at the mouth ;
capsules five-celled, woody, opening at
the base ; seeds imbricate, winged. There
are three species. The S. mahogani,
mahogany tree, is very lofty, and spread-
ing with a wide handsome head ; leaves
reclining, alternate, shining, eight inch-
es long, numerous on the younger branch-
es; leaflets mostly in four pairs, quite
entire, acuminate, bent in backwards,
petioled, opposite, an inch and half long;
recemes sub-corymbed, with about eight
flowers in each, axillary, solitary, two
inches long ; flowers small, whitish. The
mahogany tree is a native of the warmest
parts of America, and grows plentifully
in the islands of Cuba, Jamaica, and His-
paniola ; in these islands the tree grows
to a very large size, so as to cut into
planks of six feet breadth : those on the

SWIMMING.

Bahama Islands are not so large ; these,
however, are frequently four feet in di-
ameter, and rising to a greut heiglit, not-
witJistanding they are generally found on
the sohd rock, where there seems to be
scarcely any earth for their nourishment.
I'he wood brought from the Bahama Isl-
ands has usually passed under the name
of Madeira wood ; tliis the Spaniards
make great use of for building ships ; it
is belter adapted to this purpose than
most sorts of wood yet known, being ve-
ry durable, resisting gun shots, and bu-
rying the shot without splintering. The
excellency of this wood for all domestic
purposes, has been long known in Eng-
land.

SWIMMING, the art, or act, of sus-
taining the body in water, and of moving
therein ; in which action the air-bladder
and fins of fishes bear a considerable part.
Some have supposed, that tlie motion of
fish in the water depends principally up-
on the pectoral fins, but the contrary is
easily proved by experiment; for if the
pectoral fins of a fisli are cut ofl', and it be
again put into the water, it will be found
to move forward or sideways, upward or
downward, as -well as it did when it had
them on. If a fish be carefully observed,
while swimming in a basin of clear wa-
ter, it will be foujid not to keep these
pectoral fins constantly expanded, but
only to open them at such times as it
would stop or change its course ; this
seeming to be their principal, if not their
only use. The pectoral and ventral fins,
in the common fishes of a compressed
form, serve in the same manner in keep-
ing the fish still, and serve in .scarce any
other motion than that towards the bot-
tom ; so that this motion of the fish,
which has been generally attributed to
their fins, is almost wholly owing to their
muscles, and the equipoise of their air-
bladder. That the use of the pectoral
and ventral fins is to keep the fish steady
and upright in the water, is evident from
the consequences of their loss: if they are
cut off, and the fish put again into the wa-
ter, it cannot continue in its natural erect
posture, but staggers about, and rolls
from side to side.' The fins of tlie back
and anus are also of great use to the
keeping the creature in its natural posi-
tion, as is easily seen by cutting them oflT,
and observing the motions of the fi.sh af-
terwards. Though a great deal depends
on the motion of the muscles of the se-
veral parts of the body, in the swimming
of the fish, yet the tail, and those mus-
cles which move; the lower part of the

\ OL. A I.

body, to which it is affixed, are the great
instruments by which their swift motions
in the water are performed. The mov-
ing the tail, and that part of the body to
which it adheres, backward and forward,
or sideways any one way, throws the
whole body of the fish strongly the con-
trary way ; and even in swimming strait
forward, the motion and direction are
both greatly assisted by the vibrations
of this part, as may be experienced in
the motion of a boat, which, when im-
pelled forward, may be firmly guided by
means of an oar held out at its stern, and
moved in the water as occasion directs.
The dorsal muscles, and those of the
lower part of the body, between the
anus and tail, are the principal that are
used in the motion of this part, and these
are therefore the most useful to the fish
in swimming. The muscles of the belly
seem to have, their principal use in the
contracting the belly and the air-bladder.
They have beeji supposed of use to move
the belly-fins; but there are too many of
them for such a purpose, and these fins
have each its peculiar muscle, fully suffi-
cient to the business. The use of the
tail in swimming is easily seen, by cut-
ting it off, and committing the fish to the
water without it, in which case it is a most
helpless creature.

BruteJs swim naturally, but men attain
this art by practice and industry : it con-
sists principally in striking alternately with
the hands and feet ; which, like oars, row
a person forward : he must keep his body
a little oblique, that he may the more ea-
sily erect his head, and keep his mouth
above water.

We shall here insert some maxims on
the art of swimming that may be useful,
and which are said to have been written
by the late Dr. Franklin.

1. That though the legs, arms, and head
of a human body, being solid parts, are
specifically something heavier than fresh
water, yet the trunk, pariicularlythe upper
part, from its hoHowness, is so much light-
er than water, as that the whole of the
body, taken together, is too light to sink
wholly under water, but some part will
remain above, until the lungs become
filled with water ; which happens from
drawing water into them instead of air*
when a person, in the fngbt, attempts
breathing, wliile the mouth and nostrils
are under water. 2- ihat the legs and
arms are specifically ligliter than salt
water, and will be supported by it, so that
a human body would not sink in salt
water, though the hmgs were fille<l as

r u

SWI

SYL

above, but from the greater specific gravi-
ty of the head, 3. That therefore a person
throwing himself on his back in salt water,
and extending his arms, may easily lie so
as to keep his mouth and nostrils free for
breathing ; and, by a small motion of his
hands, may prevent turning, if he should
perceive any tendency to it. 4. Tiiat in
fresh water, if a man throws himself on
his back, near the surface, he cannot long
continue in that situation, but by proper
action of his hands on the water. If he
uses no such action, the legs and lower
part of the body will gradually sink till he
comes into an upright position, in which he
will continue suspended, the hollow of the
breast keeping the head uppermost. 5.
But if in this erect position, the head is
kept upright above the shoulders, as when
we stand on the ground, the immersion
will, by the weight of that part of the
head that is out of water, reach above the
mouth and nostrils, perhaps a little above
the eyes, so that a man cannot long remain
suspended in water with his head in that
position. 6. The body continuing sus-
pended as before, and upright, if the head
be leaned quite back, so that the face
looks upwards, all the back part of the
head being then under water, and its
weight consequently in a great measure
supported by it, the face will remain above
water quite free for breathing, will rise an
inch higher every inspiration, and sink as
much every expiration, but never so low
as that the water may come over the
mouth. 7. If therefore a person, unac-
quainted with swimming, and falling acci-
dentally into the water, could have pre-
sence of mind sufficient to avoid struggling
and plunging, and to let the body take this
natural position, he might continue long
safe from drowning, till perhaps help
would come. For as to the clothes, their
additional weight while immersed is very
inconsiderable, the water supporting it ;
though when lie comes out of the water,
he would find them very heavy indeed.
The subject has within the last two or
three years been investigated in Nichol-
son's Philosophical Journal, whence it
should seem, that if a person could have
sufficient presence of mind never to raise
his hands above water, he could not
sink.

SWIVEL, in gunnery, a small piece of
artillery carrying a shot of half a pound
Weight, and fixed in a socket on the top of
a ship's side, stern, or bow, and also in the
tops ; the trunnions of this piece are con-
tained in a sort of iron crotcli, the lower
^ndof trluch terminates in a cylindrical pi-

vot, resting in the socket so as to support
the weight of the cannon. By means of
this swivel, which gives name to the piece
of artillery, and an iron handle, the gun
may be directed by hand to any object.

SVVOKD, an offensive weapon, worn at
the side, and serving either to cut or stab.
Its parts are the handle, guard, and blade;
to which may be added the bow, scabbard,
pummel, &ic. Fencing masters, however,
divide the sword into the upper, middle,
and lower part ; or the fort, middle, and
foible.

SYENA, in botany, a genus of the Tri-
andria Monogynia class and order. Essen-
tial character : calyx three-leaved ; petals
three ; anthers oblong ; capsule one-cell-
ed, three-valved. There is only one spe-
cies, viz. S. fluviatilis. This is a minute
mossy plant; stem somewhat branched,
decumbent; leaves capillaceous, in whorls;
flowers axillary, white, peduncled, soli-
tary. It is a native of Guiana, in rivulets.

SYLLABLE, in grammar, a part of a
word, consisting of one or more letters,
pronounced together.

According as words contain one, two,
three, four, &c. syllables, they are denomi-
nated monosyllables, bissylables, trisylla-
bles, tetrasyllables, polysyllables. Sic and
the division of a word, into its constituent
syllables, is called spelling.

SYLLABUS, in matters of literature, de-
notes a table of contents, or an index of
the chief heads of a book or discourse.

SYLLOGISM, in logic, an argument or
term of reasoning, consisting of three pro-
positions ; the two first of which are called
premises, and the last the conclusion. Syl-
logisms are nothing but the expressions of
our reasonings, reduced to form and me-
thod : and hence, as every act of reasoning
implies three several judgments, so every
syllogism must include three distinct pro-
positions. Thus, in the Ibllowing syllo.
gism :

Every creature possessed of reason and
liberty is accountable for his action.

Man is a creature possessed of reason
and liberty :

Therefore man is accountable for his ac-
tions.

We may observe that there are three
several propositions, expressing the three
judgments implied in the act of reasoning:
the two first propositions answer the two
previous judgments in reasoning, and are
hence called premises ; as being placed be-
fore the other, which is termed the con-
clusion. We are also to remember, that
the terms expressing the two ideas whose
relation we inquire after, as here, " man"

SYLLOGISM.

und " accountableness," are in general
called the extremes ; and that the inter-
mediate idea, by means of which the
agreement or disagreement of the two ex-
tremities is traced, viz. " a creature pos-
sessed of reason and liberty," takes the
name of the middle term. Hence, by the
premises of a syllogism, we are always to
understand the two propositions, where
the middle term is severally compared to
the two extremes ; for these constitute the
the previous judgments, whence the truth
we are in quest of, is by reasoning dedu-
ced. The conclusion is, that other propo-
sition, in which the extremes themselves
are joined or separated, agreeably to what
appears upon the above comparison. As,
therefore, the conclusion is made up of the
extreme terms of the syllogism ; so thdt
extreme, which serves as the predicate of
the conclusion, goes by the name of the
major term ; and the other term, or sub-
ject of the conclusion, is called the minor
term. From this distinction of the ex-
tremes arises also a distinction between
the premises ; that proposition, which
compares the greater extreme with the
middle term being called the major propo-
sition; and the other, where ihe lesser ex-
treme is compared with the middle term,
being called the minor proposition. In a
single act of reasoning, the premises of the
syllogism must be self-evident truths,
otherwise the conclusion could not follow.
For instance, in the major of the above
mentioned syllogism, viz. *' every creature
possessed of reason and liberty is accoun-
table for his actions," if the connection
between the subject and predicate could
not be perceived by a bare attention to the
ideas themselves, the proposition would
require a proof itself ; in which case, a new
middle term must be sought for, and a
new syllogism formed to prove the said
jnajor : and should it so happen, that in
this second essay there was still some
proposition, whose truth did not appear at
tirst sight, recourse must be had to a third
syllogism to prove it. And when, by con-
ducting our thoughts in this manner, we
at last arrive at some syllogism, where the
premises or previous propositions are in-
tuitive, or self-evident truths, the mind
then rests in full security, as perceiving
that the several conclusions it has passed
through, stand upon the immoveable foun-
dation of self-evidence, and when traced to
their source, terminate in it. The great
art lies, in so adjusting our syllogisms to
one another, that the propositions seve-
rally made use of as premises, may be
manifest consequences of what goes be-

fore, so as to form one connected demon-
stration.

With respect to the different forms or
figures of syllogisms, it frequently hap-
pens that the middle term is the subject
of the major term, and the predicate of
the minor ; but though this disposition of
the middle term be the most natural and
obvious, it is not, however, necessary*
since the middle term is often the subject
of both the premises, or the predicate in
both ; and sometimes it is the predicate
in the major, and the subject in the minor
proposition. Now this variety in the or-
der and disposition of the middle term,
constitutes what logicians call the forms
or figures of syllogism.

But besides this distinction of syllo-
gisms into different figures, there is also
a further subdivision of them in every
figure, called modes, or moods. See
Mood.

These distinctions of syllogism, accord-
ing to figure and mood, respect chiefly
simple syllogisms, or those limited to
three propositions, all simple ; and where
the extremes and middle term are con-
nected immediately together. But as the^
mind is not tied down to any one form of
reasoning, but sometimes makes use of
more, sometimes of fewer premises, and
often takes in compound and conditional
propositions, there hence arises other dis-
tinctions of syllogisms.

When in any syllogism the major is a
conditional proposition, the syllogism it-
self is termed conditional. Such is the
following one :

If there is a God, he ought to be wor-
shipped ;

But there is a God :

Therefore he ought to be worshipped.

In syllogisms of this kind, the relation
between the antecedent, or the condition-
al part, *' if there is a God," and the con-
sequent, " he ought to be worshipped,"
must ever be real and true; that is, the
antecedent must always contain some
certain and genuine condition, which ne-
cessarily implies the consequent ; other-
wise the proposition itself will be false, and
therefore ought not to be admitted into
our reasonings. There are two kinds of
conditional syllogisms, one of which is
called in the schools modus potieiis ; be-
cause from the admission of the antece-
dent they argue to the admission of the
consequent, as in the syllogism above :
the other is called modus tolleiiSf because
in it both antecedent and consequent are
rejected, as in the following syllogism :

SYL

SYL

It" God were not a being of inhnite
goodness, neither would he consult
the happiness otliis creatures ;
But God does consult the happiness of

his creatures ;
Therefore he is a being of infinite good-
ness.
Aerain, as from the major's being a
conditional proposition, we obtain condi-
tional syllogisms; so, where it is a dis-
junctive proposition, the syllogism is also
called disjunctive, as in the following ex-
ample:

The world is either self-existent, or the
work of some finite, or some infinite
being.
But it is not self-existent, nor the work

of a finite being :
Therefore it is the work of an infinite
being.

Now a disjunctive proposition is that,
where, of several predicates, we affirm
one necessarily to belong to the subject,
to the exclu.sion of all the rest, but leave
that particular one undetermined; hence
it follows, tliat as soon as we determine
the particular predicate, all the rest are
to be of course rejected ; or if we reject
all the predicates but one, that one neces-
sarily takes place. When, therefore, in
a disjunctive syllogism, the several pre-
dicates are enumerated in the major, if
the minor establishes any one of these
predicates, the conclusion ought to re-
move all the rest ; or if, in the minor, ail
the predicates but one are removed, the
conclusion must necessarily establish that
one.

. In the several kinds of syllogisms hi-
therto mentioned, we may observe, that
the parts are complete ; that is, the three
propositions of which they consist are
expressed in form. But it often happens,
that some one of these premises is not
only an evident truth, but also tkmiliar,
and in the mouths of all men; in which
case it is usually omitted, whereby we
have an imperfect syllogism, that seems
to be made up of only two propositions :
such is the following one :

Every man is mortal ;

Therefore every king is mortal.

Here the minor proposition, "every king
is man," is omitted, as being so clear and
evident, that the reader may easily sup-
ply it.

SYLVAN, in mineralogy, a genus
which is divided into four species ; viz. 1.
« The native sylvan," of which the colour

is intermediate between tin white and
silver white: it occurs massive and dis-
seminated, and also in various kinds of
crystals : internally it is shining, and ita
lustre is metallic : its specific gravity is
from 4.1 to 6.1. Its constituent parts are,

Sylvan . . . ,

Iron

Gold

92.55

7.20

...'.. 0.25

100

Before the blow-pipe it melts as easily
as lead, emits a thick white smoke, and
burns with a light green colour, and a
sharp disagreeable odour. When exposed
to a low heat, it is converted into an oxide:
by an increase of temperature, it melts
into a brownish black glass, in, which
gold grains are interspersed : at a still
higher heat, the oxide is completely vola-
tilized. It occurs in veins, and is accompa-
nied with iron pyrites, blende lead-glance,
quartz, and lilhomarge, and is found in
Transylvania. It bears a strong resem-
blance to antimony, and was formerly call-
ed " aurum problematicum :" — " white
gold ore," &c. It was denominated
*' sylvan" by Kirwan, and is so called by
Jameson, who thinks it more expressive
than " tellurium," a name proposed by
Klaproth. ■♦

2. " Graphic ore," which is likewise
found in Transylvania : it is worked as an
ore of gold, and has obtained the name of
graphic gold : it consists of

Sylvan 60

Gold 30

Silver 10

100

It occctirs, in veins, in clay porphyry, ac-
companied with iron pyrites, grey copper
ore, blende, and sometimes, though rare-
ly, with native gold. Before the blow-
pipe it burns with a green flame, and is
volatilized.

3. ** Yellow sylvan ore," which is white
inclining to yellow, and is found dissemi-
nated and crystallized. Specific gravity
10.6. It dissolves in nitrous acid, and
during the solution nitrous gas is evolved:
the constituent parts are.

SYM

SYN

Sylvan 4475

Gold 26.75

Lead 19-5

Silver • • • 8,5

Sulphur 0-5

100.

This is found in Transylvania, and is
worked on account of the proportions of
the silver and gold.

4. " Black sylvan ore," which is of an
iron black colour, and occurs massive,
and in small, thin, and longish six-sided
tables : externally it is splendent, with a
metallic lustre: and within it is shining:
sjiecific gravity is almost 9. Its constitu-
ent parts are.

Sylvan 18.8

Lead 24.8

Gold 4.15

Silver 0.25

Copper 0.6

Sulphur 1.4

Oxide of manganese . 9.2
Quartz 43.7

100.

It is found in Transylvania : it melts be-
fore the blow-pipe: the sulphur and syl-
van are soon volatilized, and a blackish
brown globule remains, which being
melted with borax, a sort of silvery gold
grain appears. It dissolves with effer-
vescence in acids, and the nitro-murialic
acid extracts the gold from it.

SYMPHONIA, in botany, a genus of
the Monodelphia Pentandria class and or-
der. Essential character : one styled ;
corolla globular ; berry five-celled. There
is only one species, viz. S. globulifera, a
native of Surinam.

SYMPHYTUM, in botany, comfrey, a
genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class
and order. Natiu'al order of Asperifoliae.
Korraginese, Jussieu. Essential charac-
ter; corolla tubular, ventricose ; throat
closed by lanceolate rays. There are
tliree species. We shall notice the S. of-
ficinale, common comfrey : this plant has
a perennial fleshy root, externally black ;
stem two or three feet high, upright,
leafy, winged, branched at the top,
clothed with short, bristly hairs, which
point downward ; leaves waved, pointed,
veiny, rough ; the radical leaves on foot-
stalks,, broader than the rest ; clusters of

flowers, in pairs, on a common foot-stalk,
with an odd flower between them ; co-
rolla yellowish white, sometimes purple ;
the rays downy at each edge. It is a na-
tive of Europe and Siberia ; it is frequent
in watery places, on the banks of rivers
and ditches ; flowering from the end of
May to September.

SYMPLOCOS, in botany, a genus o*
the Polyadelpiiia Polyandria class and or-
der. Natural order of Guaiacan?e, Jussieu.
Essential character : calyx five-cleft ; co-
rolla five-petalled, erect at the base ; sta-
mens in four rows, growing to the tube
of the corolla; fruit five-celled. There
are four species.

SYNDIC, in government and com-
merce, an officer in divers countries en-
trusted with the affairs of a city, or other
community, who calls meetings, makes
representations and solicitations to the
ministry, magistracy, &,c. according to the
exigency of the case. The syndic is ap-
pointed to answer and account for the
conduct of the body, he makes and re-
ceives proposals for the advantage there-
of, controls and corrects the failings Of
particular persons of the body, or at least
procures their correction at a public meet-
ing. In effect, the syndic is at the same
time both the agent and censor of the
community.

SYNECDOCHE, in rhetoric, a kind of
figure, or rather trope, frequent among
orators and poets. There are three kinds
of synecdoches ; by the first, a part is
taken for the whole, as the point for the
sword, the roof for the house, the sails
for the ship, &c. By the second, the
whole is used for a part. By the third,
the matter whereof the thing is made is
used for the thing itself; as steel for
sword, silver for money, &c. To which
may be added another kind, when the
species is used for the genus, or the ge-
nus for the species.

SYNGENESIA, in botany, the name of
the nineteenth class in Linnzeus's system,
consisting of plants in which the antj^ers,
or male organs of generation, are imited
into a cyUnder, the filaments on which
they are supported being separate and
distinct : this class contains the numerous
tribe of compouiid flowers. 'The orders
of this class arise from the different modes
of intercommunication of the florets, or
lesser partial flowers, contained within tlie
common calyx. This intercommunica-
tion admits of the four following cases.
1. When the florets are all hermaphro-
dite. 2. When they are hermaphrodites
and females. 3. When they are her-

SYN

SYN

maphrodiles and florets of no sex: and,
4. Svhen thev are males and females.

SYNGNATHl^S, the pipe-fish, a genus
of fishes of the order Cartilaginei. Ge-
neric character : snout nearly c> lindrical;
mouth terminal, without teeth or tongue,
and furnished with a lid; body lengthen-
ed, jointed, and mailed with many-sided
scales ; no ventral fins. These fishes fre-
quent the coasts of the sea, and subsist
Aipon worms and insects, and tlie ova of
fishes. There are eight species, of which
\ve shall notice the following:

S. acus, or the great pipe-fish, some-
limes attains the length even of three
feet, but is generally only fourteen inches
long, extremely slender, and tapering to-
wards the extremity. Its ova are found
lying, in spring, in a longitudinal channel
at the bottom of the abdomen, and the
young are produced from this groove,
completely formed. It is found in the
■seas of Europe.

The S. hippocampus, or sea-horse pipe-
fish, inhabits the sliores of the European
and Indian seas, and is about ten inches
long. When the head is bent downwards,
it has a very considerable resemblance to
that of a horse.

S. fbliatus, or the foliated pipe-fish, is
the most singular species of the genus,
and this singularity consists chiefly in its
possessing appendages, situated on very
strong and rough spines, on the back,
tail, and abdomen, of the shape of leaves,
ami which might easily be supposed, by a
cursory observer, the real leaves of some
of the fuci tribe. In the one presented
to Sir Joseph Banks, and engraved in
Sliavv's Zoology, there are fourteen of
these curious processes. This animal
presents one of the most extraordinary
objects exhibited by nature in the im-
mense variety of her living productions.
See Pisces, Plate VI. fig. 3.

SYNOD, in astronomy, a conjunction,
or concourse of two or more stars, or pla-
nets, in the same optical place of the hea-
vens.

SYNODENDRON, in natural history,
a genus of insects of the order Coleopte-
ra ; antennae clavate ; the club lamellate ;
thorax gibbous, muricate or unequal : tip
filifarm, horny, palpigerous at the tip.
There are four species.

SYNODIC AL, something belonging to
a synod ; thus, synodical epistles, are cir-
cular letters written by the synods to the
absent prelates and churches, or even
those general ones directed to all the
feithful, to inform them of what had pass-

ed in the synod. For the synodical
month, see the article Month,

SYNOVIA, the name given to a liquid
secreted within the capsular ligaments of
the joints, to facilitate motion by lubri-
cating these parts. The synovia of the
ox is a viscid, semi-transparent fluid, of a
greenish white colour, which soon ac-
quires the consistence of jelly, and not
long after becomes again fluid, depositing
a filamentous matter. Synovia mixes
with water, and renders it viscid. When
this mixture is boiled, it becomes milky,
and some pellicles are deposited on the
sides of the vessel. Alcohol produces a
precipitate when added to synovia. This
precipitate is albumen. After this matter
is separated, the liquid still remains viscid;
but if acetic acid be added, the viscidity
disappears, and it becomes transparent,
depositing a white filamentous substance,
which resembles vegetable gluten. It is
soluble in cold water, and in concentrated
acids and pure alkalies. This fibrous
matter is precipitated by acids and alco-
hol in flakes. The concentrated mineral
acids produce a flaky precipitate, which
is soon re -dissolved ; but the viscidity of
the liqviid is not destroyed till they are
so much diluted with water, that the acid
taste is only perceptible. When synovia
is exposed to dry air, it evaporates, and
cubic crystals remain in the residuum,
with a white saline efflorescence. The
first are muriate of soda, and the latter
carbonate of soda. This substance soon
becomes putrid, giving out ammonia
during its decomposition. By distillation
in a retort, it yields water, which soon
becomes putrid ; water containing a por-
tion of ammonia, and an empyreumatic
oil, with carbonate of ammonia : by wash-
ing the residuum, muriate and carbonate
of soda may be obtained. A small portion
of phosphate of lime is found in the coaly
matter. The constituent parts of synovia
are the following :

Fibrous matter 11.8

Albumen 4.5

Muriate of soda 1.7

Soda 0.7

Phosphate of lime .... Q.7

Water 80.6

100.0

SYNTAX, in grammar, the proper con-
struction, or due disposition of the words
of a language, into sentences, or phrases ;
or the manner of constructing one word

SYS

SYZ

with another, with regard to the differ-
ent terminations thereof, prescribed by
the rules of gi-amrnar. Hence the office
of syntax is to consider the natural suit-
ableness of words with respect to one
another, in order to make them agree in
gender, number, person, mood, &.c. To
offend in any of these points, is called, to
offend against syntax ; and such kind of
offence, when gross, is called a solecism,
and when more slight, a barbarism. Syn-
tax is generally divided into two parts,
viz. concord, wherein the words are to
agree in gender, number, case, and per-
son; and regimen, or government, where-
in one word governs another, and occa-
sions some variations therein.

SYNTHESIS, the putting of several
things together, as making a compound
medicine of several simple ingredients,
&c.

Synthesis, in logic, denotes a branch
of method opposite to analysis, called the
synthetic method.

SYRINGA, in botany, lilac, a genus of
the Diandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Sepiariae. Jasminex,
Jussieu. Essential character : corolla
four-cleft ; capsule two-celled. There
are four species, with several varieties.
The S. vulgaris, common lilac, is a shrub
growing to the height of eighteen or
twenty feet, dividing into many branches ;
those of the white sort grow more erect
than the blue ; and the purple, or Scotch
lilac, has its branches yet more diffused.
The hlac is very common in the English
gardens, where it has been long cultivated
as a flowering shrub. It is supposed to
grow naturally in some parts of Persia ;
but is so hardy as to resist the greatest
cold of this country.

SYRINGE, an instrument serving to
imbibe, or suck in a quantity of any fluid,
and to squirt or expel the same with vio-
lence.

SYRUP. See Phabmact.

SYSTEM, in general, denotes an as-
semblage or chain of principles and con-
clusions, or the whole of any doctrine, the
several parts whereof are bound together,
and follow or depend on each other; in
which sense we say, a system of philoso-
phy, a system of divinity, S;c.

System, in astronomy, denotes an hypo-
thesis or supposition of an arrangement
of the several parts of the universe, where-
by astronomers explain all the phenomena
or appearances of the heavenly bodies,
their motions, changes, Sic. This is more
properly called the systems of the w'orld.

System and hypothesis have much the
same signification, unless perhaps hypo-
thesis be a uiore particular system, and
system a more general hypothesis. The
three most celebrated s}stems of the
world are, the Copeinican, the I'tolemaic,
and Tychonic.

SYSTOLE, in anatomy, the contraction
of the heart, whereby the blood is drawn
out of its ventricles into the arteries ; the
opposite slate to which is called the di-
astole, or dilation of the heart.

SYZYGY, in astronomy, a term equally
used for the conjunctioji and opposition
of a planet with the sun. On the jiheno-
niena and circumstiuices of the syzygies, a
great part of tlie lunar theory depends.
For, 1. It is shown in the physical astro-
nomy, that the force whicli diminishes tlie
gravity of the moon in tlie syzygies, is
double that which increases it in the
quadratures : so that in the syzygies, the
gravity of the moon, from the action oC
the sun, is diminished by a part wiiich is
to the whole gravity as 1 to 89,36 : for ia
the quadratures, the addition of gravity-
is to the whole gravity as 1 to 17b,73. 2.
In the syzygies, the disturbing force is di-
rectly the distance of the moon from the
eartli, and inversely as the cube of the
distance of the earth from the sun. And
at the syzygies, the gravity of the moon to-
wards the earth, receding from its centre,
is more diminished than accoi-ding to the
inverse ratio of the square of the distance
from that centre. Hence, in the motion
of the moon from the syzygies to the
quadratures, the gravity of the moon to-
wards the earth is continually increased,
and the moon is continually retarded in
its motion ; and in the motion from the
quadratures to the syzygies, the moon's
gravity is continually diminished, and its
motion in its orbit accelerated. 3. Fur-
ther, in the syzygies, the moon's orbit, or
circle, round the earth, is more convex
than in the quadratures, for which reason
the moon is less distant from the earth at
the former than the latter. When the
moon is in the syzygies, her absides go
backwards, or are retrograde.

When the moon is in the syzygies, the
nodes move in mUecedentia fastest : then
slower and slow er, till tliey become at
rest, when the moon is in the quadra-
tures.

Lastly, When the nodes are come to
the .syzygies, the Inclination of the plane
of the orbit is least of all. Add that these
several irregularities are not equal in
each syzygy, but all somewhat greater in
the conjunction than in the opposition.

TAB

TAC

T.

f |1 Or t, the nineteenth letter, and fif-
X y teenth consonant, of our alphabet,
the sound whereof is formed by a strong
expulsion of the breath through the
mouth, upon a sudden drawing back of
the tongue from the fore part of the pa-
late, with the lips at the same time open.
The proper sound of this letter is that in
tan, tai, tin, &c. When it comes before i,
followed by a vow^el, it is sounded like s,
as in nation, potion, &.c. Wiien h comes
after it, it has a twofold sound ; one clear
and acute, as in thin, tUef, 8cc. the other
more obtuse and obscure, as in then, thei^e,
&c.

TABBYING, the passing a silk or stuff
under a calendar, the rolls of wliich are
made of iron or copper, variously en-
graven, which, bearing unequally on the
stuff', renders the surface thereof unequal,
so as to reflect the rays of light different-
ly, making the representation of waves
thereon.

TABERN^EMONTANA, in botany, so
named in memory of James Theodore,
suniamed Tabernarmontanus, from Berg
Zabern, the place where he was born ;
a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia
class and order. Natural order of Con-
tortae. Apocinae, Jussieu. Essential cha-
racter : contorted ; follicles two, horizon-
tal ; seeds immersed in pulp. There are
nineteen species, among which we shall
notice the T. cymosa, cyme-flowered
tabernaemontana ; this is an elegant up-
right little tree, or shrub, about six feet
in height ; leaves acute, quite entire,
scarcely waved, half a foot long- Cymes
ample, handsome, convex, axillary ;
flowers without scent, dirty white, or red-
dish brown, about forty in a cyme ; tube
of the corolla, quinquangular, ventricose
at the base ; stamens in the enlarged base
of the tube ; stigma margined at the base ;
follicles oblong, very blunt, curved in,
very large, reddish, with rust coloured
spots ; one of each pair is commonly a-
bortive ; the pulp is orange-coloured.
It is found in the woods and coppices
about Carthagena in New Spain, flower-
ing in July and August.

TABES dorsales, in medicine, a distem-
per wliich, according to a late author, is
a particular species of a consumption, the
proximatecauseof which is a debility of
the nerves.

TABLE, in perspective, denotes a
plain surface, supposed to be transparent,
and perpendicular to the horizon. It is al-
ways imagined to be placed at a certain
distance between the eye and the objects,
for the objects to be represented there-
on, by means of the visual rays passing
from every point thereof through the ta-
ble to the eye ; whence it is called per-
spective plane.

Tablk, among the jewellers. A table-
diamond , or other precious stone, is that
whose upper surface is quite flat, and
only the sides cut in angles ; in which
sense a diamond, cut table-wise, is used in
opposition to a rose-diamond.

Table is also used for an index or re-
pertory, put at the beginning or end of a
book, to direct tlie reader to any passage
he may have occasion for : tbus we say,
table of matters, table of authors quoted,
&c. Tables of the Bible are called con-
cordances.

Table, in mathematics, system of num-
bei's calculated to be ready at hand for
the expediting astronomical, geometrical,
and other operations : thus we say, ta-
bles of the stars ; tables of sines, tangents,
and secants ; tables of logarithms, rhumbs,
&c. ; sexagenary tables ; loxodromic ta-
bles, &.C.

TACC A, in botany, a genus of the Hex-
andria Monogynia class and order. Natu-
ral order of Coi'onariae. Narcissi, Jus-
sieu. Essential character : calyx six
parted ; corolla six-petalled, inserted in-
to the calyx ; anther bearing ; stigma
stellate ; berry dry, hexangular, many-
seeded, inferior. There is only one spe-
cies, viz. T. pinnatifida ; the root of
w hich is tuberous, composed of many tu-
bers heaped together, here and there
emitting fibres ; radical leaf, subsolitary,
petioled, ternate, or biternate ; leaflets la-
ciniate pinnatified, acute, spreading', de-
current a little along the sides of the pe-
tiole, a foot in length; scape half a fathom
in height, herbaceous, listular, grooved
towards the top, erect ; umbel terminat-
ing, sessile ; peduncles four to eight ; an-
thers twelve, on short hiaments ; germs
three, or one three-lobed ; styles three,
short : stigma obcordate, tvvo-lobed ; ber-
ry black ; seeds brown. It is a native of
the East Indies, China, Cochin China,
Banda, and the Society Isles.

TAG

TAG

TACK, in a ship, a great rope, having
a wale-knot at one end, which is seized
or fastened into the clew of the sail ; so is
reefed first through the chesse-trees,
and then is brought through a hole in tlie
ship's side. Its use is to carry forward
the clew of the sail, and to make it stand
close by a wind : and whenever the sails
are thus trimmed, the main-tack, the-fore-
tack, and mizen-tack, are brought close
by the boai-d, and haled as much forward
on as they can be. The bowlings also .
are so on the weather-side ; the lee-sheets
are haled close aft, and the lee-braces of
all the sails are likewise braced aft.
Hence they say, a ship sails or Stands close
upon a tack, i. e. close by the wind. The
words of command are, hale aboard the
tacks, i. e. bring the tack down close to
the chesse-trees. Ease the tack, /. e.
slacken it, or let it go, or run out. Let
rise the tack, i. e. let all go out.

The tacks of a ship are usually belayed
to the bitts, or else there is a chevil on
purpose to fasten them.

Tack about, in the sea-language, is to
turn the ship about, or bring her head
about, so as to lie the contrar>' way. In
order to explain the theory of tacking a
ship, it may be necessary to prenuse a
known axiom in natural philosophy, " that
every body will persevere in a state of
rest, or of moving uniformly in a rigiit
line, unless it be compelled to change its
state by forces impressed ; and that the
change of motion is proportional to the
moving force impressed, and is made ac-
cording to the right line in which that
force is exerted." By this principle it is
easy to conceive how a ship is compell-
ed to turn in any direction, by the force
of the wind acting upon her sail in hori-
zontal lines. For the sails may be so ar-
ranged as to receive the current of air ei-
ther directly, or more or less obliquely ;
hence the motion communicated to the
sails must of necessity conspire with that
of the wind upon their surfaces. To make
the ship tack, or turn round with her
head to the windward, it is therefore ne-
cessary, after she has received the first
impression from the helm, that the head-
sails should be so disposed as to diminish
the effort of the wind, in the first instant
of her motion, and that the whole force of
the wind should be exerted on the after
sails, which, operating on the ship's stein,
carries it round hke a weathercock. But
since the action of tlie after sails, to turn
the ship, will unavoidably cease when
her head points to the wind- ward, it then
becomes necessary to use tlie head-sails,

VOL. VL

to prevent her from falling off, and re-
turning to her former situation. These
are accordingly laid aback on the lee-side,
to push the vessel's fore part towards the
appointed side, till she has fallen into the
line of her course thereon, and fixed her
sails to conform with that situation.

TACKLE, orTACKLiNG, among sea-
men, denotes all the ropes or cordage of
a ship, used in managing the sails, &c.
In a more restrained sense, tackles are
small ropes running in three parts, having
at one end a pendant and a block ; and at
the other end, a block and hook, to hang
goods upon that are to be heaved into the
ship jjv out of it. See Ship.

TACTICS, in their general acceptation,
relate to those evolutions, mancEuvres,
and positions, which constitute the main
spring of military and naval finesse : they
are tlie means whereby discipline is made
to support the operations of a campaign,
and are, in every regular service, studitd.
for the purpose of training all the compo-
nent parts according to one regular plan
or system ; whereby celerity, precision,
and strength, are combined, and the whole
rendered completely efficient. Of milita-
ry tactics, the Romans may be considered
the first nation whose military array could
be termed regular, and whose forces main-
tained that order, which rendered each
inferior individual subject to the control
of certain subaltern officers commanding
small bodies, corresponding with our sec-
tions ; which being again compacted un-
der officers of a second class, formed small
divisions, as in our platoons, or compa-
nies ; and which divisions being collected
under a third class of officers, constituted
what we term battalions. The soldiers
of ancient Italy were not only iimred to
great hardships, as a part of their usual
exercise, but were taught many evolutions
suited to the modes of warfare in those
days.

Time has occasioned a considerable
change in that particular ; for since the in-
vention of gunpowder, our battles have
frequently been decided by distant can-
nonades ; and by no means resembled
those arduous conflicts in which the he-
roes of old used to engage, individually
contending for the day, and causing
the whole field to resemble an infinity of
single combats. In this practice all bar-
barous nations seem uniformly to agree j
the sword, the tomahawk, the club, &c,
being the chief instruments; though in
some instances thejaveline, or spear^ or
the bow and arrow, may be primarily re-

Xx

TACTICS.

sorted to. Hence sucli warfere is far more
sanguinary than that carried on witl» fire-
arms; which rarely do much execution,
unless when aided by artillery, and then
only when at such distances as to be with-
in reach of case-shot. It will no doubt
surprise most of our readers, but is strict-
ly true, that, taking the average quantity
of musket ammunition expended, as a
sum to be divided by the number of kill-
ed and wounded, not more than one shot
in fifty will be foimd to take eflfect. Thus, .
after a batallion of 1000 men may have
fired 20 rounds per man, making in all
20,000 discharges of musketry, ihey will
have made terrible havoc if 400 of the ene-
my be disabled.

Hence we find, that the great featiu'es
in derisive actions are few indeed; and
they dependchieflyon tactics. Thus where
a large force is brought to bear upon any
particular point, while the enemy is kept
in ignorance as to the object in view ; or
where certain advantages of locality are
gained, merely by dint of superior science
in tlie art of conducting troops by the
shortest means, and in the greatest order ;
or where by certain evolutions a small force
is made to supply the purpose of a larger,
or to resist, independently of entrench-
ments, &c. a more numerous body ; all
these evince the presence of the man of
taclics, and qualKy him for the designa-
tion of " an able General.*'

We have also another branch, which is
in a degree secondary, because it depends
greatly on the success of the former ;
namely, the arrangement, or disposition,
of a line, in such manner as may allow
each description of force to act with ef-
fect : this can be done only when the na-
ture of the service to be performed is suit-
ed to the nature of the troops by which it
is to be attempted. In this we necessarily
mean to restrict the operations of infantiy
to storming parties, cavalry to champaign
operations, and artillery to situations
where it can be duly protected, while
rendering essential service. Hence the
able tactician always arranges his force
in such manner, as to allow each to
perform its duty without interfering with
the evolutions of any other class; and, in
what is called manreuvring his army, ne-
ver fails to e.stimate the distances, and the
time in which each may execute the as-
signed duty ; so that the whole may coin-
cide with one great intention, and insure
success, by the accurate execution of its
respective functions : were it to be other-
wikc, tlie whole must be subject to disor-
der ; one failure often leading to the most

serious consequence ; the same as is caus-
ed by the want of a cog, or tooth, of any \
wheel in a piece of machinery. From this !
it may be seen how great a superiority ;
that commander must possess, who, by
means of this science, fully comprehends ;
the most ready arrangement of troops,
where change of position becomes neces- ^
sary; and who has, in the first instance, so ,
disposed them as to be able to make those ■
changes (even under the disadvantages .
ever attendant upon such necessity) with %;
celerity, and in good order. :
But, however skilful the commander, ]
the whole of his good qualities will be ^
abortive, unless the materials wherewith t
he is to perform his part be duly prepared i
in every respect. It is indispensably re- ■
quisite, that every individual soldier
should be so far trained, as to compre- |
bend fully the general intention of every j
internal service of the company of which i
he is a part. He must have a complete
knowledge of the parade duties, and con- |
sider himself as a mere automaton, under j
the guidance of a superior, or disposing, \
power : he must be cool, obedient, and •
passive ; and he must possess a sufficient ;
share of physical powers, and of activity, ]
to enable his participating in the move- i
ments of the company at large. This,
which is assuredly a most impoj tant mat- \
lev, nevertheless has been only within a ,
few years properly attended to: it was j
formerly considered fully sufficient if the 1
soldier could wheel, face about, and fire
with correctness ; the conducting of a "\
regiment through its evolutions during an
engagement being left entirely to its com-
mander. It is true, the pageantry of home ''.
duties was rather ostentatious, and won- '
drous pains were taken to go through a
review with eclat ; but the drum and fife
were considered indispensable ; without
them, the soldier could not preserve the
cadence ; he had no regulated length of ]
pace — no regulated time for various evo- j
lutions. Now, that we see how much the i
whole depends on its parts, each indivi- |
dual is trained systematically, and enters l
the field fully quahfied to act without
more instruction, at the moment, than is i
needful to convey to the corps at large !
the general intention : this not only pre- ;
vents confusion, but gives to each a cer- ■
tain confidence, both in his comrades and
in himself. Habituated to certain regulat-
ed paces, independent of musical bias,
each soldier preserves his situation with ]
correctness, and feels himself, in all situa- j
tions, fully competent to fulfil the orders
of his officer.

TACTICS.

We shall endeavour to explain, in as
brief terms as the subject may ;idmit, the
manner in whicli the British forces are
now trained; commencing with the first
stages of the recruit's tuition, and pro-
ceeding, in a regular course, through the
operations of companies, battalions, and
lines ; whereby the cljuin of connection
will be best preserved, and the whole be
duly exhibited. The following preamble,
taken from the " Rules and Regulations
for Formation, Field Exercise, and Move-
ments, of his Majesty's Forces," is so ad.
mirably suited to our purpose, that we
present it to our readers as the best pre-
paration we can afford :

" The great object in view is, one
general and just system of movement,
which, directing the government of great
as well as of small bodies of troops, is to
be rigidly conformed to, and practised by,
every regiment in his Majesty's service.
To attain this important purpose, it is
necessary to reconcile celerity to order ;
to prevent hurry, which must always pro-
duce confusion, loss of time, unsteadiness,
irresolution, inattention to command, &,c.;
and to insure precision and correctness,
by which alone great bodies will be able
to arrive at their object in good order,
and in the shortest space of lime ; to in-
culcate, and to enforce, the necessity of
military dependence, and of mutual sup-
port in action, which ai-e the great ends of
discipline ; to simphfy the execution, and
to abridge the variety of movements, *s
much as possible, by adopting such only
as are necessary for combining e>'»irtions
in corps, and that can be requii-^d or ap-
plied in service, re'garding aU matters of
parade and show merely as^econdary ob-
jects ; to ascertain to all ranks the part
each will have to act in every change of
situation that can happen, so that expla-
nation may not reL-M-d at the moment
that execution shruld take place ; to en-
able the commancJing officer of any body
of troops, whether great or small, to re-
tain the whoU relatively, as it were, in
his hand an^ management, at every in-
stant, so ?=> to be capable of restraining
the bad effects of such ideas of indepen-
dent and individual exertion as are vision-
ary and hurtful, and of directing them to
their true and proper objects, those of
order, of combined effort, and of regulat-
ed obedience, by the united force of all
which a well disciplined army can only be
defeated. The rules laid down will be found
few, simple, and adapted In the under-
standing of every individual ; but they will
require perfect attention in all ranks. In

the soldier, an equal and cadenced
march, acquired and confirmed by habit,
independently ot music or sound : in the
officer, precision and energy of command;
the preservation of just distances ; and the
accurate leading of divisions on given
points of march and formation. These
circumstances, together wiih the united
exertions of all, will soon attain that pre-
cision of movement, which is so essential,
and without which valour alone will not
avail."

After this, the work in question pro-
ceeds to state : " Tlie recruit must be
carried on progressively ; he should com-
prehend one thing before he proceeds to
another, and he should not be uselessly
fatigued ; he is to be trained singly and
in squad ; nor is he to be allowed to join
in battalion until he may be confirmed
in every requisite ; for one awkward
man will frequently derange a whole
line." The incipient pafts of insti-uction,
however simple they may appear, are by
far the most difficult to inculcate ; but
they are of the mobt imperious conse-
quence : wJ»*='» a good foundation is ob-
tained, t'le work will proceed with ra-
jpidity and firmness, and the pupil will,
from being sensible how much he has ac-
quired at the onset, move and act,
til rough out the ulterior stages, with
promptitude and confidence. Standing
perfectly silent and motionless, fixing
his eyes steadily eitlier to the front, or
to the right or left, as may be ordered ;
dressing up to the same line with others ;
carrying his body erect, the toes turned
out, the limbs firm, but pliant, erect,
raised, and his weight rather borne on
the fore than on the hind parts of the
feet, are all matters tending greatly to
his perfection. He learns to face to the
light and left, or about; to move for-
ward in a perfectly straight line, without
losing squareness to the front ; to move
obhquely to the right or left, under the
same precaution ; and to murk time, to
step out, or to step short ; to change feet
when he does not move with the rest of
the company ; to close, (or take room,)
to the right or left, by the side step ; to
change from quick to ordinary time, or
vice versa, with unerring readiness ; to
march in file ; to wheel either forward or
backward ; and, in general, to acquire a
habitude of acting in concert with his
companions in arms, so as not only to
avoid embarrassing them, but proving a
firm support, and becoming a manageable
tool in the hands of his officer. All tliese
arc indispensably necessary to be fully

TACTICS.

acquired ; they must be so perfectly fa.
miliar, as to seemrather the effect of in-
stinct than of education.

Thus much being duly attained, the re-
cruit is instructed in the use of arms, in
which he cannot be too perfect : the
great difficulty is to impress him, in a
sufficient manner, with the advantages of
close motion, and of preserving the
body from distortion, or change of po-
sition, so far as relates to upright
ness, squareness to the front, and un-
deviating attention to dressing in
line. For it is to be observed, that un-
less very great strictness be observed
on the part of the drill serjeant, the whole
course will be perverted by the handling
of the musket. It would not suit our
purpose, nor could it be equal to the
views of our readers, were we to enter
upon all the details regarding the mo-
tions of the firelock ; or what is called
the manual exercise : in the present pos-
ture of political affairs, such would be
perhaps unnecessary; it having, within
these few years, become the duty of ma-
ny, and the amusement of all, to acquire
some knowledge of that brancK of disci-
pline : we shall therefore proceed to treat
of the firings, which constitute a very prin-
cipal part of the soldier's duty, and greatly
interest both the officei-s commanding di-
visions, and those in charge of whole bat-
talions. We must, at the same time, ex-
press our hope, that the frivolous prac-
tice of expending so many rounds of light
cartridges will be in time much curtailed;
in order to make way for a more extend-
ed practice with ball ; the propriety of
enforcing a correctness of aim must be
self-evident ; and is considerably enhanc-
ed by the little execution done by mus-
ketry, as has already been shown.

Troops are drawn up in two or three
ranks, according to the nature of the
service on which they are to be em-
ployed, or the enemy to which they
are to be opposed. To resist the charge
of cavalry, it is found that three ranks
are preferable ; as is also the case
where an enemy advances en masse, or
bears down In column ; in this arrange-
ment, the front being diminished one
third, many objections may be urged
under local circumstances, especially
w len acting behind entrenchments,
when covered by morasses, or when the
e.iemy cannot advance with rapidity in
Compact heavy bodies. The mode of
drawing up in two ranks is peculiarly
adapted to the foregoing, and on some
occasions must be adopted, in spite of

every adverse argument, ibr Uie pur- J
pose of extending a front ; add to this,

that both the round and the grape \

shots, from the enemy's artillery, do \

less execution among t\yo, than when ;

three ranks are opposed to tliem. When ^

a battalion is drawn up in two ranks, ]

the}'' both fire standing ; but when in J
three ranks, only the two rear ranks fire,

whilst the front kneels, and presents a \

formidable impediment to the charge I
of an enemy, both by Its reserved fire,
and by its line of sloped bayonets.

According to our improved system of
disciphne, one officer and one covering
Serjeant perform all the evolutionary |
duties of each company, when formed in
line ; the rest being disposed of in the !
rear, for the purposes of keeping the .
men to their duty, and of being in rea-
diness to take command of those lesser |
portions into which the companies occa-
sionally break. By this arrangement the
utmost precision is secured ; especially
as select men are placed on the flanks of j
all the companies, also of their sub-divi- j
sions and sections, whose duty it Is to re- i
gulate their wheelings, or changes of lo-
cality, by constantly preserving the dis- J
tances and alignements of their respec- i
tive portions. i

Perhaps among the greatest Improve- j
ments of the day, we may count the mo- '\
dern method of marching by files ; for- '
merly this was effected in a kind of open '
order, the leaders gradually gaining dis- !
tance, so as to give a greater space be- i
tweei. the files, under the apprehension !
of tread\v>g- on each other's heels ; but it is \
now the practice to make every soldier '
retain the saane distance on all occasions I
from his neighbours; by which means,
the right leg ot one crosses at the side of j
the left leg of tht other, and vice versa. i
It is obvious, that vliile the leaders were '<
allowed to gain ground, so as to open the '
distances between the several files, some <
time was required for the lear files to close
up after the front had haf ed ; and that, '
if the battahon were to be ordered to \
front while in the act of marchfjig by files, :
under the old system, it would appear of
double its due extent: for they would '
be so distant as to allow space for an ad-
ditional file between every man in the '
ranks. Our readers cannot fail to per- j
ceive the high importance of keejnng |
troops always to the same extent of front ;
as when formed in line ; for if allowed to ]
vary, from any inattention to regularity, '
it would be utterly impossible for the com-
mander to perform his evolutions upon a '

TACTICS.

g^iven scale ; or for any depenilance to be
placed on the exertions of a line, (par-
ticularly in resisting a charge,) of which
the solidity, tliat is, the compactness,
could not be ascertained.

The extreme difficulty which prevails
in the ordinary course of actual service,
in keeping the due distances between
marching files^ has in a great measure
rendered that mode obsolete : besides,
the facility with which troops move in
small divisions, or even by whole compa-
nies, in column, &c. whereby intervals
are left between them, tending greatly
to the convenience and ease of the men,
certainly gives the latter mode every
claim to preference, except under par-
ticular local circumstances. But even
in proceeding by files, it is best to
march by fours, causing the files, to be
doubled previous to stepping off. By
this means, the whole corps is broken
into ranks of four men each, with one
space interval between tlie several ranks.
A battalion, thus arranged, is formed in
an instant, by the files resuming their
places. Yet it cannot be said that this
method is so ehgible as that of march-
ing by divisions, especially when con-
sisting of only two ranks : in such case
the front rank moves on with perfect
freedom, each man seeing the obstacles
he is to surmount many paces before
he arrives at them ; and the rear rank,
keeping a well opened distance, is con-
siderably liberated, in consequence of
the great interval behind it. Add to
this, the promptness with which the line
can be formed either to the right or left,
by the several divisions wheeling up ac-
cordingly.

We shall now proceed to show the
operations of a body of men according to
the existing regulations, illuslrating the
several movements by means of figures,
which will be found m Plate XV. Miscel-
lanies : they will suffice to give a general
idea of the evolutions of armies on a
large scale, as well as of small parties,
the principles of motion being the same
in both.

The first matter requiring considera-
tion is the act of wheeling, which may be
performed either to a given point, say to
the right ; or on a given point, say on the
left; in either case, the front will be to the
right. But when a body of men has
wheeled to the right, as A, in fig. 11,
changing place to B, and that it be re-
quired to wheel up into line, i. e. to the
left, such body will have gained both to

the right and to the front equally ; the
intermediate ans^le being 90°, and the
third position, C, standing ai an angle of
45° from the position, A. Consequently
a succession of wheeling to the right and
left alternately, will occasion the several
positions, in succession, to represent an
escalier, or flight of steps. It requires,
therefore, but little demonstration to
show the utility of wheeling backward on
the left, in the first instai»ce, to proceed
along an alignement, O Q ; because the
troops, by wheeling to the left, would al-
ways come up to the line of their left, hand
pivots (or files.) Simple as it may seem,
this precaution is not yet sufficiently un-
derstood; or, at least, not invariably at-
tended to ; whereby many oblique move-
ments are made to remedy the error thus
generated.

But troops do not always make a full
wheel, i. e. of 90°, in many instances, as
in fig. 12 ; where an oblique position, D,
is to be taken, the whole^line, F, wheels
by small divisions, only an octavo, i. e.
the eighth of the circle, corresponding
with 45'', and thus show a succession of
fronts, like the teeth of a saw, ail parallel
to the new position of 45°. This is called
eghelloii (a French term, signifying the
steps of a ladder). Where the angle of
the new position is more or less acute
than 45°, the wheel may be made to cor-
respond nearly therewith ; so that, when
the different divisions march to their se-
veral places in the new line, they may
move fully to their fronts, and come up
square into their places. Where the
ground is bad, and that file marching is
necessary, the line may wheel to the
right in eghellon, to the requisite angle,
to point the left flanks of the divisions to
their proper situations in the new line, F,
When the right or left flank of a corps is
the pivot for the new direction, it be-
comes a point cPappiu, and the division
nearest thereto is arranged properly upon
the new line, where it remains as a guide
for the others, which, arriving in suc-
cession, prolong the new front. The
ep/ie//o7i movements may be considered pe-
culiarly safe, at the same time that they
are rapid and regular ; the line may be
formed instantly, provided the leaders of
the several divisions preserve their appro-
priate distances.

It is to be remarked, that eghellon
movements may be made in any direction,
whether to front or rear ; the divisions
wheeling tt) front or rear accordingly;

TACTICS.

thus, in fig. 13, which represents a change
of from G lo H, as the new direction runs
through ihe old one, those divisions
which are to be in front wheel forward,
while those which are to be in the rear of
the first position, G, face about, and
wheel towards the rear ; observing that
the whole wheel the same way, i. e. to the
right. The two companies nearest the
line, H, may be previously posted there-
on to advantage, so as to be settled by
the time the word is given for the others
to march. When thosie of the rear have
come to their places, they face about to
the front, and dress. And here it is ne-
cessary to remark, that the exterior flank
of every company, after being settled in
its post, becomes the point d'appni for the
next which is to arrive, and to place itself
on that flank ; but that the officer always
looks from the point ifappui towards some
object, such as a banneret, or a staff offi-
cer, &c. fixed as a guide for the aligne-
ment at that point, which is to be on the
flank, as at S S in this example.

The column, which is one of the most
frequent and important figures of the tac-
tic system, may be found in a variety of
modes; the most ordinary is by wheeling,
either wholly, or in eghellon ; but it is oft-
en useful to form it by the march of divi-
sions in files towards their posts, as shown
in fig. 14. When this is done, three files
(the leading ones) of each division turn
towards their new stations, at which their
several pivot-men are ready placed ; the
whole, when ordered, march towards
those men, and when the division, on
which the column forms, is duly covered,
each company, in succession, fronts in
conformity with that division.

This figure shows a battalion, &c. form-
ing upon its sixth company, tlie left in
front ; to effect this, the five divisions, on
the right, file from their left flanks, and
proceed to place tliemselves behind the
sixth company ; while the two companies
of the left file from their right flanks, to.
wards the front, and cover. Our readers
will perceive, that this is on the same
principle as the change of front already
described ; in fact, the formation of a co-
lumn is tantamount thereto ; it being ob-
vious, that the one unavoidably prepares
for the other. In this we suppose the
operation to be done in a proper manner ;
for a column may be easily toimed, hav-
ing its flanks reversed, so that, when or-
dered to wheel up into line, the flanks of
companies will all be misplaced; this is
called, "clubbing a battalion,'* meaning
that it is thrown into a state of coniusion.

The column may, with great advantage, i

be formed from the centre of a battalion,
the colours moving forward, supported by \

the two adjunct companies, the residue i

of each wing facing inwards, and follow- ;

ing its respective leading company. Thus :

the whole will exhibit a column of grand
divisions, each of which is formed of a '

company from either wing. When the
column is to be of only one company in
width, the reserve leads off with the co- ^
lours, and the companies of either wing j

follow alternately ; in this manner the tcR
com])anie3 will all be separated. To form
the line from such a column, it is usual
either to face the whole outward, except- '

ing the leading division, and causing each
to move out direct to the direct parallel
of its place in line, order them respective- \
iy to front, and move up in succession : '
or upon the whole facing outward, they ^

may be led by files to their several sta-
tions. When the column is in narrow
hounds, from which it cannot deploy (or i

unfold) in either of the above modes, the j
centre must halt, or step short, while the -
several divisions close up thereto, and I
then wheel, or face, to the right and left, >
according to the wings they may belong
to, and countermarch along the rear until
they arrive opposite to their respective ;
stations in line. Fig. 15, shows the de- j
ploy from a column of grand divisions ;
the companies of the riglit wing proceed- \

ing straight forward to their parallels , the I

companies of the left wing leading by
file.s into line. Fig, 16, shows a column \

ot companies alternately from the right !

and left wings ; the right wing making a i

half wheel into eghellon of whole compa- j

nies, which as they arrive at the point \
d'appjd dress up into line ; the companies
of tiie left wing not having space for de-
ploying, move tip nearly to the rear of the j
centre, wheel to the left, countermarch I
along the rear of those divisions which pre- i
cede them respectively, and arriving at the |
poi?it d'appui, wheel to the riglit into *.
line.

The column of grand divisions cannot
always proceed ; otherwise it would be
by far the most eligible for the march of
single battalions, in situations where the
enemy's cavalry might make an attack ; \

the grand divisions should all close up
to half distance, so that when ordered to {

wheel up and fc»rm the square, they '

might leave no gap in either of the flank
faces ; the two rear companies moving up i

to the spot on which the grand division i

immediately preceding them wheeled off, i

right and lett ; the front companies halt-

TACTICS.

ing during the wlueel, and closing up to
the centre as the reserve, wiih the co-
lours, passes into their rear. When there
are guns with a battalion, they move on
such occasion to the angles most liable to
be attacked ; Four pieces of cannon are
needful to render a square perfectly safe;
but, for their accommodation, it will be
necessary for each face to move forward
seven paces ; whereby the interior of the
square will he greatly increased, and
space given for the cannon to be served
at the angles ; this evolution is exhibited
under fig. 17.

The column en patence^ that is, in form
of a gibbet, is peculiarly deceptive ; es-
pecially when that column is a close one,
having no intervals between the compa-
nies ; in this the whole form one solid
mass. If discovered, the enemy will cer-
tainly direct their artillery towards it;
thereby doing great execution. The
great object of this formation is, to push
forward a strong force against some parti-
cular point, so as to bear down whatever
opposes it, or suddenly to form a flank
where a charge of cavalry is expected ; in
the latter case, the rear division of the
column halts until there is space enough
for it to wheel, (to the right, if to secure
the riglit flank) and, as each division does
the same in succession, it is evident aline
is formed, at right angles with the front
line, which keeps moving on until all the
divisions of the column have wheeled.
We have shown, in fig. 18, how this is
done on the right flank ; while on the left
we have shown an egliellon flank, which
moves with more ease than the close co-
lumn, and is not subject to so much mis-
chief from the enemy's artillery ; but this
is not so deceptive ; however, it affords
the advantage of being ready either to
form a flank, by wheeling backwards an
octave, or to move forward into line ;
which cannot be done from a close co-
lumn without deploying.

When a column is advancing towards
an enemy, it is proper that its caimon
should precede it, to clear the way by
their fire; but when retreating, the can-
non should be in the rear, to check pur-
suit. The passage of rivers is generally
conducted on the same principle ; advert-
ing to one point, where a choice can be
made ; xnz. always to cross at a re-enter-
ing bend of the stream, as shown in fig.
19, by reference to which it will be seen,
that in cro-ssing fi-om A to B, the passage
cannot be flanked by the enemy; while
it is defended by the troops which first
cross : change the position, and cross

from B to A, ^nd the enemy will flank
the passage, which you cannot defend ;
because they will enfilade whatever
troops or cannon yo\i post for that pur-
pose ; they having the command of a
greater extent of front than yourself in
the latter instance.

One of the most arduous situations in
which an officer can be placed is the
covering, or conducting, of a convoy ;
especially when heavy carriages are in
question. A numerous convoy can rarely
travel more tlian six or seven miles with-
in the day, however favourable the roads
may be ; unless it may be practicable to
draw two or three carriages abreast,
which can be practicable on plains only ;
for whenever a pinch or defile might
present itself, so as to occasion only one
carriage to proceed at a time, though
only for a few feet, as in passing a nar-
row bridge, it would have the sinne ef-
fect as if the whole day's journey were
performed in singly trains : this' is not
the case in campaign situations, because
one column of waggons may keep mov-
ing on while another is stopt ; and, if a
carriage should break down, others may
pass round it : in this way the columns
should not be far distant. When we con-
sider that a hundred waggons will cover
a mile in length, we cannot but admire
the frequent success of oflScers, perhaps
with only four or five battalions under
their command, in conducting convoys
of many hundreds of heavy carriages,
through an expo.sed country, from one
place to another ; sometimes, indeed, for
full an hundred miles. On such service
it is highly necessary to have a body of
cavalry ; else every little party of the
enemy's horse would subject the convoy
to perpetual danger and delay.

When a general expects a convoy, he
must favour its approach and safety by
every possible means : one of the best
devices is, that of threatening an attack,
so as to prevent the enemy from detach-
ing his cavalry. When the convoy is
near, and it is suspected that an attempt
will be made to cut it off by a sudden
movement, the general must, if circum-
stances admit, make one retrograde
march with his whole force to meet it;
or, if that be not practicable, he may
send orders for it to follow such route as
may be most under cover, or best remov-
ed from the danger of assault. We often
see instances of a campaign being decid-
ed by the safe arrival, or vice versa, by
the loss of a convoy. The utmost skill
sometimes cannot oppose the overbear-

TACTICS.

itig prawess of superior power ; but, as
we always suppose an army to place itself
between its expected supplies and the
enenny, it is evident, that if of equal
force, every advantage is on its side ; for
the enemy, having a greater distance to
march, when about to attack a convoy,
than the defenders have to proceed to
its rescue, and any detached party being
liable to destruction while passing round
the flank, it is evident, that, by retaining
the intermediate situation, we may gene-
rally afford every necessary protection.
When it happens otherwise, we com-
monly find that the enemy are superior
in cavalry, which they detach to a great
distance to intercept the convoy, while
their infantry remains in some strong
position. In such case a retreat is indis-
pensably necessary, and reliance must be
placed in the commander of the convoy,
(if he is warned of tlie enemy's approach)
being able either to take refuge under
the walls of some fortified place ; or on
his taking possession of some village, or
forming a barrier against the enemy, by
drawing up his waggons, &c. to the best
advantage : in such case he is virtually
entrenched ; his cattle and troops being
within an area impenetrable to cavalry,
and furnishing an excellent cover for the
keeping up a most destructive fire on
the assailants. If he can command a sup-
ply of water, he may do wonders ; at all
events, he may easily hold out until
relieved.

A retreat, well managed, is usually
more favourable than a dear earned vic-
tory. To insure the means of retreating,
without considerable loss, a second, or
eVen a third, line may be requisite : at
all events, a reserve of select troops, with
a good park of artillery, chieft^' supplied
with grape and case-shot, will be indis-
pensable. The posting a reserve re-
quires great judgment, both in regard to
the enemy's designs, and the temper of
your own troops.

The celebrated retreat of Moreau,
through the Black Forest, placed him,
ipso facto, on a footing with the greatest
conquerors of the day ; it tore from his
opponent's brows those laurels which the
latter claimed, in consequence of having
urged the French general to quit the
open country. In that instance, however,
it may, perhaps, be said, and not without
some show of justice, that the nature of
the country was greatly in favour of the
latter ; but, on the other hand, it must
be taken into account, that, unless most
skilfully managed, a retreat before a very

superior force must have been peculiarly
dangerous, especially to the cavalry : we
may, indeed, admire that system of tac-
tics, which enabled Moreau to save his
artillery and baggage. To do this, it is
evident he must have shown a firm front,
so arranged, that his opponent dared not
to ventuie an attack. The excellence of
the manoeuvre consi.sted in the decep-
tions practised ; for it was not until that
movement, when Moreau had secured
his baggage and artillery, and, as it were,
buried his army among the wildernesses,
that the Austrian general could believe
it possible for the French to escape be-
ing captured. The device used, was a
feint to escape along the skirts of the
forest, which occasioned a change of
position in the Austrian camp, and left
Moreau at liberty to push in the opposite
direction towards a pass, scarcely, indeed,
passable for carriages, and thus to defy
pursuit ; however it answered his pur-
pose, for he escaped with his whole
army.

We cannot close this article without
showing how essentially a well chosen
position contributes to success. Where
an army is weak in cavalry, it should in-
variably be parted so, that, at least, one of
its flanks may be covered from the ene-
my's horse. By this means, if its own
cavalry be held in reserve, or nearly so,
but with full powers to support the open
wing, the enemy must be kept in sus-
pense, as to the point to which it will
direct its charge ; and be compelled, in
many instances, to keep his horse divid-
ed, for the purpose of opposing that
charge on either flank. A flank may be
securely covered by a town, duly defend-
ed by infantry ; or by a river ; a morass ;
a thick wood ; a steep hill, having a bat-
tery duly posted; or even by broken
ground. In some instances, a slight in-
trenchment may be necessary.

Tactics, naval, relate to those opera-
tions in the management of a vessel,
which enable her to attain any particular
object, such as reaching a port, avoiding
danger, gaining an advantage over an
enemy, &c. In a more extended sense,
they denote those manoeuvres, strata-
gems, and deceptions, employed by the
commander of a fleet, for the purpose of
gaining a weathergage, cutting oflT any
part of a line, or attacking any particular
portion thereof, in such manner as may
either defeat the views of a hostile fleet,
or subject it to loss and discomfiture.
The old system of tactics in this, as well
as in the military branch, was burthened

TACTICS.

with ceremonies, and with received
opinions, whicli were held to be inviola-
ble -• the difference of one or two ships
in favour of the enemy was considered a
sufficient excuse for a variety of precau-
tions, generally amounting- to forbearance
from engaging the superior power ; and,
although we certainly can count a num-
ber of gallant exploits performed by our
fleets when somewhat inferior to the
enemy, it has been reserved for latter
limes to exhibit what could be done
by the British navy, even when oppos-
ed to nearly double their own force.
'I'his wonderful change was introduc-
ed by llotlney ; who, in the year
1782, engaged the French fleet under
Count de Grasse ; when, by boldly cut-
ting off a part of its rear, he compelled
nearly half the enemy's force to-sur-
render; the rest sought their safety in
fiight. Since that date. Admiral Jervis,
by a skilful manoeuvre, cut ofl' a large
portion of a Spanish fleet, near Cape St.
Vincent's, (whence the peerage bestow-
ed on him received its designation ;) but
the late Lord Nels4)n appears most con-
spicuous in that mode of attack which,
in general, secured a victory. The bat-
tle of the Nile was doubtless a master-
piece of tactical science ; it merits notice
from its simplicity, and, if we may be so
bold as to use the term, its infallibility.
The manoeuvre he used was, to throw
two of his ships upon every one of the
weather-most of the enemy's line, by
causing his fleet to divide as it approach-
ed them, consequently including each
French ship between two of oui'S. The
residue, which were moored in a line
ahead, fully expected to see ours range
up their whole length, and oppose ship
to ship. They saw their error when it
was too late ; being to leeward, it was
impossible for them to render efficient
aid, and they fell in detail ; with the ex-
ception of a very small portion, which
escaped by putting out to sea, whither
we were not in a condition to follow
with any hopes of overtaking them. See
fig. 20.

fn the famous battle of Trafalgar, in
uhicli the immortal Nelson quitted his
earthly fraiiie, the combined fleets were
drawn up in the form of a crescent, and
awaited our attack, which was made in a
double column, apparently bearing down
upon their centre. I'his novel mode of
coming into action kept tlje enemy com-
pletely in suspense : it threatened every
part of their line. If our two columns
Had turned the same wav. thev would

VOL. vr.

have been able to do infinite datnage in
that quarter, before the otlier wing of
the enemy could come up to succour
their overpowered friends : if the two
columns should cut through the centre,
they must destroy it, and effectiially se-
parate the two wings, so as to leave them
ignorant of each other's file. Such was
the fact : the enemy, though superior in
numbers, lost no less- than nineteen sail
of the line. The reader may form some
conception of that glorious event by a
reference to fig. 21.

Perhaps nothing can place a fleet in a
more dangerous state, and render it less
able to resist an attack, than making .sail
before the wind, in a line of battle a-head,
to avoid a pursuing enemy. In such a
case, whenever tlie rear of that line can
be brought to action, it becomes subject
to an accumulating force, in consequence
of the pui'suing fleet thickening upon it :
while the van of its own line, being to
leeward, nuist make many tacks, or at
least two long ones, befcr.'e it can succour
its rear. The disadvantage mtist be very
great, even if all the ships on both siiles
sail upon an exact equality ; but, as that
is never the case, many of i!ie flying
ships will be probably driven comiiletely
to leeward, and never be able to afford
the smallest assistance. YetBviiish sea-
men, even when compelled to retire be-
fore a very suj)erior force, generally ma-
nage, by some well contrived ilevice, to
intimidate their pursuers, or to put on so
g'ood a face, as to convince them of the
dear price at which the victory is to be
bought. Oftliis we cannot quote a more
appropriate instance than the escape of
five sail of our ship.s, under the command
of Admiral Cornwallis, from no less than
nineteen sail of P'rench ships of the line :
an escape resulting entirely from the
manoeuvres of the Bi-itish Admiral, where-
by he fully convinced the French that a
large force was at hand.

'i'he present unparalleled state of dis-
cipline, throughout our navy, would, of
itself, give us the command of the ocean;
but we are greatly indebted, at the same
time, to an excellent code of signals, both
for the day and the night, whereby every
operation and manoeuvre may be direct-
ed witii readiness and pers)>icuity. The
day signals are, ifiv the most J)art, made by
flags, jacks, and pennants ; the night sig-
nals by lanterns, blue lights, maroons, &c.:
in both, the firing of guns, either to
windward or to leeward, occasionally is
added. When fleets are large, or their
duty expensive, especially in cruizing to

Yv

TACTICS.

intercept a convoy of merchant vessels,
&c. there are repeating frigates, which
display the several signals made by the
commander ; so that they may be com-
municated to all the vessels : every sig-
nal being kept flying, until answered by
all ships to which they may relate.

We shall now offer to our readers some
minutia; relative to the fighting of a ship,
under ordinary circumstances; observing,
that under the head of Navigation much
will be found to instruct the learner in
ascertaining a vessel's course, way, he. ;
and under the head of Quauiia>t, w hat
relates to the common mode of taking
observations, for the purpose of ascer-
taining a vessel's locality.

When orders are given to " clear shij)
for action," the boatswain and his mates
whistle, and call, at the various hatch-
ways, to warn all who are between decks:
the hammocks, or beds, are instantly un-
hooked, packed, and sent on deck, to be
put into the nettings on the waist, fore-
castle, quarters, poop, he. where they
serve as an excellent defence against
muskeliy. While some of the seamen
are thus employed between decks, others
are aloft securing the yards in chain
slings, so as to prevent them from falling,
when the haul-yards may be severed by
cannon shot ; materials for repairing the
rigging are also placed in readiness; shot-
plugs, for stopping holes near, or under,
the surface of the water, are dispensed ;
and every attention is paid to ascertain
that the pumps are in order, so as to
clear the hold in case of leaks. The
decks are cleared of every incumbrance,
by the removal of chests, &c. into tiie
hold ; the various gun-tackles arc inspect-
ed; and all the necessary implements,
such as powder-ladles, worms, rammers,
sponges, &c. ai-e duly supplied. All be-
ing ready, the surgeon and his mate, to-
gether with the chest of medicines, in-
struments, bandages, he. are prepared
in the cock-pit; that is, down the hatch-
way, below the ordinary reach of the
enemy's shot. The officers and men re-
pair to their posts, the powder-room is
opened, the hatches are all laid, the ma-
rines drawn up on the forecastle, quar-
ter-deck and poop, the guns are run out
and levelled, and the courses, (that is, the
lower sails,) are clued up, to prevent
their being set on fire by the discharges
from the cannon ; also to render the ship
more manageable.

The greatest attention is always paid
to taking a good aim before a gun is fir-
ed, that every shot may hit some part of

the enemy's liull ; the nearer to the wa-
ter's edge the better. The captain, mas-
ter, purser, &c. remain on deck to fight
the sliip, and to note down all occurren-
ces, while the signal master attends to
and answers whatever signals may be
thrown out by the commander of the
fleet or division. It is ever a primary
object to place the ship in such a posi-
tion as may annoy the enemy most ; yet,
at the same moment, evade his principal
defences : this is best done, by laying di-
agonally upon her quarter, or bow, and
especially across her stern, so as to rake
her fore and aft ; whereby her guns will
soon be dismounted, and the men driven
from their quarters.

This description of the mannerin which
the battle is carried on by each ship, will
serve as an illustration of the whole ; but
it may be necessary to add, that the dis-
position of a fleet must be suited to the
position the adversary may have assumed.
When an enemy opposes a direct line,
opposite to that of his own fleet, the ad-
miral rarely does more than make the sig-
nal for line of battle abreast, perhaps a
cable's length asunder, thus coming at
once to close engagement, ship opposed
to ship, or rather the two fleets intermix-
ed alternately, their heads laying difler-
ent ways : if they should pass each other,
it is usual to put about, and resume the
engagement in the same manner. When
the enemy bear down in a line a-head, it
it customary to receive them in the same
manner, to prevent their cutting off a
part of the line ; this depends greatly
on the direction of the wind : but if it be
on the beam, that is, full on the side, or
in any direction affording the means of
aiding your van, without delay, by a press
of Sail, such a mode of attack will sub-
ject the enemy to have his own line cut,
as was done by Rodney ; or doubled up-,
on, as in the battle of the Nile.

During an engagement, the courses
are commonly hauled up, as before stat-
ed ; the top-gallant-sails and stay-sails are
also furled. The movcTuent of each .ship
is chiefly regidated by the mnin and fore-
top siuls, and the jib, reserving the mizen
to fill, or to be thrown aback, as an aid,
either to accelerate the ship,or asacheck
to prevent her passing the enemy. The
frigates, tenders, and other small vessels,
generally lay to, or hover about in the
rear, to repeat signals, or to aid crippled
ships. These, not being considered as
ships of the line, are not attacked, ex-
cept by vessels of their own class ; there-
fore, when a fleet is not well manned, it

'X/'

T^NIA.

is common to take all the spare hands
from such, to assist on board the fighting
ships. When a fleet is superior in num-
bers, it is proper to keep some of them
in reserve, stationing them behind the
weaker parts of the hue, to succour such
as may, by the loss of masts, &c. become
unmanageable, and to take advantage of
any opportunity to chase, and lay aboard
of whatever of the enemy's ships may
quit the line for the purpose of escaping.
In order to observe what is going on, the
admiral generally removes to some fri-
gate, on board which he hoists his flag ;
near him should be some of the best
sailing cutters, brigs, &c. to convey or-
ders which could not be accurately deli-
vered by signal, or by telegraph.

Boarding is most commonly resorted to
by privateers, in tlieir attacks upon mer-
chant vessels ; but among ships of the line
is rarely practised. Our commanders are
perhaps more forward than those of any
other nation, except the Turks, in this
kind of enterprize, which is replete with
hazard. The best mode of boarding, es-
pecially if there be any swell, is to keep
on the enemy's weather quarter ; now
and then, if the sailing of your ship will
allow, yawing, so as to throw your fire in-
to her stern : when, by tins means, you
have done any execution, it will be pro-
per to pass close under the enemy's
stern, raking her fore and aft, with your
guns double shotted, and then lay her
aboard upon her lee beam, having your
tops well manned, to fire upon the ene-
my's decks, on which also grenades, stink-
pots, fire-balls, &c. should be discharged.
Having grappled the ship to your adver-
sary's chains, your boarders jump into
her, under the cover of the fire of your
small arms. In case of repulse, the at-
tack to leeward is most favourable to tlie
retreat of your men ; besides, it is far
easier to cast off' from the enemy, than it
would be if you were to windward of
her.

TiENI A, in natural history, tape-ivorm ;
body flat, and composed of numerous arti-
culations : head with four orifices for suc-
tion, a little below the mouth : mouth ler-
r«inal, continued by a short tube into two
ventral canals, and generally crowned
with a double series of retractile hooks or
holders. Gmelin has enumerated almost
one hundred species, besides varieties : he
has divided them into sections. A. Those
found in other parts besides the intestines,
and furnished with a vesicle behind. B.
Those found in the intestines only, and

without a terminal vesicle. C. Those with
the head unarmed with hooks. 1 he worms
of the first section are found infesting
Mammalia, reptiles, and fish. Those of
the second section are found in the Mam-
malia, in birds, and in fish ; and those of
the third section infest Mammalia, birds,
reptiles, and fish. This genus of worms
are destined to feed on the juices of vari.
ous animals, and are usually found in the
alimentary canal, generally at the upper
part of it. They are sometimes found in
great numbers, and occasion the most
distressing disorders. They have the
power of reproducing parts which
have been broken off, and are therefore
removed with the utmost difficulty : they
are oviparous, and discharge their eggs
from the apertures on the joints. \Ve
shall give a few of the more remarkable
species.

1. T. visceralis, which is inclosed in a
vesicle, broad in the fore part, and pointed
in the hinder part ; inhabits the liver, the
placenta uterina, and the sac which con-
tains the superfluous fluid of dropsical
persons. 2. T. cellulosa, which is inclosed
in a cartilaginous vesicle, inhabiting the
cellular substance of the muscles; is about
an inch long, half an inch broad, and
one-fourth of an inch thick, and is very
tenacious of life. 3. T. dentata, has a
pointed head ; the large joints are streak-
ed transversely, and the small joints are
all dilated ; the osculum or opening in the
middle of both margins is somewhat rais-
ed. It is narrow, ten or twelve feet long,
and broad in the fore parts : its ovaria are
not visible to tlie naked eye : and the head
underneath, resembles a heart in shape. It
inhabits the intestines. 4. T. lata, is white,
with joints very short and knotty in the
middle; the osculum is solitary. It is
from eighteen to one hundred and twenty
feet long ; its joints are streaked trans-
versely ; its ovaria are disposed like the
petals of a rose. 5. T. vulgaris, has two
lateral mouths in each joint ; it attaches
itself so firmly to the intestines, that it can
scarcely be removed by the most violent
medicines ; it is slender, and has the ap-
pearance of being membranaceous ; it is
somewhat pellucid, from ten to sixteen
feet long, and about four lines and a half
broad at one end. 6. T. truttae, which
chiefly inhabits the livtr of the trout. 7.
T. solium, has a margn^al mouth, one on
each joint. 8. T. ovilla, found in the liver
and omentum of sheep. 9. T. celebrulis,
is aggregate ; numerous animalcules unit-
ed by their base to a large common vesi-

TJ5N1A.

cle, distributed about the surface, and re-
tract ile within it. Tliis is found in vast num-
bers in the brain, or spinal maiTow, imme-
diately beneatli t!»e brain oKsheep. These
noxious animalcules occasion giddiness
and stajjgeriiig-, and tlje disease known by
the name otthe dunl or rickets : which, if
the containing vesicle be broken, is incu-
rable; for these minute worms, in size
scarcely larger than a j^rain of sand, are
each of them furnished with from thirty-
two to thirty-six hooks on the head, by
which they fix themselves firmly to the
substance of the brain, or its coats.

The structure and physiology of the tae-
nia are curious, and it may be amusing as
well as instructive to consider it with at-
tention. The taenia appears destined to
feed upon such juices of animals as are
already animalized ; and is therefore most
commonly foinid in the alimentary canal,
and in the upper part, where there is the
greatest abundance of chyle ; for chyle
seems to be the natural food of the ta;nia.
As it is thus supported by food which is al-
ready digested, it is destitute of the com-
plicated organs of digestion. As the T.
solium is most frequent in this country, it
may be proper to describe it more particu-
larly.

It is from three to thirty feet long, some
say sixty feet. It is composed of a head,
in which are a mouth adapted to drink up
fluids, and an apparatus for giving the
head a fixed situation. The body is com-
posed of a great number of distinct pieces
articulated together, each joint having an
organ by which it attaches itself to the
neighbouring part of the inner coat of the
intestine. The joints nearest tlie head are
always small, and they become gradually
enlarged as they are furtiier removed
from it ; but towards the tail a few of the
last joints again become diminished in
si^e. The extremity of the body is ter-
minated by a small semicircular joint,
which has no opening in it.

The head of this animal is composed of
the same kind of materials as the other
parts of its body ; it has a rounded open-
ing at its extremity, which is considered
to be its mouth. This opening is continu-
ed by a short duct into two canals ; these
canals pass round every joint of the ani-
mal's body, and convey the aliment, Sui--
rounding the opening of the mouth, are
placed a number of projecting radii, which
are of a fibrous texture, whose direction
is longitudinal. These radii appear to
serve the purpose of tentacula for fixing
the orifice of the mouth, as well as that
of muscles to expand the cavity of the

mouth, from their being inserted along
the brim of that opening. After the
rounded extremity or head has been nar-
rowed into the neck, the lower part be-
comes flatted, and has two small tuber-
cles placed upon each flaUedside; the
tubercles are concave in the middle, and
appear destined to .serve the purpose of
suckers for attaching the head more dfec-
tually. The internal structure of the
joints composing the body of this unimal
IS partly vascular and partly cellular ; the
substance itself is white, and somewhat
resembles in its texture the coagulated
lymph of the human blood. The alimen-
tary canal passes along each side of the
animal, sending a cross canal over the
bottom of each joint, which connects the
two lateral canals together.

Mr. Carlisle injected with a coloured
size, by asingle push with a small syringe,
three feet in length of these canals, in the
direction from the mouth dow.nwards. He
tried the injection the contrary way, but it
seemed to be stopped by valves. The ali-
mentary canal is impervious at the ex-
treme joint, where it terminates without
any opening analogous to an anus. Each
joint has a vascular portion occupying the
middle part, which is composed of a longi-
tudinal canal, from which a great number
of lateral canals branch ofl'at right angles.
These canals contain a fluid like milk.

The taenia seems to be one of the sim-
plest vascular animals in nature. The
way in which it is nourished is singular ;
the food being taken in by the mouth,
passes into the alimentary canal, and is
thus mside to visit, in a general way, the
different parts of the animal. As it has no
excretory ducts, it would appear that the
whole of its alimentary fluid it fit for nour-
ishment ; the decayed parts probably dis-
solve into a fluid vvhicli transudes through
the skin, which is extremely porous.

This animal has nothing resembling a
brain or nerves, and seems to have no or-
gans of sense but those of touch. It is
most probably propagated by ova, which
may easily pass along the circulating ves-
sels of other animals. We cannot other-
wise explain the phenomena of worms
being found in the eggs of fowls, and in
the intestines of a fa^us before birth, ex-
cept by supposing their ova to have pass-
ed through the circulating vessels of the
mother, and by this means been conveyed
to the foetus.

The chance of an ovum being placed
in a situation where it will be batched, and
the young find convenient subsistence,
must be very small ; hence the necessity

TAL

TAL

wr Uieir being very prolific. If they had
the same powers of being prolific which
ihey now have, and their ova were after-
wards very readily liatched, then the mul-
tiplication of these animals would be im-
mense, and become a nuisance tothe other
parts of the creation.

Another mode of increase allowed to
taenia (if we may cull it increase) is by an
addition to the number of then- joints. If
we consider the individual joints as dis-
tinct beings, it is so ; and when we reflect
upon the |>ower of generation given to
each joint, it makes this conjecture the
more probable. We can hardly suppose
that an ovum of a taenia, which at its full
growtii is thirty feet long, and composed of
four hundred joints, contained a young tae-
nia, composed of this number of pieces; but
we have seen young tjeni?e not half a foot
long, and not possessed of fifty joints, which'
still wereentire worms. Wehavealso many
reasons to believe, that when a part of
this animal is broken off from the rest, it
is capable of forming a head for itself, and
becomes an independent being. The sim-
ple construction of the head makes its re-
generation a much more easy operation
than that of the tails and feet of lizards,
which are composed of bones snd compli-
cated vessels ; but this last operation lias
been proved by tite experiments of Spal-
lanzani and many other naturalists.

TAFFETY, in commerce, a fine smooth
silken stuff, remarkably glossy. See Silk.
There are tafieties of all colours, some
plain, and others striped with gold, silver,
8cc. others chequered, others flowered,
&c. according to the fancy of the workmen.

I'AGF/l'ES, in botany, murygold, a ge-
nus of the Syngenesia Polygamia S.iper-
Tlua class and order. Natural order of
Compositae Oppositifolix. Corymbiferae,
.Tussieu. Essential character : calyx one-
leaved, five-toothed, tubular; florets of
the ray five, permanent ; down witli firm
erect chaffs; receptacle naked. There
are four species, and several varieties ;
the T. erecta, African marygold, is from
three to four feet in height, divided from
the middle into many branches, each
bearing one large flower ; leaves long,
pinnate; leaflets dark green; flowers
yellow, from brimsto-nc to orang-e colour ;
of this there are five varieties, all an-
nuals.

TALC, in mineralogy, is divided into
three sub-species, viz. l.The earthy talc,
which is of a greenish white colour, com-
posed of glimmering ])early small scaly
parts : it soils a liltle, and feels ratlier
greasy. It occurs in the tin mines near

Freyburg, in Saxony. 2. Common Vene-
tian talc is of an apple green, which
passes on one side into greenish white,
and even into silver white ; on the other,
into asparagus green. It is massive, dis-
seminated, and in extremely delicate,
crystals. It is splendent and shining:
feels very greasy, and is easy frangible.
It is infu.sible before the blow-pipe, with-
out addition ; and its constituent parts
are.

Magnesia 41-

Silex 50

Alumina 6

100

This is frequently confounded With
mica, from which it is, however, distin-
guished by Wi'.nt of elasticity ; by its
greasy feel, and colour. It is almost en-
tirely confined to the primitive mountains,
where it occurs in beds, imbedded in ser-
pentine, and also in veins. It abounds
in the mountains of Tyrol and Salzburg,
hence it is brought to Venice, and on
that account has obtained the name of
Venetian talc. It is employed as a basis
for coloured crayons, and for the finest
rouge.

o. Indurated talc is of a greenish gre}''
colour: it occurs massive; lustre shining,
passing to gUstening, and is pearly, feels
rather greasy. It occui-s in primitive
mountains, where it forms beds in clay^
slate, and serpentine. It is thought to
be an intermediate link between steatite
and pot-stone, which see. It is found in
the Alps, in Stiria, and in Austi'ia, and
Hungary : also in some parts of Scotland :
the constituent parts. are,

Magnesia 38.54

Sihca o8.12

Alumina 6.66

Lime 0.41

Iron 15.02

9S.73
Loss 1.25

100.00

TALENT, money of account amongst
the ancients. Amongst the .Jews, a talent
in weight was equal to sixty maneh, or
113 lb. 10 oz. 1 dwt. 10 2 g^V.

TALES, /. e. tales de circvmstaniilnia.
bystanders, is used in law for a supply of
rncn empannelled on a jury, and not ap-

TAL

TAM

peftring, or on tliclr appearance chaUeng--
ed and disallowed, when the judge, upon
motion, orders a supply to be made by the
sheriff of one or more such persons as
are present in court, to make up a full
jury.

TALLOW tree^ a remarkable tree,
growing in great plenty in China ; so
called from its producing a substance
like tallow, which serves for the same
purpose ; it is about the height of a cher-
ry-tree, its leaves in form of a heart,
of a deep shining red colour, and
its bark very smooth. Its fruit is inclos-
ed in a kind of pod, or cover, like a ches-
nut, and consists of three round white
grains, of the size and form of a small
nut, each having its peculiar capsule, and
within a little stone. This stone is encom-
passed with a white pulp, which has all
the properties of true tallow, both as to
consistence, colour, and even smell ; and
accorcUngly the Chinese make their can-
dles of it ; which would doubtless be as
good as those in Europe, if they knew
how to purify their vegetable, as well as
we do our animal tallow. All the pre-
paration they give it is, to melt it down,
and to mix a Utile oil with it, to make it
softer and more pliant. It is true their
candles made of it yield a thicker smoke,
and a dimmer light, than ours ; but those
defects are owing in a great measure to
the wicks, which are not of cotton, but
only a little rod of dry light wood, covei'-
ed with the pith of a rush wound round
it ; which, being very porous, serves to
filtrate the minute parts of the tallow,
attracted by the burning stick, which, by
tliis means, is kept alive. See Tomex.

TALPA, the mole^ in natural history, a
genus of Mammalia, of the order Ferse.
Generic character : six fore-teeth in the
upper jaw, unequal, eight in the lower ;
tusks solitary, in the upper jaw larger ;
seven grinders in the upper, and six in
the lower. There are four species.

T. Europea, the European mole, is
about six inches in length, without tlie
tail. lis body is large and cylindrical, and
its snout strong and cartilaginous. Its
skin is of extraordinary thickness, and co-
vered with a fur, short, but yielding to
thai of no other animal in fineness. It
hears with particular acuteness, and, not-
withstanding the popular opinion to the
contrary, possesses eyes, which it is stat-
ed to be able to withdraw, or project, at
pleasure. It lives partly on the roots of
vegetables, but principally on animal
food, such as worms and insects, and is
extremely voracious and fierce. Shaw

iciales, from Sir Thomas Brown, that a
mole, a toad, and a serpent, have been re-
peatedly inclosed in a large glass vase,
and that the mole has not only killed the
others, but has devoured a very consider-
able part of them. It abounds in soft
ground, in which it can dig with ease,
and which furnishes it with the greatest
supply of food. It forms its subterraneous
apartments with great facility by its snout
and feet, and with a very judicious refer-
ence to escape and comfort. It produces
four or five young in the spring, in a nest
a little beneath the surface, composed of
moss and herbage. It is an animal inju-
rious to the grounds of the farmer, by
throwing up innumerable hills of mould,
in the construction of its habitation, or
the pursuit of its food, and many persons
in England obtain their subsistence from
the premiums which are, on this account,
given for their destruction. Moles can
swim with considerable dexterity, and
are thus furnished with the means of es-
cape, in those sudden inundations to
which they are frequently exposed. In
Ireland, the mole is unknown. See Mam-
malia, Plate XX. fig. 5.

T. radiata, or the radiated mole, is very
similar to the above, from which it is
principally distinguished by a circle of
radiated tendrils resembling the ray of a
boot-spur, attaclied to the nose. It is
a native of North America, See Mam-
malia, Plate XX. fig. 6.

The common mole of North America
belongs to the genus Sorex : its specific
name is Aquaticus,

TALUS, in fortification. Talus of a
bastion, or rampart, is the slope or dimi-
nution allowed to such a work, whether
it be of earth or stone, the better to sup-
port its weight. The exterior talus of a
work, is its slope on the side towards
the country, which is always made as
little as possible, to prevent the enemy's
scalade ; unless the earth be bad, and
then it is absolutely necessary to allow a
considerable talus for its parapet. The
interior talus of a work is its slope on
the inside towards the place,

TAMARTNDUS, in botany, tamarind
tree^ a genus of the Monadelphia Trian-
dria class and order. Nat«ral order of
Lomentaceae. Leg'-minosac, Jussieu. Es-
sential character: calyx four parted ; pe-
tals three ; nectary of two short bristles
under the filaments; legume pulpy.
There is only one species, viz. T. indica,
tamarind tree, which grows to a large
size in those countries where it is a na-
tive 5 the stem is very large, covered

TAM

TAN

with a brown bark, dividing into many
branches at the top, and spreading wide
every way ; the Howers come out from
the side of the branches, five, six, or
more together, in loose branches ; the
pods are thick and compressed ; those
from the West Indies are from two to
* five inches in length, containing two,
three, or four seeds ; those from the
East Indies are nearly twice as long,
and contain five, six, and even seven
seeds ; plants raised from both these are
so much alike as not to be distinguislied;
the difference in the size of the pods is
probably owing to soil and culture.
The calyx is straw-coloured ; the petals
are yellowish, beautifully variegated with
red veins ; peduncles half an inch in
length, each furnished with a joint, at
which the flower turns inward ; filaments
commonly three ; they are purple, and
the anthers are brownish. The timber of
the tamarind tree is heavy, firm, and
hard ; sawn into boards, it is converted to
many useful purposes in building. The
fruit is used both in food and medicine.
In many parts of America, particularly in
Curacao, they eat abundance of it raw,
without any inconvenience. In Martinico
also, they eat the unripe fruit, even of
the most austere kind.

TAMAUIX, in botany, tamarisk^ a ge-
nus of the Pentandria Trigynia class
and order. Natural order of Succulent?e.
Portulaceje, Jussieu. Essential character :
calyx five-parted ; petals five ; capsule
one-celled, three-valved ; seeds pappose.
I'here are four species : we shall notice
the T. gallica, French tamarisk, which is
a native of the south of France, Spain,
Italy, Kussia, Tartary, Barbary, and Japan,
v.'here it grows to a tree of a middling
size ; in England it is rarely more than
fourteen feet in height. The bark is
rough, and of a dark brown colour; it
sends out many slender branches, most
of which spread out fiat, hanging down-
wards at their ends ; thes^ are covered
with a chesnut coloured bark, and gar-
nished with very narrow, finely-divided
leaves, of a bright green cojour, having
small leaves or indentures, which lie over
each other like scales of fish ; the
flowers are produced in taper spikes, at
the end of the branches, several of them
growing on the same branches; tlie
spikes are about an inch long; the flowers
are set very close all round the spike ;
they are small, and have five concave pe-
tals, of a pale flesh colour, with live slen-
dof stamina, terminated by roundish red
^hers; the flowers appear in July, and

are succeeded by oblong, acute-pointed,
three-cornered capsules, filled with small
downy seeds, which seldom ripen in
England.

TAMf5AC, a mixture of gold and cop-
per, which the people of SianihoUl more
beautiful, and seta greater value on, than
gold itself

TAMBOUR, in architecture, a term ap-
plied to the Corinthian and Composite ca-
pitals, as bearing some resemblance to a
drum, which the French call tambour.

Tambouu is also used for a little box of
timber-work, covered with a ceiling,
within side the porch of certain churches,
both to prevent the view of persons pass-
ing by, and to keep off the wind. Sec. by
metms of folding doors.
« TAMUS, in botany, black bryony, a ge-
nus of ihe Dioecia liexandria class and or-
der. Natural order of Sarnientaceae. As-
paragi, Jussieu. Essential character : ca-
lyx six-parted; corolla none; female,
style trifid ; berry three-celled, inferior ;
seeds two. There are two species, viz.
T. communis, common black bryony, and
T. cretica, Creton black bryony.

TANACBTUM, in botany, tansey, a
genus of the Syngenesia Polygamia Su-
peiflua class and order. Natui-al order
of Conapositae Discoidcc. Corymbiferac,
Jussieu. Essential character: calyx im*
bricate, hemispherical ; corolla rays obso-
lete, trifid, sometimes none, and all the
flowers hermaphrodite ; down submar-
ginate : receptacle naked. There are
nine species, of which the T. vulgare,
common tansey, has a fibrous creeping
root, which spreads to a great distance ;
the herb is bitter, possessing a strong
aromatic smell. It is a native of Europe
and Siberia, in high meadows and pas-
tures, on the banks of rivers, and in
swampy places, flowering from June to
August.

TANAECIU^?, in botany, a genus of
the Didynamia Angiospermia class and or-
der : Essential character : calyx cylindri-
cal, truncate ; corolla tubular, almost
equal, five-cleft; rudiment of a fifth fila-
ment ; berry corticose, very large. There
ai'e two species, viz. T. jaroba, and T. pa
rasiticum, both natives of Jamaica.

TAN AGRA, the tanag-er, in natural his-
tory, a genus of birds of the order Piis-
seres. Generic character : bill conic,
somewhat inclining towards tlie point;
upper mandible slightly ridged and notch-
ed near the end. There are forty-four
species, of which the following deserve
tlie chief attention.

T. jacapa, or the red-breasted tanager-

TANGENT.

is of the size of a spai-row^and abounds
in various parts of America. It feeds on
fruits, and frequents gardens. Its nest is
of a cylindrical form, fixed to the hori-
zontal branch of a tree, and the entrance
is beneath. It is generally seen in pairs.

The T. tatoa, or titmouse of Paradise,
is nearly as large as a goldfiticii, is one of
tlie most beautiful birds of the genus,
adorned with the most brilliant plumage
of scarlet, blue, green, and gold. It is
found in flocks in Cayenne and Guiana,
at the season when a particular, but im-
describcd, fruit tree is in bearing, and is
said to be found, in those countries, only
in the immediate vicinity of these trees.
It maybe confined, and fed on bread and
milk; but has no powers of melody.

TANtiENT, in geometry, is defined, in
general, to be a right line, which touches
any arch of a cuive, in such a mannei-,
that no right line can be drawn between
the right line and the arch, or within the
angle that is formed by them. Tiie tan-
geJitof an arch is a right line drawn per-
pendicularly from the end of a diameter,
passing to one extremity of the arch, and
terminated by a right line drawn from the
centre through the other end of the arch,
and called the secant. And the co-tan-
gent of an arch is the tangent of the com-
plement of that arch. The tangent of a
curve is a right line, which oidy touches
the curve in one point, but does not cut it.

In order to illustrate the method of
drawing tangents to curves, let A C G,
Plate XIV. Miscel. fig. 10, be a curve of
any kind, and C the given point from
whence the tangent is to be drawn. Then
conceive a right line, m g, to be carried
along uniformly, parallel to itself, from A
towards Q ; and let, at the same time, a
point, )!>, so move in that line, as to de-
scribe the given curve, A C G ; also let
m m, or C n, express the fluxion of A in,
or the velocity wherewith the line, m g, is
carried ; and let 71 S express the corres-
ponding fluxion of Til p, in the position
m C g, or the velocity of the point, p, in
the line, m g : moreover, through the
point, C, let the right line, S F, be drawn,
meeting the axis of the curve, A Q, in F.

Now it is evident, that if the motion of
j&, along the line in g, was to become
equable at C, the point, p, would be at S,
when the line itself had got into the po-
sition in S g ; becau.se, by the hypothesis,
C n and n S express the distances that
might be described by the two uniform
motions in the same time. And iiiiv s g
be assumed to represent any other po.si-
tion of that tine, and * the conlensporary

position of the point,/*, still supposing an
equable velocity of ^ ; then the distances,
C V, and V s, gone over in the same time
by the two motions, will always be to each
other as the velocities, or as C nto nS.
Therefore, since C v : v s :: C n : n S,
(which is a known pro])erty of similar tri-
angles), the point, s, will always fall in the
right line, F C S, (fig. 11) : whence it ap-
pears, tjjat if the motion of the point, ji,
along the line, in g, was to become uni-
form at C, that point would then move in
the right line, C S, instead of the curve
line, C (i. Now, seeing the motion of /»,
in the dcscrij^tion of curves, must either
be an accelerated or retarded one ; let it
be first considered as an accelerated one,
in which case, tiie arch, C G, will fall
wholly above the riglit Hue, C D, as in
fig. 10 ; because the distance of the pc/nit,
p, from the axis A Q, at the end of any
given time, is greater than it would be if
the acceleration was to cease at C ; and
if the acceleration had ceased at C, the
point, p, woidd have been always found in
the said right line, F S. But *if the mo-
tion of the point, />, be a retarded one, it
will appear, by arguing in the same man-
ner, that the arcli C G, will fall wholly
below the right line, C D, as in fig. 11.

This being the case, let the line mg,
and the point /j, along that line, be now
supposed to move back again, towards A
and m, in the same manner they proceed-
ed from thence ; then, since the velocity
of /> did before increase, it must now, on
the contrary, decrease ; and therefore, as
/», at the end of a given time, after repass-
ing the point, C, is not so near to A Q,
as it would have been, had the velocity
contiiuied the same as at C, the arch, C k
(as well as C G) must fall wholly above
the right line, F C D : and by the same
method of arguing, the arch, C h, in the
second case, will fall wholly below F C D.
Therefore F C D, in both cases, is- a tan-
gent to the curve at the point, C ; whence
the triangles, F in C, and C n S, being
similar, it appears that the subtangent,
m F, is always a fourth proportional to
n S, the fluxion of the ordinate, C 11, the
fluxion of the absciss, and C m, the
ordinate ; that is, S n : n G :: in C : m F.
Hence, if the absciss, A m = x, and tlie

ordinate m p=:.i', we shall have m F= — ^

by means of which general expression,
and the equation expressing the relation
between x and y, the ratio of the fluxions,
X and y will be found, and from thence
the length of the sub-tangent, m F, as iw
the following examples.

TAN

TAN

1. To draw a right line C T, a tangent
to a given circle, (fig. 12) B C A, in a
given point, C. Let C S be perpenflicu-
lar to the diameter, A B, and put A B =
«, B S = .r, and S C = ?/. Then, by tlie
jjroperty of the circle, y"- (= C S^) = B S
X A S (= X X " — ^) = a X — x"- \
whereof the fluxion being taken, in or-
der to determine the ratio of x and i), we
get ^ y y = a X — 2 x x; consequently

X 2 ?/ V ... , . ,. ,

which multiplied

by,

2x

• = the sub-tan-

yx
gives — :- =-

y ia — x

gent, S T. Whence, O, being supposed
the centre, we have O S (=^ a — x) : C S
(=y) :: C S (== T/) : S T ; which is also
found to be the case from other princi-
ples,

2. To draw a tangent to any given
point, C, (fig, 13) of the conical parabola,
A C G, If the latus recium oi' the curve
be denoted by a, the ordinate M C, by ?/,
and its corresponding absciss, A M, by x ;
then the known equation, expi'essing the
relation of x and y, being ax =z y-, we
have, in this case, the fluxion a xz=s2 y y ;

whence — =.— ; and consequently, —=.

iyLJLll, = 2 a: = M F. Therefore

a a

the sub-tangent is just the double of its
corresponding absciss, A M, And so for
finding the tangents of other species of
curves.

TANNING, the art of manufacturing
leather from raw hides and skins. Before
we detail the process, it may be proper
to observe, that raw hides and skins being
composed of minute fibres intersecting
each otlier in every direction, the general
operation of tanning consists chieHy in ex-
piinding the pores, and dissolving a sort
of grciisy substance contained in them ;
and tlien, by means of the astringency and
gummy resinous properties of oak bark,
to fill and re-unite them, so as to give
firmness and durability to the whole tex-
ture. But this theory has been contro-
verted by some cliemists, who suppose
that tlie animal jelly contained in the skin
is not dissolved, but unites during the
process with the astringent principle of
the bark, and forms a combination insolu-
ble in water.

The process of tanning varies consider-
ably, not only in dilVerent countries, but
even in different parts of the same coun-
try, TheYollowing is the method most
approved and practised in London and its
vicinitv. The leather consists chiefly of

N 01- VI,

three sorts, known by the name of bultR

or backs, hides, and skins. Butts are ge-
nerally made IJom the stoutest and hea-
viest ox hides, and are managed as fol-
lows : After the lioiiis are taken oil", the
hides are laid smooth in heaps for one or
two days in the summer, and for five or
six in the winter : they are then hung on
poles, in a close room called a smoke-
iiouse, in which is kept a smouldering fire
of wet tan; this occasions a small degree of
putrefaction, by which means the liair is
easily gut ofT", by spreading the hide on a
sort of wooden horse or beam, and scrap-
ing it with a crooked knife. The hair be-
ing taken ofl", the hide is thrown into a
pit or pool of water to cleanse it from the
dirt,,&c. which being done, the hide is
again spread on the wooden beam, and
the grease, loose flesh, extraneous filth,
&.C. carefully scrubbed out or taken off";
the hides are then put into a pit of strong
liquor called ooze or wooze, prepared in
pits called letches or taps kept for the pur-
pose, by iniusing ground bark in water ;
this is termed colouring : after which they
are removed into another pit called a
scowering, which consists of water strong-
ly impregnated with vitriolic acid, or with
a vegetable acid prepared from rye or bar-
ley. This operation (which is called rais-
ing,) by distending the pores of the
hides, occasions them more readily to
imbibe the ooze, the effect of whic!) is to
astringe and condense the fibres, and give
firmness to the leather. The hides are
then taken out of the scowering, and
spread smooth in a pit commonly filled
with water, called a binder, with a quan-
tity of ground bark strewed between
each.

After lying a month or six weeks, tliey
ai'e taken up ; and the decayed bark and
liquor being drawn out of the pit, it is fill,
ed again with strong ooze, win n they are
put in as beibre, with bark between each
iiide. They now lie two or three months,
at the expiration of which the same oj)i;-
ration is repeated ; they then remain four
or five months, when they again undergo
the same process; and alter being three
months in the last pit, aie completely tan-
ned, unless the hides are so remarkably
stout as to want an additional pit or
layer.

The whole process requires from eleven
to eighteen months, and sometimes two
years, according to ihe .substance of the
hide, anddiseretion of the tmuier. When
taken out of the pit to be dried, they are
hung on poles ; and after being cgmpress-

Z" /,

TANNING.

cd by a steel pin, and beat out smooth by
wooden liammers called beetles, the ope-
raiion is complete ; and when thoroughly
dry, they are tit tor sale. Uutts are chief-
ly used for the soles of stout shoes. The
leather which goes under the denomina-
tion ot hides is generally made from cow
hides, or the lighter ox hides, which are
thus managed. Alter the horns are taken
off', and the hides washed, they are put
into a pit of water saturated whh lime,
where they remain a few days, when they
are taken out, and the hair scraped off on
a wooden beam, as before described; they
are then washed in a pit or pool of water,
and the loose flesh, &c. being taken off,
they are removed into a pit ot Weak ooze,
where they are taken up and put down
(which is technically termed handling)
two or three times a day for the first
week : every second or third day they are
shifted into a pit of fresh ooze, somewhat
stronger than the former ; till, at the end
of a month or six weeks, they are put into
a strong ooze, in which they are handled
once or twice a week with fresh bark for two
or three months. They are then removed
into another pit, called a layer, in which
they are laid smooth, with bark ground ve-
ry fine, strewed between each hide. After
remaining here two or three months, they
are generally taken up, when the ooze is
drawn out, and the hides put in again
with fresh ooze and fresh bark; where,
after lying two or three months more,
they are completely tanned, except a few
very stout hides, which may require an
extra layer: they are then taken out, hung
on poles, and being hammered and
smoothed by a steel pin, are, when dry, fit
for sale. These hides are called crop
hides ; they are from ten to eighteen
months in tanning, and are used for the
soles of shoes.

Skins is the general term for the skins
of calves, seals, hogs, dogs, 8tc. These,
after being washed in water, are put into
lime-pits, as before mentioned, where they
are taken up and put down every third or
fourth day, for a fortnight or three weeks,
in order to dilate the pores and dissolve
the gelatinous parts of the skin. The
hair is then scraped off, and the flesh and
excrescences being removed, they are put
into a pit of water impregnated with pi-
geon dung (called a grainer or mastring,)
forming a strong alkaline ley, which, in a
week or ten days, soaking out the lime,
grease, and saponaceous matter (during
which period they are several times scrap-
ed over with a crooked knife to work out

the dirt and filth), softens the skins, and .

prepares them for the reception of the ;
ooze. They are then put into a pit of
weak ooze, in the same manner as the
hides, and being frequently handled, are

by degrees removed into a stronger I

and still stronger liquor, tor a monlh or j

six weeks, when they are put into a very i

strong ooze, with fresh bark ground very !

fine ; and at the end of two or three ]

months, according to the substance, are ^

sufficiently tanned ; when they are taken '

out, hung on poles, dried, and fit for sale. |

These skins are afterwards dressed and ]
blacked by the currier ; and are used for

the upper-leathers of shoes, boots, &.c. <
The lighter sort of hides, called dressing

bides, as well as horse hides, are managed i

nearly in the same manner as skins; and \

are used for coach-work, harness-work, J

&c. ]

Having given some account of the pro-
cess, as commonly used in this country, .
we proceed to one recommended by M. Se- '
guin in France, who is supposed to have *
done much towards simplifying and ren- ;
dering perfect the art. In order to give ;
currency to the knowledge which he had i
obtained by a long course of experiments j
and actual practice in the business, he ^
exhibited without reserve all that he had ■
discovered, and at the same time actually
executed his processes on the large scale, '
furnishing gratuitously skins and tan, in
order that others who were witnesses to ,
his plans might repeat for themselves, and
at their leisure, the experiments they had |
seen him go through. We shall give an I
outline of his plan and reasoning on this i
important subject. i

Skins swell up, and become soft, by
moisture, which renders them permeable
to water. Hence they are easily destroy- !
ed by the putrid process which ensues, I
and they become dry and brittle when
the moisture is evaporated. Accident, no \
doubt, occasioned the discovery of the j
means ofpreventing these inconveniences
by the use of certain vegetable substan- j
ces, particularly the bark of oak. It was
seen that skins prepared with these sub-
stances acquired new properties; that, '
without losing their flexibility, they be- i
came less permeable to water , more firm, j
more compact, and in some measure inca-
pable of putrefaction. These observations j
gave birth to the art of the tanner. This
art, no doubt of high antiquity, because ■
founded on one of the earliest wants of
man in society, comprehends a succession
of processes which was executed by habit 3

TANNING.

and imitation, without a knowledge of" the
essential objects. The preparation of
skins accordingly required several years,
and frequently, in spite of the caie, ex-
pense, and slowness of the operation, the
tanning was incomplete ; the skin formed
a soft and porous leather, which was soon
destroyed by moisture. These defects
essentially sprung from ignorance of the
true principles of this operation, because
no discovery had been made respecting
the action of tan upon the skin, and the
circumstances, or conditions, which might
accelerate or retard the process.

To arrive at this knowledge in an accu-
rate manner, it is necessary to consider,
first, the nature and properties of tan ; and
secondly, the structure and composition of
the skin. We shall not enter into the de-
tail of such precautions as are requisite in
the choice ot oak bark, the time and man-
ner of separating it from the tree, preserv-
ing it, or pulverising it. It will be suffi-
cient for our object to remark, that water
poured into a vessel upon tan acquires, af-
ter some hours infusion, at the common
temperature of the atmosphere, a brown
colour, an astringent taste, and becomes
charged with the most soluble substances
contained in the tan ; that by drawing off
the water, and adding a similar quantity to
the tan repeatedly, the whole of the solu-
ble parts may be successively extracted,
the water ceases to acquire colour, and
there remains in the tub a mere fibrous
matter or parenchymatous texture, insolu-
ble in water, and no longer adapted to
promote the operation of tanning. This
residue is therefore always rejected in the
manufactories as useless. It is only used
by gardeners for their hot-beds, but might
probably be advantageously applied in
the fabrication of coarse paper.

It is therefore in the water of infusion,
or the lixiviations of tan, that we must
seek for the soluble substances which
alone are efficacious in tanning. On
examination of the water of the last fil-
tration, it is found to be not only
clearer, less impregnated, and less acrid
than the water of the first Hxiviation, but
likewise that it possesses all the proper-
ties of the gallic acid. It reddens the in-
fusion of tournsol, acts upon metallic solu-
tions, and more particularly it precipitates
a black fecula from sulphate of iron, &c.
And it is also found, that a piece of fresh
skin, divested of its fat and sanguine hu-
mours, and macerated in this liqour, in-
stead of becoming compact, is softened
and swells up.

The liquor of the first lixiviation exhi-
bits a very difiercnt character. It is more
coloured and astringent ; it not only ex-
hibits the properties of tlie gallic acid,
by the alterations it causes in the blue
colours of vegetables, and the black pre-
cipitate it forms with the sulphate of iron;
but it likewise possesses the remarkable
quality of forming, with animal gelatine,
or glue, a yellowish abundant precipitate,
insoluble in water, not putrescible, whicli
becomes hard and brittle by drying ; and
if a piece of skin properly prepai*ed be
immersed in this fluid, it becomes gradu-
ally more compact, and is converted into
leather.

Thei;e exist, therefore, in the same
fluid, two very different substances : the
one, which precipitates a black matter
from iron, is the gallic acid or principle ;
the other, which precipitates animal ge-
latine or glue, is called the tanning prin-
ciple, on account of its efficacy in the
preparation of leather.

To leave no doubt on this important
point, it was proved, by a number of ex-
periments easy to be repeated. 1. That
the liquor of the last lixiviation, though
coloured, and of an astringent taste, af-
fords no precipitate with glue ; a fact,
which seems to show that the gallic acid
contained in the bark is less soluble thau
the tanning principle. In fact, as has al-
ready been remarked, when water is suc-
cessively poured on the tan, an infusion is
at last obtained, which no longer precipi-
tates glue, though it precipitates sulphate
of iron very well. 2. The liquor of the
first lixiviation, after having been saturat-
ed with glue or animal gelatine, and
forming an abundant precipitate with that
substance, is entirely deprived of the
tanning principle. It no longer differs
from the liquor of the last filtrations, and
contains merely a portion of the gallic
acid. Hence the addition of sulphate of
iron affords a new precii)itate with this
hquor. 3. As the tanning principle has
a strong attraction to the animal gelatine,
with which it always forms an insoluble
precipitate, this property affords a very
convenient re-agent to ascertain its pre-
sence immediately in any fluid, and to de-
termine with precision its quantity. Ac-
cordingly, the infusion of tan poured in-
to| milk, whey, serum, brotli, &c. forms,
with these liquors, a precipitate more or
less abundant, according to the quantity
of gelatine they contain.

This peculiar property of the tanning
principle affords an application, which

TANNING.

n^ay become of great im])ortance in the
art of treating diseases, to determine the
nature of urine, and to ascertain some of
its cliangcs. In the healthy subject, all
whose fiujctions are duly exercised, the
urine does not contain gelatine, nor af-
ibrd a precipitate with the infusion of tan:
on the contrary, in all the gastric affec-
tions, the urine is more or less charged
with gelatine ; and forms, with the infu-
sion of tan, a precipitate more or less
abundant. The same observation is ap-
plicable to acute and chronical diseases,
in which the assimilating or digestive
forces are troubled, deranged, or per-
verted. 4. The gallic acid, or, if other
terms be preferred, the principle which
precipitates the sul[)hate of iron, is often
found alone, or at least without being ac-
companied by the tanning principle.
Thus, quinquina, crude or torrefied cof-
fee, the roots of the strawberry- plant,
scrofularia, milfoil, arnica, the flowers of
Roman camv)mile, and all the multitude
of plants vaguely comprised under the
title of astringents, contaiji the gallic acid
onl)-. All these form with the sulphate
of iron a precipitate more or less colour-
ed and abundant ; but none of them pro-
duce the slightest change in the solution
of animal glue. On the contrary, the
taiming principle has never been found
alone, but always united or combined
with the gallic principle. It was long
supposed to exist exclusively in the oak,
the nut-gall, and sumac, the only sub-
stances used at the tan-works ; but it is
found more or less abundantly in the
siliquastrum, the rose-tree, the larix, se-
veral species of pines, the acacias, the
lotus, the squill, the roots of bistort, of
rhubarb, ofparella, and several other
plants. We have also foimd this princi-
ple in the products of distillation of dif-
ferent vegetable substances, where it
was in some measure formed during the
operation.

From these different considerations,
founded on experiment, the following
general principles may be deduced : 1,
Every substance of which the infusion is
capable of precipitating animal jelly, pos-
sesses the tanning property. 2. Every
substance which possesses the tanning
property, likewise precipitates the sul-
phate of iron black. 3. Every substance
which precipitates the sulphate of iron,
but not the solution of glue, does not pos-
sess the tanning property.

Upon M. Seguin's principle, a patent
was some years since taken out by Mr.
W. Desmojid, who obtains the tanning

principle by digesting oak-bark, or other
proper material, in cold water, in an ap-
j)aratus nearly similar to that used in the
sult-jjetre works. That is to say, the
water which has remained upon the pow-
dered bark for a certain time, in one ves-
sel, is drawii oft" by a cock, and poured
u\)on fresh tan. This is again to be drawn
(jir, and poured upon other fresh tan ;
and in this way the process is to be con-
tinued to the lifth vessel. The liquor is
then highly coloured, and marks, as Mr.
Desmond says, from six to eight degrees
on the hydrometer for salts. He calls
this the tanning lixivium. The criteri-
on to distinguish its presence is, that it
precipitates glue from its ac|ueous solu-
tion, and is also useful to examine how
far otlier vegetable substances, as well
as oak-bark, may be suitable to the pur-
pose of tanning. The strong tanning
liquor is to be kept by itself It is found,
by trials with the glue, that the tanning
principle of the first digester which re-
ceives the clear water is, of course, first
exhausted ; but the same tan will still
give a certain portion of the astringent
principle, or gallic lixivium, to water.
The presence of this principle is ascer-
tained by its striking a black colour when
added to a small cjuantity of the solution
of vitriol of iron, or green copperas. As
soon as the water from the digester
ceases to exhibit this sign, the tan is
exhausted, and must be replaced with
new. The gallic lixivium is reserved
for the purpose of taking the hair off
from hides. Strong hides, after wash-
ing, cleaning, and fieshing, in the usual
way, are to be immersed for two or
three days in a mixture of gallic lixivi-
um, and a thousandth part, by measure,
of dense vitriolic acid. By this means
the hair is detached from the hides, so
that it may be scraped off with a round
knife. When swelling or raisings is re-
quired, the hides are to be immersed for
ten or twelve hours in another vat, filled
with water, and one five hundredth part
of the same vitriolic acid. The hides be-
ing then repeatedly washed and dressed,
are ready for tanning ; for which purpose
they are to be immersed for some hours
in a weak tanning hxivium, of only one
or two degrees; to obtain which, the
latter portions of the infusions are set
apart, or else some of that which has been
partly exhausted by use in tanning. The
hides are then to be put into a stronger
lixivium, where, in a few days, they will
be brought to the same degree of satu-
ration with the liquor in which they are
immersed. The strength of the liquor

TAN

TAN

will b)' this means be considerably di-
minished, and must therefore be renew-
ed. When tlie hides are by this means
completely saturated, that is to say, per-
fectly tanned, they are to be removed,
and slowly dried in the shade. Calf-skins,
goat-skins, and the Uke, are to he steep-
ed in lime-water, after the usual fleshing"
and washing-. These are to remain in the
lime-water, which contains more lime
than it can dissolve, and requires to be
stin'ed several times a-day. A fter two or
three days, the skins are to be removed,
and perfectly cleared of their lime by
washing: and pressing in water. The
tanning process is then to be accom-
plished in the same manner as for the
strong hides ; but the lixivium must
be considerably weaker. Mr. Des-
mond remarks, that lime is used, in-
stead of the gallic lixivium, for such
hides as are required to have a close
grain ; because the acid mixed with that
Uxivium always swells the skins more or
less : but that it cannot, with the same
convenience, be used with thick skins,
on accownt of the considerable labour re-
quired to clear them of the lime ; any
part of which, if left, would render them
harsh, and liable to crack. He recom-
mends, likewise, as the best method to
bring the whole surface of the hides in
contact with the lixivium, that they should
be suspended vertically in the fluid, by
means of transverse rods or bars, at such
a distance as not to touch each other.
By this practice, much of the labour of
turning and handling may be .saved. Mr.
Desmond concludes his specification by
observing, that in some cases it will be
expedient to mix fresh tan with the lixi-
vium ; and that various modifications of
strength, and other circumstances, will
present themselves to the operator. He
affirms that, in addition to the great sav-
ing of time and labour in this method,
the leather, being more completely tan-
ned, will weigh heavier, wear better, and
be less susceptible of moi.sture, than lea-
ther tanned in the usual way; that cords,
ropes, and cables, made of hemp or
speartery, impregnated with the tanning
principle, will support much greater
weights without breaking, be less liable
to be worn out by friction, and will run
more smoothly on puUies; insomuch
tliat, in his opinion, it will render the
use of tar in many cases, particularly in
the rigging of ships, unnecessary ; and,
lastly, that it may be substituted for the
preservation of animal food instead of
salt. The intelligent manufacturer will
readily perceive, (hat this new method

is grounded on two particular circjim-
.stances, besides a more scientific ma-
nagement of the general process than
has been usual. Tjie first consists in the
method of determining the presence and
quantity of the tanning principle by the
hydrometer, and the precipitation of glue:
the second in applying this principle, in
a concentrated state, more early in point
of time than has, perhaps, been hitherto
done. Our tanners, after the common
previous processes, and unhairing by
acids, by lime, or by piling- the hides,
that they may heat and begin to putrify,
apply the solution of tan, wliich they call
ooze, in a great number of pits in the
tan-yard* 'I'hey begin with the weakest
solution which has been used, and is of
a lighter colour than the other ; and they
pass the hides, according to tlieir judg-
ment and experience, into oozes which
ai*e stronger and stronger ; imtil at last,
in certain cases, tlie hides come to be
buried, for a certain time, in a solid ma.ss
of tan, or oak -bark. The oak-bark itself,
in the pits, is not only the source from
which the water extracts the tanning
principle, but seems, likewise, in some
measure, during the last stages of the
process, to operate mechanically, by
keeping the surfaces of the hides from
touching each other.

TANTALITE, in mineralogy, a metal-
lic fossil of an iron black colour on the ex-
ternal surface, but internally between
bluish-grey and iron-black. It occurs
imbedded, in masses of the size of a hazel
nut, which have a tendency to the octahe-
dral form. Externally it is smooth and
glimmering ; internally it is shining, and
its lustre metallic. Specific gravity is
7.95. Its constituent parts are, tantalium,
iron, and manganese. It is found imbed-
ded in quartz, in Sweden; its name is de-
rived from the new metal denominated
Tantalium, which see-

TANTALIUM, a metal discovered by
M, Ekeberg, in the mineral just mention-
ed ; and in another named Ytrotantalite.
From each he extracted by means of the
fixed alkalies a white powder, which he
ascertained to be the oxide of a peculiar
metal ; to this he gave the name of tanta-
lium. When this oxide is powerfully
heated with charcoal, it yields a button
moderately hard, which, externally, has-
a metallic lustre, but internally it is black,
and without any degree of brilliancy. The
acids will reduce it again to an oxide, but
they will not dissolve it. It melts before
the blow-pipe with borax, or phosphate
of soda, but gives no colour to either of
them. Its specific gravity is about 6.5.

TAN

'.i^Vfk^-ffci*.*.^

TAP

TANTALUS, the ibis, in natural histo-
ry, a g-emis of birds of the order Grallx.
Cieneric character : bill long- ; thick at
tJ«e base, incurvaled ; face naked, a»)d
sometimes all the head ; tongue broad
and short ; nostrils linear and oval ; four
toes, connected by a membrane at the
base. There are nineteen sjKcies, of
which we shall notice tlie following: T.
loculator, the wood ibis, is of the size of
a goose, and the length of three leet, and
is found in Carolina, and in many coun-
tries of South America, haunting, parti-
cularly, those low tracts which are inun-
dated during summer. These birds
subsist on reptiles and fish, have little sa-
gacity, and are often seen in cypress trees
of extraordinary height, with their heavy
bills reposing on their breasts. They are
in use lor the table, though far from be-
ing excellent.

T. ruber, or the scarlet ibis, is found in
America, and the neighbouring islands.
"> Its plumage is of a most ardent scarlet,
and it is one of the most beautiful birds of
the genus. It subsists on insects, and the
ova of fishes, for which, on the ebbing of
the tide, it frequents the shores. It
perches in trees, but lays its eggs on the
ground. The old birds and the young
keep in distinct Hocks. They do not at-
tain the fall lustre and glow of plumage
till their third year ; and in sickness
and confinement lose almost all their
brilliancy.

T. ibis, or the Egyptian ibis, is more
than three feet long, and as large as a
stork. On the retreating of the Nile, it is
Ibimd in Lower Egypt in great numbers,
subsisting on insects and frogs. It perches
on palm trees, and sleeps in an erect atti-
tude, its tail touching its legs. It is sup-
posed by some naturalists to be the ibis
of the ancients, and is known to destroy
and devour serpents. Others suppose it
to be the ox-bird described by Shaw. For
the blackheaded ibis, see Aves, Plate XIV.
%. 2.

TANTALUS'S cupy in hydraulics, a si-
phon, so adapted to a cup, that the short
leg being in the cup, the long leg may go
down through the bottom of it.

The bended siphon is called Tantalus's
cup, fiom the resemblance of the experi-
ment made with an image in the glass, re-
presenting Tantalus in the fable, fixed up
in the middle of the cup, with a siphon
concealed in his body, beginning in the
bottom of his feet, and ascending to the
upper part of his breast ; there it makes
a turn, and descends through the other
leg, on which he stands; and from thence

down through the bottom of the cup, \
where it runs out, and causes the water
to subside in the cup ; as soon as it rises i
to the height of the siphon, or to the chin ,
of the image, the water will begin to run i
through the siphon concealed in the fi-
gure, till the cup is emptied in the man- |
ner explained under siphon, and repre- ■
sented more distinctly in the article Hy- j

DRAULICS.

TAPE worm. See Taenia.

TAPESTRY. It has been supposed \

that the use of tapestry was introduced |

into the various nations of Europe from i

the Levant, by the princes and nobles who \

commanded in the different crusades un- i

dertaken to recover the Holy Land from i

the Saracens ; but this supposition seems i

in a great measure to rest on the fact, that i

the workmen employed in this pursuit in '

France were called Sarrassinois. We do '

not find, upon referring to the travels of J

Bertrandon de la Brocquiere to Palestine, \

in 1432* any thing to support the asser- ;

tion, neither do our modern tourists men- i

tion tapestry as used by the present inha- |
bitants of that country. Lempriere de-
scribes the apartments of the Harem at
Morocco to have been hung with rich

damasks ; but as the same rooms had j

European mirrors on the walls, it does |
not appear quite clear that the hangings
were not introduced by the same means.

There is not a doubt that the Greeks \
used tapestry, as Homer frequently men-
tions the labours of the loom in a manner j
that proves the production of it could
have been employed in no other way.
Those countries which are subject to long '
and cold winters, made it necessary that
the rich and powerful should adopt some ^
method to check its disagreeable effects i
on domestic comfort; and besides, the feu- j
dal system universally prevailing, their i
residences were calculated for military
purposes only : and every consideration i
of internal convenience was sacrificed to i
tiie means of defence from their jealous
and envious neighbours of the same rank
in the state; hence they constructed |
their mansions with walls as solid and im- '
penetrable as those of a fortified city, in i
which the windows were little better than \
loop-holes for missive weapons external- ;
ly, whence they were widened inwards |
to make the most of the little light and
air they were capable of admitting.

Cold and dreary as all their apartments
were, every possible contrivance was

made to temper the damp chill of the i

walls ; for this purpose vast fire places '

were constructed, occupying aUnost one <

TAPESTRY.

side of Ihe s(iuare, and hangings were
suspended to exclude from view tlie
rough surface of the massy stones, and
to confine the humidity in them from im-
mediately attaching to the family. That
which may have been used in Greece, in
Palestine, and throughout Asia, for the
double purposes of ornament, and for the
convenience of easy removal during the
warmth prevaiUng in those countries,
where tapestry or hangings make the
most pleasant partitions or separations of
apartments, became necessary in the
greatest part of Europe through a direct-
ly opposite cause.

Whatever was the nature of the origi-
nal hangings in our quarter of the globe,
and wherever they were Introduced from,
it is very certain that the French have had
the honour of giving them their present
denomination, which is derived from ta-
pisser, to line, and that from the Latin
tapes. It is very probable that the ta-
pestry of ancient times in England, and
on the Continent, was equally rude and
barbarous with the paintings of the same
period, and perhaps more so; and in the
present state of the country it is difficult
to ascertain when it improved, or when
attempts were made to introduce figures
in the weaving of it. When the feudal
system ceased, our castles and castellated
mansions were gradually deserted, and
their possessors, mixing more with the
general population, began to admire the
comforts of society, and to adopt some of
the customs of those they had hitherto
despised ; hence occurred a new mode of
building, which, though it in some degree
resembled that of their ancestors, was
attended with infinite improvement. It Is
in the residences thus produced that we
are now to look for the tapestry once so
necessary, but in the latter instance pre-
served through a laudable family pride,
and as objects of curiosity. At Hard-
wicke Hall in Derbyshire, one of the seats
of the Duke of Devonshire, built by a
Countess of Shrewsbury, in the reign of
Queen Elizabeth, some very interesting
tapestry and hangings of a bed are shown,
which were worked by Mary, Queen of
France and Scotland, during her long
confiaement at that place, previously to
her execution. As may be anticipated,
from her mode of faith, and the circum-
stances of her situation, the colours and
subjects are of a sombre and melancholy
cast, but sufficiently well done to excite
approbation.

Those it will be remembered are the
product of the needle, and are therefore

very different from that which adorns
the walls of the House of Lords from the
loom, and are nearly coeval vv iiii the per-
formances of the royal captive ; the latter
have long been celebrated as the only
representations we possess of the de-
struction of the Spanish Armada, but
their age and the fadiiig of their colours
have greatly lessened their interest. Ex-
clusive of those, there are specimens of
ancient tapestry at the Chai-ter House,
placed there by the Duke of Norfolk in
the reign of Elizabeth, and at St. James's
Palace, which is tlie best in every par-
ticular of all that has been mentioned.

It will be perceived, that in each of
these instances the dates nearly corre-
spond, whence it may be safely conclud-
ed, that very little use was made of tapes-
try after the reign of James I. in England.
Next to the English, the Flemings were
most expert at weaving of rich hangings ;
the French, who subsequently exceeded
all other nations in this art, did not apply
themselves to it till the reigi^ of their
Henry IV, when an estabhsliment wa.s
made in the year 1607 in the Fauxbourg
St. Michael at Paris ; after the assassina-
tion of that monarch, the manufactory
was neglected, nor was it revived till the
reign of Louis XIV. under the auspices
of Colbert, who caused a receptacle for
this work to be constructed, where two
brothers named Giles and John Gobelins,
had long before been celebrated as ex-
cellent dyers, whence the name, wbicli
an edict issued by Louis, confirmed undei*
the title of Hotel Royal des Gobelins, As
it was the intention of the luxurious
monarch just mentioned to excel all Jiis
contempoi-ary sovereigns of Eui'ope in
the splendour of his palaces and establish-
ments, the manufactory of the Gobelins
was placed by him under a complete sys-
tem of government, and it flourished, with
some fluctuations of neglect and en-
couragement, as a royal institution, till
the late revolution, during which dread-
ful period it Vvas consigned, to all ap-
pearance, to irretrievable ruin ; but the
subsequent consulship of Bonaparte, and
his further elevation to the throne of
France, has in a great degree recovered
it, though the change in public opinion
in the manner of decorating walls will
prevent it from obtaining its pristine en-
couragement.

Tiie reader will forgive our enlarging
on this subject, as the Gobelins is the
only manufactory of taj)cstry remaining
in Europe worthy of particular notice,
and where paintings are imitated with all

TAPESTRY.

the strength and bearily of colouring of
the pictures from which they are copied.
M. Le Maistre, who visited Paris in 1802,
mentions two pieces made about that
time, one representing the assassination
of Admiral Coligni, and tlie other the
heroic conduct of tlie President Mole, of
uncommon excellence. Ninety persons
were then employed, and appeared to
work with the utmost ease,though sis years
apprenticeship and mucli attention and
care are required to attain superior skill.
Previously to the change in the govern-
ment of France, the workmen were in a
great degree slate prisoners, but such is
the jealousy of rivalship, that they are
stil] under the si)ecial care or surveillance
of the police ; and the pieces manufac-
tured were destined principally to orna-
ment the favourite residence of St. Cloud,
and some other public buildings. To this
information we shall subjoin the still
more recent account of Mr. l^inkerton in
1805. "In the ancient method," says
that gentleman, " the workmen were
obhged to stoop, which was found detri-
mental to their health, and the pictures
were destroyed, being cut in pieces in
the width of the loom ; tlie figures were
also reversed. Neilson, an intelligent
foreman, contrived to save the pictures,
in tracing them with oil-paper. Nor were
the figures reversed as before, and the
picture itself was placed behind the
workman, that he might accurately ex-
press the shades ancl tone of colour. Still
the result could not be judged of, till
each division was perfected in the loom.
Vaucanson superadded an easy and in-
genious mechanism, to examine with
pleasure the progress of the work; but
the manufacture continued to be guided
by a servile routine."

The last director introduced three im-
provements, which cannot very well be
explained, but the restdt has been of
great advantage in the manner of weav-
ing; and as more judgment has been
evinced in the selection of pictures for
copying, the style of colouring partakes
more of the taste of each master than
when it was the custom to make all the
tints vivid and gaudy; besides, as they
have ceased to use silk, the tapestry is
much less subject to fade. " Yet," adds
Mr. Pinkerton, "the colours are suffi-
ciently bright and various to represent,
■with exquisite truth, all the fine tints of
beautiful flowers. It is however to be
regi'ctted that these splendid tapestries
become so expensive, from the length of
time required in the workcnanship, that

even the rich tremble : and the sale to
the government, which presents them to
distinguished foreigners, aftbrds the chief
if not sole consumption. The sum an-
nually allowed, to support the manufac-
ture in its greatest activity, is estimat-
ed at one hundi-ed and fifty thousand
francs."

As it is not in our power to obtain the
precise improvements made in the man-
ner of weaving tapestry, we are com-
pelled to describe the mode by which
that now remaining in England was made,
and which is undoubtedly the basis of the
present method in use at the Gobelins.
'J'he loom employed for this purpose
stands perpendicularly, and is composed
of four principal pieces, two of which are
long planks, and the others rollers or
beams of considerable diameter ; the
planks are placed upright, and the beams
cross them at either extremity of the
loom, the lower at about twelve inches
from the floor; each have trunnions v, hicli
suspend them on the planks, and they
are turned with bars. The rollers are
grooved lengthways, in which are fasten-
ed long cylinders of wood with hooks ;
the use of these is to fiisten the ends of
the warp to, the latter of twisted woollen
thread encircles the upper roller, and it
is worked as fast as wove on the lower.

The planks already mentioned are
seven or eight feet in height, from four-
teen to fifteen inches broad, and three or
more in thickness ; their interior surfaces
are pierced into holes the whole length,
for the admission of thick pieces of iron
with hooks at their ends, which are in-
tended to support what is called the coat-
stave ; those irons are also pierced to re-
ceive pins, by which the stave is con-
tracted or expanded at pleasure. The
coat-stave, three inches in diameter, ex-,
tends the whole length of the loom, and
on it are fixed the coats or threads, and
thus the threads to the warp cross each
other, in this particular having nearly the
same eflect witii the spring-stave and
treddlcs in the conmion looms. The
coats, as they are called, are threads
fastened to each thread of the warp by a
sliding knot ; those keep the warp open,
and thus the broaches bearing the ma-
terial for weaving are passed freely
through, according to the will of the
workman ; besides, the process is further
facilitated by small pieces of wood, which
are used to make the thread of the warp
intersect each other, and that those may
keep their due situation, a packthread is
run among the threads above the stick-

TAR

TAR

We will now suppose the loom pre-
pared with the warp, the operator then
proceeds to sketch the principal outUne
on the threads composing it from the pic-
ture or design to be copied, and this is
done by placing the painting, or a car-
toon, on the back of the intended tapes-
try, and tracing it with a black-lead pen-
cil ; after accomplishing the transfer, the
original is rolled on a cylinder, and plac-
ed behind the workman, who unrolls it
in tlie same progression with which he
weaves. Exclusive of the instruments
already mentioned, a broach, a reed, and
an iron needle, are required for introduc-
ing the silk or wool of the woof amongst
the threads of the warp ; the first is about
two-thirds of an inch thick, and seven or
eight inches in length, terminating at one
extremity in a point, with the other form-
ed into a kind of handle, and is made of
hard wood ; this broach, as it is termed,
serves as a shuttle, the silk, wool, gold,
or silver thread, being wound on it. The
reed is a kind of comb, made of wood,
eight or more inches in length, and an
inch thick at the back, tapering thence
to ihe teeth, which vary in their distance
from each other, according to the fine-
ness of the tapestry. The needle varies
from the common instrument of that name
only in its size, and its use is to press the
material close in those parts where any
defect is observed. The most singular
part of the weaving of tapestry is the
position of the weaver, who works on the
wrong side of the piece, and with his
back to the picture he is to imitate ; con-
sequently, he is frequently compelled to
leave his position and pass to the oppo-
site side of the loom, to ascertain
whether he has been correct in his pro-
ceedings. When he is about to put the
material in the warp, he turns and ex-
amines the original ; then having furnish-
ed the broach with the colour required,
fce introduces it amongst the threads of
the warp, which he brings across each
other with his fingers, through the as-
sistance of the coats or threads secured
to the staff, and this operation is repeated
with every change of tint. After the
wool or silk is placed, he presses it close
with the reed or comb, and examining
the picture, he makes the necessary
amendments with the needle. Those
subjects which are very large may be
worked upon by more than one weaver
at a time. The method we have describ-
ed is called the high warp ; another, the
low warp ; though rather different in the
manner of weaving it, so nearlv resem-
VOIa VI.

bles the tapestry of the high warp, that
it is unnecessary to describe it.

TAPIR, in natural history, a genus of
MammaUa of the order Belluae. Generic
character : ten fore teeth in each jaw ;
tusks in both jaws single and incurvated ;
five grinders on each side in both jaws ;
feet with three hoofs, and on the fore feet
a false hoof. The only species is the T.
Americanus. This is a native of South
America, and, when perfect in growth, is
about the size of a heifer. Its colour is
a dark brown, and the male is distin-
guished by a species of very short pro-
boscis. The tapir is perfectly inoffensive,
and considerably timid, seeking safety in
flight, and often plunging into waters, in
which he swims with great rapidity, and
in which sometimes he proceeds for a
long way, ranging at the bottom at a very
great depth ; in this respect resembhng
the hippopotamus. When resting, the
tapir sits in the manner of a dog. In
feeding, its trunk is employed in drawing
into its mouth the vegetables which con-
stitute its nourishment. In some parts
of Guiana it has been domesticated, and,
when taken young, is easily familiarized.
Its flesh is not excellent for flavour or de-
licacy, but is nevertheless used for food ;
and its skin, which is of uncommon
toughness, is converted to various pur-
poses of usefulness. It is slow in its
movements, sleeps during the greater
part of the day, and is destroyed by the
Indians, who decoy it by the imitation of
its peculiar sounds, by poisoned arrows.
It produces but one at a birth, in the care
of which it is extremely assiduous and
affectionate.

TAR, a thick, black, unctuous sub-
stance, obtained from old pines and fir
trees, by burning them with a close smo-
thering heat : it is used for coating and
caulking ships, &c. and various other
purposes,

TARANTULA. See Aranea.
TARCHONANTHUS, in botany, Afri-
can Jlea-baney a genus of the Syngenesia
Poly gamia .iEqualis class and order. Na-
tural order of Nucamentacesc. Corymbi-
ferze, Jussieu. Essential character : calyx
one-leafed, commonly half seven-cleff,
turbinate ; seeds covered with down ;
receptacle villose. There are three spe*
cies : these plants are all natives of the
Cape of Good Hope.

TARE, is an allowance for the outside
package, that contains such goods as can-
not be unpacked without detriment, or
for the papers, threads, bands, &c. that
iflclose or bind any ffoods imported looser
3 A

:.>" OF THI?

tAR

TAR

or, thoug-h imported in casks, chests, See.
yet cannot be unpacked and weighed net.
Several sorts of goods have their tares
ascertained, and those are not to be al-
tered or deviated from, in any case, with-
in the port of London, unless the mer-
chant, thinking himself, or the officers of
the crown, to be prejudiced by such
tares, shall desire that the goods may be
unpacked, and the net-weight taken ;
which may be done either by weighing
the goods in each respective cask, &c.
net, or, (as is practised in East India
goods particularly) by picking out seve-
ral casks, Sic. of eatih size, and making
an average, compute the rest accordingly.
But this must not be done without the
consent of two surveyors, attested by
tl»eir Ijands in the land-waiter's books ;
and in the out-ports, not vv ithout the con-
sent of the collector and surveyor. And
as to those goods which have not their
tares ascertained, two suneyors in Lon-
don, and the collector and surveyor in
the out-ports are to adjust and allow the
same, in like manner. Sometimes the
"basks, &c. are weighed beyond sea, be-
fore the goods are put in ; and the weight
of each respective cask, &c. marked
thereon (as is usual for most goods im-
])ortcd from the British plantations,) or
else inserted in the merchant's invoice ;
in which case, if the real invoice be pro-
duced, and the officers have satisfied
tliemselves (by unpacking and weighing
some of them) that those weights are
just and true, they do then, after having
reduced them to British weight, esteem
them to be the real tares, and pass them
accordingly. But the unpacking goods,
and taking the net weight, being sup-
posed the justest method, both for the
crown and merchant, it is usually prac-
tised in the port of London, in all cases
where it can be done with conveniency,
and without detriment to the goods.

TARGIONIA, in botany, so named, in
honour of Cypriani Targ^oni, M. D. of
Florence, a genus of the Cryptogamia
llt'paticac. Generic clniracter : calyx two-
valvcd, compressed, containing at bottom
a capsule nearly globular, many-seeded.
There is only one species ; viz. T. hy-
poph}lla, a native of Italy, Spain, Con-
slantinofple, Flanders ; Saxony, about
Dresden ; and England, near Dawlish, in
Devonshire ; ilowering from March to
May.

TARTARIC acid, in chemistry, was

firocured by Scheele in a separate state
n the year 1770. The process which he
foHowed was by bailing a quantity of the

substance called tartar, or cream of tartar,
in water, and adding powdered chalk till
effervescence ceased, and the liquid no
longer reddened vegetable blues. It
was then allowed to cool, the liquor fil-
tered, and a white insoluble powder re-
mained on the filter, which was carefully
removed and well washed. This was put
into a matrass, and a quantity of sulphu-
ric acid, equal in weight to the chalk em-
ployed, diluted with water, poured upon
it. The mixture was allowed to digest
for twelve hours on a sand bath, stirring
it occasionally with a glass rod. The sul-
phuric acid combined with the lime, and
fonned a sulphate of lime, which fell to
the bottom. The liquid contained the
tartaric acid dissolved in it. This was
decanted off, and a little acetate of lead
dropped into it, as a test to detect the
sulphuric acid, should any remain; and if
this be the case, it must be digested
again with more tartrate of lime, to car-
ry off what remains of the sulphuric
acid. It is then to be evaporated, and
about one-third of the weight of the tar-
tar employed is obtained of concrete tar-
taric acid. To purify this, the crystals
may be dissolved in distilled water, and
again evaporated and crystallized. It
seems probable' that this acid exists in a
state of purity in some vegetables. Yau-
quelin found a 64th part in the pulp of
the tamarind. Tartaric (or tarlarous)
acid thus obtained, is in the form of very
fine needle-shaped crystals ; but they
have been differently described by dif-
ferent chemists. According to Bergman,
they are in the form of small plates, at-
tached by one extremity, and diverging at
the other. They have been foundby others
grouped together in the shape of needles,
pyramids, regular six-sided prisms, and
square and small rhomboidal plates. The
specific gravity is 1.6. This acid has a
very shar]j, pungent taste ; diluted with
water, it resenjbles the taste of lemon
juice ; and it reddens strongly blue vege-
table colwirs. Wlien it is exposed to
heat, on burning coals, it melts, blackens,
emits fumes, froths up, and exhales a sharp
pungent vapour. It then burns with a
blue flame, and leaves behind a spongy
mass of charcoal, in which some traces"
of hme have been detected. In the de-
composition of the tartaric acid by heat,
one of the most remarkable products
which particularly characterizes it, is an
acid liquor of a reddish colour, which
amounts to one-fourth of the weight of
the former. This was formerly known
by the name of pyrotartarous acid. It

TAS

TAX

has a slightly acid taste, produces a dis-
agreciible sensation on the tongue, is
strongly empyreumatic, and reddens the
tincture of turnsole. But it has been
found, by the experiments of Fourcroy
and Vauquelin, to be the acetic acid im-
pregnated with an oil. Tartaric acid is
very soluble in water. Ihe specific
gravity of a solution formed by Bergman,
was found to be 1.2. This solution in wa-
ter is not liable to spontaneous decompo-
sition, unless it is diluted. While it is con-
centrated, it loses nothing of its acid na-
ture or its other properties. According
to the analysis of Fourcroy and Vauque-
lin, 100 parts of this acid are composed of

Oxygen . . .

. . 70.5

Carbon . . .

. . 19.0

Hydrogen . .

. . 10.5

100.0

Tartaric acid is not applied to any use,
and but few of its combinations are em-
ployed in the practice of medicine.

TASTE, seme of. The senses of taste
and smell are nearly allied to the sense of
feehng ; indeed they may be considered
as modifications of feeling. They how-
ever are properly distinguished from it,
because they have each a peculiar organ,
and are each alFected by peculiar proper-
ties of bodies. The chief organ of taste
is the tongue ; and it is fitted for its office
by the numerous extremities of nerves
which are lodged along its surface, and
particularly at the top and sides. Hartley
considers this sense as extending to the
other parts of the mouth, down the throat,
the stomach, and the otlier parts of the
channel for food. Taken in this compre-
hensive sense, the sense of taste conveys
to the mind sensations, not only of fla-
vours, but of hunger and thirst.

In order to produce the sense of taste,
the nervous extremities of the tongue
must be moistened, and the action of eat-
ing generally produces aji effusion of a
fluid from different parts of the mouth,
■which answers the purpose of exciting
the taste, and of assisting digestion. The
pleasures derived from taste are very
considerable ; and the power of yielding
pleasurable sensations accompanies the
taste through the wljole of life. Hence
it is reasonable to infer, that the pleasures
of taste constitute one grand source of
the mental pleasures, that is, those which
can be felt without the direct intervention
ot sensation. They leave their relics in

the mind ; and these combine together,
with other pleasures, and thus form feel-
ings which often connect themselves with
objects which have no immediate con-
nection with i\\e objects of taste. To this
source Hartley traces the principle origin
of the social pleasures ; and there cannot
be a doubt that the pleasures of taste are
the chief original sources of the fiUal af-
fection. It appears that one end of the
long continuance of the pleasures of taste
is, to supply continual accessions of vivid-
ness to the mental pleasures; but doubt-
less the principal object is, to make that a
source of pleasure, which is necessary for
self-preservation. The pains of taste are
much less numerous than those of feel-
ing. They are only such as are necessa-
ry to prompt to avoid excessive abstinence
or gratification, and to prevent the em-
ployment of improper food ; and there-
fore depend much more upon causes
which man usually has under his own
controul.

TAUGHT, a term used in maritime bu-
siness, to denote tl\e state of being ex-
tended, or stretched out, and is usually
applied in opposition to slack.

TAURUS, the bull, in zoology. See
Bos.

Taurus, in astronomy, one of tite
twelve signs of the zodiac, the second in
order, consisting of forty-four stars, ac-
cording to Ptolemy; of forty -one, accord-
ing to Tycho ; and of no , less than one
hundred and thirty-five, according to the
Britannic catalogue.

TAWING, the art of dressing skins in
white, so as to be fit for divers manufac-
tures, particularly gloves, &c. All skins
may be tawed ; but those chiefly used
for this purpose are lambs*, sheep, kids',
and goat skins.

TAX US, in botany, yew tree, a genus
of the Dioecia Monadelphia class and or-
der. Natural order of Coniferac. Essen-
tial character : male calyx none ; corolla
none ; stamina many ; anthers peltate,
eight-cleft; female corolla none; style
none ; seed one, in a berried calycle that
is quite entire. There are four specie?:
we shall notice the T. haccata, common
yew-tree, which has a straight trunk,
with a smooth, deciduous bark; the wood
is hard, tough, and of a fine grain;
leaves thickly set, linear, smooth, ever
green ; flowers axillary, enveloped with
imbricate bractes ; the male on one tree,
sulphur-coloured, whhout a calyx; the
female on another, with a small green cp«
lyx, sustaining the oval flattish seed.

TEA

TEC

which calyx at length becomes red, soft,
full of a sweet slimy pulp. The yew-tree
is a native of Europe, North America, and
Japan ; its proper situation is in mountain-
ous woods, or more particularly the clefts
of high calcareous rocks, England for-
merly possessed great abundance, and it
is now not very uncommon, in a wild
state, in some parts of the country. Of
planted trees there are yet several in
church yards. Mr. Evelyn mentions a
yew-tree in the church-yard of Crowhurst,
in Surrey, which \»as ten yards in com-
pass ; another in Braburne church-yard,
not far from Scot's Hall, in Kent, being
fifiy-eight feet eleven inches in cir-
cuniference, or nearly twenty feet in dia-
meter.

TEARS, a name for the limpid fluid
secreted by the lachrymal glands, and
"flowing on the surface of ihe eye ; either
in consequence of local irritation, or the
emotions of grief. Some part of this aque-
ous fluid is dissipated in the air ; but the
greatest part, after having performed its
office, is propelled by the orbicular mus-
cle, which so closely constringes the eye-
lid to the ball of the eye as to leave no
space between, unless in the internal an-
gle, where the tears are collected.

From this collection the tears are ab-
sorbed by the orifices of the punctae lach-
rymalise ; from thence they are propelled
-through the lachrymal canals into the la-
chrymal sac, and flow through the ductus
nasalis into the cavity of the nostrils, un-
der the inferior concha nasalis. The
tears have no smell, but a saltish taste.
The uses of the tears are these : 1. They
continually moisten the surface of the eye
and eye-lids, to prevent the transparent
cornea from drying and becoming opaque,
or the eye from concreting with the eye-
lids. 2. They prevent that pain which
would otherwise arise Irom the friction of
the eye-lids against the ball of the eye
from continually winking. 3. They wash
away dust, or any thing acrid, that may
have fallen into the eye. This liquid is
transparent and colom-less, has no per-
ceptible smell, but a saline taste. It com-
municates to vegetable blues a perma-
nent green colour. When it is evaporat-
ed nearly to dryness, cubic crystals are
ibrmed, which are muriate of soda. So-
da is in excess, because vegetable blues
are converted by it to a green colour. A
portion of mucilaginous matter, which be-
comes yellow as it dries, remains after
the evaporation. This liquid is soluble
in water, and in alkalies. Alcohol pro-
tluces a white flaky precipitate, and when

it is evaporated, muriate of soda and so-
da remain behind. By burning the resi-
duum, some traces of phosphate of lime
and of soda are detected. The compo-
nent parts of tears are, therefore,

Water,

Mucilage,

Soda,

Muriate of soda.
Phosphate of limcj
Phosphate of soda*

The mucilage of tears absorbs oxygen
from the atmosphere, and becomes thick,
viscid, and of a yellow colour. It is then
insoluble in water. Oxymuriatic acid
produces a similar effect. It is converted
into muriatic acid, so that it has been de-
prived of its ox>gen. The mucus of the
nose consists of the same substances as
the tears ; but being more exposed to the
air, it acquires a greater degree of vis-
cidity from the mucilage absorbing oxy-
gen.

TECHNICAL, expresses somewhat re-
lating to arts or sciences ; in this sense
we say technical terms. It is also parti-
cularly applied to a kind of verses, where-
in are contained the rules or precepts of
any art, thus digested to help the memo-
ry to retain them ; an example whereof
may be seen in the article Memory.

TECTONA, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Monogynia' class and order.
Natural order of Vitices, Jussieu. Essen-
tial character : corolla five-cleft ; stigma
toothed ; drupe dry, spongy, within the
inflated calyx ; nut three-celled. There
is only one species ; viz. T. grandis, teak
wood, or Indian oak ; the trunk of this
tree grows to an immense size ; bark ash-
coloured ; branches cross-armed, numer-
ous, spreading ; young shoots four-sided ;
leaves opposite, above scabrous, beneath
covered with soft white down ; the leaves
on young trees from twelve to twenty-
four inches long, and from eight to six-
teen broad ; petiole short, thick, laterally
compressed ; panicle terminating, very
large, cross-armed; divisions dichotomous,
with a sessile fertile flower in each cleft :
the whole covered with a hoary farinace-
ous substance ; flowers small, white, ve-
ry numerous, fragrant; nectary very small;
nut exceedingly hard, four-celled. It is
a native of the large forests in Java and
Ceylon, Malabar, Coromandel, Pegu, Ava,
the confines of Cochinchina, and Cambo-
dia, &c. The wood of this tree has by
long experience been found to be the
most useful timber in Asia ; it is light,
easily worked, and at the same time both
strong and durable ; for ship building the
teak is reckoned superior to any other sort

TEL

TEL

of wood. A durable vessel of burthen can-
not be built in the river of Bengal, with-
out the aid of teak plank ; some of the
finest merchant ships ever seen on the
river Thames have arrived from Calcut-
ta, where they were built of teak timber.

TEETH. See Anatomy. Teeth have
been analyzed by Mr. Pepys, who has
found the constituent parts of teeth of dif-
ferent ages to be, in different proportions,
phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, and
cartilage.

According to Fourcroy and Vauquelin,
the enamel is composed of

Phosphate of lime . . 72.9
Gelatine and water . . 27.1

TELEGRAPH, a word derived from
the Greek, and which is very properlyigiv-
en to an instrument, by means of which
information may be almost instantaneous-
ly conveyed to a considerable distance.
The telegraph, though it has been gene-
rally known and used by the moderns only
for a few years, is by no means a modern
invention. There is reason to believe, that
amongst the Greeks there was some sort
of telegraph in use. The burning of Troy
was certainly known in Greece very soon
after it happened, and before any person
had returned from thence. Now that
was altogether so tedious a piece of busi-
ness, that conjecture never could have
supplied the place of information. A
Greek play begins with a scene in which
a watchman descends from the top of a
tower in Greece, and gives the informa-
tion that Troy was taken. " 1 have been
looking out these ten years (says he) to
see when that would happen, and this night
it is done." Of the antiquity of a mode of
conveying intelligence quickly, to a great
distance, this is certainly a proof. The
Chinese, when they send couriers on the
great canal, or when any great man tra-
vels there, make signals, by fire, from one
day's journey to another, to have every
thing prepared ; and most of the barbar-
ous nations used formerly to give the
alann of war by fires lighted on the hills
or rising grounds.

It does not appearthat the moderns had
thought of such a machine as a telegraph,
till the year 1663, when the Marquis of
Worcester, in his "Century of Inven-
tions,'* affirmed that he had discovered
** a metliod by which, at a window, as far

as eye can discover black fi-om white, a^
man may hold discourse with his coitcs-
pondent, v/ithout noise made or notice
taken ; being according to occasion giv-
en, or means afforded, ex re nata, and no
need of provision before hand ; though
much better if foreseen, and course tak-
en by mutual consent of parties." This
could be done only by means of a tele-
graph, which, in the next sentence, is
declared to have been rendered so per-
fect, that by means of it the Correspon-
dence could be carried on *• by night as
well as by day, though as dark as pitch is
black."

About forty years afterwards, M. Amon-
tons proposed a new telegraph. His me-
thod was this : Let there be people plac-
ed in several stations, at such a distance
from one another, that, by the help of a
telescope, a man in one statioh may see a
signal made in the next before him ; he
must immediately make the same signal,
that it may be seen by persons in the sta-
tion next after him, who are to communi-
cate it to those in the following station,
and so on. These signals may be as let-
ters of the alphabet, or as a cypher, un-
derstood only by the two persons who
are in the distant places, and not by those
who make the signals. The person in
the second station making the signal to
the p,erson in the third the very moment
he sees it in the first, the news may be
carried to the greatest distance in as little
time as is necessary to make the signals
in the first station. The distance of the
several stations, which must be as few as
possible, is measured by the reach of a
telescope. Amontons tried this method
in^ a small tract of land, before several
persons of the highest rank at the court
of France. It was not, however, till the
French revolution that the telegraph was
applied to useful purposes.

Whether M. Chappe, who is said to
have invented the telegraph first used by
the French about the end of 1793, knew
any thing of Amonton's invention or not,
it is impossible to say ; but his telegi'aph
was constructed on principles nearly si-
milar. The manner of using this tele-
graph was as follows : At the first station,
which was on the roof of the palace of
the Louvre at Paris, M. Chappe, the in-
ventor, received in writing from the Com-
mittee of Public Welfare, the words to be
sent to Lisle, near which the French ar-
my at that time was. An upright post was
erected on the Louvre, at the top of
which were two transverse arms, movea-
ble in rJl directions by a single piece of

TEL

TEL

mechanism, and with inconceivable rapi-
dity. He invented a number of positions
for these arms, whicli stood as signs for
the letters of the alphabet ; and these,
for the greater celerity and simplicity,
he reduced in number as much as possi-
ble. The grammorian will easily con-
ceive that sixteen signs may amply supply
all the letters of the alphabet, since some
lettei's may be omitted, not only without
detriment, but with advantage. These
signs, as they were arbitrary, could be
changed every week ; so that the sign
of B for one day might be the sign of
M the next ; and it was only necessary
that the persons at the extremities should
know the key. The intermediate ope-
rators were only instructed generally in
these sixteen sigmds ; which were so
distinct, so marked, so different the one
from tlie other, that Uiey were easily re-
membered.

The construction of the machine was
such, that each signal was uniformly giv-
en in precisely the same manner at all
times : It did not depend on the opera-
tor's manual skill ; and the ]josition of
the arm could never, for any one signal,
be a degree higher or a degree lower, its
movement being regulated mechanically.
M. Chappe having received at the Louvre
the sentence to be conveyed, gave a
known signal to the second station, which
was Mont Martre, to prepare. At each
station thure was a watch tower, where
telescopes were fixed, and the per-
son on watch gave the signal of prepa-
ration which he had received, and this
communicated successively througli all
the line, which brought tliem all into a
state of readiness. The person at Mont
Martre then received, letter by letter,
the sentence from the Louvre, which he
repeated with his own machine ; and this
vas again repeated from the next height,
with inconceivable rapidity, to the final
station at Lisle.

Various experiments were in conse-
quence tried upon telegraphs in this
country ; and one was soon after set up
by government, in a chain of stations
from the Admiralty office to the sea-
coast. It consists of six octagon boards,
each of which is poised upon an axis in a
frame, in such a manner that it can be
either placed vertically, so as to appear
with its full size to tiie observer at the
nearest station, or it becomes invisible to
him by being ])lacecl horizontally, so that
the narrow edge alone is exposed, which
narrow edge is from a distance invisible.
Six boacds make thirty six changes, by

the most plain and simple mode of work-
ing ; and they will make many more, if
more were necessary : but as the real su-
periority of the telegraph, over all other
modes of making signals, consists in its
making letters, we do not think that more
changes than the letters of the alphabet,
and the arithmetical figures, are neces-
sary; but, on the contrary, that those
who work the telegraphs should avoid
communicating by words or signs agreed
upon to express sentences ; tor that is
the sure method never to become expert
at sending unexpected intelligence accu-
rately. This telegi-aph is, without doubt,
made up of the best number of combina-
tions possible ; five boawls would be in-
sufficient, and seven would be useless.
It has been objected to it, however, that
its form is too clumsy to admit of its be-
ing raisjed to any considerable height
above the building on which it stands ;
and tliat it cannot be made to cliange its
direction, and consequently cannot be
seen but from one particular point. Seve-
ral other telegraphs have been proposed
to remedy these defects, and perhaps
others to which the instrument is still
Hable. The dial-plate of a clock would
make an excellent telegraph, as it might
exhibit one hundred and forty-four signs,
so as to be visible at a great distance. A
telegraph on this principle, with only six
divisions instead of twelve, would be sim-
ple and cheap, and might be raised twen-
ty or thirty feet high above the building
without any difficulty : it might be sup-
ported on one post, and therefore turn
round ; and the contrast of colours would
always be the same.

TELESCOPE, an optical instrument,
which is used for discovering and viewing
distant objects, either directly by glasses,
or by reflection. Telescopes are either
refracting or reflecting ; the former con-
sist of different lenses, through which
the objects are seen by rays refracted by
them to the eye ; and the latter, of spe-
cula, from which the rays are reflected
and passed to the eye. The lens, or
glass, turned to the object, is called the
object glass ; and that next the eye, the
eye-glass ; and when the telescope con-
sists of more than two lenses, all but
that next the object are called eye-glasses.

The principal effecls of telescopes
depend upon this maxim, " that objects
appear larger in proportion to the angles
which they subtend at the eye : and the
effect is the same, vvlietherthe pencils of
rays, by which objects are visible to us,
come directly from the objects them-

TELESCOPE.

selves, orfrom any'place nearer to the eye,
where they may have been united, so as
to form an iniage of the object ; because
they issue again from those points in cer-
tain directions, in tlie same manner as
they did from the corresponding points
in the objects themselves. In fact, there-
fore, all that is effected by a telescope is,
first to make such an image of a distant
object, by means of a lens or mirror, and
then to give the eye some assistance for
viewing that image as near as possible ;
so that the angle which it shall subtend
at the eye may be very large, compared
with the angle which the object itself
would subtend in the same situation.
This is done by means of an eye-glass,
which so refracts the pencils of rays, as
that they may afterwards be brought to
their several foci, by the natural hu-
mours of the eye. But if the eye had
been so formed as to be able to see the
image with sufficient distinctness, at the
same distance, without an eye-glass, it
would appear to him as much magnified,
as it does to another person who makes
use of a glass for that purpose, though
he would not, in all cases, have so large
a field of view.

Although no image be actually formed
by the foci of the pencil without the eye,
yet if, by the help of an eye-glass, the
pencils of rays shall enter the pupil, just
as they would have done from any place
without the eye, the visual angle will be
the same as if an image had been actually
formed in that pJace.

Telescopes are of several kinds, dis-
tinguished by the number and form of
their lenses, or glasses, and denominated
from their particular uses, &c. such are
the " terrestrial, or land telescope," the
** celestial, or astronomical telescope ;"
to which may be added, the " Galilean,
or Dutch telescope," the " reflecting te-
lescope ;" the achromatic telescope," &c.

We shall proceed to describe some of
these, in order to illustrate the principle.

The " astronomical telescope" consists
of two convex lenses, A B, K M, Plate
XVI. Miscel. fig. 1. fixed at the two ex-
tremities of a tube, that consists, at least,
pf two parts, that slide one within the
other, for adjusting the focus in propor-
tion to the distance of the objects that are
to be seen through the telescope.

P Q represents the Sc mi diameter of a
very distant object, from every point of
which rays come, so very little diverging
to the object lens, K M, of the telescope,
as to be nearly parallel : pq'i^ the picture

of the object, P Q, which would Be Tonti-
ed upon a screen situated at that place:
Beyond that place, the rays of every sin-
gle radiant point proceed divergingly
upon another lens, A B, called the eye-
glass, which is more convex than the for-
mer, and are, by this, caused to proceed
parallel to one another, in which direction
they enter the eye of the observer at O.

The two lenses of this telescope have a
common axis, O L Q ; L 7 is the focal dis-
tance of tiie object lens, and.E g is the fo-
cal distance of the eye lens. An object
viewe<l through this telescope, by an eye
situated at O, will appear distinct, invert-
ed, and niAgnified ; viz. the object seen
without the telescope will be, to its ap-
pearance through the telescope, as 9 E to
g L ; that is, as the focal distance of the.
eye lens to the focal distance of the ob-
ject lens. For the rays, see Optics^
which, afler their crossing at the place,
rgp, proceed divergingly, fall upon the
lens, A B, in the same manner as if a real
object were situated at r g p ; and, of
couree, on the other side of that lens the
rays of each pencil will proceed parallel.-
Now to the eye at O, the apparent magni-
tude of the object, or of the part, P Q, is
measured by the angle, E O A, or by its
equal, 9E/» ; but to the naked eye at L,
when the glass is removed, the apparent
magnitude of the object is measured by
the angle, Q L P, or by its equal, gl^p;
therefore the apparent magnitude, to the
naked eye, is to the apparent magnitude
through the telescope, as the angle, g l^p,
is to the angle, 9 E/> ; or as the distance,
g E, is to the distance, g L. This teles-
cope is mostly used for astronomical ob-
servations : for, as it inverts the objectj^
the representation of terrestrial objects
through it would not be pleasant. It is
evident, from the above explanation, that
if the two lenses of this telescope have
equal focal distances, the telescope will
not magnify. It also appears, that, with ^
given object lens, the shorter the focus of
the eye lens is, the greater will the mag-
nifving power be. But when the dispro-
pokion of the two focal langths is very
great, then the aberration, arising from
the figure of the lenses, and from the dis-
persive power of glass, becomes so very-
great as to do more damag-e than can be
compensated by the increased magnifying
power. Hence, in order to obtain a very
great magnifying power, those telescopes
have sometimes been made very long, as,,
for instance, of 100 feet, or upwarfls : an*
as they were used for astronomical pur-

TELESCOPE.

poses, or mostly in the night time, they
were freqftfently used without a tube, viz.
the object lens was fixed on the top of a
pole, in a frame capable of motion in any
required direction, and the eye lens was
fixed in a short tube that was held in the
hand of the observer. The distance, as
well as the direction, of the two lenses,
was adjusted by a strong cord stretched
between the frame of the object lens and
the tube of the eye lens. In this construc-
tion, the instrument has been called an
" aerial telescope." Its use is evidently
incommodious ; but it was with such a
telescope that five satellites of Saturn, and
other remarkable objects, were disco-
vered.

The object, which appears inverted
through this telescope, will appear up-
right and distinct, if two more convex eye
fflasses be subjoined to it, at a distance
irom each other, which is equal to the
sum of their focal distances ; and when
their focal distances are equal, the object
will be magnified as much as without
those additional glasses ; but through
them it will appear upright, and not in-
verted. Hence this telescope has been
mostly used for viewing terrestrial ob-
jects, and is therefore called the " ter-
restrial telescope."

The " Galileaji telescope" consists of a
convex object lens, and a concave eye
lens, and derives its name from the great
Galileo, who is generally reckoned the
inventor of it. Fig. 2 shows, that the dis-
tance between the two lenses is less than
the focal distance of the object lens ; viz.
instead of the convex lens situated be-
hind the place of the image, to make the
rays of each pencil proceed in a parallel
direction to the eye, here a concave eye
lens is placed as much before that image ;
and this lens opens the rays of each pen-
cil that converged lo q and p, and makes
them emerge pai-allel towards the eye ;
as is evident by conceiving the rays to go
back again through the eye lens, whose
focal distance is E q.

The eye must be placed close to the
concave lens, in order to receive as many
pencils as possible ; and then supposing
an emerging ray of an oblique pencil to
be produced backwards along A O, the
apparent magnitude of the object is mea-
sured by the angle, A O E, or its equal,
9 E />, w hich is to the angle, q Ij p, or
Q L P, as 9 L to g E, viz. as in the astro-
nomical telescope. It is evident, that in
this telescope the objects appear erect,
for the rays of light do not cross each
other,

The field of vidw, or quantity of objects
that are taken in at once in this telescope,
does not depend upon the breadth of the
eye lens, as in the astronomical telescope,
but upon the breadth of the pupil of the
eye ; because the pupil is less than the
eye lens, A B, and the lateral pencils do
not now converge to, but diverge from,
the axis of the lenses. Upon this account
the view is narrower in this tiian in the
preceding telescope; yet the objects
through It appear remarkably clear and
distinct.

** The night telescope" is a short tele-
scope, viz. about two feet long, which re-
presents the objects inverted, much en-
lightened, but not much magnified. Its
field of view is also very extensive. This
telescope, in consequence of those pro-
perties, is used at night mostly by navi-
gators, for the purpose of discovering ob-
jects that are not very distant, but which
cannot otherwise be seen, for want of
sufficient light ; such as vessels, coasts,
rocks, &c. On account of its extensive
field, and great light, this telescope has
also been advantageously used, by astro-
nomers, for discovering some celestial
objects, whose situation was not exactly
known, or for viewing at once the rela-
tive situation of several stars and other
objects.

This telescope has a pretty large and
simple object lens, whence it derives its
great light ; for as the rays which pro-
ceed from every single point of the ob-
ject fall upon the whole lens of a tele-
scope, and are thence refracted to a fo-
cus, it is evident that the larger that lens
is, the greater number of rays will be
thrown upon that focus, and of course the
brighter will the image be. In this tele-
scope, large lens may be used, because
the telescope is not intended to magnify
more than about four or six times in Uneal
extension.

Within this telescope a second lens is
often used for shortening the focal length
of the object lens. The eye lens is some-
times single, but mostly double, (viz. a
combination of two plano-convex lenses
placed at a little distance from each other)
and pretty large : hence is derived the
extensive field of view, which in some of
those telescopes exceeds six or seven de-
grees.

We may observe, once for all, that in
every telescope the distance between the
object lens and the other lens or lenses
must be alterable, in order that the focus
may be adjusted according to the distance
of the objects. Hence, every telescope

TELESCOPE.

consists at least of two tubes, one of
which, viz. that with the eye lenses, sHdes
within the other. To the same telescope
several eye tubes, with a shallower or
deeper lens, or with a ditfereiit number
of lenses, may be adapted successively,
in order to give them different magnify-
ing powers, suitable to the clearness of
tlie air, of die objects, &c. as also for con-
verting them into astronomical or terres-
trial telesc>)pes.

We now proceed to the reflected tele-
scope, winch is likewise called the New-
tonian telescope ; for if not the original
projector. Sir Isaac Newton is, at least,
the first person who executed a telescope
of this sort, which consists of reflecting
and refracting parts.

The gejieral principle of this telescope
is the same as that of the dioptric or re-
fracting telescope. In the latter, the rays
which come from a distant object are, by
the action of the convex object lens, col-
lected to a focus, and beyond that focus
the rays of every single radiant point are
rendered again parallel by the action of
the eye lens or eye lenses. This is other-
wise expressed, by saying that the object
lens forms an image of the object, which
image is viewed by the eye lens. In the
former, viz. in the reflecting telescope,
the rays which come from a distant ob-
ject are, by the action of a concave re-
flector, sent back convergingly to a focus,
where they form an image, which is view-
ed through the eye lens. There are se-
veral varieties of this telescope ; we shall
content ourselves with the description of
one only, viz. the Gregorian telescope,
which is represented in iig. 3. The large
concave specidum, B B, of this telescope,
is perforated with a hole quite through
its middle. Within the tube of the tele-
scope, a small concave speculum, x y, is
supported by the arm, H, directly facing
the large speculum, B E. Two tenses,
w X and ti o, are contained in the eye
tube, and the observer apphes his eye to
a small hole at P, in order to view a mag-
nified distant object.

The large reflector, B E, receives the
rays, ac/bd, from the distant object, and
reflects them to its focus, e, where they
form the inverted image, or where they
cross each other, and then fall diverging-
ly upon the small reflector, xi/, whose
focus is at/,- viz. a little further than the
focus, e, of the large reflector : hence the
rays are reflected back upon the lens,
■w X, not in a parallel, but in a converging
manner ; and that convergency is increas-
ed by the action of that lens, so as to

\Q\.. VT.

come to a focus, or to form a second
image, li S, much larger than the former,
and erect like the object. Lastly, this
image is viewed through the eye lens,
71 Q ; or, in other words, the rays from
every single point of the object, after this
second crossing, fall diveigingly upon the
eye lens, which sends them nearly paral-
lel to the eye at P, through a very small
hole. Sometimes the eye len», n o, is dou-
ble, viz. it consists of two lenses, which
perform the office of a single lens.

If the first lens, iv x, were removed, the
image would be formed somewhat larger
at z ; hut the area or field of view would
be smaller and less pleasant. At the place
of I he image, II S, there is. situated a cir-
ctilar piece of brass, called a diaphragm,
with a hole of a proper siz,e to circum-
scribe the image, and to cut oflf all super-
fluous or extraneous light, in order that
tiie object may appear as distinct as pos-
sible.

The magnifying power of this telescope
is computed in the follgwing manner : If
this telescope consisted of the two reflec-
tors only, and these were situated so that
e were the focus of each reflector ; then
the rays which came parallel from the dis-
tant object to the large reflector, and di-
vergingly from that to the small reflector,
would, after the second reflection, go
parallel to the eye at P, and of course the
object would appear magnified in the pro-
portion of the focal distance of the large
reflector to the foeal distance of the small
reflector ; so that if the focal distance of
the former be to that of the latter as six
to one, then the object would be magni-
fied six limes in diameter. But since ihe
first image is magnified into a second
image much larger, which is viewed
thiough the eye lens, Uierefore the whole
magnifying power is in a proportion com-
pounded oUle to ex, and of 2x, to Z o. If the
former proportion be as six to one, and the
latter as eight to one, then the object will
appear forty-eight {viz. six by eight)
times larger in diameter through the tele-
scope than to the naked eye.

The fourth species of reflecting tele-
scope goes under the name of" Cassegrai-
nian Telescope." It difters from the pre-
ceding, in having the small reflector con-
vex, instead of concave ; in consequence
of which the small reflector must be plac-
ed nearer to the large reflector than the
focus of the latter; then the rays
from the large reflector fall convergmgly
upon the convex small reflector, and are
by it sent back convergingly upon the
lens, -vx, &c. The chief ditterence be-

TB

TELESCOPE.

iwecnlhis and the preceding telescope is,
that ill this the object apj>ears inverted,
l>ecause in it there is no image formed, or
the rays do not cross each other, between
tl>e two reflectors. Also with the same
roagnilying- power, Sec. this lelescope is
shorter than the Gregorian, by twice the
focal length of the small speculum.

To both those telescopes a long wire is
fixed all along the outside of the tube, at
the end of which there is a screw which
works into an external projection, g, of
llie internal arm, H, and serves to n»ove
that arm with the small speculum nearer
to or further from the large speculum, in
order to adjust the focus of the instru-
ment, according to the distance of the ob-
ject. The action of this wire is easily un-
^derstood ; for it passes through a hole at
F, where it is prevented going forwards
or backwards by two shoulders, which
are indicated by the figure : hence, when
the observer looks through the hole, P,
he turns with his hand the wire by the
nut, Q, which screws the projection, g,
of the arm nearer or further, &c. until the
object appears very distinct.

The largest reflecting telescope now
existing, was constructed by that excel-
lent astronomer, Dr. Herschel. Is is a tele-
scope in which the observer looks through
an eye lens down upon the largt* reflector,
whose polished surface is forty-eight in-
ches in diameter, ks focal length is about
forty feet.

There are however two useful appen-
dages to telescopes, which deserve to be
briefly described. A finder, viz. a short
telescope. A, fig. 3, is generally affixed to
the tube of a large telescope, for the pur-
pose of finding out an object expeditious-
ly. Thi.s finder does not magnify the ob-
ject more than four, six, or eight times ;
but it has a great field of view, so that
through it a great part of the heavens
may be seen at once. In the inside of its
tube, and exactly at the focus of the eye
gla-is, there are two slender wires, which
cross each other in the axis of the lele-
scope. Now the finder is adjusted by
means of screws upon the tube of the
great telescope, in such a manner as that
when an object, seen through the finder,
appears to be near the crossing of the
above-mentioned wires, it is at the same
time visible through the great telescope :
hence, when the observer wishes to view
a small distant object, as a star, a planet,
&c. he moves the instrument to one side
or the other, imtil, by looking through
the finder, he brings the object nearly to
coincide with the crossing of the wires ;

and when that takes place, he immediately
looks through the large telescope, &c.

A micrometer is an instrument, which
is used with a telescope, for the purpose
of measuring small angles. A great varie-
ty of micrometers have been contrived by
various ingenious persons ; and they are
more or less complicated, more or less ex-
pensive, as also more or less accurate.
See Micrometer.

«* Achromatic Telescope," is a name
given to the refracting telescope invented
by Mr. Jo!>n Dollond, and so contrived as
to remedy the abei ration arising from co-
lours, or the diflerent refraiigibility of the
rays of liglit. The improvemenl made
by Mr. Du.lond in his telescopes, by mak-
ing two object-glasses of crown-glass, and
one of flini, which was tried with success
when concave eyeglasses were used, was
completed by his son Peter Dollond ; \yho,
conceiving that the same method might
be practised with success with convex
feye glaiin^s, found, after a few trials, that
it might be done. Accordingly he finish-
ed an object glass of five feet focal length,
with an aperture of 3^ inches, composed
of two convex lenses of crown-glass, and
one concave of white flint glass. Wut ap-
prehending afterward that the apertures
might be admitted still larger, he com-
pleted one of 3^ feet focaf length, with
th^ same aperture of 3^ inches. In the
17 inch improved achromatic telescope,
the object glass is composed of three
glasses, viz^ two convex of crown-glass,
and one concave of white flint-glass : the
focal distance of this combined object-
glass is about seventeen inches, and the
diametejt* of the aperture two inches.
There are four eye glasses contained in
the tube, to be used tor land objects ; the
magnifying power with these is near fifty
times ; and they are adjusted to different
sights, and to different distances of the
object, by turning a finger screw at the
end of the outer tube. There is another
tube, containing two eye-glasses that mag-
nify about seventy times, for astronomical
purposes. The telescope may be direct-
ed to any object by turning two screws
in the stand on which it is fixed, the one
giving a vertical motion, and the other a
horizontal one. The stand may be in-
closed in the inside of the brass tube.

The object-glass of the 2^ and 3^ feet
telescopes is composed of two glasses,
one convex, of crown-glass, and the other
concave, of white flint glass; and the di-
ameters of their apertures are two inches
and 2| inches. Each of them is furnished
with two tubes ; one for land objects,

TEL

TEM

containing four eye-glasses, and another
witli two eye-glasses for astronomical
uses. They are adjusted by buttons on
llie outside of the wooden tube : and the
vertical and horizontal motions are given
by joints in the stands. The magnifying
power of the least of these telescopes,
with the eye-glass for land objects, is
nearly Hfiy times, and with those for as-
tronomical purposes, eighty times; and
that of the greatest for land objects is
nearly seventy times, but for astronomi-
cal observations eighty and a hundred and
tliirty times; for tliis has two tubes, either
of which may be used as occasion re-
quires This telescope is also moved by
a screw and rack-work, and the screw
is turned by means of a hook's joint.

We must now say something of the spe-
cula of telescopes, having referred to this
place from the article Speculum. The
metals of reflecting telescopes are gene-
rally composed of thirty-two parts of cop-
per and fifteen of grain tin, with the addi-
tion of two parts of arsenic, to render the
composition more white and compact. It
has been ascertained, by a variety of ex-
periments, that if one part of brass, and
one of silver, be added to this composi-
tion, and only one of arsenic used, a most
excellen\ metal will be obtained, which is
the whitest, fjardest, and most reflective.

The first composition is, however, tor
inexperienced persons, the best, as the
easiest to cast, to grind, and polish. When
this IS employed, the copper and tin
siioiild be melted, and when mixed toge-
ther should be poured into cold water,
whicii Will separate the mass into a num-
ber of small particles. These small pieces
of metal are tlien to be collected and put
into the crucibJe, along with the silver
and brass : after they have been melted
together in a separate crucible, the pro-
pej- quantity of arsenic is to be added,
and a little powdered rosin thrown into
the crucible before the metal is poured in-
to the flasks. For the particular method^s
of grinding and polishing, we refer to
Brewster's edition of Ferguson's Mechan^,
ics, vol. i.

TELEPHIUM, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Trigynia class and order.
Natural order of Portulaceae, Jussieu.
Miscellaneae, Linnaeus. Essential charac-
ter : calyx five-leaved ; petals five, in-
serted into the receptacle; capsule one-
celled, three -valved. There are two
species, viz. T. imperati, true orpine ;
and T opposhifohum, both natives of
Barbary.

TELLER, an officer of tke Exchequer,

in ancient recoixls chilled tuUier : there
are four of these officers, whose duty is
to receive all sums due to the king, and
to give the clerk of the pells u bill to
charge him therewith. They likewise
pay all money due from the king, by war-
rant from the auditor of the receipt, and
make weekly and yearly books, botli of
their receipts and payments, which they
deliver to the lonl-treasurer.

TELLINTA, in nattiral history, a genus
of the Vermes Tcstacea class and order :
animcd a tethys : shell bivalve, generally
sloping on one side ; in the fore part of
one valve a convex ; of tke other, a con-
cave fold ; hinge with usually three teeth,
the lateral ones smooth, in one shell
There are about eighty species, divided
into sections. A. ovate and thlckish. B.
ovate and compressed. C ssiborbicular.
We shall notice one or two only. T.
gari : shell oval, with transverse recurv-
ed strix ; lateral teeth obsolete ; it in-
habits the Indian ocean : the fore part is.
inflected and very rough, with transverse
wrinkles, crossed in the middle by per-
pendicular strix ; sometimes cinereous,
with brown rays ; sometimes bluish, spot-
ted with white, and white and red rays.
T. cornea : shell globular, glabrous, horn-
colour, with a transverse groove. This,
Mr. Pennant has described in the British
Zoology : it inhabits the ponds and fresh
water of Europe : it is not larger than a
pea. The shell is pellucid, very finely
striate across; within bluish white ; with-
out white, or pale or bluish-ash, with
transverse black curves, one of which is
more distinct ; lateral teeth of the hinge
elongated, hardly any middle ones,

TELL-TALE, in music, a moveable
piece of ivory, or lead, suspended in the
front of a chamber-organ, on one side of
the keys, by a string; one side of the keys,
being attached to the bellows within, rises
as they sink, and apprizes the pei-tbrmer
in what degree the wind is exliausted,

TELLURIUM. SeeSi-iVAx.

TEMPERAMENT, in music, the ac
commodation or adjustment of the imper-
fect sounds, by transferring a part of their-
defects to the more perfect ojies, in order
to remedy, in some degree, the false in=.
tervals of those instruments, tlie sounds
of witich are f^ed ; as the organ, harp.,
sichord, pi*; no forte, &.c.

TEM PERIiXG <?/ steel and iron, the ren-
dering them either mure compact and=
hard, or soft and pliant, ?.rc(-vding as the
difl^'erent uses for which tliey are wanted;
may require.

The hardest steel is tlie mostbrittfe;;

TEM

TEN

but in many cases it is necessary to di-
minish the hardness, and this operation
is called tenii)ering;. The grtatest diiK-
ciilty consists in applying the proper de-
gree of lieat uniformly over the whole
mass. "I'he common met hod is, to judge
by the colour assumed by tlic cleiui sur-
face of steel when thus heated. The
heat ma\ he applied by llie fire, or a
pan of charcoal, or the fiame of a candle
or lump, or by huing the ])iece upon
sand to be gradually heated, or upon
melted lead. Saw-makers, and those
\vbo manufacture si)nngs, heat the arti-
cle, rub it with grease, and then heat it
furtiur till the tlimes take fire : this is
called blazing, and affords atempernear-
ly the same as when the steel, by heat,
has acquired a deep blue colour. When
the temper is given from the colour, the
first tinge is a faint straw colour : this is
suitable to pen-knives and hard cutting
tools. The next colour, which is purple,
is ratlier too soft for a knife, and too
brittle for a spring. After this follows
the blue, of which there are several
shades : the deepest is very soft, and this
succeeded hy a whitish-yellow, which
indicates too great a degree of softness
for any cutting tool. Mr. Hartley took
out a patent for a metliod af temperiug-
st^el, which was done by healing the
tools in oil raised to a higli temperature.
Pen-knives require a heat of 450^ of
Fahrenheit.

TEMPLA.IIS, or Tejiplehs, a religious
order instituted at Jerusalem, about the
year 1118. Some religious gentlemen
])ut themselves under the government of
the patriarch of Jerusalem, renounced
property, made the vow of celibacy and
obedience, and lived like canftns regular.
King Baldwin assigned them an apart-
ment in his palace! They had likewise
lands given them by the king, the pa-
triarch, and the nobility, for their main-
tenance. At first there were but nine of
this oixler, and the two principal persons
were, Hugo de Paganis, and Geofirey of
St. Omers. About nine years after their
institution, a rule was drawn up for them,
and a white habit assigned them, by Pope
Honorius U. About twenty years after
this, in the popedom of Eugenius HI.
they had red crosses sewed upon their
cloaks, as a mark of distinction ; and in a
short time they were increased to about
three hundred, in their convent at Jeru-
salem. They took the names of Knights
Templars, because their first house stood
near the temple dedicated to our Saviour,
at Jerusalem. This order, after having
performed many great exploits against

the infidels, became rich and powerful
all over Europe ; but the knights, abus-
ing their wealtlj and credit, fell into great
disorders and irregularities. Many crimes
and enormities being alleged a;.;ainst
them, they were prosecuted in France,
Italy, and Spain ; and at last, the pope,
by his bull of the 22d of May, 1312, given
in the council of Vit nna, pronounced the
extinction of the order of 'I emplars, and
unitetJ their estates to the order of St.
John of Jerusalem.

TENACITY, a term applied to metals,
by which is meant the power that a me-
tallic wire, of a given diameter, has of
resisting, without breaking, the action of
a weight suspended from its extremity.
The tenacity of difterent metals is very
various : an iron wire, of one-tenth of an
inch in diameter, will support, without
breaking, about 5 cwt. ; whereas one of
lead will not support 301b.

TENAILLE, in fortification, a kind of
outwork, resembling a hornwork, but
generally somewhat difi'erent ; for, in-
stead of two demi-bastions, it bears only
in front a re-entering angle between the
same wings, without tlanks ; and the sides
are pai-allel, Tenaille, double or flunk-
ed, is a work whose front consists of four
faces, making two re-entering' angles,
and three saliant ; the wings or sides of
this work being in like manner corre-
spondent in the front of the gorge.
Tenaille simple, a work having its front
formed by two faces, which make a re-
entering angle, the sides running directly
parallel from the head to the gorge. Te-
naille of the place, is that which is com-
prehended between the points of twa
neighbouring bastions ; that is to say, the
curtain, the two flanks that are raised on
the curtain, and the two sides of the
bastions which face one another ; so that
it is the same with what is otherwise
called the face of the fortress. Tenaille
of, the foss, is a low work raised before
the curtain in the middle of the fbss : it
is of three sorts; the first is composed of
a curtain, two flanks, and two faces; the
rampart of the curtain, including the
parapet and talus, is but five fathom
thick, but the rampart oJ[ the flanks and
faces is seven. The second is composed
only of two faces made on ftte lines of de-
fence, whose rampart and fads are paral-
lel. The third sort diflR'rs.tfrom the
second only in this, that its rampart is
])arallel to the curtain of the place. All
three sorts are good, and cannot be hurt
by the besiegers' cannon, till they are
masters of the covert way, and have
planted their cannon there.

TEN

TEN

TENANT, signifies one who holds or
j)Ossesses lands or tenements by any kind
of rjglit, either in fee, for life, years, or
ut will.

TENCH. See Cipkinus.

TENDER, in law, is an offer to pay a
debt, or jierforni a duty. This is otien
pleaded in an action as a bar to the plain-
iilf 's recovery ; and where the money de-
manded by the plaintiff has been tender-
ed or ottiered to him before the com-
mencement of the suit, and he has refus-
ed to accept it, the plaintiff is barred of
his action and costs. In pleading a ten-
der, ti»e defendant says, the plaintifi'
ought not to have his action, because,
except as to so much, specifying tlie sum,
he owes nothing to the plaintiff; and as
to that sum, lie has been always ready
and willing to pay it, and before the
commencement of the suit tendered and
offered it to the plaintiff, and that he re-
fused it ; which sum of money he of
course brings into court, to be paid to
the plaintiff, if he will accept the same ;
and this bringing money into court, on a
plea of tender, is done without a special
motion. In all other cases, the leave of
the court must be had, before money
can be brought into court. The rule
under which this leave is granted is, as
in the case of an ejectment by a mort-
gage, founded upon a particular act of par-
liament. In other cases it is founded upon
the discretionary power vesied in the
court. By the discretionary rule it is
sometimes ordered, that upon bringing
money into court all proceedings in an
action shall be stayed. At other times
it is ordered, that the money brought
into court shall be struck out of the plain-
tiff's declaration, and that the plaintiff
shall not, at the trial of the issue, be per-
mitted to give any evidence as to this
money. This rule, by which the money
brought into court is ordered to be struck
out of the declaration, is from its being
more frequently granted, than that by
whicii it is ordered that the proceeding
shall be stayed, called the common rule.
Upon a plea of tender, the defendant
must not plead the general issue, or a
full denial as to the whole demand, but
only to that part which is an excess above
the sum tendered. And the plaintiff in
answer to this must either deny the ten-
der, or reply that there was a demand
and refusal, which is a sufficient ansxi^trr
to the plea that states the defendant was
always ready to pay. If bank notes have
been offered, and no oi)jection made on
that account, it has been considered by

the Court of King's Bench as good ten-
der. But to constitute a tender, tliere
must not merely be an offer by the de-
fendant, that, if the plaintiff will take it,
he will give him so much ; but there
nmst be an actual offer and readiness,
accompanied with apparent ability, to
pay immediately, alliiough it is not ab-
solutely necessary to produce the money
in tale upon tlie table.

It is said a bank note is no ten-
der, nor is it, if it is refused. But by a
late statute, before any one can be ar-
rested, and held to bail, the ])kinulf must
swear that his debt has not been tendered
to him in bunk notes, so that it is next to
a legal tender; yet the plaintiff may sue
by process, without holding to bail, and
obtain judgment against the defendant,
with his costs ; on which the sheriff will
levy, and probably tender the amount in
bank notes ; so that the i)laintiff will be
put off in an endless circle, if it is worth
while to incur costs; and bank notes are
now a legal tender in every thing but
the name, wliich is, in the opinion of the
best writers on political economy, a cir-
cumstance that must depreciate their
real value.

T^'BEH, a small ship, in the service of
men of war, for carrying of men, provi-
sions, or any thing else that is necessary.

TENDONS. Membranes are those
parts of the body which include some of
the internal parts of animals. Many of
them are extremely thin, and they pos-
sess different degrees of transparency.
They become pulpy by maceration in
water, and b^' boiling are almost entirely
converted into gelatine, so that they are
chiefly composed of this substance. No
phosphate of hme, nor other sahne
matter, has been detected in the mem-
branous substances hitherto analyzed.
Tendons are reduced by boiUng to a ge-
latinous substance, so that they are com-
posed of a similar matter with mem-
branes. The ligaments afford a portion
of gelatine by boiling, but are not, like
the two former, entirely reduced to jelly,
so that some other substance besides ge-
latine enters into the composition of hga-
menis.

TENEBRIO, in natural history, a genus
of insects of tlie order Coleoptera. An-
tennae moniliform, the last joint roundish;
thorax plano-convex, margined; head
projecting ; shells rigid. There are about
one hundred species, divided into sec-
tions. A. Feelers si.x, filiform ; fore-
shanks formed for digging. B. Feelers
four. One of the most remarkable spe-

TEN

TEN

cies is T. morlisag-us, which is black, and
about an incii long ; it is slow in its mo-
lions, and distinguished by the remark-
ably pointed appearance of the wing-
slieaths, whicli at their extremities pro-
ject a little beyond the abdomen. It is
tound in dark, neglected places, beneath
boards in cellars ; and if" handled, and es-
pecially if crushed. It gives out a very
impleasant smell. T. gibbosus, or, ac-
cording to Dr. Shaw, T. globosus, is
seen during the hottest part of summer
about walls and path-ways ; it is distin-
guished by the globular appearance of
the body. T. moliior, is an insect of-
ten found in houses, is coal blacky and
very small. It proceds from a larva call-
ed the meal-worm, from its being com-
monly found in meal and bread. This is
said to be the favourite food of nightin-
gales. It renuiuis two years before it
changes into a ciirysalis. These three spe-
cies are inhabiunts of Europe ; the lat-
ter has become iiaturahzed in America.

TENEMENT, in its common accepta-
tion, is applied only to houses and otlier
buildings; but in its original, proper, and
legal sense, it signifies every thing that
may be hoiden, proviiled it be of a per-
manent nature, whether it be of a sub-
stantial or of <in unsufjstantial and ideal
kind. Thus frank tenement, or freehold,
is applicable not only to lands and other
solid objects, but also to offices, rents,
commons, and the like ; and as lands
and houses are tenements, so is an ad-
vowson a tenement ; and a francb.ise or
office, a right of common, a peerage, or
other property of the like unsubstantial
kind, are all of them, legally speaking,
tenements.

TENESMUS, in medicine, a name
given by medical writers to a complaint,
which is a continual desire of going to
stool, but without any stool being ready
to be voided.

TENNE, Tennt, or Tawut, in heral-
dry, a bright colour made of red and
yellow mixed ; sometimes also called
brusk, and expressed in engraving, by
thwart or diagonal strokes or hatches,
beginning from the sinister chief, like
purpure, and marked with the letter T.
In the coats of all below the degree of
nobles, it is called teimy ; but in those of
nobles, it is called hyacinth ; and in
prince's coats, the dragon's head.

TENNIS, a play at which a ball is dri-
ven by a racket, which requires great
practice to make a good player, so that
nothing can be done without it ; all we
presume to do is, to give an insight into

the game, by which a person may not
seem a total stranger to it when he hap-
pens to be in a tennis court.

The game of tennis is played in most
capital cities of Europe, particularly in
France, whence we may venture to de-
rive its origin. It is esteemed, with many,
to be one of the most ancient games in
Christendom, and long before King
Charles l.'s time it was played in Eng-
land. This game is as intricate as any
game whatever ; a person who is totally
ignorant of it may look on for a month
together, without being able to make out
how the game is decided.

Tlic- size of a tennis-court is generally
about 96 or 97 feet by 33 or 34, there
being no exact dimension ascribed to its
proportion, a foot more or less in length
or width being of no consequence. A
line or net hangs exactly across the mid^
die, over which the ball must be stnick,
either with a racket or board, to make
the stroke good. Upon the entrance of a
tennis-court, there is a long gallery which
goes to the dedans, that is, a kind of
front gallery, where spectators usually
stand; into which, whenever a ball is
struck, it tells for a certain stroke. This
long gallery is divided into different
compartments or galleries, each of which
has its particular name, as follows ; from
the line towards the dedans are the first
gallery, door, second gallery, and the last
gallery, which is called the service side.
From the dedans to the last gallery are
the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, at a yard
distai^ce each, by which the chaces are
marked, and is one of the most essential
parts of the game, as will appear in the
following description.

On the other side of the line are also
the first gallery, door, second gallery,
and last gallery, which is called the haz-
ard-side. Every ball struck into the last
gallery on this side reckons for a certain
stroke, the same as the dedans. Between
the second and this last gallery are the
figures 1, 2, to mark the chaces on the
hazard-side. Over this long gallery, or
these compartments, is a covering, called
the penthouse, on which they play the
ball from the service-side, in order to be-
gin a set of tennis, from which it is call-
ed a service. When they miss putting
the ball (so as to rebound from tlie
penthouse) over a certain line on the
service-^de, it is deemed a fault, two of
which are reckoned for a stroke. If the
ball rolls round the penthouse, on the
opposite of the court, so as to fall beyond
a certain line described for that pur-

TEN

TEN

pose, It is called passe, reckons for no-
thing on either side, and the player must
serve again.

On the right-hand side of the court
from the dedans is what they call the
tambour, a part of the wall whicli pro-
jects, and is so contrived in order to make
a variety in the stroke, and render it
more difficult to be returned l>y tlie ad-
versary ; for when a ball strikes tlie tam-
bour, it varies its direction, and requires
some extraordinary judgment to return
it over the line. The last thing on the
right-hand side is called the griil, where-
in, if tlic ball is struck, it is also 15, or a
certain stroke.

The game of tennis is played by what
they call sets ; a set of tennis consists of
six games : but if they play what is called
an advantage-set, two above five games
must be won on one side or the other
successively, in order to decide; or, if it
comes to six games all, two games must
still be won on one side to conclude the
set; so that an advantage-set may last
a considerable time ; for which kind of
sets the cour. is paid more than for any
other.

We must now describe the use of the
chaces, and by what means these chaces
decide or interfere so much in the game.
When the player gives his service at the
beginning of a set, his adversary is sup-
pos«d to return the ball ; and wherever
it falls after the first rebound untouched,
the chace is called accordingly ; for ex-
ample, if the ball falls at the figure 1, the
chace is called at a yard, that is to say,
at a yard from the dedans : this chace
remains till a second service is given ;
and if the player on the service-side lets
the ball go after his adversary returns it,
and if the ball falls on or between any of
these figures or chaces, they must change
sides, there being two chaces ; and he
who then will be on the hazard-side
must play to win the first chace ; which
if he v/ins by striking the ball go as to fall,
after its first rebound, nearer to the de-
dans than the figure 1, without his ad-
versary's being able to return it from its
first hop, he wins a stroke, and then pro-
ceeds in like manner to win the second
chace, wherever it should happen to be.
If a ball falls on the line witli the first
gallery door, second gallery, or last gal-
lery, the chace is likewise called at such
or such a place, naming the gallery-door,
&c. When it is just put over the line,
it is called a chace at the line. If the
player on the service-side returns a ball
with such force as to strike the wall on
the hazard-side, so as to rebound after the

first hop over the line, it is also called a
chace at the line.

The chaces on the hazard-side pro-
ceed from the ball being returned either
too hard or not quite hard enough ; so
that the ball after its first rebound falls
on this side of the blue line, or line which
describes the hazard-side chaces ; in
which case it is a chace at 1, 2, &c! pro-
vided there is no chace depending.
When they change sides, the player,
in order to win this chace, must put
the ball over the fine any where, so that
his adversary does not return it. When*
there is no chace on the hazard-side, all
balls put over the line from the sei-vice-
side, without being returned, reckon for a
stroke.

As the game depends chiefly upon the
marking, it will be necessary to explain
it, and to recommend those who play
at tennis to have a good and unbiassed
marker, for on him the whole set may
depend : he can mark in favour of the
one and against the other in such a man-
ner, as will render it two to one at start-
ing, though even players. Instead of
which the marker should be very at-
tentive to the chaces, and not be any
way partial to either of the players.

This game is marked in a very singu-
lar manner, which makes it at first some-
what difficult to understand. The first
stroke is called 15, the second 30, the
third 40, and the fourth game, unless the
players get four strokes each ; in that
case, instead of calling it 40 all, it is call-
ed deuce ; after which, as soon as any
stroke is got, it is called advantage ;
and in case the strokes become equal
again, deuce again, till one or thtj other
gets two strokes following, which win the
game ; and as the games are won, so
they are marked and called ; as one
game love, two games to one, 8cc. to-
wards the set, of which so many of
these games it consists.

Although but one ball at a time is
played with, a number of balls are made
use of at this game to avoid trouble,
and are handed to the players in bas-
kets for that purpose ; by which means
they can play as long as they please,
without ever having occasion to stoop for
a ball.

TENON, in building, &c. the square
end of a piece of wood, or metal, di-
minished by one third of its thickness,
to be received into a hole in another
piece, called a mortise, for the jointing
or fastening the two together. It is
made in various forms, square, dove-
tailed for double mortises, and the like.

TEN

TER

TENOR, or Tenore, in music, the
first mean or midflle part, or that which
is the ordinary pitch of the voice, when
neither raised to a treble, or lowered
to a bass. The tenor is commonly marked
in thorough bass with the letter T. This
is that part which almost all grown per-
sons can sing ; but as some have a greater
compass of voice upwards, others down-
wards, others are conhned to a kind of
medium, and others can go equally high
or low ; hence musicians make a variety
of tenors, as a low, a high, a mean, a na-
tural tenor, to which ntay be axlded, a
violin tenor. Sic. for instruments.

TENSK, TisiE, in grammar, an inflec-
tion of verb.s, whereby they are made to
signify or distinguish the circumstance of
time, in what they affirm.

TENSION, the state of any thing
stretched, as a line, &c. Thus animals
sustai 'nd move themselves by the ten-
sion Or cheir muscles and nerves : a chord,
or musical string, gives an acuter or
deeper sound, as it is in a greater or less
degree of tension, that is, more or less
stretched.

TEN'I', in surgery, a roll of hut work-
ed into the shape of a nail, with a broad
flat head.

TENl ER, a machine used in the cloth
manufacture, to stretch out the pieces of
cloth, stuff, &c. or only to make them
even, and set them square. It is usually
about four feet and a half high, and for
length exceeds that of the longest piece
of cloth. It consists of several long pieces
of wood, placed like those which form
the barriers of a manege ; so that the
lower cross piece of wood may be raised
or lowered, as is found requisite, to be
fixed at any height, by means of pins.
Along the cross pieces, both the ui)per
and under one, are hooked nails, called
tenter hooks, driven in from space to
space.

TENTHREDO, in natural history, saw-
fiy, a genus of insects of the order Hyme-
noptera : mouth with a horned curved
mandible, toothed within, the jaw straight
and obtuse at the lip, the lip cylindrical
bihd ; four feelers, unequal filiform ;
wings tumid, the lower ones less ; sting
composed of two serrate laminae, and al-
most secreted. There are aboiit one hun-
dred and fifty species, in divisions, dis-
tinguished by the antennae. A. antennae
clavate ; 13. antennae inarticulate, thicker
at the tip ; C. antennae pectinate ; in D,
they are filiform, with from seven to nine
articulations ; in E, they are filiform, with
numerous articulations. The larv?e of
the insects of this genus feed on tjie

leaves of various plants; the female ]
uses her sting in the manner of a saw,
hence the common name. It cuts out j
spaces in the twigs or buds of trees, *■
for the purpose of depositing her eggs. - \
The larvae resemble tl)ose of the order '
Lepidoptera, or real caterpillars, from
which they may be distinguished by their \
more numerous feet, wiiich are never j
fewer than sixteen, though they are
sometimes found with as many as twen-
ty-eight. It feeds on the leaves of 1
plants, and when touched, rolls itself I
up spirally. 'I'he pupa is folliculate ; '
the eggs increase in size every day till l
the larvae burst from them. The larvae \
of the smaller species are often injuri-
ous to different kinds of esculent vege-
tables. ;

TENURE, the manner whereby lands i
or tenements are holden, or the service

that the tenant owes to his lord. Un- ;

der the word tenure is included every '■

holding of an inheritance; but the sig- \

nihcation of this word, which is a very I

extensive one, is usually restrained by \

coupling other words with it ; this is j

sometinjes done by words, which de- -

note the duration of the tenant's estate : j

as if a man hold to himself and his j

heirs, it is called tenure in fee-simple. |

At other times the tenure is coupled \

with words pointing out the instrument \

by which an inheritance is held: thus, '

if the holding be by copy of court roll. j

At other times this word is coupled >

with others, that show the principal ;

service by which an inheritance is held; j
as where a man held by knight's ser-
vice, it is called tenure by knight's ser-
vice.

TERAMNUS, in botany, a geniie
of the Diadelphia Decandria class and j
order. Natural order of Papilionaceae, ;
or Leguminosx. Essential character : \
keel very small concealed within the
calyx; stamina alternate, five-barren; stig-
ma sessile, headed. There are two spe- i
cies, viz. T. volubulis, and T. uncinatus, j
both natives of Jamaica. ,
TEREBELLA, in natural history, a ge- \
nus of the Vermes MoUusca class and or- ;
der. Body oblong, creeping, naked, I
often inclosed in a tube, furnished with •
lateral fascicles or tufts, and branchiae,
mouth placed before, furnished with
lips, without teeth, and protruding a
clavate proboscis ; feelers numerous, ci- |
hate, capillary, seated round the mouth. i
There are eleven species. j
TEREDO, in natural history, ship-woi^^ I
a ffenus of the Vermes Testacea class 1

TER

TER

and order. Animal a terebella, with two
calcareous hemispherical valves before,
and two lanceolate outs behind; shell
tapering-, nexuotis, and capable of" pene-
trating- wood. There are three species.

T. navalis, shell very thin, cylindrical,
smooth ; found in the sides and bottonis
of ships, and the stoutest oak pales,
which have remained some time under
water, and was imported from India.
The destruction which these worms
effect under water, is almost equal
to that of the Termes, or white ant,
on land. (See Termes.) The shell is
more or less twisted, rather obtuse at
the tip, and from four to six inches long.
They will appeal-, on a very httle con-
sideration, to be most important beings
in the great chain of creation, and pleas-
ing demonstrations of the infinitely wise
and gracious Power which formed, and
still preserves, the whole in such won-
derful order and beauty; for if it was
not for the rapacity of these and such
animals, tropical rivers, and indeed the
ocean itself, would be choked with the
bodies of tress which are annually car-
ried down by the rapid torrents, as
many of theni would last for ages, and
probably be productive of evils, of
which, happily, we cannot in the pre-
sent harmonious state of things form
any idea; whereas now, being consum-
ed by these animals, they are more
easily broken in pieces by the waves;
and the fragments which are not de-
voured become specifically hghter, and
are consequently more readily and more
effectually thrown on shore, where the
sun, wind, insects, and various other in-
struments, speedily promote their entire
dissolution. These animals are only
found in salt water,

TERM, in geometry and algebra, is
the extreme of any magnitude, or that
which bounds and limits its extent.
Thus the terms of a hne, are points;
of a superficies, lines; of a solid, su-
perficies. The terms of an equation
are the several names or members of
which it is composed, separated from
one another by the signs -f- or — . Thus
the quantity az-\-2dc — 3az^ consists
of three terms, a z and 2 6c and oaz"-.
In an equation, the terms are the parts
which contain the several powers of the
same unknown letter or quantity : for if
the same unknown quantity be found in se-
veral members in the same degree or pow-
er, they pass for one term, which is called
compound, in distinction from a simple or
single term : thus in fhe equation .t3 -|-

are x3 and "

acx ssz 63, the four lejms
— o b. a-* and a ex and b3 :
is

of which the second term a — 3 b
compound, and the other three are sim-
ple terms. The terms of a product, or
of a fraction, or of a ratio, or of a pro-
portion, kc. are tlio several quantities
employed in forming or composing them:
thus the terms of the product a b are a
and 6 : — ^ of the fraction 1 they are 7 and
9 : — of the ratio 8 : 9 they are 8 and 9 :
and of the proportion a-.b: : x -.y, the
terms are a, b, x, and y.

Teem in the arts, or Term of art, is a
word which, besides the literal and popu-
lar meaning which it has, or may have,
in common language, bears a further and
pecuhar meaning in sonve art or science.

Term, in logic. A proposition is said
to consist of two terms, i. e. two princi-
pal and essential words, the subject and
the attribute.

Terms, are those spaces of time in
which the courts of justice are open for
all that complain of wrongs or injuries,
and seek their rights by course of law or
action, in order to their redress, and
during which the courts in Westminster-
hall sit and give judgment, &c. But the
high court of Parliament, the Chancery,
and inferior courts, do not observe the
terms ; only the courts of King's Bench,
Common PJeas, and Exchequer, the high-
est courts at common law. Of these terms,
there are four in every year, viz. Hilary
Term, which begins the' 23d of January,
and ends the 12th of February, unless on
Sundays, and then the day after ; Easter
Term, which begins the Wednesday fort-
night after Easter-day, and ends the Mon-
day next after Ascension-day ; Trinity
Term, which begins the Friday after Tri-
nity Sunday, and ends the Wednesday
fortnight after ; and Michaelmas Term,
which begins the 6th, and ends the 28th
of November.

There are, in each of these terms,
stated days, called days in bank, that is,
days of appearance in the Court of Com-
mon Pleas, called usually bancum, or com'
mune banctim, to distinguish it from ban-
cum regisy or the Court of King's Bench.
They are generally at the distance of about
a week from each other, and regulated
by some festival of the church. On some of
these days in bank, all original writs must
be made returnable, and therefore they
are generally called the returns of that
term ; the first return in every term is,
properly speaking, the first day in that

oC

TER

fER

term; and thereon the court sitSi to take
essoins, orexcuses, for such as do not ap-
pear according- to the sinnmons of tlie
writ : wherefore this is usually called the
essoin day of the term. But the person
summoned hath three days g-race beyond
the return of the writ, in wiiich to make
feis appearance ; and if he appear on the
fourth day inclusive, quarto die post, it is
sufficient. Therefore, at the beginning
of each term, the court doth not sit for
dispatch of business till the fourth day ;
and in Trinity Term, by statute 32 Hen-
ry Vltl. c. 21. not till the sixth day.

Tkbms, Oxford. Hilary, or Lent Term,
begins on January 14, and ends the Sa-
turday before Paliii Sunday. Easter Term
begins the tenth day after Easter, and
ends the Thursday before Whit Sunday.
Trinity Term begins the Wednesday af-
ter Trinity Sunday, and ends after the
act, sooner or later, as the Vice Chancel-
lor and Convocation please. Michaelmas
Term begins on October 10, and ends
December 7.

Terms, Cambridge. Lent Term begins
on Jamiary 13, and ends the Friday be-
fore Palm Sunday. Easter Terms begins
the Wednesday after Easter week, and
ends the week before Whit Sunday.
Trinity Term begins the Wednesday af-
ter Trinity Sunday, and ends the Friday
after the commencement. Michaelmas
Term begins October 10, and ends De-
cember 16.

Terms, Scottish. In Scotland, Candle-
mas Term begins January 23, and ends
February 12. Whitsuntide Term begins
May 25, and ends June 15. Lammas
Term begins July 20, and ends August 8.
Martinmas Term begins November 3,
and ends November 29.

Terms, Irish^ are the same as those in
London, except that at Michaelmas,
which commences October 13, and ad-
journs to the beginning of November.

TERMES, in natural history, a genus of
insects of the oider Aptera. Mouth with
two horny jaws; lip horny, four-cleft,
the divisions linear and acute ; four-feel-
ers, equal, filiform ; two eyes. There
are ten species, in two sections : A. an-
tennae moniliform ; B. antennae setaceous.

T. fatalc, or white ant, is brown above ;
tJiorax with three segments ; wings pale,
with a testaceous rib. A most curious and
wonderful account of this jnsect is given in
the Philosophical Transactions, of which
we shall notice a few particulars. The ani-
mal of this extraordinary communit}^ far
exceeding in wisdom and policy the bee,
the ant, or beaver, are inhabitants of East

fndia, Africa, and South America. They
build pyramidal structures, ten or twelve
feet in h^-ight, and divided into appropri-
ate apartments, magazines for provisions,
arched cliambei's, and galleries of com-
munication. These are so firmly cement-
ed, that they easily bear four men to stand
upon them, and, in the plains of Senegal,
appear like the villages of the natives.
With such wonderful dexterity and rapi-
dity they destroy focxl, furniture, books,
clothes, and timber, of whatever magni-
tude, leaving a mere thin surface, that
in a few hours a large beam will be eaten
to a mere shell, not thicker than writing
paper. Larva small, about a quarter of
an inch long; six-footed, pale, with a
roundish testaceous head ; eyes none i
mandibles short, strong, and tootJied ;
antennae as long as the thorax, and ovate
abdomen. These only are the labourers,
who build the structures, procure provi-
sions for tlie males and females, and take
care of the eggs : they are the most nu-
merous. Pupa larger, about half an IkkU
long, with a very large ovate polished
testaceous head ; eyes none ; mandibles
projecting as long as the head, forked,
without teeth, sharp and black ; thorax
and abdomen palish.

These never work, but act as superin-
tendants over the labourers, or as guards
to defend their habitations from intrusion
and violence. Wlien a breach is made in
the dwelling, they rush forward and de-
fend the entrance with great ferocity ;
some of them beating with their mandi-
bles against any hard substance, as a sig-
nal to the other guards, or as encourage-
ment to the labourers ; tliey then retire,
and are succeeded by the labourers, each
with a burthen of tempered mortar in
his mouth, and who diligently set about
to repair whatever injury has been stis-
tained. One of these attends every »x
or eight hundred labourers who are
building a wall, taking no active part
himself, but frequently making the noise
above mentioned, which is constant!)
answered by a loud hiss from all the ki-
bourevs, who, at this signal, evidently re-
double tlieir diligence.

The mule and female are alike, and
furni.shed with four long horizontal wings;
head small, brown ; mandibles short,
acute, toothed-? antennae yellowish; eyes
globular, prominent, black ; tliorax with
three brown or didl testaceous margined
segments; abdomen ovate; the back
brown, witli wliite streaks ; legs palish.

These are extricated from the pupa
state, and fly abroad in the night ; but

• TER

TES

soon after sun-rise, the wings become dry,
and they fall on ti)e ground, and are de-
voured by birds, or sought after by the
inliabitants, who roast and eat them with
-great avidity. A few that survive, are
collected by the labourers, or larva;, and
inclosed by pairs in apartments made of
clay, the apertui'e of which is narrowed
so ihat they cannot migrate, and where
they are diligently fed and attended by
the labourers, whose bodies are small
enough to admit an easy entrance.

After impregnation, the abdomen of
the female grows to a prodigious bulk,
exceeding the rest of her body nearly
two thousand times ; it is then vesicular
and white, with transverse brown spots,
and an undulate or slightly lobed margin.
In this state it contains an immense num-
ber of small round brown eggs, which
are protruded to the amount of eight
thousand in twenty-four hours. These
are instantly taken up by the labourers,
and conveyed to separate chambers,
where, after they are hatched, the young
are attended and provided for till tiiey
are able to shift for themselves, and take
their share in the labours of the commu-
nity.

T. pulsatorius, is a very small insect,
frequently found during the summer
months in houses, particularly where the
wainscot is in any degree decayed, and
is remarkable for continuing a long con-
tinued sound, resembling the ticking of
a watch. It is very common in collec-
tions of dried plants, which it injures ve-
ry much. It is of so tender a frame as
to be easily destroyed by the slighest
pressure, and is an animal of very quick
motions. When this insect is first hatch-
ed, it bears a complete resemblance to a
common mite, but after awhile casts its
skin, and ondergoes a complete change.

TERMINALIA, in botany, a genus of
the Polygamia Monoecia cUiss and order.
Natural order of Elxagni, Jussieu. Es-
sential character : calyx five-parted ; co-
rolla none ; stamens ten ; hermaphrodite,
style one ; drupe inferior, boat-shaped.
Tliere are six species, natives of the
East and West Indies.

TEtlNSTROEMIA, in botany, so nam-
ed in memory of Ternstroem, known by
his travels into China, a genus of the Po-
lyandria Monogynia class arid order. Na-
tural order of Columniferae. Aurantia,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx five-
parted ; corolla one-petalled, wheel-shap-
ed, with the border bell -shaped, five or
six-parted ; anthers thick at the tip ; berry

juiceless, two-celled. There are five
species.

TERELLA, an appellation given to a
load-stone, when turned into a spherical
figure, and is placed so, that its poles
and equator, 5tc. correspond to the poles
and equator of the world; as being a just
representation of the great magnetical
globe which we inhabit.

TERRIER, a book, or roll, wherein the
several lands, either of a private person,
or of a town, college, church, &c. are
described. It should contain the number
of acres, and the scite, boundaries, te-
nants' names, &c. of each piece or par-
cel.

TEST, in metallurgy, a vessel of the
nature of the coppel, used for large
quantities of metals at once. See Assay-
ing

TESTACEA, in natural history, an or-
der of the class Vermes in the Linnean
system. It is described as a Mollusca,
that is, a soft animal, of a simple struc-
ture, covered with a calcareous habitation
or shell. There are in this order thirty -
six genera, in sections.

A. Multivalves : shells with many valves

Chiton Pholas

Lepas

B. Bivalves : shell with two valves.

Anomia

Mytillus

Area

Ostrea

Cardium

Pinna

Chama

Solen

Donax

Shondylus

Mactra

Tellina

Mya

Venus.

;. Univalves, with

a regular spire.

Argon auta

Murex

Buccinum

Nautillus

Bulla

Nerita

Conus

StrombuB

Cyprsea

TrochuB

Haliotis

Turbo

Helix

Voluta.

). Univalves, without a regular spire.

Denialium

Sabella

Patella

Teredo.

Serpula

TESTES. See Anatomy.

TESTUDO, the tortoise, in natural l)is.
tory, a genus of Amphibia of the ordet
Reptiles. Generic character : body tail-
ed, covered above and beneath, defcndetJ

TESTUDO,

by a bony covering, covered by a horny,
scaly, or coriaceous integument ; a bony
mouth, without distinct teeth, and the up-
per mandible closing over the lower.
These animals feed on sea-weeds or on
worms, are extremely prolific ; but in the
state of eggs, and while very young, are
the prey of various animals. Their move-
ments are slow ; they are capable of be-
ing tamed, and will in that state eat al-
most any thing presented to them. They
exist long in such air as would be de-
structive to other dnimals of the same size,
and have such tenaciousness of life, that
it is stated they will exhibit convulsive
movements for several days after their
bodies have been opened, and even after
their heads have been cut ofi'. In cold la-
titudes, the land tortoise is torpid during
the winter. There are thirty -five species,
of which we shall notice the following.
T. Graeca, or the European tortoise. The
weight of this animal is three pounds, and
the length of its shell about seven inciies.
It ah;mndb in the countries surrounding
the Mediterranean, and particularly in
Greece, where the inhabitants not only
eat its tiesh and eggs, but frequently
swaSlow its warm blood. In September
or October it conceals itself, remaining
torpid till February, when it reappears,
la June it lays its eggs, in holes exposed
to the full beams of the sun, by which
tliey are matured. The males will fre-
quently engage in severe conflicts, and
strike then* heads against each other with
great violence and very loud sounds.
Tortoises attain most extraordinary lon-
gevity, and one was ascertained to have
lived in the gardens of Lambeth, England,
to the age of nearly 120 years. Its shell
is preserved in the archiepiscopal palace.
So reluctant is the vital principle to quit
these animals, that Shaw informs us,
from Redi, one of them lived for six
months after all its brain was taken out,
moving its limbs, and walking as before.
Another lived twenty-three days after its
head was cut off, and the head itself open-
ed and closed its jaws for a quarter of an
hour after its separation from the body.
It may not only be tamed, but has in seve-
ral instances exhibited proofs in that state
of considerable sagacity, in distinguish-
ing its benefactors, and of grateful at-
tachment in return for their kindness,
notwithstanding its general sluggishness
and torpor. It will answer the purpose of
a barometer, and uniformly indicates the
fall of rain before night, when it takes its
food with great rapidity, and walks with
a sort of mineing and elate step. It ap-

appears to dislike rain with extreme aver-
sion, and is discomfited and driven back
only by a few and scarcely perceivable
drops See Amphibia, Plate li. fig- 4.

T. lutaria, or the mud tortoise, is com-
mon both in Europe and Asia, and parti-
cularly in France, where it is much used
for food. It is seven inches long ; lays its
eggs on the ground, though an aquatic
animal ; walks quicker than the land tor-
toise ; and is often kept in gardens, to
clear them from snails and various wing-
less insects. In fish-ponds it is very de-
structive, biting the fishes; and when they
are exhausted by the loss of blood, drag-
ging them to the bottom and devouring
them.

T. ferox, or the fierce tortoise, is found
in several parts of North America, and is
eighteen inches long. It is rapid and vi-
gorous in its movement, and will spring
on its enemy with great elasticity and vio-
lence. Its flesh is thought extremely
good. It is found in the muddy parts of
rivers, concealing itself among the weeds.
It will also dart with great celerity on
birds. But those of this genus most com-
monly used as. food in the United States,
are the T. concentrica, (Terrapin,) and
theT. serpentaria, (Snapping Tortoise.)

The sea tortoises, or turtles, are dis-
tinguished from the former, by having ve-
ry large and long feet, in the shape of fins,
the claws of some of the toes not being
visible, but inclosed.

T. mydas, or the common green turtle,
is not unfrequently five feet long, and of
the weight of 500 pounds ; and is denomi-
nated green, from a shade of that colour
assumed by the fat when the animal is in
its perfect state. In the West Indies it
has been long in the highest estimation
for the table, and within sixty or seventy
years it has gradually been advancing in
reputation in this country for food, and is
at present considered as furnishing the
highest gratification of epicurism. It is
imported into England in vast numbers.
It feeds on sea grass called turtle grass.
It is taken sometimes after being watched
to its haunts ; and being thrown on its
back, is unable to rise again on its feet ;
sometimes it is struck in the water with a
long staff, armed with iron at the end.
The markets of the West Indies are sup-
plied with the flesh of these animals as
those of Europe are with mutton and beef;
and before they were much sought as ar-
ticles of exportation, forty sloops were
employed by the inhabitants of Port Roy-
al in catching them. They are seldom
seen on land but at the season of laying

TET

TET

their eggs, which they do at several times,
after intervals of fourteen days. Tbey
are occasionaliy found, probably in conse-
quence of tempests , on the coasts of Europe.

T. imbricata, or the imbricated turtle,
or hawksbill, is so called from its shells
lapping one over another, hke tiles on the
roof of a house. It is about three feet
long ; is found in the seas both of Asia
and America, and sometimes also in the
Mediterranean ; and is said to have been
seen even ot 600 pounds weight. Its
flesh is in no estimation ; but its lamina are
manufactured into that elegant material,
known by the name of tortoise-shell,
which has been applied by human inge-
nuity to innumerable purposes both of
use and ornament. The thickness of the
plates varies in reference to the age and
size of the turtle. Those of a very young
one are of no value. A large one will
supply ten pounds weight of valua-
ble scales, which being softened by heat,
and lapped over each other by means of
pressure, become effectually united, so as
to constitute one piece of considerable
extent, and without any perceivable trace
of their separation. This article was well
known to the Greeks and Romans, and
was an important material of luxury and
commerce. Various articles ot' furniture,
and even beds, were inlaid with it. The
Egyptians exported large cargoes ot it to
Rome for these purposes; and in China, as
well as Europe, it is at present in very
high demand for elegant and ornamental
manufactures.

Test u DO, in the military art of the an-
cients, was a kind of cover or screen,
which the soldiers, e.gr. a whole compa-
ny, made themselves of their bucklers,
by holding them up over their heads, and
standing close to each other. This ex-
pedient served to shelter them from darts,
stones, &c. thrown upon them, especially
those thrown from above, when they went
to the assault.

Testudo, was also a kind of large
wooden tower which moved on several
wheels, and was covered with bullock's
hides flead, serving to shelter the soldiers
when they approached the walls to mine
them, or to batter them with rams.

TETHER, a string by which horses are
held from ranging too far in pastures, &c.
In figurative language, we say to go the
length of one's tether ; to speak or act
with as much freedom as circumstances
will admit.
• 'I'ETHYS, in natural history, a genus
of the Vermes mollusca class and order:
body detached, rather oblong, fleshy,

without peduncles ; mouth with a termi-
nal, cylindrical proboscis, under an ex-
panded membrane or lip; two apertures
on the left side of the neck. There are
two species, viz. T. leporina, which in-
habits the Mediterranean; and T. fiuibria,
found in the Adriatic.

TE TRACERA, in botany, a genus of
the Polyandria Tetragynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Rosaceae, Jussieu.
Essential character ; calyx five or six-
leaved ; corolla four or five-petalled ;
filaments widening above ; and anther
bearing on each side ; capsules four, open-
ing on the side ; seed arilled at the base.
There are twelve species.

TETRACHORD, in the ancient music,
a concord consisting of four degrees or
intervals, and four terms or sounds ;
called also by the ancients diatessarron,
and by us a fourth.

TETRADYNAMIA, in botany, the
name of the fifteenth class in the Linnsean
system, consisting of plants with herma-
phrodite flowers, having six stamina, four
of which are longer than the rest. There
are two orders in this class, viz. the sili-
quosae, those that have long pods, as
stocks, rockets, &c, ; and the siliculosse,
or those that have short round pods, as
scurvy-grass, candy-tuft, &c.

TETRAEDRON, or Tetuahediiox, in
geometry, one of the five regular or plato-
nic bodies or solids, comprehended under
four equilateral and equal triangles.

It is demonstrated by mathematicians,
that the square of the side of a tetraedron
is to the square of the diameter of a
sphere, wherein it may be inscribed, in a
subsequilateral ratio : whence it follows,
that the side of a tetraedron is to the di-
ameter of a sphere it is inscribed in, as
^2 to the ^3, consequently they are
incommensurable.

TETRAGONIA, in botany, a genus of
the Icosandria Pentagj'nia class and or-
der. Natural order of Succulentae. Fi-
coideje, Jussieu. Essential character :
calyx three to five-parted ; petals none ;
drupe inferior, inclosing a nut from three
to eight-celled. There are eight species,
chiefly natives of the Cape of Good Hope.

TETRAGYNIA, in botany, the name of
an order in certain classes of the Linnaean
system, consisting of plants, which, to the
classic character, add the circumstance of
having four styles.

TETRANDRIA, in botany, the name
of the fourth class in the Linnaean systeen,
consisting of plants with hermaphrodite
flowers, which have four stamina of equal
length. In this last circumstance con-

TET

TET

slsts tlie main difference between the
tetranclria and the didynamia, in which
the four stamina are of unequal length,
two of them being longer than the other
two. There are tliree orders in this class,
founded upon the number of styles.

TETRANTHUS, in botany, a genus of
the Syngenesia Polygamia Segregata class
and order. Natural order of Capitatx. Ci-
narocephalae, Jussieu. Essential charac-
ter : calyx common, four-flowered ; peri-
anth proper, one-leafed ; seeds crowned.
There is but one species, riz. T. littoralis,
an annual plant, and a native of Hispaniola.

TETRAO, in natural history, a genus of
birds of the order GaUina:. Generic cha-
racter : near each eye a spot, which is na-
ked, or pai)illous, or slightly covered
with feathers. Birds of this genus, which,
according to Gmelin, comprehends the
grouse, the partridge, and the quail, fol-
low the dam immediately on being hatcli-
ed, and before the shell is wholly detach,
ed from them ; their bill is strong and
convex, and their flesh and eggs form an
exquisite repast. Tiiere are seventy-
three species, of which the following are
best de.serving of notice.

T. urogallus, or the cock of the wood,
is of the size of a turkey, and is found
from Russia to Italy, preferring the ele-
vated and mountainous parts of temper-
ate countries, as it delights in a cold tem-
perature. Its eggs are deposited on moss,
and whenever left by the female, who is
unassisted in the process of incubation,
are covered over with leaves. The males
and females hve sepai-ate, except during
the months of Februaiy and March.
Their food consists of various plants and
grains, and of buds of trees. The seeds
of the pine and fir they are particularly
fond of. The sound of the male resem-
bles not a little the whetting of a scythe.
The.se birds are in high request for the
table, and are sometimes sent from Pe-
tersburg to London, in a very rigorous
winter, arriving, it is said, in good condi-
tion.

T. tetrix, or the black grouse, is larger
than a common fowl, and abounds in the
British islands, particularly in the north-
ern districts. In winter these birds shel-
ter themselves in low situations. On the
return of spring they withdraw to the
mountains, and contests occur between
the males, which are carried on with ex-
treme violence and fury, and during
which they are so agitated by rage, that
they may be approached without obser-
vation, and knocked down with a club.
The birds of this species, and of the last,

do not pair like other birds, and the male
is generally seen with several females in
his train. They subsist on seeds and her-
bage, and are jjarticularly fond of the
seeds of the birch and Siberian poplar,

T. Canadensis, or the spotted grouse,
is thirteen inches long, abounds in the
neighbourhood of Hudson's Bay, and
feeds upon juniper berries, and the cones
of spruce. These birds are eaten by the
natives, both in summer and winter, dur-
ing the latter season being hung up by
the bill, and preserved by the frost.
They are extremely stupid, and will
scarcely make an effort to evade danger.

T. lagopus, or the ptarmigan grouse, is
fourteen inches long, and inhabits tlie
north of Europe. It is not uncommon in
the Orkneys and the Hebrides, and is
sometimes found in Cumberland. These
birds subsist on seeds, fruits, and berries,
and are, like the last, silly and inadvertent
to danger.

T. perdix, or the European partridge,
is thirteen inches long, and abounds in
the temperate regions of Europe, It is
unable to sustain rigorous cold, or intense
heat. It feeds on green corn and other
plants, and almost every species of grain ;
but the eggs of ants constitute its favour-
ite food, and are almost essential for the
nourishment and preservation of the
young ones. Experiments have been re-
peatedly, but ineffectually, made, to in-
duce the breeding of this bird in con-
finement; its eggs, however, are fre-
quently introduced into the nest of a
common jjen, and are thus matured, and
the young are treated affectionately by
that bird, and may be brought to per-
fection, if provided with their appropriate
food. The attachment of the male and
female partridge to their offspring, is
highly interesting. They both sit cover-
ing (hem frequently at the same time,
and, when danger approaches, will ex-
pose tliemselves to its direct attack, in
order to decoy the attention of the ene-
my from those whose security they pre-
fer even to their own existence. They
pair early, build with dry leaves upon tlie
ground, and the young run after their
parent as soon as they are extricated
from the shell. They breed in England
only once a year, and Uve to the age of
twelve years. They are highly valued
for food.

T. coturnix, or the quail, is between
seven and eight inches long, and inha-
bits almost every country of the old world,
but is not found in America. It is mi-
gratory, and moves in spring towards the

TET

TEU

colder climates, returning southerly in
autumn. In these progresses quails fly
in immense multitudes, and are taken ii\
tlie islands of the Archipe)a^40 in such
numbers as for a short time to be the
principal ariicle of food for the inhabit-
ants, and to constitute an important
source of income and revenue. Within
a few miles along- the coasts of Italy, a
hundred thousand are said to have been
taken in a single day. Latham informs us,
that they used to be an article of impor-
tation from France to England, in cages
formed with several divisions, and con-
taining about a score of birds in each,
and that he had often seen these cages
filled with them, and attached to the
stage coaches between Paris and London.
They breed, however, in that country,
and though manyjmigra<e beyond the isl-
and, many only change their residence
within it, on the approach of winter,
from the more exposed to the more
sheltered parts. These birds were pro-
verbial among the Romans for captious-
ness and quarrelling, and are employed
among the Chinese for the same amuse-
ment as game cocks in F. igland. They
were so used, indeed, likewise among
the ancients. It appears highly probable
that the extraordinary supplies of the
Israelites were derived from this species
of birds in their vast flights to and from
Africa; and though represented in Jewish
history as a permanent supply, this cir-
cumstance may easily be accounted for,
irom the exaggerating and superlative
phraseology which characterizes all ori-
ental description.

TE'l'RATOMA, in natural history, a
genus of insects of the order Coleoptera.
Antennae clavate, tlie club perfoliate ; lip
rounded, entire ; feelers thickish, un-
equal ; shells as long as the abdomen.
There are two species, viz. T. fungorum,
found on tree-fungi, in Germany ; and
T. ancora.

TETllODON, in natiu-al history, a
genus of fishes of the order Cartilaginei.
Generic character : jaws bony, divided at
the end ; body roughened beneath ; no
ventral fins; aperture of the gills linear.
These fishes are chiefly met with in the
seas between the tropics, and imagined
to subsist princijially on shell fish. They
are distinguished by the faculty of infla-
ting or compressing their bodies at plea-
sure, and continuing in either state for
a considerable time. During inflation,
the spines, which are scattered over the
lower part of the body, are erected with
great intensity. There are thirteen spe-

cies. T. lagocephalus, or the hare tetro-
don, is afoot long, very thick in front,
but becoming perpetually more slender
towiii«ds the tail. It is found in the
American and Indian seas, has been
very rarely taken on the British coast,
and possesses the power of sweliiag it-
self to a size truly astonishing.

T. ocellatus, is seven inches long, and
particularly abounds about Japan and
China. It is taken for food, but requires
to be cleaned with particular accuracy,
as certain parts of it are reported to be
highly poisonous. On this account it is
prohibited to the military of Japan ; but by
a singular and capricious distinction, is
still permitted to every other class of sub-
jects.

For the tortoise-shell tetrodon, see Pis-
ces, Plate VI fig. 4.

TEUCRIUM, in botany, ^ern?a/i</er, so
named from Teucer, son of Scamander,
and father-in-law of Dardanus King of
Troy, a genus of the Didynamia Gymnos-
permia class and order. Natural order
of Verticillat^e. Labiatse, Jussieu. Essen-
tial character : corolla, upper lip two-part-
ed beyond the base, divaricating where
the stamens are. There are sixty-nine
species.

TEUTHIS, in natural history, a genus
of fishes of the order Abdominales. Ge-
neric character : head truncated on the
fore-part ; gill membrane, with five rays ;
teeth equal, rigid, approximate, in a sin-
gle row. There are two species. T. he-
patus, has a recumbent moveable spine on
each side the tail, and inhabits the seas of
India and America.

T. Java, has an unarmed tail, lunated,
and its )3ody is marked with longitudinal
black spots.

TEUTONIC order, a military order of
knights, established towards the close of
the twelfth century, and thus called, as
consisting chiefly of Germans or Teutons.
The origin, &c. of the Teutonic order it
said to be this. The Christians, under
Guy of Lusignan, laying siege to Acre,
or Aeon, a city of Syria, on the borders of
the Holy Land, some Germans of Bremen
and Lubeck, touched with compassion fop
the sick and wounded of the army, who
wanted common necessaries, set on foot a
kind of hospital under a tent, which they
made of a ship's sail, and here betook
themselves to a charitable attendance on
them. This started a thought of esta-
blishing a third military order, in imitation
of the Templars and Hospitallers. The
design was approved of by the patriarch

THA

THA

of Jerusalem, the archbishops and bishops
of the neigiibourin^ places, the King of
Jerusalem, the masters ot the temple and
hospital, and the German lords and pre-
lates then in the Holy Land, and Pope
Calixtus III. confirmed it by his bull, and
the new order was called the order of
Teutonic Knights of the house of St.
Mary at Jerusalem. The Pope granted
them all tl»e privileges of the Templars
and Hospitallers of St. John, excepting
that they were to be subject to the patri-
archs and other prelates, and that they
should pay tythe of what they possess-
ed.

TEXT, a relative term, contradistin-
guished to gloss or commentary, and sig-
nifying an original discourse, exclusive of
any note or interpretation. This word is
particularly used for a certain passage of
scripture chosen by a preacher to be the
subject of his sermon.

A text-book, in several universities, is a
classic author written very wide by the
students to give room for an niterpretation
dictated by the master or regent to be in-
serted in the interlines. The Spaniards
give the name of text to a kind of little
poem, or set of verses, placed at the head
of a gloss and making the subject thereof,
each verse being explained one after
another in the course of the gloss.

THALES, in biography, a celebrated
Greek philosopher, and the first of the
wise men of Greece, born at Miletum
about 640 years before the Christian sera.
When he had acquired the usual learning
of his country, he travelled into Asia and
Egypt, to bfc instructed in geometry, as-
trondmy, and natural philosophy. On his
return be became a teacher of youth, and
among his disciples, which were nume-
rous, were AnaxJmander, Anaximenes,
and Pythagoras. Thales was the author
of the Ionian sect of philosophers ; he was
reckoned, by the best historian's, the
father of Greek philosophy, being the first
that made any researches into natural
knowledge and mathematics. He thought
water was the principle of which all bodies
in the universe are composed : that the
world was the work of God, whom he re-
garded as omniscient, and beholding the
secret thoughts in the heart of man. He
maintained that real happiness consisted
in health and knowledge : that the most
ancient of beings is God, because he is un-
created ; that nothing is more beautiful
than the world, because it is the work of
God ; nothing more extensive than space,
quicker than spirit, stronger than neces-

sity, wiser than time. He used to obseryej
that we ought never to say that to any
one which may be turned to our preju-
dice : and that we should live with our
friends as with persons that may become
our enemies. In geometry he was a con-
siderable inventor, as well as an improver,
particularly in triangles ; and all the wri-
ters agree, that he was the iirst, even in
Egypt, who took the height of the pyra-
mids by the shadow. His knowledge and
improvements in astronomy were very
considerable. He divided the celestial
sphere into five circles or zones ; the
arctic and antarctic circles, the two tropi-
cal circles, and the equator. He observed
the apparent diameter of the sun, which
he made equal to half a degree; and form-
ed the constellation of the Little Bear.
He f)bserved the nature and course of
eclipses, and calculated them exactly ;
one in particular, memorably recorded by
Herodotus, as it happened on a day of
battle between the Medes and Lydians,
which Thales had foretold;; and he divid-
ed the year into 365 days. He died at
the age of ninety years, leaving behind
him an excell^it character, as a mathe-
matician, a philosopher, and moralist.

THALIA, in botany, so named in me-
mory of John Thalius, a physician at
Nordhuys, a genus of the Monandria
Monogynia class and order. Natural or-
der of Scilamine^e. Cannse, Jussieu.
Essential character; calyx three leaved;
corolla five-petalled, two inner petals less;
nectary lanceolate, concave; drupe with
a one-celled nut. There are two species,
tj/a. T. geniculata, and T. cannaeformis;
the former is a native of South America,
the latter of MallicoUo, one of the New
Hebrides, in Australasia; it was also found
in the Andaman Isles, and Rangoon, in
the kingdom of Pegue, by Dr. Buchan-
nan.

THALICTRUM, in botany, meadoiv inie,
a genus of the Polyandria Polygynia class
and order. Natural order of Multisilique.
Ranunculaceae, Jussieu. Essential cha-
racter : calyx none ; petals four or five ;
seeds tailless. There are twenty-two
species.

THALLITE, in mineralogy, a stone
found m the fissures of mountains in Dau-
phiny, and on Chamouni, in the Alps. It
is sometimes amorphous, and sometime
chrystaUized. It is brittle. Specific
gravity about 3.4. Before the blow-pipe
it froths, and melts into a black Hag; with
borax it melts into a green bead. The
constitutent parts are.

THE

THE

Silica 37.0

Alumina 27.0

Oxide of iron ........ 17-0

Lime 14 0

Oxide ot manganese .... 1.5

96.5
Loss ,3.5

100.0

THAPSIA, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Digynia class ami (irder. Natu-
ral order of Umbellatac, or Umhelliterae.
Fissential charactei': fruit oblong, surround-
ed by a membrane. There are six spe-
cies.

THEA, in botany, tea-tree, a genus of
the Polyandriu Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Columniferx.
Aurantia, Jussieu. Essential character:
corolla six or Tiine pet ailed ; caiyx five or
six leaved : capsule tricoccous.

The tea plant is a native ol Japan, Chi-
na, and Tonquia, and lias not been found
growing spontaneously in any other pait
of the world.

Liiinxus says \\vaX. there are two species
of the tea j)laiu ; the bohea, the corolla of
which has six petals; and the viridis, or
green tea, which has nine petals. Thun-
berg makes only one specjes, the bohea,
consisting of two varieties ; the one with
broad, and the otiier with narrow leaves.
This botanist's authority is decisive re-
specting the Japanese tea plants ; but as
China has not yet been explored, we can-
not determine what number of species
there are in that country. The tea-tree,
however, is now common in the botanical
gardens in this country ; and it is evident
that there are two species, or, at least,
permanent varieties of it ; one with a
much longer leaf than the other, which
our gardeners call the green tea; and the
other with shorter leaves, which they call
the bohea. The green is by much the
hardiest plant, and with very little protec-
tion will bear the rigour of our wiirters.

This plant delights in valleys, and is
frequent on the sloping sides of moun-
tains and the bunks of rivers, where it en-
joys a southern exposure. It flourishes
in the northern latitudes of Pekin as well
as round Canton ; but attains the greatest
perfection in the miUl temperate re-
gions of Nankin. It is said only to be
found between the 30lh and45lh degree
of north latitude. In Japan it is planted
round the borders of fields, without rc-

NOL. VT.

gard to the soil ; but as it is an important
article of commerce with the Chinese,
whose fields are covere I with it, it is by
them cultivated witli cave. The Abbe
Rochon says it grow.s 'jqually well in a
poor as in a rich soil , but that there are
certain places where it is of a better qua-
lity. The tea which grows in rocky
ground is superior to that which grows
in a light soil ; and the worst kind is that
which IS produced in a clay soil. It is
propagated by seeds ; from six to twelve
are put into a hole about five inches deep,
at certain distances from each other. The
reason why so many seeds are sown in
the same hole is said to be, that only a
fifth part vegetate. Being thus sown,
they grow without any other care. Some,
however, manure tlie land, and remove
the weeds ; for the Chinese are as fond of
good tea, and take hs much pains to pro-
cure it of an excellent quality, as the
Europeans do to procure excellent wine.

Tiie leaves are not fit for being phick-
ed till the shrub is of three years' growth,
in seven years it rises to a man's height ;
but as it then bears but few leaves, it is
cut dowii to the stem, and this produces
a iiew crop of fresh shoots the following
simimer, every one of which bears nearly
as many leaves as a whole slirub. Some-
times the plants are not cut down till they
are ten years old. We are informed, by
Kicmpfer, that there are three seasons in
wjiich the leaves are collected in the isles
of Japan, from which the tea derives dif-
ferent degrees of perfection.

The first gathering commences at the
end of February or beginning of March.
The leaves are then suiall, tender, and
unfolded, and not above three or four
(lays old : it is called imperial tea, being
generally reserved for the court and peo-
ple of rank ; and sometimes also it is
named bloom tea. It is sold in China for
20^/. or 2.?. per pound. The labourers
employed in collecting it do not pull the
leavcs'by handfuls, but pick them up one
by one, and take every precaution that
they may not break them. However long
and tedious this labour may appear, they
gather from four to ten or fifteen pounds
a day.

The .second crop is gathered about tlie
end of March or beginning of April. At
this season part of their leaves have at-
tained their full growth, and the rest are
not above half their size. This differ-
ence does not, however, prevent them
from being all gathered indiscriminately.
Thev are afterwards picked and assorted

3 n

THE

THE

into difl'ercnt parcels, according to their
age and size. The youngest, which are
carefully separated from the rest, are
often sold for leaves cf the first crops, or
for imperial tea. Tea gathered at this
season is called Cliinese tea, because the
people of Japan infuse it, and drink it
after the Chinese manner.

The third crop is gathered in the end
of May, or in the month of June. The
leaves are then very numerous and thick,
and have acquired their full growth. This
kind of tea is the coarsest of all, and is re-
served for the common people. Some of
the Japanese collect their tea only at two
seasons of the year, which correspond to
the second and third already mentioned :
others confine themselves to one general
gathering of their crop, towards the
month of June : however, they always
form afterwards different assortments of
their leaves.

In this coimtry, teas are generally di-
vided into three kinds of greeii, ancl five
of bohea : the former are, 1. Imperial, or
bloom tea, with a large loose leaf, light
green colour, and a faint delicate smell.
2. Hyson, so called from the name of the
merchant who first imported it; the
leaves of which are closely curled and
small, of a green colour, verging to a blue.

0. Singlo tea, from the name of the place
where it is cidtivated. The boheas are,

1. Souchong, which imparts a yellow-
green colour by infusion. 2. Camho, so
called from the place where it is made ;
a fragrant tea, with a violet smell ; its in-
fusion pale. 3. Congo, which has a larger
leaf than the preceding, and its infusion
somewhat deeper, resembling common
bohea in the colour of the leaf 4. Pekoe
tea; this is known by the appearance of
small white flowers mixed with it. 5.
Common bohea, wl^ose leaves are of one
colour. There are other varieties, par-
ticularly a kind of green tea, done up in
roundish balls, called gunpowder tea.

THELYGOXCM, in botany, a genus of
the Monoecia Polyandria class andordei'.
Natural order of Scab ridx. UrticK, Jus-
sieu. Essential character: male, cal}X
bifid ; corolla none ; stamina connnonly
twelve : female, calyx bifid; corolla none ;
pistil one ; capsule coriaceous, one-cell-
ed, one-seeded. There is only one spe-
cies, viz. T. cynocrambe, purslain-leaved
thelygonum, or dog's cabbage : this is an
annual plant, decaying as soon as the
seeds ripen; the stalks trail on the ground
like those of chick-weed ; they grow
about a foot in length, having acute point-
ed leaves, on long bordered foot-.stalks ;

flowers axillary, in clusters, sitting very
close, small, and of an herbaceous white
colour ; nude and female from the same
joint ; it is a native of the South of Prance,
near Mon^pelier.

THEOBKOMA, in botany, a genus of
the Polyadelphia Decandria class and or-
der. Natural order of Columniferae. Mal-
vaceae, J ussieu. Essential character : ca-
lyx hve-leaved ; petals five, arched ; nec-
tary five-horned; filaments five, within
the calyx of the petals, growing external-
ly to the nectary, having two anthers on
each. There is but one species, ziz. T.
cacao, chocolate nut tree, which grows in
a very handsome form, to the height of
twelve or sixteen feet ; the wood is light,
and of a white colour ; the bark is brown-
ish and even ; leaves lanceolate, oblong,
bright green, entire, from nine to sixteen
inches long, and from three to four in the
widest part, on a petiole an inch in
length, thickened at both ends; peduncles
slender, eight or ten together, chiefly
from the scars of fallen leaves ; flowers
small, reddish, inodorous ; fruit smooth,
yellow and red, about three inches in di-
ameter ; rind fleshy, half an inch in thick-
ness ; pulp whitish, the consistence of
butter, separating from the rind in a state
of ripeness, and adhering to it only by
filaments, which penetrate it and reacJi
to the seeds ; when the seeds are ripe, it
is known by the rattling of the CHpsule
when shaken. This tree bears leaves,
flowers, and fruit, all the year through ;
the usual seasons for gathering the fruit
are June and December ; one tree yields
from two to three pounds of seeds aiuuial-
ly. It is a nati\'e of South America ; it is
also found in several places between the
'I'ropics, particularly at Caracca and Car-
thagena, on the river Amazons, the Isth-
mus of I3arien, &.c. This tree is culti-
vated in many of the West India islands,
belonging to the Frencli and Spaniards,
and formerly in some of those belonging
to the English, but has been neglected in
the latter for many years past.

THEODOLPiE, a mathematical instru-
ment much used in surveying, for the
taking of angles, distances, &c. Jt is
made variously, several persons having
their several ways of contriving it, each
more simple and portable, more accurate
and expeditious than others. The com-
mon one consists of a brass circle about a
foot diameter, having its hmb divided iiito
360 degrees, and each degree subdivided,
either diagonally, or otherwise, into mi-
nutes. See Ltcvel,

THEODOSIUS, in biography, a cele-

THE

THE

braled matliematician, wlio flourished in
tlie limes of Cicero ami Poxupey ; but the
lime and place of his dealli are unknown.
He chiefly cidtivated that part of geome-
try which rehites to the doctrine of the
sphere, concerning which he pubHshed
three books. The first of these con-
tains twenty-two propositions; the second
twenty-three ; and the tliird fovu'teen ; all
demonstrated in the pure geometrical
manner of the ancients. Ptolemy made
great use of these propositions, as well
as all succeeding writers. These books
were translated by the Arabians, out of
the original Greek, into their own lan-
guage. From the Arabic, the work was
again translated into Latin, and printed
at Venice. But the Arabic version being
very defective, a more complete edition
was published in Greek and Latin, at Pa-
ris, 1558. And Vitello acquired reputa-
tion by translating Theodosius into Latin.
This author's works were also comment-
ed on and illustrated by Clavius, and
others; but the edition of I'heodosius's
Spherics which is now most in use, was
translated, and published, by our coun-
tryman, the learned Dr. Barrow, in the
year 16/5, illustrated and demonstrated
in a new and concise method. By tiiis
autlior's account, Theodosius appears not
only to be a great master in this more dif-
ficult part of geometry, but the first con-
siderable autJior of antiquity who has writ-
ten on that subject.

TtlEOPHllASTA, in botany, so named
in honour of the celebrated Grecian phi-
losopher and botanist, Theophrastus Ere-
sius, a genus of the Pentandria .Vlonogy-
nia class and order. Natural order of
Apocinex, Jussieu. Essential character :
corolla bell-shaped, with oblong erect
spreading segments; fruit one-celled, very
large, roundish, many-seeded. There are
two species, viz. T. americana and T,
longifulia, both natives of America.

THEOREM, a speculative proposition,
demonstrating the properties of any sub-
ject Theorems are either universal,
which extend to any quantity, without re-
striction, universally ; as this, that the
rectangle of the sum, and difference of
any two quantities, is equal to the differ-
ence of their squares ; or particular,
which extend only to a particular quanti-
ty ; as this, in an equil.iteml right-lined
triangle, each of the angles is 60 degrees.
Theorems are again distinguished into
negative, local, plane, and sT)lid. A ne-
gative theorem is that which expresses
the impossibility of any assertion ; as, that
tlie sum of two biqu;idrate numbers can-

not make a sc[uare number. A local the-
orem is that which relates to a suiface ;
as, that the triangles of the .same base and
altitude are equal. A plane theorem is
that which cither relates to a rectihnear
surface, or to one terminated by the cir-
cumference of a circle ; as, that all an-
gles in the same segment of a circle are
equal. And a solid theorem is that which
considers a space terminated by a solid
line; that is, I>y any of the three conic
sections, e. gr. this; that if a right line
cut two asymptotic parabolas, its two
parts terminated by them shall be equal,
THEORY, in general, denotes any doc.
trine which terminates in speculation
alone, without considering the practical
uses and application thereof.

THERMOMETER, an instrument for
measuring the degree of heat or cold in
any body. The first form of this instru-
ment for measuring the degrees of heat
and cold, was the air thermometer. It is
a well known fact that air expands with
heat su as to occupy more space than it
does when cold, and that it is condensed
by cold soastooccupy less spacethan when
warmed, and that this expansion and con-
densation is greater or Itfss according to
the degree of heat or cold at)plied. The
principle then on which the air-thermome-
ter was constructed is very simple. The
air was confined in a tube by means of
some coloured liquor; the liqour rose or
fell according as the air became expand-
ed Of condensed. What the first form of
the tube was, cannot now pei iiaps be well
known; but the following description of
the airthennometer will fully explain its
nature, it consists of a glass tube, B E,
(Plate Miscel. XVL fig. 4.) connected at
one end with a large glass ball. A, and at
the other end immersed in an open ves-
sel, or terminating in a ball,DE, with a
narrow orifice at D ; which vessel or ball
contains any coloured liquor that will not
easily freeze. Aqual'ortts tinged of a fine
blue colour with a solution of vitriol or
copper, or' spirit of wine tinged with co-
chineal, will answer this purpose. But tiie
ball, A, must be first moderately warmed,
so tliut a part of the air contained in it may
be expelled through tlie orifice, D; and
then the litpior pressed by the weight of
the atmosphere will enter the ball, D E,
and lise, for example, to the middle of
the tube, at C at a mean temperature of
the weather ; and in this stale the liquor
by its weigiit, and the air included in the
ball. A, 8tc. by its ehisticity, will counter-
balance the weight of the atmosphere. As

THERMOxMETEU.

the surrounding air becomes warmer,
the uirin Mie ball and upper part of" the
tube, expanding by lieiil, wiil diive the li-
quor ml.) tlie lower ball, and conscqutnily
its surface will descend; on the coiiuar),
as the ambient air becomes colder, that
in the ball is condensed, and the liquor,
pressed by ihe weight of the atmosphere,
will ascend ; so thai the liquor in the tube
will ascend or descend n'ore or less ac
cordin.i^ to the state ot'tite air contiguous
to the instrument. 'I'o the lube is affixed
a scale of the same length, divided up-
\vards and d(iwnwards from the middle,
C, into 100 equal parts, by means of
which the ascent and descent of the li-
quor in the tube, and consequently the
variations in the cold or heat of the atmo-
sphere, may be observed.

The air bei'>j; found improper for mea-
suring' with accuracy the variations of
heat and colel, according lo the form of
the tliermometer which was first adopted,
another fluid was proposed about the
middle of ihe seventeenth century by the
Florentine Academy. This fluid was
spirt of wine, or alcohol, as it is no a gene-
rally named. The alcohol being colour-
ed, was inclosed in a very fine cylindri-
cal glass tube previously exhausted of
its air, having a hollow ball at one end,
A, (fig. 5.) and hermetically sealed at
the other end, D. The ball and tube are
filled with rectified spirit of wine to a
convenient height, as to C, when the wea-
ther is of a mean temperature, which
may be done by inverting the tube into a
vessel of stagnant coloiued spirit, under
a receiver of the air-pump, or m any other
way. When the thermometer is j)roper-
ly filled, the end D is heated red hot by a
lamp, and then hermetically sealed,
leaving the included air of about one-third
of its natural density, to prevent the air
which is in the spirit from dividing it in
its expansion. To the tube is applied a
scale, divided from the middle, into 100
equal parts, upwards and downwards.
As spirit of wine is capable of a very con-
siderable degree of rarefaction and con-
densation by heat and cold, when the
heat of the atmospiiere increases the
spirit dilates, and consequently rises in
the tube ; and when the heat decreases,
the spirit descends, and the degree or
quantity of the motion is shown by a scale.

This was evidently an improvement on
the air-thermometer, but was itself not
free from objections. The liquor could
noteasilybe obtained ofthe same strength,
and hence different tubes filled witli it,
vvlien exposed lo the same degree of heat,

would not correspond. Another defect
was, the want of some fixed guide as a
standard lo commence the graduation.
Philosophers soon saw that some fixed
and unalterable p(Mnt must be found,
by which all thermometers might be
accurately adjulsed. Dr. Halley propos-
ed that thermometers should be gra-
duated in a deep pit, where the tempera-
ture in all seasons was nearly the same.
Tiiib however could not generally be prac-
tised. He thought of the boiling jjoint
of water, of mercury, and of spirit
of wine, preferring the latter, on
account of the freezing of water, not
knowing that this was fi.xed and uniform.
At length Sir Isaac Newion determined
this important ],oint, on which the accura-
cy and value of tlie thermometer depends.
lie chose, as fixed, those points at which
water freezes and boils ; the very points
whicfi the experiments of succeeding
philosophers have determined to be the
most fixed and convenient. Sensible ofthe
disadvantages of spirit of wine, he tried
another liquor which was homogeneous
enough, and capable of a considerable
rarefaciion, several times greater than
spirit of wine. This was linseed oil. It
has not been observed to freeze even in
very great colds, and ii bears a heat very
much greater than water before it boils.
With these advantages it was made use
of by Sir Isaac Newton, who discovered
by It the comjiai alive degree of heat for
boiling water, melting wax, boiling spirit
of wine, and melting tin; beyond which it
does not appear ihai this thermometer
was applied. The method he used for
adjusting the scale of this oil-thermome-
ter was as follows j supposing the bulb,
when immerged in thawing-snow, to con-
tain 10,000 parts, he found the oil expand
by the heat of the human body, so as tp
take up one thirty-ninth more space,
or 10,256 such [)arts ; and by the
heat of water boiling strongly Is ',725 ;
and by the heat of meUing tin 11,516.
So that reckoning the freezing point as a
common limit between heat and cold, be
began his scale there, marking it 0, and
the heat of the human body he made 12° ;
and consequently, the degress of heat be-
ing proportional to the degrees of rare-
faction, or 236 :725:: 12:34, this num-
ber 34 will express the heat of boiling wa-
ter ; and by the same rule, 72 that of melt-
ing tin. This thermometer was con-
structed in 1701. To the application of
oil as a measure of heat and cold, there
are insuperable objections. It is so vis-
cid, that it adheres too strongly to the

THERMOMETER.

&ides of the tube. On this account it as-
cends and descends too slowly in case of
a sudden heut or cold. In a sudden cold,
so great a portion remains adhering to the
sides of the tube after the rest has subsi-
ded, that the surface appears lower than
the corresponding temperature of the air
requires. An oil thermometer is there-
fore not a proper measuie of heat and
cold. All the thermometers hitheito
proposed were liable to many inconveni-
ences, and could not be considered as ex-
act standards for poniting out the various
degrees of temperature. This led Reau-
mur to attempt a new one, an account of
which was published in the year 1730 in
the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences.
This thermonieter was made witli spirit of
wine. He took a large ball and tube, the
dimensions and capacities of which were
known ; he then graduated the tube, so
that the space from one division to ano-
ther might contain 1,000th part of the li-
quor; tlie liquor containing 1,000 parts
when it stood at the freezing point. He
adjusted the thermometer to the freez-
ing point by an artificial congelation of
water ; then putting the ball of his thei--
mometer and part of the tube into boiling
water, he observed whether it rose 80 di-
visions ; if it exceeded these, he changed
his liquor, and by adding water lowered
it, till upon trial it should just rise 80 di-
visions ; or if the liqour, being too low,
fell short of eighty divisions, he raised it
by adding rectified spirit to it. The li-
quor thus prepared suited his purpose,
and served for making a thermometer of
any size, whose scale would agree with
his standard. At length a difl'erent fluid
was proposed, by which thermometers
could be made free from most of tlie de-
fects hitherto mentioned. This fluid
was mercury, and seems first to have oc-
curred to Dr. Halley, but was not adopted
by him, on account of its having a smaller
degree of expansibility than the other
fluids used at that time.

The honour of this invention is general-
ly given to Fahrenheit of Amsterdam,
who i)resented an account of it to the
Royal Society of London in 1724. That we
may judge the more accurately of the
propriety of employing mercurj', we will
compare its qualities with those of the
fluids already mentioned, air, alcohol, and
oil. Air is the most expansible fluid,
but it does not receive nor part Avith its
heat so quickly as mercury. Alcohol
does not expand much by heat. In its
ordinary stale it does not bear a much
greater heat tlian 175° of Fahrenheit ;

but when highly rectified, it can bear a
greater degree of cold than any other
liquor hitherto employed as a measure of
temperature. At Hudson's Bay, Mr Mac-
nab, by a rtiixture of vitriolic acid and
snow, made it to descend to 69° below 0
of Fahrenheit, There is an inconvenience,
however, attending the use of this liquor »
it is not possible to get it always of the
same degree of strength. As to oil, its
expansion is about 15 times greater than
that of alcohol ; it sustains a heat of 600°,
and its freezing point is so low that it has
not been determined ; but its viscosity
renders it useless.

Mercury is far superior to alcohol and
oil, and is much more manageable than
air. 1. As far as the experiments al-
ready made can determine, it is, of all the
fluids hitherto employed in the construc-
tion of thermometers, that which mea-
sures most exactly equal differences of
beat by equal differences of its bulk : its
dilatations are, in fact, very nearly pro-
portional to the augmentations of heat
applied to it. 2. Of all liquids it is the
most easily freed from air. 3. It is fitted
to measure high degrees of heat and cold.
It sustains a heat of 600° of Fahrenheit's
scale, and docs not congeal till it fall 39
or 40 dcgi-ees below 0. 4. It is the most
sensible of any fluid to heat and cold,
even air not excepted. Count Rumford
found, that mercury was heated from the
freezing to the boiling point in 58 seconds,
while water took 2 minutes 13 seconds,
and common air 10 minutes and 17 se-
conds. 5. Mercury is a homogeneous
fluid, anfl every portion of it is equally
dilated or contracted by equal variations
of heat. Any one thermometer, made
of pure mercury, is, Cccieris paribus, pos-
sessed of the same properties with.every
other thermometer made of pure mer-
cury. Its power of expansion is indeed
about six times less than that of spirit
of wine, but it is great enough to answer
most of the purposes for which a ther-
mometer is wanted. The fixed points,
which are now universally chosen for ad-
justing thermometers to a scale, and to
one another, are the boiling and freezing
water points. Tlie boiling water point,
it is well known, is not an invariable
point, but varies some degrees, according
to the weight and temperature of the
atmosphere. In an exhausted receiver,
water will boil with a heat of 98° or 100®;
whereas, in Papin's digester, it will ac-
quire a heat of 412°. Hence it appears,
that water will boil at a lower point, ac-
cording to its height in the atmosphere,.

THERMOMETER.

or to the weight of the column of air
which presses ii|jon it. In order to en-
sure uniformity, tlierefore, in the con-
struction of thermometers, it is now
agreed, tliat the bulb of the tube be
plunged in the water wiien it boils vio-
lently, tiie barometer standing at 30 En-
glish inches, and tiie temperature of the
atmosphere 55^. A thermometer made
in this way, with its boiling point at 212°,
is called, by Dr. Horsley, " Bird's Fahren-
heit," because Mr. Bird was the first
person who attended to the state of the
barometer in constructing therm.ometers.
As artists may be often obliged to ad-
just thermometers under very different
pressures of tlic atmosphere, philoso-
]}hers have been at pains to discover a
general rule, wiiich might be applied on
all occasions. M. de Luc, from a series of
experiments, has given an equation for
the allowance on account of this differ-
ence, in Paris measure, which has been
verified by Sir George Schuckburg; also
Dr. Horsley, Dr. Maskelyne, and Sir

George Schuckburg,

idapted the

equation and rules to EngUsh measures,
and have reduced the allowances into ta-
bles, for the use of the artist. Dr. Hors-
Jey's rule, deduced from De Luc's, is this:

99
_-ll — log. z— 92 804 =h.

WTiere A denotes the heiglitof a thermo-
meter phinged in boiUng water above
the point of melting ice, in degrees of
iVird's Fahrenheit, and z the height of
the barometer in lOths of an inch. From
this rule he has computed the following
table, for finding the heights to which a
good Bird's Fahrenheit will rise, when
plunged in boiling water, in all states of
the barometer, from 27 to 31 English in-
ches ; which will serve, among other
uses, to direct instrument-makers in mak-
ing a true allowance for the effect of the
variation of the barometer, if they should
be obliged to finish a thermometer at a
time when the barometer is above or be-
low 30 inches ; though it is best to fix
the boiling point when the barometer is
at that height.

EaUATIOX OF THE BOILISG POIXT,

Barometer.

Equation.

Difference.

31.0

-f 1.57

0.78

30.5

+ 0.79

0.79

30.0

0.00

0.80

' 29.5

— 0.80

0.82

29.0

— 1.62

0.83

28.5

— 2.45

0.85

28.0

— 3.31

• 0.86

27.5

— 4.16

0.88

27.0

— 5.04

The numbers in tlie first column of this

table express heights of the quicksilver
in the barometer, in Englisii inches and
decimal parts : the second column shows
the equation to be apphed, according to
the sign prefixed, to 212° of Bird's Fah-
renheit, to find the true boiling point for
every such state of the barometer. The
boiling point, for all intermediate states
of the barometer, may be had, with suffi-
cient accuracy, by taking proportional
parts, by means of the third column of
difterences of the equations.

The method of constructing Fahren-
heit's thermometer, which is now in gene-
ral use in this country, is the following :
a small ball is blown on the end of a glass
tube, of an uniform width throughout.
The ball and part of the tube are then to
be filled with quicksilver, which has been
previously boiled to expel the air. The
open end of the tube is then to be her-
metically .sealed. The next object is to
construct the scale. It is found, by ex-
periment, that melting snow, or freezing
water, is always at the same temperature.
If, therefore, a thermometer be immer.s-
ed in the one or the other, the quick-
silver will always stand at the same point.
It has been observed, too, that water
boils under the same pressure of the at-
mospliere at the same temperature. A
thermometer, therefore, immersed in
boiling water, will uniformly stand at the
same point. Here, then, are two fixed
points, from which a scale may be con-
structed, by dividing tlie intermediate
space into equal parts, and carrying the
same divisions as far above and below the
two fixed points as may be wanted. Thus,
thermometers constructed in this way
may be compared together ; for if they
are accurately made, and placed in the
same temperature, they will always point
to the same degree on the scale. The
fluid, as we have seen, employed is quick-
silver, and it is found to answer best, be-
cause its expansions are most equable.
The freezing point of Fahrenheit's ther-
mometer is marked 32° ; and the reason
of this is said to have been, that this artist
thouglit that he had produced the great-
est degi'ee of cold, by a mixture of snow
and salt ; and the point at which the ther-
mometer then stood, in this temperature,
was marked Zero. The boiling point, in
this thermometer, is 212°, and the inter-
mediate space, between the boiling and
freezing points, is therefore divided into
180°. This is the thei-inometer that is
commonly used in Britain.

There are three other thermometers
employed in different countries of Eu-

THERMOMETER.

rope, which differ from each other in the
number of degrees belween the freezing
and boiling" points. Ueaunuir's thermo-
meter was generally used in France be-
fore tlie revohitioii, and is still employed
in different couiitries on the Onninent.
The frtezing- point, in this thermometer,
is marked Zero, and the boiling- point
80°. lo convert the degrees of Reau-
mur's thermometer to those of Fahren-
heit, the following is the formula. Reaum.

^ -f 32 = Fahr. that is, multiply the

degrees of Reaumur by 9, divide by 4,
and add 32. This gives the correspond-
ing degrees on F'ahrenheit's scale. The
thermometer of Celsus has the space be-
tween the freezing and boiling points di-
vided into 100°. The boiling point is
100°, and the freezing pcjint Zero. This
thermometer is used in Sweden. The
"thermometre centigrade," now used in
France, has the scale divided in the same
way. To convert the degrees of this ther-
mometer into those of Fahrenheit ; Cel.

^ + 32 = Fahr. In Delisle's thermo-
meter, which is used in Russia, the space
between the boiling and freezing points
is divided into 150° ; l^iit the degrees are
reckoned downwards. The boiling point
is marked Zero, and the freezing point
150°. To reduce the degreesof this ther-
mometer under the boiling point to those

of Falirenheit; Del. ^ — 212 = Fahr.

X 6

And above the boiling point. Del. — r-

-f 212 == Fahr.

Such, then, are the principles and mode
of construction of the thermometer; an
instrument which has been of the utmost
importance in enabhng us to discover
many of the properties and elfects of ca-
loric, as by it only we can ascertain, with
accuracy, the relative temperatures.

In meteorological observations, it is
necessary to attend to the greatest
rise and fall of the thermometer; and
therefore attempts liave been made to
make them mark tiie greatest degree of
iieat and cold, in the absence of the ob-
server. We will notice one, jntended to
show the greatest degree of heat. Ali,
fig. 6, is a glass tube, with a cylindrical
bulb, H, at the lower end, and capillary at
the other, over which there is a fixed
glass ball, (/. The bulb, and part of the
tube, are fdied with mercury, tlie top of
which shows the degrees of heat. The
tipper pTirt of the tube, above the mer-

cury, is filled with spirit of wine ; the ball,
C, is likewise tilled with the same liquor,
almost lo the top of the capilhuy tube.
When the mercury rises, the spirit of
wine is also raised into the ball, C, which
is so made that the liquor cannot return
into the tube when the mercury sink*; of
course, the height of the spirit in the ball,
added to that in the tube, will give the
greatest degree of heat. To make a new
observation, the instrument must be in-
clined till the liquor in the ball cover the
end of the capillary tube.

In 1782, Mr. Six proposed another self-
registering thermometer. It is properly
a spirit of wine thermometer, though
mercury is also employed for supportmg
an index : a b (fig. 7) is a thin tube of
glass si.Kteen inches long, and five-six-
teenths of an inch cahbre : c de, and/^>- h,
are stnaller tubes, about one-twentieth of
an inch caUbre. These three tubes are
filled with highly rectified .spirit of wine,
except the space between dund g, which
is filled with mercury. As the spirit of
wine contracts or expands in the middle
tube, the mercury falls or rises in the
outside tubes. An index, such as that
represented in fig. 8, is placed on the
surface, within each of these tubes, so
light as to float upon it : A? is a small
glass tube, three-fourths of an inch long,
hermetically sealed at each end, and
inclosing a piece of steel wire nearly of
its own length. At each end, / m, of
this small tube, a short tube of black
glass is fixed, of such a diameter as to
pass freely up and down within either
of the outside tubes of the thermometer,
c e or fh. From the upper end of the
index is drawn a spring of glass to the
fineriessof a hair, and about five-sevenths
of an inch long ; which being placed a
little oblique, presses lightly against the
ijuicr surface of the tube, and prevents
the index from descending when the
mercury desg;ends. These indexes be-
ing in.serted one into each of the out-
side tubes, it is easy to understand how
they point out tlie greatest heat or cold
that lias happened in the observer's ab-
sence. When the spirit of wine in the
middle tube ex^pand.s, it presses down
the mercury in the tube, hf, and conse-
quently raises it in the tube, e o ; conse-
quently, the index on the left hand tube
is left behind, and marks the greatest
cold, and the index in the right hand
tube rises, and marks the greatest heat.
The common contrivance for a self-ix.-
gi.stering thermometer, now sold in most
of the iiondon shops, consists simply of

THI

THI

two thermometers, one mercurial, and
the other of alcohol, (fig. 9) having their
stems horizontal ; the former has for its
index a small bit of magnetical steel wire;
and the latter a minute thread of glass,
having its two ends formed into small
knobs, by fusion in the flame of a can-
dle.

The magnetical bit of wire lies in the
vacant space of the mercurial tiiermome-
ter, and is pushed forward by the mercu-
ry whenever the temperature rises, and
pushes that fluid against it ; but when
the temperature falls, and the fluid re-
tires, this index is left behind, and con-
sequently shows the maximum. The
other index, orbit of glass, lies in the
tube of tlie spirit thermometer immersed
in the alcohol : and when the spirit re-
tires,! ^y depression of temperature, tiie
index is carried along with it, in appa-
rent contact with its interior surface ;
but, on increase of temperature, the spi-
rit goes forward and leaves the index,
which therefore shows the minimum of
temperature since it was set. As these
indexes merely lie in the tubes, their re-
sistance to motion is altogether inconsi-
derable. The steel index is brought to
the mercury by applying a magnet on the
outside of the tube, and the other is du-
ly placed at the end of the column of
alcohol, by inclining the whole instru-
ment.

THERMOSCOPE,an instrument show-
ing the changes happening in the air
with respect to heat and cold. The
word thermoscope is generally used in-
differently with that of thermometer,
though there is some difference in the
literal import of the two; the first signi-
fiying an instrument that shows, or ex-
hibits, the changes of heat, &c. to the
eye ; and the latter, an instrument that
measures those changes ; on which foun-
dation the thermometer should be a more
accurate thermoscope, &c.

THESIS, a general position which a
person advances, and offers to maintain.
In colleges it is frequent to have placards,
containing a number of them, in theolo-
gy, in medicine, in phllosopliy, in law,
kc.

THESIUM, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria IVIonogynia class and order.
Natural order of Vepreculce. Elieagni,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx one-
leaved, into which the stamens are insert-
ed ; nut inferior, one seeded. There
are nineteen species, almost all of which
are found at the Cape of Good Hope.
THIMBLE, an instrument made of

brass, silver, iron, &c, put on the finger
to thrust a needle through any cloth, silk,
&c. used by all seamstresses, tailors, &.c.
The common thimbles are generally
made of sliruff and old hammered brass.
This they melt and cast into a sort of
sand, with which and red ochre are made
moulds and cores. They are cast in
double rows, and, when cold, taken out,
and cut off with greasy shears. Then
the cores being taken out, they are put
into a barrel, as tliey do sliot, and turned
round with a liorse till tliey rub the sand
one from another : from thence they are
carried to the mill to be turned, first on
the inside, and afterwards on the outside:
then some saw-dust, or filings of horn
combs, are put half-way into each thimble,
and U]jon it an iron punch ; and then with
one blow against a studded .steed the hol-
low of the bottom is made : after this, with
an engine, the sides have the hollow made ;
this (lone, they ai-e again polished on the
inside; then liie rim is turned at one stroke;
and lastly, they are turned in a barrel
with saw-dust, or bran, to scour them
very bright.

Thimblk, in naval afl'airs, a sort of iron
ring, the outer surface of which is hollow
throughout its whole circumference, in
Older to contain in the channel or cavity
a rope, which is spliced about it, and by
which it may be hung in any particular
situation. Its use is to defend the eye of
the rope which surrounds it from being
injured by another rope which passes
through it, or by the hook of a tackle
which is hung upon it.

THHtPS, in natural history, a genus of
Insect of the order of Hemiptera : snout
obsolete, secreted within the mouth ; an-
tenn?e fihform, as long as the thorax ; bo-
dy linear ; abdomen bent upwards ; fom-
wings straight, incumbent, narrower than
the body, and slightly crossed. There
are eight species. T. physapus is accu-
rately described in the Linn?ean Trans-
actions : it is found frequently in compo-
site flowers, and in the spikes of wheat
and rye, to which it is said to be exceed-
ingly destructive, though others deny
the fact. It may be often seen in the
flowers of the dandelion ; it wanders
from petal to petal, descending to the
bottom of the florets, occasionally emerg-
ing at intervals, and often skipping
from place to place . in performing this
action, it is observed suddenly to turn
back its abdomen, so as nearly to touch
the thorax with its tip. The larva, in
some respects, resembles the complete
insect : it is, however, yellow, and six-

THI

THO

footed : the antennae and head black and
white, pupa whitish, with black eyes.

THISTLE, carduusy in botany. See
Cakduus.

TmsTiE, order of the, or of St. Andiiew,
a military order of knighthood in Scot-
land, the rise and institution whereof is
variously related by different authors :
Leslej', Bishop of Ross, reports, that the
nig-ht before tlie battle between Athelstan,
King of Northumberland, and Hungus,
King of the Picts, a bright cross, in form
of that whereon St. Andrew (the tutelar
saint of Scotland) suffered martyrdom, ap-
peared to Hungus, who, having gained the
victory, ever after bore the figure of that
cross on his banners. Others assert, that
Achaius, King of Scotland, first instituted
this order, after having made the ftimous
league, offensive and defensive, with
Charlemagne, King of France. But al-
though the thistle had been acknowledg-
ed as the symbol of the kingdom of Scot-
land from the reign of Achaius, yet some
refer the beginning of this order to the
reign of Charles VII. of France. Others
place the foundation of it as low as the
year 1500.

The chief and principal ensign Is a gold
collar, composed of thistles and sprigs of
me interlinked with amulets of gold, hav-
ing pendent thereto the image of St.
Andrew with his cross, and the motto,

NEMO ME IMPUNE EACESSET.

The ordinary or common ensign worn
by the knights is a star of four silver
points, and over them a green circle, bor-
dered and lettered with gold, containing
the said motto, and in the centre is a
thistle proper ; all which is embroidered
on their left breast, and worn with the
collar, with a green ribband over the
left shoulder, and brought under the
right arm ; pendent thereto is the
image of St. Andrew, with his cross,
in a purple robe, within an oval of gold
enamelled vert, with the former motto :
but sometimes they wear, encircled in
the same manner, a thistle crowned.

About the time of the reformation, this
order was dropped, till James II. of Eng-
land resumed it, by creating eight knights:
however, the revolution unsettled it
again; and it lay neglected till Queen
Anne, in 1703, restored it to the primi-
tive design, of twelve knights of St. An-
drew. King George I. in the first of his
reign, confirmed the statutes signed by
Q ieen Anne, with the addition of several
more, among which was that of adding
rays of glory to surround the figure of St.
Andrew which hangs at the collar : and
though from the reformation to George
VOL. VI.

I. both elections and instalments had
been dispensed with, his majesty ordered
that chapters of election should, for the
future, be held in the royal presence ; to
which end he ordered the great wardrobe
to provide the knights brethren, and of-
ficers, with such mantles as the statutes
of the said order appointed.

THLASFI, in botany, bastard-cress, a
genus of the Tetradynamia Siliculosa
class and order. Natural order of Sili-
quosse or Cruciformes. Cruciferae, Jus-
sieu. Essential character : silicle emar-
ginate, obcordate, many-seeded ; valves
boat-shaped, margined and keeled. There
are fourteen species.

THOA, in botany, a genus of tlie Mo-
noecia Polyandria class and order. Na-
tural order of Urticse, Jussieu. Essential
character : calyx and corolla none ; male,
stamens numerous, at the joints of the
spike ; female, germs two, at the base of
the male spike, one on each side, sessile;
stigma three or four cleft : seed in a brit-
tle shell, covered with a bristly web.
There is only one species, viz. T. urens.

THOLES, in marine affairs, small pins
driven perpendicularly into the gunwale
of a boat, and serving to retain the oars
in that space which is called the row-lock;
sometimes there is only one pin to each
oar, as in boats navigated in the Mediter-
ranean Sea : in that case, the oar is re-
tained upon the pin, by means of a strop,
or of a cleat, with a hole through it, nail-
ed on the side of the oar.

THOUINIA, in botany, so named in
honour of Mons. Andre Thouin, fellow
of the National Institute, and professor of
Horticulture in the French Museum, a
genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class
and order. Natural order of Convolvuli,
Jussieu. Es.sential character : corolla
one-petalled, bell-shaped, inferior, his-
pid on the outside ; style simple ; drupe.
There is but one species, viz. T. specta-
bilis, a native of Madagascar, where it
was found by Commerson.

THONSCHIEFER, in mineralogy, slate,
is divided into three sub-species : 1. The
common argillaceous schistus, which is
composed of silex, alumina, oxide of iron,
and proportions of carbonated lime and
magnesia : it is used for covering houses,
and the straight-foliated bluish-grey va-
rieties are employed as writing slates :
the softer and more compact varieties
are made into slate pencils. See Schis-
TU.S, also Slate. 2. Hone slate, called
by Kirwan novaculite : its colour is a
greenish-grey, or smoke-grey, passing to
olive and mountain-green. It occurs in
mass, and has a glimmering lustre : its
fracture in the great is slaty ; in the small,
o E

THUNDER.

Now it is generally observed, that from
the month of April, an east or south-east
wind generally takes place, and continues
with little interruption till towards the
end of June. At that time, sonieiimes
sooner and sometimes later, a westerly
wind takes place ; but as the causes pro-
ducing the east wind are not removed,
the latter opposes the west wind with its
whole force. At the place of meeting,
there is naturally a most vehement pres-
sure of the atmosphere, and friction of
its parts against one another ; a calm en-
sues, and the vapours brought by both
winds begin to collect, and form dark
clouds, which can have httle motion
either way, because they are pressed al-
most equally on all sides. For the most
part, however, the west wind prevails,
and what little motion the clouds have is
towards the east : whence the common
remark in this country, that " thunder-
clouds move against the wind." But this
is by no means universally true : for if tlie
west wind happens to be excited by any
temporary cause before its natural pe-
riod, when it should take place, the east
wind will very frequently get tJie better
of it ; and the clouds, even althougii
thimder is produced, will move west-
ward. Yet in either case the motion is
so slow, that the most superficial ob-
servers cannot help taking notice of a
considerable resistance in the atmo-
sphere.

When lightning acts with extraordina-
ry violence, and breaks or shatters any
thing, it is called a thunderbolt, which
the vulgar, to fit it for such effects, sup-
pose to be a hard body, and even a stone.
But that we need not have recourse to a
hard solid body, to account for the effects
commonly attributed to the thunderbolt,
will be evident to any one, who considers
those of gunpowder, and the several che-
mical fulminating powders, but more eepe-
cially the astonishing powers of electri-
city, when only collected and employed
by human art, and much more, when
directed and exercised in the course of
nature.

When we consider the known effects
of electrical explosions, and those pro-
duced by lightning, we shall be at no
loss to account for the extraordinaiy ope-
rations vulgarly ascribed to thunderbolts.
As stones and bricks struck by lightning
are often found in a vitrified state, we may
reasonably suppose, with iieccaria, that
some stones in the earth, having been
struck in this manner, gave occasion to
the vulgar opinion of the thunderbolt.

Thunder-clouds are those clouds which
are in a state fit for jjroducing lightning
and tliunder. From Beccaria's exact and
circumstantial account of the extern-al
appearances of thunder-clouds, the follow-
ing particulars are extracted. The fir.st
appearance of a thunder storm, which
usually happens when there is hitle or no
wind, is one dense cloud, or more, in-
creasing very fast in size, and rising into
the higher regions of the air. 'I'he low-
er suiface is black, and nearly level ; but
the upper finely arched, and well de-
fined. Many of these cloufls often seem
piled upon one anotiier, all arched in the
same manner ; but they are continually
uniting, swelling, aiid extending their
arches. At the time of the ri.sing of this
cloud, the atmosphere is commonly full
of a great many separate cloud.s, that are
motionless, and of odd whimsical shapes.
All these, upon tJie appearance of the
thunder-cloud, draw towards it, and be-
come more uniform in their shapes as.
they approach ; till, coming very near the
thunder-cloud, their limbs mutually
stretch towards one another, and they
immediately coalesce into one uniform
mass. These he calls adscititious clouds,
from their coming in to enlarge the .size
of the thunder-cloud. But sometimes
the thunder-cloud will swell, and increase
very fast, without the conjunction of any
adscititious clouds ; the vapours in the
atmosphere forming themselves into
clouds wherever it passes. Some of the
adscititious clouds appear like white
fringes, at the skirts of the thunder-
cloud, or under the body of it, but they
keep continually growing darker and
darker, as they approach to unite with it.
When the thunder-cloud is grown to a
great size, its lower surface is often rag-
ged, particular parts being detached to-
wards the earth, but still connected with
the rest. Sometimes the lower surface
swells into various large protuberances
bending uniformly downward ; and some-
times one whole side of the cloud will
have an inclination to the earth, and the
extremity of it nearly touch the ground.
When the eye is under the thundercloud,
after it is grown larger, and well formed,
it is seen to sink lower, and to darken
prodigiously; at the same time that a
number of small adscititious clouds (the
origin of which can never be perceived)
are seen in a rapid motion, driving about
in very uncertain directions under it.
While these clouds are agitated with the
most rapid motions, the rain commonly
falls in the greatest plenty; and if the

TIA

TID

sgitation be exceedingly great, it com-
monly hails. While the thunder- cloud is
swelling, and extending its branches over
a large tract of country, the lightning is
seen to dart from one part of it to an-
other, and often to ilhnninate its whole
mass. When the cloud has acquired a
sufficient extent, the lightning strikes be-
tween the cloud and the eartli, in two op-
posite places, the path of the lightning
lying through the whole body of the
cloud and its branches. The longer this
lightning continues, the less dense does
the cloud become, and the less dark its
appearance ; till at length it breaks in
different places, and shows a clear sky.
These thunder-clouds were sometimes in
a positive as well as a negative state of
electricity. The electricity continued
longer of the same kind, in proportion as
the thunder-cloud was simple and uni-
form in its direction : but when tiie light-
ning changed its place, there commonly
happened a change in the electricity of
the apparatus over which the clouds
passed. It would change suddenly after
a very violent flash of hghtning ; but the
change would be gradual when the light-
ning was moderate, and the progress of
the thunder-cloud slow. See Priestley's
History of Electricity.

THYMBRA, in botany, a genus of the
Didynamia Gymnospermia class and or-
tler. Natural order of Verticillatse or
Labiatae. Essential character : calyx sub-
cylindrical, two-hpped, scored on eacii
side with a villose line ; style semibifid.
There are three species.

THYMUS, in botany, thyme, a genus of
the Didynamia Gymnospermia class and
order. Natural order of Verticillatae or
Labiatae. Essential character: throat of
the two-lipped calyx closed with villose
hairs. There are twenty-two species.

THYNNUS, in natural history, a genus
of insects of the order Hym'enoptera :
mouth horny, with an incurved mandible,
the jaw short and straight; lip longer
than the jaw, membranaceous at the tip,
and trifid, the middle division emargi-
nate ; tongue very short, involute ; four
feelers, equal, filiform ; antennae cylindri-
cal, the first joint thicker. There are
four species : three of New Holland, and
one of Africa. Specimens of them all
are to be found in Sir Joseph Banks's mu-
seum.

TIARELLA, in botany, a genus of the
Decandria Dig) nia class and order. Natu-
ral order of Succulentae. Saxifragae, Jus-
sieu. Essential character: calyx fiVe-part-
ed; corolla fivepetalled, inserted into the

calyx; petals entire; capsule one-celled,
two-valved, with one valve larger. Tiicre
are two species, viz. T cordifolia, heart-
leaved liarella, and T. trifoliata, three-
leaved tiarella, both natives of the north-
ern parts of America and Asia.

TIDES, two periodical motions of the
watersof the sea, called the flux and re-
flux, or the flow and ebb.. The cause of
the tides is the attraction of the sun and
moon, biit chiefly of the latter; the waters
of the immense ocean, forgetful, as it
were, of their natural quietus, move and
roll in tides, obsequious to the strong at-
tractive power of the moon, and weaker
influence of the sun. See Astronomy.

That the tides may have theirfull motion,
the ocean in which they are produced ought
to be extended from east to west 9i>°,
or a quarter of a great circle of the earth,
at least; because the places where the
moon rises most, and most depresses the
water, are at that distance from one an-
other. Hence it appear.s, that it is only in
the great oceans that such tides can be
produced; and why, in the large Pacific
ocean, they exceed those in the Atlantic
ocean; hence also it is obvious, why the
tides are not so great in the tomd zone,
between Africa and America, where the
ocean is narrower, as in the temperate
zones on either side; and from this, also,
we may understand why the tides are so
small in islands that are very far distant
from the shores. It is manifest, that, in the
Atlantic ocean, the water cannot rise on
one shore but by descending on the other;
so that, at the intermediate distant islands,
it must continue at about a mean height
between its elevation on the one and on
the other shore. As the tides pass over
shoals, and run through strcights into bays
of the sea, their motion becomes more va-
rious, and their height depends on a great
many circumstances. The tide that is pro-
duced on the M-cstern coast of Europe
corresponds to the theory above describ-
ed: thus, it is high water on the coa.st of
Spain, Portugal, and the west of Ireland,
about the third hour after the moon has
passed the meridian: from thence it flows
into the adjacent channels, as it finds the
easiest passage. One current from it, for
example, runs up by the south of England,
and another comes in by the north of Scot-
land: they take a considerable time to
move all this way, and it is high water
sooner in the places to which they first
come; and it begins to fall iji those places,
while the two currents are yet going on
to others that are further in their course
As they return, they are not able to raise

TID

TIL

a-tick; because tlie water runs faster off
than it returns, till, by a new tide propa-
gated from the ocean, the return of the
current is slopped, and the water begins
to rise agtuii The tide takes twelve hours
to come tiuiii tlie ocean to London bridge;
so that, \vh(;n it is high water there, a new
tide is alreiidv come to its iieight in the
ocean; and, in some intermediate place,
it miist be low water at the same time. In
channels, therefore, and narrow seas, the
progress ot the tides maj be, in some
resj)ects, compared to the motion of the
waves of tne sea. It may be observed,
that when Uie tide runs over shoals, and
flow s upon iiat shores, the water is raised
to a greater height than in the open and
deep oceans that have steep banivS; be-
cause the force of its motion cannot be
broker., upon these level shores, till the
water i-ises to a greater height. If a place
communicates withtvvo oceans (or two dif-
ferent vvays with tiie same ocea^i, one of
v;hich is a readier and easier passaj;>) two
tides may arrive at that place in ditto rent
times, which, interfering with each oiher,
may produce a greater variety of pheno-
mena.

An extraordinary instance of this kind
is mentioned at Bathsha, a port in the
kingdom of Tonquin in the East Indies,
of northern latitude 20° 50^ The day iiv
which the moon passes the equator,' the
water stagnates there without any motion:
as the moon removes from the equator,
the water begins to rise and fall once a
day; and it is high water at the setting of
the moon, and low water at her rising.
This daily tide increases for about seven
or eight days, and then decreases for as
many days by the same degrees, till this
motion ceases when tlie moon has return-
ed to tiie equator. When siie has passed
the equatoi', and declines tov.'ards the
south pole, the water rises and falls again,
as before; but it is high water now at tlie
rising, and low water at tlie setting of the
moon.

Tide tables, are those which set forth
the times of high water at sundry places,
as they fall on the days of the full and
change of the moon. These are common in
many almanacs, particularly in White's
Ephemeris, Nautical Almanac, 8cc.

Tide ivaitei^s, or I'iDEs.'ttKN, are ii>ferior
officers belonging to the custom-house,
whose employment it is to watch or attend
upon ships, until the customs be paid:
they get this name from their going on
board ships, on their arrival in the mouth
of the Thames or other port, and so come
up with the tide.

TIERCE, or Teihce, a measure of liquid
things, as wine, oil, &,c. containing the
third part of a pipe, or forty -tv*o gallons.

TiEitCED, tierct;, in heraldry, denotes
the shield to be divided by any of tlie
partition lines, as party, coupy, tranchy,
or tailiy, into three equal parts of different
colours or metals.

TIGER. See Felis.

TILE ore, in mineralogy, a species of
the copper genus, divided into two sub-
species, viz. the earthy and indurated.
The earth is of a hyacinth-red colour,
passing through various .shades to a red-
(hsh brown: it is intermediate between
friable and solid, and occurs massive, dis-
seminated, and incrusting copper pyrites.
It slightly soils, is almost coherent, and
some varieties incline to solid. It is found
in veins, and is usually accompanied with
native copper and malachite, and some-
times with red copper ore. The indurat-
ed tile-ore is in colour between a hya-
cinth-red and brownish red: it occurs
massive and disseminated, internally glim-
mering. Before the olow-pipe it becomes
black, but is infusible without addition:
it C()i\taiiis from ten to fifty per cent, of
copper: it occurs in veins, and is usually
accompanied With copper pyrites, tibrous
malachite, and iron ochre. It is found in
many parts of Germany, in the copper
works in Norway, in Siberia, and in Chili.
The red varieties contain the greatest
quantities of copper, and the brown the
greatest quantity of iron. It occurs in al-
most every place where red copper-ore is
found: its name is derived from its colour,
and the name of the sub-species from its
state of cohesion.

TILIA, in b(;tany, lime-tree, a genus of
the Polyandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order ot Coluinnifera:. Ti-
liaceas, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx
five-parted; corolla five- petalled; capsule
coriaceous, globular, five-celled, five-valv-
ed, opening at the base, one-seeded.
There are four species, among which is
the T. Europsea, European lime-tree, or
linden, is a tall upright tree, with smooth
spreading branches, thickly clothed with
alternate, heart-shaped, smooth serrate
leaves, pointed at the end, obhque at the
base, glaucous beneath, and the veins,
where they branch off from the nerve,
being furnished with a tuft of glandular
wool, as in the laurustinus; the flowers,
which are delightfully fragrant, especially
at night, come forth in July, in umbels or
cymes, on long axillary peduncles; calyx
green, with a downy edge; petals yellow-
ish, concave; stamens filiform; stigma five-

^

TIM

•HM

cleft; germ villose, depressed; capsule
smooth, with from four to eight unequal
angles, commonly one-celled and one-
seeded.

TILL^A, in botany, so named in ho-
nour of Michael Angelo Tilli, professor
of botany at Pisa, a genus of the Tetran-
dria Tetragynia class and order. Natural
order of Succulentjc. Sempervivse, Jus-
sieu. Essential character : calyx three or
four-parted ; petals thi-ee or four, equal ;
capsule three or four, many seeded. There
are eight species.

TiLLKH of a sliip, a strong piece of wood
fastened in the head of the rudder, and
in small ships and boats called the helm.
In ships of war, and other large vessels,
the tiller is fastened to the rudder in the
gun room : and to the other end there
are ropes fastened, which pass upwards
to the quarter-deck, where the ship is
steered by means of a wheel.

TILLANDSIA, in botany, so named in
memory of Elias Tillandsius, professor
of physic at A boa, a genus of the Hexan-
dria Monogynia class and order. Natural
order of Coronaria;. Rromelije, Jussieu.
Essential character : calyx trifid, perma-
nent ; corolla trifid, bell-shaped ; capsule
one-celled ; seeds comose. There are
sixteen species,

TILT boat, a boat covered with a tilt ;
that is, a cloth or tarpaulin, sustained by
hoops, for the sheltering of passengers.

TIMBER, includes all kinds of felled
and seasoned woods. Of all the different
kinds, known in Europe, oak is the best
for building; and even when it lies expos-
ed to air and water, there is none equal
to it. Fir-timber is the next in degree of
goodness for building, especially in this
country, where they build upon leases. It
differs from oak in this, that it requires
not much seasoning, and therefore no
great stock is required before hand. Fir
is used for flooring, wainscoting, and
the ornamental parts of building within
doors. Elm is the next in use, especially
in England and FraiKe ; it is very tough
and pliable, and therefore easily worked ;
it does not readily split ; and it bears
driving of bolts and nails better than any
other wood ; for which reason it is chiefly
used by wheel-rights and coach-makers,
for siiafts, naves, &c. Beech is also used
for many purposes ; it is very tough and
white when young, and of great strength,
but liable to warp very much when ex-
posed to the weather, and to be worm-
eaten wJu^j used within doors ; its great-
est use is for planks, bedsteads, chairs,
and other household goods. Ash is like-

wise a very useful wood, but very scarce
in most parts of Eui-ope ; it serves in
buildings, or for any other use, when
screened from the weather ; handspikes
and oars are chiefly made of it. Wild
chestnut-timber is by many esteemed to
be as gootl as oak, and seems to have been
much used in old buildings ; but whether
these trees are more scarce at present
thafi formerly, or have been found not to
answer so well as was imagined, it is cer-
tain this timber is now but little used.
Walnut-tree is excellent for the joiner's
use, it being of a more curious brown co-
lour than beech, and not so subject to the
worms. The poplar, abel, and aspen trees,
which are very little different from each
other, are much used instead of fir ; they
look well, and are tougher and harder.

The goodness of timber not only de-
pends on the soil and situation in which it
stands, but Ukewise on the season wherehi
it is felled. In this people disagree very
much; some are for having it felled as
soon as its fruit is ripe, others in the
spring, and many in the autumn. But as
the sap and moisture of timber is certain-
ly the cause that it perishes much sooner
than it otherwise would do, it seems evi-
dent that timber should be felled when
there is the least sap in it, viz. from the
time that the leaves begin to fall till the
trees begin to bud. This work usually
commences about the end of April in Eng-
land, because the bark then rises most
freely ; for where a quantity of timber is
to be felled, the statute requires it to be
done then, tor the advantage of tanning.

The ancients chiefly regarded the age
of the moon in felling their timber ; their
rule was to fell it in the wain, or four days
after the new moon, or sometimes in the
last quarter. Pliny advises it to be in tlie
very article of the change, which happen-
ing to be in the lust day of the winter sol-
stice, the timber, says he, will be incor-
ruptible. Timber should likewise be cut
when of a proper age ; for when it is ei-
ther too young or too old, it will not be so
durable us when cut at a proper age. It
is said that oak should not be cut under
sixty years old, nor above two hundred.
Timber trees, however, should be cut in
their prime, when almost fully grown, and
before they begin to decay ; and this will
be sooner or later, according to tlie dry-
ness or moistness of the soil where the tim-
ber grows; as also according to the size
of the trees ; for there is no fixed rules in
fieliing of timber, experience and judgment
must direct here as in most other cases.

TIMBER.

After timber has been felled and saw-
ed, it must be seasoned: for whicli pur-
pose some advise it to be laid up in a very
dry airy place, yet out of tlie wind and
sun, or at least free from the extremities
of either; and that it may not decay, but
dry evenly, lliey recommend it to be
daubed over wiili cow-dunj^. It must not
stand upright, but lie all along-, one piece
over another, only kept apart by short
blocks interposed, to prevent a certain
mouldiness, which they are otherwise apt
to contract in sweatinj? on one another ;
from which arises frequently a kind of
fungus, especially if liiere be any sap-
py parts remamini^. Others advise the
planks of limber to be laid for a few
days in some pool or running stream, in
order to extract the sap, and afterwards to
dry liiem in the sun or air. By this means,
it IS said, they will be prevented from ei-
ther choppmg-, casting-, or cleaving, but
against shrinking there is no remedy.
Some again are for burying them in the
earth, others in a heal ; and some for
scorching and seasoning them in fire, es-
pecially piles, posts, &c. which are to
stand in water or earth. 1 he Venetians
first found out the method of seasoning or
charring by fire ; which is done after this
manner : tiiey put the piece to be seasoned
into a strong and violent flame; in this
they continually turn it round by means
of an engine, and take it out where it is
every wliere covered with a black coaly
crusi : the internal part of the wood is
thereby so hardened, that neither earth
nor water can damage it for a long time
afterwards.

To measure round timber, let the mean
circumference be found in feet and deci-
mals of afoot: square it, m)iUiply this
square by the decimal 0.079577, and the
product by the length. Exan^ple. Letthe
mean circumference of a tree be 10.3 feet,
and the length 24 feet. Then 10.3 X K^-"^
XO.O79.5r7 X 24 -= 202.615, the nuniber
of cubical feet in the tree. The founda-
tion of this rule is, that when the cncum-
terence of a circle is 1, the areais 0.079-
5774715, and that the areas of circles are
as the squares of their circumferences.
But the common way used by artificers
for measuring round timber differs much
from this rule. They call one fourth part
of ilie cn-cumference the girth, which is
by them reckoned ti»e side of a square,
whose area is equal to the area of the
section of the tree; tiierefore they square
the girth, and then mvuiiply by the length
of the tree. According to their method,

the tree of the last example would be
computed at 159.13 cubical feet only.

In speaking of the strength of timber,

or of several kinds of wood, Mr. Kmerson '

says that, from experiments which he has i

made, a piece of good oak, an inch square ]

and a yard long, supported at both ends, I

will bear in tlie middle for a short lime !

about SSOlbs. avoirdupois, but will imme- \

diaiely break with a greater weight. Such j
a piece, he adds, ought not in practice to

be trusted for any length of time with '
more tiian one-third, or j)erhaps one-
fourth, part of tiic weight; he then gives

a table of the diffiirent degrees of strength j

of several sorts of wood. Other writers, ]

who have entered at large on tiie subject, -

have Cfjnsidered the strength of matel-ials, i
timber, &c. as subject to four different

kinds of strain. 1, As they may be torn '

asunder, as in the case of ropes, stretch- ]

ers, king.posts, tye-beams, &.c. 2. As i
they may be ci ushed, as in the case of

pillars, posts, and truss-beams- 3. As i

they may be broken across, as happens i
to a joist or lever of any kind. 4. As they

may be wrenched or twisted, as in the ;

case of the axle of a wheel, the nail of a I

press, &,c. It would carry us much be- i

yond the Hmits of this work to enter at !
large on these several subjects, we shall

therefore confine ourselves to some obser- 1

valions on the strains upon timber, which ]

may be practically useful. j

With regard to the cohesion of wood, \
we may premise, 1. that the woodimmedi- ;
aiely surrounding the pith, or heart, of the \
tree is the weakest, and its inferiority is ;
so much more remarkable as the tree is
older. This at least is asserted by Mus- j
chenbroek as the result of experiments ;
but M. Buffon says, that his experience ;
has tauglit him that the heart of a sound
tree is the strongest; but he gives no in- ^.
stances. It is certain, from many observa- ;
tions on very large oaks and firs, that the j
heart is much weaker than the exterior I
parts. 2. The wood next the bark, com-
monly called the white or blea, is also \
weaker than ihe rest; and the W(»od gra-
dually increases in strength as we recede !
from ilie centre to the blea, 3. The wood 1
is stronger in the middle of the trunk than
at the springing of the branches, or at the ]
root; and the wood of the branches is j
weaker than that of the trunk. 4. The \
wood of tiie north side of all trees which i
grow in our European climates is the ;
weakest, and that of the south-east side ;s ;
the strongest ; and the difference is most '':
remarkable in hedge row trees, and such

TIMBER.

as grow singly. The heart of a tree is
never in its c ; re, but always nearer to
the north side, and the annual coats ot"
wood are thinner on that side. In confor-
mity with this, it is a general opinion of
carpenters, that timber is stronger whose
annual plates are thicker. The trachea,
or air-vessels, are weaker than the simple
ligneous fibres. These air vessels are
the same in diameter and number of rows
in trees of the same species, and they
make the visible separation between the
annual plates. Therefore, when these
are thicker, they contain a greater pro-
portion of tile simple ligneous fibres. 5.
All woods are more tenacious while green,
and lose very considerably by drying
after the trees are felled. The only au-
thor who has put it in our power to judge
of the propriety of his experiments, is
Muhchenbroek. fie has described his me-
thod of trial minutely, and it .seems unex-
ceptionable. The woods were all formed
into slips fit for his apparatus, and part of
the slip was cut away to a parallelopiped
of one-fifth of an inch square, and therefore
one-twenty -fifth of a .square inch in section.
The absolute strengths of a square inch
were as follow :

lbs.
Locust tree . . . . 20,100

Jujeb 18,500

Beech, oak ... . 17,300
Orange . . . . • 15,500

Aider 13,900

Elm 13,200

Mulberry 12,500

Willow 12.500

Ash 12,000

Plum 11,800

Elder 10,000

Pomegranate .... 9,750

Lemon 9,250

Tamarind 8,750

Fir 8,330

Walntit 8,130

Pitch pine 7,650

Quince 6,750

Cypress 6,000

Poplar 5,500 .

Cedar 4,880

M. Muschenbroek has given a very mi-
nute detail of the experiments on the
ash and the walnut, stating the weights
which were required to tear asunder
slips taken from the four sides of the tree,
and on each side in a regular progression
from the centre to the circumference.
The numbers of this table corresponding
to these two timbers may threrefore be

AOL. vr.

considered as tlie average of more than
fifty trials made of each ; and he say.s that
all the otiters were made with the same
care. We cannot therefore see any rea-
son for not confiding in the results ; yet
they are considerably higher than those
given by sonte other writers. JNI. Pitot
says, on the authority of his own experi-
ments, and of those of M. Parent, that
sixty pounds will just tear asunder a
square line of sovmd oak, and that it will
bear fifty with safety. This gives 8,640
for the utmost strength of a square inch,
which is much inferior to M uschenbroek's
valuation. \\q may add to these,

Ivorv 16,270

Bone 5.250

Horn 8,750

Whalebone .... 7,500

Tooth of sea-calf . . 4,075

The reader will surely observe, that
these numbers express something more
than the utmost cohesion ; for the weights
are sucli as will very quickly, that is, in
a minute or two, tear the rods asunder.
It may be said in general, that two-thirds
of these weigiits will sensibly impair the
strength after a considerable while, and
that one-half is the utmost that can re-
main suspended at them without risk for
ever ; and it is this last allotment that the
engineer should reckon upon in his con-
sti'uctions. There is, however, consider-
able difl'erence in this respect. Woods of
a very straight fibre, such as fir, will be
less impaired by any load which is not
sufficient to break them immediately.
According to Mr. Emerson, the load
which may be safely suspended to an
inch square, is as follows :

Iron 76,400

Brass 35,600

Hempen rope . . . 19,600

Ivoiy 15,700

Oak, box, yew, plum-
tree 7,850

Elm, ash, beech . . . 6,070
Walnut, plum .... 5,360
Red fir, holly, elder,

plane, crab .... 5,000
Cherry, hazle .... 4,760
Alder, asp, birch, willow 4,290

Lead 430

Freestone ..... 914

He gives ns a practical rtile, that a C^l
linder whose diameter is <^ Inches, loaded
to one-fourth of its absolute strength, Will
carry as follows :

3F

TIMBER.

cwt.

li-ou 135

Good rope 22

Oak 14

Fir 9

Experiments on the transverse strength
of bodies are easily made, and according-
ly are very numerous, especially those
made on timber, which is the case most
common and most interesting. But in this
great number of experiments, there are
very few from which we can draw much
practical information. The experiments
have in general been made on such small
scantling^, that the unavoidable natural
inequalities bear too great a proportion to

the strength of tlie whole piece, Accord-
ingly, when we compare the experiments
of different authors, we fir.d them differ
enormously, and even the experiments
by the same author are very anomalous.
The completest series that we have yet
seen is that detailed by Belidore in his
" Science des Ingenieurs." They are
contained in the following table. The
pieces were sound, even-gi-ained oak.
The column b, contains the breadth of
the pieces in inches ; the column d, con-
tains their depth ; the coUimn /, contains
their lengths; column />, contains the
weights (in pounds) wliich broke them
when hung on their middles ; and m is
the column of averages or mediums.

JV.

18

18

/».

406

608

The ends lying loose.

The ends firmly fixed.

18

805

Looige.

18

ri570-
^1580'
C1590

1580

Loose.

36

18r

Looscv

36

283

Fixe<}.

36

1585

Loose.

36

1660

Loose.

By comparing Experiments 1 and 3,
the strength appears proportional to the
breadth. Experiments 3 and 4, show the
strength proportional to the square of the
depth. Experiments 1 and 5, show the
strength nearly in tlje inverse proportion

of the lengths, but with a sensible defi-
ciency in the longer pieces. Experiments
5 and T, show the strengths proportional
to the breadths and the square of the
depths. Experiments 1 and 7j show the
same thing, compounded with the inverse

TIMBER.

proportion of the length ; llie deficiency
relative to the length is not so remark-
able here. Experiments 1 and 2, and Ex-
periments 5 and 6, sliow the increase of
strength, by fastening the ends, to be in
the proportion of 2 to 3. The theory
gives the proportion of 2 to 4. But a dif-
ference in the manner of fixing may pro-
duce this deviation from the theory,
which only supposed them to be held
down at places beyond the props, as
when a joist is held in the walls, and also
rests on two pillars between the walls.
We shall here give an abstract of M. IjJuf-
fon's experiments. He relates a great
number which he had prosecuted during
two years on small battens. He found
that the odds of a single layer, or part of
a layer, more or less, or even a different
disposition of them, had such influence,
that he was obliged to abandon this me-
thod, and to have recourse to the largest
beams that he was able to break. The fol-
lowing table exhibits one series of expe-
riments on bars of sound oak, clear of
knots, and four inches square. This is a
specimen of all the rest. Column 1, is the
length of the bar in feet clear between
the supports. Column 2, is the weight of
the bar (the second day after it was fell-
ed) in pounds. Two bars were tried of
each length. Each of the first three pairs
consisted of two cuts of the same tree.
The one next the root was always found
the heaviest, stiffest, and strongest. In-
deed, M. BufTon says, that this was inva-
riably true, that the heaviest was always
the strongest ; and he recommends it as a
sure rule for the choice of timber. He
finds that this is always the case when
the timber has grown vigorously, forming
very thick annual layers. But he also ob-
serves, that this is only during the ad-
vances of the tree to maturity; for the
strength of the different circles approach-
es gradually to equality during the tree's
healthy growth, and then it decays in
these parts in a contrary order. Our tool-
makers assert the same thing with re-
spect to beech ; yet a contrary opinion is
very prevalent ; and wood with a fine,
that is, a small grain, is frequently prefer-
red. Perhaps no person has ever made
the trial with such minuteness as M. Buf-
on, and much deference is thought to be
due to his opinion. Column 3, is the num-
ber of poimds necessary for breaking the
trce in the course of a few minutes. Co-
lumn 4, is the inches which it bent down
before breaking. Column 5, is the time
at which it broke,

1

2

3

4

5

7

C 60
\ 5^

5350
5275

3.5
4.5

29
22

8

C 68
\ 63

4600
4500

3.75
4.7

15
13

9

C 77
\ 71

4100
3950

4.85
5.5

14
12

10

C 84
i 82

3625
3600

5.83
6.5

15
15

12

UOO
I 98

3050
2925

7.
8.

Mr. George Smart, well known for his
practical knowledge of mechanics, in al-
most every department, says, that after
making many experiments on timber, and
comparing them with those of Belidore,
Buffon, Seethe differences were so great,
that it would be wasting time to enume-
rate them. He therefore mentions some
useful observations necessaiy to be known
by all those mechanics who use timber ;
and points out some evident errors in a
table of Belldore's, supposed to be the
result of the best set of experiments ever
produced in transverse strains. He tells
us, that a bar of wood, thirty-six inches
long, and one inch square, supported at
the ends by two props, will break with a
weight of 187 pounds on the middle, if it is
loose at the ends ; but if the ends are firm-
ly fixed, it will require 283 pounds to break
it. "This appeared to me," says Mr. Smart,
** so great an error, that I was induced to
put little or no confidence in many of his
experiments; and, in consequence, I made
two laths of fir, of the same dimensions,
one with a strong shoulder at each end,
to prevent it bending, which having
firmly fixeil in a frame, it carried a weight
more' than ten times greater than that
which was loose."

The fibres of timber requiring so great
a force to tear them asunder in a vertical
direction, and being easily broken by a
transverse strain, when compared to that
of a rope carrying nearly an equal weight
in all directions, opens a wide field for
useful experiments. All timber trees
have their annu^il circles, or growths,
which vary greatly according to the soil
and exposure to the sun. The north-east
side of the trees (beingmuch smaller in the
grain than the other parts which are more

TIM

TIM

exposed to Uie sun) is strongest for any
column that lias a weiglit to support in a
vertical direction ; because its hard cir-
cles, or tubes, are nearer each other, and
the area contains a greater quantity of
tliem ; nor are they so liuble to be com-
pressed by tiie weight, or to slide past
each other, as when they are at a greater
distance. On the other hand, this jjart of
the tree is not fit for a transverse strain ;
because the nearer the haixl circles are
to each other, the easier tlie beam will
break, there being so little space between
them, that one forms a fvdcrum to break
the other upon ; but that i)art of a tree,
the tubes of which are at a greater dis-
tance, or of a larger grain, is more elas-
tic, and requires a greater force, to break
it; because the outside fibre on the con-
vex side cannot snap till the next one is
pressed upon it, which forms the fulcrum
to break it on. It is generally observed
in large timbct-s, such as masts, that th.e
fracture is seldom on the convex, but
usually on the concave side ; which is
owing to the fibres on the concave side
being more i-eadily forced past each
other, and those on the convex being so
difficult to be torn asunder, that they
cannot snap, in consequence of the large-
ness of the segment of the circle they
describe when on the strain. The curve
described by the inner layers of the
wood being so large, and indeed little
less than a straight hue, cannot form a
fulcrum to break the outer ones upon ;
and as the convex side, or that on which
the fibres are extended, ought to be al-
ways free from any m(n*tise or incision on
the outside, the strength decreases as it
approaches the centre. Mr. Smart has,
in a paper in the " Repertory," given di-
iiections how to cut and join timber so as
to have the greatest strength, and to turn
to the greatest advantage, of having the
best part of the tree in the place where
the hardness and strength are most want-
ed, viz. in the corners which form the
abutments ; whereas the same tree,
squared into a parallel beam, would have
been much smaller, and the soft or sappy
parts of the wood exposed to the action
of the air and moisture. In flush framing
it is observable, that the failure of all tini-
ber in old buildings has commenced
much sooner than they otherwise would
have done, owing to the sappy wood be-
ing at the corners of the principal beams,
which soon decays, as its spongy quaUty
attracts the moisture ; whereas the heart,
especially of oak, will be as sound as the
first day it was used.

As all beams take their weight horizon-
tally, or on any transverse bearing, have
their principal strain on the upper and
lower surface, every workman ought to
guard against having sap in beams, be-
cause, if they do not innnediately decay,
they shrink, so as to let loose all the
framing, and soon cripple the building or
machine ; but on My. Sniart's plan, lht>
.sappy part of the wood is excluded from
what would cause its decay, and the tim-
ber increased in quantity is considerably
more than the extra labour and expense.

Tj.MUKHfree*, in law, are properly oak,
ash, and elm. In some particular couii-
tries, by local custom, other trees being
commonly there made use ol for building,
are considered as timber. Of these, be-
ing part of the freehold, larceny cannot
be committed ; but, if they be severed at
one time, and carried away at another,
then the stealing of them is larceny. And
by several late statutes, the stealing of
them in the first instance is made felony,
or incurs a pecuniary forfeiture. For the
better preservation of roots, shrubs, and
plants, it is enacted, by 6 George HI. c.
48, that every person convicted of damag-
ing, destroying, or carrying away any
timber-tree, or trees, or trees hkely to
become timber, without consent of the
owner, &c. shall forfeit for the first of-
fence not exceeding 201. with the charges
attending ; and on non-payment shall be
committed for not more than twelve,
nor less than six months ; for the second
ofience, a sum not exceeeing 30/. and on
non-payment shall be committed for not
more than eighteen, and not less than
twelve months; and for the third ofiPence,
is to be transported for seven years. All
oak, beech, chesnut, walnut, ash, elm,
cedar, fir, asp, lime, sycamore, and birch
trees, shall be deemed and taken to be
timber trees, within the true meaning
and provision of this act. Persons con-
victed of plucking up, spoiling, or taking
away any root, shrub, or plant, out of
private cultivated groimd, shall forfeit, for
the first offence, any sum not exceeding
40«. with the charges ; for the second of-
fence, a sum not exceeding 51. with the
charges; and for the third offence, are
to be transported for seven years. A
power is given to justices of the peace to
put this act in execution.

TIME, a succession of phenomena in
the universe ; or a mode of duration,
marked by certain periods or measures,
chiefly by the motion and revolution of
the sun. The idea of time, in the gene-
ral, Mr. Locke observes, we acquire by

TIM

TIN

considering' any part ofinfinite duration as
se". out by periodica! measures : the idea
of any pariicvilar time, or length of diira-
ti(<n, as a day, an hi>ur, &.c. we acquire,
iirst, by observing certain appearances at
regxilar, and, seemingly, at ecprulistant
periods. Now, by i>eiiig able lo repeat
those lengths or measures of time, as of-
ten as we will, we can imagine duration,
where nothing really endures or exists ;
and thus we imagine to-morrow, next
year, &c. Some of the latter school-phi-
losophers define time to be the duration
of a thing, whose existence is neither
without beginning nor end ; by which
time is distingished from eternity. Time
is distinguisiied into absolute and rela-
tive. Absolute time, is time considered
in itself, and without any relation to bo-
dies, or their motions. Tliis flows equal-
ly, i e. never proceeds faster or slower,
but glides on in a constant, equable tenor.
Relative time, is the sensible measui'e of
any duration, by means of motion. For,
since that equable flux of time does not
affect our senses, nor -is any way imme-
diately cognizable thereby, there is a ne-
cessity for calling in the help of some
nearly equable motion to a sensible mea-
sure, whereby we may determine its
quantity by the correspondency of the
parts of this with those of that. Hence, as
we judge those times to be equal which
pass while a moving body, proceeding
with an equable velocity, passes over
equal spaces ; so we judge those times to
be equal, which flow while the sun, moon,
and other luminaries, perform their revo-
lutions, which, to our senses, are equal.
But since the flux of time cannot be ac-
celerated, nor retarded, whereas all bo-
dies move sometimes faster and some-
times slower, and there is, perhaps, no
perfectly equable motion in all nature.
It appears hence to follow, that absolute
time should be something truly and real-
ly distinct from motion. But, according
to Lucretius .-

from the motion of the uvivenly bodies,
without any other regard.

Time civil, is the former time accom-
modated to civil uses, and f<.JT;icd and
distinguished into years, months, days,
&c.

TiMK, in music, is an affection of .sound,
whereby we denominate it long or short,
with regard to its continuance in the
same degree of time.

TIN, in mineralogy, a genus of metal.s,
of which tliere are three species: 1,
iin-py rites; colour intermediate between
steel-grey and brass yellow ; but n.sually
more inclined to the first; it occurs mas-
sive and disseminated; internally it is
gli.stening, sometimes shining, and seldom
passing into splendent ; its lustre is me-
tallic ; it is brittle, and the specific gra-
vity is somewhere between 4.3 and 4.8.
Before the blow-pipe, it gives out a sul-
phureous odour, and melts easily, with-
out being reduced, into a black scoria. It
communicates a yellow or green colour
to borax. It consists of

Tin 34

Copper 36

Iron 3

Sulphur 25

Karth 2

100

It is found at Wheal-rock and St. Ag-
nes in Cornwall, where it occurs in a vein
about nine feet wide, accompanied with
copper pyrites and brown blende.

2. Tin-stone, which is hard, brittle, and
very heavy, the specific graviiy being
from 5.8 to 6.9 or 7. Before the blow-
pipe it decrepitates, becomes paler, and,
where it rests on the charcoal, is reduced.
When roasted, it is converted into a grey
oxide. A specimen, analysed by Klap-
roth, contained

" Time, of itself, is nothing, but from

thought
Receives its rise ; by labouring fancy

wrought
From things consider'd, whilst we think

on some
As present, some as past, or yet to come.
No thought can think on time, that's still

confest.
But thinks on things in motion, or at

rest.'*

Time astronomic aly is that taken pnrely

Tin ... .

. . 77.50

Iron ....

. . 0.25

Oxygen . .

, . 21.50

Silica . . .

. . J5

100.00

It occurs only in primitive rocks, as
granite, gneiss, mica-slate, and clay-slate,
and is said to be the oldest of all the me-
tals. It occurs either disseminated in the
rock, or in beds, or veins. It is Usoially

TIN.

accompanied with quartz, mica, Sic. and
isali!-. found in great quantities in alluvial
land. The greater part of the English,
much of the Spanish, and the greater
proportion of that from India, occurs in
, that situation.

Tin is not found in mftny countries ;
but where it exists at all, it is in very
considerable quantities. In Europe there
are only three tin districts : the fii*st is
in Saxony and Bohemia; tlie second in
Cornwall; and the third is that of Galli-
cia, on tlie borders of Portugal. It is
found in many parts of Asia, and in South
America. It is worked as an ore of tin,
and from it all the tin of commerce is ob-
tained. Its name is derived from the
quantity of tin which it affords, and its
unmetallic aspect.

3. Cornish tin-ore, or wood tin ; which,
like the last, is very heavy; before the
blou'-pipe it is infusible ; it consists of
about 63 parts of tin, with iron and
arsenic. It has hitherto been found only
in Cornwall, and there in alluvial land. It
is very like brown hematite, from which
it is distinguished by its colour, its rolled
pieces, greater hardness, and higher spe-
cific gi'avity. We now turn to tin, in a
chemical view.

Tin is a metal of a silver-white colour,
very ductile, and malleable, gives out,
while bending, a crackling noise, is fusi-
ble at a heat much less tiian that of igni-
tion, is soluble in muriatic acid, and, by
dilute nitric acid, is rapidly converted in-
to a white oxide. Tin has been known
from the earliest ages. It was much em-
ployed by the Egyptians in the arts, and
by the Greeks as an alloy with other me-
tals. Pliny speaks of it under the name
of white lead, as a metal w^ell known in
the arts, and even applied in the fabrica-
tion of many ornaments of luxury. He
ascribes to the Gauls the invention of the
art of tinning, or covering other metals
with a thin coat of tin. The alchemists
were much employed in their researches
concerning tin, and gave it the name of
Jupiter, from which the salts, or prepara-
tions of +in, were called jovial. Since
their time, the nature and properties of
tin have been, particularly investigated by
many chemists, and it has proved the
subject of some important discoveries in
ciieraical science. Tin exists in nature
in three different states. 1. It is found
native ; 2. In the state of oxide ; and, 3.
In that of sulphurated oxide Native tin
is in brilliant plates, or regidarly crystal-
lized. The native oxide of tin, which is
the most comiTwn ore of this metal, ex-

isJts under a variety of forms. It is gene-
rally fwuid crystallized. The sulphuret
of tin is of a pale, or dark-giey colour,
and, when pure, has some resemblance
to an ore of silver. To obtain the metal
fi-om its ores, they are firet roasted, and
then treated with a flux, to reduce the
metal. After the ore is roasted, it fuses
readily with three times its weight of
black flux, and a little decrepitated mu-
riate of soda. In the humid way, native
tin may be dissolved in nitric acid, which
readily oxidates, and reduces it to the
state of white powder, which is an oxide
of tin ; and if it contain iron and copper,
these two metals remain in the solution.
Tin is of a white colour, nearly as bril-
liant as silver. The specific gravity of
tin is nearly 7.3. It is one of the softest
of the metals. It is extremely flexible,
and so malleable, that it can be easily

beaten out in plates to _ i part of an

inch, which is the thickness of tinfoil. It
llias little elasticity or tenacity. A wire
of this metal, about one-tenth of an inch
in diameter, supports a weight of about
thirty pounds, without breaking. Tin is
susceptible of very considerable expan-
sion, by means of caloric, and on this ac-
count it has been proposed to employ it
as a pyrometer. Tin is one of the most
fusible of the metals, and melts at the
temperature of 442° ; but it requires a
very high temperature to i-aise it in va-
pour. If it be allowed to cool slowly,
and when the surface becomes sohd by
pouring out part of the liquid metal,
ciystals are formed, composed of a great
number of small needles. Tin is a good
conductor of electricity. It possesses a
peculiar odour, which is communicated to
the hands by friction. It has also a per-
ceptible taste. When this metal is ex-
posed to the air, it is soon tarnished, and
assumes a greyish white colour ; but it
undergoes no further change. When it
is melted in an open vessel, it is soon co-
vered with a greyish pellicle, which is
the commencement of the oxidation of
the metal. When this pellicle is remov-
ed, another forms, and so on successively,
till the whole is oxidated. By continuing
the heat, and by agitation, the process
goes on more rapidly, and the metal is
converted into a whitish powder. This
oxide contains about twenty parts of oxy-
gen in 100 of the metal. With the addi-
tion of lead, to promote the oxidation,
this oxide is the putty of tin. It contains
about two parts of oxide of lead, and one
part of oxide of tin. But when tin is
strongly heated, it is converted into a fine

TIN.

white oxide, which, during the process,
gives out a vivid white flame. This ox-
ide is condensed in the cold, and crystal-
lizes in shining, transparent needles.

Tin combines witli two proportions of
oxygen, thus forming two oxides. The
yellow oxide, which has the smaller pro-
portion of oxygen, may be prepared by
dissolving tin in nitric acid diluted with
water, without the aid of heat. By pre-
cipitating the oxide with pure potash, it
is obtained in the form of a yellowish
powder. Its component parts are.

Oxygen 20

lia 80

100

By dissolving tin in concentrated nitric
acid, with the assistance of heat, the
whole is converted with effervescence
into a white powder, which falls to the
bottom of the vessel. The component
parts of this oxide are 28 oxygen, and 72
of tin.

Phosphorus combines very readily with
tin, by projecting bits of phosphorus on
melted tin in a crucible. A phosphuret of
tin is thus obtained, which crystallizes on
cooling. This compound is of a silvery
white colour, may be cjit with a knife,
and extended under the hammer, but
soon separates into plates. Sulphur com-
bines very reatlily with tin, by adding
the sulphur to the metal while in a state
of fusion. This compound forms a grey-
ish or bluiish matter, which has a metallic
lustre, a lamellated structure, and crys-
tallizes in cubes, or in octaliedrons. It is
decompo.sed by acids witji effervescence.
The component parts are, according to
Bergman,

Tin . .
Sulphur

80
20

100

If equal parts of oxide of tin and sul-
phur be fused together in a retort, sul-
phurous acid, and some sulplmr, are dis-
engaged, and there remains in the vessel
a compound of a brilliant, golden colour.
It crystalhzes in six-sided plates. It is not
acted on by the acids. When it is strongly
heated, it gives out sulphurous acid and
sulphur, and thet-e remains behind a

black mass, which is sUlphuret of tin.
This compouiKl, which is a sulphurated
oxide of tin, was formerly distinguished
by the name of aui-um, musivum, musi-
cum, or mosaicum. The component
parts of tliis sulphurated o.\ide of tin are,

Oxide of tin 60

Sulphur 40

100

Tin enters into combination with many
of the metals, and forms alloys with
them, some of which are of great import-
ance. It also combines with acids, and
forms salts.

Of the alloys, the most important is that
of tin and copper, with some other addi-
tions, which forms bronze, bell-metal, spe-
culum metal, &.c. The alloy of tin and
lead, in equal parts, forms plumbers* sol-
der. The alloy of tin, lead, and bismuth,
in the proportions of 3, 5, and 8, forms a
compound that melts in a heat somewhat
less than that of boiling water. The amal-
gam of mercury with tin is used in sil-
vering of mirrors. Pewter is an alloy of
tin and lead, which was formerly very
much used, more so than any other me-
tallic alloy, being the common material
for plates, dishes, and other domestic
utensils. Its use now is almost universal-
ly superseded by pottery, m hich is light-
er, more readily kept clean, and mucli
cheaper, though certainly less durable,
on account of the brittlene.ss of the latter.
The name of pewter has been given to
any malleable white alloy, ii.to which tin
largely enters ; and its com])osition is so
various, that hardly any two manufactur-
ers employ precisely the same ingredi-
ents, and the same' proportions. The
finest kind of pewter contains no lead
whatever, but consists of tin with a small
alloy of antimony, and .sometimes a little
copper, and in all the superior kinds of
pewter, the tin fwms by far the greater
part of the mixture. Pewter may be used
for vessels containing wine, and even vi-
negar, provided there be from 80 to 82
parts of tin in the alloy, without the
smallest danger ; hence its u.se as a mea-
sure. The specific gravity of a mixture
of tin and lead is less than the mean spe-
cific gravity of the two metals separate-
ly-

Tin is much used, particularly in the
state of very thin leaves .- it is then called

TIP

TIP

tin-foil. This is mude from the finest tin,
first cast into an ingot, then laminatetl to
a certain extent, and afterwards beat out
with a hammer Tin is userl for tinning
copper, iron, &c. and the salts of tin are
employed in dying.

Tis plate, tinning. Tin combines with
imp, and adheres strongly to its surface,
forming a thin covering. This is one of
the most useful combinations of tin, for it
renders the iron fit for a great many valu-
able purposes, for which, otherwise, on
account of its strong tendency to oxida-
tion, or rusting, it would be totally inap-
plicuble. This is well known by the name
of tin-plate, or while iron. The process
of tinning iron is the following: th-e
plates of iron being reduced to the pro-
per thickness, are cleaned by means o\
a weak acid. For this purpose the sur-
face is first cleaiied with sand, to remove
any rust that may have formed. The v are
then immersed in water, acidulated with
a small quantity of sulphuric acid, in
•which they are kept for twenty-four
hours, and occasionally agitated. They
are then well rubbed with cloths, that the
surface may be pei-fecLly clean. The tin
is fused in a pot, the surftxce of which is
covered with an oily or resinous matter,
to prevent its oxidation.

The plates of iron are then immersed
in tlie melted tin, and are either moved
about in tl^e liquid metal, or are dipped
several different times. They are tlien
taken out, and rubbed with saw -dust or
bran, to remove the impurities from the
surfice.

TINCTURR, is commonly understood
to be a coloured infusion of any substance
in alco'nol. It is a preparation much em-
ployed in Pharmacf, with many articles
of the Materia werfica (whicli see), par-
ticr.lariy vegetable barks, aromatics of all
kinds, and many of the resins and gum
resins, which yield to alcohol, by infusion,
tlmt part of their .subsUince in which most
of the medicinal virtue resides.

TixcTuirE, in heraldry, the hue or co-
lour of any thing in coat armour, under
which denomination may also be includ-
ed the two metals, or anxl argent, l>ecause
they are often represented by yellow and
white.

TIPHT\, in natwral history, a genus of
insects of the order liymenoptera.
Moutli with a membrauaceous roinided
jaw, the mandible arched and acute ; no
tongue ; four feelers, filiform, uneqiial,
and' inserted in the middle of the lip ;
antenn?e filiform ; short, convolute ; sting
concealed within the abdomen. There

are about twenty-^even species, in two
divisions : A. jaw vaulted ; Up membra-
naceous, emarginate. B. jaw rounded;
hp horny, three-toothed.

TIPULA, in natural history, a-ane-fy,
a genus of insects of the oixler Dij/Lem.
Mouth with a very short niembranaceous
proboscis, tlie back grooved and receiv-
ing a bristle ; two feelers, incurved, fili-
form, and longer than the head ; the an-
tennae are mostly filiform There are near-
ly one hundred and fifty species, in two
sections, distinguished by their wing^.
The insects in the division A have their
wings expanded ; those in H have Uiem
incumbent.

Most of the insects of this genus are
very like the gnat : thev feed on various
substances : the larvae itre without feet,
soft, and cylindrical, with a truncate
toothed head ; and feed on the roots of
plants : the pupa is cylindrical, two-horn-
ed before, and toothed behind. The larg-
est of the European tipulae isT. rivosa ;
it is found frequently an inch and half in
body, and is distinguished by the colour
of its wings, which are transparent, with
is.gc dusky undulations, intermixed with
white towards the rib, or upper ed^e.
This insect proceeds from a greyi.sh lar-
va, found beneath the roots of grass in
meadows, gardens, &.c. and in the months
of July and August it chang-es into a
lengtliened chrysalis, out of which, in
September, proceeds the complete ani-
mal. This is known by the title of long-
legs, and is frequently seen in houses
during autumnal evening.s, when, if it be
possible, it will destroy itself by flying
into the flame of a liglited candle. This
propen.sity is common to many insects.
T. tritici of Europe is aver}- minute in-
sect. The antennae are moniliform, lon-
ger than the thorax ; legs very long. The
larva is found in the ears of wheat, to
which it is very injurious.

The Hessian fly belongs to this Lin-
n?ean genus : it hiis been described by T.
Say, in the Journal of the Academy of
Natural Sciences, under the name of Ce-
cidomyia destructor.

TITA^^vlU.M, is a metal of a copper
red colour, very difficult of fusion, solu-
ble in muriatic acid, from which it may
be precipitated by a tincture of galls.
This metal was discovered in 1793, by
Klaproth. He obtained it from <x mineral
called red schorl. In this mineral he
found the oxide of a metal difl'erent from
any other then known. To this, from
Meriachan in Cornwall, where it was
found, he gave the name of mcaiachamte.

TIT

TIT

but he had not succeeded in reducing it
to the metalUc state. Klaproth afterwards
analysed the menachanite, and found that
it was precisely the same as the oxide of
the metal whicli he discovered in red
schorl. To this metal he gave the name of
titanium. This metal has been found on-
ly in the state of oxide. Red schorl con-
sists entirely of this uxide. It has been
found in different countries, as in Spain,
France, and Hungary. It is disseminated
in tlie fine specimens of rock-ci-ystal
which are brought fr\)m Madagascar,
crystallized in long brilliant needles ; the
form of the primitive ciystal being a six-
sided prism with two-sided summits ; that
of the molecule is a triangular prism, with
right angled isosceles bases. It is of a red
colour, of different shades. It is brittle,
but the fragments are so hard as to
scratch glass. The specific gravity is
from 4.1 to 4.2. The other mineral, to
which Klaproth has given the name of
titanite, is composed of oxide of titanium,
silica, and lime, nearly in equal propor-
tions. Its specific gravity is 3.5. Titanium
was obtained by Vauquelin, by reducing
the native red oxide. He mixed together
100 parts of this oxide with 50 of calcin-
ed borax, and 50 of charcoal, formed in-
to a paste with oil ; and exposed the
whole to the heat of a forge raised to
166° Wedgwood. By this process he ob-
tained a dark coloured agglutinated mass,
having a brilliant appearance on the sur-
face. Titanium obtained in this way, is of
a reddish yellow colour, shining and bril-
liant on the surface, and equally briUiant
in some of its internal cavities.

Titanium seems to be one of the most
infusible metals known. When the red
oxide is exposed to heat in a crucible, it
loses il!S lustre. By the action of the blow-
pipe it isdeprivedofits transparence, and
becomes of a greyish-white colour. On
charcoal it becomes still more opaque,
and of a slate-grey. The artificial carbo-
nate of titanium, exposed to heat in a cru-
cible, loses _25 of its weight, becomes

yellow, and as it cools resumes its white
colour. Titanium enters into combina-
tion with phosphorus, and forms with it
aphosphuret. This was prepared by M.
Chenevix, by exposing a mixture of phos-
phate of titanium, charcoal, and a little
borax, in a crucible, to a very strong
heat. The phosphuret which he obtained
was in the form of a metallic button, of a
pale white colour, brittle, and granular,
and infusible by the action of the blow-
pipe. This metal enters into combina-
YOL. VI.

lion with the acids, and forms salts witf|
them.

If into a phial, filled with muriate of ti-
tanium, there is put a stick of tin, and
the bottle enclosed with a stopper, a
faint rose colour will soon be visible in
that part of the solution adjacent to the
tin, which by degrees will deepen to an
amethystine red, and extend through the
whole liquor. If zinc be substituted in-
stead of tin, the solution will be first vio-
let, and at length indigo blue. Attempts
have been made to alloy titanium with
other metals, but without success. The
white oxide, and also titanite, in sub-
stance, are said to afford, when mixed
with enamel flux, a straw yellow colour ;
and we are informed that it has been
used in the porcelain manufactory at S6-
vres, as an ingredient in rich browns ; but
the difficulty of obtaining a regular and
uniform tint, has at length occasioned it
to be abandoned.

TITHES, are the tenth part of the in-
crease, yearly, arising and renewing from,
the profits of lands, the stock upon lands,
and the personal industry of the inhabi-.
tants. And hence they are usually divid-
ed into three kinds ; praedial, mixed, and
personal. Praedial tithes, are such as a-
rise merely and immediately from the
ground, as grain of all sorts, hay, wood,
fruits, herbs. For a piece of land, or
ground, being called in hstiin pradtum,
whether it be arable, meadow, or pasture,,
the fruit or produce thereof is called prac-
dial, and consequently the lithe payable
for such annual produce is called a prae-
dial tithe.

Mixed tithes, are those which arise not
immediately from the ground, but from
things immediately nourished from the
ground ; as by means of goods depastured
thereupon, or otherwise nourished with
the fruits thereof: as colts, calves, lambs^
chickens, milk, cheese, eggs.

Personal tithes, are such as arise from
the honest labour and industry of man,
employing himself in some personal work,,
ai-tifice, or negotiation ; being the tenth,
part of the clear gain, after charges de-
ducted.

Tithes, with respect to value, are divid-
ed into great and small : great tithes, as.
corn, hay, wood ; small tithes, as the prae-
dial tithes of other kinds, together with,
those that are mixed and personal.

Tithes of common right belong to that
church, within the precincts of whose pa-
rish they arise. But one person may pre-,
scribe to have tithes within the parish of,

tlTHES.

another ; and this is what is called a por-
tion of tiiius;.

No tjtiu. is due ^/<?J«reot the produce
of a nunc, or of a quarry ; because this is
not a fruit of ihe eartli, renewing annu-
aU} ; but is the substance ot the earth,
and has perhaps been so for a great num-
ber .)i years. But in some places tithes
are due by custom, of the produce of
mines.

No tithe is due of lime ; the chalk of
"W'hicli this is made being part of the soil.
Tithe 's not due ol' biicks, whicli are
made from the earth itself. Nor of turf,
nor oi gravel; becaube both these are
part of liie soii.

It has been held that no tithe is due of
salt, because this does not renew annually.
But every one of these, and all things of
the hke kind, may by custom become
titiutbie.

If barren land is converted into tillage,
no tithe shall be paid for the first seven
years ; but if it be not barren in its own
nature, as if it be woodland grubbed and
made lit lor tillai^e, tithes sliall be paid
presently; for woodland is fertile, not
barren.

Glebe lands, in the hands of the par-
son, shall not pay tithe to the vicar ; nor
being in the hands of the vicar, sijall tijey
pay tithe to the parson : because the
church shall not pay tithes to the church.
Butil the parson let his rectory," reserv-
ing the glebe lands, he shall pay the tithes
thereof to the lessee.

No tithes are due for houses ; for tithes
are only due of such things as renew from
year to year. But houhcs in London are,
by decree, which was confirmed by an act
of parliament, made liable to the payment
of tithes. There is Ukevvise, in most an-
cient cities and boroughs, a custom to pay
tithes for houses ; without which there
would be no maintenance in many parish-
es thr the clergy.

As to mills, it is now settled by a de-
cree of tlie House of Lords, upon an appeal
from a decree of the Court of E.xchequer,
that only personal tithes are due from the
occupier of a corn mill. And the occu-
pier of a new erected mill is liable to
tithes, although such mill is erected upon
land discharged of titlies. Cro. Jac. 429.

Agistment, or the feeding of cattle, is
subject to tithe. In the strict sense of tiie
word, it means the depasturing of a beast
the property of a stranger ; btit this word
is constantly used in the books for depas-
turing the beast of'an occupier of land, as
well as that of a stranger. An occupier of
land is not liable to pay tithe lor the pa8<

ture of horses, or other beasts, which aic
used in husbandry in the parish in which
they are depastured; because the tithe of
corn is by their labour increased. But if
horses, or otiier beasts, 'are used in hus-
bandry out of the parish in which they de-
pastured, an agistment lithe is due for
them. No tithe is due for the pasture of
milch cattle which are milked in the pa-
rish in which they are depastured; be-
cause the tithe is paid of the milk of such
cattle. Nor is tithe due for the pasture
of a saddle-horse, which an occupier of
land keeps ior himself or servants to ride
upon, Cro. Jac. 430. But an occupier
of land is liable to an agistment tithe for
all such cattle as he keeps for sale. Cro.
Eliz. 446. Milk cattle which are reserv-
ed for calving, shall pay no tithe for theU-
pasture whilst ihey are dry ; but if they
be afterwards sold, or milked in another
parish, an agistment tithe is due for the
time they were dry. No tithe is due from
an occupier of land for the pasture of
young cattle, reared to be used in hus-
bandry, or for the pail. Cro. Eliz. 446.
But if such young beasts be sold before
they come to such perfection as to be fit
for husbandry, or befoie they give milk,
an agistment tithe must be paid for them.
It cattle which have neither been used
in husbandry, nor for the pail, are, after
having been kept some time, killed, to be
spent in the family of the occupier of the
land on which they aie depastured, no
tithe isdtie for their pasture. No tithe is
due for the cattle, either of a stranger or
an occupier, which are depastured in
grounds that have in the same year paid
tithe of hay. But it is generally true, that
an agistment tithe is generally due for de-
pasturing any sort of cattle, the property
of a stranger. Cro. Eliz. 276.

No agistment tithe is due for such
beasts, either of a stranger or an occupier,
as are depastured on the head lands of
ploughed fields : provided these are not
wider than is sufiicient to turn the plough
and horses Upon. Nor is tithe due for
such cattle as are depastured upon land
that has the same year paid tithe of corn.

If land which has paid tithe of corn one
year, is left unsown the next year, no a-
gistment is due for such land: because,
by this lying fresh, the tithe of the next
crop of corn is increased. But if land,
which has paid lithe of corn in one year,
is left unsown the next year, no agist-
ment is due for such land; but if suffered
to lie fallow longer than by the course of
husbandry is usual, an agistment tithe is

TITHES,

due for the beasts depastured upon such
land.

Sheep, after paying tithe of wool, had
been fed upon turnips not severed, by
which they were bettered to the value of
five shillings each, and were tlien sold : it
also appealed, that before the next shear-
ing time, as many had been brought in as
were sold, and that of these tithe of wool
had been paid. It was insisted, that if an
agistment were to be paid for the sheep
sold, it would be a double tithing: but
the court held that this was a new in-
crease, and decreed the defendant to ac-
count for an agistment tithe. But in a lat-
ter case the court held, that no agistment
tithe should be paid.

Com. It is held, that no tithe is due of
the rakings of corn involuntarily scattered.
Cro. EUz. 278. But if more of any sort of
corn be fraudulently scattered thun there
would have been if proper care bad been
taken, tithe is due of the rakings of such
corn. Cro. Eiiz. 475. No tithes are due
of the stubbles left in corn fields after
mowing or reaping of corn.

Tithe of hay is to be paid, though beasts
of the plough, or pail, or sheep, are to be
foddered whh such hay. But no tithe is
due of hay upon the head lands of plough-
ed grounds, provided that such head
lands are not wider than is sufficient to
turn the plough and horses upon.

It is laid down in an old case, that if a
man cut down grass, and, while it is in the
swathes, carry it away, and give it to his
plough-cattle, not having sufficient suste-
nance for them otherwise, no tithe is due
thereof. And in a modern case, the Court
of Exchequer was of opinion, that no tithe
is due of vetches, or of clover, cut green,
and given to cattle in husbandry.

Tithe of wood is not due in common
right, because wood does not renew an-
nually ; but it was in ancient times paid in
many places by custom. Exemptions
from tithes are of two kinds : either to be
wholly exempted from paying any tithes,
or from paying tithes in kind. The for-
mer is called de no7i decimando ; the latter
de modo decimandi.

Prescription de non decimando is to be
free from the payment of tithes, without
any recompense for the same. Concern-
ing which the general rule is, that no
layman can prescribe de non decimando,
that is, to be discharged absolutely of the
payment of tithes, and to pay nothing in
lieu thereof; unless he begin his prescrip-
tion in a religious or ecclesiastical person.
But all spiritual persons, as bishops, deans

prebendaries, parsons, and vicars, may
prescribe generally in non decimmulo.

-\ modus dectmandi, usually called by
the name of modus only, is where there is
by custom a particular manner of tithing,
different from the general laws of taking
tithes in kind. This is sometimes i pecu-
niary compensation, as so much an acre for
ihe tithe of land; sometimes a compensa-
tion in work and labour ; as that the par-
son shall have only the twelfth cock of
hay, and not the tenth, in consideration of
the owner's making it for him ; sometimes
in lieu of a large quantity, when arrived
to great maturity ; as a couple of fowls in
lieu of tithe-eggs, and the like. Any
means, in short, whereby the general law
of tithing is altered, and a new method of
taking tliem is introduced, is called motft/s
decimandi, or special method of tithing.

In order to make a modus or [irescription
good, several qualfications are requisite.
It must be supposed to have had a rea-
sonable commencement, as that at the
time of the composition, the modus was
the real value in money, altiiough it is
now become much less. It must be some-
thing for the parson's benefit; therefore,
the finding straw for the body of the
church, the finding a rope for a bell, the
paying five shilhngs to the parish-clerk,
have been adjudged not to be good. But
it is a good modus to be discharged, that
one hath time out of mind been used to
employ the profits; for the repair of the
chancel, for the parson hath a benefit by
that.

A modus must be certain ; so a prescrip-
tion to pay a penny, or thereabouts, for
every acre (5f land, is void for the uncer-
tainty. And it has been held, that if a pre-
cise day of payment be not alleged, the
modus will be ill ; but now it is holden,
that where an annual modus hath been
paid, and no certain day for the payment
thereof is hmited, the same shall be due
and payable on the last day of the year.

A modus must be ancient ; and there-
fore, if it be any thing near the value of
the tithe, it will be supposed to be of late
commencement, and for that reason will
be set aside.

A m^dus must be durable; for the tithe
in kind, being an inheritance certain, the
recompense for it should be as durable;
therefore a certain sum, to be paid by the
inhabitants of such an house, hath been set
aside, because the house may go down,
and none inhabit it. And it must be con-
stant and uninterrupted; for if there have
been frequent interruptions, no custom

TIT

TOB

or prescription can be obtained. But aftef
it hath been once duly obtained, a distur-
bance for ten or twenty years shall not
destroy it.

When a common is divided and inclos-
ed, a mo(his shall only extend to such tithes
as the common yielded before inclosure,
such as the tithes of wool, lambs, or agist-
ment: but not to the tithes of hay and
corn, which the common, whilst it was
common, did never produce.

The parson cannot come himself and
Set out his tithes without the consent of
the owner ; but he may attend and see
them set out; yet the owner is not obliged
to give him notice when he intends to set
it out, unless it be by special custom. Af-
ter it is set out, the care thereof, as to
wasting or spoiling, rests upon the parson,
and not upon the owner of the land; but
the parson may spread, dry, and prepare
his corn, hay, or the like, in any conveni-
ent place upon the ground, till it be suf-
ficiently weathered, and fit to be carried
into the barn. And he may carry his tithes
from the ground either by the common
way, or such other way as the owner of
the land uses to carry away his nine parts.
If the parson suffer his tithes to stay too
long upon the land, the other may dis-
train the same as doing damage ; or he
may have an action on the case: but he
cannot put in his cattle and destroy the
corn, or other tithe; for that would be to
make himself judge what shall be deem-
ed a convenient time for taking it away.

By 1 Geo. I. c. 6. all customary pay-
ments due to clergymen, the payment of
tithes, &c. is enforced ; and the prosecu-
tion in this case may be, for any tithes or
church-rates, or any customary or other
rights, dues, or payments, belonging to
any church or chapel, which of right, by
law, and custom, ought to be paid for the
stipend or maintenance of any minister or
curate, officiating in any church or cha-
pel, provided that the same do not exceed
twenty pounds.

But the time is not limited within which
the same shall become due, and if any
quaker shall refuse to pay or compound
for the same, any parson, vicar, curate,
farmer, or proprietor of such tithes, or
any church-warden, chapel-warden, or
other person, who ought to have, receive,
or collect, any such tithes, rates, dues, or
payments, may make complaint to any
two justices, other than such as is patron
of the church, or chapel, or interested in
the tithes.

The number of days is not limited be-
tween the time of refusal, and the com-
plaint, nor is it hereby required that such

complaint shall be in writing. But it will
be more conformable to the usual prac-
tice in like cases, if it be in writing.
Upon which complaint, the said justices
are required to summon in writing,
imder their hands and seals, by reasona-
ble warning, such quaker, against whom
such complaint shall be made. And after
appearance, or on default of appearance,
(the warning, or summons, being proved
before them upon oath,) they may pro-
ceed to examine on oath the truth of the
complaint, and to ascertain and state
what is due and payable.

And by order under their hands and
seals, they may direct and appoint the
payment thereof, so as the sum ordered
as aforesaid do not exceed ten pounds.
And also sucli costs and charges, as upon
the merits of the cause, shall appear not
exceeding ten pounds. And on refusal to
pay, any one of the two next justices, by
warrant under his hand and seal, may le-
vy the same by distress and sale, render-
ing the overplus, the necessary charges
of distraining being first deducted and al-
lowed by the said justice ; unless it be in
the case of appeal, and then no warrant
of distress shall be granted, till the appeal
shall be determined.

As no time is hmited for detaining the
distress, nor charges allowed for keeping
it, it may be sold immediately. Any per-
son, who shall think himself aggrieved by
the judgment of the two justices, may
appeal to the next sessions; where, if the
judgment shall be affirmed, they shall de-
cree the same by order of sessions, and
give costs against the appellant, to be le-
vied by distress and sale, as to them shall
seem treasonable. And no proceeding
herein shall be removed by certiorari, or
otherwise, unless the title of such tithes
shall be in question.

The withholding of tithes from the par-
son or vicar, whether the former be a
clergyman or lay-appropriator, is among
the pecuniary causes cognizable in the
ecclesiastical court. But herein a distinc-
tion must be taken ; for the ecclesiastical
courts have no jurisdiction to try the
right of tithes, unless between spiritual
persons, between spiritual men and lay-
men, and are only to compel the pay-
ment of them, when the right is not dis-
puted.

TOAD, in zoology, belongs to the same
genus with the common frog. See Rawa,

TOBACCO, in botany. See Nicotiai^a.

After sowing tobacco seeds, the ground
is watered every day, and in hot weather
covered, to prevent its being scorched by
the sun ; and when the plants are grown

TOI

TOM

to a convenient pitch, they are trans-
planted into a soil well prepared for their
reception : care is also taken to keep
this ground clear of weeds, and to pull
off the lowest leaves of the plant, tliat ten
or fifteen of the finest leaves may have all
tlie nourishment. When these leaves are
ripe, which is known by their breaking"
when bent, tlie stalks are cut, and left to
dry two or three hours in the sun; after
which ihey are tied together two and two,
and lumg on ropes under a shade to be
dried in the air. And when the leaves are
sufficiently dried, they are pulled from off
the stalks, and made up in little bundles;
wliicii, being steeped in sea water, or,
for want thereof, in common water, are
twisted in manner of ropes, and the
twists formed into rolls, by winding them
with a kind of mill around .. stick : in
which condition it is imported into Eu-
ro])e, where it is cut by the tobacconists
for smoking, formed into snuff, and the
like. Besides the tobacco of the West
Indies, there are considerable quantities
cultivated in the Levant, the coasts of
<ireece and the Archipelago, the island of
Malta and Italy.

TODUS, the tody^ in natural history, a
genus of birds of the order Picae. Gene-
ric character : bill thin, depressed, broad,
and at the base covered with bristles;
nostrils small and oval; toes three before
and one behind, the middle much con-
nected with the outer. There are sixteen
species, of which the following is the
pineipal:

T. viridis, or the green tody, is of the
size of a wren, and is found in the warm
climates of America, and in the West In-
dies. Its colouring is a beautiful combina-
tion of green, white, and red. It is solita-
ry, stupid, feeds upon soft insects, fre-
quents moist situations, sitting long to-
gether with its head under its shoulder,
and may sometimes be taken by the hand.
Birds of this genus are principally found
in the warmer territories of America, are
somewhat allied to the genus of Fly-
catchers, but are distinguished by a con-
siderable connection between the toes,
whereas those of the flycatcher are com-
pletely divided. Several species are much
larger than the above.

TOISE is a P'rench measure, containing
six feet, or a fathom; a square toise is thir-
ty-six square feet. The toise and the fa-
thom correspond in the division of the
feet ; but these divisions being unequal.
It is necessary to observe that the pro-
portion of the yard, as fi.xed by the Royal
Society at London, to the half toise as fi.x-

ed by the Royal Academy at Paris, is as
36 : 33.355.

TOLUIFERA, in botany, balsam of
Tolu tree, a genus of the 13ecandria Mo-
nogynia class and order. Natural order of
Terebintaceae, Jussieu. Essential charac-
ter : calyx five-toothed, bell-shaped; pe-
tals five, the lowest twice as big, obcor-
date : style none. There is but one spe-
cies, viz. T. balsamum, balsam of sola
tree. It is a native of Spanish America,
in the province of Tolu, near Carthage-
na ; it is u tree of a considerable size, the
bark is thick, rough, and of a brown co-
lour, the branches spread wide on every
side ; leaves alternate, oblong, four
inches long, and two broad in the middle,
rounded at the base, acuminate at the
end, smooth, of a light green colour, on
very short foot stalks ; the fiowers are
produced in small axillary racemes, or
bunches, each on a slender pedicle ; the
corolla has four narrow petals of a yellow
colour, a little longer than the calyx, and
a fifth, the claw of which is of the same
length as the other petals, and the top
ovate cordate ; stamens within the tube,
and terminated by oblong erect sulphur-
coloured anthers ; fruit roundish, the
size of a large pea, divided into four cells,
each containing one oblong ovate seed.
The balsam of Tolu, which is brought to
Europe in little gourd shells, is obtained
by making incisions in the bark of the
tree ; it is collected in spoons, which are
made of black wax, and from them it is
poured into proper vessels ; it is of a
reddish yellow colour, transparent, in
consistence thick, and tenacious ; by age
it gi"Ows hard and brittle, so that it may
be rubbed into a powder between the
finger and thumb ; its smell is extremely
fragrant ; its taste is warm and sweetish ;
thrown into the fire it immediately liqui-
fies, takes flame, and disperses its agree-
able odour.

TOMENTUM, in botany, short -wool, a
species of hoary or downy pubescence,
which covers the surface of many plants,
particularly those in the neighbourhood
of the sea, and such as in their native soil
are exposed to the ravages of bleak and
violent winds. The substance in question
consists of a number of small hairs, that
are so closely interwoven as scarcely to
be distinguished by the naked eye, the
white appearance arising from their ag-
gregation and compact texture.

TOMEX, in botany, a genus of the
Dodecandria Monogynia class and order.
Essential character: involucre four or
five -leaved ; calyx none ; corolla five-pe-

TON

TON

tailed ; nectary scales five, between the
lower stamens ; berry one-seeded. There
are three species, among which we shall
notice the T. sebifera, glutinous tomex,
or tallow-lree ; it grows to a considerable
size, with spreading branches ; leaves
ovate, oblong, quite entire, smooth, alter-
nate, pelibled; peduncles lateral, and
subterminating, two or three-flowered ;
beri'ies small, smooth, and blackish. Na-
tive of China and Cochin-China. The
wood, which is hght, and of a pale colour,
is used for rafters, studs, &c. in building ;
the leaves and twigs abound in a viscid
juice, and being bruised and macerated
in water, render it glutinous; for tins
reason the natives work up their plaster
with il, to render it more tenacious, and
also that it may last the longer ; a great
quantity of a thick white oil is extracted
from tije berries, of which common can-
dles are made, resembling spermaceti
or wax candles, but having an unpleasant
smell

TOMPIOX, in naval affairs, a circular
piece of wood used to stop the mouth of
a cannon. At sea, the tompions are care-
fully encircled with tallow or putty, to
prevent the penetration of the water
into the bore, whereby the powder con-
tained in the chamber might be rendered
unfit for service.

TONNAGE, in military and naval af-
fairs, a custom or impost due for mer-
chandize, brought or carried in tons,
from or to other nations, after a certain
i*ate, in every ton. The method of find-
ing the tonnage of any sliip is by the fol-
lowing rule : Multiply the length of the
keel by the breadth of the beam, and
that product by half the breadtli of the
beam, and divide the last product by 94,
and the quotient will be the tonnage.
Ex. Suppose the ship's keel 72 feet,
breadth of the beam 24 feet, then
72 X 24 X 12

94

220.6. The tonnage of

goods is sometimes taken by weight, and
sometimes by measurement. The me-
thod which yields the most is allowed to
a vessel. In weight twenty hundred make
one ton, but by measurement forty cubic
feet are equal to one ton.

TONSELLA, in botany, a genus of the
Triandria Monogynia class and order.
Essential character : calyx five-parted ;
petals five ; nectary pitcher-shaped ; ber-
ry one-celled, four-seeded. There are
two species, viz. T. scandens, climbing
tonsella ; and T. Africana, African ton-
sella, both natives of Guinea.

TONSILS, in anatomy, two remarkable
glands, situated one on' each side of the
mouth, near the uvula, and commonly
called almonds of the ears, from their re-
sembling almonds in figure. Their use is
to secrete a mucous humour for lubricat-
ing the passages : this they discharge by
several irregular but conspicuous forami-
nx into the mouth. See Anatomt.

TONTINE, a variable kind of life an-
nuity, but generally so contrived as to be
progressively increasing in amount. It is
formed by nominating a certain number
of lives within limited ages, who, for
each one hundred pounds, or any other
gross sum paid down, are to receive at
first a specific annuity ; but as any of the
lives fail, their annuity is to be equally di-
vided among those that remain; by which
means tho-- who happen to survive a
considerable number of years, obtain a
large augmentation of tlieir annual re-
ceipt ; and the life, which is the longest
liver of the whole (if there is no restric-
tion to the contrary) gets for the remain-
der of its continuance, the total sura
paid at first to all the nominees. Ton-
tines of this kind, if properly conducted,
are considered by some persons as af-
fording an eligible opportunity of mak-
ing some provision for children, as the
nomination of young healthy lives gives
a good chap.ce of survivorship. It has
several times been attempted to raise mo-
ney on this sp42cies of annuity for the
service of government, but it has never
been found practicable to obtain any con-
siderable sum in this way : on a smaller
scale, it has been adopted successfully
both in Great Britain and Ireland, for
procuring the sums necessary for build-
ing bridges, large inns or hotels, and
other expensive edifices.

Of late years many delusive schemes
have been set on foot under the name of
tontines, but differing very materially
from the plan above mentioned, as they
do not require a gross sum to be paid
down, but quarterly or half yearly jjay-
ments during their continuance, which is
limited to the short period of five, seven,
or ten years ; the intention being, that
the subscribers should receive back all
they had contributed, with the additions
made to it from improvement at com-
pound interest, and the division of the
contributions of such as might happen to
die within the term. But the difference
between compound and simple interest
in the improvement of such payments,
for a short time, is so trifling, and the

TOP

TOP

probflbility of any considerable reduc-
tion, during- such term, in the number of
a set of younij lives, who it may be pre-
sumed were tliought healthy subjects at
the time of their nomination, is so small,
that the advanlag-es derived from these
sources have been sometimes overba-
lanced by the expenses of management,
and, in fact, in several instances of these
schemes, which have expired within
these few years past, the subscribers have
actually received considerably less than
the payments they had made would have
amounted to without any improvement at
interest.

TOP, in naval affairs, a sort of platform
surrounding- the lower mast head, from
which it projects on all sides like a scaf-
fold. The intention of the top is to ex-
tend the top-mast shrouds so as to form a
greater angle with the mast, and thereby
give additional support to the latter. The
top is likewise convenient to contain the
materials necessary for extending the
small sails, and for fixing and repairing
the rigging and machinery with greater
expedition. In ships of war, the lops are
furnished with swivels, musketry, and
other fire-arms, and are guarded with a
fence of hammocks in time of action. In
this case the top is used as a kind of re-
doubt; and is accordingly fortified for at-
tack or defence, being furnished with
arms, and guarded by a tjiick fence of
corded hammocks. The top is employed
likewise as a place for looking-out, either
in the day or night.

TOPAZ, in mineralogy, is a species of
the flint genus, of a wine-yellow colour, of
all degf ees of intensity, and passing to va-
rious other colours. It occurs massive,
disseminated, sometimes in rolled pieces,
but commonly crystallized. There are
many varieties. Specific gravity, accord-
ing to Werner, is about 3.5. The Saxon
variety, in a gentle heat, turns white ; but
a strong heat deprives it of lustre and
transparency : the Brazilian, by exposure
to a high temperature, burns rose-red;
and in a still higher, violet blue. Before
the plow-pipe, it is scarcely fusible ; but
exposed to a stream of oxygen gas, it
melts into a porcellanous bead. It is fu-
sible with borax, but alkali has little ef-
fect on it. The Braxilian, Siberian, and
other topaxes, wlien heated, exhibit at
one extremity positive, and at the other
negative, electricity. The Saxon topaz,
by friction only, gives signs of electricity.
The constituent parts are, according to
Vauquelin,

Silica 31

Alumina 68

Loss 1

100

It is found in veins that traverse primi-
tive rocks, accompanied by fiuor-spar, tin
oi-e, and arsenical pyrites. It is found in
Brazil ; in Siberia, among the Uralian
mountains. The topaz of tlie ancients is
supposed to be our chrysalite The Sax-
on topaz is most valued by jewellers,
thougii even this is in no very high esti-
mation.

TOPIC, in rhetoric, denotes a proba-
ble argument, drawn from the several cir-
cumstances of a fact, &c. Hence the art
of finding and managing such arguments
is called by the ancients topica.

TOPOGRAPHY. This term is applied
to all those writings which have for their
subjects the description of tracts of coun-
try, and the buildings on their surfaces.
We often meet with passages in the
works of ancient authors which are topo-
graphical, or in other words, descriptive
of particular places ; but rarely or never
with volumes dedicated wholly to this
purpose. The scriptures have many of
the former, particularly the account of
Solomon's temple : Homer abounds with
such in his Iliad and Odyssey ; and Virgil
in his iEneid ; to which might be added
subsequent writers, though not of equal
celebrity. The two Plinys have favoured
us with sketches of this nature, one of
which, by the younger, we shall intro-
duce as a specimen. Speaking of his
Tuscan villa, he says, " The face of the
country is extremely beautiful. Imagine
to yourself an amphitheatre of immense
circumference, such as could be formed
only by the hand of nature : a wide-ex-
tended plain is surrounded by mountains,
whose summits are covered with tall, an-
cient woods, stocked with game for all
kind of hunting ; the descent is planted
with under-vvoods, among which are fre-
quently little risings, of a rich and deep
soil, where a stone, if sought for, is scarce
to be found : in fertility they yield not to
the finest vales, and produce as good
crops of corn, although not so early in the
year. Below these, on the side of the
mountain, is a continued range of vine-
yards, that extend themselves witliout in-
teri!"uption far and near, at the foot of
which is a sort of border of shrubs. From
thence you have meadows and open
fields: the arable grounds require large

TOPOGRAPHY.

©xen and the strongest ploughs ; the earth
is so tough, and rises in such large clods
when it is first broken up, that it cannot
be reduced till it has been ploughed nine
times : the meadows glitter with flowers,
and produce tiie trefoil and other kinds
of grass, always soft and tender, and ap-
pearing always new ; for they are excel-
lently well watered with never-failing
springs ; yet where these springs are in
greatest confluence, they make no
marshes, the dechvity of the land dis-
chargnig into the Tiber all the water that
it does not drink in."

Had it been the custom at those very
distant periods of time to write thus, fre-
quently, and had the art of printing been
then invented, how much vaUiable infor-
mation would have reached us that is now
irretrievablv lost ; and with what pleasure
should we have read descriptions of many
important places, the scites of which are
now only known by conjecture from some
casual circumstance ! Numbere of beauti-
ful cities, far surpassing any existing at
present in the magnificence of their pub-
lic structures, have been deserted,
through different causes, by their inhabit-
ants, and are yet splendid in their ruins :
those offered every incitement for de-
scription, but have perished without ob-
taining this act of justice. Egypt, in par-
ticular, furnished the writer with the
means of immortalizing his name as a
topographer ; and it is a subject of severe
regret, that we have not been gratified
by an account of that country, when all
the wonderful fragments scattered over
its surface were connected by the chain
of society, and perfect in themselves;
then, we have every reason to suppose,
rich woods fringed the borders of their
cities, and extensive gardens afforded
equal pleasure and advantage to the in-
habitants : hke a subUme picture, we
should have been enabled to contrast its
ancient softest tints with its present
dreary wastes and gloomy ruins.

The French have ever been an enter-
prizing people, and very early turned
their attention to travelling, and topo-
graphical description ; an interesting ac-
count of which may be found in Mr.
Johnes's recent translation of " Bertrand
de la Broquiere's Travels in Palestine,"
about the year 1432. The English nation
did not entirely neglect this species of
literature, in the earliest periods of their
annals ; as several monks might be men-
tioned, who gave their brethren, in dif-
ferent parts of the country, manuscript
accounts of the foundations of their mo-

nasteries, and some slight description oi
them and their scites. We shall introduce !
the title of one of those, quoted by iMr. \
Malcolm, in jiis " History of St. Bartho- i
lomew's Priory, London," in order to con-
vey to the reader an idea of their abilities i
in our language, about the time of Henry [
UI. or perhaps rather earlier : " For, as, '-
mooche that the meritory and notable
operacyons of famose goode and devoute j
faders yn God sholde be remembred, for |
instruction of aftercilmers to theyr con-
solacion and encres of devotion; thys ab-
brevyat tretesse shal compendiously ex- j
presse and declare the wondreful, and, of ,
celestial concei, gracious fovmdacion of '
our hoely placeys, called the priory of i
Scynt Bartholomew yn Smythfyld, and of |
the hospital of olde tyme longyng to the ■
same ; with other notabilities expedieirtly ]
to be knowyn ; and most specially the i
gloriouse and excellent myracles wroghte ]
witliyn them by the interces!?ion.s, suf- ]
frages, and merytys of the forsayd be- I
nynge, feythful, and blessid of God, apos- .
tyl Sanet Bartholomy, ynto the laude of
Almighty God, and agmcion of his infinite ]
power, Ffyrst shal be shewyd who was i
ff under of owere hoely places, and howgh,
by grace, he was ftyrst pryor of owr pri- '
ory ; and by howgh longe tyme that be <
contynued yn the same I'hys churche, I
yn the honoure of most blessed Bartho- [
lomew apostle, ffunded llayer, of good
remembraunce. And theryn to serve
God (after the rewle of the most holy fa-
der Austyn) aggregat togidir religiouse
men. And to them was prelate xxii
yere ; usynge the office and dignite of a
priore." This ancient topographer
mentions that Rahere, the prior and
founder of the priory, died in the reign
of king Stephen, and was succeeded by
Thomas, in the year 1144. The follow-
ing passage will prove that the manu-
script was written immediately after the
above period : " And yn wliat ordur he
sette the fundament of this temple yn
fewe wordes lette us shewe, as they testi-
fied to us that sey Idiny herd luniy and were
presente yn his workysand dedis ; of the
xoJdche sume have take ther slepe yn Cry-
iste, and sume of them be zitte alyve, and
wytnesseth of that that we shall after say."
It may be perceived ;^from this speci-
men of early topography, that we had by
no means arrived to the degree of excel-
lence which Pliny and his contemporaries
attained in similar productions ; neither
did we accomplish this very desirable
point till within the last century. Those
who have perfused our best works, his-

TOP

TO*

torical and descriptive, before the reign
of George II. will find great accuracy and
deep research; but unfortunately we
learn nothing of the nature and beauties
of the surface of the earth, or of the pro-
portions and sculptures of our buildings,
from the valuable works of Leland, Stowe,
Speed, Camden, Dugdale, &c. indeed liad
not Hollar been employed by the latter,
his splendid accounts of monasteries, and
St. Paul's, would have given us no idea
whatever of the richness of their forms
and decorations.

It is, however, to the autliors, whose
names we have recapitulated, that we are
indebted for admirable models in topo-
graphy ; and it would be injustice to the
moderns to deny tliem the merit of hav-
ing greatly improved upon them, by
their descending to the minutiae which
seems to have escaped the attention of
their great predecessors. The public has
for a very considerable length of time
been extremely partial to topographical
works, which is evinced by the shoals of
publications issued from the London and
provincial presses on this subject. The
metropolis has h^ every thing said of it
which the art of man could rake toge-
ther; almost every county has its histo-
rian, and some have had several ; the ci-
ties have each been described, and every
town, worth or not worth a description,
has its guide ; and, exclusive of those,
numbers of tours are continually making
thrir appearance. It appears almost in-
vidious to mention any particular exer-
tions, without enumerating every well-
founded prptension to public approba-
tion ; and yet we cannot conclude this
article accurately without observing, that
Gough's edition of Camden's " Uritan-
nia," and his " Sepulchral Monuments"
of this kingdom, are worthy of ranking
with the works of our best ancient topo-
graphei-s ; and that amongst the many ex-
cellent county histories we possess, none
has a greater claim for extent and accu-
racy than the " History of Leicester-
shire," by Mr. John Nicliols. The envi-
rons of London have received every pos-
sible attention from the indefatigable
brothers, Daniel and Samuel Lysons, who
are now pursuing a most laborious under-
taking on nearly the same plan, to be
extended to all England ; and of London,
the great centre, every thing has been
said by Stowe, Strype, and Malcolm ; be-
sides the slighter performance of Pen-
nant, to whom we are more indebted for
his other topographical works ; and, to
conclude, we now possqss a Topographi-
VOL VT.

cal Dictionary, the patient and usefiil
production of Mr. Carlisle.

The encouragement all these and simi-
lar pubUcations have hitherto uniformly
met with has been eminently advanta-
geous to draftsmen and engravers, whose
works, for the embellishment of topogra-
phical writings, are not surpassed by any
which have made their appearance on
tlie Continent, an assertion that maybe
proved decidedly by referring to the re-
cent publications—" The Beauties of En-
gland and Wales," and " The Architec-
tural Antiquities of Great Britain ;" two
of the best, without exception, that have
ever issued from the British press ; the
joint performance, in the first instance,
of Messrs. Britton and Brayley : and in
the second, of the former only.

TOilUYLlUM, in botany, heart-iooi%
a genus of the Pentandria Digynia class
and order. Na'ural order of Umbellatse,
or Umbelliferse. Essential character : co-
rolla radiate ; all hermapiirodite ; fruit
suborbicular, notched at the edge ; invo-
lucres long, undivided. There are seven
species.

TORENIA, in botany, so named from
OlofToreen, a Swedish clergyman, a ge-
nus of the Didynamia Angiospermia class
and order. Natural order of Personatae,
Scrophularise, Jus.sieu. Essential charac-
ter : calyx two-hpped, upper lip three
cusped ; filaments, the lower with a ste-
rile branch let; capsule two-celled. There
are three species.

TORMENTILLA, in botany,'' a genire
of the Icosandria Polygynia class and or-
der. Natural order 'of Senticosse. Rosa-
ceae, Jussieu. Essential character : calyx
eight-cleft, inferior; petals four; seeds
roundish, naked, wrinkled, fastened to a
small, juiceless receptacle. There are
two species : viz. T. erecta, common tor-
mentil; andT. reptana, trailing tormentil.
Natives of Europe.

TORNADO, a sudden and vehement
gust of wind from all points of the com-
pass, frequent on the coast of Guinea.

A tornado seems to partake much of
the nature of a whirlwind, or perhaps of
a water-spout, but is more violent in its
effects. It commences very suddenly,
several clouds being previously drawn
together, when a spyut of wind proceed-
ing from them, strikes the ground, in a
round spot of a few rod^ or perches dia-
meter, and proceeds thus half a mile or a
mile. The proneness of its descent makes
it rebound from the earth, tlu-owing such
things as are moveable before it, but some
sidewavs or in a hi er.'d direction frpm it,

•S H'

TOR

TOU

A vapour, mist, or raiij, descendis with it,
by which the path of it is marked witli
wet. The following is a description of
one which h^tppened a few years since at
Leicester, about fifty miles fiom Boston,
in New England : it happened in July,
on a hot day, about four o'clock in the
afternoon. A few clouds having gathered
westwaiil, and coming overhead, a sud-
den motion of their running together in
a point being observed, immediately a
spout of wind stinick the ground at the
west end of a house, and instantly carried
it away, with a negro man in it, wiio was
afterwards found dead in the path of it.
Two men and a woman, by the breach of
the floor, fell into the cellar ; and one
man was driven forcibly up into the chim-
ney corner. These were preserved,
though much bpuised ; they were wet
with a vapour or mist, as were the re-
mains of the floor, and the whole path of
the spout. This wind raised boards, tim-
bers, &c. A joist was found on one end,
driven nearly three feet into the ground.
The spout probably took it in its elevated
state, and drove it forcibly down. The
tornado moved with the celerity of a mid-
dling wind, and constantly declined in
strength till it entirely ceased.

TORPEDO. SeeKAiA.

TORRENT, in geography, denotes a
-temporary stream of water, falling sud-
<lenly from mountains, whereon there
have been great rains, or an extraordina-
ry thaw of snow.

TORRICELLI (Evangeliste,) in bio-
graphy, an illustrious mathematician and
philosopher of Italy, was born in 16U8,
and trained up in the knowledge of clas-
sical literature. The bent of his mind,
however, led him to the pursuits of natu-
ral philosophy, which he studied under
father Benedict CasteUi, who had been
the scholar of the great Galileo, and was
professor of mathematics at Rome. Tor-
rice Hi made such progress under this
master, that having read Galileo's " Dia-
logues," he composed a "Treatise con-
cerning Motion" upon his principles.
CasteUi, surprised at the performance,
carried it and read it to Galileo, who
heard it with great pleasure, and conceiv-
ed a high esteem and friendship for the
author. Upon this, CasteUi proposed to
Galileo, that Torricelli should come and
live with him ; recommending him as the
most proper person he could have, since
he was the most capable of comprehend-
ing those subhme speculations, whicli his
own great age, infirmities, and want of
sight, prevented him from giiring to the

world. Galileo accepted the proposal,
and Tori'icelU the employment, as things
of all others the most advantageous to
both. Galileo was at Florence, at which
place Torricelli arrived in 1641, and be-
gan to take down what Gallileo dictated,
to regulate his papers, and to act in every
respect according to his directions. But
he did not long enjoy the advantages of
this situation, as Galileo died at the end of
only three months. Torricelli was then
about returning to Rome ; btit the Grand
Duke engaged him to continue at Flo-
rence, making him his own mathematici-
an for the present, and promising him the
professor's chair as soon as it should be
vacant. Here he applied himself intensely
to the study of mathematics, physics,
and astronomy, making many improve-
ments, and some discoveries. Among
others, he greatly improved the art of
making microscopes and telescopes ; and
it is generally acknowledged that he first
found out the method of ascertaining the
weight of the atmosphere by a proporti-
onate column of quicksilver, the barome-
ter being called f"om him the Torricellian
tube, and Torricellian%xperiment. Great
things were now expected from him, and
great things would probably have been
further performed by him, if he had Uved ;
but he died after a few days illness, in
1647, when he was but just entered the
40th year of his age. His principal work
was entitled " Opera Geometrica," in 4to.

TORRICELLIAN expenment, a famous
experiment made by Torricelli, a disciple
of the great Galileo, which has been al-
ready explained under the f^rticle Baro-
MKTER. See also Pneumatics.

TORRID zoney among geographers, de-
notes that tract of the eartli lying upon
the equator, and on each side as far as the
two tropics, or 23° 30' of north and south
latitude. The torrid zone was believed
by the ancients to be uninhabitable ; but
is now well known to be not only inhabit-
ed by the natives of those hot' climates,
but even tolerable to the people of the
colder chmates, towards tlie north and
south ; the excessive heat of the clay being
there tempered by the coldness of the
night. See tiie article Hkat.

TOUCH, or Feeling, sense of. When
the mind has connected the complex
ideas derived from the touch with the vi-
sible appearance of objects, then the sight
is indefinitely the most useful medium of
knowledge : but in the earliest stages of
the intellectual progress, the touch is the
most useful ; in fact, as man is formed, it
then is absolutely necessary to render the

J

TOU

TOCJ

slglit productive of most of its present
utility. The sense of" feeling- differs from
the other senses in belong-ing to every
part of the body, exlernul or internal, to
which nerves are distributed. The term
touch is most correctly applied to the
sensibility which is diffused over the sur-
face of the body. Touch exists with tlie
most exquisite degree of sensibility at the
extremities of the fingers and thumbs,
and in the lip.s. The sense of toucli is
thus very commochously disposed for the
purpose of encompassing smaller bodies,
and for adapting itself to the inequalities
of larger ones.

The sensations acquired by the sense
of feeling are those of heat, hardness, so-
lidity, roughness, dryness, motion, dis-
tance, figures, &.c. and all those corporeal
feehngs which arise from a healthy or dis-
eased state of the nerves, and the part of
the body to which they belong.

The pains of this sense are more nume-
rous and vivid than those derived from
any other sense ; and therefore the relicts
of them, coalescing with one another, con-
stitute the greatest share of our mental
pjuns, that is, pains not immediately de-
rived from sensation. On the other hand,
its pleasures being faint and rare, in com-
parison with others, and particularly those
of the taste, have but a small share in the
formation of the mental pleasures.

The touch is the original medium of
our knowledge respecting the real quali-
ties of substances, and is indeed the sole
medium by which we gain a knowledge
of external objects. It is by the touch,
and by the touch alone, originally, that
we distinguish our own bodies from other
objects that surround us, and form the
impression which every one has, that the
objects which affect the sight, the hear-
ing, &c. are external. When we touch a
sensible part of our bodies, we have sen-
sations conveyed to the mind through two
different nervous branches ; when we
touch any other body, we have only one
sensation.

The impression that they are external
objects, that is, objects out of ourselves,
which give us the sensations of sound,
taste, sight, and smell, is so continually
forced upon us by the sensations of touch,
that there probably never wa3 fouad a
person, who doubted the existence of the
external world as the cause of his sensa-
tions, except those who have been led to
it by reasoning on false principles. Some
very acute speculators have indeed given
up the beUef in an external world as the
cause of their sensations ; but their opini'

on never did, nor never can, gain much
ground ; for it is inconsistent with the
perceptions, which, by the constitution
of our frame, are necessarily formeil from
continually recurring sensations. The phi-
losophic Berkeley, and a late writer,
Driminiond, are the principal supporters
of this curious system, liut if we had not
the sense of touch, the other senses would
have produced no such impression ; sen-
sations would have appeared to arise in
the mind without any connection with
external causes of them.

Some philosophers have supposed, that
it is the exc^uisite delicacy of feeling
which exists in the hand, and the admi-
rable mechanism by which it is applied,
which is the cause of the superiority of
knowledge which man possesses over the
lower classes of animals. It cannot be
just to attribute to this cause alone this
superiority; but indisputably, as man is
constituted, it is essential to the degree
of superiority now possessed ; and we
observe, that that tribe of animals pos-
sesses the greatest degree of what may
be called human wisdom, which has this
sense most perfect ; the bended muscle
at the end of the elephant's trunk an-
swering some of the purposes of the hu-
man fingers.

Tovca needle, among assayers, refiners,
&c. little bars of gold, silver, and copper,
combined together in all the different
proportions and degrees of mixture ; the
use of which is to discover the de-
gree of purity of any piece of gold or
silver, by comparing the mark it leaves
on the touch-stone with those of the
bars.

The metals usually tried by the touch-
stone are, gold, silver, and copper, either
pure, or mixed with one another in dif-
ferent degrees and proportions, by fusion.
In order to find out the purity or quanti-
ty of baser metal in these various admix-
tures, when they are to be examined, they
are compared with these needles, which
are mixed in a known proportion, and
prepared for this use. The metals of
these needles, both pure and mixed, are
all made into laminae or plates, one
twelftfi of an inch broad, and of a fourth
part of their breadth in thickness, and an
inch and a half long ; these being thus
prepared, you are to engrave on each
a mark, indicating its purity, or the nature
and quantity of the admixture in it.

TOURMALINE See Schorl.

TOURN", the sheriff's tourn, is the
king's court of record, holden before the

TOZ

TRA

sheriff, for redressing of common griev-
ances within the county. This is not
now held,

TOURNEFORTIA, in botany, so nam-
ed in memory of Joseph Pitton Tourne-
fort, a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia
class and order. Natural order of Aspe-
rifolise. Borragineae, Jussieu. Essential
character : berry two-celled, two-seed-
ed, superior, perforated at top by two
pores. There are eleven species ; these
shrubs are mostly natives of South Ame-
rica ; several of them were first discover-
ed by Father Plumier, who gave them the
name of pittonia, which I/nmseus changed
to Tournefortia

TOURNEQUET, in surgery, an in-
strument made of rollers, compresses,
screws, &c. for compressing aj)y wound-
ed part, so as to stop hemorrhages.

TOURREFTIA, in botany, so named
from Mons. de la Tourrette, a genus of
the Didynamia Angiospermia class and
order. Natural order of Personata:. Big-
noniae, Jussieu. Essential character ; ca-
lyx two-lipped ; corolla, lower lip none,
but two toothlets instead of it ; capsule
echinate, four celled, two valved. There
is only one species, viz. T. lappacea, a
native of Peru.

TOW to, in naval aflairs, is to draw a
ship, or boat, forward in the water, by
means of a rope attached to another ves-
sel 01- boat, which advances by the effort
of rowing or sailing. Towing is either
practised when a ship is disabled, and
rendered incapable of carrying sail at sea;
or when her sails are not fixed upon the
masts, as in a harbour, or when they are
deprived of their force of action by a ces-
sation of the wind.

TOWER, a tall building consisting of
several stories, usually of a round form,
though sometimes square or polygonal.
Towers are built for fortresses, prisons.
Sec. as the Tower of London, the Tow-
er of the Bastile, &c. The Tower of
London is not only a citadel to defend
and command the city, river, &c. but also
a royal palace, where our kings, with
their courts, have sometimes lodged ; a'
royal arsenal, wherein are arms and am-
munition for sixty thousand soldiers ; a
treasury for the jewels and ornaments of
the crown ; a mint for coining of money ;
the great archive, wherein are preserved
all the ancient records of the courts of
Westminster, &c. and the chief prison
for state criminals.

TOZZIA, in botany, so named in ho-
nour of Bruno Tozzia, Abbot of Valtum-
frosa, F. R. S. a genus of the Didynamia

Angiospermia class and order. Natural
order of Personatse. Lysimachise, Jussieu.
Essential character : calyx five-toothed :
capsule one-celled, globular, one-seeded.
There is only one species, viz. T. alpina,
a native of the mountains of Switzerland,
Austria, South of France, Italy, and the
Pyrenees.

'TRACHELIUM, in botany, thvoat-toort,
a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia
class and order. Natural order of Cam-
panacese. Campanulacese, Jussieu. Es-
sential character : corolla funnel-form ;
stigma globular ; capsule three-ceiled,
inferior. There are three species, all
found at the Cftpe of Good Hope.

TRACHICH 1 liYS, in natural history,
a genus of fishes of the order Thoracici.
Generic character : head rounded in front,
eye large, mouth wide, toothless, de-
scending; gill-membrane eight rayed; the
four lowest rays rough on the edges ;
scales rough ; abdomen mailed with large
carinaied scales. The only species un-
der this genus is T. australis, or the
southern trachichthys, about five inches
long and two deep, and a native of New-
Holland. Its body is so strongly coated
with scales, that they cannot be detached
without part of the skin. Its eyes are
extremely large, its tail is strongly forked,
and its abdomen is carrinated, and cata-
phracted by a row of eight strong scales,
each of which projects into a short spine
pointing backward, and forming a sharp
keel beneath. See Plate Vl- Pisces,
fig. 7.

TRACHINUS, in natural history, a ge-
nus of fishes of the order Jugulares. Ge-
neric character : head compressed, spin-
ous at the top; gill-membrane six-rayed,
the covers aculeated ; lower lamina ser-
rated There are two species. T. dra-
co, or the dragon-weaver, is usually about
eleven inches long, and inhabits the North
Seas and the Mediterranean, often imbed-
ding itself in the sand on the coasts. It
feeds on worms, insects, and small fishes,
and is in great estimation in various coun-
tries of Europe for the table. It is re-
markable principally for inflicting very
painful wounds with its first dorsal fin,
which is armed with five strong and sharp
spines. The wounds thus given arc at-
tended with great heat and violent red-
ness, and are not a little dreaded by the
fishermen of France and Holland.

TRADE, the practice of exchanging
goods, wares, money, bills, and other ar-
ticles of value, with the view oS advan-
tage or profit. It is generally distinguish-
ed into foreign trade, or the export and

i

TRADE.

import of commodities to and from other
countries, and the internal or home trade,
or that which is canied on within the
country ; which two branches, Ijowever,
are rather distinct in appearance than
reaUty : one supports the other ; and by
their mutual connection and dependence,
the foreign and the domestic trade of Great
Britain have risen together to their pre-
sent unparalleled heif^ht. See Commerce
and Manufactures.

By the law ot England, trade is consi-
deied so much for the general benefit,
that, by several statutes, particularly
Magna Charta, 9 Flenry 111. c. 30, and 5
Richard II. c 1, even all mtu'chants, ali-
ens, and not enemies, may safely come
and go, and abide here, an4 deal, in gross
or by retail, in any commodities ; but, by
statute 16 Kichard II. c. 1, this was re-
strained, to prevent merchants, aliens,
from selling any thing by retail, except
victuals. And by several statutes, reme-
dies are given for alien merchants against
those by whom they may be disturbed in
their dealings. Hut an alien cannot take
a lease of a house, though he is a mer-
chant ; but may be a tenant at will. And
no alien shall be a merchant or factor, un-
less naturalized, or made denizen, in the
English plantations in Asia, Africa, or
America. Some restraints are also put
upon the importation of certain articles
by statute 11 Edward III. c. 3 ; 3 Edward
IV. c. 4 ; 19 Henry VII. c 21 ; 25 Henry
VIII. c. 9 ; and 5 Elizabeth c. 7.

The seas shall be open to all merchants;
and all subjects may trade to Spain,
France, and Portugal, paying the cus-
toms. In England all persons are free to
use any trade, unless restrained by act of
parliament, or the bye-laws of some cor-
porations, or by the King's charter; for
he may erect a corporation for the ma-
nagement of certain trades, and may even
make a monopoly of some things, such as
the sole printing of books of the common
law, statute books, English bibles, pray-
er books, civil law books, and even school
books, as it is said. But this preiwgative
is somewhat odious, and has not recently
been enforced, excepting in respect to bi-
bles, the statutes, and prayer books.

But the King cannot by his charter
make a total restraint of trade. Even
with respect to excluding the exercise of
a trade in a town, or city, without being
free ot it, there is a great doubt whether
a charter with such an exclusive privi-'
lege is valid, except as to London, where
the bye-laws are confirmed by act of Par-
liament, although many such privileges

are assumed elsewhere, and rest for thelt
validity entirely upon ancient custom.
The exclusive trade of the East India
company is founded upon a charter, con-
firmed by act of parliament, 9 and 10
William III. c. 44, and sub.sequent statutes,
and by 37 George III. c 97, trade is allow-
ed under the previous treaty with Ame-
rica, between that coujitry and our settle-
ments in the East Indies, either direct or
way of Europe.

If a man contract, even for a good con-
sideration, not to exercise a certain trade
generally, sucli an agreement is void, as
being in restraint of trade ; but an agree-
ment not to exercisfe a certain trade
within a certain town, to the prejudice of
another, is valid.

By the statute 5 Elizabeth, c. 4, none
shall use any manual occupation then
used in the realm, unless he has been
brought up in it as an apprentice for se-
ven years, under a penalty of 40s. per
month. This statute has by some been
considered as impolitic, and in general
may be considered as a very slight re-
straint upon one who is successful in the
trade. It has received a very liberal con-
struction, so that, if a man has worked as
a journeyman or master for seven years,
he is considered to have served as an ap-
prentice ; and a person who is qualified,
and directs the business, may have ano-
ther in partnership who is not qualified.
A trad^is not transmissible, so as to go
to executors ; for if they carry it on, they
must be personally liable.

The principal restraint upon trade
which now exists is by the statutes re-
specting literary property (see that arti-
cle), and the exclusive rights of inven-
tors, under a jjatent for a limited time.
These letters patent must be for the in-
vention of new manufactures or ma-
chines, and are to be granted only for
fourteen years from the date of the pa-
tent. Statute 21 James I. c. 3. In order
to render such a patent valid, it must be
under the great seal, and must be inroll-
ed, and a specification of the particular
process, or invention, must be inrolled
in Chancery within six months. It is up-
on the novelty of the manufacture, as it
respects England, and the fidelity of the
specification, that the validity of the pa-
tent depends ; for if a process is not fully
and fairly described, or is described with
any degree of fraud or concealment, the
patentee cannot enforce the benefit of
his invention, and the patent may be re-
pealed upon application to the Chancel-
lor bv scire facias. Although an inven:<

j[U2?ITlEilTY]

TRADE.

tion is not new ahroad, yet if it has not
been used here, a patent may be taken
ibrit. See Patk-vt.

The aggregtite gain which individuals
engaged in foreign 'rade derive from it,
can by no means be considered as sliew-
ing the accession of wealth which the na-
tion receives from this source. Many cir-
cumstances may concur to diminish, or
even wholly to destioy, the profit of fo-
reign trade in this point of view, by which
the gains of the merchant, and others, by
wliom it is carried on, are not in the
least affected ; thus, the payments made
to other countries for the dividends on
the share foreigners hold of our public
debts ; remittances of subsidies, or for
the maintenance of troops; and the mo-
ney spent abroad by British subjects oc-
casionally resident there, all operate to
the reduction of the actual wealth which
this country would otherwise derive
from its intercourse with other nations,
which may therefore be v^ry different
from the general profit derived from
trade, as a sum equal to the greater part,
or even the whole, of the commercial
gain may annually, or occasionally, be
sent out of the country in the various
ways just mentioned.

The balance of trade in favour of this
country has usually been estimated from
the excess of the exports beyond the im-
ports, and a comparatively small amount
of the latter has been always considered
highly desirable. This is a concise mode
of determining a very important point ;
but it is certainly very erroneous ; for,
in this view, the whole of the imports
are considered as if they were paid for;
whereas, in fact, a very large part of the
imports never require to be paid for at
all ; and instead of tending to draw mo-
ney out of the country, ought to be con-
sidered as an annual accession of wealth.
This particularly refers to the imports
from India, as far as they are purchased
by the territorial revenues of that coun-
try, or by the private capitals of individu-
als acquired there ; to such proportion of
the imports from the West Indies as are
remittances from the income of individu-
als residing here ; and to the profits aris-
ing from fisheries carried on in different
parts of the world by subjects of this
country ordinarily residing here. Besides
the evident impossibility of making this
distinction in the account of imports, the
custom-house statements, both of the
imports and exports, are totally inade-
quate to show even their comparative
■amounts, as almost evcrv article of mer-

chandize is there rated at a value entire-
ly different from its present actual value ;
but even if these accounts of the exports
and imports were far better adaj)ted to
show on which side the balance really
lies than they are, it will be easily prov-
ed that all the statements founded on
them, in which the annual gain of the
country from trade is exljibited by the
excess of exports, must be inaccurate.
Suppose the merchants of this country to
purchase, for exportation, on their own
account, British manufactures to the a-
mount of 20,000,000/. ; tho net proceeds
tliereof in the countries to which they
are exported, after paying all charges,
cannot be considered as less than
22,000,000^. ; and this sum being invest-
ed in foreign produce, and imported in-
to this country, will amount, after repay-
ing the duties and all expenses, to at
least 24,200,000^. returning the mer-
chants tlie capital they had originally ad-
vanced, with a profit of 21 per cent.
Here is an evident gain to the country of
4,200,000/., because the goods brought
into it exceed in value those which were
sent out by this sum. Will those who dis«
cover the commercial profits of the coun-
try in a small amount of imports, pre-
tend that the advantage of the mer-
chants, or of the state, would have been
greater, if the imports received in re-
turn for the twenty miUions sent out had
been only of sixteen milHons value .''

If the merchandize imported in return
for any quantity exported is of greater
actual value in this country, that is, if it
yields a greater price after allowing for
all charges, and the interest of the capi-
tal employed,*the surplus must be an ad-
dition to the wealth of the nation ; and if
the whole of our foreign trade was of
this description, the excess of the im-
ports would show the total profit, or the
acquisition of wealth, by the exchange of
commodities with other nations. It may,
however, frequently happen, that a coun-
tiy carrying on a ]jrofitable commerce
may not have occasion for an amount of
equal or greater value than its exports in
the produce or manufactures of other
countries, in which case the imports from
other countries will diminish, and the
difference must be made up by coin or
bullion, which, in a commercial view,
ought to be considered nearly in the
same light as any other articles of mer-
chandize. In consequence of an act of
Charles II. coin and bullion are exempt
from entry at the custom-house on impor-
tation into this kingdom, therefore this

TRA

TRA

Article cannot appear in the account of
imports, thougii it is well known, that,
besides the bullion used in keeping- up
or increasing the coin, and in importa-
tion and exportation as a merchandize,
great quantities are imported as a raw
material for the use of our manufactures.
The quantity sent out of the country le-
gally is known ; the quantity imported
must be much greater; but while no ac-
count of it is taken, tlie real amount of
the imports must be very incomplete,
and consequently any conclusions re-
specting the balance of trade, drawn
from such a defective account, may be
very erroneous. It cannot be denied,
that, if tiie country derive a profit from
its foreign trade, the value of the mer
chandize, and of the coin and bullion im-
ported, must together exceed that of its
exports; particularly as it has been
shown, that a part of the former is to be
considered rat her as a remittance of pro-
perty from abroad to its owners in this
country than as a return for exports ; it
might indeed be otherwise for a short pe-
riod, from our merchants allowing a long-
er or larger credit to their foreign cor-
respondents ; but this would be only a
temporary suspension of the returns.

Therefore, as it appears by the Cus-
tom-house accounts, that the value of fo-
reign produce and manufactures import-
ed is usually considerably less than that
of the exports, it would follow, suppos-
ing these valuations were" correct, that
the difference, together with a sum
equal to the whole profits of foreign
trade, is annually imported in cash and
bullion, which are not included in those
accounts. But if this were really the
case, our stock of the precious metals,
either in the form of buUion, specie, or
goods manufactured of gold and silver,
must have increased, not only to an a-
mount greater than there is any evi-
dence to prove, but far beyond all pro-
bability. In fact, this rapid flow of wealth
into the country from foreign trade,
which, although certainly great, is pro-
bably less than it wo^^ild appear in the
usual way of estimating it, has been aji-
tnost constantly counteracted in various
degrees, by political engagements with
other countries, by losses at sea, and ma-
ny other circumstances, by which wealth
is carried out of the country without any
advantageous return.

Trade xvinds denote certain regular
winds at sea, blowing either constantly
the same way, or alternately this way
and that ; thus called from their use in
navigation, and the Indian commerce.

The trade- winds are df different kinds,
some blowing three or six months of the
year one way, and then the like space
of time the opposite way ; these are very
common in the Indian seas, and are call-
ed monsoons.

Others blow constantly the same Way ;
such is that general wind between the
tropics, which, otf at sea, is found to blow
all day long from east to west.

TRADESCANTIA, in botany, spider-
wort, a genus of the Hexandria Monogy-
nia class and order. Natural order of
Ensatae. Junci, Jussieu. Essential cha-
Tiicter : calyx three-h'aved ; petals three ;
filaments equal, with jointed hairs ; cap-
sule three-ceiled. There are nineteen
species.

TllAGACANTH. See Gcm.

TRAGEDY, a drama which represents
some grand and serious action, and
which has frequently a fatal issue or end.
Its genuine object is to purify and mode-
rate the ])assions, by exhibiting them in
their excess, and to hold forth such a
picture of the crimes and miseries of
mankind as may teach us, by fear, to be
prudent, for our own sake ; and, by
compassion, to be charitable, for the
sake of others. To produce this effect,
three principles are essential to tragedy :
first, it should represent our fellow-crea-
tures in peril and misfortune ; secondly,
the peril should inspire us with alarm and
dread, and the misfortune should inte-
rest and affect US; and, thirdly, the imi-
tation should be conformable to nature
and truth ; that, while it engages our at-
tention, it may render even the emo-
tions of sorrow pleasing to us. On these
principles are founded all tlie rules which
relate to the choice of a subject, to the
delineation of characters, and to the
composition of the fable, dialogue, and
action.

All events and circumstances which
seriously influence mankind, and excite
the stronger passions, are fit subjects for
tragedy. Such, in the language of our
great poet, are

" The whips and scorns o' th' time ;

Th' oppressor's wrong, the proud man's

contumely.
The pangs of despis'd love, the law's

delay.
The insolence of office, and the spurns
That patient merit of th* unworthy takes."

To these ills men in all conditions are lia-
ble, but it is seldom that the poet con-
fines himself to a representation of them
in common life, becaiise the vicissitudes

TRAGEDY.

incident te greatness aft'ord him wider
scope to display them. Hence tragedy,
as was before observed, is frequently the
imiuiiion of a grand action, involving
some important state concern, the fall
of a chief, or the acquisition of a crown.
SucH events naturally rouse the passions
of ambition, love, hatred, and revenge ;
and are calculated more deeply to affect
the heart with sentiments of terror and
pity. But whatever be the subject, the
actual representation of tragic scenes
ought never to be carried to excess.
Murder and suicide tl>ould be banished
from the stage, or admitted only in ex-
treme cases, becatise the terror and the
pity which such 'sights inspire are min-
gled witii a feeling of horror, at which
human nature revolts

to the main story, so as not to be sup-
pressed without injury to it ; otherwise
it must necessarily constitute an inde-
pendent action of itself, and the unity
of the subject would be bi'oken.

The exposition, or opening of the fa-
ble, was assigned by the ancients to the
prologue ; with the moderns it is com-
prehended in the first act. This act
should form the basis of the rest, both
with regard to the main action, and to the
episodes, so that no actor should enter in
the subsequent acts, who has not been
introduced or mentioned in the first.

By the intrigue is meant that concate-
nation of facts or incidents, whose per-
plexity arrests for a time the progress of
the action. Thus, the difficulties at-
tending a principal per-sonage in the tra-

Of the rules for the composition o^j gedy constitute what is properly called

tragedy, the most important are those qf
the unities. (See Dra^ia.) By the uni-
ties of time and place, it is meant, that
the story should comprehend no longer
a period of time than the representation,
or, at most, that it should not exceed
four and twenty hours ; and that the
place of action should never be supposed
to change. These rules are insisted on,
as necessary to preserve the illusion of
the scene ; but in many cases they must
obviously tend to destroy it. In order to
contrive the incidents of a fable to pass
within the time prescribed, many im-
portant scenes must be related, instead
of being represented ; and to bring all
the persons concerned in the drama to
one spot, during that time, many viola-
tions of probability must be made. Hence
it is, that the regular tragedies of the
French school are so barren of incident,
and so replete with tedious declamation.
The choice of a subject is there control-
led by the laws of time and place ; where-
as the observance of those laws should
be regulated by the nature of the sub-
ject. Perhaps there ,is not a more genu-
ine tragedy than Shakespeare's "Lear;"
yet how vain would be the attempt to
new model it by the rules, and render it
equally sublime and aftecting. The pow-
ers of the Immortal author himself would
be inadequate to such a task.

The unity of action alone is in all cases
indispensable. A. tragedy is something
more than a history : it is a tissue of
events not merely succeeding each other,
but arising out gf each other. It is one
whole and entire action, developed by a
series of incidents which sustain it to the
enil, and which concur all to the same
point. If an episode or underplot is in-
troduced, it must be rendered auxiliary

the intrigue ; and it is this whicli keeps
the spectator in suspense, and gradually
raises his curiosity to the highest pitch, by
the variety of emotions, interests, and
passions which it involves. For instance,
in the tragedy of "Othello,'* the cir-
cumstances attending the Moor's jea-
lousy strengthens his suspicions by de-
grees, and render him " perplexed in the
extreme." Here lies the intrigue of the
piece.

The denouement is the unravelling of
the intrigue. It ought to arise naturally
from what precedes, and should be quite
unforeseen, because all interest is sus-
tained by the uncertainty of the mind,
between fear and hope. There are in-
stances, however, where the denouement,
although foreseen, is nevertheless inte-
resting. With regard to what is called
poetical justice, we may observe, that
although It may be most grateful to be-
hold virtue triumphant and vice dis-
graced, yet the drama, to be a picture
of human life, must sometimes exhibit
the reverse ; in these cases it will not be
without its use, if it direct our view to
" something after death."

The division into acts is purely arbi-
trary, and seems to have been unknown
on the Grecian stage. Aristotle makes
no such distinction ; he speaks only of
the duration of the piece, which has na-
turally only three parts, a beginning, a
middle, and an end. Horace in.sists, that
there shall be neither more nor less than
five acts ; and to this rule most of the mo-
derns have adhered.

Of the style best adapted to tragedy,
it were trite to say, that it should be ap-
propriate to the characters. It may be
lofty, it may be elegant, but it must al-
ways appeal directly to the heart. The

TRA

TRA

most pathetic scenes of our tragic poets
are written in language very little elevat-
ed above the dialogue of real life ; and to
this language Shakesjjeare has, by a
combination and a phraseology peculiar
to lujnself, imparted new powers, for he
has expressed in it some of the subhmest
concc [)tions of human genius.

TKAGIA, in botany, so named in me-
mory of Hieronymus 'i'ragus, a genus of
the Monoecia Triandria class and order.
Natural order of Tricoccse. Euphorbia,
Jus.sicii. Essential character : male, ca-
lyx three-parted ; corolla none ; female,
calyx five-parted; corolla none; style
trihd ; capsule tricoccoiis, three-celled ;
seeds solitar}'. There are eiglit species,
natives of the East and West Indies.

TltAGOPOGOX, in botany, ffoats-
beard, a genus of the Syn-^enesia Poly-
gamia iEqualis class and order. Natural
order of Composite Semiflosculosae. Ci-
choracea:, Ju.s.sieu. Essential charac-
tel' : caly.x simjjie; down ftathered: recep-
tacle naked, 'i'hereare fourteen species.

TRAJECTOlfY of a comet, is its path
or orbit, or tlie line it describes in its
motion. This path is supposed, by He-
vehus, to be nearly a riglJt line. Dr.
Halley assumes it to be a very eccentric
ellipse; but says, it may often be com-
puted on the supposition of its being a
parabola. Sir Isaac Newton shows how
to determine the trajectory of a comet
from three observations. See " Princi-
pia," book 3, Prop. 41.

TRAIN, the attendance of a great
person, or the trail of a gown, or robe
of state. In falconry, it denotes the tail
of a hawk.

Traix is likewise used for the number
of beats which a watch makes in an hour,
or any other certain time.

Traix is also used fov a line of gun-
powder, laid to give fire to a quantity
thereof, in order to do execution by
ijlovving up earth, works, buildings, &c.

Thaix, or Trailt. of artilleri/, includes
the great guns, and other pieces of ord-
nance, belonging to an army in the field.
See Canxojv.

Traix oil, the oil procured from the
blubber of a whale by boiling. See the
articles Oil.

Traix bands, or Tratned bands, a
name given to the militia of England.

TRAINING, or Tuacixg, in mineralo-
gy, a term used by the miners, to ex-
press the tracing up the mineral appear-
ances on tiie surface of the earth to their
head, or original place, and there find-
ing a mine of the metal they contain.

VOL. VI.

TRAMEL, an instrument or device,
sometimes of leather, more usually of
rope, fitted to a horse's legs, to regulate
his motions, and form him to an amble.
It is also taken in many places for an iron
moveable instrument in chimnies, to hang
pots over the fire.

Tramel ?iet, is a long net wherewith to
take fowl by night, in champaign coun-
tries, much like the net used for the low
bell, both in shape, bigness, and mashes.
To use it, they spread it on the ground,
so as the nether, or further end, fitted
with small plummets, may lie loose there-
on ; then the other part, being borne up
by men placed at the fore ends, it is thus
trailed along the ground. , At each side
are carried great blazing lights, by which
the birds are raised, and as they rise un-
der the net they are taken.

TRAMMIiLS, in mechanics, an in-
strument used by artificers for drawing
ovals upon boards. It consists, on one
part, of a cross with two grooves at right
angles ; the other is a beam carrying two
pijis which slide in those grooves, and
also the describing pencil. Engines in
general, intended for turning ovals, are
constructed on the same principles with
trammels : the only difference is, that in
the trammels the board is at rest, and the
pencil moves upon it : in the turning en-
gine, the tool which supplies the place of
the pencil is at rest, and the board moves
against it. See Lathe and Turxino.

TRANSACTIONS, philosophical, a kind
of journal of the principal things that
come before the Royal Society of Lon-
don. See SociETr. It appears, that the
printingof these transactions was always,
from time to time, the single act of the re-
spective secretaries of the Society, till the
publication of the 4rth volume,' in 1753;
notwithstanding it has been the common
opinion, that they were published by the
authority, and under the direction, of the
Society itself The truth is, that the So-
ciety, as a body, never did intere^ them-
selves further in their publication, than by
occasionally recommending the revisal of
them to some of their secretaries, when,
from the particular circumstances of their
affairs, the transactions had happened for
any length of time to be intermitted; and
tliis seems principally to have been done
with a view to satisfy the public, that
their usual meetings were then continued
for the improvement of knowledge, and
benefit of mankind, the great ends of
their first institution; but the Society
being of late years greatly enlarged, and
their communications more mfTnerou?.

TRA

TRA

tli€y thouglit it advisable, tliat a commiL-
tee of their members should be appointed
to reconsider the 'japcrs read before
them, and select out of them such as they
should jud.ge j)roper for publication in
the future transactions, which was ac-
cordingly done upon the 26lh of March,
1752.

The transactions are now usually pub-
lished in half volumes twice a year, and
each member is entitled to receive one
copy gratis, of every part published after
his admission into the Society. The vo-
lumes have lately been abritlged by Dr.
Hutton and others Those pubhshed be-
fore the year 1^50, were abridged in
eleven volumes, quarto, by Mr. Jones,
Mr. Eames, and Mr. Mart} n.

TliANSCENDEXTAL, or Tkaxscen-
DAJTT, something- elevated or raised above
other things; which passes and transcends
the nature of other inferior things. Tran-
scendental quantities, among geometri-
cians, are indeterminate ones, or such as
otinnol be fixed or expressed by any con-
stant equation: sucli arc all transcendantal
curves, which cannot be defined by any
algebraic equation ; or which, when ex-
pressed by an equation, one of the terms
tht-reof is a variable quantity. Now
whereas algebraists use to assume some
general letters or numbers, for the quan-
tity sought in these transcendental prob-
lems, Mr. Leibnitz assumes general or
indefinite equations for the lines sought ;
e. gr. putting x aiwl y for the absciss and
ordinate; the equation he uses for a line
sotight, I'i a-\-b X -\- c y -\-e X y -\-f^ ^
-\- ff y yy &c.=:o, by the help of which in-
definite equation he seeks the tangent;
and by comparing the result with the
given properly of tangents, he finds the
value of the assvmied letters, a, b, c, d. Sec.
and thus defines the equation of the line
sought.

If the comparison above-mentioned do
not proceed, he pronounces tlie line
sought not to be an algebraical, but a
transcendental one. This supposed, he
goes on to find the species of transcen-
dency : for some trahscendentals depend
on the general division or section of a ra-
tio, or upon the logarithms ; others upon
tlie arcs of a circle ; and others on more
indefinite and compound enquiries. Fie
therefore, besides the symbols, a- and j^,
assumes a third, as v, which denotes the
transcendental quantity ; and of these
three, formsa general equationforthe line
sought, from wliich he finds the tangent,
according to the diifcrential method,
which succeeds even io transcendental

quantities. The result he compares with
the given properties of the tangent, and
so discovers, )iot only the values of a, 6,
c, f/, &c. but also the particidar nature of
the transcendental quantity. And though
it may sometimes happen, that the several
transcendentals are so to be made use of,
and those of difterent natures too, one
from another ; also, though there be
transcendents of transcendentals, and a
jirogression of these in injinitwn ,- yet we
may be satisfied with the most easy and
useful one ; and for the most part, may
have recourse to some peculiar artifices
for shortening the calculus, and redifting
the problem to as simple terms as may
be.

This method being applied to the busi-
ness of quadratures, or to the invention of
quadratics, in which the property of the
tangent is always given, it is manifest, not
only how it may be discovered, whether
the indefinite quadrature may be alge-
braically impossible ; but also, how, when
this impossibility is discovered, a trans-
cendental quadratrix maybe found, which
is a thing not before shown. So that it
seems, that geometry, by this method, is
carried infinitely beyond the bounds to
which Vieta and T>es Cartes brought it ;
since, by this means, a certain and general
analysis is established, which extends to
all problems of no certain degree, and
consequently not comprehended within
algebraical equations.

Again, in order to manage transcen-
dental problems, wherever the business
of tangents or quadratures occurs, by a
calculus, there is hardly any that can be
imagined shorter, more advantageous, or
more universal, than the diiferential cal-
culus, or analysis of indivisibles and infi-
nites. By this method we may explain the
nature of transcendental lines, by an
equation ; e. g)'. let a be the arch of a cir-
cle, and .r the versed sine : then will

S dx

ti/ Ix-

-XX

the cvcloid be ij,
S dx

and if the ordinate of

then will ?/ = y/ 2x —

X X

.. i which equation per-

V 2 a,- — XX
fectly expresses the relation between the
ordinate, ?/, and the absciss, x, and from
it all the properties of the cycloid may be
demonstrated.

Thus is the analyticnl calculus extend-
ed to those lines uhich have hitherto
been excluded ; for no other reason, but
that they were thought Incapable of it.

TRANSCRIPT, a copy of any original
writing, particularly that of an act or inr

TUA

TRA

strimient inserted in the body of ano-
ther.

TRANSrEIi, in commerce, &c. an act
whereby a person surrenders his riglit,
interest, or property, in any thing- move-
able, or immoveable, to another. 'I'lie
term transfer, is cliieHy used for the as-
signing and making over sljares in the
stocks, or pubUc funds, to such as pur-
chase them of the proprietoi-s.

TKANSFOKMA'riON,in general, de-
notes a change of form, or the assuming a
ne\r form diflerent from a former one.
The chemists were a long time seeking
the transformation of metals; that is, their
transmutation, or the manner of changing
them into gold. See Traksmutation.

TuAxsFouMATiox of cqiiatioHS. The
doctrine of the transformation of equa-
tions, and of exterminating their inter-
mediate terms, is thus taught by Mr. Mac
Laurin. The affirmative roots of an equa-
tion are changed into negative roots of
the same value, and the negative roots
into aHirmative, by only changing the
signs of the terms alternately, beginning
witlj the second. Thus t4ie roots of the
equation, x•^ — x3 — 19 a:- -j- A9 x — 30
=0, arc -+- 1, -}- 2, -j- 3, —5; whereas the
roots of the same equation, having only
the signs of the second and fourth terms
cliangcd, viz. .r4-{-.v3— 19 x^— 49 x —30
=tO, are— 1,-2,— 3,-1-5.
To understand the reason of this ntlejet
us assume an equation, as x — a X ^ — '^
^ X — c X -^—si X •£ — <?> &,c. = 0, whose
roots are -f a, + Z>, -f- c, -\- </, + e, &.c. :
and anotiier, having its roots of tiie same
value, but affected vvith contrary signs, as

x-iru X 'x^X x-^c X x-^d X ^•-\-'',
he. = 0. It is plain, that the terms taken
alternately, begiimi ng from tlie first, arc
the same in both equiitions, and have the
same sign, beingproducts of an even num-
her of the roots ; the product of any two
roots having the same sign as their pro-
duct when both their signs are changed;

as + a X — 6 = — a X -h ^•

IJutthe second terms, and all taken al-
ternately from them, because their coeffi-
cients involve always the products of an
odd number of the roots, will have con-
trarv signs in the two equations. For ex-
ample : the product of four, viz. abed,
having the same sign in lioth, and one
equation in the fitih term having abed
X -!- <?, and the other a h c d X — ^. it
follows, that their j)roduct, a b cde, must
kave contrary signs in the two equations:
tliese two equations, therefore, that have
the same roots, but with contrary signs,

have nothing different but the signs of
the alternate terms, beginning witii the
second. From which it follows, that if any
equation is given, and you change the
signs of the alternate terms, beginning
with the second, the new equation will
have roots of the same value, but with
con'.rary signs.

TllANSiT, in astronomy, signifies the
passage of any planet, just by, or over a
fixed star, or tlie sun, and of the moon
in particular, covering or moving over
anv planet. See Ve"nus

TRANSITION, in rljetoric, is of two
sorts The first is when a speech is in-
troduced abruptly, without express no-
tice given of it; as when Milton gives an
account Of our first ancestors' evening
devotions.

*' Both turn'd, and under open sky ador'd
The God that made both air, sky, earth,
and heaven. —

Thou also mad'st the night,

Maker omnipotent, and thou the day !"

The second sort of transition is, wireit
a writer suddenly leaves the subject he is
upon, and passes unto another, from
winch it seems diffVient at first view, but
has a relation and connexion with it, and
serves to illustrate and enlarge it.

'iliiVNSiriVK, in grammar, an epithet
ap}ilicd to such verbs a.s sianify an action
which passes from the subject that does
it, to or upon another subject which re-
ceives ii. Under the head of verbs transi-
tive, come what we usually call verbs ac-
tive and passive ; oll»er verbs, whose ac-
ti<ni does not pass out of tiiemselves, are
called neuters, and by some grammarians,
intransilives.

TIIANSMISSION, in optics, &c. the
act of a transparent body passing the
rays of light through its substance, or suf-
feiing them to pass ; in which sense the
word stands opposed to reflection. Trans-
mission is also fiequently use(-N)i» the
'.same sense with refraction, by whicii most
bodies, in tran.smitting the rays, do also
refract them. Fen- the cause of transmis-
sion, oJ'the reason why some bodies trans-
mit, and othei-s reflect the rays, see Opa-
city.

TRANSMUTATION, the act of trans-
forming, or changing one nature into an-
otlier. ' Nature, Sir haac N.-wton ob-
serves, seems delighted with tran-smuta-
tions : he goes on to enumerate several
kinds of natural transmutations ; gross
bodies, and light, he suspects, may be rau-

TllA

TRA

tually transmuted into each other ; and
adds, that all bodies receive their active
force from the particles of lij^ht which
enter their composition. For all fixed
bodies, when well heated, emit light as
long as they continue so ; and again, light
iiTtermingles itself, and inheres in bodies,
as often as its rays fall on the solid parti-
cles of those bodies. Again, water, which
is a fluid, volatile, tasteless salt, is by heat
transmuted into a vapour, which is a kind
of air, and by cold, into ice, which is a
cold transparent brittle stone, easily dis-
solvable, and this stone is convertible
again into water by heat, as vapour is by
cold.

Transmutation, in alchemy, de-
notes the art of changing or exalting im-
perfect metals into gold or silver. This
is also called the grand operation, and,
ihey say, is to be eftected with the philo-
sopher's stone. See Alchemy.

Transmutation, in geometry, de-
notes the reduction or change of one
figure or body into another of the same
area or solidity, but ot a different form :
as a triangle into a square, a pyramid into
a parallelopiped, &c. In the higher geo-
metry, transmutation is used for the con-
verting a figure into another of the same
kind and order, whose respective parts
rise to the same dimensions in an equa-
tion, admit of the same tangents, &c. If
a rectilinear figure be transmitted into an-
other, it is sufficient that the intersections
^f the lines which compose it be transfer-
red, and the lines drawn through the same
in the new figure. If the figure to be
transmuted be curvilinear, the points, tan-
gents, and other right lines, by means
whereof the curve line is to be defined,
must be transferred.

TKANSOM, among builders, denotes
the piece that is framed across a double
light window.

Transom, among mathematicians, sig-
nifies the vane of a cross-staff, or a wood-
en nuscJier fixed across, with a square,
whereon it slides, &c.

Transom, in a ship, a piece of timber
which lies athwart the stern, between the
two fashion -pieces, directly under the
gun-room port.

TRANSPARENCY, in physics, a quail-
ty in certain bodies whereby the}' give pas-
sage to the rays of light, in contradistinc-
tion to opacity, or that quality of bodies
which renders them impervious to the
ravs of light. See Opacity.

'TRANSPOSITION, in algebra, the
banging any term of an equation over

to the other side. See Algebra and
Equitation.

TRA PA, in botany, water caltrops, a
genus of the Tetrandria Monogynia class
and order. Natural order of Uydrocha-
ridcs, Jussieu. Kssenlial character : ca-
lyx four parted ; corolla four-petalled ;
nut girt with four opposite spines, which
were the leaves of the calyx. There are
two species, viz. T- natans, four-horned
water caltrops ; and T. bicornis ,two-horn.
ed water caltrops.

TRANSVERSE, something that goes
across another, from corner to corner :
thus bends and bars, in heraldry, are
transverse pieces or bearings : the diago-
nals of a parallelogram or a square, are
transverse lines : lines which make inter-
sectiwis with perpendiculars, are also
called oblique or transverse lines.

TRAP, in mineralogy, is a Swedish
term signifying stair. It was first applied
to designate a certain class of mountains,
composed of nearly horizontal strata,
with perpendicular breaks, which were
supposed to give a rude resemblance to a
flight of stairs. Hence many species of
rock, differing very much from each other,
were called by tlie same name, which
caused much confusion* According to
Werner, there are three distinct classes
or formations of rocks to which the term
trap may be applied : of these the first
class belongs to the primitive mountains,
the second to the transition mountains,
and the third to the secondary moun-
tains. Primitive traps are composed es-
sentially of hornblende, mingled with fel-
spar, and sometimes with pyrites and mi-
ca. Of rocks belonging to this formation
there are four distinct species, viz. the
common hornblende, the schistose horn-
blende, primitive griinstein, and schistose
griinstein. Transition traps are composed
piincipally of granular griinstein, but the
mixture of the ingredients is more inti-
mate, the grain is finer, and the mass ap-
pears more homogeneous. Tliere are two
principal varieties, viz. 1, The amygda-
loid, which is a rock of sclnstose horn-
blende in a state of semi-decomposition,
resembling fine ferruginous clay. It con-
tains a niunber of globular cavities, from
the size of a pea to that of a small apple:
of these cavities some contain nothing
but air, and are coated on the inside with
a kind of varnish ; others contain balls of
calcareous spar, quartz, chalcedony, &c.
The toadstone of Derbyshire is considered
by Werner as belonging to this variety.
2. Globular trap, composed of schistose

TRA

TRA

gi'iinstein, in a state of semi-decomposi-
lion, ai ranged in spheroids oi various
maj^nitudes, and composed ot thick con-
ceiuric lamellar distinct concretions Se-
condary or floetz traps are divided into
those wliicb are peculiar and characteris-
tic of it, and those which are accidental.
The tormer are basalt, porphyry, &c.
Among the latter may be classed lubble
and sandstone, clay, coal, and bituminous
wood. The proper base to the secondary
trap formation, or m other words the sub-
stance, which appears to have immediate-
ly j)receded it in the order ot tormation,
is secondary limestone ; it is, how-
ever, not unfrequently found resting on
sandstone, on argilhte, on gneiss, and
even on granite. The general order
in the strata of this formation, is the
following, viz. coarse sand, fine sand,
sandy clay, unctuous clay, wakke, basalt,
amygdaloid, porphyry, and gi iinstein. It
hardly ever happens that all these strata
are met with in the same muss of moun-
tain. No metallic veins are found in this
class of mouniains, but the remains of
' vegetable and murine organized bodies
are of frequent occurrence. See Kock.
TRAPEZIUM, in geometry, a plane
figure coniamed under four unequal right
lines. 1. Any three sides of a trapezium
taken togetl>er, are gieater than the
fourth. 2. The two diagonals of any tra-
pezium, divide it into four proportional
triangles. 3. If two sides of a trapezium
be parallel, the rectangle under the ag-
gregate of the parallel sides and one half
their distance is equal to that trapezium.
4. If a parallelogram circumscribes a tra-
pezium, so that one of the sides of the
parallelogram be parallel to a diagonal of
the trapezium, that parallelogram will be
the double of the trapezium. 5. If any
trapezium has two of its opposite angles,
each a right angle, and a diagonal be
drawn joining these angles ; and it' from
the other two angles be drawn two per-
. pendiculars to that diagonal, the dis-
tances from the feet of these perpendicu-
lars to those right angles, respectively ta-
ken, will be equal. 6 If the sides of a
trapezium be each bisected, and the
points of bisection be joined by four right
lines, these lines will form a parallelo-
gram, which will be one half of the tra-
pezium. 7- If the diagonals of a trape-
zium be bisected, and a right line joins
these points, tlie aggregate ot the squares
of the sides is equal to the aggregate of
the squares of the diagonals, together
%yith tour times of the square of the right
line joining the point of bisedion. 8. In

any trapezium, the aggregate of the dia-
gonals is less than the aggregate of four
right Imes drawn from any point (except
the intersection of the diagonals) within
the figure.

TRAVELLER, in naval affairs, one or
moi'e iron thimbles, with a i-ope spliced
round them, sometimes forming a kind of
tail, but more generally a species of ^om-
met, and u.sed on various occasions.

TRAVERSE, or TiiAssvE USE, in gene-
ral, denotes something that goes athwart
another ; that is, crosses ami cuts it ob-
liquely.

Hence, to traverse apiece of ordnance,
among gunners, signifies to turn or point
it which way one pleases, upon the
platform.

In fortification, traverse denotes a
trench, with a little pai^apet, or bank of
earth, thrown perpendicularly across the
moat, or other work, to prevent the ene-
my's cannon from raking it. These tra-
verses may be from twelve to eighteen
feet, in order to be cannon proof; and
their height about six or seven feet, or
more, if the place be exposed to any
eminence.

Traverse, in navigation, is a compound
course, whei-ein several different succes-
sive courses and distances are known.
To w ork a traverse, or to reduce a com-
pound course to a single one, 1. Make a
table of six columns, marked, coui'se ;
distance ; N. S. E. W. beginning at the
left hand, and write the given courses and
distances in their proper columns. 2.
seek the given courses and distances in
the traverse table, and let the correspond-
ing differences of latitude and departure
be written in their projjer columns in the
table made for the question. 3. Add up
the columns of northing, southing, east-
ing, and westing ; then the difference be-
tween the sums of northing and southing
gives the whole difference of latitude,
which is of the same name with the great-
er ; and the diiference belv/een the sums
of easting and westing will be the whole
departure, which is likewise of the same
name with the gTeatcr. 4. The whole
difference, latitude, and departure to the
compound course being found, the direct
course and distance will be found by Case
IV. of plain-sailing. See Navigation, &c.
Thaveiisk, in hiw, signifies sometimes
to deny, sometimes to overthrow or undo
a thing, or to put one to prove some mat-
tcj- ; much used in answers to bills in
chancery ; or it is that which the defen-
dant pleads, or says in bar, to avoid the
plaintiff's bill, cither by confessing and

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avoiding", or by denying and traversing"
the maierial parts thereof. Tiaversc is
also to take issue upon the chief matter,
and to contradict or deny some point of
it. To traverse an otiice, is to prove
that an inquisition made ot lands or goods,
by escheator, is defective and untruly
made.

1 REASON, in law, is divided into hig-h
treason and petty treason, iiigh treason
is defined to be an otience comniitted
against the security of the King or king-
dom, whether it be by imagination, word,
or deed ; as to compass or imagine the
death of the King, Queen, or Prince, or
to deflower the King's wife, or his eldest
daughter unmarried; or his eldest son's
tvife ; or levy w ar againsi the king in his
realm, adhere to his enemies, counterfeit
his great seal, privy seal, or money, or
wittingly to bring false money into this
realm, counterfeited like the money of
England, and utter the same; to kiil the
King's Chancellor, Treasurer, Justices of
eitlier bench, Justices in Eyre, of Assize,
or of Oyer and Terminer, being m their
place doing this office ; forging the King's
sign manuel or privy signet, privy seal,
or foreign coin current here, or diminish-
ing or impairing current money. In case
of treason, a man shall be drawn, hanged,
and quartered, and forfeit his lands and
goods to the King. 25 Edward 111.

TnKASON, /;e/«V. Whenever a wife mur-
ders her husband, a servant his master or
mistress, or an ecclesiastic a prelate, or to
whom he owes obedience, every one
of these offences is petit treason.

As every petit treason implies a mur-
der, it follows that the mere killing of an
husband, master, or prelate, is not always
petit-treason ; for if there are not such
circumstances in the case of killing one of
these persons, as would have made it
murder in the case of killing ajiy other
person, it does not amount to this ofience.

There can be no accessary in high
treason. And it seems to be always
agreed, that what would have made a
Bian an accessary before the fact in any
other felony, makes him a principal in
high treason.

As the person of his Majesty was ima-
gined in imminent danger, it was thought
jiecessary to enact two late statutes, viz.
36 George III. c. 7, and 36 George 111. c.
8 ; the former to enlarge the clauses in
the statute 25 Edward HI. for the greater
safety of his Majesty's person; the latter
for the preventing seditious meetings.
But on account of the too great length
of the acts we are obliged to refer the

reader to them. There is nothing s«
dangerous, in a constitutional point of
view, as what are called constructive trea-
sons, by which persons are held guilty of
treason, upon something constructively
deemed dangerous to the safety of the
King.

TREASURE trove^ is where any money
or coin, gold, silver, plate, or bidlion, is
hidden in the eartli, or other private
place, the owner thereof being unknown ;
in which case, tlie treasure belongs to the
King, or some other who claims by the
King's grant, or by prescription. But if
he that hid it be known, or afterwards
found out, the owner and not the King is
entitled to it. If it be found in the sea,
or upon the earth, it doth not belong to
the King, but to the finder, if no owner
appear.

TREASURER, an officer to whom the
treasure of a prince or corporation is
committed to be kept, and duly disposed
of. The Lord High Treasurer of Great
Britain, or first Commissioner of the Trea-
sury, when in commission, has under his
charge and government all the King's
revenue, whicli is kept in the Exchequer.
He holds his place during the King's plea-
sure, being instituted by the delivery of
a white staff to him : he has the check of
all the officers employed in collecting the
customs and otiier royal revenues ; and
in his gift and disposition are all the offices
of the customs in the several ports of the
kingdom ; escheators in ever> county are
nominated by him ; he also makes leases
of the lands belonging to the crown^
There is, besides the Lord Treasurer, a-
Treasurer of the King's Household, who
is of the Privy Council, and, with the
Comptroller and Steward of the Marshal-
sea, Ixas great power. To these may be
added the Treasurer of the navy; as also
the Treasurer of the King's Chamber, and
of the wardrobe ; and most corporations
throughout the kingdom have treasurers,
whose office is to receive their rents, and
disburse their common expences. The
Treasurer of the Coimty, is an officer that
keeps the counly-stock, in which office
there are two in ever}^ county, who are
chosen by the major part of the justices
of the jieace at Easter-sessions. They
ought to have certain estates in lands, or
to be worth 150/. in personal estate, and
are to continue in their office only for a
year, at the end whereof, or within ten
days after the expiration of the year, they .
must account to their successors, under
certain penalties. Tiie county-stock which
this officer has the keeping of, is raised

TRE

TRE

by rating every parish annually ; and the
same is from time to time disposed of to
charitable uses, towards the relief of
maimed soldiers and mariners, prisoners
in the county goals, paying the salaries of
governoi-s of houses of correction, and
relieving poor almshouses, &c.

TUEKS. Set liMBKtt.

TREMOLITE, in mineralogy, is a spe-
cies of the TalcgL nus, of wiiich there are
three sub-species, viz. the asbestos, tlie
common, and the glassy ; the colours of
the last arc yellowish, reddish, grey, and
green ; it occurs massive and crystallized ;
it is easily frangible, and not very heavy ;
Us constituent parts are.

Silica 65.00

Magnesia 10.33

Lime 18.00

Oxide of iron 0.16

Water and carbonic acid . 6.50

99.99

It is said to emit a phosphoric hght
when rubbed in the dark. Before the
blow-pipe it melts without addition into a
cellular white coloured scoria. It is found
principally in primitive mountains, and is
there usually imbedded in limestone ; it
is foimd in many parts of Germany, in the
Shetland islands, and in the basaltic rock
on which the castle of Edinburgh is built.

TRENCHES, in fortilication, are ditches
cut by the besiegers, that they may ap-
proach more securely to the place attack-
ed ; whence they are also called lines of
approach. The tail of the trench is the
place where it was begun, and its head is
the place where it ends. 1'he trenches
are usually opened, or begun, in the
night-time ; sometimes within musket
shot, and sometimes within half or whole
cannon shot of the place. They are car-
ried on in windiiig-lines, nearly parallel
to tiie works of tlie fortress, so as not to
be in the view of the enemy, nor exposed
to the enemy's shot. The workmen em-
ployed in the trenches are always sup-
ported by a number of troops, to defend
them against the sallies of the besieged;
the plcncers sometimes work on their
knees, and are usually covered with mant-
lets or faucissons ; and the men who suj)-
port them lie flut on their faces, in order
to avoid the enemy's shot.

TRESPASS, is any transgression of the
law, vmder treason, felony, or mi.sprision of
either. Trespuss. signifies going beyond
What is lawful ; hence it follows, that every

injurious act is, in the large sense of thi«
word, a trespass. But as many injurious
acts are distinguished by particular names,
as treason, murder, rape, and other names,
the legal sense of the word trespass is con-
fined to such injurious acts as have not
acquired a particular name. Some tres-
passes are not accompanied with any
force ; a trespass of this sort is called a
trespass upon this case; and the proper
remedy for.the party injured, is by an ac-
tion upon the case. Other trespasses are
accompanied with force, cither actual or
implied. If a trespass, which was accom-
panied with either actual or implied force,
iiave been injurioirs to the public, the
proper remedy in every such case is by
an indictment, or i>y information. And if
a trespass that was accompanied with an
actual force, have been injurious only to
one or more private persons, the offender
is in every such case liable to an indict-
ment, or to an information; for although
the injury has in such case been only
dt)ne to one or more private person.s, as
every trespass accompanied with actual
force is a breach of the peace, it is to be ,
considered and punished as an offence
against the pubhc.

A man is answerable for not only his
own trespass, but that of his cattle also.
And the law gives the party injured a
double remedy in this case, by permit-
ting him to distrain the cattle, thus doing
damage, till the owner shall make him
satisfaction. And in either of these ca-
ses of trespass committed on another's
land, eitlier by a man himself or his cat-
tle, the action that lies is the action of
trespass, with force and arms; for the
law always couples the idea of force with
that of intrusion upon the property of ano-
ther. In some cases trespass is justifia-
ble ; or rather entry on another's land or
house shall not in these cases be account-
ed trespass ; as if a man came there to
demand or pay money there payable, or
to execute in a legal manner the process
of the law. To prevent trifling and vexa-
tious actions oi' trespass, it is enacted, bv
43 Eliz. c. 6, 23 and 23 Charles II. c. 9',
and 8 and 9 Wiiiiani c. 2, that where a
jury who try an action of trespass give
less damages than 40.9. the plaintiff shall
be allowed no more costs than damages,
unless the judge ehall certify on the back
of the record, that "Ihe freehold or title of
the land came chiefly in question. But if
it shall appear, that lire trespass was wil-
ful and malicious, the plaintifl' shall have
his full co.sts. And every trespass is wilful,
where the defendant has been forewarn-

TRI

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cd ; and malicious, where the intent of the
defendant a])pears to be to harass or in-
jure the plaintiff'.

TRET, in commerce, an allowance
made tor the waste, or the dirt, that may
be mixed with any commodity, which is
always four pounds in every one hundred
and fo»ir poands weight- See Tare.

TRE\Mffr, in botany, a genus of the
Monoicia Polyandria class and order.
EfSser.tial clvaracter : calyx three-leaved,
superior ; corolla none ; capsule tricoc-
eous. There is only one species, t/z. T.
nudiflora ; tliis is a lofty tree, with a thick
trunk, covered wiih an ash-coloured bark;
leaves on long round petioles, oblong,
ovate, cordate, attenuated at the point ;
dusky green on the upper surface, but
brigiiter on the lower ; flowers on round
pale green peduncles, axillary, of an her-
baceous colour, void of scent. Native of
the East Indies.

TRIAL, the proceeding of a court of
law, when the parties are at issue, such as
the examination of witnesses, &c. to ena-
ble the court, deliberately weighing the
evidence given on both sides, to draw a
true conclusion, and administer justice
accordingly.

TRIANDRIA, in botany, the name of
the third class in the Linnaean system,
consisting of plants with hermaplu'odite
flowers, which liave tiu-ee stamina or
male organs. There are three orders
in this class, derived from the number of
styles.

TRIANGLE, in geometry, a figure of
three sides and three angles. Triangles
are either plane or spherical. A plane
triangle is contained under three right
lines ; and a spherical one is a triangle
contained under three arches of great cir-
cles of the sphere. Triangles are denomi-
nated, from their angles, right, obtuse,
and acute. A right-angled triangle is that
which has one right angle. An obtuse-
angled triangle is such as has one ob-
tuse angle. And an acute-angled tri-
angle is that which has all its angles
acute.

In every triangle the sines of the sides
are proportional to the sines of the oppo-
site angles ; also the sine of all the tliree
angles is equal to two right ones ; and the
external angle, made by any side produ-
ced, is equal to the sum of the two inter-
nal and opposite angles. Triangles on
the same base, and having the same
height or place, between the same paral-
lels, are equal ; also triangles on equal
bases, and between the same parallels,

are equal. If a perpendicular be let fall
upon the base of an oblique-angled
triangle, the difference of the squares
of the sides is equal to the double-
rectangle imder the base, and the dis-
tance of the perpendicular from the mid-
dle of the base. The side of an equilate-
ral triangle, inscribed in a circle, is in
power triple of the radius. The sides
of a triangle are cut proportionably, by a
line draw n parallel to its base. A whole
triangle is to a triangle cut off' by a right
line drawn parallel to the base, as the
rectangle" under the cut sides is to the
rectangle of the two other sides. In a
right-angled triangle, a line drawn from
the right angle at the top, perpendicular
to the hypolhenuse, divides the triangle
into two other right-anj^led triangles,
which are similar to the first triangle, and
to one another. In every right-angled
triangle, the square of the hypothenuse is
equal to the sum of the squares of the
other two sides ; and, in general, any fi-
gure described oti the hypothenuse, is
equal to the sum of two similar figures
described upofi the two sides. In an isos-
celes triangle, that is , a triangle having
two of its sides equal, it a line be drawn
from the vertex to any point in the base»
the square of that line together with the
rectangle of the segments of the base, is
equal to the square of the side. If one
angle of a triangle be equal to 120°, the
square of the base will be equal to the
squares of both sides, together with the
rectangle of those sides ; and if those
sides be equal to each other, then the
square of the base will be equal to three
times ti.e square of one side, or equal to
twelve times the square of the perpendi-
cular from the angle upon the base-

If any angle of a triangle be bisected,
the bisecting line will divide the opposite
side in the same proportion as the legs of
the angle are to one another. Every tri-
angle is one lialf of a parallelogram of the
same base and height. The area of any
triangle n^ay be had by adding all the
three sides together, and taking half the
sum, and from that lialf subtracting each
side severally, and multiplying that half
sum and the remainder continually into
one another, and extracting the square
root of the product. See Trigonome-
try.

Triangle, in astronomy, one of the
forty-tight ancient constellations, situated
in the northern hemisphere. There is al-
so a southern triangle, in the other he-
misphere. According to the British c^ta-

TRI

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logue, there are sixteen stars in the north-
ern ; and in Sharp's catalogue there are
five in ihe southern triangle.

TlllANGULAIl compasifeSf are such
as have three legs, oi- feet, wliereby to
take off any triangle at once; much used
in the construction of maps, giobes, &.c.

Triangllar imnibers, are a kind of
pnljgoiial numbers, being the sums of
aritlinietical progressions, tlie diflference
of whose terms ib 1.

Thus froiri tlte arithmetical numbers 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, are formed the triangular
numbers, t, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21. The sum of
any number n of the terms of ll»e said tri-
, , . 71 n-\-\ n 4-2

angular numbers is = r- x — ' — X ■

if ?z be 5, tlie sum will be o5y which is al-
so equal to the sum of the number of shot
in a triangular pile of bulls, the number
of rows, uv the number in each side of
the base, being ?j. The sum of the reci-
procals of the triangular series infinitely
continued, is equal to 2 = 1 -j- 1 + i -f-

1 Stc ^

TIT'

Triangular canon, the tables of arti-
ficial sines, tangents, secants, Stc.

Triangular quadrant, is a sector
furnished with a loose piece, whereby to
make it an equilateral triangle.

Tl»e calendar is graduated thereon,
with the sun's place, declination, and
other useful lines : and by the help of a
string and a plummet, and the divisions
griiduated on the loose piece, it may be
made to serve for a quadrant.

'litlANTHEMA, in botany, a genus of
the Decandria Digynia class and order.
Natural order of Succulents. Portula-
cea;, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx
mucronate below the tip ; corolla none ;
stamina five or ten ; germ retuse, cap-
sule cut round. There are seven spe-
cies.

TRIBOMEfER, a term applied by
Muschenbroek and others to an instru-
ment invented for measuring the fric-
tion of metals. It consists of an axis
formed of hard steel, passing through a
cylindrical piece of wood ; the ends of the
axis, which are highly polished, are made
to rest on the polished semicircular
cheeks of various metals ; and the degree
of friction is estimated by means of a
weight suspended by a fine silken string
or ribband over the wooden cvlinder.

TUIBULUS, in botany , co/Zro/Js, a genus
of the Decandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Gruinales. Ruta-
cex, Jussieu. Essential character : calyx
live-parted ; petals five, spreading ; style
\0L. VI.

none ; capsule five, gibbous, spiny, many-
seeded. There are four species.

TlilCERA, in botany, a genus of the
Monoecia Tetrandria class and order.
Natural order of Tricoccae. Euphorbias,
Jussieu. Essential ciiaracter : male, ca-
lyx four-leaved ; corolla none ; filaments
ovate ; female, calyx five-leaved ; corol-
la none ; styles conical ; capsule three-
horned, three-celled. There is only one
species, viz. T. Isevigata, a native of Ja-
maica, in mountain coppices in the wes-
tern parts of the island, flowering in the
spring months.

rRlCIlECUS, the -walms, in natural
history, a genus of Mammalia of the or-
der Bruta. Generic character : no fore-
teeth in the full grown animal, above or
below ; tusks in tlie upper jaw solitary ;
grinders with wrinkled surfaces; body
oblong ; lips doubled ; hind feet stretch-
ed, uniting into a fin. These animals are
all natives of the sea, and feed on sea-
weeds and shell-fish, but are never
known to eat flesh. There are three
species, of which the principal is T. ros-
marus, the arctic walrus, or the morse.
This is an animal of a very inelegant
structure. It has a small head to a vast
body. Its under lip is covered with bris-
tles nearly of the thickness of a ccow-
quill. In its upper jaw it has two large
tusks from one to two feet in length, and
weighing from three to twenty pounds.
The walrus sometimes grows to the
length of eighteen feet, and the circum-
ference, about the thickest part, of
twelve. It is principally found in the
high latitudes of the Northern Ocean.
These animals are gregarious, and are of-
ten seen upon floating masses of ice, in
immense numbers, the greater part
sleeping, but some always on the watch,
to give notice of approaching danger.
They are harmless when not provoked ;
but some accounts represent them as
highly formidable in a state of irritation,
the efforts of many being combined a-
gainst the enemy, and fastening with
their teeth against boats to make holes
in them, or draw them to the bottom.
Others represent them as less agitated by
the fury of passion, and as inclined more
to flight than revenge, adding, that they
are terrified by the slightest flash, and
even the pointing of a musket will drive
them in a moment out of sight. Their
tusks serve the purposes of aiding their
movements upon the ice, into which they
are stuck, and on which they thus se-
cure their hold, and sometimes drag on
their unweildv bodies. The tusks are
3K

TRl

Till

convertible to the purposes of ivory, and
these animals are destroyed for the pro-
fit derivable partly from these tusks, but
principally for the sake of tlieir oil, of
which a full grown walrus will yield a
butt. The skin may be manufactured in-
to a very strong leather. The alfection
between the female and its young one,
for it has seldom more than one at a
birth, is such that they are said never to
separate, and that when one is killed the
survivor refuses to quit the dead body,
and is considered by the hunter as his se-
cure prey. The wahnis has been called,
with little resemblance to justify the
name, the sea horse ; it is more similar to
a cow, but most of all to a seal. See
Mammalia, Plate XXI. fig. 3.

T. borealis, or the whale-tailed mana-
ti, inhabits the seas between Kamtschat-
ka and America. These animals live in
families, generally consisting of a male
and a female, and two young ones of dif-
ferent ages ; and the attachment of the
male to the female is so great, that he
will defend her when attacked to the last
extremity ; and if s!ie happens to be de-
stroyed and dragged to the shore, he
will' swim for some days off the fatal and
detested spot. The manati approaches
very nearly to the' cete tribe, and its feet
are little more than pectoral fins. It at-
tains the immense length of twenty-se-
ven feet, and the weight of four tons. In
winter it is extremely lean, and its ribs
may be distinctly numbered. It will,
when pierced with the harpoon, some-
time adhere to rocks with its feet with
uncommon tenacity, and when forced
from them by a cord drawn by thirty
men or more, is foimd to have left part
of the skin of the feet behind. When any
individual is harpooned, otiiers are stat-
ed to swim to its aid, endeavouring,
some to overturn the boat, others to
break the cord, and others again, by
blows with their tails, striving to dislodge
the harpoon. Their sounds somewhat re-
sembling the snorting of a horse. They
are never seen on land.

TRICHILTA, in botany, a genus of
the Decandriu Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Trihilat?e. Mehse,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx most-
ly five toothed; petals five; nectary
toothed, cyliiuh'ical, bearing the anthers
at the top of the teeth ; capsule three-
celled, three-valved ; seeds buried. There
are twelve species,

TRICHIURUS, the trichiureyxn natu-
ral history, a genus of fishes of the order
Apodes. Generic character : head length-

ened ; tlie gill-covers lateral ; teeth ensl- \
formed, and hooked on one side ; gill

membrane seven -rayed ; body compress- ,

ed and ensiform ; tail subulate and with- ;

out fins. Tliere are two species. T. ar- \

genteus, or the silver ti-ichiure, is about \

two feet and a half long, and inhabits the :

lakes and rivers of South America, and ■

of some parts of Asia. Its colour of a '.
bright silver; its body tapers gradually,

and terminates in an absolute point ; its ;

dorsal fin extends nearly through the j

animal's whole length. It is a fish re- !

nmrkable for its voracity, and has been '

known to leap into boats in quest of j

prey. It is used for the table. The T. i

electricus is of the same size witli the \

former ; but differs in several circumstan- j

ces relating to the teeth, jaws, and tatl. ;

It is supposed to possess an electrical |
power.

TIllCHOCARPUS, in botany, a genus '

of the Polyandria Digynia class and or- i

der. Essential character : calyx four or j

five-parted; corolla none ; styles two, bi- \

fid ; capsule bristly, four-valved, many- \
seeded. There is only one species, viz.

T. laurifolia, a native of the woods of Gui- \

ana. i

TRICIIOCEPHALUS, in natural his- ■

tory, a genus of the Vermes Intestina j

class and order. Body round, elastic, and ■

variously twisted ; head or fore part ;

much thicker, and furnished with a slen- '\

der exsertile proboscis ; tail or lower i

part long, capillary, and tapering to a ;

point. There are six species enumerated, \

and named from the animals in which !
they are found : T. hominis inhabits the

intestines of sickly children, generally (

the coeciim, and in considerable nuni- ^■

hers ; it is usually about two inches long, ;

and in colour it resembles the ascurides. i

The head is obtuse, and furnished with a ,;

very slender proboscis, which it can eject I

or retract at pleasure ; tail, or thinnei- \

part, twice as long as the thicker end, ;

and terminating in a fine hair-like point. \

T. equi found in the intestines of the ,

horse ; there are others found in the hi- j

testines of the boar, fox, mouse, &c. '

TRiCHODA, in natural history, a ge- \

nus of the Vermes Infusoria. Worm in vi- ■

sible, pellucid, hairy, or horned. There i

are seventy or eighty species in sections. \

A. haii-y. B. furnished with cirri. C. '{
horned.

TRICHOMANES, in botany, a genus ^

of the Cryptogamia Filices class and order. \

Natural order of Filices or Ferns. Gene- ;

ric character : fructifications inserted in- '

to the margin of the frond, separate ; in- '

TRI

TRI

volucres urn shaped, iiudivided, opening
outwards ; columns extending- beyond
the involucres, like styles. 'I'here are
twenty-seven species, chiefly natives of
the West Indies. *

TRICHOSAN'l'HES, in botany, a ge-
nus of the MonoeciuSyng-enesia class and
order. Natural order of Cucurbitacex.
Essential character: calyx five-toothed ;
corolla live-parted; ciliate ; male, fila-
ments tln-ee ; female, style trifid ; pome
oblong. There are seven species.

TRICOSTEMA, in botany, a genus of
the Didynamia tiymnospermia class and
order. Natural order of Verticillatae or
Labiata;. Essential character : corolla, up-
per lip sickle shaped ; stamina very long.
There are three species,

TRIDAX, in botany, a genus of the
Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua class
and order. Natural order of Compositae
Oppositifoliae. Corymbiferx, Jussieu. Es-
sential character : calyx imbricate, cylin-
drical ; corollets of the ray three-parted ;
down many rayed, simple ; receptacle
chaffy. There is only one species, viz,
T. procumbens.

TRIENS, in antiquity, a copper money
of the value of one-third of an as, which
on one side bore a Janus's head, and on
tlie other a water-rat.

TRIENTALIS, in botany, a genus of
the Heptandria Mcnogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Rotacese. Lysima-
chize, Jussieu. Essential character : calyx
seven-leaved; corolla seven-parted, e-
qual, flat; berry juiceless. There is but
one species, viz. T. Europcsa, chick-
weed winter green.

TRIPOLI UM, in botany, trefoil, a ge-
nus of the Diadelphia Decandria class and
order. Natuj-al order of Papilionaceae or
Leguminosae. Essential character : flow-
ers in a head; legume scarcely longer
than the calyx ; nectary opening, decidu-
ous. There are fifty-one species. T. of-
ficinale or melilot, has naked racemous
pods, dispermous, wrinkly, and acute,
with an erect stalk. It grows in corn-
fields, and by the way sides, but is not
common. The stalk is erect, firm, striat-
ed, branched, and two or three feet high ;
the leaves ternate, smooth, obtusely oval,
and serrated ; the flowers are small, yel-
low, pendulous, and grow in long close
spikes at the tops of the branches ; the
pod is very short, turgid, transversely
wrinkled, pendulous, and contains either
one or two seeds. The plant has a very
peculiar strong scent, and disagreeable,
bitter, acrid taste, but such, however, as
:s not disagreeable to cattle. The flowers

are sweet scented. It coitimunicates a
loathsome flavour to wheat and other
grain, so as to render i^t luifit for making
brt ad. T. repcns, white creeping trefoil,
or Dutch clover, has a creeping slaik, its
flower gathered into an umbellar head,
and its pods tetraspermous. It is very.
common in fields and pastures. It is well
known to be excellent fodder for cattle ;
and the leaves are a good rustic hygro-
meter, as they are always relaxed and
flaccid in dry weather, but erect in moist
or rainy. T. pratense, purple, or red clo-
ver, is distinguished by di.-n§e spikes,
unequal corollas, by bearded 3tij>ula.s, as-
cending stalks, and by the calyx having
four equal teeth. The red clover is com-
mon in meadows and pastures, and is the
species which is generally cultivated as
food for cattle. It abounds in every part
of Euro])e, in North America, and even
in Siberia. It delights most in rich, moist,
and sunny places, yet flourishes in those
that are dry, barren, and shady. See

HfSfiAMJRT.

TRIGLA, the gumardy in natural his-
tory, a genus of fishes of the order Tho-
faciei. Generic character : head large,
mailed, and marked with rough lines ;
eyes large; nostrils double: gill covers
spiny; gill membrane seven-rayed; be-
fore the pectoral fins of most species
there are articulate processes, somewhat
like fingers. There are fourteen species.
T. gurnard us, or the grey gurnard, varies
in length from one to two feet ; feeds on
worms and insects ; inhabits tlie seas of
Europe, and is considered by many as ex-
cellent lor the table, though generally not
in high estimation. T. volitans, or the
flying gurnard, is found in the Indian, At-
lantic, and Mediterranean seas. It is
about a foot in length, and its pectoral
fins are of an extraordinary size, and
great transparency. Bv tfiese it is ena-
bled to sustain short Rights out of the
water, when hardly pressed byits varioufi
enemies.

TRlGLOeHIN, in botany, arroiv grass,
a genu? of the Hexandria 'i'rigynia class
and order Natural order oi' Tripeta-
loideae. Junci, Jussieu. Essential cha-
racter : calyx three-leaved ; petals three,
calyx form ; style none ; capsule opening
at the base There are tliree species.

TRIGONELLA, in botany, fmu-greek,
a genus of the Diadelphia Dccandria
class and order. Natural older of Papi-
lionaceae or Leguminosa:. Essential cha-
racter: banner and wings nearly equal,
spreading in form of a three-petalled CO?
roUa, Xhere are twelve species.

TRIGONOMETRY

TRIGONIA, in botany, a genus of the
Diadelpliia Uecuudria class and order.
Natural order of Malpighize, Jussieu. Es-
sential cliaractcr : calyx five-parted ; pe-
tals five, unequal, uppermost fbveolate at
the base within ; nectary, two scales at
the base of the g'erni ; filaments, some
barren ; capsule leguminose, three-cor-
nered, llu'ee celled, three-valved. There
are two species : viz. T. viilosa, and T.
Isevis; both natives of South America.

TRIGONOMETRY The business of
tliis important science is to find the angles
whtre the sides are given ; and the sides
of their respective ratios, when the an-
gles are given; and to find sides and an-
gles, when sides and angles are partly
given. To efi'ect this, it is necessary not
only that the periplieries of circles, but
also certain right lines in and about cir-
cles, be supposed divided into certain
numbers of parts. The ancients, feeling
the necessity of such a pre-division, por-
tioned the circle into 360 equal parts,
which they called degrees ; each degree
was again divided into 60 equal parts,
called minutes ; and each minute com-
prised 60 equal parts, calltd seconds.
Tiie moderns have improved upon this
division by the addition of a nonius, or
vernier, which may be carried to any ex-
tent, but is usually limited to decimating
the seconds ; noimg each tenth part
thereof. It would have been found a con-
siderablc convenience in mathematics, if
the circle had been divided into centisi-
mal parts, particularly in trigonometrical
operations ; thus making every quadrant
to consist of 100 degrees, each degree of
100 minutes, and each minute of 100 se-
conds : there can, indeed, be no doubt but
all the arithmetical calculations relating
lo the periphery, as well as to the se-
cants, sines, tangents, radii, chords, and
complements, would b> this reformation
have been simplified.

We shall be brief on ibis head, because
it would require more space than could
be allotted to any one branch of science,
were we to follow the whole ev-ent of
trigonometry in this place. The toliowlng
definitions will be found useful : 1. The
complement of an arc is the difference
thereof irom a quadraiu ; thus, ii an arc
measures 60°, the complement is 30°. 2.
A chord, or subtense, is a right line
drawn from one to the other end of an
arc. 3. The sine, or right sine, of an arc,
is a perpendicular falling from one end of
an arc to the radius drawn, at right an-
gles thereto, towards the other end of the
arc. Hence it is clear that an arc of 60°

must have its secant, its radius, and its
chord, all of the same length, forming an
equilateral triangle. The secant and ra-
dius both proce« d from the centre ; but
all sines are parallel to a vertical line
passing through the centre, and invaria-
bly fall upon a diameter, drawn perpendi-
cular to that right line. See Dialling,
Geometry, and Mathematical in-
struments; under which various explana-
tions will be found, whereby the student
may perceive the necessity for such refer-
ence.

Tlie solution of the several cases in
plane trigonometry depend upon four
propositions, called axioms, which cannot
be too perfectly understood, and ought
ever to be adverted to.

^xiom I. In any right-lined plane trian-
gle, if the hypothenuse (or longest side)
be made the radius of a circle, the other
two sides, or legs, will be the sines of their
opposite angles ; but if either of the legs,
including the right angle, be made radius,
the other leg becomes the tangent of its
opposite angle, and the hypoUienuse tliQ
secant of the same angle. For in the tri-
angle ABC, (fig. 21. Plate XV. Trigo-
nometry,) let A B be made the radius of
a circle ; and with one foot of the com-
passes on A or B describe a circle : it is
plain that the leg B C will be the sine of
the angle A, and A C the sine of the an-
gle B : but if A C becomes radius, B C
will be the tangent to the angle A, and
B A the second thereto. Again, by mak-
ing B C radius, A C will be tangent, and
A B the secant of the angle B. Hence it
is plain that the different sides take their
names according to Uiat side which is
made radius.

Remark, that to find a side, any side
may be made radius : then say, as the
name of the side given is to the name of
the side required ; so is the side given to
the side required. But to find an angle,
one of the given sides must be made ra-
dius : then, as the side made radius is to
the other side; so is the nameof the first
side (which is always radius) to the name
of the second side ; which fourth propor-
tional must be found among the sines, or
tangents, &c. to be determined by the
side made radius : against it is the re-
quired angle. In a right-angled triangle
you must always J)ave two sides, or the
angles and one side given, to find the
rest.

Axiom II. In all plane triangles, the
sides are in direct proportion to the sines
of their opposite angles. Thus, ** if two
angles and one side be given, to find ei»

TRIGONOMETRY.

ther of the other leps." In fig. 22, the
angle BCD is 101° 25', the angle C B D
is 44° 42^, and the given leg B C is equal
to 76 of the scale assurntd: to find the
sides CD and BD.

To find D.
As the sine B D 65 . «

1.8129J

rs to the angle C 31° 49'
So is the side B C 105

9.72198
2.02531

To find UQ,
As the sine angle D 101° 25'

9.99132

To sine angle D 120* 43'

Is to the side BC 76 . . . . 1.88081 ' ^ ^ ^,^^

So is sine angle B 44« 42' . . 9.84720 ^ . , 7\-d.^

° As suie angle C 31° 49' .

11.72801

9.99152 Is to the sme B D 65 . .

So is sine angle B 27.28

To the side DC 54.53 . . . 1-73669

The foregoing is worked by logarithms,
thus: add the logarilhm of" the second
and third terms together, then deduct
the logarithm of the first term, and the re-
mainder is the logarithm of the fourth
term, or number sought. When an an-
gle is greater than 90=", the sine, tangent,
and secant of the supplement, (/. e. of the
number of degrees wanting of 180°,) are
to be used.

" Two sides, and an angle opposite to
one of them, being given, to find the other
opposite angle, and the third side, fig.
23." The side BC 10.6, DB 65 miles,
and the angle B C D 31° 49' given, to find
the angle B D C obtuse, and the side CD.

To the sine D C 56.88

11.74729
1.81291

9.93438

9.72198

1.81291
9.66392

11.47683
9.7-n98

1.75485

Jlxiom III. In every plane triangle it
will be as the sum of any two sides is to
their difference ; so is the tangent of half
the sum of the angles opposite there, to
the tangent of half their difference.
Which half diff"erence, being added to
half the sum of the angles, gives the
greater ; but if subtracted, the remainder
will be the lesser angle.

*' Two sides, and their contained angle
given, to find either of the other angles,
and the third side, fig 24." The side B C
109, B D 76 leagues, and the angle C B D
101° 30' being given, to find the angle
B D C, or B C D, and the side C D.

The side BC .
BD .

. 109 . .
. 76 . .

. 185 Diff".

. 109 . .
. 76 . .

. 33 . . .

Half .

. 180° 0'
. 101° 30'

Sum ....

78° 30' sum of the two angles

, 39° 15'

To find the angles D and C.
As the sum of the sides BC and BD = 185 2.26717

Is to the diff'erence 33 1.51851

So is the tangent of half the sum of angles C and D 39° 15' ... . 9.91224

11.43075
2.26717

To the tangent of half the difference of the angles C and D 8° 17' . 9.16358

TRIGONOMETRY.

1\) half the sum of the angles D and C . 39^ 15'

Add half the difference of the angles C and D •. . . 8° 17'

Gives the greater angle D 47° 32'

But if subtracted (from 39° IS^) gives the lesser angle 30° 58' ^

Having the two angles, the side is found according to Axiom II : for it will be.

To Jind DC.
As the sine angle D 47° 32' 9 86786

Is to sine B C 109 2.03743

So is sine angle B 101° SCy 9 99116

12.02862
9.86786

To the side D C required 144.8 2.16076

Axiom IV. In any plane triangle, as the segments be added to half their sum, it
base, or greater side, is to the sum of the will give the greater segment ; but if sub-
other two sides; so is the difference of traded, the remainder will be the lesser
the sides to the difference of the seg- segment. The triangle being thus cut,
roents of the base, made by a perpendi- becomes two right angled triangles ; tlie
cular let fall from the angle opposite to hypothenuses and bases of which are
the base : and if half the difference of the given to find the angles by Axiom I.

Three sides given to Jind tlui angles.

The side B C 105, B D 85, and C D 50 miles, being given to find the angles B D C
BCD, andCBD,fig. 5.

B D = 85
C D = 50

The sum of the two shortest sides 135

The difference of them 35

The proportions will be

As the side BC 105 — 2^2119 — 52^ the half of great side.

Is to the sum of the sides BD and DC 135 — 2.13033 -- 22§ half diff. of segment.

So is the diff. of the sides BD and DC 35 — 1.54417 75 the greatest segment.

3.67440

2.02119 30 the lesser segment.

Difference of the segment of the base,^ ^51 55321 "^
<»• great side . 5 '

leaving divided the right-angled trian-
gle into two right-angled triangles, the
hypotlienuses and bases of which are
given, to find the angles by Gunter. 1.
The extent from 105 to lo5 will reach
from 35 to 45 on the line of sines. 2. The
extent from 85 to 75^ on tie line of num-

bers, will reach from radius to 61° 56%
the angle B D A on the line of sines. 3.
The extent from 50 to 30, on the line of
numbers, will reach from radius to angle
A D C 36° 53', on the line of sines.

TniGONOMETRr, spherical, relates to tri-
angles, or figures which are reducible to

TRIGONOMETRY.

triangles, whose sides are segments of
circles. Thus if we describe a triangle
on any spherical body, say a globe, it is
evident that all the sides must be com-
posed of curved lines; and it is the same
in the case of a series of circles, or of or-
bits, intei-secting each othei'. When two
equal circles intersect, they will give a
parabolic spindle ; more or less acute,
according us the centres of tlie two cir-
cles may be more or less distant. When
three circles mutually intersect, there
will be formed a great variety of spherical
triangles, of which the areas and the pro-
perties could not be ascertained by plane-
trigonometry, but come under consider-
ation as parts of spherical surfaces. The
follov.'ing definitions should be clearly un-
derstood; they are simple in the extreme,
but highly important: 1st. The poles of a
sphere are two points in the siiperficies
of tlie sphere, that are the extreme of the
axis. 2d. The pole of a circle in a sphere
is a point in the superficies of the spliere,
from which all riglit hnes that are drawn
to the circumference of the circle are
equal to one another. 3d. A great circle
ill a sphere, is that whose plane passes
through the centre of the sphere ; and
wliose centre is the same as that of the
sphere. 4t]i. A spherical triangle is a
figure comprehended umler the arcs of
three great circles in a sphere. 5th. A
-spherical angle is that which, in the su-
perficies of the sphere, is contained under
two arcs of great circles ; and this angle is
equal to the inclinations of the planes of
the said circles. It is particularly to be
held in mind, that although we can, upon
any actual sphere, describe triangles at
pleasure, which may nearly embrace the
whole circumference, yet that such can-
not be laid down, so as to be represented
on paper; for every side of a spherical
triangle is less than a serai- circle.

With respect to spherical triangles, the
learner may generally entertain a correct
opinion of their value, if he considers that
every arc or segment of a circle may have
a chord drawn from one to the other ex-
tremity; and that the triangle which can
be contained within such arc or segment,
taking the chord for a hypothenuse, will
determine how much of that circle has
been cut off, and is included between the
extremes of the segment. It is utterly
impossible to produce any two measura-
ble segments taken from two different
circles, which, having chords of equal
length, will contain the same angle. A
semicircle, having the diameter for its
chord, will give a right angle ; for if to

any point within that semicircle two lines
be drawn, from the ends of the chord res-
pectively, their union at such assumed
point will form a right angle. In pro-
portion as the chord is less than a diame-
ter, so must tlie segment be a less part of
the whole circle, aitd the angle contained
therein will be more acute. Spherical
triangles may be acute, right-angled, or
obtuse, the same as on plane-trigonome-
try. In all rigiit-iujgied spherical crian-
gles, the sign otthe hypothenuse: radius::
sine of a leg : sine of its opposite angle.
And the sine of the leg: radius :: tangent
of the other leg: tangent of its opposite
angle, in any right-angled spherical tri-
angle, ABC (fig. 25,) It will be as radius
is lo the co-sine of one ie'^, so is the co-
sine of tile other leg to the co-sine of the
hypothenuse. Hence, if two right-angled
spherical triangles, AB C, Cli D (fig. 26,)
have the same perpendicular, BC, tJie co-
sines of their ii> pothenuses will be to each
oth.r directly as the co-sines of their ba-
ses. in any spherical triangle it will be,
as radius is to tiie sine of either angle, so
is the co-sijie of the adjacent leg to the
co-sine of the opposite angle, lience, in
right-angled spiiericul triangles, having
the same perpendicular, the co-sines of
the angles at the base will be to each
other, uirecily, as the sines of the vertical
angles. In any right-angled spherical
triangle it will be, as radius is to the co-
sine of the hypotiienuse, so is the tangent
of either angle to the co-tangent of the
other angle. As the sum of \he sines of
two unequal arches is to their difference,
so is the tangent of half the sum of those
arches to the tangent of half their differ-
ence : and as the sum of their co-sines
is to their difference, so is the co-tangent
of half the sum of the arches to the tan-
• gent of half the difference of the same
arches. In any spherical triangle, ABC
(fig. 27,) it will be, as the co-tangent of
half the sum of the angles at the base is
to the tangent of half their difference, so
is the tangentof half the verticle angle to
the tangent of the angle which the per-
pendicular C D makes with the line C F,
bisecting the vertical angle.

The following propositions and remarks
concerning spherical triangles, will render
their calculation perspicuous and free
from ambiguity. 1st. A spherical trian-
gle is equilateral, isocelar, or scalene, ac-
cording as'it has its three angles all equal,
or two of them equal, or all three unequal.
2d. The greatest side is always opposite
the greatest angle, and the smallest side
opposite the smallest angle. 3d. Any two

TRI

Till

sides, taken together, are greater llian the
tlurd 4ih. If the three angles are all a-
cute, or all right, or all obtuse, the three
sides Will be, accordingly, all less than
90°, or 90°, or greater than 90°. 5th. If
troin the three angles A, B, C, of a trian-
gle ABC (fig. 23), as poles, there be
described on the suiface of the sphere,
three arches of a great circle DE, DF, FE
forming by their intersections a new
spherical triangle DEF ; each side of the
new iriangie wiil be the supplement of the
angle at its pole; and each angle of the
same triangle will be tiie supplement of
the side opposite to it in the triangle ABC.
6lh. In any triangle ABC (fig. 29), or A
^ C, right-angled in A : 1st, The angles
at the hypoLhenuse are always of tl>e
same kind as their opi>osite sides. 2dly.
Tlie hypothenuse is greater or lesser than
a quadrant, according as tlie sides, mciud-
ing llie right an^rle, aie of the same, or
diiferent kinds ; that is to say, according
as the same sides, are either both acute,
or both obtuse: or, as one is acute, and
the other obtuse. And vice versa: 1st.
The sides including the right angles, are
always of the same kind as their opposite
angles. 2dly, The sides, including the right
angles, will be of the saoie, or different
kinds, according as the hypothenuse is
less, or more, than 90° ; but, one at least
«l them will be of 90°, if the hypothenuse
is so.

Considering it impossible to give a po-
pular idea of this highly important branch
of mathematics, in any brief form, we
must refer those readers, wlio wish to be-
come proficients therein, to the various
excellent treatises published on that sub-
ject ; particularly tliose by Simpson, Bo-
nycastle, h'ayne, Stc,

TIUGUEKA, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Monogynia class and order;
Natural order of Luridse. Solanese, Jus-
sieu. Essential character: corolla bell-
shaped, with an unequal bolder ; nectary
short, five toothed, surrounding the germ ;
filaments inserted into the nectary ; berry
four celled, with two seeds in each cell.
There are two species ; viz. T. ambrosia-
ca, and T. inodora : these are both annual
plants, and natives of Andalusia in Spain.
TUILIX, in botany, a genus of the
Poly and ria Monogynia class and order.
Essential character : calyx three-leaved :
corolla three-petalled ; berry five-celled,
many seeded. There is only one species ;
xriz. T. lutea, a native of Carthagena, in
America,

TRILLION, in arithmetic, a billion of

billions. See Arithmetic, Numeua*

TION.

THILLIU.M, in botany, a genus of the
llexandria Trigynia class and oidtr. Na-
tural order of Sarmentaces. Asparagi,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx tiiree-
leaved : corolla three petalled ; berry
three-celled. There are three species.

TRIM of a 6-hip, her best posture, pry-
poriion of ballast, and hanging of her
masts, &c. for sailing. To find the trim
of a ship, is to find the best way of making
her sail swiftly, or how she will sail best.
Tiiis IS done by easing ot her mas\s and
shrouds ; some ships sailing much better
when they are slack, than when they are
taught, or fast ; but this depends much
upon experience and judgment, and the
several trials and observations which the
the commander and other officers may
make aboard.

TRIMMKRS, in architecture, pieces of
timber framed at right angles to the joints,
against the ways for chimneys, and well-
holes for stairs,

TRINGA, the sand-piper, in natural
history, a genus of birds of the order
Grallx. Generic character: bill round,
straight, slender, and about the length of
the head ; nostrils small and linear :
tongde slender ; toes very slightly, if at
all, connected at the base by a membrane;
hind-toe weak. There are thirty-seven
species, of which the following are thef
principal :

T. pugnax, or the rufF, is twelve inches
long, 'I'he male is distinguished by a
ruli, dilfering in colour on almost every
bird, composed of long leathers, standing
out in a peculiar manner, and constituting
an appearance somewhat resembling the
i'ashionable neck ruff of the age of Queen
Eliiabetl). These feathers are not acquir-
ed till the second year, and continue only
dui'ing the season of spring; after which,
also, the caruncles which previously rise
on the face of the male shrink back and
disappear. The males of these birds are
thought far more numerous than the fe-
males. Freipient conflicts between the for-
mer are occasioned from this circumstance;
and in the commencement of spring, a
male sand-piper is said to take his station
near some water, and run round a par-
ticular spot such a number of times, that
at length he bares a circular path upon
the herbage. On the appearance of a fe-
male near this spot, the males engage in
the most animated and ferocious contests,
and occupied solely by the idea of tri-
umphing over their rivals, they suffer

TRI

TRI

themselves to be taken by the net of jhe
fowler, who avails himself of these oppor-
tunilies for their destruction. In England
tliey are migratory, and are found fre-
quently in Lincolnshire and the Isle of
Ely, where after being taken, they are fed
for sale, till ihey at lenjjth become nearly
a mass or nnarrowy substance, and are
sent to the nnaikeis of the metropolis.

T. vaiiellus, (jr the lapvviug, is thirteen
inches lon^-, and of the weigiit ot eiglit
ounces. It remains in England the whole
year ; lays its eggs on the ground ; and
the female bird exercises various arts to
attract the attention of mischievous and
depredating school boys from the disco-
very of her nest, and is said, with this view
even to pretend lameness, to direct their
pursuit to herself hi winter these birds
appear in Hocks ofseveral hundreds, and
are caught in great numbers, being high-
ly esteemed for food. They live chiefly
upon worms, which appear to constitute
theirdelicious banquet, and are sometimes
familiarised, and kept in gardens to clear
them of slugs and worms, in search for
which, both in the morning and evening,
they are extremely assiduous.

T. hypoleucos, or tiie common sandpi-
per, breeds in England, but soon with-
draws after the summer. It is about
eight inches long, and is distinguished by
its piping note. It is found in France
and Siberia.

The T, canutus is about ten inches in
length, and weighs four ounces, and fre-
quents the coasts of Lincolnshire, Eng-
land, where it is taken in considerable
numbers, and fattened for the London
market. By some these birds are prefer-
red to the ruW.

TRINITY house, a kind of college be-
longing to a company or corporation of
seamen, who, by the King's charter, have
power to take cognizance of those persons
who destroy sea- marks, and to get repara-
tion of such damages ; and to take care of
other things belonging to navigation. At
present, many in the first rank of society
are members of that community. The
master, wardens, and assistants of the
Trinity House, may set up beacons, and
marks for the sea, in such places, near the
coasts or forelands, as to them shall seem
meet. By a statute of Queen Elizabeth,
no steeple, trees, or other things standing
as sea marks, shall be taken away or cut
down, upon pain that every person guilty
of such offence, shall forfeit 100/. and if
the person offending be not possessed of
the value, he shall be deemed convict of
outlawry.

VOL. VI.

TRINOMIAL, orTuiNOMiAL roQ/, fo
mathematics, is a root consisimg ol three
parts, connected together by the sigii,-l-
or--,asa: -j- i/+ =, or a -j- 6 — e. Sue Bi-
nomial and Hoot.

TltlO, in music, a part of a concert;
wherein three persons smg; or more pro-
perly a musical composition CDUsisiing of
three parts. Trios are the finest kinds of
composition, and these are what please
most m concerts.

TRIOPTEKIS, in botany, a genus of
the Decandria Trigynia class and order.
Natural order of Trihilatae. Malpighite,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx five-
parted, with two honey pores at the base
on the outside ; petals roundish, clawed
filaments cohering at the base; capsules
three, one-seeded, three or four-winged.
There are eight species,

TRIOSTEUM, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Aggregatje. Caprifolia,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx length
of the corolla; corolla one-pelalied, almost
equal; berry three-celled, inferior ; seeds
solitary. There are three species.

TRIPARTITE, something divided into
three parts, or made by three parlies, as in-
denture tripartite.

TRlrtjE time, in music, a time consii^-
ing of three measures in a bar ; the two
first of which are beat with the hand or
foot down, and the third marked by its
elevation.

TRIPLARIS, in botany, a genus of tile
Triandria Trigynia class and order. Natu-
ral order of Polygoneje, Jussieu. Essen-
tial character : calyx very large, three,
or six-parted; corolla three-petailed, or
none : nut three sided, within the ovate
base of the calyx. There are two species,
viz. T. Americana, and T. ramiflora.

TRIPLICATE ratio, the ratio which
cubes bear to one another. This ratio is
to be distinguished from triple ratio,
and may be thus conceived ; in the geo-
metrical proportions 2, 4, 8, 16, 3% as
the ratio of the first term (2) is to the third
(8) duplicate of that of the first to the se-
cond, or of the second to the third, so the
ratio of the first to the fourth is said to be
triplicate of the ratio of the first to the se-
cond, or of that of the second to the third,
or of that of the third to the fourth, as be-
ing compounded of three equal ratios.
See Ratio.

TRIPOLI, in mineralogy, a species of
the Clay genus, is of a greyish colour:
it occurs massive, is soft and friable, feels
meagre, and does not adhere to the
tongue. It occurs in veins and beds in
ST.

TRI

TRI

iloe(Z',rocJp5, and perhaps in alluvial
land. It ifl fbutid in beds in the coal
works of Thurinj^ia : in Derbyshire, it
occurs in veins: in Tripoli, whence its
name is derived, it also forms veins. It
is alsfffbiind in liussia, Westphalia, Flan-
ders, Hessia, liolicmia, and Switzerland.
When reduced to powder, it is employ-
ed for polisiiing" metals, marbles, and
other minerals, and likewise for polish-
ing glass. Formerly it was supposed to
be a volcanic production, wliich has been
long since disproved, and it appears to
be an extremely line mixture of clay and
sand.

TRIPPANK, in mineralogy, is of an
apple-green, or greenish wliite It oc-
curs in mass, is moderately hard, and
easily frangible. Specific gravity is 3.21,
Before the blow-pij>e it becomes yellow,
and sphtsinto thin plates, and then melts
into a thin transparent glass. It has hi-
therto been found in Sweden, in veins of
quartz and mica.

TRIPPING, in heraldry, denotes the
quick motion of all sorts of deer, and of
some other creatures, represented witli
one foot as it were on a trot.

TRIPSACUM, in botany, a genus of
the Monoecia Triandi-ia class and order.
Natural order of Gramina, Graminex, or
Grasses. Essential character : male, ca-
lyx glume four-flowered ; corolla glume
membranaceous : female, calyx glume
with perforated sinuses ; corolla glume
tfpjQ-valved ; styles two ; seed one. There
are two species, viz. T. dactyloides, and
T. hermaphroditum.

TUlSECriON, or Trissectiox, the
dividing a thing into three. The term is
chiefly used in geometry, for the divi-
sion of an angle into three equal parts.
The trisection of an angle geometrically,
is one of those great problems, whose
solution has been so much sought by
mathematicians for these two thousand
year.s, being, in this respect, on a foot-
ing with the quadrature of the circle,
and the duplicature of the cube angle.

TRISPAST, in mechanics, a nuichine
with three ])ullies, or an assemblage of
tliree pullicsfor raising of great weights.
TRlTlCUM, in botany, ivheat, a ge-
nus of the Triandrla Digynia class and
order. Natural order of Gramina, Gra-
niinese, or Grasses. Essential character :
calyx two-valved, solitary, subtriflorous ;
corolla blunt, with a point. There are
nineteen species. T. aestivum, or spring
wheat, has four flowers in a calyx, three
of which mostly bear grain. The ca-
lyces stand pretty distant from each other,

on both sides a flat smooth receptacle.
The leaves of the calyx are keel shaped,
smooth, and they terminate with a short
arista. The glumes of the Howers ai-e
smooth and bellying, and the outer leaf
of three of the glumes in every calyx is
terminated by a long arista, but the
three inner ones are beardless. The
g-rain is rather longer and thinner than
the common wheat. It is supposed to
be a native of some part of Tartary. The
farmers call it spring- wheat, because it
will come to the sickle with the common
wheat, though it should be sown in Fe-
bruary or March. T. h/bernum, winter
or common wheat, has also four flowers
in a calyx, three of which are mostly
productive. The calyces stand on each
side a smooth fiat receptacle, as in the
former species, but they are not quite so
far asunder. The leaves of the calyx are
bellying, and so smooth that they appear
as if polished, but they have no arista.
The glumes of the flowers too are
smooth, and the outer ones, near the top
of the spike, are often tipped with short
aristze. The grain is rather plumper than
the former, and is the sort most general-
ly sown in England; whence the name
of common wheat. T. turgidum, thick-
spiked or cone-wheat, is easily distin-
guished from either of the former ; for
tliough it has four flowers in a calyx, after
tlie manner of them, yet the whole ca-
lyx, and the edges of the glumes, are
covered with soft hairs. The calyces,
too, stand thicker on the receptacle, and
make the spike appear more turgid.
Some of the outer glumes, near the top
of the sj)ike, are terminated by short
aristx, like those of the common wheat.
The grain is shorter, plumper, and more
convex on the buck than either of the
former species. Its varieties are nume-
rous, and have various apj)ellations in
difterent counties, owing to the great af-
fi^nity of several of them.

TRITOMA, in natural history, a genus
of insects of the order Coleoptera. An-
tennas clavate, the. club perfoliate; lip
emarginate ; anterior feeieiMj hatcliet-
shaped ; shells as long as the body. There
are ten species, found in diflerent parts
of the world. T. bipustalata is black ;
shells with a lateral scarlet spot. It in-
habits England, and is found on tree
fungi. The glabra is found in Sweden,
under the bark of trees.

TRITON, in natural history, a genus
of the Vermes Mollusca class and orrler.
Body oblong ; mouth with an involute
spiral proboscis ; tentacula twelve, six

TliO

TRO

uu each side, divided nearly to the base,
the hind ones cheliferous. T. Uttorens,
inliabits Italy, in cavities of sub-marine
rocks, and may be seen in various species
of Lepas, particularly the anatefera. It
is fully described in the " PhilosophiciU
Transactions of London," vol. 50.

TRITURATION, in |)harmacy, the act
of reducing a solid body into a subtle
powder ; called also levigation, and pul-
verization.

TRIU.VIFETTA, in botany, a genus of
the Dodecandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Columniferae. Ti-
liaceae, Jussieu. Essential character : ca-
lyx five-leaved ; corolla hve-petalled :
capsule hispid, opening in four parts-
There are eleven species.

TRIXIS, in botany, a genus of the Syn-
genesia Polygamia Necessaria class and
order. Natural order of Compositae Op-
positifoliae. Corymbifers, Jussieu. Es-
sential character : corollets of the ray
trihd ; seeds hairy at the tip, without
any down ; receptacle chaffy. There
are three species, all natives of the West
Indies.

TROCHAIC vei-se, in the Latin poetry,
a kind of verse, so called, because the
trochees cliiefly prevail, as the iambus
does in the iambic. It generally consists
of seven feet and a syllable ; the odd
feet, for tJie most part, consist of troches,
though a trybraches is sometimes admit-
ted, except in the seventh foot : these
two feet are likewise used in the other
places, as is also the spondzetis, dactylus,
and anapaestus. Tiie following is an ex-
ample.

12 3 4 5 6

Suius 1 aut vex I aut po I eta I 11021 qiioi\amm\

T h

TROCHE, in pharmac}'^, a sort of me-
dicine, made of glutinous substances into
little cakes, and afterwards exsiccated.

TROClilLUS, the humming bird, in na-
tural i list ory, a genus of birds of tiie or-
der Pi ere. Generic character : bill slcn-
def and weak; nostrils minute ; tongue
long, constituted of two united cylindi-ic
tubes, and missile; tail of ten feathers;
legs weak. The bills of some are curved,
and of others strait, whicli forms tlie g-raiul
division of the genus. Tliere are sixty
species enumerated by Latiiain, and
Gmelin has sixty-five. The birds of this
genus are the smallest of all birds. They
subsist many of them on the juict^s of
flowers, whicii they extract fike bees

while on the wing, fluttering-^ over theit
delicate rei)ast, and niJfkinga considera-
ble humming sound, from which they
derive their designation. They are gre-
giu'ious, and build their nests with great
neatness and elegance, hniiTg them with
the softest materials they .can possibly
procure.

T. colubris, or the red-throated hum-
ming bird, is rather more tiian three
inches long, and is frequent in various
parts of North America. . Its plumage is
highly splendid and vjyying ; it subsists
on the nectar of flowers, ])articularly
those of a long tube, like the convolvulus
or tulip. They will suffer themselves to
be approached very nearly ; but on ob-
serving an effort to seize tliem, dait off
with the rapidity of an arrow. A flower
is frequently the subject of bitter conflict
between two of these birds; and tiiey
will often enter an open windofw, and after
a short contest retire. They sometimes
soar perpendicularly to a considerable
lieiglit, with a violent scream. If a flower
whicii they enter furnishes them with no
supply, they pluck it, as it v/ere in pun-
ishment and revenge, from its stalk. They
have been kept alive in cages* for several
week.s, but soon ])erish for want of their
usual food, for whici> no adequate substi-
tute has yet bt-en found Lailvam, how-
ever, mentions the curious circumstance
of their being preserved alive by Cap-
tain Davies for four niontlis, by the expe-
dient of imitaiing tubular flowers with
paper, ap])ropriate]y painted, and filling
tiie bottom of the tubes with sugar and
W^ater as often as they were emptied. They
then took their nourishnic nt in the same
manner as when ^inoonflned, and soon
appeared familiarized and happy. They
lived, however, only four mouths. These
birds generally build on the ujiddle of the
brunch of a tree, and lay two eggs in an
extremeh^' small and admirably construct-
ed nest. This is the mii}'^ species of the
genus known to evist in the UiiliedState.s.

T. miniir.us. This is the smallest of
all the spccie.s, and is said, when just
killed, to weigh iKty more than twenty
grains. Its total •iengtli is ad inch and a
quarter. It is found in the West Indies
and South Americn^ and is exceeded
both in Wf ig])t ami magnitude by several
species of bees. . '

For the ainctfeystine 'humming-bird,
«ee Avts, Plate XlV. fi,^-. 3. •

'IMfOCHLEA, one of the mechanical
powers, usually called a pulley. See
Mechamcs.

'liltOCliOlD, in geometry, a curve

TRO

TRO

more generally known by the name of
cycloid. See Cycloid.

TROCHUS, in natural history, a genus
of the Vermes Testacca. Animal a Umax ;
shell univalve, spiral, more or less conic ;
aperture somewhat angular or rounded,
tiie upper side transverse and contracted,
pillar placed obliquely. There are about
150 species, divided into sections. A.
Erect, with the pillar perforated. B. Imper-
forate, erect, the unil^ilicus, or navel, clos-
ed. C. Tapering, with an exserted pillar,
and falling on the side when placed on the
base. Of these we may notice T. teles-
copium : shell imperforate, striate, with
a spiral pillar. It inhabits the Indian
ocean, and is about four inches long ; the
shell is tapering, hke a telescope when
drawn out ; brown liver colour, or black-
ish, tiie first whorl generally barred -with
white ; pillar a little prominent, with a
tooth or plait in the middle ; whorls flat-
tish.

TROGON, the airucui, in natural his-
tory, a genus of birds of the order Picje,
Generic character : bill short, thick, and
convex, serrated at the edges ; nostrils
covered with stiff bristles ; toes, two be-
fore and two behind; tail of twelve fea-
thers. Birds of this genus chiefly inhabit
South America, live solitary in moist
places, and in pathless overgrown vvoofls ;
make short flights, and subsist principally
on insects. There are seven species.

1'. curucui, the red-bellied curucvii, is
an inhabitant of Cayenne, and is al>out as
large as a nuigpie. These birds are not
gregarious, and are never seen but alone,
or in pairs. They lay their eggs in the
holes of trees upon the rotten dust, pre-
paring no nest, I'he male is mute, un-
less in spring, and then has a plaintive
and monotonous note. The young, when
first hatched, are bare of feathers, and
have a head very disproportionately large
to the body ; they are fed with insects and
caterpillars till able to provide for them-
selves, and then left by their parents, who
return to their sequestered haunts, and in
September are engaged with a second
brood. When confined, they refuse all
food, and, consequently, soon perish.

TROLLIUS, in botany, globe forcer, a
genus of the Polyandria Polygynia class
and order. Natural order of Multisiliqux.
Ranunculacex, Jussieu. Essential charac-
ter : calyx none ; petals about fourteen ;
capsules numerous, ovate, many-seeded.
There are two species, viz. T. Europieus,
European globe fiowcr, and T. Asiaticus,
Asiatic globe flower.

TRONAGE, the mayor and comaaon-

alty of the city of London, are ordained
keepers of the beams and weights for
weighing merchants' commodities, v/ith
power to assign clerks, porters, &c. of
the great beam and balance ; which
weighing of goods and wares is called
tronage.

TROP.EOLUM, in botany, Indian cress,
a genus of the Octandria Monogynia class
and order. Natural order of TrihilatK.
Gerania, Jussieu. Essential character :
calyx one-leafed, with a spur ; petals four,
unequal ; nuts three, coriaceous. There
are five species.

TROPE, in rhetoric, a kind of figure of
speech, whereby a word is removed from
its first and natural signification, and ap-
plied with advantage to another thing,
which it does not originally mean ; but
only stands for it, as it has a relation to,
or connection veith it : as in this sentence,
God is my rock. Here the trope lies in
the word rock, which being firm and im-
moveable, excites in our minds the no-
tion of God's unfailing power, and the
steady support which good men receive
from their dependence upon him.

TROPHIS, in botany, a genus of the
Dioecia Tetrandria class and order. Natu-
ral order of Calyciflorae. Essential charac-
ter : male, calyx none ; corolla four-petal-
led : female, calyx none ; corolla none ;
style two-parted ; berry-one seeded.
There is but one sj)€cies, viz. T. Ameri-
cana, the ramoon tree, which is a native
of Jamaica and other islands in the West
Indies in dry exposed situations.

TROPHY, among the ancients, a pile
or heap of arms of a vanquished enemy,
raised by the conqueror in the most emi-
nent part of the field of battle. The tro-
phies were usually dedicated to some of
the god.s, especially Jupiter. The name
of the deity to whom they were inscribed,
was generally mentioned, as was that also
of the conqueror The spoils were at
first hung upon the trunk of a tree ; but
instead of trees, succeeding ages erected
pillars of stone, or brass, to continue the
memory of their victories. To demolish
a trophy was looked upon as a kind of
sacrilege, because they were all conse-
crated to some deity.

TROPICS, in astronomy and geogra-
phy, are two circles supposed to be drawn
on each side of the eqtiinoctial, and paral-
lel tliereto. That on the north-side of
the line is called the tropic of cancer, and
the southern tropic has the name of Ca-
pricorn, as passing through the begliming
of those signs. They are distant from
the equinoctial 23° 29'. Two circles

TRU

TRU

drawn at the same distance from the e-
quator on the terrestrial globe, have the
€aine names in geography, and tliey in-
clude that space or part of the sphere,
which is called the torrid zone, because
tlie sun is, at one time or other, perpen-
dicular over every part of thiit zone, and
extremely terrifies or heats it.

TROVER is the remedy prescribed by
the law, where any person is in posses-
sion otthe property of another, which he
unlawfully detains. Previously to com-
mencing this action, a demand of the pro-
perty so detained must be made in writ-
ing, by some person properly authorised
by the owner of the property; and upon
refusal to restore it, tlie law presumes an
unlawful conversion, and the party is en-
titled to this action, and will recover
damages to the value of the property de-
tained. In trover, the smallest damages
will carry costs. A similar action may be
brought for the unlawful detention of any
property, on which the specific articles,
so detained, may be recovered, which is
called detinue ; but as the articles de-
tained must be precisely stated in the
declaration, and it is attended with some
difficulty, this action is very seldom
brought.

TROY -weighty in commerce. See
Weight.

Troy weight, formerly called Trone
weight, is supposed to be taken from a
weight of the same name in France, which
was taken from the name of the town of
Troyes. The original of all weights used
in England, was a grain of wheat, taken
out of the middle of the ear, and, when
well dried, thirty-two of them were to
make one penny- weiglit : twenty penny-
weights one ounce : and twelve ounces
one pound. Afterwards it was thought
sufficient to divide the penny-weight into
twenty-four equal parts, called grains,
which is the least weight now in common
use.

TRUCE, in the art of war, denotes a
suspension of arms, or a cessation of hosti-
lities between two armies, in order to
settle articles of peace, bury the dead, or
the like.

TRUCKS, amonggunners, round pieces
of wood, in form of wheels, fixed on the
axle-trees of carriages ; to move the ord-
nance at sea, and sometimes also at land.

TRUFFLES, in natural history, a kind of
subterraneous vegetable production, not
tinlike mushrooms, being a genus of fungi,
which grows under the surface of the
eartii.

TRUMPET, in music. See Musical
imtrwncnis.

TarMPET, speaking, is a tube of consi-
derable length, viz. from 6 feet to 12,
and even more, used for speaking witli to
make the voice heard to a greater dis-
tance. In a trumpet of this kind the
sound in one direction is supposed to be
increased, not so much by its being pre-
vented from spreading all round, as by
the reflection from the sides of the trum-
pet. Tlie figure best suited for the speak-
ing trumpet is that which is generated by
the rotation of a parabola, about a hue
pariillei to the axis. Tlie trumpet used at
sea is represented by fig. 10. Plate XVL
Miscel. It is an hollow instrument of cop-
per, or of tinned iron plates. It is open
at both ends, and the narrow end, A is
shaped so as to go round the speaker's
mouth, and to leave the lips at hberty
within it. The edge of this narrow end,
A is generally covered with leather or
cloth, in order that it may more ettectually
prevent the passage of any air betv/een
the trumpet and the face of the speaker.
The words which are spoken through a
speaking trumpet may be heard much
further and louder, but not so distinc^tly,
as without the trumpet. A speaking
trumpet has been applied to the mouth
of a gun or pistol, by which means the ex-
plosion has been rendered audible at ai
vast distance. Such contrivances it has
been thought might be used as signals in
certain cases.

TRtr.MPKT, kecringy is an instrument to
assist the hearing of persons who are deaf.
Instruments of this kind are formed of
tubes, with a wide mouth, and terminat-
ing in a small canal, which is applied to
the ear. The form of these instruments
evidently shows how they conduce to
assist the hearing-, for the greater qviantity
of the weak and languid pulses of the air
being received and collected by the large
end of the tube, are reflected to the small
end, where they are collected and con-
densed ; thence entering the ear in this
condensed state, they strike the tym-
panum with a greater force than they
could naturally have done from the car a-
lone. Hence it appears, tliat a speaking
trumpet maybe apjjlied to the purpose
of a hearing trumpet, by turning tiic wide
end towards the sound, and the narrow
end to the car.

TRUNCATED, in general, is an appel-
lation given to such things as liuvc-, or
seem to have, their points cut off: thus
we say, a tnmcated cone, pvramid, leaf,
&,c.

TRUNCHEON, a short staff, or bat-
toon, used by kings, generals, and great
ofticcrs, as amark of their commuiKi.

TUB

TUF

TRUNDLE, a sort of carriage witli low
wheels, whereon heavy and cumbersome
burdens are drawn.

TRUNNIONS, or TttUNiOKs of a piece
of ordnance, are tliose knobs or bunches
of the gun's metal, which bear her up on
the cheeks of the carriage : and hence
the trunnion-ring is the ring about a can-
non, next before the trunnions.

TRUSS, a bundle, or certain quantity
of hay, straw, &c. A truss of hay is to
contain fifty-six pounds, or half an hun-
dred weight ; thirty-six trusses make a
load. In June and August the truss is to
weigh sixty pounds, on forfeiture of
eighteen shillings per truss.

Tiirss, in naval affairs, a machine em-
ployed to pull a lower yard close to its
mast, and retain it firmly in that position :
it is rarely employed except in flying top
gallant sails. It is a ring or traveller
which encircles the mast, and has a rope
fastened toils after part, leading down-
ward to tiie top or decks ; by means of
which tlie truss may be straitened or
slackened at pleasure.

Truss is also used for a sort of bandage
or ligature, ?Tiade of steel, or the like
matter, whsrewith to keep up the parts,
in those who have hernias, or ruptures.

TliUST, is aright to receive profits af
land, and to dispose of the land in equi-
ty ; and one holding the possession, and
disposing thereof at his will and pleasure,
are signs of trust. A trust is but a new
name given to an use, and invented to
evade the statute of uses. By statute 29
Charles II, c. 3, all declaration or creation
of trusts shall be manifested by some writ-
ing signed by the party, or by his last will
in writing, or else shall be void. And by
section 9 of the saine act, assignments of
trusts shall be in writing, signed by tiie
party assigning the same, or by his last
will, or else shall be of no effect.

By 29 Charles 11. all declarations of
trusts were to be niacle in writing : but
in the said act there is a saving with re-
g-ard to trusts resulting by implication of
law, which are left pn the footing where-
on they stood before tlie act ; now, a
bare declaration by parol before the act
would prevent any resulting trust.

If a man purchase lands in another's
name, and pay the money, it will be a
trust for him that paid the money, though
there be no deed made declaring the
trust thereof; for the statute of frauds
and perjuries extends not to trusts raised
by opLi'iu'iors of law.

TUB, match, in naval affairs; the half
of a cask, having notches sawn in its

edges, in which the lighted matches are
placed during action, the bottom being
covered with water to extinguish any
sparks which may fall from the match.

TUBE, in general, pipe, conduit, of
canal; a cylinder hollow withinside,
either of lead, iron, wood, glass, or other
matter, for the air, or some other fluid,
to have a free passage, or conveyance,
through. Small silver or leaden tubes are
frequently used, by surgeons, to draw off
blood, matter, or water, from the differ-
ent parts of the body : they are made of
various sizes and shaj)es.

Tube, in astronomy, is sometimes used
for a telescope, or more properly, for that
part thereof into which the lenses are fit-
ted, and by which they are directed and
used.

We have now certain articles in domes-
tic use, as toasling-forks, &c. made on the
principle of telescope tubes.

TUBULAUIA, in natural history, a ge-
nus of the Vermes Zoophyta class and
order. Stem tubular, simple or branched,
fixed by the base ; animal proceeding
from the end of the tube, and having its
head crested with tentacula. Twenty-six
species have been enumerated, T, mag-
nifica : tube simple, whitish ; tentacula
very numerous, variegated with red and
wliite. It is found in tlie West Indies, ad-
hering to rocks ; and is by far the largest
and most splendid of its genus : like the
rest of its tribe, it has the power of with-
drawing its tentacula within the tube, and
the tube within the rock on which it re-
sides. It connects, as it were, the genera
tubularia and amphitrite, having the an-
nulated wrinkled tube of the one, and the
retractile tentaculated body of the other.
T. fistulosa inhabits the European, Medi-
terranean, and Atlantic Seas ; about three
inches long, and as tliick as common
packthread,

TUCK of a ship, the trussing or gather-
ing up the quarter under water; which
if she lie deep, makes her leave a broad,
or, as they call it, fat quarter, and hin-
ders her steering, by keeping the water
from passing swiftly to her rudder ; and
if this trussing lie too high above the wa-
ter, she will want bearing for her works
behind, unless her quarter be very well
laid out. »

TUFA, in mineralogy, is calcareous,
and of a yellowish-grey colour. It occurs
solid, but generally porous, and marked
with impressions of reeds, moss, and other
Vegetables : it is soft, easily frangible, and
not much heavier than water : it effer-
vesces with acids, and is little else than

TUN

TUN

carbonate of lime. The more compact
kinds are employed in building".

T17LBAGIA, in botany, a genus of the
Hexundria Monog'ynia class and order.
Natural order of Spathacex. Narcissi,
Jussieu. Essential character: corolla fun-
nel-form, with a six-cleft border ; nectary
crowning llie aperture, three-leaved ;
leaflets bifid, the size of the border; cap-
sule superior. There are two species ;
7!iz. T. alliacea, narcissus-leaved tulbagia;
and T. cepacea : both natives of the Cape
of Good Hope.

TULIPA, in botany, ttiiip, a genus of
the Hexandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Nattiral order of Coronariae. Lilia,
Jussieu. Essential character : corolla six-
petalled, bell-shaped ; style none. There
are five species.

TUN, or Tos, originally signifies a
large vessel or cask of an oblong form,
biggest in the middle, and diminishing
towards its two ends, girt about with
hoops, and used for stowing several kinds
of merchandize, for convenience of car-
riage ; as brandy, oil, sugar, skins, hats,
&c. This word is also used for certain
vessels of extraordinary bigness, serving
to keep wine in for several years

Tus is also a certain measure for li-
quids ; as wine, oil, &c. See Measure.

Tun is also a certain weight whereby
the burden of ships, &c. is estimated.

TUNE, or Tone, in music, is that pro-
perty of sounds by which they come un-
der the relation of acute and grave. If
two or more sounds be compared to-
gether in this relation, they are either
equal or unequal in the degree of tune;
such as are equal, are called unisons ; the
unequal constitute what are called inter-
vals, which are the differences of tone
between sounds. Sonorous bodies are
found to differ in tone : 1st. According
to the different kinds of matter : thus the
sound of a piece of gold is much graver
than that of a piece of silver of the same
shape and dimensions. 2d. According to
the different quantities of the same mat-
ter in bodies of the .same figure ; as a
solid sphere of brass, of one foot diame-
ter, sounds acuter than a sphere of brass
of two feet diameter. Rut the measures
of tone are only to be sought in the rela-
tions of the motions that are the cause of
sound, which are most discernible in the
vibration of chords. Now, in general, we
find that in two chords, all things being
equalexcepting the tension, thelhickness,
or the length, the tones are different;
whicn difference can only be in the veloci-
ty of their vibratory motions, by which they

perform a different number of vibrations
in the same time ; as it is known that all
the small vibrations of the same chord
are performed in equal times. Now the
frequenter or quicker those i^ibrutions
are, the more acute is the tone ; and the
slower and fewer they are in the same
space of time, by so much the more grave
is the tone. So that any given note of a
tune is made by one certain measure of
velocity of vibrations, that is, such a cer-
tain number of vibrations of a chord or
string, in such a certiiin space of time,
constitute a determinate tone.

TUNGSTATE. See Tongstic ncid. ,
TUNGSTEN, in mineralogy, is usually
of a yellowish and greyish white : it oc-
curs massive, disseminated, anc^ very fre-
quently crystallized : it sometimes occurs
in large, coarse, and sniiiil granular dis-
tinct concretions, with streaked and
shining surfaces. Its specific gravity is
from 4.3 to 6. It is infusible, without ad-
dition, before the blow-pipe. It melts
with borax, but scarcely changes its co-
lour. When pulverized and digested
with nitrous m- muriatic acid, it leaves a
yellow residue, which is the oxide of
tjingsten. The mineral contains, accord-
ing to Scheele,

Yellow oxide of tungsten . 65

Lime .31

Silica ....... 4

This specimen was obtained in Sweden ;

a specimen from Cornwall, analyzed by

Klaproth, yielded

Yellow oxide of tungsten 75.25

Lime 18.70

Oxide of iron .... 1.25

manganese . . 0.75

Silica 1.50

T^oss

97.45
2.55

100

It occurs in primitive mountains, and be-
longs to the oldest metalliferous forma-
tions. It is usually accompanied with
tinstone, wolfram, quartz, mica, steatite,
fluor-spar. Sec. The Cornish tungsten is
accompanied with iron-stone and hema-
tite. It is found in Cornwall, Sweden,
Saxony, and Germany. It is distinguish'-
ed from tinstone by its octahedral crys-
tals, the intensity of its lustre, its hard-

TUN

TUN

ness, and its greater specific gravity.
When Bergman analyzeil this mineral, he
conjectured that the basis of the acid
might be a raetalUc substance. This me-
talHc substance has been only found in the
state of iciil, in combination with lime,
iron, mangan'.'se, and lead. When it is
coml'ined with lime, ills the tungsten of
the Swedes ; and in combination with
iron, it is called wolfram. To obtain tiiis
metal from the acid, it is mixed with char-
coal in a crucible, and exposed to a veiy
strong heat. By tliis process the metal
was obtained ia the form of a small but-
ton at the bottom of the crucible, in the
first experiments which were made upon
it by the German chemists This crumb-
led to j)ieces between the fingers ; and
wlien it was f^xamined with a magnifying
glass, it was found to consist of a number
6f metallic globules, none of which were
larger than a pin head. The colour of
this metal is a steel grey. The specific
grav'ity is 17.6, or, according to othei*s,
17.22. Ii is one of the hardest of the
metals. It is also one of the most infusi-
ble, requiring a temperature of 170°
Wedgwood.

It crystallizes on cooling. When it is
heated in the open air, it is readily con-
verted into a yellow oxide, whicii after-
wards, by a stronger heat, becomes of a
black colour ; and then by combining
with a greater proportion of oxygen, it
assumes the character of an acid, namely,
the tungstic acid, whose properties and
combinations with alkalies and earths will
be presently described.

Tungsten combines with phosphorus,
forming a phosphui'et, the properties of
which are unknown. It also combines
with sulphur, forming a sulphuret of a
bluish black colour, and which may be
crystallized. There is no action between
this metal and sulphuric, nitric, or. mu-
riatic acids. It is only acted on by nitro-
muriatic acid at a boiling temperature,
and nitrous gas is disengaged. Nothing
therefore is known of tlie combinations
of tungsten with the other acids. This
metal combines with the other metals,
and forms alloys with them.

TUNGSTIC flaV/. In the year 1781,
Scheele and Bergman, in investigating
the nature of tung.sten by the Swedes,
discovered that it is composed of lime
combined with a peculiar acid. Their
discovery was afterwards confirmed by
several chemists, who detected the same
acid in the mineral called wolfram. This
acid always exists in combination with
lime and iron. It may be obtained by

reducing the former to a fine powder,
and treating it with nitric or muriatic
acids, which unite with the lime; and
then by alkalies, which dissolve the acid.
The alkaline solution is to be precipitat-
ed by t!ie nitric or muriatic acid ; the
precipitate is to be carefully washed and
dried, which is the tungstic acid in the
solid state, 'i'he tungstic acid thus pre-
pared, is in the form of a white powder,
which has an acid and metallic taste,
changes the colour of vegetable blues
into red, and has a specific gravity, ac-
cording to Bergman, equal to 3.6. Heat-
ed before the blow-pipe, the tungstic acid
becomes first yellow, then brown, and
at last black; it afibrds no smoke, and
gives no sign of fusion. When it is
Ciilcined for some time in a crucible, it is
deprived of the property of dissolving in
water. Exposed to the air it suffers no
change. It is soluble in twenty parts of
boiling water, but it is partially separated
on cooling.

This solution has an acid taste, and
reddens the tincture of turnsole. Heated
with charcoal, it is reduced, but with
difficulty, to the metallic state. With
sulphur and phosphorus it becomes of a
grey colour, but without reduction. The
acids do not dissolve the tungstic acid in
the form of white powder, but they
change completely its properties. The
sulphuric acid changes it to a blue, and
the nitric and muriatic acids convert it
into a fine yellow colour. In this state it
has lost its taste and solubility, has be-
come specifically heavier, and has ac-
quired the property of forming salts
with the same bases, distinctly different
from those formed with what was called
the white acid. The compounds which it
forms with the alkalies, earths, and me-
talhc oxides, are a species of neutral salts;
but the chemical combination is not fully
completed to hide the alkaline properties
of the former. In forming these com-
pounds, it is the only property in which
it agrees with the acids. The compounds
are denominated tungstatts,

TUNNAGE is used for a custom or im-
post, payable to the crown, for goods and
merchandize imported or exported, and
is to be paid after a certain rate for every
tiui thereof. This duty, as well as that
of poundage, was first granted for life to
King Charles II. and has been continued
in the same manner to his royal succes-
sors, down to his present majesty King
George III.

TUNNEL net, a net for taking par-
tridges, which should not exceed fifteen

TUR

TUR

ieet in length, nor be less than eighteen
inches in breadth, or opening, for the en-
trance.

TUPIPORA, in natural history, a genus
•f the Vermes Zoophyta ; animal a ne-
reis ; coral consisting of erect, hollow,
cylindrical, parallel, aggregate tubes.
Tliere are ten species, of which we no-
tice T. musica, with fasciculate connect-
ed tubes, and transverse, distinct, mem-
branaceous dissepiments. It inhabits the
Indian and American seas, fixed to rocks
and other corals : it is of a bright scarlet
colour, consisting of an assortment of
' upright parallel tubes, rising over each
other by stages like cells of an honey-
comb, divided by common transverse
partitions. The Indians use it in cases
of stranguary, and wounds inflicted by
venomous animals.

TURBITH mineral. If sulphuric acid
and mercury, namely, three parts of acid
and two of mercury, be exposed for a
longer time to the action of heat, a great-
er proportion of sulphuric acid is de-
composed, and the mercury combines
willi a greater proportion of oxygen. Tiie
salt thus obtained possesses different pro-
perties from the former. It crystalUzes
in small prisms, and when it is neutral-
ized it is of a dirty white colour ; but if
it be obtained in the dry state, it is
pure white, and in this state it is combin-
ed witli an excess of acid. It is then de-
liquescent in the air ; but in the neutral
state it undergoes no change. When hot
water is added to this salt, it is converted
into a yellow powder, which has been
long distinguished by the name of tur-
peth mineral.

TURBO, in natural history, ivreath ,- a
genus of the Vermes Testacea class and
order : animal a hmax ; shell univalve,
spiral, solid ; aperture contracted, orbi-
cular, entire. This is a very numerous
genus, divided into sections. A. pillar-
margin of the aperture dilated imperfo-
rate. B. solid imperforate. C. soHd
perforated. D. cancellate. E. Tapering.
TURDUS, the thrush, in natural histo-
ry, a genus of birds of the order Pas-
seres. Generic character : bill straitish,
upper mandible somewhat bending, and
notched near the point ; nostrils oval, and
half-covered with a small membrane, or
naked ; mouth ciliated with a few bristles
at the corners ; tongue jagged. There
are one hundred and twenty-two species
enumerated by Latham, and one hundred
and thirty-five by Gmelin, of which we
shall notice the followincr:

VOL. vr.

T. yiscivorus, or the missel-lhrUsh,
This bird is well known throughout Eu-
rope, and some think confined to it. In
England it is stationary, in some other
countries migratory. It builds its nest of
moss and leaves in low trees, or rather
shrubs, and lays four e^^. It feeds on
the berries of holly, huwtliorn, and other
trees, and on catcrj>illars and insects. It
is valued for food, but far more for that
melody, which ought ever to be its se-
curity from the gun of the sportsman, and
wijich it frequently commences so early
as the very beginning of the year, ani-
mating the dulness, and softening the ri-
gour of the season by its delightful song.

T. musicus, or the throstle, is nine
inches long, and weiglis three ounces,
being considerably less than the former.
It breeds so early as the beginning of
April, and sometimes again in each of
the two following months. Its nest is
made of earth, straw, and moss, and
plastered inside with clay. It is never
seen in companies in England, where it
remains through the whole year: in
France it is migratory. Its song com-
mences early in the season, and continues
for nine months ; and its notes are so
rich and various, that, in the language of
Milton, they can " charm all sadness but
despair."

T. pilaris, or the field-fare, is ten
inches long, passes the winter in Eng-
land, when the season is extremely ri-
gorous, in immense flocks, but in small
parties when the winter is mild. These
birds are said to have been much esteem-
ed for the table by the Romans. In Swe-
den they build in high trees. They sub-
sist principally on various sorts of ber-
ries. ■

T. merula, or the black bird, is ten
incheslong, and found generally through-
out Europe. It is fond of sohtude, and
never, or very rarely, seen in flocks. In
summer it haunts orchards and gardens.
In winter it secludes far from human so-
ciety in the recesses of the woods. It
builds in the same situation, and with the
same materiajs, as the thro.stle, and may
be easily reared, tamed, and taught to
imitate a variety of tunes, and to articu-
late words and phrases. But its natural
song is far superior to all its efforts of
imitation, and when listened to from a
moderate distance, for its sound is very
strong, has a most cheering and trans-
porting effect.

T. cinclus, or the water-ouzel, is ra-
ther less than th^ former, is soUtary, and

TUR

TUR

mti* with ill various parts of England,
subsisting" not only upon insects but fish,
which it procures by diving, and walking
or running afler them at the bottom of
the wacer. It is said to have been taken
by a line and hook, having snatched at
the bait intended for fish. It is able to
sustain extreme cold, and does not quit
its watery haunts till the streams are fro-
zen. It builds in the banks of rivers.

The musician thrush is four inches
long, and a native of Cayenne, whei'e it
subsists principally on ants. It never
quits trees but to procure its sustenance.
It is called in Cayenne the musician, by
way of eminence. It is said to deUver
first seven notes of the octave, and then
to whistle various airs in different tones,
sometimes resembling the flute, at others
the human whistle ; and when it displays
its most skilful efforts, it is preferred by
some even to the nightingale. Its habits
are solitary.

T. migratorius, or the red breasted
robin, is a common and familiar bird in
almost every part of North America.

TURKEY. See Mileagris.
• TURMERIC, a root which is cultivat-
ed largely in the East Indies ; consists of
a large oval bulb, from which spring two
or three tortuous processes, three or
four inches long. It has a fragrant smell,
and an aromatic taste. The yellow colour
which It exhibits is easily extracted, both
by water and alcohol, and is sometimes
used as a dye, which is very fugitive ;
therefore when employed in dyeing, it
h chiefly to give a finishing gloss to the
more solid colours, which soon fades a-
way. The yellow of turmeric is render-
ed paler by the acids, but is changed to
a brick-red by the alkalies : hence its
great sensibility to alkaline tests. To ap-
ply it to this purpose, either a spiintuous
tincture or a watery infusion may be
used ; or, still niore simply, a fresh cut
surface of the entire root may be wetted
with distilled water, and by being rubbed
dn white paper a visible yellow mai'k will
Jbe made, on which a drop of tlic liquor
to be examinefl may be dropped. If the
quantity of alkali be very small, it re-
quires a few minutes to produce the full
change.

TURNERA, in botany, so named in
memory of William Turner, M. D. a ge-
nus of the Pentandria Trigynia class and
order. Natural order of Columniferae.
Portulacese, Jussieu. Essential charac-
ter : calyx five-cleft, funnel-form, exteri-
or two-leaved ; petals five, inserted into
the calyx ; stigmas multifid ; capsule one-

celled, tliree-valved. 'I'here are nine
species.

TURNING, in mechanics, a very in-
genious and useful art, by which a great
variety of articles are manufactured, by
cutting or fashioning them while they re-
volve upon an axis or line, which in most
cases remains immoveable. Every solid
substance in nature may be submitted to
this process, and accoi'dingly we have
articles turned in the metals, in wood, in
pottery, in stone, in ivory, Etc. so nume-
rous, and so universally in use, that it
would be superfluous to enumerate or
point them out. In the present article
we shall describe the art in a general
way, sufficient to show its principles, and
may be of utility in practice.

The simplest process of turning is that
of the potter, who, in the first stage of
forming his ware, sticks a piece of hu-
mid clay upon a wheel, or flat table,
while it revolves horizontally ; and in this
state of rotation of the clay, he fashions it
with the greatest facility into vessels of
every description. But in most operations
of the an, the revolving body is cut or
shaved by applying a chissel, or other
suitable tool, to its surface, while in mo-
tion ; a condition that requires firmness
in the axis of rotation, and also that the
tool itself should be steadily supported.
The instrument or apparatus for these
purposes, is called a Lathe. See the arti-
cle. Among the gi-eat varieties of lathes,
it is indispensably required, for circular
turning, that the work should be sup-
ported by two steady centres, or by parts
equivalent to two centres, at a distance
from each other in the axis of rotation,
and that the tool should be supported
by a steady bar, or piece, called the rest.
The mechanism for causing the rotation
has been described in the article just
referred to.

A great number of turned articles ei-
ther have, or will admit of, a perforation
through their axis. All wheel-work, and
most of the articles turned in wood, are
of this description. Clock and watchma-
kers accordingly use a very cheap, sim-
ple, and portable lathe, called a turn-
bench, consisting ofa straight bar of iron,
about five inches long, with two cross
bars or heads, about two inches long,
one fixed at the end of the long bar, and
the other capable of being shifted by
means of a socket and screw. In each of
these heads is a centre -pin, terminating
in a point at one end, and in a central
hole at the other, like the centre-pin in
the poppet head of any other lathe ; the

TURNING.

use of which is td afford point-centres
when the points are turned towards each
other, or hole-centres when the contrary
is the case ; and lastly, there is a small
rest with its support, slidable and adjust-
able along the bar, as in another latlie.
These instruments, which cost live or six
shillings at the watch tool shops, will
therefore support any piece of four or
five inches long, and three inches diame-
ter between the centres, and the method
of producing the rotation is by passing
the catgut string of a bow once or twice
round the work, and drawing the bow
backwards and forwards with one hand,
while the other is employed in applying
the tool. The turn-bench itself is held
steady in a vice fixed to a bench or
stand.

Such pieces as have a hole through the
centre are drawn tightly upon an arbor
or mandrel, having a pulley or feml fix-
ed upon it, to carry the gut or bow-string,
and the mandrel itself is turned between
the centres upon its own pointed extre-
mities. There are mandrels fitted up in
different ways for holding the work firm-
ly, and if flat, at right angles to the mo-
tion ; but we cannot consistently with
brevity enter upon a description of them,
which will immediately be understood by
inspection in a workshop.

The common lathe of the turners in
wood, called the pole-lathe, is the same
thing as the watchmakers' turn-bench,
but upon a large scale, and a little varied.
Instead of the horizontal bar it has two
long stout bars of wood, called sheers,
forming what is called the bed of the
lathe, and its two poppet-heads are up-
right blocks of wood, mortised in be-
tween the sheei-s, above which they rise
and carry the centre screws, and between
which they are moveable, and may be
wedged firmly at any required distance
from each other. The work itself is ei-
ther put between the centres, or upon a
wooden mandril, and it is made to re-
volve by a string or band, proceeding
from a long springing pole at the ceiling
or roof of the shop, round the work, and
thence to a treadle or foot-board, which
acts by alternate pressure from the foot,
while the workman applies the cutting
tool with his hands.

In these, and all similar lathes, the ro-
tation is made backwards and forwards ;
and there are some kinds of work in
which such a motion is advantageous ; but
in general it is much preferable that the
work should constantly revolve the same
V, as shown in the lattip described im-

der that article, usually known by the
name of the foot-lathe. In the regular
foot-lathe, work is very seldom turned
between the opposite centre.s, though
this method certainly affords great truth
and precision. The mandrel' is here an
essential part of the apparatus, which is
always used. It has been shown that it is
supported by a centre on tlic left hand,
called the back centre, and by a steel
collar in the middle poppet-head ; and
that the right hand extremity, or nose of
the mandrel, terminates in a screw, ei-
ther convex or concave, the latter of
which is preferred in the best lathes.
The various description of pieces screw-
ed upon the nose of the mandrel, for
holding or carrying work, are called
chucks, probably because the work is
mostly fastened by being driven, jammed,
or choked into them.

When work is to be turned between
centres by the foot-lathe, a centre-chuck,
or steel-piece, carrying a projecting
point, is screwed on the nose of the man-
drel ; and as this piece is not harder than
blue, and may not always screw home to
exactly tiie same bearing, accurate work-
men are in the habit of turning or shav-
ing the point in its place, so that it shall
be truly centered. The opposite centre
is afforded by the moveable poppet-head,
and ought to be truly in the axis ; and
the mandrel is made to carry the work
round by an arm and pin, or by any other
ready method of connection.

Work, which is not to be turned be-
tween centres, is usually fastened to, or
fixed in, a block or wooden chuck screw-
ed on the mandrel. As it would be al-
most impossible to screw a w^ooden
chuck upon the convex nose of a man-
drel, and take it off as occasion required
during the process, without altering the
position, it is found much best that the
screw of the mandrel should be hollow,
and a brass chuck screwed therein, hav-
ing its projecting screw to receive the
wooden chuck ; because, by this means,
the work may be taken off repeatedly, if
needful, without ever separating the
brass and the wood ; and the brass and
the steel will take the same position
when screwed together again.

Metallic or other work may be fasten-
ed to a wooden chuck by cement, or by
glue, or by turning a cell in the wood,
and driving the work gently and careful-
ly into it till fixed.

The stronger, the firmer, and the bet-
ter the workmanship of a lathe, the easi-
er it will be to perform work with expe-

TURNING.

dition and truth ; but a f Qod \vork\nan
will make trtie and excellent work with
a very indilVerent lallie, by takint:: care
to cut so little at a time that the parts oi"
the engine may never be shaken out of
their contact. Metallic lathes, it ever so
strong-, have an elastic tremor, which
makes it difficult to cut brass and bcil-
metal as firmly and smoothly as in w»)()d-
en lathes, but the structure of the former
admits ol' greater precision and truth.
In a well constructed lathe, tiie back cen-
tre, the centre ot the collar, and the fore
centre, or centre ottbe moveable poppet-
head, ought to be in one line, parallel to
the bed or sheers. To prove this by trial,
set the moveable poppet-head as far to
the right hand as possible, and screw a
stick of wood into the nose of the man-
drel : into the middle of the right hand
end of the stick, or nearly so, drive a
pin or other projecting ])oint, and by .gen-
tle, blows against the stick, cause the
point to remain steady in the axis, while
the mandrel is turned round. If the cen-
tre point of the moveable poppet be truly
opposite to this revolving point, the three
centres are in a line ; and if the same con-
tinues to be the case when the face of the
moveable poppet is reversed, it is a proof
that the hole in the poppet is bored pa-
rallel to the bed : and if the same adjust-
ment continues when the stick is shorten-
ed, it shows tbat the bed is straight and
parallel to the axis of work. If the col-
lar and back centre, and the chamfer and
point of the mandrel, in a lathe, be truly
formed, and set square, the rotation
slowly made by hand, when the back
centre is rather firmly set up, will be
equally stiff in every part, and the wear-
ing parts when examined, will have the
same aspect, slope, and grain, in every
part of their surfaces.

The velocity of rotation may be ex-
tremely swift in wood, slower in brass
and bell-metal, still slower in cast iron,
and slowest of all in forged iron or steel.
The reason for these limits appears to he,
that a certain time is requisite for the act
of cutting to take place, and that the tool
itself, if heated by rotation, will instantly
become soft, and cease to cut. Steel and
iron require to be kept, wetted. For
rough work in wood the guage is a good
tool, and after that the chisel, with its
edge a little convex, rather than strait
lined. The graver is commonly used for
metal ; and for strong rough work, the
hook tool, which is of excellent advan-
tage, even in small work, on account of
its extreme steadiness. When steel is to

be cut extremely clean, a sharp hard tool
may be useful ; but for the most part, in
metallic work, even of steel, (if anneal-
ed,) the hook tool, or graver, need not be
harder than purple, or even blue. But
to cut steel work or chill cast iron cylin-
ders at a high temper, the tool must be
very hard, the angle of edge obtuse, (say
seventy degrees,) and the motion slow.

Hitherto we have spoken of plain tiu'n-
ing, which is indeed the most useful and
most univenally practised. But many
other nice and very ciu'ious operations are
performed by this art. If the poppet-
heads, supporting the mandrel, be made
regularly to move from side to side, dur-
ing the rotation, or the rest be made to
approach to, and recede from, the work,
any number of times in a turn, the cuts
will not be circular, but undulating, in-
dented or waved in any curve that may be
required. Work of this kind, which is
chiefly done in watch cases, snuff boxes,
and trinkets, is called rose-work. The
motion is commonly regulated by certain
round plates of brass fixed on the man-
drel, called roves, which have their edges
waved, and are called roses.

Another deviation from regular turning
is effected by causing the chuck, which
carries the work, to recede crosswise
from the centre of the mandrel, back and
forward during the rotation. The eflisct
of this is, that the diameters of the work
are not all equal to each other. It is
practicable to produce a variety of
curves in this way, but in our art the pro-
cess is confined to turning ovals ; and the
chuck, by which the work is made thus to
slide back and forward, is called an oval
chuck.

Numerous geometrical figures are pro-
duced by turning, by an apparatus upon
the principle of the geometrical pen of
Suardi, in engines which have been made
for curiosity, arKl at great expense.

Medallions, and other similar pieces,
are produced by regulating the action of
the tool in its advance to, or recess from,
the face of a piece exposed to its ac-
tion.

If the mandrel of a lathe be made to
advance and recede in the line of the ax-
is, once in each turn, the cut will not be
in a plane at right angles to the axis of
the work, and the line traced upon the
work will be an ellipsis, produced by the
oblique section of a jcylinder. This kind
of work is called swash-work, and may
be seen in some old balustrades, where
its effect is far from beii»g pleasing. The
nature of the cOrve thus described, which

TUR

TUR

we have called an ellipsis, will manifestly
vary according to the law of the alternate
motion in the mandrel. When the man-
drel moves uniformly forward, the cut
will be the common helix or screw ; and
the motion is used to make screws,
though not very frequently, because good
turnei s can easily make them by a notch-
ed cutting tool, called the screw.

The act of turning is so extensively ap-
plicable, that it would require a volume
to describe its uses, and the methods of
practising it. Every round thing which
is made by human liands may be referred
to this art, us one of its products. The
largest columns, the most ponderous ar-
tillery, and the minutest pivots of watch-
work, with all wheel-work, rotatory ma-
chines, vessels, &c. are worked in this
method.

TURNSOLE. See Litmus.

TURPENTINE. See Resins.

Turpentine, of which there are various
kinds, are all products of some of the
species of the pin us. From this genus are
obtained not only turpentine, but resin,
pitch, tar, &c. which are employed so ex-
tensively in ship-building, and in the rig-
ging also : likewise in varnishes.

There are three varieties of pine tur-
pentine, commonly known under that
name in Europe : namely, 1. The com-
mon turpentine, obtained chiefly from the
pinus sylvestris (Scotch fir). 2. The
Strasburgh turpentine, yielded by the pi-
nus picca (silver fir). And, 3. The Ve-
nice turpentine, procured from the pinus
larix (larch). Of the three first mention-
ed turpentines, the Venice is the thinnest
and most aromatic ; the Strasburgh the
next in these qualities; and the common is
the firmest and coarsest. The two form-
er are often adulterated by a mixture of
the common turpentine and oil of turpen-
tine; and it is to be observed, that the
terms Venice and Strasburgh turpentine
are not now appropriate, as they are pro-
cured from various countries.

Common turpentine is obtained largely
in the pine forests in the south of France,
in Switzerland, in the countries on the
north of the Pyrenees, in Germany, and
in many of the southern States of North
America. The greater part of what is
consumed in this country is imported
from North America. The method of
obtaining it is by making a series of in-
cisions through the bark of the tree, from
which the turpentine exudes, and falls
down into holes, or other receptacles at
the foot.

The process is described very accu-

rately by Duhamel and others, as pracli*'
ed in the south of France. The fir is
generally allowed to remain untouched
till it is thirty or forty years old. WheD
it is to be worked, which is early in the
spring, a small hole is first made in the
ground at the foot of the tree, the earth
of which is well rammed, and serves as a
receptacle for the juice. The coarse
bark is then stripped off from the tree, a
little above the hole, down to the smooth
inner bark, after which a portion of the
inner bark, together with a little of the
wood, is cut out with a very sharp tool,
so that there may be a wound in the tree
about three inches square, and an inch
deep. Immediately afterwards the tur-
pentine begins to exude in very transpa-
rent drops, which escape chiefly from the
wood immediately under the inner bark.
The hotter the weather is, the greater is
the supply of resin ; and to facilitate the
supply, the incisions are enlarged every
three or four days, by cutting oft' thin
slices, till at the end of the year it is about
a foot and a half wide, and two or three
inches deep. The whole time during
which the turpentine flows is from the
end of February to October. In the win-
ter it entirely ceases, but in the ensuing
spring a fresh incision is begun a little
above the former, and managed in the
same manner. This practice is continued
annually for about twelve or fifteen years
in some parts, and in others a shorter
time, on the same side of the tree, till the
later incisions are so high as to be out of
reach without the assistance of steps ; af-
ter which the contrary side of the tree is
begun upon, and worked in a similar
manner for as many years, during which
time the first incisions are grown up, and
are fit to be cut afresh. In this way, a
healthy tree, in a favourable soil, may be
made to yield from six to twelve, or more,
pounds of turpentine annually, sometimes
for a century ; and even the timber is not
soon injured by this constant drain. The
flow of turjjentine discontinues altogether
about October, and the liquid resin col-
lected during the year, from each tree, is
put together for further purification. But
a considerable quantity of tiie resin has
concreted during that time around the in-
cision, particularly as the heat declines ;
and in the winter, when it has hardened
considerably, it is scraped off', and forms
what is technically called barras, or in
some provinces galipot, which differs
from the more liquid turpentine in consist-
ence, and probably contains a less pro-
portion of essential oil. The galipot is

TUll

TWI

much used In making flambeaux when
mixed with suet; but the greater part of it,
as well the hquid turpentine, is subject-
ed to further processes.

The Slrasburgh turpentine, the produce
of the silver fir, is the most fragrant of all
the pine turpentines, and only inferior to
the true Chio ; but it is not often seen in
the shops. It is obtained by rude incision
of the bark by the peasants in the vast
pine forests on the western Alps. Tiie
first cut is made as high as the hatchet
will reach, and these arc renewed annually
from above downwards to within a foot of
the ground. But the finest kind of tur-
pentine yielded by this tree, is that which
exudes from soft tubercles, or swellings
of the inner bark. The peasants carry
with them a large cow's horn, with the
point of which they pierce these tuber-
cles, and collect the juice in its hollow.

The true Venice turpentine, or resin of
the larch, is obtained from the Tyrol and
Savoy, and also from Dauphiny, by boring
holes about an inch in diameter, with a
gentle descent, in the most knotty parts
of the tree. To these are adapted long
perforated pegs, which serve as gutters to
convey the juice into troughs placed be-
neath. It is yielded during the whole of
the summer, and is simply purified by
straining through hair sieves. A full
grown larch will sometimes yield seven or
eight pounds of turpentine annually for
forty or fifty years.

TURQUOISE. The colour of this sub-
stance is pale sky-blue, passing into indi-
go-blue, and pale apple-green. It occurs
in mass, or disseminated. Its fracture is
even. Its hardness is nearly equal to
that of glass; it is difficultly frangible.
Specific gravity 3.12. Before the blow-
pipe its colour changes to greyish-white,
and it becomes friable, but it does not
melt. It is soluble in nitro -muriatic acid,
and the European varieties are so in nitric
acid; this menstruum, however, has no
action on the Persian turquoises. It is
composed, according to Bullion la Grange,
of

Phosphate of lime ... 80

Carbonate of lime ... 8

Phosphate of iron, with a") g

trace of manganese . 3

Phosphate of magnesia . 2

Alumina 1

Water 6

Loss 1

100

Turquoise is generally considered as
fossil-bone, or ivory penetrated by oxide
of copper; it appears, however, from the/
above analysis, that the colouring matter
is phosphate of iron. The oriental tur-
quoises are found near Meched in Persia,
also in Mount Caucasus, in Egypt and
Arabia. The occidental ones are found
in Languedoc in France, and in Hungary.
Turquoise was formerly in some estima-
tion for rings and other articles of per-
sonal ornament ; but its value has greatly
declined in modern times. The colour of
turquoise changes gradually by exposure
to the air, from blue to green : when it
arrives at this state, its commercial value
is wholly extinct.

TUKRITIS, in botany, toioer-mustard, a
genus of the Tetradynamia Siliquosa
class and order. Natural order of Sili-
quosse, Cruciformes, or Cruciferx. Essen-
tial character : silique very long, angular;
calyx converging, erect; corolla erect.
There are eight species.

TURRiEA, in botany, a genus of the
Decandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Trihilatse. Melise, Jus-
sieu. Essential character: calyx five-
toothed ; petals five ; nectary toothed,
cylindrical, bearing the anthers at the
mouth between the teeth ; capsule pen-
tacoccous ; seeds two. There are five
.species.

TUSCAN 07^dei\ m architecture, the
first, simplest, and most massive of the
five orders.

TUSSILAGO, in botany, colfs-foot, a
genus of the Syngenesia Polygamia Su-
perflua class and order. Natural order
of Compositae Discoidex. Corymbiferae,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx scales
equal, as long as the disk, somewhat
membranaceous ; down simple ; recepta-
cle naked. There are fourteen species.

TWILIGHT, that light, whether in the
morning before sun-rise, or in the even-
ing after sun-set, supposed to begin and
end when the least stai-s that can be seen
by the naked eye cease, or begin to ap-
pear. By means of the atmosphere iH
Imppens, that though none of the sun's
direct rays can come to us after it is set,
yet we still enjoy its reflected liglit for
some time, and night approaches by de-
grees ; for after the sun is hidden from
our eyes, the upper part of our atmos-
phere remains for some time exposed to
its rays, and from thence the whole is il-
luminated by reflection. But as the sun
grows lower and lower, that portion of
the atmosphere which is above our hori-
zon, becomes enlightened till the sim has

TWI

TYC

got eighteen degrees below it; after
which it ceases to be illuminated thereby,
till it has got within as many degrees of
the eastern side of the horizon ; at which
time It begins to illuminate the atmo-
sphere again, and in appearance to dif-
fuse its light throughout the heavens,
which continues to increase till the sun
be up. Hence it is, that during that part
of tlie year in which the sun is never
eighteen degrees below our hoi'izon,
there is a continued twilight from sun-
setting to sun-rising. Now tliat part of
the year in the latitude of London is,
while the sun is passing from about the
fifth degree of Gemini to the twelfth of
Cancer ; that is, from the middle of May
to the middle of July.

As the twilight depends on the quan-
tity of matter in the atmosphere fit to re-
flect the sun's rays, and also on the height
of it (for the higher the atmosphere is,
the longer will it be before the upper
parts of it will cease to be illuminated,)
the duration of it will be various. For
instance, in winter, when the air is con-
densed with cold, and the atmosphere
upon that account lower, the twihght will
be shorter ; and in summer, when the li-
mits of tiie atmosphere are extended by
the rarefaction and dilatation of the air of
which it consists, the duration of the
twilight will be greater. And for the hke
reason, the morning twilight, the air be-
ing at that time condensed and contract-
ed by the cold of the preceding night,
will be shorter than the evening one,
when the air is more dilated and ex-
panded.

The beginning and end of twilight has
been variously stated, by different ob-
servers ; but, in our latitude, it may be
said to begin and end when the sun is
about eighteen degrees below the hori-
zon : hence, when refraction is allowed
for, the atmosphere must be capable of
reflecting sensible light at the height of
about forty miles. The duration of twi-
light is greater or less, as the sun moves
more or less obliquely with respect to
the horizon : hence it is shortest near the
time of the equinoxes, because the equi-
noxial intersects the horizon less oblique-
ly than any lesser circle parallel to it.
Dr. Long has calculated the duration of
twihght, in different latitudes, and for the
several different dechnations of the sun :
the result he laid before the public in the
following table, where the letters c d sig-
nify that it is then continual day ; c n con-

tinual night ; and 70 n, that the twilight
ksts the whole night :

3

1

S

9

OC a-. W KD 03 C^ OC *

0

0

^0tOH*H*tOlOtO3

0:. — oowootooP

^

H- H- H- H- H- H- ^ F*

00
0

H-t— H-H*H-H-tOp*

0

(--h-H-H*H-t3K)?'
Ot.^*t^4^O»H-03 3

*>-

c7>H**>.<:n60C^3 •

8

to wtoiOio ^ ^ 9"

H* ^D g

Or

^^^o^o^^to^ ^ P"

Ot

§

.a.C0tO03^ ^ ^ P'
Oi 01 00 3 3 S ?

8J

OH-COi^^ 0 0 P"

to 00 ^ H- ^ ^ 3

0

vOH-c^^^oor'

^3 •-' _ ^ ^ 3

-^lO*<l^ 0 0 0 ."'

§

3 C33 3 c-c-o-g

^

0 0 ^ ^ 0 0 0 •

S3330-&.C1-3

S

TYCHONIC system, or hypothesis, an or-
der or arrangement of the heavenly bo-
dies, of an intermediate nature between
the Copernican and Ptolemaic, or parti-

TYh

TYP

cjpating alike of them both. This system
had its name and original from Tycho
Brahe, a nobleman of Denmark, who liv-
ed in the latter part of the last century.
The philosopher, though he approved of
the Copernican system, yet could not re-
concile himself to the motion of the
eartli ; and being, on the other hand,
convinced the Ptolemaic scheme could
not be true, he contrived one different
from either. In this tlie earth has no mo-
tion allowed it, but the aiuiual and diur-
nal phenomena are solved by the motion
of the sun about the earth, as in the Pto-
lemaic scheme ; and those of Mercury
and Venus are solved by this contrivance,
though not in the same manner, nor so
simply and naturally as in the Copernican
system. The Tychonic system then sup-
posed the earth in tlie centre of the
world, that is, of tlie firmament of stars,
and also of the orbits of the sun and
moon ; but at the same time it made the
sun the centre of the planetary motions,
viz. of the orbits of Mercury, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Thus the sun,
with all its planets, was made to revolve
about the earth once a year, to solve the
phenomena arising from the annual mo-
tion ; and every twenty-four hours, to
account for those of the diurnal motion.

TYGER. See Felis.

TYLE, or Tile, in building, a sort of
thin, fictitious, laminated brick, used on
the roofs of houses ; or, more properly, a
kind of fat clayey earth, kneaded and
moulded, of a just thickness, dried and
burnt in a kiln like a brick, and used in
the covering and paving of houses. See
Brick.

There are various kinds of tyles, for
the various occasions of building ; as
plain, thack, ridge, roof, crease, gutter,
pan, crooked, Flemish, corner, hip, dor-
mar, scallop, astragal, traverse, paving,
and Dutch tyles.

Flemish or Dutch t3'Ies are of two kinds,
ancient and modern. The ancient were
used for chimney foot-paces : they were
painted with antique figures, and fre-
quently with postures of soldiers; some
with compartments, and sometimes with
moresque devices : but they come much
short of the design and colours of the
modern ones. The modern Flemish
tyles are commonly used plastered up in
the jaumbs of chimnies, instead of chim-
ney-corner stones. These are better
glazed, and such as are painted (for
some are only white) are done with
more curious figures, and more lively co-

lours, than the ancient ones. But botii
kinds seem to be made of the same whit-
ish clay as our white glazed earthen ware;
the modern ones are commonly painted
with birds, flowers, &c. The ancient
ones are only five inches and a quarter
square, and about three-quarters of an
inch thick; the modern ones six inches
and a half square, and three-quarters of
an inch thick.

TYMPAN, or TyjiPAxuM, in architec-
ture, the area of a pediment, being that
part which is on a level with the naked
of the frieze. Or it is the space included
between the three cornishes of a triangu-
lar pediment, or the two cornishes of a
circular one. Sometimes the tympan is
cut out, and the part filled with an iron
lattice, to give light, and sometimes it is
enriched with sculpture in basso reUevo.

Ttmpan, among printers, a double
frame belonging to the press, covered
with parchment, on which the blank
sheets are laid in order to be printed oflp.
See PaiJSTiNe.

TYMPANUM, or Tampan, in mecha-
nics, a kind of wheel placed round an
axis, or cylindrical beam, on the top of
which are two levers or fixed staves, for
the more easy turning the axis, in order
to raise a weight required. The tympa-
num is much the same with the peritro-
chium, but that the cylinder of the axis
of the peritrochium is much shorter and
less than the cylinder of the tympanum.

T YMPAKUM of a machine, is also used for
a hollow wheel, wherein one or more
people, or other animals, walk, to turn
it ; such as that of some cranes, caU
enders, 8cc.

'I'YPE, a copy, image, or resemblance
of some model. This word is much used
among divines, to signify a symbol, sign,
or figure of something to come ; in which
sense it is commonly used with relation
to antitype, which is the thing itself,
whereof the other is a type or figure.

TYPHA, in botany, a genus of the Mo-
noecia Triandria class and order. Natural
order of Calamarix. Typhae, Jussieu. Es-
sential character : male, ament cylindri-
cal ; calyx indistinct, three-leaved ; co-
rolla none : female, ament cylindrical,
below the males ; calyx a villose hair ;
corolla none ; seed one, placed on a ca-
pillary down. There are two species, viz.
T. latifolia, great cat's tail, or reed mace ;
and T. angustifolia, narrow-leaved cat's
tail.

TYPOGRAPHY, the art of printing-
See Pbintino and SxEnEOTiPK.

VAC

VAG

U.

UOr u, the twentieth letter, and fifth
9 vowel of our alphabet, is formed
in the voice by a round configuration of
the Ups, and a greater extrusion of the
under one than in forming the letter o,
and the tongue is also more caimulated.
The sound is short in anist, 7nust, tun,
tub ; but is lengthened by a final e, as in,
twie, tube^ &c. In some woixls it is rather
acute than long ; as in bruie^fute, lute, Stc.
It is mostly long in pol) syllables ; as in
union, curious, &c. but in some words it
is obsciire, as in iiature, venture, &c.
This letter, in the form V, or v, is pro-
perly a consonant, and as such is placed
before all the vowels ; as in vacant, venal,
vibrate, &c. Though the letters v and u
had always two sounds, they had only the
form V till the beginning of the fourth
century, when the other form was intro-
duced, the inconvenience of expressing
two different sounds by tlie same letter
having been observed long before. In
numerals V stands for five, and with a
dash added at top, thus IT. it signifies
5,000.

VACCIJTATION. See ScncEnr.
VACCINIUM, in botany, bilbevrT/, or
■tvhortleberrif, a genus of the Octandria Mo-
nogynia class and order. Natural order
of Bicornes. Ericae, Jussieu. Essential
character : calyx superior ; corolla one
petalled; filaments inserted into the re-
ceptacle ; berry four-celled, many seed-
ed. There are twenty-seven species.

VACUUM, in philosophy, denote? a
space empty, or devoid, of 'all matter or
body. It has been the opinion of some
philosophers, particularly the Cartesians,
that nature admits not a vacuum, but that
the universe is entirely i\ffl of matter : in
consequence of which opinion they were
obliged to assert, that if every thing con-
tained in a vesseJ could be taken out or
annihilated, that sides of the vessel, how-
ever strong, would come together ; but
this is contrary to experience, for the
greatest part of the air may be drawn out
of a vessel by means of the air-pump, not-
withstanding which it will remain whole,
if its sides are strong enough to support
the weight of the incumbent atmosphere.
Should it be objected here, that it is im-
possible to extract all the air out of a ves-
sel, and that there will not be a vacuum
on that account ; the answer is, that since
a very great part of the air that was in
the vessel may be drawn out, as appears
VOL. Vl.

by the more quick descent of light bodies
in a receiver when exhausted of its air,
there must be some vacuities between
the parts of the remaining air; which is
sufficient to constitute a vacuum. Indeed,
to this it may be objected by a Cartesian,
that those vacuities are filled with mate-
ria subtilis, that passes freely through the
sides of the vessel, and gives no resist-
ance to the falhng bodies : but as the ex-
istence of this materia subtilis can never
be proved, we are not obliged to allow
the objection, especially since Sir Isaac
Newton has found that all matter affords
a resistance nearly in proportion to its
density. There are many otherarguments
to prove this, particularly the motions of
the comets through the heavenly regions,
without any sensible resistance ; the dif-
ferent weight of bodies of the same bulk,
&c. All the parts of spaces, says Sir Isaac
Newton, are not equally full; for if they
were, the specific gravity of the fluid
which would fill the region of the air
cocdd not, by reason of the exceeding
great density of its matter, give way to
the specific gravity of quicksilver, gold,
or any body, ho^v dense soever; whence
neither gold, nor any other body, could
descend in the air ; for no body can de-
scend in a fluid, unless it be specifically
heavier than it. But if a quantity of mat-
ter may, by rarefaction, be diminished in
a given space, why may it not diminish in
infinitum ? And if all the solid particles
of bodies are of the same density, and
cannot be rarified, without leaving pores,
there must be a vacuum.

VADE mecum, or Vexi mecum, a Latin
phrase, used in English to express a
thing that is very handy and famihar, and
which one usually carries about with them;
chiefly applied to some favourite book.

VAGINA, properly signifies a sheath,
or scabbard : and the term vagina is used
in architecture, for the part of a terminus,
because resembling a sheath, out of which
the statue seems to issue.

VAGINALIS, the sheath-bill, in natural
history, a genus of birds of the order
Grallse. Generic character: bill strong,
thick, compressed ; upper mandible co-
vered above with a moveable horny
sheath ; nostrils placed before the sheath ;
face naked and papillous ; wings with
an obtuse excrescence under the flex-
ure ; claws grooved. V. alba, or the
white sheath-bill, the onlv species known,
3N

VAG

VAL

is a nutive of New Zealand and the South
Sea Islands. It is in length about sixteen
inclies. Its food consists of shell fish
and putrid carcasses. Its legs are long,
red, and naked a little above the knees.

VAGRANTS are all persons threaten-
ing to run away, and leave their wives and
children to the parish. All persons unlaw-
fully returning to the parish or place
whence they have been legally removed
by order of two justices, without bring-
ing a certificate from the parish or place
whereto they belong. All persons who
have not wherewith to maintain them-
selves, live idle, and refuse to work for
the usual wages given to other labourers
in the like work, in the parishes or places
where they are. Ail persons going from
door to door, or placing themselves in the
streets, highways, or passages, to beg or
gather alms in the parishes or places
where they dwell. All these shall be
deemed idle and disorderly persons, and
one justice may commit such offenders
(being thereof convicted before him, by
his own view, confession, or oath of one
witness,) to the house of correction, to
hard labour, not exceeding one month.
And any person may apprehend and car-
ry before a justice, any sucli persons go-
ing from door to door, or placing them-
selves in the streets, highways, or pas-
sages, to beg alms in the parishes or
place'' where they dwell ; ai^d if they shall
resist, or escape from tlie person appre-
hending them, they shall be punished as
rogues and vagabonds. And the said jvis-
tice, by \varrant under his hand and seal,
may order any overseer, where such of-
fender shall be apprehended, to pay five
shillings to any person in such parish or
place so apprehending them, for every of-
fender so apprehended ; to be allowed in
his accounts, on producing the justice's
order and the person's receipt to whom it
was paid. 17 George II. c. 5. The same
statute also enacts, that such justice shall
order the ])erson so apprehended to be
pubUcly whipped by tlie constable, pe-
tit-constable, or some other pei-son to be
appointed by such constable or petit-
constable of the place where such offen-
der was ai)prehended, or shall order him
to be sent to the house of correction ; and
by 27 George III. c. 11, the common gaol,
until the next sessions, or for any less
lime, as such justice shall think proper.
To defray the expences of apprehending,
conveying, and maintaining rogues, va-
gabonds, and incorrigible i-ogues, and all
other expenses necessary, the justices,
in sessions, may cause such sums as shall
be necessary to be raised, in the same

manner as the general county rate. 17
George 111. c. 5.

VAHLIA, in botany, so named in ho-
nour of Martin Yahl, regius professor of
botany, at Copenhagen, a genus of the
Pcntandria Digynia class and order. Na-
tural order of Succulentse. Onagrae, Jus-
sieu. Essential character : calyx five-
leaved ; corolla five-petalled ; capsule
inferior, one-celled, many-seeded. There
is only one species, viz. V. capensis, a
native of the Cape of Good Hope, in
sandy places.

VAIll, in lieraldry, a kind of fur, con-
sisting of divers little pieces, argent, and
azure, resembling a Dutch U, or a bell-
glass. Vairs have their point azure oppo-
site their point argent, and the base ar-
gent to the base azure.

VAIRY, Vairk, Vkrry, or Varbt, in
heraldry, expresses a coat, or the bear-
ings of a coat, when charged or chequer-
ed with vairs : and hence, vary cuppy, or
vairy tassy, is a bearing composed of
pieces representing the tops of crutches,
VALANTIA, in botany, cross- wort, a
genus of the Polygamia Monoecia class
and order. Natural order of Stellatse.
Ilubiacesc, Jussieu. Essential character :
hermaphrodite, calyx none ; corolla four-
parted ; stamens four ; style bifid ; seed
one ; male, calyx none ; corolla three or
four-parted; stamens three or four; pis-
til obsolete. There are nine species.

VALENTINIA, in botany, a genus of
the Octandria Monogynia class and order-
Essential character : calyx five-parted,
coloured, spreading; corolla none ; cap-
sule berried, four-seeded, pulpy. There
is but one species, viz. V. ilicifoli;!, a na-
tive of Hispaniola, on the most barren
rocks towards the ocean ; also in Cuba,
about the Havannah.

VALERIANA, in botany, vafericoi, a
genus of the Triandria Monogynm class
and order. Natural oi'der of Aggre-
gatae. Dipsacex, Jussieu. Essential cha-
racter : calyx none ; corolla one-petalled ;
gibbous on one side of the base, superior;
seed one. 'I'here are thirty-one species.

VALLISNEItlA, in botany, a ge-
nus of tlie Dioecia Diandria class and
order. Natural order of Palmse. Hy-
drocharides, Jussieu. Essential cha-
racter : male, spathe two-parted ; spadix
covered with tioscules; corolla three-
parted ; female, spathe bifid, one-flow-
ered; calyx three-parted, superior;
stigma three-parted : capsule one-celled,
many-seeded. There are two species,
viz. V. spiralis, two-siamened vallisneria;
and y. octandria, eight-stamened vallis-
neria.

VAP

VAP

VALUE, ill commerce, denotes the
price or worth of any thing : hence the
intrinsic vahie denotes the real and ef-
fective worth of a thing-, and is used
chiefly with regaixi to money, the popular
value whereof may be raised and low'er-
cd at the pleasure of the prince ; but its
real, or intrinsic value, depending wholly
on its weight and fineness, is not at all af-
iected by the stamp or impression there-
on.

VALVE, in hydraulics, pneumatics,
&.C. is a kind of lid, or cover, of a tube
or vessel, so contrived as to open one
way ; but which, tiie more forcibly it is
pressed the other way, the closer it shuts
the aperture ; so that it either admits the
entrance of a fluid into the tube or vessel,
and prevents its return ; vv admits its
escape, and prevents its re-entrance.

Valve, in anatomy, a thin membrane,
applied on several cavities and vessels of
the body, to afford a passage to certain
humours cjoing one way, and prevent
their reflux towara's the place from
whence they came. The veins and lym-
phatics are furnisl^d with valves, wliich
open towards thf heart, but keep close
towards the exfemitics of those vessels ;
that is, they le^ the blood and lymph pass
towards the Heart, but prevent their re-
turning tovards the extreme parts from
whence fiey came.

VAy, in naval affairs, the foremost
divis'<>n of a naval armament, or that part
wlvch leads the way to battle, or advances
first in the order of saihng.
/ VANDELLIA, in botany, a genus of
the Didynamia Angiospermia class and
order. Natural order of Personatse. Scro-
phularix, Jussieu. Essential character :
calyx four-parted ; corolla ringent; fila-
ments the two outer from the disk of the
lip of the corolla ; anthers connected by
pairs ; capsule one-celled, many-seeded.
There are two species, viz. V. diffusa,
and V. pratensis.

VANGUEIIIA, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Aggregatae. Ru-
biaceae, Jussieu. Essential character :
calyx five-toothed ; corolla tube globu-
lar, with a hairy throat ; stigma bilamel-
late ; berry inferior ; four or five-seeded.
There is but one species, viz. V. edulis,
supposed to be a native of Ciiina.

VAPOUR, in meteorology, a thin hu-
mid matter, which, being rarefied to a
certain degree by the action of heat,
ascends to a particular height in the at-
mosphere, where it is suspended, until
it returns in the form of dew, rain, snow,
kc. On this subject we refer our readers

to the articles Evapoiiation and Metkoii.
OLoor, and sliall make a few additional
observations on dew, which is a pheno-
menon proper to clear weather. It be-
gins to be deposited about sun-set, is
most constant in vailics, and on plains
near rivers, and other collections of wa-
ters, and abounds on tliose parts of the
sui-face which are clotiied with vegeta-
tion. It is often suspended when rain is
approaching, as likewise in windy wea-
tlier, and before thunderstorms; an un-
usually copious deposition however some-
times precedes rain. The following is
said to be the usual appearance in the
valley through which the Thames passes.
After a clear warm day there is gradually
formed on the horizon a continuous haze,
rising sometimes to a considerable height,
and often tinged by the setting sun with a
fine gradation of red and violet shades.
This is the precipitated water become
faintly visible in its descent. Dew is al-
ways to be found on the grass by the
time that this haze has become conspi-
cuous, and its abundance is proportioned
to the density and permanence of the
latter. The following facts are deserving
of notice.

In this country the dew is observed
more copiously in the mornings of spring
and summer than at other times in the
year. Sometimes, however, in autumn
and winter, an abundant dew is deposited
in the night. In countries nearer the
equator, the dews are generally observed
in the morning throughout the wliole
year ; and in some places they are so
very copious as in a great measure to
supply the deficiency of rain, which sel-
dom falls in those places. The conden-
sation of the vapour which forms the
dew mostly takes place while the sun is
below the horizon ; the greatest deposi-
tion taking place soon after the setting
of the sun. In cloudy weather there is
little or no dew deposited : the most
considerable quantity is observed in a
morning, subsequent to a clear, still, and
cool night, which has followed a pretty
warm day. The lower parts of bodies
that are exposed to the ambient air are
first covered with dew\ The most singu-
lar circumstance is, that dew is not depo-
sited upon all kinds of substances indis-
criminately : it falls upon certain bodies
much more abundantly thfin on others,
and upon some even not at all. The
drops of dew attach tliemselves to glass,
crystals, and porcelain, much more rea-
dily than to other bodies ; next to these
come the leaves of vegetables, wood,
especially when varnished, and common
earthen warej but the dew adheres least

VAR

VAR

of all to all sorts of metallic bodies. We
may now notice Mr. Dalton's observa-
tions, which are the result of a variety of
well conducted and very accurate expei'i-
me^ts on this subject. 1. That aqueous
^vapour is an elastic vapour svi geiieris,
diftusiblein the atmospliere, but forming
no chemical combination with it. 2. That
temperature alone limits the maximum of
vapour in the atmosphere. 3. That there
exists at all times, and in all places, a
quantity of aqueous vapour in the atmo-
sphere, variable accortling" to circum-
stances. 4. That whatever quantity of
aqueous vapour may exist in the atmo-
sphere at any time, a certain tempera-
ture may be found, below which a por-
tion of that vapour would unavoidably
fall, or be deposited, in the form of rain
or dew, but above which no such dimi-
nution could take place with chemical
agency. This point may be called the
extreme temperature of vapour of that
density ; and 5. That whenever any body
colder than the extreme temperatiu'e of
the existing vapour, is situated in the at-
mosphere, dew is deposited upon it, the
quantity of which varies as the surface
of the body, and the degree of cold be-
low the extreme temperature. The
reader may be referred to an excellent
and elaborate article on this subject in
Br. Rees's New Cyclopedia, a work, of
■which it may be fairly and honourably
said, that as it advances in its progress, it
increases in merit and reputation.

VARIABLE quantities, in geometry and
analytics, denote such as are either con-
tinually increasing or diminishing ; in op-
position to those which are constant, re-
maining always the same. Thus, the ab-
scisses and ordinates of an ellipsis, or
other curve line, are variable quantities,
because they vary or change tlieir magni-
tudes together. Some quantities may be
variable by themselves alone, while those
connected with them are constant : as
the abscisses of a parallelogram, whose
ordinates may be considered as all equal,
and therefore constant. The diameter of
a circle, and the parameter of a conic
section, are constant, while their abscisses
are variable. Variable quantities, (see
FtuxToss,) are usually denoted by the
last letters of the alphabet z, y, x, while
the constant ones are denoted by the first
letters a, b, c.

VARIANCE, in law, signifies any alter-
ation of a thing formerly laid in a plea, or
where the declaration in a cause diffei*s
from the writ, or from the deed upon
which it is grounded. If there be a vari-

ance between the declaration and the
writ, it is error, and the writ shall abate ;
and if there appear to be a material vari-
riance between the matter pleaded and
tbe manner of pleading it, this is not a
good pica, for the manner and matter of
pleading ought to agree in substance, or
there will be no certainty in it. Cro. Jac.
479.

VARIATION of curvature, in geometty,
is used for that inequality or change,
which happens in the curvature of all
curves except the circle ; and this varia-
tion, or inequality, constitutes the quality
of the curvature of any line. Sir Isaac
Newton makes the index of the inequality
or variation of curvature, to be the ratio
of the flu.xion of the radius of curvature
to the fluxion of the curve; and Mr.
Maclaurin, to avoid the perplexity that
different notions, connected with the
same terms, occasion to learners, ,has
adapted the sam? definition ; but he sug-
gests, that this rat'o gives rather the vari-
ation of the ray of curvature, and that it
might have been proper to have measur-
ed the variation of curvature, rather by
the ratio of the fluxionof curvature itself
to the fluxion of the curve: so that the
curvature being inversely as the radius
of the curvature, and consequently its
fluxion as the fluxion of the radius itself
directly, and the square of th<^ radius in-
versely, its variation would havt been di-
rectly as the measure of it, according to
Sir Isaac's definition, and inversely, si«'the
square of the radius of curvature.

VAniATioiy of the needle, in magnetism.
Although the north pole of the magnet
in every part of the world, when sus-
pended, points towards the northern
parts, and the south pole to the southern
parts, yet it seldom points exactly north
and south. The angle, in which it devi-
ates from due north and south, is called
" The variation of the needle," or, " The
variation of the compass," and this varia-
tion is said to be east or west, according
as the north pole of the needle is eastwai*d
or westward of the meridian of the place.
This deviation from the meridian is not
the same in all parts of the world, but is
different in different places, and it is al-
most perpetually varying in the same
place. When the variation was first ob-
served, the north pole of the magnetic
needle declined eastward of the meridian
of London, but it has since that time
been changing towards the west ; so that
in the year 1657, the needle pointed due
north and south ; at present, it declines
towards the west between 24° and 25°,

VAR

VAR

and it seems to be still advancing west-
ward.

VARIEGATION, among botanists and
florists, the act of streaking or diversify-
ing the leaves, &.c. of plants and flowers
with several colours. Variegation is
either natural or artificial. Of natural va-
riegation there are four kinds ; the first
showing itself in yellow spots here and
there, in the leaves of plants, called by
gardeners the yellow bloach. The se-
cond kind, called the white bloach, marks
the leaves with a great number of white
spots, or stripes ; the whitest lying next
the surface of the leaves, usually accom-
panied with otlier marks of a greenish
white, that lie deeper in the body of the
leaves. The third, and most beautiful, is
where the leaves are edged with white,
being owing to some disorder or infection
in the jidces, which stains the natural
complexion or verdure of the plant. The
fourth kind is that called the yellow edge.

VARIGNON (Petek,) in biography,
was born at Caen in 1654. He was the
son of an architect, and intended at an
early age for the church. Accident threw
into his way a copy of Euclid's Elements,
which gave him a strong bias towards
Uiathematical learning. So intent was he
in the pursuit of science, that he abridged
himself of tlie necessaries of life, to pur-
chase books to aid him in the pursuit.
From his relations he met with much op-
position, because they imagined that geo-
metry and algebra would ill accord with
the course of theological studies. While
he was at college he became acquainted
with the Ahh6 St. Pierre ; and in their
application to learning, they were mutu-
ally serviceable to one another. The
abbe, to enjoy more of V^arignon's com-
pany, determined to lodge with him ; and
sensible of his merit, he i-esolved to give
him a fortune, that he might fully pursue
the bent of his genius, and improve his
talents; and out of only 1800 livres a
year, which he had himself, he conferred
300 of them upon Varignon.

The abb6, persuaded that he could not
do better than go to Paris to study philo-
sophy, settled there in 1686, with M. Va-
rignon, in the suburbs of St. Jacques.
There each studied in his own way ; the
abbe applying himself to the study of
men, manners, and the principles of go-
vernment ; whilst Varignon was wholly
occupied with the mathematics.

•' I," says Fontenelle, " who was their
countryman, often went to see them,
sometimes spending two or three days
with them. Thev had also room for a

couple of visitors, who came from the
same province. We joined together with
the greatest pleasure. We were yoiuig,
full of the first ardour for knowledge,
strongly united, and, what we were not
then perhaps disposed to think so great
a happiness, little known. Varignon, who
had a strong constitution, at least in his
youth, spent whole days in study, without
any amusement or recreation, except
walking sometimes in fine weather. I
have heard him say, that in studying after
supper, as he usually did, he was often
surprised to hear the clock strike two in
the morning ; and was much pleased that
four hours rest were sufficient to refresh
him. He did not leave his studies with
that heaviness which they usually create ;
nor with that weariness which a long ap-
plication might occasion. He left off gay
and lively, fill d with pleasure, and impa-
tient to renew it. In speaking of mathe-
matics, he would laugh so freely, that it
seemed as if he had studied for diversion.
No condition was so much to be envied
as his ; his life was a continual enjoyment,
delighting in quietness."

In the solitary suburb of St. Jacques
he formed, however, a connection with
many other learned men ; as Du Hamel,
Du Verney, De la Hire, &.c. Du Verney
often a.sked his assistance in those parts
of anatomy connected with mechanics :
they examined together the positions of
the muscles, and their directions ; hence
Varignon learned a good deal of anatomy
from Du Verney, which he repaid by the
application of mathematical reasoning to
that subject.

At length, in 1687, Varignon made him-
self known to the public by a treatise on
new mechanics, dedicated to the Acade-
my of Sciences. His thoughts on the sub-
ject were, in effect, quite new. He dis-
covered truths, and laid open their sour-
ces. In this work he demonstrated the
necessity of an equilibrium, in such case.s
as it happens in, though the cause of it
is not exacly known. This discovery
Varignon made by the theory of com-
pound motions, and is what this essay-
turns upon. This new treatise on mecha-
nics was greatly admired by the mathe-
maticians, and procured the author two
considerable places, the one of geometri-
cian in the Academy of Sciences, the
other of professor of mathematics in the
college of Mazarine ; to this honour he
was the first person raised.

Varignon catched eagerly at the sci-
ence of infinitesimals as soon as it appear-
ed in the world, and became one of its

VAll

VAR

most early cultivators. Severe and unre-
mitted study injured his health veiy
much, and in 1705 he had a dang^erous
illness, which confined him to his bed
many months, and the effects of wliich he
did not recover for three years. Indeed
it can scarcely be said that he ever per-
fectly regained the vigour which lie had
formerly enjoyed. He could not lay aside
his stucUes, and these were deemed in-
compatible with his health. He died in
1722 : by Fontenelle he is described as
an excellent man, not apt to be jealous of
the fume of others ; he was as simple in
Lis manners as his understanding was su-
perior. He was at the head of the French
anathematicians, and one of the best in
Europe. He was apt to be over hasty
when a new object presented itself; and
too impetuous towards those who oppos-
ed him. His works, wliich were published
separate!}^, were " Projet d'une nouvelle
Mechaniciue," 4to. " Des nouvelles Con-
jecture sur la Pesanteur." " Nouvelle
Alechanique ou Statique." Besides a vast
number of sepai-ate memoirs.

VARNISH. Lac varnishes, or lacquers,
consist of different resins in a state of so-
lution, of which the most common are,
mastich, sandarach, lac, benzoin, copal,
amber, and asphaltum. The menstrua are
either expressed or essential oils, as also
alcohol. For a lac varnish of the first
kind, the common painter's varnish is to
be united by gently boiUng it with some
more mastich or colophony, and then di-
luted again with a little more oil of tur-
pentine. The latter addition promotes
both the glossy appearance and drying of
the varnish.

Of this sort is the amber varnish. To
make this varnish, half a pound of amber
is kept over a gentle fire in a covered
iron pot, in the lid of which there is a
small hole, till it is observed to become
soft, and to be melted together into one
mass. As soon as this is perceived, the
vessel is taken from off the fire, and suf-
fered to cool a httle ; when a pound of
good painter's varnish is added to it, and
tJie whole suffered to boil up again over
the fire, keeping it continually stirring.
After tiiis, it is again removed from the
fire ; and when it is become somewhat
cool, a pound of oil of turpentine is to be
gradually mixed with it. Should the var-
nish, when it is cool, happen to be yet
loo thick, it may be attenuated with more
oil of turpentine. This varnish has al-
ways a dark-brown colour, because the
amber is previously half-burned in this
operation ; but if it be required of a

bright colour, amber-powder must be di-s-
solved in transparent painter's varnish, in
Papin's machine, by a gentle fire.

As an instance of the second sort of
lac varnishes with ethereal oils alone,
may be adduced the varnish made with
oil of turpentine. For making this, mas-
tich alone is dissolved in oil of turpentine
by a very gentle digesting heat, in close
glass vessels. This is the varnish used for
tlie modern transparencies employed as
window-blinds, fire-screens, and for other
purposes. These are commonly prints,
coloured on both sides, and afterward
coated with this varnish on those pai-ts
that are intended to be transparent.
Sometimes fine thin calico, or Irish hnen,
is used for this purpose ; but it requires
to be primed with a solution of isinglass,
before the colour is laid on.

Copal may be dissolved in genuine
Chio turpentine, according to Mr. Shel-
drake, by adding it in powder to the tur-
pentine previously melted, and stirring
till the whole is fusetl. Oil of turpentine
may then be added, to dilute it sufficient-
ly. Or the copal in powder may be put
into a long-necked matrass with twelve
parts of oil of turpentine, and digested
several days on a sand-heat, frequently
shaking it. This may be diluted with one
fourth or one fifth of alcohol. Metallic
vessels, or instruments, covered with two
or three coats of this, and dried in an
oven each time, may be washed with
boiling water, or even exposed to a still
greater heat, without injury to the var-
nish,

A varnish of the consistence of thin
turpentine is obtained for aerostatic ma-
chines, by the digestion of one part of
elastic gum, or caoutchouc, cut into
small pieces, in thirty-two parts of recti-
fied oil -of turpentine. Previously to its
being used, however, it must be passed
through a linen cloth, in order that the
undissolved parts may be left behind.

The third sort of lac-varnishes consists
in the spirit -varnish. The most solid re-
sins yield the most durable varnishes ;
but a varnish must never be expected to
be harder tlian the resin naturally is of
which it is made. Hence, it is the height
of al^surdity to suppose that there are
any incombustible varnishes, since there
is no such thing as an incombustible re-
sin. But the most solid resins by them-
selves produce brittle varnishes : there-
fore something of a softer sub.stance must
always be mixed with them, whereby
this brittleness is diminished. For this
purpose, gum elemi, turpentine, or bal-

VARNISH.

sam of capaiva, are jemployed in proper
proportions. For the solution of these
bodies the strongest alcohol ought to be
used, which may very properly indeed
be distilled over alkali, but must not have
stood upon alkali. The utmost simplicity
in composition, with respect to the mim-
ber of the ingredients in a formula, is the
result of the greatest skill in the art;
hence it is no wonder, that the greatest
part of the formulas and recipes that we
meet with are composed without any
principle at all.

In conformity to these rules, a fine co-
lourless varnish may be obtained, by dis-
solving eight ounces of gum sandarach
and two ounces of Venice turpentine in
thirty-two ounces of alcohol by a gentle
heat. Five ounces of shell-lac and one of
turpentine, dissolved in thirty-two ounces
of alcohol by a very gentle heat, give a
harder varnish, but of a reddish cast.
To these the solution of copal is undoubt-
edly preferable in many respects. This is
eftected by triturating an ounce of pow-
der of gum copal, which has been well
dried by a gentle heat, with a drachm of
camphor, and, while these arc mixing to-
gethei", adding by degrees four ounces of
the strongest alcohol, without any diges-
tion.

Between this and the gold varnish
there is oidy this difference, that some
substances that communicate a yellow
tinge are to be added to the latter.
The most ancient description of two
sorts of it, one of which was prepared
with oil, and the other with alcohol, is to
be found in " Alexius Pedemontanus Dei
Secreti," Lucca, of which the first edition
was published in the year 1557. But it is
better prepared, and more durable, when
made after the following prescription :
Take two ounces of shell lac, of arnatto
and turmeric of each one ounce, and thir-
ty grains of fine dragon's blood, and
make an extract with twenty ounces of
alcohol in a gentle heat.

Oil varnishes are commonly mixed im-
mediately with the colours, but lac or lac-
quer varnishes are laid on by themselves
upon a burnished coloured ground: when
they are intended to be laid upon naked
wood, a ground should be first given
them of strong size, either alone or with
some earthy colour, mixed up with it by
levigation. The gold lacquer is simply
rubbed over brass, tin, or silver, to give
them a gold colour,

Pere d'Incarville has informed us, that
die tree wliich affords the varnish of Clii-
na is called tsichou bv the Chinese. This

tree is propagatc'cfby offsets. When tlie
cultivator is desirous of planting it, he
takes a branch, which he wraps up in a
mass of earth, by means of flax. Care is
taken to moisten tiiis earth ; the branch
pushes out roots, and is then pruned and
transplanted. This tree grows to the size
of a man's leg.

The varnish is drawn in spring. If it
be a cultivated tree, it affords three ga-
therings. It is extracted by inci?ions
made in the spring; and when the var-
nish, which is received in shells, does not
flow, several hog's bristles, moistened
with water or saliva, are introduced into
the wound, and cause it to run. When
the tree is exhauiited, the upper part of
it is wrapped in straw, which is set on
fire, and causes the varnish to precipi-
tate to the bottom of the tree, where it
flows out of perforations made for that
purpose.

Tho.se who collect the varnish set out
before day-break, and place their shells
beneath the apertures. The shells arc
not left longer than three hours in their
place, because the heat of the sun would
evaporate the varnish.

The varnish emits a smell, which the
workmen are very carefid to avoid res-
piring. It produces an effect which they
call the bud of the varnish.

When the varnish issues from the tree
it resembles pitch. By exposure to the
aip, it gradually becomes coloured, and
is, at last, of a beautiful black.

The juice which flows from incisions
made in the trunk and branches of the
rhus toxicodendron possesses the same
properties. It is a white milky fluid,
which becomes black and thick by the
contact of the air.

To make the varnish bright, it is eva-
porated by the sun ; and a body is givea
to it with hog's gall and sulphate of iron.

The Chinese use the oil of tea, which
they render drier by boiling it with orpi-
ment, realgar, and arsenic.

To varnish any substance, consists in
applying upon its surface a covering of
such a nature, as shall defend it from the
influence of the air, and give it a shining
appearance.

A coat of varnish ought, therefore, to
possess the following properties : 1. It
must exclude the action of the air; be-
cause wood and metals are varnished to
defend them from decay and rust. 2. It;
must resist water ; for otherwise the ef-
fect of the varnish could not be perma-
nent. 3. It ought not to alter such co-

VAR

VAT

lours as are intended to be preserved by
this means.

It is necessary, tkerefore, that a var-
nish sliould be easily extended oi- spread
over the surfiice, without leaving pores
or cavities; that it should not crack nor
scale ; and that it should resist water.
Now resins are the only bodies that pos-
sess these properties.

Resins, consequently, must be used as
the bases of varnish. The question which
of course presents itself must be, then,
how to dispose them for this use ; and for
this purpose they must be dissolved, as
minutely divided as possible, and com-
bined in such a manner, that the imper-
fections of those which might be dis-
posed to scale may be corrected by o-
thers.

Resins may be dissolved by three
agents : L By fixed oil. 2. By volatile
oil. 3. By alcohol. And accordingly we
have three kinds of varnish : the fat or oily
varnish, essential varnish, and spirit var-
nish.

Before a resin is dissolved in a fixed
oil, it is necessary to render the oil dry-
ing. For this purpose the oil is boiled
with metallic oxides, in which operation
the mucilage of the oil combines with the
metal, while the oil itself unites with the
oxygen of the oxide. To accelerate the
drying of this varnish, it is necessary to
add oil of turpentine.

The essential varnishes consist of a so-
lution of resin in oil of turpentine. The
varnish being applied, the essential oil
flies off*, and leaves the resin. This is
used only for paintings.

When resins aie dissolved in alcohol,
the varnish dries very speedily, and is
subject to crack ; but this fault is correct-
ed by adding a small quantity of turpen-
tine to the mixture, which renders it
brighter, and less brittle when dry.

The coloured resins, or gums, such as
gamboge, dragon's blood, &c. are used to
colour varnishes.

To give lustre to the varnish after it is
laid on, it is rubbed with pounded pumice-
stone and water ; which being dried with
a cloih, the work is afterward rubbed with
an oiled rag and tripoli. The surface is,
last of all, cleaned with soft linen cloths,
cleared of all greasiness with powder of
starch, and rubbed bright with the palm
of the hand.

Varnish also signifies a sort of shin-
ing coat, wherewhh potter's, ware, delft-
ware, china-ware, &c. are covered, which
gives them a smoothness and lustre.
Melted lead is generally used for the

first, and smalt for the second. See
Enamelling.

Varnish, among medalists, signifies
the colours antique medals have acquired
in the earth. The beauty which nature
alone is able to give to medals, and art
has never yet attained to counterfeit, en-
hances the value of diem ; that is, the
colour which certain soils in which they
have a long time lain tinges the metals
withal ; some of which are blue ; others
with an inimitable vermilion colour ;
others with a certain shining polished
brown, vastly finer than Brasil figures.

VARRONIA, in botany, so named
from Marcus Terentius Varro, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Asperifolise. Bor-
raginex, Jussieu. Essential character:
corolla five-cleft ; drupe with a four-celled
nut. There are nine species.

VAS, a vessel either for mechanical,
chemical, culinary, or any other uses. lo-
anatomy, all the parts which convey a
fluid are called vessels, as the veins, arte-
ries, and lympliatics.

VASA concordi(e, among hydraulic au-
thors, are two vessels, so constructed as
that one of them, though full of wine, will
not run a drop, unless the other, being-
full of water, do run also.

VASE, a term frequently used for an-
cient ves^els dug from under ground, or
otherwise found, and preserved in the ca-
binets of the curious. In architecture,
the appellation vase is also given to those
ornaments placed on corniches, sochles
or pedestals, representing the vessels of
the ancients, particularly those used in
sacrifice ; as incense pots, flower-pots,
&c. They serve to crown or finish fa-
cades, or frontispieces ; and hence called
acroteria. The term vase, however, is
more particularly used in architecture to
signify the body of the Corinthian and
Composite capital; otherwise called the
tambour or drum, and sometimes the
campana or bell.

VATERIA, in botany, so named from
Abraham Vater, professor of medicine
and botany at Witteberg, a genus of the
Polyandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Gutliferse, Jussieu. Es-
sential character : calyx five-cleft ; corol-
la five-pelalled; capsule three-valved, one-
celled, three seeded. There is only one
species; viz.Y. indica.

VATIC A, in botany, a genus of the Do-
decandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Guttiferae, Jussieu. Es-
sential character : calyx five-cleft; petals
five } anthers fifteen, sessile, four-celled.

i

VEG

VEG

There is but one species, viz. V chinen-
sis, a very rare plant, and as yet scarcely
known.

VATICAN, a ma.^nificent palace of the
Pope, in Rome, which is said to consist
of several thousand rooms ; but the parts
of it most admired are, the grand stair-
case, the Pope's apartment, and especial-
ly the library, v hich is one of the richest
in the world, boih in printed books and
manuscripts.

VAULT, in architecture, an arched
roof, so contrived that the stones which
form it sustain each other. V^aults are,
on many oi:casions, to be preferred to
soffits, or flat ceilings, as they give a great-
er heigiit and elevation, and are besides
inore firm and duraule.

VECTOR, or Radius Vector, in astrono-
my, is a line supposed to be drawn from
any planet moving round a centre, or the
focus of an ellipse, to that centre, or fi ..
cus. It is so called, because it is that
line by which the planet seems to be car-
ried round its centre ; and with which it
describes areas proportional to the times.

VEblR, a sea term, variously used.
Thus veering out a rope, denotes the let-
ting it go by hand, or letting it run out
of itself. It is not used tor letting out any
running rope except the sheet.

VEGETABLE. See Botany, Plant,
&c. A vegetable is composed of a root,
stem, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds ;
and when all these different parts are ful-
ly developed, the vegetable is said to be
perfect. When any are deficient, or at
least less obvious, the vegetable is said to
be imperfect. The root is that part of
the plant which is concealed in the earth,
and wiiich serves to convey nourishment
to the whole plant. The stem, which
commences at the termination of the root,
supports all the^ther pals of the plant.
When the stem is large and solid, as in
trees, it is denominated the trunk, which
is divided into the wood and the bark.
The bark constitutes the outermost part
of the tree, and covers the whole of the
plant from the extremity of the roots to
the termination of the branches. The
bark is composed of three parts, naniely,
the epidermis, the parenchyma, and cor-
tical layers. The epidermis, which is a
thin transparent membrane, forming the
external covering of the bark, is compo-
sed of fibres crossing each other. When
the epidermis is removed, it is reproduc-
ed. The parenchyma, which is immedi-
ately below the epidermis, is of a dark-
green colour, composed of fibres crossing

VOL. VI.

each other in all directions, and is succur
lent and tender.

The cortical layers which constitute
the interior part of the bark are con.pos-
ed of thin membranes, and increase i\\
number with the age of the plant. The
wood immediately under the bark is com-
posed of concentric layers, which increase
with the age of the plant, and may be se-
parated int thinner layers, which are
composed of longitudinal fibres. The
wood next the bark, which is softer and
whiter, is called the alburnum The in-
terior part of the trunk is browner and
harder, and is denominated the perfect
wood.

In the middle of the stem is the pith,
U'hich is a soft, spongy substance,: com-
posed of cells. In old wood this part en-
tirely disappears, and its place is occu-
pied by the perfect wood.

The leaves are composed of fibres ar.
ranged in the form of net-work, which
proceed fiom the stem and footstalk, by
which they are attached to the branches.
These fibres form two layers in each leaf,
which are destined to perform different
functions. Tlie leaves are covered with
the epidermis, which is common to the
whole of the plant. Each surface of a
leaf has a great number of pores and
glands, which absorb or emit elastic
fluids.

Flowers are composed of different parts.
The calyx or cup is formed by the exten-
sion of the epidermis ; the corolla is a con»
tinuation of the bark, and the stamina
and pistilla, the internal parts of fructifica-
tion, are composed of the woody fibres
and pith of the plant. Fruits are usually
composed of a pulpy, parenchymatous
substance, containing a great number of
vesicles, and traversed by numerous ves-
sels. Seeds are constituted of the same
utricular texture, in the vesicles of which
is deposited a pulverulent or mucous sub-
stance. These cells have a communica-
tion with the plants by means of vessels,
and by these is conveyed the necessary
nouristtment during germination.

Plants contain different orders of ves-
sels, which are distinguished from each
other by their course, situation, and uses.
Lymphatic vessels serve for the circulation
of the sap. They are chiefly siiuated in
the woody part of the plant. The pecu-
liar vessels which generally contain thick
or coloured fluids, are placed immediate-
ly under the bark ; they are smaller in
number than the sap vessels, and have
thin interstices filled up with utriculi or
cells, with whieh they form a communi-

3 0

VEG

VEL

cation. Some of these proper vessels are
situated between tlie epidermis and ilie
bark, which are readily detected in \he
spriui?. Some are situated in the interior
part of the bark, forming oval rings, and
filled with the pecuhar juices of tlie
plant. Another set of proper vessels is
placed in the alburnum, nearer the centre
of the stock or trunk, and sometimes in
tiie perfect wood. The utricidi or cells
constitute another set of vessels, which
seem to resemble a flexible tube, slightly
interrupted vvitii ligatures at nearly equal
distances, but stiil preserving a hee com-
munication through its w'hole length
They vary inform, colour, and magnitude,
in different vegetables, and exist in the
roots, the baik, leaves, and flowers. The
trachea, or spii al vessels, which are readi-
ly detected in succulent plants, appear in
the form of fine threads, and may be
drawn out to a considerable length with-
out breaking. These vessels are very
numerous in all plants, especially under
the bark, where tl)ey form a kind ot ring,
and are disposed >ii distinct bundles, in
trees, shrubs, and stalks of herbaceous
plants.

Vegetable ac/Ws, in chemistry. The
acids which exist in many vegetables are
at once recognized by their taste. These
acids were formerly denominated es.sen.
tial salts of vegetables, and it was sup-
posed, that all essential salts were the
same, and were composed of tartar, or
. vinegar. But Scheele's discovery of the
citric, malic, and gallic acids, which pos-
sessing distinct properties from those of
tartaric and acetic acids, proved the con-
trary. Some vegetables contain only one
acid, as oranges and lemons, which con-
tam citric acid only. In other vegetables
two acids are found, as in gooseberries and
currants, the malic and citric acids ; and
sometimes three, as the tartric, citric,
and malic acids, which exist together in
the pulp of the tamarind. As the acids
which exist in vegetables have been al-
ready described, under their respective
heads, it is now only necessary to enume-
rate the vegetable acids, specifying at
the same time some of the plants from
which they are obtained.

Acetic acid has been discovered in the
sap of some trees, and in the acid juice of
cicer ariclinum. Oxalic acid exists in
combination with potash, in the leaves of
the oxalis acetosella, or wood-sorrel. In
other species belonging to the same ge-
nus, and in some species ofruniex, it is in
the state of accidulous oxalate of potash.
Oxalate of lime has been found in the

root of rhubarb. Citric acid is found in
the juice of oianges and lemons, in the
berries of Iwo species of vaccinium, See.
?»Ialic acid exists unmixed with other
acids, in ifie apple, the barberry, plum,
sloe, elder, Sec In the gooseberry, in the
cherry, strawberry, currants, and some
other fruits, malic and citric acids are
fcnmd nearly in equal proportions. Malic
acid has been found n)ixed with tartaric
acid in the agave Americana, and in the
pulp of tamarinds, along with citric acid.
Vauquelin found it combined with lime,
formijig a malate of lime, in the semper-
vivum tectorum, or house-leek. Gallic
acid is found in a great number of plants
and in them it exists chiefly in the bark.
Benzoic acid is found in benzoin, balsam
of ToUi and Peru, liquid styrax, cinna-
mon, and vanilla. Fourcroy and Vau-
quelin suspect that it exists in tiie anlhox-
anthum odoratum, or sweet-scented
grass, which communicates the aroma-
tic flavour to hay. Frussic acid has been
found in the leaves of the lauro-cerasus
and peach, in bitter almonds, in the ker-
nels of apricots, and it is stipposed that
it exists also in the ken els of peaches, of
plums, and cherries. It is obtained from
the kernels of apricots, by distilling wa-,
ter off them with a moderate heat ; and if
lime be added to the concentrated infu.sion
of bitter almonds, a prussiate of lime is
formed. Phosphoric acid has been found
in different parts of pla^.ts ; but it is gene-
rally combined with lime, forming aphos-,
phaie of lime.

VEIN, in anatomy, is a vessel which
carries the blood from the several parts
of the body to the heart. The ve ns are
composed principally of a membranaceous
a vasculous, and a musculous tunic : but
these are vastly thinner than in the arlcr
ries. See Artery.

VELESIA, in botany, so named from
Christoval Velesitis, examiner, first phy-
sician, and demooblrator of botany, in the
College of Apothecaries at Madrid, a ge-
nus of the Fentandria Digynia class and
order. Natural order of Caryophyllei.
Caryoph) Ilea:, Jussieu. Essential charac-
ter : calyx filiform, five-toothed ; corolla
five-petalled, small ; capsule one-celled;
seeds numerous, in a single row. There
iti but one species, viz. V. rigida, a native
of the Soutli of Europe.

VELLA, in botany, a genus of the Te-
tradynaniia Siliculosa class and orde/.
Natural order o! Sil qnosa or Cruciiormes,
Crucifera:, Jussieu. Essential character :
silicle with a partiiion twice as large as
the valves, ovate on the outside- There

VEL

YEN

are two species, viz. V. annua, annual vella
or cress rocket; and V. pseudo cytisus,
shrubby vella.

VELOCITY, swiftness, or that afiec-
tion of motion whereby a moving body is
disposed to run over a certain space in a
certain time.

In the doctrine of fluxions it is usual to
consider the velocity with which magni-
tudes flow, or are generated. Thus, the
velocity with which a line flows, is the
same as that of tiie point, which is suppos-
ed to describe or generate the line. The
velocity with which a surface flows, is
the same as the velocity of a given right
line, that, by moving parallel to itself, is
supposed to generate a rectangle, always
equal to the surface. The velocity with
which a solid flows, may be measured by
the velocity of a given plain surface, that,
by moving parallel to itsell, is supposed
to generate an erect prism, or cyinider,
always equal to tlie solid. The velocity
with which an angle flows, is measured
by the velocity of a point, supposed to
describe the arc of a given circle, which
subtends the angle, and measures it. All
these velocities are measured at any term
of the time of ihe moiion, by the spaces
which would be desci ibed in a given lime
by these points, lines, or surfaces, with
their motions continued uniformly from
that term. The velocity with which a
quantity flows, at any term of tlie time
while it is supposed to be generated, is
called its tiuxion. See Fluxions.

Velocity of bodies muving in curves.
According to Galileo's system of the tall
of heavy bodies, which is now universally
admitted among pjiilosophers, the veloci-
ties of a body falling vertically are, at
each moment of its fall, a.s the square
roots of the heights from whence it has
faUeii; reckoning from the beginning of
the descent. And hence he inferred, that
if a body descend along an inclined plane,
the velocities ii has, at the difl'eient limes,
will be in the same ratio : for since its ve-
locity is all owing to its fall, and it only
fells as much as tliere is perpendicular
height in the inclined plane, the velocity
should be still measured by that height,
the same as if tfie fall were vertical. The
same principle led him also to conclude,
that if a body fall through several conti-
guous inclined planes, making any angles
with each other, much like a stick when
broken, the velocity would slill be regu-
lated after the same manner, by the ver-
tical heights of the dii!'erent planes taken
together, considering the last velocity as
the same that the body would acquire by

a fall through the same perpendiculai-
heigiit.

'I'his conclusion continued to be acqui-
esced in till the year 1672, when it was
demonstrated to be false, by James Gre-
gory, who shows what the real velocity is,
which a body acquires by descending
down two contiguous mclincd planes,
forming an obtuse angle, and that il is
difl'erent from the velocity which a body
acquires by descending perpendicularly
through the same height ; also that the
velocity in quilling the first plane, is to
that will) which it enters the second, and
in this latter direction, as radius to the co-
sine of the ai>gle of inclination between
the two planes.

This conclusion, however, it is observ-
ed, does not apply to the motions of de-
scent down any curve lines, because the
contiguous parts of curve lines do not
form any angle between them, and conse-
quently no part of the velocity is lost by
passing from one part of the curve to
the other; and hence he infers, that the
Velocities acquired in descending down a
continued curve line, are the same as by
failing perpendicularly through the same
heiglit. Tliis principle is then applied, by
the author, to the moiion of pendulums
and projt-ciiles.

Varignon too, in the year 1693, follow-
ed in ihe same track, showing that the
velocity tost in passing from one right
lined direction to anolher, becomes in-
deflnitely small in the course of a curve
line; and that therefore the doctrine of
Galileo iiolds good tor tlie descent of bo-
dies<!ovvn a curve line, tvz. that the velo-
city ac(juired at any point of the curve, is
eqiial to that which v.ouid be acquired by
a fail iluough the same perpendicular al-
titude.

VELVET, a rich kind of stufl*, all silk,
covered on the outside with a close, short,
fine, soft shag, the oilier <ide being a very
strong close tissue. The nap, or shag,
called al->o the velveting, of this stuff, is
formed of apart of ihe threads of the
warp, which tile workman puts on along
nanow-chunnelled rtiier or needle, which
he afierwaids cuts, by drawing a sha'p
steel tool along the channel of the needle
to the ends of the warp.

VEXEl'.L'ilNG, 01- Vaxeering, a kind
of inlaying, whereby several thin slices or
leaves of line woods, of diflierent kinds,
are applied and fastened on a ground of
some common wood. Tliere are two kinds
of inlaying; the one wluch is the most
comuKm and moie ordinary, goes no fur-
ther than the making of compartments of

VEN-

VEN

different woods; the other requires much
more art, in re|)resenting' fiovvers, birds,
and the like figures. The first kind is
properly called veneering ; the latter is
more properly called marquetry. The
wood used in veneering is first sawed out
into slices or leaves about a line in thick-
ness : i. e. the twelfth part of an inch. In
order to saw them, the blocks, or planks,
are placed upright in a kind of sawing
press These slices are afterwards cut
into narrow slips, and fashioned divers
ways, according to the design proposed ;
then the joints luiving been exactly and
nicely adjusted, and the pieces brought
down to their proper thickness, with se-
veral planes for the purpose, they are glued
down on a ground or block, with good
strong glue. The pieces being thus join-
ed and glued, the work, if small, is put in
a press ; if large, it is laid on a bench co-
vered with a board, and pressed down
with poles on pieces of wood, one end of
which reaches to the ceiling of the room,
and the other bears ontheboard. When
tlie glue is thoroughly dry, it is taken out
of the press and finished; first with little
planes, then with divers scrapers, some
of which resemble rasps, winch take off
the dents, &c. left by the planes. After it
has been sufficiently scraped, they polish
it with the skin of a sea-dog, w ax, and a
brush, or polisher, of shave grass ; which
IS the last operation.

VENTER, is used in the law for the
children by a woman of one marriage.
There is a first and second venter, &.c,
where a man hath children by several
wives.

VENTILAGO, in botany, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Essential character : calyx tubular;
corolla scales protecting the stamens,
which are inserted into the calyx; sa-
mara winged at the top, and one seeded.
There is only one species, viz. V. made-
raspatana.

VENTILATOR, a macliine by wliich
the noxious air of any close place, as an
hospital, jail, ship, chamber, &,c. may be
chan^vv'fi for fresh air.

VENl RE inspicieiido, a writ to search a
woman that saith she isMvith child, and
thereby withholds lands from the next heir.
As if a man, having lands in fee-simple,
die, .^n.l his widow soon after marry
again, Hi.d say she is with child by her
for,i)er husband ; in this case, this writ
de -Jicntre rnsplciendo lies for the heir
against her; by wliich writ the sheriff is
cororoanded, that in' presence of twelve
iftejj, a«id as many women, he cause exa-

mination to be made, whether the wo-
man is with child or not ; and if with
child, then about what time it will be
born ; and that he certify the same to the
justices of the assize, or at Westminster,
under his seal, and under the seals of two
of the men present. Cro. Elizabeth, 506.
This writ is now granted, not only to an
heir at law, but to a devisee, whether for
life, in tail, or in fee.

VENTRILOQUISM, an art of speak-
ing, by means of which the human voice
and other sounds are rendered audible, as
if they proceeded from various different
places; though the utlerer does not
change his place, and in many instances
does not appear to speak. It has been
supposed to be a natural peculiarity, be-
cause few, if any, persons have learned it
by being taught ; and we have had no
rules laid down for acquiring it. It seems
to have been in consequence of this no-
tion, that the name ventriloquism has been
applied to it, from a supposition that the
voice proceeds from the thorax or chest.
It has seldom been practised but by per-
sons of the lower classes of society ; and
us it does not seem to present any advan-
tages beyond that of causing surprize and
entertainment, and cannot be exhibited
on an extended theatre, the probability is
that it will continue amongst them.

Mr. Gough, in the Manchester Me-
moirs, and in various parts of Nicholson's
•fovirnal, has entertained the opinion, that
tlie voice of ventriloquists is made to pro-
ceed, in appearance, from different parts
of a room by the management of an echo.
But the facts themselves do not support
this hypothesis, as a great and sudden
variety and change of echoes would be
required ; and his own jridicious remark.s,.
in the same work, on the facility with
wliich we are deceived as to the direc-
tion of sound, are adverse to his theory.
From numerous attentive observations, it
appears manifest that the art is not pe-
culiar to certain individuals, btit may
with facility be acquired by any person of
accurate observation. It consists merely
in an imitation of snuuds, as they occur in
nature, accompanied with approjiriate
action, of such a description as may best
concur in leading the minds of the ob-
servers to favour the decepti(m.

Any one who shall try, will be a little
surprisedto find how easy it is to imitate
the noise made by a saw, or by a snuff-
box wlien opened or shut, or by a large
hand-bell, or a cork-cutter's knife, a
watch while going, and numberless other
inanimate objects; or the voices of ani-

i

VENTRILOQUISM.

mal.s in their various situations and neces-
sities, such as a cat, a dot^, or an hen en-
raged, intimidated, confined, &c. ; or to
vary the character of'the human voice by
shriHucss or depth of tone, rapidity or
dmwling of execution, and distinctness
or imperfection of articulating, which
may be instantly changed by holding the
mouth a little more open or more closed
than usual, altering the position of the
jaw, keeping the tongue in any determi-
nate situation, &c. And every one of the
imitations of the ventriloquists will be
rendered more perfect by practising
them at the very time the' sounds are
heard, instead of depending on the me-
mory. The leading condi^'on of per-
formance isi that the voices and sounds of
the dramatic dialogue to be exhibited,
should succeed each other so rapidly that
the audience should lose sight of the pro-
bability that one actor gives effect to the
wliole, and that where the business is
simple, the aid of scenery or local cir-
cumstance should be called in.

We have seen an eminent philosopher
of our own time, who had no previous
practice of this art, but when speaking
on the subject in a mixed company, took
up an ha', and folding the flaps together
said, by way of example, " Suppose I
had a small monkey in this hat;" and then
cautiously putting his hand in, as if to
catch it, he imitated the chatter of the
supposed struggling animal, at the same
time that his own ellbrts to secure it had
a momentary impression on the specta-
tors, which left no time for them to ques-
tion whether there was a monkey in it
or not : this impression was completed,
when, the instant afterwards, he pulled
out his hand as if hurt, and exclaimed
"he his bit me." It was not till then
that the impression of reality gave way
to the diversion arising from the mimic
art; and one of the company, even then,
cried out, " Is there really a monkey in
the hat ?"

In this manner it was that, at the be-
ginning of the last century, the famous
Tom King, who is said to have been the
first man who gave public lectures on ex-
perimental philosophy in this country,
was attended by the whole fashionable
world, for a succession of many nights,
to hear him " kill a calf." This per-
formance was done in a separate jiart of
the place of exhibition, into which the
exhibitor retired alone ; and the imagi-
nation of his polite hearers was taxed to
supply the calf and three butchers, be-

sides a dog who sometimes raised hi».
voice, and was checked for his unnecessa-
rv exertions. It appears, from tradition-
al narrative, that the calf was heard to be
dragged in, not without some efforts and
conversation on the psu-t of the butchers,
and noisy resistance from the calf; that
they conversed on the qualities of the
animal, and the profits to be expected
from the veal ; and tliat, as tlie} proceed-
ed, all the noises of knife and steel, of
suspending the creature, and of the last
fatal catastrophe, were heard in rapid
succession, to the never-failing satisfac-
tion of the attendants ; who, upon the
rise of the curtain, saw tliat all these
imaginary personages had vanished, and
Tom King alone remained to claim the
applause.

A similar fact may be quoted in the
person of that facetious gentleman who
has assumed and given celebrity to the
name of Peter Pindar. This great poet,
laughing at the proverbial poverty of his
profession, is sometimes pleased to en-
tertain his friends with unexpected effu-
sions if the art we speak of One of
these is managed by a messenger an-
nouncing to the Doctor (in the midst of
companv) that a person wants to speak
with him ; he accordingly goes out, leav-
ing the door a-Jar, and immediately a fe-
male voice is heard, which, from the na-
ture of the subject, appears to be that oF
the Poet's laundress, who complains of
her pressing wants, di a ^pointed claims,
and of broken promises, no longer to be
borne with patience. It is more easy to
imagine than describe the mixed emo-
tions of the audience. The scene, how-
ever, goes on by the Doctor's reply, who
remonstrates, promises, and is rather an-
grv at the time and pl.-ice of this unwel-
come visit. His antagonist unfortunately
is neither mollified nor disposed to quit
her ground. Passion increases on both
sides, and the Doctor forgets himself so
far as to threaten the irritated female ;
she defies him, and this last promise,
very unlike the former ones, is followed
by payment ; a severe slap on the face is
heard; the poor woman falls down stairs,
with horrid outcries ; the company, of
course, rises in alarm, and the Doctor is
found in a state of perfect trunquillity,
apparently a stranger to the whole trans-
action.

A very able ventriloquist, Fitz James,
performed in public, in Soho Squai-e,
about four years ago. He personated va-
rious characters by appropriate dresses j

VEJN

YEN

and by a command of the muscles of llie
fuce he could very much alter his iippear-
ance. He imitated many inanimate noises,
and among others, the repetition of noises
of the water-machine at Marli. He con-
versed with some statues, which replied
to him; and also with some persons sup-
posed to be in the room above, and on
the landing- place ; gave the watchman's
cry, gradually approaching, and when
he seemed opposite the window, Fitz-
James opened it, and asked what the
time was, received tlie answer, and dtir-
ing the proceeding with his cry, Fitz-
James shut the window, immediately up-
on which the sound became weaker, and
at last insensible. In the whole of his
performance it was clear that the notions
of the audience were governed by the
auxiliary circumstances, as to direction,
&.C. This mimic had, at least, six differ-
ent habitual modes of speaking, which
he could instantly adopt one after the
other, and with so much rapidity, that
when in a small closet, parted off in the
room, he gave a long, confused, and im-
passioned debate of Democrats (in
French, as almost the whole of his per-
formance was) ; it seemed to proceed
from a multitude of speakers : and an in-
accurate observer might have thought
that several were speaking at once. A
ludicrous scene of drawing a tooth was
performed in the same manner.

These examples, and many more which
might be added, are sufl^cient, in proof,
that venti-iloquism is the art of mimicry,
an imitation applied to sounds of ever}' de-
scription, and attended witii circumstan-
ces which produce an entertaining decep-
tion, and lead the hearers to imagine that
the voice proceeds from different situa-
tions. When distant, and consequently
low voices are to be imitated, the articu-
lation may be given with sufficient dis-
tinctness, without moving the lips or al-
tering the countenance. It was by a sup-
posed supernatural voice of this kind,
from a ventriloquist, that the famous
musical small-coal man, Thomas Britton,
received a warning of his death, which so
greatly aflected him that he did not sur-
vive the aflFright.

VENUE, the neighbourhood from
whence juries are to be summoned for
trial of causes. In local actions, as of
trespass and ejectment, the venue is to
be from the neighbourhood of the place,
where the lands in question lie ; and in
real actions the venue must be laid in the
county where the thing is for which the
action is brought ; but in transitory ac-

tions, for injuries that may have hai)pened
any where, as debt, detinue, slander, or
the like, the plaintive may declare in
what county he plea.ses, and then the trial
must be in that county in which the de-
claration is laid. Though if the defendant
will make affidavit that the cause of ac-
tion, if any, arose not in that, but in ano-
ther county, the court will direct a change
of the venue, and oblige the plaintiff to
declare in the proper county. And the
court will sometimes move the venue
from the proper jurisdiction (especially
of the narrow and limited kind), upon a
suggestion duly supported, that a fair and
impartial trial cannot be had therein.
With respect to criminal cases, it is or-
dained by statute 21 James I. c 4, that all
informations on penal statutes shall be
laid in the counties where the offences
were committed.

VENUS, the most beautiful star in the
heavens, known by the names of the
morning and evening star, likewise keeps
near the sun, though s!)e recedes from
him almost double the distance of Mer-
cury. She is never seen in the eastern
quarter of the heavens when the sun is
in the western ; but always seems to at-
tend him in the evening, or to give no-
tice of his approach in the morning. The
planet Venus presents the same pheno-
mena with Mercury : but her different
phases are mtich more sensible, her os-
cillations wider, and of longer duration.
Her greatest distance from the sun varies
from 45° to nearly 48°, and the mean du-
ration of a complete oscillation is 584
days. Venus has been sometimes seen
moving aci*oss the sun's disc in the form
of a round black spot, with an apparent
diameter of about 59^'. A few days after
this has been observed, Venus is seen in
the morning, west of the sun, in the form
of a fine crescent, with the convexity
turned toward the sun. She moves gra-
dually westward with a retarded motion,
and the crescent becomes more full. In
about ten weeks she has moved 46° west
of the sun, and is now a semicircle, and
her diameter is 26.' She is now station-
ary. She then moves eastward, with a
motion gradually accelerated, and over-
takes the sun about 9| months after hav-
ing been seen on his disc. Some time after
she is seen in the evening, east of the
siui, round, but very small. She moves
eastward, and increases in diameter, but
loses of her roundness, till she gets about
46° east of the sun, when she is again a
semicircle. She now moves westward,
increasing in diameter, but becoming a

YEN

VER

crescent like the waning moon ; and, at
last, after a period of nearly 584 days,
comes again into conjunction with the
'sun with an apparent diameter of 59".
She does not move exactly in the plane
of the ecliptic, but deviates from it several
degrees. Like Mercury, she sometimes
crosses the sim's disc. The duration of
these transits, as observed from different
parts of the earth's surface, are very dif-
ferent: tliis is owing to the parallax of
Venus, in consequence of wiiich different
observers refer to diflerent parts of the
sun's disc, and see her describe different
chords on that disc. In the transit which
happened in 1769, tlie difl'ercnce of its
duration, as observed at Otaheite and at
Wardhuys in Lapland, amounted to 23
minutes, 10 seconds. This difference
gives us the parallax of Venus, and of
course her distance from the earth during
a conjunction. The knowledge of this
parallax enables us, by a method to be
afterwards described, to ascertain that of
the sun, and consequently to discover its
distance from the earth. Tiie great vari-
ations of the apparent diameter of Venus
demonstrate that her distance from the
earth is exceedingly variable. It is largest
when the planet passes over the surface
of the sun. Her mean anparent diameter
is 58".

Venus, as we have already observed, is
occasionally seen in the disc of the sun,
in form of a dark round spot. This hap-
pens when the earth is about her nodes at
the time of her inferior conjunction.
These appearances, called transits, hap-
pen but very seldom. During the last
century there were two transits, one in
June, 1761, and the other in 1769 : no
other will occur till the writers and most
of the present readers of this Dictionary
shall be no more, viz. in 1874. Excepting
such transits as these, Venus exhibits the
same appearances to us regularly every
eight years ; her conjunctions, elonga-
tions, and times of rising and setting being
very nearly the same, on the same days,
as before. From the transit of Venus in
1761 was deduced tlie sun's parallax, and
of course his distance from 'the earth with
very great accuracy. See Philosophical
Transactions, vol. li. and lii. On the day
of the transit, when the sun was nearly at
his greatest distance from the earth, the
.parallax was found to be 8" 52'" ; there-
fore, at his mean distance it will he 8"
65'". Whence, by logtuithms, wc have
ia;000, &c— 5.622 (sii^e of 8" 65"')=,
4.376=23882.84, the number of scmi-
diaraeters of die earth contained in its dis-

tance from the sun. This last numbei',
multiplied by 3985, the number of miles
in the earth's semi-diameter, gives 95,173-
122 miles for the mean distance of the
earth from the sun. This being obtained,
we easily, by calculation, find the dis-
tances of all the other planets. Other ob-
ser\'ers made the parallax somewhat dif-
ferent, but it was generally admitted that
this distance is somewhere between 9.5
and 96 millions of niiles.

Vknus, in natural history, a genus of the
Vermes Testacea class and order. Animal
a tethys ; shell bivalve, the frontal mar-
gin flattened with incunibent lips ; hinge
with three teeth, all of them approximate,
the lateral ones divergent at the tip.
There are nearly two hundred species,
in sections. A. Shell somewhat heart-
shaped. B. Orbicular. These are found
in different parts of the world. V. verru-
cosa inhabits the MecUterranean, Ei^glish,
and Antilly coasts : thick, two inches
long, and as much broad ; sometimes
marked with a few brown spots and rays.
V. mercenaria, or clam, is the species
which abounds in the bays of the United
States ; is edible, and is brought to mar-
ket in great quantities.

VERATRUM, in botany, a genus of the
Pol} gamia Monoecia class and order. Na-
tural order of Coronuriae. Junci, Jussieu.
Essential cliaracter : calyx none ; corolla
six-pet ailed ; stamina six : hermaphro-
dite, pistils three ; capsule many-seeded :
male, rudiment of a pistil. There are
four species.

VERB. See Grammau.

VERUASCUM, in botany, vmllien, a
genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class
and order. Natural order of Luridae. So-
laneae, Jussieu. Essential character : co-
rolla wheel-shaped, a little unequal ;
capsule two-celled, two-valved. There
are nineteen species.

VERBENA, in botany, ven'ain, a ge-
nus of the Diandria Monog^'nia class and
order. Natural order of Personatse.
Vitices, Jussieu. Essential character:
corolla 'funnel-shaped, almost equal,
curved ; calyx one of the teeth truncate ;
seeds two or four, naked, or very thinly
arilled ; stamina two or foiii-. There are
twenty-three species.

VERBESINA, in botany, a genus of
the Syngenesia Polygamia SuperHua class
and order. Natural order of Compositx
Oppositifolise. Corymbiterse, Jussieu.
Essential character : calyx a double row;
florets of the ray about five ; pappijii
av.'ned ; receptacle chaffy. Therfe are
twelve species.

VER

VER

VERDICT, the answer of a jury made
upon any cause, civil or criminal, com-
mitted by the court to their examina-
tion; an(l this is two-fold, general or spe-
cial. A g-eueral verdict is that which is
given or brought into tlie court in hke
general terms to the general issue; as,
giiilty or not guilty generally. A special
verdict is, when llie}- say at large that
such a tiling they find to be done by the
defendant, or tenant, so declaring the
course of the fact, as In their opinion it is
proved ; and as to the law upon the fact,
they pray the Judgment of the court :
and this special verdict, if it contain any
ample declaration of the cause from the
begiiwiing to tlie end, is also called a ver-
dict at laVge. A special verdict is usually
found where tliere is any difficulty or
doubt, respecting tlie laws, when the
jury state tlie facts as proved, and pray
the advice of the court thereon. A less
expensive ai>d more speedy mode, how-
ever, is to hnd a verdict generally for the
plaintiff, sul)ject, nevertheless to the
opinion of the judge, or the court above,
or a special case drawn up and settled
by counsel on both sides.

VEUDITER, a kind of mineral sub-
stance, sometimes used by the painters,
&c. for a blue ; but more usually mixed
with a yellow for a green colour.

YEUDOY, in heraldry, denotes a bor-
dure of a coat of arms, charged with any
kinds or parts of flowers, fruits, seeds,
plants, &c.

VERGE, signifies the compass of the
King's court, which bounds the jurisdic-
tion of the Lord Steward of the House-
hold ; and which is thought to have been
twelve miles round.

The term verge is also used for a stick
or rod, 'whereby one is admitted tenant
to a copyhold estate, by holding it in his
hand, and swearing fealty to tlie lord of
the manor.

VER(JERS, certain officers of the
courts of King's Rcnch and Common
Pleas, whose business it is to carry white
wands before the judges.

There are also vergers of cathedrals
and collegiate churches, who carry a rod
tippe«l with silver before the bishop,
dean, Sec.

VERGETTE, in herakhy, denotes a
pallet, or small pale ; and hence a shield,
divided by such pallets, is termed ver-
gette.

VERIUICE, a liquor obtained from

' grapes or appks, unfit for wine or cyder ;

or from sweet ones, whilst yet acid a]|d

unripe. Its chief use is in sauces, ragouts.

&c. though it is also an ingredient in sonro
medicinal compositions, and is used by
the wax-chandlers to purify their wax.

VERMES, in natural history, the last
class of the animal kingdom, according to
the Linnaean system. 'I'he aninials in this
class are not merely those commonly
known by the name of worms, but like-
wise those which have the general cha-
racter of being " slow in motion, of a soft
substance, extremely tenacious of life,
capable of re-producing such parts of
their body as may have been Uiken away
or destroyed, and inhabiting moist places.**
There are five oi-ders in this class, viz.
the

Infusoria
Intestina
Moliusca

T<'stacea
Zoopliyta

These atiimals are generally considered
as the lowest in the scale of animiuetl be-
ing. The simplicity of their form, the
humility of their station, and the low de-
gree of sense and motion which they seem
to enjoy, have rendered them objects of
but little attention to mankind in general,
excepting as they contribute to the sup-
ply of their wants, or to render them-
selves formidable, by the pain and distress
which they occa.sion to those bo<lies which '
nature seems to have destined for their
habitation. But, to the curious investiga-
tor of the ways of heaven, every part of
the vast creation becomes interesting, and
this class of animated beings has, in later
times, attracted a considerable share of
attention. To this they seem fully enti-
tled, if we consider the number of animals
which are included under the general
name of worms ; if we observe the simpli-
city of form in some of them, and the com.
plicated structure of others ; in short, if
we reflect on the various modes in which
they are propagated, and on the surpris-
ing faculty, which many of them possess,
of spontaneous reproduction ; the imagi-
nation will be astonished with their nuni- '
her and variety, and confounded by their
wonderful properties. The waters are
peojiled with myriads of animated beings,
which, though invisible to our unassisted
eyes, are unquestionably endowed with
organs as perfect as the largest animals,
since, like these, they re-produce others
similar to themselves, and hold it) the
scale of nature a rank as little equivocal,
though less obvious and olitrusive. The
elegance of form, and beauty of colour,
which some of the " moliusca," and " zoo-
phyta" possess, cannot fail to render them

VER

VER

objects of admiration to the most indiffe-
rent observer.

VERMICELLI, a composition of flour,
cheese, yolks of eg-gs, sug-ar, and saffron,
reduced to a paste, and formed into long-
slender pieces, like worms, by forcing it
with a piston through a number of little
holes.

VERNIER, a scale adapted for the gra-
duation of mathematical instruments, so
called from Pierre Vernier the inventor.
Under the article B auometer will be seen
some account of this scale as applied to
that instrument ; here we shall take it up
more generally.

This scale is derived from the following
principle. If two equal right lines, or
circular arcs, A li, are so divided, .jiat the
number of equal divisions in B is one less
than the number of equal divisions in A
then will the excess of one division of A,
be compounded of the ratios of one of A
10 A, and of one of B to B. For let A
contain 11 parts, then one of A to A is as

1 to 11, or --. Let B contain 10 parts, then

one of B to B is as 1 to 10, or—. Now

1 1 _11— 10__ 1 1_ J_

10 11~10X11~"1W Xll~"10'^ll"
Or if B contains n parts, and a contains

n-f-l parts ; then— is one part of B, and

1

— ; — is one part of A. And —
n-fra * n

+ 1

:=1X-

1

n 4- 1

n X n^i

The most commodious divisions, and
their aliquot parts, into which the degree.s
on the circular limb of an instrument may
be supposed to be divided, depend on
the raditis of that instrument.

Let 11 be the radius of a circle in inches ;
and a degree to be divided into n part.s,

each being - tli part of an inch
P
Now the circumference of a circle, in
parts of its diameter 2 R inches, is 3.1415
926 X 2 R inches.

Then 360° : 3.1415926 X 2 R : : 1° :
3.141^J26 „ ^ . ,
— ^n — X 2 R mches.
oUU

Or, 0.01745329 X R is the length of
one degree in inches.

Or, 0.01745329 x R X /> is the length
of 1°, in pth parts of an inch.

But as every degree contains n times
such parts, therefore n = 0.01745329 X
RXp.

VOL. VT

The most commodious perceptible di-
vision is 3 or — - of an inch,
o lU

Example. Suppose an instrument of 30
inches radius, into how many convenient
parts may each degree be divided .-' how
many of these parts are to go to the
breadth of the vernier, and to what parts
of a degree may an observation be made
by that instrument ?

Now, 0.01745 X R = 0.5236 inches,
the length of each degree : and if p is

supposed about — of an inch for one divi-

o

sion ; then 0.5236 X p == 4.188 shows
the number of such parts in a degree.
But as this number must be an integer,
let it be 4, each being 15' ; and let the
breadth of the vernier contain 31 of those
parts, or 7-^°, and be divided into 30 parts.
1 1,11

Here;i=-;m = 3-;then-X3^j- =

— of a degree, or 30^, which is the least

part of a degree that instrument can show.

If n = -, and m =: ^r^-; then -Xtt-=
5 36 5^36

of a minute, or 20'',

5 X 36

VERONICA, in botany, speedwell, a ge-
nus of the Diandria Monogynia class and
order. Natural order of Personatae, Pe-
diculares, Jussieu. Essential character :
corolla four-cleft, wheel-shaped, with the
lowest segment narrower ; capsule supe-
rior, two-celled. There are fifty- seven
species.

VERSED sine of a7i arch, a segment of
the diameter of a circle, lying between
the foot of a right sine, and the lower
extremity of the arch.

VERT, in heraldry, the term for a
green colour. It is called vert in the bla-
zon of the coats of all under the degree
of nobles ; but in coats of nobility, it is
called emerald ; and in those of kings,
Venus. In engraving, it is expressedby
diagonals, or lines drawn athwart from
right to left, from the dexter chief corner
to the sinister base.

A'^ERT, or Greex hue, in forest law, any
thing that grows and bears a green leaf
witmn the forest, that may cover a deer.
This is divided into over-vert and nether-
vert ; ovef-vert is the great woods which,
in law-books, are usually called hault-
bois ; nether-vert is the underwoods,
otherwise called sub-bois. We sometimes
also meet with special vert, which de-
notes all trees growing in the king'.s
woods within the forest ; and those which

3 V

YES

TIB

"April 26th, in the evening-, at nine
o'clock, true time, I succeeded in effect-
ing the measurement of Vesta, with the
same power of 288, by means of the
thirteen feet reflector, with which that of
Ceres, Fallas, and Juno, had been made ;
and when viewed by this reflector, it also
appeared exactly in the same manner.
Of several illuminated discs, of 2.0 to
0.5 decimal lines, which I had before
made use of for measuring the satellites
of Saturn and Jupiter, the smallest disc
only of 0.5 lines could be used for this
purpose ; by it the rounded nucleus of
the planet Ve.sta, when the disc was at
the distance of 611.0 lines from the eye,
appeared almost of tlie same size, and I
must even estimate its diameter as one-
sixth smaller. If, therefore, we attend,
not to the full magnitude of the projec-
tion, but the estimation just mentioned,
it follows, by calculation, that the appa-
rent diameter of the planet Vesta is only
0.488 seconds, and consequently, only
half of what I have found to be the appa-
rent diameter of the fourth satellite of
Saturn. This extraordinary smallness,
with such an intense, radiant, and un-
steady light of a fixed star, is the more
remarkable, as, according to the preli-
minary calculations of Dr. Gauss, there
can be no doubt that this planet is found
in the same region between Mars and Ju-
piter, in which Ceres, Pallas, and Juno,
perform their revolutions round the sun;
that, in close union witli them, it has the
same cosmological origin ; and that, as a
planet of such smallness and of so very
intense light, it is comparatively near to
the earth. This remarkable circumstance
will no doubt be ])roductive of important
cosmological observations, as soon as the
elements of the new planet have been
sulTiciently determined, and its distance
from the earth ascertained by calcula-
tion."

Much of what is said of Vesta is appli-
cable to the other small planetary bodies
referred to in this article.

VESTRY, a place adjoining to a church,
where the vestments of the minister are
kept ; also a meeting at such place, where
the minister, churchwardens, and princi-
pal men of most parislies, at this day,
make a parish vestry. On tlie Sunday be-
fore a vestry is to meet, public notice
ought to be given, either in the church,
or after divine service is ended, or else at
the church door, as the parishioners come
out, both of the calling of the meeting,
and also the time and place of the assem-
bling of it ; and it is reasonable then also
to declare for what business the meeting

IS to be held, that none may be surpri.5ed, ;
but that all may have fud time before, to
consider of what is to be proposed at the j
meeting. i
VESUVIAN, in mineralogy, a species j
of the Flint genus ; it is of a dark olive- '
green, which passes into a blackish green, j
h occurs massive, often crystallized. ^
Specific gravity about 3.5. Before the '
blow-pipe, it melts without addition, into !
a yellowish and faintly translucent glass. ;
It is found among the exuvise of Vesu- ■
vius, in a rock composed of mica, horn- '
blende, garnet, and calx spar, which Wer- '
ner imagines to constitute part of the pri- ;
mitive mass on which that volcanic moun- -\
tain rests. It has also been found in Sibe-
ria, and in Kamtschatka. At Naples it is ^
cut into ring stones, and is sold under ;
various names. Two specimens have been *
analyzed by Klaproth ; the results are as 4
follow : *
Vesuvian of Vesuviu s.

Silica 35.50 j

Lime 33.00 1

Alumina 22.25 i

Oxide of iron .... 7.50

Oxide of manganese . 025

Loss ... 1.50

100.00 i

Vesuvian of Siberia.

Silica 42.00

Lime 34.00

Alumina . ... 16.25

Oxide of iron . . . 550

Loss . . . 2.25

100 00

VESUVIUS, a famous volcano, or
burning mountain, situated only six miles
east of the city of Naples, in Italy. See
Volcano.

VIBIIATION, in mechanics, a regular
reciprocal motion of a body, as, for exam-
ple, a pendulum, which, being freely sus-
pended, swings or vibrates from side to
side. Mechanical authors, instead of vi-
bration, often use the term oscillation
especially when speaking of a body that
thus swings by means of its own gravity
or weight.

The vibrations of the same pendulum
are all isochronal ; that is, they are per-
formed in an equal time, at least in the
same latitude ; fbr'in lower latitudes they
are found to be slower than in higher
ones. See Pendulum. In our latitude,
a pendulum 39i inches long vibrates se-
conds, making 60 vibrations in a minute.

;

VIB

VIC

The vibrations of a longer pendulum
take up more time than those of a sliorter
one, and that in the siib-dupllcate ratio of
the lengths, or the ratio of the square
roots of the lengths. Thus, if one pendu-
lum be 40 inches long, and another only
10 inche!> long, the former will be double
the time of the latter in performing a vi-
bration ; for v' 40 : v/ 10 :: v/ 4 : v/ 1,
that is, as 2 to 1. And because the num-
ber of vibrations, made in any given time,
is reciprocally as the duration of one vi-
bration, therefore tlie number of such vi-
brations is in Ihe reciprocal subduplicate
ratio of the lengths of the pendulums.

Vibrations of a stretched chord, or
string, arise from its elasticity ; vhich
power being in this case similar to gravi-
ty, as acting uniformly, the vibrations of a
cliord follow the same laws as those of
pendulums. Consequently the vibrations
of the same chord, equally stretched,
though they be of unequal lengths, are
isochronal, or are pertbrmed in equal
times ; and the squares of the times of
vibration are to one another inversely as
their tensions, or powers by which they
are stretched. The vibrations of a spring,
too, are proportional to the powers by
whicii it is bent. These follow the same
laws as those of the chord and pendu-
lum ; and consequently are isochronal,
which is the foundation of spring-watches.

Vibrations are also used in physics,
&c. and tor several other regular alter-
nate motions. Sensation, for instance, is
supposed to be performed by means of
the vibratory motion of the contents of
the nerves, begun by external objects, and
propagated to the brain. This doctrine
has been particularly illustrated by Dr.
Hartley, who has extended it further than
any other writer, in establishing a new
theory of our mental operations. The
same ingenious author also applies the
doctrine of vibrations to the explanation
«f muscular motion, which he thinks is
performed in the same general manner as
sensation and the perception of ideas. For
a particular account of his theory, and the
arguments by which it is supported, see
his " Observations on Man," vol. 1. : see
also Belsham's « Elements ;" and " In-
troductory Essays to Hartley," by Dr.
Priestley.

VIBRIO, in natural history, a genus of
the Vermes Infusoria class and order.
Worm invisible to the naked eye, very
simple, round, elongated. There are
twenty species, described by Adams, and
other authors on the microscope.

VIBURNUM, in botany, laumstiiuta, a
genus of the Pentandria Trigynia class
and order. Natural order of Dumosx. Ca-
prilolia, Jussieu. Essential character : ca-
lyx five-parted, superior; corolla five-
cleft ; berry one-seeded. There are twen-
ty three species.

VICAR, one who supplies the place of
another. The priest of every parish is call-
ed rector, unless the przedial tithes iwe
appropriated, and then he is stiled vic;ir ;
and when rectories are appropriated^ vi-
cars are to Siupply the rector's place. For
the maintenance of the vicar, tliere vvat
then set apart a certain portion of the
tithes, commonly about a third part of the
whole, which are now what are called
the vicarial titlies, the rest being reserved
to the use of those houses whicij, for the
like reason, are termed the rectorial tithes.

VICARAGE. For the most part vicar-
ages were endowed upon appropriations j
but sometimes vicarages have been endow-
ed without any appropriation of the parson-
age ; and there are several churches
where the tithes are wholly impropriated,
and no vicarage endovv^ed ; and there the
impropriators are bound to maintain cu-
rates to perform divine service, &c. The
parsons, patron, and ordinary, may create
a vicarage, and endow it ; and in time of
vacancy of the church, the patron and
ordinary may do it ; but the ordinary
alone cannot create a vicarage, without
the patron's assent.

VICE, in smithery, and other arts em-
ployed in metals, is a machine, or instru-
ment, serving to hold fast any thing they
are at work upon, whether it is to be filed,
bent, riveted, &.c. To file square, it is ab-
solutely necessary that the vice be placed
perpendicular, with its |chaps parallel to
the work-bench.

Vice, hcmd, is a small kind of vice
serving to hold the lesser works in, that
require often turning about. Of these
there are two kinds : the broad-chapped
hand-vice, which is that commonly used ;
and the square-nosed hand-vice, seldom
used but for filing small round work.

Vice is also a machine used by the
glaziers to turn or draw lead into flat
rods, with grooves on each side to receive
the edges of the glass.

Vice is also used in the composition
of 3ivers words, to denote the relation of
something that comes instead, or in the
place of another; as vice-admiral, vice-
chancellor, vice-chamberlain, vice-presi-
dent, &c. are officers who take place in
the absence of admirals, &c. See the ar-
ticle Admiral, &c.

VIE

VIE

VICIA, in botany, vetch, a genus of the
Diadelphia Decantliia class and order.
Natural order of" Papilionaceae, or Legu-
minosx. Essential character : stigma
transversely bearded on tlie lower side.
There are twenty-hve species.

VICINAGE, in law, common of vici-
nage IS, where the inhabitants of two
townships, which lie contiguous, have
usually intercommoned with one another,
the beasts ot the one straying mutually
into the other's fields without, any moles-
tation from either. This, indeed, is only a
permissive right, intended to excuse
what, in strictness, is a trespass in both,
and to prevent a multiplicity of suits ;
and therefore either township may inclose
and bar out the other, though they have
intercommoned time out of mind. Neither
has any person of one town a right to put
his beasts, originally, into the other's
common ; but if they escape and stray
there of themselves, the law does not pun-
ish trespass.

VIET ARMIS, ivith force and arms, in
law, are words used in indictments, de-
clarations, &c. to express the charge of
forcible and violent committing any crime
or trespass ; but on appeal of death, on ^
killing with a weapon, the words vi et ar-
rr.is are not necessary, because they are
implied ; so in an indictment of forcible
entry alleged to have been made mamt
forti, &c.

VIET A (Francis,) in biography, a
very celebrated French mathematician,
was born in 1540, at Fontenai, a province
of France. Among other branches of
learning in which he excelled, he was one
of the most respectable mathematicians
of the sixteenth century, or indeed of any
age. His writings abound with marks of
great originality, and the finest genius,
as well as intense application. His appli-
cation was such, that, it is said, he has
sometimes remained in his study for three
days together, without eating or sleep-
ing. His inventions and improvements,
in all parts of the mathematics, were ve-
ry considerable. He was in a manner the
inventor and introducer of specious alge-
bra, in which letters are used instead of
numbers. He made also considerable
improvements in geometry and trigono-
metry. He gave some masterly tracts on
trigonometry, both plane and spherical,
which may be found in the collection of
bis works, published at Leyden in 1646,
by Schooten, besides another large and
separate volume in folio, published in the
author's life time, at Paris, in 1579, con-
taining extensive trigonometrical tables.

with the construction and use of the sanae.
To this complete treatise on trigonome-
try, plane and spherical, are subjoined
several miscellaneous problems and ob-
servations, such as, the quadrature of the
circle, the duplication of the cube, 8tc.
Computations are here given of the ratio
of the diameter of a circle to the circum-
ference, and of the length of the sign of
one minute, both to a great many places
of figures; by which he found that the
sine of one minute is

between 2908881959
and 2908882056

also the diameter of a circle, being 1000,
&c. that the perimeter of the inscribed
and circumscribed polygon of 393216
sides, will be as follows, viz. the

11415926535

Perimeter of the inscrib-

ed polygon

Perimeter of the circum- ) «, . , coo<:cTr

scribed polygon .. ^31415926537

and tliat therefore the circumference of
the circle lies between those two num-
bers.

Vieta was also a profound decypherer,
an accomplishment that proved very use-
ful to his country. As the different parts
of the Spanish monarchy lay very distant
from one another, when they had occa-
sion to communicate any secret designs,
they wrote them in ciphers and unknown
characters, during the disorders of the
league : the cipher was composed of more
than 500 different characters, which
yielded their hidden contents to the pe-
netrating genius of Vieta alone. His skill
so disconcerted the Spanish councils for
two years, that they published it at Rome,
and other parts of Europe, that the
French King had only discovered their
ciphers by means of magic. He died at
Paris, in the year 1603, in the sixty-third
year of his age.

VIEW, in law, is generally where a
real action, or an action of trespass, is
brought in any of the Courts of Record at
Westminster, and it shall appear to the
court to be proper and necessary that the
jurors should have a view, they may or-
der special writs of distringas or habeas
corpora, to issue, commanding the sheriff
to have six of the first twelve of the ju-
rors therein named, or of some greater
number of them, at the place in question,
&c. This is done where it is of any im-
portance to the determination of the
cause, to be acquainted with the local

VIN

VIN

situation and actual state of the place in*
jured

VILLAIN, or Villein, in our ancient
customs, denotes a man of servile and
base condition, viz. a bondman or ser-
vant : and there were anciently two sorts
of bondmen or villains in England: the
one termed a villain in gross, who was
immediately bound to the person of his
lord and his heirs ; the other a villain re-
gardent to a manor, he being bound to
his lord as a member belonging and an-
nexed to the manor whereof the lord was
owner ; and he was properly a pure vil-
lain, of whom the lord took redemption
to marry his daughter, and to make him
free ; and whom the lord might put out
of his lands and tenements, goods and
chattels, at his will, and beat and chastise,
but not maim him.

VINCULUM, in algebra, a mark or
character, either drawn over, or including,
or some other way accompanying, a fac-
tor, divisor, dividend, &c. when it is com-
pounded of several letters, quantities, or
terms, to connect them together as one
quantity, and show that they are to be
multiplied, or divided, &c. together. Vi-
eta first used the bar or line over the quan-
tities for a vincuKim, thus a -\- b; and
Albert Girard the parenthesis, thus
fa -{- 6J ; the former way being now
chiefly used by the English, and the lat-
ter by most other Europeans. Thus
a -f- 6 X c, ov fa -\- bj X c, denotes
the product of c and the sum a -\- b con-
sidered as one quantity. Also ^ a-{- b,
or ^ fa -{- bj, denotes the square root
of the sum a -\- b. Sometimes the mark
: is set before a compound factor, as a
vinculum, especially when it is very long,
or an infinite series : thus 3a X : 1 — 2x
-f 3x^—43:3 -f 5xS,&c.

VINE. See Vitis.

VINCA, in botany, perhmikle^ a genus
of the Pentandria Monogynia class and
order. Natural order of Contortae. Apo-
cine?e, Jussieu. Essential character : con-
torted ; follicles two, erect ; seeds naked.
There are five species.

VINEGAR is a liquor of an agreeable
smell, a pleasant and strongly acid taste,
and of a hue varying from light-red to
brown-straw colour; and is prepared by
fermenting any substance or compound
■which has already undergone the spiritu-
ous fermentation. Vinegar, therefore,
may be made immediately from any wine,
malt liquor, cyder, &c. ; or from the juice
of the grape and other fruits ; from infu-
sion of malt, or any saccharine liquid,

through the intermedium of vinous fej-
mentation. Both these methods are ac-
tually practised with complete success.
To make vinegar out of a liquor contain-
ing suitable materials, it is only necessa-
ry, 1st, to allow some access of air to the
vessel in which it is kept ; and 2d to keep
it in a temperature rather higher than that
of the atmosphere in this climate, that is
to say, about 75° to 80°. It is also al-
most essential, where a liquor already fer-
mented is employed, to add a porticm of
yeast, or any other ferment ; for though
any fermented liquor, if kept in a mode-
rate temperature in an open vessel, will
spontaneously run sour, or become chang-
ed to vinegar ; this change is too gradual
to produce this acid in perfection, and the
first acetified portion turns mouldy before
the last has become sour : but where the
substance employed has not yet under-
gone fermentation, the whole process of
the vinous and subsequent acetous fer-
mentation will goon uninterruptedly with
the same ferment which at first set it in
action, which happens, for example, in
the making vinegar from malt, or from
sugar and water. In this country vinegar
is chiefly made from malt. The follow-
ing is the usual process in London : A
mash of malt and hot water is made,
which, after infusion for an hour and a
half, is conveyed into a cooler, a few
inches deep, and thence, when sufficient-
ly cooled, into large and deep fermenting
tuns, where it is mixed with yeast, and
kept in fermentation for four or five days.
The liquor, (which is now a strong ale
without hops) is then distributed into
smaller barrels, set close together in a
stoved chamber, and a moderate heat is
kept up for about six weeks ; during
which the fermentation goes on equally
and uniformly till the whole is soured.
This is then emptied into common barrels,
which are set in rows (often of many hun-
dreds) in a field in the open air, the bung-
hole being just covered with a tile, to
keep off the wet, but to allow a free ad-
mission of air. Here the liquor remains
for four or five months, according to the
heat of the weather, a gentle fermenta-
tion being kept up till it becomes perfect
vinegar. This is finished in the following
way : Large tuns are employed, with a
false bottom, on which is put a quantity
of the refuse of raisins, or other fruit, left
by the makers of raisin and other home-
made wines, called technically rape.
These rape-tuns are worked by pairs ;
one of them is quite filled with the vinegar
from the barrels, and the other only

VIR

VIS

three-quarters full, so that the fermenta-
tion is excited more easily in the latter
than the former ; anJ every day a portion
of the vinegar is laded from one to the
olher, till Ihe whole is com])letely finish-
ed, and fit for sale. Yineg-ar, as well as
Fruit- wines, is often made in small quanti-
tiiy for domestic uses, and the process is
by no means difficult. The materials may
he either brown sugar and water alone, or
sugar with raisins, currants, and especial-
ly "ripe gooseberries: these should be
liiixed in the proportions which would
give a strong wine, put into a small bar-
rel, which it should fill about three-
fourths, and the bunghole very loosely
stopped. Some yeast, or, what is better,
a toast sopped in yeast, should be put in,
and the barrel set in the sun in summer,
or a little way from a fire in winter, and
the fermentation will soon begin. This
should be kept up constant, but very mo-
derate, till the taste and smell indicate
that the vinegar is complete. It should
be poured offcl&ar, and bottled carefully;
and it will keep much better if it is boiled
for a minute, cooled, and strained before
bottling. Vinegar contains a considera-
ble quantity of colouring extractive mat-
ter, from which it can only be fieed by
distillation; the process of which will
be clearly understood by a reference to
the article Distillation. See also
AcET I c acid. When vinegar is long kept,
especially exposed to the air, it becomes
muddy, acquires a mouldy, unpleasant
smell, loses its clear red colour and all
its pioperties, and finally, is changed to a
slimy mucilage and water.

VIOL, in music, a stringed instrument,
resembling in shape and tone the violin,
of which it was the origin.

VIOLA, in botany, violet, a genus of the
Syngenesia Monogamia class and order.
I^atural order of Campanacex. Cisti,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx five-
leaved ; corolla fivepetalled, irregular,
horned at the back ; anthers cohering ;
capsule superior, one-celled, three-
valved. There are forty-three species :
some of these plants are highly esteem-
ed, particidarly the V. odorata, sweet,
violet, for its fragrance ; it is a native of
every part of Europe, in woods, among
bushes, in hedges, and on warm banks,
flowering early in the spring.

VIOLIN. See Musical iiistrmneiits.
VIOLONCELLO. See Musical instm-
meiits.
VIPER. See Colubkr.
VIRECTA, in botany, a genus of the
Pcntandria Monogynia class and order.

Natural order of Rubiaceoe, Jussieu. Es-
sential character: calyx five-toothed, with
teeth interposed ; corolla funnel-form ;
stigma two-parted ; capsule one-celled,
many-seeded, inferior. There are two
species, viz. V. bi flora, two-flowered vi-
recta ; and V. pratensis.

VIUGO, in astronomy, one of the signs
or constellations of the zodiac, and the
sixth according to order. It is marked
thus irp, and in Ptolemy's catalogue con-
sists of thirty-two stars, in Tycho's of
thirty-nine, and in the Britannic of eighty-
nine.

VIIlTUAL/oc?«s, in optics, is a point in
.the axis of a glass, where the continuation
of a refracted ray mehs it.

VIS, a Latin word, signifying force or
power ; adopted by physical v/rit{ rs to
express divers kinds of natural powers or
faculties. Vis impressa is defined, by Sir
Isaac Newton, to be tiie action e.xercised
on any body, to change its state, either
in resisting, or moving uniformly in a
right line. This force consists altogether
in the action, and has no place in the bo-
dy, after the action is ceased. See Iner-
tia, &c.

VISCUM, in botany, misseltoe, a genus
of the Dioecia Tetandria class and order.
Natural order of Aggregatae, Linnaeus.
Caprifolia, Jussieu. Essential character :
male, calyx four-parted ; corolla none ;
filaments none ; anthers fastened to the
calyx: female, calyx four-leaved, supe-
rior ; corolla none ; style none ; berry
one-seeded ; seed cordate. There are
twelve species.

VISIBLE, something that is an object
of .sight or 'ision, or something whereby
the eye is affected, so as to produce a
sensation.

The Cartesians say that light alone is
the proper object of vi.sion. But accord-
ing to Newton, colour alone is the proper
object of sight ; colour being that pro-
perty of light by which the light itself is
visible, and by which the images of
opaque bodies are painted on the retina.
Philosophers in general had formerly
taken for granted, that the place to which
the eye refers any visible object, seen by
reflection or refraction, is that in which
the visual ray meets a perpendicular
from the object upon the reflecting or the
refracting plane. That this is the case
with respect to plane mirrors is univer-
sally acknowledged ; and some experi-
ments with mirrors of other fonns seem
to favour the same conclusion, and thus
aftbrd reason for extending the analogy
to all cases of vision. If a right line be

VIS

VIS

held perpendicularly over a convex or
concave mirror, its image seems to make
one line with it. The same is the case
with a right line held perpendicularly
within water ; for the part which is with-
in the water seems to be a continuation
of that which is without. But Dr. Bar-
row called in question this method of
judging of the place of an object, and so
opened a new field of inquiry and debate
in this branch of science. This, with
other optical investigations, he published
in his Optical Lectures, first printed in
1674. According to him, we refer every
point of an object to the place from which
the pencils of light issue, or from which
they would have issued, if no reflecting
or refracting substance intervened. Pur-
suing this principle, Dr. Barrow proceed-
ed to investigate the place in which the
rays issuing from each of the points of an
object, and that reach the eye after one
reflection or refraction, meet; and he
found that when the refracting surface
was plane, and the refraction was made
from a denser medium into a rarer, those
rays would always meet in a place be-
tween the eye and a perpendicular to
the point of incidence. If a convex mir-
ror be used, the case will be the same ;
but if the mirror be plane, the rays will
meet in the perpendicular, and beyond
it, if it be concave. He also determined,
according to these principles, what form
the image of a right line will take when
it is presented in different manners to a
spherical mirror, or when it is seen
through a refracting medium.

M. Bouguer adopts Barrow's general
maxim, in supposing that we refer objects
to the place from which the pencils of
rays seemingly converge at their entrance
into the pupil. But when rays issue
from below the surface of a vessel of wa-
ter, or any other refracting medium, he
finds that there are always two different
places of this seemingconvergence: one of
them of the rays that issue from it in the
same vertical circle, and therefore fall
with different degrees of obliquity upon
the surface of the refi'acting medium ;
and another of those that fall upon the
surface with the same degree of obliquity,
entering the eye laterally with respect to
one another. He says, sometimes one of
these images is attended to by the mind,
and sometimes the other ; and different
images may be observed by different per-
sons. And he adds, that an object
plunged in water affords an example of
tliis duplicity of images.
From the principle above illustrated,
vol.. M

several remarkable phenomena of vision
may be accounted for : as — That if the
distance between two visible objects be
an angle that is insensible, the distant
bodies will appear as if contiguous :
whence, a continuous body being the result
of several contiguous ones, if the dis-
tances between several visibles subtend
insensible angles, they will appear one
continuous body; which gives a pretty
illustration of the notion of a continuum.
Hence also parallel lines, and long vistas,
consisting of parallel rows of trees, seem
to converge more and more, the further
they are extended from the eye ; and the
roofs and floors of long extended alleys
seen, the former to descend, and tlie lat-
ter to ascend, and approach each other ;
because the apparent magnitudes of their
perpendicular intervals are perpetually
diminishing, while at the same time we
mistake their distance. Sec Priestley's
Light and Colours.

The mind perceives the distance of vi-
sible objects, 1st, From the different con-
figurations of the eye, and the manner in
which the rays strike the eye, and in
which the image is impressed upon it.
For the eye disposes itself differently,
according to the different distances it is
to see ; viz. for remote objects the pupil
is dilated, and the crystalline brougiit
nearer the retina, and the whole eye is
made more globous ; on the contrary, for
near objects, the pupil is contracted, the
crystalline thrust forwards, and the eye
lengthened. Again, the distance of vi-
sible objects is judged of by the angle
the object makes ; from the distinct or
confused representation of the objects ;
and from the briskness or feebleness, or
the rarity or density of the rays. To this
it is owing, 1st, That objects which ap-
pear obscure or confused, are judged to
be more remote ; a principle which the
painters make use of, to cause some of
their figures to appear further distant
than others on the same plane. 2d, To
this it is likewise owing, that rooms whose
walls are whitened, appear the smaller ;
that fields covered with snow, or white
flowers, appear less than when clothed
with grass ; that mountains covered with
snow, in the night time, appear the near-
er: and that opaque bodies appear the
more remote in the twilight.

The magnitude of visible objects is
known chiefly by the angle contained be-
tween two i-ays drawn from the two ex-
tremes of the object to the centre of the
eye. An object appears so large as is the
angle it subtends ; or bodies s^en under
3Q

VIS

VIS

a greater tuigle, appear greater; and
those under a less angle, less, he. Flence
the same thing appears greater or less, as
it is nearer the eye or further off'. And
this is called the apparent magnitude.
But to judge of the real magnitude of an
object, we must consider the distance :
for since a near and a remote object may
apptiar under equal angles, though the
magnitudes be different, the distance
must necessarily be estimated, because
the magnitude is great or small according
as the distance is. So that the real mag-
nitude is ill the compound ratio of the
distance and the apparent magnitude ; at
least when the subtended angle, or appa-
rent magnitude is very small ; otherwise,
the real magnitude will be in a ratio com-
jwunded of the distance and the sine of
the apparent magnitude, nearly, or nearer
still itstangent. Hence, objects seen under
the same angle, have their magnitudes in
the same ratio as their distances. The
chord of an arc of a circle appears of equal
magnitude from every point in the cir-
cumference, though one point be vastly
nearer than another. Or if the eye be
fixed in any point in the circumference,
and a right line be moved round so as its
extremes be always in the periphery, it
will appear of the same magnitude in
every position. And the reason is, because
the angle it subtends is always of the same
magnitude. And hence also, the eye
being placed in any angle of a regular
polygon, the sides of it will all appear of
equal magnitude ; being all equal chords
of a circle described about it. If the mag-
nitude of an object directly opposite to
the eye be equal to its distance from the
eye, the whole object will be distinctly
seen, or taken in by tlie eye, but nothing
more. And the nearer you approach an
object, the less part you see of it. The
least angle under which an ordinary ob-
ject becomes visible, is about one minute
of a degree.

The figure of visible objects is estimat*
ed chiefly from our opinion of the situa-
tion of the several parts of the object.
This opinion of the situation, &c. ena-
bles the mind to apprehend an external
object under this or that figure, more
justly than any similitude of the images
in the retina with the object can ; the
images being often elliptical, oblong, Sec.
when the objects they exhibit to the mind
are circles or sfjuares, &c.

The laws of vi.sion, with regard to the
figures of visible objects, are, 1. That if
the centre of the eye be exactly in the
direction of a right line, the line will
appear only as a point 2. If the eye be

placed in the direction of a surface, it i
will appear only as a line. 3. Ifabody j
be opposed directly towards the eye, so i
as only one plane of the surface can ra- \
diate on it, the body will appear as a ;
surface. 4. A remote arch, viewed by \
an eye in the same plane with it, will ap- '•
pear as a right line. 5. A sphere, view- 1
ed at a distance, appears a circle. 6. ]
Angular figures, at a distance, appear j
round. 7. If the eye look obliquely on \
the centre of a regular figure, or a cir- ■.
cle, the true figure will not be seen j but -;
the circle will appear oval, &c. ^

VISION, is the act of seeing or of per- i
ceiving external objects by the organ of '
sight. As every point of an object, A B ■
C, (Plate XVI. Miscel.fig. 11.), sends out .
rays in all directions, some rays from |
every point on the side next the eye, j
will fall upon the cornea, between E and .*
F, and by passing on through the humours ]
and pupil of the eye, they will be con- j
verged to as many points on the retina, or ■;
bottom of the eye, and will thereon form |
a distinct inverted picture, c b a, of the !
object. Thus the pencil of rays, qr s,
that flow's from the point. A, of the ob-
ject, will be converged to the point, rt,
on the retina ; those from the point, B, j
will be converged to the point 6; those
from the point, C, will be converged to '
the point c ; and so of all the interme- ',
diate points, by which means the whole i
image, abcy is formed, and the object '
made visible, although it must be owned '
that the method by which the sensation i
is carried from the eye by the optic nerve ^
to the common sensory in the brain, and|
there discerned, is above the reach of ourl
conception. Tliat vision is effected in^
this manner may be demonstrated expe-|
rimentally. Take a bullock's eye, while |
it is fresh, and having cut off the three'f
coats from the back part, quite to the j
vitreous humour, put a piece of whitCi
paper over that part, and hold the eye tO'
wards any bright object, and you will see
an inverted picture of the object upon
the paper. The diameters of images at
the bottom of the eye are proportional t
the angles which the objects subtend a(
the eye, the same as in a lens, and are
reciprocally as the distances of the sann
object viewed in different places. Th*
eye is in reality no more than a earner;
obscura; for the rays of liglit flowing
from all the points of an object, through
the pupil of the eye, do, by the refractior
of its humowrs, paint the image thereo!
jn the bottom of the eye ; just so it is i*
the camera obscura, where all the myt
refracted bv a lens in the Avindovv-^hut

f

VISION.

ler, or passing through a small hole in it,
paint tlie im;«ge on the opposite wall.
Some properties of the eye are these :
the eye can only see a very small part of
an object distinctly at once. For the col-
lateral parts of an object are not repre-
sented distinctly in the eye ; and there-
fore the eye is forced to turn itself suc-
cessively to the several parts of the ob-
ject it wants to view, that they may fall
neai* the axis of the eye, where alone
distinct vision is performed. When any
point of an object is seen distinctly with
both eyes, the axis of both eyes are di-
rected to tluit point, and meet there ;
atid then the object appears single,
though looked at with- both eyes ; for the
optic nerves are so framed, that the cor-
respondent parts in both eyes lead to the
same place in the brain, and give but one
sensation, and the image will be twice as
bright with both eyes as with one. But if
the axis of both eyes be not directed to
the object, that object will appear dou-
ble, as the pictures in the two eyes do
not fall upon correspondent or similar
parts of the retina. The best eye can
hardly distinguish any object that sub-
tends at the eye an angle less than half a
minute, and very few can distinguish it
when it subtends a minute. If the dis-
tance of two stars in the heavens be not
greater than this, they will appear as one.
Though men may see distinctly at differ-
ent distances, by altering the position and
figure of the crystalline, yet they can
only see distinctly within certain limits,
and nearer than that, objects appear con-
fused. But these limits are not the same
in different people. A good eye can see
distinctly when the rays fall parallel up-
on it, and then the principal focus is at
the bottom of the eye ; a man can judge
i.t a small distance, with a single eye, by
frequently observing how much variation
is n>ade in the eye to make the object
distinct, and from this a habit of judging
is acquired. But this cannot be done at
great distances, because, though the
distance be varied, the change in tlie eye
becomes then insensible. But a man can
judge of greater distances with both
eyes, than he can with one. For the eyes
being at a distance from one another, as
long as that distance has a sensible pro-
portion to the distance of the object, one
gets a habit of judging, by the position
of the axis of the eyes, which are always
directed to that point. For different dis-
tances require different positions of the
axis, which depend on the motions of the
eyes, which we feel. But in very great

distances no judgment can be made from
the motion of the eyes, or tlie ir internal
parts. Therefore we can only guess at
the distances from the magnitude, co-
lour, and the position of interjacent bo-
dies. Dimness of sight generally attends
old people, and this may arise from two
causes. 1. By the eyes growing flat, and
not uniting the rays at tlie retina, which
causes indistinctness of vision ; or, 2. By
the opacity of the humours of the eye,
which in time lose their transparency, in
some degree ; from whence it follows,
that a great deal of the light that enters
the eye is stopped and lost, and every
object appears faint and dim. Hence the
necessity of spectacles.

If objects are seen through a perfectly
flat glass, the rays of light pass through it
from them to the eye, in a straight direc-
tion, and parallel to each other, and con-
sequently the objects appear very Uttle
either diminished or enlarged, or nearer,
or further off', than to the naked eye ; but
if the glass they are seen through have
any degree of convexity, the rays of light
are directed from the circumference to^
wards the centre, in an angle proportion-
al to the convexity of the glass, and meet
in a point, at a greater or lesser distance
from the glass, as it is more or less con-
vex. This point, where the rays meet,
is called the focus, and this focus is nearer
or further off", according to the convexity
of the glass ; for as a little convexity
throws it to a considerable distance, so,
when the convexity is much, the focus is
very near. Its magnifying power is also
in the same proportion to the convexity ;
for as a flat glass scarcely magnifies at all,
the less a glass departs from flatness, the
less of course it magnifies ; and the more
it approaches towards the globular figure,
the nearer its focus is, and the more its
magnifying power. People's diff'erent
length of sight depends on the same
principle, and arises from more or less
convexity of the cornea and crystalline
humour of the eye ; the rounder these
are, the nearer will the focus or point of
meeting rays be, and tlie nearer an ob-
ject must be brought to see it well. The
case of short-sighted people is only an
ov^-roundness of the eye, which makes
a very near focus ; and that of old people
is a sinking or flattening of the eye,
whereby the focus is thrown to a great
distance; so that the former may ])roperly
be called eyes of too short, and the latter
eyes of too long a focus. Hence, too, the
remedy for the last is a convex glass, to
supply the want of convexity in the eye

VIS

tiT

itself, and brings the rays, to a sTiorter
focus : whereas a concave glass is need-
ful for tlie first to scatter the rays, and
prevent their coming to a point too soon.
The nearer any object can be brouglit to
the eye, the larger will be the angle un-
der which it appears, and the more it
will be magnified. Now, that distance
from the naked eye, where the gene-
rality of people are supposed to see
small objects best, is about six inches;
consequently, when such objects are
brought nearer than six inches, they will
become less distinct ; and if to four or
three, they will scarcely be seen at all.
But by the help of convex glasses we
are enabled to view things clearly at
much shorter distances than these ; for
the nature of a convex lens is to render
an object distinctly visible to tiie eye at
the distance of its focus ; wherefore the
smaller a lens is, and the more its con-
vexity, the nearer is its focus, and the
more its magnifying power. Now, it is
evident from the figure, that if either the
cornea, or crystalline humour, or both of
them, be too flat, their focus will not be
on the retina, where it ought to be, in
order to render vision distinct, but be-
yond the eye. Consequently those rays
which flow from the object, and pass
through the humours of the eye, are not
sufficiently converged to unite, and there-
fore tie observer can have but a very in-
diitinct view of the object. This is re-
meuied by placing a convex glass, of a
proper focus, before the eye, which
makes the rays converge sooner, and
imprints the image duly on the retina. If
either the cornea or crystaUine humour,
or both of them, be too convex, the rays
that enter in from the object will be con-
verged to a focus in the vitreous humour,
and by diverging from thence to the re-
tina, will form a very confused image
thereon; and so, of course, the observer
will have as confused a view of the object,
as if his eye had been too flat. This in-
convenience is remedied by placing a
concave glass before the eye, which glass,
by causing the rays to diverge between
it and the eye, lengthens the focal dis-
tance, so that if the glass be properly
chosen, the rays will unite at the retina,
and form a distinct picture of the object
upon it.

VISMEA, in botany, a genus of the
Dodecandria Trigynia class and order.
Natural order of Onagrse, Jussieu. Essen-
tial character : calyx five-leaved, inferior ;
corolla five-petalled ; stigmas five ; nut

two or three-celled, half inferior. There
is but one species, r-iz. V. mocanera, a
native of the Canary islands.

VISUAL, in general, something be-
longing to vision. Thus, rays of light,
coming from an object to the eye, are
called visual rays ; and the visual point
in perspective is a point in the horizon-
tal line, wherein all the visual rays unite.

VITAL «/r. See OxTGKisr ^as.

VITEX, in bot-Am, chaste-tree, VL genus
of the Didynamia Angiospermia class and
order. Natural order of Personatae. Vi«
tices, Jussieu. Essential character : calyx
five -toothed ; corolla-border six-cleft ;
drupe one-seeded ; a four-celled nut.
There are fourteen species.

VITIS, in botany, the vine, a genus of
the Pentandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Hederaceae. Viti-
ces, Jussieu. Essential character : petals
cohering at the top, shrivelling ; berry
five-seeded, superior. There are twelve
species, and many varieties.

The most important species of the vi-
tis is V. vinifera, or common vine, which
has naked, lobed, sinuated leaves. There
are a great many varieties ; and all the
sorts are propagated either from layers,
or cuttings ; the latter method is said to
be preferable, though the former is
much used in this country.

The uses of the fruit of the vine for
making wine, &c. are well known. The
vine was introduced by the Romans into
Britain, and appears formerly to have
been very common. From the name of
vineyard yet adhering to the ruinous
scites of our castles and monasteries,
there seem to have been few in the
country but what had a vineyard belong-
ing to them. The county of Gloucester
is particularly commended by Malmsbu-
ry, in the twelfth century, as excelling all
the rest in the kingdom in the number
and goodness of its vineyards. In the
earlier periods of our history, the isle of
Ely was expressly denominated the isle
of Vines by the Normans. Vineyards
are frequently noticed in the descriptive
accounts of Doomsday; and those of
England are even mentioned by Bede,
as early as the commencement of the
eighth century.

Doomsday exhibits to us a particular
proof that wine was made in England dur-
ing the period preceding the conquest ;
and after the conquest, the bishop of El.y
appears to have received at least three
or four tons of wine annually as tithes,
from the produce of the vineyards in his

VIT

VIT

diocese, and to have made frequent re-
servations in his leases of a certain quan-
tity of wine for rent. A plot of land in
London, which now forms East Smith-
field and some adjoining streets, was
withheld from the relig-ious liouse wiihin
Aldgate by four successive consiables of
tlie tower, in the reigns of Rufus, Henry,
and Stephen, and made by them into a
vineyard, which yielded great emolu-
ment. In the old accounts of rectorial
and vicarial revenues, and in the old re-
gisters of ecclesiastical suit cou' rning
them, the tithe of wine is an article that
frequently occurs in Kent, Surry, and
other counties. And the wines of Glou-
cestershire, within a century after the
conquest, were little inferior to the
French in sweetness. The beautiful re-
gion of Gaul, which had not a single vine
in the days of Caesar, had numbers so
early as the time of Strabo The south
of it was particularly stocked with them ;
and they had even extended themselves
into the interior parts of the country ;
but the grapes of the latter did not ripen
kindly. France was famous for its vine-
yards in the reign of Vespasian, and even
exported its wines to Italy. The whole
province of Narbonne was then covered
with vines ; and the wine-merchants of
the country were remarkable for knavish
dexterity, tinging it with smoke, colour-
ing it (as was suspected) with herbs and
noxious dyes, and even adulterating the
taste and appearance with aloes. And as
our first vines would be transplanted
from Gaul, so were in all probability
those of the AUobroges in Franche-
comtc. These were peculiarly fitted for
cold countries. They ripened even in
the frosts of the advancing winter; and
they were of the same colour, and seem
to have been of the same sjiecies, as the
black muscadines of the present day,
which have lately been tried in this isl-
and, and found to be the fittest for the
climate. These were brought into Bri-
tain a Httle after the vines had been car-
ried over all the kingdoms of Gaul, and
about the middle of the third centuiy,
whcM the numerous plantations had gra-
dually spread over the face of the lat-
ter.

VITMANNIA, in botany, so named in
honour of Abbe F. Vitmann, professor at
Milan, a genus of the Octandria Monogj'-
nia class and order. Essential character r
calyx four-cleft; corolla four-petalled ;
nectary a scale at the base of each fila-
ment; nut semi-lunar, compressed, one

seeded. There is but one species, r-zz.
V. elliptica, a native of the East Indies.

M'lUlOL., iiatiiralt in mineralogy, a
species ot fossil salts, divided into Uiree
suD-species. 1. iron vitriol. 2. Copper
vitriol. 3. Zinc vitriol.

The iron vitriol is of an emerald and
verdigris green, sometimes bordering
on sky-blue ; sometimes on grass gi-een.
It occurs massive, tuberose, stalactitic,
and crysiallized. It occurs usually with
iron pyrites, by the decomposition of
wnicli it is formed. It is found in many
parts of Germany, Italy, Sweden, and in
many of the English mines, in Tenerilie,
and Greenland. It is emjiloyed to dye
Yyncn yellow, and wool and silk black ;
it IS also of use in the manufacture of
ink, of Berhn blue, for the precipitation
of gold from its solution ; and sulphuric
acid can be obtained from it by distilla-
tion, and the residuum, called calcothar
of iron, is used as a red paint, and when
washed, for polishing steel, glass, &c.

Copper vitriol is of a dark sky-blue co-
lour, which sometimes approaches to ver-
digris green. It occurs massive, disse-
minated, stalactitic, dentiform, and crys-
tallized. If a plate of iron be inserted in
a solution of copper vitriol, it soon be-
comes incrusted with metallic copper.
With ammonia its solution acquires a blue
colour. It is found in many parts of Ger-
many, Sweden, and Siberia, in the cop-
per mines of Ireland, and in Anglesca in
Wales. It is used in cotton and linen
printing, and the oxide is separated from
it, and used as a pigment.

Zinc vitriol is of a greyish colour, and
found also in Germany and Sweden.

VITRUVIUS (Marcus Vitruvius
PoiLTo,) in biography, a celebrated Ilo-
man architect, of whom however nothing
is known, but what is to be collected
from his ten books " De Archilectura,'*
still extfint. In the preface to the sixth
book, he writes, that he was carefully in-
structed in the whole circle of arts and
sciences; a circumstance which hespeaksi
of with much gratitude, laying it down as
certain, that no man can be a complete
architect, without some knowledge and
skill in every other branch of knowledge.
And in the preface to the first book he
informs us, that he was known to Julius
Cxsar ; that he was afterwards recom-
mended by Octavia to her brother Au-
gustus Cxsar; and that he was so favotired,
and provided for, by this emperor, as to
be out of all fear of poverty as long as he
might live. It is supposed that Vitruvi-

VIV

VIV

us was born either at Rome or Verona ;
butitisnot known which. His books of ar-
chitecture are addressed to Augustus Cee-
sar, and not only sliow consummate skill
in that particular science, but also a very
uncommon geiiius and natural abilities.
Cardan ranks Vitruvius as one of the
twelve persons, whom he supposes to
have excelled all men in the force of ge-
nitis and invention ; and woirid not have
scrupled to have given him the hr.st
place, if it could be imagined that he had
delivered nothing but his own discover-
ies. Those twelve persons were, Euclid,
Archimedes, Apollonius Pergaeus, Aris-
totle, Archytas of Tarentum, Vitruvius,
Achindus, Mahomet Ibn iMoses, the in-
ventor or improver of Algebra, Uuns
Scotus, John Suisset, surnamed the calcu-
lator, Galen, and Heber of Spain. The
best edition of the arcliitecture of Vitru-
vius is that of Amsterdam in 1649. Per-
rault gave an excellent French transla-
tion of the same, and added notes and fi-
gures: the first edition of which was pub-
lished at Paris, in 167.^, and (he second,
much improved, in 1684. Mr. William
Newton, too, an ingenious architect, pub-
lished in 1780, &c. curious commentaries
on Vitruvius, illustrated with figures ; to
which is added a description, with fi-
giu-es, of the military machines used by
the ancients.

VIVERRA, the iveasel, in natural his-
tory, a genus of Mammalia, of the order
Ferae. Generic character : si.\ fore-teeth,
rather sharp ; tusks longer : tongue in
some smooth, in others aculeated back-
wards ; body of a lengthened form. Gme-
lin separates the Viverra from the Mustela
genus, and includes the Lutrae, or ot-
ters, under the latter. Mr. Pennant
unites the two first, and forms the Lutrse
into a distinct genus. I'his arrangement
appears preferable to the other, is adopt-
ed by Shaw, and will be followed here.
There are forty-five species, of which the
following arc 'principally deserving of
notice:

V. ichneumon, or the ichneumon, of
which there are two varieties, the Indian
and the Egyptian. Tiie Egyptian iclineu-
mon is nearly three feet and a half in full
length, and of a pale reddish grey colour.
It bears a mortal enmity to rats and snakes,
and other offensive animals, with which
Egypt is infested, and is domesticated fre-
quently in that country for the sake of its
services on this account. With the ancient
Egyptians it was not only in high estima-
tion, but obtained the reputation of a sort
of dcily, and Wivs thougiit entitled to a de-

gree of adoration. Its movements are ra-
pid and agile in the extreme. In ap-
proaching its prey it often moves upon its
belly hke the feline tribe, or rather in the
manner of a serpent; at others, it pur-
sues it with rapid boundings. It is able
to swim, and to dive also for a considera-
ble time, and frequents chiefly the bor-
ders of rivers. The Indian ichneumon is
considerably smaller, but is equally useful
and esteemed. It attacks without terror,
and even with the extreme of fierceness,
the most formidable and venomous ser-
pents, particularly the cobra de capello,
and destroys them without difficulty.
They are both formidable to animals
much larger than themselves, fastening
upon them with immoveable firmness,
and sucking their blood till they are ab-
solutely gorged with it.

V. striata, is a native of Mexico, and
discriminated by five longitudinal stripes
of white on its back of chocolate colour.
When irritated by fear or anger it emits a
vapour extremely fetid, in comparison
with which every other odour, generally
deemed repulsive and disgusting, is pro-
nounced to be the most exquisite peHume.
Even the dogs engaged in the pursuit of
these creatures are stated to be compelled
to abandon the course by this intolerable
fetor, and if but a small drop of it should
attach to the person or clothes of a human
being, it is said to require the ablutions
of several days to rid him of the nuisance,
and prevent his being any longer avoided
with disgust and horror.

V. civetta, or the civet, is a native of
the warm territories of Asia and Africa,
and above two feet long, exclusively of
the tail. It subsists on smaller quadrupeds
and birds. This animal is distinguished
for its perfume, for which it was well
known to the ancients, who considered it
as one of the most powerful stimuli, and
for which it is kept in a state of confine-
ment in Holland at the present day, as
well as in the East. 'I'he drug produced
by the civets is formed in a glandular re-
ceptacle, and is taken from it by its keep-
er several times in the course of a week ;
the quantity generally procured from
each civet at a time being about a drachm,
but varying with the state of the animal's
health, and the nourishing quality of its
food. It is in its original state of a yellow
colour and an unctuous appearance, and is
extremely pungent, and indeed disagree-
able. Every part of the animal is pene-
trated by its eftluvia, and the effect of be-
ing- shut up in a room with one of these

VIVERRA.

creatures in a state of high irritation is
nearly intolerable.

V. genetta, or the genet, is to be met
with in Syria, Tiu-key and Spain. These
animals are about the size of a small cat, of
a more lengthened form in head and body,
and of a longer tail. They are distin-
guished by an agreeable perfume, some-
what similar to musk. They are gentle,
easily tamed, exceedingly active and
cleanly, and in Constantinople and other
places are frequently domesticated, and
accomplish all the objects effected by the
common cat. Their colour is a tawny-
red, spotted with black.

V. foina, or the martin, is of a black
tawny colour, and about eighteen inches
long. It is the most elegant of the weasel
tribe, with a small head, elegant shape,
and animated eyes, agile, and graceful in
its movements, capable of being reared,
when taken young, to great familiarity
and sportiveness, yet ever addicted to
abandon the full supplies of confinement
for the pleasures of freedom, however al-
loyed these may be by occasional indi-
gence or destitution. It is an inhabitant
of the woods, living upon small birds and
other animals, and breeding in the holes
of trees. It produces no disagreeable
effluvia, but is strongly perfumed. Its fur
is highly valued.

V. martes, or the pine martin, is dis-
tinguished from the former by its yellow
breast. It is not frequent in England, but
in Germany, Sweden, and North America,
it is easily met with, particularly in woods
of pine trees. Its fur is preferred con-
siderably to that of the last. It confines
itself to woods and fields, never entering
the habitations of man, and breeds often
in the nest of the squirrel, the buzzard,
and the wood-pecker.

V. zibelhna, or the sable, is about the
same size as the martin. Its general colour
is a deep shining brown, and the hair is
ashcoloured at the roots, and black at the
tips. It is found in the Arctic regions,
and its fur is a most valuable article of
commerce, when of a particular extent
and beauty, being sold for firom twelve to
fifteen pounds. This extraordinary price
for the skin of so small an animal induces
the robust and hardy natives of the north
to hunt sables amidst the rigours of winter
with unwearied assiduity and presever-
ance. These make their progress over
regions covered with snow, and in the
most intense severity of winter, marking
the trees as they advance, that they may
recognize their direction for return, and
sometimes, after spreading a net before

the entrance of one of the burrows of a
sable, waiting often even two whole days
for tlie animal's appearance, and some-
times of course waiting in vain. These
men, during the extreme hunger which
they sometimes experience, find .some al-
lay to it by pressing on their stomachs,
with tightened cords, thin pieces of board.
The furs are most valued w l»ich are taken
between November and February. The
hunting in Siiieria was formerly conducted
by criminals banished to that country, and
by soldiers sent to it for this particular
business, and who were stationed there
for several years, and both were obliged
to furnish a certain number of skins. Sables
are extremely active and lively by night,
but spend the greater part of the day in
sleep. They subsist on squirrels and
small birds, which they pursue from one
tree to another with the most elastic agility.
Rats, pine tops, and fruits, are also eaten
by them. They are stated also to be fond
of fish, and to be capable both of diving
and swimming. They live in holes in the
banks of rivers, and under the roots of
trees. See Mammaha, Plate XVI. fig. 5.

V. putorius, or the pole-cat, bears a
very striking resemblance to the martin,
is possessed of extreme nimbleness and
activity, and climbs trees, and even creeps
up walls, with great rapidity. It devours
the smaller animals without discrimina-
tion, and pigeons, poultry, and rabbits,
experience from it most fatal havoc. Dur-
ing winter its necessities urge it to fre-
quent, if possible, not only the barn, but
also the dairy. It is stated, on respecta-
ble authority, tliatin some instances pole-
cats have been observed to feed on fishes,
particularly eels, which they have drag-
ged from rivulets at a distance to their
habitation, repeating their labours many
times in the course of a single night, and
consequently accumulating a great num-
ber of these fishes for their subsistence.
This animal has been known in winter to
attack bee-hives, and devour the honey.
It is extremely fierce, and will defend it-
self with astonishing spirit, even against
dogs. It is distinguished for the most
disagreeable odour, which, however, is
not retained in the skin long after the ani-
mal is killed, this being dressed with the
fur on it, and being held in considerable
estimation. Tlie female produces, in sum-
mer, five or six young ones, which require
the attentions of the parent only for a short
time, and are trained to suck the blood of
the animals procured by her for their
support. Inhabits North America.

V. furor, or the ferret, resembles the

VIV

VIV

pole-cat both in form and manners. It is
a native of Africa, whence it is stated to
have been imported into Spain for the
destruction of the rabbits, which had
niultiphed in that country to the most in-
jurious excess. Jt was tlience introduced
into other European countries, but is ill
adapted to endure the rigours of a northern
winter, being particularly susceptible of
cold. It maybe tamed, but appears iitile
capable of gratitude or attachment, and
has such a diirst for blood, that ii has been
known to grasp at the throats of infants in
the cradle, and suck them till it has been
completely gorged. It breeds twice a
year, and will occasionally devour its
young as soon as they are produced. In
confinement it must be kept in a box
provided with wool, or other warm mate-
rials, and may be fed with bread and milk.
Its sleep is long and profound, and it
awakes with a voracious appetite, which
is most highly gratified by the blood of
small and young animals. Its enmity to
rats and rabbits is unspeakable, and when
either are, though for the first time, pre-
sented to it, it seizes and bites them with
the most phrensied madness. When em-
ployed to expel the rabbit from its bur-
rows, it must be muzzled, as otherwise it
will suck the blood of its victim, and in-
stantly fall into a profound sleep, from
whi«h it will awake only to the work of
destruction, committing in the warren,
where it was introduced only for its ser-
vices, the most dreatlful waste and havoc.
It is possessed of high irritabihty, and
when particularly excited, is attended
with an odour extremely offensive. See
Mammalia, Plate XVI. fig. 4.

V. vulgaris, or the common weasel of
England, is about nine inches long, includ-
ing the tail,is elegant in its appearance, and
light in its movements, but unpleasant by
the odour which accompanies it. It dwells
under the roots of trees,and subsists on field
mice, small birds, and even young rabbits.
It is also particularly fond of eggs. It is
often fatal to the hare itself, winch ap-
pears to entertain for the weasel extreme
terror, and to be overwhelmed at the
sight of it into a complete incapacity for
resistance. It is a more formidable ene-
my to rats and mice than even the cat it-
self, as it has greater facility for pursuing
them to their retreats, and on this account
it is much valued and encouraged by the
iarmer. Its bite is said to be almost cer-
tainly, though not always immediately, fa-
tal. Its teeth are extremely sharp, and
generally first fixed on the nead of its ene-
my, which often lingers in stupor, but

scarcely ever regains soundness. It com* '
mences its depredations in the evening, ]
and when it has produced its young, |
ranges with extreme intrepidity and ra- '
pacity. It is frequent near corn-mills, and ;
wherever rats and mice are abundant, ;
and always retires with its prey to its ,
burrow, instead of devouring it on the
spo,t where it was killed, preferring it in !
a state of putrefaction. Dtiring confine* ]
ment, it appears highly agitated and rest- ,
less, and has by many been supposed un- i
tameable, but Madamoiselle de Laistre ]
has given an interesting and full detail of '
the manners of one which she undertook )
to protect and instruct, and which repaid ;
her assiduity by the most sportive vivaci- *
ty, the most harmless conduct, and even ;
the most grateful attachment. For the ;
stoat, see Mammalia, Plate XVI. fig. 3, '
Vol. iv. 4

yiVIANI (VixcKNTio,) a celebrated ^
Italian mathematician, was born at Flo- ?
rence, in 1621, some say 1622. He was j
a disciple of the illustrious Galileo, and '
lived with him from the 17th to the 20th i
year of his age. After the death of his
great master, he passed two or three
years more in prosecuting geometrical
studies witliout interruption, and in this ;(
time it was that he formed the design of ■
his Restoration of Aristeus. This ancient
geometrician, who was contemporary with
Euclid, had composed five books of prob-
lems, « De Locis Solidis," the bare pro-
positions of which were collected by
Pappus, but the books are entirely lost ;
which Viviani undertook to restore by
the force of his genius.

He broke this work off before it was 1
finished, in order to apply himself to ano- ■
ther of the same kind, which was, to re- |
store the fifth book of Apollonius's " Co- |
nic Sections." While he was engaged j
in this, Borelli found, in the library of the j
Grand Duke of Tuscany, an Arabic M. S. |
with a Latin incription, importing that it, i
contained the eight books of Apollonius's
Conic Sections ; of which the eighth was
not found to be there. He carried this I
MS to Rome, in order to translate it
with the assistance of a professor of the
oriental languages. So unwilling, how-
ever, was Viviani to lose the fruits of his i
labours, that he refused to receive the
smallest account from Borelli on the sub-
ject. At length he finished the work, j
and published it in 1659, with the title
" De Maximis et Minimis geometrica di-
vinatio in quintum conicorum Apollonii j
Pergaei." He was called by the state to I
undertake an operation of great import-

ULM

UNE

lince, viz. to prevent the innundations of
the Tiber, in which Cassini and he were
employed for some length of time. On
account of his great talents he' received
a pension from Louis XIV. In 1666 he
was honoured by the Grand Duke with
the title of the first mathematician. He
resolved three problems which had been
proposed to all the mathematicians of
Europe. In 1669 he was cliosen to fill,
in the Koyal Academy of Sciences, a place
among- the eight foreign associates. This
circumstance, so honourable to his repu-
tation, gave new vigour to his exertions,
and lie published three books of the " Di-
vination upon Aristeus," in 1701, which
he dedicated to the King of France. Vi-
viani acquired a good fortune, which he
laid out in building a magnificent house
at Florence ; here he placed a bust of
Galileo, with several inscriptions in ho-
nour of that great man. He died in 1703,
aged 81.

VIVIPAROUS, in natural history, an
epithet applied to such animals as bring
forth their young ahve and perfect, in .
contradistinction to them that lay eggs,
which are called oviparous animals.

ULEX, in botany, fitrze or fforse, a
genus of the Diadelphia Decandria class
and order. Natural order of Papilio-
nace?e, or Leguminosx. Essential cha-
racter: calyx two leaved ; legume scarce-
ly longer than the calyx ;' filaments all
connected. There are three species.

ULLAGE, in gauging, so much of a
ca.sk, or other vessel, as it wants of being
full. See Gauging.

ULMUS, in botany, the elm, a genus of
the Fentandria Digynia class and order.
Natural order of Scabridse. Amentaceae,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx fire-
cleft, inferior permanent; corolla none ;
capsule membranaceous, compressed,
flat, one-seeded. There are seven species,
two of which are natives of Jiritain, viz.
the campestris, .common elm ; and the
montana, or wych elm. All the sorts of
elm may be,either propagated by layers,
or suckers, taken from the roots of the
t)ld trees, the latter of which is generally
practised by the nursery gardeners. The
elm delights in a stiff strong soil. It is
observable, however, that here it grows
comparatively slow. In light land, espe-
cially if it is rich, its growth is very rapid ;
but its wood is Ught, porous, and of little
value, compared with that which grows
upon strong land, which is of a closer,
•onger texture, and at the heart will
ve the colour, anrl almo.st the heaviness
y OT,: \\

and the hardness of iron. On s\ich soils
the elm becomes profitable, and is one of
the trees which ought, in preference to
all others, to engage tli£ planter's atten-
tion

ULTRAMARINE. This precious co-
lour, so remarkable for its beauty and
durability, is a pure deep sky blue. It is
capable of bearing a low red heat with-
out mjury, and it is not sensibly impaired
by the action of the air and weather. It
is the coloviring matter of the mineral al-
ready descri^ ed under the name Lazuk-
STEIN, and appears, according to an ana-
lysis by Klaproth, to consist of little else
than oxide of iron.

ULV A, in botany, a genus of the Cryp-
togamia Algse class and order. Generic
character : fructifications are small glo-
bules, dispereed tiirough a pellucid mem-
branaceous or gelatinous substance, or
frond.

UMBELLIFEROUS /»/m<te are such as
have their tops branched and spread out
like an umbrella ; on each little subdivi-
sion of which there is growing a small
flower; such are fennel, dill, &c.

UMBER. There are two kinds of um-
ber, the one called Cologne umber, is a
variety of peat or of earthy brown coal.
There are large beds of it wrought in the
neighbourhood of Cologne, principally as
an article of fuel ; a pretty considerable
quantity is also imported into Holland,
where it is used in the manufacture, or
more properly in the adulteration, of snuff ;
for which purpose it appears to be better
than the common peat of the country; a
still smaller qtiantity is consumed by the
paint-makers. The colour of this vegeta-
ble umber is a warm somewhat pinkish
brown, and is an useful ingredient to the
painter in water-colours. The second
kind of umber goes by the name of Turk-
ish umber, and appears to be a variety of
the iron ore called brown ironstone ochre.
A specimen from Cyprus was analysed by
Klaproth, and afforded him.

Oxide of iron 48

Oxide of manganese .... 20

Silex 13

Alumine 5

Water 14

100

UNCARIA, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandrla Monogynia class and order.
Essential character : corolla salver-shap*

U]ffI7BRSIT7]

UND

UND

ed ; germ crowned with a glaiKl ; stigma
two-giooved ; pericarpiuin two-ceJied,
mam'-seeded. There are two species,
viz. U. inennis, and U aculeata.

UNCI A, in general, a Latin term de-
noting the tweli'di part of any thing ; ])ar-
ticularly the twelfth part of a pound, call-
ed in English an ounce ; or the twelfth
part of a foot, called an inch.

UNCIiE, in algebra, the numbers pre-
fixed before the letters of the members
of any power produced from a binomial,
residual, or multinomial root. Thus, in
the fourth power oi' a-{-l>, viz. a^-\-4: cO b
-^- 6 a* A^ -f- 4 a Zr3 -|-. b^^ iJie uncix are 4,
6, 4 ; being the same with Mhat others
call co-efficients. See Binomial, Ai.gk-
BRA, &c.

UNDECAGOX, in geometry, is a po-
lygon of eleven sides. If .the side of a
regular undecagon be 1, its area will be

9.36564 nearly = — x tang, of 73 JL

degrees ; and therefore, if this number
be multiplied by the square of the side
of any other regular undecagon, the pro-
duct will be the area of that undecagon.

UNDER currents, currents distinct from
the upper or apparent currents of the
seas. Some naturalists conclude that
there are in divers places under^currents,
which set or drive a contrary way from
the upper current, whence they solve the
remarkable phenomena of the sea's set-
ting strongly throug^the Streights into
the Mediterranean, with a constant cur-
rent twenty leagues Inroad ; as also, that
running from the Euxine through the
Bosphorus into the Hellespont, and
thence into the Archipelago ; they con-
jecture that there is an under current
whereby as great a quantity of water is
carried out as comes in. To confirm this
it is observed, that between the North
and South Foreland, it is either high or
low water upon the shore three hours
before it is so off at sea ; a certain sign,
that though the tide of flood rujis aloft,
yet the tide of ebb runs under foot, or
close by tlie ground. Yet Dr. Malley
soi\es the currents setting in at the
S>treights widiout overflowing the banks,
from the great evaporation, without sup-
posing any under ciurent.

UNDERSTANDING, or Juogmknt, in
the Hartleyan acceptation of the term, is
that faculty by wliich we contemplate
mere sensations and ideas, pursue truth,
and assent to, or dissent from, jn-oposi-
tions. In this article, and in Words, we
shall, as we proposed in PniLosornY,
mental, § 104, lay before our readers a

view of the highly important principles ■
of Hartley respecting the understanding, ]
occasionally making in his statements i
such alterations as will best adapt them to
our object. j

Whatever be the precise nature of as- '
sent and dissent, they must class with t
ideas, being only those very complex in- ;
ternal feehngs which are connected by as- ]
soeiation with those groups of words, I
wliich are called propositions in general, :
or affirmations and negations in particu- ^
lar. — Assent (and consequently its oppo- t
site, dissent) may be distinguished into j
two kinds, rational and practical. Ration- .'
al assent to any proposition may be de- 1
fined a readiness to affirm it to be true, ;
proceeding from a close association of the
ideas suggested by the proposition, with J
the idea or internal feeling belonging to j
the word truth; or of the terms of the .,
proposition with the word truth. Ra^ )
tional dissent is the opposite to this. — i
Practical assent is a readiness to act in i
such a manner as the frequent vivid re- }
cun-ency of the rational assent disposes^
us to act ; and practical dissent the con-
trary.

Practical assent is then the natural con-
sequence of rational assent, when suffici- ^
^ntly impressed. It must, however, be |
observed, first, that some propositions,
mathematical ones for instance, admit on-
ly of a rational a.ssent, the practical not
being applied to them in common cases:
secondly, that the practical assent is some-
times generated, and arrives at a high de-
gree of strength, without any previous
ration.'d assent, and by methods which ||
Jiave little or no connection with it ; yet ^i\
still is in general much influenced by it, 'I
and, conversely, exerts a great influence !
upon it : thirdly, practical assent may be ^'
in opposition to rational assent, and iu ']
consequence of its having been long and <'»
firmly cidtivated, may altogether pre- j
vent the latter from influencing the eon- i
duct.

Let us next inquire into the causes of |
rational and practical assent, beginning, I
1. with that given to mathematical con- \
clusio?is. — Now the original cause that a \
person affirms t!ie truth of the proposi- |
tion, twice two are four, is the entire co- i
incidence of the visible or tangible idea j
of twice two, with that of four, as impress- j
ed upon the mind by various objects, j
We see every where that both are oidy |
different names for the same impression ;
and it can only be in consequence of as*,
soeiation, that the word truth, its defini-
tion, or ijitcrnal feehng, becomes appro-''

UNDERSTANDING.

piiated to this coincidence. — Where the
numbers are so lurge tliat we cannot
form any distinct visible ideas of them, as
when we say 12 times 12 are equal to 144,
rational assent is founiled (if not on the
authority of a table or a teacher) on a co-
incidence of words arising- from some
method of reckoning up 12 times 12, so
as to conclude with 144, and resembling
the coincidence of words whicli attends
the before-mentioned coincidence of
ideas in the simjjler numerical proposi-
tions.— The operations of addition, sub-
traction, multipUcation, division, and ex-
traction of roots, with all the most com-
plex operations relating to algebraic
quantities, considered as the denotements
of numbers, are no more than methods of
producing this coincidence of words,
founded upon and rising above one ano-
ther. And it is merely association again
which appropriates the word truth, &c.
to the coincidence of the words or sym-
bols which denote the numbers.

This coincidence of terms is considered
as a proof that the visible ideas of the
numbers under consideration would coin-
cide asmuci) as the visible ideas of twice
two and four, were the former equally
distinct with the latter ; and indeed the
same thing may be fully proved, and of-
ten is so, by experiments with counters,
lines, 84c. And hence, thinking persons,
who make a distinction often unthougiit
of, between the coincidence of terms and
that of ideas, consider the real and abso-
lute truth to be as great in complex nu-
merical propositions, as in the simplest.
Now as it is impossible to gain distinct vi-
sible ideas of different numbers, where
at least they are.considerable, terms de-
noting them are a necessary means of dis-
^tingisliing them one from another, so as
". cO reason justly respecting them.

In geometry there is a like coincidence
of lines, angles, spaces, and solid con-
tents, tn prove them equal in simple ca-
ses. Afterwards, in contplex cases, we
substitute the terms whereby equal
things are denoted i'ov each other, and
then the coincidence of the terms to de-
note the coincidence of the visible ideas,
except in the new step advanced in the
proposition : and thus we get a new qua-
' lity, denoted by a new coincidence of
terms ; and this in like manner we em-
ploy in order to obtain a nev*' equality.
This resembles the addition of unity»to
any number in order to make the next,
as of 1 to 20 in order to make 21. We
have no distinct visible idea of 20 or of
"21 ; but we have of the difference be-

tween them, by fancying to ourselves a
confused heap of things, supposed or call-
ed twenty in number, and then further
fancying one thing to be added to it. By
a like process in geometry we arrive a.t
the demonstration of the most complex
propositions. — The properties of num-
bers are applied to geometry in many
cases, as when we demonstrate a line or
space to be half or double of any other,
or in any other ratio to it. — And as in
arithmetic words stand for indistinct i'ieas,
in order to help us to reason about them
as accurately as if they were distinct ; as
also cyphers stand for words, for the
same purpose ; and letters for cyphers, to
render the conclusions less particular;
so letters are put for geometrical quanti-
ties also, and the agreements of the let-
ters for those of the quantities.

Thus we seethe foundation upon which
the whole docti'ince of quantity is built;
for all quantity is denoted either by num-
bers, or by extension, or by letters de-
noting either one or the other. The co-
incidence of ideas is the foundation of ra-
tional assent in simple cases ; and that of
ideas and of terms, or of terms alone, in
complex cases. Ti)is is upon the suppo-
sition that the quantities are to be proved
equal ; but if they are to be proved un-
equal, the want of coincidence answers
the same purpose. If they are in any
numerical ratio, this is only introducing
a new coincidence. — Tiius it appears that
the use of words, (either as visible or as
audible symbols,) is necessary for geo-
metrical and algebraic reasonings, as well
as for arithmetical. Also tl^at association
prevails in every part of the processes
hitherto described.

But these are not the only causes of
giving rational assent to matiiematical
propositions. Tiie recollection of having
once examined and assented to each step
of a demonstration, the authority of an
approved writer, &c. are often sufficient
to gain our assent, though we understand
no more than the import of the proposi-
tion ; nay, even though we do not pro-
ceed so far as tiiis. >Jow this again is a
mere transfer ()f association ; tiie recol-
lection, authority, &c. being In a great
number of cases assocVatc-d witii tlie be-
fore-mentioned coincidence of ideas and
terms. — Bat here a new circum.stance
arises ; for memory and authority are
sometimes found to mislead ; and the re-
collection of such experience puts the
mind into a state of doubt, so that some-
times truth, sorrtetimes fsd.sehood, will re-
ctir', and unite itself with the ptoposition

UNDERSTANDING.

Under consideration, according as the re-
collection, authority, &.c. in all their pe-
culiar circumstances, have been associat-
ed with truth or with falsehood.

Thus tlie idea belonging to a mathema-
tical proposition, with the rational assent
or dissent arising in the mind, as soon as
it is presented to it, is nothing more than
a group of ideas united by association,
and forming a very complex idea (§ 53).
And this icYea is not merely the sum of
the ideas belonging to the terms of the
proposition, but also includes the notions
or feelings, whatever they be, which be-
long to the words equality, coincidence,
and truth, and, in some cases those of
utility, imj)ortance, &c. — For mathemati-
cal propositions are, in some cases, at-
tended with a ])ractical assent, in the pro-
per sense of these words; as when a
person takes this or that method of exe-
cuting a projected design, in conse-
quence of some mathen)atical proposition
assented to from his own examination, or
from the autiiority of others. Now the
train of voluntary actions denoting the
practical assent, is produced by the fre-
quent recurrency of ideas of utihty and
importance. These operate bj' associa-
tion, and though the rational assent be a
previous requisite, yet the degree of the
practical assent is proportional to the vi-
vidness of those ideas ; and in most cases
they strengthen the rational assent by
reaction.

II. Propositions concerning natural bo-
dies are of two kinds, vulgar and scienti-
ficul. Of the first kind are, " milk is
white," " gold is yellow," " a dog barks,"
Sec These are evidently nothing more
than forming the terms denoting the
whole or some component parts of the
complex idea, into a proposition, or em-
ploying those denoting some of its com-
mon adjuncts in the same way. The as-
sent given to such propositions arises
from the associations of the terms as well
as of the ideas denoted by them.

In scientifical propositions concerning
natural bodies, a definitum having been
made of the body from its properties,
another property or power is joined to
them as a constant or common associate.
Thus gold is said to be soluble in the
nitro-muriaticacid. Now to persons who
have made the proper experiments a sufli.
cient number of times, these words sug-
gest the ideas which occur in those experi-
ments, and conversely are suggested by
them, in the same manner as the vulgar
propositions above mentioned suggest,

and are suggested by, common appearan-
ces. But then, if they be scientific per-
sons, their readiness to afllirm tliat gold
is soluble in this acid universally, arises
also from the experiments of others, and
from their own and other persons' obser-
vations on the constancy and tenor of na-
ture. They find it to be a general truth,
that almost any two or tliree remarkable
qualities of a natural body, infer the rest,
being never found without them ; and
hence arises a readiness to aflSrm respect-
ing all bodies possessing those two or
three leadnig qualities, whatever may be
affirmed of one.

The propositions formed respecting na-
tural bodies are often attended with a
high degree of practical assent, arising
chiefly from some supposed utility and
importance, and which is no way propor-
tioned to the foregoing or similar acknow-
ledged causes of rational assent. And in
some cases the practical assent takes
place before the rational ; but then, after
some time, the rational assent is generat-
ed and cemented most firmly by the pre-
valence of the practical. This process is
particularly observable in the regards paid
to medicines ; that is, in the rational and
practical assent to the propositions con-
cerning their virtues.

The influence of the practical assent
over the rational, arises from their being
united in so many eases. And the vivid-
ness of the ideas arising from the suppos-
ed utility, importance, &,c. produce a
more ready and closer union of the terms
of the proposition.

111. The evidences for past facts are a
man's own memory, and the authority of
others. These are, under proper restric-
tions, the usual associates of true past
facts, and therefore produce the readiness
to aftirm a past fact to be true, that is, the
rational assent. The integrity and compe-
tency of the witnesses biding the principal
restriction or requisite in the accounts of
past facts, become principal associates to
the assent to them ; and the contrary
qualities to dissent.

If it be asked, how a narration of an
event supposed to be certainly true, or to
be doubtful, or to be entirely fictitious,
differs in its efTect upon the mind in these
circumstances respectively, the words ia
which it is narrated being the same in
case ? it may be replied, first, in having
the terms true, doubtful, or fictitious, with
a variety of ideas usually associated with
them, and the corresponding internal feel-
ings of respect, anxiety, dislike, See. con-

UNDERSTANDING.

H€cted with them respectively ; whence
the whole effects, exerted by each upon
the mind, will differ considerably from
one another. Secondly, if the events be
of a very interesting nature, the related
ideas will recur oflener, and thus ai^itate
the mind the more, in proportion to the
supposed truth of the event. And it con-
firms Uiis, that the frequent recurrence to
the mind of an mteresting event, suppos-
ed to be dotibtful, or even fictitious, by
degrees makes it appear like a real one.
Tlie practical assent to past facts often
produces the raii(mal assent, as in the other
cases before spiken of.

IV The evidence for future facts is of
the same kind with that for the proposi-
tions concerning natural bodies, being,
like it, taken from induction and analogy.
This is the foundation of the rational as-
sent. The practical depends upon the re-
currency of the ideas, and the degree of
agitation produced by them in the mind.
Hence retleclion makes the practical as-
sent grow for a long time after the ratio-
nal is arisen to its height ; or, which is of-
ten the case, if the practical assent arises,
in any considerable degree, without the
rational, it will generate the rational. Thus
the sanguine are apt to believe and assert
what they hope to be true ; and the timo-
rous what they fear.

V. There are many speculative abstract
propositions m logic, metaphyscis, ethics,
controversial divinity, &c. the evidence
for which is the coincidence or analogy of
the abstract terms, in certain particular
applications of them, or as considered in
then* grammatical relations. This causes
the rational assent. As to the practical
assent or dissent, it arises from the ideas
of importance, reverence, piety, duty, am-
bition, jealousy, envy, self-interest, &c.
which intermix in these subjects, and thus
in some cases, add great strength to the
rational assent, in others destroy it, and
convert it into its opposite.

On the whole it appears, that rational
assent has diflTerent causes in propositions
of different kinds, and practical assent in
like manner: that the causes of rational
are also diflTerent from those of practical;
that there is, however, a great affinity and
general resemblance in all the causes ;
that rational and practical assent exert a
perpetual reciprocal influence on each
other ; and, consequently, that the ideas
belonging to assent and dissent, and
their equivalents and relatives, are highly
complex, unless in the cases of very sim-
ple propositions, such as mathematicaj
ones. For, besides the coincidence oj-

ideas and terms, they include in other ca-
ses, ideas ol utility, importance, respect,
disrespect, ridicule, religious affections,
hope, fear, &.c. and bear some gross ge-
neral proportion to the vividness of these
ideas.

It follows from the preceding state-
ments, that vicious men, that is, all per-
sons who want practical faith, must be
prejudiced against the historical and
other foundations for rational faith in re-
vealed religion. Further, it is impossible
any person should be so sceptical as not
to have the complex ideas denoted by the
words assent and dissent associated with
a great variety of propositions, in the
same manner as in other persons ; justaa
he must have the same ideas in general
affixed to the words of his native language
as other men have. An universal sceptic
is therefore no more than a person who va-
ries from the common usage in his applica-
tion of a certain set of words, viz. truth,
certainty, assent, dissent, &c.

We shall close this article with the very
important remarks on evidence, given by
Hartley, in proposition 87 ; referring to
the original those readers, who wish to
see how he illustrates or proves them by
the employment of simple mathematical
expressions, and who are disposed to en-
ter into his important observations re-
specting the ascertainment of truth and the
advancement of knowledge.

1. If the evidences for any proposition,
fact, &c. be dependent on each other, so
that the first is required to support the
second, the second the third, and so on;
that is, if a failure of any one of the evidenr
ces renders all the rest of no value, the
separate probability of each evidence must
be very great in order to make the pro-
position credible ; and this holds so much
the more, as the dependent evidences are
more numerous.

2. If the evidences for any proposition,
fact, &c. be independent on each other;
that is, if they be not necessary to support
each other, but concur, and can each of
them, when established upon its own pro-
per evidences, be applied directly to esta-
blish the proposition, fact, &c. in question,
the deficiency in the probability of each
must be very great, in order to render the
proposition perceptibly doubtful, and this
holds so much the more, as the evidences
are more numerous.

3. The resulting probabinty may be
sufficiently strong in dependent evidences,
and of little value in independent ones,
according as the separate probability of
each evidence is greater or less. Timfe

UND

UNI

the principal facts of ancient history are
not less probable praclicall}' now, tban
ten or fifteen centuries ago; nor Less so
then, than in tl«e times immediiitely suc-
ceeding, because the diminution of evi-
dence in each century is imperceptible.
And for the same reason a large number
of weak arguments prove little.

4. It appears likewise, that the inequali-
ty of the separate evidences does not pro-
duce much alteration in these remarks. In
like manner, if the number of evidences,
dependent or independent, be great, we
may make great concessions as to the va-
lue of each. Again, a strong evidence in
dependent ones can add nothing, but
must weaken a little ; and after a point is
well settled by a number of independent
ones, all that come afterwards are in one
sense useless, because they do no more
than remove the imperceptible remaining
deficiency ; on the other hand, however,
as evidence produces different effects on
different minds, it is ot great moment in
all points of genei al importance, to have
as many satisfactory independent eviden-
ces as possible brought into view ; that if
one fail in its effects, from peculiar cir-
cumstances, another may supply its place.
And it will be of great use to pursue these
and such like deductions, both mathe-
matically, and by applying them to pro-
per instances selected from the sciences,
and from common life, in ord^M* to remove
certain prejudices, which the use of general
terms and ways of speaking, with the va-
rious associations with them, is apt to in-
troduce and fix upon the mind. It can-
not but assist us, in the art of reasoning,
thus to analyze, recorapose, and' ascer-
tain our evidences.

UNDULATIOxV, in physics, a kind of
tremulous motion or vibration observable
in a liquid, whereby it alternately rises
and falls like the waves of the sea. Thus
unduiatory motion, if the liquid be smooth
and Hi vest, is propagated in concentric
circles, as most people have observed
upon throwing a stone, or other matter,
upon the surface of a stagnant water, or
even upon touching the surface of the
water lightly with the finger, or the like.
The reason of these circular undulations
is, that by toucliing the surface witli your
finger, there is produced a depression of
ti)e water iu the plact? of contact. By
tills di^pressjon, the suhjacep.t parts are
moved succ^issively out of tliei^ place,
and the other adjacent parts thrust up-
wards, which lying successively on the
descending liquid, follow it; and thus
the parts of tile liquid are alternately

iuiscu aiKi uepressed, and that circular-
ly. When a stone is tlirown into the li-
quid, the reciprocal vibrations are more
conspicuous : here the water, in the
place of immersion, rising higher by-
means of the impulse, or rebound, till it
comes to fall again, gives an impulse to
the adjoining liquid, by which means
that is hkewise raised about the place of
the stone as about a centre, and forms
the first undulous circle ; this falling
again, gives another impulse to the fluid
next to it, further from the centre,
which rises likewise in a circle ; and thus
successively greater and greater circles
are produced.

UNGUL.\, in geometry, the section
of a cylinder cut off by a plane passing
obliquely through the plane of the base
and part of the cylindric surface.

UNICORN, an animal famous among
the ancients, but looked upon by the
moderns as fabulous, denominated from
its distinguishing characteristic of having
one horn only, which is represented as
five palms long, and growing in the
middle of the forehead.

The unicorn is one of the supporters
of the British arms. It is represented,
by heralfls, passant, and sometimes ram-
pant. When in this last action, as in the
British ai-ms, it is properly said to be sail-
lant. Argent, an unicorn sejant sable,
armed and unguled, or, borne by the
name of harding.

UxicouxjifsA. See Moxonox.
UNIOLA, in botany, a genus of the Tri-
andria Digynia class and order. Natural
order of Gramina. Graminese, Jussieu.
Fissential character : calyx manyvalved;
spikelet ovate, keeled. There are three
species.

UNONA, in botany, a genus of the
Poliandria Polyginia class and order. Na-
tural order of Coadunatse. Anonze, Jus-
sieu. Essential character : calyx three-
leaved; petals six; berries two or three-
seeded, jointed like a necklace. There
are four species.

UNISON, in music, the effect of two
sounds which are equal in degree of tune,
or in ])oint of gravity and acuteness.

UNITARIANS, in church history, are
those who believe that there is but one
God, the supreme object of religious
worship ; and that this God is the Father
only, and not a Trinity consisting of Fa-
tiicr. Son, and Holy Ghost.

Tiie Unitarians having been frequently
confounded with the old Socinians, it is
but justice to observe, that a very mate-
rial difference exists in some parts of the

UNITARIANS.

religious faith of these two sects. The
Socinians believed that Jesus Christ,
though a human being, was advanced by
God to the government of the whole cre-
ated universe, and was, therefore, the
proper object of religious worship. On
account of tlieir essential deviation from
the doctrine of Socinus, in this and some
.othei respects, tlie modern Unitarians
disclaiiu ihe appellation Socinian, as inap-
plicable to their views of religious faith
and worship. This term is, however,
very comprehensive, and is a]>plicable to
a gre:it variety of persons, wiio, notwith-
standing, agree in this one common prin-
ciple, that there is no distinction in Uie
divine nature.

The appellation of Unitarian may be
considered as a generic term, including
in it a number of specific diH'erences. In-
deetl, all those who reject the doctrifie of
the Trinity, and pay divine worsliij) to
the Father only, may with propriety be
called Unitarians. As it is a principle
among this body of Christians, that the
most unbounded liberty ougiit to be
gi-anted to every individual to understand
and explain the doctrines of the Scrip-
tiu'es according to his own particular
views, it has long been divided into a
number of parties, differing on various
subjects not immediately affecting the
leading doctrine of the Divine Unity.
Though the ancient Arians appear never
to have adopted this appellation, yet
most of their successors of the present
day assert, that they have a just claim to
the title ; because, they say, that they
pay divine adoration to the one God and
Father onl) , and not to Jesus Christ, or
to the Holy Ghost. If this be admitted,
it will appear that the Unitarian doctrine
is of very ancient date. Indeed, they
profess to derive their f.ith solely from
the sacred Scriptures of the Old and New
Testaments.

Soon after the Nicene Council, when
the Christian world had wearied itself
with religious wars and disputes concet-ii
ing doctrines and government, and the
Papal power had, apparently, converted
the kingdom of Christ into a kingdom of
tjiis world, the subjects of religious con-
troversy ceased, in a great degree, to
agitate the minds of men, until the me-
morable peiiod of the Keformation. Then
again did the flame, which lia>l been long
sniothering, burst out ; and the grea't
and leading maxim, of the right of pri-
vate judgment in matters of n ligion, on
which the Reformation was founded,
once more gave liberty to the powers of

the human understanding. How far
those powers were exerud ag.iinstmany
of the doctrines of the Church of Rome,
we have already described in the articles

PllOTKSTANTS and RKrORMATIOJT. Tiiough

Luther and his adherents had done
much towards eflccling a complete re-
formation in rehgion, it was thought by
many persons of great learning and
piety, that much still remained to be
cleared away, before the religion of Jesus
Christ could again assume its native lustre
and purity. Among the number of those
who were of this opinion, was a learned
and eminent physician of Spain, common-
ly called Michael Servetu.s. This gen-
tleman, conceiving that the ideas gene-
rally maintained concerning the Trinity,
and some other popular doctrines, were
false and dangerou.s, discovered and pro-
pagated what he conceived to be a more
rational theory; the leading features of
which related to the doctrine of the Tri-
nity, which he flatly denied ; at least in
the manner in which it was tUen com-
monly undei-stood.

On this subject he published his fa-
mous book, entitled "De Trinitatis Er-
roribus ;" with vvliich, as Oecolampadius,
writing to Bucer, observes, the reform-
ers at Berne were very much offended.
At the same time he remarks, that the
churches woukl be very ill spoken of,
unless their divines would make it their
business to " cry it down." '* We know
not,^' he continues, " how that beast,
(Servetus) came to creep in among us ;
he wrests all passages of Scriptuie to
prove, that the Son is not co-eternal and
consubstantial with the Father, and that
the man Christ is the Son of God."

Now it was, tliat the feai-s of Melanc-
thon began to be reahzed. In a letter to
Joachim Cameraper, this reformer thus
expresses himself: " You know that 1
was always afraid, that these disputes
about the Trinity would break out some
time or other. Good(jod! what trage-
dies will tliis question jjroduce among
posterity ; — whether the Logos be asub-
stance or a person." To alleviate, in
some measure, these fears, this meek re-
former wrote a letter to the Popish Se-
nate at Venice, be.seeching them to tise
their utmost endeavours to prevent the
spread of the errors contained in Serve-
tus's book. It was, however, reserved
forthe zeal of Calvin to convince the re-
ligious world, that the reformers, witli a^I
their zeal against popery, had not learned
to shake off a spirit of tiery persecution
against those whom they chose to accoui.t

UNITARIANS.

heretics. Not content with calling Ser-
vetus " the proudest knave of the Span-
ish nation," " a vlllanoiis, obscene,
barking dog, a bh)ckhead and a beast,"
this furious bigot, with ail the abominable
cant with which the genius of his reli-
gious creed could amply supply him,
ca!i<;('d the unhap])y Servetus to be burnt
at the stake as a heretic, after having ha-
rassed and tormented him in every possi-
ble way that the most determined vil-
lainy and artful hypocrisy could suggest.
Thus died the first Unitarian martyr after
the Reformation ; «nd thus was he treated
by one of the principal i-eforniers !

It was probably from the books of Mi-
chael Servetus, that lixlius Socinns, and
many other Italians, first imbibed tiieir
anti-trinitarian opinions. From the pa-
pers of Laelius Socinus, his nephew,
Faustus Socinus, was afterwards led to
the study of tjieology. He improved on
the system of his uncle; and was the cause
of the Unitarian doctrine spreading itself
over a great part of Europe. In Poland,
in particular, this sect made astonishing
progress. By them was published the
famous Racovian Catechism ; and the
writings of the Polones Fratres, in six
large folio volumes, entitled "Biblio-
theca Fratrum," are replete with learning
and great biblical knowledge. The lead-
ing doctrines maintained by the Polo-
nian brethren are as follow:

That the Holy Scriptures are to be un-
derstood and explained in such a manner,
as that their doctrines shall be strictly
agreeable to the true principles of rea-
son.

In consequence of this leading point in
their theoh)gy, they maintained that
God, who is infinitely more perfect than
man, tliough of a similar nature in some
respects, exerted an act of that power by
which he governs all things ; in Conse-
quence of which, an extraordinary person
was born of the Virgin Mary. That per-
son was Jesus Christ, whom God first
translated to heaven by that portion of his
divine power called the Holy Ghost. So
cinus and some of his followers entertain-
ed this notion of Christ's having been, in
some unknown time of l)is life, taken up
personally into heaven, and sent down
again to the earth, by which they solved
these expressions concerning him : •' No
man has ascended to heaven but he that
came down from heaven, even the Son of
Man which is in heaven," (John lii. 13 )
Thus Moses, who was the type of Christ,
before the promulgation of the law, as-

cended to God upon Mount Sinai. So
Christ, before he entered on the office as-
signed him by the Father, was, in conse-
quence of the divine council and agency,
translated into heaven, that he might see
the things he had to announce to the
world in the name of God himself Be-
ing thus fully instructed in the knowledge
of his counsels and designs, he sent him
agam into this sublunary world, to promul-
gate to mankind a new rule of life, more
excellent than that under winch they had
formerly lived, to propagate divine truth
by his ministry, and to confirm it by his
death.

That those who obey the voice of this
divine teacher (and this obedience is in
the power of every one whose will and in-
clination lead that way) shall one day
be clothed with new bodies, and inliabit
eternally those blessed regions vthere God
himseh immediately resides. Such, on
the contrary, as are disobedient and re-
bellious, shall undergo most terrible and
exquisite torments, which shall be suc-
ceeded by annihilation, or the total ex-
tinction of their being.

Faustus Socinus supposed that, in con-
descension to human weakness, in order
that mankind might have one of their own
brethren more upon a level with them,
to whom they might have recourse in
their straits and necessities. Almighty
God, for his eminent virtues, had confer-
red upon Jesus Christ, the Son of Mary,
some years after he was born, a high di-
vine power, lordship, and dominion, for
the government of the christian world
only ; and had qualified him to hear and
answer the prayers of his followers in such
matters as related to the cause of the
■gospel. The chief foundation on which
Socinus foimded the opinion of Christ's
being an object of religious worship, was
the declarations in the scriptures con-
cerning the kingdom and power bestow-
ed upon him. The interpretation which
he put on those passages which speak of
angels and heavenly powers being put
under him, and worshipping him ; his
having a knowledge of the secret thoughts
of men imparted to kim, and the like,
which, with some presumed instances of"
the fact, of prayer being actually made to
him, he maintained to be a sufficient
though indirect signification of the divine
will, that men should invoke Christ by
prayer. But he constantly acknowledg-
ed that there was no express precept for
making him an object of religious wor-
ship.

UNITARIANS.

Socinus allowed that the title of true
God miglit be given to Christ ; though all
he meant by it was, that he had a real
divine power and dominion bestowed
upon him, to qualify htm to take care of
the concerns of cliristians, and to hear
and answer their prayers, though lie was
originally nothing more than a human
^creature.

There were some among the early
Socinians who disapproved and rejected
the worship paid to Christ, as being
without any foundation in the Holy Scrip-
tures, the only rule of Christian faith and
worship.

• Tliis is a general outline of tlie doc-
trines of the Socinians.

Tl)e Unitarians, of the present day, are
principally divided into Arians and Huma-
nitarians, or believers in the simple hu-
manity of Christ. For an account of the
first of tliese two classes, see the article
AuiANs. The summary of doctrines
held by modern Unitarians is as follows :
The capital article in the religious sys-
tem of this denomination is, that Christ
was a mere man. But they consider him
as the great instrument in the hands of
God of reversing all the effects of the fall;
as the object of all the prophecies from
Moses to his own time ; as the great bond
of union to virtuous and good men, who,
as christians, make one body in a peculiar
sense ; as having communications with
God, and speaking and acting from God,
in such a manner as no other man ever
did, and therefore, having the form of
God, and being the Son of God in a man-
ner peculiar to himself; as the mean of
spreading divine and saving knowledge
to all the world ol" mankind ; as, under
God, the head of all Ihitigs to liis church; *
and as the Lord of life, having power and
authority from God to raise the dead, and
judge tlie world at the last day. They
suppose that the great object of the whole
scheme of revelation v/as to teach men how
to live here so as to be happy hereafter ;
that the particular doctrines they taught,
as having a connection with this great ob-
ject, are those of the unity of God, his
universal presence and inspection, his
placability to repenting sinners, and the
certainty of a life of retribution after
death. They suppose, that to be a chris-
tian implies nothing more than the
belief that Christ and his apostles, as
well as all preceding prophets, were
commissioned by God to teach what they
declare they received from him ; the
most important article of which is the
VOL. VL

doctrine of a resurrection to immortal
lite.

This denomination of Christians argue
against the divinity and pre existence of
Christ in the following manner : the scrip-
tures contain the clearest and most ex-
press declarations that there is but one
God, without ever mentioning any excep-
tion in favour of a Trinity, or guarding us
against being led into any mistake by
such general and unlimited expressions,
Exod. XX. o : " Thou shalt have no other
God but me." Deut. vi. 4, Mark xii. 20.
1 Cor. viii. 6. Ephes. iv. 5. It is the uni-
form language of the sacred books of the
Old Testament, that one God, without
any assistant, either equal or subordinate
to himself, made the world and all things
in it, and that this one God continues to
direct all the affairs of men. The first
book of Moses begins with reciting all
the visible parts of the universe as the
work and appointment of God. In the
ancient prophetic accounts, which preced-
ed the birth of Christ, he is spoken of as
a man, as a human creature highly favour-
ed of God, and gifted with extraordinary
powers from him, and nothing more. He
was foretold, Gen. xxii. 8. to be of " the
seed of Abraham," Deut. xviii. " A pro-
phet like unto Moses.'* Psal. cxxvii. 11 :
'* Of the family of David,'* &c. As a
man, as a prophet, though of the highest
order, the Jews constantly and uniformly
looked for their Messiah. Christ never
claimed any honour nor respect on his
own account, nor as due to himself as a
person only inferior to the most high God;
but such as belonged only to a prophet,
an extraordinary messenger of God, to
listen to the message and truths which he
delivered from him. He in the most de-
cisive terms declares the Lord God to be
one person ; and simply, excluyive of all
others, to be the sole object of worship,
lie always prayed to the one God as his
God and Father. He always spoke of
himself as receiving his doctrine and pow-
er from him, and again and again dis-
claimed having any power of his own.
John v. 19 : " Then answered Jesus and
said unto them, verily, verily, I say unto
you, the Son can do nothing of himself/'
John xiv. 10: "The words which I
speak unto you, 1 speak not of myself ;
but the Father that dwelleth in me, he
doeth the works." He directed men to
worship the Father ; and never let fall the
least intimation that himself or any other
person whomsoever, was the object of
worship. (See Luke xi. 1, 2. Matt. iv.
3 S

UNI

10.) He says in John xvi. 23, " And in
that day ye shall ask me nothing. Veri-
Iv, verilv,' I say unto you, whatsoever ye
stiall ask the Father in ray name, he will
give it you."

Christ, they say, cannot be that God to
whom prayer is to be offered, because he
is the high priest ot that God, to make
intercession for us. (Acts vii. 25.) And
if Christ be not the object of prayer, he
Cannot be either God, or the maker and
governor of the world under God. The
aposiles, to the latest period of their
"writings, speak the same language, re-
presenting the Father as the only true
God, and Christ as a man, the servant of
God, who raised him from the dead, and
gave him all the power of which he is pos-
sessed, as a reward for his obedience. In
Acts ii. 22, the apostle Peter calls Christ
«* a man approved of God," &c. ; and in
Acts xvii. the apostle calls him " the man
whom God has ordained." 1 Tim. ii. 5 :
** There is one God, and one Mediator
between God and man, the man Christ
Jesus." Had the apostle Paul considered
Christ as being any thing more than a
man with respect to his nature, he could
never have argued with the least propri-
ety or effect, ** that as by man came death,
^o by man came also the resurrection of
the dead ;" for it might have been repli-
ed, that by man came death ; but not by
man, but by God, or the Creator of the
world under God, came the resurrection
from the dead. The apostles directed
men to pray to God the Father only: Acts
jv. 24. liom. xvi. 27, 8tc.

This denomination maintain, tiiat re-
pentaiTtce and a good life are of them-
selves sufficient to recommend us to the
divine favoiu* ; and that nothing is neces-
stiry to make us in all situations the ob-
jects of his favour, but such moral con-
duct as he has made us capable of. That
Christ did nothing by his death or in any
other way to render God kind and merci-
ful to sinners ; or rather, that God is of
his own accord disposed to forgive men
their sins, without any other condition
than the sinner's repentance, is declared
by the Almighty himself constantly and
expressly in the Old Testament, and ne-
ner contradicted in the new. Isaiah Iv.
7 : " Let the wicked forsake his way,
and the unrighteous man his thoughts ;
and let him return unto the Lord, and he
will have mercy upon him, and to our
God, for he will abundantly pardon."
See also Ezek. xviii. 27. This most im-
portant doctrine of the efficacy of re-
pentance alone on the part of the sinner.

UNI

as sufficient to recommend him to pardon
with God, is confirmed by Christ himself.
Matt. vi. 12: "If ye forgive men their
trespasses, your heavenly Father will also
forgive you." But above all, the beauti-
ftil and affecting parable of the prodigal
son, (Luke xv.) is most decisive, that re-
pentance is all our heavenly Father re-
quires to restore us to his favour.

The Unitarians of all ages have adopt-
ed sentiments similar to those of Pela-
gius, with respect to human nature.

Of late years, the Unitarians have been
very much upon the increase. They
have several societies, in various parts of
the country, for the promotion of their
principles by the publication of books.
In London they have two large and flour-
ishing public societies — The one called
" The Unitarian Society for promoting
Christian Knowledge and the practice of
Virtue, by the distribution of books."
This society has lately published "An
improved version of the New Testament
upon the basis of Archbishop Newcome's
new translation, with a corrected text,
and notes critical aud explanatory."
Among the members of this society are
to be found some men of high literary
and political character. The other soci-
ety, established in London, is called the
" Unitarian Fund, for promoting Unita-
rianism by means of popular preaching."
The objects of which are stated to be :
" 1. To enable poor Unitarian congrega-
tions to carry on religions worship. 2.
To reimburse the travelling and other
expenses of teachers who may contribute
their labours to the preaching of the gos-
pel on Unitarian principles ; and 3. To
relieve those Christian ministers who, by
embracuig Unltarianism, subject them-
selves to poverty." This society has now
several missionaries in various parts of the
united kingdom ; and its funds are said to
be in a flourishing state.

This denomination is now spreading it-
self in America. There are also some so-
cieties in France, and other parts of the
Continent, of Unitarian Christians.

UNITY, in poetry. In the drama there
are three unities to be observed, viz. the
unity of action, that of time, and that of
place. In the epic poem, the great, and
almost only unity, is that of the action.
Some regard, indeed, ought to be had
to that of time ; that of place there is no
room for. The unity of character is not
reckoned among the unities. The unity
of the dramatic action consists of the
unity of the intrigue in comedy, and
that of the danger in tragedy ; and this
not only in the plan of the fable, but also

4

UNI

UNJ

.11 the fable extended and filled with epi-
sodes.

UNIVALVE shefls, in natural history,
a term used to express one of the three
Ifeneral orders of shell-fish ; the other
two being the Bivalves and Multivalves.
See CoxcHOLOor, Shells, &c.

UNIVERSALISTS, in church history,
were originally those reformers who
^aught a kind of middle doctrine, be-
tween the systems of Calvin and Armi-
nius. They were denominated hypothe-
tical Universulists, because they main-
tained, that God is willing to shew mercy
to all mankind ; and because they held,
that faith in Christ is a necessary condi-
tion, to render them the objects of the
divine mercy. These opinions were in-
tended to be opposed to the harsh and
cruel notions of Calvin, concerning elec-
tion and reprobation, on the one hand ;
and to the opinions of Pelagius, concern-
ing the merit of good works, on the
other. The doctrines of the hypotheti-
cal Universalists were propagated with
success by John Cameron ; and were fur-
ther illustrated and defended by Moses
Amyrant, a man of great learning and
sagacity. The opinions he maintained,
and which produced no small changes in
the doctrine of the reformed in France,
are briefly summed up in the following
propositions .*

That God desires the happiness of all
Oien ; and that no mortal is excluded by
any divine decree from the benefits that
are procured by the death, sufferings,
and gospel of Christ:

That, however, none can be made a
partaker of the blessings of the Gospel,
and of eternal salvation, unless he believe
in Jesus Christ :

That such, indeed, is the immense and
.i.niversal goodness of the Supreme Be-
ing, that he refuses to none the power of
beheving ; though he does not grant un-
to all his assistance and succour, that
they may wisely improve this power to
the attainment of everlasting salvation :

And that, in consequence of this,
multitudes perisli through their own
fault, and not from any want of goodness
in God.

It does not, indeed, appear, how this
mitigated view of the doctrine of predesr
tin'ation can effectually destroy the heart-
appalling thoughts, occasioned by tlie
more open and direct notions of Calvin
and his adherents ; but such were the
opinions taught by the hypothetical Uni-
vei^salists; and they were not without

their good effect, in softening dowii
many of the rigours of high Calvinism.
But the term Universalists has now ob-
tained a far more extensive signification ;
as it is used to designate those Christians
who hold the doctrine of the future re-
storation of all men to eternal life and
happiness. This sentiment was embrac-
ed by Origen in the third century; and,
in more modern times, by the Chevalier
Ramsay, Dr. Cheyne, Dr. Hartley, and
others. The most popular advocates for
this doctrine, were Dr. Chauncy and the
late Rev. Elhanan Winchester.

Dr. Chauncy held, that as Christ died,
not for a select number of men only, but
for all men universally, that therefore all
men shall finally partake of the benefits
of his death ; if not in this state of ex-
istence, yet in another. He held, that,
as a mean, in order to man's being meet
for salvation, God will, sooner or later,
bring them all to a wiUing and obedient
subjection to his moral government.

This doctrine is maintained by many,
not so much, as they say, because it ap-
pears to be indicated by some passages of
Scripture ; but because it is strictly agree-
able to the spirit and genius of the dis-
pensation of universal goodness displayed
in the Gospel of Christ. They contend,
that the doctrine of eternal punishments
is not only a cruel and hateful doctrine,
but subversive of all proper ideas of the
benevolent and wise character of the Al-
mighty, as well as destructive of the true
use and design of all punishment. And
as. punishment cannot proceed from a
vindictive spirit on the part of the Al-
mighty, it must be designed so to correct
the offenders against his moral laws, as
to destroy the necessity of eternal pun-
ishment, and restore the sinner to obe-
dience, and a desire after reformation ;
which reformation, when effected, must
render all further punishment both un-
merciful and unjust. In defence of this
reasoning they say, that tlie scriptural
words rendered everlastings eternal, for
ever, and for ever and for ever, are fre-
quently used to express things of limited
duration ; and that, when they refer to
the future state of punishment^ they are
always to be so understood; because to
interpret these words otherwise, would
be to reason contrary to the analogy of
faith, the ideas of the divine goodness, the
design of the Gospel, and the plain. dic-
tates of right reason. This doctrine, has
to boast of having, among its advocates
and defenders, the names of Origen and

UNIVERSITY.

lus discipks ; of many of the German
Baptists, prior to the reformation ; and,
in latter times, of Petitpiere, a learned
Swiss ; of Dr. Rust, Bishop of Dromore,
in Ireland ; of Archbishop Tillotson ; as
well as of Bishops Burnet and Newton.

This doctrine is also g-enerally main-
tained by those Christians who profess
the Unitarian faith, whether Arians or
Humanitarians. It has, however, been
ably opposed by many learned men ;
though the controversy is now pretty
much at rest.

UNIVERSITY. This term signifies
the establishment of many colleges in
one particular situation, all of which are
subject to the same general government,
and which are formed by the residence of
numerous professors in every branch of
science, who teach them to students as-
sembled from all parts of Europe, and
particularly the countries possessing
those seats of learning.

So many centuries have elapsed since
the introduction of this mode of instruc-
tion, that each university is desirous to
profit by the oblivion involving their
origin, in claiming the priority : thus
the members of the two universities of
Paris and Boulogne assert that they were
the first established; nor are those of
Oxford and Cambridge less desirous of
maintaining their real, or supposed, rights
on this head.

As this is not the proper place to en-
ter into an historical accou!it of these vast
seminaries of learning, we shall refer our
readers, for further informMion in this
particular, to works written expressly on
the subject.

We shall now proceed to explain the
various component parts of an university;
and to accomplish this correctly and mi-
nutely, we have had recourse to the Cam-
bridge University calendar, compiled by
Mr. Raworth, who says, " The university
of Cambridge is a society of students in
all and eveiy of the liberal arts and sci-
ences, incorporated (13 Elizabeth) by the
name of the chancellor, masters, and scho-
lars. The frame of this little common-
wealth standeth upon the union of sixteen
colleges, or societies, devoted to the stu-
dy of learning and knowledge, and for the
better service of the church and state."
Every college is in itself a corporate bo-
dy, and governed by its own statutes,
which must, however, concur with the
general laws of the university, formed by
Elizabeth on previous privileges, and con-
firmed by Parliament, consequently they
are the basis of all modern regulations.

Each of the colleges send deputies, both
for the executive and legislative branches
of the government, and the place of their
meeting is termed the senate house.

Masters of arts, doctors in divinity, ci-
vil law, and physic, who have their names
iiiscribed on the college boards, and are
resident at Cambridge, possess votes in
the above assembly ; and of those there
were, in the year 1802, about 940. Tiie
senate consists of two classes, which are
called regents or non-regents, with a view
to some particular offices assigned by the
statutes of the university to the junior
division. Masters of arts of less than five
years standing, and doctors under two,
form the regent, or upper house : and it
has besides the term of white-hood house,
from the circumstance of the members
having their hoods lined with silk of the
above colour : the remainder constitute
the non-regent, or black-hood house :
doctors of more than two years standing,
and the public orator of the university,
are entitled to vote in either of those
houses at pleasure ; exclusive of which
there is a Caput, or coimcil, composed of
the vice chancellor, a doctor of each fa-
culty, and two masters of arts, who are
representatives of the houses already
mentioned. The vice chancellor being
a member of the Caput by virtue of his
office, his election to the former only
takes place annually, on the foiu'th of
November, when the senate choose him
from the masters of the sixteen colleges;
but that of the Caput occurs after the
same interval on the ISth of October, in
the fallowing manner : the vice chancel-
lor and the two proctors severally nomi-
nate five persons, and from the fifteen
thus prcposed the heads of colleges and
doctors select five, general]}' preferring
the vice chancelloi''s list.

The officer just mentioned calls the
meetings of the senate by a printed no-
tice, wliich specifies the cause, and must
be suspended in the halls of the several col-
leges three days previously tothe time ap-
pointed. A congregation of the members
thus summoned may proceed to business,
and a congregation consLsts of any num-
ber above twenty-six, including the pro-
per officers of the Senate, who are com-
pelled to attend on oath, personally, or
by their legal deputies. Exclusive of
these casual meetings, there are statuta-
ble congregations, for conferring degrees,
electing officers, ike. he. which are held
without notice. "Every member has a
right," says Mr. Raworth, " to present
any proposition, or grace, to the consi-

UNIVERSITY.

deration of tlie Senate ; but previously to
its being voted by the two houses, it is to
be read and approved by tlie Council, or
Caput ; each member of whicii has a ne-
gative voice. This custom has seldom
been observed, unless something mani-
festly absurd, or obviously derogatory to
tlie credit of the university, is proposed ;
insomuch, tiiat nothing" has been more
common than for a person to give a pla-
cet in the Caput, and a non-placet to the
same in the body, upon the idea that the
Caput should be considered in ll>e light
of a committee to prepare the graces in
point of form for the subsequent voting ;
as without some such regulation it miglit
be difficult to take the sense of the Senate
upon the real merits of the question."
When a grace has passed the Caput, one
of two scrutators read it in the non-regent
house, and in the other it is read by the
senior proctor, after which the vice chan-
cellor di.ssolvesthe congregation ; the ce-
remony of reading is repeated in a second
congi-egation ; and if a non-placet does
iiot occur, it becomes a statute ; on the
contrary, if a non-placet is put in by a
member of either house, it is put to the
vote there, and a majority decides the
question.

The senatus consultum decree, or
grace, of this learned assembly has the
same force and effect as an act of the le-
gislature of Great Britain, which fact is
supported by the opinion of the best
council, and, "in cases where nothing is
enacted in opposition to the laws of the
land, neither the statutes of Ehzabeth,
nor the mandatory letters of succeed-
ing kings, although their authority be
apparently strengthened by uninterrup-
ted submission, can stand against the
determination of this respectable assem-
bly."

A degree cannot be conferred without
y)assing of a grace for the purpose, which
is done with the same formality as if a
new law was to be made. This is, how-
ever, dispensed with in the single case of
a bachelor of arts, as this requires reading
in one congregation only, when it is term-
ed a supplicat, and must be signed by the
pr?elector, who thus becomes responsible
tor the truth of its contents, besides the
penalty of being deprived of his privilege
of voting in the Senate for two years, or
bearing any office in the university, upon
discovery of any false assertions in it. De-
gi-ees are never conferred, unless the
persons receiving them previously sign a
declaration, that they are bona fide mem-
l>ei's of the Church of England, as by law

established. All the officers of the uni-
versity, forming the executive part of it,
are chosen by the Senate, the principal
of whom is the chaiicellor, who presides
in all cases, and to whom is confided the;
sole power of governing, excepting iu
cases of mayhem and felony ; he is, be-
sides, expected to protect and preserve
all the rights and privileges of the insti-
tution, and to see that strict and impartitd
justice is administered in every case to
the members; and that all this'may be
be insured, the office has lately been en-
trusted to noblemen of the highest i-ank.
Other parts of his official duty are, the
convoking of assemblies, the sealing of
diplomas, letters of degrees, provisions,
&c. given by the university.

The high steward is the next officer in
consequence to the chancellor, and to him
is granted the power to superintend the
trial of students accused of felony, within
the limits of the jurisdiction, which is one
mile in every direction from the suburbs
of the university : he is also empowered
to hold a leet, according to the establish-
ed charter and custom, and is permitted
to have a deputy.

The vice chancellor's office is explain-
ed by his title ; but he acts as a magistrate
for the university and county, and must
be the head of some college. The re-
gents elect two proctors, who are officers
of the peace, and superintend the beha-
viour and discipline of all the pupils,
and may search for and commit to prison
those abandoned females who contribute
to corrupt the morals of the students at
the university. Exclusive of these pur-
poses, the proctors are appointed to at-
tend the congregations of the Senate,
when they stand in scrutiny with the
chancellor or vice chancellor, to take th6
open suffrages, verbally, and written,
which they read, and finally pronounce
the assent or dissent : the graces are read
by them in the regent house, where they
take the assents and dissents secretly, but
afterwards openly declare them. Al-
though there are some particular parts of
the duties of these officers which may be
considered very unpleasant, yet they
must be masters of arts, and are regents
by virtue of their office, and are enabled
to determine the seniority of all masters
of arts at the time of their taking that de-
gree ; besides which, they may nominate
two moderators, who are then appointed
by a grace of the Senate. Those persons
act as the substitutes of the proctors in
the philosophical schools, and alternately
superintend disputations and exercises

UNIVERSITY.

there, and the exartiinations for the de-
gree of bachelor of arts.

Other officers are termed taxors, scruta-
tors, a public orator, a commissary, a re-
gistrar, esquire bedells, and librarians.
The taxors, similar to the moderators, are
masters of arts and regents by virtue of
their office, which is to regulate the mar-
kets, the assize of bread, the exactness of
weights and measures, by the different
standards, and to summon all offenders in-
to the commissary's court : the scrutators
are non -regents, and their functions are
to attend at every congregation, to read
the graces in the lower house, where
tliey collect the votes secretly or openly,
in scrutiny, when they publicly pro-
nounce the assent or dissent of that
house.

The public orator holds an office which
is considered as one of the most honour-
able in the university ; he is, in fact, the
medium of the senate upon all solemn oc-
casions, reading and recording all com-
munications to and from the senate, and
presenting all honorary degrees, accom-
panied by a suitable speech. The com-
missary holds his office under the chan-
cellor, and officiates as assessor, or assist-
ant, in the vice-chancellor's court ; be-
sides which, he holds a court of record,
where all causes are subject to the statute
and civil law and custom of the universi-
ty ; and the persons for whom it is held
are all privileged, and scholars under the
degree of master of arts. The registrar
attends himself, or by deputy, all congre-
gations, to give directions, if necessary,
for the correct wording of such graces as
are propounded, and to di*aw up any^that
the vice-diancellor may appoint ; to re-
ceive them when passed through both
houses, and to register them in the ar-
chives of the university ; exclusive of
which, his office requires h'un to record
tile seniority of those who proceed an-
nually in the arts or faculties, agreea-
bly to the schedules furnished to him by
the proctors.

The esquire bedells attend the vice-
chancellor during all public solemnities,
preceding him with their insignia of sil-
ver maces : they attend, besides, the doc-
tors when present in the regent house,
by bringing them to open scrutiny, there
to deliver their suffrages, either by word
or writing, according to the order of the
statute ; and to receive from the vice-
chancellor and the rest of the Caput the
graces, which they deliver to the scruta-
tors in the lower house ; when, if granted,
Ij^ey convey them to the proctors in the

other. Previous to a meeting, they pro.
ceed to every college, with an open sum.
mons, eitlier to the senate, or whatever
else place may be appointed under the
regulations of the university ; and, final-
ly, they attend the professors and respon-
dents in each faculty from their several
colleges to the schools, collect penalties
and fines, and summon all members of the
senate to the chancellor's court.

"We have now mentioned the different
officers of an university in England, with
as much brevity as the nature of the sub-
ject will permit ; at the same time we
must observe, that none can be more im-
portam in a state, or can more deserve
explanation. There are two courts of
law in the university of Cambridge ; the
first of which is the consistory court of
the chancellor, where that officer, or in
his absence, the vice-chancellor, assisted
by some of the heads of colleges, and one
or more doctors of the civil law, preside,
and administer justice demanded by any
member of the university, or afford it to
those who conceive themselves injured by
them in the cases cognizable by this par-
ticular court; there all pleas and actions
personal, originating within the jurisdic-
tion of the university, to which a privi-
leged person is a party, and not relating
to mayhem or felony, is decided accord-
ing to the usual course of civil law, by
citation, libel, &c. When the cause re-
lates to the sale or purchase of victuals,
the chancellor is directed by the charters
and customs of the body he governs ; and
in case they are silent upon the subject,
the statutes of England are his guide.
The decisions of this court are not abso-
lute, as an appeal may be made to the se-
nate, which appoints three or five doc-
tors, or masters of art, who. are empower-
ed to examine, confirm, or reverse the
decree complained of.

The other court is the consistory court
of the commissary. The commissary, a
doctor of the civil law, acts under the
authority and seal of the chancellor, and
sits as well in the university, as at Mid-
summer and Stirbitch fairs, there to take
knowledge, and to proceed in all causes
" ad instantiam et promotionem partis ut
supra," the parties, or one of them, being
privileged : saving that within the Uni-
versity all causes or suits whereunto the
proctors, or taxors, or any of them, or a
master of arts, or any other of superior
degree, is a party, are reserved solely
and wholly to the jurisdiction of the chan-
cellor or vice-chancellor. The manner
of proceeding in this court is similar to

UNIVERSITY.

that of the preceding, which has a regist-
rar, procurators, and advocates, and a
yeoman bedell, as is required in the con-
sistory court. Appeals are also allowed,
but in this case it must be made in the first
instance to the higher court, and may
from thence be removed to the Senate,
and the three or five delegates appointed
by that body.

The University possesses the right of
sending two members to the imperial
parliament of the united kingdom, who
are chosen by the collective body of the
senate, A council, termed the Universi-
ty council, appointed for various pur-
poses, is composed by a grace of the se-
nate, and a solicitor is nominated by the
vice-chancellor.

The syndics, chosen from the members
of the senate, conduct all special aft'airs,
such as framing laws, regulating fees, and
inspecting the library, the printing,
buildings, 8cc. &c. Those of the Univer-
sity press cannot proceed to business un-
less the vice-chancellor and four others
are present in the parlour of the office.
All the professors of the sciences are al-
lowed stipends, which are derived from
various sources, composed of the Univer-
sity chest, sums from government, or
from estates appropriated for that pur-
pose : the whole income of the Universi-
ty being about eleven thousand pounds
per annum, including fees for degrees,
profits of the printing-office, &c. Of
tliis sum eight thousand pounds is ex-
pended annually to officers, professors in
the library and schools, the press, in
taxes, and charitable donations, the whole
under the management of the vice-chan-
cellor for the time being, whose accounts
are audited by three persons appointed
yearly by the senate.

The Book of Statutes was printed in
the year 1785, copies of which are pos-
sessed by the vice-chancellor and the
proctors, and one is deposited in the pub-
lic and in the libraries of each college ; it
consists of the ancient statutes, those of
Henry VIII. Edward VI. and those of the
first and twelfth years of the reign of
queen Elizabeth ; " Liters Regiac ad Aca-
demiam datse ; Interpretationes Statuto-
nim ; Senatus consulta sive gratiae decre-
ta prsefectorum ; Juramenta et Formu-
lae." Mr. Raworth says, " the statutes of
the twelfth of Elizabeth, and the Senatus
Consulta, are those which are chiefly re-
spected at this time. Many of the old
statutes, decrees, interpretations, &c. are
looked upon as obsolete, some as ridicu-
lous, and others unnecessary in the pre-

sent establishment ; yet what Dr. Rentley
observed of Trinity College statutes, dur-
ing his disagreement with the fellows of
that society, might be urged concerning
these : " Some are my club, and others
my rusty sword, which I can draw upon
occasion."

The terms are three in number, Mi-
chaelmas term commences on the tenth
of October, and terminates the sixteenth
day of December ; Lent term begins
January thirteen, and is concluded on
the Friday immediately preceding Palm
Sunday ; Midsummer term begins one
week after Easter day, and ends on the
Friday following commencement day,
wiiich is invariably the first Tuesday in
July. Upon the decease of a member of
the senate during the term, and withia
the University, application is made to the
vice-chancellor, and the bell of the Uni-
versity is tolled for one hour, term in-
stantly commences for three days, and
for that period lectures and disputations
cease.

Most of the statutes made for the go-
vernment of the sixteen different col-
leges dictate that the members or fellows
of them shall be exclusively Englishmen,
and some even prescribe that they must
be natives of particular counties and dis-
tricts; hence an invidious distinction is
created between the residents of the
northern and southern parts of this
island, which, though united for a long
time past in political matters, are most
completely separated in the pursuit of
knowledge ; and it is too much to be
feared that this circumstance is the real
cause of the affected contempt of the
degrees and academic honours granted by
seminaries of learning in Scotland and
Ireland. It is singular that the indivi-
duals who founded the colleges at Cant-
bridge and Oxford, should have concur-
red in this narrow and illiberal conduct
almost universally, as they each had a
strong sense of religion, which ho\vever
does not appear to have taught them the
best principle of it, brotherly love. As a
few of the colleges admit of general com-
petition for fellowships, and the members
of the two Universities seem sensible of
the injustice and impolicy of such dis-
tinctions, we may venture to hope some
method will be devised ere long to obvi-
ate or remove them. The following re-
gulation ajjplies to all the colleges at
Cambridge. " Whosoever hath one Eng»
lish parent, although he be born in ano-
ther country, shall be esteemed as if
born in that county to which hrs Englilsh

UNIVERSITY.

parent belonged. But if both parents
are English, he shall be reckoned of that
county to which his father belonged."

The colleges are thus constituted : The
head, by which odd term the master is
designated, who is generally a doctor of
divinity ; but Caius college may be go-
verned by a doctor of physic, and Trini-
ty must have a doctor of laws ; the prin-
cipal of King's is styled provost, and of
Queen's president. The fellows are ge-
nerally bachelors of divinity, bachelors or
masters of arts, and others are bachelors
and doctors of law and physic, particular-
ly at the two colleges of Trinity -hall and
Caius. There is a distinction between
the fellows, who are divided into classes,
called regular and bye ; the latter are
considered as merely honorary, never
succeeding to college preferment, nor
having any concern whatever in the af-
fairs of it, but are allowed an inconsider-
able sum annually by their respective
colleges, which act as trustees for them;
they are denominated Perse Wortley,
Yorkshire, Coventry, Piatt, Dixie, and
Tiverton. Clergymen, who are termed
conduits, are employed in the several in-
stitutions as chaplains, and perform some
of the duties belonging to that office.

There are noblemen graduates, doc-
tors in the different faculties, and bache-
lors of divinity (who have been masters
of arts,) whose names are on the boards,

^ and are all members of the Senate ; they
reside in the University occasionally, but
have no further claim upon a college than
the general respect due to their rank in
the honolu's of the former ; their charges
are inconsiderable for keeping their
names on the boards, being about four
pounds per annum.

Graduates, neither members of the Se-
nate, nor in statu pupillari, are bachelors
of di\inity, and denominated four and

'^ twenty men, or ten-year men. These
arc generally clergymen that procure the
dignities of the university in addition to
their wealth and preferment at an easy
rate, without the formalities of an educa-
tion within its jurisdiction. Oxford does
not permit this method of partaking of
academic titles, and indeed the posses-
sors of them enjoy but little reputation
derived from such at Cambridge. They
are tolerated by the statutes of Elizabeth,
which allow persons who are admitted
at any college, when twenty -four years of
age, and upwards, after ten years (dur-
ing the last two of which they must re-
side the greater part of three several
terms) to become bachelors of divinity,
without taking any prior degree.

Bacfjelors of law and physic sometimes
put themselves to the unnecessary ex-
pense of keeping their names upon the
boards till they obtain the distinction of
doctors; bachelors of arts, on the contra-
ry, who are in stiitu pupillari, and pay for
tutorage, whether resident or non-resi-
dent, generally keep their names on the
boards to evince their desire of becom-
ing candidates for fellowships, or mem-
bers of the Senate ; they may, however,
erase their names, and save the e.xpen-
ses of tutorage and college detrimenta,
and take the degree of A. M. after the
usual time, by inscribing their names a
few days before their incepting, and pay-
ing a quarter's tutorage; some of thes^
are called bachelors commoners, as thejr
are allowed to dine with the fellows, and
when under graduates they were fellow
commoners.

The fellow commoners are almost uni-
versally the younger sons of titled per-
sons, or the sons of men of ancient fami-
lies and property; the denomination of
those most probably originated from the
privilege they enjoy of dining with the
fellows. There are some i'ew exclusive
rights attached to the rank of fellow com-
moners, but they chiefly apply tO the
usages of the hall and chapel, besides
which their academic habits are orna-
mented with gold or silver. Pensioners
and scholars j^ay for their rooms, com-
mons, &c. Those who enjoy scholar-
ships read the graces, lessons in the ri-
tual, 8s,c. Of the sizars it has been observ-
ed, they are generally men of inferior
fortune, though frequently by their me-
rit they succeed to the highest honours
in the University. They usually have
their commons free, and receive various
emoluments, by which means they are
enabled creditably to proceed through
their course of education. Most of our
church dignitaries have been of this or-
der.

Such is the general outline of an Eng-
lish University, a constitution the work
of ages, with numerous perfections, and
with very few errors ; our confined limits
will not permit us to enlarge as we coidd
wish, upon the forms adopted in the^ar-
duous undertaking of teaching the sci-
ences and a taste for. polite literature
united, but we may safely say they seem
such as are best calculated for the final
purpose, and to excite emulation ; and we
are supported in this assertion by the fact,
that no other Universities have excelled
those of England and Great Britain, in
the aggregate, in ttie production of ex-
cellent philosophers and respectable di-

UNI

vol

vines. Superficial knowledge is held iu
no kind of estimation at either of our
great seminaries, the very essence and
causes, as well as effects, must be explor-
ed to satisfy the expectations of the vaii-
ous professors, formed by long experi-
ence and unexhausted assiduity ; a young
man must therefore study vigorously, and
without relaxation, for two years and one
quarter, ere he ventures to appear in a
pubhc exercise before the University.
The first year is occupied by lectures
from Euclid, with the first six books of
which he must be thoroughly acquauited,
and the principles of Algebra, plane tri-
gonometry, and conic sections. Difler-
ent colleges have their peculiar systems,
but mechanics, hydrostatics, optics, flux-
ions, and a part of Newton's Principia,
with the method of increments, differen-
tial method, and similar miscellanea, are
the pursuits of the second year ; to the
third belongs astronomy, the Principia
already mentioned, spherical trigonome-
try, the most difficult and important parts
of fluxions, algebra, and geometry: his
last term, or the first term of tlie fourth
year, requires all the energies of his
mind ; he is now more deeply engaged
in the arduous conflict of the schools with
all his rivals, and preparing himself for
the Senate-house examination.

Having completed this course of natu-
ral philosophy, we shall next turn our at-
tention to the mode adopted in the se-
cond head of academical studies, or the
course of moral philosophy in the attain-
ment of this branch. The first year is de-
voted to Locke and logic, and the two
following to Paley, Hartley, Burlamagni,
Rutherford, Clarke on the Attributes, and
other authors whose writings are of a si-
milar tendency, and those are made the
subjects of various orders of lectures in
the different colleges; lectures on the
chronology, geography, laws, reUgious
tites and customs of the nations which
are mentioned in the Old and New Tes-
taments, in some degree derived from
Bausobre, but partly from other sources,
are also given to promote an accurate
knowledge of the foundation of our faith.
Unfortunately, although these methods
cf promoting the studies of the pupils
were wisely conceived, and are general-
ly executed with great ability and advan-
tage, there have been instances of neg-
lect and very slight attendance.

The third head includes the belles let-
ires, or classics, and this, of all the varie-
ty of pursuit, seems the most successful in
VOL. VI.

each of the colleges, as every term hag
an appropriate selection of the best fot
the lecture room, when extracts from the
most approved authors of antiquity, judi-
ciously commented on, and compared
with similar passages from modern wri-
ters, forms a source of entertainment
highly grateful as well as useful. Besides
the exertions of the tutor in this particu-
lar, the students deliver, either written, or
vive voce, compositions in their respec-
tive chapels weekly, which may be in the
Latin or English languages. The author
of the little but valuable work before
mentioned very properly observes, that
emulation of an honourable kind is excit-
ed by prizes and rewards in most of the
colleges, and this emulation is not of the
dangerous nature too often perceptible in
inferior seminaries, as the first man in
each year feels his inferiority to those a
few years older than himself, and the
pre-eminence over his own year in his
own college, may receive a most violent
check in the collision with the rival heads
of his own standing in fifteen other col-
leges.

UNXIA, in botany, a genus of the Syn-
genesia Polygamia Superflua class and
order. Natural order of Composite Dis-
coideae. Corymbiferse, Jussieu. Essen-
tial character : calyx five-leaved ; leaflets
ovate ; florets of both disc and ray five ;
seed-down none ; receptacle naked.
There is but one species, viz. U. cam-
phorata, a native of Surinam.

VOICE. The parts employed in the
production of the voice are, the trachea,
or wind-pipe, by which the air passes to
and from the lungs : the larynx, which is
a short and cyhndrical canal at the head
of the trachea ; and the glottis, which is a
small oval chink between two semicircu-
lar membranes, extended horizontally
from the entering side of the larynx.

The trachea so much resembles a
flute, that the ancients attributed the for-
mation of the voice to the trachea, as
much as the formation of the sound to the
body of the flute ; and till the commence-
ment of the last century, it was generally
imagined that the trachea had at least a
considerable part in the production of
the voice. M. Dodart has established
the contrary. He observed, that we nei-
ther speak nor sing in drawing in our
breath, but only when we expel that
which we have inhaled ; and that the air
thus expelled from -the lungs passes
through vessels, which increase in size a?
their distance from the lungs increases;
and finally, through the traphea, whic^ i&

•? T

VOICE.

the most capacious oi' any : so that the
air, instead of being there confined and
increasing in velocity, loses it. But the
opening, denominated the glottis, being
very narrow in comparison. with the size
of the trachea, the air can never pass
through it without acquiring a consider-
able degi'ee of velocity : so that the air
thus compressed and forced on, commu-
nicates, as it passes, a vibratory motion to
the particles of the two lips of the glottis,
which produces that efltct on the air
which we call sound. The sound thus
formed, passes into the cavity of the
mouth and nostrils, where it reverbe-
rates ; and Dodart proves that this rever-
beration is what principally gives the ef-
fect to the voice. The different parts of
tlie mouth, each in its turn, contributes to
these reverberations, and modifies them ;
and it is this mixture of different reverbe-
rations, well proportioned to one another,
which produces in the human voice a har-
mony which no instrument can equal.
When the parts are defective, much of
this pleasure is lost. It is, then, the cavi-
ty of the mouth, &c. that more properly
answers to the body of the flute ; the tra-
chea only furnishes the air, like the
sound-board of the organ.

The glottis, by means of different mus-
cles, can be extended or shortened, can
be dilated or contracted ; and it is these
changes which produce all the variety of
tone. I'he narrower the opening the
greater the rapidity with which the air
passes, and the more acute the sound :
hence those who wished to give their
voice a very high tone, would suffocate
themselves ifthey continued it sufficiently
]ohg; for, as they almost entirely close tlie
glottis, very little air can issue ; and they
are in a similar situation with those
whose respiration is stopped by hanging,
drowning. Sec. But if the opening of
the glottis be too much dilated, the air
will pass too easily to produce any vi-
bration : hence those who wish to give
t^eir voice too deep a tone, cannot pro-
duce any sound.

This power of contraction and dilatation
is, perhaps, the most wondertiil part of
the mechanism of the voice. The dia-
meter of the glottis never exceeds .ji_t!i
of an inch : now, suppose a person capa-
ble of sountling twelve notes (to which
the voice easily reaches), there must be
the difference of -jl^th part of an inch
for each note. But if we consider the
stibdivision of notes of which the voice
is capable, the motion of the sides of the
glottis appears still more minute ; for if

of two chords, so stretched as to be ex-
actly in unison, one be shortened the
^ii th part of its length, a correct ear
will perceive the difference of the two
sounds ; and a good voice will sound the
difference, which is only -^-^^th part of a
note. But suppose that a voice can divide
a note into 100 parts, it will follow that
the different openings of the glottis will
be 1200 in the -^^th of an inch, each of
which will produce a sound perceptible
to a good ear. But the movement of
each side of the glottis being equal, it
is necessary to double this number, and
the side of the glottis actually divides the
-Jg-th of an inch into 2400 equal parts j
that each vibration is ^_i^^th part of an
inch.

As yet we have simple, unarticulated
sound ; such as when we sing the notes of
a tune without words. Speech is made
up of articulated voice ; that is, voice
modified by the action, not of the lungs,
the trachea, or the larynx, but of the
throat, palate, teeth, tongue, and lips.
Every variation in tone, however, is pro-
duced by a variation in the glottis ; and
in strength, by the action of the lungs :
so that all the parts of this complicated
mechanism are continually employed.
Articulation begins when the voice has
passed the larynx. The simplest articu-
late sounds are those which proceed
from an open mouth : they are so little
modified, that they arc called in some
other languages by the term voice; and
in our own, from a derivative of the same
word. In transmitting these, the aper-
tures of the mouth may be pretty large,
or somewhat smaller, or very small ;
which produces one set of the variations
of vowel sounds : besides, in passing
through the open mouth, the voice may
be gently acted upon by the lips, or by
the tongue and the palate, or by the
tongue and throat : and hence another
source of variation ; and thus nine sim-
ple vowel sounds are produced. When
the voice, in its passage through the
mouth, is totally intercepted, or strongly
compressed, there is formed a certain
modification of articulate sounds, which
is called a consonant. Silence is the ef-
fect of a total interception ; and indistinct
sound, of a strong compression : hence
a consonant is not of itself a distinct ar-
ticulate voice ; and its influence, in va-
rying the tones of language, cannot be
perceived, unless it be accompanied with
an opening of the mouth, that is, by a
vowel sound.

p

VOL

Such is the nature of the mechanism of
the human voice ; so complicated, yet so
simple : and when we consider the great
variety of motions necessary to be per-
formed by every one who speaks with
common fluency, instead of surprize that
children are so long- before they can arti-
culate, and express a chain of ideas by
words, we shall see ground for admira-
tion, that this most invaluable acquisition
is made so early. The fact appears to be,
that the powers of imitation are at that
period the principal source of improve-
ment ; and the organs being then more
capable of the requisite variation of flex-
ure than in the later periods of life,
sounds are acquired (not indeed without
much trouble, and almost incessant exer-
tion), which at the age of manhood baffle
the best-directed exertion.

VOIDED, in heTsAdry, is understood of
an ordinary whose inner or middle part
is cut out, leaving nothing but its edges to
show its form, so that the field appears
through it. Hence it is needless to ex-
press the colour or metal of the voided
part, because it must of course be that of
the field. The cross voided, diflTers from
the cross fimbriated, in that the latter
does not show the field through it, as the
other does ; and the same obtains in other
ordinaries.

VOIDER, in heraldry, one of the ordi-
naries whose figure is much like that of a
flask of flanch, only that it doth not bend
so much.

VOLANT, in heraldry, is when a bird
in a coat of arms is drawn flying, or hav-
ing its wings spread out.

\OhCANlC formations. The products
of volcanoes are ejected stones and
ashes ; lava and water mixed with ashes,
of a slimy consistence : the first order
comprehends the ejected stones and
ashes ; the second, the different kinds
of lava ; and the third, the matter of
muddy eruptions. The stony ejections
are those which are always thrown from
the summit of the volcano : they accumu-
late and form the crater, wliich is a fun-
nel shaped hollow. Mineralogists have
enumerated among ejected stones : 1.
Granular lime-stone, which is said to con-
tain tremolite, pistacite, olivine, augite,
Vesuvian, melanite, sommite, and horn-
blende ; 2. Granite ; 3. Mica-slate ; 4.
Green-stone ; and, 5. Sand-stone. Lava
consists of two sub-species, viz. slag- lava
and foam-lava : these do not extend far,
having in general flowed, in streams of
considerable height, into hollows, and
gradually consolidated during its ©curse.

VOL

Matter of muddy eruptions comprehends
volcanic-tuff, which is composed some-
times of ashes, sometimes of vesicular
lava, and probably some particular che-
mical formations. See Volcanoes.

VOLCANOES, mountains which emit
ignited matter and smoke through aper-
tures, communicating with cavities in
the depths of the earth, where eternal
fires are situated, that burn wiih more or
less force, as they are influenced by
causes which it is impossible should ever
be explained by actual observation, but
that may be conjectured with tole-
rable success from experiments. Such
have been made by many naturalists (who
deserve every praise for their assiduity
and research), though not with an accu-
racy that distinguishes those of the cele-
brated Abbe Lazarro Spallanzani, profes-
sor of natural history in the university of
Pavia : this gentleman, though far ad-
vanced in life, acted with a vigour and
hardihood seldom found even in youth,
and braved danger and death, in a thou-
sand horrid forms, in pursuit of his fa-
vourite object, the elucidation of the
phenomena of volcanic fires. To whom,
then, can we with more propriety have
recourse, in our attempt to explain their
causes and effects .■' The Abbe observed,
in the course of his various examinations
of craters, that volcanoes emit vast quan-
tities of gas ; and he found that stony sub-
stances were invariably, when complete-
ly heated by the subterraneous fire, ra-
rified, inflated, and rendered cellular,
by their elasticity ; which effect is observ-
able in numbers of lavas, glasses, and en-
amels, ejected during eruptions : and he
discovered, in addition, that their vio-
lence continually i-aised the liquified
matter from the interior of the craters to
their very borders, over which it flowed
at each impulse.

He was at the same time equally atten-
tive to the nature and force of the fire
which acts in the bowels of volcanic
mountains ; and, in the course of his re-
searches, discovered that Vesuvius, iEt-
na, the Eolian Islands, and Ischia, are
immense mountains, composed of rocks
tlmt have been liquified, and even vitri-
fied, by the violence of the subterraneous
conflagration. "What fire," he ex-
claims, " can we produce equivalent to
tliese effects !" Humble, however, as all
experiments appear with our limited
means, this venerable philosopher justly
thought imperfect knowledge of volca-
noes preferable to contented ignorance,
and, undismayed by the magnitude of the

VOLCANOES.

object, proceeded tp ascertain, as far as
•possible, what man is permitted to know
on this tenific subject. "1 have," he
observes, " discovt red, that the fire of
the glass-furnace will completely refuse
the vitrifications, enamels, pumices, sco-
riae, and lavas, of these and other volcanic
countries. The same will, in like man-
ner, vitrify rocks congenerous to those
from which these mountains have origin-
ated, by the means of subten-anean con-
flagrations. A less intense fire, on the
contrary, produces no such effect on any
of these substances. Determined to ex-
ercise the most rigorous research, and to
ascertain, with the greatest possible pre-
cision, the exact degree of heat requisite
to produce the above effects, he had re-
course to the pyrometer of Wedgwood,
which he compliments and praises, by
saying nothing could be better adapted
for his purpose.

The terrific appearance of a volcano
in eruption is so appalling, so grand, and
altogether so wonderful, that it is by no
means astonishing the world should sup-
pose the vast volumes of smoke, ignited
matter, and stones, hurled into the air
with inconceivable violence and rapidity,
exclusive of the torrents of liquified sub-
stances which roll down its sides in so-
lemn and destructive majesty, were caus-
ed by more powerful fires than those man
has been permitted to kindle ; in saying
the world, we wish to be understood as
meaning those who have seen or read of
eruptions without examining the subject
further. Of natural philosophers, there
were many who coincided with this ge-
neral opinion ; and others have maintain-
ed the direct contrary supposition, as-
serting, that volcanic fires are extremel}'
feeble in their operations : following the
example of Spallanzani, we shall give the
substance of the arguments of each, in
order that the reader may draw his own
conclusion. It is evident that we must
have recourse to the same rule for ascer-
taining the intensity of volcanic fires,
which we make use of in measuring the
effects of our fires when in activity on
bodies immersed in them ; and we have
already mentioned, that Wedgwood's
pyrometer answers for the purpose, as
nearly as the nature of the pursuit will
permit : but long before the invention of
this instrument, attempts were made to
attain the object in question, particularly
by the academicians of Naples, who, at
the time of the great eruption in the
year 1737, made an experiment on the
Uva near the Torre del Greco, in a valley

where it had accumulated ; and though it
had ceased its motion several days, yet
retained a heat equal to that of red-hot
iron. They formed a piece of lead,
weighuig two ounces, in a conical shape,
v/hich they placed on the red-hot surface
of tlie lava ; the metal became soft in two
minutes and a half, and in one minute
more it was completely melted ; another
piece of lead, in every respect exactly
similar, was then deposited on a plate of
red-hot iron, rendered so by burning
coals beneath it, when they found that it
required six minutes and a half to soften,
and seven and a half to liquify it. Water
placed on the lava, boiled furiously in
three minutes, and on burning coals, one
minute later. Judging from these facts,
the academicians concluded that lava,
though exposed to the external air for
some days, and consequently far less in-
tensely heated than when first issuing
from the crater, was much mere fiery in
its nature than red-hot iron or burning
coals : but this conclusion is obviously in-,
correct ; because the plate of iron, be-
ing surrounded by air, could not acquire
all the heat whicii was applied to it ; nei-
ther was it fair to rest an opinion of this
description upon a result produced by
means so unequal, as a vast depth of ig-
nited matter opposed to a thin plate of
iron.

Prince Cassano, a member of our Royal
Society, produced an instance of the vio-
lent heat of the lava which issued from
Vesuvius, to that learned body, which
seems more to the purpose than that of
the Academicians : the torrent of lava al-
luded to, approached a convent of Car-
melites; every combustible article was
immediately consumed, even before the
mass came into contact with it ; and the,
heat was so excessive, that the glasses
standing upon a table in the refectory,
were instantly reduced to shapeless
pieces of that useful material : this cir-
cumstance produced an experiment, at-
tended with the same consequences,
which was the fastening of a fragment of
glass to the end of a long stick, and hold-
ing it near the lava, when, at the close of
four minutes, it became a mere paste. A
fact of the same nature is mentioned by
Professor Bottis, in his account of the
eruption of Vesuvius, in the year 1667.
Now, though this effect may be produc-
ed by suspending a piece of glass in the
air of a glass furnace, it must be admitted,
that this being in a state of full activity,
and the heat excited to the utmost, by
every human means, is nqt a just compa-

VOL([JANOES.

rison with a body of lava far removed
from tlie spot where it acquired its heat,
which must, without doubt, be at that
spot ten times greater ; hence it appeal's
decidedly cJear, that the internal fires of
Vesuvius far exceed that of our glass-
furnaces.

Bottis seems to have been oniB of the
first naturalists who obsei'ved the rapidi-
ty with which the fire of Vesuvius causes
fusion ; that gentleman mentions, in hii
description of the eruption of July, 1779,
that he saw a small hill, composed of po-
rous lava and scoriae, inclosing an inconsi-
derable gulph, that produced a noise like
that of oil or fat, ia the act of boiling or
simmering over a fire ; this appearance
induced him to examine it, when he found
it contained matter in fusion, which im-
mediately heated red-hot, and then melt-
ed fragments of lava or scoriae, thrown in-
to it. As Spallanzani acknowledges
that his efforts to melt similar substances
required half an hour, we must admit,
that this is another proof of the superior
heat of volcanic fires. A still further
evidence of their extreme heat is, the
great length of time which lavas retain it.
In the year 1737, some labourers were
employed to remove the lava which had
crossed a road, and although a month had
elapsed from the period of the eruption,
they were compelled to desist, as the
heat softened their tools beyond the pos-
sibility of using them. Sir William Ha-
milton also found it very great, and, drop-
ping some pieces of wood into the fis-
sures of a mass, situated four miles from
the volcano, they immediately took fire ;
but Spallanzani illustrated this fact more
decidedly, by passing a body of lava near
the upper crater of ^tna, visibly red hot,
even in full day-light, which had flowed
from the mountain eleven months before.

It is supposed, that the volcanic fires
of Iceland are very active and powerful,
which is inferred from the incompetency
of the blow-pipe to fuse the glass issuing
from them. Vallisneri, describing a new
volcanic island, which rose from the sea
in the year 1707, near Santorine, asserts,
that the sea in its vicinity became so vio-
lently heated, that vast numbers offish pe-
rished, and were actually boiled ; and it is
well known that the same cause melted the
pitch in the seams of ships' bottoms, and
occasioned their leaking : this modern
fact is corroborated on the authority of
Strabo, who declares, that the sea was
observed to boil for four days, between
Thera and Therasia. The complete
fluidity of lava is another convincing

proof of the excessive heat prevailing m
the centre of volcanoes. M. IJottis produces
two instances derived tVom Vesuvius in
1771 and 1776, which demonstrate that
thisjfiery mass assumes a state of liquidity,
almost equal to water: the Professor men-
tions four hills to have arisen suddenly in
the first case near the aperture whence
the larva proceeded, and from three of
those in the shape of cones, issued
streams of the melted matter, exactly re-
sembling fountains of water. During the
eruptions of the latter year, fresh lava,
rushing from the crater, fell upon that of
1771, and rebounding from it into the air,
there congealed in various figures capri-
ciously ramified, and terminating in thin
sharp points like needles. A circum-
stance observed by Sir William Hamilton,
Count de Wilzeck, Cardinal Herzan, and
the Archduke Maximilian of Austria, iu
the year 1775, seems to establish the
fact, that the fluidity of the lava has been
such at times, as to sepai'ate into portions,
which, being thrown up from the crater,
fell again near it, in a state so soft, that a
guide who assisted in conducting these
illustrious visitors, perceiving a fragment,
passed his stick tJirough it, and present-
ed it thus to the prince, who ordered both
to be deposited in his private museum ;
this, however, seldom occurs, at least the
indefatigable Spallanzani never discover-
ed these fragments flattened or indented,
as if they li^d fallen on some hard sub-
stance when in the consistence of paste.
With respect to the rapidity of its mo-
tion, this must greatly depend upon the
quantity ejected, as well as tlie intensity
of its heat : when an opportunity happens
for attentive observation, the lava has
been known to rise suddenly to the sum-
mit of the crater, and as suddenly over-
flowing its boundaries, rush down in va-
rious rivulets of fire ; indeed Bottis com-
pares it to " a liquor which boils in a ves-
sel, and rises and overflows the edges of
that vessel from the violence of the heat."
The lava from Vesuvius, issuing in 1751,
flowed over the space of twenty-eight
palms in one minute ; in 1754, it pro-
ceeded in two branches, at the rate of
thirty feet in forty-five seconds, and after-
wards uniting, at thirty -three feet in fifty
seconds : to these facts may be added the
testimony of Sir VVilham Hamilton, who
thought its velocity in 1765 equal to that
of the Severn, at the passage near Bris-
tol. It may, however, be necessary to
observe, that the fluidity of the matter
does not always alone occasion its motion,
which may be accelerated by a great de-

VOLCANOES.

scent, OF tiie violent pressui-e of fresh la-
va constantly issuing- from the source,
particularly as lavas are known to harden
when actually moving, so as to produce
a sound when struck, and to bear stones
thrown on their suiface ; but to place
this fact beyond a doubt, Sir William
Hamilton informs us, that himself and
others, following the example of Mr. Jai-
mineau, British consul at Naples, actually
crossed a moving mass above fifty feet in
breadth ; yet, even thus circumstanced,
those di-eadful rivers of fire have been
known to reach the sea eighteen, twen-
ty, and even thirty miles from their com-
mencement.

The arguments used to establish an
idea, that tires excited and maintained by
human means exceed those of volcanic
origin in force, lie in a very small com-
pass indeed ; they are derived from ob-
serving, that some furnaces " vitrify lavas
more decidedly than volcanoes, and melt
schorls which remain perfect in the for-
mer." Dolomieu places this supposition
in a clear point of view, in a memoir pub-
lished by him of basaltes. " I shall again
repeat," observes this celebrated French
naturalist, " what cannot be too frequent-
ly inculcated, that lavas are not vitrifica-
tions ; their fluidity is similar to that of
metals reduced to fusion ; it does not
change the order and manner of being,
of the constituent parts of the lavas.
When they cease to flow, they resume,
like metals, the grain, texture, and all the
characters of their primitive base ; effects
which we cannot produce upon stones in
our furnaces, since we know not how to
soften them by fire, without changing the
manner in which they are aggregated.
The fire of volcanoes has not that inten-
sity which is supposed, and produces its
effects rather by the extension and dura-
tion of its action than by its activity."

Arguing upon these various facts, and
remarks of his own leading to the same
point, Spallanzani candidly acknowledges,
that he had been more than once inclined
to believe, that our fires possessed more
energy than those of volcanoes ; a num-
ber of experiments, however, induced
him to say, that " these facts prove, first,
that it is not always true, that volcanic
fires are insufficient for the fusion of
shorls ; secondly, by the vitrification of
the garnets, they confirm the powerful
activity of those tires ; thirdly, that those
fires operate in a manner in some measure
unknown to us ; since, at the same time
that they vitrify the garnets, they leave
the base in which they are included in a

state perfectly recognizable, notwith-
standing that the former are refractory to
the fire of the furnace, while the latter is
easily fusible." It has been a generally
received assertion, that volcanoes emit
flame during eruption, and that flowing
lavas are attended by the same accompa-
niment of fire ; this supposition is errone-
ous, as may be proved by referring to the
works of Serao, Father Torre, Bottis, and
Sir William Hamilton, all of whom will be
found to have omitted the observation of
flames. The first expressly says of the
lavas of Vesuvius, ** that when seen by
night, at any distance, they emit a light,
not shining, like a bright flame, but of a
dead kind, like that of red-hot substances
which burn without flame ;" and the last
mentions, that he has " observed upon
mount Vesuvius, that soon after a lava
has borne down and burned a tree, a
bright flame issues from its surface ;
otherwise 1 have never seen any flame at-
tending an eruption :" adding, that the
light reflected on the smoke, as it rises
from the crater, by the raging of the fire
in the gulph beneath, is frequently mis-
taken for flame. Spallanzani confirms
the opinion of these accurate observers,
and declares he never saw flame in, or
proceeding from, any ot the craters he
examined.

Faujas thought it not improbable that
fire united with water may produce some
of those combinations of which we know
not the origin ; he says on this subject,
" 1 almost incline to be of opinion, that
the aqueous fluid, raised to a degree of
ebullition and jncandessence, of which
our feeble furnaces can give us no idea,
sometimes concurs with the inactive and
concentrated fire which exists in the im-
mense volcanic caverns, and that from
this concurrence results a multitude of
combinations hitherto unknown to us,
which take effect on the stones and
earths that remain perhaps whole ages
in these burning gulphs, where the fire,
intent to destroy, has for its adversary
the water, which incessantly creates and
opposes to it all the tomis and modifica-
tions of which the matter is suscepti-
ble."

It will now be necessary to mention
some of the effects of gas in the opera-
tions of these fierce internal fires : it is
well known that their violent efforts to
reach the surface of the liquified masses
contained in craters causes it to rise sud-
denly from the bottom, completely filling
their whole circumference, and at length
forcing it oTer the sides in destructive

VOLCANOES.

streams, which overwhelm in their pas-
sage every object, either natural or arti-
ficial. Spallanzani made ten distinct ex-
periments, in order to obtain some idea of
the nature and effects of gas as exhibited
by volcanoes ; for this purpose he made
use of different lavas, enamels, and glas-
ses, ejected from them, and the conse-
quence was, a conviction that the bub-
bles and inflations of various dimensions,
observable in these substances, are not
produced by the action of any permanent
gas, •' but by that of an aeriform fluid,
produced by the excessive attenuation of
those same products, in consequence of
heat." Dr. Priestley made similar expe-
ments, which differed in some degree
from those related by the above celebra-
ted Italian naturalist. The doctor fused
4 J ounces of lava from Iceland in a sand-
stone retort, and obtained twenty mea-
sures of air, half of which, at the com-
mencement of the process, was carbonic
acid gas, and the remainder, in purity
1.72. extinguished a candle; between the
interstices of this lava was a sand, which
the operator could not separate from it.
Five ounces and a half of Vesuvian lava
produced thirty measures of air, with a
slight appearance of carbonic acid gas,
the rest was azotic gas, from the degree
1.64 to 1.38, with respect to what came
last. On cooling, the residue broke the
retort by its excessive inflation.

Without entering into an examination
of the difference of opinion existing be-
tween these philosophers, we shall give
an extract from the works of Spallanzani,
that fully illustrates this part of our sub-
ject ; *' I shall," he observes, " now pro-
ceed to enquire what part this aeriform
vapour acts in the eruptions of volcanoes.
Where it exists in the depths of a volcan-
ic crater, abundantly mixed with a liquid
lava violently urged by subterranean con-
flagrations, I can easily conceive, that by
its energetic force it may raise the lava to
the top of the crater, and compel it to
flow over the sides and form a current.
Art can imitate this grand operation of
nature on an infinitely less scale. I plac-
ed in a glass furnace a cylindrical cruci-
ble, one foot high, and two inches and a
half in breadth, which 1 filled half full
with one of those volcanic products which
most inflate and boil in the fire. After
some hours, I observed that the liquid
matter began slowly to rise, and after-
wards to rise higher, until it at last
overflowed the edges of the crucible,
forming small streams down its sides,
which, when they reached the plane on

which the crucible stood, gave origin to
small currents, if that plane was at all
inclined. When I pat more of the same
product into the crucible, the currents
became larger. If the plane was then ta-
ken from the surface, and the small cur-
rents, thus produced, examined, they were
found full of minute bubbles, as was like-
wise the matter which remained in the
crucible. This curious experiment I
made with several glasses and volcanic
enamels, as also with a variety of cellu-
lar lavas, and always with the same suc-
cess."

Judging from the result of the above
trial, it cannot be doubted that a similar
elastic vapour, collecting in vast quanti-
ties under the surface of the earth, must,
upon meeting with resistance in its pas-
sage, produce loud noises resembling
thunder, and local tremblings of the sur-
rounding earth, besides forcing its way
upwards through super-incumbent lava:
other experiments made by Spallanzani,
however, seem to prove that it must be
another cause which expels the fiery mat-
ter with violence out of craters, as the
mattrasses he used broke without noise,
and without ejecting or scattering the
substance; and particularly, as the escape
of gases has been frequently ascertained
by the hissing sounds attending eruptions;
unfortunately, though those vapours offer
themselves to examination, it would be
impossible to collect any part of them
without exposing the life of the expe-
rimentalist to almost certain destruc-
tion ; we must therefore admit their ex-
istence, and conjecture must supply the
rest.

It will be recollected that all volcanoes,
at present in a state of activity, are sur-
rounded by, or situated very near, the sea,
hence it appears clear, that the agency of
that body is extremely powerful in pro-
moting the violence of their eruptions, by
rushing at uncertain intervals, and from
unknown causes, through the caverns of
the earth, upon the ever enduring fires
there existing; and this supposition is
supported by the fact, which has been rej
peatedly observed, of the sudden retiring
of the sea immediately preceding a violent
explosion from a crater, the certain con-
sequence of a rapid diminution of water
on the shore. Little need be urged to
prove the immediate and vehement sepa-
ration that takes place upon the collision
of fire and water, and of the force of
steam thus produced ; one instance, how-
ever, may be safely cited, which will place
this supposed collision m a true light, and

VOLCANOES.

is extracted from tlie fourth volume of the
** Memoirs of the Academy at Bologna."
A bail of enormous dimensions had been
ordered to be cast at Modena, and pre-
parations of the usual description were
nuide under a spacious portico. After
the metal had been completely melted, it
was led into the mould, si. uated at a small
depth under the pavement, through a
small channel ; the burning fluid had no
sooner entered the mould than a dreadful
explosion took place, which resembled in
every particular the horrid effects of
springing a mine ; a deep hole was sunk
in the earth, the metal, the mould, and
every material of the portico above it,
were scattered in the air, and several jier-
sons were killed and severely wounded ;
if such were the immediate consequences
of a trifling degree of moisture remaining
in the sand which composed the mould,
it may be naturally inferred, that a bt)dy
of water, meeting with subterraneous
fires, is capable of producing eruptions
and earthquakes. It seems, however, ex-
tremely probable from experiments, that
this efiect principally arises from the in-
sinuation of water under or below the
surface of the sides of those fires, as it has
been ascertained that water thrown upon
fire evaporates without much violence,
and yet, if the vapour thus generated is
confined by super-incumbent earth, or
rocks, its struggles for a vent must occa-
sion the violent disruption of those parts ;
the event is difierent on pouring water on
melted tin, which is the only metal that
is separated by this means, so as to ren-
der it a dangerous operation to the expe-
rimentalist.

Spallanxani concludes many curious
and interesting observations derived from
experience, by saying, " from this series
of experiments I think we are authorised
to conclude, that when a quantity of wa-
ter falls on the burning crater of a volca-
no, it has not the power of producing ex-
plosions ; but that the latter on the con-
trary are very violent when the water pe-
netrating below, reaches the conflagra-
tion ; when suddenly reduced to vapour
by the heat, it finds no room tor its dilata-
tion ; or when it insinuates itself laterally
among the liquified matters ; of which we
have a satisfactory proof in the explosion
of the lava, violently forced from the con-
taining vessel, on the introduction of wa-
ter into a cavity made in it."

From what has been already said, a to-
lerable conception may be formed of the
probable causes of volcanic eruptions: it
now remains for us to add a concise nar-

rative of their visible phenomena, and for
this purpose we find ample materials fur-
nished by Spallanzani, whose ascent of
Stromboli deserves every praise for its
courage, though we cannot help con-
demning him for the exercise of very dar-
ing temerity. The visit we allude to was
made m 1788, when the appearance of the
mountam was bifurcated, and the crater
situated at some distance from the sum-
mits, from both of which the operations
within it are distinctly visible, and from
those the height of the ejections may be
ascertained, with tolerable accuracy. Du-
ring violent internal agitation the matter
appears to ascend halt a mile and more,
but when the mountain is in actual erup-
tion, the scattered fragments prove, that
the impelling force is very greatly increas-
ed. After having attentively examined
the crater from the summit above alluded
to, Spallanzani approached the crater,
where he found that the explosions suc-
ceeded each other so rapidly, that they
might almost be said to occur without any
intervals of quiet; but they varied in their
force; the matter, is some instances, not
rising more than fifty feet, and falling
agam into the crater ; and in others it was
elevated half a mile ; the sounds, conse-
quently, are proportionably loud, or the
reverse, and resemble a hissing noise ;
the fragments ot lava were actually fluid
during their progress, which was evident
from their globular shape, and becoming
hard before they fell upon the sides of the
mountain, that form is preserved.

The exhalations exhibited a thick cloud
several miles in extent which were strong-
ly impregnated with sulphur ; this cloud
was impenetrabiejby the'beams of the sun,
and appeared very black in the midst, but
white on the edges, and was, in all proba-
bility, a mile in depth. The vapour thus
floating from the mountain was derived
from three distinct sources, though doubt-
lessly produced by the same cause in the
first instance : when an ejection of lava,
took place, it was always accompanied
by a cloud of grey smoke from the crater;
to the west of that spot were a number of
obscure apertures, each of which sent
forth a volume of similar vapour ; and to
the east, a vast cavern emitted a column
at least twelve feet in diameter, extremely
black and dense.

" Not satisfied with the observations I
had already made," observes Spallanzani,
*' my curiosity impelled me to attempt
further discoveries. From the pointed
rock on which I stood, I could only see the
edges of the inside of the crater. I consider-

VOLCANOES,

ed, tljererore whether it might not be
poi>sible to obtain a siglit ot'tlte lower
parts likewise ; and looking round me, I
perceived a small cavern hollowed in ihe
rock, very near the gulph of the volcano,
into which the rock above prevented the
entrance of any burning stones, should
they be thiown so far. li was likewise
so elevait'il, that from it the crater was
open io my view, 1 therefore hastened to
take my station in this cavity, taking ad-
vantage of one of the very short intervals
between the eruptions. To my great
satisfaction, my expectations were com-
pletely fulfilled ; 1 could here look down
into the very bowels of the volcano, and
truth and nature stood as it were unveil-
ed before me." Thus situated in proba-
ble safety, the intrepid Spallanzani saw
the following wonders.

The crater he found to be of a circular
form, with edges composed ot a chaos of
sand, scoriae, and lava ; atid he imagined
the circumlerence to be about three hun-
dred and forty feet. Similar to all other
craters, that of Stromboli assumes the
shape of a truncated inverted cone, the
sides of which, from east to south, were
gently inclined, but the remainder very
steep. Many parts of this internal de-
scent appeared to be incrusted witii yellow
substances, which he supposed to be the
muriate of ammonia (sai ammoniac) or
^ulpiiur.

Fluid lava, resembling melted brass,
red-hot, aiid liquid, filled the crater to a
certain height, and this matter appeared
to be influenced by two distinct impelling
powers, the one whirhng and agitated, and
the other upwards ; at times it rose rapid-
ly, and when the surface had reached
within thirty feet of the edges of the cra-
ter, an explosion took place hke a short
clap of thunder, and at the same instant
a portion of the lava was hurled with in-
conceivable swiftness into the air, which
was as instantaneously separated into nu-
merous fragments, and those were accom-
panied by a copious discharge of sand,
ashes and smoke. Immediately before
the eruption occurred, the lava appear-
ed inflated, and large bubbles, some se-
veral feet in diameter, rose and burst, the
detonation followed, and the lava sunk,
till a repetition of this operation was com-
menced ; during the rising, a sound issu-
ed from the crater like that produced by
a hquid boilip.g violently in a cauldron.
Many of the eruptions were so inconside-
rable, that their effect could not be visible
at a small distance from the mountain ; in
those the fragments constantly fell back

vol.. YI.

into the gulph,. with a sound, on their
collision witji ii»e great mass of nrjUer,
similar to that produced by water vvhefll
forcibly struck with flat slaves : in liie
grtaiei explosions, many of the pieces 'e-
turned into the cralei , some falling on the
sides and rolling dow n, but manj. descend-
ed a precipice, formed by one side ot the
mountain, to the sea.

The pieces of scoriaceous lava as they
moved in the air, retained their red-hot ap-
pearance, though the sun shone clear;
many of them came in contact during their
progress, and, according to the degree of
heat they possessed, they adhered or were
broken. The smoke seemed to befbieign
to the lava, as none attended the fiag-
mcnls thrown into the air, and that which
escaped passed through fissures, and at
the moment the lava burst. According
to Spallanz-ani's conjectures, the crater
may be about twenty-five or thirty feet in
depth, when the lava is raised to its great-
est height, and upon its subsiding, forty
or fifty. There are no visible marks of
its ever having overflowed so as to de-
scend like tiiose of-^Etna and Vesuvius.

" Though the ejections of the larger
and heavier stones have sliort intermis-
sions, those of the lesser and lighter have
scarcely any. Did not tlie eye perceive
how those showers of stones originate, it
would be supposed that they fell tVom the
sky : the noise of the more violent erup-
tions, resembling that of thunder, and the
darkness occasioned by the mounting
cloud of smoke, present the image of a
tempest. ♦

While this naturalist was employed in
intense observation, the eruption suddenly
ceased, the lava sunk to a greater depth
than usual, and remained thus depi'essed ;
the fierce light subsided, and at the same
instant the various streams of smoke, is-
suing before silently from the apertures
west of the crater, began to rush forth
with a loud hissing noise, and the aper-
tures to shine with a bright colour of fire.
*' I know nothing," says Spallanzani, " to
which the sound produced by the issuing
of these fumes can be more properly com-
pared than the blowing of large bellows in-
to a furnace by which me als are melted;
such as I have seen at Zalatna, in Transyl-
vania, and Schemnitz and Kremmtz, in
Hungary, except that those volcanic bel-
lows roared a hundred times louder, and
almost deafened the ear."

We cannot conclude this article more
properly than by giving an account of the
crater of iEtna, as it was examined by the
above author, to which he ascended wife

3 U

VOLCANOES.

equal danj^er and difficulty, and where he
Was conipeiled to sit. nearly two hours ere
he could commence his observations : he
then says, " I viewed with astonishment
the configuration of the borders, the in-
ternal hides, the form of the immense ca-
vcrn, its bottom, an aperture which ap-
peared in it, the melted matter which boil
ed within, and the smoke which ascended
from it. The whole of this stupendous
scene was distinctly displayed before me ;
and I shall now proceed to give some de-
scription of it, though it will only be possi-
ble to present the reader with a very feeble
image, as the sight alone can enable him to
form ideas at all adequate to objects so
grand and astonishing. The upper edges
of the crater, to judge by the eye, are
about a mile and a half in circuit, and
form an oval, the longest diameter of
which extends from east to west. As
tilt ' are in several places broken, and
cm bled away in large fragments, they
appear as it were indented, and these in-
dentations are a kind of enormous steps,
formed of projecting lavas and scoriae. The
internal sides of the cavern, or crater, are
inclined in different angles in different
places : " on the west the inclination is
gentle ; on the north the steepness increa-
ses ; and from this point to the south east
the descent becomes more sudden, till,
where the observer stood, they were al-
most perpendicular. The funnel,shape,
however, still prevails, as in every other
instance, and the surface was extremely
rugged, and strewed with concretions of an
orange colour, which proved to be the mu«
riate of ammonia ; and it is very probable
that the numerous stripes of yellow on
the nearly horizontal plain at the bottom
may be the same substance. " In this
plain, from the place where I stood, a cir-
cular aperture was visible, apparently
about five poles in diameter, from which
issued the larger column of smoke, which
I had seen before I arrived at the summit
of ^tna. I shall not mention several
streams of smoke which arose like thin
clouds from the same bottom, and differ-
ent places in the sides. The principal
column, which, at its origin, might be
about twenty feet in diameter, ascended ra-
pidly in a perpendicular direction while it
was within the crater ; but when it had ri-
sen above the edges inclined towards the
west from the action of a light wind ; and
when it iiad risen higher, dilated into an
extended but thin volume. This smoke
was white, and being impelled to the side
opposite to that on which 1 was, did not
prevent my seeing within the aperture ; in

which, T can affirm, I very distinctly per-
ceived a liquid ignited matter, which con-
tinually undulated, boiled, and rose and
fell, without spreading over the bottom.
This certainly was the melted lava,
which had arisen to that aperture from the-
bottom of the iEtnean gulph."

Being favourably situated for observing
the effects of external violence on the li-
quid matter within the aperture, the abbe
rolled large fragments of lava down the
side, which, entering the opening, pro-
duced a sound resembling the sudden
immersion of a heavy substance in a thick
tenaceous paste. In performing this ex-
periment, the effect was multiplied by
the stones loosening others in their pas-
sage, some of which fell on the plane ;
those rebounding, even when very large,
caused a sound extremely different from ,
the others that struck the liquid lava:
this circumstance proves, that, though
the bottom may be a comparatively thin :
covering of the gulph, it is capable of
great resistance. We shall proceed with
a short notice of i

Volcanoes m the moon. As the moon
has on its surface , mountains and valleys .'
in common with the earth, some modern
astronomers have discovered a still great-
er similarity, viz. that some of these are
really volcanoes, emitting fire as those on
earth do. An appearance of this kind
was discovered some years ago by Don
Ulloa in an eclipse of the sun. It was a
small bright spot, like a star, near tlie
margin of the moon, and which he at that
time supposed to have been a hole, with
the sun's light shining through it. .Suc-
ceeding observations, however, have in-
duced astronomers to attribute appear-
ances of this kind to the eruption of vol-
canic fire ; and Dr. Herschel has particu-
larly observed several eruptions of the
lunar volcanoes, the l:ist of which he gives
an account of in the Philosophical Trans-
actions for 1787. "April 19, 10^36%,
sidereal time. 1 perceive (says he) three
volcanoes in different places of the darlv
part of the new moon. Two of them are
either already nearly extinct, or other-
wise in a state of going to break out ;
which perhaps may be decided next
lunation. The thiixl shows an actual
eruption of fire or luminous matter. I
measured the disance of the crater
from the northern limb of the moon, and
found it 3' 573'^: its light is much brighter
than the nucleus of the comet which M.
Mechain discovered at Paris the 10th of
this month.

" April 20, lOi" 2™, .sidereal time. The

VOL

vo:r

volcano burns with greater violence than
last night Its diameter cannot be less
than 3 , by comparing it with that of the
Georgian planet : as Jupiter was near at
hand, 1 turned the telescope to his third
'«atellite, and estimated the diameter of the
burning part of the volcano to be equal to
at least twice that of the satellite : whence
we may compute, that the shining or burn-
ing matter must be above three miles in
diameter. It is of an irregular round figure,
and very sharply defined on tlie edges.
The other two volcanoes are much fur-
ther towards the centre of the moon, and
resemble large, pretty faint nebulae, that
are gradually much brighter in the mid-
dle ; but no well defined luminous spot
can be discerned in them. These three
spots are plainly to be distinguished from
the rest of the maiks upon the moon ; for
the reflection of the sun's rays from the
earth is, in its ])resent situation, suffici-
ently bright, with a ten feet reflector, to
show the moon's spots, even the darkest
of them ; nor did 1 perceive any similar
phenomena last lunation, though I then
viewed the same places with the same
instrument.

" 'i'he appearance of what I have called
the actual lire, or eruption of a volcano,
exactly resembled a small piece of burn-
ing ciiarcoal when it is covered by a very
thin coat of white ashes, which frequently
adhere to it when it has been some time
ignited ; and it has a degree of brightness
about as strong as that with which such a
coal would be seen to glow in faint day-
light. All the adjacent parts of the vol-
canic mountain seemed to be faintly illu-
minated by the eruption, and were gra-
dually more obscure as they layatagreat-
er distance from the crater. This erup-
tion resembled much that which I saw on
the 4th of May, in lheyearl783, butdifler-
ed considenibly in magnitude and bright-
ness ; for the volcano of the year 1783,
tliough much brigltter than that which is
now burning, was not nearly so large in the
dimensions of its eruption : the former
seen in the telescope resembled a star of
the fourth magnitude as it appears to the
naked eye ; this, on the contrary, shows
avisible disc of luminous matter very dif-
ferent from tlie sparkling brightness of
star light."

VOLKAMERIA, in botany, so named
in memory of John George Volkamer,
physician at Nuremburgh, a genus of the
Didynan)ia Angiospermia class and order.
Natural order of Personatx. Vitices, Jus-
sieu. Essential character : calyx five-
cleft ; corolla segments directed Uie same

way ; drupe two-seeded ; nuts two-celled.
There are eight species.

VOLITION. See Will.

VOLUNTARY, in music, is an extem-
pore performance upon, or a composition
written for, the organ, and serving to re-
lieve and enibeUish divine service.

VOLVOX, in natural history, a genus of
the Vermes Infusoria class and order.
Worm invisible to the naked eye, simple,
pellucid, spherical. There are nine spe-
cies. V. sphaerula is, as its name denotes;
spherical, with similar roundedmolecules.
It is seen in stagnant waters. Body com-
posed of about si.xty pellucid homogeneous
transparent or greenish-yellow points,
moves slowly about a quarter of a circle
from right to left, and then back ag^n
from left to ri^ht.

VOLUTA, m natural history, a genus
of the Vermes Testacea class and order.
Animal a hmax ; shell one-celled spiral ;
aperture without a beak, and somewhat
eflTuse ; pillar twisted, or plaited, gene-
rally without hps or perforation. There
are nearly two hundred species in sec-
tions. A. aperture entire ; B. subcyhndri-
cal emarginate ; C. oboval etl'use emargi-
nate ; D. fusiform ; E. venlricose ; spire
papillary at the tip. In the first section
is V. auris midae ; shell contracted^ oval,
oblong, with rugged spire; j)illar two-
toothed. It inliabils India, in marshy
woods and swamps, and very much re-
sembles an helix : about four inches long ;
shell brown, soHd, wrinkled, or striate;
sjiire large, with from six to nine whorls,
each tcrminate«l by a granulated band^
tlie outer ones cancellate ; aperture long,
wider beneath. In section D. we may
notice V. episcopalis; shell emarginate,
smooth ; margins of the whorls entire ;
lip denticulate ; pillar with four plaits.
It inhabits India. The inhabitant, or fish,
is said to be of a poisonous nature, if
eaten, and to wound those who touch it
with a kind of pointed trunk. The na-
tives of the island of TanTia fix the shells
in handles and use them as hatchets.

VOLU rE, in architecture, a kind of
spiral scroll, used in the Ionic and Com-
posite capital, whereof it makes the pria-
pal characteristic and ornament.

VORTICELLA, in natural history, a
genus of Vermes Infusoria class and or-
der. Body contractile, naked, and fur-
nished wTth ciliate rotatory organs. There
are about fifty or sixty species in sections.
A. Seated on a pedicle, or stem. B- Fur-
nished with a tail. C. Without a tail. V,
anastatica is compound, bell-shaped, with
an obhque mouth and scaly rigid stem..

VOT

VOT

It inhabits fresh waters, forminj^ clustei'S
branched out in various directions ; ova-
ries seated on the stems in tlie form of
bulbs, which detach themselves from the
stems, and fix themselves to other sub-
stances, producing a new cluster. V. na-
suta is cylindrical, wiih a projecting point
in the middle of the cup. It is found in
stagnant water, invisible to the naked
eye, pellucid, changing its form perpetu-
ally, quick in motion, and having a rota-
tory organ surrounding the middle of the
body.

VOSSIUS (Gerard Johjt,) in biogra-
phy, one of the most learned and laborious
writers of the seventeenth century, was
ofa considerable family in the Nether-
lands, and was born in 1577, near Hei-
delberg, at a place where his father,
John Vossius, was minister. He first
learned Latin, Greek, and Philosophy, at
Dort, where his father had settled, and
died. In 1595, he went to Leyden, where
he further pursued these studies, joining
mathematics to them, in which science
he made a considerable progress. He be-
came Master of Arts and Doctor in Philo-
sophy, in 1398 ; and soon after Director
of the College at Doit ; and, in 1618,
Professor of Eloquence and Chronology
in the academy there, the same year in
which appeared his " History of the Pela-
gian Controversy." This history procured
him much odium and disgrace on the
Continent, but an ample reward in Eng-
land, where Archbishop Laud obtained
leave of KingCharlesI. for Vossius to hold
a prebendary in the church of Canterbu-
ry, while he resided at Leyden. This
w^as in 1629, when he came over to be in-
stalled, took a Doctor of Laws degree at
Oxford, and then returned.

In 1633, he was called to Amsterdam
to fill the chair of a Professor of Histo-
ry ; where he died in 1649, at seventy-
two years of age : after having written
and pubhshed as many works as, when
they came to be collected and printed at
Amsterdam in 1695, Sec, made six vo-
lumes folio.

VOTES. The decision of any ques-
tion by an assembly of persons, being in
its own nature impracticable in the case
of dissent by one or more of the indi-
viduals, it becomes an object of practical
necessity to provide for that cascj in most
instances, by some expedient. In our
English law, the determination of twelve
men upon a jury is rendered unanimous
by annexing the condition, that they
shall not delay longer than it shall be
possible for them to subsist without the

necessaries of life. Upon almost any
other occasion it has been established,
that the wish of the majority shall be
taken as the sense of the whole

This last rule is, however, capable of
many modifications, one of the most strik-
ing is that which is used in all arrange-
ments of delegation. In order to insure the
possession of knowledge, fidelity ,diligence
and dispatch, it is usual in society to per-
form the business of the pubhc by dele-
gates, in successive order of |)Ower and re-
sponsibility. Thus, a large and mixed multi-
tude, possessing very little political
knowledge, liable for the most part to
be misled by prejudices or corruption,
incapable, on many accounts, of pursu-
ing objects with steadiness, and from
their number absolutely unable to deli-
berate or decide, with the smallest de-
gree of efficacy, may nevertheless be
very capable of determining the single
question, who shall be their delegate in a
less numerous assembly of wise and vir-
tuous men ; and this last assembly may
give power to their chairman and their
committees to perform many acts which
could scarcely be effected by themselves
in their entire mass.

These proceedings, however, are sup-
posed to have the determination of single
questions in view at a time ; but there
are questions of vote which in their own
nature possess a degree of complexity.
Into these our limits will not allow us to
enter, but there is one relating to per-
sonal elections, which Borda, in his Me-
moirs of the French Academy, has point-
ed out, and is entitled to our notice. It
relates to the choice of one out of a
number of candidates, which is made
simply by taking him who has the majo-'
rity of voices, but which may not coin-
cide with the wish of the electors, and
may even be that which is the most oppo-
site to that wish.

The example is, suppose these candi-
dates, A, B, and C, had twenty-one
electors ; then if A have eight votes, B
seven, and C six, A will be elected. But
tlie truth here manifested is, that eight
voters out of twenty-one give the pre-
ference to A beyond B and C, and it is
not known in what order of preference
those voters place these two last. A like
observation may be made as to the other
sets who have voted in preference for B
and C. So that if the seven voters forB
had possessed the means of showing, and
had declared their preference of C to A,
C would have had thirteen votes, and
prevailed against A ; and there is notliing^

i

UPU

URA

in this cause of election which can show
that this would not have been the result.

Mr. B. proposes that this should be re-
medied by each voter giving in a list of
the order of merit in the candidates, and
he shows at length, by mathematical rea-
soning, the true indication to be deduced
from such hsts. But as this practice
might probably be too remote from vul-
gar apprehension to be much approved,
it may be sufficient to refer the reader
to the Memoir, and to remark that, in
order to be certain that an election, made
io the common way, is really the wish of
the majority, it is necessary that the num-
ber of votes obtained by the successful
candidate shoidd be to the whole num-
ber of electors, in a greater ratio than
the number of candidates by one to their
total number.

VOWEL, in grammar, a letter which
affords a complete sound of itself, or a
letter so simple as only to need a bare
opening of the mouth to make it heard,
and to form a distinct voice. See Gram-
mar.

The vowels are six in number, 7'tz. A,
E, I, O, U, Y, and are called vowels in con-
tradistinction to certain other letters,
which depending on a particular applica-
tion of some part of the mouth, as the
teeth, lips, or palate, can make no per-
fect sound without an opening of the
mouth, that is, without the addition of a
vowel, and are therefore called conso-
nants.

UPRIGHT, in heraldry, is used in re-
spect of sliell fishes, as crevices, &c. when
standing erect in a coat.

UPUPA, the hoopoe, in natural history,
a gentis of birds of the order Picx. Ge-
neric character : bill long, slender, and
bending ; nostrils in the base of the bill ;
tongue obtuse, entire, and triangular;
middle toe of the three toes before con-
nected in some degree to the outermost.
There are eight species, of which the fol-
lowing deserve the chief notice. U.
epops, common hoopoe of Europe ; this
weighs three ounces, and is a foot long ;
is found in Europe, Asia, and Africa ;
but, even in the warmest countries of
Europe, is said to be migrator}-. In Eng-
land it is by no means abundant. It is
devoted to soUtitde, and rarely seen even
in pairs. At Cairo, however, in Egypt,
these birds appear in small flocks, and
build on the terraces of houses fronting
the bustle and noises of the street. They
seldom perch on trees, confining them-
selves almost entirely to the ground.
When agitated by strong passion, whe-

ther of surprise or anger, of fear or at-
tochment, they erect their crests and
spread their tails with great fullness and
intensity. They feed upon insects, and
give them to their young; and their
nests are, for the want of that cleanly
management for which birds are gene-
rally distinguished, intolerably disgusting
to the smell, in cortsequence of the pu-
trid remains of this species of food. In
confinement they will live on bread and
cheese, or raw meat. See Aves, Plate
XIV. fig. 4.

U. promerops is about four feet long,
but the body is little larger than that of a
pigeon. Its plumage is of the most va-
rious, beautiful, and brilliant colour, and
strongly reminds the observer of the
bird of paradise, to which, indeed, it is
considered as allied. It is found in New
Guinea, and employed by the natives as
one of the most striking personal embel-
lishments.

URAN, in mineralogy, a genus of ores
containing three species. 1. " Pitch ore,"
of a velvet black colour, inchning to iron-
black ; it occurs almost always massive
and disseminated : specific gravity be-
tween 6.3 and 7.5. It is completely in-
fusible, without addition, before the blow-
pipe. W^ith soda, or borax, it forms a
grey, slaggy globule ; with phosphoric
salts a transparent green bead. It dis-
solves imperfectly in sulphuric and muri-
atic acids ; but is nearly dissolved in ni-
trous and nitro- muriatic acids. It con-
sists of

Uran 86.5

Oxide of iron .... 2.5
Sulphurated lead . . . 6.0
Silica 50

100.0

It occurs in veins, in primitive moun-
tains, with lead and silver or^s ; and is
usually accompanied with lead glance,
copper pyrite-s, iron ochre, &c. It is
found in Saxony and Norway, and is dis-
tinguished from brown-blende by colour,
specific gravity, fracture, and streak ;
from wolfram by its streak and fracture.

The chief colour of the second spe-
cies, uran-mica, is grass-green : specific
gravity 3.1. It dissolves in nitrous acid
without effervescence, and communicates
to it a lemon yellow colour. It consi.sts
of an oxide of uran, with a slight admix^
ture of copper. It occurs in ironstone
veins, in Cornwall, Germany, and

URA

URE

France. It is not like mica, to which it
has a great resemblance, elastic.

The third species is uran-ochre, which
is of a straw-yellow colour: it occurs
usually as a coating- or efflorescence on
pitch ore. From the ore we have

URANIUM, in chemistry, a metal dis-
covered by Klaproth in the year 1789. It
was then announced as a metal more dif-
ficult to be reduced than manganese, ex-
ternally of a grey colour, and internally
of a clear brown, of considerable lustre,
and middhng hardness, that it might be
scratched and hied, and that its oxide
gives a deep orange colour to porcelain.
It has been obtained from three different
minerals. The first is in the state of
sulphuret, of a blackish colour, and of a
shining fracture, and sometimes lamel-
lated. In this state it is sometimes com-
bined with iron and sidphurated lead.
The uranium is in the metaUic state.

The second ore from which this metal
is obtained, is the native o.xide of ura-
nium. It is always in the state of yellow
powder, on the surface of the sulphuret.
The specific gravity is 3.24. When it is
of a pure yellow colour it is then a pure
oxide.

The third ore of the metal is the native
carbonate of uranium. Of this there are
two distinct varieties, the one of a pale
green, and sometimes of a silvery white
colour. This contains but a small quan-
tity of the oxide of copper, and is very
rare. The other is of a sinning deep
green, which is the green mica, or gUra-
mer, of mineralogists. Klaproth suppos-
ed that it contained an oxide of uranium,
mixed with the oxide of copper ; but it
has been since discovered to have carbon-
ic acid in its composition. It is crystal-
lized in small square plates, and some-
times, though rarely, in complete octahe-
drons.

The process by which Klaproth reduc-
ed this metal is the following : he mixed
the yellow oxide of uranium, precipitated
from its solutions by an alkah, with lin-
seed oil, in the form of a paste, and this
being exposed to a strong heat, there re-
mained a black powder, which had lost
rather more than one-fourth of its weight.
It was then exposed to the heat of a por-
celain furnace, in a close crucible, and the
oxide was afterwards found in a coherent
mass, but friable under the fingers, and
reduced to a black shining powder. It
decomposed nitric acid with effervescence.
This black powder, covered with calcin-
ed borax, was for the second time exposed

to a still stronger heat, by which me-
tallic mass was obtained, consisting of ve-
ry small globules adhering together.

The colour of uranium is of a dark
grey, and internally of a pale brown. It
has little brilliancy, on account of the
spongy mass, in which state it is obtained.
It may be scratched with a knife, and is
extremely infusible. The specific gravi-
ty is 6 4. When uranium is exposed to a
red heat in the open air, or when it is
acted on by the blow-pipe, it undergoes
no change. Tlie yellow oxide of uranium
does not melt. It acquires a brownish-
grey colour when it is long heated in the
air, but it has not been ascertained whe-
ther It gains or loses oxygen. The oxide
of uranium is reduced by means of char-
coal, when it is exposed to heat. The
yellow oxide, when mixed with common
enamelling Hux, tinges porcelain of a deep
orange colour.

URANIA, in botany, a genus of the
Hexandna Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Musae, Jussieu. Essen,
tial character : calyx none ; corolla three-
petalled ; nectary two-leaved, with one of
the leaves bifid ; capsule inferior, three-
celled, many««eeded ; seeds in two rows,
covered with an aril. There is only one
species, viz. U. speciosa, a lofty tre€,
growing naturally in the marshy places
of Madagascar

URANOSCOPUS, the star-gazer, in na-
tural history, a genus of fishes of the or-
der Juguiares. Genej ic character : head
large, depressed, rough ; mouth with an
internal cirrus ; gill membrane with six
papillous-toothed rays ; gill-covers edged
with a membranaceous fringe.

U. scaber, or the bearded star-gazer,
is a native of the Mediterranean, and
frequents deep places near the shores,
feeding on aquatic insects and small fish-
es, which it decoys within its reach by
waving the long citrus of the mouth in
various directions. The smaller fishes
mistake these for worms, and in endea-
vouring to seize the supposed food are
themselves caught, and devoured by the
star-gazer, whicii lays imbedded and un-
observed in the mud or gravel of the bot-
tom.

URENA, in botany, a genus of the Mo-
nadelphia Polyandria class and order.
Natural order of Columnifera:. Malvaceae,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx dou-
ble, outer five-cleft ; capsule five-cleft, di-
visible into five parts, with the cells clos-
ed, and one seed in each. There are eight
species.

URE

URI

URETHRA. See Anatomy.

UREA, in chemistry. The nature and
properties of urea have been chiefly
investigated by Fourcroy and Vauquehn.
It is obtained from urine. It may be ex-
tracted by the following process : If a
quantify of human urine, which has been
passt-d a few hours after taking food, be
evapoiaLed with a gentle heat, to the con-
sistence of a thick syrup, and allowed to
cool, ii concretes into a crystalline mass.
Add to this mass, in separate portions,
four times its weight of alcohol ; with the
application of a gentle heat, great part is
dissolved, and what remains consists of
different sahne substances. Separate the
solution from the undissolved part, and
introduce it into a retort. Uistil with the
heat of a sand bath, and contuuie the boil-
ing till the liquid is reduced to the form
of a thick syrup. The matter which re-
mains in the retort crystallizes as it cools.
The crystals thus formed are urea.

Urea, which is prepared by this pro-
cess, is crystallized in the form of plates,
crossing each other. It is viscid, resem-
bling thick honey, and of a yellowish
white colour. It has a strong acnd taste,
and a fetid alliaceous smell. It deliques-
ces in the air, and by attracting moisture
is converted into a thick brown liquid. It
is very soluble iit water, and also in alco-
hol. The solution in water concentrated
is of a brown colour. This solution is
gradually decomposed, air is emitted,
■which is partly composed of ammonia, and
acetic acid is formed in the liquid. If the
solution in water be boiled, and as the
evaporation goes on fresh portions of wa-
ter be added, the iM'ea is decomposed;
carbonate of ammonia is disengaged, while
acetic acid is formed, and charcoal pre-
cipitated. The component parts of urea,
therefore, are supposed to be

Oxygen "9.5

Azote 32 5

Carlson 14.7

Hydrogen .... 13.3

100.0

The caustic fixed alkalies readily dis-
solve urea, and disengage from it ammo-
nia ; and tiie solution contains the benzo-
ic, acetous, and carbonic acids, united
with the alkali employed. The urea al-
most entirely disappears from urine dur-
ing certain diseases, and a very large
cjiiantily of saccharine matter is produced,

which, when evaporated and clarified, xt-
sembles Muscovado sugar.

URIC acid This acid was discovered
by Scheele in the year 1776. It was at
til St called lithic acid. It constitutes ono
of the component parts of urinary calculi,
and is also found in human urine. 'I'here
is one species of calculus which is almost
entirely composed of this substance ; it is
that species which rescnibles wood in ap-
pearance and colour. This acid is insi-
pid, hiodorous, almost insoluble in cold
water, and soluble only in about 360 parts
of boiling water. Ii separates ivum this
when It cools, into small yellowish crys-
tals. The solution in water reddens the
tincture of turnsole. Tliere is scarcely
any action between the uric acid and the
sulphuric and muriaiic acids. It is solu-
ble in the concentrated nitric acid, to
w hich it communicates a red colour. It
would appear il\at in this change of co-
lour the nature of the acid is also chang-
ed, for part of it is converted into oxalic
acid. Oxymuriatic acid very readily acts
upon uric acid, either by suspending a
calculus in the liquid acid, or, which is
easier, by passing a stream of oxymuriatic
acid gas through water, at the bottom of
which is placed the uric acid in powder.
Its colour becomes pale, the surface
swells up, it softens, and is at last convert-
ed into a jelly. This part disappears, and
is soon dissolved, giving a milky colour
to the liquid. There is extricated, by
slow efferverscence, small bubbles of car-
bonic acid gas. The liquid by evapora-
tion gives muriate of ammonia, acidulous
oxalate of ammonia, both crystallized,
muriatic acid, and malic acid. Thus the
oxymuriatic acid decomposes the uric
acid, and converts it into ammonia, car-
bonic, oxalic, and malic acids. Various
facts show that uric acid is a compound
of a very peculiar kind, formed of azote,
of carbon, of hydrogen, and oxygen, and
susceptible of a great number of difierent
changes by chemical agents,

URINE. The properties of urine vary
considerably, according to the constitu-
tion and health of the body, and the pe-
riod when it is voided after taking food.
The urine of a healthy person is of a light
orange colour, and uniformly transparent.
It has a slightly aromatic odour, in some
degree resemblinj^ that of violets. It has
a slightly acrid, s^iline, bitter taste. The
specific gravity varies from 1.005 to 1.033.
The aromatic odour, which leaves it as it
cools, is succeeded by what is called the
urinous smell, which latter is converted
to another, and, finally, to an alkaline

URS

URS

odour. Urine converts the tincture of
turnsole into a green colour, from which
it is concluded that it contains an acid.
No less than thirty different substances
have been detected in urine by chemical
analysis ; viz. a great variety of salts,
acids, ammonia, &c.

Urine is much disposed to spontaneous
decomposition. The time when this pro-
cess commences, and the rapidity of the
changes which take place, depend on the
quantity of the gelatine aud albumen.
When the proportion ol" these substances
is considerable, the decomposition is very
rapid. This is owing to the great number
of substances, and the united force of
their attractions overcoming the existing
affinities of the different compounds of
which fresh urine consists, and especially
to the facility with which urea is decom-
posed. This substance is converted dur-
ing putrefaction into ammonia, carbonic
acid, and acetic acid. Hence the smell
of ammonia is always recognized while
urine is undergoing these changes. Part
of the gelatine is deposited in a flaky
form, mixed with mucilage. Ammonia
combines with phosphoric acid, and the
phosphate of lime is precipitated. It com-
bines also with phosphate of magnesia,
and forms a triple salt. The other acids,
the uric, benzoic, the acetic, and carbon-
ic acids, are all saturated with ammonia.
See Physiology.

URS US, the bear, in natural history, a
genus of Mammalia, of the order Fera;.
Generic character; six front teeth both
above and below, the two lateral ones of
the lower jaw lobed, and longer than the
others, with smaller or secondary teeth at
the internal bases ; tusks solitary ; five or
six grinders on each side, the first ap-
proaching the tusks; tongue smooth;
snout prominent ; eyes furnished with a
nictitating membrane. There are ten
species.

U. arctos, the brown bear, is met with
in almost all the northern territories of
Europe and Asia, and lives solitary in re-
mote forests, subsisting principally on
fruits and other vegetable substances, and
occasionally devouring animals It is par-
ticularly fond of honey, and is said to pos-
sess great sagacity in discovering it ; and
will ascend high trees to obtain it. It
frequently resides in the hollows of trees,
and sometimes fixes its habitation in the
banks of rivers, for the sake offish, which
it sometimes takes and devours. To-
wards the close of autumn, it retires to
its habitation in a state highly fleshy and
fat, and remains for weeks together with-

out food, and almost without motion.
The female withdraws to the most ob-
scure recesses at the same time, to pro-
duce her young, which are in general no
more than two, extremely small, and in
form little resembling the future full-
grown animal. During the first month
these are blind ; for four months they are
attended by the dam with such vigilance
and tenderness, that she almost abstains
from her own necessary nourishment.
After a certain period, the female returns
to the den of the male with her young,
which it was necessary for a time to se-
crete from him, lest he should devour
them ; and in spring they quit their ca-
vern, and range with great voracity,
after their long confinement, in pui-suit
of food. « They will climb trees with
great alacrity, and strip tlicm almost com-
pletely of their fruit. The date tree is a
particular favourite with them. These
animals are often taken young-, and sub-
dued to a great degree of tameness and
docility, and taught a variety of tricks and
dances : but the discipline of torture is
applied to produce these effects ; and
the extreme cruelty requisite to accom-
plish these creatures for the usual exhi-
bitions they are instructed to make, are
a disgrace to civilized society, and worthy
of the interference of legislation. Bears
were formerly common in Greece ; and
even in this country they once existed,
and were guarded with jealousy by the
forest laws, as beasts of chace ; and after
their extermination they were imported
for the diversion of baiting them, which
was an entertaiimient displayed in honour
of nobles and princes. They were ex-
hibited, from Africa, in the grand specta-
cles at Rome. See Mammalia, Plate
XXI. fig. 4.

U. Americanus, or the American beaz*,
has a long pointed nose, and is generally
smaller than the above species. It a-
bounds in the northern territories of
America, and is said to hve exclusively
on vegetable food, extreme hunger only
being able to induce it to eat the flesh of
animals. These bears reside in trees,
mounting and descending them with
great alertness. Their skins form an im-
portant anicle of merchandize ; their
fJesh, when young, is thought delicious ;
and their fat is thought an admirable ap-
plication for sprains and bruises. They
are taken frequently by setting fire to the
trees which they inhabit.

U. maritimus, or the Polar bear, is near-
ly double the size of the common bear,
and is stated to have been .seen of the

URS

URS

length of twelve feet. It is completely
white. Its principal residence is on the
shores of Greenland and Hudson's Bay,
and it inhabits only the coldest regions of
the world. It possesses the most formi-
dable strength and ferocity. The sailors
of Barentz, in his voyage in quest of a
north-east passage to China, were as-
saulted in their boat by these animals,
carried off, and devoured within tlieview
of their companions. They will attempt
to board armed ships, and, defying every
obstacle with the most fearless energy,
have sometimes only with the greatest
difficulty been prevented. They subsist
on fishes, seals, and whales, at sea ; and
by land devour birds, hares, deer, and va-
rious other animals ; and will also eat
berries and various other vegetables. In
Greenland they sometimes surround the
habitations of the natives, allured by the
strong smell of the seal oil, and attempt
to break through to commit their depre-
dations ; but are reported to be effectual-
ly repelled by the smell of burnt feathers.
In winter they ingulph themselves in the
snow, or immure themselves in some ca-
vern, where they pass in torpor the Polar
night, making their egress only with the
re-appearance of the sun : in summer
they are often found on lar^e masses of
floating ice at sea, ahd, swimming with
great excellence, they pass from one of
these to another with much facility ;
they are sometimes, however, carried to
vast distances from land, and perish for
want of the means of subsistence. They
produce generally two young ones at a
birth, and the attachment between these
and the dam is one of the strongest exhi-
bited in the whole animal creation. The
natives of Kamtschatka always avoid fir-
ing at a young bear if the dam be present,
as the rage of the latter to revenge the
injury is active and unbounded, and she
rushes to the spot from which the attack
was made with almost irresistible rapidi-
ty and fury : she, moreover, deplores the
destruction of her cubs by sounds and ges-
ticulation, indicating the most violent and
heart-rending sorrow, folding them,
though lifeless, to her bosom, attempting
to recover them back to animation, and
continuing by them long after the last spark
of life has been extinguished in them.
The fondness of the young for the parent
is little less strong and impressive. These
creatures are hunted by the natives of
Kamtschatka with great skill, intrepidity,
and success : if the bear should not in-
stantly fall by a musket-^ot, or be dis-
abled from running, he rushes towards his
VOL. VI.

antagonist, animated with the completest
spirit of vengeance ; and, should he not,
in this instant, be received upon the
spear, which is dexterously prepared to
transfix him at the critical moment, the
death of the hunter is almost the certain
and immediate consequence. Fatal re-
sults have hot unfrequently attended tlie
sportsmen in these conflicts. These ani-
mals have considerable sagacity, and are
stated, upon respectable authority, to
ascend rocks with extreme caution, to
avoid the observance of a herd of bareins,
feeding beneath, and which, on account
of the speed of the latter, they could not
openly approach : from these summits,
however, they will loosen and roll do\s u
large stones, and thus destroy or mutilate
their prey beneath, descending after-
wards to enjoy the rich reward of their
stratagem and toil. The inhabitants of
Kamtschatka are reported to pride them-
selves in imitating the movements of the
bears in their dances, and to acknowledge
themselves highly indebted to them for
the application of various simples for
wounds and diseases. The morse is one of
the most formidable enemies of the bear,
and generally triumphs from the advan-
tage of its lengthened and formidable
tusks. See Mammalia, Plate XXI. fig. 5.

The U. gulo, or glutton, is about three
feet long, exclusively of its tail, which is
one foot in length. It is met with in the
northern regions of America, Europe,
and Asia. Its name is characteristically
derived from its habits, as it preys with
extreme voracity on almost every species
of animal food, in its fresh or putrid state-
It is said to lay wait in trees, and to spring
on a variety of animals passing unsuspect-
ingly beneath, and, after exhausting
them, by sucking their blood, to tear
them in pieces and devour them. It
produces from two to four young once a
year. Its strength and ferocity are such,
that it sometimes contends for its prey,
» victoriously, even with tlie wolf or the
bear. The skin of this animal is an arti-
cle of commerce, and it is most esteemed
as such in proportion as its colour ap-
proaches to a peifect blackness.

U. luscus, or the wolverene, is suppos-
ed to be merely a variety of the former.
It has been brought into this country from
Hudson's Bay, about twice the size of
a fox, and was, in this instance, perfectly
tame and inoffensive.

U. lotor, or the raccoon, is a native of
America and the West Indies, of a grey
colour, and with a head shaped Uke that
of a fox, and of the length of between

3X

UKS

USE

two and three feet without the tail. Its
natural food consists of fruits, young su-
gxir-cancs, and unripe maize ; and also,
it is thought, of eggs and poultry. It is
nocturnal, and seldom quits its hole by
day ; and during the rigours of vyinter,
it continues there in a state of abstinence
and perhaps of torpor. It may be do-
mesticated with great tacihty, and is seen
in this familiar state in many houses in
America. It is agile and sprightly, as-
cends trees with great ease, is particular-
ly fond of vegetable sweets, and averse
from acid substances, and, while taking
its food, generally uses its fore feet as
hands, sitting on its hind ones;. It is said
to have an admirable tact at opening oys-
ters and other shells, and is extremely
cleanly in all its habits. Its fur is highly
useful in the manufacture of hats.

U, meles, or the common badger of
Europe, is about two feet from the nose
to the tail, and is found in almost all the
temperate regions both of Europe and
Asia, living In subterranean habitations,
which its feet are admirably aaapt«d for
preparing. Its food consists of fruits and
roots, frogs and insects ; and the resem-
blance of its teeth to those of beasts of
prey, makes it probable that it destroys
lambs and larger animals, which it is
stated to do ; in a domestic state it pre-
fers raw flesh to every other species of
food. It will attack bee-hives, to obtain
the honey contained in them. It sleeps
much ; passes the winter, or the greater
part of it, in its burrowecl residence, in a
state of lethargy and torpor ; and in sum-
mer produces, generally, three young
ones at a birth. These animals are inof-
fensive in their manners ; reluctant to at-
tack, but well prepared by nature for de-
fence, which they conduct with an alert-
ness, intrepidity, and perseverance, truly
admirable. To afford a spectacle of these
qualities to the populace of several coun-
tries, the badger is frequently baited with
dogs, which, from the looseness of the
badger's skin and the coarseness of its
hair, are prevented sometimes from pe-
netrating to his flesh with their teeth, and
almost always, from so fastening him by
their bite as to preclude his turning in
various directions for their annoyance.
The strength of his jaws, and the sharp-
ness of his teeth, enable him to deal the
most painful and destructive wounds ;
indeed, his bite almost uniformly brings
with it the flesh, as well as the blood of
his antagonist. He is at length overpow-
ered by numbers, but seldom without
having inflicted a severe and fatal rcr

venge. His agility of movement in th©
conflict gives a most important advantage,
as his blow is, as it were, struck while the
enemy is only preparing for the attack.
The badger is particularly cleanly in his
habits ; and his flesh, prepared like that
of the hog, is said to be equally valuable
and well-flavoured.

U. horribilis (of Mr. G. Ord) the Qriz-
ly Bear. This animal, says Mr. Bracken-
ridge, is the monarch of the country
which he inhabits. The African lion, or
the tiger of Bengal, are not more fierce or
terrible. He is the enemy of man, and
literally thirsts for his blood. So far from
shunning, he seldom fails to attack ; and
even to hunt him. The colour is usually
such as the name indicates, though there
are varieties, from black to silvery white-
ness. He is not seen lower than the
Mandan villages. In the vicinity of
Roche Jaune, and of Little Missouri, they
are said to be most numerous. They do
not wander much in the prairies, but are
usually found in points of wood, in die
Tipif^lihniivboqd of large streams.

URTICA, in botany, nettle^ a genus of
the Monoecia Tetrandria clas and order.
Natural order of Scabridse. Urticje. Jus-
sieu. Essential character : male, calyx
four-leaved ; corolla none ; nectary cen-
tral, cup-shaped : female, calyx two-leav-
ed ; corolla none ; seed one, superior,.
shining. There are fifty -nine species.

URTICULARIA, in botany, bladder-
loortf a genus of the Diandria Monogynia
class and order. Natural order of Cory-
dales. Lysimachix, Jussieu. Essential
character : corolla ringent, spurred ; ca-
lyx two leaved, equal ; capsule one-cell-
ed. There are thirteen species.

USANCE, in commerce, is a determi-
nate time fixed for the payment of bills
of exchange, reckoned either from the
day of the bills being accepted, or from
the day of their date ; and thus called,
because regulated by the usage and cus-
tom of the places whereon they are
drawn. See Exchange.

USE, in law, is a trust and confidence
reposed in another, who is tenant of the
land, that he shall dispose of the land, ac-
cording to the intention of cestuy que use,
or him to whose use it was granted, and
suffer him to take the profits.

By statute 27, Henry VIII. c. 10. com-
monly called the statute of uses, or the
statute for transferring uses into posses-
sion, the cestuy que use is considered as
the real owner of the estate; whereby it
is enacted, that when any person is seised
of lands to the use of another, the person

i

usu

i^ntitlcd to the lise in fee-simple, fee-tail,
for life or years, or otlierwise, shall stand
and be seised or possessed of the land, in
the like estate as he hath of the use,
trust, or confidence. And thereby the
act makes cestuy qiie iise complete owner
both at law and in equity. This is one of
the most important statutes in the law
respecting conveyances, and it is as it
were the hinge, upon which all the sys-
tem of conveyancing turns. It is extreme-
ly difficult to explain its effect in this dic-
tionary, but it may be important to say,
tiiat in any conveyance which operates
under the statute of uses, it is necessary
to declare a use, as to say the estate is
given to A B, to the use of A B, without
which the use, that is, all the interest in
the estate, results to the donor. A trust
is now what a use was formerly. See Trust.

USHER, an officer, or servant, who has
the care and direction of the door of a
coui't, hall, chamber, or the hke.

In the king's houshold there are two
gentlemen ushei-s of the privy-chamber
appointed to attend the door, and give
entrance to persons that have admittance
thither ; four gentlemen-ushers, waiters ;
and eight gentlemen-ushers, quarter-
waiters in ordinaiy.

Usher also signifies an officer of the
Court of Exchequer, of which there are
four, who attend the barons and chief offi-
cers of that court at Westminster, as also
juries, sheriffs, &c. at the pleasure of the
court. There is also an usher of the Court
of Chancery.

USHER of the Black Rod, the eldest of
ihe gentlemen-ushers daily waiters at
court, whose duty is to bear the rod be-
fore the King at the feast of St. George,
and other solemnities : he has also the
keeping of the chapter-house door, when
a chapter of the order of the garter is
sitting, and in time of parliament attends
the house of peers, and takes delinquents
into custody. He wears a gold badge,
embelhshed with the ensigns of the order
of the garter.

USTERIA, in botany, a genus of the
Monandria Monogynia class and order.
Essential character: calyx fonr-toothed,
with one segment much larger than the
rest ; corolla funnel-form, four-toothed ;
capsule one-celled, two-seeded ; seeds
arilled. There is but one species, viz. U.
guineensis, a native of Guinea.

USURY, in a strict sense, is a contract
upon the loan of money, to give the lend-
er a certain profit for the use of it, upon
all events, whetlier the borrower made
any advantage of it, or the lender suffer-

VUL

ed any prejudice for the want of it, or
vyhether it be repaid at the appointeil
time or not ; and in a large sense, it
seems, that all undue advantages, taken
by a lender against a borrower, come un-
der the notion of usury.

The statute 12 Anne, c. 16, enacts that
no person, upon any contract which shall
be made, shall take for loan of any money,
wares, &c, above the value of Si. for the
forbearance of 100/. for a year ; and all
bonds and assurances for the payment of
any mioney to be lent upon usury, where-
upon or whereby there shall be reserved,
or taken, above five pounds in the hun-
dred, shall be void ; and every person
who shall receive, by means of any cor-
rupt bargain, loan, exchange, shift, or in-
terest, of any wares, or other things, or
by any deceitful way, for forbearing, or
giving day of payment for one year, for
their money or other things, above 51. for
100/. for a' year, &c. shall forfeit treble
the value of the monies or other things
lent.

But if a contract, which carries inte-
rest, be made in a foreign country, our
courts will direct the payment of interest,
according to the law of that country in
which the contract was made. Thus,
Irish, American, Turkish, and Indian in-
terest have been allowed in our courts, to
the amount of each 121. per cent. For
the moderation or exorbitance of interest
depends upon local circumstances ; and
the refusal to enforce such contracts
would put a stop to all foreign trade.

It may be considered as a general rule,
that whatever is taken for interest can by
no trick or contrivance be so concealed
as to evade the general words of this sta-
tute. It is a question in politics, whether
the laws against usury are good for any
thing, except to afford government a mo-
nopoly in the borrowing of loans. Where
advantage is takea of ignorance or distress,
equity would reheve in all cases. But
surely it is hard to prevent men from
making the fair price of the loan of mo-
ney. A maximum is always injurious.
The real price of interest is not well set-
tled, and usurers are compelled to be ex-
orbitant to indemnify themselves of ex-
traordinary risks.

UVARIA, in botany, a genus of the Po-
lyandria Polygynia class and order. Na-
tural order of Coadunatae. Anonse, Jus-
sieu. Essential character: calyx three-
leaved ; petals six ; berries numerous,
pendulous, four-seeded. There are ele-
ven species,

VULGATE, a very ancient Latin trans-

yuL

uvu

Istionof the bible, and the only one the
church of Rome acknowledges authentic.
SeeBiBLK. The ancient vuIgatc- oftlie Old
Testament was translated almost word for
word from the Greek of the LXX. The
author of the version is not known, nor so
much as guessed at.

Vulgate of the J^Te^'j Testament. This
the Romanists generally hold preferable
to the common Greek text, in regard it is
this alone, and not the Greek text, that
the council of Trent had declared authen-
tic. Accordingly that church has, as it
were, adopted this addition. The priests
read no other at the altar, the preachers
quote no other in the pulpit, nor the di-
vines in the schools.

vulture; the vuUure, in natural his-
tory, a genus of birds of the order Accipi-
tres. Generic character : the bill strait,
hooked at the point ; the head without
feathers ; the skin on tlie fore part na-
ked ; tongue bifid ; neck retractile ; legs
and feet covered with great scales ; claws
large, little hooked, and very blunt.
These birds are repacious to an extreme
degree, and sometimes feed in the midst
of cities unterrified. It is observed that
they prefer, universally, tainted meat to
what is fresh, and seldom destroy animals
when they can procure a sufficiency of
carrion. Their scent is in the highest de-
gree acute, and they are supposed to
perceive the effluvia of carcases at the
distance even of miles. They are found
most numerous in the warmest chmates,
and must be regarded as a race of bir^ls
eminetftly useful in clearing the surface
of the globe from putrid remains, which
might infect the air, and produce all the
ravages and mortality of pestilence. There
are seventeen species, of which we shall
notice the following.

V. gryphus, or the condur vulture, is
found particularly in South America, and
from point to point of its wings is of the
width of twelve feet. The feathers of its

back are of a brilliant black. Its quill fea-
thers are more than two feet and a quarter
in length, and are half an inch in diame-
ter.

V. harpyia, or the crested vulture, is
ratlier larger than a turkey, and is di-
tinguished b) a crest of four feathers on
its head. Its strength is extraordinary,
and with a single stroke of its bill it is
reported to be able to cleave down the
scull of a man. It is found in Mexico and
Brasil.

V. aui-a, or the carrion vulture, is of
the same size as the last, is common both
in North and South America, and feeds
on carcases and on snakes. Its odour is
particularly rank. It is far from being
ferocious and dangerous, may be easily
reared tame, and is considered in the
West Indies as highly useful in destroy-
ing reptiles, vermin, and carrion, inso-
much that the killing of them is prohi-
bited by law. They roost together at
nights in considerable numbers, in the
manner of rooks,

V. Sagittarius, or the sepretary vulture,
is distinguished by the extraordinary
length of its legs, and, when standing
upright, is a yard high. It is found in
Africa, and in the Philippine Islands. It
principally lives on hzards and rats, and
various species of vermin. It strikes
with its feet forwards, and never the
contrary. It takes up tortoises in its
claws, and dashes them with great force
on the ground, and will repeat this pro-
cess till these animals are completely
killed. For the king vulture, see Aves,
Plate XIV. fig. 5.

UVULARIA, in botany, a genus of the
Hexandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Sarmentacex. Lilia,
Jussieu. Essential character: corolla
si.x-petalled, erect ; nectary hollow at the
base of each petal ; filaments very short.
There are six species.

W.

w

orw, is the twenty-first letter of
^ our alphabet, and is composed,
as its name implies, of two v's. It was
not in use among the Hebrews, Greeks,

or Romans, but chiefly pecuUar to the \

northern nations, the Teutones, Saxons, |

Britons, &c. But still it is not used by •

the French, Italians, Spaniards, or For- j

WAF

WAI

tiigaese, except in proper names, and
other terms borrowed from languages in
which it is originally used, and even then
it is sounded like tlie single v. This let-
ter is of an ambiguous nature, being a
consonant at the beginning of words, and
a vowel at the end. It may stand before
all the vowels except w, as toatet\ ivedge,
rointer, tvonder : it may also follow tlie
vowels, a, e, o, and unites with them into
a kind of double vowel, or diphthong, as
in saiv^ few, cow, &.c.

WACCE, in mineralogy, a species of
tlie clay genus, of a greenish grey co-
lour, of various degrees of intensity ; it
occurs sometimes massive, sometimes
vesicular,' and the vesicuise are either
filled when the compound is denominated
amygdaloid, or empty. It is not very
heavy, and it is the characteristic of it
that it falls to pieces in the open air. It
belongs to the floetz trap formation;
where it occurs in beds which generally
lie under basalt, and above clay. It is
found in veins, and generally forms the
basis of amygdaloid. It frequently con-
tains imbedded crystals of mica and ba-
saltic hornblende, but does not, hke ba-
salt, include augite or olivine. It is
found in many parts of Germany, and in
Sweden, Werner considers it as interme-
diate between basalt and clay. When
basalt contains mica, it is passing to
wacce. Near Joachimstal there is an im-
mense rent filled with wacce, in which
whole trees are found imbedded.

WACHENDORFIA, in botany, a ge-
nus of theTriandria Monogynia class and
order. Natural order of Ensatse. Irides,
Jussieu. Essential character: corolla
six-petalled, unequal, inferior ; capsule
three-celled, superior. There are five
species, all natives of the Cape of Good
Hope.

WADD, or Waddixg, is a stopple of

paper, hay, straw, or the like, forced

into a gun upon the powder, to keep it

' close in the chamber ; or to put up close

to the shot, to keep it from rolling out.

WAFERS are made thus : take very
fine flour, mix it with glair of eggs,
isinglass, and a little yeast ; mingle the
materials; beat them well together,
spread the batter, being made thin with
gum water, on even tin plates, and dry
them in a stove ; then cut them out for
use. You may make them of what colour
you please, by tinging the paste with brazil
or Vermillion for red ; indigo or verditer,
&c. for blue ; saffron, turmeric, or gam-
boge, Sic. for yellow.
WAFT, in naval language, a signal

displayed from the stern of a ship for
some particular purpose, by hoisting the
ensign, furled up together into a long
roll, to the head of its staff, or to the
mizen-peek. It is particularly used to
summon the ship's boats oft' from the
shore.

WAGBiR of law is a particular mode
of proceeding, whereby, in an action of
debt, brought upon a simple contract
between the parties, without any deed
or record, the defendant may discharge
himself by swearing in court, in the pre-
sence of compurgators, that he owes the
plaiiitifi" nothing, in manner and form
as he has declared, and his compurgators
swear, that they believe what he says is
true. And this waging his law is some-
times called making his law. It being at
length considered, that this waging of
law offered too great a temptation to
perjury, by degrees new remedies were
devised, and new forms of action intro-
duced, wherein no defendant is at liber-
ty to wage his law, as in assumpsit and
trover. Also when a new statute inflicts
a penalty, and gives an action of debt to
recover it, it is usual to add, in which no
wager of law shall be allowed.

Wagers. In general a wager may be
considered as legal, if it be not an incite-
ment to a breach of the peace, or to im-
morality, or if it do not affect the feel-
ings or interest of a third person, or ex-
pose him to ridicule ; or if it be not
against sound policy. See iNsuHAjfCE,
Wager, Poijct.

WAIFS, are goods which are stolen
and waved by a felon in his flight from
those who pursue him, which are forfeit-
ed ; and though waif is generally spoken
of goods stolen, yet if a man be pursued
with hue and cry as a felon, and he flee
and leave his own goods, these will be
forfeited as goods stolen ; but they are
properly fugitive's goods, and not for-
feited till it be found before the coroner,
or otherwise of record, that he fled for
the felony. See Estrays.

WAIST, in ship-building, that part of
a ship which is contained between the
quarter-deck and forecastle, being usu-
ally a hollow space, with an ascent of se-
veral steps to either of those places.
When the waist of a merchant ship is
only one or two steps of descent from
the quarter-deck and forecastle, she is
said to be galley built ; but when with
six or seven steps, she is called frigate-
built.

WAISTERS, in naval afl^airs, people
stationed in the waist in working the

WAL

WAL

ship. As their business requires only
strength without art or judgment, they
are commonly selected from the strongest
landsmen and ordinary seamen.

\VAI VER, signifies the passing by of a
thing, or a refusal to accept it : some-
times it is applied to an estate, or some-
thing conveyed to a man, and sometimes
to plea, &c. and a waiver on disagree-
ment as to goods and chattels, in case of a
gift, will be effectual.

WAKE of a shipy is the smooth water
astern when she is under sail. This shows
the way she has gone in the sea, where-
by the mariners judge what way she
makes. For if the wake be right a-stern,
they conclude she makes her Way for-
wards ; but if the wake be to leeward
a point or two, then they conclude she
falls to the leeward of her course. When
one ship, giving chase to another, is got
as far into the wind as she, and sails di-
rectly after her, they say, she has got
into her wake. A ship is said to stay to
the weather of her wake, when, in her
staying, she is so quick, that she does not
fall to leeward upon a tack, but that when
.she is tacked, her wake is to the leeward ;
and it is a sign she feels her helm very
well, and is quick of steerage.

WALE, or Wales, in a ship, those out-
ermost timbers in a ship's side, on which
the sailors set their feet in climbing up.
They are reckoned from the water, and
are called her first, second, and third
wale, or bend.

Wale knot, a round knot or knob made
w ith three strands of a rope, so that it
cannot slip, by which the tacks, top-sail
sheets, and stoppers are made fast, as also
some other ropes.

Wale reared, on board a ship, a name
the seamen give to a ship, which, after
she comes to her bearing, is built straight
up. This way of building, though it does
not look well, nor is, as the seamen term
it, ship-shapen, yet it has this advantage,
that a ship is thereby more roomy within
board, and becomes thereby a wholesome
ship at sea, especially if her bearing be
well laid out.

WALES. By statute 27 Henry VIII.
c. 26, and other subsequent statutes, the
dominion of Wales shall be incorporated
with, and part of the realm of England ;
and all persons born in Wales shall enjoy
all liberties and privileges as the subjects
in England do. And the lands in Wales
shall be inheritable after the English te-
nure, and not after any Welsh laws or
customs ; and the proceedings in all the
law courts shall be in the English tongue.

A session is also to be held twice a ycai*
in every county, by judges appointed by
the King, to be called the Great Sessions
of the several counties in Wales, in whicii
all pleas of real and personal actions shall
be held, with the same form of process,
and in as ample manner, as in the Court
of Common Pleas at Westminster; and
writs of error shall lie from judgments
therein to the Court of King's Bench at
Westminster. But the ordinary original
writs, or process, of the King's courts at
Westminster, do not run into the princi-
pality of Wales, though process of exe-
cution does, as also all prerogative writs ;
as, writs of certiorari, quo minus, man-
damus, and the like. Murders and felo-
nies in any part of Wales may be tried
in the next adjoining English county; the
judges of assize having a concuri'ent ju-
risdiction throughout all Wales, with the
justices of the grand sessions. All local
mattei-s arising in Wales, triable in the
King's Bench, are, by the common law,
to be tried by a jury, returned from the
next adjoining county in England. No
sheriff or officer in Wales shall, upon any
process out of the courts at Westminster,
hold any person to special bail, unless the
cause of action be twenty pounds, or up-
wards. 11 and 12 William, c. 9.

WALL, in architecture, the principal
part of a iDuilding, as serving both to in-
close it, and support the roof, floors, &c.
See Building.

WALLENIA, in botany, so named in
honour of Matthew Wallen, a genus of
the Tetrandria Monogynia class and or-
der. Essential character : calyx four-cleft,
inferior; corolla tubular, four-cleft ; berry
one seeded. There is but one species,
viz. W. laurifolia, a tall tree growing na-
turally in Jamaica and Hispaniola.

WALLIS (Dr. John), in biography, an
eminent English mathematician, was the
son of a clergyman, and born at Ashford,
in Kent, November 23, 1616. After be-
ing instructed, at different schools, in
grammar learning, in Latin, Greek, and
Hebrew, with the rudiments of logic,
music, and the French language, he was
placed in Emanuel College, Cambridge.
About 1640, he entered into orders, and
was chosen Fellow of Queen's College.
He kept his fellowship till it was vacated
by his marriage, but quitted his- college to
be chaplain to Sir Richard Darley : after a
year spent in this situation, he spent two
more as chaplain to Lady Vere. While
he lived in this family he cultivated the
art of deciphering, which proved very
useful to liim on several occasions: he

WAL

WAP

met. with rewards and preferment from the
government at home for deciphei'ing let-
ters for them; and it is said, that the Elec-
tor of Brandenburg sent him a gold chain
and medal, for explaining for him some
letters written in ciphers.

Academical studies being much inter-
rupted by the civil wars in both the Uni-
versities, many learned men from them re-
sorted to London, and formed assemblies
there. WaUis belonged to one of these,
tiie members of which met once a week,
to discourse on philosophical matters ;
and this society was the rise and begin-
ning of that which was afterwards incor-
porated by the name of the Royal Society,
of which WaUis was one of the most early
members.

The Savilian professor of geometry at
Oxford being ejected by the parliamentary
visitors, in 1649, WaUis was appointed to
succeed him, and he opened his lectures
there the same year. In 1653, he publi-
shed, in Latin, a Grammar of the English
Tongue, for the use of foreigners j to
which was added, a tract " De Loquela
seu Sonorum formatione," &c. in which
he considers philosophically the formation
of all sounds used in articulate speech,
and shows how the organs being put into
certain positions, and the breath pushed
out from the lungs, the person will thus
be made to speak, whether he hear him-
self or not. Pursuing these reflections,
he was led to think it possible, that a deaf
gperson might be taught to speak, by be-
ing directed so to apply the organs of
speecli as the sound of each letter requir-
ed, which children learn by imitation and
frequent attempts, rather than by art.

In 1657, he collected and published
his mathematical works, in two parts, en-
titled "Matliesi^ Universalis," in quarto ;
and, in 1658, *' Commercium Epistolicum
de Questionibus quibusdam Mathematicis
nuper habitum," in quarto ; which was a
collection of letters written by many
learned men, as Lord Brounker, Sir Ke-
nelm Digby, Fermat, Schooten, Wallis,
and others.

Upon the Restoration he met with great
respect ; the King thinking favourably of
him on account of some services he had
done both to himself and his father,
Charles I. He was, therefore, confirmed
in his places, also admitted one of the
King's chaplains in ordinary, and appoint-
ed one of the divines empowered to re-
vise the Book of Common Prayer. He
was a very useful member of the Royal
Society, and kept up a literary corres-
pondence with many learned men.

In 1670, he published his " Meehanica;
sive de Alotu," quarto. In 1676, he gave
an edition of " Archimedis Syracusani
Arenarius et Dimensio Circuli ;" and, in
1682, he published from the manuscripts,
** Claudii Ptolemzei Opus Harmonicum,"
in Greek, with a Latin version and notes ;
to which he afterwards added, " Appen-
dix de veterum Harmonica ad hodiernam
comparata," &c.

In 1685, he published his " History and
Practice of Algebra," in folio ; a work that
is full of learned and useful matter. Be-
sides the works above mentioned, he
published many others, particularly his
" Arithmetic,of Infinites," a book of genius
and good invention, and perhaps almost
his only work that is so, for he was much
more distinguished for his industry and
judgment, than for his genius. Also a
multitude of papers in the Philosophical
Transactions, in almost every volume,
from the first to the twenty-fifth volume.

In 1697, the curators of the University
press at Oxford thought it for the honour
of the University to collect the Doctor's
mathematical works, which had been
printed separately, some in Latin, some in
English, and published them all together
in the Latin tongue, in three volumes, fo-
lio, 1699.,

Dr. Wallis died at Oxford the 28th of
October, 1703, in the eighty-eighth y ear of
his age, leaving behind him one son and
two daughters. We are told, that he was
of a vigorous constitution, and of a mind
which was strong, calm, serene, and not
easily ruffled or discomposed. He speaks
of liimself, in his letter to Mr. Smith, in
a strain which shows him to have been a
very cautions and prudent man, whatever
his secret opinions and attachments might
be. He concludes ; " It hath been my enr
deavour all along, to act by moderate
principles, being willing, whatever side
was uppermost, to promote any good de- .
sign, for the true interest of religion, of
learning, and of the public good."

WALRUS. See Tbichecus.

WALTHERIA, in botany, so named in
honour of Augustin Frederic Walther,
Professor of Medicine at Leipsic, a genus
of the Monadelpliia Pentandria class and
order. Natural order of Columniferae.
Tiliacex, Jussieu. Essential character:
calyx double ; outer lateral three-leaved,
deciduous ; petals five ; style one ; cap-
sule one-celled, two-valved, one-seeded.
There are six species.

WAPENTAKE (from the Saxon), the
same with what we call a hundred, and
more especially used in the northern

\ WAR

WAR

counties beyond the river Trent. There
have been several conjectures as to the
original of the word ; one of which is, that
anciently musters were made of the ar-
mour and weapons of the inhabitants of
every hundred ; and from those that could
not find sufficient pledges of their good
abearing-, their weapons were taken away,
and given to others ; whence, it is said,
this word is derived.

WARD (Dr. Seth), an Engn.sh prelate,
chiefly famous for his knowledge in ma-
thematics and astronomy, was the son of
an attorney, and horn at Buntingford,
Hertfordshire, in 1617 or 1618. From
hence he was removed and placed a stu-
dent in Sidney College, Cambridge, in
1632. Here he' applied with great vis^our
to his studies, particularly to the mathe-
matics, and was chosen fellow of his col-
lege.

The civil war breaking out. Ward was
involved not a little in the consequences
of it. He was ejected from his fellowship
for refusing the covenant ; against which
he soon after joined, with several others,
in drawing up that noted treatise, which
was afterwards printed. Being now ob-
liged to leave Cambridge, he resided for
some time with certain friends about Lon-
don, and at other times , at Aldbury, in
Surry, with the noted mathematician
Ovightred, where he prosecuted his ma-
thematical studies.

He had not been long in this family be-
fore the visitation of the University of Ox-
ford began ; the effect of which was, that
jnany learned and eminent persons were
turned out, and among them Mr. Greaves,
the Savilian professor of astronomy. This
gentleman laboured to procure Ward for
his successor, whose abilities in his way
were universally known and acknow-
ledged ; and effected it ; Dr. Wallis suc-
ceeding to the geometry professorship at
the same time. Mr. Ward then entered
himself of Wadham College, for the sake
of Dr. AVilkins, who was the warden ; and
he presently applied himself to bring the
astronomy lectures, which had long been
neglected and disused, into repute again ;
and for this purpose he read them very
constantly, never missing one reading
day all the while he held the lecture.

In 1654, both the Savilian professors
did their exercises, in order to proceed
doctors in divinity ; and when they were
to be presented, Wallis claimed prece-
dency. This occasioned a dispute ; which
being decided in favour of Ward, who
was really the senior, WaUis went out
grand compounder, and so obtained the
precede nc}'.

In 1659, Ward was chosen president of
Trinity College, but was obliged at the
Restoration to resign that place. He had
amends made him, however, by being
presented, in 1660, to the rectory of St.
Laurence, Jury. The same year he was
also installed precentor of the church of
Exeter. In 1661, he became Fellow of
the Royal Society, and Dean of Exeter ;
and the year following he was advanced
to the bishopric of the same church. In
1667, he was translated to the see of Sa-
lisbury ; and, in 1671, was made Chan-
cellor of the order of the Garter; an ho-
nour which he procured to be perma-
nently annexed to the see of Salisbury,
after it had been held by laymen for
above one hundred and fifty years.

Dr. Ward was one of those unhappy
persons who have had the misfortune to
survive their senses, whicli happened in
consequence of a fever ill cured : he liv-
ed till the Revolution, but without know-
ing any thing of the matter; and died in
Januai-y, 1689, about seventy-one years
of age. He was the author of several
Latin works in astronomy and different
parts of the mfathematics, which were
thought excellent in their day, but their
use has been superseded by later im-
provements and the Newtonian philoso-
phy.

WxVRDMOTE, a court kept in every
ward in London, usually called the ward-
mote court : and the wardmote inquest
has power every year to inquire into,
and present, all defaults concerning the
watch and constables not doing their du-
ty ; that engines, &c. be provided against
fire ; persons selling ale and beer be ho-
nest, and suffer no disorders, nor per-
mit gaming, &c. ; that they ^ell in lawful
measures ; and searches be made for va-
grants, beggars, and idle persons, &c.
who shall be punished.

WARE, or Weak, in naval affairs, to
cause a ship to change her course from
one board to the other, by turning her
stern to the wind. Hence it is used in
the same sense of veering, and in oppo-
sition to tacking, in which the head is
turned to the wind, and the stern to the
leeward.

WARNING piece, in the military art,
is the gun which is fired every night
about sun-set, to give notice to the drums
and trumpets of the army to beat and
sound a retreat or tattoo, which is like-
wise called setting the watch.

Warnisc Tvheel, in a clock, is the third
or fourth, according to its distance from
the first wheel.

WARP, in the manufactures, is the

WAR

WAR

thi-eads, whether of silk, wool, linen,
hemp, &c, that are extended leng^thvvise
on the weaver's loom ; and across which
the workman, by means of his shuttle,
passes the threads of the woof, to form
a cloth, ribband, fustian, or other matter.
For a woollen stuff to have the necessary
qualities, it is required that the threads
of the warp be of the same kind of
wool,, and of the same fineness through-
out ; that they be sized with Flanders or
parchment size, well prepared, and that
they be in sufficient number with regard
to the breadth of the stuff to be wrought.
To warp a ship, is to shift her from one
place to another, when the wind and tide
■will permit it without danger.

WARRANT, a praecipe, under hand
and seal, to some officer, to bring any of-
fender before the person granting it ; and
warrants of commitment are issued| by
the Privy Council, a secretary of state,
or justice of peace, &c. where there has
been a private information, or a witness
has deposed against an offender. Any
one under the degree of nobility may be
arrested for a misdemeanor, or any thing
' done against the peace of the kingdom,
by warrant from a justice of the peace ;
though if the person be a peer of the
realm, he must be apprehended for a
breach of the peace by warrant out of
the King's Bench.

A general warrant to apprehend all
persons suspected, without naming or
particularly describing any person in
special, is illegal and void for its uncer-
tainty : for it is the duty of the magis-
trate, and ought not to be left to the offi-
cer, to judge of the ground of the suspi-
cion. Also a warrant to apprehend all
persons guilty of such a crime is no legal
warrant ; for the point upon which its
authority rests, is a fact to be decided on
a subsequent trial ; namely, whether the
person apprehended thereupon be guilty
or not guilty. A warrant may be lawful-
ly granted by any justice, for ti'eason, fe-
lony, prxmunire', or any offence against
the peace ; and it seems clear, that where
a statute gives any one justice a jurisdic-
tion over any ofllence, or a power to re-
quire any person to do a certain thing or-
dained by such statute, it impliedly gives
a power to every such justice to make
out a warrant to bring before him any
one accused of such offence, or compel-
led to do any thing ordained by such sta-
tute ; for it cannot but be intended, that
a statute which gives a person jurisdic-
tion over an offence, means also to give
him the power incident t« all courts, of
YOh. Vt

compelling the party to come before
him. But in cases where the King is not
a party, or where no corporal punish-
ment is appointed, as in cases for servants'
wages, and the like, it seems that a sum-
mons is the more proper process ; and
for default of appearance, the justice may
proceed ; and so indeed it is ofteji direct-
ed by special statutes. A warrant fron?
any one of the justices of the Court of
King's Bench extends over all the king-
dom, and is tested or dated England; but
a warrant of a justice of peace in one
county must be backed, that is, signed
by a justice of another county, before it
can be executed there : and a warrant for
apprehending an Enghsh or a Scotch of-
fender may be indorsed in the opposite
kingdom, and the offender earned back
to that part of the united kingdom in
which the offence was committed. This
is also now extended to Ireland, upon a
proper certificate of an indictment or in-
formation filed in either country.

Warrant of attorney, is an authority
and power given by a client to his attor-
ney to appear and plead for him ; or to
suffer judgment to pass against him by
confessing the action, by nil (licit, non mm
infortnadis, &c. and although a warrant of
attorney given by a man in custody to
confess a judgment, no attorney being;
present, is void as to the entry of judg-
ment, yet it may be a good warrant to
appear and file common bail. A warrant
of attorney to confess a judgment affords
the best personal security that a creditor
can have, and if together with it a sale-
able lease is pledged, it is perhaps the
best security that can be had.

WARRANTY, a promise or covenant
by deed, made by the bargainer for him-
self and his heirs, to warrantor secure
the bargainee and his heirs against all
men, for the enjoying any thing agreed
on between them. Warranty is either
real or personal ; real, when it is annex-
ed to lands or tenements granted for life,
&c. and this is either in deed, as by the
words " I waiTant," expressly ; or in law,
as by the word dedi, " I have given," or
some other amplification. Personal,
whicli either respects the property of
the thing sold, or the quality of it. War-
ranties in their more general divisions
are of two kinds : first, a warranty in
deed, or an express wai*ranty, which i^
when a fine, or feoffment in fee, or a
lease for life, is made by deed, which has
an express clause of warranty contained
in it; as when a conusor, feoffer, or les-
sor, covenants to warrant the land to the

WAS

WAT

coniisee, feoffee, or lessee ; secondly, a
warranty in law, or an implied wan-aiity,
which is when it is not expressed by the
party, but tacitly made and implied by
the law. A warranty in deed is either
lineal or collateral. A lineal warranty is
a covenant real, annexed to the land by
him who either was owner of or might
have inherited the land, and from whom
his heir lineal or collateral might possibly
have claimed the land as heir from him
that made the warranty. A collateral war-
ranty is mada by him that had no right,
or possibility of right, to the land, and is
collateral to' the title of the land. On a
sale of goods, the seller by implication
warrants that he has a good title to them,
^ee Insurance.

WARREN, a franchise, or place privi-
leged, either by prescription or grant
from the king, to keep beasts and fowl of
warren in ; as rabbits, hares, partridges,
pheasants, &c.

WASH, among distillers, the ferment-
able liquor used by the malt distillers.
WASP. SeeVESPA.
WASTE, is the committing any spoil
or destruction in houses, lands, &c. by
tenants, to the damage of the heir, or of
him in reversion or remainder ; where-
upon the writ or action of waste is
brought for the recovery of the thing
wasted, and damages for the waste done.
There are two kinds of waste, voluntary
or actual, and negligent or permissive.
Voluntary waste mny be done by pulling
down or prostrating houses, or cutting
down timber trees : negligent w^aste may
be, by suffering an house to be uncover-
ed, whereby the spars or rafters, planch-
es, or other timber of the house, are rot-
ten, or by not properly repairing. A writ
of waste, to punish the offence after it
has been committed, is an action partly
founded upon the common law, and part-
ly upon the statute of Gloucester ; and
may be brought by him that has the im-
mediate state of inheritance in revei'sion
or remainder against the tenant for life,
tenant in dower, tenant by the courtesy,
or tenant for years. This action of waste
is a mixed action ; partly real, so far as it
recovers land ; and partly personal, so far
as it recovers damages ; for it is brought
tor both those purposes ; and if the waste
be proved, the plaintiff shall recover the
thing or place wasted, and also treble da-
mages, by the said statute- 6 Edward I.
c. 5. The writ of waste calls upon the
tenant to appear, and show cause why he
has committed waste and destruction, in
the place named, to the disherison of the

plaintifl'. And if the defendant make de-
fault, or do not appear at the day assign-
ed him, then the sheriff is to take with
him a jury of twelve men, and go in per-
son to the place alleged to be wasted,
and there enquire of the waste done, and
the damages, and make a return or re-
port of the same to the court, upon which
report the judgment is founded. The
more common remedy is now by an ac-
tion upon the case for damages only. A
tenant at will is not liable for permissive
waste, nor a tenant from year to year.

WATCH, in the art of war, a number
of men posted at any passage, or a com-
pany of the guards who go on the patrol.
At sea the term watch denotes a mea-
sure or space of four hours, becat/se half
the ship's company watch and do duty in
their turn, so long at a time ; and they
are termed starboard watch and larboard
watch.

Watch is also used for a small porta-
ble movement or machine for the measur-
ing of time, having its motion regulated
by a spiral spring. Watches, strictly ta-
ken, are all such movements as show the
parts of time ; as clocks are such as
publish it, by striking on a bell, &c. But
commonly, the name watch is appropriat-
ed to such as are carried in the pocket,
and clock to the large movements, whe-
ther they strike or not. SeeCHRONOME-
TEU, Clock, Horology.

The several members of the watch part
are, 1. The balance, consisting of the rim,
which is its circular part; and the verge,
which is its spindle, to which belong the
two pallets, or levers, that play in the teeth
of the crown wheel. 2. The potence, or
pottance, which is the strong stud in pock-
et watches, whereon the lower pivot of
the verge plays, and in the middle of
which one pivot of the balance-wheel
plays ; the bottom of the potence is called
the foot, the middle part the nose, and
the upper part the shoulder. 3. The
cock, which is the piece covering the ba-
lance. 4. The regulator, or pendulum
spring, which is the small spring in new
pocket watches, underneath the balance.
5. The pendulum, whose parts are the
verge, pallets, cocks, and the bob. 6.
The wheels, which are the crown-wheel
in pocket pieces, and swing wheel in pen-
dulums, serving to drive the balance or
pendulum. 7. The contrate-wheel, which
is that next the crown-wheel, &c. and
whose teeth and hoop lie contrary to
those of other wheels ; whence the name.
8. The great or first wheel, which is that
the fusee, &c. immediately drives : after

WATCH.

wliich are the second wheel, third wheel,
&c. 9. Lastly, between the frame and
dial-plate is the pinion of report, which is
that fixed on the arbor of the great wheel,
and serves to drive the dial-wheel as that
serves to carry the hand.

Plate Watch represents the parts of a
watch the proper size: fig. 1, is a plan of
the wheel work, the upper plate (fig. 2)
being removed to expose them ; fig. 2 is
the upper plate, the cock, F, (fig.5) being
taken away to show the balance ; fig. 3,
the wheel work beneath the dial ; fig 4,
a detached part ; fig. 5, a general eleva-
tion of the whole, being supposed to be
set out at length to show the whole at one
view ; fig. 6, the great wheel ; fig. 7, the
under side of the fusee ; fig. 8, the main-
spring, barrel, &c.

Tlie essential difference between a
clock and a watch consists in two par-
ticulars : first, it is moved by a spring in
lieu of a weight ; and, secondly, its motion
is governed by a balance instead of a pen-
dulum. The balance is a small wheel, w,
(fig. 2 and 5, Plate Watch) fixed on an
arbor, or axis, called the verge, and turn-
ing freely upon pivots at the ends of the
arbor. To the axis of the balance the in-
ner end of a very elastic spiral spring, p,
called the pendulum spring, is fastened,
and the outer end of the spiral is made
fast to some fixture, r.- in this state the
balance will have a position of rest, which
will be when the spiral spring, o, is in,that
position which it would assume when de-
tached from the balance, and perfectly at
liberty : now if the balance is turned round
on its pivots by any external force in either
direction, it will wind up or unwind the
spiral spring, which will (when the exter-
nal force is removed) return the balance
to its state of rest ; and as this is done
with considerable velocity, the momentum
the balance acquires by its motion will
carry it beyond the point of rest on the
other side. This again alters the spring,
which returns the balance, throwing it
beyond the point of rest t and in this
manner the balance will vibrate, until the
friction of the pivots and the resistance of
the air destroys the original impulse. All
vibrations of such a balance, which pass
througli eqnal spaces, will be performed in
equal times.

This simple apparatus is all which is
required for measuring time, the other
mechanism of the watch being devoted to
two objects : first, to give a small impulse
to ihe balance at each vibration, to over-
come the friction and resistance of the air,
and cause the balance to describe equal

arcs : and, secondly, to register the num-
ber of vibrations the balance has made.

The first of these objects requires a
power which shall be in constant readi-
ness to act upon the balance. This is
accomplished by the re-action of a spiral
steel spring, A, (fig. 8) which when at rest
and liberty assunnes that position and size ;
it is coiled up closer, and put into a brass
box, a, called the spring barrel ; a small
hook which is at the outer end of the
spring being put through a hole in the side
of the box, a, small arbor, B, is put into
the centre of the box, and the cover or
lid of the box, D, is shut in : the arbor
has a hook projecting from it, which en-
ters a hole in the inner end of the spring
A : its pivots project through the barrel
at each side, and enter holes in the two
plates EE, (fig. 5) which forms the frame
of the watch ; the lower pivot passes
through the plate, and has a small rachet
wheel, 6, (fig. 3 and 5) fixed upon it, a
click entering the teeth thereof pre-
vents the arbor turning round ; a small
steel cham is hooked to the spring-bar-
rel, a, (fig. 1 and 5) ; at one end it passes
round the barrel several times, then
round the fusee, </, and is hooked to it by
its end. The fusee, d, is a conical piece
of brass, with a spiral groove cut there-
on to receive the chain : it is mounted on
pivots which turn in holes, in the two
plates, E E, and one of the pivots, e, pro-
jects a considerable distance, and is cut
square. Now if a key is applied to this
square, and the fusee, d, by that means
turned round so as to wind the chain up-
on it, the spring barrel will be turned
round, and the outer end of the spring,

A, being hooked to the barrel, will be turn-
ed round also; as the inner end is im-
moveable, by being fixed to the arbor,

B, the spring will be coiled up into a
closer spiral than it was when at liberty,
and will consequently exert a reaction
upon the chain, and by that means upon
the fusee, which will be turned round
thereby when the key is removed. To
prevent too much chain being wound up-
on the fusee, and by that means break-
ing the chain, or overstraining the spring,
a contrivance called a guard is added : it
is a small lever, x (fig. 1) moving on a
stud fixed to the upper plate of the
watch, and pressed downwards by a
small spring, z : as the chain is wound
upon the fusee, it rises in the spirjd
groove, and lifts up the lever, a:, until it
touches the upper plate : it is then in a
position to intercept the edge of the spi-
ral piece of metal seen on the top of the

WATCH.

fusee, and thus stop it from being wound
up any further.

The power of the spring is transmit-
ted to the balance by means of several
cog wheels : the first, j\ is upon the fu-
see ; it is shown separated from the fu-
see in fig. 6, having a hole through the
centre to receive the arbor of the fusee,
and a projecting ring upon its surface ;
the under surface of the fusee is shown
in fig. 7, having a circular groove cut in
it to receive the corresponding ring upon
the great wheel, fig. 6 : the inner edge of
the groove is cut with teeth to form a
rachet wheel ; when the wheel and fu-
see are put together, a small click, ^, (fig
6) takes into the teeth of the rachet : as
the fusee is turned by the key, to wind
up the watch, this click slips over the
sloping sides of the teeth without turning
the great wheel ; but when the fusee is
turiied the other way by the chain, the
click catches the teeth of the rachet
wheel, and causes the cog wheel to turn
with the fusee; the great wheel,, ^ has
forty-eight teeth, and turns a pinion of
twelve teeth on an arbor in the centre of
the watch, which carries the minute hand ;
a wheel, h, of fifty-four teeth, called the
centre wheel, is fixed upon this arbor,
and turns a pinion on the same arbor with
the third wheel, k, of forty-eight teeth,
which turns the pinion ot the contrate
wheel, /,of forty-eight teeth ; the contrate
wheel gives motion to a pinion of six
teeth, and to the balance wheel, 7w, which
has fifteen large teeth, which stop against
two small pallets upon the arbor of the
balance, or verge, r : these pallets are
two small teeth, projecting from the
verge at right angles to each other ; one
engages the upper side of the wheel, and
the other takes the lower. By the action
of the mainspring, n, the wheels are all
turned ; and the balance wheel, m, if there
was no obstruction, would turn with
great velocity until all the chain was
wound off' the fusee ; but one of the pal-
lets of the verge is always engaged with
one of the teeth of the wheel, suppose
one of the teeth on the lower side ; now,
by the balance turning round to make a
vibration, the pallet allows the tooth to
slip off", and the wheel begins to run
down by the action of the main-spring,
marking the vibrations by moving the
hands, G H ; it is, however, stopped im-
mediately, by the next tooth at the top of
the wheel meeting the upper pallet of the
verge : the balance and pallet was at that
time just- beginning to return, and the
top ot the wheel moving in contrary di-

lection to tlie bottom, the tooth p.^.,.,^..
against the pallet, and assists the balance
to maintani the same arc in its vibration r
when the balance is abuut to return, the
upper tooth of the wheel slips ofi" the
pallet, and the lower one catches on the
lower pallet, and assists the balance as
before : one of the pivots of the balance
wheel works in a small frame, y^ called
the pottance; the lower pivot of the
verge works in the bottom of it also, and
the upper pivot turns in a cock, F, screw,
ed to the plate, E, and covering the ba-
lance to defend it from injury.

The hands, G H, are moved by the cen-
tral arbor which projects through the
lower plate, E, (fig. *5) and receives a
pinion of twelve teeth fixed on the end of
a tube which fits tight upon the arbor,
but will slip round easily to set the hands
when the watch is wrong : the other end
of the tube is square, and receives the
minute hand, H, which points out the
minutes on a circle of sixty upon the dial
plate, M M ; the pinion on the tube turns
a wheel, L, of forty-eight (seen in plans in
fig. 3) on whose arbor is a wheel of six-
teen, turning another wheel, K, of forty-
eight, the arbor of which is a tube fitting
on the other tube, and has the hour hand,
G, fixed upon it ; by this arrangement the
minute hand, H, turns round twelve
times for one revolution of the hour hand,
G.

As the time the balance takes to per-
form a vibration depends upon the arc it
passes through, the least increase of
force in the main-spring would alter the
rate of the watch ; therefore the fusee is
cut into a spiral, diminishing from top to
bottom, as the spring draws the chain
with greater force when wound up than
when it is more released. The chain acts
upon a ahorter lever when the spring is
wound up, and upon a longer when it is
down, so as to regulate the unequal ac-
tion of the spring to a perfectly regular
force upon the wheel work.

As it will most probably happen that a
watch will not always keep the same time,
it is necessary to have an adjustment that
may cause it to move faster or slower :
this can be done by two ways, either by
increasing or diminishing the force of the
main-spring, a, which increases or dimin-
ishes the arc the balance describes ; or it
may be done by strengthening or weaken-
ing the pendulum spring, o o, which will
cause the balance to move quicker or
slower. The first is done by turning the
rachet wheel, ^, (fig. 5 and 3) on the end
of the arbor of the main'sprlng, thereby

WAT

WAT

winding up or letting down the spring
without turoing the fusee ; but as this is
a very coarse adjustment, it is never used
but by the maker, and lecourse is had to
the pendulum spring, o, (fig. 2) which is
fixed to a stud, r, upon the plaie, E, by
one end, and the verge of the balance by
the other : /> is a small piece ot metal, call-
ed the cuib, having a notch in it to re-
ceive the spring : tlie acting part of" the
spring is from p to the cenire ; and as the
cuib,/», is moveable, the acting length
can be altered : the curb is cut into teeth,
and turned by a pmion, q, (fig. 4) which
represents the piece, s s s s s, detached
from the plate, E, and turned up : the pi-
nion, q, has a small dial, divided into thir-
ty, fixed to its arbor on the upper side of
the plate, s s, by which it can be set so
as to regulate the watch to the utmost
nicety : 1 1 1 1 (fig. 1^ are four pillars, by
which the two plates, E E, of the watch
are held together ; and t ttt (fig. 2) re-
present the heads of the same pillars
coming through the upper plate, and
small pins put through to keep the plate
down.

WATER, a transparent fluid, without co-
lour, smell, or taste, in a very small degree
compressible ; when pure, not liable to
spontaneous change ; liquid in the com-
mon temperature of our atmosphere, as-
suming the solid form at 32° Fahrenheit,
and the gaseous at 212°, but returning
unaltered to its liquid state on resuming
any degree of heat between these points;
capable of dissolving a greater number of
natural bodies than any other fluid what-
ever, especially of those known by the
name of the saline; performing the most
important functions in the vegetable and
animal kingdoms, and entering largely
into their composition as a constituent
part. Water is formed of hydrogen,
combined with oxygen, in the proportion
of 14.42 to 85.58. Water is assumed as
the standard, or unity, in all tables of spe-
cific gravity. A cubic inch of it weighs,
at thirty inches of the barometer, and 60°
thermometer, 252,422 grains. Water
does not enter the list of materia medica
of any of the colleges ; but it is so impor-
tant, both as an article of diet, and as an
agent in the cure of diseases, that a brief
account of its varieties and properties
cannot but be proper in this place. The
purest natural water is melted snow, or
rain, collected in the open fields. That
which falls in towns, or is collepted from
the roofs of houses, is contaminated with
•oot, animal effluvia, and other impuri-

ties ; altliough, after it has rained for gome
time, the quantity of these diminishes so
mucl), that Morveau says, it may be ren-
dered almost perfectly pure by means of
a little barytic water, and exposure to the
atmosphere. Rain water, after it fiills,
either remains on the surface of the
earth, or penetrates through it until it
meets with some impenetrable obstruc-
tion to its progress, when it bursts out at
some lower part, forming a spring or
well. The water on the surface of the
earth either descends along its declivities
in streams, whic'i, gradually wearing
channels for themselves, combine to form
rivers, which at last reach the sea ; or it
remains stagnant in cavities of considera-
ble depth, fornning lakes or ponds, or on
nearly level ground, forming marslies.
Although the varieties of spring waters
are exceedingly numerous, they may be
divided into, 1. The soft, which are suf-
ficiently pure to dissolve soap, and to an-
swer the purposes of pure water in gene-
ral. 2. The hard, which contain earthy
salts, decompose soap, and are unfit for
many purposes, both in domestic econo-
my and manufactures. 3. The saline,
\rhich are strongly impregnated with
soluble salts. When spring waters pos-
sess any peculiar character, they are
called mineral waters. See Waters,
mineral.

River water is in general soft, as it is
formed of spring water, which, by expo-
sure becomes more pure ; and running
surface water, whicli, although turbid
from particles of clay suspended in it, is
otherwise very pure. Lake water is similar
to river water. The water of marshes, on
the contrary, is exceedingly impure, and
often highly fetid, from the great propor-
tion of animal and vegetable matters con-
stantly decaying in them.

So early as the year 1776, an experi-
ment was made by JVlacquer to ascei tain
what would be the product of the combus-
tion of inflammable air, or liydrogen gas.
He accordingly set fire to a bottle full of
it, and held a saucer over the flame, but
no soot appeared upon it as he expect-
ed, for it remained quite clean, and was
bedewed with drops which were found to
be pure water. Various conjectures were
now formed about the nature of the pro-
duct of the combustion of oxygen and hy-
drogen gases. I3y some it was supposed
the carbonic acid gas ; by others it was
conjectured it would be the sulphurous
or sulphuric acid. The latter was the
opinion of M. Lavoisier. Such were th»

WATER.

experiments and opimoiis of the French
chemists previously to the year 1781.
About the beginning of that year, Mr.
Warltire, a lecturer in natural philosophy,
had long entertained an opinion that tl)e
combustion of hydrogen gas with atmo-
spheric air, might determine the question,
whether heat be a heavy body. Appre-
hensive of danger in making the experi-
ment, he had for some time declined it,
but was at last encouraged by Dr. Priest-
ley, and accordingly prepared an appara-
tus for the purpose. This was a copper
\'essel properly fitted, and filled with at-
mospherical air and hydrogen gas, which
was exploded by making the electric
spark pass through it. A loss of weight
of two grains was observed after the com-
bustion, A similar experiment was re-
peated in close glass vessels, which,
though clean and dry before the combus-
tion, became immediately wet with mois-
ture, and lined with a sooty matter. This
sooty matter. Dr. Priestley afterwards
supposed, proceeded from the mercury
which had been employed in filling the
vessel. During the same year Mr. Ca-
vendish repeated the experiments of Mr.
Warltire and Dr. Priestley. He perform-
ed them several times with atmospheric
air and hydrogen gas, in a vessel which
held 24,000 grains of water, and he never
could perceive a loss of weight more than
one-fifth of a grain, and often none at all.
In all these experiments not the least
sooty matter appeared in the inside of the
glass. To examine the nature of the dew
which appeared in the inside of the glass,
he burnt 500,000 grain measures of hy-
drogen gas, with about two and a half
times that quantity of common air ; and in
this combustion he obtained one hundred
and thirty-five grains of water, which had
neither taste nor smell, and when it was
evaporated, left no sensible sediment: It
seemed to be pure water. In another
experiment, he exploded, in a glass
globe, 19,500 grain measures of oxygen
gas, and 37,000 of hydrogen gas, by
means of the electric spark. The result
of the experiment was thirty grains of
water, which contained a small quantity
of nitric acid. The experiments of Mr.
Cavendish were made in the year 1781,
and they are undoubtedly conclusive with
regard to the composition of wa\er. It
would appear that Mr. Watt entertained
the same ideas on this subject. . When
he was informed by Dr. Priestley of the
result of these experiments, he observes,
<' Let us consider what obviously happens

in the deflagration of hydrogen and oxy-
gen gases. These two kinds of air unite
with violence, they become red hot, and
when cooling totally disappear. When
the vessel is cooled, a quantity of water
is found in it equal to the weight of the
air employed. The water is then the
only remaining product of the process ;
and water, light, and heat, are all the
products, unless there be some other
matter set free, which escapes our senses.
Are we not then authorised to conclude,
that water is composed of oxygen and
hydrogen gases, deprived of part of their
latent or elementary heat ; that oxygen
gas is composed of water, deprived of
its hydrogen, and united to elementary
heat and light ; and that the latter are
contained in it in a latent state, so as not
to be sejisible to the thermometer or to
the eye ? And if light be only a modifi-
cation of heat, or a circumstance attend-
ing it, or a component part of the hy-
drogen gas, then oxygen gas is compos-
ed of water deprived of its hydrogen,
and united to elementary heat." Thus
it appears that Mr. Watt had a just view
of tlie composition of water, and of the
nature of the process by which its com-
ponent parts pass to a liquid state from
that of an elastic fluid. Towards the end
of the same year, M. Lavoisier had made
some experiments, the result of which
surprised him ; for the product of tlie
combustion of the oxygen and hydrogen
gases, instead of being sulphuric or sul-
phurous acid, as he expected it, was pure
water. This led him to procure an ap-
paratus, with which the experiment
might be performed on a large scale, and
with more accuracy and precision. Ac-
cordingly the experiments were perform-
ed on the twenty-fourth of June, 1783, in
presence of several academicians, and
also of Sir Charles lilagden, who was at
that time in Paris. A similar experiment
was afterwards performed by M. Monge,
with the same result ; and it was repeat-
ed again by Lavoisier and Meusnier, on a
scale so large as to put the matter beyond
a doubt. The conclusion, therefore,
from the whole was, that water is com-
posed of oxygen and hydrogen. Water
exists in three different states ; in the
solid state, or state of ice, in the hquid,
and in the state of vapour or steam. Its
principal properties have already been
detailed, in treating of the effects of calo-
ric. It assumes the solid form when it is
cooled down to the temperature of 32°.
In this state it increases in bulk, by which
it exerts a prodigious expansive force.

WATERS, MINERAL.

wliich is owing to the new arrangement
of its particles, which assume a crystal-
line form, the crystals crossing each other
at angles of 60° or 120°. The specific
gravity of ice is less than that of water.
When ice is exposed to a temperature
above 32°, it absorbs caloric, which then
becomes latent, and is converted into the
liquid state, or that of water. At the
temperature of 42^°, water has reached
its maximum of density. According to
the experiments of Lefevre Gineaux, a
French cubic foot of distilled water,
taken at its maximum of density, is equal
to 70 pounds, 22o grains French, equal
529,452.9492 troy grains. An English
cubic foot at the same temperature weighs
437,102.4946 grains troy. By Professor
Robinson's experiments it is ascertained,
that a cubic foot of water, at the tempe-
rature of 55°, weiglis 998.74 avoirdupois
ounces, of 437.5 grains troy each, or
about li ounce less than 1000 avoii-du-
pois ounces. When water is exposed to
the temperature of 212°, it boils ; and
if this temperature be continued, the
whole is converted into an elastic invisi-
ble fluid, called vapour or steam. This,
as has been already shown, is owing to the
absorption of a quantity of caloric, which
is necessary to retsun it in the fluid form.
In this state it is about 1800 times its
bulk when in the state of water. This
shows what an expansive force it must
exert when it is confined, and hence its
application in the steam engine, of which
it is the moving power.

Waters, mineral. The complete and
accurate analysis of mineral waters is one
of the most difficult subjects of chemical
research, and requires a very extensive
acquaintance with the properties and ha-
bitudes of a numerous class of substances.
Such minuteness, however, is scarcely
ever required in the experiments that are
subservient to the ordinary purposes of
life, a general knowledge of the compo-
sition of bodies being sufficient to assist
in directing the most useful applications
of them. Instead, therefore, of giving a
very ample detail of all the methods
pointed out by Kirwan and others, we
shall describe the means which are
most generally useful in researches of
this kind.

Before any proceeding is made in the
analysis of a water, it is proper to in-
quire into its natural history, and to ex-
amine attentively its physical characters.
The temperature of the water must be
carefully observed, and the quantity in-

quired into, which it yields in a given
time. The sensible qualities of taste,
smell, degree of transparency, &.c. are
also best entertained at the fountain-
head. The specific gravity of the water
must also be found. See Gravity, sftecijic.
The readiest way of judging of the con-
tents of mineral waters is by applying
tests or re-agents, the chief of which are
the following :

Lifudon of litrmis is a test of most un-
combined acids.

If the infusion redden the unboiled,
but not the boiled water, we may infer,
that the acid is volatile, and most proba-
bly, the carbonic. Sulphuretted hydrogen
gas, dissolved in water, also reddens lit-
mus, but not after boiUng.

To ascertain whether the change be
produced by carbonic acid, or by sulphu-
retted hydrogen, when experiment
shows that the reddening cause is vola-
tile, add barytic water. This, if carbonic
acid be present, will occasion a precipi-
tate, which will dissolve, with efferves-
cence, on adding a little muriatic acid.
Sulphuretted hydrogen may also be con-
tained, along with carbonic acid, in the
same water ; which will be determined
by the tests hereafter to be described.
Paper tinged with litmus is also redden-
ed by the presence of carbonic acid, but
regains its blue colour on drying.

Infusion of Litmus reddened by Phospho-
ric Acid, — Tincture of Brazil-ivood, —
Tincture of Turmeric , and Paper stained
-with each of these three Substances, — Tinc-
ture of Red Cabbage. — All these different
tests have one and the same object.

Infusion of htmus, reddened by phos-
phoric acid, or litmus paper reddened by
it, has its blue colour restored by alkalies
and earths, and by carbonated alkalies^
and carbonated earths. Turmeric paper
and tincture are changed to a reddish-
brown by alkalies, whether freed from
carbonic acid or not; by earths, freed
from carbonic acid, but not by carbonated
earths.

The red infusion of Brazil-wood, and
paper staii^ed with it, become blue by-
alkalies and earths, and even by the lat-
ter, when dissolved by an excess of car-
bonic acid. In the last mentioned case,
however, the change will either cease to
appear, or will be much less remarkable,
when the water has been boiled.

Tincture of cabbage is, by the same
causes, turned green ; as is also paper
stained with the juice of the violet, or
with the scrapings of radishes,

WATERS, MINERAL.

Tincture of galls.-— Tincture of galls is
employed for discovering" iron, with
which it produces a black tinge. The
iron, however, in order to be detected by
this test, must be in the state of a red ox-
ide, or, if oxydized in a less degree, its
elfects will not be apparent, unless after
standing sonae time in contact with the
air. By applying this test before and
after evaporation, or boiling, we may
know whether the iron be held in solu-
tion by carbonic acid, or by a fixed acid ;
for,

1. If it produce its effect before the
application of heat, and not afterward,
carbonic acid is the solvent.

2. If after, as well as before, a fixed
and vulgarly called mineral acid is the
solvent.

3. If, by the boiling, a yellowish pow-
der be precipitated, and yet galls continue
to strike the water black, tJie iron, as often
happens, is dissolved, both by carbonic
acid gas and by a fixed acid.

Sulphuric Acid. — Sulphuric acid disco-
vers, by a slight effervescence, the pre-
sence of carbonic acid, whether uncom-
bined or united with alkalies or earths.

2. If lime be present, the addition of
sulphuric acid occasions, after a few days,
a white precipitate.

3. Barytes is precipitated instantly, in
the form of a white powder.

4. Nitric or muriatic salts, in a dry
state, or dissolved in very little water,
on adding sulphuric acid, and applying
heat, are decomposed ; and if a stopper,
moistened with solution of ammonia, be
held over the vessel, white clouds will
appear. For distinguishing whether ni-
tric or muriatic acid be the cause of this
appearance, rules will be given here-
after.

Oxalic Acid and Oxalates. — This acid
is a most delicate test of lime, which it se-
parates from all its combinations.

1. If a water, which is precipitated by
oxalic acid, become milky on adding a
watery solution of carbonic acid, or by
blowing air through it from the lungs, by
means of a quill or glass tube, we may in-
fer, that lime (or barytes, which has never
yet been found pure in waters) is present
in an uncombined state.

2. If the oxalic acid occasions a preci-
pitate before, but not after boiling, the
lime is dissolved by an excess of carbonic
acid.

3. If after boiling, by a fixed acid. A
considerable excess of any of the mineral
acids, however, prevents the oxalic acid
from occasioning a precipitate, even

though lime be present; because sorne
acids decompose the oxalic, and others,
dissolving the oxalate of lime, prevent it
from appearing. (Vide Kirwan on Waters,
page 88.)

The oxalate of ammonia, or of potash,
are not liable to the above objection, and
are preferable as re-agents, to the un-
combined acid. Yet even these oxalates
fail to detect lime when supersaturated
with muriatic or nitric acids; and if such
an excess^ be present, it must be satu-
rated, before adding the test, with am-
monia. A precipitate will then be pro-
duced.

The quantity of lime, contained in the
precipitate, may be known, by first ignit-
ing it with access of air, which converts
the oxalate into a carbonate ; and by ex-
pelling from this last the carbonic acid, .
by a strong heat, in a covered crucible.
According to Dr. Marcet, 117 grains of
sulphate of lime give 100 of oxalate of
lime, dried at 160° Fahrenheit.

Fluate of ammonia is also a most deli-
cate test of lime.

'Barytic Water. — 1. Barytic water is a
very effectual test for detecting the pre-
sence of carbonic acifl, with which it
forms a precipitate, which is soluble with
effervescence in dilute nitric, or better
in muriatic acid.

2. Barytic water is also a most sensible
test of sulphuric acid and its combinati-
ons, which it indicates by a precipitate
not soluble in muriatic acid.

jyietals. — Of the metals, silver, bismuth,
and mercury, are tests of the presence of
hydro-sulphurets, and of sulphuretted hy-
drogen-gas. If a little quicksilver be put
into a bottle, containing water impreg-
nated with either of these substances, its
surface soon acquires a black film, and,
on shaking the bottle, a blackish powder
separates from it. Silver leaf and bis-
muth are speedily tarnished by the same
cause.

SulphatCy JVitrate, aud Acetate of Sil-
ver.— These solutions are all, in some
measure, applicable to the same pur-
pose-

They are peculiarly adapted to the
discovery of muriatic acid and of muri-
ates, with which they form a white pre-
cipitate. A precipitation, however, may
arise from other causes, which it may be
proper to state. The solutions of silver
in acids are precipitated by carbonated
alkalies and earths. The agency of the
alkalies and earths may be prevented, by
previously saturating them with a few
drops of the same acid in which the silver

WATERS, MINERAL.

is dissolved. The nitrate and acetale of
silver are decomposed by the sulphuric
and sulphureous acids ; out this may be
prevented, by adding-, previously, a few
di-ops of nitrate or acetate of barytas, and
after allowing the precipitate lo subside,
the clear liquor may be decanted, and the
solution of silver added. Should a preci-
pitate now talce place, the presence of
muriatic acid, or some of its combina-
tions, may be suspected. To obviate un-
certainty, whetlier a precipitate be owing
to sulpiiuric or muriatic acid, a solution
of sulphate of silver may be employed,
which, wlien no imcombined alkali, or
earth, is present, is allected only by the
latter acid.

The solutions of silver are also preci-
pitated by sulphuretted hydrogen, and
by hydro-sulphurets ; but the precipitate
is then reddish, or brown, or black ; or it
may be at first white, and afterwards be-
come speedily brown or black. It is so-
luble, in great part, in dilute nitrous acid,
which is not the case if occasioned by
muriatic or sulphuric acid.

The solutions of silver are precipitated
by extractive matter; but in this case
also the precipitate iias a dark colour, and
is soluble in nitrous acid.

Acetate of Lead — Acetate of lead is a
test of salpiiuretted hydrogen and of hy-
dro-sulphurets of alkalies, which occasion
a black precipitate ; and if a paper, on
which characters are traced with a solu-
tion of acetate of lead, be held over a
portion of water containing sulphuretted
hydrogen gas, they are soon rendered vi-
sible, especially when the water is a little
warmed.

Muriate^ J\/'itratey and Jlcetate of Barytes.
— These solutions are all most delicate
tests of sulphuric acid and of its combina-
tions, with which they give a white pre-
cipitate, insoluble in dilute muriatic acid.
They are decomposed, however, by car-
bonated alkalies ; but the precipitates,
occasioned by carbonates, are soluble in
dilute muriatic or nitric acid, with effer-
vescence, and may even be prevented by
adding previously a few drops of the same
acid as that conUiined in the barytic salt,
which is employed.

One hundred grains of dry sulpliate of
barytes contain (accoixiing to Klaproth,
vol. i. p. 168.) about 45^ of sulphuric
acid, of the specific gravity 1850 : accord-
ing to Clayfield, (Nicholson's Journal, 4to,
iii. 38.) 33 of acirl, of specific gravity 2240;
according to Thevnurd, after calcination,
about 25; and according to Mr. Kirwan,
after ignition 'P.o.^ of real acid. The
VOL. VI

same chemist states, that 170 grains of
ignited sulphate of barytes denote 100 of
dried sulphate of soda ; while 136.36 of
the same substance indicate 100 of dry
sulphate of potash ; and 100 parts result
from the precipitation of 52.11 of sid-
phate of magnesia.

From Klaproth's experiments, it ap-
pears that 1000 grains of sulphate of ba-
rytes indicate 595 of desicated sulphate
of soda, or 1416 of the crystallized salt
The same chemist has shown, that 100
grains of sulphate of barytes are produced
by the precipitation of 71 grains of sul-
phate of lime.

jPrussicUes of Potash and of Lime. — Of
these two, the prussiate of potash is the
mo.st eligible. When pure, it does not
speedily assume a blue colour, on the ad-
dition of an acid, nor does it immediately
precipitate muriate of barytes.

Prussiate of potash is a very sen.sible
test of iron, with the soludons of which
in acids it produces a Prussian blue pre-
cipitate, in consequence of a double elec-
tive affinity. 'J'o render its effects more
certain, however, it may be proper to
add, previously to any water suspected to
contain iron, a little muriatic acid, with a
view to the saturation of uncombined al-
kalies or earths, which, if present, pre-
vent the detection of very minute quan-
tities of iron.

1. If a water, after boiling and filtra-
tion, does not afford a blue precipitate,
on the addition of prussiate of potash, the
solvent of the iron may be inferred to be
a volatile one, and probably the carbonic
acid.

2. Should the precipitation ensue in
the boiled water, the solvent is a fixed
acid, the nature of which must be ascei'-
tained by other tests.

In using the prussiate of pota.sh for the
discovery of iron, considerable caution is
necessary, in order to attain accurate re-
sults. The prussiate should, on all occa-
sions, be previously crystallized ; and the
quantity of oxide of iron essential to its
constitution, or at least an invariable ac-
companiment, should be previously ascer-
tained in the following manner : Expose
a known weight of the crystallized salt to
a low red heat in a silver crucible. After
fusing and boiling up, it will become dry,
and will then blacken. Let it cool ; wash
oiF the soluble part ; collect the rest on a
filler; dry it, and again calcine it with a
little wax. Let it be again weighed, and
the result will show the proportion of oxide
of iron ])resent in the salt which iias been
examined. This varies from 22 to 30 and

3 Z

L

WATERS, MINERAL.

upvrai'dS pei* cent. When the test is em-
ployed for discovering iron, let a known
weight of the saU be dissolved in a given
quantity of water : aeld the sokition gr:t-
dually ; and observe how rnucii is ex-
pended in eflTecting the precipitation.
Before collecting the precipitate, warm
the liquid, which generally throws down
a further portion of Prussian blue. Let
the whole be washed and dried, and then
ignited with wax. From the weiglit of
the oxide obtained, deduct that quantity,
which, by the former experiment, is
known to be present in the prussiate tiiat
has been added ; and the remainder will
denote the quantity ofoxide of iron pre-
sent in the liquor which is under exami-
nation.

Succinate of Soda and Succinate of Am-
monia are also tests for iron.

In applying these agents it is necessary
not to use more than is sufficient for the
purpose ; because an excess of them re-
dissolves the precipitate. The best mode
of proceeding is, to heat the solution con-
taining iron, and to add gradually the so-
lution of succinate, until it ceases to pro-
duce any effect. A brownish precipitate
is obtained, consisting of succinate of iron.
This, when heated with a little wax, in a
low red heat, gives an oxide of iron, con-
taining about seventy per cent, of the
metal.

The succinates, however, precipitate
alumine, provided there be no considera-
ble excess of acid in the aluminous salt.
On magnesia they have no action, and
hence they may be successfully employed
in the separation of these two earths.

Phosphite of Soda. — An easy and valua-
ble method of precipitating magnesia has
been suggested by Dr. Wollastan. It is
founded on the property which fully neu-
tralized carbonate of ammonia possesses ;
first to dissolve the cai'bonate of magnesia
-formed, when it is added to the solution
of magnesian salt. For this purpose a so-
lution uf carbonate of ammonia, prepared
with a portion of that salt which has been
exposed, spread on a paper, for a few
hours to the air, is to be sidled to the so-
lution of the magnesian salt sufficiently
^ concentrated ; or to a water suspected
to contain magnesia, after being very
much reduced by evaporation. No pre-
cipitate will appear, till a solution of
phosphote of soda is added, when an abun-
dant one will fall down. Let this be dried
in a temperature not exceeding 100° Fah-
renheit. One hundred grains of it will
indicate nineteen of magnesia, or about
sixty -four of muriate of magnesia.

Muriate of Lime. — Muriate of lime \%
principally of Uf5e in discovering the pre-
sence of alkaUne carbouutes, which,
though they very rarely occur, have
sometimes been found in mineral waters.
Of all the three alkaUne carbonates, mu-
riate of lime is a sufficient re-agent; for
those salts separate from it a carbonate of
lime, soluble, with efi'ervescence, in mu-
riatic acid.

With respect to the discrimination of
the diflFercnt alkalies, potash rnay be de-
tected by muriate ofplatina. Carbonate
of ammonia may be discovered by its
smeU ; and by its precipitating a neutral
salt of alumine, while it has no action ap-
parently on magnesian salts.

To estimate the proportion of an alka-
line carbonate present in any water, satu-
rate its base with sulphuric acid, and note
the weight of real acid which is required.
Now 100 grains of real sulphuric acid
saturate 121.48 potash, and 78.32 soda.

Analysis of waters by evaporation. —
The reader, who may wish for rules for the
complete and accurate analysis of mineral'
waters, will find in almost every chemical
work a chapter allotted to this subject.
He may consult Kirwan's " Essay on the
Analysis of Mineral Waters," London,
1799.

Before evaporation, however, the ga-
seous products of the water must be col-
lected, which may be done by filling with
it a large glass bottle, or retort, capable
cf holding abotit fifty cubic inches, and
furnished with a ground stopper and bent
tube. The bottle is to be placed up t« l
its neck in a kettle filled with brine, J
which must be kept boiling for an hour J
or two, renewing, by fresh portions of hot |
wjiter, what is lo.st by evaporation. 'Hie^lj
disengaged gas is conveyed, by a bent^
tube, into a graduated jiu*, filled with, and
inverted in, mercury, where its
be determined. On the first imp
the heat, however, the water will be ex-""
panded, and portions will continue to es- ,j
cape into the graduated jar, till the water'^y
has obtained its maximiun of temperature, i
This mr>st be suffered to escape, and its*,
quantity to be deducted from that of the J
water submitted to experiment. 'fi

In determining, with precision, the ,|
quantity of gas, it is neces.sary to attend ^
to the stale of the barometer and thermo,- '^
meter. V;

The gases most commonly found in 'fy
mineral waters, are carbonic acid ,• si/lphu'i
retted hydrogen; nitrogen,- oxygen gas,-,
and, in the neighbourhood of volcanoes^f)
on]y,eulphjireons acid gas. v

with, and'Jfl
ibulkisto^
>ression of'

WATERS, MINERAL.

To determine the proportion of the
gases, constituting any mixture obtained
Ironj a mineral water in the foregoing
manner, the following experiments may
be made. If the use of re-agents has not
detected the presence of sulphuretted
hydrogen, and tijere is reason to believe,
from the same evidence, that carbonic
acid forms a part of the mixture, let a
graduated tube be nearly filled with it
over quicksilver ; pass uj) a small portion
of solution of potash, and agitate this in
contact with the gas; the amount of the
diminution will sh.ow how much carbonic
acid has been absorbed ; and, if the quan-
tity submitted to experiment was an ali-
quot part of the w hole gas obtained, it is
easy to infer the total quantity present
in the water. The unabsorbable resi-
duum consists, most probably, of oxygen
and azotic gases ; and the proportion of
these two is best learned by the use of
Dr. Hope's evidiometer.

If sulphuretted hydrogen be present,
along with carbonic acid, the separation
of these two is a problem of some diffi-
culty, Mr. Kirwan reconmiends, that a
graduated glass vessel, completely filled
with the mixture, be removed into a ves-
sel containing nitrous acid. This instantly
condenses the sulphuretted hydrogen,
but not the carbonic acid gas. It seems
to be a more eligible mode to condense
the sulphuiettcd liydrogcn by oxymuri-
atic acid gas (obtained from muriatic and
hyper-oxymuriate of potash,) adding the
latter gas very cautiously,as long as it pro-
duces.any condensation. Or, perhaps, a
better pla i of el^ucting the separation is
the following, recommended by Mt. Hen-
ry : half fill a graduated phial vvitii the
mixed carbonic acid and sulphuretted hy-
drogen gases, and expel the rest of the
water by oxymuriatic acid gas. Let the
mouth of the bottle be then closed with
veil ground stopper, and let the mix-
c be kept twenty-four hours. Then
withdraw the stopper under water, a
quantity of which fluid will immediately
rush in. Allow the bottle to stand half
an hour without agitation. The redun-
dant oxymuriatic acid gas will thus be
absorbed ; and very little of the carbonic
acid will disappear. Supposing that, to
ten cubic inches of the mixed gases, ten
inches of oxymuriatic gas have been
added, and that, after absojption, by
standing over water, five inches re-
main, tiie result of this experiment shows
that the mixture consisted of equal parts
of svilphuretted hydrogen and carbonic
acid gus^s.

Whenever this complicated admixture
of gases occurs, as in the llarrowgate,
and in some of the Cheltenham watei-s, it
is advisable to operate separately on two
portions of g:is, with the view to deter-
mine, by the one, the quantity of carbo-
nic acid and sulphia-etted Ip.drogen ; and
that of azote and oxygen by the other.
In the latter instance, remove both the
absorbable gases by caustic potash, and
examine the reinainder in the manner al-
ready directed.

Nitrogen gas sometimes occurs in mi-
neral waters, almo.st in an unmixed state.
When this happen.s, the gas will be
known by tiie characters already describ-
ed as belonging to it. Sulphureous acid
gas may be detected by its peculiar smell
of burning sulphur, and by its discharg-
ing the colour of an infusion of roses,
which has been reddened by the smallest
quantity of any acid adequate tp the ef-
fect.

(a) The water should next be evaporat-
ed to dryness The dry mass, when col-
lected and accurately weighed, is to be
put in a bottle, and highly rectified alco-
hol poured on it, to the depth of an inch.
After having stood a few hours, and been
occasionally shaken, pour tiie whole on a
filter, wash it with a little more alcohol,
and dry and weigh the remainder.

(b) To the undissolved residue add
nine times its weigiit of cold distilled
water; shake the mixture frequently;
and, after some lime, filter ; ascertaining
tiie loss of weiglit.

(r) Boil the resitlunm, for a quarter of
an hour, in something more than five
hundred' times its weight of water, and
afterwards filter.

(d) The residue, which must be dried
and weighed, is no longer soluble in wa-
ter or alcohol. If it has a brown colour,
denoting the presence of iron, let it be
moistened with water, and exposed to
the sun's rays for some weeks,

I. The solution in alcohol (a) may con-
tain one or all of the following salts : mu-
riates of lime, magnesia, or barytes, or
nitrates of the same earths. Sometimes,
also, the alcohol may take up sulphate of
iron, in which the metal is highly oxy-
dized, as willappear by its reddish-brown
colour.

1. In order to discover the quality and
quantity of the ingredients, evajjorate to
drynes:s ; weigh the residuum ; add above
half its weigiu of strong sulplmric acid;
and apply a moderate heat. The muri-
riatic or nitric acid will be expelled, and
will be known by the colour of their

WAT

WAT

fumes ; the former being white, and the
latter orang-e-coloured,

2. To ascertain whether lime or mag-
nesia be the basis of the salts, let the heat
be continued till no more fumes arise,
and let it then be raised to expel the ex-
cess of sulphuric acid. To the dry mass,
add twice its weight of distilled water.
This will take up the sulphate of magne-
sia, and leave the sulphate of lime. Tlie
two sulphates may be separately decom-
posed, by boihng with tliree or four
times their weight of carbonate of pot-
ash. The carbonates of lime and magne-
sia, thus obtained, may be separately dis-
solved in muriatic acid, and evaporated.
The weight of tlie dry salts will inform us
how much of each the alcohol had taken
up. Lime and magnesia may also be se-
parated by the use of phosphate of soda.

11. The watery solution (b) may con-
tain a variety of salts, the accurate sepa-
ration of which from each other is a prob-
lem of considemble difficulty.

1. The analysis of tins solution maybe
attempted by crystallization. For this
purpose let one half be evaporated by a
very gentle heat, not exceeding 80° or
90°. Should any crystals appear on the
surface of tlie solution, while hot, in the
form of a pellicle, let them be separated
and dried on bibulous paper. Tbe^e are
muriate of soda, or common salt. Tlie re-
maining solution, on cooling very gradu-
ally, will perliaps alford crystals distin-
guishable by their form and other quali-
ties. When various salts, however, are
contained in the same solution, it is ex-
tremely difficult to obtain them suffi-
ciently distinct to ascertain their kind.

2. The nature of the saline contents
must therefore be examined by tests, or
re-agents.

Tlie presence of an uncombined alkali,
as well as uncombined acids, will be dis-
covered 'by the stained papers, and tests
already pointed out. The vegetable al-
kah, or potash, may be distinguished
from the mineral, or soda, by muriate of
platina.

If neutral salts be present in the so-
lution, we have to ascertain both the na-
ture of the acid, and that of the base.
This may be done by attention to the
rules already given for the a}>p]ication
of tests, which it is unnecessary to repeat
in this place.

Ill The solution by boiling water con-
tains scarcely any thing besides sulphate
of lime.

IV. The residuum (J) is to be digested
in distilled vinegar, whicU takes up mag-

nesia and lime, but leaves, undrssolved
alumine and highly oxydized iron. Eva-
porate the solution to dryness. If it con-
tain acetate of lime only', a substance will
be obtained which does not attract mois-
ture from the air ; if magnesia be pre-
sent, the mass will deliquesce. To sepa-
rate the lime from the magnesia, proceed
as in I.

The residue, insoluble in acetous acid,
may contain alumine, iron, and silex.
The two first may be dissolved by muria-
tic acid, from which the iron may be pre-
cipitated, first by prussiate of potash,
and the alumine afterward by a fixed al-
kali.

Water ordeal, or Trial, among our
ancestors, was of two kinds, by hot and
by cold water. 'I'rial, or purgation, by
boiling or hot water, was a way of prov-
ing crimes, by immerging the body, or
the arm, in hot water, with divers reli-
gious ceremonies. In the judgment by
boiling water, the accused, or he who
personated the accused, was obliged to
put his naked arm into a cauldron full of
boiling water, and to draw out a stone
thence, placed at a greater or less depth,
according to the quality of the crime.
This done, the ann was wrapped up,
and the judge set his seal on the cloth,
and at the end of three days they re-
turned to view it, when, if it were found
without any scald, the accused was de-
clared innocent. The nobles or great
personages purged themselves thus, by
hot water, and the populace by cold
water. The trial, or purgation, by cold
water, was thus: after certain prayers
and other ceremonies, the accused was
swaddled, or tied up, all in a pelotoon or
lump, and thus cast into a river, lake, or
vessel, of cold water, where, if he sunk,
he was held criminal, if he floated, inno-
cent.

Water bailiff, is an officer in sea-port
towns, appointed for the searching of
ships; and in London, the water bailiff
hath the supeivising and search of fish,
brought thither ; and the gathering of
the toll arising from the Thames ; his of-
fice is likewise to arrest men for debt,
&c. or other personal or ciimiiial matters,
upon the river Thames.

W^ATKR Rpovi, an extraordinary me-
teor, most frequently observed at sea.
It generally begins by a cloud, which ap-
pears very small, and which is called by
the sailors the squall : this augments in a
little time into an enormous cloud of a cy-
lindrical form, or that of a cone on its
apex, and produces a noise like the roar-

WATER SPOUT.

mg of an agitated sea, sometimes accom-
panied with thunder and lightning, and al-
so large quantities of'rainor hail, sufficient
to invmdate large vessels, and cai'ry away in
their course, when they occur by land,
trees, houses, and every thing that op-
pose their impetuosity. Sailors, dread-
ing the fatal consequences of water spouts,
endeavour to dissipate them by firing a
cannon into them just before they ap-
pi-oach the ship. We shall give an ac-
count of one as described by M. Tourne-
fort, in his Voyage to the Levant.

** The first of these," says this traveller,
" that we saw, was about a musquet-shot
irom our ship. There we perceived the
water began to boil, and to rise about a foot
above its level. The water was agitated
and whitish ; and above its surface there
seemed to stand a smoke, such as might
be imagined to come from wet straw be-
fore it begins to blaze. It made a sort of
a murmuring sound, like that of a torrent
heard at a distance, mixed, at the same
time, with a hissing noise, like that of a
serpent: shortly after we perceived a
column of this smoke rise up to the
clouds, at the same time whirling about
widi great rapidity. It appeared to be as
thick as one's finger ; and the former
sound still continued. When this disap-
peared, after lasting for about eight mi-
nutes, upon turning to the opposite quar-
ter of the sky, we perceived another,
which began in the manner of the for-
mer: presently after a third appeared in
the west ; and instantly beside it still an-
other arose. The most distant of these
three could not be above a musket-shot
from the ship. They all continued like
so many heaps of wet straw set on fire,
that continued to smoke, and to make the
same noise as before. We soon after per-
ceived each, with its respective canal,
mounting up in the clouds ; and spread-
ing, where it touched the cloud, like the
moutli of a trumpet ; making a figure, to
express it intelligibly, as if the tail of an
animal was pulled at one end by a Vv eight.
These canals were of a whitish colour,
and so tinged, as I suppose, by the water
which was contained in them ; for, pre-
vious to this, they were apparently emp-
ty, and of the colour of transparent glass.
These canals were not straight, but bent
in some parts, and far from being per-
pendicular, but rising in their clouds
with a very inclined ascent. But what is
very particular, the cloud to which one of
them was pointed happening to be driven
by the wind, the spout still continued
to follow its motion without being

broken; and passing behind one of the
others, the spouts crossed each other in
the form of a St. Andrew's cross. In the
beginning they were all :ibout as thick as
one's finger, except at the top, where
they were broader, and two of them
disappeared ; but shortly after the last of
the three increased considerably, and its
canal, which was at first so small, soon
became as thick as a man's arm, then as
his leg, and at last thicker than his whole
body. We saw distinctly, through this
transparent body, the water, wlach rose
up with a kind of spiral motion; ^nd it
sometimes diminished a little of its thick-
ness, and again resumed the same ; some-
times widening at top, and sometimes at
bottom; exactly resembhng a gut filled
with water, pressed with the fingers, to
make the fluid rise or fall ; and I am well
convinced that this alteration in the spout
was caused by the wind, which pressed
the cloud, and compelled it to give up
its contents. After some time its bulk
was so diminished as to be no thicker
than a man's arm again, and thus swell-
ing and diminishing, it at last became very
small. In the end, I observed the sea,
which was raised about it, to resume its
level by degrees, and the end of the ca-
nal that touched it to become as small as
if it had been tied round with a cord ;
and this continued till the light, striking
through the cloud, took away the view.
I still, however, continued to look, ex-
pecting that its parts would join again, as
I had before seen in one of the others, in
which the spout was more than once
broken, and yet again came together ;
but I was disappointed, for the spout ap-
peared no more."

In the Philosophical Transactions we
have descriptions of several ; their effects,
in some instances, are probably much ex-
aggerated. One at Topsham is said to
have cut down an apple-tree, several
inches in diameter : another, we are told,
seemed to be produced by a concourse
of winds, turning like a screw, the
clouds dropping down into it : it threw
trees and branches about with a gyratory
motion. See Philosophical Transactions,
vol. xxii. and xxiii. One in Deeping Fen,
Lincolnshire, was first seen moving across
the land and water of the fen : it raised
the dust, broke some gates, and destroy-
ed a field of turnips : it vanished with an
appearance of fire. Dr. Franklin sup.
poses that a vacuum is made by the rota-
tory motion of tlie ascending air, as
when w-ater is running through a fuimel,
and that the water of the sea is thus rais-

WAT

WAV

ed. But Dr. Young says, no sacli cause
could do more lliaii produce a slight ra-
I'ctaction of the air, much less raise the
water to the heig-ht of thirty or forty feet,
or more.

Professor Wolke describes a water
spout wiiich passed immediately over the
ship iu which he was sailing, in the Gulph
of Finland ; it appeared to be twenty-five
feet in diameter, consisting of drops about
the size of cherries, 'i'he sea was agitata
ed round its base, through a space of
about one hundreit and thirty feet in dia-
meter. One of the latest accounts of the
phenomenon of a water-spout is that read
to the Royal Society in the year 1803, from
a letter written to Sir Joseph Banks, by
Captain Uicketts, of the ro}'al navy :

" In the month of July, 1800, Captain
Ricketts was called on deck, on account
of the rapid approach of a water-spout,
amoiig the Lipuri islands. It had the ap-
pearance of a viscid fluid, tapering in its
descent, proceeding from the cloud to
join the sea. It moved at the rate of
about two miles an hour, with a loud
sound of rain. It passed the stern of the
ship, and wetted the after-part of the
main-sail; hence it was inferred, that
water-spouts are not continuous columns
of water; and subsequent observations
confirmed the opinion. In November,
1801, about twenty. miles from Trieste, a
water-spout was seen eight miles to the
south ; round its lower extremity was a
mist, about twelve feet high, somewhat
of the form of an Ionian capital, with very
large volutes, the spout resting obliquely
on its crown. At some distance from
this spout the sea began to be agitated,
and a mist rose to the height of about
four feet : then a projection descended
from the black cloud that was impending,
and met the ascending mist abotit twenty
feet above the sea: the last ten yards
of the distiince w- ere described w ith ve-
ry great rapidity. A cloud of a liglit co-
lour appeared to ascend in this spout
something like quicksilver in a tube.
The first spout then snapped at about
one-third of its height, the inferior part
subsiding gradually, and the superior
curling upwards. Several other projec
tions from the cloud appeared, with cor-
responding agitations of the water be-
low, but not always in spots vertically
under them : seven spouts in all were
formed ; two other projections were re-
absorbed. Some of the spouts were not
only oblique but curved : the ascending
cioud moved most rapidly in those vvhicli

were vertical; tliey lasted t'rom three to
five minutes, and their dissipation was
attended by no fall of rain.

WAVE, in physics, a volume of water
elevated by the action of the wind, &c.
upon its surface, into a state of fluctua-
tion, and accompanied by a cavity. The
extent from the bottom or lowest point of
one cavity, and across the elevation, to
the bottoni of the next cavity, is the
breadth of the wave. Waves are consi-
dered as of two kinds, which may be dis-
tinguished from one another by the names
of natural and accidental waves. The na-
tural wa%'es are those which are regular-
ly proportioned in size to the strength of
the wind which produces them. The acci-
dental waves are those occasioned by the
wind's reacting upon itself by repurcus-
sion from hills or high shores, and by
the dashing of the waves themselves,
otherwise of I lie natural kind, against
rocks and shoals ; by which jmeans these
waves acquire an elevation much above
what they can have in their natural
state.

Mr. Boyle proved, by numerous expe-
riments, that the most violent wind never
penetrates deeper than six feet into the
water; and it seems a natural conse-
quence of this, that the water moved by
it can only be elevated to the same height
of six feet from the level of the surface
in a calm ; and these six feet of elevation
being added to the six of excavation, in
the part from whence that water so ele-
vated was raised, should give twelve feet
for the utmost elevation of a wave.
This is a calculation that does gi*eat ho-
nour to its author; as many experiments
and observations have proved that it is
very nearly true in deep seas, where the
waves are purely natural, and have no ac-
cidental causes to render them larger than
their just proportion.

It is not to be understood, however,
that no wave of the sea can rise more than
six feet above its natural level in open
and deep water; for waves vastly higher
than these are formed in violent tempests
in the great seas. These however are not
to be accounted waves in their natural
state, but as compoiind waves formed by
the union of many others ; for in these
wide plains of water, vvlien one wave is
raised by the wind, and would elevate it-
self up to the exact height of six feet, and
no more, the motion of the water is so
great, and the succession of waves so
quick, that while ihi.s is rising, it receives
into it several Qtlier waves, each of which

WAV

WAX

would have been at the same height with
itself; these run into the first wave one
after another, as it is rising; by which
means its rise is continued much longer
than it naturally would have been, and it
becomes accunui luted to an enormous
size. A number of these complicated
wav( s rising together, and being conti-
nued in a long succession by the conti-
nuaijoii of the storm, make the waves so
dangerous to ships, which the sailors in
their plirase call numntains high.

»*The Motion of the Waves" makes
an article in the Newtonian philosophy ;
thfe author having explained their mo-
tions, and calculated their velocity from
mathematical principles, similar to the
motion of a pendulum, and to the reci-
procation of water in the two legs of a
bent and inverted syphon or tube. See
Principia.

"Stillhig Waves by means of Oil."
This wonderful property, thougli well
known to the ancients, as appears from
the writings of Pliny, was for many ages
either quite unnoticed, or treated as fa-
bulous by succeeding philosophers. By
means of Dr.,Frat)klin, the subject again
attracted the attention of the learned ;
though it appears from some anecdotes,
tliat seafaring people have always been
acquainted with it. Mr. Pennant, in his
British Zoology, vol. iv. under the ariicle
Seal, takes notice that when these animals
are devouring a %cry oily fish, which they
always do urtder water, the waves above
are remarkably smooth ; and by this mark
the fishermen know uhere to find them.
Sir Gilbert Lawson^ who served long in
the army at Gibraltar, assured Dr. Frank-
lin, that' the fisliermen in that place are
accustomed to pour a little oil on the sea,
in order to still its motion, that they may
be enabled to see the oysters lying at its
bottom, which are there very large, and
which they take up with a proper instru-
}nent. A similar practice obtains among
fishermen in various other parts ; and Dr.
Franklin was intormed by an old sea-cap-
tain, that the fishermen of Lisbon, when
about to return into the river, if they saw
loo great a surf upon the bar, would
empty a bottle or two of oil into the sea,
wliich would suppress the breakers, and
allow them to pass freely.

The doctor having revolved in his
mind all these pieces of information, be-
came impatient to try the experiment
iiimself At last, having an opportunity
uf obser\'ing a large pond vciy rough
with the wind, he droj)ped a small qmm-
tity of oil tipon it But having at first ap-

plied it on the lee-side, the oil was dri-
ven back again upon the shore. He then
went to the windward side, and poured
on about a tea-spoon full of oil ; this pro-
dnced.an instant calm over a space seve-
ral yards square, which spread amazing-
ly, and extended itself gradually till it
came to the leeside; making all that
quarter of the pond, perhaps half an acre,
as smooth as ghi.ss. This experiment
was often repeated in dilferent places,
and always with success.

WAVFD, Wavy, or Wavet, in heral-
dry, is said of a bordure, or any ordina-
ry, or charge, in a coat of arms, having
its outlines indented in manner of the
rising and falling of waves : it is used to
denote, that the first of the family in
whose arms it stands, acquired its honours
for sea-service.

WAX. There are two or three sub-
stances which resemble each other so
closely as to have received the name of
wax. The first, and by fur the most im-
portant, is bees' wax, which is consumed
in such vast quantities for giving fight ;
and is also used for a variety of other pur-
poses. Another kind of wax is the myrtle
wax, which is extracted pretty largely in
Louisiana, and some other parts of Ame-
rica, from the myrica ceriferaf Another
substance very sirnilar to wax is the pe la
of the Chinese, the product of an insect,
the exact species of which is not known ;
and the white matter which yields the
laccic acid has also a strong resemblance
to wax. The properties which all these
substances have in common arc, fusibili-
ty at a moderate heat; when kindled,
burning witli much fiame ; insolubility in
water, solubility /m alkalies, and also in
alcohol and ether. In these two latter
properties ail the species of wax dilftr
' from the concrete oils, with which, in
otlier respects, they have a very strong
resemblance. Bees' wax is the substance,
excreted from the body of the bee, of
which these insects construct their eel's,
both those for containing honey and for
the lodgment of their young. It is col-
lected for the use of man wherever
bees are kept. A young hive will yield
at the end of the season about a pound of
wax ; and an old hive about twice as
much. The colour of wax when fresh
from the bee, is nearly white, but it .soon
grows considerably yellow in the hive, or
if very old is of a dark brown. The wax
winch is the ordinary bees' wax of the
shops, is a pale yellow substance, of an
agreeable honey-fike smell, soft, and
somewhat unctuous to the toiJch,but witJi-

WA\

WEA

out sticking to the fing-ers, in winter be-
coming consideral)ly hard and tough, and
melting at about 142° This yellow co-
lour and the smell of wax are entirely
taken away by exposing it, wlien divided
into thin lamina;, to the united action of
the ligiit and air, and by this means it be-
comes perfectly white, scentless, some-
what harder and less greasy to the touch,
and in this state i« is employed for can-
dles and many other pur|)oses. Bleacli-
ed wax burns with a very pure white
light, and gives no offensive smell, and
very little smoke compared with tallow,
lieing less fusible than tallow it re-
quires a smaller wick, lileached wax
melts at about 155", or 7° higher than
tlie unbleached. Its specific gravity is
less than that of water, being about .96.
Alcohol has no sensible action on wax
wh^n cold, bui on boiling it dissolves ra-
ther less fhan l-20th of its weight of wax,
the greater pan of which separates when
cold in t!iL' form of white flocculi, and
what remains in solution is entirely pre-
cipitated by water. Wax is soluble
abundantly in the fixed oils ; but very
sparingly in the essential oils. It is usual-
ly supposed that the wax is the pollen of
of flowers, which the bees visibly collect
on their thighs, and afterwards elaborate
in some unknown way. The great dif-
ference between wax and this matter
which the bees collect, has however been
long remarked. When examined by the
microscope, this little mass of pollen is
obviously composed of a number of hard
grains compressed together, and if it is
laid on a hot plate, it does not melt as
wax would do, but smokes, dries, and is
reduced to a coal, and if kindled it burns
without meltmg. Some late very curi-
ous experiments of Huber, one of the
most celebrated apiarists in Europe, has
further sliown that the pollen has no
share whatever in the formation of wax,
but that this latter substance is produced
indiscriminately from honey, sugar, or
any other saccharine matter which serves
as food for the bees.

WAY, a passage (jr road. Thf Roman
ways are divided into consular, praeiori-
an, military, and public ; and of these we
have four iemaik;ible ones in England:
fir-, Watliug-stre^r, or Wathelinti-<iieet,
leading fiom Dover to l»ndon, Dui s able,
Towcesler, Aitersion, and the Severn, ex-
tending as far as Angieseain Wales. The
second, called Hikenild, or Ikenild-^treet,
stretches from Southampton over the
river Isis, at Newbridge; thence by Cam.

den and Lichfield ; then passes the Der-
went, near Derby, and ends at I'Mimouth.
The thu'd, called Fos.se way, because in
some places it was never pei ffCteJ ; but
lies as a large ditch, lead<» from Cornwall
through Dtvonshiie, by Tethbuiy, near
Stow in itie Wolds ; and bt-side Coventry
to Leicester, NeAaik, and s<' to Lmcoln.
The murth, called E; ming, or E. nunage-
sireet, extends from St. David's, m Wales,
to Southampton

Way, in law. A way may be by pre-
scription, as, if the owners and occupiers
ofsucii a farm have immemoriall> used
to cross anotlier's ground ; for this m»me-
morial usage implies an original grant.
A right of way may also arist b\ act and
operation of law ; h)r if u man grant to
another a piece of ground m liif middle of
his field, he at the same tmic tacitly gives
him a way to come at it; for where the
law gives any thing to any person, it gives
implied whatever is necessary for enjoy-
ing tlie same.

Way, 7nilky. See Galaxy.

Way of a ship, is sometimes the same
as her rake, or run forward or backward:
but this term is most commonly under-
stood of her sailing. Thus when she
goes apace, it is said, that she hath a good
way, or makes a fresh way. So when an
an account is kept how fast she sails by
the log, it is called keeping an account of
her way ; and because most ships are apt
to fall a little to leeward of their true
course, they always, in casting up the log
b(jard, allow something for her leeward
way

\\' AY of the rounds, in fortification, is a
space left for the passage of the rounds
between the rampart aiul the wall of a
fortified town. This is not now much in
use ; because the parapet, not being above
a foot thick, is soon overthrown by the
enemy's cannon.

^\k^THEli, rules for jud^inff of 1, The
rising of the mercury presages, in gene-
ral, fair weather ; and its falling foul wea-
ther, as rain, snow, high winds, and
storms. When the surface of the mercu-
ry 18 convex, or stands higher in the mid-
dle than at the sides, it is a sign the mer-
cury is then in a rising state ; but if the
surface be concave or hollow in the mid-
dle, it is then sinking. 2. In very hot
weather, the falling of the mercury indi-
cates thunder. 3. In winter, the rising-
presages frost ; and in frosty weather, if
the mercury falls three or four divisions,
there will be a thaw ; but in a continued
frost, U" the mercury rises, it will be cer-

WEA

WEA

iu\u\y snow. 4. When foul weather hap-
pens soon after the depression of the
mercury, expect but little of it ; on the con-
trary, expect but little fair weather when
it proves fair shortly after the mercury has
risen. 5. In foul weather, when the mer-
cury rises much and high, and so con-
tinues for two or three days before the
bad weather is entirely over, then a con-
tinuance of fair weather may be expected,
6. In fair weather, when the mercury falls
much and low, and thus continues for
two or three days before the rain comes,
then a deal of wet may be expected, and
probably high winds. 7. The unsettled
motion of the mercury denotes unsettled
weather. 8. The words engraved on the
scale are not so much to be attended to,
as the rising and falling of the mercury ;
for, if it stand at much rain^ and then
rises to changeable, it denotes fair weather,
though not to continue so long as if the
mercury had risen higher. If the mercury
stands at fair, and falls to changeable,
bad weather may be expected. 9. In
winter, spring, and autumn, the sudden
falling of the mercury, and that for a
large space, denotes high winds and
storms; but in summer it presages heavy
showers and often thunder. It always
sinks lowest of all for great winds, though
not accompanied with rain ; but it falls
more for wind and rain together, than for
either of them alone. 10. If after rain
the wind change into any part of the
north, with a clear and dry sky, and the
mercury rise, it is a certain sign of fair
weather. 11, After very great storms of
wind, when the mercury has been low,
it cammonly rises again very fast. In
settled fair weather, except the barome-
ter sink much, expect but little rain. In
a wet season, the smallest depressions
must be attended to ; for when the air is
much inclined to showers, a little sinking
in the barometer denotes more rain. And
in such a season, if it rise suddenly fast
and high, fair weather cannot be expect-
ed to last more than a day or two. 12.
The greatest heights of the mercury are
found upon easterly and north-easterly
winds ; and it may often rain or snow, the
wind being in these points, while the ba-
rometer is in a rising state, the effects of
the wind counteracting. But the mercu-
ry sinks for wind as well as rain, in all
other points of the compass.

WEAVING, the art of making threads
into cloth. This art is of very ancient
oriein. The fabulous story of Penelope's
web; and, still more, the frequent allu-

VOL. VI.

sions to this art in the sacred writings,
tend to show, that the constructing of
cloth from threads, hair, &,c. is a very an-
cient invention. It has, however, like
other useful arts, undergone an infinite va-
riety of improvements, both as to the ma-
terials of which cloth is made, the appa-
ratus necessary in its construction, and
the particular modes of operation by the
artist. Weaving, when reduced to its
original principle, is nothing more than
the insertion of the weft into the web, by
forming sheds ; but this principle has
been so extensively applied in almost eve-
ry country, and the knowledge of its va-
rious branches has been derived from
such a variety of sources, that no ot^e per-
son could ever be practically employed
in all its branches ; and though every
part bears a strong analogy to the rest,
yet a minute knowledge of" each of these
parts can only be acquired by experience
and reflection. We will, however, en-
deavour to give the reader as comprehen-
sive an idea of the history and progress
of this ancient and invaluable art as the
nature of the thing, and the limits to
which we are necessarily confined will
permit.

The history of this art is very little
known, and its great antiquity necessarily
involves the earlier seras of it in the most
perfect obscurity. Enough, however, is
known, to prove that none of the species
of it originated in Britain. The silk ma-
nufacture was first practised in China, and
the cotton in India. Both the woollen
and linen were borrowed from the conti-
nent of Europe, and all improvements in
them, in this country, were first introduc-
ed by foreign artificers who settled
amongst us. To the present day, our su-
periority in point of quality is only uni-
versally acknowledged in the cotton ma-
nufacture ; whilst in those of silk, wool-
len, and linen, it is still disputed by other
countries. But it should be understood,
that we are here speaking more particu-
larly of the art in its more advanced and
improved state. For, when it is consi-
dered, that as the wants of mankind are
nearly ihe same in all countries, it is not
improbable that the same arts, however
varied in their operations, may have been
invented in different countries. It is not,
however, certain, that the art of making
cloth is one which the Britons invented.
It is more probable, that the Gauls learn-
ed it from the Greeks, and communicated
the knowledge "of it to the people of Bri-
tain. And it is certain that the inhabi-

4 A

WEAVING.

tants of the southern parts of Britain were
well acquainted with the arts of dressing,
i-pinniiig and weaving, both flax and
wool, when they were invaded by the Ro-
mans.

The art of making linen, which was
probably the first species of cloth invent-
ed, was communicated by the Egyptians,
the inliabitants of Palestine, and other
eastern nations, to the Europeans. By
slow degrees it found its way into Italy ;
and it afterwards prevailed in Spain, Gaul,
Germany, and Britain. The Belgae ma-
nufactured linen on the continent ; and
when they afterwards settled in thi^ is-
land, it is probable they continued the
the practice, and taught it to the people
among whom they resided.

"Whatever knowledge the Britons might
possess of the cloihing arts, prior to the
invasion, it is very certain tiiat these arts
were much improved amongst them after
that event. It appears from the Notitia
Imperii, that there was an imperial manu-
iaclory of woollen and linen cloth, for the
use of the Roman army then in Britain,
established at Yenta Belgarum, now call-
ed Winchester.

In Bishop Aldhelm's book, concerning
*' Virginity," written about A. D. 680, it
is remarked, ♦' that chastity alone forms
not a perfect character ; but requires to
be accompanied and beautified by other
virtues." This observation is illustrated
by the following simile, borrowed from
the art of figure-weaving : " It is not a
web of one uniform colour and texture,
without any variety of figures, that plea-
seth the eye, and appears beautiful ; but
one that is woven by shuttles, filled with
threads of purple, and many other co-
lours flying from side to side, and forming
a variety of figures and images in differ-
ent compartments with admirable art.'*
Perhaps the most curious specimen of this
ancient figure-weaving and embroidery,
now to be found, is that preserved in the
cathedral of Bayeaux. It is a piece of li-
nen, about 19 inches in breadth, and 67"
yards in length, and contains the history
of the conquest of England, by William of
Normandy ; beginning with Harold's em-
bassy, A. D. 1065, and ending with his
death at the battle of Hastings, A. D.
1066. This curious vkrork is supposed to
have been executed by Matilda, wife to
William, Duke of Normandy, afterwards
King of England, and the ladies of her
court.

Although it is certain that the art of
figure-weaving was then known in Bri-

tain, it must be owned, that the piece of
tapestry just mentioned owes most of its
beauty to the exquisite needle-work with
which it is adorned.

About the close of the eleventh centu-
ry, the clothing arts had acquired a con-
siderable degree of improvement in this
island. About that time, the weavers in
all the great towns were formed into
guilds or corporations, and had various
privileges bestowed upon them by royal
charters. In the reign of Richard I. the
woollen manufacture became the subject
of legislation ; and a law was made, A. D.
1197, for regulating the fabrication and
sale of cloth. The number of weavers,
liovvever, was comparatively small, until
the policy of the wise and liberal Ed-
ward HI. encouraged the art, by the most
advantageous oflers of reward and en-
couragement to foreign cloth-workers
and weavers who would come and settle
in England. In the year 1331, two wea-
vers came from Brabant, and settled at
York. The superior skill and dexterity
of these men, who communicated their
knowledge to others, soon manifested it-
self in the improvement and spread of the
art of weaving in this island.

Many weavers from Flanders were dri-
ven into England by the cruel persecu-
tions of the duke of D'Alva, in the year
1567, who settled in different parts of the
kingdom, and introduced, or promoted,
the manufacture of baizes, serges, crapes,
and other stuffs.

About the year 1686, nearly 50,000 ma-
nufacturers, of various descriptions, took
refuge in Britain, in consequence of the
revocation of the edict of Nantz, and
other acts of rehgious persecution com-
mitted by Louis XIV. These improve-
ments, &c. chiefly related to linen weav-
ing.

The arts of spinning, throwing, and
weaving silk, were brought into England
about the middle of the fifteenth century,
and were practised by a company of wo-
men in London, called silk-women. A-
bout A. D. 1480, men began to engage in
the silk manufacture, and the art of silk-
weaving, in England, soon arrived at very
great perfection.

The civil dissentions which followed
this period, retarded the progress of this
art; but afterwards, when the nation
was at rest, the arts of peace, and, among
others, that of weaving, made rapid ad-
vances in almost every part of the
kingdom. It has been generally suppos-
ed, that silk-weaving, particularly that of
figure-weaving, has never been brought

WEAVING.

to that perfection in England, to which it
has attained in other countries. Our silk-
weavers, however, seem at length deter-
mined to remove this reproach. For this
purpose a most magniHcent undertaking
is at this time begun by the weavers in
Spitalfields, London ; the object of which
is "to remove those prejudices which
have long prevailed in favour of foreign
manufactures.'* This object is intended
to be accomplished by the " weaving of
certain flags, for public exhibition, on
which are to appear figures, flowers, and
other devices," interwoven with various
coloured silks.

After considerable labour and expense,
this design is now begun to be put into
execution, under the superintendance of
a committee, who are appointed to re-
ceive subscriptions, and conduct the
execution of the plans, &c. Mr. William
Titford, of Union-street, Bishopsgate, has
been appointed treasurer by the commit-
tee, and the undertaking is now making
advances towards its final accomplish-
ment. The weaving of the first flag is
begun, and about twelve or fourteen
inches of it completed. The designs for
this flag are curious and well executed.
They represent, within a large oval, " a
female figure, with a dejected aspect, re-
clining on a remnant of brocade." Two
figures, representing Enterprise and Ge-
nius, appear to encourage the dejected
female. In the back ground is the Tem-
ple of Fame, on the top of which is a flag
bearing the weaver's arms, to which Ge-
nius is directing the attention of the re-
clining figure. The four corners of this
design, which are intended to be correct-
ly engraved, are ornamented with appro-
priate emblematical figures of Peace, In-
dustry, &c. It is two yards wide ; and
the figures in the body of the design are
drawn nearly as large as life; but the
silks, being all dyed fast colours, have
not that brilliant appearance, in the work,
which could have been wished. What
makes this piece of work more curious,
and will convey an extraordinary stability
to its texture, is, that it has a satin ground,
and is brocaded on both sides exactly
alike. The threads of the web, or porry,
are upwards of 48,900, the lead attached
to the harness weighs upwards of 500
pounds, and the shuttles constantly in
use, amount to upwards of 500. Two
men are employed in the weaving, who
are able to make, upon an average, about
three -quarters of an inch daily.

The expense of this stupendous under-
taking, with respect to the first flag on-

ly, will he not less than one thousand
guineas. The admirers of art, and the
friends of our national manufactures, will
not think this information trifling ov
unnecessary ; the correctness of which
the writer of this article has been at con-
siderable pains to ascertain : nor ouglit
we to omit to mention, that the idea, and
much of the design, of this piece of fi-
gure work, originated principally with
Mr. Samuel Sholl, an ingenious silk-
weaver, to whom the Society of Arts, a
few years ago, gave a silver medal and
thirty guineas, for the construction of an
improved loom for weaving slight silks.
For some account of the silk manufacture,
see the article Silk.

The art of cotton-weaving, in its pre-
sent improved state, has not been long
known either in this or any other coun-
tr3^ W^herever it originated, it is cer-
tain that most of our manufactures, in this
respect, are unequalled in any part of the
known world ; and were it not for the
many commercial restrictions, by which
the present war is so unfortunately dis-
tinguished, there is every rational pro-
spect that our cotton trade would be still
further improved and extended.

Having briefly traced the history of
this art in Great Britain, we proceed
to a description of the manner in which
it is practised in this country ; confining
our observations chiefly to the art of
cotton weaving.

The apparatus necessary in the art of
cloth-weaving consists, chiefly in the
loom, shuttle, reed, and heddles, or har-
ness, the form and use of which are here
described.

There are several kinds of looms for
cloth-weaving, the most common of
which is that delineated on Plate Loom,
(fig. 1 and 2) which represents the com-
mon silk-loom. In this plate. A, (fig. 1)
is the yarn-beam ; B, the cloth-beam, or
breast-roll ; D E, the treddles -,(1(1,6 e,
the heddles, or harness : G, the lay, or
batten ; M, the seat-board ; and T T, the
rods. Fig. 2 is a view of the lay, or bat-
ten and reed ; which, to shew the reed
more distinctly, is represented without
the lay-cape, being a long piece of wood,
having a groove running along its lower-
most side, for the purpose of sustaining
the upper edge of the reed. The lay-
cape is that part of the machine on the
middle of which the weaver lays hold
with his left hand when in the act of
weaving. F, the lay-pole ; G G, the lay-
swords ; H, the shuttle-race ; I 1, the
boxes which receive the shuttles; kk

WEAVING.

the peckers; tf, the pecking-peg, or
handle, and li, tlie reed.

When tlie weaver has received his
warp from the vvarping-mill (for an ac-
count ofw'liich see Manufacture of Cot-
ton), Ills first care is to wind it upon the
beam in u proper manner. Having ascer-
tained the number of half-gangs, or beers,
and the breadtli of the web, he passes
a small shaft of wood through the inter-
val formed by the last of the lower pins
upon the v/arping-mill, and a small cord
tied to tliis shaft through that formed by
the first. This gives him the lease for
beaming, and keeps the half-gangs dis-
tinct. When this has been done, and the
cord made fast at both ends of the shaft,
the knotting left by the warper is cut, and
the warp stretched to its proper breadth.
An instrument, or utensil, called a ravel,
is then to be used. Ravels are somewhat
like reeds, and are also of different di-
mensions. One proper for the purpose
being found, every half-gang is placed in
an interval between two of the pins. The
upper part, or cape, is then put on and
secured, and the operation of winding the
warp upon the beam commences. In
broad works, two persons are employed
to hold the ravel which serves to guide
the warp, and to spread it regularly upon
the beam ; one or two to keep the chain,
or chains of the warp, at a proper degree
of tension, and one or more to turn the
beam upon its centres. The warp being
regularly wound upon tlie beam, the
weaver prepares to take it through the
heddles, and this operation is called
drawing.

Before the operation of drawing com-
mences, two rods are inserted into the
lease formed by the upper-lease pins on
the warping mill; the ends of these rods
are tied together, the twine by which the
lease vs as secured is cut away, and the
warp stretched to its proper breadth.
The beam is then suspended by cords be-
hind the heddles and somewhat higher,
the w^arp hanging down perpendicularly.
The weaver then places himself in front
of the heddles, and another person is
placed behind. The former opens every
heddle in succession, and it is the business
of the latter to select every thread in its
order, and deliver it to be drawn through
the open heddle. The succession in
which the threads are to be delivered is
easily ascertained by the rods, i\s every
thread crosses that next to it. The warp,
after passing through the heddles, is next
drawn through the reed by an instrument
called a sley, or reed-hook, two or more
threads being taken through every interval.

These operations being finished, the
cords or mounting which move the hed-
dles are applied; the reed is placed in the
lay, or batten, and the warp is divided in-
to small portions, whicli are tied to a shaft
connected by cords to the cloth beam.

When the weaver has finished these tv\ o
operations of beaming and drawing, he
proceeds to dress his warp. And here it
should be remarked, that the operation of
dressing applies principally to cotton.
The same practice, when used upon silk,
has a very destructive tendency ; which is
that of injuring the colours of the silk ;
and when used, as it sometimes very im-
properly is, by weavers of white satin, the
injury done to the work is irreparable. In
cotton, the operation of dressing is indis-
pensable ; in silk, this is by no means the
case.

Dressing is justly esteemed of the first
importance, in the art of weaving warps
spun from flax or cotton ; for it is impossi-
ble to produce work of a good quality, un-
less care be used in dressing the warp.

The use of dressing is, to give to yarn
sufficient strength or tenacity, to enable it
to bear the operation of weaving into cloth.
It also, by laying smoothly all the ends of
the fibres, which com[>ose the raw mate-
rial from which the yarn is spun, tends
both to diminish the friction during the
process, and to render the cloth smooth,
and glossy, when finished. The substance
in common use for dressing, is simply a
mucilage of vegetable matter boiled to a
consistency in water. Wheat flour, and
sometimes potatoes, are the substances,
commonly employed. These answer
sufficiently well in giving to the yarn both
the smoothness and tenacity required; but '
the great objection to them is, that they
are too easily and rapidly affected by the
operation of the atmosphere. When
dressed yarn is allowed to stand exposed
to the air, for any considerable portion of
time, before being woven into cloth, it al-
ways becomes hard, brittle, and compara-
tively inflexible. It is then tedious and trou-
blesome to weave, and the cloth is rough,
wiry, and uneven. This eflrect is chiefly re-
marked in dry weather, when the weavers
of fine cloth find it indispensably necessary
to have their yarn wrought up, as speedily
as possible, after being dressed. To
counteract this inconveniency, herring or
beef brine, and other saline substances,
which have a tendency to attract moistiire
are sometimes mixed in small quantities
with the dressing : but this has not proved
completely and generally successful, pro-
bably, beause the proportions have not

WEAVING.

been sufficienly atten<led to, and because
a superabundance of moisture is equally
prejudical with a deficiency. Indeed, the
variation of the moisture of the air is so
great and so frequent, that it has hitherto
been impossible to fix any universal rule
for the quantity to be mixed.

It is stated as a tact, which will appear
singular to weavers in this country, that in
India the process of weaving, even their
finest muslins, is conducted in the open
air, and exposed to all the heat of the cli-
mate, which is intense. (See Manufac
TURE o/" CoUo7i.) We know well that this
would be impracticable with fine work in
tliis country, even in an ordinary summer
day. It is not known, in this country,
what is the substance which the Indian
weavers employ for dressing their warps.
It certainly would prove of important be-
nefit to our manufactures were this investi-
gated in a satisfactory manner.

Neither does it appear that this subject,
which is of much importance, has hither-
to attracted the attention of scientific men,
or that it has been treated in an accurate
or philosophical manner. It, however,
opens a wide field for chemical investiga-
tion, and promises to prove equally useful
to mankind, and lucrative to the person
who may succeed in supplying the desi-
deratum.

When the warp, previously dressed,
has been wrought up, as far as can be
done conveniently, the weaver is obliged
to suspend the operation of weaving, and
to prepare a fresh quantity of warp. It is
necessary to stop, when the dressed
warp has approached within two or three
inches of the back leaf of the heddles,
that room may be allowed to join the old
dressing to the new. The first operation,
as in wool and silk, is to clear the warp,
with the comb, from the lease rod to the
yarn roll, or beam. The proof that this
operation has been properly executed is,
by bringing back the rods, successively,
from their working situation to the roll.
When this has been done, the two fods
nearest to the heddles, are drawn out of
the warp to one side, and the lease rod
only remains. The next duty of the wea-
ver is to examine the yarn about to be
dressed, and careftdly to take away every
knot, lump, or other obstruction, which
might impede the progress of the work, or
injure the fabric of the cloth. In silk
warps no further dressing is necessary ;
but in cotton warps the weaver proceeds
t« apply the substance used for dressing,
which is rubbed gently, but completely,
into the whole warp, 'by means of two

brushes used in succession, one of which
he holds in each band. He then raises
the leaae rod, which in cotton weaving is
a middle rod, on one edge to divide the
warp, and sets the air in motion by mov-
ing a large fan, for the purpose of drying
the warp which has been dressed. Fuy-
tian weavers use a large red-hot iron for
this purpose. It is proper in this stage
of the operation, to draw one of the dress-
ing brushes lightly over the warp at inter-
vals, in order to prevent any obstruction,
which might arise by the threads, when
agitated by the fan, cohering or sticking
to each other, whilst in a wet state.
Whenever the warp is sufiiciently dried a
very small quantity of grease is brushed
over it, the lease rod is again placed upon
its flat side, and cautiously shifted for-
ward to the heddles. The other rods are
then put again into their respective sheds,
and the process is finished.

The first operation of dressing the warp
being finished, the weaver begins that of
forming the cloth. The operations re-
quired are only three, and these are ve-
ry simple.

1st. Opening the sheds in the warp,
alternately, by pressing the treddles with
his feet

2d. Driving the shuttle through each
shed, when opened. This is performed by
the right hand, when the fly-shuttle is us-
ed, and by the right and left hand, alter-
nately, in the common operation.

3d. Pulling forward the lay, or batten,
to strike home the woof, and again push-
ing it back nearly to the heddles. This
is done by the left hand with the fly* and
by each hand, successively, in the old
way. See Fly Shuttle, in Manufac-
ture o/ Cotton.

In describing operations so simple and
uniform, it is neither easy nor necessary
to go much into detail.

By examining any piece of plain cloth, it
will be found to be composed of two or
more distinct sets of threads or filaments,
running in opposite directions perpendi-
cularly to each other ; those threads (or,
as some weavers call them, yarns) in the
direction of tlie cloth's length are called
the warp, and extend entirely from one
end of the piece of cloth to the other
The thread or yarn running across the
cloth in an horizontal direction is called
the woof, or weft. It is in fact one con-
tinued thread through the whole piece of
cloth, being woven alternately over and
under each yarn of the warp, until it ar-
rives at the out side one. It then passes
round the yarn, and returns back over

WEAVING.

and under each thread as before ; but in
such a manner that it now goes over each
yarn which it passed under before ; thus
firmly knitting or weaving the whole to-
gether. The outside yarn of the warp
round which the woof is doubled, is call-
ed the selvage, and cannot be unraveled
without breaking the woof. The breadth
of the cloth determines the number of
yarns the warp shall contain ; and its qua-
lity limits their distances from each other
and determines the fineness or set of
the reed.

Though we have already generally ex-
plained the references to the plates, it will
be necessary to be more minute in our
description, in order to show the use to
which the different parts of the appara-
tus are applied -.ddtxre two sticks, con-
nected together by several threads ; which
system of threads is called a heddle : e e
is another heddle behind the former : in
the middle''of each thread composing the
heddle is a loop, through which the yarns
of the warp are passed ; one half of them
going through the loops of the heddle,
e e, the other half of the yarns passing be-
tween the threads of the heddle, and after-
wards through the eyes or loops of the
other heddle d d. The two heddles, d d
and e e, are connected together by two
small cords going over pulleys suspended
from the top of the loom, so that when
one heddle is drawn down the other will
be raised up. The heddles receive their
motion from the levers, or treddles, D E,
moved by the weaver's foot. The yarns
of the warp are passed alternately through
the loops of the heddles, so that by press-
ing down one treddle, as E, all the yarns
belonging to the heddle, e e, are drawn
down : and by means of the cords and
pulleys, the other heddle, d d, with all
the yarns belonging to it are raised up :
leaving a space called the shed, of about
two inches between the yarns. F G, G
H(fig. 2) is a frame called the batten, or
lay, suspended by the bar, F, from the
upper rails of the loom, so that it can
swing backwards and forwards. The bot-
tom bar, H, is much broader than the
rails, G G, and projects before their plane
about an inch and a half, forming a shelf
called the shuttle-race. The ends of the
bar, H, have boards nailed on each side,
and at the ends, to form two short troughs
or boxes, I I, in which pieces of wood, or
thick leather, k k, called peckers, or dri-
vers, traverse : they are guided by two
small wires, fixed at one end to the up-
rights, G G, and at tlie other to the end
pieces of the troughs, 1 1. Each pecker

has a string fastened to it tied to the han-
dle, y, which the weaver holds in his right
hand when at work, and with which he
pulls each pecker, alternately, forward.
R, is a small frame fixed upon the shuttle-
race, H, formed of a number of small pie-
ces of split reeds, or canes : or else of
pieces of flat wire of steel or brass. This
frame is called the reed. When this is in
its place the yarns of the warp pass be-
tween the canes, or dents. The shuttle
is a small piece of wood, pointed at each
end, about six inches long. It has an ob-
long mortice in it, containing a small bob-
bin, on which is wound the weft, which
runs through a small hole in the shuttle,
called the eye. The shuttle has two lit-
tie wheels on the under side, by which it
runs upon the shuttle-race. H. See Fltf
Shuttle, in the article Manufacture of
Cotton.

The weaver sits on the seat M, (fig. 1)
which hangs by pivots at its ends, that it
may adapt itself to the ease of the weaver
when he sits upon it. It is lifted out when
the weaver gets into the loom, and he
puts it in again afler him. He leans lightly
against the cloth roll, B, and places his
feet upon the treddles, D E. In his right
hand he holds the handle y (fig. 2) and by
his left he lays hold of a bar, called the
lay-cape, which crosses the batten, or lay,
G G, and serves to support the upper
edge of the reed, R. He commences the
operation by pressing down one of the
treddles with his foot : this depresses one
half of the yarns of the warp, and raises
the other, as before described : the shut-
tle is placed in one of the troughs, I,
against the pecker, k, belonging to that
trough : by drawing the handle of the
pecker with a sudden jerk, he drives the
pecker against the shuttle, and throws it
across the warp upon tlie shuttle-race into
the other trough, I, leaving the yarn of
the woof which was wound on the bobbin
after it. With his left he then pulls the
lay towards him ; by means of the reed,
the yarn of the woof, which before was
lying loose between the warp, is driven
up towards the cloth roll : the weaver
now presses down his other foot, which
reverses the operation, pulling down the
heddle which was up before, and raising
that which before was depressed : by the
other pecker he now throws the shuttle
back again, leaving the woof after it be-
tween the yarns of the warp ; and, by
drawing up the batten, beats it close up
to the thread before thrown. In this man-
ner the operation is continued until a few
inches are woven ; it is then wound upon

WEAVING.

the cloth roll, by putting- a short lever in-
to a hole made in the roll, and turning it
round. A click, acting in the teeth of a
serated wheel, prevents the return of the
roll. The yarn roll, A (fig. 1,) has at
each end a cord wound round it. One
end of tliis cord is tied to the frame of the
loom, the other has a weight hung to it :
tills rope causes a friction, which prevents
its turning (ludess the yarn is drawn by
the cloth beam,) and always preserves a
proper degree of tention in the yarn. T
T (fig. 1) are two smooth sticks (cotton
weavers have usually three) put between
tlie yams, to preserve the lease, and keep
the threads, or yarns, from entangling.
In cotton weaving, these sticks, or rods,
are kept at an uniform distance from the
heddles, either by tying them together,
or by a small cord with a hook at one end,
which lays hold of the front rod, and a
weight at the other, which hangs over
the yarn beam. The cloth is kept ex-
tended during the operation of weaving,
by means of two pieces of hard wood,
with small sharp points in their ends,
which lay hold of the edges, or selvages,
of tlie cloth. These pieces are connected
by a cord, passing obliquely tlirough
holes, or notches, in each piece. By
tliis cord they can be lengthened or
shortened, according to the breadth of
the web. They are kept flat after the
cloth is stretched by a small bar turning
on a centre fixed in one of the pieces,
with its longer end projecting closely
over the edge of the other piece. These
pieces of wood, thus formed, are called
the temples. Silk-weavers usually stretch
their cloth by means of two small sharp-
pointed hooks, fastened to the ends of
two strings, with little weights at the
other ends ; and the strings are made to
pass over little pulleys in each side of the
loom, at a suitable distance from the sel-
vages of the cloth.

In the treading of a web, most begin-
ners are apt to apply the weight, or force,
of the foot much too suddenly. The bad
consequences attending this mistake are
particularly felt in weaving fine or weak
cotton yarn. In weaving, as in every
other branch of mechanics, the resist-
ance, or re-action, is always nearly as great
as the moving power, or force, which it
is necessary to apply. From this it fol-
lows, that the body of tlie warp must sus-
tain a stress, nearly equal to the force
with which the weaver's foot is applied to
tlietreddle. Besides this, every indivi-
dual thread is subjected to all the fric-
tion, occasioned by the lieddles, and splits

of the reed, between which the threads
pass, and with which they are generally
in contact when rising and sinking. But
the art of spinning has not been as yet,
and probably never can be, brought to
such a degree of perfection, as to make
every thread capable of bearing its pro-
portion of this stress equally. It is con-
firmed both by mathematical demonstra-
tion, and by practical experience, that
when any body is to be moved with in-
creased velocity, it is necessary to exert
greater powers to move it ; and as the re-
sistance increases in proportion to the
power, this sudden application of the
pressure of the foot to the treddle, must
cause a proportional increase of the stress
upon the warp, and also of tlie friction.
Now, as it is impossible to make every
thread equally strong, and equally tight,
those which are the weakest, or the tight-
est, must bear much more than their
equal proportion of the stress. This
causes them to be broken very frequently,
and, even with the greatest attention,
more time is lost in tying and replacing
them, than would have been sufHcient
for weaving a very considerable quantity
into cloth. But when the weaver, from
inattention, continues the operation after
one or more threads are broken, the con-
sequence is still worse. When a thread
has been broken, it no longer retains its
parallel situation to the rest, but crossing
over or between those nearest to it, either
breaks them also, or interrupts the pas.sage
of the shuttle : most frequently it does
both.

In every kind of weaving, and especially
in thin wiry fabrics, much of the beauty
of the cloth depends upon the woof being
well stretched. But if the motion of the
shuttle be too rapid, it is very apt to recoil,
and thus to slacken the thread. It has
also a greater tendency either to break
the woof altogether, or to unwind it from
the pirn or bobbin, in doubles, which, if
not picked out, destroy the regularity of
the fabric. The woof of muslins and thin
cotton goods is generally woven into the
cloth in a wet state. This tends to lay the
ends of the fibres of tlie cotton smooth
and parallel, and its effect is similar to
tliat of dressing of the warp. The person
who winds the woof upon the pirn ought
to be very careful that it be well built, so
as to unwind freely. The best shape for
those used in the fly-shuttle, in cotton
weaving, is that of a cone ; and the tiiread
ought to traverse freely, in the form of a
spiral or screw, during the operation of

WEAVING.

»f

The same wheel, used for winding" the
-warp upon bobbins, is also fit for winding
the weft. It only requires a spindle of a
different shape, with a screw at one end,
upon which the pirn is fixed. The wheel
is so constructed, that the spindles may
be easily shifted, to adapt it for either
purpose.

That the fabric of the cloth may be uni-
form in thickness, it is necessary that the
lay, or batten, should be brought forward
with the same force every time. In the
common operation of weaving, this regu-
larity must be acquired by practice. It is,
however, of consequence to the weaver,
to mount, or prepare, his loom in such a
maimer, that the range of the lay may be
in proportion to the thickness of his cloth.
As the lay swings, backward and forward,
upon centres placed above, its motion is
similar to tliat of a pendulum. Now the
greater the arc, or range, through which
the lay passes, the greater will be its ef-
fect, in driving home the weft strongly,
and tlie thicker will be the fabric of the
cloth, in so far as that depends upon tlie
weft. For this reason, in weaving coarse
and heavy goods, the heddles ought to be
hung at a greater distance from the point
where the weft is struck up, than would
be proper in light work. The point, or
rather line, where the last wrought shot
of weft is struck up, is called by weavers
the fell. The pivots, upon which the lay
vibrates ought, in general, to be exactly
at equal distances from a line drawn per-
pendicular to the fell, and one drawn per-
pendicular to the heddles, and between
these two lines. But as the fell is con-
stantly varying in its situation, during the
operation, it will be proper to take the
medium. This is the place where the
fell will be, when a bore (i. e. as much as
can be woven witliout drawing fresh yarn)
is half wrought up. From this, the following
conclusion may also be drawn : The bores
ought always to be short in weaving light
goods; for the less that the extremes
vary from the medium, the more regular
will be the arc, or swing, of the lay.

Having given a general outhne of the
nature and process of plain weaving, it
is necessary, in order to convey to our
readers a more comprehensive idea of
the art, to notice the fanciful and orna-
mental parts of the business. The extent
to which this species of manufacture is
carried renders it an object of very
great importance, and deserving a more
minute description than our limits will
admit.

Stripes are formed upon cloth, either

by the warp or by the woof When Che
former of these ways is practised, the va-
riation of the process is chiefly the busi-
ness of the wai*per : in the latter case it
is that of the weaver. By unravelling any
shred of striped cloth, it rnay easily be
discovered, whether the stripes have
been produced by the operations of the
warper or those of the weaver.

Checks are produced by the combin-
ed operations of the warper and the
weaver.

Tioeeled clotlis are so various in their
textures, and at the same time so compli-
cated in their formation, that it is impos-.
sible to convey an adequate idea of the
mode of constructing them, without the
aid of several engraved figures. In exa-
mining any piece of plain cloth, it will be
observed, that all the threads in the warp
and woof cross each other, and are tack-
ed alternately. This is not the case in
tweeled cloths ; for in this instance only
the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, &c. threads
cross each other to form a texture.
Tweeled cloths have been fabricated of
various descriptions. In the coarsest
kinds every third thread is crossed ; in
finer fabrics, they cross each other at in-
tervals of four, five, six, seven, or eight
threads, and in some very fine tweeled
silks the crossing does not take place un-
til the sixteenth interval.

Tweeling is produced by multiplying
and varying the number of leases in the
harness ; by the use of a back-harness,
or double harness; by increasing the
number of threads in each split of the
reed ; by an endless variety of modes in
drawing the yarns through the harness ;
and by increasing the number of tred-
dles, and changing the manner of tread-
ing them. When the number of treddles
requisite to raise all the variety of sheds
necessary to produce very extensive
patterns would be more than one man
could manage, recourse is had to a mode
of mounting, or preparing the loom, by
the application of cords, &c. to the har-
ness; and a second person is necessary
to raise the sheds required, by pulling
the strings attached to the respective
leases of the back harness, which are
sunk to their first position by means of
leaden weights underneath. This is the
most comprehensive apparatus used by
weavers for fanciful patterns of great ex-
tent, and it is called the draw -loom. In
weaving very fine silk tweels, such as
those of sixteen leases, the number of
threads drawn through each interval of
the reed is so great, that, if woven with

i;i^EA

WEI

a single reed, they would obstruct each
other in i-ising and sinking, and the shed
would not be sufficiently open to allow
the shuttle a free passage. To avoid this
inconvenience, other reeds are placed
behind that which strikes up the weft ;
and the warp threads are so disposed,
that those whidi pass through the same
interval in the first reed are divided in
passing .lirough the second, and again in
})assing tiirough the third. Ity these
means llie obstruction, if not entirely re-
moved, is greatly lessened.

In the weaving of plain thick woollen
cloths, to prevent obstructions of this
kind, arising from the closeness of the
set, and roughness of the threads, only
one-fourth of tlie warp is sunk and raised
by one treddle, ajid a second is pressed
down to complete the shed, between the
times when every shot of weft is thrown
across.

Double cloth is composed of two webs,
each of which consists of separate warp
and separate weft ; but the two are inter-
woven at intervals. The junction of the
two webs is formed by passing each of
them occasionally through the other, so
that each particular part of both is some-
times above and sometimes belov/.

This species of weaving is almost ex-
clusively confined to tlie manufacture of
carpets in this countj-y. The material
employed is dyed woollen ; and, as al-
most all carpets are decorated with fanci-
fid ornaments, tlie colours of the two
webs are different, and they are made to
pass througi) each other at such intervals
as will form the patterns required.
Hence it arises, that the patterns of each
side of the carpet arc the same, but the
colours are reversed. Carpets are usu-
ally woven in the draw-loom.

Game differs in its formation fi'om
other cloths, by having the threads of tlie
warp crossed over each other, instead of
lying parallel. I'hey are turned to the
right and left alternately ; and each shot
of weft preserves tlie twine wljich it has
received. This effect is caused by a sin-
gular mode of jiroducing the sheds,
which cannot easily be described wilhou-
the aid of drawings.

Cross, or uet-iveaving, is a sei^^^te
branch of the art, and requires a loom
particularly constructed for the purpose.

Spotn, Brocades, and Lapf^iff, are pro-
duced by a combination of the arts of
plain, tvv'eeled, and gaur.e weaving; and,
as in every other branch of the art, are
produced in ail their varieties by differ-
ent ways of forming the sheds, by the ap-
plicatioii of Itcddfcs. and their connec-

v^L vr.

tions with the treddles which move 4iieiii.
Indeed, the whole k)iowledge of the art
consists in this part of the apparatus of a
loom.

In drawing up the foregoing account of
the art of weaving, we have laboured un-
der inconveniences of no small magni-
tude. The many different kinds of
cloth ; the almost infinite variety of ways,
though all on the same general principle,
of constructing them ; the different for-
mation of apparatus in making different
cloths; and, lastly, the want of uniformi-
ty in the technical phraseology of the
art, have all tended to render our de-
scriptions far more intricate and difficidt
thaii they otherwise would have been.
The assistance, however, which we have
derived from the very excellent " Essays
on the Art of Weaving," by Mr. Duncan,
ought not to pass by us unacknowledged.
It is a most curious and valuable publica-
tion, embracing almost every thing ne-
cessary to be known concerning the art
on which it professes to treat.

WEBERA, in botany, a genus of the
Pentandria Monogynia class and order.
Essential character : contorted; berry in-
ferior, two-celled, cells one-seeded i
style elevated; stigma club-shaped/ ca-
lyx five-cleft. There are three /jJecies.

WEDGE, one of the meclv-nical pow-
ers, as they are called. T-^e wedge is a
triangular prism, who.«^ bases are equi-
lateral acute-angled triangles. See Me-
chanics.

WEEK, in chronology, a division of
time comprising seven days. See Chro-

JVOLOGV.

WE«iELTA, in botany, so named in
hondur of Christ. FArenfr. Weigel ; a ge-
nns of the Pen<*ndria xMonogynia class
and order. F'Sential character : calyx
five-leaved; corolla funnel-form; style
fi-om the Hse of the germ ; stigma pel-
tate ; se^l one. There are two specie^!,
viz. W japonica, and W. corocensis, botii
nati'^s of Japan.

\\TiIGHT, in physics, is a quality in
natural bodies, by which they tend to-
wards the centre of the earth. See Gra-
vitation. Weight may be distinguish-
ed into absolute, specific, and relative.
It is demonstrated by Sir Isaac Newton :
1. That the weights of all bodies, at
equal distances from the centre of the
earth, are proportional to the quantities
of matter that each contains. 2. On dif-
ferent parts at the earth's surface, the
weight of the same body is different ;
owing to the spheroidal figure of the
earth, which cause? the bodies on the

!JSX7«asiTTl

WEIGHTS.

surface to be nearei* the centre in going
from the equator towards the poles ; and
the increase of weight is nearly in pro-
portion to the square of the sine of the
latitude : the weight at the equator to
that at the pole being as 229: 230; or
the whole increase of weight from the
equator to the pole is the 229th part of
the former. 3. That the weights of the
same body, at different distances above
the earth, are inversely as the squares of
the distances from the centre. So that a
body at the distance of the moon, which
is 60 semi-diameters from the earth's cen-
tre, would weigh only i__th part of
what it weighs at the surface of the earth.
4, That at different distances within the
earth, or below the surface, the weights
of the same body are directly as the dis-
tances from the earth's centre ; so that at
half way toward the centre a body would
weigh but half as much, and at the centre
it would weigh nothing at all. 5. A bo-
dy immersed in a fluid, which is specifi-
cally lighter than itself, loses so much of
its weight as is equal to the weight of a
quantity of the fluid of the same bulk
with itself. Hence a body loses more of
lt!> weight in a heavier fluid than in a
lighttr one, and therefore it weighs more
in a lighter fluid than in a heavier one.

The weig\,t of a cubic foot of water is
1000 ounces, o. 62^/6. avoirdupois ; this,
multipUed by 32,gWes 2000M. the weight
of a ton : hence eight ^ubic feet formerly
made a hogshead, and r«ur hogsheads a
ton, in capacity as well as in weight.
Measures for corn, coals, and other dry
articles, were constructed on the same
principle. A bushe\ of wheat, assumed
as a general standard for all sorts of
grain, weighed 62^16. eig^ of these make
a quarter, and four quartets, or 32 bush-
els, a ton weight. Coals were^old by the
chaldron, and supposed to we\>;^|i a ton,
Aipugh in reality it weighs muc. more'.
Hence a ton weight is the common J*and-
ard for liquids, wheat, and coals, ive^j
this analogy been adhered to, the coii
fusion which is occasioned by different
local weights would have been avoided.

To regulate the weights and measures
of a country is a branch of the sovereign's
prerogative. For the public conveni-
ence, these ought to be universally the
same throughout the nation, the better
to reduce the prices of articles to equiva-
lent values. But as weight and measure
are things in their nature arbitrary and
uncertain, it is necessary that they be
reduced to some fixed rule or standard.

It is, however, impossible to fix such a
standard by any written law or oral pro-
clamation, as no person can, by words
only, give to another an adequate iilea of
a pound weight, or foot rule. It is there-
fore expedient to have recourse to some
visible, palpable, material standard, by
forming a comparison with which all
weights and measures may be reduced to
one uniform size. Such a standartl was
anciently kept at Winchester; and we
find in the laws of King Edgar, nearly a
century before the conquest, an injunc-
tion that this measure sliould be observ-
ed throughout the realm.

Most nations have regulated the stand-
ard of measures of length from some parts
of the human body : as the palm, the
hand, the span, the foot, the cubit, the
ell, (ulna, or arm) the pace, and the fa-
thom. But as these are of different dimen-
sions in men of different proportions, an-
cient historians inform us, that a new
standard of length was fixed by our king
Henry the First ; who commanded that
the ulna, or ancient ell, which answers to
the modern yard, should be made of the
exact length of his own arm. See Mea-

SUUE.

The standard of weights was originally
taken from grains or corns of wheat,
whence our lowest denomination of
weights is still called a grain ; thirty-two
of which are directed, by the statute call-
ed " compositio mensuraruin," to com-
pose a penny-weight, twenty of which
make an ounce, and twelve ounces a
pound, &c. Under king Richard the
First it was ordained, that there should be
only one weight and one measure through-
out the nation ; and that the custody of
the assize, or standard of weights and
measures, should be committed to cer-
tain persons in every city and borough ;
from whence the ancient office of the
king's ulnager seems to have been de-
rived. These original standards were
called pondus regis, and mensura domini
regis, and are directed by a variety of
subsequent .statutes, to be kept in the' eXr
"hequer chamber, by an officer called the
c^M'k of the market, except the wine gal-
lon, which is committed to the city of
Londo., and kept in Guildhall. The Scot-
tish stan^v'irds are distributed among the
oldest boroj^hs. The elward is kept at
Edinburgh, *Jie pint at Stirhng, the
pound at Lanai^, and the firlot at Lin-
lithgow.

Tile two principal weights established
in Great Britain, are troy weight and
avoirdupois weight, as before mentioned.

WEIGHTS.

Under the head of the former it may fur- weigh, tod, stone, and clove ; tlie propor-

ther be added, that a carat is a weight of tions of which are as below ; viz.
four grains ; but when tlie term is applied

to gold, it denotes the degree of fineness. The sack containing ... 2 weighs,

Any quantity of gold is supposed divided The weigh 6^ tods,

into twenty -four parts. If the whole The tod 2 stones,

mass is pure gold, it is said to be twenty- The stone 2 cloves,

four carats fine ; if there are twenty- The clove 7 pounds.

three parts of pure ^old, and one part of

alloy or base metal, it is said to be twen- But these weights differ in almost every
ty-three carats fine, and so on. Pure country where dealing^ in wool are car-
gold is too soft to be used for coin. The ried on largely.

standard coin of this kingdom is 22 carats », ,r, , , i .n^o

fine. A pound of standard gold is coined Also 12 sacks make a last, or 4368

into 44^ guineas, and therefore every pounds.

guinea should weigh 5 dwts. 9|9 grains. Kr,^^\ , , , ^n ,r u

A ««.i«i *• I P ^^11 56 lb. of old hay, or 60 lb. new hay,

A pound of sdver for coin contains 11 oz. «,„ir^ „ 4.^., J c^^ t ,.„„ ^

2 dwts. pure silver, and 18 dwts. alloy ; "^^^^ * ^'^"''- ^^^ ^ "^''•

^nlf wl'lnl^^^'n Ji'ili^^ ''7''^' ^7% In order to show the proportion of the

silver, with one ounce alloy. A pound of • • ^ . j ^i u * i?

standard silver is coined into 62 shillings, several weights used throughout Europe,

and therefore the weight of a shilhng Z' !, "i '^'- ^ ^f^^^^" ^* '^Tx T^

should be 3 dwts. 2011 grains. ^ standard, v:z. the London and Amster-

T- 1 , , 3 1 p , . , dam pound.

Lnderthe words avoirdupois and troy i. Proportion of the weights of the

will be found an account ot those weights; principal places of Europe,

here we may add a small table from Mr. * * • '

Ferguson, which gives a more enlarged The 100 lb. of England, Scotland, and

comparison between these two weights. Ireland, are equal to

1 75 Trov pounds are equal to 144 avoir- ni °q' r * * j t» • e

d.ipois pounds. ^ ^1 8 of Amsterdam, Pans, &c.

175 Troy ounces are equal to 192 avoir- l^ ^ «J Antwerp or Brabant.

dnpois ounces. ^ ,^? 0 of Rouen, he viscounty weight.

1 Troy pound contains 5760 grains. ^^^ ^ ""S u^","'',, '''^^' '^'''^^'^'

1 Avoirdupois pound contains 7000 .^^ ,? of Rochelle.

™,jjij^3| ' 107 11 of Toulouse and Upper Langue-

1 Avoirdupois ounce contains 437i n« n r»?^* -n «

gj-j^ji^g*^ ^113 0 of Marseilles or Provence.

1 Avoirdupois dram contains 27.34375 ^J I "f ^'^neva.

gr-Ains ^^ ^ of Hamburgh.

ITrov pound contains 13 oz. 2.651- ^l ^ «^ f>"^f°i^' ^^•

428576 drams avoirdupois. , ^^ J ^J! J^^eipsick, &c.

1 Avoirdupois lb. contains 1 lb. 2 oz. \% .f ♦•?^T'

11 .W 16,.. troy. I53 U of Mifa^'

Therefore the av(,irdupois lb. is to the \f, .J! °( J^"?^^'

lb. troy as 175 to 144, and the avoirdupois ^i% \^ f-« ?H?r..1,V &r

oz. is to the troy oz. as 437* is to 480. , ^^ ,^ "rl*" 'V f ' ? '

The moneyers, jewelleri, &c. have a ^^t ^l ""l^-T.^

particular class of heights for gold and ^.l % of Sa

precious stones, wz. carat and grain; and 3"

for silver, the penny-weight and grain. 107 ^^f of Sweden.

The moneyers have also a peculiar subdi- 89 ^ of Denmark,
vision of the troy grain : thus, dividing

We shaU now show the correspond-

The gi-ain into 20 mites, ence bet»reen English weights and some

T'lie mite into 24 droits, modem weights in France and other

The droit into 20 periots, cou^itries, which will be very usefiil in

The periot into 24 blanks. r<:ading works on statistics and chemistry,

as well modern as those that have been

The dealers in wool have likewise a long published, and become standard

particular set of weights : viz. the sack, books.

WEIGHTS.

ENGLISH WTilGHTS.

Troy Weight.
lb. oz. drms. scruples, grains. grammes.
1 = 12 =3 ro — 2oo = 5760 =s 3f 2.96
1= 8= 24= 480= 31.08
1 = 3 = 60 = 3.885
1 = 20 =• 1.395

1 = 0.06475

Avoirdupois Weight.

lb. oz. drms. grains. grammes*

1 = 16 =3 256 = 7000 = 453.25

1 = 16 = 437.5 = 28.32

1 = :^7.975 = 1.81

CoiTespondence of Ejiglish -weights toith
those used in France bej'ure the revolution.

The Paris pound, poids de marc of
Charlemagne, contains 9216 Paris grains*:
it is divided into 16 ounces, each ounce
into 8 gros, and each gros into 72 grains.
It is equal to 7561 English troy grains.

The English troy pound of 12 ounces
contains 5760 English troy grains, and is
equal to 702 Paris grains.

The English avoirdu|)ois pound of 16
ounces contains 7000 English troy grains,
and is equal to 8538 Paris grains.
To reduce Paris grains to En-"^

glish troy grains, divide by ! . 21 go
To reduce English troy grains ("

to Paris grains, multiply by J

To reduce Paris ounces to En-"^

glish troy, divide by 1 1.015734

1 o reduce Eng. troy ounces to f

Paris, multiply by J

Or the conversion may be made by

means of the following tables.

1. To reduce French to English troy weight.
The Paris pouT^d = 7561 "^ „ ,. ,
The ounce = 472.5624 1 ^"^^'^

The gros =* 59.0703 f ^^^^

The grain = .8204J S^ams.

TABLE,

Sho-wing the comparison bet-iceen French and
English grains. (Foid de JMiarc.)

2. To reduce EngUsh troy to Paris -weight.

The Eng. troy pound? __ yr^cy^

of 12 ounces . . S — ^^^^- "\
The troy ounce . . . . = 585.0893
The dram of 60 grains = 73.1354
The pennyweight, or ^ 909^.1

denier, of24 grains 5 =^ 29.2541
The scruple of 20 grs. = 24 3784
The grain = 1 2189J

3

3. To reduce Eug. avoird. to Paris •weight.
TJie avoirdupois poimd ^ "^5

of 16 ounces, or 7000 C -.., 8538. I 2.

troy grains 3 1 (^

The ounce ..,..., =533.6250j 3

French grs*

= Eng. grs.

Eng. grs. =

= French gnr.

1

0.8203

1

1.2189

2

1.6407

2

2.4378

3

2.4611

3

3.6568

4

3.2815

4

^.B>757

5

4.1019

5

6.0947

6

4.9223

6

7.3136

7

5.7427

7

8 5325

8

6.5631

8

9.75X5

9

7.2^5

9

10.9704

10

8.203

10

12.189

20

16.407

20

24.378

30

24.611

30

o6.56^

40

32.815

40

48.757

50

41.019

SO

60.947

60

49.223

60

73.136

70

57.427

70

85.325

80

65.631

80

97.513

90

7o.Q35

90

•109 704

100

82.03

100

121.89

200

164.07

200

243.78

300

246.11

300

365.68

400

328.15

400

487.57

500

410.19

500

609.47

600

492.23

600

731.36

700

574 27

700

853.25

800

656 31

800

975.15

900

738.55

900

1097.04

1000

820.3

1000

1218.9

2000

1640.7

2000

2437>8

3000

2461.1

3000

3656.8

4000

3281.5

4000

4875.7

5000

4101.9

5000

6094.7

6000

4922.3

6000

7313.6

7000

5742.7

7000

8532.5

8000

6563.1

8000

9751.5

9000

7-3i^S.5

9000

10970.4

10,000

8233.0

10,000

12189.0

GERMAN.

71 lbs. or grs. English troy = 74 lbs. or

grs. German apothecai'ies weight.

1 oz. Nuremberg medic, weight = 7

dr. 2 sc. 9 grains English.
1 mark Cologne = 7 oz. 2 dwt. 4 gr.
English troy.

DUTCH.

1 lb. Dutch = 1 /6. 3 oz; 16 dwt. 7gr
English troy.
787^ /6s. Dutch = 1038 /*«.EngUsh troy.

WEI

WEI

SWEDISH WEIGHTS,

Used by Berg^man and Scheele.

The Swedish pound, which is divided
like the English apothecary, or troy
pound, weighs 6356 grains troy.

The kanne of pure water, according to
Bergman, weighs 42250 Swedish grains,
and occupies 100 Swedish cubical inches.
Hence the kanne of pure water weighs
48088.ri94'14 ?'-nghsh troy grains, or is
equal to 189.9413 English cubic inches ;
and the Swedish longitudinal inch is
equal to 1.238435 English longitudinal
inches.

From these data, the following rules
are deduced :

1. To reduce Swedish longitudinal
inches to Englisli, multij)ly by 1.2384, or
divide by 0.80747.

2. To reduce Swedish to English cubi-
cal inches, multiply by 1.9, or divide bv
0.5265.

3. To reduce the Swedish pound,
ounce, dram, scruple, or grain, to the
corresponding English troy denomina-
tion, multiply by 1.1382, or divide by
8.786.

4. To reduce Swedish kannes to Eng-
lish wine pints, multiply by .1520207, or
divide by 6.57804.

5. The lod, a weight sometimes used
by Bergman, is the 32d part of the Swed-
ish pound : therefore, to reduce it to the
English troy pound, multiply by .Qo557i
or divide by 28.1156.

Umvei'sal Standard for Weights and Mea-
sures.

This is an object of vast im.portance,
could it be attained : we fear, however,
that, like a project for universal peace and
good-will among men, it is a thing rather
to be desired than expected, in the pre-
sent state of things. Philosophers may
speculate on the importJince and excel-
lence of such a scheme, but statesmen
busy in projects of ambition, have not
leisure to attend to any thing that does
not augment their power, extend their
influence, and render them rather a ter-
i-orto mankind, than the objects of their
praise and veneration. It behoves us,
however, to give, in few words, a sketch
of what has been attempted with a view
to an universal standard for weights and
measures through the whole world. The
plans laid down iiuve been deduced from
philosophical principles. After tlie inven-
tion of pendulum clocks, it occurred that

the length of a pendulum which should
vibrate seconds, would be proper to be
made a universal standard for length,
whatever the denomination should be
fixed on, whether yanl, or any thing else.
It was however found, that it would be
difficult in practice to measure and deter-
mine the true length of such a pendulum,
that is, the exact distance between the
point of suspension and the point of oscil-
lation. Another cause of inaccuracy was
afterwards discovered, when it was found
that the second's pendulum was of differ-
ent lengths in all the different latitudes,
owing to the spheroidal figure of the
earth, (see Eakth,) which is the cause
why places, in different latitudes,- at dif-
ferent distances from the centre, and of
course the pendulums, are acted upon by
different forces of gravity, and therefore
require to be of different lengths. In the
latitude of London this is found to be 39A-
inches nearly.

The Society of Arts, &c. have offered
]iremiums for a plan that might accom-
plish this great object : and among other
devices then brought forward was one by
Mr. Hatton, which consisted in measuring
the difference of the lengths of two pen-
dulums at different times of vibration,
which could be performed more easily
and accurately than that of the length of
one single pendulum. This method was
put in practice, and fully explained and
illustrated by the lute Mr. Wliitehvu-st,
in his attempts to ascertain an universal
standard of weights and measures. The
same kind of inaccuracy of measurement
obtains in this way, though in a smaller
degree, as in a single pendulum. Another
method has been proposed, on observing
very accurately the space that a heavy
body falls freely through in one second of
time. Here absolute accuracy is almost
unattainable ; besides, the form of the
earth introduces difficulties, owing to the
different distances from the centre, and
the consequent diversity in the furce of
gravity by which the body falls. This
space, in the latitude of London, has been
found 193 inches, of course it is different
in other latitudes. The metliod of late
years, proposed by the French, is that of
measuring a degree on the earth's sur-
face, at the latitude of 45 degrees, and
from this to deduce an universal measure
of lengths, which would be easily appli-
cable to weights also.

WEIGHTS and MEASURES, in law.
The standard of measures was originally
kept at Wincijester, which measure was,
by the law of King Edgar, ordained to be

WHA

WHE

observed throughout the kingdom. By
statute 35 George HI. c. 102, the justices
in quarter sessions, in every county, are
required to appoint persons to examine
the weights and balances within their re-
spective jurisdictions. These inspectors
may seize and examine weights in shops,
&c' and seize false weights and balances ;
and the offender, being convicterl before
one justice, shall be fined from five shil-
lings to twenty shilhngs. Persons ob-
structing the inspectors, to foifeit from
five shillings to forty shillings. Inspectors
to be recompensed out of the county rate.
Standard weights to be purchased by the
sessions out of the county rate, and pro-
duced to all persons paying for the pro-
duction thereof. Informations to be with-
in one month.

WEINMANNIA, in botany, so named
in honour of .loh. Wilh. Weinmann ; a
genus of the Octanth'ia Digynia class and
order. Natural order of Saxifrage, Jus-
sieu. Essential character: calyx four-
leaved ; corolla four-petalled ; capsule
two-celled, two-beaked. There are six
species.

WELDING. Welding is that intimate
union produced between the surfaces of
two pieces of malleable metal, when heat-
ed almost to fusion and hammered. This
union is so strong, that wiien two bars of
metal are properly welded, the place of
junction is as strong, relatively to its thick-
ness, as any other part of the bar. Only
two of the old metals are capable of firm
union by welding, namely platina and
iron ; the same property belongs to the
newly discovered metals, potassium and
sodaum.

WERNERITE, in mineralogy, is of a
colour between yellow and green ; it oc-
curs crystallized ; specific gravity is about
3.6. It intumesces before the blow- pipe,
and melts into a whitish enamel. It is
found in the iron mines in Sweden and
Norway.

WESTRINGIA, in botany, so named in
honour of John Peter Westring ; a genus
of the Didynamia Gymnospermia class and
order. Natural order of Yerticillatae. La-
biatae, Jussieti. Essential character: calyx
half, five-cleft, five-sided ; corolla revers-
ed, with four segments, the longest erect,
cloven ; stamens distant, the two shorter,
or lowest, abortive. There is only one
species, viz. W. rosmariniformls, a native
of New South Wales, near Port Jackson.

WHALE, See BALinvA.

WHAi.i6jisfieri/. See Fishery,

WHARF, a space on the banks of a
haven, creek, or hithe, provided for the

convenient loading and unloading of ves- i
sels upon. The fee paid for the landing j
of goods on a wharf, or for shipping them i
off, is called wharfiige ; and the person ■
who has the direction and oversight of the \
wharf, receives wharfage, &.c, is called the ,
wjjartinger.

WHEAT. See TniTicuM.

WHEEL. This is one of the six powers j
of mechanism ; and without doubt, con- I
tributes more than any of the other five ta \
the general convenience of mankind, by ;
the wonderful variety of purposes, from a
mill to a watch, wherein it is employed. ,
It is our intention, however, in this place, '
to confine ourselves to the wheel as ap- !
pertaining to vehicles in general, refer- i
ring the readers to the articles Mill worfr, •
Watch -worky Clock work, &c. for the ap- i
plication of such wheels as come withia '.
those brandies of the arts, ^|

Of carriage wheels, in general, we shall J
then treat ; observing, that any attempt to
prove that a carriage is more easily drawn
upon wheels than upon sledges, would be
an affront to the understanding of the
reader. But whether high, or low, wheels
are fitted for the purpose, has been a sud-
ject of dispute, even among persons of
skill. Reason and experience, however,
seem perfectly to agree in this, that
wheels, whose centres are on a level with
the moving power, will be easiest drawn
along a level plane ; and that the higher
a wheel is the more easily will it get over
the obstacles it may meet with, provided
the moving power be not below the
centre. It seems to follow, therefore, that I
carriages drawn by horses, or oxen, '|
should have wheels whose centres have ]
the height of the draft line ; that is, of the i
shoulders of the horses, or the yokes of -^
the oxen. This is true, however, only in ^
the case of a horizontal road ; in going up *.
hill the distance of the line of draught from I
the road is somewhat less; because, when
a. man, or any other animal, is standing^
upon the side of aslope, his height is in- ]
clined to that slope ; or rather the slope is .■
inclined towards him, where he stands 'i
perfectly perpendicular. This being the :
situation in which cattle labour most, it is ^
necessjiry to proportion the draft, so as to )
render it as light as possible while draw- 1
ing up hill ; therefore, it is irsual, and i
higldy proper so to proportion the height \
of the axle, especially in carts with two ^
wheels, lo the point of draught, that the :
line drawn from the centre of the wheel *.
to that point should rise at an angle of ^
about tv\ clve or fourteen degrees ; thus, }
when tlie horse is labouring up hill he will '

WHEEL.

come nearly to a level with the wheel's
centre, and draw to the greatest advan-
tage. This may serve as a general rule ;
but where local circumstances prevail of
a different tendency, and also in particular
cases, the height of the wheels must be
suited to meet such. We reckon that in
ordinary work, and where the liorses do
not exceed the height of fifteen hands and
a h.i'.f, the wheels should be from four feet
eighi inciies to five feet two. Yet the
immense loads drawn in the coal carls at
Glasgow, on wheels more than six feet
high, and other instances of a like kind,
prove that very great powers are gained
by using high wheels ; under due con-
struction and application the difference of
the wheel's weiglit will not prove any
material drawback. In ascending, high
wheels will be found to facilitate the
draught in exact i-atio with tiie squares
of their diameters; but in descending they
are liable to press in the same proportion.
An admirable device was produced by
Lord Somerville, for throwing the weight
behind the centre in going down hill, by
cocking the fore-part of the body of a
cart ; so that while the shaft may incline
downwards, in proportion to the line of
dechvity, the bottom of the cart's body
should remain horizontal ; this construc-
tion is now common in Devonshire, So-
mersetshire, &c.

Wheels are commonly made with what
is called a dish ; that is, the spokes are
set at an angle into the nave, or centre-
piece ; so that, w])en the interior end of
the nave is placed on the ground, the
wheel may appear to be dished, or hol-
low, in the centre. Experience has
shown, that when wheels have been made
cylindrical, and not with the conical hol-
lov/just described, so that the spokes
stood at right angles with tlie centre
of the axle, numberless inconveniences
arose; the dirt taken up by the wheel used
to fall in between the nave and the axle,
so as to choak and wear it considerably.
Such wheels also required to stand wider
apart, anddemanded greater road way; be-
sides they were very apt to be wrenched
when pressed by any exterior resistance,
and the spokes were forced back in the
mortices. According to the present plan
of dishing wheels, usually lo about four
inches in five feet of diameter, the ex-
terior resistances are avoided ; the axle
being so turned down at its ends, as to
cause the lower spoke, vv hich bears up
the load, to stand perpendicularly under
the centre ; thus occasioning the upper
parts of tbc two wheels on the same an-

gle to spread from each other ; while the
lower parts converge in the same propor-
tion. Cylindrical wheels, that i.s, such as
are not dished, would answer, provided
the carriage were always on a perfectly
horizontal plane ; but they would subject
the nave to be loaded with mud, and pinch
the load, when consisting of light articles
rising above the body of tiie carriage.
' The spokes should be set so far from
the outer end of the nave, that a perpen-
dicular from the sole to the under side of
the axle may fall, between an inch
and two inches, between the bushes.
liy this, the pressure will be somewhat
greater on the outer than on the inward
bush, when the wheels are on a level.
This ought to be so; for the inner part
of the axle arm being much bigger than
the outer, it has more friction, therefore
should have less pressure ; besides, every
sinking- of the wheel, more than the other,
causes it to pinch the inner bush. 'I'he
best mode of placing spokes in the naves»
is to mortice them in two rows, alternate-
ly ; this does not weaken the centre so
much as when all the spokes are in one
row, or band, and gives a greater degree
of resistance outwards. The tire, or iron
binding of a wheel, must be so laid on,
whether in one or more bands, as to form
the frustrum of a cone ; but in heavy wag-
gons it is usual to make the middle of the
tire rise considerably, so as to bear the
whole weight on hard road.s, whereby the
carriage will move lighter than if the frus-
trum were rectilinear; this form likewise
causes stones, &c. to slij) aside ; but in
soft soils it is apt to occasion much sink-
ing. The axle arm should be taper, in
order that it may give the wheel rather a
disposition to slide off; otherwise it
would be apt to close inwardly, aMl cre-
ate excessive friction; hence the necessity
for good iron wasters exteriorly, and sub-
stantial linch-pins. There is a common
practice of setting the wlieels forward;
that is, giving them a slight inclination
towards each other, whereby they are
perhaps an inch nearer at tlieir front than
at their backs; this is done to make the
v.'heel run more even on its sole, or bear-
ing part, and to prevent its gaping for-
ward ; but it is evidently a distortion,
which prevents the wheel from running
exactly at right angles with the transverse
section of the carriage. The nave of a
heavy wheel, that i.s, for our ordinary cart
for field purposes, need not be more than
twelve or fourteen inches in length ; if
too short, the wheel will wabble, unless
fitted very tight on the axle ; while too

WHEEL.

long a nave is apt to catch the dirt from
the upper part, and to project too mucli
beyond tiie outer fuce of the fellies; the
above length is exclusive of the pan at the
outer end.

The proportions of wheels must be es-
timated according to the purposes to
which they are to be applied ; thus wag-
gons have in general large hind-wheels,
while in timber carriages the four are
usually of the same height, or nearly so ;
the London common stage carts have
large wheels, while the drays used by
brewers have very low ones. The reason
is obvious ; waggons and carts load be-
hind ; bui timber carriages and drays
load at the s,des; therefore, in such, large
wheels, however much they might favour
the draught, would be extremely incon-
venient; indeed incompatible. Wheels,
whatever their si?:e, should be made of
well-seasoned tough wood, perfectly free
from blemish ; the naves are generally
of elm, the spokes of oak, aiid the fellies
of elm or of ash : such are found to answer
best for all carriages attached to the ord-
nance department; in which the following
are considered as the regular standard
heights.

All the horse-artillery carriages, lim-
bers, and waggons ; the heavy six-pound-
ers, and long three-pounders, and their
limbers ; the carriage of a six-pounder
battalion gun ; of a light five and a half
inch howitzer ; and the hind wheels of an
ammunition waggon, five feet. The lim-
ber to a light six-pounder, and five and a
half inch howitzer ; the carriage of a me-
dium twelve-pounder, four feet eight
inches. The limber of the latter four
feet six inches. A sling-cart, five feet
eight inches. The fore-wheels of an am-
munition waggon, four feet. A pontoon
cari'iage has the fore- wheels three feet,
and tlie hind ones five feet six inches.
The cai'riage of an eight inch howitzer,
five feet; the limber, four feet. A ball
ammunition cart, five feet.

We are disposed to recommend these
proportions to the consideration of read-
ers concerned in the construction, or in
the use of wheel carriages ; they being
the result of innumerable experiments,
submitted to unequivocal proof under
every variety of locality and of burthen. We
tnink it necessary, at the same time, to
observe, that a correspondent of the Agri-
cultural Magazine, formerly published
by Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, of
Paternoster-row, has, in the eleventh
number of that work, given, what ap-
pears to be, an excellei^t rule for the

proportions of wheels in waggons. It
would not be admissable for us to give
the whole of the reasonings of that cor-
respondent, as contained in various num-
bers ; but from that which we have parti-
cularized, we have the pleasure to furni.sh
the following extract ; or, at least, the
sense of it.

" If the fore-wheel be four feet four
inches in height, and the line of traction
(draught) be drawn at an elevation of
twelve degrees from the centre of iis axle,
the point where that fine cuts the circum-
ference of the wheel in ils fi-ont gives
that height from the plane on which the
carriage stands, that will dett-nnine the
radius of the hinder wheel. In this in-
stance,the hind-wheel would liave a radius
of two feet nine inclies, giving Of course
five feet six inches for its diametc r."

A view of the plate given in that work,
not only will illustrate the above explana-
tion, but will satisfy a person respecting
the justness of the proportions above de-
tailed ; when tempered by the following
cautions, we consider the instruction ■
given to be admirable. " The fore-wheel
ought to be as nearly level with the point
of draught, that is, where the shdft is
suspended by the gear, as may be conve-
nient ; observing, that an angle of twelve
degrees is to be given, on accoinit of the
difference between the horse's height as
he stands at rest, and the real altitude of
the point of draught from the ground,
when he is in a slate of exertion. During*
great efforts, horses lose very considera-
bly of their standard, and thus bring the
shaft to nearly a parallel with the plane
on which they move. Attention must be
paid to keeping the wheel within such
limits as may not trespass on other mat-
ters, often of more consequence even
than ease of draught ; loading, turning,
weight, expense, Stc. must always form a
part of the calculation."

WuKEt Tvork. Of all the modes of com-
municating motion, the most extensively
useful is the employment of wheel-v.ork,
which is capable of varj'ing its direction
and its velocity without any hmit.

Wheels are sometimes turned bv sim-
ple contact with each other ; sometimes
by the intervention of cords, straps, or
chains, passing over them; and in these
cases the minute protuberance of the
surfaces, or whatever else may be the
cause of friction, prevents their sliding
on each other. Where a broad strap runs
on a wheel, it is usually confined to its
situation, not by causing the margin of
the wheel to project, but, en the con

WHEEl^ WORK.

ti'ary, l)y making- the middle prominent ;
the reason of this may be luwlerstood by
examining- the manner in which a tiglit
strap running on a cone would tend to
run towards its thickest part. Sometimes
also pins are fixed in the wheels, and ad-
mitted into perforations in the straps ; a
mode oiily practicable where the motion
is slow and steady. A smooth motion
may also be obtained, with considerable
force, by forming the surfaces of the
wheels into brushes of hair. xVIore com-
monly, Jiowever, the circumferences of
the contiguous wheels are formed into
teeth, impelling each other, as with the
extremities of so many levers, either ex-
jnctly or nearly in the common direction
<^ the circumferences; and sometimes
an endless screw is substituted for one of
the wheels. In forming the teeth of
wheels, it is of consequence to determine
the curvature which wdl procure an
equable communication of motion, with
the least possible friction. For tlie equa-
ble communication of motion, two me-
thods hare been recommended ; one,
that the lower part of the face of each
tooth shoidd be a straight hne in the di-
rection of the radius, and the upper a
portion of an epicycloid, that is, of a curve
described by a point of a circle rolling on
the wheel, of which the diameter must be
half that of the opjiosite wheel ; and in
this case it is demonstrable, that the plane
surface of each tootJi will act on the
curved surface of the opposite tooth, so
as to produce an equable angular motion
in both wheels ; the other method is, to
form all the surfaces into portions of the
involutes of circles, or tlie curves describ-
ed by a point of thread which has been
wound round the wheel, while it is un-
coiled ; and this method appears to an-
swer the purpose in an easier an<l sim-
pler manner than the former. It may be
experimentally demonstrated, that an
equable motion is produced by the action
of these curves on each other; if we cut
two boards into forms terminated by
them, divide the surfaces by lines into
equal or proportional angular portions,
and fix them on any two centres, we shall
find, that as they revolve, whatever parts
of the surfaces may be in contact, the
corresponding fines will always meet each
other.

Both these methods may be derived
from the general principle, that the teeth
of the one wheel must be of such afoi-m,
that their outline may be described by
the revolution of a curve upon a given
circle, while the outline of the teeth of

VOL. YI.

the other wheel is described hythesamt
curve revolving within the circle, h iiat^
been supposed by some of the best au-
thors, that the epicycloidal tooth has also
the advantage of completely avoidinjf
friction ; this is however by no mean^
true, and it is even impracticuble to in-
vent any form for the teeth of a wheel,
which will enable them to act on other
teeth without friction. In order to di-
minish it as much as possible, the teetl^
must be as small and as nimierous as if
consistent with strength and durabiJity;
for the effect of friction always increase^
with the distance of the point of contact
from the line joinitig the centres of the
wheels. In calculatuig the quajuity of
the friction, the velocity with which the
parts slide over each other has generajly
been taken for its measure. I'his is a
sliglit inaccuracy of conception, for it is
certain, that the actual resistance is not
at all increased by increasing the re*
lative velocity ; but the efiect of that re^
sistance, in retarding the motion of the
wheels, may be shown, from the general
laws of mechanics, to be proportional to
the relative velocity tlius ascertained.
When it is possible to make one wheel
act on teeth fixed in the concave surface
of another, the friction may be thus dimi-
nished in the proportion of the difference
of the diameters to their sum. If the face
of the teeth, where they are in contact, is
too much inclined to the radius, their mu-
tual friction is not much affected, but a
great pressure on their axis is produced ;
and this occasions a strain on the machi-
nery, as well as an increase -<'f tlie friction
on the axis. If it is desired to produce
a great angular veh^city with the smallest
possible quantity of wheel-work, the di-
ameter of eacli wheel must be between
three and four times as great as that of
the pinion on which it acts. Where the
pinion impels the wheel, it is sometimes
made with three or four teeth only ; but
it is much better in general to have at
least six or eight ; and considering the
additional labour of increasing the num-
ber of wheels, it may be advisable to al-
lot more teetli to each of them than ihe
number resulting from the calculation;
so th t we may allow thirty or forty teeth
to a wheel acting on a pinion of six or
ei^ht. In works which do not require a
great degree of strength, the wheels have
sometimes a much greater number of
teeth thai this ; and on the other hand,
an endless screw or a spiral acts as a pi-
nion of one tooth, since it propels the
wheel through the breadth of one tootth
4C

WHEEL WORK.

only in each revolution. For a pinion of
six teeth, it wouKl be better to have a
wheel of thirty-five or thirty -seven thvin
thirty-six; iov each tooth of the wheel
would tlius act in turn upon each tooth
of the pinion, and the work would be
more equally worn than if the same teeth
continued to meet in each revolution.
The teeth of the pinion should also be
somewhat stronger than those of the
wheel, in order to support the more fre-
quent recurrence of friction. Is has been
proposed, for the coarser kinds of wheel-
work, to divide the distance between the
middle points of two adjoining teeth into
thirty parts, and to allot sixteen to the
tooth of the pinion, and thirteen to that
of the wheel, allowing one for freedom
of motion.

The wheel and pinion may either be
situated in the same plane, both being
commonly of the kind denominated spur-
wheels, or their planes may form an an-
gle ; in this case one of them may be a
crown or contrate wheel; or both of
them may be bevelled, the teeth being
cut obhquely. According to the relative
magnitude of the wheels, the angle of
the bevel must be different, so that the
velocities of the wheels may be in the
same proportion at both ends of their ob-
lique faces ; for this purpose, the faces
of all the teeth must be directed to the
point where the axes would meet. In
cases where a motion not quite equable
is required, as it sometimes happens in
the construction of clocks, but more fre-
quently in orreries, the wheels may either
be divided a little unequally, or the axis
may be placed a Kttle out of the centre ;
and these eccentric wheels may either
act on other eccentric wheels, or, if they
are made as contrate wheels, upon a
lengthened pinion. An arrangement is
sometimes made for separating wheels
which are intended to turn each other,
and for replacing them at pleasure ; the
wheels are said to be thrown by these
operations out of gear and into gear
again. When a wheel revolves round
another, and is so fixed as to remain near-
ly in a parallel direction, and to cause the
central wheel to turn round its axis, the
apparatus is called a sun and planet wheel.
In tliis case, the circumference of the
central wheel moves as fast as that of the
revolving wheel, each point of which de-
scribes a circle equal in diameter to the
distance of the centres of the two wheels ;
consequently, when the wheels are
equal, the central wheel makes two re-
volutions, every time that the exterior

wheel travels round it. If the centra!
wheel be fixed, and the exterior wheel
be caused to turn on its own centre dur-
ing its revolution, by the effect of the
contact of the teeth, it will make in
ev ery revolution one turn more, with re-
spect (o the surrounding objects, than it
would make, if its centre were at rest,
during one turn of the wheel which is
fixed ; and this circumstance must be re-
collected when such wheels are employ-
ed in planetariums.

Wheels are usually made of wood, of
iron, either cast or wrought, of steel, or
of brass. The teeth of wlieels of metal
are generally cut by means of a machine ;
the wheel is fixed on an axis, which also
carries a plate furnished with a variety of
circles, divided into different numbers of
equal parts, marked by small excava-
tions ; these are brought in succession
under the point of a spring, which holds
the axis firm, while the intervals between
the teeth are expeditiously cut out by a
revolving saw of steel. The teeth are
afterwards finished by a file ; and a ma-
chine has also been invented for holding
and working the file. It is frequently
necessary in machinery to protract the
time of application of a given force, or to
reserve a part of it for future use. This
is generally effected by suffering a
weight to descend, which has been pre-
viously raised, or a spring to unbend it-
self from a state of forcible flexure, as is
exemplified in the weights and springs of
clocks and watches. The common kitxih-
en jack is also employed for protracting
and equalizing the operation of a weight;
in the patent jack the same effect is pro-
duced by an alternate motion, the axis
being impelled backwards and forwards,
as in clocks and watches, by means of an
escapement, and the place of a balance
spring being supplied by the twisting and
untwisting of a cord.

In these machines, as well as in many
others of greater magnitude, the fly
wheel is a very important part, its velo-
city being increased by the operation of
any part of the force which happens to
be superfluous, and its rotatory power
serving to continue the motion when the
force is diminished or withdrawn. Thus,
when a man turns a winch, he can ex-
ert twice as much force in some positions
as in others, and a fly enables him in
some cases to do nearly one-third more
work. In the pile engine, also, without
the help of the fly, the horses would fall
for want of a counterpoise, as soon as the
weight is disengaged. Such a fly ought

WHI

WHI

w) be heavy, and its motion must not be
too rapid, otherwise the resistance of the
air will destroy too much of the motion;
but in the kitchen jack, as well as in the
striking part of a clock, where the super-
fluous force is purposely destroyed, the
fly is made light, and strikes the air with
a broad surface. An effect similar to that
of a fly and a spring is sometimes pro-
duced in hydraulic machines by the in-
troduction of an air vessel, the air con-
tained in which is compressed more or
less according to the intensity of the
force, and exerts a more uniform pres-
sure in expelling the fluid which is forc-
ed irregularly into it. See Young's Lec-
tui-es.

Wheel, in the military art, is the word
of command, when a battalion or squa-
dron is to alter its front either one way
or the other. To wheel to the right, di-
rects the man in the right angle to turn
very slowly, and every one to wheel from
the left to the right, regarding him as
their centre ; and idee versa when they
are to wheel to the kft. When a divi-
sion of men are on the march, if the word
be to wheel to the right or to the left,
then the right or left hand man
keeps his ground, only turning on
his heel, and the rest of the rank
move about quick till they make an even
line with the said right or left hand man.

Wheels, ivater. See Mill.

WHIRLWIND, a wind that rises sud.
denly, is exceedingly rapid and impetu.
ous, in a whirling direction, and often
progressively also ; but it is commonly
soon spent. Dr. Frankhn, in his Physi-
cal and Meteorological Observations,
read to the Royal Society in 1756, sup-
poses a whirlwind and a water-spout to
proceed from the same cause : their only
difference being, that the latter passes
over the water, and the former over the
land. This opinion is corroborated by the
obsei'vations of many others, who have
remarked the appearances and effects of
both to be the same. They have both a
progressive as well as a circular motion ;
they usually rise after calms and great
heats, and mostly happen in the" warmer
latitudes: the wind blows every way
from a large surrounding space, both to
the water-spout and whirlwind ; and a
water-spout has, by its progressive mo-
tion, passed from the sea to the land, and
produced all the phenomena and effects
of a whirlwind ; so that there is no reason
to doubt that they are meteors ai-ising
from the same general cause, and expli-
cable upon the same principles, furnish-

ed by electrical experiments and disco-
veries.

WHISPERING places, are places
where a wliisper, or oilier small noise,
may be heard from one part to anoth.-r,
to a great distance. They depend on a
principle, that the voice, &c. being ap-
plied to one €.n<l of an arch, easily passes
by repeated reflections to the other.

Hence sound is conveyed from one side
of a whispering gallery to the opposite
one, witliout being perceived by those
who stand in the middle, Tne form of a
whispering gallery is that of a Si-gment
of a sphere, or the like arched figure ;
ana the progress of the sound through it
may be illustrated in the following man-
ner: Let ABC (Plate XVL Miscel. fig.
12.) represent the segment of a sphere- ;
and suppose a low voice uttered at A, the
vibrations extending themselves eveiy
way, some of them will impinge upon the
points E, E, &c. ; and thence be reflect-
ed to the points F, F, &c. ; thence to G,
G, &c. ; till at last they meet in C ; where,
by their union, they cause a much strong-
er sound than in any part of the segment
whatever, even at A, the point from
whence they came. Accordingly, all the
contrivance in whispering places is, that
near the person who whispers there may
be a smooth wall, arched either cylindri-
cally or elliptically. A circular arch will
do, but not so well.

The most considerable whispenng-
places in England are, the whispering-
gallery in the dome of St. Paul's, Lon-
don, where the ticking of a watch may
be heard from side to siile, and a very
easy whisper be sent all round the dome.
The famous whispering-place in Glouces-
ter Cathedral is no other than a gallery
above the ea.st end of the choir, leading
from one side thereof to the other It
consists of five angles and six sides, the
middlemost of which is a nakcf] window,
yet two whisperers hear each other at
tlie distance of twenty-five yards.

WHISTON, (William), an English
divine, philosopher, and mathemarician,
of uncommon parts, learning, and extra-
ordinary character, was born the 9th of
December 1667, at Norton in the coun-
ty of Leicester, wliere his father was rec-
tor. He was educated under his fither
till he was seventeen years of age, when
he was sent to TamwortJi school, and two
years after admitted of Clare hall, Cam-
bridge, where he pursued his studies,
and particularly the matliematics, with
great diligence.

k

^HI

WHI

In 1693, he was marfe Master of Arts,
and Fellow of the College, and soon af-
ter commenced one of the tutors; but
his ill state of health soon after obliged
Mm to relinquish tliis profession. Having
entered into orders, in 1694, he became
chaplain to Dr. More, Hisiit)p of Nor-
wicii ; and while in this station he pub-
lished his first work, entitled "A New
Theory of the Earth, &.c." in which he un-
dertook to prove that the Mosaic doc-
trine of the earth was perfectly agreeable
to reason and pliilosophy ; which work,
having much ingenuity, brought consi-
derable reputation to the author.

In the yt;ar 1698, Bishop More gave
him the living of Lowestolf in Snftbik,
where he immediately went to reside,
and devoted himself with great dihgence
t6 the discharge of that trust. In tl»e be-
ginning of the last century he was made
Sir Isaac Newton's deputy, and after-
wards his successor in the Lucasian pro-
fessors!)ip of mathematics, when lie re-
signed his living at Lowestoff, and went
to reside at Cambridge. From this time
his publications became very frequent,
both in theology and mathematics. By
his researches into the writings of the
Fathers, he was led to embrace the Arian
hypothesis respecting the person of
Christ ; on account of which he was, in
October 1710, deprived of his professor-
ship, and expelled the University of
Cambridge, after he had been formally
convened and interrogated for some days
together. At the conclusion of this year
he wrote his " Historical Preface," after-
wards prefixed to his " Primitive Chris-
tianity Revived," containing the reasons
for his dissent from the commonly re-
ceived notions of the Trinity, which
work he published the next year, in 4
vols. 8vo. for which the Convocation fell
upon him most vehemently.

in 1713, he and Mr. Ditton composed
their scheme for finding the longitude,
which they pubhshed the year following,
a method which consisted in measuring
distances by means of the velocity of
sound.

On Mr. Whiston's expulsion from Cam-
bridge, he went to London, where he
conferi'ed with Doctors Clarke, Hoadly,
and other learned men, who endeavour-
ed to moderate his zeal, but he was not
to he intimidated ; he continued to write,
and to propagate his oj)inions with as
much ardour as if he had been in the
most flourishing circumstances ; which,
liowever, were so bad, tliat in 1721, a
subscription was nrnde for the support

of his family, whicli amounted to 470/.
For though he drew some profits from
reading astronomical and philosophical
lectures, and also from his publications,
which were very numerous, yet these of
themselves wei'e very insufficient : nor,
when joined with the benevolence and
ciiarity of those who loved and esteemed
liim for his learning, integrity, andpietj'-,
did they prevent his being frequently in
great distress.

In 1739, Mr. Whiston put in his claim
to the mathematical professorship at Cam-
bridge, then vacant by the death of Dr.
Saunderson, in a letter to Dr. Ashton,
the Master of Jesus College ; but no re-
gard was paid to it. Among a variety of
works, he published Memoirs of his own
Life and Writings, which are very curi-
ous.

Whiston continued many years a mem-
ber of the established Church ; but at
length forsook it on account of the read-
ing of the Athanasian Creed, and went
over to the Baptists ; which happened
while he was at the house of Samuel Bar-
ker, Esq. at Lindon in Rutlandshire, who »
had married his daughter ; wl ere he died
after a week's illness, the 22d of August,
1752, at upwards of eighty -four years of
age.

The character of this conscientious and
worthy man has been attempted by two
very able personages, who were well ac-
quainted with him, namely. Bishop Hare,
and Mr. Collins, who unite in giving him
the highest applauses for his integrity,
piety, &c. Mr. Whiston left some chil-
dren behind him; among them, Mr^
John Whiston, who was for many years
a very considerable bookseller in Lon-
don.

WHITE, one of the colours of bodies.
Though white cannot properly be said to
be one colour, but rather a composition
of all the colours together ; for Newton
has demonstrated, that bodies only appear
white by reflecting all the kinds of colour-
ed rays alike; and tiiat even the light of
the sun is only white, because it consists
of all culours mixed together.

This may be shown mechanically in the
following manner : Take seven parcels
of coloured fine powders, the same as the
primary colours of the rainbow, taking
such quantities of these as shall be pro-
portional to the respective breadths of
these colours in the rainbow, which are of
red 45 parts, orange 27, yellow 48, green
60, blue 60, indigo 40, and of violet 80 ;
then mix intimately together these seveo

WHITEHURST.

parcels of powders, and ihe mixture will
be a whitish colour : and this is only simi-
lar to the uniiinj^ the prismatic colours
together again, to form a wliite ray or
pencil of light of the whole of them The
same thing is done conveniently thus : Let
the flat upper surface of a top be divided
into 360 »-qual parts, all around its edge ;
then divide the same surface into seven
sectors, in the proportion of the numbers
above, by seven radii or lines drawn from
the centre ; next let the respective colours
be painted in a lively manner on these
spaces, but so as tlif edge of each colour
iriay be made nearly like the colour next
adjoining, that the separation may not be
well distinguished by the eye ; then if the
top be made to spin, the colours will thus
seem to be mixed all together, and the
whole surface will appear of a uniform
whiteness : and if a large round black
Spot be painted in the n)iddle, so as there
may be only a broad flat ring of colours
around it, the experiment will succeed
the better.

White bodies are found to take heat
slower than black ones ; because tlie lat-
ter absorb or imbibe rays of all kinds and
colours, and the former reflect tl>em.
Hence it is that black papt-r is sooner in-
flamed by a burning-glass, than white ;
and hence also, black clothes, hung up in
the sun by the dyers, dry sooner than
white ones.

WHITEHURST, CJohn,) in biogra-
phy, an ingenious English philosophei',
was born at Congleton, in the county of
Cheshire, the lOih of April, 1713, being
the son of a clock and watch-maker there.
On his quitting school, where it seems
the education he received was very de-
fective, he was bred by his father to his
jwn profession, in which he soon gave
hopes ot his future eminence.

At about the age of twenty-one, his
eagerness after new ideas carried him to
Dublin, having heard of an ingenious
piece of mechanism in that city, being a
clock with certain curious appendages,
which he was very desirous of seeing,
and no less so of conversing with the ma-
ker. On his arrival, however, he could
neither procure a sight of the former, nor
draw the least hint from the latter con-
cerning it. Thus disappointed, he fell
upon an expedient for accomplishing his
design ; and accordingly took up his resi-
dence in the house of the mechanic, pay-
ing the more liberally for his board, as he
had hopes from thence of more readily
wbtainin^the indulgence wished for. He

was accommodated with a room directly
over that in which the favouiiie piece
Was kept Carefully locked up ; and he
had not h)ng to wai't for his gratification :
for the artist, while one day employed in
examing his machine, was suddenly call-
ed down stairs ; which the young enqui-
rer happening to overhear, softly slipped
into tlie room, inspected the machine, and
presently saiisfynig himself as to the se-
cret, escaped undiscovered to his own
apartment. His end thus compassed, he
shortly after bid the artist farewell, and
returned to his father ii England.

About two or three years after his re-
turn from Ireland, he lelt Congleton, and
entered into business for himself at Derby,
where he soon got into great employment,
and distinguished himself very much by
several ingenious pieces of mechanism,
both in his own regular line of business,
and in various othtr respects, as in the
construction of curious thermometers,
barometers, and other philosophical in-
struments, as well as in ingenious contri-
vances for water-works, and the erection
of various larger machines : being con-
sulted in almost all the undertakings in
Derbyshire, and in the neighbouring
counties, where the aid of superior skill
in mechanics, pneumatics, and hydrau-
lics, was requisite.

In this manner his time was fully and
usefully employed in the country, till, in
1775, when the act being passed for the
better regulation of the gold coin, he was
appointed stamper of the money weights;
an office conferred upon him, altogether
unexpectedly, and without solicitation.
Upon this occasion he removed to Lon-
don, where he spent the remaii:der of his
days, in the constant habits of cultivating
some useful parts of philosophy and me-
chanism.

In 1778, Mr. Whitehurst publishttd his
Inquiry into the Original vState and For-
mation of the Earth ; of which a second
edition appeared in 1786, considerably
enlarged and improved -, and a third in
1792. This was the labour of many
years ; and the numerous investigations
necess.iry to its completion, were in them-
selves also of so untoward a nature as, at
times, though he was natin-ally of a
strong constitution, not a little to preju-
dice his health. When he first entered
upon this species of research, it was not
altogether with a view to investigate the
formation of the earth, but in part to ob-
tain such a competent knowledge of sub-
terraneous geography, as might become

WHI

WIL

subservient to the purposes of human life,
by leading mankind to the discovery of
many valuable substances which lie con-
cealed in the lower regions of ihe earth.

Mav the 13th, 1779, he was elected
and admitted a Fellow of the Royal So-
ciety. Before he was admitted a mem-
ber, three several papers of his had been
inserted in the Philosophical Transac-
tions, viz. Thermnmelrical Observations
at Derby, in vol. 57; An Account of a
Machine for raising Water, at Oulton, in
Cheshire, in voi. 65; and Experiments on
Ignited Substances, vol. 66 : which three
papers were printed afterwards in the
collection of his works in 1792.

In 1783, he made a second visit to Ire-
land, with a view to exan»ine the Giant's
Causeway, and other northern parts of
that island, which he found to be chiefly
composed of volcanic matter : an account
and representation of which are inserted
in the latter editions of his Inquiry Dur-
ing this excursion he erected an engine
for raising water from a well, to the sum-
mit of a hill, in a bleaching ground at
Tuliidoi, in the county of Tyrone, which
is worked by a current of water.

In 1787, he published An Attempt to
ward obtaining Invariable Measures of
Length, Capacity, and Weight, from the
Mensuration of time. Mis plan is, to ob-
tain a measure of the greatest length that
conveniency will permit, from two pendu-
lums whose vibrations are in the ratio of
2 to 1, and whose lengths coincide nearly
with the English standard in whole num.
bers. The numbers which he has chosen
show much ingenuity. On a supposition
that the length of a second's pendulum,
in the latitude of London, is 39| inches,
the length ofone vibrating 42 times i" *
minute", must be 80 inches ; and of ano-
ther vibrating 84 times in a minute, must
be 20 inches; and their difference 60
inches, or five feet, is his standard mea-
sure. By the experiments, however, the
difference between the lengths of the two
pendulum rods, was foimd to be only 59,892
inches, instead of 60, owing to the error
in the assumed length of the second's pen-
dulum, 39.1 inches beii^g greater than the
truth, which ought to be 59|. very nearly.
By this experiment, Mr. Whitehurst ob-
tained a fact, as accurately as may be
in a thing of this nature, viz. the differ-
ence between the lengths of two pendu-
lum rods whose vibrations are known : a
datum from whence may be obtained, by
calculation, the true lengths of pendulums,

the spaces through which heavy bodies
fall in a given time, and many other par-
ticulars relating to the docli ne of gravita-
tion, the figure of the earih, &c.

Mr. Whitehurst had been at times sub-
ject to slight attacks of the gout, and he
had for several years felt himself gradu-
ally declining. By an attack of that dis-
ease in his stomach, after a struggle of
two or three months, it put an end to his
laborious and useful lite, on the 18ih of
February, 1788, in the 75th year of his
age, at Ins house in Boll Court, Fleet-
street, being the same house wheie ano-
ther eminent seif-tuughi philosnpher, Mr.
James Feigti-son, had immediately before
him lived and died

WiLKlNS (Dr. Johx), in biography, a
very ingenious and learned Enghsh bish-
op ami mathematician, was the son of a
goldsmith at Oxford, and born in 1614.
After being educated in Greek an.; La-
tin, in which he made a very quick pro-
gress, he was entered a student of New
Inn in that university, when he was but
thirteen years of age ; but after a short
stay there, he was removed to Magdalen
Hall, where he took his degrees. Hav-
ing entered into holy orders, he first be-
came chaplain to WiUiam Lord Say, and
afterwards to Charles Count Palatine of
the Khine, iwith whom he continued for
some time. Adhering to the Parliament
during the civil wars, they made him
warden of Wadham College about the
year 1648. In 1656 he married -the sis-
ter of Oliver Cromwell, then lord protec-
tor of England, who granted him a dis-
pensation to hold his wardenship, not-
withstanding his marriage. In 1659, he
was by Richard Cromwell made master
of Trinity College in Cambridge ; but
ejected the year following, upon the res-
toration. He was then chosen preacher
to the society of Gray's Inn, and rector of
St. Lawrence Jewry, London, upon the
promotion of Dr. Seth W^ard to the bish-
oprick of Exeter. About this time he be-
came a member of the Koyal Society, was
chosen of their council, and proved one
of their most eminent members. He w as
afterwards made dean of Kippon, and in
1668 bishop of Chester ; but died of the
stone in 1672, at fifcy-eight years of
age.

Burnet writes, that " he was a man of
as great a mind, as true a judgment, as
eminent virtues, and of as good a soul, as
any he ever knew ; that thougli he mar-
ried Cromwell's sister, yet he made no
other use of that alliance, but to do good
offices, and to cover the university of

WIL

WIL

Oxford from the sourness of Owen and
Goodwin. At Cambridgf , he joined with
those who studied to propagate be'ter
thoughts, to take men off from being in
parties, or from narrow notions, from su-
perstitious cpnceits, and fierceness about
opinions. He was also a great observer
and promoter of experimental philoso-
phy, which was then a new thing, and
much lookc-d after. He was naturally
ambitious, but was the wisest clergyman
I ever knew. He was a lover of mankind,
and had a delight in doing good."

Of his publications, which are all of
them very ingenious and learned, and
many of them particularly curious and
entertaining, the first was in 1638, when
he was only twenty-four years of age, viz.
'* Tlie Discovery of a New World ; or, a
Discourse, to prove that it is probable
there may be another Habitable World
in the Moon ; with a discourse concern-
ing the Possibility of a Passage thither."
In 1640, *' A Discourse concerning a New
Planet, tending to prove that it is pro-
bable our Earth is one of the Planets."
In 1641, *• Mercury, or, the secret and
swift Messejiger ; showing how a man
may with privacy and speed communi-
cate his thoughts to a friend at any dis-
tance ;" 8vo. In 1648, " Mathematical
Magic ; or, the Wonders that may be
performed by Mathematical Geometry ;"
8vo. All these pieces were published
entire in one volume, 8vo. in 1708, under
the title of "The Mathematical and
Philosophical Works of the Right Rev.
John Wilkins," &c. To this collection is
also subjoined an abstract of a larger
work, printed in 1668, folio, entitled
*• An Essay towards a real Character and
a philosophical Language."

WILL In the Hartleyan acceptation
of the term, the will is that state of mind
which is immediately previous to, and
causes those express acts of memory,
imagination, reasoning, or bodily motion,
which we term voluntary ; corresponding
to the common acceptation of the term
volition. In the more customary use of
the term, it comprehends the whole class
of feelings by which volition is produced,
(for an account of which, see Mental
Philosophy, § 63—99).

It would be an interesting and very
important inquiry, how far volition may
become connected with and regulate
the trains of thought and feeling, and the
state of mind which we call attention;
but this would lead us into a field which
neither our limits of time, nor of space,
would allow us to survey even cursorily.

That such connection can be formed in
var ous instances, there is no room for
doubt ; and were it otherwise, man would
be merely tht creature of external cir-
cumstances : that, on the other hand,
there are limits to such establishment, is
also indisputable; and weie it not so,
man might become the creator of his own
mind, and all thu benefits arising from
the intellectual and social powers de-
pend upon caprice. Bui we must con-
tent ourselves with laying bctbre our
readers some of Hartley's valuable prac-
tical remarks respecting the will.

"The will appears to be nothing but a
desire or aversion, sufficiently strong to
produce an action that is not automatic,
primarily or secondarily (§ 101). The
will is therefore that desire or aversion
which is strongest for the present time ;
for if any other desire were stronger, the
muscular motion connected with it by as-
sociaiiim would take place, and not that
which proceeds from the will, or the vo-
luntary one.

*' Since the things which we pursue
do, when obtained, generally afford plea-
sure, and those which we fly from affect
us with pain, if they overtake us, it fol-
lows that the gratification of the will is
generally associated with pleasure, the
disappointment of it with pain. Hence a
mere associated pleasure is transferred
upon the gratification of the will ; a mere
associated pain, upon the disappointment
of it : and if the will were always gratified,
this mere associated pleasure would, ac-
cording to the present frame of our na-
tures, absorb, as it were, all our other
pleasures ; and thus, by drying up the
source from whence it sprung, be itself
dried up at last ; and the first disappoint-
ments, after a long course of gratifica-
tion, would be intolerable. Both which
circumstances are sufficiently observable,
in an inferior degree, in children that
are much indulged, and in adults, after
a long series of successful events. Grati-
fications of the will without the conse-
quent expected pleasure, and disappoint-
ments of it without the consequent ex-
pected pain, are particularly usetul to us
here: and it is by this, amongst other
means, that the human will is brought to
a conformity with the divine; which is
the only radical cure for all our evils and
disappointments, and the only earnest
and medium for obtaining lasting happi-
ness.

" We often desire and pursue things
which give pain rather than pleasure.
Hire it must be supposed that at first

WILL,

they afforded pleasure, and that they now
give pain on account of the change in our
nature and circumstances. Now, as the
Continuance to desire and pursue such
objects, notwithsianding the pain arising
from them, is the effect of the power of
association; so the same power will at
last reverse its own steps, and free us
from such hurtful desirt-s and pursuits.
The recurrency of pain will at last render
the object undesirable and hateful ; and
the experience of this painful process, in
a few particular instances, will at last, as
in other cases of the same kind, beget a
habit of ceasing to pursue things, which
we perceive by a few trials, or by ration-
al arguments, to be hurtful to us on the
whole.

" A state of desire ought to be plea-
sant at first, from the near relation of de-
sire to love (§ 71), and of love, to plea-
sure and happiness ; but in the course of
^ long pursuit, there intervene so many
fears and disappointments, apparent or
real, with respect to the subordJnaie
means, and so many strong agitations of
mind passing the limits of pleasure, as
greatly to chequer a state of desire with
misery. For a similar reason, states of
aversion are chequered with hope and
comfort."

Will, freedom of. There are, per-
haps, tew topics of mquiry which have
more than this perplexed the understand-
ings and irritated the passions of man-
kind. From the continued conflict of
opinion which has existed on the subject,
in every age since the operations of the
mind of man became a frequent subject
of investigation, it might be almost pre-
sumed to belong to those questions
which furnish abundant matter for dis-
cussion, but none for conviction ; which
sharpen ingenuity, without resulting in
certainty; and serve to display the human
intellect in all its strength and weakness,
in all its pride and humiliation.

Philosophical free-will, it must ever be
remembered, is something totally differ-
ent from external liberty. The latter is
possessed by every man who has the pow-
er of doing as he pleases ; that is, of car-
rying his volitions into execution. But
whether volitions be free or necessitated ;
whether, in forming these, the mind ex-
ert a self-determining power, or be uni-
formly and irresistibly influenced by mo-
tives, is a question perfectly unconnected
with the circumstances of freedom or
control, relating to their execution. The
will may be bound, though the conse-

quent act be unimpeded ; and, on the
other hand, the exercise of ihe self-de-
termining power, in volition, may be pre-
vented, by numberless restraints, from
being followed up in act. The point in
discussion belwt en the advocates o( phi-
losophical free-will and their opponents
is, whether man be invariably and ne-
cessarily influenced by motives ; or,
whether he possess a self-governing,
seUdetermining power, which he may
exert by acting either according to
motives, in opposition to motives, or
without any motives at all. And though
some of the defienders of liberty differ
from others in the extent of the exer-
cise of this power, many hiniting it to
acts of mere dehberation, and others
connecting it with every actual and pos-
sible instance of volition, the controversy
between them and the necessarians has
no reference to these differences, but is
circumscribed by the single question,
whether, in any case whatever, a volitioa
can originate independently of motive ;
or, in other words, whether the mind be
capable of acting differently, previous
circumstances continuing in every re-
spect the same. In support of philoso-
phical liberty, its supporters make their
first appeal to consciousness. With re-
spect to various volitions, it is observed,
we are not only insensible to an overpow-
ering and resistless influence of motives,
but are positively conscious of choosing
without any motive, and often even in
opposition to the strongest. And were
it not that the mind possessed this para-
mount and independent faculty — this li-
berty of determining differently in the
same circumstances, whence could arise
those feelings of approbation or blame^
which ever attach to yolitions of high im-
portance and moral consequence ? Could
censure reasonably be applied to any act
that was inevitable i" or is there any ade-
quate ground of applause for what could
not possibly have been unperformed ?
Are not the feelings of individuals, and
the consent of nations, on tliis subject,
perfectly decided and coincident ? The
repentant sinner is overwhelmed with
remorse for that deUnquency which he
feels it w'as no less within his power thaji
his duty to have avoided : the abandoned
criminal, who has lifted his murderous
arm against his neighbour, falls an unpi-
tied victim to the laws of his country.
Upon what principle is remorse felt in
the one case, and execution inflicted in
the other, but on that which naturally
presses conviction on every human bo-

WILL.

som, that the offender, instead of being
hurried on to guilt by irresistible destiny,
was merely the ready tool of appetites
which he might have controuled ; the
willing slave of passions which he might
have corrected. The lunatic incendiary
is regarded as no proper object of pu-
nishment, frenzy having usurped the
throne of reason, and the exercise of ra-
tional free-will being precluded by the
paroxism of disease. And, on similar
grounds, the destroyer of life by mere
accident, is exempt from the vengeance
of human laws, which point their thun-
der only against those who are both ca-
pabje of distinguishing right from wrong,
and of avoiding the crimes into which they
voluntarily plunge themselves. If, there-
fore, any conclusion whatever can be
justly inferred from the almost instinctive
feelings of mankind, which even those
uniformly act upon who systematically
controvert and ridicule them, how pow-
erful must the argument, hence derived,
be considered in favour of that liberty of
will, without which the agonies of re-
mote appear only the gratuitous self-in-
flictions of folly ; and the most essential
acts of legislation, seem the most execrable
operations of tyranny ? The moral and re-
ligious consequences, considered as aris-
ing from the system of necessity, are re-
garded by the advocates for free-will as
of a nature so repulsive to the interests
of virtue, so incompatible with moral dis-
cipline, so full of palpable absurdity and
extreme impiety, that these alone are
deemed sufficient to justify the rejection
of a doctrine, from which they appear es-
sentially and decidedly to flow. Can that
system, it is asked, be true, which saps
the foundations of virtue, by ascribing
every act and thought, every feehng and
wish, connected with moral character, to
imperious and resistless impulse ? wMch
constitutes man a mere machine, guilt-
less even in the extreme of wickedness,
and worthless in the maturity of benevo-
lence ; because in both cases, equally
compelled by circumstances to good or
evH, and equally destitute of moral qua-
lity with the quickening sun or the de-
vouring tempest ? If every sentiment and
deed of every human individual be the
result of preceding situations, which si-
tuations themselves are only links in an
interminable series of processes, equally
compelled and necessitating, how vain
are all the popular and presumed means
of operating upon the mind, to reclaim
from vice, or to guide to virtue ? Can
VOL. VT.

there be any stimulus to exertions decid-
edly fruitless ? or can there be any pe-
nitence for inevitable crime P or can there
be any justice, human or divine, in the
punishment of offences committed, in-
deed, by choice, yet committed through
necessity? With what disgust will be
viewed the imputation thrown by this
system on the Supreme Being (who is
considered by it to be not only the'sove-
reign, but the sole agent, in the uni-
verse), as the origin of all existing evil !
Under what character is the Divine Be-
ing represented by this doctrine, but un-
der that of a bafiling tyrant, and a de-
riding fiend ; exhorting men to what
they cannot accomphsh, and torturing
them for what they cannot avoid, and,
under tlie designation of the God of
truth, uttering a tissue of the most ma-
lignant falsehoods ? With what horror
must we contemplate a Deity, who is ex-
hibited as the very author of what he pro-
fesses to hate, the performer of what he
punishes, and the source of every pol-
luted thought, every tormenting passion,
and every evil work ; whose chosen in-
struments and objects appear to be, ha-
tred and uncharitableness, guilt and ter-
ror, confusion, pain, and death ; who ia
displayed, in short, as the introducer of
all moral evil, and the scourge of all mo-
ral nature ?

It is by no means surprising that ob-
servations, or arguments, such as these,
should have operated strongly on the ma-
jority even of persons in some degree
habituated to reflection. The moral man
has trembled for the interests of virtue ;
the pious man has recoiled from the
dreaded charge of blasphemy; and so
coincident is the misapprehended sys-
tem of liberty with the feeUngs of indis-
criminating and unreflecting minds, that
it would be truly extraordinary if the op-
posite doctrine had not to encounter
from such, prejudices the most violent
and hostile. General consent, however,
and presumed consciousness, are no more
sufficient to establish the doctrine of
philosophical free-will, than the appear-
ance exhibited by the sun and stars of
revolving round this terraqueous globe,
and the universal conviction once enter-
tained of the reality of this appearance,
can be considered to have been irrefi*a-
gable evidence of this popular philoso-
phy. And with regard to the interests
of virtue, and even the honour of the
Deity, the man who refrains from the
discussion of important topics, from a

4D

WILL.

trembling apprehension lest these should
be injuriously involved in the result of
his investigation, displays inexpressibly
more of fastidious sensibility than of vi-
gorous intellect. If discussion can pos-
sibly evince that virtue is detrimental or
worthless, instead of being extolled as
the best source of hope, and the only
guide to happiness, let it be instantly ex-
posed to the aversion and avoidance of
mankind. And if the most acute and
profound speculation can possibly dis-
connect from the Supreme Being those
qualities of wisdom and goodness, of
power and perfection, which have hi-
therto only appeared the more clearly to
belong to him the more his attributes
have been investigated, let the veil be,
at once, rent from the imagined sanctuary,
and let detestation or contempt be sub-
stituted for joyful devotion and humble
imitation. These delicate scruples, and
fearful doubts, and awful hesitations, have
too long retarded the march of the hu-
man mind in its pursuit of the ends and
means most, worthy of its researches.
They have been in every age supports,
as, indeed, they are results, of supersti-
tion : they have aided the views of civil
tyranny, and inquisitorial bigotry; and
until the operations of thought be unim-
peded by these morbid tremours, any
rapid advance to the maturity of social
institutions can be expected only in vain.
In opposition, then, to the doctrine of
free-willj so tenaciously maintained, and
so ardently advocated, it may be observ-
ed, that upon the only sound principles
of philosophy, upon the very basis of all
human speculation and conclusion, the
imagined liberty of man will appear
equally unsupportable, as any change in
the arrangements of material nature with-
out a corresponding change of pre-ex-
isting circumstances. If vohtions, in any
case, start up in the mind uncaused, as
well may it be presumed, that the uni-
versal system of nature sprang into ex-
istence without any previous and opera-
tive energy. All inquiry into causes is
vain ; all reference to circumstances is
absurd : conclusions, the most opposite,
may, with equal propriety, be inferred
from the same premises ; or, rather, the
only conclusion to be formed is, that of
one immense and universal chaos, in
which processes, both of mind and mat-
ter, are incipient without cause, and ope-
rative without effect. If, on the other
hand, man be uniformly and imperiously
influenced by motives, volitions are as
definitive, in definite circumstances, as the

movements of palpable mechatiism ; and
the determinations of the mind are equal-
ly decided and inevitable, as the inclina-
tions of the balance. The most animated
display of evils, imagined to result from
the system of necessity, will scarcely in-
duce any vigorous and unprejudiced
mind to surrender the only basis on which
inference can be formed and inquiry in-
stituted. But the principles of religion
are equally adverse to free-will with the
axioms of philosophy ; and it is curious
to observe, that the doctrine of liberty,
under consideration, meets with its de-
struction in what may be regarded, possi-
bly, as the very source of its existence.
Sentiments of religion, unquestionably,
suggested the expediency of human
freedom, to screen the character of
Deity from imputation on the ground
of natural and moral evil ; and man
was thus invested with a paramount and
mysterious faculty, by which, in circum-
stances precisely the same, he is capable
of performing any action, or its opposite.
By a fallacy, more reverential than inge-
nious ; by a sophism, such as in ordinary
life would expose its employers to instant
detection and ridicule, this pre-eminent
power, though admitted to be communi-
cated, is considered as the efficient cause
of all that evil which it was regarded in-
decorous and blasphemous to ascribe to
Deity. The responsibility on this subject,
which was conceived to reflect severely
on tlie character of God, by this accom-
modating invention, was imagined to be
easily and happily removed. But if
piety has, upon this curious ground, con-
tributed to establish the belief in human
free-will, it has no less decidedly main-
tained the doctrine of divine omniscience:
yet to unite these articles in the same
creed, must be regarded by the unbiassed
inquirer as absolutely and eternally im-
possible. How can it be within the
power of man to avoid doing what God
foresees he will perform ? or how can
that remain undone which is foreknown,
and unquestionably, therefore, certainly
will be accomplished ? What becomes of
that boasted liberty, which is incapable of
being exerted, and the exercise of which,
though strangely denied to be precluded
by necessity, it must be at least admitted,
has to encounter the most indubitable and
decided certainty ? And how is the diffi-
culty which, on every other system, pres-
ses from the consideration of existing
evil, at all mitigated by an hypothesis,
which merely transfers the charge from
the principal to the agent : from the

WIL

WIL

Creator to the creature; from the be-
stower of the faculty of freedom, who
must be aware of all its possible applica-
tions and consequences, and who there-
fore, in the eye of reason, intends all the
effect, of the pi'inciple he thus communi-
cates, to the frail possessor and foreseen
abuser of it ? Witli respect, moreover,
to moral discipline, how can any system,
which has this object in view, be at all
applicable to beings, whose merit and
perfection are supposed to consist in a
total superiority to motive ; who can re-
sist the strongest applications of menace
or conciliation, of remuneration or pen-
alty ; with whom caprice alone is princi-
ple, and chance direction ; and an inde-
finable, unintelligible power of self-deter-
mination, without the aid of motive, or
even in diametrical opposition to the
strongest, is the substitute for all steady
object and rational inducement ? With re-
gard to virtue, in this system, its maturity
consists not in useful tendencies and affec-
tions, so confirmed by habit as to have
acquired almost an incapability of effec-
tual counteraction, a definition founded
on the only correct theory of the human
mind, and which presents the most ad-
mirable and impressive lessons of morali-
ty, but in an imagined principle or facul-
ty which has no perceivable connection
with character, habit, or affection ; and
in proportion to the degree in which any
intelhgent agent can be supposed to act
from this unmotived faculty, in that pro-
portion must he be presumed less capable
of forming those fixed and almost inde-
structible associations which are tlie sole
security of moral excellence. Free-will,
then, thus appears to be in irreconcileable
hostihty with the fundamental principle
of human discussion and investigation, on
every subject moral or material, that
every tiling which begins to be must
have a cause : its complete operation ex-
cludes man from the possibility of virtu-
ous habits, as these can result solely from
his definite impressibility by definite cir-
cumstances : it prevents any consistent
application of threats or exhortation, of
reward or punishment ; because, to a
mind unguided and ungovernable by mo-
tive, these are equally useless as expos-
tulation with a storm, or advice to a con-
flagration. Finally, from the character of
God it snatches that attribute, without
which Providence must be supposed to
be any thing rather than what the term
naturally implies. Instead of a superin-
tending Deity, foreseeing every event,
aifected by no surprize, and subject to no

disappointment, we are presented with a
governor at the helm of Nature, who, iu
the impressive language of scripture,
*' knows not what a day may bring forth:"
his arrangements may be frustrated by
human folly ; his happiness may be im-
paired by human hostility : man, that is a
worm, may baffle the views of Divine in-
teUigcnce, and counteract the energies of
Almighty power !

Will and Testatmei^t, is tha^ disposi-
tion of property which is made by a per-
son to take place after his decease. Every
person capable of binding himself by con-
tract, is capable of making a will.

Also a male infant of the age of four-
teen years and upwards, and female of
twelve years or upwards, are capable of
making a will respecting personal estates
only. But a married woman cannot make
a will, unless a power be reserved in a
marriage settlement ; but wherever per-
sonal property, however, is given to a
married woman, for her sole and sepa-
rate use, she may dispose of it by will.

If a feme sole make her will, and after-
wards marry, such marriage is a legal re-
vocation of the will. WUls are of two
kinds, written and verbal : the former is
most usual and secure.

It is not absolutely necessary that a will
should be witnessed ; and a testament of
chattels, written in the testator's own
hand, though it have neitlier the testator's
name nor seal to it, nor witnesses present
at his publication, will be good, provided
sufficient proof can be had that it is his
hand writing. By statute 29 Charles IT.
c. 3, all devises of lands and tenements
shall not only be in writing, but sliall also
be signed by the party so devising the
same, or by some other person in his pre-
sence, and by his express direction, and
shall be witnessed and subscribed in the
presence of the person devising, by three
or four credible witnesses, or else the de-
vise will be entirely void, and the land
will descend to the heir at law.

A will, even if made beyond sea, be-
queathing land in England, must be at-
tested by three witnesses.

A will, however, devising copyhold
land, does not require to be witnessed :
it is sufficient to declare the uses of a
surrender of such copyhold land made to
the use of the will. The party to whom
the land is given becomes entitled to it
by means of the surrender, and not by
the will.

A codicil is a supplement to a will, or
an addition made by the person making
the same, annexed to, and to be taken

WIN

WIN

as part of the will itself, being for its ex-
planation or alteration, to add something
to, or take something from, the former
disposiiioii, and which may lilso be either
written or verbal, under the same restric-
tions as regard wills.

If two wills are found, and it does not
appear which was the former or latter,
both will be void ; but if two codicils are
found, and it cannot be ascertained which
was th^ first, but the same thing is de-
vised to two persons, both ought to di-
vide ; but where either wills or codicils
have dates, the latter is considered as va-
lid, and revokes the former. See Admi-
snsTUATOH, Executor, Legact.

WILLICHIA, in botany, so named
in honour of Christ. Lud. Willich, a ge-
nus of the Triandria Monogynia class and
order. Essential character: calyx four-
cleft ; corolla four-cleft ; capsule two-
celled, many-seeded. There is only one
species ; viz. W. repens, found by Mutis
in Mexico.

WILLUGHBEIA, in botany, so named
in memory of Francis Willughby, F. R. S.
a gentisof the Pentandria Monogynia class
and order. Natural order of Contortae.
Apocineae, Jussieu Essential character:
contorted ; corolla salver-shaped ; stig-
ma-headed ; fruit a one or two-celled
berry or pumpkin. There are two spe-
cies ; viz. W. acida and W. scandens,
both natives of Guiana.

Wixii. See Meteorology.

Wind gag-e, in pneumatics, an instru-
ment serving to determine the velocity
and force of the wind. See Anemometer,
Anemoscope.

Dr. Hales had various contrivances for
this purpose. He found, that the air
rushed out of a smith's bellows at the
rate of 68f feet in a second of time, when
compressed with a force of half a pound
upon every square inch lying on the
whole upper surface of the bellows. The
velocity of the air, as it passed out of the
trunk of his ventilators, was found to be
at the rate of 3,000 feet in a minute,
which is at the rate of 34 miles an hour.
The same author says, that the velocity
with which impelled air passes out at any
orifice, may be determined by hanging a
light v'alve over the nose of a bellows, by
pliant leather hinges, which will be much
agitated and lifted up from a perpendicu-
lar, to a more than horizontal position, by
the force of the rushing air.

M. Bouguer contrived a simple instru-
ment, by which may be immediately dis-
covered the force which the wind exerts
on a given surface. This is a hollow

tube, A A, B B, (Plate XVI. Miscel. fig,
13.) in which a spiral spring, C D, is fix-
ed, that may be more or less compressed
by a rod, FS D, passing through a hole
Avithin the tube at A A. Then having ob-
served to what degree different forces or
given weights are capable of depressing
the spiral, mark divisions on the rod in
such a manner, that the mark at S may
indicate the weight requisite to force the
.spring into the situation, C D: afterwards
join at right angles to this rod at F, a
plane surface, C F E, of any given area
at pleasure ; then let this instrument be
opposed to the wind, so that it may strike
the surface perpendicularly, or parallel to
the rod ; then will the mark at S .show
the weight to which the force of the
wind is equivalent.

The following Table will give the dif-
ferent velocities and forces of tJiu wind,
according to their common appellations.

Velocity of the

Perpendi.

wind.

cular force

_ Miles

= feet

on one sq.
foot ill

in one

in one

averdupois

hour.

second

pounds.

1

1.47

.005

2

2.93

.020

3

4.40

.044

4

5.87

.079

5

/.33

123

10

I4.6r

.492

15

22.00

1.107

20

29.34

1.968

25

36.67

3075

30

4401

4.429

35

51.34

6.027

40

58.68

7.873

45

66.01

9.963

50

73.35

12.300

60

88.02

17.715

80

117.36

31.490

100

146.70

49.200 «

Common appella-
tions of the wind.

Hardly per-
ceptible.
^ Just percepti-
5 blc.
^ Gentle plea-
5 sant wind.
') Pleasant brisk
5 gale.

i Very brisk.
I High winds.

Very high.

A storm or
tempest.

A great storm.

A hurricane.

A hurricane
that tears up
trees and car-
ries buildings,
he. before it.

1

The force of the wind is nearly as
the square of the velocity, or but little
above it in these velocities. But the
force is much more than in the simple
ratio of the surfaces, with the same ve-
locity, and this increase of the ratio is
the more, as the velocity is the more. By
accurate experiments with two planes,
the one of 171 square inches, the other

WIN

WIN

of 52i which are nearly in the ratio of 5 to
9. Dr. Hutton found their resistances,
with a velocity of 20 feet per second, to
be the one, 1.196 ounces, and the other,
2.542 ounces ; which are in the ratio of
8 to 17, being an increase of between one-
fifth and one-sixth parts more than the
ratio of the surfaces.

WINDLASS, a machine used to raise
heavy weights withal, as guns, stones,
anchors, &c. It is very simple, consist-
ing only of an axis, or roller, supported
horizontally at the two ends, by two piec-
es of wood and a pulley : the two pieces
of wood meet at top, being placed diagon-
ally, so as to prop each other ; the axis,
or roller, goes through the two pieces,
and turns in them. The pully is fasten-
ed at top where the pieces join Lastly,
there are two staves or handspikes go
through the roller, whereby its is turned,
and tiie rope which comes over the pul-
ley is wound oft* and on the same.

Windlass, in a ship, is an instrument
in small ships, placed upon the deck, just
abaft the foremast. It is made of a piece
of timber, six or eight feet square, in form
of an axle-tree, whose length is placed
horizontally upon two pieces of wood at
the ends thereof, upon which it is turned
about by the help of handspikes put into
holes made for that purpose. This instru-
ment serves for weighing anchors, or
hoisting of any weight, in or out of the
ship, and will purchase much more than
any capstan, and that without any dan-
ger to those that heave ; for if in heaving
the windlass about, any of the handspikes
should happen to break, the windlass
would pall of itself.

WINDMILL, a kind of mill, the inter-
nal parts of which are much the same
with those of a water-mill ; from which,
however, it differs, in being moved by the
impulse of the wind upon its vanes or sails,
which are to be considered as a wheel
on the axle. Plate, Windmill, is a verti-
cal section of a windmill of that kind,
which is called a smock-mill, i. e. when
the building, the mill, and machinery are
fixed, and the head of the mill support-
ing the axis of the sails turns round upon
it. A A are the walls of the mill-house,
which is longer one way than the other,
and the section is through the shortest
side ; in this direction it will but just con-
tain the machinery, and leave a passage ;
in the other direction the house is longer,
and is used as a warehouse to stow the
corn and flour. The roof of the house is
framed of large beams, a flooring is laid

on these beams, and then the whole is
covered with sheet lead. Eight long up-
right beams, B B, are framed into the roof
of the house, and disposed round in a circle;
at the upper angle they support a circu-
lar kirb, D D ; the eight uprights, B B,
are braced by cross pieces framed be-
tween them, so as to render the whole
building very staunch; the outside is
covered with weather-board, just to
shoot off* the rain, but open enough
to admit the wind to pass freely through
the house. Upon the upper fixed kirb,
D D, thirty-six rollers are placed (two
of them are seen in the section;)
these rollers turn in mortices, cut
through a circular ring of wood, which
keeps the thirty-six rollers in their places,
and at their proper distances from one
another. The rollers support another cir.
cular wooden ring, a a, on which the
head of the mill is framed. This framing
consists of two beams, b, halved into the
ring, parallel to the main axis of the sails,
and including the great cog wheel be-
tween them, only one of them is shown in
the figure, the other being taken away in
the section. Two cross beams, d and e,
bolted upon b b, supports the bearings
for the main axis, and another cross beam,
/, bolted to the under side of b, to sus-
tain the upper bearing for the vertical
axis.

We now come to speak of the machi-
nery : H H, are two of the four sails seen
edgeways ; the broad part of the sails,
which is covered with cloth, is set
oblique to the plane of the sails, motion,
and the axis of the sails is set in the di-
rection of the wind ; it is by the action of
the wind upon the oblique sail, that it is
made to revolve on its axis ; the wind acts
constantly as a wedge upon the sails, and
thus drives them round. The four sails
are firmly bolted to an iron cross, e, cast
in one piece with the main : a b c defg- is
a wooden pole fixed on at the intersec-
tion of the four sails, and forming a con-
tinuation of the axis ; four ropes are ex-
tended from the end of the pole to the
end of the sails, and hauled tight by a
block of pulleys, by these the sails are
stiffened, and prevented from bending by
the action of the wind upon them : h is the
main cog wheel, fixed upon the iron axis,
and turning round with it ; it has a flexi-
ble ring of wood, composed of five seg-
ments, and jointed together by iron hing-
es, and compassing it ; one end of this ring
of wood, called the brake, is fastened by
a joint to the under side qf the beam, b ;

WIN

WIN

the other end comes round nearly to the
same point, and is fastened to a long le-
ver, i, called the brake lever. When this
lever is lifted up, the brake is lifted off
from the wheel, and does not touch it on
any part, and the wheel and sails can
turn ; but when the lever is suffered to
fall down, the brake closes round the
wheel, and prevents the wheel and sails
from turning. The brake lever is lifted
up by a rope, k, which hangs down in
reach of the miller when standing on the
stage, 1 1, built round the mill for the
purpose, as also for clothing or unclothing
the sails. When the brake is to be held
up for any length of time, while the mill
is at work, the brake rope is hooked on a
hook driven into one of the uprights, BB.
The head of the mill can be turned round
upon the thirty-six rollers, to set the sail
round in the proper direction to meet the
wind. The fixed kirb, D D, has a ring of
cogs all round its outside, which work
with a pinion on a spindle, /, turning in
a socket fixed by iron braces. To the
moveable head of the mill, on the upper
end of the spindle, /, a crown wheel is fix-
ed, which is turned by a small pinion on
the same spindle, with a wheel, ?«, round
which an endless rope runs, and which
hangs down in reach of the miller when
on the stage, I. By pulling down one
side of the endless rope he turns the
wheel, m, and by the pinion the crown
wheel, and its pinion, which acting against
the teeth in the kirb, D, turns the head
round upon the thirty-six rollers, and
puts the sails in any position according to
the wind : o is a roller turned upon an
iron pin fastened to the under side of the
beam, 6, and acting against the inside of
the kirb ; another similar roller is fixed to
the other beam, which is parallel to b ;
their use is to keep the head steady upon
the rollers, otherwise the head might be
thrown backwards by the action of the
wind upon the sails. The upper part of
the head is light framing and thin boards,
covered with copper just to exclude the
rain. The main cog-wheel, //, turns a
trundle, K, on the upper end of a long
vertical shaft, LI,, which comes down to
the ground, and turns in a socket support-
ed on Masonry at M : /» is a crown wheel
of fifty-six teeth turning another wheel of
seventeen teeth on horizontal, which has
riggers, ^, on it to turn bolting mills and
di-essing machines in the upper room. In
the lower room a large spur-wheel, t, of
.seventy -two teeth, is fixed, and turns a
nut on each side of it, one of twenty-eight,

the other of twenty-six teeth, on the
spindles of their respective mill-stones, v
and s.

The construction of the mill for grind-
ing flour is well explained in the article
Mill, to which we refer our readers.

Wind «ai7s,in a ship, are made of the
common sail cloth, and are usually be-
tween twenty-five and thirty feet long, ac-
cording to the size of the ship, and are of
the form of a cone ending obtusely : when
they are made use of, they are hoisted by
ropes to about two-thirds or more of their
height, with their bases distended circu-
larly hoops, and their apex hanging down-
wards in the hatchways of the ship ;
above each of these one of the common
sails is so disposed, that the greatest part
of the air rushing against it, is directed
into the wind-sail, and conveyed as
through a funnel, into the upper parts of
the body of the ship.

WINDAGE o/o^Tm, the difference be-
tween the diameter of the bore, and the
diameter of the ball.

WINE. See Fermentation, &c. All
wines contain an acid, alcohol, tartar, ex-
tract, aroma, and a colouring matter.
The presence and nature of each of these
principles may be ascertained in the fol-
lowing way. 1. Acid. All wines, even the
softest and mildest, redden litmus, and
therefore contain an acid. This abounds,
however, chiefly in the thin wines of wet
and cold climates, where the grape juice
or must contains but a small portion of
sugar. When wine has been boiled to
extract the brandy, the liquor that re-
mains in the still, and is thrown away as
useless, is a sour nauseous fluid, with an
acrid and burnt flavour. When filtered
and allowed to remain at rest for a time,
it deposits a good deal of extractive mat-
ter, becomes covered with mould, and
then contains a notable quantity of ace-
tous acid, which may be separated by
distillation. The acid is, however, not en-
tirely acetous, at least not till after stand-
ing a considerable time, for it precipitates
and forms an insoluble salt with lime
water, and with the soluble salts of sil-
ver, lead, and mercury, and appears to
be the malic acid mixed with a little ci-
tric, both of which are converted into vi-
negar by spontaneous decomposition.
The wines that contain the greatest quan-
tity of these acids yield the worst brandy,
nor is there any method yet known of se-
parating or neutralizing the acid without
materially injuring the quality, or lessen-
ing the quantity of the ardoit spirit. 2.

WIN

wl^

Alcohol. The existence of ihis principle
and mode ofextraction by distillation has
been fully described under the article
brandy. The quantity of alcohol varies
prodigiously. The strong", rich, full-bo-
died wines of the warmer vine countries
will yield as much as a third of ardent
spirit ; whilst the thin light wines will
often give no more than about one-six-
teenth of the same strength. 3, Tartar.
This substance has also been fully de-
scribed in its proper place. Tartar is
not altogether a product of the fermen-
tation of wine, since it is contained in
must, though in small quantity. 4. Ex-
tract. Must contains an abundance of
extractive matter, which materially as-
sists the fermentation, and is afterwards
found, in part at least, in the lees, but
another portion may be obtained from the
wine by evaporation. It is also extract
that mixes with and colours the tartar.
By age the quantity of extractive matter
diminishes. 5. Aroma. All wines pos-
sess a peculiar and grateful smell, which
would indicate a distinct aromatic princi-
ple, but it has never been exhibited in the
form of essential oil, or condensed in any
smaller quantity by distillation or any
other mode. To give wine all its aroma
it should be fermented very slowly. 6.
Colouring matter. The husk of the red
grape contains a good deal of colour,
which is extracted when the entire fruit
is pressed, and becomes dissolved in the
wine when the fermentation is complete.
Many substances will separate the co-
lour. If lime-water is added to high-co-
loured wine, a precipitate is formed of ma-
lat of lime that carries down with it all
the colouring matter, which cannot again
he separated either by water or alcohol.
Hut if wine alone is evaporated gently to
dryness, and the residue treated with al-
cohol, the colouring matter dissolves
therein. We may add too, that the tia-
tural colour of wine is entirely and speed-
ily destroyed by the addition of hot
well-burnt charcoal in pretty fine pow-
der. The colour of red wine in the state
in which we receive it is not entirely that
of the grape, but is given by other co-
louring substances, which, however, are
quite innoxious.

WINGED, in botany, a term applied
to such stems of plants as are furnished
all their length with a sort of membrana-
ceous leaves, as the thistle, &c. Winged
leaves, are such as consist of divers Uttle
leaves, ranged in the same direction, so
as to appear only as the same leaf. Such

are the leaves of agrimony, acacia, ash,
&c. Winged seed.s, are such as have
down or hairs on them, which, by the
help of the wind, are carried to a dis-
tance.

WINGS, in heraldry, are borne some-
times single, sometinaes in pairs; in which
case they are called conjoined. When
the points are downward, they are said
to be inverted ; when up, elevated.

Wings, in military affairs, are the two
flanks or extremes of an army, ranged in
form of a battle ; being the right and left
sides thereof.

Wings, in fortification, denote the
longer sides of horn-works, crown-works,
tenailles, and the Uke out-works ; includ-
ing the ramparts and parapets, with
which they are bounded on the right and
left from their gorge to their front.

WINTERA, in botany, so named from
Captain William Winter, who brought the
bark of this tree from the Straits of Ma-
gellan, a genus of the Polyandria Tetra-
gynia class and order. Natural order of
jVlagnolise, Jussieu. Essential character :
calyx three-lobed ; petals six or twelve ;
germs club-shaped ; styles none ; berries
four or eight, obovate. There are three
species.

WIRE dra-wingy the art of drawing out
long bars of metal, by pulling it through
holes in a plate of steel, or other fit me-
tallic compound. In order that a wire
may be drawn, it is requisite that the
metal should have considerable tenacity.
Gold, silver, iron, steel, copper, and their
compounds, are most commonly used in
the arts. The process is of considerable
simplicity. A number of holes, progres-
sively smaller and smaller, are made in a
plate of steel, and the pointed end of a
bar of metal being passed through, one
of them is forcibly drawn by strong
pinchers, so as to elongate it by the pres-
sure arising from the re-action of the
greased hole : this is the wire ; and it is
again passed in like manner through ano-
ther hole a little smaller ; and, by conti-
nuing the process, the wire has its length
increased, and its diameter diminished,
to a very great degree. The largest wire
may be nearly an inch in diameter, and
the smallest we have seen was about one-
thousandth part of an inch ; but we are
assured that silver wire has been made
one-fifteen-hundredth of an inch in dia-
meter. The size of these small wires
may be ascertained from the weight of a
known measure of length, and the speci-
fic gravity of the metal. Or, less correct-

WIT

ly, the wire may be wound round a pin,
and the number of turns counted which
make a given length.

Wires are drawn square, and of other
figures in their sector. In particular they
are drawn grooved, so that any small
part will form the pinion of a clock or
watch work.

As the violent action of the drawing
plate renders the wires hard and brittle,
it is necessary to anneal it several times
during the course of drawing. Very
small holes are made by hammering up
the larger, and the point, in very thin wire,
is made by rolling or crushing the end
by a smooth burnishing tool upon a po-
lished plate.

It is baid that soft steel is as good for
the wire drawer's plate as that which is
hard, or as the compound material which
comes from France in wire plates, and is
highly esteemed. This has not been yet
chemically examined.

W I RE 0/ Lapland. The inhabitants of
Lapland have a sort of shining slender
substance in use among them on several
occasions, which is much of the thickness
and appearance of our silver wire, and is
therefore called, by those who do not ex-
amine its structure or substance, Lapland
wire. It is made of the sinews of the
rein-deer, which being carefully separat-
ed in the eating, are by the women, after
soaking in water, and beating, spun into
a sort of thread, of admirable fineness,
and strength, when wrought to the small-
est filaments ; but when larger, is very
strong, and fit for the purposes of
strength and force. Their wire, as it is
called, is made of the finest of these
threads, covered with tin. The women do
this business, and the way they take is to
melt a piece of tin, and placing at the
edge of it a horn with a hole through it,
they draw these sinewey threads, cover-
ed with the tin, through the hole, which
prevents their coming out too thick co-
vered. This drawing is performed with
their teeth : and there is a small piece of
bone placed at the top of the hole, where
the wire is made flat, so that we always
find it rounded on all sides but one, where
it is flat. This wire they use in embroi-
dering their clothes as we do gold and
silver ; they often sell it to strangers, un-
der the notion of its having certain magi-
cal virtues.

WIT, a faculty of the mind, consisting,
according to Mr. Locke, in the assembling
and putting together of those ideas, with
quickness and variety, in which any re-

WIT

semblance or congruity can be found, in
order to form pleasant pictures and 8
agreeable visions to the fancy. This fa-
culty, the same author observes, is just
the contrary of judgment, which consists
in the separating carefully from one ano-
ther, such ideas wherein can be found the
least difference, thereby to avoid being
misled by similitude and affinity, to take
one thing for another. It is the metaphor
and allusion, wherein, for the most part,
lies the entertainment and pleasantry of
wit, which strikes so lively on the fancy,
and is therefore so acceptable to all peo-
ple, because its beauty appears at first
sight, and there is required no labour of
thought to examine what truth or reason
there is in it. The mind without looking
any further, rests satisfied with the
agreeableness of the picture, and the gaie-
ty of the imagination ; and it is a kind of
affront to go about to examine it by the
severe rules of truth or reason. Wit is
also an appellation given to the person
possessed of this faculty ; and here the
true wit must have a quick succession of
pertinent ideas, and the ability of arrang- ^
ing and expressing them in a lively and
entertaining manner ; he must at the same
time have a great deal of energy and de-
licacy in his sentiments ; his imagination
must be sprightly and agreeable, without
any thing of parade or vaqity in his dis-
course : bur it is not, however, essential
to thecharacter of a wit, to be ever hunt-
ing after the brilliant, studying sprightly
turns, and affecting to say nothing but
what may strike and surprise.

WITENA-7«o/, or Whiten a gemote ,
among our Saxon ancestors, was a term
which literall^'^ signified the assembly of
the wise men, and was applied to the
great council of the nation, of latter days
called the parliament.

WITHERINGIA, in botany, so named
in honour of William Withering, M. D.
F. R. S. a genus of the Tetrandria Mono-
gynia class and order. Natural order of
Luridsc. Solanese, Jussieu. Essential
character : corolla subcampanulate, with
four bumps in the tube ; calyx very small,
indistinctly four-toothed ; pericarpium
two-celled. There is only one species ; viz,
W. solanacea, a native of South Ame-
rica.

WITHERITE, in mineralogy, a species
of the genus Barytes : it is commonly of a
light yellowish grey colour, usually mas-
sive, but sometimes crystallized : specific
gravity about 4.3. It melts without ad-
dition before the blow-pipe into a white

r

WOA

ejiamel. It dissolves with effervescence
311 acids: it consists, according^ to Klap-
roth, of

Carbonate of barytes .
Carbonate of stronLian
Alumina Willi iron . . .
Carbonate of copper .

. 98.246

. 1.703

. 0.043

. 0.008

100 000

But, according to other chemists, it

consists of

Barytes 74 5

Carbonic acid 25.5

100.0

woo

WOLF. See Canis.

"WOLFRAM, in mineralogy, is a spe-
cies of stone of an intermediate colour
between dark greyish black and brown^
ish black, sometimes inclining to velvet
black. It occurs massive, and also crya»
tallized ; specific gravity soinewhere be-
tween 6 and 7. U decrepitates before the
blow-pipe, and is infusible even with bo-
rax. Specimens have been analyzed by
several chemists : according to Klaproth
and Vauquelin, it consists of

Klaproth.
Molybdic ac'td .,..,. 46 9

Oxide of Iron 31.2

Loss 21.9

100.0

It occurs in veins, heavy spar, lead glance,
blende, and calamine, and is found in Lan-
cashire. It is a very active poison, but com-
bined with muriatic acid, it may be used
with great caution in cases of scrophula.

WlT^iESS, in law, one who is sworato
give evidence in a cause. If a man be sub-
pcEiijed as a witness upon a trial, he must
appear in court on pain of 100/. to be
forfeited to the king, and 10/ together
\vith damages equivalent to the loss sus-
tained by the want of his evidence to the
party aggrieved. But witnesses ought to
nave a reasonable time, that their attep<i-
ance upon the court may be of as kittle
prejudice to themselves as possiWe; and
the Court of King's Bench heldi that no-
tice at two in the afternoon to attend the
sitting that evening at Westminster, was
too short a lime.

"Where a witness cannot be present at
a trial, he may, by consent of the plaintiff
and defendant, or by rule of court be ex-
amined upon interrogatories at the judge's
chambers. No witness is bound to ap-
pear to give evidence in a cause, unless
his reasonable expense be tendered him;
and if he appear, till such charge is ac-
tually paid him, except be both resides
and is summoned to give evidence within
the bills of mortality. See Arrest, Evi-
dence, Privilege.

WITSENIA, in botany, a genus of the
Triandria Monogynia class and order, ^"^a-
tural order of Ensatx. Irides, Jussieu.
Essential character : corolla onepetalled,
cylindrical, six-parted; stigma emargi-
nate: capsule superior. There is only
one species ; viz. W. maura, a native of
the Cape of Good Hope.

WO AD. See Is AT IS.

AOL. YI.

Vauqiielin.

Molybdic acid 67.00

Oxide of manganese . . . 6.25

Oxide of Iron 18.00

Silica 1-50

Loss 7.25

100.00

It occurs in primitive mountains, and ia
the oldest formations. It is usually ac-
companied with tin, and distinguished
from tin-stone by its streak, which is red-
dish brown, whereas that of tin-stone is
grey. See Tin.

WOOD. See Timber. The wood of
vegetables consists of fibres, impregnated
with a variety of the natural juices of the
plant, as mucilage, resin, colouring mat-
ter, extract, essential oil, sugar, &cc. AU of
these may be obtained from one or other
kind of wood, by applying those menstrua
which dissolve these substances in their
natural state. If a piece of wood be boiled
in a great quantity of water, till it no lon-
ger gives out taste or smell, and if it be
afterwards digested in alcohol, the sub-
stance which remains is the woody fibre.
It is either in a fibrous, lamellated, or
pulverulent form. Tiiis substance, which
is more or less coloured, has neither taste
nor smell ;/s not altered by exposure to the
air ; and is insoluble in water and alcohol.
When it i.s heated in contact with air, it
blackens, exhales dense, acrid pungent
fumes, and leaves behind a coaly matter,
which does not change its form. By reduc-
ing it to ashes, it is found to contain a little
potash, sulphate of pota-sh and lime, and

4E

woo

woo

phosphate ot lime. When it is dislilled
in a retort it yields water, acetic acid con-
laminated with oil, a thick oily matter,
carbonated hydrogen, and carbonic acid
gases, and a portion of ammonia, combin-
ed with acetic acid. The pure ligneous
fibre is dec(7mposed by being heated with
strong nitric acid, and yields a very con-
siderable quantity of oxalic and malic
acid. The surface of wood is readily
stained by a variety of substances ; and if
these ai'e allowed to remain in contact
with it, they sink into the substance of the
wood, which often produces a very agree*
able effect in cabinet work.

Wood, cutting in, is used for various
purposes ; as for initial and figured letters,
head and tail pieces of books ; and even
for schemes, mathematical and other fig-
ures, to save the expense of engraving on
copper : and for prints and stamps for pa-
pers, calicoes, linens, &c. The invention
of cutting in wood, as well as that in cop-
per, is ascribed to a goldsmith of Flo-
rence : but Albert Durer and Lucas
brought both these arts to perfection.
About two hundred years ago, the art of
cutting in wood was carried to a very
great pitch, and might even vie, for beauty
and justness, with that of engraving on
copper : at present it is much neglected,
the application of artists being wholly em-
ployed on copper, as the more easy and
promising province : not but that wooden
cuts have the advantage of those in cop -
per in many respects ; chiefly for figures
and devices in books; as being printed at
the same time, and in the same press with
the letters : whereas, for the other, there
is required a particular and separate im-
pression. The cutters in wood begin with
preparing a plank or block of the size
and thickness required, and very even
and smooth on the side to be cut: for this
they usually take pear tree, or box; but
the latter is best, as being closest, and
least liable to be worm eaten. On this
block they draw their design with a pen
or pencil, exactly as they would have it
printed ; or they fasten the design drawn
on paper upon the block with paste and a
little vinegar, the strokes or lines turned
towards the wood. When the paper is
dry, they wash it gently with a sponge
dipped in water, and then take it off* by
little and little, rubbing it first with the
tip of the finger, till nothing is left on the
block but the strf)kes of ink that form the
design, which mark out what part of the
block is to be spared or left standing.
The rest they cut oft" very carefully with
the points of very sharp knives, chissels,

or gravers, according to the bigness <H?
delicacy of the work.

Wood pecker. See Picus.

WOODSTONE, in mineralogy. See

HORNSTONE.

WOODTIN, in mineralogy. See Tin

ore.

WOOF, among manufacturers, the
threads which the weavers shoot across
with an instrument called the shuttle

WOOL, the covering of sheep. Each
fleece consists of wool of several quali-
ties and degrees of fineness, which the
dealers therein take care to separate.

The fineness and plenty of our wool is
owing, in a great measure, to the short
sweet grass in many of our pastures and
downs; though the advantage of our
sheep feeding on this grass all the year,
without bein^ obliged to be shut up un-
der cover during the winter, or to secure
them from wolves at other times, con-
tributes not a little to it.

This substance, the material of such im-
portant manufactures, possesses some cu-
rious chemical properties, none of which
however are much illustrated by the va-
rious operations performed on it in manu-
facture, almost all (that of dyeing except-
ed) being purely mechanical processes.
Some of the simple chemical properties
of wool have been examined by M Achard,
and compared with the corresponding
properties of the hair of different animals.
Thv; copious generation of oxalic acid by
treatment of wool with nitric acid, has
been particularly described and explained
by M. Bert\\olet in his beautiful research-
es on animal matter ; and the great solvent
power of the Cfliustic fixed alkalies, has
been happily apphed to some use by M.
Chaptal, as a saponaceous compound.

Wool, in the state in which it is taken
from the sheep, is always mixed with a
great deal of dirt and foulness of different
kinds, and in particular is strongly imbued
with a natural strong smelUng grease.
These impurities are got rid of by wash-
ing, fulling, and combing, by which the
wool is rendered remarkably white, soft,
clean, light, and springy under the hand.
When boiled in water for several hours,
in a common vessel, wool is not in any
way altered in weight or texture, nor
does the water acquire any sensible im-
pregnation.

The action of the nitric acid on wool is
very curious. When cold, this acid only
disengages a large quantity of azotic gas ;
but when warmed, much nitrous gas is
given out, and at least two new acids are
formed, vie. the malic and the oxalic, the

woo

WOR

latter is in greater abundance than even
from sugar and nitrous acid, or any otiier
hydro-carbonous basis. A small scum of
a peculiar oil always arises during the ac-
tion of nitrous acid on these animal sub-
stances.

The carbonated alkalies have little ac-
tion on wool, but the caustic iixed alkalies,
when digested with it, speedily weaken
its fibre, reduce it to a soft gelatinous
pulp, and finally make a perfect solution.
The alkali at the same time loses its al-
kaline properties, as it does in conmon
soap. Tiiis saponaceous solution of wool
is made for experiment in a few minutes,
by boiling bits of wool or flannel in a caus-
tic alkaline solution ; and it has been re-
commended by Chaptal to be employed
instead of common soap in cleansing cot-
ton and other goods in manufactures, as
by this means a number of refuse bits and
clippings of wool and woollen cloth, which
are now thrown away, may be put to some
use. This soapy solution does not lather
well when agitated with water, neverthe-
less it acts very powerfully in cleaning
cloth. It has a strong and somewhat of-
fensive smell, which is left at first in the
cloth, but goes off by short exposure to
the air.

Wool, either in a raw or manufactured
state, has always been the principal of the
staple articles of this country. The price
of wool was, in very early times, much
higher, in proportion to the wages of la-
bour, the rent of land, and the price of
butchers' meat, than at present. It was,
before the time of Edward III. always
exported raw, the art of working it into
cloth and dyeing being so imperfectly
known, that no persons above the degree
of working people could go dressed in
cloth of English manufacture.

The first steps taken to encourage the
manufacture of woollen cloths was by Ed-
ward III., who procured some good work-
men from the Netherlands, by means of
{)rotection and encouragement. The va-
ueof wool was considered as so essentially
solid, that taxes were vested in that com-
modity, reckoning by the number of
sacks ; and in proportion to the price of
the necessaries of life, and value of silver,
wool was at least three times dearer
then than it is now. The manufacturing
of clotli being once introduced into the
country, the pohcy of preventing the ex-
portation of the raw material was soon
evident; and the first act was that of
Henry IV. c. 2, by which the exportation
of sheep, lambs, or rams, is ferbidden,
Hnder very heavy penalties.

By statute 28 George III. all former
statutes respecting the exportation of
wool and slicep are repealed, and nume-
rous restrictions are consolidated in that
statute. By this act, if any person shall
send or receive any sheep on board any
vessel, to be carried out of the kingdom",
such vessel shall bC forfeited, and the
person so otTonding shall forfeit 3/. for
every sheep, and suffer solitary imprison-
ment for three months. But wether
slieep, by a licence from the collector of
the customs, may be taken on board, for
the use of the ship's company ; and every
person who shall export any wool, or
woollen articles slightly made up, so as
easily to be reduced again to wool, or
any fuller's earth, or tobacco-pipe clay ;
and every carrier, ship owner, command-
er, mariner, or other person, who shall
knowingly assist in exporting, or attempt-
ing to export, these articles, shall forfeit
3s. for every pound weight, or the sum of
50/. in the whole, at the election of the
prosecutor, and shall also suffer solitary
imprisonment for three months. But
wool may be carried coastwise, upon
being duly entered, and security being
given, according to the directions of the
statute, to the officer of the port from
whence the same shall be conveyed ; and
the owners of sheep within five miles of
the sea, and ten miles in Kent and Sussex,
cannot remove the wool, without giving
notice to the officer of the nearest port,
as directed by the statute.

Wool combers. By 35 George III.,
c. 124, all those who have served an ap-
prenticeship to the trade of a wool comb-
er, or who are by law entitled to exercise
the same, and also their wives and chil-
dren, may set up and exercise such trade,
or any other trade or business they are
apt and able for, in any town or place
within this kingdom, without any moles-
tation ; nor shall such wool combers,
their wives or children, while they exer-
cise such trades, be removeable from
such place to their last legal settlement,
till they shall actually become cJiargeabie
to such parish.

WORD, or Watch wobd, in an army
or garrison, is some pecu/iar word or sen-
tence, by which the soldiers know and
distinguish one_another in the night, &c.
and by which spies and designing persons
are discovered. It is used also to prevent
surprises. The word is given out, in an
army, every night, to the lieutenant, or ma-
jor-general of the day, who gives it to the
m.^jors of the brigades, and they to the
adjutants, who give it first to the field offi-

WOR

WOR

cers, and afterwards to a Serjeant of each
company, who carry it to tlie subaherns.
In garrisons, it is given, after llie gate is
shut, to the toVvn-major, who gives it to
adjutants, and they to the Serjeants.

WORDS. .\s we proposed, in Philo-
sophy, mental, § 104, we shall lay before
our readers a view of Hartley's very im-
portant principles, respecting some of the
leading phenomena of the understanding ;
and we beg to refer our readers to Un-
DEUSTANBiNG, for unotlicr branch of those
phenomena. These principles illustrate
and apply the doctrine of association ;
and we deem it certain, that the philoso-
phy of language can be pursued with
complete success, only by those who have
closely atten(?t .', practically, if not theO'
retically, to the influence of that ever ac-
tive principle.

AVords may be considei-ed in four
lights : first, as impressions upon tlie car ;
secondly, as the actions of the organs of
speech ; thirdly, as impressions made up-
on the eye by characters ; fourthly, as
the actions of the hand in writing. We
learn the use of them in this order ; for
children first get an imperfect knowledge
of the meaning of the words of others ;
then learn to speak themselves ; then to
read; and, lastly, to write. Now it is
evident, that in the first of these ways,
many sensible impressions, and external
feelings, are associated with particular
■words and phrases, so as to give these
the power of raising the corresponding
ideas ; and that the three following ways
increase and improve this power, with
some additions to the ideas and variations
of them. The second is the reverse of
the first, the fourth of the third. The
first ascertains the ideas belonging to
words and phrases in a gross manner, ac-
cording to their usage in common life.
The second fixes this, and makes it ready
and accurate. The third has the same ef-
fect as the second ; and also extends the
ideas and significations of words and
phrases, by new associations, and in par-
ticular, by associations with other words,
as in definitions, descriptions. Sic. The
fourth, by converting the reiider into a
writer, helps him to be expert in distin-
guishing, quick in recollecting, and faith-
ful in retaining, these new significations
of words. Tiie action of the hand is not,
indeed, an essential in this fourth method ;
composition by persons born blind having
nearly the same effect ; it is, however,
a commoa attendant on composition, and
has a considerable use deducible from
association, at the same time making the

analogy between the four methods more
conspicuous and complete.

Hence it appears, that words and
phrases must excite ideas in us by associ-
ation ; and it further appears, tliat they
can do it by no other means, since all the
ideas whicii any wor.l excites are deduci-
ble from some of the sources above men-
tioned, most usually from the first or
third: and because words of unknown
languages, terms of art not yet explain-
ed, barbarous words. Etc. have either
no ideas connected with them, or only
such as some fancied resemblance, or
prior association, suggests. It deserves
to be remarked, that articulate sounds
are, by their variety, number, and ready
use, peculiarly fitted to signify and sug-
gest, by association, both our simple
ideas, and Our complex ones formed from
them.

We now proceed to describe the man-
ner in which ideas are associated with
words, beginning with childhood.

First, then, the association of the names
of visible objects, with the impressions
whicli these objects make upon the eye,
seems to take place more early than any
other, and to be effected in the following
manner. The name of the visible object,
the mother, for instance, is pronounced
and repeated by the attendants to the
child, more frequently when his eye is
fixed upon his mother, than when upon any
other objects, and much more so than
wlien upon any particular one. The word
mamma is also sounded in an emphatical
manner, when the child's eye is directed
to his mother with earnestness and desire.
The association, therefore, of the sound,
mamma, with the visible impression of
the mother on the retina, will be far
stronger than that with any other visible.
impression, and thus overpower all the
other accidental associations ; and these
will also themselves contribute to the
same end, by opposing one another. And
when the child has acquired so much
voluntary power over his motions, as to
direct his head and eyes towards the
nurse, upon hearing her name, this pro-
cess will go on with accelerated velocity :
and thus, at last, the word will excite the
visible idea readily and certainly. The
same association of the visible impression
of the mother \\'iX\\ the sound, mamma,
will, by degrees, overpower all the acci-
dental associations of this visible impres-
sion with other words ; and, at last, be so
closely confirmed, that the visible impree-
sion will excite the audible idea of the
word. This, however, is not to our pr«-

WORDS.

sent purpose, but it is a process which
takes place at the same time with the
other, and contributes to illustrate and
confirm it. Both together furnish a com-
plete instance of one of the classes of
connectiojis. (§ 21.)

Secondly, this association of words with
visible appearances, being made under
many particular circumstances, must af-
fect the visible ideas with a like particu-
larity. Thus the mother's dress, and the
situation of the tire in the child's nursery,
make part of the child's ideas of his mo-
ther and fire. But then, as his mother
often changes her dress, and the child
often sees a fire in a diHerent place, and
surrounded by difl'erent visible objects,
these opposite associations must be less
strong than the part which is common to
them all ; and consequently we m;iy
suppose, that while his idea of that part
which is common, and wliich we may call
essential, continues the same, that of the
particularities, circumstances, and ad-
juncts, varies.

Thirdly, when the visible objects im-
pi*ess other vivid sensations besides those "
of sight, such as pleasant or unpleasant
tastes, smells, warmth, or coldness, 8tc.
with suflicieni frequency, those must have
relicts or id«is, (| 7), wfiich will be as-
sociated with the visible ideas of the ob-
jects, and with the names of the objects,
so as to depend upon them. Thus, an
idea of the taste of the mother's milk vv ill
rise up in the mind of the child, on his
hearing her name ; and hence the whole
idea belonging to the word mamma now
begins to be complex, consisting of two
sets of ideas derived from different
senses ; and these ideas will be associated
together, not only because the same
word raises both, but also because the
original sensations were often received to-
gether. The stronger idea will there-
fore assist the weaker. Now, in common
cases, visible ideas are the strongest; or,
at least, occur the most readily ; but in
this case it appeare to be otherwise. It
would be easy to proceed to various
other and more complex cases, in which
the component ideas are united, and all
made to depend on the respective names
of visible objects ; but what has been .said
is sufficient to show what ideas the names
. of visible objects, proper and appellative,
laise in us.

Fourthly, we must, however, observe,
respecting appellatives, that sometimes
'he idea is the common compound re-
.it of all the sensible impressions re-
ived from several of the objects cora-
jrised under the general appellation ;

sometimes, in a great measure at leasts
the particvdar idea of some one of these,
namely, -when the impressions arising
from some one of the class are more fre-
quent and vivid than those of the rest. '
Fifthly, the names denoting sensible
qualities, whether substandve or adjec-
tive, such as whiteness, wiiite, &c. get
their ideas in a manner which will be ea-
sily understood from what has been al-
ready stated. That visible impression
which is common to all objects which
have been frequently seen having the
name, white, applied to them, becomes
the leading feature of the ideas belong-
ing to them ; and the word excites that
most vividly and universally, while it ex-
cites only faintly, or at least w ith great
variation, the ideas of the peculiarities,
circumstances, and adjuncts : and so of
the other sensible qualities.

Sixthly, the names of visible actions, as
walking, &c. raise the proper visible
ideas by a like process. Other ideas may
likewise adhere in certain cases, as in
those of tasting, feeling, speaking, &;c.
Sensible impressions, in whicii no visible
action is concerned, may also have ideas
dependant upon words. However, some
visible ideas generally interuiix them-
selves here. These actions and percep-
tions are generally denoted by verbs,
though sometimes by substantives.

Seventhly, as childrt;n may learn to
read word.s, not only in an elementary
way, viz. by learning the letters and syl-
lables of which they are composed, but
also in a summary one, viz. by associating
the sound of entire words with their visi-
ble representations ; and niu.st, in some
cases, be taught in this latter method,
that is, while the sound of the word de-
viates from that of its elements ; so both
children and adults often learn the ideas
belonging to whole sentences, in a sum-
mary way, and not by adding together the
ideas of the several words in the sentence.
And wherever words occur, wliich, sepa-
rately taken, have no distinct proper
ideas, their use can be learned in no
other way than this ; and this will be the
case where the words are extremely ge-
neral, applying to avast variety of visible
objects, and to circumstances and rela-
tions which are not obvious to the uncul-
tivated mind. Now, pronouns, and par-
ticles, and many other words, are of this
sort. Thus, I walk, is associated at dif-
ferent times with the same visible impres-
sions with, mamma walks, brother walks,
&c. and therefore can for a long time sug-
gest nothing permanently but the action
of walking. However, the pronoun, /,

MOUDS.

in this and innumerable other short sen-
tences, being- always associated with tl\e
person speaking, (as thou with the person
spoken to, and he w ith the person spoken
ot), the frequent recurrency of tliis
teaches tJie child the use of the pronouns;
that is, teaches him what difference he is
to expect in his sensible impressions, ac-
cording as tins or that pronoun is used ;
the vast number of instances making up
for the very small quantity of information
which each, singly taken, conveys. In
like manner difterent particles, (ihat is,
adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions),
being used in sentences where the sub-
stantives, adjectives, and verbs, are the
same ; and the same particles, when these
are different, in an endless recurrency,
teach children the use of the particles in
a gross general way. For it may be ob-
served, that children are n)uch at a loss
for the true use of the pronouns and par-
ticles for some years ; and that tliey often
repeat the proper name of tlie person in-
stead of the proncmn ; which confirms
the foregoing reasoning.

Eighlldy, the attempts which children
make to express their own wants, per-
ceptions, pains, &c. in words, and the
corrections and suggestions of the atten-
dants, are of the greatest use in i:ll the
steps that we have hitherto considered,
and especially in the last, respecting the
particles and pronouns.

Ninthly, learning to read helps children
much in the same respects ; especially as
it teaches them to separate sentences in-
to the several words which compose
them ; which those who cannot read are
scarcely able to do, even when they arrive
at adult age.

Thus we may see how children and
others are enabled to understand a conti-
nued discourse, relating to sensible im-
pressions only ; and how the words, in
j>assing over the ear, must raise up trains
of visible and other ideas, by the power
of association. Our next inquiry must be
concerningthe words which denote either
intellectual things, or collections of other
words.

Tenthly, the words wliich relate to the
several passions of lo\e, hatred, hope,
fear, anger, &c. being applied to the
child when he is under the influence of
these passions, get the power of raising
up the ideas of those passions, and also
the usual associated circumstances. The
application of the same words to others
helps also to annex the ideas of the asso-
ciated circumstances to them, and even of
the passions themselves, both from the

infectiousness of our natures, and from
the power of associated circumstances to
i-aise the passions. The words, however,
denoting the passions, do not, for the
most part, raise up in us any degree of
the passions themselves, but only the
ideas of the associated circumstances.
We are supposed sufficiently to under-
stand the continued discourses into which
these words enter, when we form true
notions of the actions, particularly the
visible ones, attending the feelings de-
noted.

Eleventhly, the names of intellectual
and moral qualities and operations, stand
for a description of these quaUties and
operations ; and therefore, if dwelt upon,
excite such ideas as these descriptions in
all their particular circumstances do. But
the common sentences into which these
words enter, pass over the mind too
quick, for the most part, to allow of such
lielay. They are acknowledged as fami«
liar and correct ; and suggest certain as-
sociated visible ideas, and nascent inter-
nal feelings, taken from the description of
these names, or from the words which are
usually joined with them in discourses
and writings.

Twelfthly, there are niany terms of
art in all the branches of learning, which
are defined by other words, and which,
therefore, are only compendious substi-
tutes for them. The same holds in com-
mon life in numberless instances. Such
words sometimes suggest the words of
their definitions, sometimes tlie ideas of
these words, sometimes a particular spe-
cies comprehended under the general
term, &c. But whatever they suggest, it
may be easily seen, that they derive the
power of doing it from association.

Lastly, there are words used in abstract
sciences which can scarcely be defined
or described by other words, such as
idettiity, existence^ &c. The use of these
must therefore be learned, as that of the
particles is. Indeed children learn their
first imperfect notions of all the words
considered in this and the last three pa-
ragraphs, chiefly in this way ; and come
to more precise and explicit ones only
by means of books, as they advance to
adult age, or by endeavouring to use
them properly in their own deliberate
compositions.

From the foregoing train of reasoning,
the following inferences may be drawn.

1. Including under the head of defini*
tion, description, or any way of explain-
ing a word by other words, excepting
that by a mere synonymous term ; an3

t

AVORDS.

excluding from the head of ideas the vi-
sible idea of the character of a word, and
the audible one of its sound, and also all
ideas Which are either extremely faint or
extremely variable -, words may be dis-
tinguished into the four following classes:
1. Such as have ideas only ; 2. Siicli as
have both ideas and definitions; 3. Such
as have definitions only ; 4. Such as have
neither ideas nor definitions.

It is difficult to fix precise limits to
these four classes, so as to determine ac-
curately where each ends and the next
begins ; and if we consider these things
in the most general way, there is per-
haps no word which has not both an idea
and a definition ; that is, which is not oc-
Ciisionally attended with some one or
more internal feelings, and whicl\ may
not be explained, m some imperfect
manner at least, by other words. How-
ever, the following are some instances of
words which have the fairest right to
each class. The names of simple sensi-
ble objects are of the first class. Thus
while, sweety &c. excite ideas, but cannot
be ; defined. Words of this class stand
only for the stable parts of the respective
ideas, not for the several variable parti-
cularities, circumstances, and adjuncts,
which here intermix themselves.

The names of natural bodies, animal,
vegetable, or mineral, are of the second
class ; for they excite aggregates of sen-
sible ideas, and at the same time may be
defined by an enumeration of their pro-
perties and characteristics. Thus like-
wise geometrical figures have both ideas
and definitions. The definitions, in both
cases, are so contrived as to leave out all
the variable particularities of the ideas,
and also to be more full and precise than
the ideas generally are in tlie parts which
are of a permanent nature.

Algebraic quantities, such as roots,
powers, surds, &.c. belong to the third
class; and have definitions only. The
same may be said of scientifical terms of
art, and of most abstract general terms,
moral, metaphysical, and vulgar. How-
ever, mental emotions are apt to attend
some of these even in passing slightly
over the ear, and these emotions may be
considered as ideas belonging to the re-
spective terms. Thus the very M'ords,
gratitudey mercy y cruelty , treachery y Sec.
separately taken, affect the mind; and
yet, since all reasoning upon them is to
be founded on their definitions, it seems
best to refer them to this third class.

Lastly, the particles, the, of, to, for, but,
&c. have neitlier definition nor ideas, as
we have limited those terms.

2. It will easily appear, from the ob«
servations here mafle upon words, and
the associations which adhere to them,
that the languuges of different ages and
nations must bear a great general resem-
blance to each other, and yet have con-
siderable particular differences ; whence
any one may be translated into any other,
so as to convey the same ideas in general,
and yet not with perfect precision and
exactness. They must resemble one:
another, because the phenomena of na-
ture which they are all intended to ex-
press, and the uses and exigencies of hu-
man life to which they minister, have a
general resemblance. But then, as the
bodily make and genius of each people,
the air, soil, and climate, commerce, arts,
sciences, religion, &c. make consid£rable
differences in different ages and nations,
it is natural to expect that the languages
should have proportionable differences
in respect of each other.

In learning a new language, the words-
of it are at first substitutes for those of
our native language ; that is, they are as-
sociated, by means of these, with the
proper objects and ideas. When this
association is sufficiently strong, the mid-
dle bond is dropped, and the words of the
new language become substitutes for, and
suggest directly and immediately objects
and ideas ; also clusters of other words
in the same language.

In learning a new language, it is much
easier to translate from it into the native
one, than back again ; just as young chil-
dren are much better able to understand
the expressions of others, than to express
their own conceptions. And the reason
is the same in both cases. Young chil^
dren learn at first to go from the words
of others, and those who learn a new lan-
guage, from the words of that language to
the things signified. And the reverse of
this, viz. to go from the things signified
to the words, must be difficult for a time,
from the nature of successive associations.
It is to be added here, that the nature
and connections of the things signified,
often determine the import of sentences,
though their grammatical analysis is not
understood; and that we suppose the
person who attempts to translate from a
new language, i.s sufficiently expert in
passing from the things signified to the
corresponding words of his own language.
The power of association is every where
conspicuous in these remarks.

3. It follows also from the foregoing
reasoning, that persons who speak the
same language cannot always mean the
same things by the same words, but must

WORDS.

Sometimes mistake each other's meaning.
This confusion and uncertainty arise
from the different associations transferred
upon the same words by the difference
in the accidents and events of our lives.
It is, liowever, much more common in
discourses concerning abstract matters,
where the terms stand for collections of
other terms, sometimes at the pleasure of
tlie speaker or writer, than in the com-
mon and necessary affaii-s of life ; for
here frequent use, and the constancy of
the phenomena of nature, intended to be
expressed by words, have rendered their
.-.ense determinate and certain. However,
it seems possible, and even not very diffi-
cult, for two truly candid and intelligent
persons to understand each other upon
any subject.

That we may enter more particuiarly
intothe causes of this confusion, and con-
sequently be the better enabled to pre-
vent it, let us consider words according
to the four classes above mentioned.

Now, mistakes will happen in words of
the first class, viz. such as have ideas
only, where the persons have associated
these words with different impressions.
And the method to rectify any mistake
of this kind is, for each person to show
with what actual impressions he has asso-
ciated the word in question. But mis-
takes here are not common.

In words of the second class, xiz. such
as have both ideas and definitions, it of-
ten happens that one person's knowledge
is much more full than another's, and
consequently his idea and definition much
more extensive. This must cause a mis-
apprehension on one side, which yet may
be easily rectified by recurring to the
definition. It happens also sometimes in
words of this class, that a man's ideas are
not always suitable to his definition; that
is, are not the same with those which the
words of the definition would excite. If
tlien this person should pretend, or even
design, to reason from his definition, and
yet reason from his idea, misapprehen-
sion will arise in the hearer, who sup-
poses him to reason from his definition
merely.

In words of the third class, which have
definitions only and no immediate ideas,'
mistakes generally ari.se through want of
fixed definitions being muttially acknow-
ledged and kept to. However, as imper-
fect fluctuating ideas that have little re-
lation to the definitions, are often apt to
adhere to the words of this class, mis-
takes must arise from this cause also.

As to the words of the fourth class, or

those which have neither ideas nor defi-
nitions, it is easy to ascertain their use by
inserting them in sentences where irnjxnt
is known and acknowledged, this being
the method in which children learn to
decypher them ; so that mistakes could
not arise in the words of this class, did we
u.se moderate care and candour. And,
indeed, since children learn the uses of
words most evidently without having any
data, any fixed point at all, it is to be
hoped that philosophers and candid per-
sons may learn at least tt) understand one
another with facility and certainty ; and
get to the very bottom of the connection
between words and ideas.

4. When words have acquired any con-
siderable power of exciting pleasant or
painful feelings, by being often associat-
ed with such things as do this, they may
transfer a part of their ple;isures and
pains upon indifferent things, by being
at other times often associated with such.
This is one of the principal sources of
the several factitious pleasures and pains
of human life. Thus, to give an instance
from childhood, the words s-weety goody
pretty, fine, &c. on the one hand ; and
the words bad, ugly, f tight fid. Sec. on the
other, being applied by the nurse and at-
tendants in the child's hearing, almost
promiscuously, and without those restric-
tions that are observed in correct speak-
ing ; the one set to all the pleasures, the
otlier to all the pains, of the several
sen.ses, must by association raise up ge-
neral pleasant and painful feelings, in
which no one part can be distinguished
above the rest ; and when applied by
further associations to objects of a neu-
tral kind, they must transfer a general
pleasui'e or pain upon them.

5. Since words thus collect ideas from
various quarters, unite them together,
and transfer them, both upon otlier \yords
and upon foreign objects, it is evident
that the use of words adds much to the
number and complexity of our ideas, and
is the principal means by which we make
mental and moral improvement. This is
verified abundantly by the observations
which are made upon persons born deafi
and continuing so. It is probable, how-
ever, that these persons make use of
some symbols to a.ssist the memory, and
fix tl)e imagination ; and they must have
a great variety of pleasures and pains
transferred upon visible objects, from
their associations with one another, and
with sensible pleasures of all kinds ; but
they are very deficient in tliis, upon the
whole, through the want of the associa-

WOR

WRE

tions of visible objects and states of mind,
&c. with words. Learning to read must
add greatly to their mental improvement ;
yet still their intellectual capacities can-
not but remain very narrow.

Persons blind from birth must proceed
in a manner different from that before
described, in the first ideas which they
affix to words. As the visible ones are
wanting, tlie others, particularly the tan-
gible and audible ones, must compose the
aggregates which are annexed to words.
However, as they are capable of leai*ning
and retaining as great a variety of words
as others, and can associate with them
pleasures and pains from the four remain-
mg senses, they fall little or nothing short
of others in intellectual accomplishments,
and may arrive even at a greater degree
of spirituahty and abstraction in their
complex ideas.

6. Hence it follows, that when children,
or others, fii*st learn to read, the view of
tfie words excites ideas only by tlie me-
diation of their sounds, with which alone
their ideas have hitherto been associated.
And thus it is that children and illiterate
persons best understand what they read
by reading aloud. By degrees, the inter-
mediate links being left out, the written
or printed characters suggest the ideas
directly and instantaneously; so that per-
sons who are much in the habit of reading,
understand more readily by passing over
the words with the eye only ; since this
method, by being more expeditious,
brings the ideas closer together. How-
ever, all are peculiarly affected by words
pronounced in a manner suitable to their
sense and design ; which is stUl an associ-
ated influence.

WORKING, in harvest. A person may
go abroad to work in harvest, carrying
with him a certificate from the minister,
and one churchwarden, or overseer, that
he hath a dwelling-house or place, in
which he inhabits, and hath left wife and
children, or some of them there, (or
otherwise as his condition shall require)
and declaring him an inhabitant there.
WORMS. See Vehmes.
Worm, in gunnery, a screw of iron, to
to be fixed on the end of a rammer, to
pull out the wad of a firelock, carabine, or
pistol, being the same with the wad-hook,
only the one is more proper for small
arms, and the other for cannon.

WoR.-M, in chemistry, is a long, wind-
ing, pewter pipe, placed in a tub of water,
to cool and condense the vapours in the
distillation of spirits.
Worm, a cable or hawser, in the sea
VOL. VL

language, is to strengthen it by winding
a small line, or rope, all along between
the strands.

WORSTED, a kind of woollen thread,
which, in the spinning, is twisted harder
than ordinar^^. It is chiefly used either
wove or knit into stockings, caps, gloves,
or the like.

WREATH, in heraldry, a roll of fine
linen or silk (Uke that of a Turkish tur-
ban) consisting of the colours borne in
the escutchon, placed in an atchievement
between the helmet and the crest, and
immediately supporting the crest.

WRECK, such goods as, after a ship-
wreck, are cast upon the land by the sea,
and left there within some county ; for
they are not wrecks so long as they re-
main at sea, being within the jurisdiction
of the Admiralty.

Various statutes have been made rela-
tive to wreck, which was formerly a per-
quisite belonging to the King, or by spe-
cial grant to the lord of the manor. It is
now, however, held, that if proof can be
made of the property of any of the goods
or lading which come to shore, they shall
not be forfeited as wreck.

By the 3 Edward, c. 4. the sheriff* of
the county shall be bound to keep the
goods a year and a day ; that if any man
can prove a property in them, either in
his own right, or by right of represents-
tion, they shall be restored to him without
delay.

By statute 26 George II. c. 19, plun-
dering any vessel, either in distress or
wrecked, and whether any Uving creature
be on board or not, or preventing the es-
cape of any person that endeavours to
save his life, or putting out false lights to
bring any vessel into danger, are all de-
clared to be capital felonies ; and by this
statute, pilfering any goods cast ashore,
is declared to be petty larceny. See Iksu-
RA7«^C£ salvage,

WREN (Sin Chkistopheh,) in biogra-
phy, a great philosopher and mathemati-
cian, and one of the most learned and
eminent architects of his age, was the son
of the Rev. Christopher Wren, Dean of
Windsor, and was born at Knoyle, in
Wiltshire, in 1632. He studied at Wad-
ham College, Oxford, where he took the
degree of Master of Arts, in 1653, and
was chosen fellow of All Souls College
there. Soon after he became one of that
ingenious and learned society, who then
met at Oxford for the improvement of
natural and experimental philosophy, and
which at length produced the Royal So-
ciety.

4 F

WREN.

When very young, he discovered a sur-
prising genius for the mathematics, in
whicli science he made great advances
before he was sixteen years of age. In
1657 he was made professor of astronomy
in Gresham College, Loudon ; and his
lectures, which were much frequented,
tended greatly to the promotion of real
knowledge. He proposed several me-
thods by which to account for the sha-
dows returning backward ten degrees on
the dial of King Ahaz, by the laws of na-
ture. One subject of his lectures was
upon telescopes, to the improvement of
which he had greatly contributed : an-
other was on certain properties of the
air, and the barometer. In the year 1658
he read a description of the body and
different phases of the planet Saturn ;
which subject he proposed to investigate,
while his colleague, Mr. Rook, then pro-
fessor of geometry, was carrying on his
observations upon the satellites of Jupi-
ter. The same year he communicated
some demonstrations concerning cycloids
to Dr. Wallis, which were afterwards
published by the Doctor at the end of his
treatise upon that subject. About that
time also he resolved the problem pro-
posed by Pascal, under the feigned name
of John de Montford, to all the English
mathematicians ; and returned another to
the mathematicians in France, formerly
proposed by Kepler, and then resolved
likewise by himself, to which they never
gave any solution. In 1660, he invented
a method for the construction of solar
eclipses; and in the latter part of the
same year, he, witli ten other gentlemen,
formed themselves into a society, to meet
weekly, for the improvement of natural
and experimental philosophy ; being the
foundation of the Royal Society. In the
beginning of 1661, he was chosen Savilian
professor of astronomy at Oxford, in the
room of Dr. Seth Ward ; where he was
the same year created Doctor of Laws.

Among his other accomplishments. Dr.
Wren had gained so considerable a skill
in architecture, that he was sent for the
same year from Oxford, by order of King
Charles the Second, to assist Sir John
Denham, surveyor-general of the works.
In 1663 he was chosen fellow of the Royal
Society, being one of those who were
first appointed by the council after the
grant of their charter. Not long after, it
being expected that the King would make
the Society a visit, the Lord Brounker,
then president, by a letter, requested the
advice of Dr. Wren, concerning the ex-
periments which might be most proper

on that occasion : to whom the Doctor
recommended principally the Torriceihau
experiment, and the weather needle, as
being not mere amusements, but useful,
and also neat in their operation.

In 1665 he travelled into France, to ex-
amine the most beautiful edifices, and
curious mechanical works there, when
he made many useful observations. Upon
his return home, he was appointed archi-
tect, and one of tiie commissioners for
repairing St. Paul's cathedral. Witliin a
few days after the fire of London, 1666,
he drew a plan for a new city, and pre-
sented it to the King ; but it was not ap-
proved by the Parliament, In this model
the chief streets were to cross each other
at right angles, with lesser streets between
them; the churches, public buildings, &c.
so disposed as not to interfere with the
streets, and four piazzas placed at proper
distances. Upon the death of Sir John
Denham, in 1668, he succeeded him in
the office of surveyor-general of the King's
works, and from this time he had the di-
rection of a great many public edifices,
by which he acquired the highest repu-
tation. He built the magnificent theatre
at Oxford, St. Paul's cathedral, the Monu-
ment, the modern part of Hampton Court,
Chelsea College, one of the wings of
Greenwich Hospital, the churches of St.
Stephen Walbrook, and St. Mary-le-Bow,
with upwards of sixty other churches and
public works, which that dreadful fire
made necessary. In the management of
which business he was assisted in the
measurements, and laying out of private
property, by the ingenious Dr. Robert
Hook. The variety of business in which
he was by this means engaged requiring
his constant attendance and concern, he
resigned his Savilian professorship at Ox-
ford in 1673, and the year following he
received from the King the honour of
knighthood. He was one of the commis-
sioners who, on the motion of Sir Jonas
Moore, surveyor-general of the ordnance,
had been appointed to find out a proper
place for erecting an observatory, and he
proposed Greenwich, which,was approved
of; the foundation-stone of whicli was
laid the tenth of August, 1675, and the
building was presently finished, under the
direction of Sir Jonas, with the advice
and assistance of Sir Christopher.

In 1680 he was chosen president of the
Royal Society ; afterwards appointed ar-
chitect and commissioner of Chelsea Col-
lege; and in 1684, principal officer or
comptroller of the works in Windsor
castle. Sir Christopher sat twice in Par-

W«T

WRI

Jiament, as a representative for two dif-
ferent boroughs. While he continued
surveyer-general, his residence was in
Scotland-yard ; but after his removal from
that office, in 1718, he lived in St. James's
street, Westminster. He died the twen-
ty-fifth of February, 1723, at ninety -one
years of age ; and he was interred with
great solemnity in St. Paul's Cathedral, in
the vault under the south wing of the
choir, near the east end.

WRIGHT (Edward,) in biography, a
noted English mathematician, who flou-
rished in the latter part of the sixteenth
century, and beginning of the seventeenth.
He was contemporary with Mr. Briggs,
and much concerned with him in the bu-
siness of the logarithms, the short time
they were published before his death. He
also contributed greatly to the improve-
ment of navigation and astronomy. He
was the first undertaker of that difficult
but useful work, by which a little river is
brought from the town of Ware in a new
canal, to supply the City of London with
water ; but by the manaruvres of others
he was hindered from completing the
work he had begun. For the improve-
ment of the art of navigation he was ap-
pointed mathematical lecturer by the East
India Company, and read lectures in the
house of that worthy knight, Sir Thomas
Smith, for which he had a yearly salary
of fifty pounds. This office he discharg-
ed with great reputation, and much to
the satisfaction of his hearers. He pub-
lished in English a book on the Doctrine
of the Sphere, which is very scarce and
dear, and another concerning the con-
struction of sun-dials. He also prefixed
an ingenious preface to the learned Gil-
bert's book on the load-stone. He pub-
lished other works, and died in the year
1615.

WRIT is the King's precept, whereby
any thing is commanded touching a suit
or action ; as the defendant or tenant to
be summoned, a distress to be taken, a
disseisin to be redressed, &c. And these
writs are diversely divided ; some, in re-
spect of their order or manner of grant-
ing, are termed original, and some judi-
cial. Original writs are those that are
sent out for the summoning of the defen-
dant in a personal, or the tenant in a real
action, before the suit begins, or rather to
begin the suit.

The judicial writs are those which are
sent out by order of the court, where the
cause depends, upon occasion, after the
suit begins.

Original writs are issued out of the

Court of Chancery, for the summoning a de-
fendant to appear, and are granted before
the suit is begun, to begin the same : and
judicial writs issue out of the court wliere
the original is returned, after the suit is
begun. The originals bear date in the
name of the King, but the judicial writs
bear teste in the name of the chief jus-
tice.

Writ of inquiry of damages y a judicial
writ that issues out to the sherifl", upon a
judgment by default, in action of the case,
covenant, trespass, trover, &c. command-
ing him to summon a jury to inquire what
damages the plaintifFhalh sustained occa.
sioiie preemtssorum ; and when this is re-
turned with the inquisition, the rule for
judgment is given upon it, and if nothing
be said to the contrary, judgment is there-
upon entered.

A writ of inquiry of damages is a mere
inquest of office, to inform the conscience
of the court ; who, if they please, may
themselves assess the damages. And it
is accordingly the practice in actions upon
promissory notes and bills of exchange,
instead of executing a writ of inquiry, to
apply to the court for a rule to show cause
why it should not be referred to the mas-
ter, to see what is due for principal and
interest, and why final judgment should
not be signed for that sum, without exe-
cuting a writ of inquiry : which rule is
made absolute on an affidavit of service,
unless good cause be shown to the con-
trary.

WRITER of the tallies^ an officer of the
Exchequer, being clerk to the auditor of
the receipt, who writes, upon the tallies,
the whole letters of the teller's bill. See
the articles Tally, Excheq.uer, &c.

WRITING, origin of alphabetical. The
history of the origin and progress of writ-
ten languages is, in most of its stages,
less enveloped in obscurity than that of
oral language. Difficulties attend it in
common with every inquiry into antiquity;
but the data are more numerous and pro-
gressive than the fleeting nature of audible
signs would admit. The rudiments of
the art of writing are very simple ; its
advances towards the present state of im-
provement, slow and gradual. Visible
language first used marks as the signs of
things ; and we can trace it through all
its stages, from the simple picture, to^
the arbitrary mark for the elements of
sound.

The rudest species of visible commu-
nication was, the variously coloured knot-
ted cords of the Per'.ivians, called the
quipos. They have been represented by

WRITING.

some authors as rcg-iilar annals of the em-
pire ; but they might have some signifi-
cancy by agreement; it is probable that
without oral interpretation they would
denote nothing more than that something
was to be remembered, like the twelve
stones in Joshua, iv. 21, 22. Robertson,
with more probability, supposes that
they were a device for rendering calcula-
tion more expeditious and accurate ; that
by the various colours, different objects
were denoted ; and by each knot a dis-
tinct number. This is rendered siill
more probable by the circumstance, that
picture-writing was used by the Peruvians;
and, as the names of numbers must be
denoted by arbitrary signs to render cal-
culation at all extensive, this species of
arbitrary sign might be more convenient
for their rude arithmetic than any other.

Picture-writing, such as was adopted by
the Mexicans, is the first step of the pro-
gress towards letter- writing. The sim-
plest species was a mere delineation of
the object to be denoted. Thus the
North American Indians, when they went
to war, painted some trees with the fi-
gures of warriors, often of the exact
number of the party ; and if they
went by water, they delineated a canoe.
Thus, too, the Mexicans, at the arrival of
the Spaniards, sent large paintings on
cloth as dispatches to Montezuma. The
Mexicans had made some progress be-
yond simple delineations; but of these
their paintings are principally composed,
and by a proper disposition of their fi-
gures, they could exhibit a more complex
series of events in historical order. Some
very curious specimens of this picture-
writing are preserved : the most valuable
one has been ptiblished, and may be found
in Purchas's " Pilgrim," or in Thevenot's
*' Collection of Voyages." It is divided
into three parts : the first is a history of
the Mexican Empire ; the second is a
tribute-roll ; and the third, a code of their
institutions.

The defects of this mode of communi-
cation must have been early felt. Where
applicable, it was tedious, and was con-
fined to objects of sense. The human in-
tellect, stimulated by the necessity of im-
provement, would have proceeded through
the same course in the New World as in
the Old; but a stop was put to this progress
by the destruction of the most cultivated
empires. Picture writing, then the sim-
ple hieroglyphic, then the symbolical hie-
roglyphic, then the arbitrary character for
words, and, lastly, for letters, was the

evident progress of the mind. The aNfe^i-
cans had actually, in some instances, pass-
ed through all the intermediate stages ;
though the short duration of their empire
prevented them from extending these
rudiments to a regular system. In the
simple hieroglyphic, the principal part or
circumstance of a subject is placed for
the whole. In the historical painting be-
fore mentioned, towns are uniformly de-
noted by the rude delineation of a house,
to which was added some distinguishing
emblem : these emblems were denote-
ments of their names, which were general-
ly significant compounds. Kings and ge-
nerals were in like manner denoted by
heads of men, with similar emblematic
marks conjoined. They also used the
symbolical hieroglyphic to denote a con-
queror : they placed a target with darts
between the characters, for the king, and
the cities which he had subdued. Their
marks for months and other portions of
time, for the air, the earth, &c. were sym-
bolical ; and their cyphers are arbitrary
characters : they painted as many small
cu-cles as there were units to 20, which
had its proper mark ; by the successive
addition of these marks, they denoted
numbers to 20 times 20, or 400, which
again had its proper mark ; then by the
successive addition of these, they denoted
as far as 20 times 400, or 8000, which had
a new character. Whatever their advan-
ces, however, annals so conveyed must
have been very imperfect ; and according-
ly they took great pains to instruct the
young to supply the deficiencies, and to
remove the ambiguities, by means of tra-
ditionary explanations. See Robertson's
« America," vol. iii. p. 173—180 ; from
whom, and Clavigero, this account is de-
rived.

Picture-writing and its contraction,
which is denominated the simple hiero-
glyphic, must be very inadequate for the
purposes of communication. The figura-
tive hieroglyphic would soon be adopted;
for oral language must have made some
progress, before the use of permanent vi-
sible communication would be found ne-
cessary, and, consequently, must have
given metaphorical meanings to the
names of sensible objects. We here
speak of hieroglyphics as intended for the
purposes of communicating, not of conceal.
ing knowledge. It was long thought that
the latter was the first and only purpose.
Warburton has proved that this was not
their first use, but that which was made
of them in a later period, particularly

WRITING..

•vhen the invention of letters had ren-
dered the former purpose unnecessary.
The simple hieroglyphic was, where the
delineation of part of the object or action
represented the whole. Thus the an-
cient Egyptians painted a man's two feet
in water, to denote a fuller; smoke as-
cending, to denote fire ; two hands, one
holding a buckler, the other a bow, to de-
note a battle. The figurative hierogly-
phic was of two kinds : one, v/here the
instrument, real or supposed, was used
to denote the performer, or the thing per-
formed : the other, where one object
was used to represent another, which had
some real or supposed resemblance to it.
Egyptian examples of the first kind are,
an eye and a sceptre, to signify a king;
a sword, a bloody tyrant ; the mouth, to
denote speech or voice ; the sun and
moon, as a symbol for succession of time;
an eye placed in an eminent position, for
the omniscience of God. Examples of
the second are, a dog's head (as among
the Chinese, a dog's voice), to denote
sorrow ; dew falling from heaven to de-
note science. To these may be added,
as a mixed example, the inscription on
the temple of Minerva at Sais ; where
are found, engraved on the vestibule, the
figures of an infant, an old man, a hawk
and a fish, and a river horse ; the hawk
and fish were the symbol for hatred, and
the river horse for impudence : so that
the literal translation would be, " young
and old hate impudence," or still more
literally, *' old man, infant, hatred, im-
pudence." The Scythian king sent to
Darius, a mouse, a frog, a bird, a dart, and
a plough : if he had sent their deUnea-
tions, it would have formed a similar spe-
cimen of the hieroglyphic.

Hieroglyphics would frequently be
founded on the figures to which use had
given currency in oral language. The
procedure of the mind is the same in
both ; and they would mutually influence
each other. With respect to the simple
hieroglyphic, as that was a mere con-
traction of the full delineation in picture-
writing, the only similarity we must ex-
pect to find in language is the contrac-
tion of words. Both were intended for
the purpose of facilitating communica-
tion, by increasing its rapidity.

The first use of hieroglyphics was, to
preserve the memory of events and insti-
tutions ; such symbols, therefore, would
first be adopted as were of obvious inter-
pretation ; viz. those which were found-
ed on prevailing opinions ; as, the hyena,
for a man bearing his distresses with for-

titude, and rising superior to them, be-
cause the skin of that animal was suppos-
ed to render the wearer dauntless and
invulnerable ; on those founded on oral
language, which would be intelligible,
when the analogies which gave rise to
them were forgotten. By degrees they
were employed for the more refined pur-
poses of philosophy ; and the analogies
on which they were founded, would re-
quire an acquaintance with the sciences
from which they were deduced. Still
nothing was done for concealment : at
last superstition appropriated their use ;
and after the invention of letters, they
were employed to keep the mysteries of
the priesthood from the eyes of the pro-
fane vulgar. Their symbols were now
formed of far-fetched resemblances ; a cat
was used to denote the moon, from the sup -
posed contraction or dilatation of the pu-
pil of her eye, at different parts of the
lunation. In common hieroglyphics, E-
gypt was denoted by a crocodile ; in the
sacred, by a heart on a burning censor.
One animal, or other sensible object, was
used to denote a variety of quahties ; and
the same idea was denoted by various
hieroglyphics. This has attached to the
whole hieroglyph ical system the charac-
ter of mystery : when we trace the pro-
gress of the Chinese language, we shall
have additional proofs of the injustice of
this opinion.

The exact manner of delineation would
be tedious and voluminous. The more
use was made of visible communication,
the more we may expect to find the cha-
racter, originally significant, become a
mere arbitrary mark. In the early stages
of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, considera-
ble attention was paid to the outline and
fining up of their figures. Afterwards a
rude outline was sufficient ; and this was
changed, for the convenience of the
writer, till it lost every resemblance to
the object it originally represented.
Many changes in our own written charac-
ter might be adduced, illustrative of this
change from the dehneation to the cur-
sive hieroglyphic. The mark for and,
for instance, was once the correct pic-
ture of et ; some forms show its origin,
SiS & ; at present, in writing at least, it
bears no features of rcsemblanae to its
original. The use of the cursive hiero-
glyphic would take olFthe attention from
the symbol, and fix it upon the thing sig-
nified : a progress which we equally ob-
serve in oi-al language, where words, ori-
ginally denotements of sensible objects,
became the names for mental qualities

WRITING.

bearing some resemblance to wbat they
before signified, and in many instances
have been appropriated to the mental
quality, without any reference to the ori-
ginal meaning.

Visible characters having become arbi-
trary marks for ideas or words, two pro-
cesses were pursued by different dis-
tricts of Asia and Africa : the one was, to
consider these characters as signs for
sounds, and, by their intervention, of
ideas ; the other; as signs for ideas with-
out any reference to sounds. The latter
was the procedure of the Chinese ; the
former, of all nations who used alphabeti-
cal characters.

Oil the Chinese Language.

"We come now to the consideration of
a language singular in all its parts, and
possessed of such peculiar features that
it well deserves our attention. The writ-
ten, language of the Chinese has passed
through all the gradations which we have
described : and from their pictures, char-
acters have become mere arbitrary marks;
these are employed, not as signs for
sounds, but for ideas ; and their combi-
nations and changes have no correspond-
ing combinations and changes in the spo-
ken language of China. Before the time
of their first emperor, Folii, the Chinese
are supposed to have employed knotted
cords, like the Peruvians. Fohi intro-
duced in their place horizontal lines ;
(see Plate Miscel. fig. 14.) some whole,
others divided ; and by their combination
in threes, formed tlie text of the most an-
cient Chinese work, called " Ye King."
On these trigrams numerous commenta-
ries have been written, some as early as
1100 years before Christ: they are sup-
posed to contain, in afev/ lines, the most
sublime truths, and are employed in di-
vination ; but they are still unintelligi-
ble. By Xin-nung, the successor of Fohi,
sixty-four hexagrams (like those in fig.
15), were invented, which are supposed
to contain the whole circle of human
knowledge. It is thought that these
characters were taken from the knotted
cords, and it seems to us probable that
they expressed no more. The time of
their invention (which is carried back to
the age of Noah), and their apparent in-
adequacy to represent more than num-
bers, renders it highly improbable that
they were intended to denote the mys-
teries of philosophy. The present nu-
merals of the Chinese have an equal right
to be esteemed the mysterious denote-

ments of science. Whatever be the just-
ness of this idea, it is certain that these
trigrams and hexagrams are not the ori-
gin of the present Chinese character. In
numerous instances, the progress can be
traced from pictures or symbols to the
present form ; in some the connecting
steps are lost, but the general inference
is still a just one. The present form sel-
dom presents any traces of its original.
Tien (fig. 16), heaven, has no longer a
natural or symbolical resemblance to the
object ; but it was first represented by
three curved lines (as in fig. \7), and,
through the various changes in fig 1 8, it
has arrived at its present form. Several
other examples are given in the Philos.
Trans, vol. fix.

Before we advance further respecting
the written language of the Chinese, it
will be proper to attend a little to their
oral language. This, as was observed in
Language, is entirely monosyllabic ; and
all the words may be expressed by an
European consonant and a vowel, with
the exception of about one-third, which
end with «, either simple or nasal. A mo-
nosyllabic language cannot be copious;
and we expect to find it less so when the
number of simple sounds are small. The
Chinese have not the b, d, and r, of the
Europeans ; and the number of their
words is only 330. The capabilities of
their oral language are, however, much
extended by the variation their words
undergo, by means of tone and other in-
flexions of the voice. These changes re-
quire a very discriminating ear to per-
ceive, and very flexible organs to ex-
press them ; but we know the power of
habit, and can readily admit that thus
the meaning of their words may be ex-
tended, without confusion, even to things
very opposite in their nature. When,
liowever, we find (as Hagar informs us),
that the same word often answers to six
hundred different significations, accord-
ing to the tone witli which it is pro-
nounced, the place which it occupies, or
the character by which it is expressed,
we must suppose it impossible to avoid
frequent ambiguity.

Notwithstanding, however, all their
changes in tone, &c. they have not more
than 1,500 distinct sounds. Most nations
liave improved their oral languages ; the
Chinese have directed all their atten-
tion to the improvement of their written
language, and they have formed combi-
nations in their characters without any
corresponding combinations in their
sounds. Their changes are totally inde-

WRITING.

pendent of each other ; and the former
are understood, where the sounds corre-
sponding to them are different from those
o>' the Chinese. In this respect they may
be compared to the arithmetical cyphers,
&c. The character for tsai, calamity, is
an example of tiiis independent combina-
tion ; it is composed o^mien, a house, and
boy fire. Our process is to join the oral
words expressing the ideas we wish to
combine ; and we should use mieiibo. We
cannot easily and fully 'enter into this inde-
pendency of character or sound, because
all our words are more or less pictures of
sound, and are so strongly associated
with sound, that it is difficult to separate
them completely, even in imagination.
The Chinese, on the other hand, have no
immediate connection between their
words and their characters, so that it can-
not be necessary in using their characters,
to use the sounds at all.

All the Chinese characters are compos-
ed of 214 clefs or keys. These represent
the most obvious and simple ideas ; and
by their combinations are produced ex-
pressions for the more refined and com-
plex ideas. All these clefs were probably
simple paintings, or symbols, and hence
the whole written language may be fairly
considered as deducible from the more
obvious writing of the Mexicans and
Egyptians. Indeed the resemblance be-
tween the ancient Chinese characters and
the Egyptian hieroglyphics is so striking,
and this in cases where the analogy on
which both were founded is not an obvi-
ous one, that De Guignes considers them
as certainly derived from the same source.
These keys are at present formed from
six simple strokes ; a horizontal line, two
perpendicular (the one pointed, the other
blunt at bottom) a point, a line curved to
the right, and another to the left. The
greater part of the keys have from two to
seven strokes ; six only of one, and some
have sixteen or seventeen. We are not
however to suppose that the inventors of
the Chinese characters fixed upon these
six elements, and composed from them
methodically. As the characters lost
their correctness of delineation, the object
was to faciliate the labour of writing. Art
by degrees reduced all the characters to
the simple strokes we have mentioned.

These keys are either employed alone
as a character serving to express an idea ;
or differently combined in a group, form-
ing a phrase expressive of the idea it is in-
tended to communicate. Thus the cha-
racter for night is composed of three cha-
racters ; one signifying darkness, another

the action of covering, the third signifying
man, wnich, rendered literally, signifies
darkness covering man ; a phrase per-
fectly expressive, and similar to the lan-
guage ol poetry. Both in fact issued
" from the cradle of the human race.*" Fi-
gurative language of this kind is much em-
ployed in the scriptures : we admire it ;
for it •' comes home to our business and
our bosoms." It paints to our minds, and
calls up their conceptions forcibly and
correctly. Hence, though the offspring
of necessity, it is justly esteemed a beauty,
and wherever the language of feeling is
employed, will generally be found a pre-
vailing trait.

We might suppose that, all the charac
ters being thus composed, nothing more
would be necessary, in order to under-
stand them, than to know the elemen-
tary characters ; but the analogy on
which the composition is formed is of-
ten extremely obscure, and often errone-
ous. Their ancient principles of philoso-
phy fufnished wide scope for combination;
but these were generally ill founded.
Other combinations acquire a knowledge
of their ancient customs and popular su-
perstitions. Hence the ease which we
should in theory expect in understanding
a language so regularly formed vanishes ;
and an acquaintance with their whole
round of physical and religious dogmata,
with the fleeting customs and opinions of
preceding ages, is necessary for a tho-
rough acquaintance with the Chinese
characters. This is not, however, entirely
peculiar to the Chinese language. In order
to trace the origin of words, the same re-
ferences are often necessary ; but we have
more frequently the requisite data. Can-
didate signifies a person who offers him-
self to fill a lucrative or honourable situ-
ation ; the original meaning of the Latin
Candidatus is a person dressed in white.
The two ideas seem to have no connec-
tion. The difficulty vanishes, however,
when we learn that among the Romans
all candidates wore white robes. In a si-
milar manner we see no connection be-
tween running, and wrapping up the feet;
but pao, the Chinese character for run, is
composed of two, one for the act of
wrapping, the other for feet. The pro-
bable connection is ascertained by the
circumstance, that the savages of Louisi-
ana, when about to undertake long
marches, wrap up their feet to prevent
their being torn.

In the Chinese dictionaries the keys are
placed in an invariable order, which soon
becomes familiar to the student. The

L

^VRITING.

dHferent compounds each follow one
another according to the number of
strokes of which each consists. The
meaning and pronunciation are given
by means of two words in common use.
When no one common word expresses
the exact sound, it is communicated by
two connected, with marks to show that
the consonant of the first word and the
vowel of the second, joined together, form
the precise sound wanting. Thus, to ex-
press the sound pien, pa and mien would
be joined, with marks to denote the elision
of the a and the m.

■ If the spoken language be scanty, this
is not the defect of the written language.
Their characters amount to 80,000. A
considerable part of them, however, may
be considered as synonima ; thus age may
be expressed by a hundred different
characters, and happiness may be traced
into as many forms in expressing the ge-
neral wish for it. Different sects have
llieir own characters ; so that when a pro-
per allowance is made, about 10,000 are
sufficient for reading the best books of
eacli literary period of their language. In
alphabetical writing words may be read
without the least knowledge of their
meaning; in the hieroglyphical, the sound
is less imimately connected with the visi-
ble sign, and the character is studied and
best learned by becoming acquainted
with the ideas attached to it. But the
terms of pliilosophy have been formed
on that philosophy, so that a knowledge
of the latter is necessary to a complete
acquaintance with the former. These
ideas we must call to mind when we hear
that their most learned men are not ac-
quainted with more than half of them.
The knowledge of the whole round of
Chinese science and literature must sure-
ly be sufficient to occupy the life of the
longest liver.

Transitioit to Letters.
Upon the principle that we ought not
to suppose divine interposition, merely
from the difficulty of accounting for a
phenomenon, we should argue a priori
that no divine interposition took place in
the origin of alphabetical writing. As,
tiowever, some presumptive arguments
in favour of the affirmative side of the
question liave been advanced by men of
the first eminence, we shall state the
most important of them, and after endea-
vouring to lessen the difficulty they may
present to our admission of the human
origin of letters, we shall point out

what appears to be the most probable ac-
count of their invention.

1. It is urged that in order to give any
plausibifity to the hypothesis of the hu-
man invention of letters, it must be shown
to be simple. Now if it were simple and
obvious, it is highly probable that we
should find instnnces of independent in-
vention. But the fact is, that alphabeti-
cal writing may be traced to one source.
Two answers may be given to this ar-
gument. First. There is' such a great dis-
similarity among the Asiatic alphabets,
that they cannot be proved to have issued
from the same source. It must, however,
be remarked, that the variations which
we know to have taken place in numer-
ous instances would destroy the fyrce of
any objection that might occur from this
decided dissimilarity,' if positive argu-
ments were adduced to establish their
identity of origin. But though these are
apparently sufficient to render it proba-
ble, yet this probability is not great
enough to give much weight to the argu-
ment in question. But even admitting
its certainty, we may observe, secondly,
that this can prove no more than the high
antiquity of the invention. That it origi-
nated before mankind were much separa-
ted from each other ; and that the ground-
work, laid by those who had made the
greatest advances in cultivation, was built
upon in different ways by those who af-
terwards penetrated to the remoter parts
ot the Continent. But it is urged,

2. That we not only have no instance
of independent discovery, but have even
the example of a nation which had no
communication with those among whom
it was first known, remaining in total ig-
norance of it, and employing a procedure
which now incapacitates them for the
adoption of alphabetical writing. And
the force of this objection is materially
increased by the circumstance, that their
writing, equally with the alphabetical,
originated in the hieroglyphics, and ac-
tually went through the same stages,
viz. from the simple picture to the arbi-
trary mark. The grand weight of the
controversy appears to rest here. The
difficulty this argument presents, may
probably be obviated by the following
considerations :

First, The written language of China
was cultivated more for tlie purpose's of
literature and philosophy than for those
of common life ; the combinations were
formed by the literati, and it probably
would not have been in tlieir power to

WRITING.

have carried these combinations into the
oral language of the vulgar. Tliey might
indeed have invented an oral language
corresponding to their characlers ; but
the genius of the Chinese seems rather
to direct them to study than to conversa-
tion. Tn order to render probable a
transition from hieroglyphics to letters,
we must suppose the spoken and the
written lang-uage to have been connect-
ed with each other, and to have had si-
milar combinations. Now we may ob-
serve,

Secondly, That the spoken language
of China did not at all favour the plan of
making their characters representative
of sound, for being all monosyllables, and
not very numerous, there would not be
the same call for attention to the elemen-
tary sounds ; and what would still more
prevent this direction of the attention,
they did not vary the articulation but the
tone, in order to express a variation of
meaning. Add to this.

Thirdly, 'I'he great extent of the em-
pire of China and its dependencies,
would cause a great variety in the dia-
lect. This would contribute to increase
the attention of their hterati to their
written language, since this (as we have
seen it actually is) might be understood
independently of their words.

Fourthly, If we admit the very proba-
ble hypothesis of De Guignes, that the
Chinese characters were brought from
Egypt, and that they had originally no
connection with the spoken language of
the country into which they were im-
ported ; — that, in fact, they were applied
to denote names different from those
with which they had been before con-
nected ; — we shall perceive at once the
reason why the combinations of the cha-
racters were originally unaccompanied
with corresponding combinations of
sounds. After this there is no difficulty
in admitting that the written must con-
tinue independent of the spoken lan-
guage, especially among people so little
addicted to innovation as the Chinese.

3. It is urged that the invention of let-
ters is ascribed to the gods by several of
the ancients; that Pliny asserts the use
of letters to have been eternal ; and that
the Jewish doctors maintain that God
created alphabetical writing.

We say, in reply, that the Jews had no
other records than our own. The an-
cients were accustomed to ascribe to a
divine origin every thing for which they
could not account. As for Pliny, he ex-

VOL, VI

pressly says, that the Phenicians were
famed as the inventors of letters.

It must be remarked that these facts
are adduced to prove that no records of
the invention remain ; indirectly, there-
fore, they favour the hypothesis of the
divine origin of letters. If, however, the
transition were simple and gradual, per-
haps the era of invention could not have
been fixed even by the nation in which it
occurred. We have no more reason to
expect records of the invention of letters
than of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, or of
the Chinese characters.

The arguments a priori for the divine
origin of letters, remain to be consider-
ed. These are, the difficulty of the in-
vention in any stage of human progres.«,
and its antiquity, which very much in-
creases the improbability of its human
origin.

1. As to the difficulty of the invention,
it is urged that we are to suppose that
the inventors of letters decomposed the
sounds of words not only into syllables,
but into letters; that observing the com-
ponent parts of syllables, and denoting
them by appropriate marks, they used
these marks for those elementary sounds
in the visible representation of other
words into which those sounds entered.
This dissection of the articulate sounds
of man, tracing them through all their
various combinations, and denoting them
by a few simple marks, whose combina-
tions might express every possible com-
bination of sound, supposes a habit of
patient experimenting, of discriminating
examination, and of exact classification,
which ill accord with the uncultivated
state of human intellect in the early pe-
riod of society. But,

2. When we consider the antiquity of
the use of letters, and find them in a state
of perfection so early as the time of Mo-
ses, this difficulty appears insuperable.
We must admit that men, in the earliest
ages, stepped at once from a tedious arid
awkward, and frequently unintelligible
mode of communication, to one which
answers every purpose in the shortest
way, and that, unlike all other Inven-
tions, it was brought at once to such a
state of perfection, that no succeeding
alphabet has any real superiority over the
ancient Hebrew.

With respect to the difficulty of the in.
vcntion, the objection loses all its force
when a simple and easy procedure, pro-
bable in the given circumstances, can be
pointed out. To obviate the difficulty
arising from the apparent perfection cif

4G

WRITING.

the most ancient alphabets, we may ob-
serve,

First, That in a perfect alphabet every
letter should represent only one definite
sound, and every kn9wn sound in the gi-
ven langHage should have a correspond-
ing letter. Now we have no instance of
a perfect alphabet among modern lan-
guages, and have therefore no reason to
suppose that the first alphabet was per-
fect. But even admitting that some of the
ancient alphabets which have been trans-
mitted to us were perfect, yet it must be
observed.

Secondly, Th'at no known alphabet,
however ancient, is in the state of its ori-
ginal invention. Cadmns, who was born
in the east, carried with him into Greece
sixteen letters only ; the least copious al-
phabet we are acquainted with has twen-
ty-two. It is not probable that Cadmus
introduced fewer than he possessed; it
is more probable that he invented new
ones to express sounds which he found
among the aborigines.

It has generally been supposed of late,
that alphabetical writing was formed from
hieroglyphics ; but we have met with no
one, except De Guignes, who has stated
the steps of the transition in a satisfactory
manner. " Perhaps," says this writer,
" we have done too much honour to the
inventor of letters, whoever he were, in
supposing that be dissected the voice into
two parts, and invented marks of two
kinds, some to represent consonants, and
others vowels."

The following is, with some variations,
the hypothesis of this writer. Hierogly-
phics, with their exactness of delineation,
lost their original significancy. This must
first be the case with words of most fre-
quent recurrence, and which entered
most into combinations with oflier words;
become simple denotements of sound,
they were employed to express their
respective sounds in combinations of
other monosyllabic words, which, in like
manner, had lost their original significan-
cy. Hence, by degrees, they became re-
presentative of the component parts of
all words into which their respective
sounds entered. They were always
words, but very simple, consisting only
of a consonant and a vowel. Variation
in the pronunciation of the vowel would
occur m different dialects, and hence
these marks would be regarded as con-
sonants capable of being diiferently mo-
dified by simple vocal sounds. Letters,
at first monosyllabic words, then became
marks for the component parts of dissjl-

labic or polysyllabic words ; and then for
the unchangeable part of those syllables,
that is, for consonants. In the most an-
cient state of the oriental languages,
vowel sounds had no distinct marks. In
the latter, marks were joined to the con-
sonants to express the different sounds
witli which the radical consonant was in-
vested. Among the western nations, u
different procedure was adopted. In
some cases they used the mark which
they had received from the oriental na-
tions for an aspirate and vowel, for the
vowel itself; and having once commenc-
ed the use of distinct marks for vowels,
the procedure was continued, and nev,
marks adopted to express noticed varia-
tions of vocal sounds.

In support of this statement, may be
adduced the following observations :

1. We have seen that hieroglyphics
did become significant of sounds ; and
(see Language) that words, originally
significant of one class of ideas, being ap-
plied to a second, lost their connection
with the former, and became directly sig-
nificant of the latter.

2. We have reason to believe that
words were originally monosyllabic in
those nations where alphabetical writing
was invented, and that the combination
of old sounds, or the use of them, uncom-
pounded to express new ideas, was the
mode employed to extend the capabilities
of their language. Hence the same word
would frequently occur in combination,
and though its different significations must
originally have been represented by dif-
ferent hieroglyphics, yet, as these los^
their significancy, they would easily be-
come as extensive in their meaning as the
sounds themselves. And it is obvious
that the most simple of those hierogly-
phics which were used for the same sound,
would be employed to represent the
sound.

3. It has been shown to be highly pro-
bable, that originally every consonant had
its vowel sound. Hence all syllables might
be represented by two, or at most three,
European letters. This circumstance
would materially diminish the varieties of
syllabic sounds.

4. The probability of the theory ad-
vanced depends greatly upon the hypo-
thesis, that originally letters were syllabic.
The following facts appear to prove this :
The ancient oriental alphabets had no de-
notements for vowels, and even if tills be
disputed, it must be admitted that they
had many words into which none of the
supposed vowel marks entered. The

WRITING.

Ethiopian alphabet is entirely syllabic.
The simple letters denote a consonant
and a short a, and marks were added io
them to denote other vowels where used.
What is doubly singular, they have in
many cases added marks to these syllabic
characters, to denote they have no vowel
belonging to them. In the Coptic and
Arabic there are syllabic characters. The
alphabets of the eastern Asiatics are prin-
cipally syllabic, some with 6, others with
S, joined to a consonant. These circum-
stances render probable the account here
given of the transition from hieroglyphics
to letters. The following observations
more completely ascertain its high proba-
bility.

5. The letters of some of the ancient
alphabets have so great a resemblance to
the hieroglyphical characters ; indeed are
such exact transcripts of them, that a sim-
ple inspection is sufficient to convince us
that hieroglyphics were the origin of let-
ters. I'his, however, proves little as to
the invention of alphabetical writing, ex-
cept that it was subsequent to the use of
hieroglyphics. But,

6. These characters, in many instances,
retained their original significancy, which
proves them to have been, asDe Guignes
supposes, denotements for words. We
must not expect to find this significancy
in all words of which they form compo-
nent parts ; but in such only in whose visi-
ble representation the original hierogly-
phic formed a component part. Now
we must observe, first, that the names of
several of the oriental letters are still by
themselves significant, and that some of
these letters are similar to the Chinese
clefs, which have the same signification.
Thus the ^ yod signifies the hand. Its
form, in some alphabets, resembles the
Chinese character for hand. The i daleth
of the Hebrews, Phenicians, and Ethi-
opians, signifies a gate, and the action of
opening. The hieroglyphic which among
the ancient Chinese represented a gate,
is exactly similar to this letter. The £)
phi of the Hebrews and af of the Ethi-
opians signify the mouth. The Chinese
characters for the mouth all resemble it.
The p ain signifies the eye. The Phenici-
ans and the Cliinese employed the out-
line of the eye as a denotement of the ob-
ject. The ij? shin in Hebrews signifies
the teethy and its figure is still found among
the Chinese with the same signification.
The D *""« signifies -water. I'he corres-
ponding Samaritan and Ethiopian cha-
racters have a strong r#semblance to the

Chinese hieroglyphic for water. Lastly,
the N aleph (originally perhaps signifying
ox) signifies nnrVj/, the action of conducting ,
pre-emiTience. The Phenician form of this
exactly represents the Chinese character
for on£, and every action by luhich ive are at
the head of others. But these letters are
not only significant by themselves, but
secondly in combinations. Thus ^ was
expressed by the monosyllable ya, ye, or
you ; to this another monosyllable, which
had equally a signification relative to the
figure, being added, formed a word of two
syllables. For instance, instead of the
present denomination of *i daleth, we may
reasonably suppose its original sound to
have been da. The word n^ yada, hiero-
glyphically represented by a gate and a
handy is found in the Hebrew with a signi-
fication derived from that of the letters
composing it ; to cast out (as we might say,
hand him to the door), to extend. Add to
this the word y ain (originally probably
sounded ho), which signifies the eye, and
we have ^ad<i//o, which should signify to
open the eyes, to extend the view, &c. and
metaphorically, to know, to tmdersiand ;
and, in fact, this is the signification of )^'V
in Hebrew. But this is not all, for exactly
the same procedure has been adopted by
the Chinese. Ki, which signifies to exa-
mine, is composed of three radical cha-
racters, of which the first signifies the
hand, the second a gate, the third the eye.
So also kia is composed of three cha-
racters, one signifying the teeth, the other
two, gate or opening, which signifies to
break through, to make a great opening.
In Hebrew i"iB^ is .similarly composed.
It signifies to plunder, to lay -waste. Tchi
is a large collection of water. It was
composed of the characters for hand and
•water. The same compound was formed
among the Hebrews, and C yam, signifies
a great collection of tvater, or the sea. In
Arabic the letters tJiet or earth, and mim or
•water, from the word thatn, and signify a
flood. The Hebrew thin is composed of
the thet or earth, and the nun, which signi-
fies 7nan, i. e. man of the earth, and further,
to form, to create. In both these instances,
the Chinese correspond in their combi-
nations with the alphabetical writing.
Many other instances might be brought.
We will adduce one to which there is no
corresponding combination in the Chi-
nese language. M, or ffaba, 2*<, signifies
father. The component parts of it signify
principal of the house.

Tiie papers of De Guignes, to which
we are very greatly indebted on this sub-

XAN

jece, are to be found in Memoires de
I' Academic des Inscriptions et des Belles
Letti-es, vol. 34, &c.

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whereon shall be impressed any stamp of
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or greater value than the stamp required,
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Likewise any such instrument (except
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the same mr>.y be stamped after the exe-
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so ingrossing the same*

WULFENIA, in botany, so named
from the Rev. Francis Xavier Wulfen, a
genus of the Diandria Monogynia class
and order. Essential character : corolla
tubular, ringent, with the upper lip short,
entire, the lower three-parted, with the
aperture bearded ; calyx five-parted ;
capsule two-celled, four-valved. There
is only one species, viz. W , carinthiaca,
a native of Carinthia, on the highest Alps.

WURMBEA, in botany, so named in,
honour of Frederick Baron Van AVurmb,
a genus of the Hexandria Trigynia class
and order. Natural order of Coronariae.
Junci, Jussieu. Essential character : calyx
none ; corolla six-parted, with a hexangu-
lar tube; filaments inserted into the
throat. There are three species.

WYTE, or WiTE, in our ancient cus-
toms, a pecuniary penalty or nmlct. The
Saxons had two kinds of punishments, were
and xvi/te ,- the first for the more grievous
ofT'ences. The wyte was for the less hei-
nous ones. It was not fixed to any cer-
tain sum, but left at liberty to be varied
according to the nature of the case. Hence
also wyte, or wittree, one of the terms of
privilege granted to our sportsmen, signi-
fying a freedom or immunity from fines
or amerciaments.

X.

Xor T, is the twenty-second letter of
3 our alphabet, and a double conso-
nant. It was not used by the Hebrews
or ancient Greeks ; for as it is a compound
letter, the ancients, who used great sim-
plicity in their writings, made use of, and
expressed this letter by its comi)onent
letters cs. Neither have the Italians this
letter, but express it by ss. X begins no
word in our language but such as are of
Greek original, and is in few others but
what are of Latin derivation, as perplex^
reflexion, defluxton, &c. We often express
this sound by single letters, as cks in
backs, necks ; by ks in books, breaks ; by
cc in access, accident ,- by ct in action, mic-
tion, &c. In numerals it expresses 10,
whence in old Rom. n manuscrips it is
used for denarius ,- and as such seems to

be made of two V's placed one over the
other. When a dash is added over it, thus
XJ it signifies ten thousand.

XANTHE, in botany, a genus of the
Dioecia Syngenesia class and order. Es-
sential character : flowers dioecious ; ca-
lyx five, six-parted, permanent; corolla
five, six-petalled ; males with one fila-
ment, bearing five anthers, collected into
a shield-shaped head ; females with five
barren anthers; capsule globose, crowned
with tlie stigma, five -striated, five-valved ;
seeds very many, involved in the pulp.
There are two species, viz. X. quapoya,
and X. panari.

XANTHIUM, in botany, a genus of the
Monoecia Pentandria class and order. Na-
tural order of Compositse Nucamentaceae.
Corymbiferze, Jussieu. Essential charac-

XIP

XYL

ter : male, calyx common, imbricate ; co-
rolla one petalled ; five-cleft, funnel-form ;
receptacle chafFy; female, calyx involucre,
two-leaved, two-flowered ; corolla none ;
4rupe dry, riuricated, two cleft ; nucleus
two-celled. There are five species.

XANTHORHIZA, in botany, a genus
of the Pentandria Polyg-ynia class and or-
der. Natural order of Ranunculace3e,
Jussieu. Essential character : calyx none;
petals five ; nectary five, pedicelled ; cap-
sule five, one-seeded. There is only one
species, viz. X. apiitolia, a native of North
America.

XANTHOXYLUM, in botany, a genus
. of the Dioecia Pentandria class and order.
Natural order of Hedei-acese. Terebinta^
ceae, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx
five-parted ; corolla none ; female, pistil
five ; capsule five, one-seeded. There is
but one species, viz. X. clava herculis,
tooth-ache tree ; it grows naturally in
Pennsylvania and Maryland.

XERANTHEi\IUM, in botany, a genus
of the Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua
plass and order. Natural order of Com-
positae Discoideae. Corymbiferae, Jussieu.
Essential character: calyx imbricate, ray-
ed, witii the ray coloured ; down brisde-
shaped; receptacle chafTy. There are
twenty-seven species.

XIMENIA, in botany, so named in ho-
nour of the Rev. Father Francis Ximenes,
a Spaniard, a genus of the Octandria Mo-
nogynia class and order. 2\' atural order of
Aurantia, Jussieu. Essential character:
calyx four-cleft; petals four, hairy, rolled
back; drupe one-seeded. There are
three species.

XIPHIAS, the s~iVord-Jishy in natural
history, a genus of fishes of the order
Apodes. Generic character : head with
the upper jaw ending in a sword-shaped
snout ; mouth without teeth ; gill-mem-
brane eight-rayed ; body roundish, with-
out scales. There are three species ; X.
gladeus, or the common sword-fish, is of
the length of twenty feet, and is particu-
larly distinguished by its upper jaw being
stretched to a considerable distance be-
yond the lower, flat above and beneath,
but edges at the sides, and of a bony sub-
stance, covered by a strong epidermis.
It is a fish extremely rapacious, and finds
in the above instrument a weapon of at-
attack and destruction able to procure it
the most ample supplies. It first trans-
fixes its prey with this snout, and then
devours it. It is found in the .Mediterra-
nean, chiefly about Sicily, and is used as
food by the Sicihans, who preserve it for
a long time by salting it in small pieces.
See Pisces, Plate VI. fig. 5.

X. platypterus, or the broad-finned
sword-fish, is found in the Northern, At-
lantic, and Indian Seas, and is considered
as one of the most fatal enemies of the
whale tribe. Its strength is so great, that
it is said to have pervaded with its snout,
or sword, the plank of an East Indiaman %
and a plank and snout in attestation of this
circumstance, the latter closely driven
into the former, are to be seen in the
British Museum, having been communi-
cated to Sir Joseph Banks by an East
India Capiain, of honour and veracity.
When young this fish is used for food,
but not after it exceeds four or five feet
in length.

XIPHlDIUM,in botany, a genus of the
Triandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Ensatse. Irides, Jussieu.
Essential character : corolla six-petalled,
equal ; capsule superior, three-celled,
many-seeded. There are two species,
viz. X. album and X. cseruleum.

XYLOCARPUS, in botany, a genus of
the Octandria Monogynia class and order.
Essential character : calyx four-toothed ;
corolla four-petal led; nectary eight-cleft ;
filaments inserted into the nectary: drupe
juiceless, large, four or five-grooved ; nuts
eight or ten, difForm. There is but one
species, viz. X. granatum, a native of the
East Indies.

XYLOiVlELUM, in botany, a genus of
the Tetrandria Monogynia class and
order. Natural order of Proteae, Jussieu.
Essential character : ament with a simple
scale ; petals four, staminiferous ; stigma
club-shaped, obtuse. This is one of
twenty new genera from the South Seas :
the characters of which are given by Dr.
Smith.

XYLON. See Gosstpium.

XYLOPHYLLA, in botany, seaside lau-
rel, a genus of the Pentandria Trigynia
class and order. Natural order of Tricoc-
cae. Euphorbias, Jussieu. Essential cha-
racter : calyx five-parted, coloured ; co-
rolla none ; stigmas jagged ; capsule
three-celled ; seeds two. There are se-
ven species.

XYLOPIA, in botany, bitter-w6od, a ge-
nus of the Polyandria Polygynia class and
order. Natural order of Coadunatsc.
Anonae, Jussieu. Essential character:
calyx three-leaved ; petals six ; capsule
one or two-seeded, four-cornered, two-
valved ; seeds arilled. There are three
species.

XYLOSMA, in botany, a genus of the
Dioecia Polyandria class and order. Es-
sential cliaracter ; calyx four or five-part-
ed; corolla none, biit a small annular
crenulate nectary surrounding the sta-

YAR

YEA

mens: male, stamens twenty to fifty ; fe-
male, style scarcely any ; stigma trifid ;
berry dr}', subbilocular; seeds two, three-
sided. There are two species, viz. X.
suaveolens and X. orbiculatum.
XYRIS, in botany, a genus of the Tri-

andria Monogynia class and order. Natu-
ral order of Ensatae. Junci, Jussieu.
Essential character : coroUa three-pe-
talled, equal, crenate; glumes, two-valved
in a head ; capsule superior. There are
four species.

Y

TOr 5', the twenty-third letter of our
^alphabet : its sound is formed by ex-
pressing the breath with a sudden expan-
sion of the lips from that configuration by
by which we express the vowel u. It is a
consonant in the beginning of words, and
placed before all vowels, as in yard, yields
youngy &c. but before no consonant. At
the end of words it is a vowel, and is sub-
stituted for the sound of /, as in tryy descry^
&c. In the middle of words it is not used
so frequently as i is, unless in words de-
rived from the Greek, as in chyle, empy-
real, &.C. though it is admitted into the
middle of some pure English words, as in
dy^'^gi fyi''^^S* ^c. Y is also a numeral,
signifying 150, or, according to Baronius,

159 ; and with a dash a-top, as Y, it signi-
fied 150,000.

YACHT, or Yatch, a vessel with one
deck, carrying from four to twelve guns.

YARD, a measure of length used in
England and Spain, chiefly to measure
cloth, stuffs, &c. See Measure.

Yard land is taken to signify a certain
quantity of land, in some counties being
fifteen acres, and in others twenty ; in
some twenty-four, and in others thirty and
forty acres.

Yards of a ship, are those long pieces
of timber which are made a little taper-
ing at each end, and are fitted each
athwart its proper mast, with the sails
made fast to them, so as to be hoisted up,
or lowered down, as occasion serves.
They have their names from the masts to
which they belong.

There are several sea terms relating to
the management of the yards ; as, square
the yards; that is, see that they hang
right across the ship, and no yard-arm
traversed more than another: top the
yards; that is, make them stand even. To
top the main and fore yards, the clew-
lines are the most proper ; but when the

top-sails are slawed, then the top-sail-
sheets will top them.

Yard arm is that half of the yard that
is on either side of the mast, when it lies
athwart the ship.

Yards also denotes places belonging to
the navy, where the ships of war, &c. are
laid up in harbour. There are, belong-
ing to his Majesty's navy, six great yards,
■w/z. Chatham, Deptford, Woolwich, Ports-
mouth, Sheerness, and Plymouth ; these
yards are fitted with several docks, wharfs,
launches, and graving places, for the
building, repairing, and cleaning of his
Majesty's ships ; and therein are lodged
great quantities of timber, masts, plaiks,
anchors, and other materials : there are
also convenient store-houses in each
yard, in which are laid up vast quantities
of cables, rigging, sails, blocks, and all
other sorts of stores, needful for the
royal navy.

YARE, among sailors, implies ready or
quick ; as, be yare at the helm ; that is,
be quick, ready, and expeditious at the
helm. It is sometimes also used for bright
by seamen : as, to keep his arms yare ;
that is, to keep them clean and bright.

YARN, wool or flax spun into thread,
of which they weave cloth.

YEAR, the time that the sun takes to
go through the twelve signs of the zodi-
ac. See CHRONOLOGr.

Year and Day, is a time that deter-
mines a right in many cases ; and in
some works an usurpation, and in others
a prescription ; as in case of an estray, if
the owner, proclamation bein^ made,
challenge it not within the time, it is for-
feited.

So is the year and day, given in case of
appeal ; in case of descent after entry or
claim ; if no claim upon a fine or writ of
right at the common law ; so if a villain
remaining in ancient demesne ; of a man

YEA

YES

sore bruised or wounded ; of protections';
essoigns in respect of the King's service ;
of a wreck, and divers other cases.

Years, estate for. Tenant for term of
years is, where a man letteth lands or te-
nements to another, for a certain term of
years agreed upon between tiie lessor
and lessee ; and when the lessee entereth
by force of the lease, then he is tenant
for term of years.

If tenements be let to a man for term
of half a year, or for a quarter of a year,
or any less time, this lessee is respected
as tenant for years, and is styled so in
some legal proceedings, a year being the
shortest term which the law in this case
takes n(3tice of.

Generally, every estate which must ex-
pire at a period certain and prefixed, by
whatever words created, is an estate for
years, and therefore this estate is fre-
quently called a term, because its duration
or continuance is bounded, limited, and
determined. For every such estate must
have a certain beginning and certain end.
If no day of commencement be named in
the creation of this estate, it begins from
the making or delivery of the lease. A
lease for so many years as such an one
shall live, is void from the beginning, for
it is neither certain, nor can it ever be re-
duced to a certainty, during the continu-
ance of the lease. And the same doc-
trine holds, if a parson make a lease of
his glebe for so many years as he shall
continue parson of such a church, for this
is still more uncertain. But a lease for
twenty or more years, if the parson shall
so long live, or if he shall so long con-
tinue pai-son, is good ; for there is a cer-
tain period fixed, beyond which it cannot
last, though it may determine sooner, on
the parson's death, or his ceasing to be
parson there.

An estate for yeare, though never so
many, is inferior to an estate for life. For
as estate for life, though it be only for
the life of another person, is a freehold ;
but an estate, though it be for a tliousand
years, is only a chattel, and reckoned
part of the personal estate. For no estate
of freehold can commence in futtivoy be-
cause it cannot be created at common
law without livery of seisin, or corporal
possession of the land ; and coi-poral pos-
session cannot be given of an estate now,
which is not to commence now, but here-
after. And because no livery of seisin is
necessary for a lease for years, such a les-
see is not said to be seised, or to have
true legal seisin of the lands. Nor, in-
deed, doth the bare lease vest anv» estate

in the lessee, but only gives him a right
of entrv on the tenement, which right is
called his interest in the term ; but when
he has actually so entered, and thereby
accepted the grant, the estate is then, and
not before, vested in him, and he is pos-
sessed, not properly of the land, but of
the term of years, the possession or sei-
sin of the land remaining still in him who
has the freehold.

YELLOW earthy named by Werner,
gelberde, is of a yellow ochre colour, of
various degrees of intensity. It is mas-
sive, soft, and friable : it adheres strongly
to the tongue, and feels greasy. It oc-
curs in beds with iron-stone in Upper
Saxony, and is employed as a yellow pig-
ment.

Yellow, JVaples, a fine pigment, so
called from the city in which it was long
prepared. It has the appearance of an
earth, is very friable, heavy, porous, and
not altered by exposure to the air. The
preparation is kept a secret, but by ana-
lysis it is found to be a metallic oxide. A
similar pigment may be produced by
mixing twelve parts of ceruss ; three of
diaphoretic antimony, and of alum and
sal-ammoniac one part each ; heat thera
for some time to a temperature below
redness, and afterwards in a red heat for
three hours longer, after which the mass
will have acquired a beautiful yellow
colour.

YEOMAN, is defined to be one that
hath fee land of 40^. a year ; who whs
thereby, heretofore, qualified to serve on
juries, and can yet vote for knights of the
shire, and do any other act where the law
requires one that is probus et legalis homo.
Below yeomen are ranked tradesmen, ar-
tificers, and labourers.

YEST, Yeast, orBARM, a head, or scum
rising upon beer or ale, while working or
fermenting in the vat. See BnEwise,

FKRMEIfTATTOy, &C.

It is used for a leaven or ferment in the
baking of bread, as sening to swell or
puff it up very considerably in a little
time, and to make it much lighter, softer,
and more delicate. When there is too
much of it, it renders the bread bitter.
See Bakixo and Bread.

Yeast consists of gluten, sugar, and
mucilage, with some alcohol, and a por-
tion of malic, acetic, and carbonic acids ;
but the essential parts of yeast are gluten
mixed with a vegetable acid ; and there-
fore dried yeast, which must have lost
some of its component parts, is fit for fer-
mentation equally with that which is fresh
and new.

ZAN

YEW. SeeTAxtTs.

YTTRIA. See Itthta.

YUCCA, in botany, Adam's needlcy a ge-
nus of the Hexandria Monog-ynia class
and order, Natural order of Coronariae.
Lilia, Jussieu. Essential character : co-
rolla bell-shaped, spreading ; style none;
capsule three-celled. There are four
species.

YUNX, the Tvrt/.neck, in natural history,^
a genus of birds of the order Picae. Ge-
neric character; bill somewhat round,
slightly incurvated and weak; nostrils
bare and rather concave; tongue long,
slender, and armed at the point ; tail of
ten flexible feathers ; feet formed for
climbing; toes two before and two be-
hind. There is only one species.

Y. torquilla, or the wry -neck, is allied
in some respects to the wood-pecker, and
in others to tlie cuckow. It is about the
size of a lark, and its colours, though not
glaring, are mingled with extreme neat-

ness, and even elegance. It makes no
nest, but lays eight or ten eggs on the
bare wood in hollow trees. In E.igland
it is a bird of passage, generally appear-
ing about ten days befL" e the cuckow.
Its food consists chiefly of ants, which,
during incubation, the male may be ob-
served carrying to the female. The young
on experiencing any annoyance, utter a
hissing noise, which excites the idea of
some venomous reptile, and has fre-
quently proved their security from de-
struction. At the end of summer the
wry-neck is extremely plump and fai,
and is considered by some as little infe-
rior to the ortolan for the table. It is
never seen in flocks, and in pairs only
during the spring and summer, after
which each individual has its solitary,
haunt in that country, and withdraws un-
accompanied in its flight in its winter mi-
gration.

z.

ZOr z, the twenty-fourth and last let-
9 ter, and the nineteenth consonant
of our alphabet ; the sound of which is
formed by a motion of the tongue from
the palate downwards, and upwards to it
again, with a shutting and opening of the
teeth at the same time. This letter has
been reputed a double consonant, having
the sound ds ,- but some think with very
little reason ; and, as if we thought other-
wise, we often double it, as in puzzle,
muzzle^ &c. Among the ancients, Z
was a numeral letter, signifying two
thousand, and, with a dash added a-top,
Z signified two thousand times two thou-
sand, or four millions. In abbreviations,
this letter formerly stood as a mark for
several sorts of M^eights : sometimes it
signified an ounce and a half, and, very
frequently, it stood for half an ounce ;
sometimes for the eighth part of an
ounce, or a dram troy weight; and it
has, in earlier times, been used to ex-
press the third part of one ounce, or
eight scruples. ZZ were used by some
of the ancient physicians to express
myrrh, and at present they are often used
to signify zinziber, or ginger.

ZAFFER. See Cobalt.

ZAMIA, in botany, a genus of the Ap-
pendix Palmac class and order. Natural
order of Palm ae. Filices, Jussieu. Essen-
tial character : male, ament strobile-.shap-
ed ; scales covered with pollen under-
neath : female, ament strobile-shaped,
with scales at each margin ; berry solita-
ry. There are five species.

ZANNICHELLIA, in botany, so named
in honour of Giov. Jeronymo ZannichelR,
a genus of the Monoecia Monandria class
and order. Natural order of Inundatsc.
Naiades, Jussieu. Essential character:
male, calyx none ; corolla none : female,
calyx one-leafed ; corolla none ; germs
four or more ; seeds as many, pedicelled;
stigmas peltate. There is only one spe-
cies, viz. Z, palustris, horned pondvveed,
a native of Europe.

ZANONIA, in botany, so named in me-
mory of Giacomo Zanoni, prefect of the
botanic garden at Bologna, a genus of the
Dioecia Pentandria class and order. Na-
tural order of Cucurbitaceac, Jussieu.
Essential churact-r : calyx three-leaved ;
corolla five-parted : female, styles three ;
berry three-celled, inferior ; seeds two in

ZEN

ZEN

each cell. There is but one species, viz.
Z. indjca, a native of Malabar.

ZEA, in botany, a genus of the Monoe-
cia Triandria class and order. Natural
order of Gramina or Grasses. Essential
character : males in distinct spikes ; ca-
lyx glume two- flowered, awnless; corolla
glume two-flowered, awnless : female, ca-
lyx glutiie one-flowered, two-valved ; co-
rolla glume four-valved ; style one, fili-
form, pendulous; seeds solitary, im-
mersed in an oblong receptacle. There
is but one species, viz. Z. mays, Indian
corn, or maize, and several varieties. The
Indians in New England, and many other
parts of America, had no other vegetable
but maize, or Indian corn, for making
their bread. They call it weacliin, and
in the United States of America, there is
much of tlie bread of the country made
of this grain, not of the European corn.
In Italy, Germany, Spain, and Portugal,
maize constitutes a great part of the food
of the poor inhabitants. The ear of the
maize yields a much greater quantity of
grain than any of our corn-ears. There
are commonly about eight rows of grain
in the ear, often more, if the ground is
good. Each of these rows contains at
least thirty grains, and each of these gives
much more flour than a grain of any of
our corn. The grains are usually either
white or yellowish ; but sometimes they
are red, bluish, greenish, or olive-co-
loured, and sometimes striped and varie-
gated. This sort of grain, though so es-
sentially necessary to the natives of the
place, is yet liable to many accidents. It
does not ripen till the end of September ;
so that the rains often fall heavy upon it
while on the stalk, and birds in general
peck it when it is soft and unripe. Nature
has, to defend it from these accidents, co-
vered it with a thick husk, which keeps
off slight rains very well; but the birds,
if not frightened away, often eat through
it, and devour a great quantity of the
grain.

ZEBRA. See Eautis.

ZENITH, in astronomy, the vertical
point ; or a point in the heavens directly
over our heads. The zenith is called the
pole of the horizon, because it is ninety
degrees distant from every point of that
circle. See Pole and Hem zoir.

Zj:t(iTH-distance is the complement of
the meridian altitude of any heavenly ob-
ject ; or it is the remainder, when the
meridian altitude is subtracted from nine-
ty degrees.

ZENO, in biography, a Greek philoso-
pher of considerable eminence, was born

VOL. VI.

in the isle of Cypi-us. He was founder
of the Stoics, a sect which had its name
from tliat of a portico at Athens, where
Zeno was accustomed to deliver his dis-
coui-ses. The father of our philosopher
was a merchant, but readily seconded his
son's inclinations, and devoted liim to tl>e
pursuits of literature. In the way of bu-
siness he had frequent occasion to visit
Athens, where he purchased for his son,
several of the most renowned works of
the celebrated Socratic philosophers.
These Zeno read with avidity, and deter-
mined to visit the city where so much
wisdom was found. Upon his first arri-
val in Athens, going accidentally into the
shop of a bookseller, he took up tlie
commentaries of Xenophon, with the pe-
rusal of which he was so much delighted,
that he asked the bookseller where he
might meet with such men. Crates, the
cynic philosopher, was at that moment
passing by ; the bookseller pointed to
him, and said, follow that man. He im-
mediately became his disciple, but was
soon dissatisfied with his doctrine, and
joined himself to other philosophers,
whose instructions were more accordant
to his way of thinking. Zeno staid long
with no master ; he studied under all the
most celebrated teachers, with a view of
collecting materials from various quar-
ters for a new system of his own. To
this Polemo alluded when he saw Zeno
coming into his school ; " I am no stran-
ger," said he, " to your Phenician arts,
I perceive that your design is to creep
slily into my garden, and steal away the
fruit." From this period Zeno avowed
his intention of becoming the founder of
a new sect. The place wliich he chose
for his school was the painted porch, the
most famous in Athens. Zeno excelled
in that kind of subtle reasoning which
was in his time very popular. Hence, his
followers were very nurtierous, and from
the highest ranks in society. Among
these was Antigowus Gonates, king of
Macedon, who earnestly solicited him to
go to his court He possessed so large a
share of estw^em among the Athenians,
that, on account of his integrity, they
deposited che keys of their citadel in his
hands : they also honoured him with a
golden crown and a statue of brass. He
hveJ to the age of 98, and at last, in con-
sequence of an accident, voluntarily put
an end to his life. As he was walking in
his school, he fell down and broke his
finger, by which, it is said, he was so
much affected, that, striking the earth,
he exclaimed, « Wliv am I thus impor-
4H

ZEU

ZIN

limed ? I obey thy summons," and imme-
diately went and strangled himself. In
morals, the principal difference between
tlie cyiiics and the stoics was, that the
former disdained the cultivation of na
lure, the latter affected to rise above it.
In physics, Zeno received his doctrine
from Pythagoras and Heraclitus, through
the channel of the Platonic school. See
AcAj)E]MiEs, Cynics, &c.

ZEOLITE, in mineralogy, a species of
the flint genus, divided into five subspe-
cies, viz. the mealy, fibrous, radiated, fo-
liated, and cubic zeolite, distinguished
from each other by fracture, hardness,
and lustre. The mealy is yellow, or red-
dish-white, is found in Iceland, Ferro
islands, Sweden, and in some parts of
Scotland, particularly in the isle of Skye ;
it consists of

Silica 50

Alumina 20

Lime 8

Water 22

100

The other sub-species vary in their
proportions of the same substances. The
cubic intumesces like borax before the
blow-pipe, and melts readily into cellular
glass, and during fusion emits a phospho-
ric light. With acid it forms a jelly. It
occurs in rocks of the newest floetztrap,
(see Rock) as amygdaloid, basalt, wacce,
porphyry, slate, and greenstone. All the
different sub-species of zeolite are found
in Scotland, and in the neighbouring
islands. They are also met with in great
perfection and beauty in Iceland, the
Ferro islands, and in several parts of Swe-
den ; and in many parts of Germany, and
in the East Indies.

ZEUS, the dory^ in natural history, a
genus of fishes oi* the order Thoracici.
Generic character: head compressed,
sloping down ; upper lip arched by a
transverse membrane ; tongue in most
species subulate ; body compressed,
bi'oad, somewhat rhomboid, thin, and of
a bright colour, gill-membran^ with se-
ven perpendicular rays, the lowest trans-
verse; rays of the first dorsal fi^ fila-
mentous. There are eight species, of
whicli the following are the principal.
, Z. faber, or the common dory of Eu-
rope, has a large oval dusky spot on each
side of the body, and is generally about
thirteen inches lon^, though often far
iQuger, and even weighing ten or twelve

pounds. It is found in the Northern,
Mediterranean, and Atlantic Seas, is ex-
tremely voracious, and subsists on in-
sects, smaller fishes, and ova. It is in the
higliest estimation for the table in Eng-
land, but was little used before the mid-
dle of the last century. See Pisces, Plate
VI. fig. 6.

Z. insidiator, or the insidious dory, in-
habits the fresh waters of India, and is
distinguished by its mouth being more
lengthened than that of any other species
The lower lip is said to be at pleasure
contracted into a tube, through which
this fish darts the fluid it takes in at the
gills at various insects near the surface,
thus embarrassing their wings, and sus-
pending their flight, under which circum-
stances they easily become its prey.

ZIERIA, in botany, so named in me-
mory of John Zier, a genus of the Tetran-
dria Monogynia class and order. Natural
order of Rutacese, Jussieu. Essential cha-
racter : calyx four-parted ; petals four ;
stamina smooth, placed on glands ; styles
simple ; stigma four-lobed ; capsules four,
united ; seeds arilled. This is one of the
twenty new genera from the South Seas,
the characters of which are gpiven by Dr.
J, E. Smith. It is distinguished by having
each of the stamens inserted into a large
gland, and consists of shrubs with oppo-
site, ternate leaves, and white flowers.

ZINC, in chemistry and mineralogy, a
metal unknown to the ancients,though they
were acquainted with calamine, one of its
ores, and the effect which this had in con-
verting copper into brass. Zinc has usu-
ally been ranked among those metals,
which, from their imperfect ductility and
malleability, were long denominated semi-
metaJs. It was known, that by uniform
pressure zinc might be extended into thin
plates, and more lately, it has been dis-
covered, that, at a certain temperature, it
has so much malleability and ductility,
that it can be lamellated, and drawn into
wire. For this invention a patent has
been obtained by Messrs. Hobson and
Sylvester, to the latter of whom this work
has been indebted for certain articles.
See the PaEFACE.

The temperature at which zinc pos-
sesses these properties is between 210®
and 300° of Fahrenheit, and by keeping
it in an oven at this heat, it may readily
be extended. By annealing, it retains this
tenacity as to be easily bent. At a higher
temperature it is brittle, so as to fall to
pieces under the hammer. Zinc is of a
white colour, with a shade of blue ; in u
fresh fracture it is possessed of considcra-

ZINC.

h]e lustre. It is hard, and not easily cut
with a knife. The specific gravity is
nearly 7.2. The ores of zinc are cala-
mine and blende. See Calamixahis. Ca-
lamine is an oxide, frequently with a por-
tion of carbonic acid ; blende is a sulphu-
ret, containing also some iron, and other
extraneous matters. The ores of zinc are
found in many countries, and in a number
of mines in this country. The metal is
obtained from the ore by distillation.

Zinc is melted by a moderate heat, and
the fused mass, on cooling, forms regular
crystals. Though scarcel)- altered by ex-
posure to the air at a low temperature, yet
it is rapidly oxydized by one amounting
to ignition. When kept in a degree of
heat barely sufficient for its fusion, zinc,
becomes covered with a grey oxide. But
when thrown into a crucible, or deep
earthen pot, heated to whiteness, it sud-
denly inflames, burns with a beautiful
white flame, and a white and light oxide
sublimes, having a considerable resem-
blance to carded wool. This oxide, how-
ever, when once deposited, is no longer
volatile ; but, if exposed to a violent heat,
runs into glass. Zinc readily dissolves in
sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids. With
nitric acid, it yields nitrous gas, if the
acid be concentrated ; or nitrous oxide,
if diluted. Sulphuric and muriatic acids,
diluted with water, evolve, during their
action on this metal, hydrogen gas ; and
the gas, when obtained, holds in combi-
nation a portion of the metal. A stream
of it has been found, if recently prepared,
to occasion the fusion of the platina wire,
though the pure gas is destitute of this
property. This hydrogen gas, holding
zinc in solution, may also be obtained by
a process of Vauquelin. A mixture of
the ore of zinc, called blende, or calamine,
with charcoal, is to be put into a porce-
lain tube, which is to be placed horizon-
tally in a furnace, and, when red-hot, the
vapour of water is to be driven over it.
The gas that is produced, however, is a
mixture of carbonic acid, carburetted hy-
drogen, and hydro-zincic gas. The zinc
is deposited on the surface of the water,
by which this gas is confined ; but, if
burned when recently prepared, the gas
exhibits, in consequence of this impreg-
nation, a blue flame. The solution of
zinc in sulphuric acid shoots into regular
crystals. This salt is readily soluble, and
its solution is not precipitated by any
other metal. The muriate of zinc yields,
when evaporated, an extract of thick
consistence, having the viscidity of bird-
lime. Zinc is nxvdized al.so, when boiled

with solutions of pure alkalies; and a por-
tion of the oxide is retained in solutiofi.
It is oxydized when mixed with nitre,
and projected into a red-hot crucible. In
this case a violent detonation ensues. .

Zinc combines with almost all the me-
tals, and some of its alloys are of great
importance It may be united to gold in
any proportion by fusion. The alloy is
the whiter and the more brittle, the
greater quantity of zinc it contaijis. An
alloy, consisting of equal parts of these
metals, is very hard and white, receives a
fine polish, and does not tarnish readily.
It has therefore been proposed as very
proper for the specula of telescopes.
One part of zinc is said to destroy the
ductility of one hundred parts of gold.
Platinum combines very readily with zinc.
Tiie alloy is brittle, pretty hard, very
fusible, of a bluish-white colour, and not
so clear as that of zinc The alloy of
silver and zinc is easily produced by fu-
sion. It is brittle, and has not been applied
to any use. Zinc may be combined with
mercury, either by triturating the two
metals together, or by dropping mercury
into melted zinc. This amalgam is solid.
It crystallizes when melted, and cooled
slowly into lamellated hexagonal figures,
with cavities between them. They are
composed of one part of zinc, and two and
a h^If of mercury. It is used to rub on
electrical machines, in order to excite
electricity.

Zinc combines readily with copper, and
forms one of the most useful of all the me-
tallic alloys. The metals are usually com-
bined together by stratifying plated of
copper, and a native oxide of zinc com-
bined with carbonic acid, called calamine,
and applying heat. When the zinc does
not exceed a fourth part of the copper,
the alloy is known by the name of brass.
It is of a beautiful yellow colour, more
fusible than copper, and not so apt to tar-
nish. It is malleable, and so ductile, that
it may be drawn out into wire. Its density
is greater than the mean. It ought to be
by calculation 7.6y but it actually is SA
nearly, so that its density is increased by
about one-tenth. When the alloy contains
three parts of zinc and four of copper, it
assumes a colour nearly the same with
gold, but it is not so malleable as brass.
It is then called pinchbeck, prince's me-
tal, or Prince Rupert's metal. Brass was
known, and very much valued, by the
ancients. They used an ore of zinc to
form it, which 'they called cadmia. Dr.
Watson has proved that it v as to brass

Of TBM ""^

u'niriTBRSITT'

ZIZ

ZON

that they gave the name of orichalcum.
Their xs wass copper, or rather bronze.

It is very difficult to form au alloy of
iron and zinc. Malouin has shown that
zinc may be used instead of tin to cover
iron plates, a proof that there is an affi-
nity between the two meials. Tin and
zinc may be easily combined by fusion.
'I'he alloy is much harder than zinc, and
scarcely less ductile. This alloy is often
the principal ingredient in the compound
called pewter.

ZINNIA, in botany, so named in ho-
nour of John Godofr. Zinn, a genus of the
Syngenesia Polygamia Superliua class and
order. Natural order of Compositae Op-
positifolix. Corymbiferae, Jussieu. Es-
sential character : calyx ovate, cylindri-
cal, imbricate ; florets of the ray five,
permanent, entire ; seed down, with two
erect awns; receptacle chaffy. There
are five species.

ZIRCON, in mineralogy, the name of a
genus, containing two species, viz. hya-
cinth and zircon: the former will be found
in the alphabetical ari'angement; we
therefore proceed to the species zircon,
the chief colour of which is grey ; but it
occurs through all the varieties of green,
blue, red, yellow, and brown. It is found
commonly in roundish angular pieces,
which have almost always rounded angles
and edges. It is likewise crystallized.
Specific gravity about 4.6. The constitu-
ent parts are, according to Klaproth,

Zirconia^ 69.0

Silica .' 26.5

Oxide of iron 0.5

Loss 4.0

100.0

It is infusible without addition by the
blow pipe ; with borax it forms a colour-
less glass. It is found in Ceylon, in the
sand of a river, accompanied by crystals
of spinelle, tourmahne, ceylanite. It is
also found in America; Mr. Solomon Con-
rad of Philadelphia discovered' it near
Trenton, New Jersey. It is frequently
cut as a precious stone, and employed for
various purposes, particularly as an orna-
ment in mourning dress. When it is cut
it exhibits, though in a very faint degree,
the play of colours of the diamond. Some
of the varieties are frequently used by
watchmakers in jewelling watches.

ZIZANIA, in botany, a genus of the
Monoecia Hexandria class and order. Na-
tJu-al order of Gramina. Graminese, Jus-
sieu. Essential character: male, calyx

none ; corolla glume two-valvcd, awnless,
mixed with the females ; female, calyx
none ; corolla glume two-valved, cowled,
awned ; style two-parted ; seed one,
clothed Willi the plaited corolla. Tiiere
are two species ; viz. Z. aquatica, and Z.
terrestris.

ZIZIPHORA, in jjotany, a genus of the
Diandria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Verticillatse. Libiatx,
Jussieu. Essential character ; calyx fili-
form ; corolla ringent, with the upper lip
bent back and entire ; seeds lour. There
are four species.

ZODIAC, in astronomy, a broad circle,
whose middle is the ecHptic, and its ex-
tremes two circles, parallel thereto, at
such a distance from it, as to bound or
comprehend tiie excursions of the sun and
planets.

The sun never deviates from the mid-
dle of the zodiac, *. e. from the ecliptic,
but the planets all do more or less. Their
greatest deviations, called latitudes, are
the measure of the breadth of the zodi-
ac, which is broader or narrower, as the
greatest latitude of the planets is made
more or less ; accordingly some make it
sixteen, some eighteen, and some twenty
degrees broad. The zodiac, cutting the
equator obliquely, makes an angle there-
with of about 23^°, which is what we call
the obliquity of the zodiac, and is the
sun's greatest declination.

The zodiac is divided into twelve por-
tions, called signs, and those divisions or
signs are denominated from the constel-
lations which anciently possessed each
part ; but t!»e zodiac being immoveable,
and the stars having a motion from west
to east, those constellations no longer
correspond to their proper signs, whence
arises what we call the precession of the
equinoxes.

ZOEGEA, in botany, a genus of the
Syngenesia l*olygamia Prustraoea class
and order. Natural order of Compositse
Capitatae. Cinarocephalse, Jussieu. Es-
sential character : calyx imbricate; corolla
of the ray ligulate ; dow« bristle-shaped ;
receptacle bristly. There is but one spe-
cies, viz. Z. leptaurea, a native of the Le-
vant.

ZOISITE, in mineralogy, is of a grey-
ish colour. It occurs massive, and in
crystals, which are imbedded. It occurs
in primitive mountains, principally in
quartz with mica. This fossil is placed
between the axinite and pistazile, and
connects both species together.

ZONE, in geography and astronomy.

zoo

zoo

a division of the terraqueous globe, with
respect to the different degrees of heat
ibund in the different parts thereof. A
zone is the fiflh part of the surface of the
earth, contained between two parallels.
The zones are denominated torrid, frigid,
and temperate. The torrid zone is a band
surrounding the terraqueous globe, and
terminated by the two tropics. Its
breadth is 46'^ 58'. The equator running
through the middle of it, divides it into
two equal parts, each containing 23° 29^.
The ancients imagined the torrid zone
uninhabitable. The temperate zones are
two bands, environing the globe, and con-
tained between the tropics and the polar
circles : the breadth of each is 43° 2^.
The frigid zones are segments of the sur-
face of the earth, terminated, one by the
antarctic, and the other by the arctic cir-
cle. The breadth of each is 46° 58^

ZONITES, in natural history, a genus
of insects of the order Coleoptera : anten-
nae testaceous ; four feelers filiform ; jaw
entire, longer than the feelers ; lip emar-
ginate. There are eight species, found
chiefly in \»arm countries.

ZOOLOGY, constitutes that branch of
natural history which relates to animals.
Various methods of arrangement have,
by different naturalists, been devised to
render this branch of study easy of com-
prehension, and familiar to the minds of
those who wish for a general view of ani-
mated nature. We shall, in this article,
give an outline of the Linnaean system,
which has, in the various departments of
the British Encyclopedia, been adopted,
as most generally approved by philoso-
phers of all countries.

Linnaeus divides the whole animal king-
dom into six classes, the characters of
which are taken from the internal struc-
ture of the being treated of. It may be
observed, that a considerable portion of
the bulk of animals is composed of tubu-
lar vessels, which originate in a heart :
the heart propels through the arteries,
with the assistance of their own muscu-
lar powers, either a colourless transpa-
rent fluid, or a red blood, into the ex-
tremities of the veins ; through which it
again returns to the origin of motion.
Insects and worms have their circulating
fluids a little warmer than the surround-
ing medium, and in general it is colour-
less ; but insects have legs furnished with
joints, and worms have nothing but sim-
ple tentacula at most, in place of legs.
Fishes have cold red blood, which is ex-
posed to ihe air contained in water by
means of their gills. Amphibia receive

the air into their lungs, but their blood is
likewise cold, and in both fishes and am-
phibia the heart has only two regular ca-
vities, while that of animals wiili warm
blood has four. Of the latter, the ovipar-
oiis are birds, and are generally covered
with feathers ; the viviparous are either
quadrupeds or cetaceous animals, and are
furnished with organs for suckling their
young. See Physiology.

Each of the classes of animals is sub-
divided by Linnaeus into different orders:
for a scientific account of these orders,
and also of the classes from whence they
spring, the reader is referred to the seve-
ral heads of the Dictionary in the alpha-
betical order : and here we shall take a
cursory view of the subject, in order to
give, in a short compass, a sort of outline
of the science.

The first class, denominated Mamma-
lia, from the female's suckling its yoimg,
comprehends all viviparous animals with
warm blood. These, with very few ex-
ceptions, have teeth fixed in their jaw
bones; and from the form and number of
these teeth, the orders are distinguished,
except that of cetaceous fishes, which is
known by the fins that are found in the
place of feet. The distinctions of the
teeth are somewhat minute, but they ap-
pear to be connected with the mode of
life of the animal, and they are tolerably
natural. The first order, Primates, con-
tains man, monkeys, and bats : the second,
Bruta ; among others, the elephant, the
rhinoceros, the ant-eater, and the orni-
thorynchus, an extraordinary quadruped,
lately discovered in New Holland, with a
bill hke a duck, and sometimes teeth in-
serted behind it; but there are some sus-
picions that the animal is oviparous. The
order Ferae contains the seal, the dog, the
cat, the lion, the tiger, the weasel, and the
mole, most of them beasts of prey ; the
opossum and the kangaroo also belong to
this order, and the kangaroo feeds on ve-
getables, although its teeth are hke those
of carnivorous animals. The fourth or-
der, Glires, comprehends beavers, mice,
squirrels, and hares : the fifth, Pecora,
camels, goats, sheep, and horned cattle.
The sixth order, Belluze, contains the
horse, the hippopotamus, and the hog. The
cetaceous fishes, or whales, form the se-
venth and last order ; they reside in the
water, enveloped in a thick clothing of
tat, that is, of oily matter, deposited in
cells, which enables their biood to retain
its temperature, notwithstanding the ex-
ternal contact of a dense medium consi-
derably colder.

ZOOLOGY

Birds are distinguished from quadru-
peds by their laying eggs ; they are also
generally feathered, although some few
are rather hairy, and instead of hands or
fore-legs, they have wings. Their eggs
are covered by a calcareous shell ; and
they consist of a white, or albumen,
which nourishes the chick during incuba-
tion, and a yolk, which is so suspended
within it, as to preserve the side on which
the little rudiment of a chicken is situa-
ted, continually uppermost, and next to
the mother that is sitting on it. The yolk
is, in great measure, received into the
abdomen of the chicken a little before the
time of its being hatched, and serves for
its supj)ort, like the milk of a quadruped,
and like the cotyledons of young plants,
until tlie system is become sufficiently
strong for extracting its own food out of
the ordinary nutriment of the species.

Birds are divided, according to the
form of their bills, into six orders : Acci-
pitres ; as eagles, vultures, and hawks.
Picse; as crows, jackdaws, humming
birds, and parrots. Anseres ; as ducks,
swans, and gulls. Grallje ; as herons,
woodcocks, and osti'iches. Gallin<e ; as
peacocks, pheasants, turkies, and com-
mon fowls. And, lastly, Passeres ; com-
prehending sparrows, larks, swallows,
thrushes, and doves. The Amphibia are
in some respects very nearly allied to
birds : but their blood is little warmer than
the surrounding medium. Their respi-
ration is not necessarily performed in a
continual succession of alternations, since
the whole of their blood does not pass
through the lungs, and the circulation
may continue without interruption in
other parts, although it may be impeded
in these organs for want of the motion of
respiration. They are very tenacious of
life ; it has been asserted on good autho-
rity, that some of them have lived many
years without food, inclosed in hollow
trees, and even in the middle of stones :
and they often retain vestiges of life some
days after the loss of their hearts. Their
eggs are generally covered with a mem-
brane only. They have sometimes an in-
termediate stage of existence, in which all
their parts are not yet developed, as we
observe in the tadpole; and in this re-
spect they resemble the class of insects.
They are now universally considered as
divided into two orders only ; Reptilia : as
the tortoise, the dragon, or flying lizard,
the frog, and the toad ; all these have
four feet: but the animals which belong
to the order Serpentes are without feet.
Most of the serpentes are perfectly inno-

cent, but others have fangs, by which they
instil a poisonous fluid into the wounda
that they make. h\ England the viper is
the only venomous serpent ; it is known
by its dark brown colour, and by a stripe
of whitish spots running along its back ;
but to mankind its bite is seldom, if ever
fatal.

The first three classes of animals have
lungs, as we have already seen, for respi-
ration, and receive air by the mouth;
those which have gills, and red blood,
are fishes, residing either in fresh or in
salt water, or indift'erently in both : their
eggs are involved in a membrane, and
have no albumen.

Of the six orders of fishes, four have
regular gills, supported by little bones ;
and they are distinguished according to
the place of their ventral fins, into Apodes,
as the eel and lamprey : Jugulares,asthe
cod : Thoracici, as the sole and perch :
and Abdominales, as the salmon and pike,
distinctions which appear to be perfectly
artificial, although useful in a systematic
arrangement. The two remaining orders
are without bones in the gills, those of
the one being soft, and of the other carti-
laginous or gristly. These are, the Bran-
chiostegi and Chondropterygii of Arledi,
which Linnaeus, from a mistake, classed
among the Amphibia. The sun fish, the
lump fish, the fishing frog, and the sea-
horse, are of the former, and the sturgeon,
the skate, and the shark, of the latter or-
der.

Insects derive their name from being
almost always divided, into a head, tho-
rax, and abdomen, with very slender in-
tervening portions : although these divi-
sions do not exist in all insects. They
are usually oviparous ; they respire, but
not by the mouth ; they have a number of
little orifices on each side of the abdomen
by which the air is received into their
ramified trachea ; and if these are stop-
ped with oil, they are suffocated. Instead
of bones, they have a hard integument or
shell. Their mouths are formed on con-
structions extremely various, but gene-
rally very complicated : Fabricius has
made these parts the basis of his classifi-
cation ; but from their minuteness in most
species, the method is, in practice, insuper-
ably inconvenient : and the only way, in
which such characters can be rendered
really useful, is when they are employed
in the subdivision of the genera, as deter-
mined from more conspicuous distinctions.
Insects have most frequently jaws, and
often several pairs, but they are always
so placed as to open laterally or horizon-

zoo

200

tully. Sometimes, instead of jaws, they
liave a trunk, or proboscis. In general
they pass tlirougli four stages of exist-
ence, tiie egg, the larva or stage of growth,
the pupa, or chrysaUs, wliich is usually
in a Slate of torpor or complete inactivity,
and the imago, or perfect insect, in its
nuptial capacity. After the last change,
the insect most frequently takes no food
till its death-

The Linnxan orders of insects are the
Coleoptera, with hard sheaths to their
wings, generally called beetles; the Hem-
iptera, of which the sheaths are of a softer
nature, and cross each other, as grasshop-
pers, bugs, and plant lice : the Lepidop-
tera, with dusty scales on their wings, as
butterflies and moths ; the neuroptera, as
the libellula, or dragon-fly, the may-fly
and other insects with four transparent
wings, but without stings ; the Hymenop-
lera, which have stings, either poisonous
or not, as bees, wasps, and ichneumons ;
the Diptera with two wings, as common
flies and gnats, which have halteres, or
balancing rods, instead of the second pair
of wings ; and, lastly, the Aptera, without
any wings, which form the seventh order,
comprehending crabs, lobsters, shrimps,
and prawns, for these are properly insects;
spiders, scorpions, millepedes, centipedes,
mites and monoculi. The Monoculus is
a genus including the little active insects;
found in pond-water, which are scarcely
visible to the naked eye, as well as the
Molucca crab, which is the largest of all
insects, being sometimes six feet long.
Besides these there are several genera of
apterous insects, which are parasitical and
infest the human race as well as other
animals.

The Vermes are the last and lowest of
animated beings, yet some of them are not
deficient either in magnitude or in beau-
ty. The most natural division of vermes
is into five orders ; the Intestina, as earth-
worms ahd ascarides, which are distin-
guished by the want of moveable appen-
danges, or tentacula, from the MoUusca,
such as the dew snail, the cuttle fish, the
sea anemone, and the hydra, or fresh wa-
ter polype. The Testacea have shells of
one or more pieces, and most of them in-
habit th(^ sea and are called shell fish, as
the limpet, the periwinkle, the snail, the
nfuiscle, and the oyster, and the barnacle
The order Zoophyta contains corallines,
S{\onges, and other compound animals,
united by a common habitation, which
has the general appearance of a vegeta-
ble, although of animal origin; each of the
little inhabitants resembling a hydra, or

polype, imitating, by its extended arms,
the appearance of an imperfect flower.
The last order. Infusoria, is scarcely dis-
tinguished from the Intestina and MoUus-
ca by any other character than the mi-
nuteness of the individuals belonging to
it, and their spontaneous appearance in
animal and vegetable infusions, where we
can discover no traces of the manner in
which they are produced. The process
by which their numbers are sometimes
increased, is no less astonishing than
their first production ; for several of the
genera often appear to divide spontane-
ously, into two or more parts, which be-
come new and distinct animals, so that in
such a case the question respecting the
identity of an individual would be very
difficult to determine. The volvox, and
some of the vorticellse are remarkable for
their continual rotatory motion, probably
intended for the purpose of straining their
food out of the water : while some other
species «f the vorticellse resemble fungi
or corallines in miniature.

ZOOPHYTA, in natural history, an or-
der of the class Vermes. Zoophyta are
composite animals holding a medium be-
tween animals and vegetables Most of
them take root and grow up into stems,
multiplying life in their branches and deci-
duous buds, and in the transformation of
their animated blossoms or polypes, which
are endowed with spontaneous motion.
Plants, therefore, resemble zoophyta, but
are destitute of animation and the power
of loco motion ; and zoophyta are, as it
were plants, but furnished with sensation
and the organs of spontaneous motion.
Of these some are soft and naked, and
others are covered with a hard shell : the
foraier are by some naturalists called
zoophytes, and the latter are denominat-
ed lithophytes. There are fifteen genera.

Aleyonium
Antipathes
Cellepora
Corallina

Madrepora
Millepora
Pennatula
Sertularia

Flustra

Gorgonia

Hydra

Spongia

Tubipora

Tubulai'ia

l!$is

The coral reefs that surround many
islands, particularly those in the Indian
Archipelago and round New Holland, are
formed by various tribes of these animals,
particularly by the Cellepora, Isis, Madre-
pora, Millepora, and Tubipora. The ani-
mals form these corals with such rapidity.

ZYG

ZYG

that enormous masses of them very spee-
dily appear where there were scarcely
any marks of such reefs before.

ZOSTERA, in botany, a genus of the
Monandiia Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Inundalse. Aroideae, Jus-
sieu. Essential character : spadix linear,
within the slieath of the leaves ; flower
beai'ing on one side ; calyx none; corolla
iione: anther sessile, opposite to the germ;
stigmas two, linear ; capsule one seeded.
There is but one species, viz, Z. marina,
grass wrack, and many varieties.

ZWINGERA, in botany, so named from
Theodorus Zwinger, Professor of anatomy
and botany at Basil, a genus oftheDe-
candria Monogynia class and order.
Natural order of Terebintacese, Jussieu.
Essential character : calyx five parted ; pe-
tals five ; filaments widened at the base,
hairy ; capsule five, coriaceous, one-seed-
ed, inserted into a fleshy receptacle.
There is but one species, viz. Z. amara, a
native of the woods of Guiana. ,
' ZYGIA, in natural history, a genus of
insects of the order Coleoptera : antennae
monihform ; feelers equal, filiform ; lip
elongated, membranaceous; jaw one-
toothed. There is only one species, viz.
Z. oblonga, which is found in the East.

ZYGOPHYLLUM, in botany, bean ca-
per, a genus of the Decandria Monogynia
class and order. Natural order of Grui-
nales. Rutaceae, Jussieu. Essential cha-
racter : calyx five leaved ; petals five ;
nectary ten leaved, covering the germ,
and bearing the stamens ; capsule five-
celled. There are fourteen species, of
these the following may be noticed : Z,
faetidum, fetid bean-caper : the leaves of
this plant stand on long footstalks, and
diffuse widely a strong foxy smell : it
flowers from July to September. The
fruiting peduncle turns back, whence its
trivial name retrofractrum. It is a native
of the Cape of Good Hope. Z. morgsana,
four-leaved bean-caper : has a shrubby
stem, divided into many irregular-jointed
branches, rising four or six feet high ;
leaves thick and succulent, and placed by
fours at each joint, two on each side the
stalk, opposite ; the fruit has four membra-
naceous wings, resembling the sails of a
mill. Z. arboreum, tree bean-caper, is a
very handsome tree, forty feet high, with
a very large, thick, elegant head : trunk
upright, dividing into numerous opposite
branches ; flowers inodorous, large, hand-
some, which give the tree ^a most beauti-
ful appearance when in bloom.

CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

ADHESIOX, second paragraph : for
about the c^ume time, read> about the
year 1713.

ARIANS. For defence of low Anan-
ism, read, defence of Arianism.

ASTROXOMY. In the fourteenth
page of tliis article, near the top of the
first column, read, instead of what is there
found, " The diameter at the poles is
r,893 EngUsh miles ; at the equator it is
7,928 miles."

CAULIS is referred to from Acaulosk ;
the reference should have heen made to
the article Botany.

CONCHA. Instead of this, the refer-
ence should have been to Shell.

Cork laws is referi'ed to from the arti-
cle BouNxr ; the reference should have
been to the article Conx trade.

COUTCHOUC. Head Caoutchouc

CYCLE is referred to from Calkndaii,
but the reference should have been made
to Chronologt, where an account of the
several cycles will be found.

EQUA TONAL. Read EauATORiAL.

FISHING Jlies have been referred to
from the article Angling, and being omit-
ted in the alphabetical order, we add in
this place, that a fishing fly is a bait used
in angling for various kinds offish. The
fly is either natural or artificial. The
chief of the natural flies are the ** stone
fly," found under hollow stones at the
sides of rivers, between April and July ;
it is brown, with yellow streaks, and has
large wings; the " gi'een drake," found
among stones by river sides; it has a
yellow body ribbed with green, it is long
and slender, with wings like a butterfly,
and is common in the spring: "the oak
fly," found in the body of an oak or ash,
is of a brown colour, and common during
the summer months: tl)e "palmer fly,"
or worm, foimd on the leaves of plants,
when it assumes the fly state from that of
the caterpillar ; it is much used in trout
fishing : the " ant fly," found in ant hills
from June to September: the "May
fly" is to be found playing at the river
side, especially before rain : and the
" black flvj" which is to be found upon
every hawthorn after the buds are off.
VOL. VI.

There are two ways to fish with natural
flies, either on the surface of the water»
or a Uttle underneath it. In angUng for
roacli, dace, &c, the fly should be allowed
to glide down the stream to the fish ; but
in very still water the bait may be drawn
by the fish, which will make him eagerly
pursue it.

There are many sorts of artificial flies
to be had at the shops ; they are made in
imitation of natural flies, and the rules fot
using them are as follow. Keep as far
from the water's edge as may be, and fish
down the stream with the sun at your
back ; the line must not touch the water.
In clear ri . ers the angler must use small
flies with slender wings, but in muddy
waters a larger fly may be used. Aftet
rain, when the waters are muddy, an
orange coloured fly may be used with
advantage : in a clear day, the fly must
be light coloured, and in dark waters the
fly must be dark. The line should in ge-
neral be twice as long as the rod : but,
after all, much will depend on a quick
eye and active hand. Flies made for
catching salmon must have their wings
standing one behind the other. This fish
is said to be attracted by the gaudiest co-
lours that can be obtained ; the wings and
tail should be long and spreading.

FRANKS, or frankijig letters, which
ought to have been included in the article
Post-Office, is a privilege that has been
enjoyed by members of parliament from
the first institution of the post-office. Tlse
original design of this exemption was, that
they might correspond freely with their
constituents on the business of the nation.
For many years it was sufficient to frank
a letter or packet, that any member of
parliament subscribed his name at the
bottom of the cover. By degrees, how-
ever, this privilege was so much abused,
that it was enacted that no letter should
pass free, unless the whole direction was
in the hand writing of the member, and
his subscription annexed : a subsequent
act obliges the member to write not only
the full direction, but to note the town at
which the office is where the letter is
sent from. A member of parliament can

41

CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

frank only ten letters on each day, and
receive fifteen free of postage : each of
which must weigh less than one ounce.

GAURS. This word having been re-
ferred to, it is necessary to mention tliat
the Gaurs are an ancient sect of magicians
in Persia, where they are employed in tlie
meanest offices, and vilest drudgery.
They are said to be harmless in their
manners, zealous in their opinions, rigo-
rous in their morals, and exact in their
dealings. They profess the worship of
one God alone, the belief of a resurrec-
tion and a future judgment, and utterly
detest all idolatry. Ihey perform their
acts of worship in the presence of fii'e,
for which they have much veneration,
regarding it as the most perfect emblem
of the living and invisible God. They
exhibit the same marks of respect for
Zoroaster that the Jews have for Moses,
esteeming him as a prophet sentfrom God.

GUIAC. Read Guaiacum.

HOWITZ, or Howitzer, in miUtary
affairs, a kind of mortar mounted upon a
field carriage like a gun. The difference
between a mortar and a howitzer is, that
the trunnions of the first are at the end,
and of the other in the middle. The in-
vention of howitzers is of mucli later date
than that of mortars. The construction
is various, but the chamber is always cy-
lindrical. They are distinguished by the
diameter of the bore. A battery of
howitzers is formed in the same way as a
gun-battery, only the embrazures are at
least a foot wider, on account of the short-
ness of the howitzer.

JESUITS. In this article, for Loyoly
and 1738, read Loyola and 1538.

LINARIA has been referred to from
LiNKET, which is a species of Fuingilla,
and under that article the description will
be found.

MUSTELA has been referred to from
Feuket, &c. but the reference should
have been to Viverua, where the princi
pal species are described.

NAZARENES, in church history, has
been referred to from the article Ehio-
NiTES ; and being omitted in its pi'oper
place, we may observe here, tliat it was a
name originally applied to Christians in
general, as followers of Jesus of Naze-
reth; but was afterwards restrained to
that sect, who endeavoured to blend the
institutions of the mosaic law with those
which are peculiar to the gospel.

NECROMANCY being referred to, we
define the term^s a species of pretended
divination, performed by raising the dead,
and extorting answers from tliem.

PERSICA was referred to from Necta-
rine, but the reference should have been
to Amigdalus, of which genus the per-
sica, or nectarine, is only a species.

PRINTING, stereotype. In the second
paragraph, for by the Jesuits, read say
the Jesuits. See Steueotype.

STAMP duties, a brand) of the piiblic
revenue, raised by requiring that all deeds
or documents, in order to be valid, shall
be written on paper or parchment bear-
ing a public seal, for which a tax is pa\d.
This mode of taxation was introduced into
England in 1671, by " an act for laying an
imposition on proceedings at law ;" but
the act in 1694^ibr imposing several du-
ties upon vellum, parchment and paper,
may be considered as the commencement
of the present Stamp Office, as a particu-
lar set of commissioners was then ap-
pointed for managing the duties. These
duties at first were to continue only for a
limited period, but about the year 1698
several new ones were granted, to conti-
nue for ever, to which, additions, almost
without end, have, at different .times,
been since made, as will appear from the
following statement. The total gross
produce of the stamp duties, in the year
1713, was 107,779/., the charges of ma-
nagement of which amounted to 14,296/.,
leaving a nett produce of only 93,483/.
In 1723 the nett produce had increased
to 130,409/. ; and it seldom exceeded this
amount till 1757, when some new stamp
duties were imposed, by which the total
nett amount of this revenue was increased
to 267,725/.: In 1766 it amounted ti>
285,266/. ; and no material additions were
made till towards the conclusion of the
American war. In 1782, a duty was im-
jiosed on fire-insurances, which, though
not actually collected by means of stamps,
was classed with the stamp duties. In
1784, additional duties were laid on gold
and silver plate. In 1785, duties were
laid on post-horses, quack medicines,
game licenses, attorneys' licenses, and
pawnbrokers; all of which were deemed
stamp duties, and considerably augmented
the annual amount. But a far greater in-
crease took place in the course of the war
which began in 1793, during which new-
stamp duties were imposed on receipts,
bills of exchange, attorneys' articles, sea-r
insurances, licenses to wear hair-powder,
horse dealers' hcenses, legacies, hats,
stage-coaches, deeds, armorial bearings,
small notes, medicines, and several other
articles, which soon increased this branch
of the revenue to more than double its
former amount ; and it is a mode of tax-

CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

atiojl, which it is in general so difficult to
evade, and is attended with such a com-
paratively small expense in collecting,
that there can belittle doubt that it will
be extended as far as possible.

The total produce of stamp duties of
Great Britain the year ending in January,
1806, was 4,194,285/. 12*. lO^d. This
sum was subject to some deductions, but
when these were made, the produce was
little less than four millions sterling. The
expense of collection amounts to 3^ per
cent, on the gross revenue. The follow-
ing are some of the principal stamp duties
in which the public are most interested,
payable after the 10th of October, 1808.

RECErPTS, BILLS OF EXCHAJTGE, &C.

/. 8. d.

Seceipt for the payment of mo-
ney amounting to 21. and under

10/. 0 0 2

To 10/. and under 20/ 0 0 4

To 20Z. and under 501 0 0 8

To 50Z. and under 100/. .... 0 1 0

To 100/. and under 200/. ... 0 2 0

To 200/. and under 500/. ... 0 3 0

To 5001. or upwards 0 5 0

In full of all demands 0 5 0

N. B. Any general acknowledgment of
the settlement of any account or debt,
where the amount is not specified, is liable
to the duty of 5s.

Inland Bill of Exchange^ draft, or order
for payment to bearer, or order, on de-
mand, or otherwise :

/. s. d.
Amounting to 40s. and not ex-
ceeding 51. 5s 0 1 0

Above 51. 5s. to 30/ 0 1 6

Above 30/. to 50/ 0 2 0

Above 50/. to 100/. 0 3 0

Above 100/. to 200/ 0 4 0

Above 200/. to 500/ 0 5 0

Above 500/. to 1,000/ 0 7 6

Above 1,000/. to 3,000/. .... 0 10 0

Above 3,000/. 1 0 0

N. B. Every species of order or receipt,
which, oeing given as a consideration for
money, enables the payee to receive the
sum expressed therein from a third per-
son, is considered as a bill of exchange ;
excepting drafts to bearet^ on demcmd,drsiwn
on any banker residing witliin 10 miles of
the place where the same is drawn, pro-
vided the ])lace be specified thereon.
Bank bills and bank post bills, and bills
drawn for wages, &c. of navy and army,
are exempted from the duty.

Foreign Bill of Exchange^ if drawn sin-
gly, the same duty as the inland bill.
Drawn in sets : for every bill of each set
not

/. 8. d.

Exceeding 100/ 0 1 0

Above 100/. to 200/. 0 2 0

Above 200/. to 500/ 0 3 0

Above 500/. to 1,000/ 0 4 0

Above 1,000/ to 3,000/ 0 5 0

Above 3,000/ 0 10 0

Promssory JVote to bearer on demand,
(intended to be re-issued :)

Is. d.

Not exceeding 1/. Is 0 0 4

Above 1/. Is. to 2/. 2s 0 0 8

Above 2/. 2s. to 5/. 5s 0 1 0

Above 51. 5s. to 20/. 0 1 6

Above 20/. to 30/. 0 3 0

Above 30/. to 50/. 0 4 6

Above 50/. to 100/ 0 7 6

Promissoi^ JVote in any other manner
than to bearer on demand, (not re-issua-
ble:)

/. s. d.
Amounting from 40s to 51. 5s. 0 1 0

Above 51. 5s. to 301. 0 1 6

Above 30/. to 50/ 0 2 0

Above 50/. to 100/. 0 3 0

Promissory j\^ote, either to bearer on de-
mand, or in any otlier manner, (not re-

issuable :)

/. s. d.

Above 100/. to 200/. 0 4 0

Above 200/. to 500/. 0 5 0

Above 500/. to 1,000/. .... 0 7 6

Above 1,000/. to 3,000/. .... 0 10 0

Above 3,000/. 1 0 0.

PROBATES OF WILLS, OB LETTERS OF
ADMINISTRATION.

/. S.

Above tlie value of 20/. and un-
der 100/. 0 10

Of lOO/.and under 200/. .... 2 0

200/ 300 5 0

300 450 8 0

450 600 11 0

600 800 15 0

800 1,000 22 0

1,000 1,500 30 0

1,500 2,000 40 0

2,000 3,500 50 0

3,500 5,000 60 0

5,000 r,500 75 0

7,500 .... 10,000 90 0

10,000 .... 12,500 .... 110 0

12,500 .... 15,000 .... 135 0

CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

15,000/. and under 17,500 . . 160 0 the twopenny post,) and in Edinburgh,

17,500 20,000 . . 185 0 21.

20,000 . . . • . 25,000 . . 210 0 In any other city, borough, or town

25,000 30,000 . . 260 0 corporate, or in Manchester, Birming-

30,000..... 35,000.. 310 0 ham, or Sheffield, 10s. In any other place,

35,000 40,000 . . 360 0 5s.

40,000 45,000 . . 410 0 For exercising the trade of a pawn-

45,000 50,000 . . 460 0 broker:

50,000 60,000 . . 550 0 In London or Westminster, or two-

60,000 70,000 . . 650 0 penny post district, 10/. in any other

70,000 80,000 . . 750 0 place, 5L.

80,000 ..... 90,000 . . 850 0 By postmasters, or persons letting to

90,000 100,000 . . 950 0 hire horses, for travelling post, by the

100,000 125,000 . . 1,200 0 mile, or from stage to stage, or for a day,

125,000 150,000 . . 1,400 0 or for any less period than 28 days, for

150,000 175,000 . . 1,600 0 drawing carriages used in travelling

175,000 200,000 . . 2,000 0 post, 5s.

200,000 ..... 250,000 . . 2,500 0 By persons keeping pubhc stage

250,000 ..... 300,000 . . 3,000 0 coaches or carriages, for each carriage

300,000 350,000 . . 3,500 0 so kept :

350,000 400,000 . . 4,000 0 If carrying 4 inside passengers, Ss.

400,000 500,000 . . 5,000 0 More than 4 and not more than 6, &s.

500,000 or upwards 6,000 0 More than 6 and not more than 8, 7s.

More than 8 and not more than 10, 8s.

Probates, &c. of seamen, marines, or More than 10, 9s.

soldiers, exempted. Children in lap are excepted from the

several numbers.

lEGACIES. PKOCEEDINGS IX THE COURTS.

All legacies, pecuniary or speeific, out ^^^'^'es on Im-w Proceedings, in the

of personal estate, or charged on real courts, to be paid m respect of every skm,

3Slate ; and all residues of personal estate, s^ieet, &c. except where they are imposed

whether devised by will, or accruing by according to the number of words, or

succession, and all shares and residues otherwise expressly charged,
arising from the sale of real estate under

a will. If the value amounts to or exceeds miscellaneous. ^^ ,

CO/, a duty per cent, as follows .- As fellow of the College of Physicians,

To children of the deceased, or their in England or Scotland, 20/.

d,escendants, 1/. By licence from the College of Physi-

To a brother or sister of the deceased, cians to practise within seven miles of the

or their descendants, 21. lOs. metropolis, lOZ.

To a brother or sister of the deceased's Matriculation in any university in Great

father or mother, or their descendants, 4/. Britain, 10s.

To a brother or sister of the deceased's To the degree of bachelor of arts in or-

grandfather or grandmother, or their de- dinary course, ol,

scendants, 51. By special grace, royal mandate, or no-

To any collateral relation, or to a stran- bility, or otiierwise out of ordinary

ger in blood, 10^. course, 51.

The husband or wife of the deceased is Any other degree in the ordinary

exempt from the above duties. course of the university, 6t. Out of the

ordinary course, 10/.

ANNUAL LICENCES. To tlic degree of M.I), in either of the

universities of Scotland, 10/.

licence to appraiser (not a licensed Advertisements in the London Gazette,

auctioneer) annual, 6s. or any public newspaper, 3s.

To any banker, &c. who shall issue any Agreement^ or Memm. of Agreement,

promissory note payable on demand, and made in England under hand only, or in

be re-issuable, 20/. Scotland without any clause of registra-

For selling medicines, &c. liable to du- tion, and not otherwise charged nor ex-

ty under said act, 44 George III. c. 98, pressly exempted in the schedule ; the

(usually called quack medicines .) matter thereof being of the value of 20/.

In London or Westminster, (or within or upwards, and containing not more than

CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

1,080 words, includii^g- any schedule, &c.
16s. Containing- more than 1,080 words,
1/. 10s. And farther, for every 1,080 words
beyond the first 1,080, 11.

Alma7iack or Calendar for the year, or
less, Is. If for more years, then for each
year for wliich it sliall serve. Is. Perpe-
tual Almanack, 10s.

Calendars or perpetual almanacks, in
bibles or prayer books, excepted.

AppraisevieiU of estate, real or personal,
in any case wliatsoever, except appraise-
ment by order of an admiralty court,
amount not exceeding- 50/., 2s. 6(1. — Ex-
ceeding 50/. to 100/., 5s. — Exceeding- 100/.
to 200/., 10s.— Exceeding 200/. to 500/,*
15s — Exceeding 500/., 1/.

Articles of Apprenticeship and Clerkship.
Any profession or trade, &c. except at-
torneys and otliers specifically charged,
where the premium does not amount to

/. s. d.

30/ 0 15 0

30/. and under 50/. . 1 10 0

.50/ 100/. . 2 10 0

100/ 200/. .500

200/ 300/. . 10 0 0

300/ 400/. . 15 0 0

400/ 500/. . 20 0 0

500/ 600/. . 25 0 0

600/. .... 800/. . 30 0 0

800/. . . . 1,000/. . 40 0 0

1,000/. or upwards . . . 50 0 0

Bond in England, and per.sonal bond in
Scotland, as security for a definite sum :

/. 8.

Not exceeding 100/ 10

Exceeding 100/. to 300/. 1 10

.... 300/. . 500/. 2 0

.... 500/. . 1,000/. 3 0

. . . 1,000/. . 2,000/. 4 0

. . . 2,000/. . 3,000/. 5 0

. . . 3,000/. . 4,000/. 6 0

. .• . 4,000/. . 5,000/. 7 0

. . . 5,000/. . 10,000/. 9 0

... 10,000/. . 15,000/. 12 0

... 15,000/. . 20,000/. 15 0

.... 20,000/ 20 0

Where the total amount of the money
secured, or to be ultimately recoverable,
shall be uncerfain, being for money to be
iiereafter advanced, or to become due on
account current, 20/.

Cerlificate to be taken out yearly, by at-
tornies, solicitors, or proctors, in Eng-
land ; and by writers to tlie signet, soli-
citors, agents, attornies, or procurators, in
any of the courts in Scotland ; notaries
public in England and Scotland ; and also
by every sworn clerk, clerk in court, and

other officer, who shall act in any of the
above capacities for any other emohiment
than the regular emolument of the office :
when residing within the limits of the
two-penny post in England, or within the
city or shire of Edinburgh, and if he shall
have been admitted 3 j'earsor upwards,
10/. Or if not so long admitted, 5/. When
residing elsewhere, and admitted for
three years, or upwai'ds, 6/. Or if not so
long admitted, 3/.

Conveyance (whether grant, assignmenV
transfer, renunciation, or of any other de-
scription whatever) on the sale of any
lands, rents, or other property, real or
personal, heritable or moveable, or of any
right, title, interest, &.c. in the same ; for
the principal or only deed whereby such
property shall be granted or conveyed to
or vested in the purchaser, Sic.

Where the purchase- money (which
shall be truly expressed tlierein) shall
not amount to 50/., 15s.

To

/. ^.

50/. and not to 150/.

1 0

150/. . .

300/.

1 10

300/. . .

500/.

2 10

500/. . .

750/.

5 0

750/. . .

1,000/.

7 10

1,000/. . .

2,000/.

10 0

2,000/, . .

3,000/.

20 0

3,000/. . .

4,000/.

30 0

4,000/. . .

5,000/.

40 0

5,000/. . .

7,500/.

50 0

7,500/. . .

. 10,000/.

75 0

10,000/, . .

. 15,000/.

100 0

15,000/. . .

. 20,000/.

150 0

20,000/. . .

. 30,000/.

200 0

30,000/. . .

. 40,000/.

300 0

40,000/. . .

. 50,00.0/.

400 0

50,000/. or up

wards . . .

500 0

Grant of the dignity of a Duke, 200/. ;
Marquis, 200/.; Earl, 200/.; Viscount,
150/. ; Baron, 100/. ; and Baronet,. 50/.
Of a conge d'elire, 20/. Of the royal as-
sent to the election of Archbishop or Bi-
shop, 20/.

Grant under the great or privy seal
from the civil list, &,c. (not part of annual
supplies or voted by Parliament) :

Under 100/

. . . 100/. and not 250/.
. . . 250/. . . . 500/.
. . . 500/. . . . 750/.
. . . 750/. . . . 1,000/.
1,000/. or upwards, fop
every 100/. thereof . . .
Of any annuity or pension,
Under 100/. per annum
. . . 100/. and not 200/.

/.

s.

1

10

4

0

10

0

20

0

30

0

5

0

1

10

4

0

CORRECTIOiSS AND ADDITIONS.

Inder

200/. .

. . 400/.

/.
. 10

s.
0

400/. .

. . 6001.

. 20

0

600/, .

. . 800/.

. 30

0

800/. .

. . 1,000/.

. 40

0

. . . 1,000/. or upwards . . 50 0
But in cases of renewal only, 1/. 10s.

Grant, of any office or employment, by
letters patent, deed, or other writing, the
salary, fees, &c. not amounting to

/. s.

501. per annum .... 1 10

50/. and not 100/. ..30

100/. . . . 200/. ..50

200/. . . . 300/. . . 10 0

300/. . . . 500/. . . 20 0

500/. . . . 7501. . . 30 0

750/. . . . 1,000/. . . 40 0

1,000/. . . . 1,500/. . . 50 0

1,500/. . . . 2,000/. . . 75 0

2,000/. . . . 3,000/. . . 100 0

3,000/, per ann. or upwards . 150 0

Mortgage, condiiionvL] surrender byway
of mortgage, &c. wadset, conveyance in
trust, defeasance, or other deed, intend-
ed as a security by way of mortgage,
where the same shall be made, as a se-
curity for tlie payment of any definite
sum of money, advanced or lent at tlie
time, or previously due and owing, or
forborne to be paid, being payable.

/. s.

Not exceeding 50/ 0 15

Exceeding

50/. to

100/.

150/.

300/.

500L

1,000/.

2,000/.

3,000/.

4,000/.

5,000/.

10,000/.

15,000/.

100/.

150/.

300/.

500/.

1,000/.

2,000/.

3,000/.

4,000/.

5,000/.

10,000/.

15,000/.

20,000/.

1

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

10

12

15

20,000/. ... .20

This ad valorem duty is chargeable only
on one part of the mortgage deed, the
other being liable as a common deed. It
is not cliargeable on mortgages made
merely for further as.surance, in cases
where the ad valorem duty has been paid
ovi other deeds.

JSTewspopers, (For every half sheet doa-
ble demy, or sheet of single demy) 3^d.

Famphleis, of half a sheet or less, ^d.
not exceeding a sheet. Id.

Fampldets exceeding 1 sheet, and not
exceeding 6 sheets, in octavo, (or on a

lesser page) 12 sheets quarto, or 20
sheets folio. For every sheet contained
in one copy, 2s.

Acts of parliament, proclamations, or-
ders of council, form of prayer, and acts
of[ state, ordered to be printed by the
King ; printed votes of parliament, school
book.s, and books of devotion, are ex-
empted.

Passport, 5f!.

Plate of Gold, wrouglit in Great Bri-
tain, per 02. and in proportion, 16s. Gold
watch cases excepted.

Plate of Silver, wrought in Great Bri-
tain, per oz. and so in proportion. Is. 3rf.
•Except watch cases, chains, and several
small articles.

Playmg Cards, per pack, 2s. 6d.
Policy of Assurance, on any life or lives,
or on any event depending on life or
lives, sum insured not amounting to 500/.
15s. Amounting to 500/. or upwards,
1/. 10s.

Specification, of a patent, 51. And fur-
ther, for 1,080 words above the first 1,080,

Stage Coaches and Carriages, carrying
passengers for hire, for every mile such
carriage shall travel :

If carrying not more than 4 inside pas-
sengers, 2d.

If 4 and not exceeding 6, ^^d.

If 6 ...... 8, 3^rf.

If 8 10, 4r/.

More than 10 .... 5^.

Transfer of Bank or South Sea stock,
75. 9d.

Of East India stock, 1/. 10s.

Of stock of any other corporation, not
otherwise charged under the head of
mortgage or conveyance, 1/. 10s. j

STRAW hat manufacture, is of very
modern invention ; it has, however, of
late years afforded the means of support
to a large class of our industrious poor,
and of not a few in the middle ranks of
life. Tlie manufacture requires but little
capital, and the art is quickly acquired.
Thirty or forty sliillings are said to be
sufficient for the purchase of the ma-
chines and materials for employing one
hundred persons some length of time.
The .straw used is readily obtained, and,
when {properly sorted, it is cut at the
joints, and the outer covering being re-
moved, it is then ranged according to the
different sizes, and made up into bundles
of eight or ten inclies in length, and about
a foot in circumference. The bundles are
then dipped in water, and shaken a little,
so as not to retain much moisture ; and
then they are to be placed on their edges

CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

in'a box, which is sufficiently close to pre-
vent tlie evaporation of the smoke. In the
middle of the box is an earthen vessel,
containing sulphm*, which is set on fire,
and the box covered over for several
hours. The straws are next to be split,
which operation is performed by a small
raachine, made chiefly of wood. When
split, the straws are denomiiftitedsphnts,
and of tliese each braider has a certain
quantity, wbich they hold under the arm,
and draw them out as wanted. The rules
laid down are tiiese : platters should be
taught to use their second fingers and
thumbs, instead of the fore fingers, which
are often required to assist in turning the
splints, and very much facilitate the plat-
ting ; and they should take care not to
wet the splints too much. Each platter
should have a small linen bag, and a piece
of pasteboard to roll the plat round.
When five yards are worked up, it is
wound about a piece of board, fastened at
the top with yarn, and kept there several
days, to form it in a proper shape. Four
of these parcels, or a score, is the mea-
surement by which the plat is sold. When
the straw is platted, it comes into the hand
of the person who sews it together into
the form of hals, bonnets, &c. of various
shapes and sizes. These are then put on
wooden blocks, for the purpose of hot
pressing ; and, to render them of a more
delicate white, ihey are again exposed to
the fumes of sulphur.

STURGKOX,a species of the Acipen-
scr genus is referred to, and being omit-
ted in its place, we may briefly observe,
that it is a very large fish, of eighteen or
twenty feet long, an inhabitant of the
northern seas, migrating during the early
summer months into the larger rivers and
lakes, and returning to the sea again in
autumn after having deposited its spawn.
It is a fish of slow motion and is easily ta-
ken : it is admired for the delicacy and
firmness of the flesh. Fi-om the roe is
prepared the substance called caviar. In
this country the sturgeon annually asceiuls
rivers, but in no great quantities, and is
occasionally taken in salmon nels. In its
manner of breeding the sturgeon forms
an exception among cartilaginous fishes,
it being oviparous. Tiie sturgeon was a
fish in high repute among the ancients,
and was brought to table with much
pomp, and ornamented with flowers, the
slaves who carried it being likewise
adorned with garlands, and accompanied
with music. The flavour of the sturgeon
is said to vary with the food on which it is
chiefly fed ^ hence it is distinguished in

the North of Europe, into mackrel-stur-
geon, herring-sturgeon, 8cc. See Shaw's
" Zoology."

S UBS'i'ANCES, simple. To this article
references have been made, and it having
been omitted in the alphabetical order,
we must not pass it by here. In other
cases we are grieved that haste or negli-
gence should liave recjuired these addi-
tions and corrections; in this we have rea-
son for diflerent emotions, having by the
omission an opportunity of stiting some
facts, and some results, which have not
been made public more than two or three
days.

In the language of modern chemistry,
the term simple substances has a different
signification from that attached to it in an-
cient philo.sopljy. By elements, or sim-
ple subsiances, was formerly understood
primary pi'inciples, wiiich were essential-
ly simple and indestructible, which, by
modification of form, or by mutual com-
bination, formed the dilFerent. substances
which compose the material world. Mo-
dern philosophy pursues a different mode
of investigation : it analyses substances,
and endeavours to decompose them, or
separate them into their constituent parts,
and when it arrives at any which it can-
not decompose, and beyond which ana-
lysis cannot be carried, and whose pro-
perties can only be changed by causing
them to combine with others, then such
substances are denominated simple. This
term does not imply their absolute sim-
plicity, because new experiments, or new-
agents, may be able to reduce certain
bodies that at present have not been de-
composed into others that are more sim-
ple. Till very lately the fixed alkalies,
the boracic, fluoric, and muriatic, acids
were reckoned among the simple sub-
stances : to these may be added the metals,
the several earths, sulphur, phosphorus,
and the diamond.

liy the Voltaic battery, in the hands of
Mr. Davy, ProCessor of Chemistry at the
Royal Institution, many of these sub-
stances, which were deemed simple a
few months since, have been decomposed.
For his experiments on the alkalies, we
refer to the articles Alkali and Potas-
sium : and on Saturday last, Dec. 17th,
he announced in his public lecture, that
he had decomposed sulphur and phospho-
rus, the component parts of which are
oxygen and hydrogen, and a metallic
base ; that charcoal he had found to con-
sist of hydrogen and the carbonaceous
principle, and that diamond was a com-
pound of the carbonaceous principle and

CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

oxygen ; that he had succeeded in ob-
taining the metallic base of ammonia,
which, when combined with mercury, in
the proportion ofonly t ^^j^ part, ren-
dered the mercury solirJ, and reduced the
specitic gravity from 13 to 3. The ])ro-
fessor likewise informed hisaudience, that
he had decomposed the boracicaiid fluo-
ric acids, and had enjoyed a glimpse of
their metallic bases ; and that he had fully
ascertained, that lime, magnesia, stron-
tites, and barytes, are compound bodies,
each having a metallic substance as a
base. Hence the number of simple sub-
stances, which, but a year ago, was esti-
mated by Dr. Thomson at 38, is in a very
short space of time considerably reduced.
Chemistry, indeed, as a science, will
probably undergo a complete renovation :
the discoveries of Mr. Davy promise a
total overthrow to the beautiful, and as
it was formerly deemed, simple and al-
most perfect system of Lavoissier. The
English professor assumes electricity as a
general agent of decomposition ; that dif-
ferent bodies are naturally in diiferent
electrical states ; that by altering these
states their affinities are altered. In justi-
fication of this theory, he has ascertained
that oxygen, and all bodies containing an
excess of oxygen, are naturally negative,
and that all bodies containing an excess
of inflammable principle are naturally
positive. Should subsequent facts con-
firm this theory, it is highly probable that
many other of the bodies, hitherto regard-
ed as simple, will yield to the powers of
his apparatus.

Substances, imponderable, in chemistry,
are caloric, ligiit, electricity, and galva-
nism ; perhaps the identity of tlie two for-
mer may hereafter be discovered : and
likewise that of the two latter more com-
pletely demonstrated. The common
character that they all possess is, that of
not being subject to the attraction of
gravitation ; at least their gravity has
hitherto been incapal)le of appreciation,
hence the term " imponderable." They
possess the greatest subtilty, or tenuity ;
they cannot easily be obtained in a separ-
ate state of existence ; they are observed
only in states of combination, or in their
rapid transition from one body to another.
We can scarcely discover their specific
affinities, or measure their force, and we
are unable to trace their particular com-
binations, or consider them as essential
constituent principles of any compound.
They are moreover diffused over every
kind of matter ; at least caloric exists in
all bodies, and probably also the electric

and galvanic agents. See Murray's
Chemistry.

TELESIE, in mineralogy, a gem so
named by Haiiy, which answers to the
])erfect Corundu^i and the Sappiiiuk : to
these articles the reader m-ght be re-
ferred witliout further addition, but hav-
ing directed him already to Telesik from
the article Gk.v, we shall, in this place,
give Mr. Murray's desciiption. It occurs
in fragments, and is crystallized ; the form
of its crystals being the double three-
sided pyramid, the single six-sided pyra-
mid, and the six-sided prism, variously
modified by truncations and actiminations.
Its colours are numerous ; blue, green,
red, of nuniei'ous .shades, and yellow or
yellowish white, and sometimes more than
one colour is present even in the same
crystal. It is more or less transparent ;
its lustre is resplendent and vitreous ; and
it often presents a beautiful reflection of
light, in tl)e form of a star: the fracture
is conchoidal, or imperfectly foliated; the
hardness is inferior to that of the dia-
mond, but superior to that of every other
fossil, and not yielding to the file : the
specific gravity is from 3.9 to 4.1.

TIME, equation of, the most usual and
best measure of time that we have is a
clock, regulated by the vibration of a pen-
dulum. But with whatever accuracy a
clock may be made, it must be subject to
irregularities, as well from the imj)erfec*
tion of the workmanship, as from the ex-
pansion and contraction of the materials
by heat and cold, by which the length of
the pendulum, and consequently the
time of vibration, will vary. As no clock,
therefore, can be depended upon for
keeping time accurately, it is necessary
that we should be able at any time to as-
certain how much it is too fast or too slow,
and at what rate it gains or loses. For
this purpose it must be compared with
some motion which is uniform, or of
which, if it be not uniform, one can find
the variation. The motions of the hea-
venly bodies have therefore been consi-
dered as mo.st pro|)er for the purpose.
Now as the earth revolves uniformly
about its axis, the apparent diunial mo-
tion of the heavenly bodies about the axis
must be uniform. If a clock, therefore,
be adjusted to go 24 hours from the pas-
sage of any fixed star over the meridian
till it returns to it again, its rate of going
may be determined by comparing it with
the transit of any fixed star, and observing
whether the interval continues to be -4
hours ; if not, the difference shows how
much it gains or loses in that time. A

CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

clock thus adjusted is said to be adjusted
to sidereal time, and all the sidereal days
are equal. But all the solar days are not
equal, that is, the intervals from the sun's
leaving the meridian till it returns to it
again, are not all equal ; so tliat if a clock
be adjusted to go 24 hours in one interval,
another interval will be performed in
more or less than 24 hours, and thus the
sun and the clock will not agree ; that is,
the clock will not continue to show 12
when the sun comes to the meridian. It
is found that the length of the solar day is
equal to the time of the earth's rotation
about its axis, together with the time of
describing an angle equal to the increase
of the sun's right ascension in a true solar
day. Now if the sun moved, or appeared
to move, uniformly, and in the equator,
this increase would be always the same in
the same time,and therefore the solar days
would be all equal ; but the sun moves, or
appears to move, in the echptic ; and,
tlierefore, if its motions were uniform,
ec^ual arcs upon the echptic would not
give equal arcs upon the equator. But
the apparent motion of the sun in the
echptic is not uniform, and hence also
any arc upon the echptic, described in a
given time, is subject to a variation, and
consequently that on the equator is sub-
ject to a variation. The increase then of
the sun's right ascension in a true solar
day, varies from two causes : first, because
the echptic,. in which the sun appeare to
move, is inclined to the equator; secondly,
because his motion in the echptic is not
uniform, therefore the length of a true
solar day is subject to a continual variation ;
consequently, a clock which is adjusted to
go 24 hours for any one true solar day,
will not continue to show 12 when the
sun comes to the meridian, because the
intervals by the clock will continue equal,
if the clock be supposed accurate, but the
intervals of the sun's apparent passage
over the meridian are not equal.

As the sun appears to move through
360° of right ascension in about 365^ days,
therefore 365.25 : 1 day :: 360° : 59' 8"
2^", the increase of right ascension in one
day, if the increase were uniform; or it
would be the increase in a mean solar
day, that is, if the solar days were all
equal ; for they would be all equal,
if the sun's right ascension increased uni-
formly. As the earth describes an angle
of 360° 59^, about its axis in a mean so-
lar day of 24 hours, and an angle of 360°
in a sidereal day, we say, as 360° 59^ 8" '^":
360° : : 24h : 23^ 56' 4", the length of a
sidereal day in mean solar time ; or the

VOL. VI.

time from the passage of a fixed star over
the meridian till it returns to it again.
From these considerations it will be evi-
dent, that if a clock be adjusted to go 24
hours in a mean solar day, it will not con-
tinue to coincide with the sun, that is, to
show 12 when the sun comes to the meridi-
an, because the true solar days differ in
length from a mean solar day; but the
sun will pass the meridian, sometimes be-
fore 12, and sometimes after 12, and this
difference is called the equation. A clock
thus adjusted, is said to be adjusted to
mean solar time. The time shown by the
clock is called true or mean time ; and
that shown by the sun is called apparent
time : thus, when the sun comes to the
meridian, it is said to be 12 o'clock appa-
rent lime. Hence the time shown by the
sun-dial is apparent time, and therefore a
dial will differ from a clock by how much
the equation of time is on that day.
When, therefore, we set a clock or watck
by the dial, we must attend to what tl)e
equation of lime is upon that day by a ta-
ble, such as that given below, and allow
for it : thus, if the equation be 4 minutes,
as it is on new year's day, and the watch
or clock be faster thanrthe sun ; then the
watch or clock must be made to show 4
minutes past 12 when the dial shows 12
precisely. On the 30th of April, when the
dial shows 12, the clock or watch, to be
accurate, must want 3 minutes of that
hour, and so of the rest. In calculating
tables of the equation of lime, for every
day in the year, the sun and clock are set
together, when the sun is in his apogee,
and then they investigate the difference
between the sun and the clock, for every
day at noon, and insert them in a table,
stating, by means of the signs 4- and — ,
how much the clock is before or after the
sun. The inclination of the equator to
the ecliptic, upon which the equation of
time partly depends, and the place of the
sun's apogee, when the clock and sun set
off together, being both subject to vary,
the equation of time for the same days of
the year will every year vary, and there-
fore it must, where great accuracy is re-
quired, be calculated for every year. Be-
sides the time when the sun is in his apo-
gee, there are three other times of the
year when the clock and sun agree, or
when mean and apparent time is the same,
as will be seen in the following table,
which is adapted to the second year af-
ter Bissextile, and will always be found
within a few seconds of the truth, and,
therefore, sHfficiently accurate for all
common purposes.
4K

CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

TABLE FOR THE EQUATION OF TIME.

Jan. 1

4 +

April 1

4-+-

Aug. 9

5 +

Oct. 2

16 —

3

5

4

3

15

4

Nov. 15

15

5

6

7

2

20

3

20

14

7

7

11

1

24

2

24

13

9

12

18

8

15

0

28
31

Sep. 3

1

27

12

9
10
11

19
24

..

0

30

Dec 2

5

11

10
9

1 —

2

1 —

21

12

30

3

6

2

7

8

25

13

May 13

4

9

3

9

7

31

14

29

3

12

4

11

6

Feb. 10

15

June 5

2

15

5

13

5

21

14

10

1

18

6

16

4

27

Mar. 4

8

13

15

0

21

7
8
9

18

3

12
11

20

24
27

20
22

2

1

1 +

12
15

19

10
9 1
8

"25

29

July 5

2
3
4

30

Oct. 3

6

10
11
12

24

»

26

0

1 +

22

7

11

5

10

13

28

2

25

6

28

6

14

14

30

3

28

5

19

15

TRIGONOMETRY. Some of the re-
ferences to the figures are not quite cor-
rect, btit the figures speakJng- so plainly
for themselves, a more particular correc-
tion is tleemed unnecessary.

UNITARIANS. In the third page of
this arlicle, for Polones Fratres, read Fra-

tres Poloni. In the fifth page, for similar,
read nearly similar.

Such, it is believed, are the chief erropjB
and omissions: others of less importance,
the candid and liberal reader will excuse, il
and will readily correct for himiself.

THE END.

SUBSCRIBERS

TO THE

FIRST AMERICAN EDITION

OF

NICHOLSON'S ENCYCLOPEDIA.

VIRGINIA.

Amelia County.

John R. Archer
William H. Eggleston
Thomas Goode
John Filler
P. H. W. Holcombe
John T. Bottam
Benjamin Branch
Benjamin L. Meade
Jacob Williamson
William Finney
Joseph R. Robertson
John demons
Peter Rison
William Eg-gleston
Charles Eggleston
R. E. Meade
Peter R. Bland
Henry H. Southall
John W. Foster
William Leigh
Everard F. Eggleston
Thomas Morgan
Daniel Hardaway
Jas. P. Cocke
Wilham C. Anderson
Wilham H. Robertson
Benj. Bridgeforth
James H. Conway
Dick H. Eggleston
Abrm. Armistead Green
William Dunn

Albemarle County.

V. W. Southall
WiUiam Woods
Achilles Broadhead
B. Brown, jun.

Carter H. Bradley
John C. Wells
Francis M'Gehee
John C. Ragland
Lau. T. Catlett
John Irvin
John M. Perry
Opie Morriss
William M. Damall
George Perry
Thomell Twyman
John R. Jones
Buckner Townley
Nathaniel Webb
Solomon P. Belue
Smith Cocke
Andrew M'Kee
Thomas C. Scofield
Ira Ganett
William Gairland
J. Kinsolving
Saml. R. Smith
John B. Coles
Joel & Ralph H. Yancey
John H. Carr
Geo. W. Kinsolving
John Harris
David Harding
John H. Barksdale
Richard Woods
John Scott
Lewis Carr
William Morris
John Field
Edmund Davis
William F. Gordon
Robert L. Coleman
James ^V. Saunders
John H. Craver
Nimrod Branham
Jas. M. Bishop
Chas. Cocke

Robt. Lewis
Martin Hatcher
David Higginbotham
AchiUes M. Douglass
Nelson Brown
David D. Lewis

Augusta county.

Dabney Cosby

Lewis Harman

James T. Pleasants

M. Chambers

William Young

Samuel Clark

Archibald Stuart

J. Crawford

John Wayt

William McDowell

Chapman Johnson

George Eskridge

Vincent Tapp

Erasmus Stribling

M. Garber, jun.

Michael Mauzy

John G. Wright

Jas. Fuller

James Wilson

L. L. Stevenson

H. Morriss

James C. Wilson

John Wilson

E. S. Williams

Achilles Barksdale

Richd. H. Lee

Thos. Wilson & A. M*Eure

Amherst County.

E. Fletcher
Charles Perrow
James W. Hill

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Henry Camden
John Coleman
Henry Hagar
George D. Tyler
Hill Carter
John Thompson, jun.
Nelson Crawford
John Ellis
William Long
John Pryor
William Jopling
Robert M. Eubank
Jos. C. Lee
David & Geo. Staples
Richard Burke
William Doyle
Gideon Gooch
James Davis
Absalom Hawl
John Eubank, jun.
Hudson W. Garland
Peachy Franklin
Robert Aldridge
John P. Cobbs
Jo. Jo Monroe
Thos. Aldridge
Jas. S. Pendleton, jun.
Jo. Penn
William Lee
Armistead Reixlier
Lindsey Sandedge
Reuben Norvell
Chas. P. TaliafeiTO
Richard MiUan

Jiccomack County.

John Cropper

Bnmsrwick County.

Phil. Clairbome
James Lanier
Allan B. Drummond
Geo. R. Clairborne
A. A. Wyche
W. Goodrich
Thos. Gibbon
Harrison Heartwell
Lewis Johnson
Richard R. Brown
WiDiam Rice
William S. Lane
Alex. Goode
Thomas HLicks
Nathaniel W. Fletcher
Tucker Wilkes
Clement Mitchell
Peter J. Beasley
Green Hill
Benj. Edmonds
John D. Wilkins

William A. Walker
Richai'd Field
Henry Lewis
Littleton Rose
Robert Jackson
Green Jackson
Gray F. Drinn
John Atkinson
George Mason
James T. Harrison
WiUiam Yates
Abner Wessan
Robem TumbuU
John Booth
John Justin

Bedford County.

Jas. C. Steptoe
John Flood
Martin Key
Archibald Hatcher
Tinsley Rucker
Jubac Jordon
Jacob Feazel
Moses Fuqua ^
James Gwatkins
John Dillard, jun.
William Feazel
Thos. Rucker
Joseph Hardy
George Wright
Henry Chambliss
James Adams
John Hudnall
Jeremiali Adams
S. Phillips
George S. Parker
Edmund Pate
John T. W. Read
Nelson Thomas
William Radford
John Markle
William Walton
Mitchell Ewing
Robt. Mitchell
James Thomas
Thomas Key
Harrison J. Hughes
James Campbell
WiUiam Terry
William Hopkins
Henry Huddleston
John M'Cabe
Saml. Hancock
Lawrence M*George
Henry Moss
John F. FaU
George Norvell
P. M. Goggin

Buckingham County.

Benj. H. Watkins
E. H. Hendrick
J. S. Mills
R. Eldridge, jun.
Boling Branch
Daniel Guerant
Samuel Jones
Robert Shaw
John Johns
Cary C. Allen
Thomas Lewis
Charles Irving
Paulus N. E. Irving
Marcus El cans
John P. Morris
James W. Jones
T. Walk
Thos. May
Edward Jones
James Walker
Joel Watkins, jun.
Nathan Spenser
Glover Gough
William Ford
William Phillips
John Flood
Thos. Cobbs
T. M'Craw
Peter Francisco
Robt. Mosely, jr.
Lewis Nevil
Thomas Pittman
George M. Payne
Glove Johns
John M'Reynold
Edward Boling
C. R. Fontaine
Hai-man Bagby
Thos. Glover
Lewellyn Jones
Henry A. Christian
James Austin
John C. Patterson
William Check
Thomas T. Noel
Barksdale Spencer
Saml. Branch
William Thompson
John S. Be acock
William Flood
Edmund Glover
Saml. Glover, sen.
Robt. Anderson
Edward Chambers
John Harris
Wilham Banton
A. Gamett
H. H. Crump
Archibald D. Wright
John Gannaway, jun.

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Botetourt County.

>V illiam H. Hay
William L. Watson, jun.
Henr}' Bocoyer
Jacob Woltz
Time. M. Patterson
John Gray
James Gordon
Shubel P. Barnard
James Cartmill
Wm. H. Luck
Saml. Jordan
Thos. Wilson
Benj. Carper
Philip Coles
David Holmes
P. H. Madison
Andrew S. Gillaspie
Moses F. Cook
John & Jas. Wood
Saml. Wilson
John Campbell
William Gordon
Geo. S. Beale .
B. E. Trenis
Thompson Crutchfield
John H. Dennis
John Nevil
E. Straland
Joel Bott

CaroUne County.

Armistead Holmes
John C. Bowie
Charles B. Tenant
Andrew Moore

A. C. White
George Turner
AJlen Apperson
John M. Burke
Lewis Madison
John Dickinson
John Warring"
James M. Saunders
Jourdan Woolfolk
William Jones
Mickelbury Young
Joseph Sutton
Thos. Evans

B. S. Sale
William Guy

Chesterfield County.

Spencer Wooldridge
Henry Walthall, jun.
Richard Gregory, jun.
J. Foulke
JohnWalthaU
Robt. P. Archer

Archibald 'Franklin
Henry Farmer
Thomas Watkins
William Fisher
Isham Cheatham
John Lafore
Peter Gill
Thos. Graves
Edward H. Mosely
Phineas Clay
George F. S'alli
William Archer
Parke Poindexter
Thomas Ball
David H. Brandi
James Elam
Peter F. Ogilby
Robert R. Miller
Allen M'Rae
Samuel Patterson
R. O. Henderson
John Hewlet
George Beckley
John B. Morrisseth
Robert Haskins
W. B. Henderson
Bernard Nunnally
Alex. Lithgon

Charlotte County^

Thos. Palmer

Charles L. Reed

Stafford Gibbs

J. Marshall

Allen Foster

Elijah W. Roach

James P. Marshall

Christopher Hunt

Walter C. Carrington

Thos. W. Harvey

John Harroway

John Ohver

Harry Pamplin

James G. Daniel

Gtoorge Kent

William Colher

Saml. Branch

John Harvey

J. B. Willis & S. R. Davis

Wm. Bacon & M'Goode

Josiah Morton

John H. Marshall

Thos, & Jno. D. Spraggins

John Barker

James Wells

William Bedford

Nathan H. Frost

William Dabbs

Henry W. Tucker

Asa B. Daniel

Wm. Smith
Thos. Hamlin

Cumber /and County.

George W. Crump
Benoni Overstreet
John White Nash
AVilliam F. Liggan
Maurice L. Hob son
John Trent
Francis Armistead
William Scay
Benj. P. Howard, and^
Sterling Ford 5

John Spencer
Richard P. James
Thomas I. Turpin
Richard H. Lee
Stephen W. Trent
John Hughe, jun.
WilUam M. Thornton
John Gilliam
Edward Hughes
Epa. Hobson
Nathan Glenn
William M'Laurine, jun.
Peter I. Phillips
Humphrey Bett
William M. Armistead
Francis B. Deane, and ')
Jesse Armistead 5

Asbury Crenshaw
James E. Browning
William Jones
Ewing Morrow
William Booker
WUliam F. Randolph
George Caison
Blake B. Woodson
Saml. Hill

Charles City County.

John Minge, jun.
Robt. W. Christian
Susan H. Walker
Cary Wilkinson
Harvey Robinson
Edward Willcox
Wyatt Walker
John M'Gregory
John Minge, sen.
Christopher S. Roane
Charles Wilson
John Ireland
Wat. H. Tyler
Alexander Walker
Francis H. Irby
William Tyler
Joseph Gresham
John B. Pierce

k

SUBSCRIBER'S NAMES.

James C. Wilson
Fielding Lewis
John E. Bailey
Malcom Crawford

Cambell Couiiiy.

Richard S. Jones
Black and Boyce
John London
Thomas Higginbotham
David Hoflman
Colin Buckner
Andrew "W. Waddill
James Saunders
Addison Davies
John H. Pattison
Septimus D. Owens
J.Haas

James Bullock
Russel Dawson
William W. Gray
Davidson Bradfute
Cornelius Pierce
William S. Reid
John H. Smith
Austin Williams
William Buford
W^illis Pilkington
Philip W. Jackson
John Pinnell
Saml. M'Calek
Caleb Terrell
William Jardy
Charles M. Hughes
James T. Stephens
Pascal Matthews
James T. Wright
Miles Gary
John Haytli
John Poe
George Cochran
Christopher Todd
Jabez Warner
Wilham P. Cornell
Hartwell Eppes
Simon Austin
Campbell Franklin
Samuel Fleming, jun.
William Radford
Anthony North, jun.
W. B. Perrow
Thos. Moore
W'illiam B. Harriss
D. Saunders, jun.
Robert Patterson
William P. Martin
Warner Jones
Saml. T. Miller
Christopher Clai'ke
James Steptoe
Nathan Reed

; W. W. Austin
Peter Austin
Danl. L. Price
Aaron Schoolfield
James S. M'Alhster
J. P. Moore
WiUiam L Lewis
Joseph Chelton
Robert Strange
William Clarke
Edward D. Jones
C. Blount, jim.
Benjamin F. Owens
O. M. Fowles, jun.
Thomas Crandall
Charles Johnson
Fortunatus Sydnor
Garland & Roy
George Percival
Saml. Steele
Tubal E. Strange
Saml. Anthony

Culpepper County.

Page O. Finney
John Gray, jun.
Benj. Shackelford
William Emison
Nicholas Perry
Alexander P. Ralls
\ Jno. Payne
Edmund Thompson
; Wm. Major
Wm. Carter
Wm. G. Allen
Wm. Crittenden
Wm. Slaughter
Gaven Duncan
Peter B. Bowen
Peter T. Armistead
Garnett Corben
PhiU. Roberts
Richard Elzy Tutt
Richard Norris
James Jett
Geo. F. Strother
Richard I. Tutt
Geo. Tebbs
Bernard Withers
Moses Gibson
DavidL Coxe
Rust Mason
WilUam Ashby
Wm. L. Hume
Merriwether Thompson
P. Hansbrough, jun.
W. C. Carter
Urijah Wright
Thomas Norman
Daniel Ward

Dinimltlie County.

Joseph Whitehead, jun
John Field
Thomas Whitwoilh
William Ripley
Lewis A. Collier
Jabez Smith
Saml. D. Davies
William H. Mann
John Enness
E. H. Boisseau
Thos. L. Lockhead
Charles Russell
George Cocke
John Prentis
H. Dance
Wm. C. Rawlings
Thomas S hands
Nathl. S. B. Sturdevant
WilUam Clarke, jun.
Lemuel H. Vaughan
Armistead Burwell
Thomas Field
: I. Manlove
W^illiam Dunn
Peter M. Ledbetter
Joseph E. Davis
Benj. H. Coupland
Abner W. Kilpatrick
WiUiam Ross
Herbert Gregory
W. L. Everitt
Timo. Thorpe
Addison Powel
L. H. Vaughan
Charles Ridout
Elgin Russell
James A. Eckles
Robert Bollin

^h]

Hartwell Rawlinge

Essex County,

IjohnBelfield
John Downey
Tunstall Banks
Wm. V. Montague
John Hail
Laurence Muse
John Jones
Benj. Blake
James W. Stephens
Wm. R. Jeffries
Richard Coghill
Townley Banks
Wm. B. Matthew
Winter Bray
John S. Bevan
Thos. Pilcher
Richard CraxtOR
James L. Cox

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

.)ohn H. Micou

j John Edmonds, junr.

; J. Early

Thomas C. Braxton

1 Charles Bell

, John Calloway

William T. Brooke

1 M'Carty Roy

1 R. F. Woods

Thomas Street

; Richard Chichester, junr.

; William Langhon

^^'illiam Owen

I Joseph AVeaver

i Fleming Saunders

''

Edmund F. Noel

John E. Blackwell

\ Samuel Harrstan

Thomas Jesse

A. PoUard

Josiah Dickenson

Isaac Fisher

j John S. Rust

James H. Townes

Charles Hill

' Edward Carter

Robert H. Calhoun

William M'Coy

\ Samuel H. Woods

Fairfax County.

Eli as E. Edmonds

i

Andrew Turner

Goochland County.

Thomas Timmes

Marcus Russell

Daniel Piatt

Thomas Ashby

Samuel Woodson

Stuart G. Thornton

Josiah Murray

Isaac Pleasants

George Milford

; Edmund Sharpe

N. M. Vaugn

■■

Thomas Simms

1 Hancock, Lee, & Co.

G. Woodson Payne

i

James H. Hox

Turner Ashby

Alexander A. Campbell

William P. Richardson

William M. Wallace

Robert Pleasants

John Ratcliff

John Ashby

Edward Mosby

Francis M. Beckwith

Charles Atkinson

Samuel Ratcliff

Frederick County.

Richard Redford

William Moss

James W. Bates

George W. Hunter

Edmund Pendleton

William S. Fowler

William B. Melvyn

E. Carson

John Maitin

Edmund Payne

James Pine

Jacob B. Fowler

J

Daniel M'Chichester

John P. Sanford

George S. Smith
David Mims

William C. Broadwater

Peter E. Sperry

George H. Ferrett

William M'Fee

Josiah Hatcher

•

John Dulive

James Barr, junr.

N. M. MiUer

John C. Hunter

Alfred D. Ashley

Henry G. PiU

Spencer Jackson

William Eskrid^e
Charles Brent, junr

David Royster

■i

Lewis Barrick

Tarlton Woodson

Ehjah Ogden

George Brent

WilUam F. Carter

William White

J. A.Xaupi

Mayer Pollack

John Fitzhugh

WiUford Settle

John G. Miller

Spencer Ball

George Knight

Robert Ware

P. B. Redd

John Severs

John Shelton, sen.

G.W.Lane

Robert Beaty

J. P. Cosby

)

William Hancock

Thomas Thatcher

John Henning

William P. Thomas ,

Greensville County.

Stephen Daniel

Samuel Simpson

George Britton

William M. Robertson

William S. Jeffries

■-■

Jennings Beckwith

John Newmer

L. R. Robinson

James Reid

Jab. Sutt

John E. WiUiamson

Thomas Amiss

Littleton Bailey

Farquier County.

W^illiam H. Triplett

Wilham H. Coman

Calvin Gold

Meredith H. Hobbs

David Rodes

Cyrus D. Baldwin

WiUiam Fox

William Thompson

Richard B. Beckwith

William Parham

William Smith

Jacob Cooper

John H. Hobbs

Alexander S. Craig

A. P. Buchanan

Robert Wilkinson

Thomas O. Gunnings

Jesse A Bonner

Robert Brent

Franklin County.

Hardy Robinson

Bailey Bruce

G. H. Bathe

James W. White

John H. Guerant

Timothy Thorp

\

Francis W. Brooke

Edmund Tate

S. Chambliss

James W. Wallace

Thomas B. Greer

James C. Fennell

William B. Cordell

George W. Clements

William Dancy

1

Thomas L. Fitzhugh

William B. Boyd

George Goodrun

i

Martin E. Carter

William Calloway

HinchiaC.Petway

Richard Thompson

Miles B. Elam

Matthias D ebb er>'

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Augustine Claiborne
Etheldred H. Lundy

D. I. Claiborne

E. Mason
Thomas Batts
James A. Watson
William J. Calvin
David R. Rmith
William Mason
Francis Hill

Gloucester County.

John Bracken, junr.
Peyton R. Nelson,
Peter Kemp
Catesby Jones
Francis Whiting
Thomas Whiting
John Lewis
EdwardB.S. Carey
WiUis Perrin
John M. Gayle
Sharp Wliiting
John Ransome
WUliam Taliaferro
P. W. Lewis
Robert Thurston
Thomas C. Amory
Overton Seawell
John D. Grisett
William A. Rogers
George B. Field
Robert Wilkins
James Ransome
Mann Page
Richard Taliaferro
J. B. Fox

Halifax County.

Charles W. Cheatham
William T.Craddock, M.D.
John K, Lynn
Charles Scott
John Kerr
John S. Glascock
John Conner
Thomas L. Spraggins
Elisha Barksdale
Little John M'Cargo
Thomas Canner
William T. Ferry
Duke W. Rowlet
John Sims
Thomas M'Cargo
Reuben Palmer
William H. Wallington
Joseph Jones
B. Williams
William Miller

Ha7iover County.

Joseph Holt
WilUam S. Pryor
Joseph Wingfield
Hector Davis
Leonard Timberlake
William Priddy
Edmund Higgason
Stephen Sutton
Edmund C. Goodwin
W. R. Nelson
Samuel Richardson
Henry Curtiss
W. D. Taylor
John B. Nelson
William Morris
Charles P. Goodall
J. W. Ellis
WiUam O. Harris
Robert B. Honeyman

Henrico County,

Samuel Price
Nathaniel W, Price
Jsaac White
R. L, Bohannan
Philip Budlong
John A. Lancaster
Turner Christian
John Wilson
Simon Frayser
A. Hodges
R. M. Sizer
Wilham Cowan
Richard A. Carrington
Hubert A. Claiborne
John Goode
Richard Carter
Jaraes M'Intosh
Thomas Cooke
John A. Simms
Philip C. Sturtivant
John Strother
William Smith
John Leuovi
Williamson Wynne
George Booker
Daniel Truehart
Mann Satterwhite
William S. Tucker
Joseph S. James
George Perkins
Jacob Lyon
Richard Woodfolk
Robert Picket
Robert Greenhow
John Patten
William Wilson
Charles Clarke
Charles C. Gav

James L. Saimders
John W. Rice
John Dove
Thomas Pulling
Francis Ratclift*
Robert A. Hill
Michael Baldwin
Robert Titus
Robert K. Dabney
Francis V. Sutton
Joseph M. Shepherd
James Gibb
Thomas Butler
Charles Wilhams
Matthew C. Lachland
S. Y. Chandler
Turner Christian
John T. Pleasants
James Jackson, junr.
William W. Gray
Joseph F. Price
Robert W. Crmnp
William Hawkins
Susan H. Walker
William Ford

Henry County.

S. P. Stovall
W. Hereford
N, W. Dendridge
Joseph Martin
William Z. MiUs
Thomas I. Wotton
Richard T, Boulden
Reuben Kington
John Dillard, junr.
William H. Wotten
Peter C. Cox
George S. Staples

Isle of Wight County.

Francis M, Boykin
John Hatton
Josiah Blount
Joseph W. Ballard
Edwin Delk
Henry W. Wills
Francis Wrenn
Henry Adkins
Meacham Fearn
Edmund Pedin
Dawson Delk
Joseph Chapman
Gideon Povell
Robert Laurence
James F. Copeland
William C. Conner
George Elliot Hines
Merit Jordan
Joseph B. Whitehead

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Horatio Butt
James B. Wilson

James* City.

3. H. Ball
Uobei-t G. Scott
1. W. Murdaugh
A. D. Gait
Samuel Travis
William M'Andlish
George Bray
Mary M. Peachy
Robert P. Waller
Richard Garrett

F. S. Barzezae
'John Bracken
William T. Banks
John E. Brown
William Walker junr.
James Semple
William Dennis
John B. Lee
George C. Dromgoole
John N. Stratton
Jesse Cole

£ing William Coutilt/.

George Allen
James Edwards
J. B. Lipscomb
Corbin Braxton
Philip Aylett, junr.
John B. Richeson
James D. Chamberlay
William H. Moriss
William Burke
Sterling Ruffin
James Turner

King and Queen County.

Thomas C. Hooms
H. Gaines
Richard Collins
Thomas Faulkner
Wilham Morris
John Fawcett
H. Newhall
William T. Evans
Thomas Collins, junr.
Archibald B. Harwood
John Boyd
Jacob D. Waker
John Richards, junr.
Zachary Levis

G. D. Shackelford
Francis Row
Thomas Hoskins
Hugh Campbell
Peter B. Davis

John Kidd
James G. Row
Philip Gatewood
George W. Gatewood
H. A. Brown

E. Uphon

Thomas F. Spencer
WiUiam Toad
George Wyatt
James Mitchell
Robert Pollard
WiUiam Semple
Christopher B. Fleet
John T. Carlton
Wilham B. Westmore
Richard Taliaferro
Samuel May
Thomas Dix
Edward Willcox
Larkin Deshard

King George County.

George Johnson
Needham L. Washington
Jacob W. Stuart
George N. Grymes
T. Bernard
John B. Ashon
William Quesanburg
W. Beverly
Thomas Hungerford
Reuben Balthorp
Thornton N. Doniphan
George Chadwell
William D. Greer

Lancaster County.

Charles Taylor
Walter B. Waddy
Enoch George
George W. Domman
John Sward
Cyrus Ball
John Lunsford
Charles J. Yerby
John Dogget
William Lunsford
Joseph B. Downmari
Wilham B. Mitchell
James K. Ball
Henry C. Lawson
John B. Downman
William Lee Ball
Bedhar George

F. Lemoine
John Chowning
Charles Carter

Lunenburg County.
Lyddall Bacon, junr.

T. N. Pouhney
Richard Yarbrough
John I. Wells
James Neal
Joseph Degraphenreid
William L. Hite
Charles Bridie
George Craig
Benjamin Taylor

Louisa County.

William Meredith
Benjamin Willis
H. Lawrence
Bickerton Winston
Oliver Cross
WiUiam Morris, junr,
Joseph Sandidyr
Thomas Poindexter
WiUiam Mansfield
Thomas Gardner
EUsha Jackson
Thornton Gibson
Tarlton Henly
Andrew Kean
WUliam Jackson, junr.
Henry Timberlake
James Miner
Pleasant Hatchhill
Ludlow Bramham
R. TerreU
Arthur Clayton
Ralph S. Dickenson
Manoah Lasley
Ralph Quarles
William Ragland
Nicholas T. Poindexter
G. M. Quarles
John Poindexter, junr.
David Watson
A. T. Goodwin
Garland Walton
Lundsford Lindsay

Loudon County.

P. Saunders
Robert Bentley
James Sinclair
R. H. Cover
George E. CordeU
WUham Shipley
WUUam M, Turner
John Mines
S. Wherry
A. G. Munroe
James H. Hamilton
David P. Kline
Robert R. Huff
Tasher C. Quinlan
E. Offiutt

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Samuel Bucli
J. Rose
Samuel Carr
George M. Chichester
W. D. Drish
John A. Binns
George Head, junr.
Charles Douglass
John C. Quick
Britton Saunders
Sanford I. Rainy
Samuel Dawson
Francis Stribhng
Archibald Maims
Charles B. Ball
Richard Williams
John Mattliias
Fuilip Keatley
Stacy Taylor
James Allen
James Keaton
William H. Handy
Thomas Atwell
Samuel Clapham
Mahlon Janney
Edward B. Grady
Francis W, Luchett
A. Gibson
John Upp

Thomas P. Hereford
John White
Levis Elzey
Jonathan Heaton
Richard Norwood
David Copeland
Joseph Myers
Samuel B. T. Caldwell
Matthew Mitchell
Thomas P. Knox

Middlesex Cmmty.

John Chovning, junr,
Christopher Owen
Henry Muse, junr.
George Healy
Richard M. Segar
Samuel W. Sayi'e
James Chovning
George M. M'Intire
Anthony New, junr.
Elliott Muse
George D. Nicholson
Carter Perkins
Walter Healy
Warner Roane
Jeremiah Jackson
James H. T. Lorimer
Samuel Blake
Matthew Major
Thomas Blake
Meacham Owen

William Jesse
Thomas Healy
J. R. Stepton
Robert Blakey
William V. Montague

J\fatthevfs County.

James H, Roy
Richard C. Jones
Thomas R. Yeatman
Thomas Ransom, junr.
John C. Booker
Edmund N. Sale

MectUenburg County.

David E. Jiggetts
William R. Bosherrill
William R. B.Clements
William Jones
Alexander Boyd
Edward L. Tabb
William Redd
Mark Alexander
Christopher Haskins
Robert Jones
Joseph N. Meredith
Abraham Green
William Hicks
John G. Baptist
D. Middaugh
John Barron
John Griffin
William Baptist
Samuel A. Douglass
R. D. H. Walker
Michael Tarwater
Green Bianton
Samuel L. Lochett
William Townes
Alexander Boyd

Madison County.

Richard H. Field
Larkin Harvey
Thornton Fry
Robert G, Willis
John Wright
Churchill Gibbs
Zachariah Shirley
George NichoU
Reuben M. Strothie
Reuben S. Field
John R. Bohanan
James Clark
Robert Thomas
Thomas Clow
Thomas P. Simmons
Paschal Early
Heniy Allison

Michael Wallace
Joel S. Graves
Benjamin Burton

J^elson County.

Robert Philips
Robert!. Kincaid
Spottswood Garland
James Garland, junr.
James Loving, junr.
Henry Rives
Nelson C. Clarkson
James P. Garland
John T. Dawson
EUsha Rider
S. Claiborne
James S. Penn
Thomas W. Coleman
Wilham Murrith
William H. Shelton
James Miu*phy
James Spencer
Jack Nevil

Lem. & James Stephens
John Whitehead
Joseph Staples
John W. Green

JSTansemond County.

Joseph Holliday
Stephen T. Hoortly
William Minton
Edward Brown
John Minton
Edward Wright
James Wilkinson
E. K. Brown
John Brewer
Jesse Holland
Edmund T. Goodwin
Jethro Powell
Edward R. Hunter
Benjamin B. Baker
Samuel Brown
Thomas E. Gray
David Parker
Wiley Parker
Andrew Ballard
Thomas Bevin
Wiley W. Parker
Benjamin Copeland
William P. Memtrue
Thomas Smith
Putmon Dickenson
John G. Prenner
William Reddick
Henry Gorham
John Murphy
Thomas R. Day

TAither H. Read
James G. Green
John T. Kibby
Jeremiah Goodwin
Josiah Reddick, sen.
John Murdaugh
John C, Gaboon, sen.
James Evans
Mills Reddick
Robert W. Jordan
Arthur Smith
Trejah Simmons
Matthias Jones
John C. Montgomery
Samuel Cross
John King

JVotarway County.

^V^illiam Pincham
Daniel T. Beasley
Edmond Wells
Pe3rton Doswell «.
John Hurst
Truman Fitzgerald
Thomas R. Eppes
William Gooch
N.Ward

Archibald Butler
Gideon Foster
Sygnal Moore
Edmund Irby

JVVw Kent County,

John B. Clopton
John Vaiden
William B. Bailey
J. Ratchff
Walde Clopton
Thomas H. Terrell
James H. Wilkinson
Robert Christian, jun.
Robert Perkins
John P. Poindexter
Henry Parham
Arcliibald Lacy
B. Dandridge
George P. Crump
.Wilham B. Amens
WilHam D. Abbott
Hammermond Crump
Beverly Crump
Parks HiU
Thomas Claiborne
Abner Harmond
Robert M. Crump
Fielding M. Crump
John A. & William Taylor
William M. Massie
CaiTell F. Chappell
Micajah Vaiden

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Robert Bradenham
William Clmborne

JVbrfolk County.

John Owen
Thomas Morse
George D. Wise
George Webb
E. D. Wilson
William W. Cowper
John J. Campbell
Lewis Decimes
William Kean
J. G. Wilkinson

JVbrthvmberland County.

Thomas Brown

J. Ball, jun.

Pemberton Clayton

Joseph Baysye

James Smith

Thomas Hughlett

Baldwin M. Leland

Iza Anderson

John Gunstead

WiUiam Jett

Thomas Towles
John Chinn

John H. Fallin
William Nutt
William Harding
John Hughlett
Griffin H. Foushee
Charles Betts
Willis W.Hudnall
John M*Adam

Orange County.

Thomas Lovell
Ambrose Macon
Nathaniel Gordon
William L. Harris
Augustine Webbs
Blackwell Chilton
Reuben T. Clark
Wilham S. Cowherd
Richard Can-
Joel W. Brown
Payton Grimes
James Coleman
Heniy White
B. Brown, jun.
William Emmison
James Blackley

Powhatan County.

Edward Cox, jun.
Lilt. H. Moseby
B

John Randolph

1

William A. Cocke

Anthony M. Dupay

William T. Harris

.

Joseph Woodson

':

Jefferson Swann

i

WilUam C. Netherland

William B. Taylor

Francis Watkins

'

Thomas Gordon

j

WiUiam W. Atkinson

Edward C. Swann

Charles Taylor

Wilham H. Wash

• '

William Andrews

Blagrove Taylor

i

Josiah Smith

Claiborne Watkins

Matthew Baker,

Richard A. Saunders

William Walthall

Edward Cox

'-

Robert W. Mosby

Francis S. Sampson

Baylor Temple

Benjamin P. Howard

Jacob Meacham

k

WUliam S. Dana

Francis S. 0. Reilly

William Walker

Archibald Robertson

Parham Booker

Jacob Micox

Prince Edward County.

Simon Hughs
James I, Foster
Joel W. Jones
WiUiam B. Smith
John P. Smith
Joseph Woodson, jun.
John G. Sadler
Paul C. Venable
John M*Gehee, jun.
John Rice
William Matthews
Martin Hawkins
Nathan Greene
James R. Allen
E. Booker
Anderson Britton
William Scay
Henry E. Watkins
Peter Hales
Clement Read, jun.
WiUiam Bedford
Moses Tredway
John Silliman
Charles Woodron
Robert Venable
James Whary

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES,

James M'Dearmon
William Andrews

Pittsylvania CowUy.

Ralph Smith, jun.
Vincent Witcher
Nathaniel Kirby
George Barges
WiUiam Estes
Robert Ross
John Harrison
John W. Paxton
Ransome Jeter
John Daniel
Thomas Stewart
George W. Ruger
James Garland
Samuel Garland
George Townes
William Leftwick
John A. Simms
Thomas G. Tunstall
Robert Wilson
Azariali Moore
W. A. Townes
Walter Cowles
John W. Thomas
Jeduthan Carter^ jun.
Robert A. Ward
William Buford
S. T. Foster
David H. Clark
Robert Hainton
John Ware
William Adams
John Smith, jun.
Ichabod Thomas
Eustace Hunt
Selby Benson
Abraham Shelton

Patrick County.

Abraliam Staples
Clark Penn
M. Sandifer
Thomas Penn
Jerman Baker
Lewis Pedego
Greenville Penn
Hardin Harston
John Hughes
WilUam Carter, jun.
William Lyon
Brett Stovall
Madison Hughes

Prince George County.

John Battle, jun.
Edmund Hamsoa

Henry Heath
Lem. Honnecut
William Buckly
P. Andrews
Thomas Daniel
John H. Peterson
Josiah M. Jordan
Edward Banch
George P. Cooper
William Mattox
Lewis Batt
Jolin S. P. Eppes

Prince William County.

Philip Klepstone
James C. Ducale
Alexander Turner
Zebulon Kankey
Gerard Alexander

Richmond County.

M. Saunders
Samuel Williams
William W. Forester
William Settle
John C. Peck
Vincent Bramham
John W. Belfield
William L. Lee
John N. Rootles
Robert W.M'Carty
William R. Jeffiys
William Saunders
W. B. Tomlin
Landon Carter
Richard Barnes
Martin Sesson
George Saunders
William Young Stierman

Rockbridge County.

William Caruthers
Charles P. Dornman
Augustus D. Lowry
Madison Caruthers
John Gibson
Bennet Hutchinson
George B. Nicholson
Samuel Smith

Southampton County.

Boling H. Barnes
Henry Briggs
Henry Gurley
John Thomas
William Bailey
Green Adams
James Britt

Simon Bayhin
WiUiam I. Cocke
Absalom P. Smith
James Trezvant
Jordan Wornwell
Kinchen Jelks
Spratley Williams
Edward Ruse
Peter P. Wyche
John H. Chapman
Robert Rochelle
William B. Goodwin
James Myrick
A. P. Pecte
Alfred Simmons
Nicholas L. Williams
Richard H. Simmons
Thomas R. Collins
Gideon Bell
John Urqhart
John Crutchellon
Henry I. P. Westbrook
James Rochelle
I. Fort
Griffin Stith
Samuel Brown
William Ricks
David Newsum
James Jones
George Simmons
William L. Everitt
Francis Ridley
John Fajrcloth
Richard Blount

Sussex County.

William S. Parham
Ni Massenburg
David E. Mason
John HaU
Benjamin Pecte
Michael Bailey
John M. Jeffrys
William Thornton
John Nicholson
Henry I. Harrison
William Shands, jun.
John Parham
Thomas Blount, jun.
William E. B. Ruffin
William Adkins
Joseph Mason
John Lanier
Richard Eppes
Thomas H. NeveS
Littleton Lanier
William Parham
John Key
John Moore
George Grave
Isaac Randal

SUBSCRIBER'S NAMES,

James Dillard
Natlianiel D. Land
Aug^istus W. Haguist
Robert Pettiway
Peter Booth
John Huson
John Parr
Thomas Southail
Thomas Northrop, jun.
lohn E. Williamson

Siirry County.

Walter Spratley, jun.
Peter T. Spratley
WilUam Randolph
William Binns
Lewis M. Spratley
Thomas W. Bayr
William Scammell
William Carter
R. H. Cocke
Irby Jones
WJUey Davis
Alfred S. Bailey
Thomas Clinch
John Peter
Benjamin Cocke
John Wilhson
Cohn Bishop
Jonathan Ellis
John Faulcon

Spottsylvarda County.

C. Gregory
William MTarlane
Thomas G. Hull
E. Head

Sandford Chancellor
WUliarn Wrig-ht
Thomas Y. Smith
Georg-e Ellis
WiUiam D. Payne
John E. Blackwell
Thomel Twjonan

Westmoreland County.

John W. Jones
John Harvey
N. V. Clopton
John Campbell
Joseph Fox
John M. Hungerford
Robert Baily
William M. Walker
Henry Parker
William B. Smith
John Payne
William Middleton
Christopher I. Collins

Daniel Carmichael
Raldwin M. Lee
Sanmel Templeman
James Jett
William S. Jett, jun.
Peter P. Cox

York County.

Joseph Monett
Fi-ederick B. Power
Henry H. Shield
Christopher Hubbard
Kemp. P EUiott
Matthew Wells
Robert Shield
John Stedman
Thomas Nelson, jun,
Benjamin Waller, jun.
William Whittaker
Peter Manson
Lewis S. Charles
Wm. Patrick
Servant Jones

NORTH CAROLINA.

Beaufort Coumty, •

James Blount
Joseph K. Williams
J. E. Robason
WilUam Holmes
Edward Quinn
H. C. Simmon
Thomas EUison
Samuel C. Pate
Christian Mallison
Josiah Tripp
Jesse Gk)dley
P. W. Camprerio
Thomas A. Carbarrus
Isaiah Woodward
William Worsley
Robert G. Green

Bertie Coimty.

Edward C. Outlaw
David Goodman
Jonathan H. Jacocks
E. A. Rhodes
Robert C. Watson
Thomas Burchell
Benjamin Jones
Baldy Ashburn
Richard Poindexter
Joseph S. Pugh
Anthony W. Putney
George L. Ryan
Wm. S. Rhodes

Russell Minor
Edmund Fleetwood
Stephen Murdaugh
P. B. Martin
William Mais, jun.
Thomas H. Norfeit
L. Raby

William Lee Gray
Wilham H. Green
Hum Lawrence
Stanby Hetrill
John Webb
Robert Peterson
Malachi Weston
Thomas Bond
WiUiam Spackman
James Palmer
WilUam Lancaster

Burke County.

Milton Ladd
WilUam Dickenson

Currituc County,

David Jones
Samuel Ferebee
Keeder S. Marchant
John S. Hampton
Jeremiah Land
Caleb Etherige
W. T. Barnard
Wm. Matthias
Isaac Baxter
John Lamb
Malachi Jones
Thomas Sanderson
John Sliifop
Edmund S. Lindsay
Thomas C. Ferebee
Edward Hardey
C.Bell

Dennis Dozier, jun.
Samuel Salyear, jun.
John Mackie
Thomas LufFman
Samuel Williams
Lem. C. Moore
J. Baxter, for H. Bell

Camden Coimty.

D. S. Burgess
Edwin White
Mason Culpepper
Ezekiel Trotman
Willie M'Pheraon
Isaac Sellett
Malachi Sawyer
WiUis Wilson
Thomas Roberts

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Thomas Etheridge
Yellis Mandeville
Caleb Perkins
William Seirrange
Thomas Owen

Ch(Koan County.

Alfred M'GatUn
John Skinner
Charles E. Johnson
William Saundere
James K. Bent
James Sutton
Richard H. Blount
Thomas Vail
William Hoskins
Abraham Howell

Chatham County.

Edward Jones
Greene W'armack
William Scurlock
Wilham Stedman
Bartholomew L. Hayes
W. L. Hayes
Joseph Schulock
Horace D. Bridges
John P. Smith
George Luther
James H. Rogers
George Gee
William Prince
James Taylor
Benjamin Brantley
James Massey
Wilham Brinkley
Thomas Ragland
Zachariah Harman
Abner Brooks
\\. E. Sledman
Murdock M'Kenzie
Charles S. WiUiams
William Norwood
Elijah Fooshee

Carterett County.

John Roberts
Andrew Wilson, jun.
R. H. Jones
James MiCullough
Morais Hatchell
James W. Hunt
Andrew Wilson, for Na-
thaniel Pinchasn
David Hillan
Wilson Bugess Stnuts
John L. HeUen
John K. C. Jackson
Solomon Key

Casxoell County.

James Rainey
Wilham Rainey
A. & L. Graves
William Timberlake
John C. Rogers
Bedford Brown
John Stamps
Barz. Graves
Thomas Jeffreys
George Wilhamson
Ruflfin Pleasant
Natlianiel Gooch
Griffin Gunn
Henry M. Clay
Solomon Graves
William P. Payne
John Moreton
William Graves
Wilham Led
Wilham Mitchell, jun.
James Yancey
James Scott
Henry Cobb
Quinton Anderson
Thomas Williamson
John H. Brown
Gen. Az. Graves
Romulus A. Saunders
Alexander Murphy
John G. Wilson
Gabl. B. Lee
Nicholas Thomson
Joim H. M'Neill
Richard Ofibby
Samuel H. Smith
Solomon Deboul
Richard H. Hayes
William Irvine
John W. Glenn
Thomas Turner
Ambrose K. Ramsey
Mason Graves

Cabards County.

N. Alexander
Charles Han-is
Thomas Dennis
John Travis
John Locke
David Houlton
John N. Fifer
Abraham C. M*Ree
William Houston
John Moss
Robert Kirkpatrick
WiUiam F. Alexander
George Phifer
John Stewall
R. W, Smith

Cumberland Count v,

B. W. Williams
John M'Load
William Graham
David Howell
John M'Phaul
Thomas Heamed
John Hodges
John C. Wihiams
Lawrence Wood
George Hearsey
Joshua Carman
John N. M'Rae
James M'lntyre
Francis W. Waldo
John Matthews
Henry Elliot

D. O. Chiltrue
Martin M'Pherson
Hugh Bethed
James Atkins
John H. Pierce
John Shaws
Alexander W. Quire
James Ogner

I. T. Gushing
Robert Strange
James S. Richardson
William Forbes
Madison Caruthers
James P. Wilson
John M'Intyre

Craven County.

Thomas Hubbard
Hardy B. Law

E. Pastures
Jonathan Price
Hardy L. Jones
I. & B. Turner
Lucas B. Heritager
John Dewey
Thomas W. Macken
David A. Murdock
Jarvis B. Buxton
Lucas Benners
Charles Churchill
John A. Greene
Edward Kinnicut
John Vail
Wilham Davis
Thomas M. Parker
William S. Harvey
James R. Bryan
Clairborne Ivey
Elijah Scott

John S. Smith
John B. Dowson
WUliam P. Biddle
Diu-ant H. Lane

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

William S.Blackledge
John O. Freeman
Frederick I. Cox
Isa Lipsey

Duplin County.

Joseph Greene
Andrew M'Intyre
David Hooks
Thomas Rutledg-e
James Dickson
John Cooper
Alexander M'Gowan
Robert Middletown
Ellas Faeson
Alfred Beach
Levi Borden
Daniel D. N. Kennan
Stephen Graham
Thomas Hill
Samuel Stamford
Timothy Murphy
William Pickett
Joseph Dickson
Joseph Gillespie
A. Maxwell
William Hurst
James Pearsall
Dickson Sloan
Hugh Maxwell
iThomas Moulton
Samuel Dunn
David Wright
Benjamin Hodges
M. Sykes
John Hunter

Edgecombe County.

I. R. Leigh
George E. Sprill
David Dancy
Francis L. Dancy
Thomas H. HaU
John H. Parker
John W. Mayou
Daniel Redmond
Selali Hammond
James Bilbry
James S. Battle
Jesse Andrews
Jesse Battle
Frederick Philips
I. Benton
Arthur Bishop
Richard Harrison
John S. Rakestraw
George Brownrigg
Spencer L. Hart
Benjamin Weaver
William B. Ross

Kinchin Hines
Joseph Z. Dancy

Franklin County.

WiUiam Lancaster, jun.
Wood Tucker
W. H. Strother
Robert A. Taylor
Richard H. Fenner
John C. Perry
James N. Hill
Benjamin Waddep
Henry Yarbsough
William Murphy
Robert H, Wynne
I. Hicks
James K. Goodloe

E. I. Ransone
James T. Hill
Alexander W. Pasham
W. Wynne

I. Solomon
W. D. Jones
Davis Bayart
R. Inge

John B. Babbett
W. Moore
John Haywood
Gideon Glen
Ni-than Perry
Jordan Thomas
Gray Bridges
Wiley O. Davis
Simon Jeffries
Samuel Shoman
William Goodloe
John Perry
William Jeffreys
Nathaniel Thomas
K. Williams
Jones Cooke
Walter S. Ribbe
James Yardsough
Richard Fox
William Harrison
H. Greene
John D. Hawkins
Daniel Blue
James Harrison
John L. Southerland
Benjamin Hester
C. Brooks

F. W. Pugh
Edwin Paschal
Simon G. Jeffreys
Nelson Andrews
William B. Eaton
John S. Inge
Benjamin Waddy

Gates County.

Elisha H. Eure
John H. Edwards
W. C. Brooks
Charles Townsend
William M. Harvey
David E. Sumner
James Gregory
Jonathan Mitchell
John B.Walton
Lem. Reddick
Jo. Reddick
H. Ballard
MiUs Reddick
W. W. Reddick
William Goodman
Henry Reddick
Joseph Freeman
William P. Jameson
Charles W. Harvey
Benjamin Sumner
John V. Sumner
Joseph Gordon

Granville County.

James G. Lamon
Joseph Boswell
Andrew Rhed
Stephen Snead
John Hare
Parker S. Stone
Thomas Booth
Woodson Daniel
Robert Taylor
James Richards
A. H. Banks
Howell Morse
Israel Hargrove
John Washington
Anderson Freeman
Thomas Cooke
Thomas B. Littlejohn
Stephen K. Snead
Nathaniel Robards
Thomas Hunt
Anson Mitchell
William H. Gillian
William Dickens
Thomas W. Holden
John Y. Young
Thomas I. Hicks
Henry Young
Josiah Holden
Joseph Ames
John P. Smith
Henry Graves
Thomas Webb
Richard Sneed
Alexander Smith
Hamilton Roe

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Benjamin Bullock
John Manning

Guilford County.

William C. Chapman
Abraham Green
John G. Coe
George Swain
D. G. M. I. Osboni
Daniel Worth
Isaac Thornborough
Daniel Orrill
James Coffin
William Denton
Levin Charles
John Cunningham
James Dick
Donald Stewart
B. B. Trent
Henry Humphreys
William Stanly

Greeiie County.

William HoUiday
Palmer Moseley
William D. Hart
Adam Tooley
Gathier Moye
Josiah Q. Garland
I. Speight
Henry Best
Shepherd & Wilcox
I. M. Patrick
H. T. G. Ruffin
James Eastwood
Ft. Dickson
Charles Edwards
Thomas Speight
Demsey Blake

Hertford C(mnty.

Jonathan O. Freeman
R. W. Wilson
John Wheeler
James Vishu
Moses Clements
Augustine Moore
Daniel Southall
Isaac A. Langdon
Ehsha Hoston
Jasper Picket
Jonathan Jenkins
Thomas Wynne
G. M. Smith

Bridges A. Montgomery
James Reid
James Capland
Asa Pick
James S.Jones

James P. Carter
Benjamin Hill
Joel Rayner
Miles Jernegan
Watson Lewis
Boon Felton
Ehsha Williams
Joseph F. Dickenson
Roswell Harrison
Edmund Freeman
Arthur Cart-
Andrew Ohver
George Browning, jun,

Halifax County.

William H. Pope
Richard Eppes
William Divier
J. Liscomb
John Powell
Thomas R. Nevell
Robert Shepherd
Ladaman Shelton
James Grant
J. Matthews
John Tillery
Robert Finner, jun.
Cad wall ader Jones
Tripp S. Brownlow
John H. Bailey
Sylvanus Bell
L. Wilcox
Benjamin Hill
John Bishop
Thomas Hudson
Robert W. Williams
Janad Weaver
J. Brickell
R. L. Mai-shal
Wilham Lowry
H. P. Mihken
Thomas Onsby
Thomas Gary
S. Rutland
A. B. Whitiker
John Crowell
Henry Dawson
Marcus A. Hanvell
J. C. Harrison
James Zollicoffer
R. Johnston
Richard C. Crowell
I. R. Liscomb
William Harwell
Abner Knight
Elias Fort
Thomas Nicholson
Richard H. Dicken
Henry Harris
Mark H. Petway
Henry p. Long

W. E. Webb
Joseph Lane
Joseph Cotton
Robert A. Jones
R. T. W. H. Perkins
John D. Powell
James Turner
Edward M. Lindsey
EUsha K. Eure
Edward Dromgoole,jun.
Henry C. Janes
John Wilkes

Jones County.

Enoch Foy
Alexander Sledge
Luther Syler
J. B. W. Smith
A. B. W. Simmons
Asa Smitli
Wilham Orme
Robert Dickson
Robert Kornegay
Thomas Sunmons
Isa Lipsay
John Giles
Isaac Hathaway
James Mumford
James Shine
WiUiam Rhodes
James Roberts
Hascal F. Hatch
Lewis Whittey
Jacob Field, jun.
Lemuel Hatch
John Raine
Edmund Hatch, jun.
Wilham B. Hatch

Johnson Couniy.

Thomas S. K.Brown

Ray Helme

Edwin Smith

W. W. Bryan

W. W. Battle

Halsey Bryan

N. W. Bryan

Samuel Norsworthy

John Saunders, jun.

Reuben H. Johnson

John Leach

Larkin Smith

NeiD Brice

Starling Johnson

S. G. Smith

Wm. Henry Guy

Henry Stephens

Needham G. Bryan

John Stephens

R. Saunders >

SUBSCRIBERS* NAMES,

W. N, White
I. Watson
1. Saunders

Iredell Cotmty.

Alexander Hogan
I. P. M'Kee

A\'illiam Kirk
lliomas Allison
A. D. Ken-
Joseph Gay
Joseph Oliphant
^Villiam Feemster
Colin Campbell
William M'Clellen
•Joseph Davidson
Peter Claywell
Jacob Kibler
Hugh Torre nee
R. Johnson
James Stewart
Abner Caldwell & W.

Sharp
Joseph N. Kilpatrick
Samuel King
Rohert Carson
R. Simonton
Absalom Simonton
John N. Hart
AVm. M'Knight & A. Gra-

ham
Thomas Crawford
John Mushat
Charles D. Conner
James R. Nealy
James M*Kee
John Dickey
John Sumpter
Archibald Brady

Lenoir County.

Alexander Measley
James R, Croom
Robert W. Gk)odman
James Bright
Blake Little .
Lewis Br)^an
F. G. George
George P. Lovick
Simon Bright
Herren Hutchens
John Trill
Benjamin Caswell
Walter T. Allen
Thomas A. Phelps
R. G. Croom
Blount Coleman
Sutton Hardy
Isaac Tull

Thomas Coward
I. Leany
Henry Tull
Lewis Phillips
Thomas Campbell
Joshua Croom
James G. Herritage
John Wilhams
Nathan B. Bush
Wilham Loftin
W. Hardy
Bookcajah Smith
Lewis Loftin
John Grady
Need. Wliitfiel
Nathan B. Whitfiel

Lincoln County.

Robert L. Neagle
John Hyes
John B. Harry
James Bivings
John D. Graham
Gen. John Moore
John Lusk
Peter Hermond
Robert H. Burton
John Hoke
D. Ramsour
Jacob Homey
Peter Summay
David Rheinharst
Logan Hemerson
Anderson Hoyle
John Wilson
Andrew Harmon
Jacob Reinhai'dt
R. & T. WiUiamson
Matthias Barringer
Charles Bennet
Samuel Martin
Lawson Henderson
John Butts & W. Kline
A. Lawrence
Benjamin James
Jacob Snyder
Lightfoot Williams
George Summey
Henrv Curnsler
W. C. Sadler

Martin County.

Reuben Wilkes

John Wilkes

Henry B. Hunter

John Luten

Henry Wheatley

Joel & John G. Smithwick

Samuel Hyman

Benjamin F. Slade
Henry Slade
H. G. Williams
WiUiam R. Bennet
James Bell
John Phelps
Levi Yates
James Moore
E. Smithwicke
Willie Howard
Joseph R.Ballard
Pierce Whitley

Moore Cotiniy.

Bumel Boyle
John B. Kelley
William Martin
Kenneth A. M'lver
William Buice
Richard Street
Biyan Burrough
William Thomas England
Jacob Gastor
John Cameron
Benjamin Pierson
Duncan Mercheson
John M*Iver
Cors. Dowd
Nicholas Nail
Neil Buir

Mecklenburg County.

John Scott
Thomas Huson
Thomas B. Smith
Wilham Davidson
Edwin J. Osbom
D. R. Dunlap
Samuel Henderson
Alexander Green
James Sproll
S. Lowrie
John Hendrick
Henry Foster
Samuel O. Caldwell
J. M'Knight, jun.
Isaac Green
Thomas G. Polk
John Irwin
Joseph Wilson
Joseph R. Darnell
Henry Conner, jun
William H. Wilson
John H. Orr
M. M'Leary
Wm. P. Springs
Benjamin W. Davidson
W. Smith
Alexander Long

~i

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

S. R. W. Fox

Col. W. B. Porter
Elvird C. Wilson
James G. Torrence
John Gilmer
Bobert Porter

JSTorthampton County.

Richard Cinimp
William I, Colvin
Roderick B. Gary
Tom Hughes
Carter Jones
Hardy Pritchard
John Sandifer
Thomas W. Jinkins
John Peele
Bryan Randolph
Allen Deberry
Cullen Mitchell
James Monroe W^alker
John D. Ames
Charles Edwai-ds
John M. Benford
W^m. Son Glover
William Gooseley
Edmund Turner, sen.
P. Brown

John E. Williamson
James H. Sowsby

J^ash Counti/.

W. W. BoddiU
Lewis Brodie
Isham Daniel
Michael Collins
Arthur Whitehead
Thomas I. Armstrong
Joseph Arlington
Nathan Poddell
Marmaduke Mason
C. B. Atkinson
Jesse Thorp
Isaac Watkins
Lewis Hines
David Daniel
Samuel W. W. Vick
Exam Philips
John Arrington, 2d.
William Burt
P. L. WUliams
Clairborne Mann
Joel Harris
John I. Short
WilUe Bunn
Dolphin Anderson

OnsloTv Counti/.

James Thompson
Lewis I. Oliver

Lemuel Doty
Edward Ward
EU W. Ward
W. French
James M. Nixon
Reuben Ambrose.
Jereme Topp
Purnell Marshal!
David Ward
Lott Humphrey
W. MitcheU
Lewis Foy
Robert White
William Snead
John S. Willson
John Giles
James M'Cullough
Solomon Key

Orange County.

John Taylor, jun.
A. Alston
James Thomson
James Whittled
Abnn. B. Bruce
A. D. Miuphey
John Scott
John A. Meebane
John M'Cawley
James Mebane
John Van Hook, jun.
John T. R. Forest
David Ray
William Kirkland
Wyatt Ballard
Wm. Montgomery, jun.
D. Davis
Child & Claney
Wm. Huntington
Edward Robeson
Josiah Turner
Francis Child
John Young
Benjamin Barnham
Wm. Whitted
Samuel Hogg
James Webb
William B. Panerson
James S. Smith
David Yarbrough
Joseph Caldwell, 2 copies
Abner W. Clopton
William M. Green, and>
Thomas H. Wright 5
G. E. Badger
Hemdon Harolson

Person County.

Wm. JeflPrys
Ira Lea

Benjamin Chambers
Wm. M'Kissack
John Douglass
Duncan Rose
Cary Williams
John Brodhead
Lawrence Van Hook
Robert Jones
C. Burnett
Nathaniel Norfleet
James M'Muwey
Isham Edwards
Richard Hallburton
William L. Parker
S. A. Gleam

Hemdon Haroldson, jun.
John M. M'Gehee
John Van Hook, jun.
Thomas Sneed
Jesse Evans
Lord Lord

Kendell Van Hook, jun.
S. M'Kissack
Patrick M. Glenn
Samuel Davy
Samuel Dickens
James Daniel
David Jeffreys
Carter Atkinson
B. Rogers
John W. Williams
L. Barney
Robert L. Ward
James Satterfield
Bradshu Fuller
Edward Mitchell
James Hannah
William Irvine
Joseph M. Daniel
Richard Atkinson
John Gainer
Thomas M*Geher
Joseph M'Geher
William M*Geher

Pasquotank County.

Leonard Martin
Thomas D. Martin
Thomas Owin
WUUam S. Muse
H. P. Reading
W. Beckwith
John C. Chringhore
M. S. Lewis
Miers F. Truett
Wilson Sawyer
William Gregory
W. Albertson
Caleb B. Nash
Josiah F. Ranke
Stephen Charles

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Ambrose Knox
Enoch Sawyer
Richard Muse

A. Albertson
William Tubbs
WUliam T. Relfe
Thos. L, Shannonhouse
Ambrose N. Doughs
Thomas Jordon
Daniel Long
William Shaw
William Crutch
William Carter
John M'Donald
William C. Brooks

B. F. Pollack
John Pool, sen.
Edmund B. Harvey
Benjamin M.Jackson
Thomas Cammander
Joseph Parker
Charles Bailey
John Mullen
Frederick B. Sawyer
Thomas BeU

Perqmmons County.

John F. Hodges
Joseph Sutton
James Whidbee
Edward Wood
Exum Newby, jun.
Joseph Moore
Will Blount
Jam^s Leigh
Jesse Standin
William Arrenton
Asa Rogerson
Josiah Samborne
William Jones
Robert Wheaton
Nathan Winslow
Francis Nixon
\ Jesse Fletcher
Josiah Townsend
Will Reed
William R. Sutton
Thos. Gramberg

Pitt County.

^ Lemuel C. Clark
Thomas Salter
David Smith
Joseph Blaunt
John Hardy
Benjamin Merrell
Demsey Blake
Simon Noble
Henry Smith
T. A. Blackwell

James C. Greene
Wilbam Pugh
David A. Smith
B.C. Dupree
Robert Williams
Benjamin Tison
Josiah Wooten
Ichobad Tison
Ivy Foreman
Oliver Prince
Richard E. Rivers
T. Blount

Hadrianus Van Nordan
AUen Cannon
B. M. Selby
Bryan Grimes
Charles Green

Rockingham County,

James Sharp
Alexander S. Martin
James Bamett
Nathaniel Scales
Nathaniel H. Henry
Charles Mills
William Wright
J. Campbell
John Wilson, jun.
John Watkins, jun.
John Odineal
Robert Cox
Thomas Hill
Doct. J. Phelps
Thos.R.Ruffin.

JRoivan County.

David Mock
James Cornell
Robert Clark
Robert Home
John Frost
H. M. Stokes
James L. Wiley
M. Chamberland
L. L. Ferrand
Jno, Fulton
John Campbell
Thomas M. Linston
James Gillespie
John Beard
Charles Fisher
Ro. Locke
John L, Henderson
John Giles
Thomas L. Cowan
John Murphey
Michael Brown
Ezra AUeming
Joseph Chambers, jun.
Thomas Holmes
Q

J. Knider

Moses Locke ^

William Long, juil.

Wm. Jas. Lawson, and>

H. Alexander i

Robert Strange

P. A. Smith

H. Chambers

Lewis Utzman

Daniel Orrill

Herndorn Horaldson, jun,

Stokea County,

N. Shober
John Clements
Anderson Bowman
Thomas Armstrong
Charles Banner
Joseph W. Winston
Archibald R. Ruffin
William Ban-
William Boyles, jun,
Isaac N. Ladd
John Doub
John Consad
Edward Moore
I, S. Hunt
Lewis Plume
Matthew Detherage
Matthew R. Moore
Johnson Clements
John Hinlly
John Mastin
I. I. Smith
R. L. Winston
Isaac Dalton
Jonathan Dalton
John HaiTis
John Clemmons
Joseph V. Gregg
WUliam Hughes
John Webb

Augustine C. Sheppherd
William G. Haynes
Solomon Speiihour
Thomas W. Marstou
John Evens
James M'Pherson
John Butner
Alexander Moore
Isaac Nelson
James Patterson
P. Hairston
John G. Smith
Ezekiel Frost;
Asa Folger
Joseph Kerner
Getliel Byhan
Daniel C. Walford
Eli Cook
William Willson

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES-

Surry County.

James Babbett

John Rhodes

Edward Pattillo

Charles King

Nathan Chaffin

W. B. Camp

Fanning Jones

S. Graves, jun.

W. Powell

Samuel Alston

Lewis Williams

Reps. Mabsey

Johnson Busbee

Gabriel Hanby

William M.PoweD

James B. Hill

J. D. W. Lester

Joseph I. Hawkins

Wm. M'Cullers

James Marstin

T. H. Mysick

John F. Pride

James Williams, juii.

J. W. Judkin

Alfred M'Daniel

Geo. Kembrough

John T. Clanton

S. Turner

Jonathan Dalton

Benjamin Riggan

George W. Grymes
David Crenshaw

Solomon Greene

Washington Cmmty.

James Nicholson

G. H. Scott

S. W. & I. Scott

Samuel Skinner

Wayne County.

Willis Whitiker

Thomas B. Houghton

J. Hinton, jun.

Samuel L. Wiggins

William W. Huntington

A. Alston

John Salsbury

Thomas Tartt

Major Samuel G. Briggs

William CurreU

Smith Hogan

Benjamin Joiner

Geo. Nichols

Henry Brownrigg

Abner Nash Vail

T. Hurst

G. L. Stewert

Richard Washington

SOUTH CAROLINA

Frances Ward

Barnibas M'Kinny

Joseph B. G. Roulhae

John Everitt

Abbeville Diatnct.

Le\-i Fagan

Robert Fellow, jun.

Charles Blount

Matthew Everitt

Henry F. Power

Daniel Leggett

Benjamin Jernigan

Thomas Branson

Asa Davenport
John Stubbs

Joseph Edwards

John M'Comb

J. Langster

James M'Crachan

Aaron Harrison

Charles Bass

James Spann

William L. Cheson

Joshua Ammons

Walter 0»Beekley

S. W^alker

Ezekiel Slocumb

B. F. Whitner

W. Woodly

Thomas Kenneday

Wilhs Bostwick

D. Marriner

Thomas Cox

Lewis B. Holloway

Needliam Walters

Littleton Myrick

Warren County.

Isaac Handy

WiUiam Wilson

Aaron F. Moses

Charles C. Mayson

Seth W^ard

Hilliary Hooks

William H. Bostwick

John Brodie

John M'Kinny

John Talbert '
I. M. Cowderry j
John Marsh \

HeniyFitts

Sampson Lane

IVilliam P. Little
WilHam PanneU

David Thompson

John & David Wasden

Nathan Lipscomb j

Nathaniel M. Johnson

Richard Caseaway

Jared C. Groce

P. Hawkins

John P. Wilson

Archy Mason \

John M. Johnson

Philip Hooks

William Tinsby

John D. Plunket

Lemuel Witfield

Thomas Woolridge

Geo. W. Freeman

John W. Wilson

Robert R. Johnson

Wake County.

Tal. Livingston ■

Robert Freeman

Alexander Speer

Joseph Hawkins

W. R. Henton

W. P. Rayford

Carter Nunnay

W. Henderson

E. S. Davis

Anthony Davis

Beverly Daniel

William Robertson, jua

M. Duke Johnson

Samuet Gasland

Samuel Lenton, jun.

R. F. Check

William H. Fowler

Moses Taggett

David Dancey

A. S. H. Burgess

Joseph Pickens

Thomas Davis

A. I. M'Ketlian

Jefferson L. Edmonds

Thomas T. Russell

Nathaniel H. Wills

D. M'Gehee

William H. Bullock

Orran D. Lamon

Joseph Culpepper

D. B. Allen

Barwell Battle

Richard Covington

Robert Park

John Bell

William Ware

Thomas Bragg
Raleigh Mysick

Burwell Simms

1 Andrew Milligen

Kenneth Gillis

Edward Collier ■

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

William Benford

A. W. Scott
John Scuddy
Rev. Heniy Reed
Thomas Childs

- Thomas C. Oliver
Benjamin Glover
Thomas P. Mai-tin
Moses Waddel
William Lomar
H. MiUer

William Mountcastle
John Childs
Charles Martin

B. H. Savon
Alexander Bouie
Alexander B. Arnold
Patrick Cajhoun
Joseph Miller

Jos. B. Gilbert
William Calhoun, jun.
.William Lesley
James Collier
James Lomar, jun.
John Kavlin
Alexander Hunter
Abraham Landsdale
James Conn
Josiah Patterson, sen.
John Devlin
I. I. Ash
Robert Black
Randsome WaiTell
James Cobb
G. W. Martin
Thomas Jones
Richard Griffin
William Wire
James Wilson
John Ellington
John M*Calla
John Bucanan
Edward Ware
Robert S. Jones
Gen. Joseph Hutton
William Spear, jun.
Hug-h Morrali
Patrick Noble
James W. Cotton
Stephen Crenshaw
Marshall Wetherall
Thomas Sinsley
Henry Haston
Rev. Washington Belcher
Francis Connor
Wisley Brannan
William H. Glanton
James Campbell
John Montgomei-y
Hugh Mecklin
John Allen
Joseph Cooper

William A. Slaughter

Barn-well District.

J. R. Vince
Robert Lowry
Henry Burford
Thomas G. Lamor
William Gilliam
Henry W. Oakanan
John Richenbaker
Gideon Hagood
John I. Gray
James W. Tarrant
Robert Goode
Benjamin O. Dom
Isaac Bourdeaux
James R. Dopson
Joseph Eastland
Z. O. Bannon
Joseph Duncan
C.Tobin
John Miller
W. W. Dunn
John S. Fowke
William H. Robert
Isaac Easbank
I. W. Moore
Darling Peeples
Isaac Ellis
Wm. H. Lee
John C. Allen
Richard C. Ashe
John Owens
Benjamin Tarrant
William Black
Joseph Harley
Angus Patterson

Beaufort District.

John S. Smith
William Hazzard
John Ulmer
Charles I. Davis
Edward W. North
Abraham Huguenin
Henry M'Chsh
Benjamin H. Buckner
Charles E. Flinn
B. Cooley

William I. Huguinan
Joseph Guerard, jvm.
John Stone
Isaac Davis
Joseph I. Robert
John C. Cook
Thomas G. Cheney
William Taylor
John A. Cuthbert jun.
Charles G. Capers
Geo. I. Logan

R. Zubbolt
John D. Mangin
Col. Bailey
Myer Jacobs
John S. Maner
Samuel. M. Wallace
PhiUp Eastmead
Richard Bland
Alexander Hamill
Charles H. Collins

F. Bowler

Nathaniel H. Rhodes
James E. Flagg
James R. Verdier
Benjamin R. Bostwick
William P. Molett
Philip P. Bessellen
William Lake

Saul Solomon
Thomas L. Seawell
WiUiam Bell
John Fitzpatrick
Lewis Harden
William Chaplin
James L. Grayson
John Tripp, jun.
John M. Gilbert
Thomas I. Griffith
I. Lockwood
Stephen R. Procter
Thomas Wilson

G. B. Cheney
John Hogg, jun.

Cliester District.

Daniel M'Neel
David Patton
John Dunnavant
Hanry Bradley
John E. Dunning
Solomon Beach
Samuel M'Neel
Gavin M'Millen
Wm. Stringfellow
Thomas Brown
John Boyd
William Harden
Robert Robertson
Aaron F. Quay
Robert F. Lyme
John Kidd
Thomas G. Blewett
S. Beekman, jun.
AUen Knight
William M'Aulla
Andrew Park
John Wvlee
R. W. Gill
Joseph P. Lewis
Hugh M*Millin
E. Lyles

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

John Roseborough

Fairfield Dktiict.

^A^illiam Soner

Alexander Cabear

Robert H. Briggs

John Darley

Robert L. Knox

William Halcombe

Thomas Davis

Abraham Ferguson

Spartan Goodlet

James Adam

T. H. Taylor

John Creltenden

Stephen Fen-y

John D.Winn

Samuel Crayton

John W. Ferry

Samuel Brown

James Sheppard

Samuel Johnson, jun.

William Holmes

Wm. D. Bradford

Daniel M'Millen

John Workham

John Gowan

James Hood

M. V. Davison

Richard Harnson

Hugh Knox

Samuel E. Amatt

A. K. Parkins

William lyeach

David Alston

Richard Ward, jun.

Wilham Wheeling

AUan Marshall
Andrew B. Flemming

Darlington Bistiict.

Hugh Young

S. W. Youngell

Paschal Smithson

Joseph Woods

Ehsha Jones

Gen. John Blassingame

Gad. MTarlane

Marquis CaJmes

John Moon

Thomas Smith

Col. James Mooreman

Samuel Sawney

L. Hanmer

Philip E. Pearson

John Paris

John D. Witherspoon

Henry Rugely

Garland Walker

William Cooper

John Douglass

Philip Masoney

E. H. Lide

N. O. Wade

Joseph Otis

B. L. Hannac

William Thompson

WiUiam H. Cook

Hugh Thompson

Isaac Means

Thomas Payne

Caleb Clark

Benjamin Arnold

Edgejield District,

Samuel G. Barber

Thomas Hamilton

Thomas M'Cullough

Nelson Dickeson

Alexander S. Moore

William EUison

Daniel Rinhardt

William Brazier

Armisted Goss

Rev. Lewis Rector

Martin & Williamson

Archibald Beaty

Thomas West

John Torre-nce

Hugh Smith, jun

Wilham H. Salmon

Sterling Quarles

C. Buchanon

Andrew M'Crary

Seaborn Thorn

William M'Bride

Bannister Stone

Benjamin Fi*azier

Patrick M'Guire

Benajah Dunham
Tully Boiling

John Moore

Asmund Woodward

John Middleton

Rabb & Woodward

John S. B. Foster

Jesse Simpkins & Co.

James Kelly

Charles Hammond
George Butler

Capt. Wm. M'Creight
James Guy

Kershato District. ^

Thomas Websters

Austin F. Peay

Charles Lamar

John M'Master

Zach. Canten

William W. Fell

Henry Moore

S. H. Boykin \

Charles F. Randolph

James Neily

John Boykin, jun. J

Joel Hill

John Allen

Alexander Young

William Garrett

John Thompson

S. Rochell

George MTDufRe

Burrel B. Cook

Ezekiel Mahew •

John S, Jeter

VV. Atkinson

David George

Stephen Garrett

James Stevenson

George Perry

Charles Bussey

Christopher Plunket

Vincient A. Edwards ;

Sampson Butler

James M'Arnall

Lovich Youngs '

Charles Goodwin

James Roochell

Col. Adam M'Willers , ,

John R. Bartie

Thomas Starke

M.C.Wiggins

Isaac Randolph

Reuben Veale

Powell M'Red ■

Thomas A. Cotton

James C. Irvin

W. S, Johnson

Greenville District.

Thomas English

John Blocker

James Surlev & I. Jinkins

Jesse Blocker

Daniel H. Tillinghast

A. G. M'Kenzie

George Graves

John B. Williams

WiUiam Gibson, jun.

John Miller

Thomas Edmundson

Abijah Miller

Edmund Bacon

Jeremiah Cleavland

S. Rembert

Samuel Marsh

Benjamin Kilgore

John Carter

Wibon Wheatley

WilJiam Young

William Trapp

SUBSCRIBERS* NAMES.

Lancastei' Diatuct.
James Vaughan
Thomas Williams, jun.
John E. Sanderson
Francis K. Brummett
William M'Kennd
[\ W. Flynn
i*armenio Rodg-ers
William R. Dickey
William E. Johnson
G. D. Wilfong
John M*Kinzie
E. F. Crocket
Samuel Sellers
James Witherspoon
John Gooch
Hugh Bird
John Crawford
John Hancock
William Bailey
Benjamin C. Jones
Buckner Lanair
John Montg-omery
John Barkleip
Daniel H. Gantzon
C. Elms

James R. Massey
Benjamin S. Massey
James C. Massey
Isaac Donnon
James Crane
Thomas Graham
Robert Cunning-ham
Jehu Postell
John S, Perry
Allen Chevis
Robert D. Montgomery
Daniel M'Donald
AVilliam Howe
Thomas Eee
Henry M'Donald
John Brown
Eli Crocket
James Wright
Benjamin iilassey
Robert A. Crocke
Zadock Perry
S. M. Adams
John L. Miller
Samuel R. Gibson

Leocington District.

John C. Bell
James Pou
David Sohrock
JohnF. Seibels
Jacob Ball
John Patton

Laurens District.
John Cunningh^

Henry C. Young
Thomas Porter
S. B. Lewers
Richard F. Simpson
John Dunlap
J. H. Irby
Patillo FaiTon
William F. Downs
Nathaniel Day
Thomas F. Jones
Abner Crenshaw
William H. Young
Thomas Wright
Anthony F. Golding
Willis Hogg
Hezekiah Cheshire
WiiHam G. Wright
S. Richardson
W. W. Simpson
Mitchell Cook
James Brewster
James Loughridge
C. Saxon
Robert Campbell
Benjamin James
Daniel Long

Marten Distnct.

Henry Davis, jun.
Thomas Harllee
Duncan M'Rae
James C. Bellune

C. Daniel
T. Evans
Jolm M'Millin
Robert Giles
William Woodbury
Richard Woodbury
Nimrod Davis
Hugh G. Godbold
H. M'Kay

James Johnson

R. Godfrey

Enos Tart

John M'Lean

Neel Hughes

Dougall Carmichael, jun.

Samuel Bigham

Hugh Hodges

L. Harrell

Francis A. Wayne

John C. Davis

William Cox

John Gregg

John C. Godbold

W. G. Singletary

Elisha Bethell

Robert J. Walsh

D. Stone
John N. M'Rae
Stephen Thompson

John Newsom
Edward Birch
J. Gibson

JSilewberrt/ District.

William Caldwell

Francis B. Wiggins

James Rogers

Y. I. HaiTJngton

Robert U. Usance

William Rutherfonl

Andrew Cromer, jun.

James Feraandes

Burr Johnson

Burt Harrington

James Schell

David Gimn '

Joshua Wynn

J. B. O'Neal

James Gilliam

A. Atkins & T. S. Barrett

Thomas Pratt

John Eigleberger, jun.

John Clemens

Thomas E. Bumsides

James M*^Gigbt

John Barrskett

A. Crenshaw

A.G.Smith

Andrew M'Bride

Geo. W. Glenn

James Caldwell

H. Ruft'

Peter Moon ' j

Oimngtburgh Diiirict. [

M. O. L. Thompson [

W. J. Myddletown 1

John M' Felder |

Donald B. Jones \

James B. Bowdoin '

David Rumph
J. Rumph
V. D. S. Jameson
Daniel Frederick
Andrew Hcatley
Jacob AYannamaker
Berther A. Downes
Donald Rome
Samuel Reckenbaker

Pendleton Distnct.

William Trimnier
Rev. Richard B. Carter
James Thompson
Joseph V. Shanklin
Samuel Cherry
Wilham Hunter
C.B.Benson

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Joseph B. Earle
John Martin
AV. S. Adair
J. Miller
David Cherry
Joseph Greesham
John Greesham
Jesse P. Lewis
John B. Hammond
James Fares
A. I.orn
"Wm. Anderson
John Arraib
John Hunter
Samuel Earle
Joseph Whitner
John Maxwell
Robert Stribbling
Patrick Norris
John Matthews
p. Sloan, jun.
Rev. James Hillhouse
Nathaniel Harbin
Richard Barry
James Lawrence
Crosby W. Miller
Arnsted Barry
Reuben Piles
John Brown
Harrison & Earle_
John Harris
Robert Wilson
John Clayton
John Nichols
Nathl. Harbier
John T. Niel
Aaron Broyles
Benjamin Duprie
Andrew Ramsey
WiUiam Walker
John Brown
John Archer
E. M. Massey
H. Kilpatrick
James Ohver
John Vemer
Joseph Taylor
Abner A. Steele
Henr>' W. Terrell
WiUiam May
David Mose'ley
John S. Bowen
John Whitten
William Nicholson
Robert Brackenridge
John N. Montague
Wm. Simpson
David Pugh
Benjamin F. Sloane
Robert Hackett
W. Taylor
John T. Lewis

R. Spriggs
James Gerven
Thomas FitzaiTclled
C. Gaylord
Peter Kilpatrick
Walter Adair
William Carson
Thomas Hunter
W. Steele
Robert Fullerton
Thomas Harrison
James C. Griffin
Lewis Rolston
J. Brewster
John M'Hall
Wm. C.Baskin
James Jolly
Geo. C. W. Foster
John Reeder
William Salsbuiy
Robert Anderson
John B. Earle

Richland District.

Abraham Nott
John Withens, jun.
David H. Means
Melach Howell
Thomas Briggs
William Rivers
William HiUiard
John Veal
James S, Goodwin
Robert Ogilvie

C. C. Williamson
Wm. W. Adam
W. Howell

W. T. Pearson
James Gingrard
B. F. Taylor
John G. Brown
John Byrram
John Yancey
David Myers
Robert Singleton
Josiah I^ilgore
John Hopkins
H. P. Taylor
J. Howell

D. Coalter
S. Jones

Needham Dudley
Osmond Ross
Anthony Metcalf
William Surginer

Spartanburg District.

William Hunt
S. Foster
LabanP. Poole

Munn Tallison
Eben Smitli
Thomas AlUson
Elisha Bonar
Michael Gaffeny
Arthur Clark
Bennett Bobo
Andrew B. Moore
Lawson Thomson
Isaac Smitli
J. AVhitten
Benjamin Warford
William Collin
Robert Martin
John Chapman
E. Roddy
Chany Stone

Sumpter District.

Horace Ward
I. 1. Frierson
Chas. Richardson
John S. W^illett
Charles Miller
Daniel Rose
Charles Conners
A. P. Johnson
Christopher M'Connico
James N. Mayrant
James Haynsworth
John AV. Rees
Robert Brailsford
Charles Harvin
WiUiam Falconer
Samuel W. Cummings
Henry Spears
Geo. I. M'Cauley
Thomas Bosher
Hastin Jennings
WUham Coppidge
W. R. Thomas
WUliam Taylor
JohnB. MiUer
Robert Bradford
Stephen D. MiUer
W. Vaughan
Thomas James Wilder
Milton Bradley
Daniel Loring
John Jennings
Amos Dubose
Wade H. Gaulden
John G. Davis
Thomas Davis
WiUiam G. Richardson
James R. Center
Reuben Arthur
Caleb Rembert
Peter I. Wright
Stephen Dyson
Wm. V. Richbourg

SUBSCRIBEKS' NAMES,

iobert Mularen
Kichard Redgeville, ancl^
Ch.irles Brunson 5

.fames E. Harvin
Thomas G. Polk
William Ballard
William M. Lansdell
IloUoway James
William Alex. Colclough
J. J. Evans
James G. Spann
Thomas Dugun, jun.
Joseph West
J^'rancis Spring
John Boyd, jun.
Samuel Bennett
Matthew S. Moore
William Potts, sen.
W. H. Capers
Philip Bracy
James Millett
Israel Whipple
James Barrister
John Cox
John G. Moore
Thomas Ebzbirgh
Edward B rough ton
John M'Donell
John King
Peter Millett
A. B. Di-ake
WiUiam Bell
Spencer Wilder

A. Silliman
WilUam Haynsworth
J ohn Mayrant, jun.
Christopher Flymi
James Capers
Thomas Rivers
John Mayrant, sen.
Samuel Wright
Geo. W. Pitts

B. Gerald '
Jno. Waters

A. Sexton
Tsaac Hinkle
William Mayrant, jun.
John Dorgan
Charles F. Gordon
Rev. John Conser
Arthur Bradley
John Bradley
David Brunson
R. Mularow

Union District.

Daniel M'Mahan
Francis Hobson
Nathaniel R. Eaves
Harman A. Johnson
Banks Meacham

Daniel Wilbanks

Joseph Reid

Charles Little John

Thomas C. Taylor

Amos Davis

Philip Coleman

W. Hobson

W. R. Clowney

J. H. Bernard

William Wallace

J. F. Walker

Geo. M'Crary

John Hall

John Lusk

William Rice

Samuel Davis

W. Sims

James P. Walker

J. J. Foster

Andrew W. Thompson

John H. Ragsdale

Wilham F. Gest.

D. I. Murrell

Jno. Morgan

James Bryce

J. M'Ribbin

James Black

James P. Ewing

John Carathers

R. S. Rice

David Johnson

Wm. P. Gadberry

W. Henderson

"Wm. Kingsborough

Nicholass Corry

J. Collin

Wm. B. Means

Williamsburg District.

Thomas "Witherspoon

William Dobard

James &. Robert Bradley

Robert I. Willson

J. W. Witherspoon

T, D. Singleton, for WilO
liamsburg library So- ^
ciety. J

Isaac A. Cohen

Thomas R. Witherspoon

J. W. Powers

Isaac Matthews

John D. Burgess

W. Salters

Wm. N. McDonald

John S. Flurett

James E. Wilson

John Blakeley

Jno. Matthews, jun.

Jesse Du Bose

York Distiitt.

Robert Clenderian
David B. Rice
John Rochell
Wm. Moore
Benjamin Chambers
Daniel Ken-
John Gallent
William Campbell
John S. Moore
Edmund Jennings
Richard Sadler
John Davison
WiUiam Ferguson
John Dennis, jun.
William C. Hannd
Samuel B. Buyer
Geo. Ross
William Gillmore
Wilham Little
Herman Alexander
William Moore
William Barron
Edward Avery
John Thompson
James M. Love
James Leach
Jesse Loughby
Samuel Ranney
John S. Britten
Wm. Robeson
Leven Benton
Francis M. Nash
John Bailey
Patrick Hamilton
John Caveny
A. M'Whorter
G. Galbraith
Moses Stroup
John S. Hartrwess
James Davie
I. Clendenen
James Williamson
James Lacy
Thomas Moore
Thomas M*Kee
Solomon Hill

TVinsbortmgh.

John Shackelford

Charleston.
Kerr Boyce

GEORGIA.

Augusta.

Edward F. Campbell
John Hart

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

John Black
Benjamin Hall
I. H. Randolph
Walter Crenshaw
John Bent
Luke Reed
John Burton
James Harrison
John Taylor
Jesse Ansley
John Log-an
Edward Byrd
James House
Thomas Glasscock
Smith Jones
Nathaniel Truesdel
Thomas Averell
James Rose
Henry Slaughter
George W. Collins
John Rmney
Miles Beach
George K. Bridges
I. L. Laughria
James Violleau
"Wm. Matheson
John S. Walker
Ethelred Langston
James Clark
Nathan H. Beal
Caroline I. Buckle
Jesse Whipple
James Stewart

Corby Dickinson
Adam & John Kerr
James M'Donough
John Pries

A. R. Ralston
Robert I. Sayn
John Duncan
Samuel Sturges, jun.
John Smith
Charles Labuzan
Charles H. Penn
George Hudson
John H. Kimbell

B. Labuzan
Augustus T. Hand
John Jones

R. V. Mayre
John R. Welbom
John B. Haw
Wm. Nevis, jun.
John M. Davinvort
Winfield Mason
Richard Mason
John Sharp
George Kennedy
Timothy Bruen
Wm. P. Dearmon
John Guimarin

A. Bugg
Charles Spear

B. Prigurs
P. Brown
E. Walton

' Anderson Watkins
Wm. Montgomery
Robert Malone
Lewis Cooper
L. F. Barfield
Thomas Grace
F. H. Lacy
John Cashin
W. A. Bugg
Mark D. Clark
John Gindrab
Cain Broight
Edward B. Machen
John M'Mullen
Charles Dame
Ephraim Gilman
Richard Bolan
James Barton
Ezekiel Edans, jun.
Patrick M'Kee
Richardson O. Scaj'ry
Peter Donaldson
George T. Watkins
John M. Eaney
Richard I. Easton
James A. Black
Robert Mitchell
Wm.C. Anderson
Robert H. Watkens
Ezekiel Dubois
Thomas G. Leigh
W. C. Stokes

^^^

09 THM

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