aia ade Ly toner reere eg ta Hence eae a ; oath : . . eames man tate . a a, settee Sh Ree | annie Salita ‘ NP ln fon HE wt a Poo! sf 4 ‘ a AN OTYI4NG OF HL BITUNOD SHI THE AMERICAN FARMER'S PICTORIAL SYOROPEDIAGLIVE STOCK, EMBRACING Horses, Cattle, Swine, Sheep « Poultry, INCLUDING DEPARTMENTS ON DOGS AED BES; — BEING ALSO A — GUMPLETE STUGK DOCTOR; COMBINING THE EFFECTIVE METHOD OF OBJECT TEACHING WITH WRITTEN INSTRUCTION. GIVING ALL THE FACTS CONCERNING THE VARIOUS BREEDS; CHARACTERISTICS AND EXCELLENCES OF EACH. BEST METHODS OF BREEDING, TRAIN- ING, SHELTERING, STABLE MANAGEMENT, AND GENERAL CARE, WITH SPECIFIC DIRECTIONS HOWTO BUY AND HOw FO SHELL, INCLUDING CAREFUL AND ILLUSTRATED ANALYSES OF THE POINTS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS, WITH ALL THE DISEASES TO WHICH THEY ARE SUBJECT, HOW TO KNOW THEM, THE CAUSES, PREVENTION AND CURE—GIVEN IN PLAIN, SIMPLE LANGUAGE, FREE FROM TECHNICALITIES, BUT SCIENTIFICALLY CORRECT, AND PRESCRI- BING REMEDIES READILY OBTAINED AND EASILY APPLIED. DESIGNED FOR THE SUCCESSFUL AND PROFITABLE USE OF THE AMERICAN FARMER AND STOCK OWNER, ; BY 3 HON. JONATHAN PERIAM, Editor “American Encyclopedia of Agriculture ;’’editor ‘Prairie Farmer :*’ former edit Member Illinois Department of Agriculture; First Superintendent of Agric Industrial University ; Life- ~member American Pomological Society i} ) 4 “History Farmers’ Movement,” “Lesson foc Life,” &c., &c AND mH. BAKER, V- S., Xen Veterinary Editor ‘‘American Field;’? Veterinary Surgeon Illinois Humane Society; Medak : treal Veterinary College; Member of the Montreal Veterinary Medical Association, &c., Kc. WITH OVER 700. APPROPRIATE ENGRAVINGS. SAINT LOUIS, MO.: N: D; THOMPSON & CO., PusBLisHERS, 520, 522 and roe Pine Street. 1882. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1881, by N. D. THOMPSON w& GO., In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. Cc. YY Wypy, y Wf y y YY ff Wy "Uy pypy YY; Uy Yr Yj JJ PUBLISHERS’ PREFACE. In presenting this volume to the public, the publishers feel especial pride. In authorship, it represents the unremitting labor of many years, and the facts are derived from long, practical experience, and thorough education in the line of its subjects. They believe that in it they present a volume of every-day, practical value, unequalled in the literature of this department of study. The completeness and scope, careful arrangement, and fulness of illustration, make it unique of its kind. Of its high scientific and literary merit, it is needless to speak. The simplicity in teaching and practice, and adaptability both to the ready comprehension and use of the ordinary farmer and stock owner, are equally apparent. The modern method of ‘* Object-teaching,’’ so popular in our higher schools, has been utilized to an extent never before equalled. Its striking appropriateness will not fail to impress and instruct. In addition to sim- ple teachings by word, it instructs through the eye as well, and with a definiteness in both respects that will enable any one to become well versed in a practical knowledge of the value, use, care, disease and treat- ment of domestic animals. In addition to this important requisite, and to the valuable Charts illustrating the ages of horses and cattle, it contains many features peculiar to itself. It is withal so concise, original and apt in its teachings, that, in point of excellence and comprehensiveness, there is nothing similar to it among American agricultural publications. — With the exception of a few reprints of English books which are nar- row in scope and design, poorly applying to the necessities of this coun- try, there is not a similar work of reputable, competent authorship, covering the subjects embraced. Those of special pretentions are mere compilations by non-professionals, who assume professional titles, and thus impose upon the credulity, and trifle with the valuable interests, of the farmer and stock owner. The full index, the plan and arrangement, the careful system through- out, are such that any fact in its contents can be r sadily found, so that, as a work of ready reference, as well as general study, it will be found especially convenient as well as reliable. Impressed with the belief that it fills the all important requirement of availability for ready and unerring use, and that it is 2 thoroughly practical work—one that will serve the farmer as a valuable hand-bock, both for study and constant reference, and which will enable him to turn the in- dustry of stock breeding, raising, buying and selling to greater profit—it is respectfully submitted with the confident hope of approval. AUTHORS PREFACE This work is especially designed to supply the need of the busy Ameri- can farmer and stock owner. It is somewhat remarkable that in this book-making age there is no well authenticated, systematic work acces- sible to the farmer in which the known facts and principles of the art of improving and breeding domestic animals, and of the causes, symptoms, prevention and cure of diseases, are presented in convenient form for study and reference. Yet such is the fact, notwithstanding the paramount im- portance of live stock to the farmer, andthe wonderful progress that*has been made in its improvement. The present effort to supply this want has been made in response to frequent solicitation, and especially sug- gested by oft repeated inquiries, received as journalists, for such a work covering safely the ground occupied by this volume. The importance of the subject cannot well be overestimated when we consult statistics giving the millions of dollars invested in live stock, in this great country, and it becomes especially important, when we consider that the bulk of this immense value is distributed among those of minor wealth, as the farmer and small stock owner, who have no access to educated veterinary practitioners, and who are not fully informed as to the practical principles applicable to the most successful and profitable breeding, training and general care of domestic animals. In this volume the effort is made to furnish such facts in systematic form, thus enabling the farmer every- where to turn the business of stock raising to more profitable account. Long experience and observation leads to the belief that a carefully ar- ranged and classified work giving the facts in the art of breeding and general care of live stock, derived from the experience of the practical und most successful stock men, will be of incalculable benefit to every owner of domestic animals. In the following pages the value of kind treatment has been urged with marked frequency, and the fact is mentioned with no apologetic intent. Tt is urged as a policy both humane and profitable. What can be done to improve the condition and advance the comfort of these true friends of humanity is in the interest of economy. There is a much needed reform in the breeding, care and treatment of domestic animals, and the en- deavor is here made to direct the way and point out its advantages. In treating of the various breeds of live stock, it has been the purpose to give the special characteristics, with the excellences and defects in AUTHORS PREFACE, each, so that the reader may know exactly which will serve best his exact purpose. In this, partiality for any one has been avoided and an honest effort made to point out the adaptability of each to special purposes. This much needed information will enable the reader to select for special ob- jects with unerring judgment. There has been an undeviating purpose to avoid the too common custom of advocating the claims of any one breed ov class of breeders, at the expense of another, or in contradiction to cor- rect statement. The method of advertising specialties, too common in such books, has been scrupulously avoided. The authors have long been impressed with the almost universal want of ability to judge accurately of the value of a horse, cow, or other ani- mal of the farm, as also of its particular features of excellence, from general appearance, manner and physical development. Yet this is sus- ceptible of almost exact knowledge. Intelligent study of these, with proper information ought to enable any one to, determine the character- istics of a horse or cow, and whether it is best adapted to the purpose for which it is wanted. Not only can the matter of physical constitution and adaptability to a specific purpose be determined, but it is also within the power of the intelligent observer to detect vicious habits,disease and upsoundness, by the same analytic observation. A special feature of this work has been to give this information in such clear, specific, and analytie form, both by written word and illustration, as to make any intelligent reader a good judge of the value and qualifications, so to speak, of any horse, cow or other domestic animal. The age of an animal has an important bearing in estimating both value and use. To cover this point of vital interest we have, in the Horse and Cattle departments, introduced illustrated Charts giving the formation of the teeth at the various ages, accompanied by such explanation and instruction as will enable any one, by a little study and observation, to ascertain with almost perfect accuracy the ages of these animals at any peri- od. The value of this knowledge cannot well be overestimated. With this information, and the ability to understand special characteristics and de- fects, instruction on which is herein given and illustrated in such careful detail, the arts of the jockey will be effectually provided against. The subject of training has received elaborate consideration, and as the value of an animal depends greatly on the care and success with which it has been ¢rained, it is believed that the attention given to it will be productive of valuable results. In this, as in other departments, gentle and humane methods are advo- cated as the most satisfactory and effective. Allied to this, the direc- tions and facts given concerning proper shelter, and convenience and economy in building, derived from personal experience running from AUTHORS’ PREFACE. the primitive shelter of the prairies, thirty-five years ago, to the present elaborate and costly barn, are deemed of interest and value. In the veterinary departments special effort has been made to give the causes producing disease, so that knowing the cause the disease may be obviated. Prevention is better than cure, and this fact is emphasized throughout the volume. Equal care has been observed in describing and giving symptoms, so that the reader may, with as unerring certainty as possible, know the nature of the disease, and hence what to do. When the services of a skilled veterinary surgeon are required it has been candidly advised, and care has been taken to distinguish between popular treatment and that requiring scientific and skillful management. In prescribing remedies, the effort has been to give those within the reach of the farmer—such as he can procure, prepare and easily adminis- ter. In like manner, unfamiliar words and technical phrases have been avoided as far as possible, consistent with scientific accuracy of statement. Clearness and conciseness of expression have been carefully consulted, and, to further conduce to a correct understanding, an elaborate glossary is appended thoroughly explanatory of the meaning of every word in the book not familiar to every day life. In the attainment of clearness, the generous and prodigal liberality of the Publishers in illustrating, by accurate, well executed and striking engray- ings, every department and chapter of the work, deserves special mention. As aiding and strengthening the enforcement of fact, this feature, made at enormous outlay, is of a practical value impossible to exaggerate. In conclusion, the hope is indulged that the farmer and stock raiser who will attentively read these pages, and reduce to practice the sugges- tions therein given, will find such increase of success, profit and pleasure in his noble calling as to justify his good opinion and unqualified endorse- ment. If so, the authors’ purpose in writing this book will have heen accomplished. THE AUTHORS. EABER OF CONTENTS. PARRY «1. THE HORSE.—HISTORY, MANAGEMENT, AND CHARACTER- ISTICS OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS. CHAPTER I. HIS ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. PAGE. Connected with Man from the Earliest Historical Period.—I. The Horse in Ancient History.—H. The Horse in Civilization.—III. Preserving Breeds in Purity.—IV. The Wild Horse of To-day.—V. Fossil Horses.—VI. Horses of Asia.—VII. European Horses.—VIII. Artificial Breeding and Diseases.—IX. Opinions Re- lating to Breeding.—X. In-Breeding of Horses.—XI. Valne of Hereditary Characteristics.—XII. A Careful Study Necessary.—XIII. About Object Les- SCRE retehatetateleselialel sraieVetlsloteiot steYeval(er svar? af ovata ae oterevallshcecewereveie) s\alate maxoralavetave elena! nisi elecw eicravavaveye 33 CHAPTER II. ILLUSTRATING THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. I. Frame-work the Index of Value.—II. Master the Details of the Skeleton.—III. Division of the Several Parts. —IV. Comparative Anatomy of Man and the Horse. —V. Analyzing the Skeleton.—VI. The Foot.—VIL. The Head and Neck.— VIII. Bones and Muscles of the Front Limbs.—LX. The Hind Limbs.................. 41 CHAPTER III. THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM AND INTERNAL FUNCTIONS OF THE HORSE. I. The Economy of the Muscular Covering.—II. Muscles of the Head and Neeck.—II. Muscles of the Shoulder and Back.—IV. Muscles of the Hinder Parts.—V. Muscles of the Fore Limbs.—VI. Muscles of the Leg and Foot.—VII. Studying the Structure.—VIII. Internal Economy of the Horse.—IX. External Parts of GERG SEPOLS C's oust si oiajacc e's colotlete nis wheletasetotatcrencrarsepcratcictctereisteteteloic/oh ckels aneraiteccie siamese eae 56 CHAPTER IV. OUTWARD APPEARANCE OF THE IIORSE AS INDICATING VALUE. I. Action the First Requisite of a Good Horse.—I. Fast Walking Horses.—III. Horses for Different Kinds of Work.—IV. The Head Illustrated Outwardly.—V. . The Body and Limbs.—VI. Bad Fore Quarters.—VII. The Body as Seen from the Front.—VI1. What a Critical Horseman Said.—IX. Front View, Showing Bad XI XII TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE. Fore Quarters.—X. The Hinder Parts Ilustrated.—XI. The Propelling Power.— XI. What the Ancients Knew of Horses.—XIII. What One Need not expect... 70 CHAPTER V. THE HORSE'S TEETH, AND HOW TO TELL HIS AGE. [. The Dental Formula.—II. The Teeth are the True Index of Age.—IIT. The Foal’s Teeth.—IV. Differences Between the Teeth of Foal and Horse.—V. Allowances to be Made.—VI. Illustrating by the Chart........+..+-+++ eee S\stersia's ee sien stelsie 93. CHAPTER VI. BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. I. Influences of Country and Climate.—II. The Farm Horse.—III. The Clydesdale Horse.—IV. The Norman-Percheron.—V. The Percheron of To-day.—VI. The Conestoga Horse.—VII. Road Horses.—VIII. Trotting Horses.—IX. Hunting Horses.—X. Light Driving Horses. XI. Coach Horses.—XIT. The Cleveland Bay.—XIII. Ponies.—XIV. The Vermont Draft Horse.—XV. The Narragansett CHAPTER VII. THOROUGHBRED HORSES. [. English Thoroughbreds.—I. Herbert’s History of the English Horse.—IIT. The First London Race Course.—IV. Horses Taken to England by Crusaders.—V. Bone and Bulk Imparted to the English Horse.—VI. The Horse in the Times of Henry VI[Land James I.—VII. American Thoroughbreds.—VIII. The Arabian. 121 CHAPTER VIII. ABOUT TROTTING HORSES. I. The Breeding of Trotters.—II. Progenitors of Fast Trotters—Messenger.—III. Imported Bellfounder.—IV. The Modern Trotter.—V. What Goldsmith Maid was Like.—VI. The Movement in Trotting.—VII. Disuse of the Trotting Fac- ulty.—VIIL. A Record of Sixty Years.—IX. Strains of Trotting Blood.......... 133 CHAPTER IX. THE BREEDING AND REARING OF COLTS. I. Tmportance of Accurate Knowledge.—II. Breed From Mature Animals.—ITI. No Profit in Inferior Horses.—IV. Heredity in Animals.—V. Peeuliar Organic Strue- ture.—VI. Heredity of Disease.—VII. Atavism or Breeding Back—Breed to None but the Best.—VIII. Variation and Development.—IX. Transmission of Qualities —X. The Impress of Color and Form.—XI. Relation of Size in Sire and Dam.—XII. Breed Only From Pure Sires.—XII. The Best are Cheapest in the End.—XIV. Selection of Stallion and Mare.—XV. Service of the Stallion. —XVI. The Period of Gestation—Treatment.—X VII. Treatment After Foaling. —X VII. How to Know if a Mare is in Foal.—XIX. How to Know the Foaling Time.—XX. The Foaling Stall—XXI. Abortion, or Slinking the Foetus. —XXIL. ELOW: to Baise a OOltis ave terctnietareie ev alaiaials(aterelalelelolorare otutloleletelteiera to! ainre)eleiele(ale’e aretele sieteeae 144 CHAPTER X. ASSES AND MULES. I. The Mule and Hinny Defined.—II. The Ass.—III. Antiquity of the Mule.—IV. Breeding-Jacks.—V. Longevity of the Mule.—VI. The Value of Mules for Labor. VIL. Mules are not Vicious.—VIII. The Breeding of Mules..........-.-.00.005 157 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XIII PAGE. CHAPTER XI. HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE. . The Old System and the New.—II. The American Way Better than the English.— Ill. Difference Between Breaking and Training.—IV. First Lessons.—V. Learn- ing to Lead.—VI. T'o Make a Colt Come to You.—VII. Lessons in Sound Signals. —VIII. Flexions.—IX. The Proper Age for Work.—X. Harnessing and Driving. —XI. The Age for Real Work.—XII. How to Subdue a Wild Colt.—XIII. Hand- ling a Vicious Colt.—XIV. Subduing a Vicious or Tricky Horse.—XV. Training a Stallion for Service.—XVI. Training for Draft.—X VII. How to Have a Good Plow Team.—XVIIL. Forming a Good Saddle Horse.—XIX. The Different Gaits.—XX. Training to Trot in Harness.—XXI. Forming a Trotter.—X XII. Yo Train a Racer.—X XIII. Saddling.—X XIV. Harnessing...-.-.--+++++eeeees CHAPTER XII. STABLES AND OTHER SHELTER. The Economy of Comfort.—II. How to Build Stables.—III. Where to Keep Har- ness.—IV. Temperature and Ventilation.—V. ‘The Arrangement of Stalls.—VI. Construction of Mangers and Racks.— VII. The Hay and Straw Loft.—VIII. An Economical Granary.—IX. The Wagon and Carriage Floor.—X. The Harness Room.—XI. The Stable-Yard and Out-Sheds.—XII. Grass Lots near the Stable. —XIII. A Good Supply of Water.—XIV. Cleaning the Stable........-.++-+.+++ CHAPTER XIII. FEEDING, WATERING AND GROOMING. I. The Good that a Sieve Will Do.—II. How to Feed.—UI. When to Feed.—IV. What I. 1 to Feed.—V. Condiments.—VI. How to Make Mashes.—VII. How to Make Gruel.—_VIIL. The Quantity of Grain to Feed.—IX. Hay and Straw.—X. Groom- ing.—XI. When to Groom.—XII. General Stable Care.—XUI. Blankets and OPS ts GLO GHG sfetevetatntet ofeleralofaretal=)ejaiaistolaleis(aiayacsr-1e/s¥u)a)s\sfeleinisisre’s(els}viefe\sie) e(a'sisieleleia\ efewialel= CHAPTER XIV. HUMANITY AND COMMON SENSE. The Economy of Humane Treatment.—II. Common Sense in all Things.—III. Thrift and Unthrift Contrasted.—IV. Cruelty and Improvidence ys. Thrift and Kindness.—V. Why the Horse Requires Intelligent Management.—VI. How to Know an Intelligent Master.—VII. Pictures from Real Life-—VIII. The Kind Man Will Have a Willing Team.—IX. The ‘Good Fellow’s”’ Cruelty.—X. How 0) (CINE CONE Sy MINES Qo ddbogsesodososontaghoo0 dans DoCd Ono Nooo UUSIDOnp DOT ODC RE CHAPTER XV. HOW TO BUY AND SELL A HORSE. Accurate Knowledge Necessary.—II. Buying Cheap Horses.—UI. A Guarantee of Soundness.—IV. Know What you Buy for.—V. The Proportions of the Horse.—VI. Description of Eclipse.—VII. What Constitutes a Good Horse.— VIII. Models for Buying.—IX. The Racing and the Trotting Form.—X. The Roadster —NI. Saddle Horses.—XII. A Horse of High Form.—XHUI. Buying for Blood.—XTIV. Choosing the Brood Mare.—XY. Selecting the Stallion — XVI. How to Detect Vices and Defects.—XVII. Some Faults and Imperfections. —XVITI. What is Unsoundness?—XIX. Blemishes..........- sialsielaa/atetels(slsiefeleiete 166 182 190 198 209 XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART. II. DISEASES OF THE HORSE.—HOW TO KNOW THEM, THEIR CAUSES, PREVENTION AND CURE. CHAPTER I. SYMPTOMS AND GENERAL TREATMENT. PAGE. I. Introduction.—U. Outward Manifestations of Disease.—III. Symptoms of Internal Diseases.—IV. Importance of Prompt Treatment.—V. Know What You are Treating.—VI. Nursing and Feeding Sick Animals.—VII. Explanation of ‘Terms Used.—VIII. Graduation of Doses.—IX. How Often to Give Medicines.—X. Forms of Medicines, and How to Administer... ...........0scec cece sees seve cee CHAPTER II. FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES, I. Corns.—II. Quittor.—III. Quarter and Sand Cracks.—IV. Seedy Toe —V. Prick- ing from Nails.—VI. Acute Founder or Laminitis.—VII. Chronic Founder or TAM his— VA, Pam Cady Ree te poconcnooods aAoon SEH) WGN US etatetetraletelaleietel|erel=)ni=\«\clele|s/ slo (e\=tnlev= 339 A horse’s head with cold........---.- 339 Lymphatic gland of swollen throat... 340 INOS Hits goose Sp gonosopepoooddoO Neos 340 A horse with the throat blistered...... 340 Nasal gleet..-.-...... Seoossonnaae see O41 Effect of laryngitis..........-..-...- 342 XXXII PAGE. A fit subject for founder or bronchitis. 343 A painful cough of bronchitis........ 344 A horse dr essed for bronchitis........ 345, A case of congestion................. 346 Horse with pneumonia sreitacsiatsteteteicaersiate 347 Position assumed in pneumonia....... 347 Bad position of head for heaves....... 349 Horse with hydrothorax.............. 351 The act of coughing..... aoopaso GAP A seton in the throat of a horse Be eiteteisicrs 353 A horse with toothache............... 354 AMiorse quidding’...-..2.0seseceee as ¢ 305 IPisweleIMOLN Uo OoBon ODOgGo padesocnodad 355 Sore mouth from misuse of bit........ 356 StU IMU LIL Sp GoonpEMUDDOOLDEDDOOUOOE 356, MMU Ys Dyp HE! Ditisiere wiste olele's isis elalels lef 2 OG Abi eo e 1H es) (Cd oooonooood onda neGoo 356 PCE C NOUN e a ree patric sae: ateie Arnie clare 357 Burning for lampas.............0-+-- 397 MAD ASHI OMetotefelelelal=fainicieteioteloial-talelelelsiete 357 (Chios tins os acnooghospeayEaccgnases9o 358 The low choke with flatulence........ 359 Horse suffering from acute gastritis... 359 Chronic gastritis eosootononE SanSo0OpoC 360: Stomach or sleepy staggers .......... 361 The first stage of spasmodic Gol Gocken 362 Second stage of spasmodic colic...... 363 Third stage of spasmodic colic....... 364 Horse dying of flatulent colic......... 365 Trochar/ and CaNvUa)-te,2/-\< | «\a1e!= clelic cir 366 Attitude indicating abdominal injury.. 367 Nose strained upward................ 36 A horse with chronic dysentery....... Position indicating abdominal injury. IDiitesthGancDe ocadeocouno5 conDoEEEOO Another test for enteritis............. 372 Application of an ammoniacal blister. 372 Inflammation of the brain..... oposado axis A horse mad from brain disease...... 376 Expression characteristic of megrims. 378 The test for tetamus..-.------ 2.2506 : How tetanus limits motion............ 37 Abscess in the brain.........- Unsteady gait of partial paral A horse with influenza....... IZM ns goon oooay poooascoccogoueS 390 Glanders, first stage....-.......-. veee 39D Glamdersiartsestee ter ieiroleisie acto iaietsieieteletonrs 395 Examination for glanders......... +++. 395 Glanders, advanced stage............. 396 Glanders, last stave’). cc. seve wcceinieice 396 Section of glanderous lung............ 396 A bad case of strangles............- -- 398 Countenance of a horse with rabies... 399 Destructive impulse of hy cr opnepie: - 399 Straddling gait in urinary difficulty... 401 Test for inflammation of the kidney s.. 402 Horses with congestion of the kidneys 403 Horse suffering with bloody urine.... 407 Test for hemorrahage of the liver..... 421 Specific ophthalmia...............-.. 422 Simple ophthalmia............--.-+-- 424 Manner of opening the eye-......---- 42 1b Eye affected by serena............-.- 425 Manner of shading a horse’s eyes ....- 426 A frequent result of imperfect vision.. 427 Obstruction of lachrymal duct.....-. 42) Spreading the mange........+.++...-. 400 XXXII PaGE. Appearance of colt having worms... -- 451 Rubbing nose—symptom of worms... 451 Peuti istoma toenoides The gadfly IN [Yop Ase SS OANA The gadfly, at various stages Bots fastened to the stomach.........- Hen louse of the horse...........++- o Goniodes stylifer of the turkey....... Hoeimatopinus of horse and ass......++- Trichodectes or bird louse of the horse 434 Dermatocophagus equi.........+-++ : Dermatocoptes equi....+......eeee00e Mange mite (magnified) Sarcoptes equi... -..-ssecccssece Test for mange.....-.- Ringworm .--+....+++++- Cribbing....+++ +... +e. eee Gnawi ing the manger......- Playi ing \ with the grain....... Points “of the leg....... Diseased hock OUTS mn10sc/-1= <= == ‘ Lazy man’s way of cleaning the legs. air TRADE WENPendocoscco cade coon onae 445 The old way of giving a ball......... 446 Scratcehess-eeiscce rr ocean sierttel=ietere 447 Showing the veins of the foot......... 447 Exostosis of the coffin bone........+. 447 The proper way to give a ball......... 448 Feeding a horse w ith tetanus. .....0+. 449 ‘A sick horse nodoOno 2000 aoaacoc coodooes 2) JAI ateie ee lelereie)vlehsielelels\=1e10] siei= soscere 400 Many-tailed bandage......-.......+.- 452 Raising the vein before bleeding ..... 452 Striking the fleam with plood-stick- »- 402 Catehing the blood ......- Souooodonne hy! A hock when blistered.......- SSadnao Hay! Extirpation of the eye ......++..0+---* 456 Opening the abscess of strangles...... 459 Opening the skin in tapping ‘Chest..... 459 Water flowi ing from the chest .......-. 459 Uninterr ‘upted SULULE 2 2222 cece sco - 460 Quilled suture.. ........++- a «+» 460 Performing tracheotomy...---+++++ -- 461 Structures Met with in tr: acheotomy... 461 One test for roaring. .-+++ +++. sees eee 464 Gastro-enteritis. .... 060. ccccccsnccces 466 Drastic poisoning. .......-. +++ veces 400 Central American OX ....-....e0- qooo #8} Devon bull of fifty years ago.......... 493 Cherokee and Texan Cattle ......-..- » 494. Hereford cow and ealf of 20 years ago. 497 Durham or Teeswater bull and cow... 499 Skeleton of the Ox ..----.-sssesesesce 509 Outline of fat bullocks......... Gibooae 12K) Vertical section of the head.......-.. 510 Section of head Of OX ...---+-eeeeeeee 511 Short-horn ox in prime condition .... 512 Short-horn cow in outline....... Sanco wile Short-horn bull of 1840.......-++.0--- S41 Short-horn cow, Rosamond.......--- 542 2 Yearling Short-horn bull..... é Short-horn COW...--.++ee. A Short-horn bull....-..- A young Short-horn cow... Points of Short-horn bull..... sis\einlersiatett THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. OVSCY: DUN io cterelscte'eiei=!eteieielelam tele eccee Jersey bull, heifer and calf .......... Great milk mirror on Holstein cow. . Milk mirrors of Jersey cows....-.-- POLSCY: NEILSM «occ cerere, a0) siaterar elotelajetaya tela GUSCV A COW = tateteloletelstetetafotereiat-ls total The muscle, ¢rapezius, previously noticed rises from the ligaments of the neck, and the principal bones of the withers, terminating in a pointed shape on a prominent part of the shoulder blade, and is at x. Cur 4.—SHOWING MUSCLES OF SHOULDER AND ADJACENT PARTS, The muscle occupying the outer surface of the shoulder blade (scap- ula,) on the front side of the spine or ridge of that bone is termed antea spinatus, and is shown at 6, on pages 57, 62 and 64. It proceeds te the lower bone of the shoulder, and dividing into two parts, is inserted into the two prominences in front.of it. Its use is to extend the bone forward. Situated on the other side of the shoulder blade and inserted into the upper and outer head of the bone, drawing it outward and raising it, is the muscle called postea spinatus. Behind it is a small muscle (éeres minor) (d,) or little pectoral. Its office is to draw the shoulder forward towards the breast. Inside the arm, at its junction with the body, is an important and conspicuous muscle, the large pectoral muscle (pectoralis major) shown THE ECONOMY OF THE MUSCULAR COVERING. 63 at pm, page 64. This muscle pulls the whole fore leg inwards keep- ing it in a kine with the body, so as to induce an even and regular action of the limb. On the outside of the shoulder, and easily seen when a horse is in motion, are two muscles, (e) (anconeus longus) and (f) anconeus externus ) whose office is to straighten and extend the arm. That is, to bring the front limb down perpendicularly, and in a line with the lower bone of the shoulder (Humerus). Arising from the lower bone of the shoulder, they are inserted into the point of the elbows. The muscles which bend the arm upwards are not visible in the living animal, being almost entirely covered by those of the shoulder. The principal muscle of the back is the dafissimus dorst, shown on page 62 as extending from the shoulder to the haunch, and on pages 57 and 64 at the *; it is strongly attached to the processes of the back bones and ribs, and is employed in raising the fore and hind quarters, and in rearing and kicking. The portion which comes nearest the surface is that part which is covered by the saddle. No portion of it, however, is distinctly apparent without dissection. IV. Muscles of the Hinder Parts. The muscles shown in cut 4, are: a, Trapezius; a, Pectoralis minor ; b, Antea spinatus; c, Postea spinatus; d, Teres minor; e, Anconceus longus; ff, Anconeus externus; g, Serratus major ;*, Latissimus dorsi ; pm, Pectoralis major. These two latter are figured in the illustration on page 64, The Muscles of the Hind Quarters.—The illustration on page 65 shows all the prominent muscles of the hind quarters laid bare. Their names and references are as follows: 7, Gluteus externus; m, Gluteus medius; n, Triceps femoris; 0, Biceps; p, semi Membranosus, (shown on page 57); g, Musculus facie late ; 7, Rectus; s, Vastus externus; 1, Gracilis; v, Extensor pedis; w, Peroneus;x, Flexor pedis; y, Gastroc- nemii; 2, Flexor metatarsi. The Muscles Described.—The muscles of the hind parts are mostly strongly marked, and the situation of the principal ones will be easily recognized. With them will be included those concerned in or connected with the motion of the hinder limbs. Among the most prominent of the muscles on the front and outer parts of the haunch is that one (the Glu- twus medius) arising from the processes of several of the vertebre of the loins and from the prominent parts of the i/iwm, (the side bone of the pelvis heretofore described) and terminating at its insertion in the great trochanter or projection on the upper bone of the thigh (femur). 64 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. It is an important and powerful muscle and 1s used in raising and bring- ing forward the upper bone of the thigh. It has been not inaptly called the kicking muscle, and is shown at m, on pages 57 and 64 and 65. The gluteus externus, 1, is a slender muscle attached to the kicking mus- cle and has a similar origin and function. It may be called the assistant kicking muscle. CUT 5.—REAL SIDE VIEW OF THE MUSCULAR COVERING. The Three Headed Muscle.—When the horse is in motion a conspic- uous muscle of the hind-quarter is the three headed muscle of the thigh (triceps femoris), shown at n. This is really three muscles in one, each having a common origin and united together. It comes from several of the bones of the spine, including some at the root of the tail, and from various parts of the haunch bone. It curves downwards and forwards, dividing into three heads. These are inserted broadly into the upper part of the lower bone of the thigh behind the knee (stifle joint). Its action straightens the leg, and it has great power in carrying the animal forward, for while the g/utei muscles bend the leg before it takes the spring, the triceps, acting in opposition, forces the leg straight and lifts the body forward. The hinder margin of this muscle may be seen in all horses, parallel to the outline of the buttock, but it is prominent in racing THE ECONOMY OF THE MUSCULAR COVERING. 65 and trotting horses, when proper exercise has brought them into condi- tion. Parallel with the ¢riceps and immediately behind itis the biceps, shown on pages 57, 64 and 65, at 0. Springing from the sacrum and the first bones of the tail, it descends to the inner side of the lower bone of the thigh, forms the outer rear border of the haunch and assists in straight- ening the leg. Another flexor of the leg, forming the inner rear border of the haunch, and uniting on the mesial line with its fellow muscle of the other quarter is the semi membranosus, shown on page 64, at p, and also on page 57, at p p. CUT 6.—SHOWING MUSCLES OF THE HIND QUARTERS. At the outer front part of the haunch, is a peculiar muscle which binds down and secures the other muscles in front of the haunch. It is the musculus fascie late, shown at g, pages 57 and 65. It arises from the forward portion of the crest of the dium and is enclosed between two layers of tendinous substance which disappear below the stifle. 66 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. The fectus, r, forms the front edge of the thigh, and proceeds from the ziwm, in front of the hip joints, and is inserted into the knee cap, (patella) at the stifle joint. This muscle forms the front edge of the thigh. The vastus exturnus, s, is a large muscle behind the rectus and is also inserted into the patella. Only a part of it can be seen externally, and both this and the rectus are powerful extensors of the thigh. The sartorius, or tailor’s muscle, is a narrow strip descending inside the thigh, and terminating just below the stifle joint. It bends the leg, (tibia), and turns it inward. It is hardly visible. The gracilis, wu, lies by the side of this muscle, and at the rear of it, occupying the principal surface of the inside of the thigh, (femur). It is inserted into the upper part of the lower bone of the thigh, (¢bia). V. Muscles of the Fore Limbs. These have been delineated on page 51, in connection with the corres- ponding bones ; their names are there given. The elbow is the lever into which the muscles for extending the arm are inserted. They are of great power, and they extend up to the muscles of the shoulder, with which they are connected in reciprocal action. VI. Muscles of the Leg and Foot. The’ most important of the muscles which move the lower portion of the leg and foot, is the extensor pedis, seen on pages 57 and 65, at v. It comes from behind the stifle, from the extremity of the two bones of the thigh, (femur and tibia). Descending to the hock, its tendons pass under a sheath, confining it to its place in front of the joint. Thence it continues to the foot, and, widely expanding, is inserted in front of the coffin bone. The peroneus, seen at page 57 and 65 at w, comes from the fibula, and taking much the same course as the last-named muscle, but in amore lateral direction, the tendon passes on the outside of the hock and de- scends to the foot with the extensor pedis. ‘These two muscles act to lift the foot forward. Between them is another narrow muscle, which acts with them, and the tendon of which is seen just above the hock. One of the principal muscles for bending the foot is the flexor pedis, shown at pages 57 and 64 and 65 at a. Rising from the upper part of the tibia, it becomes tendinous before reaching the hock, and as a round, large cord passes through a groove at the back of that joint. Then descending behind the shank bone, it is inserted in the two pasterns. At the back of the thigh (¢/bia) may be seen the extremities of the gastrocnemii, pages 57 and 64 and 65 at y. The united tendons (tendon led THE ECONOMY OF THE MUSCULAR COVERING. 67 Achilles) pass to the point of the hock where they are inserted. In the horse the gastrocnemii are important muscles, and are aided by the plantaris. The flexor metatarsis is the muscle which bends the leg. It is on the inside of the thigh (¢/bia), and is shown on pages 57 and 64 and 65 at z. Originating above the stifle on the upper bone of the thigh (femur), it is inserted into the shank and inner splint bone. VII. Studying the Structure. Thus we have carefully gone over the bony and muscular structure of the horse, giving only such information as is indispensable for every horseman to have. The artist, from careful study of the anatomy and physiology of an animal, is able to draw and paint it correctly. The horseman should study it from the same standpoint. Thus both will be enabled to carry in the mind the appearance of a well-developed horse, The surgeon studies anatomy from a somewhat different standpoint. He wants to understand the various articulations, muscles, arteries, tendons, nerves, ganglia and viscera, with a view to surgery and the cure of dis- eases. The horseman and breeder studies anatomy and physiology to arrive at a better understanding of what goes to make up a good animal, endowed with speed, style, or development for draft. VIII. Internal Economy of the Horse. We next discuss the internal economy of the horse. For a better un- derstanding of the subject, we give a longitudinal section of the horse, showing Thorax (cavity of the chest, windpipe, etc.), Abdomen, Pelvis, etc., the intestines and liver being removed ; see next page. Names cf the Parts.—The explanation of the illustration is as follows : 1. That part of the skull (occiput) forming the hind part of the head. 2. The smaller division of the brain, or cerebellum. 3. The front or principal part of the brain, calledthe cerebrum. 4. The cartilege between the nostrils, nasal membrane. 5. The tongue. 6,6. Joints, articu- lations, of the neck bone. 17,7,7,7. The spinal cord or marrow. 8. Pharynzx ; the cavity into which the mouth and nose open, and which is continuous below the ewsophagus. It is bounded by the membraneous and muscular walls beneath the base of the skull. 9,9,9. The passage, esophagus, through which the food and drink go to the stomach. 10. The entrance of the stomach, passing through the diaphragm. The dia- phragm is the membrane separating the thorax from the abdomen, shown by the curved line. 11. The orifice of the stomach, pylorus, through which the food passes into the intestines. 12,12. The inner surface of the membrane, (diaphragm), which separates the stomach and bowels from the heart and Jungs. This membrane also assists in the act of ——— eee eee —— —— AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. THE 68 THE ECONOMY OF THE MUSCULAR COVERING. 69 respiration. 13,13. The wind-pipe, trachea. 14. The lungs. 15. The heart. a. Thestomach. 6. The spleen, sometimes called milt. c. The left kidney. d. The broad ligament of the uterus or womb, with the ovary or organ of generation displayed. ¢. The last portion of the large intestine, the rectum. f. The orifice of the large intestine, the anus. g,h, i,j,k, andl. These letters show the internal muscles of the thigh. They have already been explained. IX. External Parts of the Horse. This cut shows the external parts of the horse with their proper names. CUT $.—SHOWING EXTERNAL PARTS OF THE HORSE. Explanation:—1—The muzzle. 2—The face. 38—The forehead. 4—The poll. 5—The crest. 6—The jowl. 7—The gullet. 8—The wind-pipe. 9—Point of the shoulder. 10—The breast. 11—The arm. 12—The elbow. 13—The girth. 14.—The flank. 15—The sheath. 16—The stifle. 17—The withers. 18—The back. 19—The loins. 20—The hip. 21—The croup. 22—The dock. 23—The quarter. 24— The thigh or gaskin. 25—The ham-string 26—The point of the hock. 27—The hock. 28—The cannon bone of hind leg. 29—The fetlock. 30—The large pastern. 31—The small pastern. 82—The coronet. 33—The hoof. 34—The knee. 85—The cannon of fore leg. 36—The fetlock. 87—The heel. 388—The large pastern. 39—The small past- ern, 40—The hoof. CHAPTER IV. OUTWARD APPEARANCE OF THE HORSE AS INDICATING VALUE. Il. FAST WALKING HORSES. IV. THE HEAD ILLUSTRA- VI. BAD FOREQUARTERS. I. ACTION THE FIRST REQUISITE OF A GOOD HORSE. —III. HORSES FOR DIFFERENT KINDS OF WORK. TED OUTWARDLY. V. THE BODY AND LIMBS. Vil. THE BODY AS SEEN FROM THE FRONT. VIII. WHAT A CRITICAL HORSE- MAN SAID. IX. FRONT VIEW, SHOWING BAD FOREQUARTERS. X. THE HIN- DER PARTS ILLUSTRATED. XI. THE PROPELLING POWER. XII. WHAT THE ANCIENTS KNEW OF HORSES. XIII. WHAT ONE NEED NOT EXPECT. I. Action the First Requisite of a Good Horse. A horse, like every other farm animal, is to be bought with a view to the use for which he is intended. The buyer must therefore know what he wants the animal for ; if for slow draft a very different frame will be required from that needed when fast work is to be done; and yet the general symmetry of the animal must be looked to in every case. Fur- ther on the various breeds will be illustrated. The present chapter will deal simply with the outward conformations, showing good and bad forms, just as the preceding chapters have illustrated the bony structure and the muscular development. Action is of course the first requisite whatever use the horse is intended for, and fast walking is the ground- work upon which to build all other action. We give on the next page an illustration of a horse, as seen in a fast walking gait. Action in General.—Good action can never be gotten out of a lazy, lubberly horse. The animal must have spirit and ambition, whatever the breed. Action is of only two forms: smooth, safe, low action, and high, showy, or parade action. The latter is never admissible, except when the horse is intended only for show and parade, or for a certain class of carriage horses, or for slow driving or riding in parks or other places of public resort. It is unsafe, unless the animal be intelligent and naturally sure-footed ; for a high stepping dolt is generally bad-tempered, and as unsafe as he is ungainly. When slow-and-safe and fast-and-safe action are combined in the same animal, he is invaluable and should not be lightly parted with. Good action is attained when all the limbs are moved evenly and in accord one with the other, the hind limbs being kept well under the animal, ready for any emergency. The action should be square in walk- ing or trotting and without paddling with the fore legs, or straddling behind. It is true that paddlers are staunch and sure footed, and horses that straddle behind are sometimes fast, but this is in spite of such action, and not on account of it. They are never admissible, either in fine harness or under the saddle. 70 Ee OUTWARD APPEARANCE OF THE HORSE. 71 II. Fast Walking Horses. It 1s seldom one sees a horse that will walk four and a half or five miles an hour in regular 1-2-3-4 time, nodding his head in cadence. Yet any horse that conforms to the configuration shown in the cuts hereafter NI LNANAAOW “ONIMTVM , \ i [Ne fil Nt i i given in this chapter may easily be taught to do it, either under the sad- dle or in harness. Some horses may be taught to walk six miles an hour, but they are rare. Asa rule, fast-walking horses may be taught to trot fast, though some fast-walking horses are too broad-chested, to trot fast, ~! J) rs THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. and they will roll in galloping. It is for this reason that we give the illustrations, showing the perfect conformation for perfeet action. A horse that is good at all gaits, is a horse perfect in his conformation. Hence, a perfectly-formed horse will well repay careful training, for such a one will bring a large price for the time and labor spent upon his edu- ‘ation ; or if it be a mare that is to be kept for show, and later for breed- ing, the labor of training will not have been thrown away. Iii. Horses for Different Kinds of Work. Speed and bottom, which indicate the superior bone and muscle of good breeding, combined with great lung and heart power, whatever the breed, are what is desired ina horse. The nearer the animal comes to the llustrations given, the better will he be for general utility, and measurably so whatever the labor desired. The horse for heavy draft will be coarser, more stocky, heavier in the bone, not so flexible in the limbs, more upright in the shoulder, longer-haired, and perhaps with less courage. Occasionally, however, a thoroughbred makes a first-class work horse, if trained to get down steadily to the work. This very flexibility enables him to take a hard and long-continued pull without injury, and it brings the oblique shoulder of the blooded horse straight in the collar. Yet thoroughbred horses are not draft horses, and were neverintended to be, though they have imbued nearly every valuable breed existing to-day with some of their best characteristics. IV. The Head Illustrated Outwardly. The head is the seat of intelligence in all animals, and without intelli- gence we cannot have a good servant. The illustrations on pages 74 and 75 show the formation of heads from good to bad. Those on page 74 show the perfectly-formed head of a well-bred horse, present- ing a side and front view, that may be taken as a type constituting perfec- tion, asnear as may be. The side view exhibits the head fine and taper- ing to the muzzle, and the chin handsomely developed. The brow is smooth, distinct, and yet not heavily prominent. The eye is large, full, clear, and has a placid, intelligent expression. ‘The ears are fine and flex- ible, rather large, but well pointed, and alive with intelligent motion. The jaw is strong but fine. Observe the muscularity of the neck, and at the same time, its lines of swelling and delicate grace. Observe especi- ally the manner in which the head is set upon the neck. Again, it will be seen that the face is dished slightly, showing spirit, tempered to intelli- gent tractability. Now take the front view of the same head. Observe the great smooth swelling forehead, looking really broader between the eyes than it is. Why? It will be seen that the eyes are apparently at the side of the OUTWARD APPEARANCE OF THE HORSE. 73 head, and yet look straight forward. The temporal bones at the side of the eyes, and the occipital bone at the top of the head between the ears, are prominent. The nostrils and lips are large and flexible, and if one could turn back the folds of the nostrils at the ends, we might see a moist and healthy inside surface. In the living head corresponding to the fig- ure, all this would be apparent. If we examine the side and front views of the heads shown on the opposite page, the side view at the top indicates a head somewhat heavy, with the nose and lower jaw too thick. The nose swells out above the nostrils. The face is not dished, but is depressed. The eyes are bright, but with a somewhat wild expression. The eyebrows are prominent, and the head broad. The ears are thrown back, and the muzzle is cruel in its expression. The head is set on the neck at too great an angle. The expression, as a whole, is indeed that of an intelligent and spirited horse, but it is the intelligence of malice, and the spirit of self-will. In the front view, it will be seen that the eyes are too close together, and are in the front of the head rather than at the sides. The ears are pointed close together and backward, as though the animal only wanted the chance to do mischief. The face is full of strong lines, but not smooth ones. They are those of a stubbora animal that may do as you wish, if he cannot or dare not do otherwise. The next figure to the right shows not only a cruel, but a stupid expression. There is alack of intelligence, which, in the horse, means spirit, courageous docility, and a generous desire to do the will of a kind master. While this head does not show particularly bad form, yet the general expression, drooping ears, and the dull eye, show less character than the average horse should possess. There is yet another form, and a worse one. It is shown at the bottom of the page. Here we have self-willed obstinacy, and a wild, sulky dis- position. The profile is curved, giving a Roman nose, and the eyebrows are raised, indicating self-will and wildness. The firm jaw and lower face arecruel. It is a face that never goes with a horse safe to drive single, or to ride, except in the hands of one who is perfectly master of himself, and at the same time, always watchful and firm. Thus we might go on describing all the peculiarities of temper down through nervous timidity, as shown by the thin, clean face, the cowardly head, the idiotic, and even the head showing evidences of insanity ; for that there are horses subject to hallucinations, aberrations of mind, and even actual insanity, there is no doubt. The cowardly, the vicious, and the idiotic horse is never safe. The aberrant and the insane horse is always dangerous, even to the most practiced horseman, since neither caresses nor punishment avail. They will run their ‘*muck’’ at any hazard. 74 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. SIDE AND FRONT VIEW OF HEADS—GOOD, (See Explanation.) -~I Ql OUTWARD APPEARANCE OF THE HORSE. SIDE AND FRONT VIEW OF HEADS—BAD, (See Explanation.) 76 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. V. Body and Limbs. - The figure given on page 77 shows a side view of the head, neck, shoulder, and fore limbs, as they should be seen in a perfectly formed animal. On page 82 are side views of the fore quarters of horses, even down to those which easily become distorted from labor or use. In the perfectly formed horse, the neck is muscular and fine at the top, where it joins the head. There is no useless flesh, though where it joins the shoulder it is full and yet fine in proportion. The shoulder is deep, ob- lique or slanting. The shoulder-blade is high, giving stability to, and at the same time fully supporting, the withers. The breast is prominent, but narrowing to the point where the legs leave the body. The arm is long, muscular, and tapering to the knee. The joints are large, but firm and compact. The fetlocks are long but flexible. The hoofs are rather large, and are round, deep, tough, and sound. Itisthe shoulder of a sad- dle horse, of speed, bottom and endurance, that is seen in the cut. Few horses, even of the highest class, possess this perfect ideal conforma- tion. For the harness, the shoulder may be less oblique. The horse of all work, is more rigid and upright im limb and shoulder than the more speedy one ; yet the illustrations we give may be taken as the standard in judging a horse intended for every kind of work. The general appear- ance of the best animals of the various breeds is shown by cuts in their appropriate places in this volume. and pasterns are weak. There is too much length from the hoof to the joint above Tothe uneducated eye the pasterns might scem flexible. It is, however, the flexibility arising from weakness. The muscles which oJ LREEKANAY — Se SIDE VIEW OF FORE QUARTERS, SHOWING A GOOD SHOULDER. (See Explanation.) earry the tendons lack strength, and with age the power of holding them in position will decrease. If the reader will turn again to the chapter illustrating the muscular development of the horse he will understand these points better. THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. ui << fe es . SS I/, \\ ! Ki \ \y | { t by ) | / Ren ie? M oT \ ne x \4 f ] \ y RY NS \\ SN y) Z \\ Si ¥ 'yOX 7" vy f /, 4 | y i ii I Mt al { i) | ‘} / y} Mm) yf }y if fi | 23 | \ Pn —— eS = FRONT VIEW OF FORE-QUARTERS, SHOWING DIFFERENT BAD CONFORMATIONS OUTWARD APPEARANCE OF THE HORSE. \S YX, WN FRONT VIEW, SILOWING GOOD BREAST AND LIMBS. ‘See Explanation.) 50 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. The left hand lower figure exhibits a shoulder tolerably well placed, but the limbs are set too far under, and the pasterns are too straight, so that the animal appears to stand on his toes, and there is a general lack of muscle and sinew. The lower right hand figure will convey a good idea of what old age, abuse, hard work and want of care will bring to either of the three pairs of shoulders and limbs just noticed. Abuse and ill-usage might ruin the living representative of the perfect figure on page 77, but the limbs would remain comparatively sound to the last. VII. The Body as Seen from the Front. 7C In the illustration on page 79, the neck and shoulders are oval or egg- shaped. The chest seems narrow rather than broad, but this is because the muscular development about the breast bone is ample and full. Observe how grandly the muscle above the arm swells out, and what mag- nificent muscularity the arm presents with the two great thews running down to the knee. The joints are large and ample, as they should be, but also firm. The hoofs are tough and hard. Look carefully at the white space between the limbs running from the hoofs upwards. See how the neck, gradually rising from the chest, shows strength and a perfect proportion of one part to the other. The joints are compact and rounded, to meet the articulating shank and fetlock bones. The staunch strong hoofs are rather open behind, but show no indication of a flat foot. Set this and the preceding illustrations against the wall, retire until you get aperfect view, study them as an artist would a subject, compare them with the living animal, and, if you buy a horse for breeding or other use, buy as near to the model as possible. VIII. What a Critical Horseman said. One of the best authorities of all writers on the horse, a highly edu- cated Englishman, whose estimate of an animal was always made from the standpoint of general excellence, the late Henry William Herbert, in his exhaustive work, ‘*The Horse of America,”’ says: «*The points of the physical structure of a horse on which the most, indeed the whole of his utility depends, are his legs. Without his loco- moters all the rest, however beautiful it may be, is nothing worth. Therefore, to these we look first. The fore-shoulder should be long, obliquely set, with a considerable slope, high in the withers and thin above. The upper arm should be very long and muscular, the knee broad, flat and bony, the shank, or cannon bone, as short as may be, flat, not round, with clean, firm sinews; the pastern joints moderately long and oblique, but not too much so, as the excess produces springiness and weakness ; the hoofs firm, erect or deep, as opposed to flat, and the feet OUTWARD APPEARANCE OF THE HORSE. 81 generally large and round. In the hind-legs the quarters should be large, powerful, broad when looked at in profile, and square and solid from behind. Avoid Straight Hams.—‘‘ The hams should be sickle-shaped, not straight, and well let down, so as to bring the hocks well toward the ground. The hocks should be large and bony, straight, not angular and convexly cur- ved in their posterior outlines ; the shanks, corresponding to the cannon bones, short and flat, and the hind feet similar in form to the front. The back should be short above, from the point of the withers and shoulder- blade, which ought to run well back to the croup. The barrel should be round, and for a horse in which strength and quickness are looked to, more than great speed and stride, closely ribbed up. Anat oft y! ali mo ty disa! ~* - a9 coe bio A Re ay 2 aaayY AZAH” SS oO s to wat tywol od? bo woiv obieat nA pow -niaereyht Te esa be aie? Bar ‘iio ott how arrow ef dived albbint adi to syboeminel fogdnon Ode h opink doy Sone ~ pot iAaY WAH .& .OM Hoon zie te lao} a to wai odd to able 198i O siljout | albbiat add oo 4) peal CHAPTER VI. BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. I. INFLUENCES OF COUNTRY AND CLIMATE.——II. THE FARM HORSE.——IIf. THE CLYDESDALE HORSE.——IV. THE NORMAN-PERCHERON. V. THE PERCHERON OF TO-DAY.——VI. THE CONESTOGA HORSE. VII. ROAD HORSES.——VIII. TROTTING HORSES.——IX. HUNTING HORSES.——X. LIGHT DRIVING HORSES.——XI. COACH HORSES. XII. THE CLEVELAND BAY.——XIII. PONIES. XIV. THE VERMONT DRAFT HORSE. XV. THE NARRAGANSETT PACER. I. Influences of Country and Climate. Every country of the earth has a breed or breeds of horses, each with its peculiar characteristics ; and the horses of Asia, Africa, Europe and America have their points of difference as strongly marked as do the hu- man inhabitants of these grand divisions of the globe. Besides the pe- culiarities resulting from local influences of climate, topography, ete., the horse has others which are due to the treatment and training received at the hands of his masters, since from a long course of artificial breed- ing and feeding, he has become a purely artificial animal, except among barbarians or savage tribes. Among savages, his hard environment has made him degenerate—has in fact reduced him to a condition inferior to that of the horses found running wild where they have increased and multiplied on pasturable lands, after having escaped from domestication. The horse in the latter condition has already been sufficiently mentioned in the first chapter. In the present chapter we purpose to notice only the more important breeds of civilization, or those that have acquired celebrity for their valuable qualities. Ii. The Farm Horse. The farm horse is the most important member of the equine family, for the reason that he is used by the largest number of people, and is employed in the production of that which sustains lifein man. The farm horse cannot lay claim to the dignity of a distinct breed, as he is composed of mixed blood, and is dependent for whatever valuable qualities he possesses, upon the intelligence of the people by whom he is bred. The majority of farm horses are inferior to the more respec- table of the fixed breeds, though of late years they have steadily increas- edin valuable qualities, through the introduction of superior blood ; and inmany districts they are, as they should be, bred with reference to their sale for particular uses, after they have partially paid for their care by their labor on the farm. The Horse of All Work.—The farm horse should essentially be a horse of allwork, of good style and action, and of about 1200 pounds weight. 99 100 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. Such horses will be able to do anything that may be necessary to be done about the farm, plowing, reaping, hauling, or drawing the family carriage to church. When of suitable age they will bring good prices, the aoe er A Goov Horse ror Ligur WorK, ee aw Ay 4 eo oF <—- et oe > —se & best of them for use as carriage horses, and others for anything except heavy draft in cities, for express work, drawing omnibuses and other la- bor, requiring style and action, combined with strength. The figure «LSA at04,, BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 101 page 79 front view, and page 83 side view, and page 87 back view of hind quarters will illustrate our meaning. Light Farm Horses.—There is another horse that may well find a place on all large farms, a horse about fifteen hands high and weighing SS SE from 950 to 1050 pounds. Such a horse as this is called, in Engiand, a cob, a square-built, active animal, good for the saddle and all light work. Such a horse is represented on the preceding page. The tail, however, should never be docked ; for docking is a barbarous practice, and one now iO2 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOk. happily gone out of fashion. The Morgans, or rather their crosses, when bred up to the weight last mentioned, make admirable horses of this class. The Gold Dust Horses of Kentucky.—The Gold Dust Horses, which were originated by breeding from Morgan stallions on good thorough- bred mares, and carefully selecting for generations, make admirable light farm horses. High-strung, elegant, fast-going, staunch, and able for all light work on the farm, either for the saddle or harness, as light driving buggy horses in single harness, or for the light carriage in double harness, they are most excellent animals. III. The Clydesdale Horse. Another class of horses that may be made profitable on the breeding farm are what are known as draft horses proper. In the United States, the best representatives of this class are the Clydesdales and the Norman- Pereherons. The Clydesdales are an English-Scotch breed of great power, bone and substance, and are capable of drawing immense loads. Tn Canada there are many excellent representatives of this breed, and in the West they: are attracting more and more attention every year. The West of Scotland has long been famous for its excellent draft hor- ses. Their origin is probably due in part to the blood of Flemish mares, though but little is authentically known of their ancestry. Whatever their origin may be, it is certain that they have made Scotland famous for its draft-horse stock, and much of the excellence of the draft horses of the North of England, where the Clydesdale originated, is due to an infu- sion of this Scottish blood. In England these heavy horses are useful to farmers in working their tough clay soils. In the United States, especi- ally in the West and South, the alluvial nature of the soil does not re- quire such strength of team in plowing ; but the vast amount of hauling ta be done in and near cities, where the railroad and steamer traffic of the country centres, will always cause a demand for large, able-bodied draft horses. Points of the Clydesdale.—The jaw is broad and strong, and the muz- zle, though neither well developed nor fine, is provided with large nostrils capable of being widely dilated. The eye, though mild, shows courage and vigor. The forehead is broad between the eyes, and capacious. The ears are rather long, and by their intelligent motion indicate activity. The head is well set on the neck, and the neck, as it swells to the shoul- der, is massive, with great devolopment of muscle on top. The shoul- der is tolerably oblique, fully so for a draft horse. The breast is full, broad and strong. The leg is long from the arm to the knee, and short from the knee to the fetlock. The forearm is amply provided with ‘NOITTVLS ATVAsadATO BREEDS Or HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 103 104 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. muscle. The knees are large and bony, and from the knee to the fetlock, and from the hock down, the limb is covered with long hair; at the fet- lock the hair becomes thick and shaggy. The back and body of the Clydesdale can hardly be called symmetrical, yet the barrel is round, with the ribs extending well back toward the hip. The quarters are broad and low, with muscular thighs and large, clean, broad, well-developed hocks. The lower limbs are flat, as they will be in any horse well developed in muscle and tendons. The hoofs, large, tough, wide, are joined to ob- lique pasterns. The characteristic color of the Clydesdale is brown with white marks. The height is about sixteen and a half hands ; and both in walking and trotting there is a majesty about their movements, showing the power that nerves their action. Iv. The Norman-Percheron Horse. Norman-Percheron horses are now generally divided into two classes : the Norman, a heavy, muscular, closely-built animal of great bone and muscle, weighing sometimes 2,200 to 2,300 pounds, and the Percheron, a lighter, cleaner built and more active animal, attaining a weight up to 1,800 pounds. Both these strains of Norman blood are among the best of draft stock ever introduced into America. They are superior in some respects to the famous Conestoga horse of Pennsylvania, now prac- tically extinct. Much has been written about these excellent animals, both by partisans and by those who have investigated their history with a view to arrive at the real facts in relation to their ancestry. On the one hand it is contended that they arose from a cross of the Arabian upon the heavy native horses of Normandy ; and the defeat of the Sara- cens by Charles Martel, in which great numbers of their admirable cay- alry horses fell into the hands of the French, is cited in sypport of this view. Many of these Saracen horses, it is said, were brought to Nor- mandy and to La Perche, and hence the commingling of blood which resulted in the present admirable breed. The old Norman war horses were heavy, bony, slow, but strong, and capable of enduring much hard- ship. They were admirably adapted for their day, since they were capa- ble of carrying a knight in his heavy armor. Again, it is asserted that the Norman horse is descended from a race then peculiar to Brittainy, and used for draft, rather than for war. Another writer asserts that the Percheron is descended from a remote cross between the Andalusian, mixed with the Morocco barb, and again crossed upon the Norman, because, it is said, the Norman was too slow, and the Andalusian too light, fora knight in full armor. The old Norman horses are said to have transmitted to the race their great bone and muscle, while the Arab, or Andalusian, or whatever the cross may have been, a BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 105 added spirit, action, speed and bottom Whatever may be the facts as to their origin, both the sub-families of the Norman-Percheron combine the strength of the old Norman barb with something of the speed of the Arabian, and are capable of carrying great weights and of drawing heavy 106 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. loads at a fair rate of speed. A pair of the lighter Perche horses (called in France Diligence horses, from their use in drawing the coaches of this name) are capable of going at a speed of seven or eight miles an hour. These horses may now by regarded as having become a fixed race, cap- able of reproducing itself perfectly, unchanged, and without deterioration through generations, when pure sires are bred to pure dams. Bred to inferior mares, the stallion marks his impress wonderfully upon the pro- geny, and the pure mares also transmit their characteristics in the same wonderful manner. V. The Percheron of To-Day. The Percheron makes a capital cross upon any of the large, roomy mares of this country. When the Percheron is bred to this kind of dams, the progeny will possess great size, and will partake essentially of the qualities of the sire. If this progeny is again bred to a pure sire, the result is a three-quarters-bred horse that is but little inferior to the Per- cheron in all that constitutes power and capability for work. The Percheron is not what would be called a fast horse. He is not suited for pleasure driving, and yet he is capable of making long jour- neys at a speed fully equal to that of horses of more pretentions to speed. An instance is given where 58 miles out and 58 miles back was accomplished by a Percheron horse, in two days, the traveling time out being four hours and two minutes, while in returning the time was four hours, one minute and a half; and this without being urged with the whip. Again, a horse of this breed was driven 55 3-5 miles over a hilly and difficult road in four hours and twenty-four minutes, without distress to the animal. In outward appearance the Percheron presents a head that is not long, with broad brow and slightly dished face, showing intelligence, in which respect he resembles the Arabian. The neck is of fair length, strong, muscular and well-arched, but, like the head, well proportioned to the close-ribbed, round-barreled, short-backed body. The hind-quarters and shoulders are muscular, the lower part of the leg short, hairy and pos- sessing immense tendons. The hoofs are hard, sound, free from disease ; but the Percheron is somewhat inclined to be flat-footed. The height is from fifteen to sixteen hands, though many excellent specimens of the breed are somewhat under fifteen hands, especially the lighter Percheron proper. The same description will apply to the Norman proper, except that he is larger and somewhat coarser. Their general color is gray, running from iron-gray to the handsomest dappled gray. So difficult is it to draw the dividing line between the Norman and the Percheron, that the editor of the Percheron-Norman stud book seemed undecided just what, and what not, to admit into the stud book. Hence “adv NOWAHOUAG-NVAUON BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 107 the plan was adopted of giving a full account of the breeding, and crosses, so far as obtainable, and admitting to registry all stallions and Hh] HH} | UTAH { IWAN bl mares imported from France as Percheron, Norman, Percheron-Norman, or Norman-Percheron. 108 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. VI. The Conestoga Horse. It is unfortunate that the Conestoga, one of the very best of Ameri- can horses for draft, for all work in fact on the road or on the farm, should have been allowed to become extinct. Strong and able in every respect, a handsome, quick-stepping animal, and as honest as an ox at a dead pull, the Conestoga horse possessed qualities which entitled his breed to perpetuation. His original home was the Conestoga Valley, of Pennsylvania, and hence the name. This valley was originally settled by Germans, who undoubtedly brought with them the heavy German and Danish horses of their native land. Under the ample feed and genial climate of the Conestoga Valley, these foreign horses were, by careful selection, and an occasional dash of the staunch thorough blood of those days, developed into a race of horses ranging from sixteen to seventeen hands in height, weighing from 1250 to 1500 pounds, and proving to be among the most valuable horses ever known for drawing great loads over hill and mountain. A cross of the Cleveland Bay upon large, round- barrelled, roomy mares might again result in something like this horse. The experiment would be well worth the trial by breeders, who have the will and the years before them to originate a breed of horses, that would be capable of doing any work, from deep plowing, to wagoning and heavy carriage work. Though the Conestoga is no longer bred in purity, there are yet many maresin Pennsylvania descended from this stock, which if crossed with the Cleveland Bay, as we have known him, would, the breed being carefully perserved in, produce a stock of horses possessing most of the valuable qualities of the Conestoga. There are many such horses, in the pastures of Ohio and Pennsylvania. They are high headed, rather long in the limbs, not quite good in the barrel ; but, if bred as we have described the outcome would be most satisfactory. The Cleveland Bay is not really a draft animal, but is most excellent as a horse of all work, and will he described further on. VII. Road Horses. Many persons get their ideas of what a carriage horse, and especially a driving horse, should be, from English books, and from travelers who have visited that country. So far as action for show, in harness and the saddle, are concerned, they are admirable models, omitting their docked tails, which, are happily going out of fashion there ; and which, in this country of generally dry roads and stinging insects, are not to be toler- ated at all. The model English roadster is a horse in high condition for service, not overloaded with fat, but in a condition of muscular strength and ability that would be difficult to better. A horse for similar road service should be 15 to 15 1-2 hands high, of good style, and well-mus- cled throughout. If he be half to three quarters-bred from accepted BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 109 trotting families, so much the better. In fact, in the United States, as has for many years been the rule in England, the road horses of the bet- ter class, are strongly imbued with thorough blood. Such were the Morgans, and such are the Gold Dusts, while many gentlemen’s driving horses now-a-days are closely bred to the blood of Hambletonian, Bell- founder, Abdallah and other famous getters of horses for the trotting course. In another part of this work will be found portraits of the American type of trotting horses, among them Goldsmith’s Maid, and the highly-bred roadsters. The road horse should not only be a horse of good substance in bone and muscle, but he should also be an animal of fine style, a quality which is not always found in the trotting horse of the race course. If he can go fast and safely with high action, it is better ; but style he should have, and his temper must be without fault. His head must be light and held well up, the limbs strong and clean, the shoulders and pasterns oblique, and having that springy, nervous action characteristic only of high breeding. VIII. Trotting Horses. ‘The trotting horse’ of the turf has appropriated the name because he is par excellence the fleetest and most highly-valued of trotters. The road horse, though having the same gait, falls short of being a ‘‘trotting horse,’’ only in that he cannot make speed with the wheel-and-harness kings of the turf. If a trotter have great speed the lack of style in him is overlooked. If he is stylish and fast enough for fine driving he will bring a good price as a roadster, even though he do not possess great speed. A trotter which lacks both style and speed degenerates into a mere hack. IX. Hunting Horses. Another valuable class of horses, especially in the South, are what would be denominated in England, light hunting horses. The light hunt- ing horse must be well-bred, able to gallop at speed, and to leap ordinary obstacles, as hedges, ditches and fences; in this country he should be taught to swim easily and take to the water promptly, especially when deer is the game hunted. Thoroughbreds, that are not fast enough for the turf, make capital hunting horses, for foxes, and, in open, smooth country, for deer and prairie wolves ; but they are not capable of carry- ing heavy weights in a rough country, or over serious obstacles, and under such conditions necessarily soon come to grief. No matter what may be the blood of a horse, if he do not take kindly to the water and to leaping, he would be dangerous in the extreme to ride to hounds, or at least would soon fall behind the chase, which is but little less mortifying to the true huntsman than to be landed in a ditch. The hunter of to-day 110 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. is far better-bred and lighter than those which men now in middle age rode in youth, though a three-quarters-bred horse, of the Monmouth- Eclipse blood, upon which, as a boy we followed the chase in Illinois, up i La HT HunTING HORSE. A Lic to thirty years ago, was well-enough bred for to-day. He was a large, slashing horse, that never refused a Virginia fence, ditch or water,— there were no hedges in the West in those days—and never brought the rider to grief, though sometimes disaster seemed near enough as we went BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. Halal floundering in and out of deep, muddy streams. The horse, the deer- hound, the mastiff and the boy were all good friends, a veritable happy family who were in at the death of many a deer and prairie wolf, before fences obstructed the chase in Northern Illinois. --1tHN""\.~ TAINS FAA ES ; Z yy SHO] PNILNAY UalAVa_ y cf A Heavier Hunting Horse.—The next illustration shows a heavier hunting horse for the saddle, when speed and bottom are desired. He is a horse of good style and action, capable of long and high speed under 11:2 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. the weight of a man of 180 pounds—and heavier men should never hunt. Sucha horse should be capable of great speed when called on,, A FINE TROTTER IN LiGHT HARNESS, able, and willing to take any leap a sensible man would put him at, and sure-footed to a high degree. To this end, every hunting horse should have large Jungs and heart, the best possible form, hard, firm bones,, BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. ES strong tendons, and great rauscular power. He should be cleanly formed, oblique shouldered and fetlocked, with high withers. If, in addition, he have what is called a double loin, he will earry his rider safely and easily, and combine in his form all the requisites of a good saddle horse, that will leave any cold-blooded horse blown in a very short trial of bottom ; for the horses we haye been describing are not found outside the range of highly bred animals. Nevertheless, it must be remembered that the hunting horse is not to be put to the labor of draft; in fact, he should never be harnessed. He is a saddle horse, and the form required to move easily in harness, and especially under a load, would soon unfit him for the saddle, and for the hunting field. X. Light Driving Horses. The light driving horse is not required to have high speed ; eight to twelve miles an hour is sufficient ; but he must be of unimpeachable style and action. Such horses are much sought, for driving on smooth roads, in parks and pleasure-grounds, where style and luxurious surroundings are the rule. They are also valuable for any service when only one per- son, or, at most, two light ones, are to be carried, since they will often go rapidly over roads with one person where heavier horses would labor. Here, again, we present an English type which shows a horse, the per- fection of style and action, in movement. Sometimes they are fast, but not when going in the form shown in the illustration. The head is out of position for fast work, but is right for style and dainty movement. It will be observed that there is no check-rein. The horse has been trained under a curb, and requires nearly as light a hand to manage as though under the saddle. XI. Coach Horses. The carriage horse bears to the coach horse the same relation that the light driving horse bears to the roadster. Horses, for the light or medi- um-weight carriage, should be handsome in appearance, and of better speed than those used for the coach or boxed-in vehicle. Any road- horse of 1050 to 1100 pounds will be suitable for the light or medium carriage. For the coach, a more stately animal is sought. He may have rather long limbs, if he is otherwise of suitable form and of good style ; but he must not be deficient in muscular power, since a fair speed is required, and without muscle no horse can drag a coach over muddy, dificult roads. The illustration we give of an English coach horse shows a long-limbed, rangey horse, stylish and muscular. He should be from 16 to 17 hands high, with clean-cut head and neck, since only this class of horses can acquire the high stepping action, so much sought by 114 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. elderly ladies and gentlemen, who seek to compensate in this way for the speed they so liked in their younger days. How to breed such horses is partially stated in describing the Conestoga horse. Another way would be to breed staunch, muscular and handsome thoroughbreds upon mares of large size, round barreled, and of good form. Heavy DRAFT. An ENGLISH CoAacH HORSE. XII. The Cleveland Bay. We come next to a class of horses always held in the highest esteem for their many valuable qualities. It is a horse that is now bred to a de- gree of perfection that leaves little to be desired in all that goes to con- stitute size, style and ability to perform any labor that may be requir- ed, except the heaviest drudgery. The Cleveland Bays are good carriage ‘AVG ANVIAAATO V BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 115 horses, good and stout wagon or plow horses, and they match together about as easily as Devon cattle, combining, as they do, plenty of staunch AMO | HINA THI thorough blood with excellent size and constitutional vigor. Unfortu- nately they are yet rare in the United States, but since their introduction into the West, they have been steadily growinginto favor. They are re- markable for their pure bay color, dashed only at the fetlocks and in the 116 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. forehead with white. The illustration shows one of the most perfect of the class, a blood-bay with one white hind fetlock, and a star in the fore- head. The old-fashioned Cleveland Bay of fifty years ago in England is, like the Conestoga of the United States, extinct, but a better horse in ey- ery way has been bred up from him. The late Henry William Herbert describes them as he knew them im England, when a boy. ‘* This great English family,” says Mr. Herbert, ‘*which may, perhaps, be regarded as the true type of the English horse of the Midland Counties, from the remotest times, is that of the far- famed Cleveland Bays. Cleveland, a district of the East-riding of York- shire, and the Vale of Pickering, in the same county, has been, from a very distant period, the principal breeding region for carriage horses, hunters, troop horses, and hackneys, of the highest grade; and it still preserves its character in that particular; although the character of the animals themselves, used for all these purposes, is now entirely altered ; and although, in consequence of the alteration of the demand, the origi- nal breed is rapidly passing away, and a pure Cleveland Bay, of unmixed or unimproved blood, is now rarely to be met with, even in its own native district. ‘©The Cleveland Bay, in its natural and unmixed form, is a tall, pow- erfully-built, bony animal, averaging, I should say, fifteen hands three inches in height, rarely falling short of fifteen and a half, or exceeding sixteen and a half hands. ‘©The crest and withers are almost invariably good, the head bony, lean, and well set on. Ewe necks are, probably, rarer in this family than in any other, unless it be the dray-horse, in which it is never seen. ‘*The faults of shape, to which the Cleveland Bay is most liable, are narrowness of chest, undue length of body, and flatness of the cannon and shank bones. Their color is universally bay, rather on the yellow bay than on the blood bay color, with black manes, tails and legs. ‘* They are sound, hardy, active, powerful horses, with excellent cap- abilities for draught, and good endurance, so long as they are not pushed beyond their speed, which may be estimated at from six to eight miles an hour, on a trot, or from ten to twelve—the latter quite the maximum —on a gallop, under almost any weight. ‘©The larger and more showy of these animals, of the tallest and heaviest type, were the favorite coach horses of their day ; the more spry and lightly-built, of equal height, were the hunters, inthe days when the fox was hunted by his drag, unkenneled, and run half a dozen hours or more, before he was either earthed, or worn out and worried to death. Then the shorter, lower, and more closely ribbed-up were the BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 117 road hackneys ; a style of horse unhappily now almost extinet, and hay- ing, unequally, substituted in its place, a wretched, weedy, half-bred or three-quarter-bred beast, fit neither to go the pace with a weight on its back, nor to last the time. «* From these Cleveland Bays, however, though in their pure state nearly extinct, a very superior animal has descended, which, after several steps and gradations, has settled down into a family, common through- out all Yorkshire, and more or less all the midland counties, as the farm- horse, and riding or driving horse of the farmers, having about two crosses, more or less, of blood on the original Cleveland stock. ‘The first gradation, when pace became a desideratum with hounds, was the stinting of the best Cleveland Bay mares to good thoroughbred horses, with a view to the progeny turning out hunters, troop horses, or in the last resort, stage-coach horses, or, as they were termed, machiners. The most promising of these half-bred colts were kept as stallions; and mares, of the same type with their dams, stinted to them, produced the improved English carriage horse of fifty years ago. ««The next step was the putting of half-bred fillies, by thoroughbreds out of Cleveland Bay mares, a second time, to thoroughbred stallions ; their progeny to become the hunters, while themselves and their brothers were lowered into the carriage horses ; and the half-bred. stallions, which had been the getters of carriage horses, were degraded into the sires of the new, improved cart-horse.”’ Thus it will be seen that we have good authority for our admiration of this splendid animal. Canada has of late years become celebrated for finely-bred and finely-matched carriage horses ; which is due to the sagac- ity of some Canadian breeders, in selecting Cleveland Bay stallions for sires. XIII. Ponies. Ponies are much sought, of late years, for children’s riding, and for pony carriages. Indian ponies, Canadian ponies, and Shetlands have all been called into requisition, while in the West and South, the smaller Mustangs of Texas are used. Unless taken young, the Mustangs are wild, intractable, and often vicious. The Indian pony is fast becoming extinet, and Canadian ponies are also growing scarce. These latter, many of them, are really handsome, small horses, of thirteen to fourteen hands high, hardy, docile and of the most steadfast nerve, courage and bottom. They are self-willed, but perfectly tractable if not abused. Shetland ponies are still smaller, and rougher; but they are ambitious little fellows, and scamper along easily at a good pace, with a twelve year old boy or girl on their backs. The illus- tration, shows a group of these hardy little animals. It is claimed that 118 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. no true Shetland can be more than eleven hands high, and some of those in the extreme northern isles of Tell and Unst do not exceed seven and SHETLAND PONIES. IH NRT aE \\ si! ahalf hands. The average is from nine to ten hands. Although the smallest of ponies, they are the most perfect in form, round and closely BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 119 ribbed-up, with lean bony heads, wide between the eyes, and otherwise wellshaped, very muscular, with coarse bushy manes and tails. They are gentle and easily trained ; and it is said that some of them are capable of carrying a light man forty miles between sunrise and sunset. The Mustang.—The Mustangs are undersized and not handsome ; de- scended from horses gone wild after escaping from the early Spanish ad- venturers, they have degenerated owing to the scanty fare and hard usage received at the hands of their Indian masters. They are of various colors, as are all the semi-wild horses of Texasand Mexico. The Indian ponies found in the West are undoubtedly of the same origin as the Canadian pony. They are pure, but modified, Norman, escaped from domestication and bred in a half wild state by the Indians of the Northwestern States and Territories. They are larger and heavier than the Indian horse or Mustang of the Southwestern plains and are in every way superior animals. Some- times they are fourteen hands high, but the average is about thirteen hands. They are compact, closely ribbed, stout, muscular, couragous little fellows, docile and sagacious in the extreme, with wavy tails, and shagey manes falling on both sides of the neck. If carefully bred in high northern latitudes, and well-trained, they would make admirable chil- dren’s ponies and would readily sell for large prices to the wealthy. XIV. The Vermont Draft Horse. This is another breed of horses of most admirable qualities, specimens of which are now very rare, probably because their use in cities has been superseded by the introduction of the Percheron, Clydesdale and other heavier animals. The Vermont draft horses would weigh from 1,150 to 1,200 pounds ; of fine breeding, clean-limbed, handsome, muscular, with fine crests, capable of drawing heavy loads at a good pace, they were in the days preceding the advent of the locomotive, the crack horses of the stage companies of the Northern New England States. As cavalry horses, they were said to have no superior, since they moved with speed, alertness, and with: great force and power by reason of their weight. It is to be hoped that we may find, in the Cleveland Bay and his crosses, as good an animal of all work, both for saddle and harness. XV. The Narragansett Pacer. Here is another of the extinct races of American horses, one that is said to have originated in Rhode Island, from an Andalusian stallion brought from Spain at an early day. They were largely raised, during the last century and the first part of the present century, for exportation to the West India Islands for the use of the families of the planters. Their only gait was a pace of the most perfect and easy-going descrip- tion. They are reputed to have been so easy-going that ladies could ride 120 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. them forty miles a day for many days in succession without experiencing excessive fatigue. That they were horses of great bottom, and some- times of extraordinary speed, is undoubtedly true. The Colonial divine, Dr. MeSparren, in his ** America Dissected,”’ speaking of the horses of Virginia, says: ‘* There were plenty of a small sort of horses —the hest in the world, like the little Scotch Galloways ; and “tis no extraordinary journey to ride from sixty to seventy miles ina day. I have often, but on larger pacing horses, rode fifty, nay, sixty, miles a day, even here in New England, where the roads are rough, stony and uneyen.’’ Again, speaking of the Narragansett pacer particularly, as an animal for export, he says: ‘* They are remarkable for swift pacing ; and I have seen some of them pace a mile in a little more than two minutes, and a good deal less than three.’’? The good doctor probably did not hold a timing-watch onthem. The story, however, is fully as credible as that other story of Flying Childers having run a mile in a minute. bed CHAPTER VII. THOROUGHBRED HORSES. I. ENGLISH THOROUGHBREDS. Il. HERBERT’S HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE. Ill. THE FIRST LONDON RACE COURSE. IV. HORSES TAKEN TO ENGLAND BY CRUSADERS. VY. BONE AND BULK IMPARTED TO THE ENGLISH HORSE. VI. THE HORSE IN THE TIMES OF HENRY VIII AND JAMES I.——VII. AMERICAN THOROUGH- BREDS. VIII. THE ARABIAN. I. English Thoroughbreds. The English thoroughbreds are horses of mixed lineage. They are not apure race, bred for hundreds of years without admixture of foreign blood; but they rather owe their great excellence to the crossing of Arabian, Barb, and other Oriental blood, upon the best racing stock of the last and the preceding century. The English have been famous, dur- ing the last thousand years, for their horses, especially for horses of speed and endurance. They have always had a passionate fondness for the chase and for racing ; and their kings and nobles have done much to keep alive this feeling, by securing, from time to time, the best foreign blood that could be secured to impart fresh stamina and vigor to their stock of horses. Many persons are prejudiced against thoroughbred horses, because they have been used for gambling purposes on the turf, but this fact should not be allowed to create hostility against valuable animals. As well might wheat and corn be placed under a ban because these indispensable cereals are used for purposes of gambling specula- tion. It isthis passion for trying the speed of horses, which has pre- vailed during the last ten centuries, that has led to the selection of the best breeds and given an impetus during the past 100 years to really scientific breeding. And it is to these latter causes that we owe all that is of val- ue in any of the improved breeds of horses existing to-day, not even ex- cepting our draft horses. Let us look at the history of the blooded horse of England, and view its gradual rise and progress, even from be- yond the Christian era. II. Herbert’s History of the English Horse. Henry William Herbert, in his admirable and voluminous work on the Horse of America, now unfortunately out of print, has traced the Eng- lish horse so carefully, and at the same time so concisely, that one cannot do better than extract therefrom matter that otherwise the mass of the readers of to-day could not come at. He says, upon the authority of Youatt: ‘That horses were introduced into Britain long before the Christian era, we have abundant evidence, and that the inhabitants had 121 yD THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. acquired great experience in their use is equally certain. In the ancient British language 22hediad is the word for a race—rheder, to run—and rhedecfa, « race. All these spring from the Gaulish rheda, a chariot. Here, then, is a direct evidence that horses were introduced from Gaul, and that chariot-races were established at a very early period.’ ‘This evidence’ says Mr. Herbert ‘‘is not to my mind direct or con- clusive, as to the fact of the introduction of the horse from Gaul; al- though it is so, as to the antiquity of chariot-racing in both countries, and to the non-Roman descent or introduction of the British or Gaulish animal. As the blood, the religion and the language of the Britons were cognate, if not identical, with those of some, at least, of the Gallic tribes, it is no more certain that the Gallic Reda is the theme of the British rheder, than that it is derived therefrom. It does, however, in a great degree prove that the Gallic and British horses were identical, and de- scended not from any breed transmitted through Greece and Italy, but from one brought inland to the northward of the Alps ; perhaps by those Gauls, who ravaged Upper Greece and Northern Italy, almost before the existence of authentic history ; perhaps by their original ancestors ; at all events, of antique Thracian or Thessalic descent, and, therefore, of re- mote but direct oriental race, in all probability again improved by a later desert cross, derived from the Numidian cavalry of the Carthaginian Bareas, long previous to the Cesarian campaigns in Gaul or the invasions of the sacred island of the Druids. This, however, is of small imme- diate moment, and is more curious and interesting to the scholar and the antiquary, than to the horseman or horsebreeder. ‘‘From the different kinds of vehicles, noticed by the Latin writers, it would appear that the ancient Britons had horses trained to different purposes, as well domestic as warlike. “It is well observed by Youatt, in his larger work on the horse, that from the cumbrous structure of the car, and the fury with which it was driven, and from the badness or non-existence of roads, they must have been both active and powerful in an extraordinary degree. ‘Cesar,’ he adds, though without stating his authority, ‘thought them so valuable, that he carried many of them to Rome; and the British horses were, for a considerable period afterwards, in great request in various parts of the Roman empire.’ ‘During the occupation of England by the Romans, the British horse was crossed to a considerable extent by the Roman horse,’ continues the author in the volume first quoted ; for which I would myself, for reasons above stated, prefer to substitue by the foreign horses of the Roman mercenary or allied cavalry, ‘and yet, strange to say, no opinion 1s given by any historian, Roman or British, as to the effect of this. After the THOROUGHBRED HORSES. 123 evacuation of England by the Romans, and its conquest by the Saxons, considerable attention was paid to the English breed of horses, and we know that after the reign of Alfred, running horses were imported from Germany ;’ this being the first historical intimation we have of running horses in England. It is scarcely to be doubted that this importation produced a marked effect on the character of the native breed, but here, as before, no historian has thought it worth his while to record the fact of either improvement or deterioration. «¢ «English horses, after this, appear to have been highly prized on the continent, so that the German horses which were presented by Hugh Capet to Athelstan had been turned to goodaccount. The English them- selves were, however, anxious to preserve the monopoly of the breed, for in 930, A. D., a law prohibited the exportation of horses. In Athelstan’s reign many Spanish horses were imported, which shows the desire of the English, even at that» early period, to improve the breed. It is no wou- der that their descendants should haye produced the finest horses in the world. Shortly before the Norman conquest a horse was valued at thirty shillmgs, a mare or colt at twenty shillings, an ox at*thirty pence, a cow at twenty-four pence—these prices in case of their being destroyed or negligently lost—and a manat a pound.’ Money, it should be noted, then being equivalent to at least fifteen times its present value. William the Conqueror took great pains to improve the English breed, introducing many fine animals from Normandy, Flanders and Spain. This monarch owed his success at Hastings chiefly to his cavalry; his own horse was a Spanish one. In this reign we have the first notice of horses being employed in agriculture. They had been used for the saddle for many centuries, Bede informing us that the English began to use horses as early us 631 A. D., and that people of rank distinguished themselves by appear- ing frequently on horseback. During the Conqueror’s reign the then Earl of Shrewsbury, Roger de Belesme, brought a number of Spanish horses to his estate of Powisland. The breed issuing from these is highly eulogized by Giraldus Cambrensis and Dayton. In the reign of Henry I. we have an account of the first Arab horse imported into the country. It was presented by Alexander I., King of Scotland, to the church of St. Andrew’s, with many valuable accoutrements and a considerable estate. History, however, is silent as to the purposes to which this animal was devoted, or as to what ultimately became of him. “It has been well pointed out, inthis connection, that the ancient histo- rians, being exclusively monks and churchmen, naturally paid little atten- tion to the breeding of horses, which were held to belong to war rather than to agriculture, and were forbidden to their order; and farther, it may be observed that, until, comparatively speaking, very recent times, 124 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. no heed has been given to the statistics of agriculture or animal improve- ment, and little mention made of such matters, beyond a casual and pass- ing notice, even by the best historians. IiI. The First London Race-Course. ‘©* The English,’ proceeds the work from which I quote, ‘had now,’ —that is to say in the reign of Henry I.—‘become sensible of the value and breed of their horses ; and in the twelfth century a regular race-course had been established in London, this being no other than Smithfield, which was at once horse-market and race-course. Fitz Stephen, who lived at that period, gives the following aceccunt of the contests between the palfreys of the day. ‘When a race is to be run by horses, which in their kind are strong and fleet, a shout is raised, and common horses are ordered to withdraw from out the way. Two jockeys then, or sometimes three, as the match may be made, prepare themselves for the contest, such as are used to ride, and know how to manage their horses with judg- ment, the grand point being to prevent a competitor from getting before them. The horses on their part are not without emulation. They tremble, and are impatient and continually inmotion. At last the signal once given, they hurry along with unremitting velocity; the jockeys inspired with the thoughts of applause and the hopes of victory, clapping spurs to their willing steeds, brandishing their whips and cheering them with their cries.’ IV. Horses taken to England by Crusaders. ‘It is stated by Mr. Youatt, although, singularly enough, he main- tains that the crusaders did not introduce eastern horses, that Richard I, did import two from Cyprus, which he observes were of eastern origin. The statement is made on the faith of an old metrical Romance, which is that entitled by the name of the monarch whose feats it celebrated, usually supposed to be of the time of Edward I., and contained in Ellis’s Metrical Romances. The lines are curious, as they indicate a full ac- quaintance with various animals, natives of the East, and more particu- larly with the especial qualities of the oriental horse, his speed and sure- footedness. «* These horses were named Favell and Lyard— ‘In the world was not their peer, Dromedary, not destrere, Steed *rabyte, ne camayl, That ran so swift sans fail, For a thousand pounds of gold, Should not that one be sold.’ Destrere, is the old spelling of the word Destrier, in Norman French, derived from the barbarous, Middle Age Latin, Deatrarius signifying a THOROUGHBRED HORSES. 125 war-horse. Edward I. also is known to have introduced horses from the East ; and that accurate and inquiring antiquary, Sir Walter Scott, de- scribes his spirit, or the demon of the haunted camp under his form, in the nocturnal tourney with Alexander of Scotland, as being recognized by the horse he bestrode. ‘ Alike his Syrian courser’s frame, The rider’s length of limb the same.’ V. Bone and Bulk Imparted to the English Horse. «Spanish horses, had come to be renowned, as chargers, so early as the Norman conquest, but it is more than questionable whether their su- periority was as yet known to arise from their being traceable, in nearly two thirds, to the blood of the Desert. At this time, it would seem to have been considered desirable to stengthen the English horse, and gain bone and bulk, rather than blood—not, I imagine, as Mr. Youatt sug- gests in the following sentence, for agricultural, but rather for military purposes ; in order to endure the ponderous burden of the mail-clad men- at-arms. ‘King John, he says, ‘paid great attention to the improvement of horses for agricultural purposes, and to him we are indebted for the ori- gin of our draught-horses. He chiefly imported Flemish horses’—one hundred chosen stallions on a single occasion ; the Flanders horse being as it was even in the time of Marlborough and Prince Eugene—the most approved cavalry trooper—‘ and such was his anxiety to possess the finest stock from these, that he would accept strong horses as rent for crown-lands, and as fines for the renewal of leases. His personal stud was both numerous and excellent.’ One hundred years afterward, Ed- ward II. purchased thirty war-horses and twelve heavy draught-horses. ‘‘Edward the III. devoted one thousand marks to the purchase of fifty Spanish horses ; and of such importance did he conceive-this addition to the English, or rather mingled blood, then existing, that formal applica- tion was made to the kings of France and Spain to grant safe-conduct to the troop. When they had safely arrived at the royal stud, it was com- puted that they had cost the monarch no less than thirteen pounds six shillings and eight pence per horse, equal in value to one hundred and sixty pounds of our money. This monarch had many running horses. The precise meaning of the term is not, however, clear. It might be light and speedy horses in opposition to the war-horses, or those that were literally used for the purposes of racing.”’ VI. The Horse in the Times of Henry VIII. and James I. Our authority follows the history of the horse in England up to the reign of Henry VIII., who compelled the destruction of under-sized 126 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK, horses, and rendered compulsory the maintenance of so great a number of full-sized mares and _ stallions, in every deer park, and in every rural parish of the realm, that the reign of this monarch was marked by : decided increase in the breeding of powerful, well-formed animals. It appears that the King even rode a race himself, for it is stated, by Miss Strickland, that the King rode a-Maying, with Katherine and the royal bride, Mary, widow of Louis XII., of France, and the bride of Charles Brandon. The amusements of the day, says Miss Strickland, were brought to a close by the King and his brother-in-law, the Duke of Suf- folk, riding races on great coursers, which were like the Flemish breed of dray horses. During the reign of Henry VIII., an annual race was run at Chester, the prize being a wooden ball, handsomely embellished, for which, in 1540, a silver bell, called St. George’s bell, was substituted. Hence the phrase, ‘* Bear the bell,’’ in allusion to one who has come off victorious in 2 contest. In the reign of James I. races were merely matches against time, trials of speed and bottom for long and ** cruel distances.’ From the time of James I. the history of the English race-horse, and of English ‘acing, may be said fairly to begin, though no existing pedigrees are traced back to that time. But, though pedigrees be not directly traced to great antiquity, enough has been given of the history of English horses to let the reader know how long was the time, and how careful the breed- ing, required to produce, in the thoroughbred of to-day, the most superb race of horses the world has ever known; for wind, speed and bottom, he is without a rival in ancient or modern times. The horse has of course always figured prominently in fiction and r6- mance ; but in this connection it will suffice to state the fact that in the Homeric poems of the Trojan war, there is no mention of the trumpet or of cavalry. In Virgil, mounted men, saddles, spurs, and clarions are mentioned. In the romance of ** Sir Bevis, of Southampton,’” he speaks of races of three miles, for ‘* forty pounds of ready golde.’’ Homer knew nothing of horsemen and trumpets in war, while Virgil was famil- iar with them. The author of ‘*Sir Bevis,’’ in his day and generation probably saw races of long distances, and long-distance races generally precede short ones. The excellence of the English race horse of the last 100 years is prob- ably more due to the Barb than to any other one strain. It was in 1121 that the first Arabian was imported into England, but the Arabian of that day was not what he was in the centuries 1400, 1500 and 1600, during the time immediately succeeding the overthrow of Charles I. Of English racing horses, Eclipse was the most wonderful of all whose perform- ances have come down to us well authenticated, THOROUGHBRED HORSES. 127 1 ) \ | Hl \] 4) Mi { Wh Mh) mi | | h | | \ } Hy i | | } My i i WAH ) i Kili 4 i ite Hab { eum” ar ‘XVd-OL 40 GaudHyAONOHL Nvomany 128 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. VII. American Thoroughbreds. The thoroughbred horse of America is of course the descendant of English ancestors. It is probably true that the American thoroughbred is a superior animal to the English thoroughbred; and this opinion is certainly fortified by the triumphs of American horses in England and France, in their greatest races, in the year 1881. A horse transported from one country to another, entirely different in climate, might be par- doned for not performing as well there as he would do at home. Yet, our horses have won laurels in England and France from the very best thoroughbreds there, and in their most exacting races. In the South, there has always been a passion for the sports of the field, and much attention has been devoted to the breeding of horses of speed and bottom. Interest in fine horses is growing in the North from year to year, but while we have some high-caste breeding studs in the North, the South, and especially Kentucky and Tennessee, still holds the lead. It will not be necessary here to go into a detailed history or description of the American thoroughbred. Importations made before the revolutionary war, and continued from time to time have given us a horse that has no superior on the earth; one that has at last snatched victory from the best of English horses on their own turf. In France, American horses have held their own against the best of English and French thoroughbreds. VIII. The Arabian. The Arabians profess to trace the ancestry of their horses back to the time of Solomon, yet in the light of authentic history, their horses before the thirteenth century were not of a character worthy of special notice. The horse of the desert receives the personal care and affection of his master. To the Arab the horse is not only a companion in solitude, but is also his only means of locomotion in arduous and perilous journeys. It is not strange, therefore, that these nomads of the desert should bestow much care upon the breeding and rearing of their horses ; and during the past seven centuries, such care has been bestowed. The Arabs undoubt- edly did understand the true principle of breeding, care, feeding, selec- tion and training, at a period when Arabia was the seat of learning, and all Europe was enveloped in the gloom of the dark ages, or was just beginning feebly to see the dawn of the revival of letters. Arabian travelers of the last century do not agree as tothe number of distinct breeds of horses in that country. A Mohammedan writer who seems to have had candor, and a good opportunity for gathermg facts di- vides them into six tribes, as follows : ‘Ivasdad AHL AO NVIAVUV NV a y) i) h is THOROUGHBRED HORSES. | i 1) Hi Hh TMNT THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. YOUNG CLYDESDALES.—(See page 102 THOROUGHBRED HORSES. 131 ‘* The Degelfe, found chiefly in Arabia Felix, seldom seen at Damascus, but common in the neighborhood of Anaze. Horses of this breed are of lofty stature, have narrow chests, but are deep in the girth, and their ears are long. They are remarkable for spirit and fleetness, but are ex- ceedingly tractable, and their ability to endure hunger and thirst is a remarkable feature. ** The Secaloni, a breed from the eastern part of the desert, somewhat inferior to the Dgelfe, though resembling him in most points. ‘©The Mefki, a handsome horse, but not so fleet as either the Dgelfe or the Secaloni. In figure, he bears a resemblance to the Spanish or Andalusian stock. ‘© A fourth breed is called the Sabi, similar to the Mefki, but seems to possess no specially useful or striking qualities. ‘©The Fridi. This breed is very common; but they are often vicious and untrustworthy, and lack some of the excellent qualities possessed by the best of the others. ‘* The Nejdi, found chiefly in the region of Bussorah. These are said to be at least the equals of the Dgelfe and the Seealoni. Some judges assert that there is no horse to be compared with them, and they stand very high in the market.”’ The Dgelfe and Nejdi are reported to be the most valuable. They are known to be the favorites of the horse-fanciers of India, many fine ani- mals of these stocks having been carried thither by the sportsmen of that country. Other writers make mention of but three distinct breeds, to which they attribute names different from those above given; and it is difficult to reconcile the statements of the two, and to determine whether they have really agreed in any way in pointing out the same animal, though by diverse names, as possessing the striking excellences which have made a certain breed famous and well known to us. Writers of the latter class speak of an inferior race, little esteemed, at home or abroad, which they call the Attechi. These are sometimes found in a wild state. Then come the Kadischi, a sort of half-breed stock, possessing some points of resemblance to the true blood, and being sometimes imposed upon dealers for the genuine. Finally, they describe a superb race, the pure descend- ants of some extraordinary ancestors, and these they call the Kochlani or Kailhan. The best of them are found among the Shammar and Aneyza tribes. The Arabs themselves pretend to trace the Kochlani back to the days and the stables of Solomon. While this cannot be credited, it is known that some of them have written pedigrees for at least four hundred years, with extreme care, and always on the side of the mare. They are 132 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. finely-formed, enduring, fleet, rather small-sized horses of great vivacity and intelligence, but for speed, bottom and physical development decidedly inferior to our thoroughbreds. Yet, though not as swift as the English or American thoroughbred, the Arabian is one of the best of horses. And while we could hardly gain any advantage from a fresh infusion of this blood, the Arabian is king on his native deserts, and no other horse could there fill his place. He is peculiarly adapted to the wants of the people and to the topography of that barren country. So good a horse is he to-day that English residents in India pay from $700 to $1,000 for the best that are offered for sale ; and it is we!l known that the best horses of the desert are never sold at any price. The illustration, page 129, shows the best form of the Arabian, as they are found in their native deserts. As showing the wonderful variations in breeds, we present an illustra- tion on page 164, as an object lesson of the immense Derbyshire cart horse of England, now comparatively rare. In the United States they are not considered valuable, having been superseded by the more modern and valuable Clydesdales and Norman-Percherons. A comparison with the Arabian will fully convey our meaning as between the delicately bred and nervous Arabian and the stolid and elephantine cart horse. CHAPTER VIII. ABOUT TROTTING HORSES. ~ I. THE BREEDING OF TROTTERS.——II. PROGENITORS OF FAST TROTTERS—MESSENGER. Ill. IMPORTED BELLFOUNDER. IV. THE MODERN TROTTER——V. WHAT GOLDSMITH MAID WAS LIKE.—— VI. THE MOVEMENT IN TROTTING. ——VII. DIS- USE OF THE TROTTING FACULTY. —— VIII. A RECORD OF SIXTY YEARS.— IX. STRAINS OF TROTTING BLOOD. I. The Breeding of Trotters. The production of trotting horses, like that of racers, has come to be a distinct branch of breeding, and is pursued as a specialty, with a view to developing, in the highest possible form, the best trotting action in the horse. Hence, any person undertaking this branch of the breeder’s profession needs to understand the peculiar form to be attained, and also to know the families from which the best trotters have been bred. The Morgans.—Twenty years ago the trotting form was thought by many to be most strongly developed in the Morgans; at least it was hoped that this breed might be found to possess the qualifications nec- essary to develop the highest degree of trotting speed. The Morgans, however, disappointed the expectations placed upon them. The records of the turf have proved that fast trotters owe their speed to thorough breeding ; and that their speed is directly in proportion to the degree of blood of thoroughbreds of trotting peculiarities that is in their veins. Ethan Allen.—Ethan Allen, one of the most celebrated of the Mor- gans, was a good trotter for his day, and yet he was never able to beat Flora Temple. At three years old he trotted a mile, three heats, in 2:42; 2: 39 and 2:36 minutes, which was the fastest time then record- ed for that age. The false estimate placed upon Morgan horses up to twenty years ago, not only kept back the development of really excellent trotters, but was a positive and incalculable damage to the horses of the country generally, in that it caused the size of the farm ani- mals to be reduced. Tor the farmers especially went zealously into the rage for possessing Morgan horses. Development of the Trotting Horse.—The trotting horse of America has been entirely developed within the last forty years. He is not an animal of a separate and distinct breed ; for first-rate trotters have come of Canadian or Norman-French blood, from the horses of the middle States of mixed blood, from the Morgans and other New England breeds, and from Western horses of mixed blood. 135 154 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. II. Progenitors of Fast Trotters. Notable among the horses that have made wonderful records in trot- ting of late years are those descended from, and partaking largely of the blood of, Messenger, Bellfounder and of Hambletonian. Hambletonian, after a career of varied success as a racer, at length became distinguished as a getter of trotting horses of elegance, finish, speed and endur- ance, either under the saddle or in harness. It is not our purpose to go minutely into the record of noted performances on the American trotting turf. Nowhere else in the world is the fondness for exhibitions of speed in trotting, so nearly universal among the people, as it has become here ; and in no other country are such exhibitions so patronized by every class. Even in Russia, the home of the famous Orloff breed, this sport is by no means a national one. Where the general reader is usually so well informed of current events, the familiar details of exploits upon the turf are deemed to contain far less interest than will be found ina brief account of some of the most celebrated sires, whose descendants have proved constant in their performances. Messenger.—The original source of our best blood, Imported Mes- senger, not only gained fame for himself, but bequeathed his excellen- ces to a long line of descendants, who have been famous in the annals of the turf. His own ancestry possessed character for great and peculiar merit. Foaled in 1780, his first sire was Mambrino; second sire, En- cineer ; third sire, Sampson ; fourth sire, Blaze ; fifth sire, Flying Childers ; sixth sire, The Darley Arabian. On the female side, his dam was by Turf ; second dam, the sister of Figurante, was by Regulas; third dam by Bolton Starling; fourth dam, Snaps by Fox; fifth dam, Gipsey by Bay Bolton, and so on through Newcastle Turk, Brierly Turk, Taffolet Barb, to the ninth dam by Place’s White Turk, out of a natural Barb mare. Messenger was threfore in-bred to a considerable degree, and combined in his veins the purest and richest blood of early English race horses. Potency of Arabian Blood.—Godolphin Arabian appears three times in the pedigree of Messenger. Flying Childers was the phenomenon of the English turf in his day, and the accounts of his performances appear almost fabulous. Of one of the progenitors of Messenger, Sampson, it is said that while the thoroughbred of his day was scarcely more than fourteen and a half hands high, rarely reaching fifteen, Sampson was fifteen hands two inches, and was reported to be the largest-boned blood horse then ever bred. Horses of the Sampson blood, as we knew it nearly forty years ago, were wonderfully compact animals of great bone, muscle andsinew. Sampson, Engineer and Mambrino were all rough and coarse, and the last two were considered the strongest and heaviest-boned horses ABOUT TROTTING HORSES. 135 of the English turf. It was a most lucky circumstance for American studs that a scion of these coarse horses was imported, to stamp his impress upon the thoroughbred of this country. We have found that kind of coarseness to be the embodiment of strength, bone, muscle, and consequently of most enduring speed and bottom. . SUTVHS ., “MULLOUL HSITONA NV 9 III. Imported Bellfounder. This wonderful animal was known in his day as the Norfolk trotter, and was, like Flying Childers, a phenomenon of the turf. He was fifteen hands high, a bright bay in color, with black legs. Being seven years old at the date of his importation, in 1822, he must have 1356 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. been foaled in 1815. At five years old he trotted two miles in six min- utes, and the next year, trotted nine miles in twenty-nine minutes and thirty-eight seconds. Velocity, his dam, by Haphazard, trotted, in 1806, sixteen miles in an hour, and in 1808 trotted twenty-eight miles in an hour and forty-seven minutes ; wonderful work it was for that day, and would be so considered, if performed by a horse of the present time. Bellfounder’s Ancestry.—Bellfounder was not thoroughbred. He was sired by Fireaway out of a Shields mare. The Shields horse, oth- erwise called ‘*Shales,’’? in England nearly one hundred years ago were hackneys, or, as we would now call them, road and trotting horses. Had the English people cultivated driving, as they did riding, America might not stand unrivalled, as she does to-day, in the pre-eminence of her road and trotting horses. IV. The Modern Trotter. Our account of modern trotters would be incomplete if we should wholly omit to mention that wonderful descendant of Hambletonian, Lady Suffolk. Nor must the Morgans be forgotten. The Canadian trotters also claim remembrance ; notable among which were those won- derful little pony-horses, many of them not fourteen hands high, known as the St. Laurences, from the name of their sire. The best of them were good for a three-minute gait on the road, before a buggy ; for ener- gy, docility, speed and tireless endurance, while drawing the load of a horse, they have seldom been equaled among animals of their size. But it is our purpose more especially to notice the famous trotters of the last twenty years. Goldsmith Maid and Abdallah. Among the galaxy of wonderful per- formers, none surpass Goldsmith Maid. This remarkable mare was foaled in 1857. Her sire was Edsall’s Hambletonian, and her dam a mare by old Abdallah. Abdallah wasa Hambletonian. In 1862 he became the property of R. A. Alexander, the celebrated Kentucky breeder of thorough- breds, and was thereafter known as Alexander’s Abdallah. Early in 1865, this Abdallah, together with several other valuable horses, among them Bay Chief, a son of Mambrino Chief, was seized by Guerillas. Shortly after, in an attack upon the guerillas by Federal soldiers, Abdal- lah fell into the hands of one of the attacking party, who refused to give him up. This magnificent stallion, unshod and wholly out of condition for hard service, was nevertheless ridden day after day, over the roughest and hilliest road, until at last, completely exhausted, he was turned loose on the wayside,and died of pneumonia. Abdallah as a Sire.—To show what might have come of this horse, had he lived, it is only necessary to mention some of his offspring and to note ABOUT TROTTING HORSES. 137 MOH, ONILLOWL V S "AVC-OT, JO AS what they have done. First is Goldsmith Maid with a record of 2:14; and a further record of 232 heats with 2:30 as the slowest. We also have Major Edsall, who made his mile in 2:29; and Wood’s Hambletonian, 138 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. with sons making records in from 2: 23to 2: 27%. Pacing Abdallah, the getter of excellent roadsters, was another of his sons, as was Belmont, the sire of horses going the mile in 2: 23 3to 2:30. Again, there is Thern- greatly celebrated, not only for his own great speed, but for the excellent trotting qualities of his offspring. In 1876, after serving eight years in the stud, he made five mile heats in 2 : 227; 2:221; 2:32}; 2:20; 2:25. Another remarkable son of Alexander’s Abdallah, is Almont. His offspring are yet young to the track, but Pied- mont, at four years old, trotted in 2: 303. dale, a compact and muscular stallion, V. What Goldsmith Maid Was Like. The likeness of Goldsmith Maid shows her appearance, when in trot- ting condition, and will be studied with interest as an accurate view of the proportions of this most famous and one of the best bred of the Queens of the trotting course. She was fifteen hands and one inch in height, and seems rather delicately made in a superficial examination of her form. Yet the quality of her make-up is in every respect superb. An accurate and capable writer says of her: ‘*Her head and neck are very clean and blood-like ; her shoulder sloping and well placed ; middle piece tolerably deep at the girth, but so light at the waist as to give her a tucked-up appearance, and one would say a lack of constitution, but fox the abundant evidence to the contrary ; loin and coupling good ; quarters of the greyhound order—broad and sinewy; her limbs are clean, fine- boned and wiry; feet rather small, but of good quality. She is high mettled and takes an abundance of work without flinching. In her high- est trotting form, drawn to an edge, she is almost deer-like in appear- ance, and when scoring for a start and alive to the emergencies of the race, with her great flashing eye and dilated nostril, she is a perfect pic- ture of animation and living beauty. Her gait is long, bold and sweep- ing, and she is, in the hands of a driver acquainted with her peculiarities, a perfect piece of machinery. She seldom makes an out-and-out break, but frequently makes a skip, and has been accused of losing nothing in either case. Aside from the distinction of having trotted the fastest mile on record, she also enjoys the honor of making the fastest three consecu- tive heats ever won in a race, which renders any comments upon her staying qualities unnecessary.”’ The time of Goldsmith Maid has been beaten several times since 1877, but this detracts nothing from her wonderful performance. She con- tinued on the turf until past twenty years old, and after completing that age she closed her public career with the year 1877 by trotting, during that year, forty-one heats in 2:30 or better, and making a time record of ABOUT TROTTING HORSES. 159 2:143. Her record stands at the close of her career at 2: 14, with 332 heats in 2:30 or better. Herrecord and her carcer are the marvel of the age. ‘CIV HLINSaTOy VI. The Movement in Trotting. A trotter, especially if he go fast, must go level and square, both be- fore and behind, and with as low action as may be compatible with the necessary stride. It is this ability to go close to the ground, or in what 140 THE AMERICAN FARMERS STOCK BOOK. has been called by some the sling-trot, and by others the slouching trot, of the thoroughbred, that enables the best trotters to make their great speed; the sling-trot is simply the gait in which the animal reaches far forward without raising the feet umnecessarily high, thus economizing se wily hve 7 Wa “| MOVEMENT IN TROTTING. time and muscle. This movement, at an easy gait, of, say twelve miles an hour, is well displayed in the cut illustrating the trotting movement. It is not an artificial gait, as has been stated by some good English horse- men. Every one who has reared a well-bred colt has seen it, when fol- gait, with head up and tail > lowing the dam, strike naturally into this ABOUT TROTTING HORSES. 141 straight out. The trot is a natural gait of any horse, and is always used when going at easy speed on a smooth surface; but the best trotting action is the result of breeding and training. VII. Disuse of the Trotting Faculty. That the English blood-horse has lost the trotting faculty to a great extent, is not because it was never in the blood, but because it was never allowed to be exercised in the training. And, as few horses could ever gallop fast or far, without special training, so, no horse can trot to the best adv antage unless the gait has been Eareioped by long practice ; and it isa peculiarity of this gait that the trotting horse, arike the runner, seldom arrives at his best, until he is over eight years old. The same rule will apply to fast walking horses. They must be specially trained to walk fast, and there is no better preparation for the trotting horse than this preliminary training in walking. VIII. A Record of Sixty Years. This chapter could not be more appropriately brought to a close, than by a brief record of events showing the development of trotting horses, and the growth of speed. For the facts we are indebted to Porter’s Spirit of the Times. They have been selected with special reference to their interest to the readers of this work: In 1824, A. M. Giles trotted his horse 28 miles in one hour and fifty- seven seconds. Thesame year Topgallant and Betsy Baker were matched to trot three miles in harness for $1,000 a side. The race was won by Topgallant by 40 yards, in 8 rainutes, 42 seconds. Topgallant also trot- ted 12 miles on the road in 39 minutes. The ‘‘Albany pony’’ did a mile in 2 minutes, 40 seconds. The Treadwell mare did one mile in 2: 34; and Boston Blue trotted 18 miles within the hour. Boston Blue is re- ported to have been the first horse that trotted a mile in three minutes ; it having been done in 1818. © So that it will be seen that the Treadwell mare in 1824 had reduced the time to 2:34. Yet for many years after, a 2:40 horse was considered extraordinary, as also was any horse capable of going on the road in 3 minutes. In 1827, on the Hunting Park Association course of Philadelphia, Secrew- driver won two heats at two miles, beating Betsy Baker in 8 :02 and 8: 10, the third best ip on record. Dutchman afterwards accomplished the same distance in 7: 322, and Lady Suffolk in 7:40. In 1840, on ee Long Island course, Jerry beat Whalebone in a three- mile trotting race, in 8:23 the first heat, and 8:15 the second. The best time for 2 mile heats that year was 5:22, 5:21; for3 miles, 8: 26, 8: 27,8: See 8:56. On long distances Sweetbrier accomplished six miles m18:5 142 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. In 1834 Edwin Forrest, as yet an unentered horse, trotted his mile in 2:51), beating Sally Miller. The course was 1 mile and 10 yards in length. In 1835 Dutchman made four miles, under the saddle, in 11:19 and 10: 51, and Dolly, by Messenger, out of a thoroughbred mare, five miles to wagon, carrying two men, weighing 810 pounds, in 16:45; and im- mediately was started again to do 10 miles more, which she accomplished in 34:07. The same year the horse Daniel D. Thompkins, under the saddle, trotted three-mile heats in 7:59 and 8:10. In 1842 Ripton beat Lady Suffolk, at three miles in harness, in 5:07 and 5:17. In 1843 Lady Suffolk made mile heats in 2: 28}, 2:28, 2:28, 2:29 and 2: 32, which was not again equaled until 1854, when this record was covered by Tacony. In 1844 Cayuga Chief made the first half-mile of a race in 1:15, the fastest yet made in public; and Fanny Jenks accomplished 100 miles in harness, in 9 hours, 388 minutes and 84 seconds. The slowest mile was done in 6:25 and the fastest in4d: 47. At the end of the race this mare was driven an extra mile in 4: 23. In 1849 Lady Suffolk trotted 19 times and won 12, beating Gray Eagle and Mae twice, Pelham five times, Lady Sutton twice, Trustee four times ; also beat Black Hawk, Gray Trouble, Plowboy and other horses. This year a Canadian mare, Fly, is said to have been driven from Cornwall to Montreal, ninety miles, in 8 hours and 15 minutes. Fanny Jenks made 100 miles in 9 hours 88 minutes and 34 seconds. Fanny Murray trotted 100 miles in 9 hours 41 minutes and 23 seconds. In 1852 Tacony won 12 races, beating all the best horses of the day, making a single mile in 2:26; two miles in 5:02 and was beaten only twice. Asa 3 year, Ethan Allen trotted this year in 3:20. Flora Tem- ple this year won her first purse, on the regular turf, in 2:41. In 1853 the entire sporting interest was centered in Flora Temple and Tacony. Flora this year beat all the best horses of the day winning sey- enteen times. Her best time at mile heats was 2:27, 2:28, and at two- mile heats 5: 014, 4:59. This year Tacony trotted a mile in 2: 253. In 1856 the contest lay principally between Flora Temple and Lancet. Flora made 11 races, winning 9, beating Lancet four times in harness, and Tacony three times in harness, Tacony going under the saddle. This year Flora Temple lowered the one-mile record to 2: 244. IX. Strains of Trotting Blood. That the trotting horse of America owes his great powers to the infu- sion of thorough blood, we have before stated. To Imported Messenger ABOUT TROTTING HORSES. 143 is this due in the greatest degree. Another great trotting sire of Amer- ica was Imported Bellfounder. There has been much controversy over his breeding, first and last, but that he was a staunch trotter and a getter of admirable horses, there is no doubt, giving splendid action to his get. Still, it must be admitted that, admirable as was Bellfounder himself, his get was not equal to the descendants of Messenger in all that constitutes speed, endurance and action. Duroe also became a valuable factor in our trotting blood. His strain of blood appears in the Medley’s, Duroc Messenger’s, Mambrino Chief’s and Gold Dust’s. One of the sub-families of Messenger’s blood, Hambletonian, who united the blood of Messenger and Bellfounder, has raised the trotting horse of America to the highest point of perfection. He was not a hand- some horse from a thoroughbred standpoint, if indeed he was thorough- bred, which has been doubted. His pedigree has been given as follows : Hambletonian was by Abdallah; he by Mambrino, a son of Messenger. The dam of Abdallah was the mare Amazonian. The dam of Hambletonian was by Imported Bellfounder ; second dam by Hambletonian ; third dam, Silvertail, said to have been by Imported Messenger In all that constitutes stoutness and ability to perform, in freedom from tendency to disability, his stock has been wonderful. Noted for immense and strong joints, length and strength of bone, magnificent mus- cular development, prominent, square, massive build, mighty hips and excellent barrel, all knit together to form a most admirable frame, united to a nervous constitution that reproduced itself in his descendants, in a most wonderful degree. In relation to the descendants of the progenitors of the strains of trot- ting blood, Mr. H. T. Helm, in his work, ‘*American Roadsters and Trotting Horses,”’ says of the trotting horse of to-day: ‘‘The combined Abdallah-Bellfounder is a horse of the teens; Goldsmith Maid, 2:14; Dexter, 2:17; Gloster, 2:17; Bodine, 2:19}; St. Julian, 2: 22}; Gazelle, 2:21; Fullerton, 2:18; Mountain Boy, 2: 203; Jay Gould, 2: 213; Nettie, 2:18; Startle—. Joe Elliot would, in his opinion, have stood as a bright star in the firmament.’? We can add to this our own opinion as a breeder of descendants of Messenger and Bellfounder many years ago, that we never had a disappointing colt. They were mighty driving horses, of great bone, muscle and sinew, of great lung power, and, of course, of great endurance. CHAPTER IX. THE BREEDING AND REARING OF COLTS. 1. IMPORTANCE OF ACCURATE KNOWLEDGE.——II. BREED FROM MATURE ANIMALS. Ill, NO PROFIT IN INFERIOR HORSES. IV. HEREDITY IN ANIMALS.——YV. PECU- LIAR ORGANIC STRUCTURE.——VI. HEREDITY OF DISEASE.——VII. AVATISM OR BREEDING BACK.—BREED TO NONE BUT THE BEST.——VIII. VARIATION AND DEVEL- OPMENT. IX. TRANSMISSION OF QUALITIES. X. THE IMPRESS OF COLOR AND FORM. XI. RELATION OF SIZE IN SIRE AND DAM.——XII. BREED ONLY FROM PURE SIRES. XIII. THE BEST ARE CHEAPEST IN THE END.—XIV. SELECTION OF STALLION AND MARE.——XV. SERVICE OF THE STALLION.——XVI. THE PERIOD OF GESTATION TREATMENT.——XVII. TREATMENT AFTER FOALING. XVIII. HOW TO KNOW IF A MARE IS IN FOAL.——XIX. HOW TO KNOW THE FOALING TIME. XX. THE FOALING STALL.——XXI. ABORTION, OR SLINKING THE FETUS. XXII. HOW TO RAISE A COLT. I. Importance of Accurate Knowledge. The breeding and raising of farm stock is one of the most interesting branches of agricultural art, and it is one requiring judgment and ac- curate knowledge in a high degree. In the preceding chapters we have therefore, carefully gone over the ground covered by what pertains to the anatomy and physical condition of the horse, to the end that any intelligent person may become so thoroughly master of the subject that he may not only know what constitutes a good horse, but may also decide with tolerable accuracy as to the age and constitutional vigor of an animal, and be familiar with the characteristics of the principal breeds. Know what You Breed For.—A horse should be bred with a view solely to the labor he is to perform. The first thing for the breeder to do, therefore, isto decide what he wants with the horse. If the animal is intended for the turf, there is but one course to pursue ; breed only to horses of the most approved pedigree, for the distance, whether it be one, two, three, or four miles. It is well known that but a moiety of the colts, even of the best blood, ever arrive at high eminence. So many are the contingencies to be met, and so many the risks to be taken, that our advice is, Do not undertake the breeding of this kind of stock, un- less you are amply able to provide all the varied requirements, including the most perfect stables, and a training track. Above all, do not waste money on the so-called thoroughbreds, that travel country districts, ex- pecting to breed high-priced horses from common mares. You would be quite as likely to be struck by lightning as to succeed in getting any- thing better, from such parents, than a quarter nag for a scrub race. So with trotting horses, do not expect to get a crack trotter unless the blood of trotting thoroughbreds is strong in the veins of sire and dam. Nor can vou get a fine carriage driving horse from some weedy, dancing, 144 THE BREEDING AND REARING OF COLTS. 145 high headed sire, whose nervousness comes from timidity, and whose blood is made up from guess-work breeding. Read carefully what is con- tained in the preceding chapters, and breed from stock, already improved, rather than seek to make a breed yourself. If you desire to breed up from the stock you already have, the object is a laudable one. provided you want horses only for general use. In this case, breed from the best sires you can find, and those which combine the characteristics you seek to perpetuate. II. Breed From Mature Animals. Maturity in breeding stock is indispensable, since it is futile to expect to get the best development from animals undeveloped themselves. We believe the weediness of many thoroughbreds, which means want of de- velopment and lack of constitutional vigor, to be the result, in part, of too early and fast work, and also of breeding their parents while yet too young, or after they were broken down for service on the turf. To get the highest exellence in the offspring we must have the highest de- velopment in the parents. Degeneration will surely result, if we breed from immature or broken down animals. Another important requisite is, that the sire be given plenty of exercise during the season of service ; and after that, and until the next season begins, he should have constant work, except for a period of rest with a run on the grass immediately after the service season. The mare also should not be idle, nor confined to the stable ; exercise is us necessary to the dam as to the sire. III. No Profit in Inferior Horses. The best and purest stock, well adapted to the end sought, is always the cheapest. This is a fundamental principle, to be kept constantly in view. Itcosts no more to feed, shelter, and properly care for good stock, than it does to feed, shelter and care for inferior stock. The first cost of good animals is, of course, more, but this is the capital invested, and for which you expect to get adequate returns. It costs no more to raise good stock than it does to raise inferior stock. It costs no more to fit and train the one than the other. After you have secured the female stock, smooth in movement, of undoubted constitutional vigor, and of the proper blood for the labor intended, if you do not own, or cannot afford to own, the sire, you need not fear to pay liberally for such blood as you require ; you may, moreover, safely incur the expense of sending your mares considerable distances to procure the proper sire. This, however, will rarely be necessary unless you wish exceptional colts ; for, in all well- settled districts, there are plenty of good sires, outside of the highest- caste thoroughbreds, and trotting strains. In thinly-settled districts the breeding of high-caste stock should not be undertaken unless the 10 146 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. breeder can afford to keep the sires at his own expense or by co-operation, or in partnership, with others. Taking it for granted that the reader accepts, as true, the foregoing propositions, we will next inquire into some points that should be borne in mind by every one who hopes to win success as a breeder, whether from the stand-point of profit or with a view to the pleasure of doing a thing well. IV. Heredity in Animals. We have dwelt with some emphasis upon the importance of breeding from sound, vigorous parents; for like produces like, and the rule is constant even in the case of phenomenal animals. Extraordinary deyel- opment is by no means the result of chance, though it may be the bring- ing out in an extraordinary degree, of qualities that have been dormant, perhaps for generations, for the want of what breeders call nicking. By ‘‘nicking’’ is meant the development of dormant traits through the union of a sire and dam of peculiar qualities, of the most excellent traits perfectly blended together, and conferring vigor of constitution, soundness and fineness of bone, along with great muscular development, good digestion and excellence of the respiratory organs, and of the nery- ous system, and nerve foree. With these, an animal must be good ; and how to have them good is the object of this work. Let us now see what goes to make up that quality called heredity, which is carried in the breeding of an animal. Charles Darwin has writ- ten voluminously and conclusively on this subject, as have many others. Dr. Miles, late professor of Agriculture in the Michigan State Agricultu- ral College, ina treatise on the laws of development and heredity, in rela- tion to the improvement and breeding of domestic animals, has collected and arranged much valuable matter bearing upon this subject; and he cites heredity of normal characteristics, atavism, variation, the relative influence of parents, influence of previous impregnations, and various other matters, as being well worth the study of the breeder. The position we have assumed is, therefore, founded upon correct and long- continued observation by the most eminent minds of this and other ages ; for more than a glimmering of the laws of heredity was had even by the ancients. In classic times there were families of athletes among the Greeks ; and the extract already given from Xenophon shows that he no less understood what a horse should be, than he did how to conduct the memorable retreat of the ten thousand, and to fight successful battles. Later researches by Galton have shown that the best wrestlers and oars- men belong to a small number of families in which strength and skill have become hereditary. The most successful of our trotting horses are THE BREEDING AND REARING OF COLTS. 147 derived from three families ; of these the descendants of Messenger are most strongly marked in hereditary trotting qualities. Among running horses Eclipse begat 334, and Herod 497 winners. The hereditary trans- mission of strongly marked peculiarities in races is conspicuously shown in the Jews and in the Gypsies, who intermarry, each, only, among their ownrace. Hence, says Ribot, ‘their distinguishing characteristics have remained the same for centuries.’’ So, certain breeds of sheep, as the Spanish Merinos, certain breeds of cattle, as the Devons, like certain breeds of horses, are strongly characterized by their hereditary traits and tendencies. V. Peculiar Organic Structure. No less remarkable is the tendency, sometimes seen, to inherit abnor- mal organic structure. A peculiar structure of the ear, nervous system ans, gave to the family of Sebastian Bach, that power which € > and vocal org: in eight generations produced no less than twenty-nine eminent singers. Fecundity, length of life, abnormal peculiarities of members of the body, day-blindness, total blindness, peculiar forms of infirmity, and of disease, are well known to be hereditary in some human families. According to Finley Dun a tendency to consumption and dysentery in cattle is indicated by certain well marked signs; the most obvious of which, he says, are a thin and long carcass, narrow loins and chest, flat ribs, a hollow appear- ance at the flanks, extreme thinness and fineness of the neck and withers, hollowness behind the ears, fullness under the jaws and a small, narrow muzzle. All these are indications of defective nutrition, and will apply generally, not only to cattle, but to other animals; and defective nutri- tion is the parent of disease. VI. Heredity of Disease. Of 1000 cases of insanity noted in France, 530 were hereditary. In the family of Le Compt, thirty-seven children and grand-children became blind like himself, and in this case the blindness, for three successive generations, occurred at about the age of seventeen or eighteen years. Blindness is well known to be hereditary in horses. Spavins, curbs, ring-bones, strains of the back tendons, swelling of the legs and grease, roaring, thick wind, chronic cough, partial as well as total blind- ness, malignant and other tumors, epilepsy and various nervous affec- tions, are also distinctly hereditary in the horse, and often do not appear until mature age. Hence, it is necessary to know that the stock you breed from is not only sound, but that it came of sound ancestry ; for disabilities may lie dormant for one, two or three generations, and then appear. 148 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. The predisposition most to be guarded against in horses, is hereditary disability in the bone, sinew, viscera, and especially in the sight. Defec- tive sight leads to shying, fright and consequent unmanageability, and is therefore dangerous in the extreme. VII. Atavism or Breeding Back. In breeding, if an abnormal characteristic appears in any of the young, and this is found to be valuable, it should be sedulously preserved and fostered. What is called breeding back or throwing back, may occur after the lapse of many years. The occasional appearance of horns in Galloway cattle isa case in point. Mr. Darwin mentions the occurrence in two of a litter of Essex pigs, of marks of x Berkshire cross, that had lain dormant for twenty-eight years. The reproduction of a peculiarity of an ancestor, near or remote, whether of form, color, mental trait or predisposition to disease, is termed atavism. It is a valuable trait when good qualities are thrown, and they are likely to be, if the good qualities are inherent. It is to be guarded against, if the qualities transmitted are bad. Hence we have laid it down asa rule: Breed to none but the best. VIII. Variation and Development. Variation is among the rarest of the occurrences that the breeder ever encounters. It is in fact not susceptible of proof that distinct and well- marked variation of a race is possible. Its occurrence is probably due to the throwing back to some long dormant quality of a remote ancestor. Wild animals do not change; among them one is like the others. If transported, they may be dwarfed in size, and acquire a more abundant coy- ering of hair, while their stomachs and other organs may become modi- fied to suit the changed conditions in a rigorous climate, or, with warmth and abundant food they may be increased in size and general develop- ment. But this is not what we understand by variation, which is not some sudden change in the species. Variation is rather the departure of the individual from the well-known traits of his species or family, and is due, as already stated, to avatism or breeding back to some ancient ancestor, and to some remote cross or mingling of blood. Species may acquire certain traits by development, but the process is gradual, and when once attained the traits may be perpetuated. This development is most gradual in horses, somewhat quicker in cattle, yet faster in sheep, and still more so in swine. Horses breed but once a year, mature the most slowly of all farm animals, and rarely produce more than one young at a birth. Cattle mature faster, breed younger and frequently produce twins. Sheep ma- ture still faster, and often produce two or more at a birth, while swine mature rapidly, breed young, and produce many at a birth. THE BREEDING AND REARING OF COLTS. 149 IX. Transmission of Qualities. In breeding, there are two points to be taken into consideration, in relation to the transmission of the qualities of the sire and dam. Asa rule the sire of pure blood, coupled with a ‘‘cold-blooded’’ mare, by which we mean a mare of mixed blood, will get a foal more strongly resembling himself than the mare. Some sires have this power of im- pressing their characteristics upon the progeny in a remarkable degree. A fact that is still more striking is that some females have the faculty of bringing young remarkably like the sire. This is a species of atavism. If a mare possesses this peculiarity, she is invaluable, and if of pure blood should never be served by any but the best sires. If of cold blood then she should be served by a sire of like peculiarity as to the transmis- sion of blood, and possessing the qualities which are wanted in the foal. Again, the oftener a female is served by the same sire, the stronger will be the likeness of the progeny to the sire, as a rule; and the oftener the sire is changed, the greater will be the danger of variation in the progeny. Hence, the absolute importance of breeding in such manner that the blood sought will be more and more impressed with the characteristics required ; and, hence, again, the imperative necessity that the first time a female, especially one of pure lineage, is allowed to breed, it be not only to an animal of known purity of blood, but to one bred in the same line, that is, having the same qualities as herself; for, not only is the dam impressed with the blood of every sire with which she has had contact, but the first impress is stronger than any succeeding one. It is not nec- essary here to go into a demonstration of these facts. They are so well established that they may be taken for granted. xX. The Impress of Color and Form. Breeding to color is also an important point to be considered. Never use a parti-colored stallion, but always use one of self-color. Bays and chestnuts with darker manes and tails are the best colors, as arule. These colors may be broken with white at the fetlocks, and by a star in the forehead ; but too much white should he avoided, while ‘calico mark- ings’’ are the least desirable of all. Certain breeds have characteristic colors, as the gray in the Percheron, bays and browns in the Clydesdales, and black in the English cart horse. Adhere to definite colors, whatever they may be; if others incline to crop out, especially marked ones, be sure they are due to atavism, from some near or remote cross. With regard to form, the rule more generally acknowledged to be cor- rect, and the one borne out by many facts, is, that the sire impresses outward form and color to a great degree, and the mare the inner and physical form to a corresponding degree. If the sire be of the purest L50 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. lineage, his impress, all through, will be the stronger, and if the mare be the purest, her characteristics will predominate. In breeding up toa higher standard, be sure, therefore, that the sire is of the purest and the most strongly marked characteristics, as to impress of blood. XI. Relation of Size in Sire and Dam. In the production of full-formed, vigorous and symmetrical animals, if it is desired to increase the size, the mare should be relatively larger than the horse. But if the size is correct, according to the breed, select sire and dam of relative size ; that is, select a sire proportionately larger than the dam, according to the breed. In Devon and Hereford cattle, for example, the cows are smaller than the bulls, wherein they contrast with the Short-Horns, where the relative size between male and female cor- responds more nearly with the relative size of horse and mare. Above all, never make the mistake of attempting to breed-up the size by using overgrown males. Such an experiment must always end in disaster, as many farmers have found by breeding small mares, which they happen to have, to some coarse, large-hboned horse, with the idea of getting large, able-bodied colts. At the time when overgrown horses were fashionable in England, for coach and carriage teams, the farmers of Yorkshire attempted to breed such animals from overgrown stallions on small mares. The result was a dismal failure. The converse of this has been seen in this country, in breeding pony Morgans upon much of the farm stock with a view of getting fine horses. The outcome was stock too small for labor, and not good enough for anything like road horses. The results of this mistake may yet be seen in some parts of the country, in undersized animals. XII. Breed Only From Pure Sires. Tn-and-in breeding, as already stated, as the breeding together of ani- mals closely related, as the progeny of one sire and dam or members of the same distinct and closely related lineage. Cross breeding is the union of two distinct sub-families of the same tribe. Hybrids are the produce of two distinct tribes of a family, as for instance in the genus equus, of the mare and ass, or the mare and zebra, or of the mare and quagga. Cross-bred animals are fertile; hybrids are not. Breeding in line is the union of animals closely enough related to pos- sess similar characteristics. In this connection it will be sufficient to state conclusions founded upon experience and facts. The data may be found in the records of herd and stud books, and in works dealing in special- ties relating to physiology, anatomy and breeding. If it be desired to keep a stock absolutely pure, and to retain the well- known characteristics of a breed in their best form, the proper plan is to THE BREEDING AND REARING OF COLTS. 151 breed to line with individuals having the distinct points required. If the object is to breed-up, to found a breed, or to refine certain points and characteristics with a view to their perpetuation, it will be safe to breed in-and-in, or closely, for three generations, and then take an out TELA SO ANNAN | H | HA . (HSTANAC cross, or breed to line, as the case may be. For ordinary purposes, where stamina, strength of constitution, and not exceptionally constant characteristics are required, crossing is not objectionable, though violent crosses, as heretofore stated, must not be allowed. Breed your females to the best male you can find, having due regard always to the point that the 152 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. female must not be bred to a male widely different from herself. Good mares of the common mixed breed may be bred to staunch thorough- breds to refine, and to give style, symmetry and speed to the foals ; to Percherons, or Clydesdales, to increase the size and strength for draft ; to the Cleveland Bay, to beget handsome, able horses for the farm and car- riage, and to well-bred trotting stock to get good horses for the road, and for all work. As illustrating our meaning, if the reader will turn to the portrait of Gold Dust, a horse of mixed blood, got by Vermont Morgan, out of a dam nearly or quite thoroughbred, it will serve to show a result of cross breeding. The progeny partakes more of the thorough than of the mixed blood. The cut of Shales, a half-bred horse foaled in England, early in the century, and noted during his whole life as a most wonder- ful trotter, shows the result of a thoroughbred sire, with a dam of mixed lineage. Here the preponderance is in favor of the thoroughbred sire. The cut of Dervish shows an example of pure breeding, and probably of close, or at least line, breeding. He was a little bay Arab, of great style and fineness, remarkable for his darting, square trot ; that is, for throwing out the fore-leg, and straightening the knee before the foot touched the ground, Vill. The Best are Cheapest in the End. The highly-bred trotters of to-day, those quite or nearly thorough- bred, show the value of breeding in line, that is, we repeat, the breeding together of animals of close descent, or those having characteristics in common. Many of our best thoroughbred racers show examples of in- and-in breeding, and, as a rule, those bred in the same line of descent are more uniform in their qualities, than those which have been produced by the union of many sub-families of the same original blood. The objec- tion to close in-and-in breeding is, that, if persisted in, it will ultimately result in weakening the constitution, while at the same time it refines. To establish a breed it must be closely followed, departing from the rule only when undue delicacy of constitutional vigor is feared. In the wild state, gregarious animals, such as horses and cattle, breed in-and-in for two or three generations, or until the strongest males become enfeebled with age, or are obliged to succumb to younger and more vigorous ones ; which is in accordance with the principle of the survival of the fittest, and may be called a modification of in-and-in breeding alternated with breeding to line. The same rule would be a sound one, if modified by careful selection, in the artificial breeding of domestic animals, always keeping in mind that in sheep, and especially in swine, the rule must not be so closely followed. But in all this, remember constantly that the TIE BREEDING AND REARING OF COLTS. 153 best are always cheapest in the end. It is true that the breeder’s purse must be considered ; but, be he rich or poor, it is always a money-losing business to breed to an ill-formed male because he is cheap. XIV. Selection of Stallion and Mare. The selection of the stallion, while it will depend primarily upon what the colts are intended for, should always be for the good there is in him. He should be of full medium-size for the breed, and should possess the characteristics we have previously stated, in writing of breeds. He should be masculine in every fiber, with the distinguishing beauty, strength, fire and courage of the male. Never breed to a feminine-look- ing male. The outcome will always be a failure. Selection of the Mare.—The sclection of the mare is no less important. It is she that is to nourish the foetus, and after birth give suck to the young. The mare, whatever her size, should not be coarse at any point. Her beauty needs to be feminine, just as that of the stallion must be masculine. She should carry more muscle or flesh than the horse, be more rounded in outline, but be finer in head, neck and limb, and thin- ner in mane and tail than the stallion. Her strength should he that of fleetness, her fire that of docile playfulness, and her courage that of am- bition to perform. She should have a larger pelvis, relatively, than the horse, and her barrel should be rather rounder and more roomy. Her milking qualities should of course be good, for upon them depends, in a great measure, the future usefulness of the colt. XV. Service of the Stallion. The mare may be served just as she is coming into heat, but better just after her greatest passion of heat has passed. The best time for service is early in the morning. After being served let her remain quiet, or, if she seem fretful, walk her slowly about, and, after fifteen minutes, turn her into a pasture that she may amuse herself eating grass ; but not in a pasture where there is other stock. A mare will usually receive the horse on the eighth or ninth day after foaling, even though she exhibit no particular sign of heat ;if not, she may come into heat when the colt is about four weeks old. Treatment after Service—After being served, try her with the horse on the ninth day ; if she refuse, try her again on the seventh day follow- ing; upon a second refusal, try her again on the fifth day after that spoils she then refuse, she may be fairly conceded to be with foal. Above all things, the mare should be kept away from teasing horses ; from badly castrated geldings ; from ridglings, or horses imperfectly gelded, and bear- ing one testicle in the body ; from yearling colts, and from other mares in heat. When once the time of heat is known, and service given, the Ld4 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. mare should be returned to the horse as recommended, so that the time may not run over when the mare should receive the horse. Forty-four weeks being the usual time the mare goes with foal, if the service of the stal- lion is delayed it will bring the birth of the next foal too late, perhaps, in the next year; and, possibly one year may have to be intermitted in breed- ing. XVI. The Period of Gestation. Gestation, the carrying of the young, continues, on an average, eleven months or forty-four weeks. This period may, however, according to the observations of Mr. Youatt, be diminished by five weeks, or extended by six weeks. Thus it will be seen that there is a variation of nearly eleven weeks, or nearly three months. M. Fessier, a French observer, counting 582 mares, finds the longest period 419 days, the shortest 287 days and the average 830 days. In an observation by M. Gayot on twenty-five mares,the average was 343 days, the longest period 367 days and the shortest period 824 days. Small mares, as a rule, go a shorter time than large ones, and a mare is apt to carry a horse colt longer than one whichis a female. The observations of M. Fessier may be taken as the most conclusive, since they were extended over a period of forty years. Treatment During Gestation.—The mare should not be worked imme- diately after being served. Once quieted, it is proper that she have ordi- nary work until within about three months of thetime of foaling. After this she may do light work, not fast work, with benefit to herself and the foal. Carve, however, must be taken that she do not slip or strain herself, nor fal! down XVII. Treatment After Foaling: After foaling, and until the colt is amonth old, the mare should do no work. In fact, no valuable mare should do any work, certainly not more than enough for exercise, until the colt begins to eat grass and grain freely. ‘There are more colts dwarfed, and mares injured, by the dam being worked hard while suckling the colt, than at any other time, and by all other means whatever. She is then weak, liable to become overheated, and any disability experienced by the mare will surely be participated in by the foal. XVIII. How to Know if a Mare is in Foal. As already stated, if the mare refuse the horse upon the third trial, on the twenty-first day after service, she may be considered to be with foal. Between these trials, however, if the mare be not gravid, or in foal, the lips of the vagina will be moist, bright, and of a fresh florid er THE BREEDING AND REARING OF COLTS. L55 appearance, and with a fresh drop of fluid at the lower part, which being touched will incline to extend. If she be gravid, the surface of the vagina will be dry and of a dirty brown or rusty color, while the drop that before was clear fluid, will be dark and brown. After the third month, the belly will begin to swell, and at the end of the fifth or sixth month the movements of the foetus may be seen by watching; or by standing the mare at rest and pressing up sharply in the flank, with the thumb and fore-finger closed, the foetus may be distincly felt by the rebound. XIX. How to Know the Foaling Time. From one to three months before the time of fouling, the udder begins to fill and swell, more or less, and this will continue increasing. During the three weeks immediately preceding the time of foaling, a furrow-like appearance is seen, reaching from the haunch to the tail on each side of the spinal extension, as though the pelvis was separating its parts. This will be more and more apparent as the time approaches. The udder will fill, and two days, generally, though sometimes only one, before foaling, a gummy substance will exude from, and stand at the end of, each teat. XX. The Foaling Stall. Whatever the place provided for foaling, it should be so tight that the mare cannot get her limbs through the interstices. It should be warm and well-littered with short, fine straw, and the mare should be left entirely to herself, except in those rare cases whenshe may need mechan- ical assistance in foaling. This, however, should not be resorted to unless the size of the foetus requires it, or a false presentation is made. XXI. Abortion, or Slinking the Foal. From the time when gestation has proceeded three months, and up to the fifth month, there may be danger of abortion. To prevent this, the mare should not be exposed to foul smells, nor to the sight of blood or dying animals, nor should she be allowed to be frightened. She should have better feeding, and less work, since from this time on her system will be called on to nourish the fast-growing foetus. There are many causes of abortion. Among the most prolific are, allowing her to see food given others, that she does not get herself, and which she likes ; sudden fright ; sympathy with the distress of other animals ; and above all, the germs arising in a stable in which there has been an abortion. The prevention is to avoid all these things, and to allow the animal plenty of fresh air. If an animal once aborts, unless it is brought on by strain or acute disease, or if once the tendency is established, it is some- what difficult to overcome the predisposition, which generally arises at about a concurrent period of gestation. Hence, great pains should be taken to prevent any liability to this disaster. 156 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. XXII. How to Raise a Colt. The colt’ should be allowed to run with the dam until it is about six months old. The mare should have plenty of grass, and such other food as may be necessary to keep up her condition. If, at weaning time, the mare do not dry off kindly, the milk should be drawn by hand, often enough to prevent inflammation ; keeping her on dry food will assist in the pro- cess of drying, especially if she be put to steady but light work. At all events she should have plenty of walking exercise daily. The colt should be handled and fondled from the time it is a week old, if strong, and a light halter should be put on, to lead it by. Thus it early becomes ac- customed to the master, and if kindly treated will soon come to seek the fondling hand. As soon as it will eat, say at three months old, it should be accustomed to a little crushed oats daily, and the mess may be in- creased from time to time, until it gets a full ration, at six months old. Many persons suppose that a colt needs no water. Nothing could be further from the truth. After it is a week old, the colt should be offered water once a day, at noon, and as it increases in age, oftener. When ready to wean, it will already have been accustomed to lead by the halter. Tie it securely where it may not hurt itself, preferably in sight of the mare ; feed it generously, give it plenty of water, and allow it to run at play every day. CHAPTER X. ASSES AND MULES. I. THE MULE AND HINNY DEFINED.——II. THE ASS.——III. ANTIQUITY OF THE MULE. IV. BREEDING-JACKS.——V. LONGEVITY OF THE MULE.——VI, THE VALUE OF MULES FOR LABOR. Vil. MULES ARE NOT VICIOUS.——VIIIl. THE BREEDING OF MULES. I. The Mule and Hinny Defined. The word mule signifies a hybrid, that is, the offspring of animals belonging to the same genus, and fertile one with the other, but of dif- ferent species. Mules or hybrids are usually infertile, one with another, and are always incapable of propagating the species indefinitely. As now generally accepted, the word mule is used to designate the offspring of the male ass with the mare. They have been known and bred since the time of remotest history, having always been prized for their longevity, sure-footedness, and ability to labor in extreme heat. The Hinny.—The hinny is the produce of a she-ass, bred to a horse. They were called Ainnus by the Romans ;—hence, our name, hinny. They resemble the horse more than the ass, just as the mule, sprung from the mare and ass, resembles the male parent most. Hinnies are handsome, round-bodied like the horse, but exceedingly small, and are also said to be slow and more difficult to manage than the mule proper. They have, therefore, seldom been bred, and when so, soon passed into disuse. II. The Ass. The wild ass is said to have been indigenous to Arabia Deserta, and the countries which formed the Babylonian Empire. Those now found in the northern region of India are said to be so fleet, in the hill country, that no horse can overtake them. Four different races seem to be indicated in the Hebrew Scriptures, where they are named Para, Chamor, Aton and Orud. Of the wild ass Para, Scott’s version of the description by Job is as follows : “Wild tenant of the waste, I sent him there Among the shrubs, to breath in Freedom’s air. Swift as an arrow in his speed he flies; Sees from afar the smoky city rise; Scorns the throng’d street, where slavery drags her load, The loud-voiced driver and his urging goad : Where e’er the mountain waves its lofty wood, A boundless range, he seeks his verdant food.” 157 15s THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. III. Antiquity of the Mule. Mules were used and much prized from a remote antiquity, and are mentioned hoth in sacred and profane history. They were introduced into the chariot races in the 70th Olympiad, or about 500 years before the Christan era; and in the time of the Romans, Q. Axius, 1» Roman Sena- tor, paid, according to Pliny, 400,000 sesterces, or more than $13,000, for a male ass, for the stud ; and he also states that the best female asses were worth a like sum to breed sires. When we compute the difference in value between money then and now, the price was greater than that now paid for the most celebrated racing and trotting horses. IV. Breeding-Jacks. The best jacks now are those of Spanish origin. They are large, strong-boned, long-bodied, and, of course, long-eared. The cut will give a good representation of the Poitou ass, an animal similar to the Spanish jack. The jack, whatever the breed, is sensitive to cold, and to the influ- ence of storms, and, if not warmly housed in winter, soon becomes useless and disabled, from rheumatic and other affections. Of the jacks imported at an early day into America, as a present to General Washington, Mr. Custis has written as follows : “The Royal Gift and night of Malta, were sent to General Wash- ington about the year 1787—the Gif with ajennet, a present from the King of Spain; and said to have been selected from the royal stud. The Knight, I believe, was from the Marquis de Lafayette, and shipped from Marseilles. The Gift was a huge and ill shapen jack, near sixteen hands high, very large head, clumsy limbs and to all appearance little caleula- ted for active service ; he was of a gray color, probably not young when imported, and died at Mount Vernon but little valued for his mules, which were unwieldy and dull. The Atnight was of a moderate size, clean limbed, great activity, the fire and ferocity of a tiger, a dark brown, nearly black colour, white belly and muzzle ; could only be managed by one groom, and that always at considerable personal risk. He lived to a great age, and was so infirm towards the last as to require lifting. Hedied on my estate in New Kent, in the state of Virginia, about 1802 or 18038. His mules were all active, spirited, and serviceable ; and from stout mares attained considerable size. «¢ General Washington bred a favorite jack called Compound, from the eross of Spanish and Maltese—the Avnight upon the imported Spanish Jennet. This jack was avery superior animal; very long bodied, well set, with all the qualities of the Avnight and the weight of the Span- ish. He was the sire of some of the finest mules at Mount Vernon, and died from accident. The General bred mules from the best of his coach “SS¥Y NOLIOd ¥ ASSES AND MULES. L159 mares, and found the value of the mule to bear a just proportion to the value of the dam. Four mules sold, at the sale of his effects, for upwards Yio EL A of $800: and two more pairs at upwards of $400 each pair; one pair of these mules were nearly sixteen hands high each. oS From these jacks a com ound breed were yroduced that when bred b] b] to large nares, were unexcelled for size and activity.”’ 160 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. A WIGH-CLASS KENTUCKY MULE. ASSES AND MULES. 161 The breeding of jacks and jennets, as the female of the ass is called, is confined to hut few hands. These breeding studs are mostly located in Kentucky and Tennessee, though some are found in Ohio, Indiana, II- linois and Missouri. Up to the time of the late war the breeding of this stock was an important industry, the jacks produced being distrib- uted for service all over the Southern and Western States. Since the war, with the breaking up of the great breeding studs, the industry has languished, owing to the decreased demand for mules. A new impetus, YOUNG SPANISH JENNET. however, has given rise to the breeding of jacks again in considerable num- bers in the South, and this branch of husbandry will undoubtedly again assume more than its original importance ; for the agricultural interests of that section are steadily growing, and a constant improvement is noted in the quality and numbers of the live stock. What the jacks should be may be seen in the illustration of a Poitou ass, a modification of the best form of the Spanish jack, on page 159, and that of the best form of the mule in the cut on page 160, showing the manner of trimming, (roaching) the mane and tail. The cut of a Spanish jennet given above will also convey an accurate idea of the best form of jennet. 11 162 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. V. Longevity of the Mule. The longevity of the mule is proverbial. It was a common saying dur- ing the civil war that ‘‘mules never died;’’ they might sometimes be knocked over by a shot, but if one ever died a natural death the army wags refused to credit or record the fact. Pliny gives an account of one, taken from Grecian history, that was eighty years old; and though past labor, followed others, that were carrying materials to build the temple of Minerva at Athens, and seemed to wish to assist them; which so pleased the people, that they ordered he should have free egress to the grain market. Dr. Rees mentions two that were seventy years old in England. Mr. P. S. Skinner says, ‘‘I saw myself, in the West Indies, a mule perform his task in a cane mill, that his owner assured me was forty years old ;”’ andadds, writing nearly twenty years ago, ‘‘Inow own a mare mule twenty-five years old, that I have had in constant work twenty-one years, and can discover no diminution of her powers; she has within a year past often taken upwards of a ton weight in a wagon to Boston, a distance of more than five miles. A gentleman in my neighborhood has owned a very large mule about fourteen years, that cannot be less than twenty-eight years old. He informed me, a few day since, that he could not perceive the least failure in him, and would not exchange him for any farm horse in the country. And Iam just informed, from a source enti- ‘tled to perfect confidence, that a highly respectable gentleman and eminent agriculturist, near Centerville, on the eastern shore of Maryland, owns a mule that is thirty-five years old, as capable of labor as at any former period.”’ Vi. Value of Mules for Labor. It is beyond dispute that mules will continue to labor for at least dou- ble the period of the usefulness of the horse. They endure extreme heat better, but are pinched with cold. It is a mistake to suppose that the mule will subsist on far less food than the horse. In proportion to size, they require about the same quantity ; but, weight for weight, they will draw a heavier load ; and, for the reason, that they take little notice of what is going on about them, do not fret and seldom scare. As pack- animals, they are far superior to the horse ; while, in sure-footedness and freedom from disease, no farm animal, except the goat, can compete with them. The impression that mules can get along with little or no care, and that they may be turned out in the winter to shift for themselves, has led many people to be disappointed in their use. In summer, when a horse would seek the shade, we have seen mules lie prone in the sun and enjoy the heat. For ordinary farm labor and all teaming purposes, mules become more and more valuable as we go south of 40 degrees. As we ASSES AND MULES. 163 proceed north they become less and less serviceable, and few are found in use north of 45 degrees. VII. Mules are not Vicious. It is generally supposed that the mule is naturally vicious. This is a mistake. He is resentful and never forgets an injury ; and if subjected to a long course of ill usage he at length becomes vicious. On the other hand, no animal is more susceptible to kindness, or will exert himself more strenuously for a kind master. Nevertheless, the mule must have a mas- ter, one firm and yet kind. The mule, as some of our readers probably know, has a most perfect means of offense and defense, namely, his heels, PERCHERON MARE AND MULE FOAL. ‘These he knows how to use to far better purpose than does the horse. They are not used, however, except under the impulse of fear or revenge. If kindly used the mule is at once amiable, tractable and willing to per- form any due amount of labor. On the contrary, if ill used he becomes sullen, vicious and often balky in the extreme. VIII. The Breeding of Mules. In the breeding of mules, as of all other animals, attention must be paid to the use for which they are intended. If for packing in the moun- tains, small, compact mules, such as are bred from small, fine Spanish 164 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. aN a Lh II & | ; | | | i} 3 Mil) Hl] hi | AI OLD STYLE DERBYSHIRE CART HORSES, Aint AN ji {hi hy Wii || ASSES AND MULES. 165 jacks, are required. These are at once agile and sure-footed. For work on Southern plantations medium-sized mules are most sought. These are bred from mares of ordinary size, by good-sized jacks. In breeding mules for the road and for heavy teaming, large, roomy mares are used. These are served with the largest jacks, and at three years old command, when well matched, from $300 to $600 a span. The treatment of the mares and of the mule colts should be precisely like that described in the preceding chapter. The colts should be handled young, gently treated and 1S made completely subordinate to the will of the master. At two years old WINTERING IN THE WOODS. they may he broken. They should be carefully harnessed, without fright- ening them, and hitched to a strong wagon, when they will generally move off without much difficulty. Thereafter they may do light work until they are four years old, when they may be put to full labor. Their denti- tion is similar to that of the horse, and the rule for telling their ages is identical with the advice for that animal. The illustration on page 165, shows a roomy Percheron mare and mule foal. Above is seen a group of mules as wintered in mild climates. CHAPTER XI. HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE. I. THE OLD SYSTEM AND THE NEW.——II. THE AMERICAN WAY BETTER THAN THE EN- GLISH. Ill, DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BREAKING AND TRAINING. IV. FIRST LES- SONS. V. LEARNING TO LEAD.——VI. TO MAKE A COLT COMETO YOU. VII. LES- SONS IN SOUND SIGNALS. VIII. FLEXIONS. IX. THE PROPER AGE FOR WORK. X. HARNESSING AND DRIVING. XI. THE AGE FOR REAL WORK. XIT. HOW TO SUBDUE A WILD COLT. XIII. HANDLING A VICTOUS COLT.——XIV. SUBDUINGA VICIOUS OR TRICKY HORSE. XV. TRAINING A STALLION FOR SERVICE.——KXVI. TRAINING FOR DRAFT. XVII. HOW TO HAVE A GOOD PLOW TEAM.——NXVIII. FORMING A GOOD SADDLE HORSE. XIX. THE DIFFERENT GAITS. XX. TRAIN- ING TO TROT IN HARNESS. XXI. FORMING A TROTTER. XXII. TO TRAIN A RACER.——XXAIII. SADDLING.——XXIV. HARNESSING. I. Tho Old System and the New. Under the old system of training, an animal was subdued by main force. What he learned was acquired under the impulse of fear. Under the new system, an animal is taught to depend upon and trust his master, by convincing him that he will not be injured. Under the old system, the whip and spur, and ‘terrible voice,’ were the means used to drive and force him up to, and beyond, an object that might be terrifying to a young and inexperienced horse, however harmless in itself. Under the new sys- tem, the young horse is allowed to see for himself that steam, harsh noises, great crowds, locomotives, the beating of drums, the thunder of cannon, and the various sights and sounds that, even to the savage and bar- barian, would be terrible, ave quite innocent, when the master’s hand di- rects. Hence, the horse, trained to obedience and made familiar with the various sights he is to encounter, fears them as little, and is as eager to witness them, as a child. The habit of entire dependence upon the mas- ter prompts him to go forward, even into the most imminent danger, with- out other sign than that of eager curiosity or of obedience to the will of the rider or driver. It is true that all this may be accomplished by the whip and spur, which are, even now, freely and needlessly used by some brutal teamsters, as well as by many really humane persons, who have never sought to un- derstand the intelligence of the horse, and far less that of the other do- mestic animals under their care. Hence, to persons of this latter class, the horse is a slave, whereas, to the intelligent master, he is a servant anx- ious and eager to do his will. The element of fear cannot, of course, be entirely dispensed with in training. A wilful animal must be subdued at any cost of punishment ; but this punishment should be as intelligently and humanely administered as in the case of a child. Those who train animals should first, themselves, learn to know what the animal means. 166 HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE. 167 by his mute language ; in the case of the horse, for instance, they should know at a glance what is meant by the play of the ears, the arch of the neck, the expression of the eyes, and the attitude generally. These things once understood, more than half the difficulty of training is over- come. II. The American Way Better than the English. It has often been remarked that English horses are wilder, more dan- gerous and difficult to subdue, have stronger resisting powers, and are more liable at any time to exhibit freaks of temper, than American-bred horses. This is quite true, and for the reason that, in England, the old system of horse-breaking is more in vogue than in this country. In England, colts are not raised on every farm, as in the United States and Canada, to be the friends and the pets of the children. Their keepers are generally ignorant servants, who seem to think that horses have but two impulses—to eat and to injure. In America, colts are the pets of the boys of the family, and, while running with the mare, they become habituated to all the sights and noises of the farm. They never come to know their real strength as a resisting power against man; that power lies dormant, because on the farm, as a rule, they have no occasion to exercise it. We have accordingly insisted, as the result of experience, that the education of animals should begin at a very early age, when the power of resistance is small. For, if once an animal finds that the supe- rior intelligence of the master is more than a match for brute force, kind- ness and careful lessons will thenceforth easily complete the education of all farm animals, and especially that of the young horse. = III. Difference Between Breaking and Training. The difference between ‘‘breaking”’ and training must already be appar- ent to the reader. The aim of the first is to subdue, and force is promptly resorted to as the readiest means to this end. The compara- tively-weak but intelligently directed brute-force of the master will, of course, generally win, and the animal, broken in spirit, becomes an autom- aton, performing through fear what he cannot avoid by resistance. In those cases where the superior force of the animal wins, he is thencefor- ward vicious and tricky, and passes from one master to another, until, worn out in the struggle, he either ruins himself or becomes the drudge of some reckless and brutal teamster. Training, on the other hand, consists in teaching the young animal to know that, while the master must be obeyed promptly and implicitly, he is truly an indulgent master, requiring nothing but what is necessary to be done, and, once the task is performed, that the rewards of care and rest will follow. 168 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. No horse broken by main-strength and brute-force is quite safe for a woman to ride or drive, unless she be a complete horsewoman. The more wilful of them are never safe for any woman to drive. A horse carefully trained, however, is always safe for a woman to drive, if she be not especially nervous, and has accustomed herself to the guidance of horses ; the only exceptions being such animals as by defective organiza- tions are naturally vicious, cowardly, timid from imperfect sight, or tainted with insanity. These defects have already been mentioned in the chapter on breeding, under the head of heredity. IV. First Lessons. As before stated, the first lesson to be imparted is that of reliance on the will of the master. This lesson in obedience should be given at weaning time, or when the colt is first haltered to be stabled. If it has been haltered, as recommended, when quite young, there will be no resist- ance. If this has not been done, the colt must be driven into a confined space where it cannot escape. Take the halter in both hands, and keep holding it to the colt until it will touch it with the nose. Do not hurry. The important thing here is to show the animal that there is nothing dan- gerous about a halter. When the colt ceases to fear, place the halter on the head quickly, and fasten it. If it show no serious fear, tie it up at once. If it seems frightened, allow it to wear the halter a little time before tying up. When you fasten it, do so securely, for at some time or other it will try to break away. When this occurs, halter and strap should be strong enough to resist every effort. When it ceases to pull, it is thoroughly halter-wise, so far as standing quietly is concerned. It will have ceased forever to pull at the halter simply to free itself. V. Learning To Lead. The next lesson before the colt is learning to lead. You should have a small yard, into which you can take the colt. Provide yourself with a light switch, and also with a line about ten feet long, to be tied to the end of the halter. Let the colt play around in a circle, if it chooses, for a time. Approach him gently, take the halter by the nose-band with the left hand, while holding the switch in the right hand. If the colt rear, support yourself with the right hand, by grasping the top of the neck to keep the colt down. Use no undue violence. Do not strike it. When it gets through floundering, it will thereafter be quiet. Next take the halter in the right hand, and bid the colt go on. If it refuse, tap it under the belly with the switch, until it moves. If it rears again, again subdue it. Socontinue until it moves forward. Then talk to it, and pet it, and it will soon lead kindly, turning to the right or left at will HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE. 169 VI. To Make a Colt Come to You. Have a long flexible whip. Place yourself just so far ahead of the colt that you can easily touch him in the flank, and then bid him ‘*come here,”’ at the same time pulling on the halter. If he will not come, tap him in the flank, or on the fore legs, and so continue untilhe obeys. If he pulls back, check him, and continue touching him until he comes up. Then pet him and give him a small taste of sugar, or something he likes. Continue in this way until he comes readily at the word. The colt will not always become perfect under the first or second lesson. Perseverance will accom- plish each and every other lesson more easily than if violence were used. VII. Lessons in Sound Signals. ‘We have shown that the first lessons are to accustom the colt to prompt obedience to the will of the trainer, as expressed by the voice or signals. The voice, however, must be the chief reliance. The signal by sound, should precede the signal by sign, or the check by the strap or rein ; and should always precede the tap of the whip, when the whip is necessary. A child is taught to speak through its power of imitation. If it never heard spoke n language, it would never learn to articulate speech. So, the same word should always be used, to induce the perform- ance by the colt of a certain act, as: Whoa! Back! Go on! Come here! When this has been accomplished, and the colt has been taught to stand at rest, to lead quietly or to circle about the tutor, at the end of the rein, he should next be taught to follow the master about the yard with- out leading, first with the halter strap in the hand, the tutor backing as the colt follows, and afterwards with the strap over the neck of the colt. The preliminary lesson in backing may be taught, by taking the colt by the head, standing in front of him, and using the word ‘‘back,’’ at the same time, pressing in the proper direction, and eae it on the breast, if necessary. After a time the animal will back promptly and continuously at the word. This lesson, and all others of flexions, must be taught with the bridle and bit, since to back easily and properly, the head must be raised. In all first lessons the form of the halter is important. We give that of a good one, which will not hurt the colt unless he pulls \@ strongly on it. Upon ceasing, the halter will let up of itself. When once the animal is taught to stand quietly, an ordinary halter may be used. A GOOD FORM FOR A HALTER, 170 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. VIII. Flexions. That the colt may be able promptly to turn in any direction, what are called flexions should be practiced. The more simple of these are, raising the head high, putting it down close to the ground and then rais- mg it, turning the head to the right or the left side, with the nose close to the body, but obliquely to it, ete. Full instruction in these flexions need not be perfected until the animal is two or three years old ; and, in fact, but little of this exercise is actually necessary, except with thesad- dle horse. For saddle horses, flexions are especially important, since the object of them is to render the head, neck, body and limbs supple and capa- ble of varied action. A curb-bit is necessary to their proper performance, and hence only preliminary and simple lessons should be given the colt, for the curb should not be used until the animal is nearly ready for work. At the proper age, put on a bridle with a curb-bit, taking care that it fits properly in every part. Between the chain and jaw, the finger should shp easily, and the bit should just touch the upper part of the lips, and that only in the slightest manner. Stand in front of the horse, take the off or mght rein with the right hand about six inches from the branch of the bit, and the near or left rein with the left hand, at about half the dis- tance from the branch. Draw the right hand to the body, and press with the left, so as to turn the bit in the mouth. If the horse backs, follow him up, pressing steadily until he lowers his head, and flexes his jaw. Then slip the left hand along the rein until it is opposite the right hand and press the head to the breast, holding it curbed perpendicularly but obliquely to the right, until the horse will maintain the position himself. Then flex the jaw to the left by a reverse action to that above given. Teach the horse to raise his head high and perpendicularly, by taking each rein, six inches from the branch, and raising, and pressing slightly back. Teach him to lower the head by a contrary action. Next teach him to sway the head to the right and to the left, to raise and lower the head alternately, by means that will readily suggest themselves. It will surprise you to find how soon the average horse will understand. In all this, use no undue violence, and above all bear in mind that a curb-bit is a powerful lever, and must be carefully handled. When the animal is perfect in these flexions, take the reins in the left hand, near the branches of the bit; und standing close by and facing the shoulder, holding the head fairly up, and to you, induce the animal to move his hind feet, in a circle from you, the fore feet remaining stationary, as a pivot. This lesson perfect, make him stand firm behind, and move his fore parts from you in a cirele. There are many other flexions taught in the menage ; but the foregoing are sufficient fora saddle horse or light HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE. gist driving horse ; and these are not necessary unless the animal be intended for this kind of work, or for racing or trotting. Remember one thing, teach only one lesson at a time. Again, let us repeat the caution, never to use undue violence, and never lose your temper, never speak loud, or jerk the reins, or act upon sudden impulse. Keep cool. Your object is to train, not break the will. When the animal understands the wish, and performs it, reward it with something it likes, and let it rest; a bit of carrot, or sugar for instance, goes a great way with a young horse. IX. The Proper Age for Work. The preliminary training may go forward from the time the colt is six months old, until the age of two years is reached. It will by this time be quite submissive to the will of the trainer, and without fear. A pad, with light stirrup-leathers attached, may be put on, and the colt be allowed to play about the yard with it, at the end of the rein. A well- fitting bridle may be put on, with keys attached to the center of the bit, with which the colt may amuse itself. When the colt is one year old and over, the crupper-strap may be put on, and the little animal may be reined loosely to the top of the pad. Later, the side reins may be put on, and the head gradually brought into position. The colt, if stabled, should be regularly cleaned. His feet should be raised, and the hoofs lightly tapped with a hammer. He should be taughtto lead, walk and trot, beside the trainer. Thus at the age of two years, if well-grown, he will be ready to be trained to light work, or, as it used to be put, ‘*broken to harness.’’ Under the course of treatment we have laid down, he will have learned the use of the reins,—to go back, or forward, and to turn to the right or left at the word; and above all, he will have confidence in himself, and no fear of his master. In nine cases out of ten, if the colt has been taught to lead beside a well trained team, and used to the rattling of the wagon, he will go off pretty much like an old horse, except for his super- abundant life, the first time he is harnessed. X. Harnessing and Driving. Two years is the best age for putting the colt to light work. He has better teeth then than at three years old, and has arrived at the period when careful driving will assist to spread and develop the frame. The colt will, of course, first have been taught to allow himself to be harnessed and unharnessed kindly. Put the harness on carefully and hitch him up beside a well-trained horse, usually on the off side, and start the team; then, if he plunge, he can do no mischief. Tie the dou- ble-tree of the old horse, so that he can pull all the load if necessary, 172 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. and bid them go. If the colt plunge and rear, keep the steady horse in motion, and talk to the colt. If he show too much temper, a few sharp cuts of the whip will bring him to terms, but in punishing him strike but once, and repeat if necessary. This discipline, administered with care, and driving to make them way-wise, is all the difficulty one need ever have with colts. XI. The Age for Real Work. Having performed light work, when from two to three years of age, let the colts have rest during the twelvemonth from three to four years of age. They are then shedding their principal teeth, and should be allowed to grow. At five years they may be put to real work, and they will then go on getting better and wiser, until they are eight years old, at which age a horse should be kind and without fear under any circumstances, and fit for any one to drive, who can hold the reins, and has judgment enough to keep from running against obstacles. This may seem like a long course of training, and one accompanied by much trouble. It all, however, comes in the regular routine of farm life, and must be undertaken in one way or another, unless the animal be intended for mere drudgery. XII. How to Subdue a Wild Colt. The narrative of how the writer once subdued, and rendered perfectly amenable to the will, a pair of wild, high-bred four-year-old colts, that had never even been haltered, may prove interesting. The colts had been purchased from a person who was a capital and humane horseman, but believed in never handling a colt until four years old—and this is cer- tainly better than imperfect handling. The two were driven together, into 2 close stall. From the outside of the stall, after many trials, in which no violence was used, but, on the contrary, soothing words, strong cavesson halters, such as are shown in the illustration, were put on the ani- mals and buckled. A rope twenty-four feet long, and with a powerful snap hook in the middle, was attached to the ring of the halter, leaving the ends twelve feet. Two men were placed at each end of the rope, whose only duty was to keep it spread, and, so accommodate themselves to the movement of the colt, as to keep it as nearly within bounds as possible. Our horseman friend superintended one colt, myself the other. The colts were allowed to find their way each into separate yards. The men picked up the ends of the rope, and the struggle began. The masters’ part was simply to direct the movements of the men, and talk, each to his own colt. In ten minutes the rearing and plunging of one colt was over, and in less than fifteen minutes the struggles of the HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE. 173 other had ceased; in less than twenty minutes each of the colts, ex- hausted, allowed the hand of the master to be placed on the nose, and himself to be gently fondled. Standing a short distance before the colt, with a flexible whip in hand and a cord attached to the ring of the halter, the men still holding the ends of the rope, but slack, I bade the colt come forward, tapping it on the knee after every word, with the end of the whip. The colt did not fear the master, only the assistants, and soon first one, and then the other, came forward promptly, and within an hour would follow like a dog. They were led home and put in the stable. The next day they were bitted, and their training proceeded steadily. Within a week each of them was ridden, and in ten days they were harnessed together and driven. They were broken, during the season, to light driving under sharp curb- bits, accustomed to various odd sights, and having first been rendered submissive to the voice and will of the master, never showed fear that could not be quieted by a word. XIII. Handling a Vicious Colt. Some colts are naturally vicious. The head of such an animal is rep- resented in one of the illustrations given with Chapter HI. If you un- fortunately have one, get him into a close stall, fasten him securely in, halter him and get him in the yard, using ropes to the halter-ring, not less than twenty feet at each end. After he has struggled and exhausted himself, proceed to make him lie down. This can be done in the follow- ing manner. Have ready a strong bridle with a snafHe-bit, and put it on him; also fasten around the refractory youngster a good padded sur- cingle, with a strap for the fore leg having a loop that will draw tight around the fetlock. Raise the leg, buckle the end of the strap securely around the arm, and you have him so he cannot kick. Fasten a longer strap with a similar loop, but no buckle, around the off fetlock ; pass the end under the surcingle, taking the end in the right hand, while the left grasps the bridle by both reins ; cast off the hampering ropes, and as the horse rears to free himself, pull tight the strap that has been passed under the sur- cingle, and when he comes down it will be on the knees. As he strug- gles, press his head from you, by pulling the off rein tight over his neck, and he will fall over on the side. When he gives up entirely, and lies still, the horse should be fondled, the straps taken off, and after a time, he should be allowed to rise. If not entirely subdued, the same thing must be gone over again. This is essentially Mr. Rarey’s plan. It need never be resorted to ex- cept under extraordinary circumstances, and the operator must have L7i4 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. heen accustomed to handling horses, and understand the movements nee- essury in overcoming vicious and rearing animals. Another plan is to hopple the horse and throw him down, but the one we have described is the best and most successful. It should never be attempted, however, except in a yard so thoroughly covered with some soft material that the animal will not hurt itself in falling. XIV. Subduing a Vicious or Tricky Horse. No person who is not well assured of his own power, should have any- thing to do with a vicious horse, especially if the animal be vicious from some physical infirmity, such as partial insanity, wicked temper, ete. If the horse has been made tricky by a previous timid owner, the case is not so bad. Go into the stable where he is tied, and speak to him in a firm voice. Put a strong snaffle bridle on him, take it by the bit, and order him to back. If he do not obey, strike him sharply with the whip on the fore limbs, holding him with the left hand, yourself partly facing to the rear, but so you can see every motion of the eye and ear. If he kick, eut him sharply with the whip (a rawhide is best) just above the hock, over the fleshy part of the leg. If he rear, cut him over the fore legs —neyver, however, giving more than one stroke at a time. When he backs, take him into a small, close yard, and make him obey you, coming forward, backing, or standing, as you order. If he again show signs of temper, or unruliness, proceed to make him lie down, as before directed. Buta horse that has been in the habit of having his own way with a previous master, is thereafter never safe for any one to drive, except him who has become his conqueror. In making a horse lie down, never use undue violence. Once the straps are fastened, you have him completely in your power. Let him struggle ; it will do him good. You have simply to watch, keep him from hurting you, and seize the proper moment for subduing him. Once you have him down, and quiet, show him a buffalo robe, or any other object he dislikes ; touch him with it, and let him touch it with his nose. When he at length smells at it, let him satisfy himself that it will not hurt him. At the first attempt at putting him down, if he get the adyantage, let him rise and then try again. When, however, you have him in your power and quiet, soothe him: pass your hand repeatedly over his body ; breathe in his nostrils ; open his mouth ; gently stroke his ears and nose, and let him taste of something he likes. Thus, by using judgment, knowing your own power and ability to manage an animal, the most vicious can be subdued to your will, if not to that of other drivers. But, once you undertake to subdue a horse, do not leave him until he gives up completely. HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE. 175 XV. Training a Stallion for Service. For the reason that a stallion is stronger, more courageous, higher in nervous force, and more self-willed than the gelding, it is absolutely necessary that his actual training begin from the time he is a year old. He must be stabled, unless a pasture be provided where he may run every day. The ordinary training to halter, and in the flexions, learning to go forward, to back, to stand, to go kindly under the saddle and in harness, may be proceeded with much as in the case of any other colt. In addi- tion to these exercises, he should be taught to circle at the end of the long bridle rein, to the right and to the left at the word of command, to describe the figure eight, to kneel, to sit on his haunches, and to rear and to come as suddenly down at the word of command. These lessons being acquired, he should be exercised in them frequently, and be also taught to come instantly to his master at the word, without bridle or halter- rein. It will take time, all this, but henceforth he will not be found dragging his keeper about as though he were a toy attachedto him. When the actual season of service is at hand, it will save many an accident, when in contact with unruly mares. Sooner or later, there may come a time when the stallion will resist authority, and then there must be no hesitation. The whip must then be used sharply and strongly, to subdue him. If he comes at you with mouth open, strike him suddenly a stinging blow across the nose. If he rears, cut him across the fore legs. If he kick, strike across the hind legs, just under the stifle. The whip should be strong, long, flexible, of the best workmanship and loaded with lead at the handle. We have known its use, in striking a frantie brute behind the ears, to bring him down. Remember what has been said about not striking more than once. Let there be a distinct interval between each sharp stroke, accompanied by as distinct a word of command. ‘There is really little danger, to the cool horseman. The horse and master should never lose temper at the sametime. If so, the strongest brute-force will certainly conquer. After a stallion is once thoroughly trained, never trust him to any but a thoroughly compe- tent groom, and one of calm courage. He is too valuable an animal to be either abused or spoiled. And during the season of service, never allow him to be ridden from one station to another. He should be led beside another horse, even when taking his daily exercise. This exercise should be thorough, out of the season of service, except for a period of rest of a month’s duration immediately after the season. During the season, L76 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. the exercise must be sufficient to keep the muscular condition well up, and the digestive organs in perfect order. Thus only can you expect to have the most perfect colts as the produce of your sire. XVI. Training for Draft. A horse to be used safely for draft, requires less training than any other. He has but one thing to learn; viz: to exert his strength to the best advantage when oceasion requires. To accomplish this, he should be daily exercised at a dead pull, being careful always not to overload, until he has acquired his maximum strength, which will not be until the age of eight or nine years is reached. Training to the Wagon.—The wagon-horse should be trained to trot steadily with a light load, and to walk fast with a medium load. He must turn readily to the right and left, and describe short circles ; he should also be taught to stop suddenly, by throwing himself in the breechings, so as to hold a wagon steady in going down hill, and last, but not least important, he should be taught to back all that he can draw forward. XVII. How to Have a Good Plow Team. A plow team should be thoroughly under control. The animals should be trained to the word, fully as much as to the rein, and taught to obey promptly the slightest signal. They must be evenly matched for strength and agility; for a fast, fresh horse, and a slow, dull one, together, are bad enough anywhere, but worst of all at the plow. With suchateam, no plowman can do good work, and without good plowing we need not expect good crops. The team should be taught to move forward without crowding together or pulling apart; at the end of the furrow, the horse describing the least segment of the circle, should keep a little behind the other when coming about, so as to avoid being step- ped on; and in the case of coming short-about, as in turning corners, he should make the turn by a series of short steps. To accomplish this, the team must be talked to, though few take the trouble to do it, and hence we seldom see a really perfect plow team, one that can accomplish their task with the least labor to themselves and their driver. XVIII. Forming a Good Saddle Horse. The forming of a saddle-horse, perfect in all his gaits, and amenable to the slightest sign of the bridle, voice, or heel of the rider, is more difficult than any other special training. It can only be done under a sharp curb-bit, and, to use this properly, the rider must have perfect command of himself in the saddle, and the lightest possible hand in using the reins. He must first become a horseman himself, before he can train a horse to the saddle. The animal should be perfectly flexed, HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE. 177 to render supple every portion of the body and limbs. Ile must be taught to go with head well-up and haunches well under him, to describe short circles and the figure eight, to turn, using the hind feet as a pivot, and also with the fore feet as a pivot ; and he should know how to wheel suddenly without danger of unseating his rider. This latter is accom- plished by a turn of the hind feet, the fore feet being in the air, and just after the impulse is partially given for the forward movement. A saddle-horse should also be taught to change the leading foot, while in motion; and under whatever gait. The idea will be caught from the manner jn which a person changes the leading foot in catching the step of another person. The horse’s head is to be turned somewhat out of line by pressure on the bridle-rein, and also by pressure of the opposite foot of the rider. This will throw the head and croup out of the natural line of progression somewhat, as is done at starting, and then by a pecu- liar movement of the limbs their motion is changed. Thus, if the horse is leading with the right fore-leg, turn the head to the right, and, with the heel turn the croup to the left, and vice versa. Once learned, it is never forgotten. XIX. The Different Gaits. The natural gaits of the horse are walking, trotting and galloping. Walking is performed in 1-2-3-4 time, and in regular cadence. The ordinary trot and the jog trot are but modifications of the walk. Galloping is performed in 1,2-3,4 time, and the faster the stride, the more nearly simultaneously are the fore feet and hind feet brought down, so that when the horse is running at speed, the movement is apparently in 1-2 time. Then the animal is extended to the utmost, with head and tail straight out. The gait is truly a succession of leaps, and soon exhausts the animal. The slower the gallop, the less should the animal be extended, and the more should the head be raised and the haunches thrown under the body. Thus when an animal acquires the distressing, but fashionable, promen- ade canter, if he is handsome and has other corresponding accomplish- ments, he is almost priceless. The promenade canter is taught by rein- ing the horse in to get his head well up, and then restraining him to the pace required. Thus the slower he goes, the more upright he holds him- self. To teach this, the spur must be used, but with discretion. The canter then is a slow gallop. The hand-gallop is faster and is an sasy gait for the horse, since he goes at half speed and in a natural man- ner. The running gait is not distressing until the violent exertion begins to tell on the wind and bottom. 17s THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOk. Besides these, and other artificial modifications of the gallop, the pace and its modifications, are the only other gaits which a horse may be taught ; for leaping, wheeling, rearing and springing forward or from side to side, are all forms of the gallop. The amble is sometimes classed as a modified pace. It is, in reality, a slow gallop, easy and smooth, and, like any other saddle gait, must be taught under the curb. The true pacing horse lifts the fore and hind feet simultaneously on a side, first on one side and then the other. Like running at speed, it is performed in 1-2 time. The rack is 1 modified pace. Instead of two feet being lifted simultaneously on the one side and then the other, the feet are lifted in 1-2,5-4 time, but not regularly as in the walk. Single-foot, again, is a trained rack. Some horses take to it easily, and in fact almost naturally, just as some horses take to pacing natur- ally. But it often takes time to instruct the horse therein, though once acquired, it is not soon forgotten. No written instructions can be given for adapting all these gaits, except such general rules as are laid down for rendering the animal amenable to training. Once, by practice, you have imparted the gait, be sure to give the animal a kind word, and a rewarding earess. XX. Training to Trot in Harness. If a horse have the trotting instinet, all that is necessary in order to develop it is perseverance and training. The head should he carried toler- ably high, but not unnaturally so. The conformation of the horse must be studied, (sce Chapter IV), and to assist the reader further, two cuts are given, one showing a horse’s head, strained unnaturally and unduly AN ANNATURAL POSITION. ILEAD CARRIED NATURALLY. by the bearing rein, the other showing the head drawn up naturally with the bit. In the one ease the head is strained up by both check rein and curb, while in the other it is simply held in proper position by the curb. There is no objection to the use of the check rein if it be not improp- erly used. It serves to keep the horse in shape under a slack rein, and from putting his head to the ground, when standing at rest A matter in relation to driving in light harness, under the curb, may here be worth relating. We once trained a pair of fine roadster colts to HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE. 179 drive together in harness, solely under a pair of sharp curb-bits. This was thirty years ago. We were told that we could get no speed out of them, and that there would be danger of their falling. The last we knew to be nonsense, and the first we found to be a mistake. There were few teams that could out-foot them on the road ; and, trotting at speed, they seemed to be going upon a slack rein. Not so, however; their mouths had never been calloused by the sawing of the ‘‘pulling bit,’ and they were amenable to the slightest sign. In fact, they were kept in perfect form, but it required delicate handling to do it. How much more ele- gant was this than the ‘‘g’lang’’ style adopted by too many persons when driving for pleasure on the road. Train, therefore, a pair of horses or a single light-driving horse, under the curb always, and, then, if you wish, you may drive them handsomely under the snafile. XXI. Forming a Trotter. All that is required in a horse for trotting a race, is that he go fast enough. The training of trotters is a fine art, and one in which but few persons gain eminent success. Yet, a fair amount of the speed that is in a horse, may be gotten out of him, by strict attention to feed, wa- ter, grooming and proper work. He must be exercised every day to bring his muscles into proper condition for fast work, and at some period in each exercise, he must be made to trot as fast as he can, without break- ing intoarun. Thus his speed may be gradually increased, until at last he will forget the impulse to run, and if, in urging him strongly, he goes off his feet, he can readily be made to catch the stride again, by chang- ing the bit; that is by pulling him a little out of line, as in making a horse change his leading foot. It is not necessary that you pull him hard to make him trot fast. The pull should only be hard enough to keep him steady and up to his gait. The real work is done by long continued driving, and hy lengthening his stride, by means of every persuasion possible. Do not expect to suc- ceed the first or second year with a colt. A horse seldom comes to his full trotting power, until he is seven or eight years old, and often not until he is eleven or twelve. Hence, the large prices the fast ones bring. XXII. To Train a Racer. With running horses, as with saddle horses, it is necessary that they first be trained into perfect obedience ; and the lessons in flexions must also be attended to, so that their limbs and bodies may be rendered supple. This part of the training having been thoroughly accomplished, all that is required is to keep them in perfect muscular condition, by proper feed- ing, grooming and exercise. They are then taught to increase their stride by daily speeding them, extending the trial from time to time until they 180 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. attain their best speed. This training should begin at two years old. At three, they should be given an extended stride, and they will reach their full powers at four, five or six years of age. The training of colts to run fast races at two years old, is severely to be condemned, if the future usefulness of the animal is to be considered. Nevertheless, as long as it is found profitable by breeders and trainers, it will no doubt be practiced. The training of running horses, like the training of trotters, is a fine art. Yetthe general principles, we have given, may be understood by all. A diet of oats and hay, the best of stable care, and daily work upon a proper course, under the eye of an intelligent master, are the things necessary to get the speed out of well bred horses ; and no other than properly-bred animals should ever be trained for great speed. It is not in them. The horse being in motion, the rider throws nearly all his weight in the stirrups, steadying himself with his knees and thighs. The rear of the body is thrown back and the loin arched, so as not to carry the weight too far forward. The trainer must know how to ride with the greatest ‘ase to the horse, and to assist the movement by every means in his power ; thus, the leg, from the knee, will be slightly thrown back, so that by stiffening the leg, the rider’s center of weight may be easily changed, without his ceasing to bear firmly in the stirrups. These directions are for riders or jockeys of medium weight. Lighter ones ride with longer stirrups, supporting themselves more by the thighs. The best race-riders scarcely, if at all, touch the seat of the saddle. This gives a good command of the horse, but is only used in race-riding, since it soon tires out the rider. The same position, however, will ease any horse in galloping over bad or rough ground, or any space that must be quickly ridden over. XXIII. Saddling. It will only be necessary to add some general directions to this chapter. In saddling a horse, for whatever purpose, do not use undue haste. Do not throw the saddle on, especially if the horse be young, or in the least inclined to nervousness. Go about the matter quietly and in a business- like way. See that the saddle fits. If it do not, make it fit. See that the girths are properly adjusted, and tightened, and that the crupper- strap, if there be one, is smooth and well fitting. The bridle must also be looked to; see that it is strong, properly put on, and of the right length from the head-piece to the bit. Before mounting, look again to the girths. They may need tightening another hole. XXIV Harnessing. In harnessing a horse it is also necessary that the gear be perfect in its fit, and not heavier than occasion requires. See that the back band does HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE. 151 not pinch, that the hames fit the collar, and that the collar fits the horse. For draft, especially, there should be room enough between the lower part of the collar and neck for the hand to be easily thrust between. If it is a breast collar, see that the draft-band is at the right place on the breast. For light work, a horse may have a closer-fitting collar than for heavy work, but whatever the work, the collar should be made to {it the horse, and not the horse to fit the collar. A horse may, indeed, work in a badly fitting harness. So maya man with an ill made tool. But in either ease, it is at the cost of much discomfort, and loss of power ; and, this is but another way of saying, a loss of money. Pulling at the Halter. When a horse acquires the habit of pulling on the halter, it is very dif- ficult to break him. We have already stated the prevention ; the first halter put on the colt should be strong enough to resist all attempts at breaking. The cure may be effected by the device shown in the cut. DEVICE TO CURE THE HABIT OF PULLING. A strong bitting harness and fastenings that cannot be broken are arranged so that, when the horse pulls back, the whole weight of the pull will come on the jaw. One effort will satisfy him of his in- ability to break loose, and the punishment will be such that he will not pull thereafter. CHAPTER XII. STABLES AND OTHER SHELTER. I. THE ECONOMY OF COMFORT.——II. HOW TO BUILD STABLES. Ill. WHERE TO KEEP HARNESS. IV. TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION.——V. THE ARRANGEMENT OF STALLS. VI. CONSTRUCTION OF MANGERS AND RACKS.——VII. THE HAY AND STRAW LOFT.——VIII. AN ECONOMICAL GRANARY. IX. THE WAGON AND CAR- RIAGE FLOOR. X. THE HARNESS ROOM.——XI. THE STABLE-YARD AND OUT-SHEDS, XII. GRASS LOTS NEAR THE STABLE.——XIII. A GOOD SUPPLY OF WATER.——XIV.- CLEANING THE STABLE. I. The Economy of Comfort. In building a stable, or other structure for housing animals, however rough it may be, the economy of comfort should be as carefully studied as though the building were intended for the family. Even the wealthiest do not always do this. Everything may be elegant and costly, and yet there is often less real comfort and economy, in the arrangement of their stables and barns, than is found in the poor man’s buildings which, though rough, may, nevertheless, be arranged with an intelligent aptitude for making a place for everything needed and proper facilities, crude though they be, for doing the work and providing for the comfort of the occu- pants in the easiest but most thorough manner. The selection of the site is of importance, since much depends upon this, when drainage and ventilation are considered. A commanding situ- ation is generally selected for the dwelling house, and there is no reason why the next-best location should not be taken for the stable. The horse- stable should, if possible, be a building separate and distinct from the barn. In a suburban place, it need not be entirely hidden from the house. Neither, on the farm, is it proper that it be glaringly exposed to view, to save steps inthe morning. In either case the stable may be somewhat hidden by planted trees, but not so much so as to cut off the free cireula- tion of air. On the farm, if there is a chance for a bank-basement, breeding-cattle, requiring extra care, may occupy the basement; but never put horses there. Like birds, they require an abundance of air, but must not be exposed to drafts. The stable should be comfortably warm in winter and cool in summer. Attention to this point mot only secures economy in feeding, and perfect health, but promotes that pecu- liar luster and softness of the hair, which all the grooming possible can- not give without it. II. How to Build Stables. The stable floor should not be less than sixteen feet wide. The walls should be at least eight feet high, though nine is better ; and the horses 182 STABLES AND OTHER SHELTER. 1835 should stand in a single row, when but few are kept. The heads of the animals should be toward the wall, so that the ventilators may admit air directly to them, and as near the top as possible. If more horses are kept than a single row will accommodate, in a barn of the size wished, they may stand in a double row, with sufficient space behind each row that they cannot kick each other. Thirty-four feet in width will be ample. III. Where to Keep Harness. For farm or draft horses, the harness may hang in the stable on pegs seven feet high, at the rear of each horse. But carriage harness, or other fine gear, should be hung in the harness room, out of the way of dust and the effluvia of the stable. The harness room is, indeed, the proper place for all harness, but few persons will take the trouble to carry it there, and it is, on the whole, economy to hang it as we have stated, especially when there is abundant light admitted to the stable of draft horses from proper windows, and the ventilation is perfect. IV. Temperature and Ventilation. The proper temperature for the stable is fifty degrees, ranging to sixty- five in summer, but never below forty in winter. The reason is obvi- ous. The horse is especially sensitive to cold, and when the temperature is less than fifty degrees, the system becomes chilled. This may be obvi- ated by clothing ; and, here again, is one of the most important matters in stable management, both on the score of economy and of comfort, though it is one too generally neglected. The proper heat of the body must be kept up in some way. It is cheaper to do so by means of cloth- ing, than by extra feeding. So, in summer, a thin sheet keeps the body cool, and is especially useful in protecting the animal, measurably, from flies. Ventilation, again, is all-important, since by this means not ouly is the proper supply of fresh air constantly admitted, and without undue drafts, but it is also an important means of regulating the temperature, espe- cially in winter. If the stable be made with hollow walls, the ventilation may come up through these. In any case, however, the air should be admitted as high up as possible. A simple means of admitting air is by the use of sliding panels, which may be moved easily up and down, if hung with sash-weights, as in the vase of windows. If the windows themselves are the ventilators, the same rule will apply. Not the least important, in this connection, are the pipes for conveying the impure air up through the building and out at the roof. The main ventilating trunk should be not less than four feet square, beginning at 154 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. the center of the stable and leading to the peak of the roof. Funnel- shaped branches, opening behind each two or three horses, should connect with the main trunk. If the main ventilating trunk be provided with proper doors, ‘it muy serve to convey straw down from above for bedding, and also hay, if open mangers are used; and it may be remarked, in passing, that open mangers are altogether the best, to our way of thinking. An excellent additional means of ventilation to supply cool air in sum- mer and warm air in winter, is Mr. Wilkinson’s plan of sub-earth venti- lution. ‘This consists, simply, in laying an eight or ten-inch tile tube at a depth of four to six feet under ground, and extending for 300 to 400 feet away, to an out-lot. The air coming from this pipe will always be cool, or about fifty degrees in winter, and seldom more than that in sum- ner. Tf four funnel-shaped openings are provided at the upper end of the upright tube, it will always catch air from whatever direction the breeze comes. This means of ventilation is especially valuable in country dwell- ines, cellars and dairies. V. The Arrangement of Stalls. Large stalls are best, and each horse should have a separate stall. Whether built cheaply or elaborately, the stalls should yary in width from five feet, to five feet six inches, according to the size of the horse, and should be ten feet from front to rear. The partition-posts at the rear should be round, not less than five inches in diameter, with a gain cut on the inside, to admit the ends of the plank forming the sides of the stalls. The partition planks may lie between cleats. The posts may in- cline inward or not. If they do so incline, the bottom should be ten feet from the wall, and the top eight feet. The sides should be four and a half feet high, of two-inch plank, and if on the top of this there be placed a strip of strong woven-wire cloth, two feet higher, it will prevent ugly horses from biting or gnawing each other, and at the same time allow good-tempered ones to get their noses near together for companionship. The floor should be double, and the upper one should be in three parts ; that is, the first three feet in front, of hard-wood, two-inch plank should be laid close and nailed solid; the other two sections, of narrow, hard- wood plank are nailed on strong end-pieces, and with half-inch spaces between. These are to be hinged to other plank nine inches wide, next the sides of the stall, so as to shut together at the middle, to within half an inch of each other. Thus, all the liquid matter passes directly through to the solid and water-tight floor beneath, made of planed and grooved plank, and ending just inside the posts, in a narrow gutter, whence it is conveyed away to 2 tank, STABLES AND OTHER SHELTER. 135 Thus the animals are always clean, and the upper floor is readily raised for the daily washing it should receive. The solid dung and litter may be wheeled outside, or if there is a basement, throw it down through a trap door, to be made into compost. If the expense of such a floor, as that described, is deemed too great, the floor may be made of hard-wood plank, or better, of smooth cobble stone laid in sand. Hard-rammed clay makes a most comfortable floor to stand on, if it be kept repaired, and straw enough is used for bedding to keep the animals clean. Plenty of straw must be used, what- ever the floor, where the animal lies down. The Economy of Bedding.—It is mistaken economy to stint the bed- ding. With afull bed, so that the animal may not only lie clean, but comfortably in other respects, there is no more straw soiled than with a thin bed. What remains clean can be used again. And, if it be an object, much of the soiled straw may be dried and used again. On farms where there is much straw wasted, it is incomprehensible that an animal should he scantily bedded. The soiled straw, contains the most valuable por- tion of the manure—the urine—and is a mine of wealth to a careful farmer. VI. Construction of Mangers and Racks. The construction of the manger should be such as to allow plenty of room for hay. It should be built from about eighteen inches aboye the floor, with a slat bottom or a tight bottomas preferred. It need not be more than two feet four inches wide at the top, by eighteen inches at the bottom, and about three feet four inches high. It should extend clear across the stall, the top rail being of sound, solid oak, with a feed-hox two feet wide, for grain and cut feed, and as long as the manger is wide ; sixteen inches will be depth enough, and if it slope to about eighteen inches at the bottom, so much the better. On the other side may be an iron vessel that will hold a pail of water, and so arranged that it may be fastened in and removed at pleasure, for cleaning. An iron feed-box similarly arranged is better than one of wood, on the score of cleanliness. If there is to be a hay rack, the manger should not be omitted, and this should be larger at the top than at the bottom, and so arranged that the hay may be thrown in from the loft. The bars of the rack should be about six inches apart, and these also may be bought, of iron, if it can be afforded, and hung so as to open and fall back against the wall, for ease in putting in hay. The manger should have a substantial ring at the top, with not less than a two-inch opening, to tie to. The manger may be built of yellow pine or oak, an inch and a half thick for the front, back and ends, and the bottom of two-inch plank, 186 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. unless it be made of iron and hinged at the back, to let down for clean- ing, in which case a secure ‘atch must be used in front. The top-front of the manger should be protected with two and a half inch iron bands, rounded at the edges, firmly screwed on, so as to project slightly over the top bar. They prevent the manger being gnawed and disfigured. It is also better that a post be placed from the ground to the under-side of the top bar of the manger, and midway from the sides of the stall. In this ‘ase a ring may be screwed by the shank, or stapled into the post, in such a way that it may play freely. The tie may have a light weight at the end, so that the bight of the halter will be in no danger of get- ting under the fore legs of the horse. VII. The Hay and Straw Loft. Every stable should have a loft for hay and for straw, with chutes, or tubes, for easily throwing it below. The chute for straw may be the tube used for ventilation and, of course, must have a tightly-fitting door to prevent effluvia from entering the hay loft. The ventilating tube may be used for hay, even if the hay has to be carried from the floor to the manger, but it is better that the hay-chute connect directly with the manger. If a rack is used, the chute should connect therewith. The floor of the loft should be of tightly-fitting, planed and grooved flooring, to prevent the sifting of seeds and dirt below, and especially to keep the effuvia of the stable from rising into the loft. VIII. An Economical Granary. The granary of the stable should be in the loft or floor above the stable. This should be a tight room, rat proof, with bins for oats, bran and cut-feed, with chutes from each running to a feed room below, each bin being provided with a proper slide, for giving out or shutting off the grain. The bottom of the bins are better if funnel-shaped, so that the entire contents will run out when necessary. The chutes for grain should be four inches inside. There should also be a room for cut hay and straw, each with its chute, these being not less than twelve inches in diameter, though fifteen is better. Thus it will always be easy to get either cut hay or grain, and it is certainly easier to put the supply at once where it is safe and easily come at, than to take many steps each time you want feed. Besides, it saves grain. Below them should be a suitable trough for mixing feed, and also a sieve, with a mesh small enough to save any feed grain, for winnowing and cleaning the grain before feeding. The regular feeding of absolutely clean grain has often saved the stable-man the care of serious disorders in his horses. , STABLES AND OTHER SHELTER. 187 The cut of stalls we give, and those we have described, are the very ‘best that can be made. It does not follow, however, that they must be made in a costly manner, as written. The good sense of any intelligent farmer may so modify them, that while they are strong, a large outlay need not be made, and yet the principles of utility may be retained. — It is the same here as with building. The cheap structure, if strong and economical in the design, may be fully as safe and comfortable as the most expensive. A thing well done is economically done. Illy done it causes waste and loss. If you have no lumber, poles and puncheons, carefully smoothed, answer every purpose. If you are not an adept at framing and must do your own work, strong stakes set in a pretty deep trench, or driven solid, and quite close together, evened at the top, and a cross-piece nailed securely on the top will serve asa manger. The rack may be made of two poles, bored half through with a two inch auger at ; A DEVICE TO CURE THE HABIT OF KICKING. the bottom, and clear through the top piece, with an inch and a half auger, to receive the slats, which may be straight saplings, properly shaved. So, the rear posts may be young trees, six inches in diameter, properly dressed. Thus any inside fixture may be easily arranged, and at light cost by any one ordinarily handy with axe, saw, drawing knife and ham- mer, as every farmer should be. The device for kicking horses shown, is the one in common use. It is illustrated to show how faulty it is. A far more sensible plan for a kicking horse, if you are so unfortunate as to have one, is to replace the log with a good compact bunch af osage orange brush. This will punish without injuring the horse. 185 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. IX. The Wagon and Carriage Floor. It is good economy to have ample space in the horse-barn in which to keep the carriage, buggy and other more costly vehicles. No one should own a vehicle for pleasure, or even a spring wagon, without proper means of sheltering; and it is needless to say that fowls, pigeons or other birds, are never to be allowed inside the horse-stable and carriage house. The ordinary farm wagons may be kept under a proper shed, when not inuse. If the habit were formed of putting every vehicle in its place, even if to be used again soon, it would be found not to take any more time than to have them left wherever the driver may think proper. In nine cases out of ten they are left just where they are in the way, or else they are exposed to the heat of the sun, or to sudden storms. xX. The Harness Room. The harness room should be near the carriage floor, and easy of access from the stable, but separated from each by a tight partition. This room, besides containing pegs, or hooks for hanging each harness, should also contain a table for cleaning and oiling harness, and a cupboard for oil, blacking brushes, sponges, tools for mending harness, needles, thread, wax, a saddler’s horse, pieces of leather, buckles, ete. XI. The Stable Yard and Out-Sheds. The stable yard should be dry and firm, and large enough to properly exercise and train an animal in. It should be protected on every side by a tight fence six feet high. On one side, but not facing in the yard, will be found a good place for the wagon shed. Along one side, and opening into the yard, may be ashed containing feeding troughs at the wall. It will be useful for many purposes. XII. Grass-Lots Near the Stable. At least one grass-lot should be near the stable, and, if large enough to be divided into pasture and meadow, so much the better. The pasture will often be wanted to turn a lame or partially disabled animal into, and it is also a good place for the colts to have arun. If there is no spring or stream in the pasture a trough, under shelter, must be pro- vided, and this may be connected with the house-pump by an underground pipe. XIII. A Good Supply of Water. It is essential that a constant supply of fresh water be had at the stable. The best stable buildings are provided with a windmill atthe top, and a tank in the loft, to secure the needed water from the nearest well or stream. The tank should be closed tight and should be provided with STABLES AND OTHER SHELTER. 18!) a waste pipe at the top. Another pipe, from the bottom, leads to the stable, with a branch to the place where the carriages are washed. A hose will thus enable you to wash vehicles thoroughly and easily. The windmill and tank may be placed anywhere on an elevation, from which the water may be carried by underground pipes to the stable or to any other part of the premises where it may be wanted. XIV. Cleaning the Stable. This should always be done at the proper time, twice a day regularly, and oftener if waste matter accumulates. A splint broom will easily sweep away the accumulations of manure, that gather from time to time during the day, and the satisfaction of seeing everything neat and clean will more than compensate for this light extra labor. punishment—more common; or from defective eyesight, or from all these combined. If you are so unfortunate as to have a-shying horse have, whether it be occasioned by cowardice—seldom the case ; injudicious endeavor to break him of the vice by allowing him to examine objects of which he is afraid, by speaking soothingly to him, but never by whipping or spurring him. When he shows a disposition to shy, turn his head to, rather than from, the object. Stop him; let him approach the object and touch it with his nose, for soon he will approach it himself. If simply ‘aused by nervousness, he may thus be cured. If caused by being short sighted there is no means of relief. Before you buy a horse be certain that he has not this infirmity, as dangerous a one as it is disagreeable. Such an animal is only fit to be driven by the side of another horse who will keep him to his work, and upon which he at length will come to depend, or of being driven as a2 wheeler in a team of four horses. XVIII. What Is Unsoundness? Unsoundness is any disability that interferes seriously with the proper labor of the horse. The most serious are : 1.—Spavin, whether it he bog spavin, blood spavin or bone spavin, when sufficiently developed to be known. 2.—Ossification of any of the structures adjacent to any of the jomts and also without doubt ossification of the lateral cartilages. 3.—Corns are considered as constituting unsoundness, but they must he discovered within a short time, say a few days of the purchase. HOW TO BUY AND SELL A HORSE. 227 4.—Curbs constitute unsoundness, but they must be shown to exist at the time of the sale. 5.—Founder or Laminitis, is unsoundness whether it produces lame- ness or not, for if it has existed the lamin will have been injured and the horse will be lame when worked. 6.—Pumiced Foot is unsoundness as evidence of Jaminitis. 7.—Quittor may render the horse permanently unsound. 8.—Ring-bones and side-bones constitute unsoundness. 9.—A Nerved Horse is wisound as showing the existence of disease for which the operation was performed, and also from the division of the nerves. 10.—String-Halt is unsoundness. 11.—Thrush is so when severe. 12.—Breaking down, even though the horse has recovered so as not to eo lame. 13.—-Thickening of the Back Sinews, ov suspensory ligament, if known to exist, is unsoundness. 14.—Broken Wind, Thick Wind, Whistling and Roaring are all con- sidered as constituting unsoundness, as forming impediments in breathing, injuring the animal for drawing or other active service. 15.—Farcy and Glanders. 16.—Grease and Mange. 17.—Cough, if it lasts. A horse with a chronic cough is clearly unsound. 18.—Megrims, if it can be shown that the horse has had an attack before the sie. 19.—Ophthalmia, if it occurs soon after the purchase. The evidence of a veterinary surgeon may be necessary to show the previous presence of the disease. 20.—Cataract, however slight, constitutes a horse unsound. 21.—Broken knees, when the joint is injured. There are also vices for whicha horse may be returned. These are : 1.—Biting, when clearly vicious. 2.—Bolting, or running away. 3.—Orib-biting. 4.—Wicking, when shown to be vicious. 5.—Balking. 6.—Rearing. 7.—Shying, when habitual. 8.— Weaving in the stable ; that is, the horse throwing his head and hody from side to side with a peculiar motion. 228 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. XIX. Blemishes. The following defects would not be considered as constituting unsound- ness unless they should become so serious as to interfere with the useful- ness of the animal. Some of them, however, are blemishes, and in the case of broken knee, it would be well to know how it came. They are, I—Slight bog spavin ; 2—broken knee, when the joint is not injured ; 3—capped hocks, or elbows ; 4—contraction of the foot, unless the result of disease, laming the horse ; 5—curby hocks; 6—splints ; 7—thorough pin, and 8—thrush, are not unsoundness in their incipient stage, or in a mild way. But the buyer should refuse all such except, perhaps, in the case of thrush. 9—Cutting is not unsoundness, except the horse be lame at the time of sale, neither 7O0—soreness of the joints from labor, or 1 1—windgalls. feeb DISEASES OF THE HORSE. HOW TO KNOW THEM, THEIR CAUSES, PREVEN- TION AND CURE. =~ gts sal a ak 7 , iT) i bn By fore inate | DISEASES ©F THE HORSE. CHAPTER IJ. SYMPTOMS AND GENERAL TREATMENT. I. INTRODUCTION. —-II. OUTWARD MANIFESTATIONS OF DISEASE. Il. SYMP- TOMS OF INTERNAL DISEASES. 1V. IMPORTANCE OF PROMPT TREATMENT. —— Vv. KNOW WHAT YOU ARE TREATING. VI. NURSING AND FEEDING SICK ANI- MALS VII. EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED. VIII. GRADUATION OF DOSES. IX. HOW OFTEN TO GIVE MEDICINES. X. FORMS OF MEDICINES AND HOW TO ADMINISTER. I. Introduction. The horse, especially when subject to artificial care and conditions, and more especially in cities and large stables, is liable to pretty much the same diseases, or, at least, to diseases similar in their nature to those of man. Besides various epidemics, such as lung diseases, colds and influen- zi,—diseases arising from injuries, and bad care, involving diseases of the skin and its integuments, and of the ligaments, muscles and bones, are quite common in horses. Such diseases are comparatively rare in the human family, for the reason that horses are often put to terrible strain in running, leaping, drawing heavy loads in the mud, and on rough pavements, ete. These, from the want of proper knowledge, or from neglect, assume the most serious forms, and often totally unfit the horse for active labor, if they do not entirely ruin him. The importance of common-sense treatment and training has been fully elucidated in the preceding pages. The importance of proper care, sufficient clothing, grooming, good ventilation, and kindness in their gen- eral treatment has also been insisted on. If the information to be given in the succeeding pages, relating to proper care in sickness, is observed, much trouble and loss will be saved to the farmer, who is often necessarily precluded from calling in the services of a competent veterinary sur- geon, because, in many country districts ,there are none. The object of this work, therefore, is to give, in plain language, the necessary treatment of such diseases as may be cared for, by other than the professional surgeon ; and to give such adyice as will prevent the oe- currence of many disabilities, which, if taken out of the list, by their prevention, would very much lighten the task of the veterinarian. These should be well known and carefully studied by every horse owner, for thus might often be prevented spavin; curb: splint; ringbone ; caries, 231 232 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, in its various forms ; swellings of the muscular integuments, causing se- rious trouble ; injuries to the sinews, causing breaking down ; poll evil and other fistulous affections ; fractures ; founder; grease; inflamma- tions of the elands and veins; cracked hoofs; quittor; hernia and many’ other diseases, not recognized by the horse owner, asa rule, until they have become serious. A careful attention to symptoms which will be given in plain language, and the application of appropriate remedies, will save the owner money, and at the same time will also save the most intelligent servant, and if allowed to be, the faithful friend of man, much terrible torture. The feet and limbs are most liable to disease. Those who have suffered from the torture of a tight boot, can only form a partial idea of the agony of a horse suffering from disease of the feet, and especially from navicular disease, attacking, as it does, the most delicate organs, encased in the horny covering of the foot. The causes of disease, therefore, how ta know tt by outward symptoms—for the horse cannot tell his distress, except by mute signs, and what do do, will be toldin the following pages. In cases where danger is present from contagious and utterly incurable diseases, as glanders, or incurable infectious diseases as hydrophobia, the animal should be quickly and mercifully killed, and buried deep out of the way of danger. If. Outward Manifestations of Disease. To make plain what would otherwise not be readily comprehended, the diseases will be illustrated by cuts. These cuts willoften present the disease in its strongest forms, whereby the same difficulties will be the more easily recognized in their lighter manifestations. Many of the.dis- sases of the skin, and especially of the bones, may go on for a long time without:the cause being surely known. Thence the illustration of some internal diseases, as shown outwardly, will be very instructive. The most of them are caused by neglect or abuse. Their treatment will be given intheir proper places, as, for instance, those of the feet, in the next chapter. The condensed description of their origin, with references to the illustration on the next page, will enable them to be readily recognized. A— Caries of the Jaw. Ulceration of the lower jaw, sometimes ends in mortification. Caused by bruises from barbarous bits and curb chains, B—Fistula of the Parotid Duct. Fistulas are caused by bruises or undue compression of the parts, producing inflammation and abscess, U— Bony Excrescence. (Exostosis of the jaw). A blow upon a bone will produce inflammation followed by exostosis (bony growth through increased nutrition )—that of the joints being fearfully painful. D—Swelling by pressure of the bridle, causing inflammation, and some- times tumors. DISEASES OF TILE TLORSE. 233 BH—Poll Bvil. A painful fistulous disease, often difficult to cure, V—Inflamed Parotid Gland, exused by a bruise or compression. G—IJInflamed Jugular Vein, caused in various ways, often by careless- ness after bleeding 1I—Calloused Tumor, from compression of the collar. The result of galls and subsequent want of care, and inattention. NOILIATHXA GHUVMLIO IO Se JO SASVaAsSId AKO “ASNOH AHL 1— Fistula of the Withers, caused generally by pressure of the saddle. J—Saddle Gall, caused by vu bad fitting saddle; sometimes ending in sitfasts. K—Shoe Boil, caused generally by interference of the shoe in lying down. L—Induration of the Knee, caused by blows in falling. 234 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. M—Sprainof the Back Tendons, Caused by severe exertion in run- ning and leaping, destroying the integrity of the sinews of the leg. N— Matllenders, Scurfy manifestation at flexions of the knee, some- times becoming cracked and itchy. O-—Splint, Caused by blows, kicks, and sprains on the shins. They are to be dreaded as interfering with the action of the sinews. P—Ringbone, Caused by starting heavy loads, or excessive pulling in going up hill and by sprains of the joints. Q@— Tread upon the Coronet, the contusion of the shoe of one foot by treading on the other, causing laceration of the coronet and of the horn of the hoof. R—Quittor, Breaking out of pus at the top of the hoof from prick of the sole, corns, or injury to coronet. S— Quarter Crack, Imperfect secretion caused by dryness of the hoof ; rupture of the lamin. T—Contracted Hoof, or ringed hoof of 2 foundered horse. The result of Laminitis. U— Capped Hock, Swelling on the point of the hock. V—Sallenders, Scurfy eruptions on the seat of flexion of the hock. Similar to mallenders. W—Spavin, Inflammation causing painful bony culargement, some- times stiff joint. Caused by blows, slipping and hard work, often from weak limbs and sprains. X—Cwrb, Inflammation and lameness of the posterior part of the hock, ending in bony formation. Caused by wrenching or straining the ligaments. Y—Swelled Strews, Caused by strains or bruises, producing inflam- mation, and ending in enlargement. Z—Thick Leg, Caused by various injuries to the joint. Any inflam- mation may result ina thickening of the integuments. In all inflam- matory difhculties of this nature, including, spavin, curb, ete., cold water faithfully applied at the outset will be indicated, but often the trouble is not known until too late for cold water. The warm water fomentations will then be indicated. 7—Grease, Caused by debility, excessive labor and neglect, filthy sur- s, from stoppage of the secretions, surfeit and impurities in the roundin: blood. Seratches are from the same cause, as working in the mud with- out proper cleaning, ete. 2—Sand Crack, Caused by the same difficulty as quarter crack, 9° o Quarter Crack—Tlorizontal. These are occasioned generally by severe laborof animals not strong in the feet, by which the walls are DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 235 ruptured, by breaking the hoof with the calk of another foot. False quarter is occasioned by the absence of the outside and harder portion of the hoof. 4— Ventral Hernia, Rupture by which the bowel lies next the skin. When hernia is accompanied with strangulation it becomes dangerous. 5—Rat Tail, Loss of the hair of the tail. III. Symptoms of Internal Diseases. Internal diseases cannot be illustrated except to depict the actions of the animal when suffering with derangement of the internal organs or their connections. Theiractions, such as position, standing, lying, rolling, kiek- ing, jumping, running ete. ; inclinations, such as the appetite, either ray- enous or lost; thirst, either excessive or none, ete., are all condensed into one word, Symptoms. They express the feelings and appearances of the animal, and these, along with a few scientific observations, are all we have to rely upon to diagnose (recognise) the disease. Hence, it is of vital importance to be cognizant of the actions, habits, constitutional condition as to pulse, respiration, digestion; color and quantity of the excretions ; nature, quality and quantity of food required ; characteris- tics of age, length of time in utero, development and longevity ; in fact all the characteristics of health, in order to be able to know when an ani- mal is sick. The sooner sickness is recognized and given the proper treatment, the sooner health will be restored and the less will be the lia- bility of death and loss; and from a humane point of view, the less the animal will suffer from extensive lesions. IV. Importance of Prompt Treatment. A stitch in time saves nine. There is nothing in which this true saying applies more forcibly than in the treatment of ailments of all kinds, either external or internal. For instance, a horse goes lame from a corn ; if attended to properly it is cured in a week; if neglected it festers, spreads, works up through the foot and breaks out at the top of the hoof, forming a quittor, which takes from one to three months to cure, the animal necessarily being idle nearly all the time. Or the horse catches cold, has catarrh, running from the nose and eyes, sore throat, cough and loss of appetite ; and if promptly and properly treated he may be curedin from two toten days. But if neglected fora day ortwo, tosee if he will get well without any bother or expense, the disease is almost sure to run down onto the lungs and cause a sickness very painful, of long dura- tion, considerable expense and possible fatal termination. V. Know What You are Treating. Therefore we would urge as 2 matter of yery great importance that the course adopted in case of sickness or luneness be applied promptly and PI | A 2356 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. thoroughly, vet with sufficient caution to be convinced that you are on the right track, so as not to be treating an ankle because it is cocked when every particle of the luneness is in the foot, or dosing a horse for bots when the trouble is pleurisy, or giving a dog medicine for inflammation of the brain when he is suffering from rabies. These and many other similar mistakes have come under the observa- tion of the writer. One notable case, in which many might have been deceived, was seen not very long ago; 2 horse was blistered from one knee up the leg, over the shoulders and withers and down on the other side to the knee for sprain and soreness in the shoulders, when every bit of the disease lay in the feet. It was a case of acute founder. We relate this to impress upon the reader the necessity of careful, deliberate study of a case before taking action; but when the derangement is conclusively located go ahead and apply promptly the remedies prescribed. VI. Nursing and Feeding Sick Animals. Much ingenuity can be displayed in nursing a sick animal. In order to do it intelligently the nurse must be familiar with the habits and require- ments of the animalin health. A few simple rules will assist the ama- teur. Make the animal as comfortable as possible, warm in winter and coolinsummer. Give plenty of fresh air to breathe, but in all cases avoid adraft ; ventilation without drafts is the rule. Clothing for horses is often necessary, woolen blankets in winter and linen sheets and nets in summer. Hoods to coverthe head and neck are often needed if the stable is not sufficiently warm. ‘The proper temperature for the stable that is used for the hospital is from 55° to GO0° F. This is warm enough for all animals except very weak Jambs and sick dogs; they require a warmer room, from 62° to 70° F. A part of the dwelling house is the best for them, if they are not too numerous. See that the place is dry and the drainage good. An elevated location is better than a low-lying one. The food wants to be simple, clean, nutritious, easy of digestion by being cooked, changed occasionally and administered often and in small quantities. Give green food, always, when it can be got. Oats, corn, barley, bran, shorts, ete., may be scalded with boiling water, covered and left to steam till cold, and then given. It is a great advantage to have the grain ground. Hay and water should always be given in liberal quantities ; and see that they are cleanand pure. Warm milk for calves, and the same diluted and sweetened a little for lambs and foals ; beef tea, raw eggs, porridge of either oat or corn meal and milk for dogs, and the same for pigs will be found to be the best diet. In feeding sick ani- mals give a little, often, but be careful not to over-feed, as that is liable DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Ze to throw the patient back and increase fever. Horses, cattle, ete., need to be fed three or four times a day ; foals, calves, lambs, dogs, ete., every two to four hours. Fever patients should have pure water near, so they can help them- selves when they wish it. Those suffering from diarrhoea or excessive purgation should be watered four or five times a day, but in smaller quan- tities. Rest should always be given to sick animals; many cases prove fatal from working too long after being taken sick. or from being put to work too soon after recovery. VII. Explanation of Terms Used. To some readers « few words of explanation may be necessary in order to the proper understanding of the drugs and their doses. Alteratives change the conditions and functions of organs. Anesthetics deprive of sensation and suffering. Anodynes allay or diminish pain. Antacids are antidotes to acids. Anthelmintics kill or expel worms. Antiperiodics arrest or retard the return of a paroxysm in periodic dis- aSes. Antiscptics prevent, arrest or retard putrefaction. Antispasmodics prevent or allay cramps. Aperients gently open the bowels. Aromatics, strong-smelling stimulants, dispel wind and allay pain. Astringents cause contraction of vital structures. Carminatives, warming stimulants (Aromatics ). Oathartics, Purgatives, freely open the bowels. Cholagogues increase the secretion of bile. Demulcents sheathe and protect irritated surfaces. Diaphoretics, Sudorifics, cause perspiration. Discutients dispel enlargements. Disinfectants destroy infecting matter. Diuretics increase the secretion of urine. Ecbolics, Parturients, cause contraction of the womb. Emetics induce vomiting. Hexpectorants increase the secretion from the air tubes. Febrifuges counteract fever—lower temperature. Laxatives (Aperients ). Narcotics allay pain and produce sleep. Refrigerants diminish heat. Sedatives depress nervous power or lower circulation. 238 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. Soporifics induce sleep. Stimulants temporarily excite the nervous or circulatory system. Stalogoques increase the secretion of saliva. Stomachics improve digestion. Tonics gradually and permanently improve digestion and nutrition. Vermifuges kill and expel worms. VII. Graduation of Doses. The relation of quantity of medicine to the age of the patient is thus given by Prof. Low: The doses given may be held applicable to full grown animals of medium size, therefore some allowance must be made in any case in which the patient exceeds or comes short of the average of his kind. A similar modification must be made as regards young anim- als, not only on account of their smaller size but also of their greater susceptibility. The following table may serve as a guide : = HORSE, ETC. OX. SHEEP. SWINE. DOGS. DOSE. | | 3 years. 2years. | 15 years: 15 mths. tS year. 1 part jllg-3 + J-2 § 9-18 in°ths. [8-15 * 3-6 moths. | 13 — | 9-18 nvths. 6-12 nvths. 5-9 + G=5:7 Ss | 1-3 = | 4— fera=o) mc 3-600 Han eS 3-6 * | 20-45 days. 13 — Hime pams. al lesims 1-30 + 1-3. = | 10-20 | per | Allowance must also be made for a nervous temperament which usually renders an animal more impressible, for habit or continued use which tends to decrease the susceptibility for individual drugs, for idiosynerasy which can only be discovered by observing the action of the agent on the particular subject, and for the influence of disease when that is likely to affect the action. Thus in most diseases of the brain and spinal cord, and in some impactions of the stomach, double the usual quantities of pur- gative medicine will be necessary, while in influenza and other low fevers half the usual doses may prove fatal. In acute congestion of the brain, stimulating narcotics (opium, belladonna, hvoscyamus, ) would aggravate the symptoms, etc. IX. How Often to Give Medicines. Febrifuges, or doses intended to reduce fever, such as aconite, bella- dona, spirits of nitre, solution of the nitrate or chlorate of potash, or any form of ammonia should be repeated as often as every two hours in bad cases, and from that to three or four times a day in mild cases. Alteratives may be repeated once or twice a day. Purgatives may be repeated after twenty to thirty hours in bad cases, and after forty to forty-eight hours in mild cases. Tonies should be repeated once, twice or thrice aday. Stimulants, especially alcoholic, may be repeated after two to six hours. Eebolies may be repeated after half an hour; ano- dynes after half an hour; other remedies as required. DISEASES OF TILE HORSE. 239 X. Forms of Medicines and how to Administer. Medicines should always be given in the food or drink, when possible, to avoid worrying the patient and also to avoid the danger of choking from the liquid running into the lungs. When the medicine is nearly inodor- ours and tasteless it can be mixed with bran mashes, or other soft feed. Aloes should be made into a roll the size and shape of your finger and wrapped in thin paper or put into a gelatine capsule, and passed back onto the root of the tongue of the horse. Liquid medicine, in large doses, is given as drenches out of a strong- necked bottle or horn, the head being elevated and the neck of the bot- tle inserted at the side of the mouth and : poured very slowly in, the head being kept raised till all is swallowed. If the patient coughs while being drenched, let the head down instantly, regardless of the loss of the medicine, for, if kept up, it is apt to run into the lungs, wand cause death in two minutes. Small doses are best given with a syr- ie S : 5 ; “| MANNER OF GIVING A DRENCH TO inge ; open the mouth with the left hand 4 HORSE 2 SE. and insert the syringe in the left side of the mouth, and shoot the con- tents well back into the throat. A syringe or spoon may be used on il] small animals. Medicine for cattle and and sheep needs to be more bulky and watery, ou account of the great size, comparatively, of the stomach, and when not practicable to administer it in the food, it should be dissolved in from one to two quarts of water for cattle, and one to two pints for sheep, and given as a drench from a bottle or horn. Care should be taken to avoid letting the animal bite the bottle ; keep the neck of it firmly up against the roof of the mouth between the two rows of upper teeth. If the animal should break the bottle, let the head down instantly and remove the broken glass as quickly as possible. CHAPTER II. FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES. I. CORNS. —-V. PRICKING FROM NAILS CHRONIC FOUNDER OR LAMINITIS, I. QUITTOR.—I1IL, QUARTER AND SAND CRACKS, IV. SEEDY TOE. VI. ACUTE FOUNDER OR LAMINITIS.—VII. VIII. PUMICED FEET. I. Corns. There is no ailment so common to horses’ feet as corns. Fully nine- tenths of the lameness in the fect are from this source. Causes.—They are the result of uneven pressure of the shoe, too much hearing on the quarters, especially the inner one, and too heavy bearing on the heels. This results from the shoes being left on too long without being reset, and the fect pared down and the heels opened to remove the surplus growth of hoof, that would be worn off if the foot were not shod. Corns are often caused by contraction of the feet, the pressure on the walls of the quarters, by the contraction of the hoof, being very great. It is necessary, as a rule, to shoe horses’ feet, and in order to keep them healthy the shoes should be reset about onee a month, the sole and wall reduced to their proper size, heels opened, and the ragged surface, if any, trimmed off the frog. s The effect of the too heavy bearing on the quarters and heels is Sade “ to bruise the soft parts underneath, giving rise to soreness, and after a day or two a reddish or purple spot will appear, varying in size from aten cent piece to that of a quarter of a dollar. If the bruising is light, the corn may become caloused and remain a Showing ¢ small scarlet Spot, indic ting a new corn, constant source of lameness, but not very severe, for a long time ; but, if it is bad, the corn soon festers, matter forms and increases, spreading in all directions, till it gets vent either by being opened at the bottom, or breaks out at the top at the junction of the hoof and hair, forming a quittor. How to know it.—Lameness appears, slight at first, but increasing very fast from day to day. The horse will show an inclination to favor the sore quarter, and will not wear the shoe quite so much on that heel. By applying the hand to the foot, you will notice heat in the sore part. 240 FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES. 241 Tapping the foot gently with a hammer will make the horse flinch when the sore spot is reached, and he will point the foot (thrust it out forward) restingit on the toe, raising the heels com- pletely off the ground. If there are corns on both feet, he will change feet, will point first one, then the other. If the corns are smal] and not very sore, the lameness may diminish with travel, so that when well warmed up he will sore or a go quite sound, till he stands at rest again. Then he will = "0°™ eo off lamerthan ever. When the corn is festered, he will positioot acon be very lame, indeed, will only touch the toe to the ground, will move with the greatest difficulty and reluctance. When the shoe is removed, you will find the purple spot in the quarter, between the wall and the bar, near the heel. What to do.—Remove the shoe, pare out the quarter well, so as to re- move all pressure, and let out any matter that may be under the sole ; then put the foot into a linseed poultice made up soft with hot water. Leave it on twenty-four hours, then renew it. While the poultice is off, examine the foot to see if it needs any more paring; if the hole is deep, you will need to cut the hoof well away to allow the matter to escape freely ; for if you do not, it will work up through to the top of the hoof. Before putting the poultice on again, pour into the corn a little pure carbolic acid, or turpentine, or dilute nitric acid—diluted one-half with water. Dress it in this way once a day till all soreness is gone, and the horse will stand on the foot as wellas ever. Then leave off the poultice. If proud flesh comes up in the hole, burn it down with powdered blue vitriol. The hoof you have pared away will soon grow again. When it has stopped running, apply the vitriol once a day, which will dry and heal it. When it is all dry, and the horse walks sound on the foot, put on a bar shoe to protect the weak quarter, giving the frog gentle pressure ; pour warm tar into the hole, and stuff oakum or tow soaked in tar under the shoe. When shoeing afterwards, bear in mind to avoid too heavy bear- ing on the heels. When that quarter has grown out again, and is strong, the bar shoe may be replaced by an open one. If the foot is much contracted, take the bearing off the quarters by reducing the walls a little, so as to have the appearance of the shoe hav- ing been sprung off the heels, but let the shoe be perfectly level. Open the heels well up towards the hair, so as to give the feet a chance to spread while growing. When a foot is much inclined to have corns, the shoe should be reset often—every two or three weeks—and the quarters well cleaned out each time. Extra care will have to be taken of the feet that have once been affec- ted with corns, to keep them soft. Soak them in a tub of either cold or 16 242 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. Warm water, Some add salt, soda, ete., but it is better clear, as the only virtue lies in the moisture. Many of the substances used are injurious to the hoof, by making them brittle. Or pack the hoof with linseed meal, or oil-cake meal, wet up with hot water. If there is much heat and fever, put on swabs, either made of felt or pieces of old blanket or woolen cloth, folded and tied around the pastern, and left to hang down over the feet, and wet frequently with hot water. II. Quittor. Quittor is the name given to a disease of the foot, when the festering of any other sore works up through, and breaks out at the top of the hoof at the junction with the hair. Causes.—lt is usually the result of a neglected corn, prick of a nail, gravel getting into a nail hole, or a festered corn working up through to the top of the hoof. How to know it.—It usually occurs on the quarters, anywhere from the heels to two or three inches forward, but is oftener seen on the in- ner quarter, because corns are most often found there. It makes its appearance, after the horse has been lame for some time, by swelling at the coronet. Sometimes the first active swelling of the part is as large as a hen’s egg. In the course of a day or two it breaks and discharges matter, when the horse will be relieved of some of the pain, which has been very intense during the for- mation of the sore. Sometimes the foot can scarcely be put to the floor at all, and may be kept paining much of A QUITTOR. In active snppura- the time. i store the pus has : : : Seats tap After the quittor has been running two or three days, the flesh around the opening will turn purple and get soft, and the mat- ter will spread, extending each way, but more towards the front. In a cou- ple of weeks pipes will have formed, pointing downwards in all directions, having one common center in the opening at the top. If let alone, the walls of the pipes will thicken and harden, and the enlargement at the top will increase sometimes to the size of a man’s fist. All this time the lameness continues very great, and, if allowed to run on for three months or more, the foot he- comes so full of pipes and so large, hot and painful as to require very persistent and thorough treatment to stop the disease, and can never be reduced to its natural size and =" form. In extreme cases lameness is permanent, with a A QUITTOR. ; tendency of the toe to turn up, and the horse walks on After it has broken out at the top. his heel. What to do.—If taken as soon as it breaks open at the top, poultice the foot for twenty-four hours, to soften all the parts. Then give the FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES, 243 diseased part vent at the bottom, to allow the matter, if any, to run out there if it will; but if none is found at the bottom, do not cut the hoof to make it bleed, as that would only make another sore, and would do no good. Open it freely at the top; probe it with a piece of smooth, rounded whalebone to find how deep the hole goes, and in what direc- tion. Then follow the probe down with the knife, and open right out and down the hoof, as far as the hole goes, taking out a V shaped piece of the wall to allow the matter to escape at the bottom, instead of making it come out at the top. Searify the purple flesh to set up a healthy, artificial inflammation in the part. Then spunge it out with warm water to cleanse it, and follow with a lotion made as follows : No. 1. 2 Drachms sulphate of copper, ‘4 Pint water, Mix. Inject it well down into the wound, twice a day. If it burns and vauses a scab to come on the flesh, dilute it a little after using it three or four days. If after a week or ten days the wound does not appear to be getting well, change to the following : No. 2. 3 Drachms sulphate of zine, 16 Pint water, Mix. By being careful that the opening is downto the bottom, all the time, to let the matter out, you will have no trouble in curing it. Keep the shoe off till the foot is well enough to work ; then put on a bar shoe so as to protect the weak quarter. In very bad cases, in which there are several pipes running in as many directions, it is absolutely necessary to open up each one fearlessly. Then go on with the lotions given above, and change occasionally to the following : No. 3. 1 Drachm corrosive sublimate,. 146 Pint water, Mix. In long continued treatment it is advisable to alternate the lotions, one week on, and one off. The hoof will grow faster on account of the inflammation in it, so that it will be necessary to have the foot pared down occasionally, When the discharge is all dried up and the disease is cured, blister the enlarge- ment to reduce it. After the blister has taken hold, grease the part once a day, till it is nearly well, then repeat the blister. Soak the foot often, and pack it with oil-cake meal, to keep it soft. 244 THE AMERICAN PARMER’S STOCK BOOK. III. Quarter and Sand Cracks. These are eracks in the hoof, usually lengthwise of the fibres of the hoof, though sometimes the hoof breaks across the fibres for a dis- tance of an inch or so. But the crack rarely extends through the hoof into the laminae, or quick, consequently it does not cause lameness. Quarter cracks come on the quarters, usually on the in- side, on account of that quarter being thinner and weaker QUARTER than the outer one. CRACK, Sand cracks come on the wall of the foot, anywhere forward of the quarters, and are so called on account of their beimg more common in sandy parts of the country. These cracks are due to a brittle condition of the hoof, and a want of elasticity in the fibres. Causes.—Poor assimilation, or faulty distribution of the food and a want of proper nutrition to the hoof, are principal causes giving rise to a slow growth. What does grow is hard, brittle and inelastic. Sometimes the hoofs become cracked from the heating, drying influences of sandy roads, stony pavements in cities, and long continued want of moisture to the feet. When the feet are in this condition, any severe work or pounding of the hoofs is liable to break them. Racers and trotters are particularly subject to them, beeause the tracks are sometimes very hard, and the tre- FALSE QUARTER : mendous exertions of the horses, and the pounding of the Or deficiency of the ' . - outer wall. feet on the track, are peculiarly trying to the hoofs ; and unless they are in first-class condition, they are apt to crack, How to know it.—A crack or split in the hoof, it may be only at the top or at the bottom, and very short, or in the centre, from top to bot- tom; or it may extend clear from the top to the bottom. It may extend inward but a little way, or it may be deep, clear into the quick, so that the soft parts are pinched between the edges of the crack, making it bleed and causing great lameness. The lameness may come on gradually or suddenly. It depends upon whether the crack starts on the surface and increases in depth with every strain, or whether it breaks right through to the quick at once. In the latter case, the horse will go dead lame immediately, and oftentimes the blood will run from the erack. But in the former case he will not be lame till the crack does extend through to the quick. As in all cases of lameness in the foot, where there is pain, he will point the foot, that is, thrust it forward, to rest it. FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES. 245 What to do.—Remove the shoe and reduce the wall of that quarter, to take off the bearing. If it is broken through into the quick, take a sharp shoeing knife and pare down the edges of the crack the whole length, enough to relieve the pinching, and for a distance of half an inch on each side of the crack, to make it more pliable. Then take either a sharp knife or a red hot iron, with an edge to it, and cut or burn across the crack at the top, right through to the quick. Make the cut at least an inch long; this is to start a new hoof and make it grow down sound and naturally. If the crack does not extend clear through the hoof, it is not necessary to pare away the edges. If there is no lameness, you may be certain it is not broken through into the quick, for if itis the horse will go lame. It is a = : = > emma QUARTER CRACK good plan to cut or burn across the crack at the top, and take off the bearing at the bottom, but do not cut or burn os Es rh Cut across the top, the so deep as in the more severe case. Then have a plate ~ bearing taken off at fa 5 . 2 : C the bottom, and either of brass, copper or iron, half an inch wide, and © shoa. an inch and a half long, serewed on across the crack; have the screws about a quarter of an inch long, and screw them into the hoof, while an assistant draws the edges of the crack together with a pair of pinchers, the horse at the time standing on the other foot to take the weight off the one operated on. As the foot grows, the plate will have to be moved down, about once a month or six weeks, or, perhaps, not » . “ . » QUARTER CRACK, oftener than once in two months, according as the hoof : x Showing the hoof grows faust or slow. broken only part way ‘= y up; dressed, pared If flesh grows up between the edges of the crack, bum and shoa. it down with powdered blue vitriol, applied once 1 day. When it is dry, and the soft parts are healed by the vitriol, dress it with pine tar once a day. In all cases blister the coronet at the junction of hoof and hair, clear around from heel to heel, but do not blister back of the heels, in the hollow of the pastern. Let the blister be of cantharides (Spanish flies. ) If the cracks are bad, it is best to shoe with a bar shoe, which should be reset every three or four weeks. CLOSI G ATOOF CRACK. Cracks that break crosswise of the hoof seldom By the use of thin wire. amount to disability. If there is any flesh exposed, dress it with 246 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. powdered blue vitriol once a day, till it is dry, then with tar. No change will be made in the shoeing. FALSE QUARTER. Relieved of bearing SAND CRACK, ou the shoe. Dressed, shod and bandaged for work, when rest cannot be given. Pared away at the sides and bottom, to remove bearing also method of shoeing with clips to support sides of crack, IV. Seedy Toe. Seedy toe is a dry, mealy condition of the wall at the toe. Causes.—It is caused usually by bruising of the toe, by the clip of the S shoe being pounded into the toe too tightly ; and the bruised part takes ona sort of dry rot, or gangrene, which extends up between the wall andthe laminae. It sauses tenderness of the foot when bad, but is rarely met with. It is a separation of the two layers of horn which SEEDY TOE. Showing the separation COMpose the crust of the hoof, resulting from disease of the wall trom the soft parte underneath, Aue to bruises or faulty condition of the body. How to know it.—When the shoe is removed, a mealy, whitish-looking substance will be seen immediately under the wall, at the toe, running up towards the hair, sometimes for an inch or so, and may be picked or broken down easily with a nail, leaving a hollow beneath the shell. What to do.—Pare away the wall at the toe after taking off the shoe, so as to remove the bearing therefrom. Pick out all the mealy substance that breaks down easily, and turnin warm tar, and press in a little wad of tow. Replace the shoe, and apply a mild blister of cantharides to the coronet, FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES. 247 Prevention.—Avoid pounding the clip of the shoe into the toe, but cut away 2 little of the wall to form a hollow place for it. DIAGRAM OF SHOE, Showing clip that is VIEW OF A FOOT. hammered into the toe, sometimes causing Showing toe pared to receive the seedy toe, clip to avoid seedy toe. V. Pricking from Nails. Causes.—Pricking may come from a nail running into the quick when shoeing, or a nail may be picked upin the street. It is often done by the horse stepping on a piece of board containing # nail, and the nail is often pulled right out again when he steps off the board, or the nail may be broken off inside. How to know it.—Sudden lameness will tell you that something serious is wrong. Pull off the shoe and examine the foot carefully. If one of the shoe-nails has punctured the quick, it will be moist and black. If a nail is found anywhere in the foot, pull it out carefully, so as not to break it off. If it should be broken off, pare away the hoof around it, and get hold of it with nippers and pull it out. The lameness will be greater or less, according to the amount of injury done ; if the nail wounds the tendon, that plays over the navicular joint in the foot, or pierces the navicular joint, the lameness will be very great, long continued and sometimes permanent. In many of these cases there is high fever, great pain, restlessness, blow- down. He will paw or continuously raise the Sy foot. There will be loss of appetite in some cases, & and not in others; the flanks will be tucked up, and every evidence of intense pain will be shown, =~ ii = especially if the wound is in the hind foot, and <—— eres more especially if the navicular joint is punctured. pRreKing FROM NAILS. In that case there will be a discharge of joint oil, Shawinehe shan puny Munster a yellowish watery matter, which clots like blood “QaveysPUseae {he foot when soon after running out. When dressing it, you will find clots of yellow- 248 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. ish, amber-colored matter on the poultice. In bad cases the leg swells, sometimes to the body. Great heat is in the foot and leg, and pain is shown if the foot is tapped. There will also be a hard, hot swelling in the hollow of the pastern and around the heels, with great tenderness to the touch. All these symptoms will be noticed to a greater or less extent, accord- ing to the amount of injury done. Cases in which the nail does not wound the joint are usually simple. What to do.—When you have removed the shoe, and found where the prick is, pare out the hole, and around it a little, to thin the hoof ; this will relieve the pressure when it begins to swell. Then turn ina small quantity of solution of carbolic acid, one part of acid to twenty of water, or use a little turpentine. Either will tend to prevent suppur- ation. Then put the foot into a boot, or bag of linseed meal poultice. Change it once a day and examine the wound each time, to see that any matter that forms can escape. This is very important. If itis amild case, it will get well soon and the lameness disappear, when the horse can be shod and go to work. But if it is a bad case, and much matter forms, it will extend under the hoof and spread. In order to prevent this it is best to remove that part of the hoof which has matter under it. The same rule applies to the frog; sometimes the matter works un- der the entire frog, and it has to come off, but a new THE SOLE OF A ; : FOOT. one forms readily. Showing nail woundand A hot poultice is best, except when there is an open and how fo pare touts joint, then put on a cold one instead. At every dress- ing apply the carbolic lotion, and poultice right over it. If proud flesh comes up, keep it down with powdered blue vitriol, applied once a day; if it comes up suddenly, as large as your thumb, you can cut it off with perfect safety. Then, when it stops bleeding, dress it with the vitriol. As soon as there is no more matter, and the lameness is nearly gone, leave off the poultice and dress it once a day with pine tar. If the joint is opened, in addition to the treatment given above spread over the injured part of the foot, and also in the hollow of the pastern, Solid Extract of Belladonna, a piece as large as your little finger-nail, once 2 day and let the poultice go on cold, right over it. Continue this as long as there is much lameness. If there is much fever, give Tineture of Aconite Root in ten-drop doses, in a table-spoonful of cold water every two howrs until the horse is better. FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES. 249 No change need be made in the shoeing, except to stuff tar and tow over the nail-hole, under the shoe. If nail wounds are neglected lock jaw is very apt to follow. VI. Acute Founder or Laminitis. Founder is of two kinds, acute and chronic. It is acute where, when it first takes place, all the symptoms are aggravated and the disease is attended with more or less fever. It is chronie when it has been of long standing and the diseased condition has taken an organized form, will remain as it is and become a part of the organized system, but is not attended by any fever, other than a slight local heat. The inner surface of the wall of the hoof has horny leaves or laminae, very fine and near together, running up and down. On the outer surface of the bone of the foot are sensitive, fleshy leaves that dovetail, as it were, into the leaves on the wall of the hoof. On these leaves is borne the weight of the entire body. Causes.—Sometimes it is caused by overwork, in which the feet are pounded, and sored up, causing inflammation in the leaves. But founder is usually a metastatic disease—one that originates in some other part of the body and goes tothe feet by a peculiar trans- ¢ ference called metastasis. It may originate in congestion of | the lungs, pleurisy, inflammation of the bowels or periton- eum (the membrane holding the bowels in place ) or in almost FOOT WITH any part of the body. Drinking cold water when warm, or ~ . A WEAK standing in 2 draft when heated will cause it. SOLE. How to know it.—The acute form is easily recognized by Predisposed te founder and the horse being in great pain, persistently standing in one Pumiced Pot place, as if riveted there, it being almost impossible to move him an inch in any direction, especially backward. He absolutely cannot back, but will hang the body back, throwing most of the weight on the hind legs, and stretching the fore legs as far forward as possible. If the animal tries to lift a foot it fails and acts as though the foot were fastened to the floor. The pulse is quickened, temperature raised, the mucous membranes become red and injected ; the breathing is quickened as though there were some Jung trouble; sweating is profuse, he will not lie down, and the appetite is lost for the time. The characteristic symptom is the inability to back ; if you try to force the animal to back, it will swing the body back, without moving the feet. When thoroughly exhausted from stand- ing, the horse will drop down, and will lie much of the time afterwards. The inflammation in the bones of the hoof is followed by an effusion of water which severs the connection between the leaves by maceration, 250 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. letting the toe of the foot drop down, forming pumiced foot, if it is not promptly treated. Pumiced foot is incurable. POSITION TAKEN IN ACUTE FOUNDER. Sometimes the inflammation goes on to suppuration. Matter forms and extends around the hoofs, often causing them to drop off, which will take place in the course of three to six weeks. Acute founder is often fatal by the excessive fever, by the absorption of pus into the system, causing pyemia, or by the extreme weakness that follows a long, lingering case. What to do.—Give a dose of Raw Linseed Oil, one Pint, then pull off all the shoes and pare down the walls of the bare feet, so as to let him A CONVENTENT WAY OF SOAKING THE FEETIN HOT WATER IN CASE OF FOUNDER. stand on the sole and frog. If the feet cannot be raised to remove the shoes, lay him down and then remove them. Then, if standing, put him into 2 hot foet bath all around, one or two feet ata time. Let the water FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES. 251 be hot for each one, and witha little mustard in it. Bathe the legs with it as high as the knees and hocks. Leave them in as long as the water remains hot ; then take them out and put each foot into a linseed poultice, hot and soft, and bandage the legs with flannel. Repeat this morning and night for two or three weeks, or until the soreness is nearly all gone from the feet. Then stand him in a clay puddle, daytimes, and take him out of nights, and continue this as long as there is any stiffness. It will need to be continued, in most cases, fora month or more. Leave the shoes off till he is ready to work again. As soon as the feet are well put into poultices, begin on the following mixture : No 4. 1 Ounce sweet spirits of nitre, 1 Drachm tr. aconite root, 1 Ounce potash nitrate, 46 Pint water, Mix. Give a tablespoonful every two hours, until the fever abates and the patient becomes comfortable ; then drop off to three times a day. Con- tinue this for about a week, or in a very bad case, ten days. Feed lightly on warm mashes, scalded oats, grass, &e. VII. Chronic Founder or Laminitis. How to know it.—The chronic form is a modification of the acute. In bad cases you will notice the difficult backing ; lameness ; pointing of the feet, first one and then the other; the horse goes with a short, shambling gait, as though the legs were all stiff, and the shoulders are THE MOVEMENT OF A HORSE SUFFERING FROM SUB-ACUTE OR CHRONIC FOUNDER. thrown forward, giving the chest the appearance of being drawn in. Hence the mistake some make, in supposing the horse to be chest-foun- dered. There is no such thing, it is always in the feet. 252 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. The shoes will be worn off more at the heels, and when pointing them he will extend the feet and rest them on the heel, turning the toes up as much as possible, because the trouble nearly all lies in the toes. Horses with chronic founder will choose the soft parts of the road, but will avoid the water and mud holes as much as possible. In feeling of the feet you will notice them very hot nearly all the time, and there will be rings on the hoofs, from uneven growth of horn. The feet will very soon become much contracted and the HOOF. hoofs brittle. ith rings indica- 4 ‘ i ‘ure j Riad oe = What to do.—You cannot do anything to cure it, but SEE einai it can be alleviated by keeping the feet as cool and soft » D> as possible with poultices,clay puddles and foot baths. In addition, rub a little fly blister around the coronets once a month, and reset the shoes often. VIII. Pumiced Feet. Causes,—When the inflammation in the feet, from acute laminitis, is neglected, or allowed to run on several days before the proper treatment is applied, the connection between the sensible and insensible laminae, or leaves, is destroyed by the effusion that accumulates between them and soaks them apart, letting the toe of the bone tip on to the sole, pushing it down to the ground, or nearly so, and making the lower sur- face convex instead of concave, as it should be. Sometimes the toe of the bone will be punched quite through. How to know it. —Take up the foot, and instead of seeing a nice, cup- shaped sole, you will find it bulged down towards the ground, making it oval the wrong way. If the bone is punching through, you will notice it, and it will leave no doubt in your mind as to what it is. The horse will be lame with all the characteristic symptoms of chronic founder. What to do.— Nothing can be done to cure it, but if it is not very bad, careful shoeing, to keep all pressure off the sole, by means of a shoe, well coneaved on the bearing surface, will help to keep him on his feet ; then, by keeping the feet as cool as possible, he can be made serviceable for Casy wore. When the toe of the bone pushes through, he is of no more use, and might as well be destroyed, to mercifully put him out of his misery. CHAPTER III. FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES, CONTINUED. I. THRUSH.——II. NAVICULAR DISEASE. Ill. CONTRACTION OF THE FOOT.—IV. GRAVEL.—V. CANKER. VI. CALKS. VII. FRACTURE OF THE BONE OF THE FOOT.——VIII. STONE BRUISES. IX. SIDE BONE. I. Thrush. Thrush is the name given to a disease of the frog. It is a rotting or ulceration of the frog, and is attended with a very offensive, black, wat- ery discharge. The frog rots completely off sometimes, and extends down in the cleft between the heels, to a depth of from half an inch to two inches. Causes.—Uncleanliness, standing in a filthy stable, especially in their own excrement. The filth remaining in the foot a long time and exclud- ing the air, sets up decay which runs into ulceration. How to know it.—The ragged frog, offensive smell, black discharge, deep cleft between the heels, which causes them to drop in towards each other, making them look very much contracted, are evident signs. In bad cases the animal sometimes goes lame, but not in mild cases. Still, great harm results from neglecting it, on account of the injury to the shape of the foot. What to do.—Trim off all the ragged parts of the frog, clean out all the holes and crevices with a case knife, or some similar instrument, then apply a linseed poultice, with charcoal powdered over the surface. After twenty-four hours clean it all off, and dress the affected parts with calo- mel well introduced into all the cracks, with the case knife. Repeat this once or twice, letting a day intervene between the applications. When it is all dried up, dress the part with pine tar. Prevention.—Pick out the feet well, each day, to let the air in around the frog, which is necessary to keep them healthy. II. Navicular Disease. One of the tendons of the leg (the flexor pedis perforans) passes down the back of the leg to the foot, and around beneath the navicular bone and joint of the foot, that lies directly above the frog. The tendon, passing between the bone and the frog, attaches itself to a rough hollow on the sole of the coffin bone. Disease in that part of the tendon, bone or joint is navicular disease. 253 254 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. The tendon is inflamed, sore and swolen; the inflammation extends to the joint and from that to the bone, which becomes rough and porous from having its fatty portion absorbed. The edge sometimes gets so sharp and rough as to saw through the tendon. This will let the fetlock down onto the ground, and the toe will turn up. Causes.—!It is caused by avery severe sprain of the tendon in its lower portion ; any severe bruise on the frog or heels; the prick of a nail en- tering the foot far enough to wound the tendon or joint ; or it might be caused by great contraction, the hoof pressing on the ends of the navi- cular bone, interrupting nutrition, thereby setting up disease. How to know it.—There will be lameness of a peculiar kind. In the earlier stages the horse will go out quite lame, from a dryness of the joint, but will improve as he goes farther, though not so as to go sound ; for the tendon being injured it would be impossible for the lameness to disappear altogether with exercise. | He will wear the shoes most at the toes, will point the feet when standing, alternating them if both are af- fected, and rest them on the toes. As the disease progresses, the gait becomes short, and the horse is liable to stumble, going too much on his toes, forming lameness known as erogey lameness. Upon pressure of the thumb down into the hollow of the pastern, be- tween the heels, tenderness willbe noticed, and usually some swelling ; the hollow will be filled up, andthe pastern will be straightened up, nearer the perpendicular than is natural, and the knees will soon begin to go over. What to do.—When the first symptoms are noticed, viz: slight lame- ness, with inclination to stumble, going out a little lame and soon warm- ing out of it, tenderness to pressure in the hollow of the pastern and to tapping on the frog and heels, take off the shoes, pare out the feet well, open the heels, reduce the frog alittle, and put on a wide-webbed, open shoe with the heels raised half an inch, to take off the bearing from the heels and frog, and to relieve the tension on the tendon, Then put the foot into a hot, soft, linseed poultice ; change it once a day, and continue it right along for a couple of weeks. If matter should show itself anywhere, you may be sure you have made 2 mistake in the disease. The matter must come from a nail or a corn, for matter never shows itself in navicular disease. Trace the pus, if any, to its origin, and treat it as prescribed for Pricks from Nails, and Corns. After ten days or a fortnight, if the horse is better, take off the poul- tice and apply a fly blister to the hollow of the pastern, if it is swollen ; FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES. 255 if not, let it alone. After the blister has been on for twelve hours, smear fresh lard over it. Continue this once a day, till the seabs come off ; then turn him out to grass, with the shoe on, but reset it once a month, with the same directions carried out as given above. If it is impracticable to turn to erass, keep the foot soft for a couple of months, by souking in a foot-bath, or poultice-boots occasionally. ment. Even after you think he is well, the high heel had better be continued for a couple of months. If this does not cure, the next thing to be done is to have a frog seton inserted. This requires the skill of a qualified veterinary surgeon, and the foot must be kept in a poultice boot six weeks. A long rest and proper shoeing afterwards will also be neces- necessary. In all chronie cases, or those that will not yield to treatment, all there remains to be done, is to perform neurotomy. This also requires the skill of the surgeon ; DIAGRAM. it never should be done, except as a last resort, and when — showing the course . 0 . J 0 . of the nerve that the horse is useless from incurable lameness, from this or is severed in new ‘ . 2 rotomy. « is the any other disease in the feet. nerve leading to bs frog. IIt. Contraction of the Foot. Causes.—Contraction is thought by many to be an original disease, coming on without any departure from a healthy foot previously ; but this is a mistake, except in very rare instances, It is nearly always the effect of some other disease, especially when bad. Contraction accom- panies navicular disease, corns, founder, sprains of the tendons, liga- ments and muscles of the leg or shoulder. Any long-standing lime- ness, of the foot or leg, is always accompanied by contraction of that foot from the continual rest it gets in being favored every time the horse stops; when standing, he always points that foot, and rests it till compelled to start again. At the same time, the healthy foot expands on account of getting more than its share of the work ; so it is only a ques- tion of a short time for the feet to become very uneven, one small and the other large ; and they will no longer be mates. When you see this con- dition you may look for chronic lameness ; it is most likely to be in the feet, either navicular disease, or chronic founder. But contraction, to a certain éxtent, is the inevitable result of shoeing. A colt’s foot, before being shod, is large, round and open-heeled, the quarters spread out like wings, and the whole foot on the under side has 256 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. the appearance of a large saucer. In shoeing, the quarters have to be narrowed more than the toe, because they are spread more, and in their expanded condition cannot bear weight on a shoe; the toe gets broken and worn off, while running, so it never spreads to the same extent as the quarters. The cause of the colt’s foot being so round and open is, that he has run on the turf without shoes, the feet have gathered so much moisture, been kept so soft, stepping on the earth or into the mud, that they act like a sponge, being compressed when stepped on, and expanding as soon as the weight is relieved, so that the hoof spreads a little every time the foot is raised. Another reason is, the foot being in moisture nearly all the time, the hoof grows faster, and extra fast growth is inclined to spreading, whereas a slow growth is inclined to contraction ; and as soon as the colt is shod and put to work the slower growth of the hoof begins, and with it contraction. Good shoeing will do a great deal towards preventing contraction and keeping the feet in good condition ; and bad shoeing will ruin a foot in very little time. There is no more prolific cause than leaving the shoes on_ six, eight or twelve weeks without being reset, for the shoe, being nailed to the hoof, compels it to grow down in the form prescribed by the shoe. And when it is removed, and the hoof pared yw 1 s atur: size ro 4 Se Ok EEE GREON LONG. down to its natural size, you will find the heels very much contracted. An- Causing the hoof to grow over the shoe at the . : quarters, and to contract. other common enuse 1s standing on hard floors, allowing the feet to become all dried up. What to do.—When there is no other disease in the foot, and con- traction comes from bad or neglected shoeing, pull off the shoes, pare the feet down liberally, so as to be able to press the sole with the thumb, open the heels right up to the soft parts, rasp off the quarters quite thin, leave the frog as large as possible, in fact do not touch it at all. Then rub in a little fly blister to the coronet, smear the quarters with hoof oint- ment once a day, and turn out to pasture on soft ground. If you do not wish to turn the horse out, the shoes may be put on again; in doing so, let them be plain shoes with no calks, medium weight, perfectly level on the bearing surface, and beveled off to avoid bearing on the sole. Reduce the quarters so as to relieve them of any bearing on the shoe, FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISBASES. 257 and let the frog come right down to the ground. Set the shoes once ey- ery three or four weeks, and repeat the above treatment each time, and in the course of three or four months, you willhave a decent foot. There are several methods of spreading the heels by force, but in the long run they are all impracticable, and cannot be recommended. In addition to the above treatment, the feet may be packed with any soft packing, or a wet sponge held to the sole by any one of the many devices for that pur- pose ; or the horse may be stood in a soak tub of either hot or cold water a couple of hours in the forenoon, and the same in the afternoon ; or stand him ina clay puddle, as prescribed for founder. =a XS A STRONG, UPRIGHT, A LOW HEELED, FLAT FOOT. HIGH HEELED FOOT. Seldom afflicted with contraction Predisposed to contraction, IV. Gravel. Causes.—Gravel is apt to work up into a sore of any kind in the foot, and cause great pain, irritation and lameness. It often gets into a corn, or into a nail hole, made either by a prick in shoeing, or by a nail picked up in the road. It may get into a quarter crack, calk, or any wound whatever, and always causes an increased inflammation, and aggravates any existing difficulty. How to know it.—Examine the wound carefully, to avoid pushing the gravel farther in. It will be readily detected by feeling hard, grating grains in the wound, or by the dirty appearance of the wound itself; it will look black and unhealthy. If neglected, it will work up through and break out at the top, forming a quittor. It sometimes gets into a crack that forms between the wall of the quarter and the sole, either from the sole shrinking away from the wall, or the wall being broken away from the sole. What to do.—Trim the hoof away around the opening, so as to have plenty of room, then wash it out, rinse it out with a syringe, by shooting 17 258 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. the water into the hole with some force ; then dig it all out carefully, and inject into it carbolic lotion : No. 5. 1 Part earbolie acid, 30 Parts water, Mix. Then apply a poultice, hot and soft. Repeat this once a day till the hole is filled up with sound, healthy flesh. Then apply the treatment pre- scribed for corns. V. Canker. When any extensive disease of the feet necessitates the exposure of much of the soft structures, instead of the flesh becoming nicely covered with hoof, and coming out smooth, it sometimes sprouts up into a shreddy, leathery substance, that will not grow together and form hoof, but remains spongy, enlarged, soft and tender. CANKER OF THE SOLE, CANKER OF THE FROG. The horny sole being re- The horn laid back to show moved, the diseased parts. Causes.—Neglected or badly treated wounds, they being also affected by the air in which the horse is kept during the healing of them; low, damp, dirty stables, without drainage or ventilation ; and the horse standing in his own excrement during their treatment. It is more common among draft horses and those of a phlegmatic nature. How to know it.—By the uneven surface, growing up in leaves that extend down, sometimes from a half to three quarters of an inch. What to do.—Bad cases are usually considered incurable ; when such exist, the foot never can be made to grow into a fine, solid hoof. But in most cases the disease will yield to proper treatment. Pare away all you can without bleeding it; then dress it with pow- dered blue vitriol. Keep the sole and all diseased portions dry ; this is most important, as moisture prevents a solid growth, and promotes a fungous growth. If any pus comes out between the leaves, insert, well down into FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES. 259 the hole, a stick of lunar caustic. Dress it in this way once a day till the leaves are all reduced to a solid surface, then, if it is raw flesh, and not too prominent, apply burnt alum or air-slacked lime, alternating them occasionally with the vitriol. Keep the sore part perfectly dry all tke time. When it is well started, and good quality of hoof is growing, dress it with pine tar and tow. The horse may be shod as soon as it is well enough to be dressed with the tar; before that time the shoe is better off, the foot being in a canvas bag and the horse running in a box stall. VI. Calks. Causes.—Calks are cuts and bruises on the coronet, or soft parts above it, caused by one foot stepping upon the other, and the calk of the shoe, if sharp, cuts into the flesh. It is most common in fall, winter and spring, when mud and snow are deep; the horse getting stuck is almost sure to step on his own feet. CALKS OR TREADS ON THE CORONET. What to do.—If the wound is in the skin, and of any length beyond one inch, take a stitch in it, or more if needed. Put the stitches half an inch apart, first clipping off the hair along the edges of the wound. If any artery is cut, so as to bleed a stream, put adry sponge over it and bandage with a coarse cotton bandage, tight; leave it on ten or twelve hours, then remove and dress with the carbolic lotion : No. 6. 16 Ounce earbolic acid, 1 Pint water, Mix. Sop it on and bandage just tight enough to keep the parts in their proper position. Remove the bandage twice a day, wash the wound with warm water and castile soap, and dress with the above lotion. When the edges are united, or if the stitches tear out, which they are very apt to do, and expose a raw surface, apply the White lotion: No. 7. 6 Drachms sulphate of zinc, 1 Ounce sugar of lead, 1 Pint water, Mix and shake. 260 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. Dress the wound with this three times a day, washing it as often as necessary to keep it clear of pus. If the wound is inclined to gape open, continue the bandage a few days. If the call is in the coronet, running down under the hoof, it will fes- ter, and pus will accumulate and cause great lameness; the part will swell, and will be red, hot and tender to the touch; the lameness being so great in some eases as to prevent the animal putting the foot to the ground at all. Pare away all ragged edges, and as much of the hoof, following the sore down, as confines any pus; remove any hair or other foreign matter that may have got into it; then apply a poultice, after dressing with the carbolie lotion, No. 6. Change the poultice twice a day, using the car- bolie lotion each time, and examine the wound carefully to ascertain if there is a sack or pocket containing pus below where it is pared out. The hoof needs to be reduced to the bottom of the wound and kept so. Continue the poultice until the hole fills up, and the lameness is nearly or quite gone; then discontinue the poultice and dress three times a day with the White lotion, No. 7. Lay the horse up till the wound is well enough not to be injured by sand getting into it. If any proud flesh springs up, burn it down with burnt alum. When the hoof is growing down, apply a mild blister of flies to the coronet, and trim the new growth from time to time to keep it smooth. The flesh which fills up the hole in the hoof must be kept down even with the deep edge of the old hoof, otherwise the edges press against the flesh and prevent it from healing. VII. Fracture of the Bone of the Foot. Causes.—This does not oceur very often, but we see it occasionally. It is caused by striking the foot with great force against any hard sub- stance, especially if the foot receives the blow on the quarter. The bone of the foot may also be fractured by being run over with a loaded wagon ; or by being stepped on by a heavy horse, the foot coming on the top of the hoof in front breaks the pyramidal process, (the point rising from the center of the coffin bone. ) How to Know it.—Extreme lameness comes on suddenly, soon after the accident, and increases with time. The foot swells around the coro- net, and is very tender, and the horse will not put any weight on it at all. What to do.—Remove the shoe and ascertain, if possible, the location of the injury by pressure, tapping and pinching; then pare or file away FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES. 261 the hoof over the spot, so as to give it a chance to swell and relieve the pressure. Put the foot into a poultice ; change it once a day, and relieve the pain as much as possible by paring away all the hoof you can over and around the part ; it will grow again long before the horse is fit to work. If any hole forms for the escape of the pus, you may be sure there is a broken piece of bone that is acting as an irritant, and must be removed. Follow down the hole, paring away the hoof as much as is necessary to remove all detached pieces, DINGRAM On OOM for every piece that is separated from the main __. “a Showing the position of the cof- body will have to come out Wa) WC IAN oS GR Te * tured, When all the pieces are removed, dress with the carbolic lotion, No. 6, twice a day, letting the poultice come over it until the discharge is stop- ped, and the hole filled up with flesh. Then dress it with the White lo- tion, No. 7, three times a day. Trim the new hoof as it grows to make it grow down as evenly as possible. When sufficiently healed to be safe to turn him out, do so, and let him run two or three months. Inmost cases the wound will fill up and heal with very little trouble, and the foot will be nearly as good as before. VIII. Stone Bruises. Causes.—Bruises are often found on the feet, especially around the heels. They are usually caused by stepping on round or pointed stones, or other hard substance. Sometimes they are slight and get well without any treatment other than a day or two of rest. But sometimes they result seriously, when the bruise is so deep that suppuration takes place, and is liable to spread or work up through and break out at the top, likeacorn. Sometimes the bruise is so severe as to destroy the life of the soft parts underneath, causing them to slough out bodily as soon as the hoof over the spot is removed, leaving a hole large enough to put your finger into. Sometimes it comes by a very hard blow on the heel of the shoe, which bruises the BOTTOM OF FOOT. quarter, and all of its attachments, from the bone, — showing a stone caught between so that a core as large as the end of your thumb ss haimiaae ca sloughs off the wing of the coffin bone. When the injury is so great it must be promptly treated, or it will break out at the top and form a quittor. 262 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. How to know it.—There will be lameness, according to the extent of the injury. Upon examination a tender spot is found on the sole or frog, or on one of the heels. Lameness increases from day to day. When the shoe is removed no nail hole is found, nor any discoloration denoting a corn; but the tender spot exists ; it is not where tenderness from navic- ular disease would be found, therefore you come to the conclusion that it is a bruise. What to do.—The shoe being removed, put the foot into a poultice for twenty-four hours. Then pare down on the bruised spot and liberate any pus that may have formed; if none is found without cutting too deep, replace the poultice and try again the next day. A pair of pinch- ers will help to locate the bruise by pinching all around the foot. If the tissue is bruised off the wing of the coffin bone, it will come out like a core when it is sufficiently rotted and the sole is cut away underneath ; if it is not cut away the disease will go on and break out at the top of the hoof. When the core is taken out, dress it with the carbolie lotion, No. 6, and replace the poultice. Continue this treatment till the hole is filled up with sound, healthy flesh. Then dry it up with poudered blue vitriol by applying it once a day ; omitting the poultice and leaving the sole dry, but keep the foot cool and soft with swabs tied around the wall of the foot, and wet Showing position of wing of cof’ with cold water several times aday. When dry, and sometimes Sea dress with tar and tow and put on the shoe so as to protect the weak spot ; do not have any bearing on that portion. DIAGRAM OF A FOOT. IX. Side Bone. Side bone is a hardening of the lateral cartilages of the fore feet. These cartilages are situated in the quarters of the feet, one on each side, and are attached to the wings of the ceffin bone. They extend above the quarters of the hoof, are covered only with the skin, and can he felt readily ; they are found to be very pliable in health, but are per- fectly solid in cases of side bone, being ossified. They are the result of inflammation in the lateral cartilages. Causes.—Any severe injury to the quarter, by the horse stepping on his own feet, getting the foot caught under a root in a woody pasture, contraction of the heels setting up inflammation by undue pressure, quit- tor, very severe nail wounds, or severe bruising of the heels ; and it often accompanies navicular disease. FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES. 263 How to know it.—The quarters are enlarged upwards from the hoof, are as hard as bone, and perfectly inelastic. In the early stage there will be heat, soreness, pain upon pressure, and lameness. What to do.—When the quarters have been bruised or injured, in any way, foment with hot water in cold weather, and cold water in hot weather. Apply the water as continuously as possible, and wrap them in woolen cloths saturated with water between the times of bathing. When the soreness has left them, and there is no more lameness, discontinue the water treatment, and apply a fly blister over the spots. This will cause any remnants of inflammation to be absorbed. After they are once thor- oughly hard they seldom or never cause any further lameness, but there will always be a clumsy, stiff action, due to a want of elasticity. CHAPTER IV. SHOEING AND CARE OF THE FEET. I. WHAT A SHOER CAN DO. Il. HOW TO PREPARE THE FOOT FOR THE SHOE.—IIL WHERE THE BEARING SHOULD REST. IV. WEIGHT OF SHOES AND HOW TO FIT THEM.——vV. CARE OF THE FEET IN THE STABLE.——VI. THE FLOOROF THE STALL. I. What a Shoer Can Do. Horse shoeing is a trade in which a great deal of skill can be exhibited. A good shoer can keep the feet in the very best condition as far as shoe- ing is concerned, and a poor one can ruin a set of feet in a very short time. II. Howto Prepare the Foot for the Shoe. The foot should be carefully prepared by being rasped down to its proper size and allsupertluous growth of wall and sole removed. To do this requires judgment, for there are scarcely two feet alike. Some grow faster than others ; some are high-heeled and some low, some have thick soles and are very concave, while others have thin soles and are flat. Flat- footed horses have the latter, and the extreme in the other direction is seen in the elub-foot. In flat feet the toes are long and thin and are spread out, the heels low and soles thin. In club-feet the toe is short, the wall straight, almost perpendicular, the heels high and strong, and the soles thick. The flat foot needs very little paring and is seldom aftlicted with contraction, while the strong foot is very prone to contrac- tion and needs considerable trimming to prepare it for the shoe. The flat foot is more subjeet to laminitis, bruises, prickingand gravel ; the strong one to corns, quittor, contraction and navicular disease. Both the flat foot and the strong foot are objectionable ; the medium is the best foot. 264 SHOEING AND CARE OF THE FEET. 265 III. Where the Bearing Should Rest. In paring the foot for the shoe, the wall wants to receive the most of the bearing, though the sole near the wall can take some of it. The heels ought to be lowered the least trifle to reduce their bearing, and should be opened about half way up to the hair ina V shaped mannerto allow the foot to expand a little every time the weight comes on it, so as to avoid as much as possible the evil of contraction, which, as already stated, is the inevitable accompaniment, more or less, of shoeing in all cases. If there are any ragged edges on the frog, trim them off, other- wise the frog need not be touched. IV. Weight of Shoes and How to Fit Them. In making the shoe it should be perfectly level on the bearing surface, beveled off gently all around from about three-eighths of an inch from the outside to the inside, so as to avoid giving any bearing on the sole, and to facilitate the removal of any gravel that might work in between the shoe and sole. Let it be of good length, and of a weight to suit the horse ; some require heavy and some light shoes. Fore shoes vary in weight from ten to twenty ounces; hind ones, from eight to twelve ounces. On_ the ground surface it is well to bevel towards the centre, thereby widening the web which protects the sole from bruises and pricking from nails. Let the toe be rounded off for driving horses to prevent stumbling, and give them as little calking as their work will allow. The driving horse is usually better on a plain shoe, while the draft horse needs calks to give him a purchase on the ground so as to pull heavy loads. The hind shoes are best with a small toe calk, and the heels raised by leaving the shoe a little thicker to level it up to the toe ealk. Shoeing for diseased feet, (pathalogi- al shoeing, ) has been treated on in con- THE CRAMPON, TO PREVENT HORSES = SLIPPIMG IN FROSTY WEATHER. nection with the diseases of the feet in the two preceding chapters. In finishing off a foot with the rasp, after shoeing, the wall should not be rasped above the nail clinches, as it destroys the oily, unctious cover- ing that is there to keep the fibers tough and pliable, and prevent sand crack, 266 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. V. Care of the Feet in the Stable. Care of the feet in the stable has a greht influence on their health. Horses that are kept on floors and pavements continually, and even country horses in dry weath- er, should have the feet either soaked out in a foot bath or clay puddle, or packed with moist sponge or oil-cake meal two or three times a week. If it is not done, they dry and contract from want of moisture, eet brittle, and have sand and quarter cracks, and lose nearly all toughness. When the hoof “chy hero eee is brittle and inclined to crack, in addition to winter use, the above, a hoof ointment, made and ap- plied as follows is beneficial : No. 8. 4 Fluid ounces pine tar, 4 Fluid ounces whale oil, Mix. Rub a little well into the coronet and upper part of the hoof oncea aay. If the ointment gets too thin in warm weather, a couple of ounces of mut- ton tallow may be added to give it a better consistency. VI. The Floor of the Stall. Confinement to the stable, even under the most favorable cireumstan- ces, has a tendency to produce diseases of the feet, such as are compara- tively rare among farm horses which enjoy constant exercise at work or running in the pasture. The anatomy of the horse’s foot is such that exercise is absolutely necessary to keep up the circulation of blood under the hoof, and the bad effects of inaction are only aggravated by requiring the animal to stand on an unnecessarily hard surface. The confined te ct ae HORSE'S horse endeavors to supply the lack of outdoor The network of veins without €Xercise by stamping and pawing, and should have valves Situated unmeante’y a soft surface of earth or sawdust to paw upon. Bo a Pawing and stamping serve the specific purpose of keeping the blood moving under the hoof ; erib-biting on the other hand is often merely an exhibition of the restlessness an active animal feels at being cooped up. SHOEING AND CARE OF THE FEET. 267 In constructing the floor of the stall the health und comfort of its oecu- pant willalso be promoted, if care is taken to avoid having his fore feet rest upon a higher level than his hind feet. The opposite practice, that of building the stall floor to slope from the manger backwards, is too often resorted to for the purpose of securing surface drain- age; but it is a blunder to do this. When in the open field and free to choose his ground, the horse will select for rest a gentle slope on which he will stand with his fore feet resting on a lower level than that ocecu- RESTING WITH THE HIND FEET HIGHER THAN THE FORE FEET, pied by his hind feet. It is the position in which there’is least strain upon the back muscles of the foot and leg while standing—the one in which the horse rests easiest. CHAPTER V. LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. I. BONE SPAVIN. Il. BOG SPAVIN.—III. OCCULTSPAVIN.——IV. BLOOD SPAY- IN. V. THOROUGHPIN. VI. CURB.— VII. RING BONE. VIII. SPLINT. ——IX. SPRAIN OF BACK TENDONS OF THE FORE LEGS. xX. BROKEN DOWN. 1. Bone Spavin. Spavin is an arbitrary name given to disease of the hock joiut, in which inflammation is an early sympton. Effusion follows it, and ossification of the exudate forms a bouy lump on the joint, usually on the inner side near the front, but it may occur on any part of the joint. It always affects the joints more or less and causes great lameness, which is usually susceptible of a cure, but sometimes defies treatment, and permanent lameness is the result. The hock joint is composed of a ¢rue hock joint that works like a hinge, and three flat gliding joints below it before we come to the cannon bone, and on each side of the cannonis a splint bone the same as in the foreleg. The connection between the splint and cannon boues is ligamentous. The spavin usually takes its origin between the cannon and the inner splint bone, and extends up to the joint and around eee it, and sometimes involving the whole hock, except the tumor onthein- true hock joint, stiffening it and interfering with the action ner side of the hock joint. very seriously. BONE SPAVIN. Causes.—It is often caused by a sprain ef the ligamentous connection between the cannon and inner splint. Some- times the sprain may affect the ligamentous con- nection between the cannon and the outer splint, but usually it is on the inner side, on account of the line of the center of gravity being more to the inside, bringing more weight to the inside than to the outside. It is sometimes caused by a bruising of the joint itself by kick- ing, jumping, running, pulling heavy loads up he ee ro TAKE wuen _ Dill, bringing great strain on the hind legs ; by FEELING FOR A SPAVIN. slipping when the weight is on that leg; by blows, kicks from other horses ; by getting cast in the stall. In fact any- thing that seriously injures the joint, may run on and form a bone spavin. 268 LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 269 How to know it.—In the early stage there will be lameness, more or less acute, according tothe amount of injury to the joint. The lameness will be distinguished by a stiffness in moving from side to side in the stall, by backing out and going off on the toe of the foot for a few steps, but soon improving with exercise till he will go all right after having gone a few steps, and remains so till stopped and allowed to cool off, when he will go off worse than ever, until warmed up again. The cause of this Position of a foot that cannot be raised from Position of a healthy foot raised from the ground by reason of spavin. the ground in an easy trot. is: By standing the joint becomes dry, and great pain attends the flex- ion of it, but the exercise excites the secretion of synovia, (joint oil ) which lubricates it, and the horse is comfortable till the joint gets dry again. Upon pressure, a soreness and heat will be found, usually just at the bottom of the joint on the inside, but well tothe front. A slight amount of swelling may be noticed, but not much until the second stage is reached, when a hard, bony enlargement will spring up and extend more or less, sometimes only involving the splint, cannon and the first bone of the gliding joint. But at other times it extends clear around and in- volves all the gliding joints, the calois and cuboid parts of the joint, and it leaves bony deposit around the tendons between the splint bones at the back of the hock. The enlargement is best seen by standing at the side of the horse, about a yard from the shoulder, when, instead of the smooth, straight declination of the inside of the hock, you will detect the lump just above the end of the cannon. Sometimes the lump is farther back ; then it can be seen better by stooping down in front, and looking between the fore legs. Occasionally it will be seen only on the back part of the hock; then it usually escapes detection even by ex- perts. What to do.—If taken when it is in the first stage, before any effusion is thrown out, it can be cured by treating vigorously to remove the in- flammation. This is best done by continuous applications of hot water 270 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. or poultices ; raise the heels of the foot about an inch and give absolute rest till all lameness and soreness are gone. Then turn him out to grass or straw yard for three or four months. Butif the spavin runs on to the second stage, in which effusion is thrown out and ossification is begun, a good smart blister, well rubbed in after the soreness is taken out by the hot applications, will perform good work in some instances, If it is not improved by the first application repeat it. The blister is made as follows : No. 9. 1s Ounce powdered cantharides, 2 Ounces lard, Mix. Also prepare No, 10, 2 Drachms red iodide of mereury, 2 Ounces lard, Mix. Mix the two blisters together and rub it well in, first cutting off the hair. After twelve hours, smear fresh lard over the place. Repeat the lard once a day till the scabs are all off and the skin is nearly healed ; then repeat the blister, and so on till he is cured. This treatment is effee- tual if begun in time and vigorously applied, and sufficient rest given afterwards. It may absorb nearly all of the enlargements. If this fails, or if the case is allowed to run on to the third or confirmed stage, in which the lump has become thoroughly ossified and the gliding joints more or lessincurably affected, the only hope of doing anything to any advantage is to produce anchylosis (stiffness) of the joint. For when the articular surface of the joint is much affected it cannot be cured and restored to soundness, so the only thing to do is to stop the lameness. The most effectual way to do this is to apply the actual cautery (firing iron), which produces so great an amount of artificial inflammation, causes such an increased flow of nutrition to the part, that, when accompanied by rest, it destroys the joints that are affected, by stiffening them. There are several ways of applying the firing ivon, but the most common is to pass the iron, with a dull edge, over the part affeeted, in lines running obliquely each way, forwards and backwards, from a centre line drawn perpendicularly from about the centre of the hock on the inside to a point on the cannon about an inch and a half below the hock. Draw similar lines on the front and back of the hock, and then draw the oblique lines from one to the other, giving it a feathered appearance. In bad cases it is advisable to fire on the outside of the hock, too, as a surer means of removing the lameness, but, on account of the iron leaving scars where- ever it touches, this outside application is usually objected to, unless the first firing fails and it has to be repeated; then it should always be ecar- ried clear around. It is the opinion of some authorities that every ease can be cured of lameness by repeating the firing, if necessary, half a dozen =] LEGS OF TILE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 2 times, but it is accepted as a fact, by most surgeons, that when the articular ends of the bones are ulcerated there will be permanent lameness. Apply the blister, No.9, well rubbed in with the hand, immediately after firing. Some operators delay the blister till next day, but it is preferable to rub it in before the leg gets sore and swollen from the firing. ‘Tie up the horse’s head for twelve hours to prevent him biting it. After twelve hours, grease over, and repeat the application once a day till pus begins to form under the seabs; then wash it once a day with warm water and soap to prevent blemishing by the pus burrowing under the scabs. When dry, rub the grease in, Give him absolute rest in the stable for four weeks ; then give hima three or four months’ run at grass ; and when beginning to work again, let it be gently for some time. While this treatment is going on, it is advisable to have a high-heeled shoe on the foot of the lame lee; let it be raised an inch. When shoe- ing, after he is well, continue the high calks for a month or two. There ave numerous patented spavin cures in the market, some of which have more or less merit ; but as a rule, the above is the only relia- ble treatment. Some of the nostrums claim to be able to cure a spavin in twenty-four hours without breaking the skin, but they are humbues of the worst kind. Sometimes very strong corrosive blisters are recom- mended, such as corrosive sublimate, ete., but they are cruel in the extreme and not as likely to cure as the treatment laid out above, which, being the most humane, although pretty severe, is the best to pursue. When firing, it is advisable to cast the horse to keep control of him and be able to perform a better operation, and the hair should be shaved off. II. Bog Spavin. This is the name given to an enlargement of the hock by distension of the synovial bursa. The synovial membrane of the joint becomes in- flamed and secretes a, superabundant amount of joint oil which distends the membrane and enlarges the joint sometimes to the size of a child’s head. It can be alleviated by good treatment, but when once well-dis- tended it can seldom be radically cured, and very many unfortunate animals carry the big joint with them to the bone yard. Causes.—It is caused by severe sprain of the joint, the inflammation extending to the synovial membrane, and sometimes even to the joint. Sometimes the origin of it lies in the joint itself from severe bruising by concussion when jumping, kicking or being kicked. It is also caused by wounds from being stabbed with the fork by reckless grooms, or pricks from nails in the stall, when a restless horse demolishes it by kicking. How to know it.—There will be a large, soft swelling Siinwinardhobent on the inner and front aspect of the hock. The swelling — Rog*gent., is of the same character as wind galls ; it seems to be filled with air, but MOCK JOINT. 272 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. it is synovia. In mild cases there is little, and, sometimes, no lameness ; but in bad eases there is lameness of a general character, stiffness in the hock, more pain evinced when starting than after a little exercise, heat, soreness upon pressure, and a tendency to get worse rather than better, even with treatment. What to do.—Bathe it as continuously as possible with either hot or cold water for twelve hours, then apply an oil-meal poultice, hot and soft. Continue the poultice for several days, changing it once a day, and bath- ing with hot water at the time of changing. When the soreness and lameness are gone apply the following liniment twice a day : No. 11. 3 Ounces tincture of iodine, 1 Ounce aqua ammonia, 1 Ounce turpentine, 1 Ounce glycerine, Mix. Rub well in with the hand till the skin is quite sore ; then grease it once a day till it is healed, then repeat. Keep it pretty sore for a few weeks, giving perfect rest. Then turn the horse out for a long time. Some recommend bandages, but they are not practical since they are very difficult to keep on and always chafe the skin above and below, necessitating their suspension from time to time to allow the skin to heal. Puncturing the sack is prescribed by some, but it is very dangerous and cannot be recommended. III. Occult Spavin. Oceult spavin is similar to bone spavin in all respects, except that there is no enlargement, and no external evidence of any lesion whatever. The lameness is severe, persistent and of the same character as in bone spayin, the horse going off on the toe, working out of the lameness with exercise in the earlier stages, but the lameness is often permanent through all the subsequent stages. Causes.—Severe concussion on the ends of the bones in the joint How to know it.—There will be the characteristic bone spavin lame- ness, but the disease willshow no outward marks. , aie in the throat from a stricture in the jt In too lone, and not to push it through the gullet. 3 . walls of the gullet. A horse cannot breathe with the probang in his throat, therefore it is dangerous to leave it in longer than one minute at a time. If the obstruction is near enough to the throat, so it can be reached with the hand, run your arm down and remove it. As a last resort, when all other means have been exhausted, cut down upon the substance and = oO. remove it. Make the opening in the skin large enough to get TWO FORMS OF PROBANG. A : ‘ e a hand in, but make the hole in The probang with a piece of sponge on the end is far the 5 best. the gullet as small as possible, just large enough to get one finger in, and break down the obstruction. DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 359 Cut carefully so as not to wound the jugular vein. Draw the edges of the gullet together with either catgut or silk, and dress it twice a day with lotion No. 39. Sew the skin with silk, and after dressing the wound with the above lotion, saturate a wad of oakum with the lotion and tie it over the wound. Keep the horse on very sloppy food, and very little of it, THE LOW CHOKE WITH FLATULENCE. mostly oatmeal gruel, until the wound in the gullet is healed. Avoid making the opening if possible, for it is very hard indeed at all times, and sometimes utterly impossible, to make it heal, and a fatal termination is often the result. VII. Gastritis. Causes.—This is inflammation of the stomach, caused by over-eating at any one time, getting into a clover field or at an oat bin or corn erib. Eating poisonous herbs or accidentally eating poison also causes it. The SS HORSE SUFFERING FROM ACUTE GASTRITIS. disease has a tendency to leave the stomach and go to the feet and cause founder. On account of this tendency we seldom have occasion to treat gastritis. 560 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. How to know it.—There is a tendency to wind colic, the food not being digested rapidly enough, decomposition sets in and leads to flatu- lence. There is usually a loss of appetite, and sometimes symptoms of nausea, such as turning up the nose. CHRONIC GASTRITIS. A horse quenching the excessive thirst of chronic gastritis. What to do.—Give a complete change of food; if corn and oats have been fed, change to bran, carrots and boiled barley, and if in season, give green food. Give raw linseed oilin half pint doses once a day till the bowels are quite soft, and feed a little oil-cake meal, a pint once a day. If wind accumulates after eating, give the following as a drench : No. 47. 1 Teaspoonful bicarbonate of soda, 1 Ounce extract of ginger, 16 Pint water, Mix and give as one dose. If thirst is excessive, give half an ounce of chlorate in the water, well dissolved, twice a day. This excessive thirst is often seen as a symptom of the disease when it has become chronic. VIII. Stomach Staggers. This isa sleepy, dumpish, stupid condition resulting from engorgement, and through the nerves the impression is carried to the brain, and stupor is the effect. Causes.—It frequently happens after over-eating on clover, or the horse gets into the garden and fills up on cabbages or roots of any kind. How to know it.—The horse is usually found standing in a stupid man- ner as though asleep, perfectly quiet, and perhaps with his mouth full of food; he is oblivious to all around; place one foot across the other, and he will leave it so; prick him and he may wake up for an instant, but subsides again as quickly. DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 361 What to do.—Put him in a safe place: remove all food ; give him very fo) little water, and give a dose of purgative medicine as follows: No. 48. 6 Drachms barbadoes aloes, 1 Pint raw linseed oil, Mix. Give as one dose. As soon as he is sufficiently recovered give him walking exercise. If the purgative does not work in the course of twenty- A HORSE WITH STOMACH OR SLEEPY STAGGERS. four hours, give injections of warm water and soft soap every hour till purgation is obtained. Prevention.—Avoid engorgement ; feed on bulky food. IX. Dyspepsia. Causes.—This is rather uncommon, but is occasionally seen in horses that have been fed artificially for any great length of time, especially if highly fed. How to know it—There will be a general unthrifty appearance to the horse; he will be thin; coat rough and staring, hide bound; and the surest symptom of all is the yellowish color and offensive smell of the manure. After a while the appetite wanes; he gets hungry, and will rush at the food as though he would swallow the whole at once, eats a few mouthfuls and leaves the rest; perhaps he will nibble a little more, but will not eat as though he relished it. He gradually grows worse, till he becomes a mere skeleton. What to do.—If practicable, give him three or four months at grass ; first examine the teeth, and remedy any defect. If it is not the right 562 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. time of year to turn out to grass, give a complete change of food; car- rots, turnips, apples, boiled barley, scalded oats, and bran mashes. Feed no corn at all. Give a dose of purgative medicine, recipe No. 23. When the purgation is all over, give the tonic No. 34, in soft feed. If the appetite is poor, so that he won’t eat the powder, give No. 35. Con- tinue it a week, then stop a week, and repeat. X. Spasmodie Colic. The term colic, means pain in the colon, (one of the large intestines ), but is accepted as the name for all pain in the abdomen. It is often called belly-ache. It is always very serious, indeed, for two reasons—it is terribly painful, and is very apt to run into inflammation of the bowels, which is usually fatal. Spasmodie colic is pain in the bowels, from the violent, spasmodic con- traction and cramp of the muscular coat of the bowels. It is called spas- modic on account of the pain and cramps being spasmodic, and not con- THE FIRST STAGE OF SPASMODIC COLIC, tinuous ; there are moments of relief from the pain, in which the animal will be quite at his ease, but it is apt to come on again after a few mo- ments. Some horses are particularly subject to colic, owing to a ravenous manner of eating and drinking, consequently they have it from time to time, and usually die with it after a few repetitions. Causes.—It is caused by some irritant in the bowel—indigestible matter; also by large draughts of cold water, particularly if the horse is warm. Colicky pains sre very often symptoms of other diseases. How to know it.—In the first stage, the horse will begin to be uneasy ; looks around ; raises up his hind feet towards his belly ; steps around from one side of the stall to the other; stops eating ; will curl as if to lie down DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 363 In the second stage, he lies down and gets up again after lying, per- haps, a couple of minutes; in the third stage, he rolls, kicks, sweats pro- fusely, has a haggard countenance, is inclined to turn upon his back, and remains so. In mild cases, after kicking for half an hour or so, the SECOND STAGE OF SPASMODIC COLIC. horse usually gets better, the pain all passes off, and he returns to his accustomed spirits and habits; but if it does not go off in the course of half an hour, and from that to two or three hours, it is apt to run into enteritis, and kill him. What to do.—Give mild, diffusible stimulants, as early and quickly as possible. Give either of the following: No. 49. 2 Ounce whiskey, 1 Ounces extract of ginger, 1, Pint water, Mix. Give as one dose. Or this: No. 50. 115 Ounce sweet spirits of nitre, 1 Ounce laudanum, 15 Ounce extract of ginger, 1g Pint water, Mix. Give as one dose. Always, when possible, give warm water injections with avery little soap in it, just to make it a little slippery. Give the horse a soft, roomy place to roll in, and if he has the colic at all bad, give a couple of days rest afterwards, feeding on soft food. Give the abdo- men friction, and put on a blanket to avoid his cooling off too soon. When the worst part of the pain is over, a little walking exercise will be beneficial. If after giving the first dose the pain continues more than es) re THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. half an hour, repeat it every half hour till velief is obtained; but if it does not yield with three or four doses, give the following : No. 51. 1 Quart raw linseed oil, 1, Ounce chloroform, Mix. Give as one dose. In half an hour, if the pain is continuous, give No. 52. 4+ Grains sulphate of morphia, ty Ounce water Mix. Give as one dose with a syringe. Repeat it every half hour if necessary to keep him quiet. If this does not effect a cure, refer to treatment for enteritis, for it certainly has run into inflammation of the bowels. THIRD STAGE OF SPASMODIC COLIC, XI. Flatulent Colic. Causes.—The nature of this disease is acute indigestion. Either weak digestion, or a suspension of digestion entirely, allows the undi- gested food to decompose, and while undergoing that process, fermenta- tion sets up, gas is evolved, and the horse bloats up, sometimes to an alarming extent, even to cause death by suffocation or rupture of the stomach, intestines or diaphragm. It is most common where corn is fed freely, and is apt to come on when the horse is taken out to work or drive immediately after eating. The active exercise retards or wholly interrupts digestion, and the moment digestion stops, decomposition sets in and the evolution of gas begins. It is very weakening and often fatal. It usually lasts about two to four hours, but sometimes lingers for ten or twelve, and sometimes proves fatal in half or three-quarters of an hour. DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 563 How to know it.—The characteristic symptom is the bloating with gus, and there is always a great amount of pain. The horse rolls, kicks, paws, tries to lie on his back, gets up and down, sweats tremendously, has a haggard look in his face, gulps wind and food from the stomach in small quantities through his nose ; and the food thus discharged is usually green and very sour. The nostrils are distended, breathing rapid and breath cold from the shallow breathing; the pulse is quickened at the start, but gradually grows harder and smaller as the fatal termination approaches ; the belly becomes so distended that the flanks are above the points of the hips; and in some cases, when lying down, the legs are so spread from the distension of the belly that the animal is unable to get up. If it lasts very long, the nervous system becomes exhausted; the HORSE DYING OF FLATULENT COLIC. muscles around the chest, shoulders and neck cramp and draw down so as to almost pull the horse to the ground, and he will sometimes scream out like a child from the pain. The ears and extremities get deathly cold. If rupture takes place, he will sit on his haunches like a dog, turn up his upper lip as though nauseated and try to vomit; but owing to the peculiar formation of the stomach the horse cannot vomit. The pulse gets weaker and smaller till he falls and dies from nervous exhaustion. When he dies in earlier stages, it is from suffocation: the distension of the stomach and bowels presses on the lungs so hard that it forces them up into so small a compass that they cannot work, and suffocation is the result. 366 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. “avorable symptoms are cessation of pain ; free evacuation of gas per rectum ; pulse returns to its normal condition ; ears and extremities re- gain their natural temperature ; sweating stops, and the horse returns to . . e his feed and customary habits. What to do.—As soon as it is discovered, give the following : No. 53. i Tablespoonfal bicarbonate soda (saleratus). Teacupful water, Mix. — Give as one dose, and repeat it, if necessary, in ten minutes. Give warm water injections, being careful not to push the nozzle of the syringe through a gut; for the intestines crowd backward so hard that it is very difficult to give injection enough to amount to anything, although it is best totry. If the soda does no good, give the following : No. 54. 1 Ounce turpentine, ‘s Pint raw linseed oil, 1 Ounce laudanum, Mix. Give as one dose, and repeat it in fifteen minutes, if necessary. If this proves ineffectual, give No. 55. 1 Ounce chloroform, 1 Pint raw linseed oil, Mix. Give as one dose, and repeat, if necessary, in half an hour. Bind hot water rags to the belly, and keep them hot. As a last resort, if the flatulence does not yield to the above treatment, the trocar and cannula may be used. Let it be a small one, not over one quarter inch in diameter and three inches long ; find the center of a triangle formed by the last rib, point of the hip, andthe edges nearest TROCHAR PROVIDED WITH A . . . CANNULA FOR PUNCTUR- the flank of the spines in the loins; clip off Le Sr ae the hair, and pass the trochar in slowly and firmly, pointing it in and down at the same time, so as to avoid wounding the kidney ; leave the cannula in there, but draw out the trocar, and, if the gut that is distended is tapped, the gas will rush out. Sometimes fcecal matter will clog the cannula; if so, pass in & small piece of whalebone, or other probe, to remove it from the lower end. If no gut is tapped, try the same operation on the other side. It makes no difference which side is tapped, for there is no paunch adherent to the side of horses, as in cattle. The treatment by the mouth may be kept up while this is done. When they drop from suffocation, or when rupture takes place, it is too late to do anything; but, in every case, persevere till either one or the other of these tells you further effort is useless. DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 36 XII. Rupture of the Stomach, Intestines or Diaphragm. Causes.—Lhis occurs in violent cases of flatulence. When the gener- ation of gas is excessive in the stomach or the intestines, they are liable to rupture, and let the food out into the abdominal cavity, or from the UNNATURAL ATTITUDE INDICATIVE OF ABDOMINAL INJURY. tremendous pressure against the diaphragm, it is liable to rupture and let the intestines into the chest among the lungs and heart. Either case is fatal, the animal dying from shock to the nervous system, hemorrhage and suffocation. How to know it.—The horse will sit on his haunches ; but this is not a characteristic symptom of itself, for we see it occasionally in spasmodie colic, and often in enteritis; the horse will turn up his nose with an intensely disgusted expression on his countenance, but this, too, is often seen in colic and enteritis ; he will try to vomit, which is a characteristic symptom, and the muscles and legs will tremble and shake as if with cold; the ears and legs get cold; cold sweat breaks out in patches; the mouth OS® STRAINED UPWARD. gets cold, the pulse grows smaller and smaller, till it becomes impercepti- ble, and death claims the patient in the course of half an hour to two hours. XIII. Constipation. When the feecal matter in the intestines gets dry and hard, and resists the peristaltic effort of the bowels to pass it on, or when there is no per- istaltic motion to the bowel, and the food lies quiet in one spot, there is 368 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. an obstruction to all intents and purposes, which is called constipation, or costiveness. Causes.—When the food dries and hardens so that it cannot be passed on, it is due to an insuflicient quantity of water in the bowel, owing to its all going to the kidneys, or it is due to the horse not drinking enough, or to inactivity of the liver and other glands that supply the bowels with juices. When it is from a want of peristaltic motion, it is due to ner- vous weakness in the bowels. How to know it.—Little or no fetal matter is passed ; what is passed is hard and dry; mild colicky pains are felt at intervals of half an hour orso. The horse may continue to eat and otherwise appear all right, but as it runs on, the pains will come oftener and be more acute till it runs into enteritis. What to do.—If the pulse is natural and the colicky pains slight and far between, give recipe No. 23; also give warm water and soap injections. If the pains continue and increase, give a quart of raw oil and recipe No. 52. If it does not yield to this, give the following : No. 56. 1 Quart raw oil, 1 Ounce tincture nux vomica, Mix. Give as one dose. Repeat vecipe No. 52 often enough to keep down the pain. If the pain seems to be increasing and the constipation obsti- nate, apply to the belly, well rubbed in, the following : No. 57. 1 Ounce croton oil, 3 Ounces raw linseed oil, Mix. Repeat recipe No. 56 every six hours till a passage is effected. Re- peat the injections once an hour, but put in less soap each time. If it is necessary to repeat them more than four or five times, use clear water without soap. XIV. Diarrhoa and Superpurgation. These are watery evacuations from the bowels, and are the opposite to constipation. Causes.—In diarrhoea there is an excessive secretion of the juices of the system, owing usually to some irritant in the bowels, but some- times to too laxative food. Superpurgation is due to an overdose of pureative medicine. How to know it.—The evacuations are frequent and watery ; after run- ning a while the bowels become irritable and the patient strains a good deal and becomes weak ; the pulse gets feeble ; the mouth clammy ; the ears and extremities cold ; the eyes and nose pale; the horse grinds his DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 569 teeth, and refuses food; thirst is excessive. The temperature of the body taken with the thermometer is down, perhaps to 95° Fahr. If it goes down to 93° , the disease is almost sure to terminate fatally. What to do.—If it is a straight case of diarrhcea—that is, without any purgative having been given—give a complete change of food and the following : No. 58. 1 Ounce prepared chalk, 1 Ounce ginger, 1 Drachm opium, 1 Pint starch gruel, Mix. Give as one dose, and repeat it, if necessary, after three or four hours. Give him water with flour stirred in to drink, but restrict the quantity to about two quarts every three or fourhours. If this does not stop it after giving two or three doses of the medicine, give the following : No, 59. ‘5 Pint raw linseed oil, 1 Drachm opium, 1 Ounce tineture catechu, Mix. Give as one dose. If superpurgation is the trouble, give the flour and water to drink. If this does not check it in five or six hours, give in addition : No. 60. 1 Ounce tineture catechu, ts Ounce tineture camphor, 1 Ounce tineture opium, 1 Quart starch gruel, Mix. Give as one dose. Repeat it if necessary every four hours. Restrict the drinking a little, and feed lightly when the appetite returns. XV. Dysentery. The nature of this disease is bloody evacuations with great straining, There is inflammation of the mucous membrane of the large intestines, with more or less feyer and great irritability of the intestinal tract. Causes. tion of the bowels; impure, indigestible and musty food; and foul atmosphere. How to know it.—By the bloody evacuations; severe, frequent and ineffectual attempts to pass foecal matter; colicky pains; considerable Neglected diarrhea and superpurgation ; too acid a condi- fever; great thirst; no appetite; pulse quick, weak and compressible. 1-2 I It is rather rare in the horse ; when it does exist, worms are often found, too, and are thought by some to assist in the cause of it. 24 370 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. What to do. Give recipe No. 59, and give injections of starch with one ounce of laudanum in each injection; repeat the latter every half A HORSE WITH CHRONIC DYSENTERY. hour. In one hour after taking No. 59 give No. 58, and in another hour, if the straining continues, give No. 60, and the following injection : D> > No. 61. 1 Ounce tineture of opium, 1 Ounce sulphurie ether, | Quart starch, Mix. If no improvement takes place in the course of ten hours, give a pint of raw oiland repeat the injection every half hour, XVI. Enteritis. Inflammation of the bowels takes two forms, according to the part affected, Enteritis is inflammation of the mucous lining of the bowel ; the next subject, peritonitis, is inflammation of the outer or serous covering of the bowel. Causes.—lrritating substances in the food ; catching cold which settles in the bowels, continuation of colic, either spasmodic or flatulent ; and poison, How to know it.—There is continuous pain, light at first, and increasing as the inflammation develops. It is different from colic, for which it might be taken by an ordinary observer, in that it is continuous, while colie is in- termittent ; in colic, the horse throws himself down ; in enteritis he lies down carefully ; the pulse is raised to seventy-tive or eighty, or even xa hundred DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL, 371 beats to the minute ; the countenance wears an anxious look ; heis very un- sasy ; When not getting up and down he is turning around ; if in a box stall, he looks around to his sides, paws, raises his legs up towards the body ; the breathing is hurried ; there is profuse sweating ; the pulse is soft at first, but grows gradually harder, faster, and at last it gets wiry, and finally imperceptible ; the extremities get cold, and the horse wears himself out I POSITION ASSUMED BY ILORSE SUFFERING FROM ABDOMINAL INJURY, with the pain and constant moving about. Towards the last, the pain will apparently abate a little ; he will stand quiet for a while; brace his legs till he cannot resist any longer, and will reel and drop, the hind end first, generally. He dies in the course of eight to twenty hours after the first symptom, but in some instances the horse will die insix hours after the very first symptom. Sometimes they get perfectly crazy with the pain, and they will rear, run, climb over anything, tear down the stalls, ete. They can ENTERITIS. bear no pressure on the belly without pain. A test for enteritis, the What to do.—Treatment is of very little use, for mouth usually being . 6 arith =D . ° found hot and dry, a genuine case of enteritis is always incurable, but it is best to try always. At first, it is usually taken for colic, and the pre- seribed drenches are given for that disease ; but when you notice the pain is continuous and the pulse runs up, it is sufficient evidence to locate the trouble as inflammation of the lining of the large intestines ; then give No. 56, and apply a mustard paste to the belly. After it has been onan hour, wash it off and repeat it, or apply No. 41, and confine the fumes with a blanket. A few minutes after giving the oil, give No. 52; repeat the latter every half hour, if necessary to keep him easy. Give No. 30, continuously, in addition to the others. Also give injections of soap and 372 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. water. If the pulse continues to quicken and get hard, repeat the oil every two or three hours, and apply No. 57 to the belly where the mus- ANOTHER TEST FOR ENTERITIS. A horse manifesting tenderness upon pressure on the belly in enteritis. tard was. If the oil works through, there is a chance of suecess ; then just let the horse remain perfectly quiet for several days, give oat-meal eruel to drink. Post mortem examination shows the bowel affected to be almost black from congestion, inflammation, and mortification. The disease usually APPLICATION OF AN AMMONIACAL BLISTER. confines itself to about a yard of the gut. The tissue of the intestine will be swollen sometimes over an inch thick. XVII. Peritonitis. This is inflammation of the outer covering of the bowel ; it is less rapid in its course, and less painful. It may last a week or so, or it may kill in ten or twelve hours. DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 373 Causes.—Wounds in the abdominal cavity, exposure to cold storms, kicks in the belly, ete. How to know it.—The pulse is quick—from sixty to seventy-five, and is hard and wiry ; the horse lies down very easy, but gets up quick ; loss of appetite. When the inflammation does not kill, effusion of water takes place into the belly, giving the horse the appearance of dropsy by the large abdomen. There is great pain upon pressure on the abdomen. Post mortem examination reveals extensive discoloration of the bowels and surrounding tissue. A great quantity of bloody matter is floating in the cavity. The inflamed portion of the intestines is very much swollen. What to do.—Give No. 56 as soon as the nature of the disease is recog- nized. Give No. 52 occasionally to allay the pain, and apply No. 57 to the belly. Give No. 80. continuously for several doses, till the pulse is improved. In case the abdomen fills with water, it may be tapped by passing in the trocar and cannula—the smallest size—through the centre of the belly, and through the hard, fibrous band running down the center. It is called paracentesis abdomenis, and should be performed by experts only. XVIII. Calculi. Intestinal calculi are not very common, although they are occasionally met with. It is very probable, that if all the cases of death from bowel troubles were examined post mortem, calculi would be quite often found, as that is the only way their presence can be determined. Causes.—These stones are formed of caleareous material laid on in layers, and are usually found enveloping a nucleus of some kind—a piece of a nail, or a pebble, or a wad of hair, ete. They sometimes attain to enormous sizes and weight, and are usually round or oyal. These stones are most common in sections of the country where hard well water is used for drinking, especially in lime districts. Dust balls are common in horses that are fed on mill-sweepings ; the dust accumulates around oat hulls or chaff from other grain. As many as a dozen have been found in one horse after death. Caleuli are seldom or never passed in a natural way, but make sacks in the bowel, and lie there till by accident they are dislodged and roll out into the passage, and form an obstruction, cause a stoppage, inflammation and death. How to know it.—In addition to the symptoms of enteritis, the patient will frequently sit on his haunches like adog. ‘This is not a characteristic symptom, but in cases where calculi have been found. it was a prominent symptom. What to do.—Nothing more can be done than to treat the symptoms, which are those of enteritis. Back raking is advisable, but it is not 374 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. among the probabilities that the stones would be near enough to the rectum, to be reached by the hand. XIX. Intussusception and Gut Tie. This is the slipping of a part of a gut into another part, like turning a finger of a glove partly wrong side out. It is rather uncommon. A case was lately seen by the writer, in which the blind end of the cacwm was turned into the other part, the fold coming at the intersection of the small intestines. Causes.—The cause of intussusception is purely accidental. How to know it.—There are signs of bowel trouble ; colicky pains that come on gradually; the horse looks around; paws; stretches at full length, which is a tolerably characteristic symptom ; gets up and down ; the pulse rises and has a tendency to become hard and wiry; legs and ears get cold; patches of cold sweat break out over the body ; the pulse gets smaller and harder; the muscles tremble, and death soon follows, which is caused by strangulation of the gut and mortification of the part affected. Post mortem examination shows great swelling of the gut, sometimes to an inch thick, and the mortified portion will be black. What to do.—As soon as any rise or change in the pulse is detected, give recipe No. 56, hot bs especially if there is stretching and colicky pains, water injections, and hot water rugs to the belly. If this does not give relief in an hour, give No. 55, and repeat it every two hours till relief is got ; in between these doses, if necessary to keep down the pain, give No, 52. In some cases the intestines will return to their proper place, and their functions go on naturally again, but in some cases all efforts are unavailing, and death takes place in from ten to thirty hours. Gut Tie.—This is similar in effect; the bowel gets into a half knot and strangulation follows the same as in intussusception. Gut Twist —This is a twisting of a gut by turning partly over. If it does not right itself, strangulation and death are the inevitable result. CHAPTER XI. DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. I. PHRENITISOR INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN,——II. CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS. ——[TT. APOPLEXY. Iv. MEGRIMS. V. TETANUS OR LOCKJAW.—— VI. PARALYSIS. VII.- SUNSTROKE, I. Phrenitis or Inflammation of the Brain. All the highly developed nervous systems—those of man, the dog and the horse—are more subject to disease than the quieter, and less devel- oped nervous organizations of the ox, sheep, pig, ete. Inflammation of the brain, sunstroke, tetanus and paralysis are quite common in the first mentioned animals and very rarely met with in the last. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. San ple of the antics of a horse during the delirium of brain fever. Causes.—The causes of phrenitis are various, such as concussion ot the brain; exposure to cold, wet storms; extension of fever from the body ; and sometimes the cause is not apparent. How to know it.—There is a quick pulse ; great prostration ; respira- tions are quick, bowels constipated ; visible mucous membranes are very ) 375 376 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. red; delirium at first, but soon runs into stupidity ; the horse places his head against the wall and pushes and braces himself against it, and always bruises his eyes and head badly ; he will eat occasionally, and will doze off into a fit of stupor with his mouth full and let the food drop ; when roused he will paw and move around, hang his head against the wall and then doze off again. These symtoms may continue for several days, the mad fits coming oftener and more violently each time till death takes place, or he may die in forty-eight hours. Animals thus affected sometimes recover, but not very often, and when they do they are not safe ; they are liable to another attack at any time, from the most trivial cause ; A HORSE MAD FROM INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. fits may come on while in the street, the disease assuming almost a chronic character. Young horses are more liable to phrenitis than old ones. What to do.—If discovered in the very egrliest stage when the pulse is very full and quick, bleed the horse, taking from two to four quarts of blood. Give a purgative—recipe No. 48, and apply ice to the head and keep iton continuously. Give No. 30 asa sedative. If the fever entirely subsides and consciousness returns, blister all over the upper part of the head with No. 9. It is necessary to secure the animal well, for he struggles violently during the mad spells. -~l DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. 37 II. Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis. This is not a common disease among horses in the cities, and is rarely or never seen in the country. It has existed as an epizootic in New York and Boston. Causes.—Impurities in the air, the horse being kept in a small or overcrowded, ill ventilated stable, fed very high and not worked very hard. It is induced by a plethorie condition. How to know it.—The horse seems listless for a day or two, stumbles, reels behind, and sometimes will fall quite down; the pupils become dilated: the pulse gets quick and full; respirations rapid; there is twitching of the muscles of the head and neck; at first he is sensi- tive to noises, but as the fever increases and the disease developes, blindness and deafness set in, and death soon follows. What to do.—Put the horse in slings, if possible, before he gets so bad that he cannot stand, and apply ice and bran poultices to the whole length of the spine; give the purgative No. 48, and the following recipe in one- ounce doses three times a day : No. 62. 8 Ounces bromide of potash, 1 Pint water, Mix. Effusion takes place on the brain and paralysis results. When the effusion reaches the centers that supply nerve power to the lungs and heart the animal dies. III. Apoplexy. Causes.—Apoplexy results from a sudden pressure on the brain when the horse is otherwise healthy ; it is usually due to over exertion in a tight collar, causing a rushing of blood to the head. How to know it.—There is insensibility, the horse staggers and falls ; froths at the mouth ; the muscles twitch ; there is partial paralysis for the time being ; respiration is suspended for a short time. What to do.—Remove the harness as quickly as possible; give a free chance to breathe; and dash cold water over the head. He will soon recover and go on agin all right. Prevention.—Do not allow the horse to get too fat ; see that the collar is not too short for him; it may press hard on each side of the neck to advantage, but it must have good length, at least two inches at the bot- tom below the neck; avoid fast driving when the horse is not in a condi- tion to stand it. 378 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. fV. Megrims. This is similar to apoplexy, but is a milder form of the disease. Causes.—It is due to the same causes as apoplexy, but the animal recovers more quickly. How to know it.—The horse stops, throws up his head, shivers all over, staggers ; the eyes close for a minute ; he braces his legs so as not to fall; stands so for a few minutes like a drunken man, shakes himself and goes on as if nothing had happened. What to do.—See that the harness does not press too tight where it ought not to; if cold water is handy, throw a little over his head ; if not, just let him stand and he will soon recover. It is a pet hobby with some to bleed the horse, EXPRESSION CHARACTERIS- to stick a knife through the partition in the pak i haunt nose, or into the second or third ridge in the roof of the mouth, but it is entirely useless and somewhat dangerous from overbleeding ; it is often very difficult to stop the bleeding from these small stabs. V. Tetanus or Lock-Jaw. This is an excessively irritable condition of the whole nervous system— the sympathetic, motor and sensory systems alike; all parts are in a cramp. It is divided into two kinds, édiopathic and trawnatic. Causes.—The idiopathic is x milder form, caused by worms, or by over heating ; and it sometimes follows a common cold. The traumatic is the result of a wound of almost any kind; sometimes a very slight wound is followed by lockjaw, but the most common cause is nail wounds. Pricks from nails, picked up while the horse is at work, are very often followed by tetanus. How to know it.—The first thing noticed will be the haw of the eye drawn over the eye ball, showing more of the haw and less of the eye ; the nose is protruded ; the neck straight- ened; the tail elevated and tremb- ling; the legs straddle and are as stiff as saw-horse legs; the belly is tucked up; the nostrils dilated ; the ears ure as stiff as sticks ; the respir- ations are hurried; the muscles are as hard as board; he sweats pro- fusely ; and the most serious point of all is the jaws are locked. If the THE TEST FOR TETANUS. disease is discovered at the start, the jaws will be found not to be locked, but very stiff and opened with Oo DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. 379 difficulty ; but they usually lock tight in the course of twelve hours. If the head is raised, the haw is drawn completely over the eye ; the tail is more elevated ; he trembles all over, and, if the head is pushed a little farther up, he is liable to fall. He never lies down; cannot eat; drinks with very great difficulty, and is in the mostintense agony allthe time. Death usually follows in from three days to three weeks. “Zz PUA Re SHOWING HOW FAR AN ANIMAL WITH TETANUS IS CAPABLE OF MOTION. What to do-—If it comes from a wound, and all the symptoms are fully developed, there is no use doing anything but to destroy the animal, and thus save a great amount of suffering ; but ifitisamild case, give him achance. Give the purgative No. 48. Put him ina quiet, dark, loose box; allow no visitors; keep him as quiet as possible; put oat-meal water in his manger, and also a pail of clear water. Clothe him warmly, apply a linseed poultice to the wound, wherever it is, first smearing it with Solid Extract of Belladonna. Change the poultice once a day, and smear on the belladonna each time. Give internally the following : Ounces fluid extract of belladonna, Ounces prussic¢ acid, diluted, Water to make eight ounces, Mix. No. 63. Ww bo Give a tablespoonful three times a day with a syringe. If it is an idiopathic case, give the same treatment as above ; put him in a cool place, and get the purgative down if possible. Let the same B80 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. man tend him all the time, and allow no spectators, no loud talk, ete. ; let everything be as quiet as possible, and he will usually recover in the course of five or six weeks. Neyer bleed nor blister for lock-jaw, for the bleeding only weakens and the blistering only irritates the nerves all the more. Some practitioners put the horse in slings, but it is of no use whatever ; a case that might require them would be fatal any way, and the excitement attending the operation would only hasten the end. VI. Paralysis. This is just the reverse of tetanus; the nervous system loses its power, and the part affected becomes helpless. It usually attacks the hind parts, but sometimes one side, and sometimes the neck and face. Causes.—Injuries to the back are common causes, in which case there is paralysis of all parts back of the injury. It usually accompanies azoturia, cerebro-spinal meningitis, lead poisoning, sun-stroke, ete. When half the body, face, or neck is paralyzed, the cause lies in the con- stitution, and is not apparent ; or it may come from abscess in the brain. ABSCESS IN TIE BRAIN. A common cause of partial paralysis. How to know it.—The horse lies in a helpless condition ; he can raise himself forward, but is utterly powerless behind. Prick him with a pin, anywhere back of the injury, and no sensation is produced. If it is paralysis of one side, that side is partially helpless; he drags the legs. If it is in the neck and face, the part will be twisted off towards the well side, and the diseased part without sensation. What to do.—If the horse can stand at all, put him in slings; if not, let him lie down as comfortably as possible. Turn him twice a day, to prevent scalding. Clip off the hair close, and blister well with recipe No. 9, along the spine, from the seat of the injury back to the croup. If DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM 381 it is paralysis of the face and neck, apply the blister to the base of the brain, over the poll. Rub the surface well with liniment No. 14. Give internally the following powders : No. 64. 1 Drachm powdered nux vomica,, 2 Drachms powdered gentian root, 1, Ounce linseed meal, Mix. Give as one dose; repeat it once a day for two or three weeks; then let him wait a fortnight, and repeat it. When convalescent, give gentle exercise. Abscess in the brain is almost always fatal. UNSTEADY GAIT OF A HORSE WITH PARTIAL PARALYSIS. VII. Sun-Stroke. This is common in some parts of the country, especially in large cities. It is a liquefaction of the fats of the body. All the functions of the body are interfered with or almost stopped. Causes.—Exposure to the hot sun, or over exertion in hot weather, even if the sun is not shining. Some animals are more subject to it than others, probably depending upon the condition of the system at the time. How to know it.—The horse may be sweating and suffering with the heat, when suddenly he will stop sweating and dry off; will begin to stagger; get dumpish, deaf, weak and stupid; there will be labored breathing and he will soon drop in the road in an unconscious condition ; 382 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. the breathing will become more and more labored till death takes place, which will be in from half an hour to two or three hours if no relief is given. ‘The surface of the body will be found to be very hot to the touch of the hand. What to do.—When the horse begins to suffer and labor with the heat, let him stop in the shade; give a few swallows of cold water to drink, and also sponge off the head and face with cold water. After half an hour he will be able to go on. If he has been compelled to go till he drops, or even till he is in a staggering condition, throw cold water all over him; or if it isin a city where a hose can be used, keep it playing on him from head to tail continuously till he is cooled off ; then leave him in a cool place, but not in adraft; let him rest till next day. If it is in the country throw cold water over him by the bucketful till he recovers. If he goes down, use ice on the back if possible. As soon as he is sufficiently recovered to be able to swallow safely, give the fol- lowing drench : No. 65. 2 Ounces whiskey. 144 Ounce sweet spirits of nitre, 1 Drachm nitrate of potash, 146 Teacupful water, Mix. Give as one dose, and repeat it every half hour till he is pretty well recovered ; then drop off to every four or six hours. Leave him in the stable at least a week, and be very careful of him for a long time. During recovery feed on soft food—grass if it can be got. If it leaves him weak and staggering in his gait, clip off the hair from the back and blister with recipe No. 9. CHAPTER XII. DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. I, INFLAMMATION OF THE ENDOCARDIUM.——IIl. ENLARGEMENT OF THE HEART,— Ill, ATROPHY OF THE HEART. IV. INDURATION OF THE HEART.——VYV. FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE HEART. VI. OBESITY OF THE HEART. VII. CYANO- SIS OR BLUE DISEASE. VIII. RUPTURE OF THE HEART. IX. RUPTURE OF A BLOOD VESSEL. xX. ANEURISM. XI. PHLEBITIS OR INFLAMMATION OF A VEIN.—XIl. THUMPS. Diseases of the heart are numerous but difficult to diagnose, except by their effects. Few of them are influenced by treatment; therefore this short chapter on the subject, is given more as a matter of general infor- mation than of practical utility. I. Inflammation of the Endocardium. This is inflammation of the sac surrounding the heart. This sac is a serous one, similar to the pleura, and secretes a fluid to moisten and lubricate the heart in its perpetual motion. How to know it.—The horse will attract notice as not being in his usu- sual healthy form; his head will hang down; the countenance will express pain; he will stand still with no inclination to move ; the pulse will be raised considerably. Upon application of the ear to his side over the region of the heart, a harsh rasping sound will be heard indi rating the dry stage of inflammation. What to do.—All that can be done to advantage is to treat the horse constitutionally by giving recipe No. 40. Feed on soft food for a few days; keep him warm and anply No. 41 to the side over the heart. II. Enlargement of the Heart. This is not uncommon ; the heart sometimes increases to twice its nat- ural size. This is especially so of the left ventricle ; its walls sometimes get unusually thick. How to know it.—It cannot be definitely recognized during life, but a fair opinion can be based upon the pulse, which will be irregular in its action, both as to force and number of beats. The temperature of the body will be uneven ; one side may be cold, and the other warm, one leg cold and the others warm, etc. 383 584 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. What to do.—Give the following recipe : No. 66. 1 Drachm iodide of potash, 1 Drachm powdered nux vomica, 1 Drachm powdered foenugreek seed, Mix. Give as one dose in a bran mash, and repeat it morning and night, for ‘-hree or four weeks. Feed on soft food, and give gentle exercise. III. Atrophy of the Heart. This is a shrinking and wasting away of the substance of the heart. The walls become soft and flabby, and fail to perform the work in a healthy manner. How to know it.—The pulse will be weak and irregular—often missing two or three beats at atime. There will be emaciation, languor, pallor of the visible mucous membranes. Death is liable to occur suddenly, at any time, from complete interruption of the circulation by ante-mortem clots, that is, clots that form in the heart and blood yessels before death. What to do.—Give the following powder night and morning, in soft feed. No. 67. 1 Drachm nux vyomiea, 1 Drachm sulphate of iron, 1 Drachm fcenugreek seed, Mix. Give this at one dose, and repeat it morning and night for three or four weeks. Give gentle exercise, and feed some oil-cake meal every day if he will eat it. Feed well. IV. Induration of the Heart. This is a hardening of the substance of the heart, which sometimes he- comes almost as hard as wood. There are no characteristic symptoms other than the weak, irregular pulse, and sudden death at some unex- pected time. Nothing can be done. V. Fatty Degeneration of the Heart. The fleshy substance of the heart degenerates into a kind of fatty sub- stance that is not strong, and may be easily pulled to pieces by the hand after death. There are no symptoms to recognize it by except the weak, irregular pulse. Death is apt to occur suddenly, from ante-mortem clot. VI. Obesity of the Heart. This is an accumulation of fat around the heart, which interferes with its action, giving rise to a quick, fluttering pulse as though the heart were laboring under a load that muffled it. It makes the breathing short, and DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. 385 the animal will pant after the least exercise. Nothing can be done. Death is liable to occur from suffocation when the horse is put at hard work. VII. Cyanosis, or Blue Disease. This is very uncommon in the horse. The circulation peculiar to fetal life does not change at birth, as it ought to, by the closing of atemporary opening between the right and left sides of the heart. The failure of this opening to close at birth allows the venus blood to pass right through into the arteries without going through the lungs to be aerated, and gives a blue color to all parts that ought to be pink—the eye-lids, mouth, ete. The animal does not live long, but dies in the course of a week or two. The surface of the body never gets warm ; the respirations are usually slow, and there is great weakness, which increases as death approaches. VItI. Rupture of the Heart. Horses are liable to rupture the heart at the time of any sudden exer- tion or jerk. Those with heaves are the most often affected. The right ventricle and the auricles are most liable to it ; the left ventricle has walls so thick that rupture of them rarely takes place. Nothing can be done for it. Instant death is the result. IX. Rupture of a Blood Vessel. This is a more common accident than any other pertaining to the heart and blood vessels. Any very severe exertion, such as racing, trotting, jumping, extra hard pulling etc., is often interrupted and brought to a stand-still by the rupture of a blood vessel. Those most liable to rupture are the arteries and veins in the abdominal region of the body ; the next those in the chest, head, etc. There is no way of foreseeing its approach nor of obviating its effects, which are always fatal from internal hemor- rhage. Having the horse in as fine condition physically as possible for any extra exertion is the only way of diminishing the liability to its occurence. xX. Aneurism. Arteries are liable to get weak in their walls (a tendency to rupture), and dilatation is the result, owing to the immense pressure of the blood from the action of the heart. The large arteries in the abdominal cavity near the back are most often affected in this way. How to know it.—If it is suspected, examine the parts internally by the hand inserted in the rectum; a large bulge or elliptical enlargement and distinct pulsations are felt when aneurism exists. The swelling is soft and compressible. 386 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. What to do.— Nothing can be done for it in that position ; if it occurs on the outside of the body, apply cold water and ice, and a compress to the enlargement. XI. Phlebitis, or Inflammation of a Vein. This is far less common now than it was a few years ago, owing to the practice of bleeding being done away with ; for it was a common result of bleeding, either from using a rusty fleam, or from the horse catching cold in the wound afterwards, or from improper care, the horse not being kept clean. It may result from any wound. How to know it.—The vein swells and gets hot, sore, red and painful ; the inflammation spreads to surrounding parts, and considerable tume- faction is the result. The effect of this condition of things is quite often obliteration of the vein ; it becomes hard, filled up, and ceases to act as a vein. The result is not so serious as might be supposed, except when the jugular vein is the one affected ; then the horse cannot graze, owing to the blood that is forced to remain in the vessels of the head and neck, causing congestion of those parts, they being in a pendent position. What to do.—Foment the part affected with hot water three times a day, and manipulate the vein and get the obstruction to move on if possible XII. Thumps. This is an excited, spasmodic action of the heart, due to over-exertion —it may be from pulling in heavy draft, leaping or driving. It is most likely to occur in very hot weather. How to know it.—The horse appears to be in distress, and is pressed for breath ; the heart thumps away as if it wanted to make a hole and get out ; it often shakes the whole body ; the countenance has an anxious expression, and the horse usually sweats profusely. What to do.—Give something to revive the nervous system, and stim- ulate the heart to a healthier action. Give recipe No, 65. Rub him down well, put on a blanket if the weather is cold, and give a bran mash toeat. Let him rest for a day or two, and the nervous system will regain its strength, and the horse be as useful as before. CHAPTER XIIT. GENERAL DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. B INFLUENZA—EPIZOOTY—*PINK EYE.’’——II. PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA.——III. RHEUMATISM.——IV. ABSCESSES. Vv. ERYSIPELAS. I. Influenza—Epizooty—‘‘Pink Eye.’’ Influenza is the name given to a blood disease in horses that is peculiar in many ways. It is known as the H’pizooty and ‘‘Pink Eye.’’ It is a blood disease, in that it is caused by the introduction into the system of 2 poison that has its origin in the atmosphere, and cannot be isolated ; it is supposed to be of a malarious nature due to influences very extended in character. The great epizoéty of 1872 extended over the most of Europe and the whole of North America. It spread from East to West, moving slowly, attacking all animals of the equine race, and lasting from one to three weeks in each locality. It proved fatal to a great many horses; it laid all horses up for a few days at least, so that in all large cities the streets were clear of horses for about a week. It left a great many horses with ehronic cough and debilitated systems from whieh they never recovered, so that they were left in a condition that invited diseases of all kinds, many of which proved fatal, coming as they did in fall and winter. The ‘Pink Eye” of this year, 1881, has been less general in its attack, and milder in its character in some respects, but more severe in others. It was more severe in the latitudes including the cities of New York, St. Louis, Detroit, Chicago, etc. It was very mild both north and south of the above mentioned latitudes. It was fatal in many cases, but mostly either from want of care or improper treatment. It was called ‘*Pink Eye’’ from the redness of the eyes, which was a prominent symptom in all cases. It was of a complicated nature, there being catarrh of the mucous membranes, both of the respiratory and ali- mentary tracts; typhoid fever; acute rheumatism; and, in some cases, inflammation of the lungs, bowels and brain; and occasionally tetanus. How to know it.—The first symptom noticed will be languor; dull- ness in harness; weakness; sweating easily; and, in very many cases, actual staggering from weakness and nervous prostration in the course of ten hours after being first taken. The horse hangs his head; the ears 387 3588 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. droop; the appetite fails; the eyes become very red; the pulse very quick, frequently as high as seventy to eighty per minute, full at first but gradually getting weak; the respirations are rapid; the eyelids swell sometimes so as to close entirely ; the temperature taken by the thermometer will show as high as 105° to 107° F. All these symp- toms will appear in the course of twelve hours. In the next twelve hours there will be colicky pains, and constipation; the stools will be rather hard and dry and covered with slime, indicating a feverish lining to the bowels; the legs swell tremendously and get very sore to the touch, especially around the fetlock joints and along the back tendons ; the mouth is very hot, and sometimes dry ; the eyes run tears profusely, which flow down over the face; the surface of the body in most cases is very hot to the touch; the urine is scanty and high-colored ; the thirst great ; in some cases there is swelling of the throat and a cough; the nose runs 2 watery discharge. During the second and third days the eyes discharge matter which runs down the cheek, scalding off the hair ; the discharge from the nose becomes purulent and sticks around the nos- trils; the legs get sorer; the bowels loose ; sometimes diarrhoea sets in and carries the animal off suddenly; sometimes constipation appears which usually runs into inflammation of the bowels and kills; the lungs are liable to take on an inflammatory condition and run into pneumonia, often causing death; and the fever often goes to the brain and causes phrenitis which is usually fatal. Horses with influenza lie down a great deal at first, but if the lungs become affected, they persistently stand, and they lose flesh most unaccountably fast—it goes off as though it were whittled off, leaving a fat hearty animal as thin as a skeleton in a week. They may refuse to eat ; and the fever may continue to increase, and weakness become so great as to prove fatal without any other complica- tion. The favorable symptoms are return of the appetite ; diminishing of the swellings around the eyes and legs; ability to lie down comfortably ; bowels and kidneys regular; and a brightening of the countenance What to do.—When the first symptoms are noticed, lay the horse up at once; see that the stable is clean, dry and well-aired, but no drafts ; put on blankets, and bandages to the legs; give soft feed to eat, if they will take it, and anything they may fancy, if the appetite is poor ; a little corn, oats, carrots, apples, ete. ; but the best food is oats and bran in equal parts, wet up and steamed with boiling water; all the treatment must be given with a view to sustaining the strength. | For medicine, at the outset, give No. 40, in two-ounce doses, every two hours, till the fever is checked ; continue it night and day till the thermometer comes down to 103° ; then hold up on ita little, and give it only three times a GENERAL DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 389 day, and when the temperature comes down to 100, change to No. 18 —three times a day—for a couple of days; then, if everything is pro- gressing favorably, give No. 35 three times a day, or No. 34 in the feed twice aday. If the throat swells, and there is a cough, rub the throat with No. 41. If the fever goes on to the lungs and causes bronchitis or pneumonia, apply No. 41 to the sides and chest, and give the other recipes as directed above. Set a pail of water in the manger, so he can A HORSE WITH INFLUENZA. drink a swallow or two often to cool his mouth and throat. Give plenty of bedding, and make him as comfortable as possible. The bowel trouble you need not give anything for, unless the colicky pains hang on for several hours, then give a few doses of a pint of raw linseed oil, at in- tervals of six or cight hours. Between times, if necessary to control the pain, give No. 52. If there is long-continued weakness, give No. 64 alternately with No. 35. During convalescence, give gentle exercise. II. Purpura Hemorrhagica. This is a disease in which the watery parts of the blood ooze through the coats of the blood vessels, and settle down into the tissues of the most dependent parts, causing them to swell to enormous size. Causes.—lt results from an impoverished condition of the blood, in which the fibrine is deficient, allowing the watery portion to pass through the pores of the coats of the blood vessels and gravitate to the limbs, belly, chest, and nose. This impoverished condition of the system is due either to some debilitating disease or to starvation—usually the former. How to know it——The limbs swell enormously, so much so that the animal can scarcely move. The swelling begins in the lower part of the legs, and keeps coming higher from hour to hour, there being an abrupt termination of the swelling at the top. It continues to rise till it reaches the body ; then extends along the belly, the full width of it, and as thick as i small mattress. 390 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. Yellowish, watery fluid will ooze through the skin and trickle down the legs. The same from the belly, but to less extent. The muzzle begins to swell the same as the legs, and the swelling extends up towards the eyes, often completely closing them ; when it reaches the brain it causes death. The secre- tions are usually at a stand-still, especially the urine, none being secreted; the water, when it accumulates around the internal organs, causes death. The visible mucous membranes will be found to be covered with purple patches, varying in size from a dime to a fifty cent piece. The pulse is small, weak and wiry. The Appearance of horse's discharges on the legs and belly have an offensive odor, head with purpura. and the breath is also offensive. Great debility is a prominent symptom ; the horse is unable to eat or drink. The disease is generally fatal, either by the causes mentioned above, or by suffocation from the swelling of the nose, or by gangrene of the internal organs. Usually before dying, the animal presents a most horrible sight, so as to look like almost anything else than a horse. What to do.—Begin early to give the following recipe : PURPURA. No. 68. 1 Ounce tincture muriate of iron, 1 Ounce tincture of gentian, 2 Ounces water Mix. Give a tablespoorful every two hours with a syringe, so as to get it back into the throat with as little trouble and worry to the patient as possible. Alternate with No. 68, the following: No. 69. 1 Ounce turpentine, 3 Oances linseed oil, Mix. Give a tablespoonful every two hours. Alternating these two recipes will fetch doses only one hour apart; continue these as persistently as possible, till he is either better or dead. Give oatmeal gruel to drink, and give anything to eat he can masticate. If he cannot eat nor drink, give oatmeal gruel injections. Foment the head, if swollen, with hot water as persistently as possible, with the view of driving the swelling to other parts. The favorable symptoms will be a diminution of the swellings, return of the secretions and appetite, improvement of the pulse, and disappear- ance of the purple (echymosed) spots. III. Rheumatism. * Causes.—This is supposed to be an accumulation, in the blood, of a peculiar acid that settles around joints, along tendons and sometimes GENERAL DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. S91 in muscles. Upon the slightest provocation in the way of exposure or derangements of the stomach and bowels, it is apt to assume the acute form, and to cause intense pain and lameness. How to know it.—There is lameness, usually of a peculiar kind, flying from one joint to another, and from one leg to another ; sometimes the parts swell and sometimes not; the joints most commonly affected are the fetlocks, knees, shoulders and hips. There is usually more or less fever, high pulse, and sometimes suppuration of the affected parts. What to do.—Give recipe No. 36. Foment the affected parts with hot water three times a day, and apply as a liniment, recipe No. 15, after wiping down the legs quite dry, and bandage warmly with flannel. After the most acute symptoms are gone, give walking exercise. IV. Abscesses. An abscess is a gathering of pus in a sac from a morbid process in the tissues. It may develop in any part of the body. The most common locations of them are on the ribs, on the belly, in the groin, in the /eva- tor humeri muscles, etc. They sometimes attain to tremendous propor- tions ; they are not painful as a rule, but if they come in or 1icar a nerve center there is great pain; when they form in the groin, for instance, there is very great pain; while on the ribs they cause little or no pain. Causes.—Impurities in the blood from retention in the system of effete matter that should be eliminated through the excretory crgans— the bowels, kidneys and skin. The exciting causes are sometimes bruises from blows, kicks or other injury ; but these bruises are not sufficient in themselves to cause an abscess, but must be accompanied by the morbid condition of the blood; then the injury may simply afford an excuse for its breaking out in that particular place. How to know it——There is always a great amount of swelling, hard at first all over; but as it grows and approaches a full development it gets soft in the center, pitty ina ring around the center, and hard on the out- side. It is hot, red, and sore to the touch. It takes from one to six weeks to mature an abscess so it will break of itself, according to its lo- cation and depth. Those in the groin tuke three or four weeks to ma- ture ; those on the ribs and belly mature in the shortest time above men- tioned ; and those in the Jevator humeri muscles (found just inside and in front of the joints of the shoulders) take the longest time to mature. In fact, the latter sometimes acts like a tumor by its slow growth, hard- ness and length of time it takes to break out without outside assistance. When opened, the pus runs out, and the abscess usually heals readily ; but sometimes the healing process requires a great deal of assistance, and the abscess is liable to start anew and develop others as soon as one is healed, unless the cause is removed by purifying the blood. 392 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. What to do.—Give « purgative of recipe No. 23, and when it has stopped purging, give No, 84 for a week or so. Poultice the abscess with any hot, soft poultice—linseed meal is the best—till it points, (comes to a head), in a soft spot ; then tap it with a pointed knife, and evacuate the sac; make the opening big enough to allow a finger to be passed in ; see that all is clear for a thorough emptying ; then inject warm water to wash it out, and inject No. 5. Repeat this twice a day. Make the opening at the bottom, if possible, to allow the pus to gravitate out, instead of having to be squeezed out. The abscess in the /evator humeri muscle is always deep-seated in the muscle, and requires a great length of time to rot out, It is easily recognized by its position, being inside and a little to the front of the point of the shoulder. It is useless to wait for it to cometo ahead; open it at once. Take a long-bladed scalpel or pocket knife and run it in directly into the center of the tumor, letting the Knife be par- allel with the horse’s body ; then there is no danger of tapping the jugu- lar vein. It is necessary, usually, to cut about four inches deep before reaching the pus, but when once emptied it heals very readily. V. Erysipelas. This is inflammation of the skin. It may be superficial and only involve the upper layers of the skin, or it may be deeper-seated and involve the under layers. The superficial does not suppurate, but the deep-seated usually does, with more or less sloughing. It is often thought to be contagious, which it undoubtedly is to a small degree ; but not sufficiently so to be ranked as a specific blood poison. It some- times rages as an enzodtic—common in any certain district. Tt usually follows wounds, injuries and sores, but sometimes comes on apparently healthy skin. Causes.—lt is due sometimes to the weather, when it is damp, hot and oppressive, with thunder frequent and low barometeric pressure, especi- ally if the horse is kept in low, filthy places. Poorly fed, thin, neglected animals are most subject to it. The sudden suppression of a chronie discharge, and feeding on rich, heating food when the animal has been accustomed to poor, scanty food, and keeping animals with open sores near decomposing animal tissue are also cause of erysipelas. The com- mon means of contagion are washing erysipelatous and healthy wounds with the sume sponge, using the same harness, clothing, ete. How to know it.—There is usually some fever ; the pulse and temper- ature are raised ; the urine is scanty and high-colored ; the bowels usually constipated ; there is loss of spirit and appetite. These symptoms are fol- lowed, in the course of twelve hours, by a diffuse swelling that is hot, GENERAL DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 393 red, and painful; if it is on a white skin it will be found to be shin- ing, tense and of a deep red. It spreads rapidly, terminating abruptly at the edges in a well defined line of demarkation. The swelling does not pit on pressure; the redness disappears on pressure, but returns when the finger is removed. It is confined to the head and legs. It has a peculiar smell, like thatof burnt hair. Sometimes it extends to the cellular tissue under the skin when it is known as phlegmonous; this always suppurates, and has a purple appearance previous to breaking. What to do.—Give tonics and stimulants internally ; give recipes No. 37 and No. 35; if much depression exists, give No. 65. Feed on boiled oats, barley, ete. Apply locally No. 24, and keep the part wet with it continually. If the swelling spreads in spite of this lotion, paint the healthy skin for two inches all around the diseased part with tincture of iodine, and change the lotion to the following: No. 70. 1 Ounce tineture muriate of iron, 8 Ounces water, Mix. Keep the surface wet with it till the skin begins to be irritated; then go back to No. 24. If extensive sloughing takes place, poultice with oil- sake meal, with charcoal sprinkled over the poultice, till a healthy sore is obtained ; then apply lotion No. 7. Ifthe erysipelas comes from an unhealthy sore, cauterize it with powdered bluestone continuously, once a day, till all signs of a purplish, unhealthy condition, have disappeared ; then continue the lotion No. 7. Continue the tonics for several weeks, giving soft food enough to keep the bowels loose. CHAPTER XIV. CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES. I. GLANDERS AND FARCY.——IJ. STRANGLES. IV. HORSE POX OR EQUINE VARIOLA. Ill. RABIES OR HYDROPHOBIA.—— Diseases are said to be contagious when they reproduce themselves in a healthy animal, either by inoculation and absorption of the virus into the system through a wound or mucous membrane, or by absorption of disease germs floating in the air or in the water that the animal drinks. I. Glanders and Farcy. These are different forms of the same disease, which is a specific poison that affects the whole system. When it breaks out in the nose, affecting also the lungs and lymphatic glands between the branches of the lower jaw, it constitutes glanders; when it attacks the lymphatic glands and other tissues of the legs and body, it constitutes farcy. The two forms of disease often exist separately, but usually symptoms of both will be found in the same case. The contagion lies in the discharges from the ulcers, either those in the nose or farey buds; it is contagious only by inoculation, the poison being of heavy specific gravity and not volatile. The virus from glanders may produce glanders or farey, or both; the virus from farey may do the same. The mode of inoculation is usually through the nose or mouth, by the introduction of the virus taken by one horse working in double harness with a glandered horse, or standing in the same stall, rubbing his nose on a hitching post or fence or edge of a water trough where a glandered horse has stood. These latter are com- mon channels through which glanders is got ; for when a glandered horse is driven up to a post or water trough, the first thing he does is to rub the accumulatious of matter off his nose, the clogging of which is uncom- fortable. And so great is the vitality of the virus, that a horse coming along an hour, a day, a week, or even a year after, and happening to rub his nose on the same place gets the disease by inoculation. The poison may lie latent in the system a week, or a month, or two months and then break out, perhaps violently, and run the acute course, ‘ausing death in three to six weeks; or the disease may appear in a very mild form and run the chronic course, so that the horse may live in very 394 CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES. B95 comfortable condition for one to three or four years, though sowing the seeds of contagion for other horses to gather all the time, thus doing an inestimable amount of harm. When the disease breaks out, it does so by ulceration of the tissues involved. These ulcers differ from ordinary ones, by their resistance to treatment ; if made to heal, they break out again either in the same or another place, and have a tendency to spread and slough, eating away the tissues till the ulcers become confluent and the Schneiderian membrane (partition in the nose) is destroyed. The disease was known in the earliest times, and was written on by Vegetius, Rouan, and many others; but it was not well understood as to its actual seat till La Fosse discovered that it lay in inflammation and ulceration of the nasal membrane. The poison of glanders and farcy is communicable to men, goats, sheep and dogs, with all the characteristic symptoms of the disease in horses, and is con- tagious from man back to the horse or ass. Causes.—It is usually propagated, fostered and extended by contagion through the villainous traffic carried on in glandered horses by unscrupu- lous dealers. For many diseased animals retain the appearance of health sufficiently well to be bought and sold many times, the dealers explaining the discharge from the nose as coming from a cold, and the swollen legs as resulting from impurities in the blood; and Tom, Dick and Harry, thinking they ‘* know all about a horse,’’ buy the animals, believing the explanation of the dealer to be true ; and thus thousands of dollars worth of stock is ruined each year by the spread of this fatal disease. But the disease sometimes arises spontaneously in armies, on ship-board, or in overcrowded, low, damp, badly-ventilated stables. Overcrowding is the chief cause of its spontaneous appearance, the horses, asses or mules being compelled to breathe over and over again, air vitiated by the emanations from their own feecal matter and from their bodies, and GLANDERS. GLANDERS, EXAMINATION The first stage of glanders When the discharge has Of the nostril for glanders showing a watery dis- become muco-purulent. o , charge trom the nose. which has been exhausted of its oxygen by passing through the lungs a number of times. ; 396 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. How to know it.—Acute glanders is characterized by languor; dry, staring coat ; red, weeping eyes; loss of appetite ; quick pulse ; elevated temperature, the thermometer registering 103° to 106° F.; accelerated breathing ; a grayish purple color of the lining of the nose; a watery discharge, which soon becomes yellowish and sticky, causing the hair on which the matter accumulates in and around the nostrils to stick together. The discharge looks like melted butter, and when dropped into water it sinks. The glands under the jaw swell and often adhere to the bone, but not always. The partition between the nostrils will become ulcerated ; small yellow points with purple bases will au come up and burst, making the discharge \\ bloody for the time. These ulcers, with ele- vated edges and depressed centers and purple bases, will spread and become confluent, eating away the membrane till little or noth- Gtanpers, ing of it is left ; the discharge increases and has When the ais. ® horribly offensive odor; the lungs become GLANDERS, In the last stage oa ewatest, affected by ulcers forming in them; the breath- when the pus j Ye) ae . ‘ anim: Ans r blood from ex- ing becomes labored, and the animal finally (cytive'Siough: dies, the most emaciated and disgusting object imaginable. = “"* The chronic course is longer continued and runs less rapidly; but all the same symptoms are developed, with the exception that the appetite is less impaired till near the last ; the discharge is less copious and offensive, and emaciation does not take place so rapidly. But if the horse is exposed to any de- gree of hardship and cold storms, the chronic form may run into the acute form at any time. The cough is not always noticed, and the ulcers are sometimes so far up in SECTION OF A LUNG Of a glandered horse, showing the existence of tubercles. the nose as to be out of sight. It is often necessary to inoculate a worth- less animal in order to determine the disease. If it is glanders, it will probably prove fatal to the one inoculated in two or three weeks, running the acute course. Farcy is recognized by swelling of the legs affected, usually one or two, though sometimes all four. ‘The swellings are along the lines of the lymphatic veins on the legs, belly or any part of the body ; small nodular points come up, which break and discharge a glairy unhealthy pus, run a few days, dry up and leave a scar or bare spot that usually lasts to tell the tale as long as the horse lives ; other nodules follow and spread nearly all over the body, head and neck; the swelling of the limbs does not CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES. 397 yield to treatmeut, and they soon become chronically enlarged. The dis- charge is contagious the same as that of glanders. Farcy sooner or later runs into glanders and terminates fatally. What to do.—Treatment should not be attempted at all, for it 1s always fatal in spite of the most scientific and persistent efforts ; the fatal termi- nation may be postponed for a while, but the animal is sowing the con- tagion all the time, and doing an inestimable amount of damage. The fact that the disease is contagious to men, and always fatal too, is another reason why no man should attempt to treat a case a moment after it is satisfactorily diagnosed. When any doubt exists, or a suspicious case is seen, isolate the animal at once and quarantine him; prevent any com- munication with other animals, and await developments. The discharge of catarrh being whitish and more mucous in character, is easily recog- nized, and the nasal membrane never assumes that mouse-eaten appear- ance that is seen in glanders. Shoot every animal known to be affected with glanders, and bury the carcass very deep. Prevention.—Avoid overcrowding and poor ventilation. See to it that no affected animals are allowed to run at large, or even to be used about the place in any way ; avoid letting horses drink any more than is abso- lutely necessary in public troughs. Either tear down and burn any infected stable, or have it disinfected under the supervision of a qualified veterinary surgeon. All suspected cases should be placed under his charge till the doubt is settled. It should be made a criminal act, with a heavy penalty, to expose affected animals in public places, or to sell or offer them for sale. A health commission of three qualified veterinary surgeons should be em- powered to destroy glandered horses, with or without the consent of the owner; and the State should bear half the loss, by reimbursing the owner with half the value of the animal before he took the disease. It is 2 misfortune for which he is not to blame, and which the State should help him to bear. II. Strangles. Strangles is a specific blood poison, peculiar to horses, and usually confined to young ones. It depends upon a morbid condition of the system, is contagious, and corresponds to children’s diseases in human medicine. It is most common in damp, cold seasons. The poison in the blood manifests itself in large, phlegmonous abscesses around the throat ; this is the usual manner in which it breaks out. But in some cases it takes a very different course, breaking out in abscesses on any part of the body. Sometimes no abscesses gather at all, and the fever remains diffused in the system, instead of coming to a head in one place. These 398 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. last two kinds are called bastard or unusual strangles. It is often fatal, but such cases are due to neglect, to colds from exposure while the fever is high, ete. Causes.—It often arises spontaneously, from the existence in the sys- tem of some morbific matter developed while growing; for spontaneous cases are only found among young horses; when older ones have it, it comes from contagion. How to know it.—-There are all the indications of fever—quick, weak pulse ; high temperature ; hot mouth; cold extremities; staring coat ; loss of appetite, and nervous prostration. In a few hours the throat begins to swell, both on the sides and between the branches of the lower jaw ; this swelling is sometimes immense, and makes the colt hold his neck and head stretched out in ene position, stiff, like a child with the mumps. There is usually a distressing cough and inability to swallow; often there isa desire to eat, but the throat is so sore he cannot swallow. The nose runs a mucous discharge at first, which soon becomes purulent ; the eyes very red, and tears run down over the cheeks. The swel- ling is painful and sore upon pressure, and usually A BAD CASE OF breaks in about a week, and discharges pus. When STRANGLES. these swellings come in the lungs, the breathing will be affected, and the chest will be sore upon pressure or percussion on the ribs, and he will stand all the time. If it comes in the abdomen, colicky pains are felt, and he lies down nearly all the time. Sometimes it comes around the heart. Any of these unusual forms are likely to be fatal. What to do.— Avoid depletives of all kinds, and foster the strength of the patient in every possible way. If the bowels are constipated, give a few injections, but do not risk a purgative ; give recipe No. 40 every two to six hours with a syringe, for it is unsafe as well as painful, to try to drench him with the throat in that condition. Apply hot linseed poultices to the swellings, and let them get very thin indeed before opening them ; or, even let them burst of themselves to avoid that thickening often seen after being opened. It is no use trying to check it ; it must run its course. Give him a warm, dry place, well ventilated, and nourishing food suchas boiled oats, barley, roots, etc. During convaiescence give recipe No. 35. III. Rabies or Hydrophobia. This is a specific blood poison, arising spontaneously in the genus canis (dog, fox and wolf) and in cats. It is communicable to all ani- mals and to man, but can only be inoculated by a bite. The virus lies in CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES. Boy the saliva and blood, but not in the milk. Nearly all animals bitten by a rabid dog, are attacked with the disease in the course of time, but man seems to possess a partial immunity; only a small percentage of the men bitten by rabid animals have rabies. Incubation.—The period of incubation varies in different animals. The horse goes fifteen to ninety days, usually thirty; cattle, twenty to thirty days; sheep, twenty to seventy-four days ; swine, twenty to forty-nine days. In man the period of incubation varies from a few days to a few months, though some cases develop after a year or so, or even longer, the rabies at last being more the effect of fear and long continued anxiety and worry over the possible effects of a bite, than of the bite itself. COUNTENANCE OF A HORSE WITH 7 ; RABIES. How to know it.—The horse becomes frantic with fever and pain; delirium sets in early; he neighs, paws, bites his manger, clothing, etc. ; is ravenous for water but swallows with difficulty ; he grows worse till death takes place by paralysis. DESTRUCTIVE IMPULSE OF HYDROPHOBIA. What to do.—No treatment is of any avail; if there were anything that could be given, it would be too risky to attempt it; but so far, science has discovered nothing to prevent a fatal termination. As soon as a case is suspected isolate the horse, tie him so that he shall be powerless for harm, and await developments. As soon as it is satisfactorily recoenized destroy him. h : 400 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. IV. Horse Pox or Equine Variola. Nearly all animals have a pox peculiar to their kind, although all forms of pox seem to be closely allied. They are all contagious from one ani- mal to another of the same species, and usually among the different species to a greater or less extent. Having any of the different kinds of variola once, gives immunity from subsequent attacks of the other kinds, for a number of years at least. Kine pox, taken either by inoculation from the cow or by vaccination, confers immunity, to a great extent, from small pox. Horse pox appears to be identical with kine pox ; the one can not be distinguished from the other when inoculated into man, ox or horse. Horse pox usually attacks the limbs, but sometimes the face, flanks and other parts of the body. How to know it.—There is slight fever, which is often unnoticed ; heat and swelling of the affected part for a day or two; then hard nodules form, increasing in size to about half an inch in diameter ; the hair ruffles up and the skin reddens around the pock ; on the ninth to the twelfth day, a limpid, yellowish fluid flows from the pustules, and sticks the hair up in yellowish seabs or streaks, on the removal of which a red, raw depression is seen with the scab fixed in its center. In three or four days the secretion ceases, the pustules dry up, and the part heals and the scabs come off. The most active virus is the lymph that runs from the pustules. — Itis readily carried from horse to horse by the grooms on their hands or clothes. It sometimes exists to almost to an epizodtic extent in some localities. The grooms often get inoculated and have the horse pox, which saves them the trouble of being vaccinated. What to do.—It must run its course, so all that is necessary is to give laxative diet; keep the parts clean by bathing with warm water once or twice a day, and grease them over, when dry, to prevent itching and pain from the seabs getting too hard and dry. If the fever should run high and the appetite suffer, and the urine become dark and scanty, give recipe No. 23. CHAPTER XV. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. I. NEPHRITIS OR INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. II. CONGESTION OF THE KIDNEYS. It. CYSTITIS OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER.——lY. PAR-— ALYSIS OF THE BLADDER.——V. EVERSION OF THE BLADDER.——VI. SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. VII. RUPTURE OF THE BLADDER.——VIII. DIA- BETES INSIPIDUS OR PROFUSE STALING.——IX. HAMATURIA OR BLOODY URINE. —X. SUPPRESSION OF THE URINE OR DYSURIA.—XI. DRIBBLING OF THE URINE OR ENURESIS.— XII. STRICTURE OF THE URETHRA.——XIII. GONOR- RHGA OR GLEET, XIV. FOUL SHEATH. XV. URINARY CALCULI. Diseases and derangements of the urinary organs are far less common than the majority of people suppose. Whenever a horse has the colic or pleurisy, the average horseman attributes the pain to the ravages of bots or to stoppage of the water, and goes to work to start the latter and quiet the former. Many are the nostrums that are given, sometimes harmless and sometimes very irritating and injurious. SYMPTOMS ATTENDING DISEASES OF TITE URINARY ORGANS. Many of the diseases mentioned in this chapter are often seen, by a veterinarian who has an extensive, active practice. Diseases of the kid- neys are either organic or functional, usually the latter. I. Nephritis or Inflammation of the Kidneys. Causes.—The usual causes are too free use of diuretic medicine, and blistering on the back with fly blister ; eating musty hay and kiln-dried 401 26 402 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. oats ; getting chilled by standing under the eaves where water drips upon the loins ; and extension to the kidneys of inflammation of surrounding parts from blows and other injuries. How to know it.—There will be very profuse sweating, great pain from the inelastic character of the capsule covering the kidneys ; the horse strad- dles in walking, and is loth to move; high fever; elevated pulse, temper- ature and respiration ; heat and a slight humping up of the back; great tenderness upon pressure in the region of the loins, especially when ap- plied to the sides just under the transverse spines of the loins; the pain is colicky in character, and more seyere at times than at others ; he looks awvound to his flanks and is almost continually trying to stale, and passing alittle at a time, and that very red and thick, sometimes mixed with blood and pus. It runs on to suppuration, and sometimes to gangrene, and death. When once well set in, it is very hard to control. TEST FOR INFLAMMATION OF TILE KIDNEYS, What to do.—LExamine the case carefully to be certain of the location of the trouble; then apply hot water rugs across the loins continuously for several days. Give internally a quart of raw linseed oil. As soon as this is well down, give recipe No. 30, and follow it up every two hours. If no relief comes in the course of five or six hours, give copious muci- laginous drinks in the form of flaxseed tea and slippery elm bark. Clothe warmly, to encourage sweating. Freshly-flayed sheepskin may be laid across the loins, or mustard paste may be rubbed into the hair, and the rags applied over it. Feed on short, laxative diet. Avoid diuretics strenuously, especially nitre and spirits of nitre. Give anodyne injections of warm water and one ounce of laudanum, once an hour. Keep the pationt quiet and avoid over-feeding. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 403 II. Congestion of the Kidneys. This is a constitutional disease affecting all parts through the blood, in which lies the cause of the internal lesions ; but as it affects the kidneys most, and the kidney symptoms being most noticeable to the average observer, we describe it under this head. Causes.—lT 0 plethoric a condition of the system is the grest cause. The blood gets so fat and thick that it interferes with the working of the internal organs, especially the kidneys. The animal is usually fat, but not necessarily so, for it is often seen in horses in strong, working condi- tion, but thin in flesh. In post mortem examinations, fat can be seen floating in globules in the blood. It gives rise to thick, coffee-colored, ropy urine. Ay " EAI nce iane oe TWORSES WITH CONGESTION OF THE KIDNEYS. The muscles in the loins swollen, etc, On account of its effect on the urine, the disease has been called Albuminuria, from the supposed existence of albumen in the urine ; Azoturia, from the abundance of urea the urine is thought to contain ; Plethoric congestion, from congestions in the system, due to plethora. The latter name is the most appropriate, as there is no albuminous urine and not any great increase of urea in this disease, but the name under which we describe it is readily comprehended and the trouble easily located by the average observer. How to know it.—The animal is accustomed to hard work or regular exercise, and high feed; he may be laid up from a nail wound, etc., for a few days or a week ; the feed is kept up the same as though he were at work; he gets well, and goes out hopping and prancing like a colt, goes about half a mile or so, begins to sweat profusely, lathers up well, gets stiff in the left hind leg, and is inclined to drop it. Then the trouble extends to the other leg; the horse becomes weak across the loins, A404 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK, staggers behind, blows hard, and is pressed for breath ; he goes on for half a mile or more in this manner, and then comes down in a heap, per- fectly helpless, unable to rise, and has the appearance of being paralyzed behind. He is unable to pass urine, which, when drawn off with a cathe- ter, is thick, ropy, dark, coffee-colored. Swelling of the muscles over the loins is seen, and they are very painful and sensitive to pressure, as are also the kidneys, if examined per rectum. There are severe, colicky pains or cramps, in which he will throw himself around, try to get up, will get up forward, and will sometimes drag himself all over the terri- tory allowed him. Inflammation of the kidneys follows, and runs on to suppuration and death in the course of four to fifteen days. What to do.—Knowing the origin of it to be plethora, the rational treatment is to deplete ; give No. 48 internally, and also frequent injec- tions of warm water; apply hot rugs to the loins continuously, and give au great abundance of flax seed tea to drink; if he will not drink it, drench him with it liberally ; give nothing to eat for a day or two. Tie his feet if he is inclined to struggle much. When he is able to get up, put him in slings; keep him on short feed; and during convalescence give gentle exercise. Be chary of diuretics. If the case has run on for a week or more, give No. 4, but only three times a day, in a little water. Draw off the urine three times a day, till he can pass it without assistance. IIl. Cystitis, or Inflammation of the Bladder. Causes.—Too free use of diuretic medicine ; too free application of fly blisters and turpentine to the back or other extensive surfaces ; acrid diuretic plants in the food ; prolonged retention and partial decomposition of urine, and irritation from calculi. How to know it.—Colicky pains; looking around to the flanks; fre- quent painful evacuation of urine in small quantities, with more or less mucous und epithelium from the lining of the bladder; straining; high fever; mouth hot; respiration and pulse quick; tenderness on pressure just in front of the pubic bone of the pelvis, and same upon pressure in the flanks. The loins are rigid; the bladder is tender to the touch per rectum—or in the mare, per vagina; if examined by running the finger into the bladder, the walls will be found to be thickened; the tail is switched continuously ; the gait is stiff and straddling. If the neck of the bladder is affected, the urine escapes involuntarily ; if there is a stone in the bladder, it ean be felt by inserting the hand into the rectum. What to do.—Remove the cause, if possible ; stop diuretic medicine of all kinds ; give large doses of flaxseed tea, and injections of warm water ; give a laxative of linseed oil, one pint, and soft diet and pure water at DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 405 will; also, a long rest. Avoid diuretic medicine ever after, as the parts once affected are more tender and susceptible. IV. Paralysis of the Bladder. Causes.— Long continued distension of the bladder from the urine being held, as in lockjaw, rheumatism or any disease that confines the horse to a lying position. How to know it.—The urine dribbles away as it is formed, and decom- poses, setting free ammonia, which secalds all parts it comes in contact with; the urine scalds the sheath and the inner sides of the thighs and legs. This disease often results in inflammation of the bladder, and sometimes follows partial paralysis. What to do.—If the trouble originates from paralysis, give that its proper treatment and draw off the urine several times a day with a catheter to prevent distension. V. Eversion of the Bladder. Causes.—This affects only females, and results where labor is very protracted, or from straining in cystitis; the bladder is forced back in the pelvis and turned wrong side out. How to know it.—The bladder will be seen protruding from the lower part of the vulva, a round, red, fleshy looking substance, and the entrance of the ureters (tubes from the kidneys ) will be plainly seen near the neck of the bladder, with the urine dripping from them. What to do.—Bathe the bladder with tepid water and laudanum in the proportion of an ounce of laudanum to a pint of water; then press it gently and continuously till it is returned to its place. Great care will be needed to avoid pushing the fingers through the walls of the bladder, especially after it has been out some time and become swollen. If it is inclined to come out again, after being returned to its place, put on a compress to hold it in. VI. Spasm of the Neck of the Bladder. Causes.—It is caused by long retention of urine when the horse is being driven or ridden; nervous irritation; becoming chilled when heated. It is a common occurrence during colic, the urine flowing freely when the colic subsides ; males are more subject to it than females. How to know it.—F requent attempts to pass water, which is forced out in small quantities by great straining ; colicky pains; looking at the flanks ; tenderness in the lower back part of the belly; by introducing the hand into the rectum, the bladder will be felt full and distended on the floor of the pelvis. 406 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. What to do.—Spread fresh litter under the horse to induce him to pass the urine ; give warm water injections and antispasmodic drenches, such as No. 50; gentle pressure on the bladder per rectum is sometimes sufhi- cient, but be very careful not to overdo it for fear of rupture. Pass the catheter up the penis if necessary ; in the case of a mare all that is neces- sary is to insert one finger into the neck of the bladder. VII. Rupture of the Bladder. Causes.—This only occurs in females during parturition when the bladder has failed to be emptied before the labor is begun, and in cases of long continued spasm of the neck of the bladder—especially, if by fre- quent repetitions of the spasms the walls of it have become weakened and flaceid. How to know it.—Nervous trembling of the whole body ; accelerated pulse ; cold extremities ; nausea ; abdominal pain that runs on to inflam- mation and causes death, or the animal dies from the nervous shock. Examination per rectum finds the bladder empty and flaccid ; introduction of the needle of a hypodermic syringe, or a small trocar into the median portion of the belly, will let out urine which is readily recognized by the odor. Nothing can be done. VIII. Diabetes Insipidus or Profuse Staling. This is a superabundant drain of water from the system through the kidneys. Causes.—lExcessive and long continued use of diuretics in acute dis- vases, especially lung troubles ; acidity of the stomach and chronic indi- gestion, causing much thirst, so that great quantities of water are drunk. Musty hay and kiln dried oats ave frequent causes, How to know it.—By the excessive thirst ; profuse staling, flooding the stall; the urine is copious in quantity, frequently voided and as clear as water. Emaciation and hidebound soon follow. The appetite is capri- cious; the coat staring; slight fever; inclination to lick the walls and mortar to get lime, and to eat the bedding in preference to clean, fresh food. ‘There is weakness, and palpitation of the heart. What to do.—Give one or two doses of the following recipe : No. 71. 1 Drachm iodine. ', Drachm iodide of potash, Powder and mix with linseed meal to make a ball. Give as one dose and repeat it once a day for two or three days ; then give a teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda in a bran mash, morning and night for a week; then give recipe No. 37, and give a complete change of food—a run at grass if possible. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 407 IX. Heematuria or Bloody Urine. Causes.—This is caused by violence, affecting the loins, kidneys, blad- der, ete.; by cancer, tubercle, or abscess in the kidneys; by acrid diuretic plants, ete. HORSE SUFFERING FROM BLOODY URINE. What to do.—In case there is a profuse flow of blood, dash cold water over the back. Remove the causes, if they can be located, and give flax- seed tea to drink, and recipe No 70, in doses of two tablespoonfuls, three times a day. X. Suppression of the Urine, or Dysuria. Causes.—This is retention of the urine from various causes, such as contraction of the sphincter of the bladder; enlargement of the prostatic gland; stricture of the urethra; bean in the head of the penis, and calculi. What to do.—Pass in the catheter to empty the bladder, and then endeavor, if possible, to find the cause and remove it. If it is from enlargement of the prostatic gland, give No. 66; if from contraction of sphincter of the neck of the bladder, refer to the treatment for spasms of the neck of the bladder ; if from stricture, refer to the article on that sub- ject; if from a bean in the head of the penis, oil your fingers well and remove it; if it is from calculi, refer to that subject. XI. Dribbling of the Urine, or Enuresis. In this case the urine dribbles away involuntarily. It may come from weakness of the sphincter of the bladder, or from injury to it by the catheter, or from paralysis of the bladder. Care should be taken, when passing in the catheter, to pass one hand into the rectum to guide the point over the curve. It may come from calculi; if so, remove them. If it comes from weakness, give a change of food, and No. 37 as a tonic. 408 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. XII. Stricture of the Urethra. Causes.—This is caused by irritating ingredients in the urine, and by strong astringent injections used in gleet ; or by the healing of ulcers in neglected gleet. How to know it.—The urine is passed in a very fine stream ; the passage requires a long time, and is attended with pain. There are frequent painful erections. What to do.—Pass in, daily, a catheter, beginning with one small enough to pass the stricture, and increase the size of it from day to day, pushing it by the stricture with gentle pressure. XIII. Gonorrhea. Causes.—This is inflammation of the urethra from irritating sub- stances in the urine; excessive copulation; masturbation ; connection with a newly delivered mare or one that has an irritating discharge from the womb ; mechanical injury to the penis, and irritation from the pas- sage or arrest of small stones or gravel. It is mostly confined to stallions. How to know it.—By swelling and soreness in the sheath and penis ; painful, slow urination, frequently interrupted and sent in jets, owing to the pain; more or less discharge of pus, which will be seen around the head of the penis. What to do.—Give a pint of raw linseed oil as a laxative, and foment the sore part with hot water; rinse out any gravel, and inject a lotion made as follows : No. 72. 1s Ounce sugar of lead, 1 Ounce vinegar, 1 Quart water. Mix. Inject a little once a day. If it is necessary to continue this longer than a week, change to No. 73. 15 Grains nitrate of silver, ‘ys Pint water. Mix. Inject a little twice a day. Feed on soft food. XIV. Foul Sheath. The sheath of most horses needs cleaning occasionally. The glands in the skin secrete a fluid to lubricate the parts, and at times it is seeré¢ted in larger quantities than at other times, and accumulates in a gummy, black substance in the sheath. Wash it out carefully with soap and warm water, being careful not to use any violence in drawing down the yard, DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 409 and particularly careful not to scratch the parts with the finger nails. If this occurs the yard may swell to enormous proportions; if so, bathe it with warm water and suspend it in a wide bandage passed over the loins. Repeat the bathing two or three times a day. Give gentle exercise ; and when the swelling is nearly gone, oil it with olive oil. XV. Urinary Calculi. Stones or calculi in the urinary apparatus differ in size, chemical com- position and location. Sometimes they attain to very large sizes ; some- times several small ones exist in the same place, and sometimes the deposit is sand-like, the granules not uniting to form a stone. Their chemical composition differs according to the nature of the food. The caleuli of herbivorous or grazing animals are composed mostly of the carbonates, while those of carnivorous or flesh eating animals consist mainly of the phosphates. The caleuli of omnivorous animals partake of the character of the two kinds just mentioned. They will be more largely composed of the carbonates or of the phosphates according to the charac- ter of the food and water taken. Causes.—The carbonates of lime and magnesia are the principal com- ponents of the calculi of horses and cattle; they are due to the large proportion of vegetable acids in the food. These vegetable acids become transformed into carbonic acid, which unites with the lime and magnesia in the blood, thus forming calculi. The tendencies to form ealeuli from the food are strengthened by the following accessory causes: Scarcity of water; disinclination to drink; excessive loss of water from the sys- tem by diarrhoea and dysentery or profuse sweating ; feverish conditions, giving rise to scanty secretions of urine; dry winter fodder; and hard drinking water. A solid substance of some kind for a nucleus or starting point is usually necessary to their formation ; around this nucleus the salts erystallize in concentric layers. The nucleus may be a particle of mucus, fibrine or blood, or a foreign body introduced with the catheter. The locations in which they may be found are the kidneys, ureters (the tubes leading to the bladder), the bladder, the urethra and the fossa of the glans penis. How to know it.—Those in the kidneys and ureters cause colicky pains, straddling gait, tender loins, and sometimes blood in the urine. Those in the ureters can sometimes be felt by the hand introduced into the rectum. Those in the bladder get into the passage and obstruct the urine occa- sionally, in which case they give rise to frequent straining efforts to pass urine ; the urine escapes in driblets and jets, with frequent sudden arrests of the flow ; but if the stone does not get into the passage, the flow is not 410 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. checked. Blood, in clots, may be passed from wounding of the mucous membrane of the bladder, by the stone. Examination by the hand, per rectum, will determine its existence. In the female, it can sometimes be reached with the finger. What to do.—There is no satisfactory treatment in cases where the location of the stone is out of reach. ‘Those in the bladder and urethra can be removed by either breaking them down and washing the fragments out (lithotrity), or they may be removed whole (lithotomy ) ; both opera- tions will be found described in the chapter on operations. Prevention.—It is well to guard against the formation of them in the first instance, and to prevent their return when removed. Tf any fault exists in the feeding, correct it; give a reasonable amount of common salt, twice a week to horses, and to cattle three times a week ; also give an abundant supply of good water. Tf the water is hard, put a little caustic soda or potash into it once a day, or a little hard wood ashes. Give roots to eat if in winter, and grass in summer; give half an ounce of tincture of gentian morning and night for a fortnight, or a tablespoonful of powdered gentian or quassia morning and night in soft food. CHAPTER XVI. DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. OF THE MALE:-—!I. INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES. ——Il. HYDROCELE, OR DROPSY OF TILE SCROTUM, Ii. EVIL RESULTS OF CASTRATION, —IV. WOUNDS OF THI PENIS.———V. GONORKILGSA.———VI. VHIMOSIS AND PAKAPHIMOSIS.———VII. MAS= TURBATION,. OF THE FEMALE:—VIII, PARTURITION, “IX. METRITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF TILE WOMB.——X. INFLAMMATION OF THE OVARIES.——XI. LEUCORRMHGA.——KXII. PUERPERAL FEVER,——XIII. MAMMITIS, XIV. HYSTERIA.—XV. ABORTION. Horses as a race do not suffer with these diseases as much as cattle and other lower animals, probably on account of their greater activity, which is conducive to health, that of the organs of generation as well as of other parts of the body. I. Inflammation of the Testicles. This usually occurs as a result of external injury, but is sometimes the result of excessive copulation, glanderous deposit, or a localization of other morbific conditions of the system. There will be more or less tumefac- tion, great soreness, some fever and a straddling gait. What to do.—Give a purgative, No. 23; also, give No. 16 in the feed, which should be light and soft, grass if possible. Spread over the organ alittle solid extract of belladonna once a day, after hot fomentations. Give gentle exercise, but allow rest from active male service for a week, or longer if necessary. Should it go on to suppuration, open it and in- ject lotion No. 89. If it becomes calloused, hard, and does not diminish in size, substitute lotion as follows: No. 74. 1 Drachm iodine, | Drachm potassium iodide, 46 Pint water. Mix. Inject a tablespoonful into the organ twice a day, and apply some on the outside. If treatment fails, castration must be resorted to. (See chapter on operations. ) II. Hydrocele, or Dropsy of the Scrotum. The serotum is the pouch or bag that contains the testicles. Dropsy of it is due to the effusion following an injury thereto. It will be found enlarged, tender, soft and fluctuating. 411 412 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. What to do.—Draw off the water with a small trocharand cannula ; re- peat it, if necessary, half a dozen times, for these cavities are prone to refill. Paint the outside with tincture of iodine. If all means fail and the case becomes hopeless, resort to castration. (See chapter on oper- ations. ) III. Evil Results of Castration. Scirrhus cord.—When the cord is left too long, the ends hanging down between the lips of the wound made in the scrotum, it becomes ad- herent to them, and the whole swells together, becoming an indurated mass, sometimes as large as a child’s head. What to do.—The horse must be cast, the cord dissected away from the scrotum, and the cord (which will be found in the form of a tumor) excised. In the absence of a good veterinarian, excise it with the Ierazeur, taking pains to get down low, so as to take out as much of it as possible, and dress it, twice a day, with lotion No. 5. Abscess in the scrotum.—This occurs from healing of the wound before the suppurative process, which always follows to a greater or less extent, is finished. The confined pus accumulates and forms a large abscess, causing the sheath to swell, as also the lymphatic glands on the inside of the thigh, giving rise to a straddling gait and disinclination to move. What to do.—Open it freely, and evacuate the pus, when it will com- monly heal readily ; if it does not, however, inject lotion No. 5, twice a day, Projecting cord.—Sometimes a small teat-like piece of the cord will project through the wound in the scrotum, preventing it from entirely healing. Pinch this off close to the serotum with the thumb nail, and cauterize it with lunar caustic. Tumors on the cord.—These may form from catching cold after cas- tration, strangulation of the cord, or too rough handling. They sometimes attain the size of a child’s head. The tumor differs from scirrhus in being situated higher up in the canal. It must be dissected out, the same as scirrhus cord above described.- IV. Wound of the Penis. This sometimes happens to stallions while teasing mares ; it gets kicked, swung against a fence, or struck by mischievous boys in play. Some- bs oS times amputation is necessary. (See chapter on operations.) When an operation is not necessary, foment with hot water and apply lotion No. 24, two or three times a day. If tumefaction is great, support the penis with a bandage passed over the loins. DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 413 V. Gonorrhea or Gleet. This is catarrh of the mucous membrane lining the urethra. Its causes are excessive work in the stud, connection too soon after parturition, or irritating substances in the urine. How to know it.—Che urine will be passedin small jets, with frequent interruptions and manifestations of pain, and there will be some swelling and soreness of the parts. What to do.—Suspend the labor in the stud for a couple of weeks ; foment with hot water frequently, and inject the following lotion twice a day: (See also page 408,—treatment for another type of this disease. } No. 75. 2 Drachms sulphate of zine, 1 Pint water, Mix. Or, instead, the following muy be used : No. 76. 3 Drachms sugar of lead, 1 Pint water, Mix. VI. Phimosis and Paraphimosis. These are swollen conditions of the penis. In the former, the penis is swollen and confined within the sheath, so that it cannot be protruded ; in the latter, the penis is swollen outside the sheath, and cannot be with- drawn. What to do.—When phimosis exists, open the external portion of the sheath, so as to enlarge the opening; then, if the penis is swollen when liberated, bathe with cold water, and apply lotion No. 24 three times a day. For paraphimosis, bathe with cold water, apply lotion No. 24, three times a day, manipulate as muchas the soreness will allow, and support the penis with a bandage passed across the loins. Do not, on any ac- count, omit the bandage, as the weight of the swollen organ is alone suf- ficient to keep it irritated and inflamed. If this fails to accomplish the desired effect, the rim of the sheath may be slit up a little ways, and the organ manipulated and pushed back. Leave the cutting, however, for the last resort. VII. Masturbation. This isa bad habit of abusing nature, that some stallions get into. It may result from weakness, consequent upon overwork in the stud, or, on the other hand, from superfluous passion attending want of work in connection with high feeding. When from the former cause, reduce the work, give walking exercise, and administer tonics, such as Nos. 67, 35 or 414 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, 33, When from the latter, give, for a purgative, No. 23, reduce the feed, increase the exercise, and give No. 37. DISEASES PHOULIAR TO THE MARE. Diseases of the generative organs are not 80 numerous in the mare as in the cow, probably owing, as before explained, to her leading a more active life. VIIt. Parturition. This the mare gets through with very quickly when everything is right, but when it goes wrong or is prolonged, on account of malpresen- tation, or malformation of the pelvis, the case is very bad indeed. The cow may bein the act of calving many hours, and come out all right, if she gets the right kind of assistance, but the mare, if not relieved, may die inside of an hour, Do not interfere, however, unless absolutely nee- essary in consequence of delivery coming too soon, (as from some exter- nal violence), and before the ligaments of the pelvis are relaxed to allow the fatus to pass, or of some malpresentation. In such cases, assis- tance, to be of any service, must be rendered soon and efficiently. The mare should be strong and in good healthy condition ; as to flesh, not too fat nor too thin, and strong, asa result of proper exercise. The bowels should be loosened by giving soft feed, roots, ete., at the close of the period of gestation, In the great majority of cases, little or nothing else is necessary. What to do.—In case of malpresentation, refer to the corresponding position in the cow, which will be found deseribed in its proper place. If all means fail to deliver the foal alive, and one or the other must be sacrificed, cut the foal away, piece by piece ; but if the foal is alive and the mare cannot be saved, the foal can be brought away by the Cesarian operation, (See chapter on operations. ) Dead fetus. —Sometimes the fetus dies some considerable time be- fore the full term of gestation is completed, and thus becoming a foreign substance, it must be removed. Sometimes, in such cases, the os ulert does not relax and needs assistance, This condition of affairs will be known by the mare’s continuous and persistent straining, in the effort to expel tho fartus. What to do.—Pass in your hand, after oiling it with olive oil, and in- sert one finger into the os, then two and three, and so on, working very gradually, till it is well dilated. Tf this does not succeed, insert a sponge wet with fluid extract of belladonna into the os, and let it remain there ten or twelve hours, and then try the hand again, DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION, 415 IX. Metritis, or Inflammation of the Womb. This results from injury during parturition, or from catching cold by ex- posure to cold or wet soon after delivery. It usually comes on in two or three days after parturition. There is more or less fever; colicky pain ; continually straining, as if to pass another foal; looking around towards the flanks ; a discharge of foetid black fluid from the womb; and arched back. What to do.—Give « mild purgative of raw linseed oil, in amount from a pint to a quart, according to the size of the patient. Wash out the womb with warm water, to which a little, a very little, whiskey has been added, and inject No. 39. Give No. 18 internally, as often as the fever and other symptoms require. Feed on light diet and keep warm. X. Inflammation of the Ovarias. This, though rare, is met with occasionally in the mare, and is mani- fested by slight fever, soreness on pressure in the lumbar region, and dis- inclination to walk. It usually occurs at the time of heat, and passes away when that is over; it aggravates the passions excited at that time. What to do.—Give a teaspoonful of saltpetre in a bran mash, three times a day, for a couple of days. XI. Leucorrhe@a, This is catarrh of the vagina or of the womb, or of both. Caused, originally, by a slight attack of inflammation, a discharge from the irritated surfaces is set up and soon becomes chronic. It often follows dif- ficult parturition, in which the parts have been torn and injured, more or less. When the after-birth is retained, leucorrheea invariably follows, owing to the irritation caused by the decomposition, which, in such cases, is nature’s only alternative for getting rid of the foreign body. The discharge is whitish and slimy, of a disagreeable odor ; in fact, when following retention of the after-birth, it is often purulent, and very offensive. It tells heavily on the general health of the patient ; she loses flesh ; the coat becomes rough, coarse and staring ; and the milk dries up, or nearly so. What to do.—Introduce a catheter into the womb, and draw off the purulent accumulations, if any exist; next, inject tepid water, draw- ing it off with the catheter ; then inject lotions Nos. 75, 76 and 39, chang- ing from one to another, and applying them twice a day till cured. At the same time, give, as a course of tonics, Nos. 67, 35 and 22, changing occasionally from one to another. Continue them three or four weeks. Give green food, if practicable ; if not, give bran mashes, roots, ete. 416 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. XII. Puerperal Fever. This is a benign fever, usually occurring on the second or third day after parturition. Itis aggravated by colds, exposure, or neglect. How to know it.—The symptoms are those of general fever, accelera- ted pulse and respiration, with heightened temperature ; the ears and extremities, however, are cold; the visible mucous membranes are inject- ed and red; the bowels are constipated ; the urine is scanty and high col- ored ; secretion of milk is suspended ; and the udder inclines to inflamma- tion and hardness. It may occur in mares of all ages, but is most often met with after the first pregnancy, and seems to accompany the effort of nature in secreting the milk. What to do.—Keep the animal warm, in a place with good ventilation but no drafts ; give soft diet (grass if possible), and plenty of pure water with a tablespoonful of sweet spirits of nitre mixed with it morning and night. If the bowels are constipated, give half a pint of raw linseed oil, repeating it after ten or twelve hours. XII. Mammitis. This is inflammation of the mammary glands, or udder ; it accompanies parturition, and then always exists to a certain extent, consequent upon the secretion of milk. It is apt to be most severe after the first foaling. Usually, the inflammation subsides in the course of a week or so; that is, as the organs become accustomed to secreting the milk, and their outside is softened by the foal sucking and pulling at the teats; but not in- frequently it happens that, instead of getting better and softer, they get harder and larger, sore, hot and painful. When it runs on to suppura- tion of a quarter, as it sometimes does, the milk curdles and comes away with difficulty, in small quantities, and is bloody. There is always more or less constitutional disturbance, fever, accelerated pulse, ete. What to do.—Foment vigorously with hot water, as continuously as possible ; manipulate to the utmost extent that the soreness will allow ; encourage the foal to suck and pull the teats, and milk all you can, at frequent intervals, to prevent the milk from curdling. If it goes on to suppuration, open the abscesses and inject lotion No. 39, twice a day, and apply oil-cake poultices, changing them morning and night. Give soft feed; if in winter, take the chill off the drinking water, and keep the mare blanketed. Give a teaspoonful of saltpetre in a bran mash morn- ing and night. If the bowels are constipated, give a pint of raw linseed oil. Rub the glands with the following, three times a day: No. 77. 1 Ounce camphor gum, 46 Pint olive oil, Mix. DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 417 XIV. Hysteria. This is a peculiar and quite rare nervous condition accompanying heat and manifested, principally, by the voluntary muscles. The jaws champ ; the teeth are ground; the muscles tremble; the legs and feet are liable to paw, strike or kick spasmodically ; inshort, the mare acts in a generally, delirious manner. Sometimes the brain is somuch affected that this con- dition runs on into tetanic convulsions, inflammation of the brain, and death. What to do.—Give a quart of raw linseed oil, or else No. 23, and No. 52. Repeat the latter every four to six hours, till purgation takes place, when all unpleasant symptoms will usually disappear. XV. Abortion. When mares abort, it is usually the result of accident or overwork. If compelled to draw too heavy a load, a single extra hard pull is often- times sufficient to produce abortion ; any such accident as slipping, fall- ing, external violence, etc., may likewise bring it about. Usually, all parts come away naturally, without any untoward result other than nerv- ous prostration, and, perhaps, a slight febrile rise in pulse and temper- ature for a day or two afterwards. What to do.—Allow absolute rest for a few days, and give soft feed and chilled water. If any fever follows, give a teaspoonful of saltpetre in the mash, morning and night. CHAPTER XVII. DISEASES OF THE LIVER. I. CONGESTION OF THE LIVER.——II. HEPATITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER (ACUTE OR CHRONIC),——I1I, CERROMA, OR FATTY DEGENERATION.——IV, CIR- RIMOSis, OR FIBROUS DEGENERATION.——V. JAUNDICE, ICTERUS, OR YELLOWS,.—— VI. BILIARY CALCULI, OR GALL=STONES Vil. HYPERTROPHY.——VIII, ATRO- PLHY.——IX. SOFTENING, OR RAMOLLISSEMENT, WITH RUPTURE, Diseases of the liver in the lower animals, are not as common as in the human family, but they are met with occasionally, and their effects are plainly visible. The other organs of the body necessarily suffer when there is inactivity of the liver, since its functions are very important, both in eliminating impurities from the blood, and in secreting the bile that largely contributes to maintaining the health of the bowels. Certain marked symptoms are common to all diseases of the liver, viz: yellowness of all the visible mucous membranes, dullness of spirits, languor, and loss of appetite. When the bile is secreted too abundantly, : the foeces ‘are bright yellow, with either diarrhea, or a tendency that way ; and when the bile is scanty, the feeces are of a gray, ashy color, hard and very offensive to the smell. Again, when the liver fails to seerete its customary quantity of urea, the latter is thrown back into the sys- tem, with especial detriment to the kidneys, giving rise to congestion of those organs or azoturia, (which see). The principal diseases of the liver, in the horse, are enumerated in the heading of this chapter. I. Congestion of the Liver. This is engorgement of the hepatic blood vessels, and, in a secondary manner, is accompanied by engorgement of many of the other internal organs, Its subjects are commonly high fed, pampered, idle animals. It is frequently a symptom of influenza, from obstruction of the flow of bile, caused by inflammation of the ling membrane of the bile duets, which, in turn, is simply one manifestation of the general catarrhal inflammation of the mucous membranes of the whole body. How to know it.—In addition to the general symptoms of hepatie dis- ease, mentioned in the second paragraph of this chapter, there will be some colicky pains; turning of the head towards the right side; high brownish color of the urine ; constipation ; clay-colored feces; an offen- sive smell to both faeces and mouth; and grinding of the teeth. Some- times, there is also lameness in the right fore-shoulder, and more or less fever. 418 DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 419 What to do.—Some authorities recommend bleeding and purgatives, except when it is a symptom of influenza. In case the animal is fat, bleeding would be an advantage. Follow it with No. 37, given in doses of two or three tablespoonfuls in soft feed, three times a day. Let the food be light and rather sparing. When there are liver troubles, as a complication of influenza, it is not safe to give them any special treatment. In such cases, treat for influ- enza, as elsewhere given. II. Hepatitis, or Inflammation of the Liver. This may be either acute or, chronic. It is very rare in the lower ani- mals, among which it is most often seen in old horses. The inflamma- tion may have its seat either in the covering membrane, known to anato- mists as ‘*Glisson’s Capsule,’’ or in the glandular portion itself. It may lead to abscesses, or to a hardening or softening of the organ. We will treat, first, of the acute form. How to know it.—There is marked loss of appetite, and dullness of the eye; the patient usually remains standing, but hangs his head; the manure, passed in small balls, is of a dark reddish-brown color, and sometimes very much mixed with bile, covered with a slimy mucous matter; the urine is scant and high colored, and there is tenderness of the right side. What to do.—In the acute form, give early, as a mild purgative, No. 23, and follow it with this: No. 78. 2 Ounces chlorate of potash, 1 Quart water, Mix. Give four ounces (about two wine-glassfuls) three times a day. Feed on light diet. The chronic form may follow the acute, or it may exist as an original disease. It gives rise to material changes in the liver, which may become enlarged and softened, or diminished in size and indurated and hardened, In those cases where it comes on gradually, and exists as an original dis- vase, it is the result of want of proper food, or a process of gradual starvation, and tends to a fatal termination. If the food is insufficient and unsuitable, the fact will be shown by a poverty-stricken appearance of the animal generally. What to do.—Give a complete change in every way possible—location and altitude, as well as in the quality and quantity of food. III. Ceroma, or Fatty Degeneration of the Liver. This is usually seen in old horses that are very fat. The liver becomes large and soft, and the hepatic cells becoming filled with fat, the secretion 420 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. of bile is interfered with. Here we find one of the causes of con- stipation and enteritis; for the bile is the main agent in keeping the bowels in order, including, also, the prevention of acidity and abnormal waste of the tissues composing them. No treatment can be prescribed. These cases usually die suddenly, from rupture of the capsule and escape of blood into the abdominal cavity. Prevention might be effected by not allowing old horses to get too fat. IV. Cirrhosis, or Fibrous Degeneration. This is due, probably, to material changes in the blood, which becoming poor in quality and scanty in quantity, gives rise to atrophy of the sys- tem, pining, and death. On post-mortem examination, the liver is found to be light, and in color of a yellow cast, roughened on the surface, firm to the touch, not so easily broken down as ina healthy condition; it is hard, fibrous and dry; and, when cut across, the lobules are replaced by white fibrous tissue, exhibiting a mottled appearance, like the interior of anutmeg. No specific treatment is possible. V. Jaundice, Icterus, or Yellows. This is only a symptom of derangement of the liver, though commonly spoken of as a separate disease. It indicates an obstruction of the gall duct that conveys the bile into the intestines, the consequence of which is, that the bile is thrown back into the system, and hence the yellow appearance so characteristic of all liver disorders. If it is not complicated with any other disease, give a purgative, No. 23, and follow it with No. 37. If, however, it exists as a complication, treat the other disease rather than this condition. VI. Biliary Calculi, or Gall-stones. Though gall-stones are rarely found, incrustations on the walls of the ducts are quite common. They do little or no harm, unless they accu- mulate to such an extent as to obstruct the duct, in which case there will be colicky pains, frequent looking around to the right side, and a yellow, bilious appearance generally. Give No. 55. VII. Hypertrophy of the Liver. This, which is the name given an abnormal growth of the organ, is usually associated with a plethoric condition, resulting from idleness and high feeding. Reduce the flesh, by giving No. 23, and restricting the diet. DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 421 VIII. Atrophy of the Liver. This is a wasting, shrinking, pining away process. Its causes are either some other disease, or else starvation. If the former, treat the other disease, and the system may, perhaps, redevelop. If starvation and neglect are to blame, make a radical change, giving good food, and plenty of it. IX. Softening, or Ramollissement, with Rupture. This is probably due to repeated attacks of congestion and engorge- ment. The softening process goes on, till finally the inevitable sequel of rupture takes place. Sometimes the rupture does not involve Glisson’s capsule, but only the glandular mat- ter, and when this occurs, it will be manifested by colicky pains, and also by fainting fits, if the head is raised suddenly. The symptoms subside after a while, and appear to leave no injurious consequences. When, how- ever, Glisson’s capsule is ruptured, hemorrhage into the abdomen occurs, TEST FOR HEMORRHAGE FROM TUE anda fatal termination suddenly ensues. a Prevention.—Recognizing that all affections of the liver leading to softening and rupture, are due to improper feeding, the methods of pre- vention are evident, viz: Regulate the diet carefully, reducing the quality of rich and specially nutritious foods, and giving more hay, straw, ete., and thus keeping down the tendency to undue obesity. CHAPTER XVIII. DISEASES OF THE EYE. I, SPROTFIC OPHTHALMIA, OR MOON BLINDNESS. Il, SIMPLE OPHTHALMTA, OR OCONJUNOTIVITIS,——-IIT. AMAUROSIS, GUTTA SERENA, OR GLASS EYE,——IV. GLAUCOMA.——V._IRITIS. VI. LEUCOMA.——VII. CATARACT. VIII. FILA-= RIA OCULI, OR WORM IN THE EYE.——IX. ENTROPIUM.——X. ECTROPIUM. XI. TORN EYELIDS,-——-XII. CANCEROUS TUMOR IN THE KYE.——XIII, OBSTRUCTION OF THE LACHRYMAL DUCT, Diseases of the eye are not nearly as numerous among the equine race as Inman, though it would bea mistake to infer from this that the eye is & less sensitive or complicated organ in the one than in the other. The oculary diseases of the horse are about all included in the list above given, I. Specific Ophthalmia, or Moon Blindness. This is the bane of horse-flesh in the West, where a multitude of good horses lose their sight from an hereditary disease that is utterly incurable, and runs on its certain course, fast or slow, to cataract. It consists of inflammation of the cornea, choroid coat, ciliary processes and iris, affecting, also, the humors and lens, and giving rise to an immense amount of pain on account of the intro-ocular pressure, It is called specific on account of its occult cause, nature and perio- dicity. While it is transmissible to the offspring from either parent, it is especially so from the sire. How to know it.—There is swelling of the whole eye, lids, conjunctiva, the mucous lining of the lids, and all internal parts of the eye ; and the corner being inelastic, the pressure and pain are intense. The eye is closed, or nearly so, from the light, tears run down over the cheek, and the mucous membranes become very red; and as a result of the inflammation, pus is formed in the anterior chamber, and may be seen as a whitish substance down in the lower portion. After a few days, the inflammation subsides, goes away, and leaves the eye nearly as bright as natural ; still, sprcinie oparHaL- if examined carefully, shreds of the lymph will be seen ae hanging around in the anterior chamber, and the pupil Showing the closed py will be ragged. After a period of from four weeks to three or four months, the trouble will recur with all ight. Theline shows the position of the haw. the symptoms in an aggravated degree ; the whitish substance (lymph) becomes purulent, and, settling at the bottom, may 422 DISEASES OF THE BYR. ; 423 there be seen like a half-moon, Examine the eye by the light of a can- dle, (the horse being in a dark place, ) and the cornea will look dull, and the back of the eye bluish yellow, These appearances, accompanied by the recurrences from time to time, will plainly stamp the disease as specific or periodic ophthalmia. It may affect either eye alone, or both at the same time, and the periodic recurrence may either be noticed first in one and then in the other, or else always in the same one. After one or more recurrences, the lymph or pus in the bottom of the anterior chamber will remain. The pupil becomes uneven, the eye looks smaller, on account of its being drawn back into the socket to avoid the light, and before long, as a result of the inflammation, the fatty cushion at the back of the eye becomes absorbed. After afew recurrences, there is perceived a muddiness around the lens, which increases in opacity with each suc- cessive attack, till a cataract forms. This is the inevitable result. Then the intensity of the attack diminishes, and finally subsides altogether. What to do.—There is no treatment known that will absolutely cure it ; yet good attention will ward off the final termination for a long time. When first coming on, give a purgative, No. 23, and follow it up with this : No. 79. L Drachm potassium iodide, 'g Pint water, Mix. Give this as one dose in a bran mash or from a bottle. Repeat it three times a day fora fortnight. Feed on bran mashes, green food, roots, ete. Bathe the eye with hot water an hour at a time, three times a day. Apply the following lotion to the eye, with a camel’s hair brush, four or six times a day: No. 80, 2 Grains sulphate of atropia, 1 Ounce water, Mix, Keep the animal in a dark place, with plenty of water to drink. When the active inflammation has subsided, use the following lotion : No. 81. 5 Grains nitrate of silver, 1 Ounce water, Mix. Apply with a camel’s hair brush, twice a day for a week or so, which will help to take up the cloudiness that may remain from the inflamma- tion. If this object is not satisfactorily effected, apply No. 82. Prevention.—Never breed a mare affected with specific ophthalmia, not even when she is stone-blind and all danger of subsequent recurren- ces gone. Never breed to a stallion similarly affected. Its hereditary character is certain. It breaks out in the offspring, usually, between the ages of four and seven, most often at about six. fs 424 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. II. Simple Ophthalmia, or Conjunctivitis. The lining of the eyelids is a sensitive, vascular, mucous membrane called the conjunctiva. Inflammation of this membrane and the other external parts is known as simple ophthalmia, or conjunctivitis. Cause.—The most common cause is the introduction of foreign bodies into the eye, such as hay-seed, hair, cinders, lime or other caustic sub- stances, ete. It often accompanies other diseases, as a symptom of fever, the conjunctiva at such times sharing with all other mucous membranes in the tendency to congestion. How to know it.—The eye is kept partly or nearly closed, the eyelids are swollen, the tears flow copiously down the cheek, and when the lids are opened the lining is very red and inflamed, with the haw drawn well up on the eye. After a day or two, the surface of the cornea (the transparent por- tion of the eyeball) becomes clouded with a whitish film-like substance, caused by the interrupted nutri- tion which attends the inflammation and tumefaction. SIMPLE Orutual- Tf neglected, the opacity inereases and soon becomes chronic, resisting treatment, and causing blindness. She pupil natural, but : : the line showing the Sometimes, when the irritant is very severe, the in- position of the haw, it deing drawn well up flammation extends to the interior of the eye, break- onthe eye, in its en- fovea ot’ ine down the structure of the parts, when blindness vesults, as a matter of course. What to do —Make a careful examination, and remove the offending object. Foreign bodies can be removed with forceps, or by a silk hand- kerchief passed over the head of a pin. The forceps should be curved, and the curved surface applied to the eye, so as to avoid the possibility of puneturing the points into it. If so much swollen that the foreign body cannot be dis- covered, the point where it is will be apt to be more swollen than the rest, thereby giving a clue as to its location. Tf it is down under the haw, the latter may be caught by a hook or tenaculum, and drawn up so as to allow com- = It ANNER OF OPENING THE Shay cacciteataray te . » surfaces bencs plete examination of the surfaces beneath, yn WHEN. Seinen is often necessary to fasten the haw, to prevent FOR FOREIGN BODIES. ils movements from interfering with the examination of the eye. After the irritant is removed, bathe the eye with warm water having a small quantity of salt in it,—a teaspoonful of salt to a pint of water ; have the water and sponge clean, and foment the eye half an hour at a time, three or four times a day. Insert a flaxseed under the lid several times a day, or smear across and into the eye the white of an egg. DISEASES OF THE EYE. 425 If the cornea becomes cloudy, apply the following lotion morning and night, with a camel’s hair brush. No. 82. 10 Grains nitrate of silver, 1 Ounce water, Mix. Apply lotion No. 80, six to eight times a day, with a camel’s hair brush, all around under the eyelids and upon the eyeballs, to prevent the extension of the inflammation to the inner parts of the eye, or to alleviate it, if this has occurred. Give the animal rest, with soft feed and a dark stall. III. Amaurosis, Gutta Serena, or Glass Eye. This is blindness from paralysis of the optic nerve (the nerve of the sense of sight) and retina. The latter is the expansion of the optic nerve over the back of the chamber of the eye. There is no alteration in the structure of the eye, but simply loss of power to see. The pupil is greatly dilated, indicating the eye’s insensibility to light, and has a very clear, bright appearance, like blue glass ; and instead of contracting and expand- ing, as it should do, in different degrees of light, it remains fixed. Cause.—It may depend upon injury to the brain, with effusion press- ing on the optic nerve, and when this is the cause, the appearance of the eye above described will be noticed. Or it may result from excessive fever in any disease, and especially epizodtic influenza, if the temper- ature of the body runs above 106°. In the latter case, the retina is involved in the inflammation, loses its beautiful bluish lustre, and be- comes whitish-green in color, and the humors (the liquids) of the eye get more or less muddy, and give « greenish cast to the whole eye. As this condition may not be detected by a casual observer, by looking into the eye itself, it is necessary to notice closely the actions of the horse. It may effect one or both eyes. If only one, the horse’s action may not be altered, but if both eyes are blind the fact will be betrayed by his high stepping and his constant moving of the ears forward and backward. These are indications which should always ereate suspicion in this re- EYE AFFECTED BY SERENA. spect. What to do.—Apply a blister, No. 9, to the cheek or temple, and on the back of the neck, and give internally Nos. 67 and 66 in alterna- tion. But acure is rarely to be hoped for. 426 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. IV. Glaucoma, This isinflammation involving the whole globe of the eye, but more par- ticularly the vitreous humor, (the fluid in the posterior chamber of the eye, ) the iris, choroid, and sometime the retina. Tt occasions a dilated, irregular pupil, muddiness of the vitreous humor, and a sea-green color of the interior of the eye, with blindness as a frequent sequel. What to do.—It is treated by constitutional remedies—calabar bean, electricity, ete., and also by iridectomy (an operation to excise a portion of the iris, to relieve the intro-ocular pressure.) These measures all require the skill of a veterinarian. V. Tritis. Inflammation of the iris (that portion of the eye forming the pupil and giving the color to the eye) is called iritis. Cause.—Severe external violence, extremes of light and darkness, ex: posure to severe storms, facing the wind, and constitutional disorders. How to know it.—A pink ring is seen around the sclerotica (the white, fibyous coat forming the large posterior portion of the eye) ; the eye is re- tracted and partly closed ; the haw is drawn up; the conjunctiva is inflam- ed, there being considerable fever in the con- stitution; the pupil is very small, and the aqueous humor becomes turbid, with white flakes floating in the anterior chamber, and usually a little pus in the bottom of the latter. What to do.—Place the animal in a dark stall, or cover his face with a green cloth. Give a purgative, No, 23. Bathe the eye with warm water as much as possible, and apply No. 80 every few minutes for half an hour; then rest four or five hours, and repeat it. So continue MANNER On SUADING A . : pts * ‘ a ; e NORSE’S EYES WHEN sur- from day to day, till all symptoms of inflam- FERING FROM INFLAMMA=— mationare gone. Let the feed be soft and un- TION. : E stimulatimg. VI. Leucoma. This is a white opacity of the cornea, from extravasation of lymph into the fibres of the extension of the conjunctiva over the cornea. It may be the result of other eye diseases, of fever in the system, or of external vio- lence. It is best treated by keeping ina dark place, with laxative food and continuous application of No. 82, till it is cleared up. DISEASES OF THE BYE. 427 VII. Cataract. As the most common termination of all inflammatory diseases of the eye, we see a white opaque substance covering the lens, and oftentimes completely filling the pupil. This is cataract, of which there are two kinds, distinguished by the terms capsular and lenticular, according to their position. Cataract is organized lymph attached to the lens. How to know it.—Usually the pupil is very much dilated, and filled with the white lymph, the defect being so plain as to be seen a hundred feet away. Sometimes, however, it can only be detected by a close ex- amination, Examine the horse, first, in strong sunlight, and note carefully the degree of contraction of the pupil; then place him in a dark stall, and examine the eye with a candle. A healthy eye reflects three candles, the first from the cornea, the second from the surface of the lens, the third from the back of the lens. When either or both of the last two are blurred or, worse, entirely wanting, you need no further proof of the existence of cataract. What to do.—In recent cases, the eye may sometimes be cl sared up by simply giving a purgative, No. 28, and applying a lotion, No, 82, at the same time giving No. 66, internally; but in later stages nothing could avail except to dissect them out—an operation that is never practiced on the horse for the reason that, without glasses, he would never be able to see things again, in their right position, size and form. = A FREQUENT RESULT OF IMPERFECT VISION, Imperfect vision is worse than blindness, beige vastly more misleading and wholly unreliable. VIII. Filaria Oculi, or Worm in the Eye. This is a small, thread-like worm, seen floating about in the aqueous humor in the anterior chamber of the eye. Itis very rare. The worm 428 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. is from half an inch to two inches in length, and the size of a hair. It is white in color, and is very active, squirming about in the eye, appar- ently very much at home, It is probably taken into the stomach in the eve form, and after hatching, the mite works through the coats of the intestines and blood vessels, is earried by the circulation till it finds an agreeable medium, and there developes. It eauses a great amount of in- flammation and pain in the eye, in which it ean be plainly seen by any observer. What to do.—The only remedy is to puncture the cornea and evacuate the anterior chamber, when the worm will come out along with the other contents. This, however, is a delicate operation, and should never be attempted by any but a qualified veterinary surgeon. (See chapter on operations. ) IX. Entropium. This is inversion of the eyelids, causing the lashes to turn in upon the eyeballs, and giving rise to an_ irritating disease called Trichiosis. It is due to excessive thickness of the lid above the rim, so that the rim is made to turn in. What to do.—It is treated by cutting out an elliptical section of the skin, and sewing the wound up again, to shorten the lid. Let the long axis of the ellipse run lengthwise with the eyelid, horizontally. X. Hetropium. This trouble is consequent upon an inflamed and thickened conjune- tiva, It is a turning out or eversion of the lids, showing their red mu- cous membranes continually. It is most common in the lower lid. It is treated by an operation to remove an elliptical section of the conjunctiva, the after treatment being the same as prescribed for simple ophthalmia. XI. Torn Eyelids. The lids are frequently torn by getting caught in hooks, nails, ete. When possible, sew them up at once. Bring the edges neatly together and sew them with fine silk, making fine stitches, and dress two or three times a day with lotion No, 89. Tie the horse in the center of a wide stall, with a line from each side, and let him eat off the floor, to prevent him from rubbing his head and tearing the laceration open again, XII. Cancerous Tumors in tho Bye. These, though rare, are oceasionally met with in the horse, and their only treatment is to extirpate them by cutting out the eye. Cancerous erowths ave always malignant, and spread to surrounding tissues, (See chapter on operations. ) DISEASES OF THE BYE. 429 XIII. Obstruction of the Lachrymal Duct. This duct is the one that carries off tears and superfluous moisture from the eyes to the nose, It runs from the inner corner of the eye- lids to within two or three inches of the nostril, and empties on the floor of the nasal passage. It occasionally becomes stopped up from extension to it of the inflammation attending catarrh, and then the tears, having no other channel of escape, may be seen flowing down over the cheek. What to do.—Sce if there is any mechanical ob- struction in the nose, and, if so, remove it ; if not, swab out the nostril with an infusion of tobacco. Should this fail, the duct must be opened with a probe. Take a fine elastic probe, about the size of a knitting needle, and a foot long, and insert it once a day for several days, and inject No, 73 h aie Pe od. OBSTRUCTION OF LACH = with a fine syringe. RYMAL DUCT, CHAPTER XIX. PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 1. INTESTINAL WORMS, WORM, II. BOTS.——III. LICEK.——IV. MANGE.——Y. RINGe- I. Intestinal Worms. Three kinds of tape-worms and seven of round worms have been found in the intestines of the horse. The tape-worms are very rare, and hence have but little interest for the average reader. But the round worms ave both very common and highly injurious to the animal harboring them. Pin-worms or ascarides.—The most noteworthy is the pin-worm, of which two kinds are very common, viz: Sclerostomum Equinwn and Oxyuris curvola. These, which are usually spoken of as ascarides, are small round worms about an inch and a half to two inches long, pointed HORSES TAKEN inf - TAKEN RASS, A FRUITFUL MEDIUM FOR THE SPREAD OF MANGE, at both ends, with a small black head. They inhabit the large intestines (the rectum usually, and sometimes the colon, ) where they often exist in large numbers, some of them being passed, also, from time to time, in the dung. Teres Lumbrict.—The next most common worm is the large round worm scientifically known as eres dumbrici, which are about as thick as a clay pipe-stem, and, as to length, about eight to twelve inches for the male and about ten to eighteen inches for the female. They infest the 430 bie. SE PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 431 small intestines, and frequently enter the stomach, but from the fact that they seldom exist in very large quantities, commonly do somewhat less damage than the ascarides. Nevertheless, the writer has occasion- ally seen them come away by the hat-full, after a heavy dose of vermi- fuge. How to detect their presence.—When in small numbers, their exis- tence is hardly ascertainable, but when in large numbers, their pres- ence will be betrayed by «a capricious appetite, usually a ravenous one ; ema- ciation, with dry, coarse, staring coat, and a pot-belly; a whitish-yellow mould will be seen around the anus, probably made by worms being crush- ed while passing out, leaving their contents sticking to the skin, and, usually, more or less of the worms will be seen in the dung. When they get into the stomach, the horse will turn up his upper lip, as if nau- seated, and will also rub his lips Meee ie) sta seat ancer, etc.: he APPEARANCE OF COLT SUFFERING FROM against the wall, manger, ete. ; he WORMS. will lick the wall, sometimes even lick the hair off himself, and will persistently rub his tail or keep switch- ing it around, and otherwise manifesting the irritation that exists in the anus and rectum. Giant Strongle.—Another — round worm occasionally observed in the horse, is the giant strongle, (Hustrongylus Gigas,) found, most commonly, in the kidneys and bladder. But sometimes, after having completely devoured a kid- ney, this rapacious parasite bursts the cap- HORSE RUBBING HIS NOSE AGAINST A WALL—A SYMPTOM OF WORMS. sule, and falling into the abdominal cavity, there floats about among the intestines. It then causes peritonitis and death. These worms are as large as a man’s big finger, and from one to three feet long. Their color is a bright pink. What to do for worms.—There are numerous useful vermifuges. The most convenient and effectual is the following : No. 83. 1 Drachm sulphate of iron, 1 Drachm tartar emetic, 2 Drachms linseed meal, Mix. 432 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. Give as one dose, repeating it morning and night for a week; then give a purgative of oil and turpentine, as follows: No. 84, 1 Ounce spirits of turpentine, 1 Pint raw linseed oil, Mix. Give as one dose. After three weeks, repeat the entire treatment, to catch the young worms previously left in the bowels, in the form of nits or eggs, and which have hatched since. Nasal and bronchial acari.—One sort of acarus is found in the nose of the horse, and another, the strongylus micrurus, in the bronchial tubes. They are from one and a half to three inches long. II. Bots. The estrus equi, or horse gadfly, in laying its eggs, attaches them to the hair of the horse, usually on the fore legs Acarns which 2nd breast, so as to be convenient to the horse’s mouth. The lives in the nese. horse licks the spot irritated by the fly and thus gets one or more eggs into his mouth ; it is hatched by the heat and moisture, passes down the gullet, and attaches itself to the coat of the stomach by two little hooklets on the head, and there hangs for seyeral months, as yet not having the power to let go. This is one of the stages it has to go through, to become a fly. When it has matured, it lets go, and soon passes out wat the dung. It then hides itself in the earth, to undergo another change, and after six or seven weeks’ growth, in the pupa condition, PEUTASTOMA TENOIDES. THE GADFLY. — emerges a full fledged gadfly, capsble of a” annoying many horses and propagating its species indefinitely. 5 2 3 ¢ Female fly about to deposit an e The egg magnified. se The bot. The chrysalis, The male fly. Cit iG! THE GADFLY, AT VARIOUS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT. The bot sucks liquid nourishment from the food of the horse, and PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 433 never, as is popularly supposed, eats the stomach ; for the holes found in the stomach soon after the death of a healthy ani- mal, are really caused by the action of the gastric juice,—in fact, a kind of self-digestion by the stom- ach itself. The only harm bots can do is to accumulate in such large quantities in the stomach and bowels as to interfere with digestion and the free passage of the feces. In such cases a purgative may prove advantageous. BOTS FASTENED TO THE ihe tr . zsiar5 7. STOMACH, UNABLE No specific treatment is necessary. Feed well. Tees III. Lice. All animals suffer from the ravages of external parasites, the most common of which are lice. They are wingless insects, divided into two classes, blood-suckers (Hamatopinus) and Bird-lice (trichodectes. ) HEN-LOUSE, OR DERMANYS- GONIODES STYLIFER OF SUS OF THE HORSE. THE TURKEY. The former have narrow heads and long, trunk-like sucking tubes ; the latter, very broad heads and biting jaws, but no sucking tube. Lice always impoverish the animal they infest, causing loss of flesh and general unthriftiness. _ Our four cuts of them are, of course, greatly magnified. What to do.—The safest and most effectual remedy is a tobacco infusion, made as follows: No. 85. 2 Pounds tobacco, 3 Gallons water. Mix, and steep for two hours. Sponge the animal thoroughly. Or the following may be used in the same manner : No. 86, 3 Pounds quassia chips, 1 Gallon water, Mix, and steep one hour. 28 434 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. IV. Mange. This is a parasitic disease that is due to a class of insects called acar7, of which there are three kinds that trouble the horse, viz: the sarcoptes, dermatophaqus and dermato- coptis. The first named burrows in the deeper layers und cracks of the skin, while the last two live on the surface, under the scabs, where, of course, they are more easily got at than the former, and hence are less difficult to treat. How to know it.—There is « terri- BLoop-suckine Die itching that cannot be satisfied; TRicHopEcTES Lane hen Ree the more the horse rubs, the more ae pete sph he itches. Horses with the mange will sometimes be found turned out to pasture, and rubbing and scratch- ing against posts, trees, fences, etc., or even against one another. As HEMATOPINUS, OR DERMATOPHAGUS EQUI. DERMATOCOPTES EQUI. the mites possess great vitality, and will live a long time away froma horse, those left on the posts, ete., will infest any other horse coming in contact with it weeks, or even months, afterward. Mange is contagious by actual contact. The skin gets rough and sealy; the hair comes off in patches ; the skin gets pimply, and when rubbed much, gets quite raw. It usually affects the head and neck first, sometimes spreading so as to take the hair entirely off. Its spread is quite rapid, and keeps the horse in agony all the time. He will push against your hand, in evident c PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 435 pleasure, when you scratch the affected part ; and this constitutes a good test for mange. (See cut below. ) MANGE MITE (MAGNIFIED. ) SARCOPTES EQUI. As given by Doctor Erasmus Wilson. What to do.—Wash the parts affected with hot water and strong soap, to remove all scabs and scurf ; then, when dry, rub well in to all affected spots the following mixture : No. 87. 4 Ounces sulphur, 2 Ounces oil of tar, 13 Pint linseed oil, Mix. V. Ringworm. This is a fungous, vegetable parasitic growth, scientifically known as tricophyton tonsurans. It is contagious, and attacks all classes of ani- mals, yet sometimes arises spontaneously from poverty and filth. It manifests itself by a round Hbald spot, scaly and elevated inside the ring, which is red and inflamed. It begins in a small pimple-like sore, which spreads very fast, increasing in size from day to day, and new sores forming on other parts of the body. The ring is surrounded by a row of broken, bristly hairs, which split, and become filled with spores of the fungus ; and as fast as one row of hairs is dis- TEST FOR MANGL. posed of another row is attacked. Ringworm is, at first, simply a disfigurement, but it should, on no account, be neglected. If allowed to run on, it becomes very trouble- some. The scurfy skin of ringworm is easy of recognition, the particles of scurf coming off in little flakes or scales, which have been aptly com- pared to the coarser, husky portions of bran. 436 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. There is another form of ringworm called favus. It shows the same general appearance as the other, except that a scab forms in the center, after the ring has receded. What to do.—Wash with soap and water; when dry, paint with tincture of iodine or the following : No. 88. 40 Grains corrosive sublimate, 1 Pint water, Mix. OTN Repeat once a day till cured. CHAPTER XX. VICES IN THE STABLE. I. CRIBBING.——II. WIND SUCKING. Ill. GNAWING THE MANGER, CLOTHING, ETC.——IV. KICKING WHILE EATING GRAIN.——Y. WASTING THE GRAIN.——VI. PULLING BACK, AND BREAKING THE HALTER.——VII. BALKING. Horses frequently contract pernicious habits in the stable, such as always prove very annoying and often incurable. Nevertheless, a little in- genuity will sometimes work wonders, not only in preventing the forma- tion of such habits, but also in breaking them up. The most common stable vices are those above noted. I. Cribbing. This is a habit of catching hold of the manger, post, fence, or other object in front of the horse, with the teeth, and bearing down till the neck is altered in position, so as to form a tempo- rary vacuum in the pharynx, when the air rushes in to fill it, making a sound not unlike the hic- cough. It frequently occurs that the horse will devote nine-tenths of his time to cribbing, to the neglect of eating and sleeping, especially if at grass, and bringing on indigestion, emaciation and hidebound. For this reason, cribbers are usually thin in flesh. Cause.—Cribbing is considered by some to be the result of indigestion ; by others, of pain in CRIBBING. the teeth while teething; and by others still, of idleness. While there are cases that undoubtedly seem traceable to the first two mentioned causes, the writer thinks this habit will be found, uniformly, to be associ- ated, at least, with idleness. Old horses sometimes take it up, and horses of all ages are apt to do so, if tied beside a cribber; but in every such case idleness seems to be a prerequisite. This opinion is strengthened, too, by the undeniable fact that a horse kept in the stable several weeks, from some trivial cause, is especially apt to acquire it. What to do.—There are many devices in vogue for the cure of crib- bing, each containing more or less merit,—such as a piece of buffalo robe, or of iron, nailed on the edge of the manger ; red pepper smeared over the latter ; a small strap around the throat, drawn very tight, ete. But the most effectual plan is to tie him in a wide stall, with a line from 437 438 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. each side, to keep him in the center, and feed him on the floor, Some horses, however, will crib lying down ; or, if tied too short to reach the floor, will sometimes crib on their own knees. The writer saw a horse tied in front of the Board of Trade Building, in Chicago, that was checked up so short that he could not reach the flag sidewalk ; so he would put one foot up on the walk and crib on his knee, which he was just able to reach. He would stand there, and do this by the hour. Cases so invet- erate are not curable. Give internally, as treatment for the stomach, the following :— No. 89. 2 Ounces bicarbonate of soda, 1 Ounce gentian root, powdered, Ounces linseed meal, Mix. Give a tablespoonful morning and night, in soft food, and give plenty of exercise. Old, long standing cases are obstinate, but those more re- cent may generally be cured by the above treatment, if persevered in. Prevention.—Avoid long-continued idleness, and also overfeeding on strong, heating grain. A horse, to be kept in health, should be exercised every day, and fed according to the work performed. II. Wind-sucking. This is similar to cribbing, which it often accompanies, but the horse may suck wind without cribbing. He arches his back, curves his neck, draws in his chin towards his breast and down goes a swallow of air into the stomach ; this continues, usually, till he is so bloated that he is like a barrel, and cannot hold any more. It is injurious, as being apt to cause indigestion, colic, emaciation, hide-bound, ete. Give No. 89 in soft food. This may help the case; still, wind- suckers are generally incurables. III. Gnawing the Manger, Clothing, etc. This habit, and especially gnawing the manger, is formed in idleness, ’ or else indicates the want of salt. Tearing the blankets sometimes comes Sno from being too warm, especially if the horse is fat ; the skin gets hot and itchy, and he would be more comfortable with- out a blanket, and perhaps should have medical treatment, constitutionally. What to do.—Give him plenty of work, and feed accordingly. If he per- : sists in the habit, smear the manger with GNAWING THE MANGER. assafoetida, or make it of iron. If a blanket is really necessary, he can be prevented from te: wing it, by tying a stick from his cheek to the surcingle. VICES IN THE STABLE. 439 IV. Kicking while Eating Grain. This is another outgrowth of continued idleness, in connection with a nervous disposition. The horse, while eating his grain, will kick the side of the stall, sometimes as often as four or five times a minute. This he usually does with one foot, but sometimes with both,—first one and then the other. What to do.—A piece of chain, afoot or so in length and tied to the pastern of the foot used, will sometimes prove effectual. Another plan which usually answers the purpose, is to run a small rope from the bit through a collar and surcingle to the foot. Or, a small bit may be used, —one that will not interfere with the eating. Whipping is useless. V. Wasting the Grain. This is a playful habit of taking up the grain into the mouth and sift- ing it out again, throwing it around much as a child would the bread and butter of which he had too much. As arule, it shows that the horse has too much grain and too lit- tle exercise ; he is fed more than he needs or ean relish. A horse will not do it till he is fat and cloyed, except, perhaps, in occa- sional instances of irregular or decayed teeth. Treatment for these exceptional cases is given in the article on teeth. What to do.—The treatment consists in removing the cause : PLAYING WITH THE GRAIN. give more work and less grain. Sometimes a hard-worked, ravenous horse will plunge his nose into a mess of oats and throw half of them out, from sheer irritability of tem- per. Treat him kindly, however ; place a large angular stone, the size of a man’s double fist, in the center of the manger, and put the oats in with it, which will compel him to go about the matter more leisurely, and prevent him from throwing the grain out. VI. Pulling Back, and Breaking the Halter. This very bad habit commonly originates from the horse getting fright- ened, when, jumping suddenly back, he breaks the halter ; and as average horse sense knows that a thing once done can be done again, the jerk is repeated, in sportiveness or mischief, till it becomes a confirmed vice. What to do.—Have a very strong halter, and tie high on the manger, which will give the horse less power to pull than when tied low. Some 440 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. recommend a small rope, passed under the tail and tied to the manger, which may act well in some cases. But the main point lies in so fasten- ing him that he cannot get away, when, after a few ineffectual attempts, he will give it up. In halter breaking a colt, pass a rope behind him, so that he cannot pull full strength on the halter, and be very sure nothing is used with him that will break ; one accident of that kind may be enough to start a persistent bad habit. VII. Balking. This, though not strictly a stable vice, is so nearly allied thereto that it seems quite proper to treat of it in this connection. The best way to break a horse of balking is not to be in a hurry, but, rather, to let him stand to his heart’s content: avoid hitching him to any load he cannot pull easily ; coax him and pat him; feed him apples, salt, sugar, ete., out of your hand. Let the same man always handle him, if possible ; a change of drivers might spoil all that has been accomplished. If there is no time to wait for him, hitch another team ahead of him and snake him along. The chain, or even rope, passed around his neck for the other team to pull by, is veryeffectual. Try and divert his attention by offering a handful of salt or oats; or, even a handful of earth may serve every purpose. The maxim always to be observed in all of these cases is: Treat the horse with kindness. A balky horse cured by kindness, an achievement not only possible but absolutely feasible, is the best, toughest, most perse- vering creature in existence, from the fact that only horses possessed of a great amount of spirit and determination ever get balky, those that resent and resist abuse. It is abuse, generally speaking, that makes a horse learn to balk,—such foolish and barbarous work as gettimg into a hole with a heavy load, and then whipping unmercifully, to try and make the poor dumb victims perform impossibilities. Let the reader set it down as an axiom, that kindness is always repaid by faithful service. CHAPTER XXI. CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF STABLES, AS RELATED TO HYGIENE. I. NECESSITY FOR STABLES. II. CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. Ill. FEEDING AND WATERING STOCK. IV. THE CARE OF STOCK WHEN IN STABLE. V. ADDI- TIONAL DIRECTIONS FOR GIVING MEDICINES. VI. DETECTION OF DISEASE. I. Necessity for Stables. In many regions and climates, stables are not necessary ; horses, mules, cattle and all kinds of stock lie down to rest and sleep in the open air, under cover of the blue sky, or, if they have any shelter, they find it for themselves, in groves, edges of forests and canons. In some countries yards or corrals are made, and the stock driven into them at night, to keep them from straying, and from being attacked by wild beasts. In this country, and especially in the northern -and central States, stables are indispensable, as a protection from cold, sudden changes and severe storms. They are tokens of civilization and Christianity, the result of a humane disposition to provide comfortable—sometimes even luxurious—quarters for the animal dependents as well as for the family. II. Construction of Stables. The construction of the stable, in al! its various features, including the arrangements for its drainage and ventilation, as well as stalls, man- gers, etc., is of great importance, as bearing directly upon the health, as well asthe comfort, of the animals. Mistakes in stable construction are often the unsuspected cause of lameness, of disease, and even death. Hygienic considerations should, therefore, have their full weight in plan- ning and building a barn. Location is the first consideration, as determining the possibilities of good drainage. Do not build a barn in a hollow, with rising ground ail around it ; for this would expose your stock to miasmatic fevers and other derangements of the general organism. In such a location, the simplest attacks of disease would be likely to take on a serious type, with greatly increased uncertainty in the action of remedial agents. Build a stable on an elevation, if possible. Have ground around it, at least on one side, that slopes away, so as to furnish good natural drainage, or free escape for surperfluous water. The next point after settling that of location, is the artificial drainage. There should be one large drain, to act as the discharge, with several 441 442 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. smaller ones extending in every direction, to act as feeders thereto ; also, outlets to the several parts and corners of the stable. See that there is descent enough to have a rapid flow of the sewage. The next point to be attended to is to build the shell or walls so as to secure light enough. Right here is the chief defect in most city stables. Nothing is so weakening to the eyes as to be kept continuously in a dark place. When a horse thus stabled goes out into the glaring sunshine, the eyes cannot immediately adapt themselves to the new order of things, and see objects dimly, uncertainly, and with a squint, and hence he is apt to shy and otherwise misbehave. But this is not the only injurious consequence. It is a frequent cause of congestion of some of the inner sensitive parts of the eye, leading on to inflammation, and perhaps to blindness. If asmall window is made at the head of each horse, it should be placed at least two feet above his head, so as not to have the light shining directly into his eyes ; but the best arrangement is to have the whole place lighted with a diffused light. Next, as to the stalls. Let the plan always include one or more box stalls, in which to place a sick or lame horse, as it is downright cruelty to confine a sick horse. Have the box stall so constructed that it can be darkened at will, as without this you could not properly care for a horse suffering with eye disease. Let the box stalls have a level floor, as it is not only fatiguing but absolutely injurious to the joints of the feet and legs to stand on a sloping floor. The boxes should not be less than ten feet square. The common stalls should be from four to five feet wide, re- membering that five is preferable to four; for horses are apt to get cast in narrow stalls, and, besides, they have less comfort when lying down. The floor of the stalls should slope a little, just enough to have the urine drain off, that is, from one to two inches, one inch being pre- Jj uRep TEN- ferable. There is nothing more DONS, POINTS OF THE LEG. Showing the location ot syn- ovial membranes and joint oil. injurious to the tendons, legs and The result of sloping ° floors. feet than floors built, as many are, to slope from five to eight inches. CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF STABLES. 443 Four cuts are here given, showing the anatomy of the parts that sus- tain injury in this way, and the results commonly seen following such injuries. The center of gravity is thrown in a different line from what nature intended ; and though the feet and legs can stand this for a while, yet when long continued, the tendons become wearied, from the constant strain, and are also predisposed to sprains when the horse is taken out. The joints, too, share in the protest against the slope. The weight being thrown upon a bearing that is unnatural, the cartilages and ends of the bones become irritated, and the synovial burs distended ; inflamma- tion is set up; and then follows ringbone, spavin, osteophytes, or the like trouble, according to the special susceptibility of the animal. Any one may satisfy himself as to the correctness of these views, by noticing how a horse will back out of his stall, and stand with his toes in the gutter, back of him. What is this for? ‘To rest the back tendons that have been under an unnatural strain. Horses, when left to choose for themselves, will almost invariably find a place where the hind feet stand higher than the fore. This is well illustrated by the cut at the end of chapter IV, Part IT. The stall should be built, as to length, to suit the class of horse intended to oceupy it. Draft horses, for in- stance, require longer stalls than buggy horses. Make a gutter just back of the horse, to carry off the urine, and let the floor beyond the gutter be on the same level as the DISEASED IHOCK floor of the stall. Some JOINT. OSTEOPHYTES ON THE PAS- stables have the stall floor eae ee ee TERN BONES. ae rs ‘ sic ors. Ho built from three toteninches —{gint of the eft hind leg, in which the bony . * ra py eee Re ae Ls deposit of spavin has higher than the main floor. Chis isa great mistake, ineslted eal batithe notwithstanding it may save labor to the stable-man, oe eee for his comfort and ease should never be allowed to outweigh those of the stock. Very serious accidents sometimes happen from the horse kicking over the rear post of the stall, and coming down astraddle of it, in some instances letting the intestines right out on the floor, and in others skinning the whole inside of the lez, from the thigh to the foot, clean to the bone. To prevent this, let the rear post go from floor to ceiling, and see that it 444 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. is securely fastened there. Build the insides of the stalls of hard wood planks, to the height of four feet, and top them out three feet more with strong wire-work, which is decidedly preferable to a solid partition between the stalls, as it affords their inmates the comfort of one anoth- er’s society. Horses, like human beings, get lonesome when isolated, and pine for company; besides this, solitude has a tendency to engender viciousness. Ventilation is a very important matter, as every one will admit who has gone into a badly ventilated stable in the morning, and noticed how CH it THE LAZY MAN’S WAY OF CLEANING THE LEGS, Easy and convenient, but very injurious, it affects his eyes, his breathing, ete. Large tubes should be placed along through the stable, from thirty to forty feet apart. They should be from two to four feet square, and run out through the roof, with slats at the top or sides for water-sheds ; below, they should come just through the ceiling into the stable. Then, every twenty feet, there should be tubes, four or five inches square, entering at the floor, through the walls, from the outside, and carried up along the wall inside as high as eight feet. The air thus admitted, making a curve at the top of the tube, will descend to the floor, but becoming tempered before it strikes the horses, and will force up the warm, vitiated air through the large tubes and out through CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF STABLES. 445 the roof. As to doors, have enough to keep the stable cool in summer, but avoid a draft, especially when the horses come in warm and tired, as they are then especially susceptible to colds, and attacks of throat and lung diseases, ete. III. Feeding and Watering Stock. This is a matter that interests every stock owner, and one also in which there is a great amount of abuse. We seldom find a duplicate of the notorious bad-debt collector, Cottle, of Chicago, who deliberately starved his horse to death, but we often find men who abuse their stock through ignorance. For instance, there are not a few who water their horses only twice a day. This is a real abuse, for not only does the animal get ter- ribly thirsty, but, as a consequence of his intense craving for water, he will, when he at last gets at it, drink a great deal more than is good for THE PROPER WAY. How to dry and clean the legs in cold weather. him. The stomach of a horse holds only about three gallons, but in these cases he will sometimes drink three or four pailfulls, making from nine to twelve gallons. If this follows soon after eating, it washes the food right through the stomach into the intestines, before it is digested, giving rise to colic, with all its attendant dangers. The water given stock should always be clean, not from a foul well in the barn-yard, and should be allowed three or four times a day, preferably four; or, better still, let it run before them all the time, being careful not to let them over-drink when coming in warm from work. The food should be clean, sound, dry, healthy grain and hay, and well harvested, free from smut. It is a great saving to the pocket of the 446 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. owner, as well as to the stomach of the horse, to grind all grain and cut the hay ; and it is an unquestionable advantage to the animal to have the grain partly cooked, by steaming. This can be effected, without much trouble, by pouring hot water on it, covering, and then letting it steam and swell. This will render the grain more digestible, and less liable to fer- ment and cause flatulent colic; more of it will be digested, also, because the cooking will make digestible a considerable proportion of the food ( mM \ \\\\ KH) \\\ Nit \\ \ THE OLD WAY OF GIVING A BALL. In which the operator is liable to get his hand scratched or bitten, and the horse’s tongue may be torn, that in its natural state is not so: hence the economy. Stock of all kinds should be fed three times a day—tless at a time if necessary, but never at greater intervals. The quantity of food must always be gauged by the size of the animal and amount of work exacted. Work horses accustomed to large feeds of strong grain should have it reduced when idle, even for the short time extending over Sunday. They should get simply a bran mash or a mess of carrots on Saturday night, and the other feeds should be reduced nearly one half on Sunday; then they will come out in fine condition on Monday morning. But if the usual quantity of strong, heating grain is allowed, the horse is very apt to come out Monday morn- ing with a big elephant leg—lymphangitis, or else, though going out apparently all right, is soon attacked with congestion of the kidneys or other internal organs. CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF STABLES. 447 IV. The Care of Stock when in Stable. The object of this section is more to correct abuses in the us of cold water and want of exercise than to give elaborate rules in regard to grooming, ete. Cold water is a good thing, but, like all good things, is apt to be abused. In our northern latitudes it is too cold to allow the free use of cold water in cleaning the horse’s legs and feet, from November Ist to April Ist, or even a longer period; for cold water thus used on the extremities already chilled, is very apt—nay, almost certain—to cause scratches, grease, furruncle, or the like. If warm water is used and the legs thoroughly dried, no damage is done, but it is not once in a hundred times that they are thus properly dried. The best way is to clean and dry the lees and feet with a whisk of hay or straw, or with a rubbing cloth when the horse comes in; then, when thoroughly SCRATCHES. dry, clean them properly with abrush. This, in most As maria sede ad of instances, will keep the legs free from scratches. Horses should not be kept any considerable length of time ona board floor without exercise and oceasional removal of the shoes, the same as though he were at work ; for the feet will get dry and brittle, contract and SHOWING THE VELNS OF THE EXOSTOSIS OF THE COFFIN BONE. FOOT. As sometimes seen in complications of navicu- Which may be seriously interfered with lar disease, contraction, side bones, etc. by contraction of the hoof from standing too long ona board floor without atten- tion to the moisture, shoeing, etc., of the feet. press upon the quarters, causing corns, and perhaps setting up inflamma- tion that may form side bones, contract the tendons, ete. If obliged to keep a horse standing idle ina stable, have his shoes taken off, and, if possible, let him have a dirt floor to stand on, sprinkling occasionally to dampen it. A box stall would be much the best for him. V. Additional Directions for Giving Medicines. It is very necessary for the stable-man to be able to give medicine, both in the form of drenches and balls. Many a dose of medicine, of the 448 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. utmost value to the horse, is lost through not knowing how to administer it properly. Small doses of liquids are best given with a syringe. Stand in front of the patient, fill the syringe, (one that can be worked with one hand is absolutely necessary), open the mouth by inserting the left hand through the mouth, and holding the fingers up on edge; pass the syringe between the fingers, and shoot away ; withdraw the syringe, and elevate the head a trifle with the left hand. So continue till the dose is all down. When properly done, not a drop is wasted and the horse is not excited ; nor (which is quite a point) does the man get angry, and whack tho horse over the head with the bottle. With large doses, how- ever, the bottle must be resorted to. Pass a loop in the mouth so as to catch the upper jaw, then raise the head by running a line over a pulley, or by inserting 2 long crotch or fork in the loop and having an assistant lift at it; the operator, meanwhile standing at the right side of the horse’s head, steadies the head with one hand, and pours down the con- tents of the bottle with the other. Pour very slowly, and never resort to any violence to make the patient swallow ; just give him his time. If he coughs, strangles or chokes, let down his head instantly, regardless of the loss of the medicine. (See last cut in Chapter I, Part IT.) Solid medicine it is best to give in the form of a ball. Make up the ball with syrup, soft soap or linseed meal, its size that of your big finger, and wrap it in soft paper; stand in front of the horse, catch firm hold of the tongue with the left hand, and draw it down between the incisor teeth, never at one side; take the ball between the fingers, the thumb being drawn into the palm of the hand; then pass it back, placing it on the root of the tongue, let go of it, and give it another push with one finger ; withdraw the hand, let go the tongue, close the mouth, elevate the head a trifle, and watch on the left side of the neck for it to go down. Remember, in giving medicine of all kinds, never abuse or excite the patient, but take him as quietly THE PROPER WAY TO GIVE A BALL. as possible. Kor the benefit of young farmers and others of limited experience, we would say that good sense and self-possession are the secrets of success in treating sick stock. These will greatly aid you to see clearly what ought to be done, and to use to the best advantage such means as you have at hand for doing it. There are cases in which medicine and food have to be administered in some other than the ordinay way; as, for instance, to a horse with tetanus, that cannot open its mouth. In this case, the medicine and CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF STABLES. 449 liquid food can be given through a tube passed through one of the nostrils and down into the throat, or they may be given by the rectum; but in the latter case laree quanti- ties will be necessary, as a portion will not be absorbed. VI. Detection of Disease. It is of the greatest im- portance that every stable- man should have a quick FEEDING A ILORSE WITT TETANUS. eye for the early symp- toms of disease in his stock. Ignorance of these symptoms allows the case torun on into a more advanced stage, when its treatment re- quires more skill, and more medicine, all entailing more expense in or- derto save it, and, of course, with much less chance of doing so after all. “A stitch in time saves nine ;’? and no one will dispute the fact that it pays to spend ten dollars to save a hundred. If it pays to treat an animal at all, in pays to begin doing it early. One day’s neglect of a sick horse may cost his life. When, therefore, a horse stands back in his stall, hangs his head, drops his ears, refuses his feed, declines to move, partly closes his eyes, has the nostrils slightly dilated from increased frequency of respiration, or has the ears and extremities cool or cold,— when any of these indications are noted, it is safe to conclude that the horse is sick, and something should be done immediately. If near a qualified veterinary surgeon, employ him; otherwise, endeavor to find out for yourself, and at once, what is the matter. Note the symptoms carefully, taking the pulse, respirations and temperature, and ex- amining all parts; then, when the disease is diagnosed, proceeed with the treatment vigor- ously. There are many simple ailments that. A SICK TIORSE. Appearances about the head that any intelligent man can cope with successfully. : Get at the bottom of the trouble, remove the sause, apply the treatment, and, in most cases, you can cure the animal. Take, for instance a case of aphtha, which is a simple irritation of the mouth, tongue and lips, sometimes extending up to the cheeks, both inside and out. Aphtha is much the oftenest seen in foals, resulting from the irritation to the membranes of the cheeks that follows too much sucking. When 29 450 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. seen in older horses, its most common cause is the irritating effects of the dew and frosted grass in spring and fall. The lips, tongue, etc., will be found to be slightly swollen, and covered with a pimply eruption re- sembling blisters; in fact, the parts affected look as though blisters had actually been applied. The treatment, in the case of a foal, is simply to separate him from the dam for a few hours ; let him suckle, and then promptly separate them again, and so on till he is well. Older horses should be taken up nights, and not let out in the morning till about nine o’clock. Swab out the mouth and affected parts with recipe No. 46. This is all very simple, and nothing at all but what any stock man could do, if he would give the case proper thought and attention. APHTHA. CHAPTER XXII. OPERATIONS. I. ANAESTHETICS, AND HOW TO USE THEM.——II. BANDAGES. Ill. BLEEDING. IV. BLISTERING. Vv. CASTING.——VI. CASTRATION. VII. EXTIRPATION OF THE EYE.——VIII. FIRING. IX. LITHOTOMY. X. LITHOTRITY-~ XI. NEU- ROTOMY.—XII. NICKING AND DOCKING, XIII. OPENING AN ABSCESS. XIV. TAPPING THE CHEST, AND TAPPING THE ABDOMEN. XV. PRICKING. XVI. PROBING AND OPENING A FISTULA. XVII. SPAYING. XVIII. SUTURES. XIX. TAPPING THE BELLY FOR FLATULENCE.— XX. TENOTOMY. OTOMY. XXI. TRACHE- In this chapter we shall describe all of the more common surgical oper- ations on the horse. Some of these can be performed by any intelligent person, who will exercise a reasonable amount of care and prudence, with ready reserve resource to fall back on in case of accident. The lat- ter, in fact, is a very necessary qualification in any operator; for acci- dents may happen, and result disastrously, in the most skillful hands. At the same time, many valuable expedients may be resorted to, in cases of this kind, which it is absolutely impossible to prescribe by set rules before- hand. Here, quick-witted common sense must be the main reliance of all practitioners alike. J. Aneesthetics, and How to Use Them. Anvsthetics are drugs or agents that destroy feeling. They take away all sensation, and all power of voluntary action; and they sometimes cause death, by suffocation, or suspension of the involuntary actions of the body, if they are given too fast, or their use is carried too far. Hence, they should never be administered by inexperienced or unskillful hands. The principal agents of this class employed in veterinary practice are chloro- form and sulphuric ether ; chloral hydrate is often used as an anodyne, but not as an anesthetic. The animal is usually cast, legs tied, and, when everything has been prepared for the operation, a large sponge, saturated with chloroform or ether, is held to the nose, being re-wet every little while, as long as may be necessary. The nose is sometimes enclosed in a bag, so as to confine the fumes, but it is better not to do this. The risk thus run vastly outweighs the few advantages it offers. If sufficient air is mixed with the anesthetic, there is no danger, but horses usually struggle very severly during the exciting stage,—just before they go under its influence, and, on that ac- count the method mentioned is not considered safe by many of the best nuthorities. 451 452 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. II. Bandages. These are very important adjuncts to the treatment of lameness, when in the legs, and, also, in stopping a hemorrhage and dressing wounds. They should be applied smoothly, and with moderate pressure. For lameness and dressing wounds, coarse unbleached muslin is the best. For binding on a sponge or other substance, to stop bleeding, the many- tailed bandage is very convenient. For moderate pressure, as in case of windgalls and stocked legs, the Derby bandage is very useful. Elastic bandages are good when considerable tension is desired, but they need careful application, to avoid abrading the skin. III. Bleeding. Bleeding is an old time practice that has almost become obsolete, on several accounts, of which the principal seems to be that the congestion and pulse can be controlled by other means less depleting and weakening, thus giving the animal a better chance to recover by husbanding his strength. Then, again, the seasons and atmos- phere have so changed that diseases, especially of the lower animals, are more likely to become epizoétie, with typhoid symptoms and great nervous prostration, when it is utterly unsafe to bleed. Still, bleeding is valu- able in cases of congestion, when there is a full, strong pulse and no MANY-TAILED BANDAGE. RAISING THE VEIN BEFORE BLEEDING, 1. The place to cut. weakness, but only in the first stage—never when the temperature of the patient is abnormally high and the system has become weakened. OPERATIONS. 45¢ The finger is pressed on the vein, to make it fill; or a cord may be tied sufliciently tight around the neck. Then place the blade of the fleam on the vein, at the point indicated in the illustration, and strike it a good smart blow with a round stick, commonly called the blood-stick ; have a bucket in readiness, and catch the blood in it, to know how much you draw. Draw from two to six quarts, according to age and size, and the condi- tions of the case. It is 1 good plan to blindfold the horse to avoid his STRIKING THE FLEAM WITH THE BLOOD-STICK. jumping away from the blow of the blood-stick. When sufticient blood has been drawn, remove the cord or other obstruction, when the flow will stop. Insert a pin and weave a hair or silk thread around the pin in such way as to describe a figure 8. Leave it in for a few days, when it can safely be removed. IV. Blistering. When a severe blister is desired, the hair should first be clipped off very close or shaven. Apply the blister a little at a time, and rub it well in, with sufficient friction to get up considerable heat between the hand and the skin ; then, when sufficient is rubbed in, smear some over the sur- face, and tie the horse up sufficiently short to prevent his getting his mouth 454 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. to it, or he will bite and blemish the sore and blister his lips. Keep him thus tied up from twelve to twenty-four hours, smearing fresh lard over “ah iy ‘niwey ty mi CATCHING THE BLOOD. it at the end of ten hours, to relieve the pain by keeping the air from it, which it will do without interfering with the blister. After about two A HOCK WHEN BLIS- TERED. days, begin washing it with warm water and a very little soap. Soften off the scabs, and clean the skin around the blister ; and when dry, apply the grease. Repeat this once, daily. If the scabs are not softened off when pus collects under them, the pus burrows, and if not liberated, is apt to blemish. In mild sweat-blisters, it is not necessary to clip off the hair. Simply rub the blister in gently once a day, till sore enough, then grease once a day till nearly healed. Repeat this as often as necessary. Ointments are preferable to liquid blisters as being more manageable, and because they can be kept where wished, while liquid blisters are apt to run. V. Casting. There are many ways of casting a horse, all having some merit. The chief point to be remembered is to throw him carefully, as broken back, broken hips, ete., are among the dangers that attend carelessness. The OPERATIONS. 455 most convenient way is to put hobbles on the feet, and run a chain through the D’s, and draw the feet all together, having a rope running from one arm over the back, to make him fall on the side desired; also, a good man at the horse’s head to prevent his throwing it around and falling on it, and thus breaking his neck. Always put down a good bed beforehand, for him to fall on. Rarey’s plan of casting is good, in the absence of hobbles, viz: Tie up one fore leg; then tie a strap to the pastern of the other fore leg, and pass it over the horse’s back ; standing at the shoulder, push him over a step, at the same instant pulling up the foot and bringing him to his knees. He will dosome rearing and jumping about, but when he gets tired, he will lie quietly down, when his legs can be tied and held down. To prevent him from pounding his head, it is necessary to place a good man there, who should put one knee ou his neck and turn his nose up at an angle of forty-five degrees. As a safeguard against too severe strain- ing, tie a rope from just above one knee to above the hock of the leg on the same side, and draw the legs as close together as possible, and confine them there. This lessens his power to struggle. VI. Castration. The best age for castrating colts is from one to three years, the exact time to be determined by the development of the neck and fore parts. If these are heavy, castrate early ; if light, he will thicken up and grow heavier, by being left entire another year. Prepare him by giving soft food for a week previous, and nothing at all for about twelve hours be- fore the operation. Cast him, and roll him up ou his back ; tie the hind feet down to a surcingle ; take the scrotum in the left hand, and draw it over one of the testicles so as to bring the dividing line between the two sides over it ; next draw a small superficial slit about half an inch from the line, (one on each side of it,) thus marking the proper place to make the incision ; then cut one slit through to the testicle, letting it out ; slit open the inner coverings, one by one, till the testicle pops out clean from all the coverings ; (avoid wounding the testicle with the knife, as this would cause profuse bleeding, and interfere with the work ;) then sep- arate the tunics from the small end, and let them drop down over the cord; put on the steel clamps, to hold the cord while the ecraseur is being applied ; put the ecraseur on as low as possible, and with it bite off the cord, still holding on to the latter with the clamps. Let go the cord, and operate on the other testicle. Rinse out the sack with cold water, and let him up. To avoid danger from bleeding, it is advisable, especially in the case of old stallions, to take up the artery before using the ecraseur, and tie it. 456 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. The old way of castrating with clamps is convenient, but it gives rise to an immense amount of pain, and is a quite inferior method compared with using the ecraseur. VII. Extirpation of the Eye. In cancerous growths in the eye, it is sometimes necessary to extirpate that organ. After casting the horse, pass silk threads through the lids, so that an assistant can hold them open; then, with a sharp knife, dissect the eyeball out, cutting the muscles as they come, one after another, and, finally, the optic nerve. Dress the socket with lotion No. 39, for a few days ; then change to lotion No. 7. As this is a very painful operation, an anesthetic should always be used, if a skillful man can be got to manage the Case. VIII. Firing. This is the application of the actual cautery (burning by red-hot iron) to set up a great amount of counter-irritation or of adhesive inflammation. Its most common applications are for ring-bones, curbs, and sprains of the back, tendons, ete. Clip off the hair, cast the horse, and draw the edges (which should be blunt) of the firing-iron on the skin, making a yellow crease on it, but avoid cutting through the skin, as that would blemish more. Draw the lines, in the form of a feather, over a con- siderable surface ; let the horse up, and rub in the blister immediately. Give absolute rest for a month, and a run at grass for two months. EXTIRPATION OF THE EYE. IX. Lithotomy. This is an operation to extract a stone from the bladder. Cast the horse, and insert a metallic sound into the penis to reach up to the curve ; cut down to it on the curve, then insert a hidden bistoury, and open the passage into the bladder, making it large enough to allow of the stone being got out. Insert forceps with one hand, the other hand being in the rectum and following up the stone and crowding it out. If too large to extract whole, try and break it up with the forceps. If the patient isa mare, it will not be necessary to cast the animal. She can be controlled sufficiently by using a twitch, which is a loop of strong, small rope, on the end of a small stick, for twisting the upper OPERATIONS. 457 lip as shown by the cut in Section XIV of this chapter. Insert the bis- toury cache into the bladder, the opening to which will be found on the floor of the vagina, about three to six inches from the external orifice ; open the neck of the bladder, and then, with one hand inthe rectum, the stone ean be drawn. In either case above described, dress the wounds with lotion No. 39, twice a day. The wound in the skin of the horse can be sewed up. When dressing the wound, rinse out the bladder with tepid water. « X. Lithotrity. This is the name given to the process (mentioned in the last section) of breaking the stone into small pieces with forceps, and taking it away alittle at a time. It is sometimes so large as to make it absolutely nec- essary to do this, or, in some cases, even to saw it in two. XI. Neurotomy. This is an operation to destroy sensation in the foot, in some cases of chronic, incurable lameness. Cast the horse, and, after clipping off the hair over the spot to be operated on, cut in through the skin to the nerve three or four inches above the fetlock, just back of the cannon, where it will be found running in the same sheath with the artery and vein. The last two, however, are deeper seated and together, the nerve running on the top of them. Make the incision half or three quarters of an inch long, lengthwise of the leg; dissect away the cellular tissue ; raise the nerve, and pass a thread of silk around it, and tie a knot; (if it is the nerve that is tied, the horse will struggle violently from the pain, but if, from accident or mistake, the artery or vein has been taken up instead, there willbe no pain, and consequently no struggle); sever the nerve above the silk with a sharp knife; then, cutting below the silk, take out a section of the nerve about three quarters of an inch long. Take a stitch in the skin, and dress with Friar’s balsam three times a day. The foregoing is known as the high operation. If the lower operation is preferred, the incision is made about midway down the long pastern bone, on either side of it. The former is usually considered the better one, as it takes away the sensation from the entire foot, while the lower only takes it away from the heels; there are filaments from the anterior branch of the nerve, extending down to the heels, which destroy the de- sired effect, to a great extent. Neurotomy should never be performed except as a last resort ; for it does not cure the disease, but only destroys the feeling in the part, so that there is no more pain in it. Although the horse hangs the foot down as though it were sound, it is only a question of time for it to go 458 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. all to pieces, either from the tendon giving way, or else by suppuration from a nail wound or corn, extending all around the foot. After neu- rotomy, it is necessary to be doubly careful in shoeing and taking care of the feet, to avoid the pricks of nails, corns, ete., and, should these oceur, to treat them at once, lest bad complications ensue. Some horses work well for four or five years after neurotomy, and some go to pieces in a few months. XII. Nicking and Docking. Nicking and pricking are identical in effect, viz: to straighten crooked tails. When a horse hugs his tail, it is sometimes necessary to sever the tendon on the under side, and suspend the tail over a pulley, for two or three weeks. Insert the knife about six inches from the dock, on the un- der side at one side of the tail; pass it in across the tail, holding it flat- wise—on its side; then turn up the edge towards the bone, and, with a sawing motion, sever the tendon. Tie the tail to a rope running over a pulley, with a weight on the other end, and leave it tied up about three weeks. In case the tail is crooked or is twisted to one side, insert the knife in a perpendicular position from below upwards, just under the skin; turn the edge towards the tail, and saw through the muscle; then tie the tail around to the opposite side for a couple of weeks. It is often necessary to cut in two or three places. If the cuts suppurate, dress them with lotion No. 39. If the first operation fails, try it again. Docking is amputating a portion of the tail, bone and all, to pander to the taste or whim of the owner. It is best done by laying the tail on a block or end of a post or plank, placing an axe on the spot decided upon, and striking the axe with a maul, thus severing the whole thing at one blow. Bind up the wound with a sponge and bandages wet with lotion No. 39; tie a rope to the stump of the tail, passing it over a pulley, and leave it so two or three weeks. Dress it once a day. Tetanus sometimes fol- lows this operation. XIII. Opening an Abscess. This is a simple matter, when done properly. If improperly done, it is of little use, and the cure is apt to be retarded. When an abscess is ripe and ready to open, ascertain as near as possible where the bottom of it is, and insert the knife at that point, making an opening quite to the bottom for the escape of the pus. If this is impracticable, and the open- ing must be made at the top, the pus must be evacuated by means of a syringe or sponge, to draw it out. The main point to be remembered is to open it as near the bottom as possible. A twitch on the nose is us- ually sufficient to keep the animal quiet in this and other minor operations. OPERATIONS. 459 XIV. Tapping the Chest, and Tapping the Abdomen. The chest fills with water in hydrothorax ; it is the stage of effusion in pleurisy. The lungs are floated up, and suffocation results. The presence of water in the chest is detected by the solid sound—a sound of full- ness—when tapped with the hand, and by the absence of respiratory murmur; and, fre- quently, the splashing of the water by the action of the heart OPENING THE ABSCESS OF STRANGLES. “an also be heard. Also illustrating the twitch and manner of using it. Clip off the hair from a spot about three inches back of the elbow, and five or six inches from the bottom of the chest. Ascertain the exact location where a puncture can be made without striking a rib (the trochar to pass between two ribs); then plunge a scalpel deep into the flesh, making a hole through the skin and flesh for the trochar; insert the latter instru- ment and withdraw the trochar, leaving the ‘cannula to act as a spout ; hold a pail and catch the water. If pieces of lymph clog the cannula, pass inasmall probe and push them off the end. Drain off all the water and withdraw the cannula. It is often OPENING THE SKIN. : necessary to repeat this operation. reparatory to tapping the chest. ks This operation is technically termed paracentesis thoracis. Cases so severe as to require it are usually fatal. Paracentesis abdomenis means, in plain English, tapping the belly. In peritonitis, the belly often fills with water, which can be evacuated by inserting the trochar and cannula on the median line, a couple of inches back of the navel. The operation may be re- peated, if necessary ; but, in this case, it is advisable to make a fresh hole, rather than insert again in the old one, XV. Pricking. This is identical with nicking, (which see). WATER FLOWING FROM THE CHEST. XVI. Probing and Opening Fistulas. aires stance ot pacts: It is necessary to probe fistulous openings, in order to know where they go. Take plenty of time, and do it carefully. Cc 460 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. Find every sinus, if possible. When practicable, the best and quickest way to cure them is to open them right up along their whole length ; but when this cannot be done without severing large blood-vessels or too much muscular fibre, pass a seton through them and draw in caustic substances, such as burnt alum, powdered blue-stone, ete. Or, instead, use injections Nos. 1, 38 and 5, changing from one to another frequently. XVII. Spaying. never, in fact, except incase of disease. There is great danger of its proving fatal, This operation is very rarely performed upon the mare and hence it should never be undertaken except by a skilled veterinarian. It consists in removing the ovaries, corresponding to the castration of the male. XVIII. Sutures. There are four kinds of sutures, viz: the interrupted, uninterrupted, quilled and twisted. The interrupted suture is the one generally used, and for most cases is the best. The needle and silk—or, instead of the silk, the silver wire or cat-gut—are all that are needed. Clip off the hair from the edges, and be careful to have everything clean. Draw the edges of the wound together with a slightly curved needle and silk, and when tying the knot give the ends an extra turn through the knot, which will keep it from drawing away and untying; then go on and make a hard knot on the top of the other, and cut off the silk. UNINTERRUPTED SUTURE. Then take another, and so on. The continuous or uninterrupted suture sews up the wound by continuing the stitches right along, the same as in sewing cloth, and tying the ends. The quilled suture is when two quills or pieces of wood are used as skewers, and the ends of the silk caught over them, the skewers being placed one on each side of the wound, to pre- vent the stitches from tearing out. The twisted suture is simply a pin inserted and a hair or silk thread wound around its ends in the form of a figure eight, as already described in the ar- ticle on bleeding. In most cases, the stitches ought to be taken about half an inch apart. QUILLED SUTURE. XIX. Tapping the Belly for Flatulence. It is usually either some of the large intestines or the stomach that is affected with flatulence. The former are tapped by inserting OPERATIONS. 461 the trochar and cannula upon a level with the stifle, and below the large muscles. Plunge it in and, withd rawing the trochar, leave the can- nula to carry off the gas. If excrement gets into the hole, insert a small probe and push it away. This may be repeated, if necessary, always using a small trochar, (one about a quarter inch in diameter ), and insert- ing it ina new place each time. XX. Tenotomy. When the tendons become very much contracted and cannot be relaxed, they can be severed, when the ends will extend, grow together again, and thus repair the excision. : . This operation, called tenotomy, is most commonly practiced on the tendon of the leg, and about midway between the knee and fetlock. Insert the knife across the tendons, with the blade on its side; let it go just to the skin on the other side, but not through it; then turn the edge towards the outer part of the leg and saw away, taking care not to cut the skin at the back of the leg. When the tendons are severed, break up the adhesions by bending the leg across your knee. Dress the wound in the skin, treat- PERFORMING TRACHEOTOMY. ing as 2 simple wound. XXI. Tracheotomy. This consists in the insertion of a tube into the trachea or windpipe, to prevent death from threatened suffocation. The tube ought to be of silver, but in the absence of that, one made of tin will, in the writer’s opinion, answer every purpose; it should be three quarters of an inch or an inch in diameter, curved so as to slip into the windpipe easily, THE STRUCTURES MET WITH IN THE OPERA- . 4 ; = i ‘ ate O e@ Se e ate- POAIOH IA CHEOTOMN: with a plate of th nest ut 1, The sterno maxilaris muscles, (a pair), which have rial on the end to tie to the to be separated, being joined by cellular tissue. F x , 2. The sterno thyro hyoidei muscles lying under those neck, in order to keep ihr) Sat above mentioned. These also have to be separated, | 0 tl | y 1 being similarly united. ace. yen 1e skin ) an 3- athe trachea, which will be fully exposed when the place pe s My muscles are separated and pulled back. ineision about two inches long, at a point eight inches below the throat; divide the muscles, and lay 462 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. bare the wind-pipe ; cut out a piece of two rings, making a hole large enough to admit the tube. Take the tube out and clean it with carbolic lotion No. 89, once a day, and replace it as soon as possible. When the cause of suffocation is removed, the tube may be taken out for good. The hole will soon fill up and heal. CHAPTER XXIII. CONCERNING THE VETERINARIAN’S CERTIFICATE OF SOUNDNESS. I. EXAMINATIONS IN THIS COUNTRY AND IN EUROPE.——II. WHAT THE VETERINA- RIAN SHOULD SEE TO, FOR HIS CLIENT. Itl. CONDITIONS MODIFYING TILE CER- TIFICATE. IV. THE SELLER’S GUARANTEE SHOULD COVER VICES. I. Examinations in this Country and in Europe. Under what circumstances can a horse be returned to the seller, as un- sound? This we propose to consider briefly, even though at the risk of a little repetition of directions given elsewhere. In Europe it is quite a common practice to have horses examined for soundness by experts, but in this country, where every man professes to be a horseman, there is much less of itdone. Here, if a man gets bitten in making a trade, he usually says nothing, but contents himself with getting satisfaction out of the next one. Still, there are some examinations made for soundness even in this country, and it may be well to state what a veterinarian bases his decision upon, in giving a certificate. II. What the Veterinarian should see to, for his Client. The age, size, and general appearance of the animal should first be considered ; also, his adaptability to the purposes in view. It is the vet- erinarian’s duty to use his influence to prevent his client from buying a draft horse for his carriage, or vice versa; in fact, he should consult not only his client’s needs, but his wishes and tastes as well, and should see that these are met as fully as possible. In making the detailed examination, he should see that the mouth and tongue are all right, no poll evil, no running at the nose, no cough, fistu- lous withers, nor anything wrong with the head or shoulders. He should see that the fore legs are free from bony deposits, and the feet from corns, sidebones, contraction, ete. ; that there are no ruptures on any part of the belly or scrotum, no broken hips, nor broken tail. He should carefully note whether the hind legs are free from bony deposits, capped hocks, and spavins of all kinds, and make sure that there is no thieken- ing of any of the tendons of either the fore or hind quarters, nor yet any windgalls or curbs. 463 464 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. Next, move him for the detection of lameness—slow, fast, turning, backing, stopping and starting again; and also for the wind—whether thick or broken, and whether there is roaring, whistling, or wheezing. Then examine the eyes closely—tirst in the sunlight, next ina dark place, and then in the sun again—to detect any abnormal expansion or contraction of the pupil, and for opacity or cloudiness of the cornea, and clearness or oth- erwise of the humors of the eye. III. Conditions Modifying the Certificate. ONE TEST FOR ROARING. Any disease of any kind existing at the time— internal, skin or otherwise, is, strictly speaking, unsoundness. There are some conditions, however, which, though they are not absolutely sound, do no harm, and these should be mentioned with a view of quali- fying the certificate. Under this head will come splints, when not near the knee; feet that show the previous existence of corns, but having none at present ; and curbs, when old, as these, though objectionable, do not often hurt a horse for work, either fast or slow. The previous exis- tance of fistulous withers, if entirely cured and sound at present, is not unsoundness ; but marks of poll-evil would make an animal objectiona- ble, as it indicates a tendency to rear and, perhaps, to fall backwards, throwing the head violently upwards, ete. IV. The Seller’s Guarantee should cover Vices. The seller should guarantee a horse free from vice as well as sound, for vices cannot always be detected, even by the most critical examina- tion. Under such a guarantee, a cribber; a windsucker; a kicker, either in the stall or harness ; one that pulls back, and breaks the halter, and a shyer, are all returnable. In case of any departure whatever from an absolutely healthy, natural condition, the surgeon, in justice to himself as well as his client, should state his opinion as to how much the defects noticed are likely to depreciate the value. CHAPTER XXIV. POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. I. GENERAL RULES.—II. POISONING FROM DRUGS, MINERALS, ETC.——III. POISON- ING WHILE GRAZING IV. POISONING OF THE SKIN. V. POISONING FROM STINGS. I. General Rules. Horses are frequently poisoned, sometimes by eating noxious plants or by getting hold of poisonous substances left about the stable ; sometimes by malicious persons, from motives of reyenge toward the owner, or to advance some personal interest; und sometimes by overdoses of strong drugs. It is well, therefore, to know some of the more common poisons, with their modes of action and their antidotes ; and it is, of course, ex- tremely desirable to be able to find and use suitable remedies with the least possible delay, since the loss of only a few minutes will, im some cases, cost the animal’s life. A few general directions, like the following, it will pay the reader to commit to memory, and thus have them at in- stant command :—When the animal is poisoned by an alkali, give him an acid, such as vinegar, &c. For poisoning by an acid, give an alkali, such as bi-carbonate of soda (baking soda.) Both the articles here specified are nearly always on hand. II. Poisoning from Drugs, Minerals, etc. Aconite is frequently given in overdoses, causing profuse perspiration ; spasms of the glottis, seen in the continual swallowing when there is noth- ing to swallow; congestion of the lungs, with difficult breathing ; gas- tro-enteritis (inflammation of the stomach and bowels) ; and quick pulse, gradually becoming imperceptible. Give strong coffee, in pint doses, every fifteen minutes till relieved. Arsenic is sometimes got hold of. Itis a corrosive, irritant poison, caus- ing diarrhoea, mucous discharge from the eyes and nose, a quick, wiry pulse, and injected mucous membranes. Ivon sesqui-oxide (iron rust) is the best chemical antidote. It is prepared by dissolving copperas and bi- ‘arbonate of soda in water, separately, and mixing the two solutions, when the iron rust will fall to the bottom. Wash it with warm water, put in a bottle, and give three or four tablespoonfuls every ten os fifteen minutes. Being insoluble, it will have to be washed down the 465 30 466 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. animal’s throat with plenty of water from the bottle. In the absence of this remedy give eggs, oils, milk, powdered charcoal, or blue clay. Aloes in large doses is poisonous. It produces diarrhcea and superpur- gation ; dryness of the mouth ; yawning and straining ; quick, hard pulse, gradually becoming imperceptible ; injected mucous membranes; and, sometimes, irritation of the kidneys. Give powdered ipecacuanha, in half drachm doses, every hour; starch gruel, internally, and enemas (cold) of the same, with one ounce of laudanum in each injection, re- peating both gruel and enemas every hour ; opium, in drachm doses, every four to six hours ; chalk ; port wine ; and hot fomentations to the belly. GASTRO-ENTERITIS. Appearance of a horse suffering from inflammation of the stomach and bowels. Ammonia, carbonate, is sometimes given in too large doses or not suffi- ciently diluted, when the mouth, throat and stomach become burned and blistered, and salivation follows. Give olive oil in doses of two or three tablespoonfuls, five or six times a day; also, milk and eggs. Belladonna is a favorite remedy with some, and, when much used, is apt to be given carelessly and in too large doses, giving rise to dilatation of the pupils, narcotism (stupor), swelling of the head, and delirium. On post mortem examination, the blood will be found fluid ; and decomposi- tion sets in early. Apply mustard to the chest, and cold to the head; give milk and linseed oil—a pint of each, mixed,—and gentle exercise. Bryony is often given with aconite. Over doses cause gastro-enteri- tis ; liquid foeces ; scanty, bloody urine; and a quick, almost impercepti- ble pulse. Give a pint each of milk and linseed oil, mixed, with an ounce of laudanum in it; starch gruel injections, with an ounce of lauda- num in each one ; and hot cloths to the loins. Calomel is a corrosive, irritant poison, causing a discharge of black offensive faeces, diarrhoea, and great depression. Give opium, in drachm doses, three times a day ; also use flaxseed tea. POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 467 Cantharides is a narcotic, irritant poison, causing gastro-enteritis, great irritation and inflammation of urino-genital organs, imperceptible pulse, and injected mucous membranes. Give a pint of linseed oil, which fol- low, after an hour, with large quantities of flaxseed tea or mucilage ; apply hot cloths to the loins ; give starch gruel and laudanum injections ; and opium, in drachm doses, three or four times a day. Chloroform is a narcotic poison. It causes a slow pulse; slow, heavy breathing ; insensibility to pain; muscular twitchings ; dilatation of the pupils ; foaming at the mouth; and stupor. Throw cold water over the animal ; raise and lower the fore legs continuously ; pound the chest to induce respiration ; use bellows in the nostrils; and give sweet spirits of nitre, in ounce doses, at intervals of half an hour, tilltwo or three doses have been given. Chloral Hydrate is similar, both as to its effects and antidotes, to chloroform Croton Oil is an acrid, irritant poison. It may be either swallowed or absorbed from the skin, and causes gastro-enteritis, drastic purgation, oO c and great prostration. The treatment is that for superpurgation. DRASTIC POISONING. Characteristic appearance and action of a horse suffering from this cause- Copper Sulphate is x corrosive, irritant poison, bringing on gastro- enteritis and diarrhcea ; ulceration, perforation and thickening of the mu- cous membranes; quick, hard, almost imperceptible pulse; and, near smelting works, emaciation, paralysis and exostotic disease of the joints. These latter symptoms characterize the chronic, slow poisoning resulting 468 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. from grazing in the vicinity of these works, and inhaling the con- sensed fumes or eating the poison-tainted grass ; and the remedy is self- suggestive, viz: to remove to a greater distance from the works. In the acute poisoning, give a pint of linseed oil, eggs, soap in small quantities, and milk, or flaxseed tea. Corrosive Sublimate is frequently got hold of in the form of rat- poison, and is a corrosive, irritant poison, causing gastro-enteritis, erosion of the mucous membranes of the stomach and bowels, foetid diarrhea, salivation, fcetid breath, quick, weak pulse, and yellow appearance of mucous membranes. Give eggs and milk in large quanti- ties, with occasional doses of opium—a drachm at a dose. Ergot of Rye is a fungus that grows on rye and other kinds of grain, and which is developed on low, undrained soils by long continued damp weather. Large doses cause narcotism, colic, diarrhoea, and perverted nervous action ; impairs the appetite ; induces weakness and wasting, and serous—sometimes bloody—discharges from the mucous surfaces ; and in a bad case, edema and gangrene of the ears, tail, and even the limbs. Give a pint of linseed oil, following it with large quantities of flaxseed tea, and give a drachm of opium three or four times a day. Ferrum Sulphas, (sulphate of iron), is a corrosive, irritant poison, ‘ausing the same symptoms as sulphate of copper. Give, as an antidote, galls, powdered, half an ounce; or, bi-carbonate of soda, an ounce. After a few minutes, give large quantities of flaxseed tea. Repeat the entire treatment every few hours. Nux Vomica is an irritant poison, manifesting itself by tetanic spasms and general convulsions ; convulsions of the diaphraghm, causing labored breathing ; and, sometimes, asphyxia. Give hydrated chloral in doses of half an ounce, every two hours, with occasional doses of opium; also, employ galvanism when practicable. Opium is a narcotic poison, producing partial or total paralysis, stu- por, stertorous (labored) breathing, slow pulse and contracted pupil. After death, the blood is fluid, and decomposition sets in early. Shower with cold water, give tannin, half a drachm, and an oceasional dose of sweet spirits of nitre—half an ounce at a time; and force the animal to take exercise. Lead, in all its forms, is a corrosive, irritant poison, which, in acute cases, produces violent.constipation, delirium, colicky pains, tremor of the muscles, and gastro-enteritis. In chronic eases, where the symptoms develope slowly, there will be noticed what is called Plumbism—exos- totic deposits, anchylosis of the joints, paralysis, staring coat, a blue line around the gums, emaciation, quick and wiry pulse ; with faeces black, glazed and feetid, the abdomen tucked up, and constant moaning. Give POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 469 epsom salts, two to four ounces; after an hour, give iodide of potash, two or three drachms ; accompany these with occasional doses of opium in drachm doses ; put mustard paste to the belly ; and use large quanti- ties of flaxseed tea, Nitrate of potash, in large doses, is an irritant poison, causing gastro- enteritis, (with vomition in pigs), injected membranes, inflammation of the gullet, colic, ete., and it has a powerful sedative action on the heart. Give linseed oil, and follow it with flaxseed tea and whisky ; put mus- tard paste to the belly and over the gullet. Common salt (or sodium chloride ), in large quantities, acts as a corrosive, irritant poison, causing gastro-enteritis, injected mucous membranes, diarrhoea, weak and irritable pulse and excessive thirst ; also vomition in dogs and pigs. Give milk and eggs, with a drachm of opium every three or four hours ; if there is abnormal pain, apply mustard paste externally. Sulphur is an irritant poison, causing diarrhoea, gastro-enteritis, ema- ciation, and ebullitions of sulphuretted hydrogen gas from the anus, (foul wind-breaking). Give a dose of oil, with opium ; also starch gruel, both internally and as an injection. Strychnia is to be treated for the same as nux vomica. Turpentine is an irritant poison, causing gastro-enteritis, strangury of the kidneys, quick and hard pulse, diarrhcea, and a violet odor and high color to the urine. Give a small dose of oil, with opium, starch gruel, and laudanum, both internally and as an injection; put hot cloths to the loins. White Hellebore, (veratrum album) is an irritant poison, causing vomi- tion in dogs and pigs; in the horse, intermittent pulse, gastro-enteritis, diarrhea, spasms of the superficial muscles, salivation and great prostra- tion. Itis liable to be absorbed from the skin as wellas taken internally, doing the same amount of damage in either case. Give eggs and milk in large quantities, and small doses of olive oil and sweet spirits of nitre. III. Poisoning While Grazing. Acorns when eaten in large quantities, cause gastro-enteritis ; consti- pation, followed by fluid faces; offensive breath; glazed eyes ; quick, wiry pulse ; discharges from the nose; and gnashing of the teeth. Post mortem examination discovers acorns in the stomach ; inflammation of the coats of that org gangrene. In the case of cattle, rwmenotomy must be performed to an and of the bowels; and, sometimes, ecchymosis and remove the undigested acorns. For horses, etc., give oil and gruel, with laudanum, and follow these with gentian root, in two to four drachm doses, three times a day. 470 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. Copper sulphate poisoning, in its chronic form, from grazing near smelting works, has been considered in the previous section. The tobacco plant is a narcotic, irritant poison, causing gastro-enteritis, convulsions, metastatic inflammation, contracted pupil, sweating, inter- mittent pulse, diarrhea, stertorous breathing, and stupor. Treat the same as for opium. Sumach, or Poisonous Oak, is an acrid poison, causing gastro-enteritis, ete. Give oil, opium and flaxseed tea. Lobelia is an acrid, narcotic poison, causing salivation, gastro-enteritis, feeble pulse, convulsions, and stupor. Give oil, opium and mild stimu- lants. IV. Poisoning of the Skin. Vegetable poisoning of the skin is not an uncommon occurrence, from the nose or lips of the animal coming in contact with some noxious weed or plant while grazing. There are many such plants, besides the poison oak and white hellebore noticed in the preceding section, such as poison ivy (or poison vine), hemlock, St. John’s wort, ete. The symptoms of such poisoning correspond very nearly to those manifested in the human economy from the same cause, and which every one living in the coun- try is familiar with. The treatment is both constitutional and local,—the former by the use of alteratives, together with such purgatives as may be required to keep the bowels moderately loose ; the latter, by washing the irritated surface with a solution of sugar of lead, or other cooling and healing wash. V. Poisoning from Stings. In many sections, every farmer is liable, in the summer season, to have his team severely stung by hornets, bumble-bees, or the like ; while in the Southwest, the torture inflicted on stock by the swarms of certain enats and poisonous flies is fairly maddening. Then, too, a stock man in the latter section is almost sure to occasionally meet with such urgent cases as rattlesnake or tarantula bites. A homely remedy for the sting of bees, wasps, ete., is to wash with salt and water; and this is excellent, in ordinary cases. Onion juice is another. For severe cases, it will be better to anoint the parts with a compound of hartshorn and oil,—three parts of the former to one of the latter; or spirits of turpentine and laudanum, in equal parts, will afford relief. It will be a good idea, if the irritation is very great, to sponge the whole body with lime water or a weak solution of soda, and then smear with linseed oil. To protect against gadflies, wash the flanks and parts most likely to be attacked, with 2 strong infusion of the green bark of the common elder. POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 471 To protect against buffalo-gnats, etc., that are so troublesome in the lower Mississippi regions, smear the parts they most affect with a mix- ture of tar or lard, in the proportions of one to two, respectively ; or instead, with equal parts of petroleum, lard oil (or bacon drippings), and tar. For the bite of a rattlesnake, copperhead, or other venomous serpent, give the following as quickly as possible : No. 90. 1 Teaspoonful of hartshorn, 1 Pint of whiskey, 44 Pint warm water, Mix. Cauterize the wound immediately, with an iron at white heat ; and keep the adjoining parts constantly wet for some hours, with ammonia, by means of a sponge. Unless the symptoms are urgent, the above recipe may be made up with half a pint (instead of a pint) of whiskey; but in every case it will be best to repeat this smaller dose every hour, till relief is obtained. Stings of centipedes, scorpions and venomous spiders, (of which the tarantula is the most common), should be treated the same as snake bites ; but, in these cases, it is not so customary to cauterize. CHAPTER XXV. INSTRUMENTS, APPARATUS, AND MEDICINES. I WHAT INSTRUMENTS TO KEEP, AND HOW TO USE THEM.——II. SURGICAL APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES. Iii. A CHEAP AND SERVICEABLE SURGICAL OUTFIT,—— IV. VETERINARY MEDICINES AND DOSES Vv. WHEN AND HOW OFTEN MAY THE DOSE BE REPEATED?——VI. SIMPLE DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING AND USING MED- ICINES.——VII. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. I. What Instruments to Keep, and How to Use Them. Bistoury.—For making incisions. It consists of a handle to which is attached a blade, variously shaped, according to the exact use intended, and either fixed or movable. Yatheter.—Used to draw off the contents of the bladder when the horse cannot make water in the natural way. Also used in treating deep ulcers, liquid being injected through them by means of a syringe. In veterinary practice, it is a round gutta percha tube, of which one end is open, and the other rounded with two openings at the side near by. Oil well, and introduce cautiously; then slowly push it along the canal or passage, taking care to occasion no unnecessary pain. Firing-iron.—For making the actual cautery (burning with red-hot iron), which, though less practiced than formerly, is still useful in certain vases elsewhere specified. It is a heavy iron, with a blunt edge and a handle to hold it by. Fleam.—Strictly speaking, one kind of lancet, and that which in old times was alone used in veterinary practice. The manner of using it is fully explained in the article on bleeding. The incision must always be made lengthwise of the vein. Forceps.—Used for extracting splinters, pieces of bone, ete., and in the operation of lithotomy and lithotrity; also, for seizing arteries in order to tie them. They are simply pincers with long jaws. Those with a spring are much to be preferred. Knives.—At least three or four different knives should be kept, and always keen and bright, for surgical purposes—some rounded and others pointed at the top. (See scalpel and shoeing-knife. ) Lancets.—There are two kinds, thumb and spring lancets, these names being derived from the power that operates them. They are a great improvement upon the fleam, which is their primitive form. We give the preference to the thumb lancet. 472 INSTRUMENTS, APPARATUS, AND MEDICINE. 473 Needles (surgical ).—For sewing up woynds, etc. Theyare of different shapes as well as different sizes. (See seton needles. ) Probang.—A straight, flexible rod, with a sponge on one end, for pushing substances down the throat, in cases of strangulation. Two kinds are shown in the cut on page 358. Probe.—For exploring wounds. They are made of silver wire with one end slightly knobbed, and of different sizes. Scalpel.—A surgeon’s knife, straight and keen edged. For veterinary purposes, it should be broad and strong. Scissors (curved ).—Indispensable for trimming the edges of wounds, clipping off the hair, ete. Seton needles.—For drawing setons under the skin. Their blades are broad and curved, with a round shaft eighteen inches long and one eye at the blunt end. Shoeing-knife.—Sometimes called the frog-knife or drawing knife, being the knife used by blacksmiths for cutting into and paring the hoof, in horseshoeing. It is a thin blade with a sharply curved end, fixed in a handle, and will be found quite useful in the care of the horse’s feet, in health, as well as in treating the same when diseased. Syringe.—There are regular horse and cattle syringes now procurable. For giving small doses of liquid medicines one that can be worked with one hand is almost indispensable. The old-fashioned pail and india- rubber pipe is a clumsy, yet in most cases, efficient substitute in giving injections. A small syringe for injecting abscesses, cleaning wounds, etc., will also be desirable. Trochar.—A simple surgical instrument, resembling a pointed awl. It is now generally provided with a cannula, which is a hollow tube enclos- ing it. (See cut on page 724.) Its uses in puncturing the abdomen, chest, &c., have been repeatedly given elsewhere, the cannula, as a rule, being allowed to remain in the orifice, as a channel for the escape of the water, serum, or gas, as the case may be. II. Surgical Apparatus and Appliances. Tn addition to the instruments described in the last section, there are various apparatus and appliances which the stock owner should always keep on hand, or at least have at ready command in case of need. The following list will, we think, be found sufficiently complete for all prac- tical purposes. Drenching bottle.—This is now generally used, instead of the old-time drenching-horn. It should hold a quart at least, and have a long neck. A champagne or ale bottle will be about the thing. 474 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. Hobbles.—To prevent a horse from kicking ; more especially, for use in casting. (See article on casting in chapter XXII of this Part.) They are two strong ropes, each about twenty-five feet long, with the sume number of strong leather straps, doubled, each with a two inch seam between and a strong buckle. It requires three or four men to east ahorse. Put a loose collar on the horse, and fasten both ropes securely to the bottom of it, or, better (if the rope is long enough), loop the mid- dle to the collar. Buckle one of the two leather straps tightly on each hind pastern ; through the rings or D’s of the straps pass the ends of the rope, carrying the same forward through the collar, for the assistants, (standing well ahead) to pull away at, while a good man manages the animal’s head. ‘To prevent kicking (while standing), fasten the ends of the rope to the collar, after drawing sufticiently tight. Ligatures.—Cords or strings, most commonly silk thread, used for tying arteries and thus preventing or stopping hemorrhage. Tie with a surgeon’s knot, made by passing one end around the other twice and then drawing tightly. Nose-bag.—This should be roomy, and be kept scrupulously clean. Seton.—A cord or small roll of leather, tape or cloth, drawn under the skin and then out again at a short distance, by means of the seton needle. It is used to promote and keep up a discharge of pus, and thus reduce inflammation, and, the better to secure this end, it is soaked with turpentine or smeared with some other irritant, and daily turned or drawn forward and backward through its channel. Setons have almost entirely superseded the old-fashioned rowel, which is a ring of leather, suitably prepared and pushed down into a pocket made in the skin. Slings.—These are well illustrated on pages 250 and 286. They are not so difficult to make as many imagine. Take, for the girdle which passes under the horse’s belly, a broad strip of leather or strong canvass twenty-eight inches wide and about seven feet long, stiffening the ends by sewing them around smooth sticks or chunks of wood, to which fasten very strong loops of rope. Double blocks and pulleys being attached to these loops by strong ropes passing through fixed pulleys over- head, the animal can be nearly or entirely lifted from his feet, as may be desired. This girdle is kept in proper position by suitable breeching and breast-straps attached to it, as shown on page 286. Sponges.—From four to six of these should always be at hand, of which at least one (a small one) should be very fine. Their sizes should be graduated, the largest being such as are often used for washing car- riages. Tents.—Like setons, these are suppuratives, but are employed in the dressing of wounds. They consist of pledgets of tow, lint, or the like, moistened with turpentine. INSTRUMENTS, APPARATUS, AND MEDICINES. 475 Twitch.—This has been described and illustrated in the chapter on Operations. One should be kept hanging in the stable constantly, ready for immediate use. III. A cheap and serviceable Surgical Outfit. The following convenient outfit will serve the purposes of the great majority of horsemen, and can be selected, at very moderate cost, from the stock of any surgical instrument dealer. Most of the instruments, in fact, ean be bought at the larger drug stores of cities. Everything should be kept together, in a neat wooden box. 1. A thumb lancet, and, if wished, a fleam. 2. , y My PART III. CA TTR. HISTORY, MANAGEMENT AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS. CAT TE. CHAPTER I, EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE, I, WILD AND SEMIeWILD TIES, 1, THE PEST CUMONTOLERS AND BREE DES Or CATTLE, “Itt, THM ORIGINAL TYPE, WV, UNDOMESTICATED TKDS OF WUROME AND ASIA. V. SPANISID-AMERICAN BRIM DS, -eeVI. THM DIVONS, Vil, ‘THE TERE RPORDS, Vill, THE DUTITAM O18 TIIOSWATION Hithitb, IX. HIS CATTLE, X, SCOTCILAND HIGHLAND CATTLE, XI, SWISS CATTLU, — XII, DUTCID CATTLE, XII, FOSSIL CATTLE, XIV. THE WILD CATTLE OF ENGLAND. —eXV. NATIVIE DISTHIOTS OF HOME BIKIDS, I. Wild and Somi-Wild Herds, Where horned cattle first existed ina wild state is utterly unknown, and their origin is equally uncertain, ‘There are a number of species of the same genus—the genus Los—existing in a wild state; such as the Bison, misnamed Buffalo, of America, and the true Buffalo of Africa. There are, also, so-called wild cattle which roum in vast herds in North and South America, and in some parts of Murope and Asia. ‘These, however, as well as all others of the genus Bos Taurus, to which our present domesticated cattle belong, are, when found wild, the descend. ants of animals which eseaped fromthe control of man at some period, more or less remote, Il. The first Chroniclors and Breeders of Cattle. Jubal, the son of Lamech, who lived in the time of Adam, is recorded in Seripture as being “the father of such as have eattle,’’ Still, it can- not be assumed that Jubal’s cattle were ino any way identical with the domestic ox of later times, for the word ‘cattle’? is used by the early Seriptural writers to denote nearly all grazing animals, including sheep and yvouts., Job, however, who lived more than two thousand years before Christ, is distinctly spoken of as the possessor of one thousand yokes of oxen. Homer, eighteen hundred years before the Christian era, wrote celebrating the noble bulloeks, with golden knobs on the tips of their horns, and he minutely describes the manner of fastening the knobs. Juno, among the pagan goddesses, is called ox-eyed, from the clearness and liquid expression of those features, Jeremiah, sixty-two years before 41 492 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. Christ, speaks of a ‘fair heifer ;’’ and Virgil, about the time of the Chris- tian era, wrote admiringly of the beautiful cattle of the Roman Campag- nas, and of their value in husbandry. The Egyptians worshipped the bull Apis, and, it is probable that they were the first to domesticate the ox. That the domestication of horned cattle was anterior to that of the horse is more than probable. III. The Original Type. What the first cattle were like is mainly a matter of conjecture. The Keyptian hieroglyphics, the most ancient known, leave us entirely in the dark us to what the cattle of that remote antiquity resembled. No description of the original type has come down to us. The earliest draw- ings, or pictures of cattle, represent them as being rugged in form, of great length, gaunt, and with upright, spreading horns, somewhat like the descendants of Spanish cattle now running wild in Central America. IV. Undomesticated Herds of Europe and Asia. The Steppes of Tartary still nourish vast droves of semi-wild cattle, that are not regularly herded, and are wild to all intents and purposes. In Hungary, also, and in Russia, and on the grassy plains of all the more temperate climates of Asia, herds of cattle abound that are as wild as neglect on the part of their owners can make them. Cattle have been reared by every Celtic nation from the earliest period, and have been regarded by all barbarians and pagan people as the greatest of the divine giftsto man. The herds ran half-wild when ever these tribes migrated, until, as civilization advanced, the least desirable breeds were exterminated, while the fittest survived in a state of real domestication. Descendents of one of these ancient breeds, are still seen in the Chillingham rattle of England ; they are wild only because all possible means are used to keep them so. The wildest and least frequented tracts of two exten- sive parks are set apart for their use. They are probably the descend- ents of the best of the ancient cattle of Great Britian. V. Spanish-American Breeds. In Texas and on the plains of Mexico, in Central America, and in the sub-tropical and more temperate regions of South America, there are immense herds of cattle, the descendents of animals which escaped trom the carly Spanishinvaders. In Spain these fierce, almost untamable cattle are still bred for the barbarous sport witnessed in their buii-fighting arenas, where the animals are pitted against men on foot and on horse- back, until they are tortured to death. The cattle of Texas, and the Southwestern plains possess at least one good quality in a high degree—they reproduce rapidly, and take care of EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE. 493 themselves at small expense to their owners. Within the last twenty years large numbers of them have appeared in the markets of the West, where they have been slaughtered for export to Europe in various forms Ae SF : Be 2 oe CENTRAL AMERICAN OX. of cured beef. When well-fattened, their beef is excellent, and its abundance furnishes an unfailing supply of cheap food. They are fast DEVON BULL OF FIFTY YEARS AGO. being modified by crossing improved stock upon them, and ina compara- tively short time but few of the original type will be found, except in THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. 494 “AILLYO SVXEL UNV AAMONAHO EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE. 495 Central and South America, where modifications of the ancient breed may be long postponed. VI. The Devons. Among the oldest of the distinct breeds of England, the Devons have always been, as they now are, one of distinguished merit. They belong to the class called Middle-Horus—Ivrish long-horned cattle, and the Tex- ans furnishing good types of the long-horned breeds, while the old cattle of Durham represent the Short-Horns. The Devons, as known 100 years ago, are thus described by Youatt, whose writings are our best authority on breeds of British cattle: ‘The north of Devon has been long cele- brated for a breed of cattle beautiful in the highest degree, and, in actiy- ity at work and aptitude to fatten, unrivaled. The native country of the Devons, and where they are found ina state of the greatest purity, extends from the river Taw westward, skirting along the Bristol channel ; the breed becoming more mixed, and at length comparatively lost before we arrive at the Parrett. Inland it extends by Barnstaple, South Mol- ton, and Chumleigh, as far as Tiverton, and thence to Wellington, where again the breed becomes unfrequent, or it is mixed before we reach Taun- ton. More eastward the Somersets and the Welsh mingle with it, or supersede it. To the south there prevails a larger variety, a cross prob- ably of the Devon with the Somerset ; and on the west the Cornish cattle are found, or contaminate the breed. The Devonshire man confines them within a narrow district, and will scarcely allow them to be found with purity beyond his native county. From Portlock to Biddeford, and a little to the north and the south, is, in his mind, the peculiar and only residence of the true Devon. ‘From the earliest records the breed has here remained the same ; or if not quite as perfect as at the present moment, yet altered in no essen- tial point until within the last thirty years. This is not a little surprising when it is remembered that a considerable part of this district is not a breeding country, and that even a proportion, and that not a small one, of Devonshire cattle, are bred out of the county. On the borders of Somerset and Dorset, and partly in both, extending southward from Crewkern, the country assumes the form of an extensive valley, and prin- cipully supplies the Exeter market with calves. Those that are dropped in February and March, are kept until May, and then sold to the drovers, who convey them to Exeter. They are there purchased by the Devon- shire farmers, who keep them for two or three years, when they are sold to the Somersetshire graziers, who fatten them for the London market ; so that a portion of the Devons, andof the very finest of the breed, come from Somerset and Dorset.’’ 496 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. The illustration on page 493 will give an idea of the excellence of these cattle, even fifty years ago. Since that time they have been much improved and only lack size to cause them to be more generally bred in the great grazing districts of the United States. VII. The Herefords. The Herefords are Middle-Horns, and have many of the characteris- tics of the Devons to which they are, without doubt, allied. They have long been known and highly esteemed in England. Within the last thirty years they have been bred to such perfection that they compete with the Short-Horns in the prize fairs of England and the United States, and carry off honors with the best of them. Of this breed, as they were known in the early part of the century, Youatt says: ‘*The Hereford white-faced breed, with the exception of a very few Alderney and Dur- ham cows, have almost exclusive possession of the county of Hereford. The Hereford oxen are considerably larger than the Devons. They are usually of a darker red; some of them are brown, and even yellow, and a few are brindled ; but they are principally distinguished by their white faces, throats and bellies. In a few the white extends to the shoulders. The old Herefords were brown or red-brown, with not a spot of white about them. It is only within the last fifty or sixty years that it has been the fashion to breed for white faces. Whatever may be thought of the change of color, the present breed is certainly far superior to the old one. The hide is considerably thicker than that of the Devon. Com- pared with the Devons, they are shorter in the leg, and also in the car- cass ; higher, and broader and heavier in the chine ; rounder and wider across the hips, and better covered with fat: the thigh fuller and more muscular, and the shoulders larger and coarser. “If it were not for the white face, and somewhat larger head and thicker neck, it would not at all times be easy to distinguish between a heavy Devon and a light Hereford, Their white faces may probably be traced to a cross with their not distant relations, the Montgomeries. ‘The Hereford cow is apparently a very inferior animal. Not only is she no milker, but even her form has been sacrificed by the breeder. Hence the Hereford cow is comparatively small and delicate, and some would call her ill-made. She is very light-fleshed when in common con- dition, and beyond that, while she is breeding, she is not suffered to pro- ceed ; but when she is actually put up for fattening, she spreads out, and accumulates fat at a most extraordinary rate.”’ The illustration on page 497 is a good picture of the Hereford cow of twenty years ago. ‘The reader would scarcely recognize the Hereford of ISS1 as the same breed deseribed by Youatt, so much have they been im- proved, ‘ODVY SNVAL AINAML AO ATVO ANY MOO CHOdAANAH EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE. 497 , ii 40) hail ) Hi j mt i) I Mi vii Hi i) MY ji | WA AN lilt | | | Hl i GAIA i ) HA vil | | 498 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. VIII. The Durham or Teeswater Breed. This breed, which has become famous as the original of the celebrated Short-Horn cattle of to-day, is a mixed race, though it has been a dis- tinctive English breed for hundreds of years past. The Rev. Mr. Berry, author of a much-criticized history of Short-Horn cattle, written in the sarly part of the century, but undoubtedly correct in relation to their sarly history, says: ‘From the earliest periods as to which we have any accounts of our breeds of cattle, the counties of Durham and York have been celebrated for their Short-Horns, but prineipally, in the first instance, on account of their reputation as extraordinary milkers. It may be the best evidence, that, as a breed, they have never in this particular been equaled. They were generally of large size, thin-skinned, sleek-haired, bad handlers, rather delicate in constitution, coarse in the offal, and strikingly defective in girth in the fore-quarters. When put to fatten, they were found slow feeders ; producing an inferior meat, not marbled or mixed fat and lean, and in some cases the lean was found a particularly dark hue. ‘*A period of more than one hundred years has now elapsed since the Short-Horns, on'the’ banks of the river Tees, hence called the Teeswater breed, assumed a very different character to the foregoing description. In color, they resembled the Short-Horns of the present day, being occa- sionally red, red and white, and roan, though the last not then so preva- lent as now. They possessed a fine mellow skin and flesh, good hair, and light offal, particularly wide carcasses, and fore-quarters of ¢xtraor- dinary depth and capacity. When slaughtered, their proof war extaor- dinary, and many instances are recorded of the wonderful weigk* of their inside fat. ‘The remarkable merit which existed in the Teeswater may, with pro- priety, be aseribed to a spirit of improvement which had some time man- ifested itself among the breeders on the banks of the Tees, whose laud- able efforts were well seconded by the very superior land in the vicinity of that river. No doubt can be entertained that they proceeded on a judicious system of crossing with other breeds, because it was utterly im- possible to raise such a stock as the Teeswater from pure Short-Horn blood. One eross to which they referred was, in all probability, the white wild breed; and if this conjecture be well-founded, it will be ap- parent whence the Short-Horns derived a color so prevalent among them. “It is also asserted that, about the period in question, Sir William St. Quintin, of Seampston, imported bulls and cows from Holland, which were crossed with the stock of the country. It would tend to little advantage to conjecture as to what other breeds were resorted to, if any: ‘MOO GNV ITO YALVASAAL HO WwVvHund EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE, 499 500 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. this much is certain, that great improvement wes soon manifested, and a viluable variety established.” An illustration of this valuable breed, as it was known fifty years ago, is given on page 499. It is to be regretted that the fine milking quali- ties of their descendants should have been almost entirely bred out, and are now only found occasionally, through heredity, and this in but a very few families. IX. Trish Cattle. The cattle of Ireland are of two distinctive breeds, the Long-Horns and the Middle-Horns. Whence the Long-Horns came seems not to be known, since ancient records are silent upon the subject. Both in England and Ireland they can be traced far back. By some excellent authorities it is maintained that the Long-Horns originated in Ireland ; but in Lancashire, England, also, long-horned cattle have existed since ¢ remote antiquity. The Irish Middle-Iorns seem to have been an original breed, since they were found in all the hill and mountain regions, in almost every district. Mr. Youatt says of them that they are small, light, active and wild. The head is small, although there are exceptions to this in various parts ; and so numerous, indeed, are those exceptions, that some describe the native Irish cattle as having thick heads and necks; the horns are short compared with the other breed, allof them fine, some of them rather upright, and frequently, after projecting forward, then turning back- ward. Although somewhat deficient in the hind-quarters, they are high- boned, and wide over the hips, yet the bone generally is not heavy. ‘The hair is coarse and long; they are black, brindled and black, or brindled with white faces. Some are finer in the bone, and finer in the neck, with a good eye, a sharp muzzle, and great activity. They are exceedingly hardy; they live through the winter, and sometimes fatten, on their native mountains and moors; and when removed to a better climate and soil, they fatten with all the rapidity of the aboriginal cattle of the High- lands and Wales. They are generally very good milkers, and many of them are excellent. The cow of Kerry is said to be a favorable speci- men of them. X. Scotch and Highland Cattle. Scotland has always been celebrated for its cattle, and for none more than its polled or hornless cattle. The Highland breeds are of great antiquity. The most celebrated of the polled breeds are the Galloways, originally said to have been middle-horned cattle. They are widely dis- seminated in England and the United States, and in their improved forms are regarded with much favor. Many sub-families are now known, EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE. SOL They are described as having been straight and broad in the back, and nearly level from the head to the rump; round inthe ribs, and also, between the shoulders and ribs, and the ribs and loins. The loins were broad, and without large projecting hip (hook) bones. In the early part of the century they were described by the Rey. Mr. Smith, author of a ‘Survey of Galloway,”’ as being short in the leg, and moderately fine in the shank bones—the happy medium preserved in the leg, which secures hardihood and disposition to fatten. With the same cleanness and short- ness of shanks, there was no breed so large and muscular above the knee. Clean, not fine and slender, but well proportioned in the neck and chaps ; broad shoulders, deep chest, and close, compact form. The neck of the Galloway bull was, and still is, thick almost to a fault. The head rather heavy ; the eyes not prominent, und the ears large, rough, and full of long hairs on the inside. The Galloway was covered with a loose mellow skin of medium thickness, clothed with long, soft, silky hair. The skin is thinner than that of the Leicestershire, but not so fine as the hide of the Short- Horn, but handling soft and kindly. The prevailing and fashionable color was black—a few dark brindle-brown, and still fewer speckled with white spots, and some of them a dun or drab color. Dark colors were, and are yet, uniformly preferred, from the belief that they indicate hardiness of constitution. WEST HIGHLAND FEEDING OX, Highland Cattle —The West Highland cattle are an ancient breed and are found in all the mountain regions of Scotland and the Isles. Their great value consists in the eminent superiority of their flesh. They are hardy, and easily fed; in that they will live, and sometimes thrive, on the coarsest pastures ; that they will frequently gain froma fourth to a 502 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. third of their original weight in six months’ good feeding ; that the pro- portion of offal is not greater than in the most improved larger breeds. They will lay their flesh and fat equably on the best parts ; and, when fat, the beef is close and fine in the grain, highly flavored, and so well mixed or marbled, that it commands a superior price in every market. The principal old breeds of Scotland, as given by Youatt, may be sum- marized as follows: Scotland contains several distinct and valuable breeds of cattle, evidently belonging to our present division, the Middle-Horns. The West Highlanders, whether we regard those that are found in the Hebrides, or the county of Argyle, seem to retain the most of the aboriginal character. They have remained unchanged, or improved only by selection, for many generations; indeed from the earliest accounts that we possess of Scottish cattle. The North Highlanders are a smaller, coarser, and in every way inferior race, and owe the greater part of what is valuable about them to crosses from the Western breed. The Northeastern cattle were derived from, and bear resemblance to the West Highlander, but are of considerably larger size. The Ayrshire breed is second to none for milking. The Galloways, which less than two hundred years ago, were middle-horned, and with difficulty distin- guished from the West Highlanders, are now a polled breed—increased in size, with more striking resemblance to their kindred, the Devons— with all their aptitude to fatten, and with agreat hardiness of constitu- tion. XI. Swiss Cattle. The Swiss have long had a valuable breed of milking cattle which of late years has attracted some attention inthe United States. In France they are held in high repute. A careful and accurate observer describes them as being robust, hardy animals, usually of a dun color or dun and white, with medium heads, hanging dewlaps, rather coarse shoulders and broad hips and quarters. with well developed udders. Removed from their native mountains they are said to manifest little impatience at the change, and though kept in stables and soiled, they seemed to thrive and carry a good coat of flesh: when dry, they fatten readily. In Switzer- land they are wintered in the valleys, onthe coarsest food, and as soon as the snow melts from the southern slopes of the mountains are driven to their pastures, which, as the season advances, are gradually changed for the higher ranges. For four months in the year they are kept on the most elevated feeding grounds, and there, attended by a single man, uniting in his person the offices of cowherd and dairyman, they feed on the close, sweet herbage, often at the very edge of the snow fields, till their short summer is over, and they are driven by the autumn storms to the more sheltered pastures again. Cheese is the chief product, and its EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE. 205 manufacture is conducted in the lonely chalet, perched on the mountain side, in the most primitive manner. The best cows yield from ten te twenty quarts of milk daily, and each cow produces by the end of the sea- son of four months, onan average, 225 pounds of cheese. XII. Dutch Cattle. The Low Countries of Europe, Holland and the neighboring States, have, from a remote period, had a most valuable milking breed, that is now broken up into numerous varieties. The most noted of these are the Holstein or Friesian cattle, celebrated for the immense quantities of milk they give, and for their large fraimes, whieh take on fat and flesh kindly when dry. On page a young Holstein bull of the modern Chenery milking stock is represented. The late Mr. Klippart, when Secretary of the Ohio Board of Agriculture, wrote from personal observation of Holstein cattle, as follows: ‘*The native cattle of Holstein are the Angle cattle, which are far more numerous than any other kind or race. They are small animals, with fine bones, short-legged rather than other- wise ; a very fine, small head, and delicately formed neck. The predom- inating color is red or brown, but there are many dun, black, or spotted ones. According to the amount of food consumed, this race gives a more abundant supply of milk than any other in the Duchies. It is a very highly esteemed race and is much sought after for its milking qualities and kindliness in taking on flesh. The flesh is very fine, tender and juicy. ‘Inthe marshes is found a race of cattle much larger and heavier than the Angles, larger-boned, and of a dark, reddish-brown, and known as the Marsh race. This race seems to be adapted to the marshes, but does not do well on the higher and dryer uplands. Upon the rich pastures of the marshes, for a time after calving, the best cows will give from forty- eight to sixty-four pounds, (from six to eight gallons) of milk daily. But the milk is not near so rich as that of the Angles. ‘In Schleswig, rather than in Holstein, are found many of the Jutland race of cattle. These have very fine bones, and are long in proportion to their height, and are, as a rule, short-legged. The prevailing color is gray, black, or gray and black mixed with white, but very rarely red or brown. This race is more highly esteemed for its early maturity and readiness to fatten than for its milking qualities.’’ XIII. Fossil Cattle. The original type of the modern ox is said to have been the Urus. An- cient legends have thrown around him mysterious qualities. He was described as being an animal of great fierceness and enormous size ; but despite these fabled attributes, the Urus probably did not 504 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. compare better in size with the modern ox, than did the ancient horse, or our modern semi-wild horses, with the great draft horse of to-day. That there once existed species of cattle in some pre-historic age, mon- strous as compared with ours, there is no doubt. Youatt, in his history of British cattle, says that in almost every part of the Continent, and in every district of England, skulls, evidently belonging to cattle, have been found, far exceeding in bulk any now known. ‘There is a fine spee- imen in the British Museum: the peculiarity of the horns, resembles smaller ones dug up in the mines of Cornwall, preserved, in some degree, in the wild cattle of Chillingham Park, and not quite lost in the native breeds of Devon and East Sussex, and those of the Welsh mountains and the Highlands. XIV. The Wild Cattle of England. Of the wild cattle kept in Engiana on the estates of the Duke of Ham- ilton, and the Earl of Tankerville, known in his day, the same authority says: ‘‘The wild breed, from heing untamable, can only be kept within walls, or good fences ; consequently, very few of them are now to be met with, except in the parks of some gentlemen, who keep them for ornament, and as a curiosity. Their color is invariably white, muzzle black; the whole of the inside of the ear, and about one-third of the outside, from the tips downward, red; horns, white, with black tips, very fine, and bent upward ; some of the bulls have a thin, upright mane, about an inch and a half or two inches long. The weight of the oxen is from thirty- five to forty-five stone, and the cows from twenty-tive to thirty-five stone, the four quarters (fourteen pound to the stone). The beef is finely marbled and of excellent flavor. The six year old oxen are generally very good beef; whence it may be fairly supposed that, in proper situa- tions, they would feed well. «At the first appearance of any person they set off in full gallop, and, at the distance of about two hundred yards, make a wheel round, and come boldly up again in a menacing manner; on a sudden they make a full stop at the distance of forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the object of their surprise; but upon the least motion they all again turn round, and fly off with equal speed, but not to the same distance, form- ing a shorter circle, and again returning with a more threatening aspect than before; they approach probably within thirty yards, when they again make another stand, and then fly off; this they do several times, shortening their distance, and advancing nearer and nearer, tillthey come within such a short distance that most people think it prudent to leave them. EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE. 505 When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a week or ten days in some sequestered situation, and go and suckle them two or three times a day. If any person comes near the calves, they clap their heads close to the ground, to hide themselves ; this is a proof of their native wildness. The dams allow no person to touch their calves, without attacking them with impetuous ferocity. When any one happens to be wounded, or is grown weak and feeble through age or sickness, the rest of the herd set on it and gore it to death.”’ The breeds now found in Great Britain, are almost as various as the soils of the different districts, and are purely artificial in their breeding, according to the several fancies of the originators, and successive breeders. XV. Native Districts of Some Breeds. The same careful authority, heretofore quoted, has divided them into Long-Horns, Short-Horns and Middle-Horns. ‘Their history, which may be taken as correct, their classification, and their habits, as known in his day, are givenas follows: ‘*The Long-Horns were originally from Lancashire, much improved by Bakewell, and established through the greater part of the midland counties ; the Short-Horns, mostly cultivated in the northern counties, and in Lincolnshire, and many of them found in every part of the kingdom where the farmer attends much to his dairy, or a large supply of milk is wanted ; and the Middle-Horns, not derived from a mixture of the two preceding, but a distinct and valuable and beautiful breed, inhabiting principally the north of Devon, the east of Sussex, Herefordshire, and Gloucestershire; and, of diminished bulk, and with somewhat different character, the cattle of the Scottish and the Welsh mountains. The Alderney, with her crumpled horn, is found on the southern coast, and, in smaller numbers, in gentlemen’s parks and pleasure-grounds every where; while the polled, or hornless cattle, pre- vail in Suffolk, and Norfolk, and in Galloway, whence they were first derived. «These, however, have been intermingled in every possible way. They are found pure only in their native districts, or on the estates of some opulent and spirited individuals. Each county has its own mongrel breed, often difficult to be described, and not always to be traced—neglected enough, yet suited to the soil and to the climate ; and, among little farmers, maintaining their station, in spite of attempts at improvements by the intermixture or the substitution of foreign varieties. «-The character of each important variety, and the relative value of each for breeding, grazing, the dairy, or the plough, will be considered before we inquire into the structure or general and medical treatment of cattle. Much dispute has arisen as to the original breed of British cattle. 506 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. The battle has been stoutly fought between the advocates of the Middle andthe Long-Horns. ‘The Short-Horns and the polls can have no claim ; the latter, although it has existed in certain districts from time immemo- rial, was probably an accidental variety. We are very much disposed to adjudge the honor to the Middle-Horns. The Long-Horns are evidently of Irish extraction. ‘Britain has shared the fate of other nations, and oftener than they, has been overrun and subjugated by invaders. As the natives retreated, they carried with them some portion of their property, which, in those early times, consisted principally in cattle. They drove along with them as many as they could, when they retired to the fortresses of north Devon and Cornwall, or the mountainous regions of Wales, or when they took refuge in the wealds of east Sussex ; and there, retaining all their prejudices, customs and manners, were jealous of the preserva- tion of that which reminded them of their native country before it yielded to a foreign yoke. ‘In this manner was preserved the ancient breed of British cattle. Difference of climate wrought some change, particularly in their bulk. The rich pasture of Sussex fattened the ox into its superior size and weight. The plentiful, but not so luxuriant, herbage of the north of Devon, produced a smaller and more active animal, while the privations of Wales lessened the bulk and thickened the hide of the Welsh runt. As for Scotland, it set its invaders at defiance; or its inhabitants retreated for a while, and soon turned again on their pursuers. They were proud of their country, their cattle, their choicest possession ; and there, too, the cattle were preserved, unmixed and undegenerated. «Thence it resulted that in Devon, in Sussex, in Wales, and in Scot- land, the cattle have been the same from time immemorial ; while in all the eastern coast, and through every district of England, the breed of cattle degenerated, or lost its original character; it consisted of animals brought from every neighboring and some remote districts, mingled in every possible variety, yet conforming itself to the soil and the climate. ‘Observations will convince us that the cattle in Devonshire, Sussex, Wales, and Scotland, are essentially the same. They are middle-horned ; not extraordinary milkers, and remarkable for the quality rather than the quantity of their milk; active at work, and with an unequaled aptitude to fatten. They have all the characters of the same breed, changed by soil, climate, and time, yet little changed by man. We may almost trace the color, namely, the red of the Deyon, the Sussex, and the Hereford ; and where the black alone ave now found, the memory of the red pre- vails. Every one who has compared the Devon cattle with the wild breed of Chatelherault park, or Chillingham castle, has been struck with the EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE. d07 great resemblance in many points, notwithstanding the difference of color, while they bear no likeness at all to the cattle of the neighboring coun- try.”’ For these reasons Mr. Youatt considers the Middle-Horns to be the native breed of Great Britain, CHAPTER II. STRUCTURE OF THE OX. I. COMPARATIVE DESCRIPTION.——II. A GOOD COW DESCRIBED IN VERSE.——III. SKELETON OF THE OX.——IV. ANALYSING THE HEAD. V. EXTERNAL PARTS OF A FAT OX.——VI. TEETH OF THE OX.——VII. AGE OF CATTLE TOLD BY THE CHART. I. Comparative Description. The ox, like the horse, is made up of a bony structure, upon which rests the muscular and fleshy covering, and over this again lies the skin. The only means of defense possessed by cattle are their horns, which, in breeds that have been running wild for generations, develop into long sharp, and most formidable weapons. ‘These are most securely fixed and rendered effective by the expanse of the frontal bone, shown at numeral 6, skeleton of the ox, us represented in the cut accompanying this chapter. The horse is long in the limbs and neck ; the ox is comparatively short in these members. The body of the horse corresponds to the square ; that of the ox to the rectangle. The illustrations showing outlines of fat bullocks, as presented a few pages further on in this chapter—four forms exhibited—are accurate representations. The ribs of the ox are both longer and larger than those of the horse, since the several stomachs and the bow- els of the ox are more capacious. The width of the bosom gives ample space for the fore legs and for the viscera; and this width is carried cor- respondingly behind, giving, in the modern ox, a broad loin and massive rump and hind quarters, where the choice parts of the beef lie. II. A good Cow described in verse. The physical proportions of the cow have been so accurately described in verse, by an old English writer, that we reproduce his stanzas as em- bodying the general characteristics of what goes to make up a perfect animal : She’s long in her face, she’s fine in her horn, She'll quickly get fat without cake or corn; She’s clean in her jaws, and full in her chine, She’s heavy in flank, and wide in her loin. She’s broad in her ribs, and long in her rump; A straight and flat back, without e’er a hump; She’s wide in her hips, and calm in her eyes; She’s fine in her shoulders, and thin in her thighs. She’s light in her neck, and small in her tail; She’s wide in her breast, and good at the pail; She’s fine in her bone, and silky of skin— She’s a grazier’s without, and a butcher’s within. 508 STRUCTURE OF THE OX. d09 III. Skeleton of the Ox. If we look at the skeleton of the ox we shall there see the basis of the immense but sluggish strength for which this animal is noted. It will not be necessary to translate the names of the bones. They should be called by the scientific names here given. The corresponding bones found in the horse have been sufficiently explained. yf WW, 7 =f pian y || ) M SKELETON OF THE OX. Names of the Bones.—A—Cervical Vertebre. 2B B—Dorsal Verte- bre. O—Lumbar Vertebre. 2—Sacrum. H #—Coccygeal Bones. F F—Ribs. G—Costal Cartilages. HH—Scapula. /—Humerus. WW Av Radius. £—Ulna. M—Carpus or Knee. 1—Scaphoid. 2—Semilu- nar. 3—Cuneiform. 4—Trapezium. 5—Trapezoid. 6—Os Magnum. 7—Unciform. 8—Pisiform. V te carpal or Cannon. O— Small Metacarpal. P—Sesamoid Bones. @ @—Phalanges. 1—Os Suffraginis or Pastern Bone. 2—Os Corone. 8—Os Pedis. R—Pelvis. 1—Illium. 2—Pubis. 3—Ischium. S—Femur. T—Patella. U— Tibia. V—Fibula. W—Hocks. 1—Os Calcis. 2—Ostragalus. 3— Cuneiform Magnum. 4—Cuneiform Medium. 5—Cuneiform Parvum. 6—Cuboid. X—Large Metatarsal. 1, 2, 3—Phalanges. Y—Small Metatarsal. Z—Head. 1—Inferior Maxilla. 2—Superior Maxilla. 8— Anterior Maxilla. 4—Nasal Bone. 5—Molar. 6—Frontal. 7—Parietal. 8—Occipital. 9—Lachrymal. 10—Squamous. 11—Petrous. 510 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. Elegance, speed, and muscular activity are the qualities for which the frame-work of the horse seem best suited. In the ox there is also the beauty of symmetry as shown in smooth lines, when fat, and the devel- opment of great strength with slow motion. Hence, the limbs are straighter and more massive than in the horse, OUTLINE OF FAT BULLOCKS. In the ox we find the same two plates at the top of the head, that were noticed inthe horse. In the ox and other horned animals these plates have a considerable space be- tween them, as shown in the aecom- panying cut giving a vertical section of the head. This space is filled with cells having bony ridges passing from the inner to the outer plate, or table, securing firmness; and these cells form large and strong sockets for the horns. The cavity of the brain is, in VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HEAD. the ox, about one-fourth the size of the skull—the other parts being occupied by the organs of smell, the teeth and the jaws, which are exhibited in vertical sections here given. STRUCTURE OF THE OX. o11 IV. Analysing the Head. The second cut representing a section of the head of an ox, reveals a portion of the upper jaw, showing the’ molars, or grinding teeth. Exp lanation.—A—Molars or grinders. &—Superior maxillary bone and its palatine process. C—Cells of the palatine bone. —Anterior maxillary bone, destitute of incisor teeth. The frontal bones shown at 6 in the skeleton of the ox, extend from the nose to the superior ridge of the skull, presenting a flat, irregular sur- face, quite bare of fleshy or muscu- lar covering. The ox has the same division in the center of the frontal sinuses as the horse , but the divis- ion between the nostrils is not per- fect. There isa continuous cavity from the muzzle to the horn. In polled or horned cattle the frontal bones reach from the nasal bones to fas Gir RNG) GT GES the parietal ridge, but since there are no horns, these bones become narrower towards the poll. In eattle the temporal bones are small, but deep in the temporal fossa and have no squamous structure. The occipital bone has little importance by comparison with its use in the horse. The sphemoid and ethmoid bones relatively occupy the same position in the two ani- mals. A comparison of the skeletons of the horse and ox, will fully illustrate this. V. External Parts of a Fat Ox. As beef is a universal article of food, the value of a very large pro- portion of the cattle reared is determined by their capacity to develop juicy, palatable meat. The illustration on the next page shows a Short- Horn ox in prime condition, and the accompanying explanation points out the several parts of the animal with reference, mainly, to their qualities and use as beef. Where the choice Beef lies.—The prime parts of the ox, as shown in the cut, lie from V to R, and from F to 8, and back to VW. Between P, Qand V are the best pieces. The second best are between M, S, 7, V, W and /v. Between S and U are valuable pieces for smoked or dried meat. The ribs between M and S; the flanks V, W, and thence to the brisket AT are good corning pieces. The quarters of such an ox will dress sixty-five per cent. of his gross weight. The loin above P and from thence to the top of the shoulder above Y will give superior steak and roasting pieces. The shoulder-point or neck vein back of 7 and thigh at S make the best smoking-pieces. The plates W will make 512 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. excellent corned beef, while 2, S and LZ (the rump, round and brisket) make the best pieces for vickling—good, thick, juicy meat, and in large quantities. SS > Ss _— I, Win. 3 — NS Ss SSSA ~= 7 SHORT HORN OX IN PRIME CONDITION. GN: ‘ y UN \ Prati | LINN / 4 aN /) Yi f \ WIS di W V4 NY INA \y WW : » { WwW ly © \ WM Y f| SWSSs Explanation A—Forehead. B—Face. C—Cheek. 2D — Muzzle. H—Neck. F'—Neck-vein. G-—Shoulder-point. 2/—Arm. J—Gam- brel or hock. —Elbow. £—Brisket, bosom or breast. W¥—Crops. O—Loin. P—Hip. Q—Rump. R—Pin-bone. S— Round-bone, thurl or whirl. Z—Buttock. U—Thigh, or gasket. V—Flank. W —Plates. X—Back, or chine. Y—Throat. STRUCTURE OF THE OX, 513 VI. Teeth of the Ox. The ox has 32 teeth. These are divided into 24 grinding ov molar teeth, six on each side of each upper and lower jaw, and 8 nippers or cutting teeth (incisors) in the front lower jaw. The ox has no canine teeth (tushes,) and no teeth in the front part of the upper jaw. In place of the front upper incisors, those of the lower jaw meet against a rallosity above, thick, hard and, in old cattle, almost horny. Scientific- ally the teeth are represented by the following Dental formula : Genus Bos. Cattle ; incisors, 8, canines, °, molars, & §. = Total, 32 teeth. But in order that the reader may judge accurately of the age of any animal of the genus Los, but especially the age of cattle, a chart is an- nexed, showing the nippers, (incisors,) from birth up to the age of five years past—that is, up to the sixth year; and also the teeth as they appear at ten years of age. An ox at five years old, is past his prime for beef, and at six is past his prime for economical farm labor, except at heavy, slow draft. The cow will breed good calves from three years to the age of ten years, and often up to fifteen years. ‘The bull should be sure in his get, up to about the age of eight years, after which he usually gets logy. VII. Age of Cattle told by the Chart. The age of cattle is only told by the horns and the teeth. The horns will show the age with reasonable accuracy up to the age of six years, by means of the annual rings, and tolerably well up to the age of ten, un- less they have been filed, sand-papered and oiled to deceive. As the animal vets older, the annual rings, or wrinkles, of the horns become con- fused by growing together. Mr. Youatt, in his analysis of the teeth of the ox, gives six years as the age at which the animal attains the full mouth, such as we have shown at five years past. In his day, cattle were slower in maturing than now, and they were certainly kept in service to a greater age. If the animal is badly kept during the winter, and is turned upon insufticient pasture in summer, development will, of course, be slower. After the teeth are mature, if the pasture is short and gritty, they will be worn away faster. The rules we give for determining the ages of modern cattle apply to well-kept, early-developing animals. Woods-cattle, those raised in the timber on scant fare, might present the same appearance at six years old that we have shown for five years past. In studying the chart, therefore, allowance must be made for the contingencies we have named. A refer- ence to the chart will show that at birth there are but two central teeth. figure 1; at two weeks the calf will have four teeth, figure 2; at three weeks it will have six teeth, figure 3; at a month old the jaw will con- 514 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. tain eight incisors, and present the appearance as in figure 4. ‘The mouth is then called full, as containing the ultimate number of incisors. These are not permanent, but temporary, or milk teeth, as they are called. At six to eight months old the central teeth begin to be worn, and show smaller than the others, see figure 5. At ten months absorption and the widening of the jaw will have carried the two central teeth still farther away from each other, and two other teeth, one on each side, will have begun to diminish, in fact will have distinet spaces between them, see fizure 6. At twelve months absorption will have continued to two more teeth, leaving intact only the two outside teeth, see figure 7. At fifteen months the whole of the teeth will present the appearauce as seen in figure 8. At this time the true or permanent teeth will have been growing in the jaw, between and back of the milk teeth. Figure 9 shows the appearance at fifteen months of age, the two permanent central teeth appearing in the place of the two first milk teeth which have disappeared, and the other permanent teeth are shown in their several stages of growth, Figures 10, 1L and 12 show the teeth at two, three and four years past. At the age of five years the animal will have a full mouth, as shown in figure 13, and at ten years the incisors will present the ap- pearance as in figure 14. Thus any person by the use of the chart, and by examination of the tecth of cows, of ages known to correspond therewith, may easily become an accurate judge of the age of cattle up to the age of four years, In the four-year-old mouth, the two central pairs of teeth are beginning to be worn down to the edges, and in a flat direction, or inclining slightly to the inside ; yet the animal has not a full mouth—that is, the incisors are not fully up until it is five years old. See figure 14. At five years old the teeth are fully grown, and the peculiar mark on the teeth, called the cup, is shown in all. At the same time all will have become flattened, while on the two center ones there begins to be a dis- tinct darker line in the middle, bounded by a line of harder bone. From this time on we may depend both on the incisors and the grinders. At six years old the animal will have acquired the last grinding tooth. This is the sixth molar and is, from the beginning, a permanent tooth. From this time until the eighth year, and indeed thereafter, in determining the age of the animal, the nature of the soil upon which it has been fed must be taken into account. Gritty, close-fed pastures will wear them faster, and flush pastures slower. Thus in all the pasture regions of the West, and Southwest, the wear will be light. As a general rule, but admitting of many exceptions, at seven years old this line is becoming broader and more irregular in all of the teeth; and a second and broader, and more circular mark appears within the center of the former one, the most ty 5a) “tlh nga . Tile quierty .' wiepyin ot ey beh) wela 5° allie vo pliewvla ult iversite ae iow qu ho 2 golworts (D-t Chart for Accurately Telling the Ages Y CATTLE. N. D. THOMPSON & CO., Publishers, WN ST. LOUIS, MO. pan For further facts concerning the Ages of Cattle see Part III, Chapter II. Teeth of Calf at birth, showing the first two incisors, milk teeth. ' Teeth at two weeks old, showing four tem- (Copyright, 1882, by N. D. THOMPSON & CO.) porary incisors. 7 i vA Me IN ; ; Fig. 6. Fig. 3. Fig. 4, Fig. 6. ; ; ie : P . . Teeth at ten months old, showing absorp- Teeth at three weeks old, showing six in- Teeth at one month old, showing eight in- Teeth at six to eight months old, showing tion in first two pairs of teeth, and wear of iors: cisors, or the full set. wear on first two, or central teeth. two outside pairs. Fig. 10. Fig. %. Fig. 9. ‘eeth at eighteen months old, showing two first rer i 's (1-1), and next two pairs (2-2 permanent incisors, and four temporary ones, Teeth at two years old past, showing four Teeth at fifteen months old, showing ab- | Teeth at twelve months old, showing absorp- o fion in all the nippers, except outside pair, sorption and wear in all thétemporary nippers. nd pushing upwards toward the absorption nearly complete; also marks of j 5-5 and 6-6) showing absorp- 2 »vwn the alveali, or cells for and wear in these MA, yy weal On two first pairs Ne Fig. 11. | Fig. 13. Teeth at three years pa ig six | Pec it four yearfpast, showing eight manent nippers, and two « e temporary yermanent sors — fe full mouth—and Teeth at five years past, showing wear and Teeth at ten years old, showing permanent | ones nearly gone; al - Y tro ventral complete complement :§lso wear on all but dark marks. : spaces between them; and also shape from | pairs, itside teeth natural wear by use. —— . —— —_ oie | = —— 3 © Wott) IF diel it al Gea hin aelipion STRUCTURE OF THE OX. 515 distinct in the central, or two central pairs—and which, at eight years, has spread over the six central incisors. At eight years, a change takes place which cannot be mistaken. The process of absorption has again commenced in the central incisors ; it is slow, and is never carried to the extent seen in the milk teeth, but is sufficiently plain, and the two central teeth are evidently smaller than their neighbors. A considerable change has also taken place on the surface of the teeth ; the two dark marks are worn into one in all but the corner teeth. At ten years old the four central incisors are diminished in size, and the mark is becoming smaller and fainter, as shown in figure 14. At eleven years the six central incisors are smaller, and, at twelve, all of them are very considerably diminished ; but not to the same extent as in the young animal. The mark is now nearly obliterated, except in the corner teeth, and the inside edge is worn down to the gum. From the age of twelve years and onward, the teeth diminish more and more, so that the animal cannot properly gather or grind the food. There are many instances, however, of cows breeding, and remaining good milkers, up to twenty years of age and over. But in this day of early development, no careful farmer will keep a cow breeding after the age of twelve years, except, perhaps, in the case of some extraordinary milker, or an exceptional cow, of great physical powers, and excellent breeding qualities, whose stock it may be desirable to perpetuate. CHAPTER III. DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS. I. ANCIENT AND MODERN BREEDING. Il. CATTLE OF THE CAMPAGNAS. III. PIO- NEERS OF IMPROVED STOCK. IV. ILLUSTRATIONS OF NOTED ENGLISH BREEDS.——. V. DO NOT ATTEMPT TO FORM A BREED. VI. HOW A BREED IS FORMED.— VII. BREEDING FOR CERTAIN USES VII, VARIATION IN TYPE.—HIX. IN-AND-IN BREEDING AND BREEDING IN LINE.—KX. ALTERING THE CHARACTER BY CROSSING. XI. INFLUENCE OF SHELTER AND FEEDING. XII. HEREDITY IN CATTLE.— XIII. HEREDITARY INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. XIV. ATAVISM.—kXV. PECULI- ARITIES OFANCESTORS PERPETUATED. XVI. HOW THE SHORT-HORNS WERE BRED UP. XVII. SHORT-HORNS DURING THE LAST FIFTY YEARS. XVII. THREE. SHORT-HORN STRAINS. XIX. THE THREE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF CATTLE. Ancient and Modern Breeding. It might be curious to trace the history of cattle, step by step, intheir improvement from the earliest times; but the results of suchatask would be largely composed of conjecture, neither valuable as history, nor inter- esting, except to a few. The aim of this work is to be practical, and its object is to give only such valuable information as will be useful or inter- esting {o all readers engaged in the breeding, rearing or use of live- stock. While many distinct breeds of cattle have been known from the begin- ning of the historical era, it is only within the last 200 years that careful and systematic breeding has been resorted to. And it is probable, or, ather, it is positively true, that during the last fifty years greater results in the breeding of all farm animals have been accomplished, and greater progress towards perfection have been made, than in all the time before. Jacob was the first systematic breeder of whom we have any record. It is tolerably certain that he understood something of the principles of mating cattle, else he could not have procuced pied and other parti-colored animals in such numbers as to have assured him large profits and increase in the herds of his father-in-law. But Jacob’s plan consisted simply in bringing together cows and bulls of certain different colors, with a view to securing a commingling of these colors, in the offspring. It does not appear that he made any systematic attempt to improve, by breeding, the qualities of hisanimals as milkers, draft oxen, or beef cattle. The results of such efforts, if they had ever been made, would as certainly have been noticedasthe extensive production of ‘‘ring-streaked and speckled cattle.”’ II. Cattle of the Campagnas. We have already spoken of the once-famous cattle of the Campagnas, in the time of the Romans. Their excellence was probably due more to: O16 DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS. 517 the kindliness of the climate and the natural abundance of the pastures around Rome, than to any systematic endeavors to perpetuate good qual- ties, except by the simple rules of natural selection. The same is true of other ancient peoples whose cattle were once held in high repute. Abundant pasturage, extensive ranges and a genial climate were the important factors in the production of their superior stock, which, in all probability, was not much superior to the half-wild cattle herded upon our great western plains. During the dark ages which succeeded the fall of the Roman Empire, agriculture degenerated with the arts, and, until about the sixteenth cen- tury, little attention was paid to the breeding of cattle, except by a primi- tive sort of selection, and by keeping certain strains of cattle confined to given sections of country. III. Pioneers of Improved Stock. But little had been done in a systematic way to improve British cattle until Bakewell improved the Long-Horns. Subsequently the Collings bred up the Durhams or Teeswaters, and later breeders developed the Devons, to which the Sussex and Hereford breeds owe some of their most eminent qualities. The celebrity of the improved Leicesters ceased soon after the death of Bakewell. But the Short-Horns had then already become famous, and at the present day there is no other breed of beef cattle that combines so many good qualities, except the Herefords. And this noble breed, it must be confessed, is the peer of the Short- Horns in every respect, except perhaps early maturity, while in butchers’ proof, it is probably superior to the Short-Horns. On the butchers’ block, however, both the Short-Horns and the Herefords must yield precedence to the Devons, and the Devons again to the West Highland eattle of Scotland. IV. Illustrations of Noted English Breeds. That the reader may become familiarized with noted English breeds of cattle, for beef, for labor, and for milking, we give on page a model of the Sussex cow; on page a Short-Horn cow in outline ; and on page an improved Hereford Bull, allied to the Sussex. On page a North Devon cow is represented ; and on page a Jersey or Alderney bull. On page will be found a group of Durhams as they were known fifty years ago. With the descriptions of the various popular breeds, as they will be noticed hereafter, illustrations will be given showing their characteristics. The comparisons will be found a valuable study to all who make the breeding of cattle a part of their farm economy. 518 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. Do not Attempt to Form a Breed. In the breeding of cattle do not attempt to form a new breed out of incongruous materials, such as you may happen to find near you. Good feeding, good shelter, and careful selection, will do much for any breed» eo gatas SHORT-HORN COW IN OUTLINE. — : = Y, ip but to undertake to form a new breed can only end in failure. It will be found infinitely cheaper to take one of the breeds already formed, ac- cording to the use for which the animals are intended, than, by crossing and br ceeding up, to form one that at the end of one hundred years will be no better than some of the now-existing herds, and, perhaps, not as good. If there is any improvement to be made, make it on the model of the best of the more reputable breeds. For instance, the Short-Horns can DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS. 519 easily be bred back to the milking quality by selecting the proper fami- lies; for they once possessed this quality inan eminent degree. If you wish to improve your common stock, do it by crossing upon the best of your common cows good, staunch, vigorous bulls, of the breed conform- ing to the type of cattle you wish to attain. The first cross will give you half-bloods; the second three-quarters blood; the third cross seven- eighths blood, andthe fourth cross—fifteen-sixteenths blood. These lat- ter, and, even the seven-eighths bred cattle, are, for all practical purposes, of beef, labor or milk, essentially as good as those purely bred. But it is necessary that pure and thoroughbred stock be kept intact, by every possible precaution, since they are the source from which all excellence is bred. Therefore, if you are able to breed the best, let all others alone. And there are so many cattle of pure and thoroughbred stock now, that such sires are not difficult to obtain, unless you wish to breed the very highest caste, and this, too, from a purely fanciful standpoint. VI. How a Breed is Formed. A breed is a variety. In plants a new variety of a species is pro- duced by crossing one variety on another. In the case of crossing two species of the genus, to produce a hybrid, the fertility is generally de- stroyed, and the hybrid cannot be perpetuated. In crossing two animals or plants of the same species, but differing one from the other, the pro- duct is fertile, though not in so great a degree as in animals or plants of a like kind. The descendants will partake more strongly of one parent than the other, and these variations, in some cases, crop out after genera- tions. This atavism or striking back to some remote ancestor is not infrequent in the Short-Horns, notwithstanding the extreme care taken in breeding, and the many years that have passed since the particular cross was made. On the other hand, the Devons breed constant to type, or nearly so. Hence, the Devons are called a pure breed, and the Short-Horns are called thoroughbred. The Herefords also retain this constancy in gen- eral character to a remarkable degree, for the reason that they are an original breed, and not, like the Short-Horns, and racing horses, made up of a mixed lineage, and developed within a comparatively short time. Thus the reader will see the force of the advice, ‘*Do not attempt to form a new breed.’’ VII. Breeding for certain uses. For present practical purpose let your sires be the best you can afford, of some improved breed, which should be chosen with reference to the purpose for which the offspring is intended. For beef and early maturity choose a Short-Horn or Hereford bull. If you breed for beef and labor, 520 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. take the Hereford for heavy work, and the Devon for lighter and more active work, such as ordinary farm labor. For cheese cr quantity of milk alone, take the Holsteins. For butter and cheese the Ayrshires are best, while for milk, exceedingly rich in cream, but, of course, not so great in quantity, the Jerseys, Alderneys or Guernseys would be indi- cated, according to the fancy of the breeder. In every case select the best cows possible as dams, at least for the animals intended to continue the cross. VIII. Variation in Type. We have spoken of variation in type, even of cattle bred with a view of perpetuating distinct characteristics. How common this is, any person may satisfy himself by inspecting the animals of any given kind at our animal fairs, especially horses and cattle. Among animals pro- ducing twins, such as sheep, the type may be established sooner, since there is a greater number of young to select from. In swine it may be established in a still shorter time, for they not only have many young at a birth, but they breed twice a year, and a sow has even been known to produce five litters in less than two years. In the longest-established breeds of swine, however, pigs of a litter will vary materially. Hence, in breeding swine, while it is comparatively easy to perpetuate a particular strain by careful selection, it is also as easy to destroy the effects of previous good breeding by bad selections as it is to depreciate them by neglect in feeding. For it is an axiom which should be more generally understood than it is, that bad feeding will soon mar good breeding. And as no success can be had with any breed, however ordinary it may be, without good feeding, it is essential that the improved breeds be care- fully and liberally provided for, especially since the better the breed the better do the animals pay for their feeding. IX. In-and-in Breeding and Breeding in Line. The meaning of these terms has been defined in a previous part of this volume. One is the breeding together of animals very closely re- lated; the other is the perpetuation of qualities, by continuing to breed together animals having similar characteristics. From in-an-in and line breeding we get, more often, what is called a ‘*nick’’—that is, the inheri- tance of some essentially good quality—than by what is known as out- crossing, or breeding to animals of dissimilar quality. The careful breeder will hesitate long before he resorts to out-crossing, and should only consent so to do where the family has become too fine, and con- stitutionally weak, from being bred very closely together for a considera- ble length of time. DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS. 521 X. Altering the Character by Crossing. When it becomes necessary to alter the form, do so through some animal of the same breed. Never go out of the breed for improvement even in constitutional vigor. If you do, you will always rue it. The Kyloe cross, made in the Short-Horns, nearly a hundred years ago, still crops out in certain families, in the sloughing of the horns, or in defective horns. Thirty years ago the outcrop of this peculiarity was quite common. If the character of your cattle needs altering, select for the purpose a bull possessing the characteristics desired, or as near thereto as may be possi- ble. Once the effect is produced, return again to the practice of breed- ing in line, never neglecting careful selection. So also in breeding up common stock, by means of superior males, when once you have decided what breed is best for your particular use, stick to it. If the result is unsatisfactory, try another breed on certain cows, but not on those of your best improved stock. If you are breeding pure or thoroughbred stock, quit the business rather than take an out-cross upon some other distinct breed. Once the blood is in your herd, you cannot breed it out in your life time, nor can your successor breed it out in his life time. XI. Influence of Shelter and Feeding. In the breeding of all farm stock too many persons suppose that ani- mals, especially cattle, may be exposed to the storms of winter without serious detriment, and that if they get very thin in winter, they will recuperate in the succeding summer. No mistake could be more fatal to the stock raiser than this. An animal that barely survives the winter, seldom more than regains the flesh lost, during the next summer. Those that have to be ‘* tailed up”’ inthe spring never are good for much there- after. The only profit there is in stock of any kind, is made by keeping them steadily growing, until they reach maturity. This is especially true in the case of improved stock of whatever breed. They must have suf- ficient warmth and feeding, for if disability arise from neglect, the loss is serious by comparison with the loss from similar injury to ordinary, cheap stock. It may be taken as an axiom, that no money was ever made by neglecting or starving farm stock; and no farmer ever will make money from cattle if he lets them take the ‘* warm side of a straw stack ’’ for food and shelter in winter. XII. Heredity in Cattle. We have already spoken of the hereditary influence of ancestors. In cattle this is often plainly shown. The thirteenth axiom of Stonehege, and one undoubtedly correct, is: The purer and less mixed the breed, the more likely it is to be transmitted unaltered to the offspring. Hence, which- o22 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. ever parent is of the purest blood will be more generally represented in the offspring ; but, as the male is usually more carefully selected, and of purer blood than the female, it generally follows that he exerts more influence than she does ; the reverse being the case when she is of more unmixed blood than the sire. That the relative ages and vigor of the parents have a decisive influence on the offspring there is no doubt. Hence the necessity that animals be mature before they are allowed to breed, since only mature animals can be relied upon to produce offspring of the highest form and vigor. And on the other hand, that excessive age in either male or female, will dimin- ish potency is too well known to be denied. It is certain, also, that where there is a marked prepotency in either the male or female parent, the progeny will most closely resemble the prepotent progenitor. The following case is reported by Mr. Talcot in the ** Country Gentleman: ”’ ‘*T had a nice cow with nice bag and teats, which I took to a bull in the neighborhood, and the produce was a heifer-calf, which was raised be- cause of the good milking-qualities of her dam; but when she became a cow, instead of the good qualities of her dam as was expected, her bag and teats were more like those of a sheep than of a good dairy-cow. I then began to investigate the cause, and found that the heifer was the counterpart of the dam of the bull, she being an ordinary cow with a small bag and still smaller teats, and from that time to this I have found that too frequently that is the case, especially if the bull was from such stock or family of light milkers that it was not desirable to perpetuate them. I remember distinctly the first pure-bred Short-Horn bull I ever had, that the bag of his dam was the largest in the hind-quarters, conse- quently that she gave the most milk from the hind-teats, and that quality was transmitted to the majority of his heifers when they came to be cows, their bags tending largely in the hind-quarters. And I think, from such observations, that there can be no doubt that such is the case gen- erally.” Mr. Sedgwick says, the supply of milk is hereditarily influenced by the bull, rather than by the cows from which the offspring is directly descended. Of this there is no doubt; but it is not so clear, as asserted by him, that the character of the secretion, as regards both quantity and quality of the milk, is derived chietly from the paternal grand-mother by atavie descent. XIII. Hereditary Influence of Parents. Mr. Walker, writing on intermarriage, and the physiology of breeding, gives the following: “It is a fact, established by my observations, that, in animals of the same variety, either male or female parent may give either series of or- DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS. 923 gans—that is, either forehead and organs of sense, together with the vital and nutritive organs, or back-head, together with the locomotive organs. **The second law, namely, that of crossing, operates where each parent is of a different breed, and when, supposing both to be of equal age and vigor, the male gives the back-head and locomotive organs, and the female the face and nutritive organs. «The third law, namely, that of in-and-in breeding, operates where both parents are not only of the same variety, but of the same family in its narrowest sense, and when the female gives the back-head and locomo- tive organs, and the male the face and nutritive organs—precisely the 99 reverse of what takes place in crossing. XIV. Atavism. The appearance, occasionally, of horns in the Galloway, Suffolk and other breeds that have been hornless for many generations, but which were originally ahorned race, are remarkable instances of atavism. The appearance, in a litter of Essex pigs, of two young ones showing the Berkshire cross of twenty-eight years before, as cited by Mr. Sidney, is also a remarkable case of the same kind. We have already noticed the occasional appearance, through atavism, of deformed horns in Short- Horn cattle. In calves, also, this race shows remarkably in this respect ; the following case is given by the **Country Gentleman :”’ **Mr. Wadsworth owns the twin Princess cows, Lady Mary seventh and eighth; they are both good roans, got by fourth Lord of Oxford (5903 ‘American Herd-Book”’), a roan bull; their dam, Lady Mary, a red, got by Hotspur (31393), a roan; their granddam, Baroness, a red roan, got by Barrington (30501), a white ; their great-granddam, the im- ported red Princess cow, Red Rose, second, got by Napier (6238), red roan. These twin heifers, Lady Mary seventh and eighth, were both served by the Princess bull, Earl of Seaham (8077 ‘*American Herd- Book’’), a good roan, and each dropped a bull-calf; but the one from Lady Mary seventh was a red, while the other, from Lady Mary eighth, was white.”’ XV. Peculiarities of Ancestors Perpetuated. In the breeding of animals of a pure and homogeneous breed, there will be a perfect blending of characteristics, without marked peculiarities, asarule. In the offspring of dissimilar parents, as in crossing, there is never complete fusion or blending of character, but the offspring in such cases will follow, more or less closely, the prepotent parent. It is not necessary to cite authorities on this point. Instances are of such constant occurrence, both in the human family and down through all the domestic animals, that they have been noticed by all intelligent observers. In wild 524 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. animals, being pure races, the rule is not so apparent: for in them is found the nicest blending of transmitted qualities. Yet it is observed even in wild animals when bred in confinement. Devon cattle and other pure breeds of domestic stock, also show peculiarities to a less extent than more mixedraces, Peculiarities of ancestors appear most frequently in the common mixed stock of the farm, especially when bred to sires of improved blood. XVI. How the Short-Horns were bred up. The inheritance of the prepotent blood of sires, upon an already valua- ble breed, careful selection and at length the impress of a bull, (THub- back, ) remarkable in every respect, merged what were known as Tees- water, Durham or Yorkshire cattle, into what has come of late years to be known, the world over, as Short-Horns. The name is an unfortunate one in some respects, since it is used to designate one of the three dis- tinct classifications of horned eattle. Less than 200 years ago the first improvement was made in Short- Horn cattle, according to Culley, Marshall, Bailey, and others of the last century ; and it is only within the last 100 years that the great improve- ment was made which causes this magnificent breed of cattle to be so highly prized. The **Alloy,’? a Galloway, or hornless, cross made: by Charles Colling was unfortunate, and breeders are careful that their stock shall not trace back to this cross, which runs to Grandson of Bolingbroke and Lady —to the **Alloy”’ as this progeny was called. XVII. Short-Horns During the Past Fifty Years. It is within the last fifty years that the Short-Horns, once remarkable for their milking qualities, have degenerated in this respect so that they are now almost worthless for the dairy. They have been bred to emi- nent fineness and elegance, but it is questionable if, as beef producers, the less fashionable are not the better cattle. Originally the Short-Horns ran much to white ; and roans also were very common. Of late years it has been more fashionable to breed to self-colors, or to avimals in which the colors, whatever they may be, (ved and white being the best,) are distinet and well defined, one from the other. Importations of Short-Horns from Great Britain were made to the Eastern States in 1815, 1822, 1823, 1828, 1835, 1839, and 1849-50; to Kentucky in 1817, and again in 1837-38, and in 1839, Large importa- tions were made into Ohio in 1834, and in 1835-86. The first direct importation to Illinois was made in 1858. Since 1835 Canadian breed- ers have imported many fine animals, and within the last ten years their herds have taken high rank in the world of Short-Horns. At the present time there are no States of the West, the Northwest and Southwest, but DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS. 525, have most valuable herds of these remarkable beef cattle. When not bred from a mere fanciful standpoint of fineness, it must be confessed that they are unexcelled in stoutness, early maturity and great develop- ment of flesh. XVIII. Three Short-Horn Strains. Among the lessons learned from these changes, we have seen the Short-Horns gradually lose their great milking qualities, but they have gained in early maturity, and in disposition to take on flesh. They may now be divided into three classes : First, are those combining good grazing qualities with fair milking qualities, as may be seen in the descendants of the importation of 1817 into Kentucky, or the ‘* Seventeens”’’ as they are called. None are better than these for the average farmer to breed from, and fortunately, when found, they sell at prices comparatively but little above those of the best native cattle of mixed breeds. The second strain is the Booth blood, eminent for large frames, covered with great masses of flesh, but of small account as milkers. The third principal strain is that of the Bates cattle, eminent for style and early maturity, with sub-families, producing occasionally most excelleat milking cows. The young breeder may rest assured that by studying carefully the precepts laid down in this chapter, and by familiarizing himself with the characteristics of the several strains, and also by studying carefully the pedigrees as given in the herd books, he will be qualified to select animals for the nucleus of his herd, that will breed constant to type, if he pos- sess the judgment properly to mate them. XIX. The Three Principal Types of Cattle. Tt remains to close this chapter with a recapitulation of the three prin- cipal types of cattle. These are the Long-Horns, the Middle-Horns and the Short-Horns. Of the Long-Horns, sub-breeds remain worthy of per- petuation in competition with the Middle-Horns, as represented by the Herefords or Devons, or the Short-Horns, as represented by the Dur- hams. The milking breeds are the Jerseys and other Channel Island cattle, and the Ayrshires and the Holsteins. Among the traces of long-horned blood, characteristic of the old Shrop- shire, with their horns dropping down forward and suddenly rising, the Derby with their horns running sideways, and curving upwards and back- wards, and the Cravens, with their ‘‘ lopped horns,’? may all be found occasionally in the ordinary mixed breeds of the country, showing how long a time it takes to work out the blood from whence they originally came. 526 THE AMBRICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. As for the once-famous New Leicesters, of Bakewell, their popularity was short-lived, since they practically died out with the death of their founder, Bakewell, The Short-Horns will be treated of in their appropriate chapter, the Hevefords and Devons in the chapter appropriated to the Middle-Horns, and the polled cattle, also, in a separate chapter, CHAPTER IV. THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. I, EKARLY SYSTEMS OF BREEDING.——II. BAKEWELL’S TEN RULES.——IIT. WHAT THE BREEDER MUST KNOW.———IV. COMPARE RESULTS.——V. TITE ASSIMILA- TION OF FOOD.——VI. THE BREEDER MUST BE A GOOD FARMER,——VII. BREEDING FOR BEER.-r-VIII. BREEDING FOR MILK.—-IX,. BREEDING FOR LABOR.———X. THE BREEDS FOR BEEF AND MILK.———XI., SOME FACTS ABOUT BEEF.——XII. VALUB OF SIRES IN DIFFERENT THERDS.<-—XIII. KNOW WHAT YOU BREED FOR.——XIV. DEFINITION OF TERMS.—-——-XV. HOW TO START A HERD.——XVI. HOW THE HERD WILL GRADE,.——XVII. TAKING A LINE OCROSS.—--—-X VIII. SOME SPECIMENS OF CLOSE BREEDING,——XIX,. THE GESTA- TION OF COWS. I. Early Systems of Breeding. Until within the last 200 years the whole art of breeding animals might have been summed up in the aphorism, ‘Like produces like ;’’ and hence that other proverb, “Breed from the best.’? Yet, simple as these principles were, they seem to have been followed in a very feeble way, as, indeed, they are to this day by a majority of farmers, or by those who have not studied the principles of the art they practice. Up to the time of Bakewell, who, had he undertaken any other pro- fession than that of breeding animals, would have been eminently suc- cessful, the breeder's art consisted in mating those animals whose gen- eral characteristics seemed the best, wholly disregarding the advantages of breeding to animals pre-eminent for the possession of particular qual- ities that it was essential to perpetuate. — Bakewell believed not only that like would produce like, in a general way, but seems to have known that the rule extended to the minutest detail in the organization and make up oftheanimal. Hence, his study of form, in theanatomy and phys- iology of animals, was made with a view to the adoption of a standard, or model, by which he sought to secure large proportions, early matu- rity, superior flesh in the choicest parts, and uniformity in the transmission of these qualities from the sire and dam to the young. His eye seems to have been so well trained in detecting faults in the development of animals, and the proper correlation of the parts, one to the other, that the slightest variation of form never escaped him. No breeder since his time seems to have used such nice judgment, or to have possessed so critical and thoroughly trained an eye. None of his sue- cessors have equaled him in the capacity to trace cause and effect, or to 527 528 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. breed closely to a well-defined standard. In addition to his nice judg- ment in selection, he was the most careful of feeders ; the object in view being constant development from birth to the butcher’s block. None before or since his time have everbrought a breed up to the highest pos- sible standard in a single lifetime, and what is more curious, none were found able to maintain the standard he had fixed. The methods insti- tuted by Bakewell have been practiced by others, and are undoubt- edly the best in the breeding of live stock. They may be divided into separate heads as in the following section. II. Bakewell’s Ten Rules. 1.—Correct training of the eye and judgment in the anatomy and phys- iology of the animal. 2.—The correlation of the several parts one to the other. 3.—The selection and mating of animals with a view to the fullest development of the most valuable parts, according to the use intended. 4.—Selection with a view to the perpetuation of essential qualities to induce form, symmetry, high feeding qualities, and great vigor of consti- tution. 5.—Feeding with reference to early maturity for giving development in the least possible time. 6.—Shelter and warmth indispensable to perfect development. 7.—Variety of food is essential, and this according to the age of the animal, 8.—A strain of blood once established, never go outside of it for a new infusion. %.—The most perfect care and regularity in all matters pertaining to feeding and stable management. 10—Kindness and careful training absolutely necessary with a view to the inheritance of high courage combined with docility and tractability. III. What the Breeder Must Know. The animals which possess the qualities that are desired in the offspring, whether for beef, labor, milk, butter or cheese, or for a combination of these, are the ones to breed from. In the selection of parents the breeder himself must of course be the judge of the fitness of certain animals of his herd to transmit the desired qualities. We have endeavored to aid the non- professional breeder in the performance of this delicate task, by carefully describing the peculiarities of the different breeds and varieties, and by in- dicating the best points of each of them. Nothing more is necessary to enable the average farmer to breed his farm-stock profitably and success- fully, except such personal experience with animals as every competent THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 529 farmer possesses as a matter of course. Those who propose to go exclu- sively and scientifically into the business of stock-breeding, must not only pass through a careful course of reading in the best authorities on the subject, but must also have a thorough practical training. The impor- tant thing of all, however, is to possess the peculiar talent to make a hbreeder—that is, a critical eye for form, symmetry, and the proportion of the several parts of an animal, each to the others. IV. Compare Results. A careful comparison of the results obtained by others and by one’s self, is among the best means of training for all. The animal that will make the most beef ut three years old, and the cow that will give the most milk, and the richest in butter or cheese during the season, on the least relative quan- tity of food, are the best. These things can only be learned through personal observation and from the statements of those whose word you van trust. V. The Assimilation of Food. It is an idea with many people that an animal, to be valuable, must be a small eater. Nothing could be further from the truth. It is merely a question of proper assimilation of the food eaten—an animal of perfect digestive and assimilative organs being able to extract far more nutri- ment from a given quantity of food than one in which these organs per- form their functions but imperfectly. In this respect the improved breeds of stock of any family stand pre-eminent. Their digestive and assimilative organs are’of the best and they give greater returns for the food eaten than illy-bred animals. The lungs and blood vessels of the ox are not required to be so capa- cious, according to the weight of the animal, as those ofthe blood-horse ; for they are not required to do fast work. The improved breeds of other farm stock are not required to take more exercise than is necessary to gather their food. Hence, with care and artificial feeding, the incli- nation to active exercise is bred out of them, and a Short-Horn or Here- ford will keep fat on what a Texan would run off in untamable muscular efforts. Thus, for domestic use, the highly-bred Short-Horn or Here- ford possesses two important advantages over the wild Texan, viz: early maturity, and the tendency to fatten readily. A raw-boned ox, or one with a hide like a board, will not fatten kindly. Hence, the outlines should be square or round, with no undue bony prominences, and the skin should be soft, but firm and supple to the touch. Restlessness, which is only another term for wildness, should never be tolerated in any breeding animal. Such animals should be sent to 4 34 530 TIE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. the butcher’s block without hesitation. A panic will throw a whole herd off their feed for a week, sometimes, and a single wild brute is amply sufficient to get up a stampede at the slightest provocation. The animal that shows viciousness alone, or in connection with restlessness, is not to be tolerated anywhere, and least of all in the breeding stables or yards. VI. The Breeder Must be a Good Farmer. The best animals cannot be raised except on a variety of food. The breeder should therefore be a good farmer, and should know what grasses are most nutritious and best adapted to his locality. He needs, also, to know the varieties of grasses which make the best hay, for all farm animals—cattle and sheep especially—should be kept as much on grass as possible. He should also have studied the important question of winter feeding with a view to deciding what grains are best adapted to his use. An important matter, which nearly all American breeders and feeders more or less neglect, is the use of succulent food in winter. It is seldom one sees 2 supply of roots raised for winter feeding in this country. We have deferred too much to English authorities, and because we could not raise English white turnips we have ignored roots almost entirely. Yet, there is no country better adapted to carrots and beets, for feeding, than ours, nor one where they can be more cheaply raised. And carrots in winter, especially for breeding cows, and later on beets for all farm stock except horses, are worth more than twice their bull in turnips. A peck of beets or carrots daily, to each cow or ox would assist in an important manner the digestion and assimilation of dry food—and herein lies their chief value. The writer has raised them in large fields at a cost of three dollars a ton, including the expenses of hauling and pitting for winter. VII. Breeding for Beef. If you breed for beef you will have the choice of, say, four breeds of cattle—the Short-Horns, the Herefords, the Devons, and the Galloways. The Short-Horns and THerefords are, by all odds, the best breeds wherever the pastures are flush, and the feed plentiful. On short pastures, and when the winter feeding is not ample, their great frames cannot be supplied; but when the feed is abundant they may be turned off fat atan age at which native cattle are only just getting ready to be fattened. Upon all hill pastures, both North and South, the Devons are admira- ble cattle, and their beef is of a quality superior to that of either of the breeds just named. ‘arther North, the Galloways or hornless cattle are much liked for their good feeding qualities, for their hardiness and for the superior THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. dal quality of their beef. In more Northern regions the Galloways may justly he regarded as the best among our beef breeds. But they will never compare with the Short-Horns or Herefords in milder regions where feed is abundant. VIII. Breeding for Milk. If milk be the sole object, the breeder will choose the Ayrshires, the Jerseys or the Holsteins. Of these the Holsteins give the largest quan- tity of milk, are the largest cattle and they make heavy beef when dry. They are the best for cheese, and are, also, the most profitable when the milk is to be sold directly to the consumer. ‘The Ayrshires come next in the quantity of milk given, and they are, also, excellent both for butter and cheese. The Jerseys, Alderneys, and Guernseys are smaller cattle than either the Holsteins or Ayrshires, but, for their size, they give large quantities of milk that is extremely rich in cream and butter. But they require more feed in proportion to their size than either the Ayrshires or Holsteins. IX. Breeding for Labor. Where animals capable of performing labor are desired, either the Herefords or the Devons should be selected. For heayy draft, such as hauling great logs in the timber, the Herefords are excellent cattle. For general utility on the farm, and on the road, the Devons are supe- rior to any other known breed, since they combine great activity with muscular strength, and the ability to go long distances at a quick pace, without distress. The Holsteins also make excellent draft animals, and to our thinking are among the best, where many purposes, milk being the most important, are to be considered. xX. The Breeds for Beef and Milk. For the two purposes of milk and beef combined, the milking strains of the Short-Horn family are the best. It is a pity that the noble breed of milking cattle, known formerly as the Patton stock, should have been practically lost. Forty years ago they were the staunch, excellent Short- Horns of the West, good at the pail, large, smooth-framed and kindly fatteners. The farmer who wishes to breed similar cattle, may easily do so by selecting the better milkers of the importation of 1817—the ‘‘old Seventeens’”’ as they are called. But be sure you do not get animals of this race with ‘*top crosses’ of the now fashionable Short-Horns. They will make beef but not milk. The Holsteins should not be passed over in naming cattle for general utility, especially in the West and Southwest. They are abundant and uniform milkers, and good feeders. They make more than fair working S 532 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. steers, and when fat they also turn out a heavy carcass of beef, of fully as good quality as the Short-Horns. Yet, they lack early maturity. XI. Some Facts About Beef. The breeder for utility, from a purely practical stand point, wants ani- mals that will bring the largest return in dollars and cents. A steer that loads with mere fat, instead of muscle, will not bring so much as the one which turns out more meat and less fat. So, again, the steer whose flesh is marbled throughout with fatty tissue will bring a higher price for beef than one all lean in the lean parts, and all fat in the fat parts. Hence, in estimating the possible profits in breeding for beef, one must know how the animal will cut up when killed. As a rule the smooth steer will «kill better’? than a patchy one, or one with lumps or patches of fat over the surface. An animal will not marble with fat until it is mature, neither will it take on fat largely, while in a growing state. Hence, the value of early maturity, and the importance of knowing those breeds, or families of a breed, which mature earliest. The Short-Horns have somewhat the advantage of the Herefords in early maturity, while the Herefords have the advantage of the Short-Horns in the quality of their flesh. The Devons mature still later than either, but their ‘*buteh- ers’ proof’’ is better. The Galloways mature between the Hereford and Devon in point of time, and their flesh is certainly excellent. Those ani- mals which mature earliest are, as a rule, not so excellent in the quality of the flesh as later-maturing ones. Hence, in England, the Highland cattle bring the highest price per pound of any, and in the United States the Devons ought to. XII. Value of Sires in Different Herds. The average farmer cannot pay the extravagant prices demanded for the highest-caste animals of a pure breed. These, however necessary to the special breeder, are not so to the general breeder, or to the farmer who breeds simply for beef or for milk. The farmer wants animals hay- ing thick flesh and good feeding qualities, with constitutional vigor, from which to breed beef cattle ; and when milk is an object the animals from which he breeds should also be known to possess high milking qualities. In the one ease it is the flesh that pays, in the other the udder. To the breeder of a particular strain, an animal containing certain val- uable points might be worth many thousands of dollars in his herd, while to the farmer the value of the same animal would be counted by hundreds of dollars only. In fact, that particular animal might not be worth as much to the farmer as another that might be bought for $100. In respect to milking qualities, a certain bull might be worth $1,000 to the breeder THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 533 of a particular sub-family of milkers, while to the farmer, intending to breed him upon a mixed herd, $100 would be his full value. A cross of ** Seventeen” blood might be a good and sufficient reason for the refusal by some special breeder to buy a particular Short-Horn, while to the general breeder it would be no disadvantage ; and if the animal were a pure ‘*‘ Seventeen’’—descended in a direct line from that importa- tion—the outcome might be richer in beef and milk then the other. Hence it is seen that the farmer who breeds simply for milk or beef, should possess as accurate information concerning what he wants as the breeder of select animals of some particular strain of blood. XIII. Know what You Breed For. The breeder for general utility must possess as accurate knowledge as the breeder for special utility, but this knowledge needs to be of a dif- ferent kind from the other. The breeder for general utility cares not so much that the blood be of some particular strain, as that it shall com- bine certain points that will bring beef or milk into the produce of his herd, and at the least expense. What the general breeder is seeking for is such refinement in the head, neck, lungs, digestive organs, blood vessels and limbs, as will tell in the best manner upon his coarser stock. He would be guided by different standards in buying « thoroughbred horse from those he would adopt in buying a draft horse; and in buying an animal solely for beef, the breeder must choose from a different standpoint from that which he takes in buying for milk, labor, or a combination of two or more of these quali- ties. But in this day of special breeds for special purposes great excel- lence in all points cannot be expected in one and the same animal. No bull can be a getter of great milkers, great workers, and great beef makers. All these qualities were never combined in one sanimal and never will be. XIV. Definition of Terms. Pure Bred.—The words ‘* pure-bred,”’ ‘+ full-blood,’’ and ** thorough- bred’’ have often been stumbling blocks to the uninitiated. A pure race, or race of ** pure-bred animals is one of unmixed lineage whose charac- teristics are well defined, and which breeds pure to the type in every essential particular, including form, color, temper, and of course power to transmit the same. The Devons come nearer to filling all these requirements than any other cattle, and are the best type of a pure breed. Thoroughbred.—A thoroughbred is the descendant of animals origin- ally of mixed lineage, but which have been inter-bred for so long a time —without further admixture—that they come essentially true to the type db4 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. desired. Short-Horns and Herefords among cattle, and racing horses are thoroughbred. Full-Blood.—Full-blood is a term that should not be used to denote either purity of blood or thorough-blood, though much confusion has existed in the popular use of these three terms. High-grade animals are the produce of pure stock upon common stock, and when pure stock is repeatedly bred to the progeny of such unions the progeny in the course of some generations nearly approaches the pure race in every character- istic and is then called ‘* full-blooded.” Grades.—This term was partly defined in the preceding paragraph. It is used to denote the offspring of pure-blooded or highly-bred animals with those of less breeding, and is generally applied to a cross of pure- blood on common stock. Cross-Breeding.—The breeding together of animals of different breeds is called cross-breeding, as for instance the union of Hereford and Short- Horn blood. In the first cross, the progeny theoretically possess equal proportions of the blood of sire and dam, but the blood of pure animals being prepotent the progeny will possess more strongly the charateristics of the highly-bred parent than of the other. Hence the advantage of using a bull of pure blood on a herd of mixed blood. XV. How to Start a Herd. From among the best cows of the ordinary mixed farm stock, select those possessing in the highest degree the characteristics desired in the offspring. For ten two-year old heifers select a pure-blood yearling bull, that has come of stock noted for getting uniform milkers, if this be the object ; or, if beef be the object, he should be of excellent fineness, with great loins, rump and thighs and round barrel-ribs well sprung out, and ribbed close to the hips. The next season’s produce should be ten calves, half of which are likely to be heifers. Save these aad geld the bulls at the age of about three or four weeks. When these heifers are two years old breed them to their sire, who will then be four years old. The female produce of this union may again be bred to the same bull, and this process may continue to the fourth generation, if the bull lasts so long in the possession of vigor. His last get will thus inherit fifteen six- teenths of the blood of the sire. Select from these the heifers that show the strongest constitutional vigor, and follow this down through the inter- mediate grades, keeping the families distinct. That is, record the breeding of each animal separately in a book specially prepared for the purpose. XVI. How the Herd will Grade. Your herd will grade as follows: The first generation will be half-blood erades ; the second three-quarters blood; the third, seven-cighths blood - THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 935 and the fourth generation, fifteen-sixteenths blood, and will compare favorably with pure-blooded animals, except among critical judges. XVII. Taking a Line Cross. In breeding so closely as we have recommended, the exercise of careful judgment is necessary, so that you may cease breeding in-and-in when- ever it is found that the constitutional vigor, or feeding qualities of the progeny are impaired. If it be found that the progeny is not im- proving in all essential quailities select another sire, but one combining the same essential qualities as the discarded sire. This departure will be breeding in line. Breed again with this bull to certain select heifers for two generations, and then take another line cross. In this way a young farmer, who is not able to attempt thoroughbreds, may soon establish a herd that will give the best possible satisfaction as beef makers or milk- ers, as the case may be. Do not listen to any sentimental talk about incestuous breeding. Incest is not a crime among the lower animals ; itis nature’s plan with them. Among gregarious animals the strongest males take the herd, to the second and third generation. The object is to throw the good qualities of the sire in a lump, and also to secure the first impress, a most important point, upon the heifer, and to fix this impress by concentration. For, the oftener the dam is bred to the same sire, the more will she be imbued with the blood of the sire of her progeny, through the intercirculation of blood between the dam and the feetus. This intercirculation, though denied by some, is undoubtedly a physio- logical fact, proven by many coincidences, if not by absolute demon- stration, and fortified by striking resemblances. XVIII. Some Specimens of Close Breeding. As showing close in-an-in breeding the first volume of the American Herd Book contains a diagram of the breeding of Comet, from Hub- back and Lady Maynard, as follows: 1. Bull, Hubback. 8. Cow, Lady Maynard. 2. Dam of Haughton. ?. Bull, Bolingbroke. 3. Richard Barker’s Bull. 10. Cow, Lady Maynard. 4. Cow, Haughton. 11. Cow, Pheenix. 5. Bull, Foljambe. 12. Cow, Young Pheenix. 6. Cow, Young Strawberry. 13. Bull, Favorite. 7. Bull, Dalton Duke. 14. Bull, Comet. In relation to Favorite or Lady Maynard, Mr. A. B. Allen says: «It yas conceded by a company of old breeders in 1812, in discussing the question of the improvement of Short-Horns, that no stock of Mr. Col- ling’s ever equalled Lady Maynard, the dam of Pheenix, and granddam of 536 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. Favorite (by Foljambe) and of young Phoenix (by Favorite, her son, upon his own mother, ) the dam of Comet 155, so celebrated as having been sold for L000 guineas ($5000, ) also by Favorite, a specimen of as close in-and-in breeding as can perhaps be found on record.”’ As an example of wonderful depth of in breeding with continued good results, the cow Clarissa may be mentioned. She possessed sixty-three sixty-fourths of the blood of Favorite. Ter pedigree runs thus: ** Cow Clarissa, roan, calved in 1814; bred by Mr. R. Colling, got by Wellington (680) out of—by Favorite, (852)—by Tavorite,—by Favorite—by Favorite—by Favorite—by Favorite—by a son of Hub- back.’ Wellington, the sire of Clarissa, was also deeply in-bred with the blood of Favorite. Taking the two pedigrees—that of Clarissa and Welling- ton together—they will read thus : 1. Bull, Hubback. 10, 6th cow by Favorite. 2, Son of THubback. 11. Clarissa. 3. Cow, by son of Hubback. 12. Bull Wellington, sire of Churissa. 4. Bull, Favorite. 13. Bull, Comet. 5. Ist cow by Favorite. 14. Cow, Wildair. 6, 2nd cow by Favorite, 15. Cow, Young Phoonix. 7. 8rd cow by Favorite. 16. Cow Phoenix. 8. 4th cow by Favorite. 4. Same bull Favorite on the side of Clarissa’s sire as on the side of her dam, 9. Sth cow by Favorite. 17. Bull, Bolingbroke. 18. Granddaughter of Tubback. There ought to be no fear of following where such results have been attained by others, and these the most eminent and successful breeders of their day. ‘The best successes since their day have also been obtained by continuing the same course to such a degree as intelligent observation showed to be practicable, and especially by breeding in line. XTX. The Gestation of Cows. Some years since the writer collected a number of facts in relation to gestation and the influence of the varying times of gestation on the young, to refute a prevalent idea that protracted gestation produced males. Mr. Tessier, for forty years an accurate and acute observer of various animals, gives results in the case of over 575 cows, and these subsequently having been extended to 1,18L cows the extremes were not changed, but results as to averages are as stated below. Karl Spencer also carefully tabulated the period of gestation of 766 cows, the least period being 220 days; the mean 285 days ; and the long- THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. DOT est 313 days. He was able to rear no calf produced at an earlier period than 240 days. According to Tessier, a cow may carry a calf 321 days and produce it sound; and from the fact that Tessier and Earl Spencer agree almost exactly as to the mean time of gestation, 285 days or nine and a half months may be taken as the average time of gestation of cows, slight variations being allowed from this for different breeds. It is quite safe to conclude, from the results of experiments with vari- ous races of animals, that the period of gestation has no influence whatever upon the sex of the offspring, nor is it probable that the sex of the foetus has any influence upon the period of gestation. There is a strong prob- ability, however, that heredity in sires and dams, early maturity, ages of the dam and sire, and other causes, may result in longer or shorter periods of gestation. CHAPTER V. SHORT-HORN CATTLE. I. SHORT-HORNED BREEDS.-——II. THE OLD TEESWATERS. II. ORIGIN OF MOD- ERN SHORT-HORNS. IV. WHAT MADE THEM FAMOUS. V. THE BULL HUB- BACK.——VI. BEEF FROM THE OLD TEESWATERS. VII. SHORT HORNS IN AMERICA. Vill. THE GREAT OHIO IMPORTATION. OTHER IMPORTATIONS. X. IMPORTATION OF BATES CATTLE. XI. CANA- DIAN SHORT-HORNS XII. WESTWARD MARCH OF THE SHORT-HORN. XIII. SHORT-HORNS AS BEEF MAKERS. XIV. THE PATTON FAMILY OF SHORT-HORNS. —XV. GRADE COWS AND STEERS. XVI. SHORT-HORNS CRITICALLY DES- CRIBED XVIT. THE HEAD. XVIII. THE NECK. XIX. THE BODY.——XxX. THE LEGS SHORT AND STRAIGHT. XXI. THE LOIN BROAD.——XXII. WIDE IN THE CROPS.——XXIII. THE BACK STRAIGHT AND BROAD.——XXIV. THE RIBS BARREL-SHAPED.——XXV. THE TOUCH.——XXVI. THE HIDE.——XXVII., THE HAIR. XXVIII. THE COLOR.——XXIX. BEEF POINTS ILLUSTRATED. XXX. SCALE OF POINTS FOR SHORT-HORN BULLS. XXXI. SCALE OF POINTS FOR SHORT-HORN COWS. IX. KENTUCKY AND I. Short-Horned Breeds, Of the short-horned breeds of England of 100 years ago, repre- sented by the Durham or Teeswater, the Yorkshire, the Lincolnshire and the Holderness, all are probably descended from a common origin. The descendants of the old Durham and the Channel Islands cattle, (Jersey and Alderney notably ) are all that can now be distinctively recognized as having attained special celebrity. The name Short-Horn is not now used to designate any but the descendants of the Durham cattle, as improved, and is now applied distinctively only to them. The Jerseys will be treated of in their proper chapter as among the breeds entitled to distinguished merit, the Short-Horns as standing at the head of established beef breeds being under consideration here. II. The Old Teeswaters. There has existed from a remote period in the region of the Teeswater (one of the small rivers of England), a race of short-horned cattle that were possessed of good feeding qualities combined with early maturity and thick flesh, as weights were considered 200 years ago. Their origin has been variously stated, but nothing is truly known of it and only traditionary statements are extant. III. Origin of Modern Short-Horns. The origin of the modern Short-Horn is not fully agreed on, except that they have descended directly from the Teeswaters or old Durhams on one side, and that they were gradually improved by breeders who recog- 538 aaa SHORT-HORN CATTLE. 539 nized their excellence. Inthe latter part of the last century, such breed- ers asthe Collings (Charles and Robert), Sir Henry Vane, Col. Trotter and Mr. Mason, and—early in the present century—Mr. John Stevenson, Mr. Bates, and Mr. Booth proceeded scientifically and systematically to improve them. Mr. Bates died in 1849, at which time the breed had attained a world-wide celebrity, and this steadily grew, until the extray- agant sums of $20,000, $30,000 and even $40,000 were bid for single animals. To-day there are none of the cow kind that bring such prices for single animals. IV. What Made Them Famous. Youatt and Martin say the cireumstance which first brought these wonderful cattle into special notice was the production of the ‘* Durham ox,’ which was exhibited all over England, and at the age of eleven years dislocated his hip and was killed, weighing 8,780 pounds, after having been carried from place to place in a ‘* jolting carriage ’’ for seven years, or since he was five years old. In February, 1801, at five years old he weighed 3,024 pounds. This extraodinary weight, our authority says, did not arise from his superior size, but from the excess- ive ripeness of his points. V. The Bull Hubback. Probably no single animal in the history of ~Short-Horns has exer- cised so great an influence for good on this breed as the bull Hub- back. Of him Mr. Youatt says: ‘ The following account of Hubback we had from Mr. Waistell, of Alihill, who, although his name does not appear conspicuously in the Short-Horn Herd Book, deserves much credit for his discrimination here. He used to admire this bull as he rode by the meadow in which he grazed ; and at length attempted to purchase him. The price asked, 8/., seemed much, and the bargain was not struck. Still he longed forthe beast ; and happening to meet Mr. Robert Colling near the place, asked his opinion of the animal. Mr. Colling acknowledged that there were good points about him; but his manner induced Mr. Waistell to suspect that Mr. Colling thought more highly of the bull than his language expressed, and he hastenéd the next morning, concluded the bargain, and paid the money. He had searcely done so before Mr. R. Colling arrived for the same purpose, and as the two farmers rode home together they agreed that it should be a joint speculation. «Some months passed by, and either Mr. Waistell’s admiration of the bull cooled, or his partner did not express himself very warmly about the excellences of the animal, and Messrs. Waistell and R. Colling transferred Hubback to Mr. C. Colling, who, with the quick eye of an experienced breeder, saw the value of the beast. Mr. Waistell expressed to us d40 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. (October, 1882) his regret at having been induced to part with him, and his extreme disappointment that when Hubback was so sold, Mr. Charles Colling confined him to his own stock, and would not let him serve even one of Mr. Waistell’s cows.” VI. Beef from the Old Teeswaters. That the original 'Teeswaters and their early descendants were good auttle, and a most excellent foundation to work on, the following record of weights from 1794 to 1822 will show: In 1794, of an ox four years and ten months old, the four quarters weighed 145 stones, 8 Ib. ; tallow, 24 stones, 7 1b., (2876 Ibs.) A steer, under four years old; four quar- ters, 106 stones; tallow, 19 stones, 7 lb., (1757 Ibs.) 1814.—A steer, three years and nine months old; four quarters, 101 stones, tallow, 15 stones, (1624 lbs.) 1815.—A steer, three years eleven months old ; four quarters, 112 stones, 7 Ib.; tallow, 26 stones, (1939 Ibs.) A heifer, three years eight months old; four quarters, 89 stones, (1246 Ibs.) 1817.—A steer, three years two months old; four quarters, 95 stones, 10 Ib. ; tallow, 17 stones, 10 Ib, (1528 Ibs.) 1822.—An ox, four years and a half old; four quarters, 135 stones ; tallow, 21 stones, (2184 Ibs.) VII. Short-Horns in America. Mr. Allen, the editor of the Short-Horn Tlerd Book, in his work on American cattle, gives an exhaustive account of importations of Short- ILorns into the United States, from which we gather the following record of the more important importations : Soon after the Revolutionary war, a few cattle supposed to be pure Short-Horns, were brought into Virginia. These were said to be well- fleshed animals, and the cows remarkable for milk, giving as high as thirty-two quarts in a day. Some of the produce of these cattle, as early as 1797, were taken into Keutucky by Mr, Patton, where they were called the ** Patton stock.’? They were well cared for, and made a decided improvement in the cattle of the Blue grass country. In 1815-16, Mr. Cox, an Enelishman, imported a bull and two heifers into Rensseler county, New York. They were followed in 1822 by two bulls, imported by another Englishman named Hayne. Descendants from this Cox stock were said to be bred pure, and afterwards crossed by Mr. Hayne’s bulls. ‘The stock now exists in considerable numbers and of good quality, in that and adjoining counties. In 1817, Col. Lewis Sanders, of Lexington, Kentucky, made an impor- tation of three bulls and three heifers from England. They were of good quality and blood, and laid the foundation of many excellent herds in that State. In I8t8, Mr. Cornelius Cooledge, of Boston, Massa- chusetts, imported a yearling heifer—* Flora’ —and a bull—*+Cicero’’— ——————————————— SHORT-HORN CATTLE. DAL into that city, from the herd of Mr. Mason, of Chilton, in the county of Durham, England. ‘These were carefully bred, and many of their descendants are now scattered throughout several States. lilt Wii | INNINI WN HI NR ‘OFS. dO T1Qa NUOH-LYOHS Shortly previous to 1821, the late John S. Skinner, of Baltimore, Maryland, imported for Governor Lloyd, of that State, a bull—*Cham- pion’’—and two heifers—** White Rose”? and ‘* Shepherdess’’—from the 542 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. herd of Mr. Champion, a noted English breeder. From these, several good animals descended, some of which are now known. In 1823, Mr. Skinner also imported for the late Gen. Stephen Van Rensseler, of Albany, New York, a bull—* Washington’’—and two i SHORT-HORN COW. ‘‘ROSAMOND.” | Bil | WG ut (TW) i Ry AR MET AN AR! Z Ms Z Ay \} 1 | heifers—** Conquest’’ and ‘* Pansey’’—from the same herd of Mr. Champion. Conquest did not breed; Pansey was a successful breeder, and many of her descendants are now scattered over the country. SHORT-HORN CATTLE. 543 During the years 1522 to 1830, Mr. Charles Henry Hall, of New York, imported several Short-Horn bulls and cows, from some of the best English herds. Their descendants are now scattered through sey- eral good herds. ‘TTOd NYOH-LUOHS HNITUVAL INA HT Ne NY i i In 1824 the late Col. John Hare Powell, of Philadelphia, Pa., com- menced importations, and for several years continued them with much 544 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. spirit and judgment. He bred them assiduously at Iris fine estate at Powelton, near the city, and sold many to neighboring breeders, and to go into Ohio and Kentucky, where many of their descendants still remain. In the year 1833, the late Mr. Walter Dun, near Lexington, Ky., im- ported a bull and several valuable cows from choice herds in Yorkshire, Kngland. He bred them with much care, and their descendants are now found in many good western herds. VIII. The Great Ohio Importation. But the first enterprise in importing Short-Horns upon a grand scale was commenced in 18354, by an association of cattle breeders of the Scioto Valley, and its adjoining counties, in Ohio. They formed a com- pany with adequate capital, and sent out an agent who purchased the best cattle to be found, without regard to price, and brought out nine- teen animals in one ship, landed them at Philadelphia, and drove them to Ohio. Further importations were made by the same company, in the years 1835 and 1836. The cattle were kept and bred together in one locality, for upwards of two years, and then sold by auction. They brought large prices—$500 to $2,500 each. IX. Kentucky and other Importations. In 1837-8-9, importations were made into Kentucky, by Messrs. James Shelby and Henry Clay, Jr., and some other parties, of several well- selected Short-Horns, some of which were kept and bred by the import- ers, and the others sold in their vicinity. In 1837-8-9, Mr. Whitaker sent out to Philadelphia, on his own account, upwards of a hundred Short-Horns, from his own and other herds, and sold them at auction. They were purchased at good prices, mostly by breeders from Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Kentucky, and dis- tributed widely through those States. About the year 1839, Mr. George Vail, of Troy, N. Y., made an im- portation of a bull and heifer, purchased of Mr. Thomas Bates, of Kirk- leavington, the first cattle from that particular herd which had been intro- duced into the State. A few years later, he purchased and imported several more cows from the herd of Mr. Bates, crosses of his ‘*Duchess”’ and other families. He bred them with success and widely distributed their blood. X. Importation of Bates Cattle. Mr. Thomas Bates, a distinguished Short-Horn breeder in England, died in 1849. His herd, fully equal in quality to any in England, was SHORT-HORN CATTLE. d49 sold in 185°. The choicest of them—of the ‘‘Duchess’’ and ‘*Oxford’’ tribes—fell mostly into the hands of the late Lord Dacie. He was a skillful breeder, and of most liberal spirit, and during the brief time he Gens NUOH-LYUOHS “MOO held them the reputation of the Bates stock, if possible, increased. Within three years from the time of the sale of Mr. Bates’ herd, Lord 35 DAG THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, SHORT-HORN BULL. i \] Hi 4 | i hens Wl Ht H| (Ht Wee \ Wii SHORT-THORN CATTLE od Dacie died. Tn 1853, peremptory sale of his stock was widely adyer- tised. Allured by the reputation of his herd, several American gentle- men went over to witness it. The attendance of Knelish breeders was very large, and the sales averaged higher prices in individual animals than had been reached since the famous sale of Charles Colling in 1810. Mr. “MOO NNOH-LYHOWS DNIOK V Samuel Thorne, of Duchess county, N. Y., bought several of the best and highest priced animals, of the ‘Duchess’? and “Oxford” tribes, and added to them several more choice ones, from different herds. Messrs. L. G. Morris, and the late Noel J. Beear, of New York, bought othersof the ‘*Duchess,’? and “Oxfords,’’ to which they added more from othe HY ta) THE AMBRICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. choice herds. ‘These ‘Bates’? importations have since been bred so suc- cessfully by their holders here, that several young bulls and heifers have been purchased by English breeders, and sent over to them at good prices, where they are highly valued. In 1852-3-4, several spirited companies were formed in Clinton, Mad- ison, and other counties in Ohio, and in Bourbon, Fayette, and some other counties of Kentucky, and made importations of the best cattle to be found in the Enelish herds, and after their arrival here, distributed among their stockholders. Mr. R. A. Alexander, of Kentucky, also, during those years, made extensive importations of choice blood for his own breeding, so that in the year 1856, it may be said that the United States possessed, according to their numbers, as valuable a selection of Short-Horns as could be found in England itself. XI. Canadian Short-Horns. Keeping pace with the States, a number of enterprising Canadians, since the year 1835, among whom may be named the late Mr. Adam Fergusson, Mr. Howitt, Mr. Wade, the Millers, near Toronto, Mr. Frederick Wm. Stone, of Guelph, and Mr. David Christie, of Brantford, in Canada West, and Mr. M. H. Cochrane and others in Lower Canada, have made sundry importations of excellent cattle, and bred them with skill and spirit. Many cattle from these importations, and their descend- ants, have been interchanged between the United States and Canada, and all may now be classed, without distinction, as American Short- Horns. XII. Westward March of the Short-Horns, In the West, the North-west and in the South-west, as fast as the set- tlement of the country allowed, the Short-Horns were every-where intro- duced, and within the last fifteen years, annual safes have been made at important cities and on the farms of the wealthier breeders, where the surplus stock is bid off at auction. ‘These sales are attended by buyers from all parts of the country, especially by breeders from the newer settlements West, until now Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado and even the territory of Dakota, have most excellent herds of their own. In addition to this, Short-Horn bulls are shipped by the car-load to the great herding grounds of the far western plains to improve the stock there. XIII. Short-Horns as Beei-Makers. It is to be regretted that we no longer have the fine milking strains of Short-Horns, that were so abundant thirty years ago. Nevertheless, their places are amply supplied by the Jerseys, the Ayrshires and the Dutch Friesian or Holstein cattle, SHORT-ILORN CATTLE. 549 If the Short-Horns fail as milkers they have been wonderfully im- proved as beef-makers, und as wonderfully developed in point of carly maturity, so that they are now produced ripe for the butcher at three yeurs old, and are quite fit for killing at any age from yearlings up. While they are wonderful as beef-makers, they certainly are the hand- somest cattle, to the eye, of any in the known world. They have great thickness of carcass, and the prime points especially are full. The offal is no more than in ordinary steers that will not attain more than half their weight. They have been sneeringly called ** the gentleman’s steers.’ The breeding of them is certainly patronized by the wealthy, as objects of beauty, and butchers seem to be especially anxious to get the ripe ones for Christmas beef. In the older settled parts of the country there are few cattle but show more or less of this almost universally admired blood. XIV. The Patton Family of Short-Horns. Soon after the Revolutionary war, as already stated, cattle, supposed to have been pure-bred Short-Horns, were brought to Virginia. The progeny of some of these cattle were taken to Kentucky by «a gentleman named Patton, from whence, in course of time, they became widely dis- seminated as Patton stock—a name which was even corrupted into ‘‘patent stock.’? This was not a misnomer however, since, as we knew them over forty years ago, they were heavy cattle, that ripened at an varly age, for that day, and among them were many remarkable milkers. They were somewhat course as compared with the Short-ILorns of to- day, but thick-meated, broad-loined, round-barrelled animals, eood at the pail; and, on the butcher’s block, they gave large carcasses of excel- lent beef. XV. Grade Cows and Steers. ’ A report in the fifth volume of the ‘Transactions of Massachusetts,’ gives the well-authenticated statement of Mr. Robinson of Barre, from which we gather the following interesting facts: The cows under trial were half and three-quarters bred. Seven of them yielded, during the first seven days in June, 2,207 pounds of milk, averaging forty-five pounds per diem to each cow. From this mills 232 pounds of cheese was made, averaging one pound of cheese to nine and a half pounds of imilk. The same cows gave during the three following days 955 pounds of milk, from which forty-one pounds nine ounces of butter were made, averaging one pound of butter to twenty-three pounds of milk. It will be seen that the milk that makes one pound of butter will make two and «a half pounds of cheese. These cows had no extra feed during the trial, hay- ing been turned to pasture onthe 15th of May. This instance is selected not as a very extraordinary performance, but as a well-authenticated and carefully-conducted experiment. dO THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. So far as the grade steers are concerned they are well known to be thrifty, easily-fed animals that mature fully a year in advance of the native cattle, from which they are in part descended. XVI. Short-Horns Critically Described. For afull and graphic description of all the points which go to make up a high-caste Short-Horn, there is no better authority than the writings of Mr. Rotch of New York, and Mr. A. C. Stevenson, formerly President of the Indiana Short-Horn Breeders’ Association. By the aid of the careful analysis made by these eritical judges, the many excellent and valuable qualities of the breed may be readily estimated. The ma- jestic size, proud carriage and beautifully variegated colors of the Short- Horn render him easily recognized by the merest tyro. But few who thus admire and recognize them are aware how many qualifications go to make up this splendid whole, or how carefully each point has been weighed and discussed, and its relative value decided; how the useful parts are divided from the ornamental and fashionable, and how systematically the whole has been earried out. XVII. The Head. The high-caste Short-Horn should have a small head, a broad, flat forehead, with no projection of the frontal bones; the face should be well cut out below the eyes, tapering to a fine muzzle with open nostrils. The nose must be flesh or chocolate colored; any discoloration hinting towards black or blue is very objectionable, though occasionally seen in some of the highest bred families. The eye must be bright, prominent, and yet placid ; a small, piggish or hollow eye, or one showing viciour- ness or nervousness, is alike to be avoided, the latter indicating a bad feeder almost invariably. The circle around the eyes should be of a bright yellow or flesh color. Asa very large ear indicates sluggishness, one of medium size is preferable. The horns should be well set on, curving forward, not too heavy, and of a clear, waxy yellow color at the base, though this waxy color is not universally deemed essential—some claim that the horns should be flat. XVIII. The Neck. The neck is moderately long, clean in the throat, and running neatly into the shoulders, which should not be too prominent at the points, nor too wide at the top, else the crops will be certain to seem defective ; they should mould nicely into the fore-quarters, and be well covered with flesh on the outside. The neck-vein should he well filled up with flesh, and form on smoothly to the shoulder points. The chest must be broad and SHORT-HORN CATTLE. D5] deep, and full back of the elbows, which secures a good girth and conse quent room for the most important vital organs. The brisket should he full and broad rather than narrow and projecting ; it is of inferior quality as beef, yet,as a point of beauty and as indicating a propensity to fatten, must not be overlooked. A thin, broad neck is sure to indicate weakness and poor feeding qualities. Animals having such may well be avoided as breeders. XIX. The Body. The body should be square, massive and symmetrical. The line of the back should be straight ; the line of the belly nearly so, swelling a little behind the ribs; the flank low; the ribs barrel-shaped ; the loins wide, and the rump long and wide. ‘he back should be wide, and the thigh should be long and wide; the legs short and comparatively small, or at least not coarse ; tail light; hair soft and fine. The color should be red or white, or a mixture of the two, as roan or pied. The body should be nearly a square. A very lengthy bullock never fattens so readily as a short one, for he does not possess all the elements of health and vigor in the same degree as the shorter and more compact animal. XX. The Legs Short and Straight. The body should be set on short legs which should be straight and well under the animal; the fore legs should be small in the bone below the knee, whilst the forearm must be broad and tapering downwards, fitting level into the girth ; the hind legs must be nearly straight. If the hocks are too much bent, turn inward, or not well under the body, it not only gives an awkward gait in walking, but is generally a sign of weakness. XXI. The Loin Broad. The loin must be broad and well carried forward into the crops, and covered with thick flesh moulding nicely on to the hips, which though wide must not be too prominent, but slope away gradually to the rump or side bones at the tail. A quarter badly filled up between hips and rumps or scooped-out, as it is termed, is very objectionable. The back must be level from neck to tail, with no drops back of the shoulders, nor any rise where the tail is set on; the rumps must be well Jaid up but not too high, else when the animal is fat we shall have those large masses of fat aggregated about them so common among the breed some years since, hut now deservedly stigmatized as bad. The twist should be well filled out in the seam, wide and deep, the outside thigh full, the flank deep, and forming with the fore-flank and belly (the latter well supported by its plates) a parallel line with the animal’s back. Hh THE AMERICAN PARMER'S STOCK BOOK, XXIT, Wide in the Crops, The animal broad in the evops has a better back ; but it is also evidence ofa better rib beneath the shoulder-blade, giving @reater width to the chest within, and consequently greater play to the lunes, ‘Chis position of the shouldersblade enables the legs to be brought more gracefully under the chest beneath, ‘Phere wre some beasts whose fore legs stand so wide apart that they veryimuch resemble two sticks stuek into a hiree pumpkin, Such animals are considered awkward wid inconvenient at least. XXIII. Tho Back Straight and Broad, A broad back affords valuable roasting pieces, and will be the delight of the butcher, “Phe straight back affords a better spinal column, and gives the proper space to the cavities beneath, which, as we have just seen, are occupied by the most important organs, A straight line also gives to the ribs amore graceful as wellas a more convenient attachment, XXIV. Tho Ribs Barrel-Shaped, Tho ribs rising well from the spine, giving to the body a round or bar- reled shape, gives much more room to the orewns within—the heart and lunes than there would be if the ribs descended in such a manner as to vive wv flat side, A boast with fat sides, and consequently a murrow Lhrowt, will liek greatly in vigor and health, and all the essential quali- lies that constitute a good bullock. A bad rib gives poor space to the abdominal ores which lie immediately behind those of the chest, unless the belly is greatly sagged, which is generally the case, XXV. The Touch, By handling ov the touch, butchers ascertain beforehand the quality of (heflesh, By it the breeder ascertains the aptitude to fatten as well as the quadity and quantityof fosh that the animal withearry, Of all the qual- ities of the ox, this is probably the most difficult to understand, — tt is the peculiae sensation of softness and ehisticity that is produced by the pressure of the hand on different parts of the body. ‘Phis sensation de- pends, in part, upon a huwee celluha development beneath the skin and between the muscles, and in part upon the muscuku structive, adapting itself to the duties it has to perform, Tt is very common to find a soft. ching of the muscular fibre as an aecompaniment or a precursor of dis- ose that may mistead, ‘Pho same may be observed in the awed of both man and beast. What is stouch,’ or what is it to ‘handle well?’ Tow is it to be distinguished from that whieh portends bad health and old age ? by its clasticity its power to replice the parts when pressed—a springy cnsation, SHORT-HORN CATT, 553 It will require much practice to become an adept in this knowledge. Still, many useful lessons may be daily had by the examination and hand- ling of one’s own stock, Comparative handling will afford much assist- ance, "Take those animals that are known to accumulate fat readily and largely, as the opossum or the bear, or any other known to take on fat readily, and you will find a peculiarty soft and mellow ‘touch,’ XXVI. The Hide. The skin should be thick, soft and clastie—titting alike either a poor or fat ox, A lean animal, with an inelastic skin stretched upon him, could not fatten for the want of space to expand in. But with an elastic skin he muy be swelled to great dimensions in what seemed to be but a covering for his bones. The skin performs very important functions in the animal economy, [tis not ouly a covering for all the parts beneath it, but it is the seat of a vast system of minute blood vessels and capil lavies, of exhalents and absorbents, A vast nervous tissue centers here that venders the skin sensitive in the highest degree, The great vital worth and importance of the skin may be readily appreciated by any injuries done it, The rapidity with which extensive burns destroy life may serve as a sufficient WHustration, Destroy my skin, and you shall have my bones also.” XXVIII, The Hair. The hair should be thick, soft, mossy and fine, forming « protection against inclemencies of weather, Wine hav is an evidence of a finely organized win, a skin exquisitely finished in its whole structure of minute vessels mid tissues, A skin thus delicately organized is also evidence that other organs are alike constructed, Nature in all her parts undoubt- edly produces a correspondence, so that if one part is of a peculiar structure, cither fine ov course, other parts are apt to correspond, Parts seen mniy be considered indicative of parts not seen, I may be per mitted to add that in all the serab cattle that 1 have grazed and fed, | have never found one with fine silky hair that did not fatten well and make a desirable bullock, XXVIII, The Color, As vegards color, the latitude is very great, from deep blood-red through all the intermediate shades and mixtures to pure white, but any other colors, as brown, black ov dun, are never met with in thovough- breds, Pashion bis vindicated the rich red and purple rowan as the most desirable colors, and after them ved, White is sometimes objected to, under the impression that it is apt to spread through a herd and over- power the other colors; but this feu is more common in this country 5d4 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. than in England, where white bulls are often used. Red and white, in blotches, with defined edges not running into roan, is disliked, and the term patchy is applied to it. This discrimination, however, as regards color, is entirely arbitrary, animals of equal excellence and breeding being found of all these colors. XXIX. Beef Points Illustrated. In the accompanying outline illustration of the points of a Short-Horn bull the letters a, 6, c,d, f,h, m, j,k, %, y, 2, vepresent the inferior parts: from the girth p, back, including 7, s, ¢,u,v, the superior parts. POINTS OF SHORT-HORN BULL. From this it will be easy to understand the points and the respective num- hers given in the tabulated scale of points as authoritatively stated in the American Herd Book XXX. Scale of Points for Short-Horn Bulls. POINTS. Art. 1.—Purity of breed on male and female side; sire and dam reputed for docility of disposition, early maturity and aptitude to fatten; sire a good stock-getter, dam a good breeder ; and giving a large quantity of milk, or such as is superior for bam | making butter or cheese. - - - - - Arr. 2.—Head muscular and fine; the horns fine and gradually diminishing to a point, of a flat rather than a round shape at the base, short and inclined to turn up, those of a clear, waxy color to be preferred, but such as are of a transparent white, SHORT-HORN CATTLE. and tinged with yellow, admissable ; ears small, thin and coy- ered with soft hair, playing quick, moving freely ; forehead short, broad, especially between the eyes, and slightly dished ; eyes bright, placid and rather prominent than otherwise, with a yellow rim around them ; lower part of the face clean, dished and well developing the course of the veins ; muzzle small, nose of a clear orange or light chocolate color; nostrils wide and open; lower jaw thin; teeth clean and sound. - - Art. 3.—Neck fine and slightly arched, strongly and well set on the head and shoulders, harmoniously widening, deepening and rounding as it approaches the latter point; no dewlap. - Art. 4.—Chest broad, deep and projecting, the brisket on a lower line than the belly. - - - - - - . - Arr. 5.—Shoulders broad, strong, fine and well placed; forelegs short, straight, and standing rather wide apart than narrow ; fore-arm muscular, broad and powerful, slightly swelling and full above the knee; the bone fine and flat ; knees well knit and strong; foot flat, and in shape an oblong semicircle ; horn of the hoof sound and of a clear waxy color. - - ae) Arr. 6.—Barrel round and deep, and well ribbed up the hips. - Art. 7.—Back short, straight and broad from the withers to the settingon of the tail; cropsround and full; loins broad ; huckle bones on a level with the back; tail well set, on a level with the back, fine and gradually diminishing to a point, and hang- ing, without the brush, an inch or so below the hock, at right angles with the back. - - - - - - ay Arr. 8.—Hind quarters from the huckle to the point of the rump well filled up; twist well let down and full; hind legs short, straight, and well spread apart, gradually swelling and rounding above the hock; the bone fine and flat below: legs not to cross each other in walking, nor to straddle behind. - - - Art. 9.—Skin of medium thickness, movable and mellow ; a white color is admissable, but rich cream or orange much preferable : hair well covering the hide, soft and fine, and if undercoated with soft, thick fur in winter, so much the better; color, pure white, red roan, bright red, or reddish yellow and white. (A black or dark brown nose or a rim around the eye, black or dark spots on the skin and hair decidedly objectionable, and indicative of coarse meat and bad blood. ) - - - - Arr. 10.—Good handling. - - - - - - - Arr. 11.—Sure stock-getter. - - - - - - 5d THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. Arr. 12.—Stock, when made steer, certain to feed kindly for beef- ers at any age, und make prime beef. - - - - - Arr. 13.—General appearance. - - . - : r 2 Perfection. = : = = = : bs > 2 XXXII. Scale of Points for Short-Horn Cows. 30 POINTS. Arr. 1.—Purity of breed on male and female side; sire and dam reputed for docility of disposition, early maturity and aptitude to fatten. Sire a good stock-getter. Dam a good breeder ; giving a large quantity of milk, or such superior for making butter or cheese. - - - - - ~ - - Arr. 2.—Head small and tapering; long and narrower in propor- tion than that of the bull. Horns fine and gradually diminish- ing toa point; of a flat rather than of a round shape at the base; short, and inclined to turn up; those of a clear waxy color to be preferred ; but such as are of a transparent white, slightly tinged with yellow, admissible. Ears small, thin, and well covered with soft hair; playing quick, moving frecly. Forehead of good breadth between the eyes, and slightly dished. Eyes bright, placid, and rather prominent than otherwise, with a yellow rim round them. The lower part of the face clean, dished, and well developing the course of the veins. Muzzle small; nose of a clear bronze, or light chocolate color—the former much preferred. Nostrils wide and well opened. Lower jaw thin. Teeth clear and sound. - - - - . Arr. 3.—Neck fine and thin, straight, and well set on to the head and shoulders, harmoniously widening, deepening, and slightly rounding in a delicate feminine manner as it approaches the latter point. No dewlap. - - - - - - - Arr. 4.—Shoulders fine and well placed. Fore legs, short straight and well spread apart. Fore-arm wide, muscular, slightly swelling, and full above the knee ; the bone fine and flat below. Knees well knit and strong. Foot flat and in shape of an oblong semi-circle. Horn of the hoof sound, and of a clear waxy color. - - - - - - - - - - Arr. 5.—Chest broad, deep and projecting—the brisket on a lower line than the belly. - - - - - - . - Arr. 6.—Barrel round, deep and well ribbed up to the hips. . Arr. 7.—Back short, strong, straight from the withers to the set- ting of the tail. Crop round and full. Loin broad. Huckle bones on a level with the back. Tail well set, on a level with SHORT-HORN CATTLE. the back or very slightly below it ; fine and gradually diminish- ing to a point; and hanging, without the brush, an inch or so below the hock, at right angles with the back. - - - Arr. 8.—Hind quarters from the huckles to the point of the rump long and well filled up. Twist well let down and full. Hind legs short, straight and well spread apart; gradually swelling and rounding above the hock; the bone fine and flat below. Foot flat, and in shape of an oblong semi-circle. Horn of the hoof sound, and of a clear waxy color, Legs not to cross each- other in walking, nor to straddle behind. - - - - Arr. 9.—Udder broad, full, extending well forward along the belly, and well up behind. ‘Teats of a good size for the hand ; squarely placed with a slight oblique pointing out; wide apart; when pressed by the hand the milk flowing from them freely. Extra teats indicative of good milking qualities, but should never be milked, as they draw the bag out of shape. Milk veins large and swelling. - - - - - - - - - Arr. 10.—Skin of a medium thickness: movable and mellow; a white color is admissible, but a rich cream or orange much pref- erable. Hair well covering the hide; soft and fine, and if underecoated with soft, thick fur in the winter, so much the het- ter. Color pure white, red, roan, bright red, red and white, spotted roan, or reddish and yellow and white. (A black or dark brown nose, or rim around the eye, black or dark brown spots on the skin and the hair decidedly objectionable, and indic- ative of course meat and bad blood. ) - - - - Art. 11.—Good handler. — - - - - = - - Arr. 12.—Sure and good breeder. - - - - - . Arr. 15.—General appearance. - = - - - - Perfection. = 2 : : B is CHAPTER VI. THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS. 1. A FASHIONABLE BREED.——TII. THE GUERNSEYS. Ill. THE ALDERNEY IN YOUATT’S TIME. IV. THE JERSEY OF TO-DAY.——Y. CROSSING THE JERSEYS. VI. THE JERSEY DESCRIBED. VII. MILK MIRRORS. Vill. GUENON’S THEORY OF MILK MIRRORS. IX. THEIR PRACTICAL UTILITY. x THE ESCUTCHEON MARKS. XI. GOOD MILKERS IN ALL BREEDS. XII. VALUE OF IMEREDITY.—XIII. INFLUENCE OF GOOD DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION.—XIV. THE MILK VEINS. XV. THE UDDER AND TWIST VEINS. XVI. MR. SHARP- LESS’ OPINION. XVII. SYMMETRY ESSENTIAL WHATEVER THE BREED. XVIII. THE JERSEY NOT A DAIRY COW. XIX. SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY COWS AND HEIFERS——XxX. RULES IN AWARDING PRIZES. XXI. SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY BULLS. XXII. ESTIMATING THE VALUE OF POINTS. XXIII. COLOR AND SIZE.—-XXIV. FROM A PRACTICAL STAND-POINT. I. A Fashionable Breed. Within the last fifteen years, the Jersey, Alderney and Guernsey cat- tle, second in importance of the short-horned breeds of Great Britain, have acquired great celebrity, not so much for the quanity of the milk they give, as for its exceeding richness in cream, and the excellence of the butter made therefrom. Those originally brought from the islands of Jersey and Alderney are now called Jerseys, just as all Dutch cattle have been called Holsteins, while the Guernsey cattle are kept separate and distinct, under the proper name of the island from which they came. Ii. The Guernseys. While the Jerseys and Alderneys have the most admirers, especially umong fashionable breeders, from their deer-like forms and general air of elegant lightness, the Guernseys are coming into prominence as being larger, better-built, (that is, not so angular,) and better feeders ; for it must be confessed that the Jersey cow, for its size, is a great consumer. The Guernsey cow is also a larger producer of milk, though it is averred by the Jersey breeders that it is not so rich in quality. Jersey cattle, however, vary much in this respect, and it is certain that the Guernsey cows are growing more and more into favor every year as but- ter and milk producing cows. III. The Alderney in Youatt’s Time. Youatt says of this breed, which he classes with the cattle of Nor- mandy, that they are from the French continent ; that the cattle of Nor- mandy are larger and have a greater tendency to fatten; that others are dd8 THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS. 5909 from the islands of the French coast, but that all of them, whether from the continent or islands, pass under the common nanie of Alderney. Youatt also adds, on the authority of Mr. Parkinson, who seems to have been a prejudiced observer, that, ‘The Alderney, considering its voracious appetite—for it devours almost as much as a Short-Horn—yields very little milk,’* but admits the milk to be rich in quality, though ‘it is not rich enough, yielding the small quantity she does, to pay for what it costs.” If this be true, the Jersey has improved fully as much within the last fifty years as any other breed. IV. The Jersey of To-Day. Be the statements of the authorities quoted what they may, the Jersey of to-day is a very different animal from that which they describe. That the Jerseys are large feeders for their size there is no doubt, and that. they give the richest milk of any known breed is quite as certain. That some of them, at least, give large quantities of milk, the following extract from the American Encyclopedia of Agriculture will show: ‘* The butter from the cows is very rich in cream and deep yellow in color, so much so that a few cows in a herd will decidedly change the color of the butter of the whole herd. The percentage of cream to milk varies from eighteen to twenty-five per cent., and the proportion of butter to cream varies from 3.70 to 8.07 in 100 parts. Twenty-six quarts per day has been recorded as the product of an individual cow, and four- teen pounds of butter per week. Sixteen quarts per day may be re- garded as a good yield, and when we take into consideration the light weight of the cow, and the fact that the milk will yield from one-quarter to one-sixth of the richest cream, we need not wonder that these gentle and deer-like cattle have become universal favorites as family cows. Our own observation is that twelve quarts a day may be considered a good average yield of milk, from the pure-bred animals—an. average fully one-third more than that of good native herds. V. Crossing The Jersey. Crossing the Jerseys with other improved breeds has not resulted satis- factorily. Their value, however, is priceless when crossed upon good milkers from native herds. They have added largely to the quality of the milk of the inferior stock ; and crosses of the Jersey bull upon the ordinary native cows of a district, have not only imparted richness to the milk, but have resulted in an increased flow. Their sole use is among those who wish exceedingly rich milk, and, whatever the strain, we think no advantage will be found in crossing them on any of the beef breeds. They are milking cattle, and their legitmate use is to supply the demands of people who want quality, and not quantity of milk. © 560 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. The bulls may improve the native milking stock of the country, and whatever variety is used, whether those from the Isle of Jersey, Alder- ney or Guernsey, use only pure bulls. Do not take a grade-bull at any price ; those purely bred are now sufficiently plenty, so that they can he BULL, JERSEY | Ht WH UUVUMTULA LST LLL had at reasonable prices. The pure bulls are prepotent in perpetuating rich milking qualities. The grades are not. If an additional reason were wanted, please remember that the produce of a pure animal on one not of improved blood is a half-blooded calf. The produce of a half- blood on native cattle would be only one-quarter blood. THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS. 561 VI. The Jersey Described. Mr. Lewis.F. Alien, a conscientious and acecarate historian of cattle, but who, it must be confessed, has something of a prejudice in favor of the (to him) favorite Short-Horns, accurately describes the Jersey, as fol- lows: ‘Beginning with the head—the most characteristic feature—the muzzle is fine; the nose either dark brown or black, and occasionally a yellowish shade, with a peculiar mealy, light-colored hair, running up the face into a smoky hue, when it gradually takes the general color of the body. ‘The face is slightly dishing, clean of flesh, mild and gentle in expression ; the eye clear and full, and encircled with a distinct ring of the color of the nose; the forehead bold ; the horn short, curving inward to JERSEY BULL, HEIFER AND CALF. and waxy in color, with black tips: the ear sizable, thin, and quick in movement. The whole head is original, and blood-like in appearance, —more so than in almost any other of the cattle race,—reminding one strongly of the head of our American elk. The neck is somewhat de- pressed—would be called ewe-necked by some—but clean in the throat, with moderate or little dewlap; the shoulders are wide and somewhat ragged, with prominent points, running down to a delicate arm, and slen- der legs beneath. The fore-quarters stand rather close together, with a thinnish, yet well developed brisket between. The ribs are flat, yet giving sufficient play for good lungs; the back depressed and somewhat hollow ; the belly deep and large ; the hips tolerably wide ; the rump and tail high; the loin and quarter medium in length; the thigh thin and 36 ; 7 062 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. deep; the twist wide, to accommodate a clean, good-sized udder; the flanks mediam; the hocks or gambrel joints crooked; the hind legs small; the udder capacious, square, set well forward, and covered with soft, silky hair; the teats fine, standing well apart and nicely tapering ; the milk veins prominent. On the whole she is a homely, blood-like, gentle, useful little housekeeping body, with a most kindly temper, loy- ing to be petted, and, like the pony with the children, readily becomes a great favorite with those who have her about them, either in pasture, paddock, stable or the lawn. The colors are usually light red or fawn, occasionally smoky grey, and sometimes black, mixed or splashed more or less with white.”’ VII. Milk Mirrors. To M. Francois Guenon, a farmer of Sibourne, France, is due the credit of having perfected a system for determining the value of a cow for milk, by the escutcheon or milk sign, (mirror as it is sometimes called) extending from the root of the tail, in the best animals, down over the udder behind and between the thighs. The writer studied it and bred by it when engaged in active farming, and, while not willing to accord full credit to the judgment of the French committee of agricul- ture at Bordeaux, in 1828, he believes them conscientious in their report. They used this strong language: ‘** This system we do not fear to say is infallible.”” My own observation leads me to regard it as being so essen- tially correct, that a careful study of the **signs’’ will enable any person to judge pretty correctly as to the quantity and quality of the milk given and also as to the time of giving milk, after the cow is again in calf, In breeding, ex»mine also the corresponding escutcheon in the bull, for we have always found that the bull showing the marks eminently will be pretty sure to get calves that will grow up to be good milkers. VIII. Guenon’s Theory of Milk Mirrors. In the Guenon system there are twenty-seven diagrams representing the various grades of milking qualities, including what is called a bastard escutcheon to each grade. These vary from the fullest development in the growth of upward hair, and in the ‘‘scurf marks,’ down to the least possible exhibit—the ‘* bastard escutcheons’’ showing, by peculiar signs, that the cow will not only give poor milk, but will fail early after again coming to be with calf. The hair indicating a good milker turns upward, is short and fine, and contains peculiar oval marks or scurf spots. The skin over this whole surface is easily raised, and is especially soft and fine in good milkers. THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS. 563 IX. Their Practical Utility. To illustrate the value of the signs of a good milker, we give the re- sults obtained by two close and intelligent observers, one a French authority, Prof. Magne, V.8., of the Veterinary School at Alfort, the other Mr. Charles Sharpless of Pennsylvania. In relation to the indica- tions Prof. Magne, differing somewhat from Mr. Guenon, lays down the following rules : ‘©The direction of the hair is subordinate to that of the arteries ; when alarge plate of hair is directed from below, upwards on the posterior face of the udder, and on the twist, it proves that the arteries that sup- ply the milky system are large, since they pass backwards beyond it, convey much blood, and consequently give activity to its functions. Up- per tufts, placed on the sides of the vulva, prove that the arteries of the generative organs are strongly developed, reach even to the skin, and give great activity to those organs. The consequence is, that after a cow is again with ealf, it draws off the blood which was flowing to the milky glands, lessens, and even stops the secretions of milk. ‘‘In the bull, the arteries, corresponding to the mammary arteries of the cow, being intended only for coverings of the testicles, are very slightly developed ; and there, accordingly, the escutcheons are of small extent. xX. The Escutcheon Marks. ‘© This explanation, which accords very well with au tnat has been ob- served, renders it easy to comprehend the value of the escutcheon. The more the lower ones are developed, the greater the quantity of milk ; but shape is of consequence. ‘** But the quantity of milk, and its quality, do not depend solely on the form and size of the escutcheon ; they depend on the food, the par- ticular management, the climate, the season, the temperament, the size and energy of the principal internal organs, the capacity of the chest, the influence of the generative system, etc. All these circumstances cause the quantity of milk to vary, without making any change on the extent of the escutcheon ; consequently, it is impossible that the same relation can always exist between the escutcheons aud the quantities of milk. We often see cows equally well shaped, having exactly the same escutcheon, and placed under the same hygienic condition, yet not giving equal quan- tities, or equal qualities of milk. It could not be otherwise. Assuming that a given tuft has the same value at birth, it cannot be the same in adult age ; since, during life, an infinite number of circumstances occur to diversify the activity of the milky glands, without changing the figure or size of the tuft. db64 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. ‘But the escutcheon has the advantage of furnishing a mark which can be easily discerned and estimated, even by persons of no great expe- rience in the selection of cows—a mark perceptible on very young ani- mals, and on bulls as well as heifers—a mark which, when disencum- bered of the complicated system in which it has been wrapped up, will be in common use and facilitate the increase of good cows, by not allowing any but those of good promise to be reared.’ XI. Good Milkers in all Breeds. Professor Magne also gives the following directions for choosing a good cow, of any breed: ‘*We find good milkers in all breeds, but they are rare in some and very common inothers. It could not be otherwise. Milk properties, depend- ing on the conditions which determine the formation of breeds, are due partly to the climate, the soil, the air, and the plants of the countries where the breeds have originated ; and must therefore vary with the con- ditions peculiar to each locality. Milkers, and more especially animals intended for breeding, must be selected among breeds celebrated for abund- ance of milk. Foras milking qualities are in a great measure dependent. on structure and temperament, which are more or less hereditary, de- scent exercises a great influence. XII. Value of Heredity. “In each breed, therefore, we should choose individuals belonging to the best stocks, and the offspring of parents remarkable for their milking qualities ; for it is certain that good milch cows produce others which re- semble them. A cow of a bad milking family, or even breed, may occa- sionally be an excellent milker, and more than this is not wanted when it is not meant to breed from her. The same cannot be said when breed- ing is intended, because there would be little chance of her trausmitting the accidental or exceptional qualities possessed by her; whereas the qualities forming the fixed and constant characters of the stock would al- most to a certainty be transmitted to descendants. «© These remarks, with regard to breed and parentage, apply to the se- lection of the bull, which, as experience demonstrates, acts like the cow in transmitting the milking qualities which distinguish the breed and stock. XIII. Influence of Good Digestion and Assimilation. “The digestive organs have a great influence on the exercise of all the functions, and particularly on the seeretion of the milk-glands. Where the digestive organs are defective, good milch cows are rarely met with. THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS. 565 Good digestive organs are known by a belly of moderate size, with yielding sides, free from tightness, (in aged animals the belly is often large, though the organs which it contains are in good condition) ; a large mouth, thick and strong lips, a good appetite, easy and quick digestion, glossy hair, supple skin, yet firm, and somewhat oily to the touch. Ani- mals possessing these characteristics may be expected to feed cid drink heavily, and, if they are properly fed, make much blood and yield large quantities of milk. The respiratory organs complete the system of nu- trition. The lungs bring the air breathed into contact with the blood, and render the system of nourishment complete. Hence, a good form, quick digestion and a healthy condition of the lungs are necessary to the production of a large flow of milk. XIV. The Milk Veins. ‘If the veins which surround the udder are large, winding, and varicose (dilated at intervals), they show that the glands receive much blood, and, consequently, that their functions are active, and that the milk is abundant. The veins on the lateral parts of the belly are most easily observed, and all authors decide them to be among the best tests for ascertaining the activity of the glands. These veins issue from the udder, in front, and at the outer angle, where they form, in very good cows, a considerable varicose swelling. They proceed toward the front part of the body, forming angles, more or less distinct, often divide towards their anterior extremity, and sink into the body by several openings. We can make the size of the milk veins prominent by compressing them in their passage, by pressing them at the place where they penetrate into the body. If we press the thumb strongly into the opening through which the vein passes, the width of the opening represents the diameter of the vein, and the thickness of the thumb which stops it represents the vol- ume of blood whose place it occupies. Sometimes the veins are divided. It is then necessary to examine all the openings by which they pass, in order to form a correct estimate. XV. The Udder and Twist Veins. ‘*The veins of the udder and twist are able to furnish valuable indica- tions. They should, in both cases, be highly developed, large and vari- cose ; that is, appear swollen and knotty. The veins of the udder have no definite direction. They present themselves irregularly, with zigzag lines, knotted and more or less oblique. They are never of very large size, except in cows that give large quantities of milk. ‘The veins of the twist directed from above downward, forming a winding line, interspersed with knots, resemble those of the udder in not being visible either in heifers or in cows of only fair milking quality. We 566 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. sannot ascertain their presence in any but very good cows. Of all the marks of abundant milk secretion, the best, and in fact the only infallible marks, are furnished by the veins ef the twist and of the udder. To estimate them correctly it is necessary to take into account the state of the cow in respect to flesh, the thickness of skin, food, ability to stand fatigue, heat ; all the circumstances, in fact, which cause variations inthe general state of the circulation, and in the dilation of the veins. It is nee- essary, moreover, to recollect that in both sexes all the veins are larger in the old than in the young; that the veins which encircle the udder are those which, if the cows are in milk, vary most according to the age of GREAT MILK MIRROR ON HOLSTEIN COW. the animal. Small when the animal is young, they continue to increase in size until after the cow has had several calves, when they come to their full development. «This proportion between the size of the veins and the milk secreted, is observed in all females without exception. The size of the veins and their varicose state being due to the blood attracted by the increased activity of the milk-glands, is not only the sign, but also the measure, of this activity—this connection. In fact, this connection is so close that, if the glands do not give an equal quantity of milk, the larger veins are on the side of the udder which gives the largest quantity. THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS. D67 “The length of time during which milk is given corresponds with the activity of the organs which supply it. Cows which give most milk a day, also give it the longest ; and hence, if no special mark is perceived, we can judge much of the duration of milk by the marks which deter- mine its quantity. It may therefore be accepted that as a rule an abundant milker may be expected to give a long continued flow of milk.” In illustration of what Prof. Magne says of mill mirrors in all breeds, we give an illustration of a wonderful milk mirror on a ILolstein cow, corresponding to the best escutcheon of Mr. Guenon, which he names the Flanders, and which as is well known is one of the Dutch breeds. XVI. Mr. Sharpless’ Opinion. Mr. Charles L. Sharpless of Pennsylvania, a careful breeder of Jersey cattle, and a close observer in relation to milk mirrors, holds the fol- lowing : There is no point in judging a cow so little understood as the escutch- eon. The conclusion of almost every one is, that her escutcheon is good, if there be a broad band of wp-running hair from the udder to the vulva, and around it. These cows with the broad vertical escutcheon are nearly always parallel cows ; that is, with bodies long but not large, and with the under line parallel with the back. Their thighs are thin, and the thigh escutcheon shows on the inside of the thigh rather than on its rear. Next comes the wedge-shaped cow, with the body shorter but very large, deep in the flank, and very capacious. This form does not usually exhibit the vertical escutcheon running up to the vulva, but with a broader thigh may exhibit a thigh escutcheon, which is preferable to the other ; see Fig. 2.—Milk Mirrors of Jersey Cows, on the next page. In both vertical and thigh mirrors, where the hair runs down, intruding on the udder (as low as above the dotted lines) as in Figs. 3 and 4, it damages the escutcheon. If you find a cow with the hair all running down, and between the thighs—that is, with no up-running hair—stamp her as a cipher for yielding milk. There are times when the udder of a cow with an escutcheon like Fig. 4 will be enlarged by non-milking, for the purpose of deception. It is always safer to judge by the eseutcheon rather than by the large size of the udder. The eseutcheons of the best cows — those yielding the most and con- tinuing the longest — will be found to be those which conform to Fig. 2. The vertical escutcheon of Fig. 1 would not injure it ; but if that orna- mental feature has to be at the expense of the high escutcheon, Fig. 2 is best as it 1s. Whenever an eseutcheon is accompanied by a curl on each hind-quarter of the udder, it indicates a yield of the highest order. 568 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. So far, we have noticed only the rear escutcheon, or that which repre- sents the two hind quarters of the udder. The two front quarters are just as important, and should be capacious and run well forward under the body. If the udder in front be concave, or cut up, indicating small capacity, it represents reduced yield. This front or level eseutcheon is distinetly marked in the youne heifer or bull, and can be seen by laying the animal on its back. The udder FIG. 2. wie? a Att, Casal FA \ \ FIG. 4. MILK MIRRORS OF JERSEY COWS, hair under the body all runs backward, commencing at the forward line This dividing line is very perceptible, from the fact of the escutcheon. the head of the that the hair in front of it all runs forward towards animal, while the eseutcheon, or udder hair, all runs backward, over the forward quarters of the udder, around and beyond the teats, and ceases at the markings of the rear escuteheon on and between the thighs. THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEHYS, 569 The breadth and extent forward of this front escutcheon indicates the capacity in the mature animal, of the front quarters of her udder. In some cases this front escutcheon will be found of twice the extent that it is in others, and is evidence of that much more yield, This examination enables one to see the size of the teats and their distance apart, and to test the looseness and softness of the udder skin. It is marked precisely the same in bulls, and can be easily examined at any age between one and ten months. Many think that the eseutcheon of the bull is of littke moment, so that he has a good look. So far is this from being the case, that a bull with awimirror like Fig, 4, or worse, will stamp his escutcheon on, and to that extent damage, his daughters out of cows with escutcheons as choice as JEMSEY IEDR, Fig. 2. In this way the daughters of some of the best cows come very ordinary, while, if you use a bull marked like Fie. 2, he will make a poor eseuteheon better, and will improve the best. Tis injury or benefit will be doubled according to the escutcheon markings under the body in front of his scrotum. Hence the importance of the dam of a bull being unexceptionable in her udder and escuteheon. Ler qualities inherited by her son will be transmitted to his daughter, While careful as to eseutcheons, we must not negleet the other essential features of a good cow—the back, skin, hide, the rich colored skin, and the fine bone. Let the hair be soft and thickly set, and let the skin be mellow, This latter quality is easily determined by grasping between the thumb and forefinger the skin at the rear of the ribs, or the double thick- ness at the base of the flank that joins the stifle-joint to the body, or that 970 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. on the inside of the rump-bone at the setting on of the tail. Let the teats be well apart; let them yield a free and full stream and be large enough without the necessity, in milking, of pulling them between the thumbs and forefingers. And let us ever keep in mind that. the large yielders must be well fed. XVII. Symmetry Essential Whatever the Breed. In estimating the value of a breed its characteristics must be studied. Each breed has its peculiar style and conformation, and thus, symmetry, which is found in all good stock, will vary in different breeds. The Jer- sey has a standard of symmetry peculiarly its own, which we illustrate by at ZS ZL i Avi aS Mew Jovi. es % ie eee JERSEY COW. two engravings, one of a heifer, the other of a cow, which fairly exhibit the characteristics of the breed. The symmetry of the Jerseys is angular. They are essentially fine in the head, with thin necks and rather light fore-quarters, but with large, barrel-shaped bodies, inclined to be flat, rather than round, and swelling behind into deep but rather thin thighs. This same conformation will be found measurably in all milking breeds, but modified, each having its own peculiar symmetry. The Jerseys are essentially milking cows and nothing else, although they fatten rather kindly when past milking ; but the beef is neither supe- rior in quality nor large in quantity. THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS. o71 XVIII. The Jersey not a Dairy Cow. In the strict sense of the word the Jersey is not a dairy cow. She is essentially the cow for rich milk, but not a cheese-maker ; she lacks size to give quantity in this respect. The butter globules are not only larger than in other breeds, but the covering—the film enveloping the fat-globules, is weaker. Hence the globules give up the butter easily in churning. The cream is also high-colored from the excess of yellow pigment it con- tains. For the family requiring milk rich in cream and butter, the Jerseys will always be desirable, and, since they have taken kindly to our climate in nearly every section of the union, and even in Canada, they have from their docile and tractable dispositions become universal favorites where kindly treated. The bulls are not always good-tempered, and hence re- quire not only a firm hand, but careful management ; and the cows, if abused, will by no means fail to resent the brutal treatment. XIX. Scale of Points for Jersey Cows and Heifers. The scale of points adopted by the Royal Agricultural and Horticul- tural Society of Jersey, and by which all animals of the breed are now judged is as follows. It will be the more readily understood if studied in connection with the accompanying illustration of a model Jersey cow figured for perfection. Here is the scale : ARTICLE. POINTS. Il. [oe —Sseonill aibae ehovel jihjeyemmbeee- capo booeHc oo UpadoenodddonOUedoeneene 1 2. CHEEK,—small....... docouepemebondosononecocs nodoodansdens cooDdabe en 1 De MUEDR OAT —-CLOAMe atatalala steferelolalelelele\siele als Acid BdoscD HosooOnadHONbooade okeoEs ] 4, Muzz.LE,—fine, and encircled by a bright color.................-+2-++- J 5. NOSTRILS,—high and open....... soonest noe SnaDadobo os as, odonoolddndoTs ] 6. Horns,—smooth, crumpled, not too thick at the base, and tapering.... ] 7. HARS,—small and thin................. sobudcun capo soddwoDD Soda MOOneE 1 8. HARS,—of a deep orange color within. ---5-- 0-600 sec secs cee ceee scene ] 9. Eyr,—full and placid............. CncdosGosbbou0 Good sHaDAMeaceOUAbCEdS J 10. NECK,—straight, fine, and placed lightly on the shoulders........-...-- 1 in CHIBS 1 — PO ACU AIC OC Diataleteraerataialedeinieyeve sietale ststastetorelstevcialeystetstetsieyatel cfas-ic race 1 122) BARREL.— hooped, broad and deepen oa). cece. nena welslciiains os cle cle ] 13. Well ribbed home, having but little space between the last rib and the niet ] 14. Back,—straight from the withers to the top of the hip................. ] 15. Back,—straight from the top of the hip to the setting on of the tail, and the tail at right angles with the back...... Sb000s0000 soan an ae GSe AWAN I. —timn Cleat carer ers Se elalevetara wise salah 17. Tart,—Hanging down to the hocks............ Mar aneyatatalaveterarevovetavela tafe/etavcte 18. HrpE,—thin and movable, but not too loose...........--.+.seeeeeeeees 19. H1pE,—covered with fine, soft hair..................... noc ooomnosDease 20. Hipr,—of good color..... SORNOOAOOE b COSDAD OG SCOn TEAC UOHOBOD MOO omCS eu 21. FORE-LEGS,—short, straight and fine.............. 22. FORE-ARM,—Swelling, and full above the knee.....................--- 23. HIND-QUARTERS,—from the hock to the point of the rump well filled up ree PSY PSE STS eS D2 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. ARTICLE. POINTS. 24. HIND-LEGS,—short and straight (below the hocks) and bones rather fine. 1 25, HIND-LEGS.—squarely placed, not too close together when yiewed from behind...... ojelee) oie |sleiaiels/aininhaisicfaleloxetste(efaletleleleieisiaze(er scccccccccoce§ = L g a I~ an 4 > a sb - ° i} oo m= nN nN 1 | i sal HA i i=] ” - A | & 2 < . E n =) | cy B a Nn 7 _ a ~ 5 «se IF a) 2 = OTe vA a oe SI A # Zz ° Lan = Se» 5 3 ion] Q A = oO . = 5 a co) is) al a n ot x | a 5 4 a a ° Sy jscece a ie Hae ' ' Deon eovieweria H { ' ' ttl 1 trates Sai assent en | pus ni Ha pity Ht y IHN) OSes soe R 23 ~ Tt ~ ~ a ai 96. HIND-LEGS,—not to Cross iin WEDD Os oie ops cs: = ij i i ' ! ! i ' 1 33 PERFECTION 33 POINTS, ILLUSTRATED. H 1 1 QrHawta o ae o = ~~ x] = = =~ nN D 2 =) = 16. Well ribbed home, having but little space between the last rib and the 17. BacK,—straight from the withers to the top of the hip................-. JERSEY BULL. THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYs. D =<] wt POINTS. 18. Bacxk,—straight from the top of the hips to the setting on of the tail. and the tailat right angles with the back....---.--+++.+-0+seese25- I eh OWN esitele! do cGcogabdd0 Sopp Sone Eees BcouG Sadindnoussob po tone Baoan res ware 1 20. 'TATL,—hanging down to the hocks. -..-..+-.+++sseee sere eee eee eee eee 1 21. HuipE.—thin and’ movable......-.- 22... cece cece es ccc eee cece eee eeeees 1 22. HipE.—covered with fine and soft hair ..........-.---.- eee eee eee ee 1 23. Hrpe,—of a good color ... 2... 6-225 eee ee eee ee ete etter cee 1 24. Fore-LEGS,—short. straight and fine......----..--+-. +--+ Hscowsoshsse 1 25. Forp-ARM,—large and powerful, swelling and full above the knee, and TMheLA | O(N eNhodob Goob agen S800 oo Sot ME DOB SH Seen OOo.nacneoeprd 1 26. Hinp-QuARTERS,—from the hock to the point of the rump long and well filled up....-..........00- spnopesoac ao costagncedce saan aaodae 1 27. HWinp-LEGS,—short and straight. (below the hocks) and the bones rather FINE soc seein ences Dicyatchicy=iacsusterhaie rectemietoeye JeCHROASCORDOOC Soca. ‘ll Zs. IWiNp-LEGs,—squarely placed, not too close together when viewed from pe Himnclererctatetsiateraictetetelelcistalcto aise Slo coon utacn CBa RE ac OURRO EEE I 29. HtNbd-LEGS,—not to eross in walking....- PASO CO CuSO S See tomme ee nomeor 1 30. Hoors.—small...........+... FSSC OONOO BY na nc= bao OOU SoD Dada aso oe 1 wi (Baye San Sob tose Geese ene 6 SONOS SGD OOCHRED DOO TO nd ot cos St ono on ae ree 1 BO GENEL ADP CALANCC=salalela/olel ele eile) eis. sneirici~ aleielale jG ohUE ORCC COA BOnSeOod 1 GRY hyAshinano scones cocane aonb ed Guan OS aonUIeoDadoiosehotdoudo Cot snoamsaons 1 TREBLE ISS coed COC CON UU CO CU ROO OOD ENCE Gos unats ~pooeeddosopaaaD 33 XXTI. Estimating the Value of Points. The proper estimation of the value of the several parts of an animal has been publicly given by high authority in such matters, the Jersey Herd Book. The gist of which is as follows: The highest excellence of any milking cow lies in the udder. This must not only be full in form, that is, in line with the belly, but it must not be cut off square in front, like that of a goat. It should be rounded, full, presenting great breadth behind, and carried well up between the thigh. The milk veins should be full and carried well forward toward the fore legs. If knotted and with curves, so much the better. The tail is another essential point. Whatever its size at the root, it must be large and tapering, and have a good switch of hair. The chest should be broad and deep ; this shows good respiration, essen- tial to feeding and health. But in the dairy cow, especially when viewed from before, there will be no appearance of massiveness. On the con- trary, she will give an appearance of delicate fineness, and will look large behind, swelling gradually from behind the shoulders. She may not be closely ribbed, in fact should not be close, only comparatively so. The best milkers, every where, will be found to be rather loosely put together between the last rib and the hips, and good milkers must be roomy in the flank. The hind quarters must be long from the point of the rump to the hock, and well filled up ; yet this does not mean rounded and massive in 276 TILE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. flesh ; on the contrary, the best milkers will be rather lean and perhaps high boned. Nevertheless, the same animal, when out of milk and fat, may fill up; and perhaps, present a fully rounded contour, while yet pos- sessing all the delicacy of points characteristic of the high-bred dairy cow. A cow may have large and heavy ears; her back may not be fully straight from tie withers to the top of the hips; her rump may be slop- ing; her tail may not reach the hocks ;—all these are defects, the latter 2 serious one, yet if the milking organs are super-excellent it will out- weigh all these. A phenomenon may show absolute perfection in all the points: we have never yet seen such an one. In judging, the essentials are to care- fully consider each point of excellence with reference to its bearing upon the animal as a dairy cow. XXIII. Color and Size. Do not be too particular about color; solid colors, and black points look well in the show ring. ‘The animal that will turn out well at the pail, that is docile and gentle, be she what color she may, so long as she adheres to the distinguishing color-marks of the race, is the one for the milking yard. In relation to size, the Jerseys are a small race of cattle. In no breed are overgrown animals the most valuable. With the Jersey itis especially to be avoided. So, an undersized animal is not to be countenanced. Fair size, however, is desirable. He who seeks to in- crease the size of the Jersey unduly, will certainly go astray. They have been carefully bred, for many generations, with especial reference to milk. The Jersey is the product of islands peculiar in soil, climate, and people. Transplanted to the flush pastures of the United States, with good shelter in winter, they will necessarily increase in size. If you fancy ‘ssolid colors,’ and can get plenty of rich milk, with solid colors, welland good. If not, breed to whatever color, characteristic of the breed, which will give you this desirable result. We have chosen thus explicitly to state, from competent authorities, the Jersey standard of perfection—first, fer the reason that any breed should be judged by the standard of its breeders, and secondly, because these statements c2n only be found originally in the herd books, and like authoritative publications which are not accessible to the majority of readers, XXIV. From a Practical Stand-point. From the practical stand-point of a person not a breeder of high-caste animals, the writer has found that slight imperfections, in the make up of farm animals, do not militate against them unless they are intended as bol | ~l THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS. o breeders of pure stock of the highest type. In fact, few animals of a breed attain perfection closely, and almost none absolutely, according to the standard. As a milking cow, a Jersey or cow of other milking breed might be of the best possible standard and yet fail essentially in some other important points. Such a cow would be just as valuable for the one purpose of milk as the best. So inany other particular the person, whether he be a breeder or simply a fancier, must study the characteristics and the points of an animal, and then make up his mind whether in the one case it is worth the money asked for it, or in the other case whether it would be more profitable to sell rather than to keep. oo bo | CHAPTER VII. MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE—THE HEREFORDS. I. THE VALUABLE BREEDS OF MIDDLE-HORNS. Wl. THE HEREFORD COLOR.—— Ill. THE HEREFORDS FIFTY YEARS AGO. IV. YOUATT’S TESTIMONY. v. THE HEREFORDS IN AMERICA.— VI. THE IMPORTATION OF 1540. Vil. HERE- FORD GRADES FORTY YEARS AGO.——VIII. THE OHIO IMPORTATION.— IX. HEREFORDS IN CANADA. <. EARLY IMPORTED HEREFORDS NOT FAIRLY TRIED. XI. THE HEREFORDS WEST. XII. THE HEREFORD AS A WORK OX.—XIII. THE HEREFORD COW. XIV. POINTS OF THE HEREFORD. XV. THE HERE- FORD OF TO-DAY IN ENGLAND.——XVI. HIGH AND AUTHORITATIVE PRAISE.—— XVII. DISTRIBUTION IN THE SOUTHWEST AND FAR WEST. I. The Valuable Breeds of Middle-Horns. The only valuable breeds of the Middle-Horns, in the United States, are the Herefords and the Deyons, which will be treated of in this chapter and the next. They are essentially beef and working breeds. Their milking qualities were never more than moderately developed, and these qualities by continued breeding for beef, (for which they are unexcep- tionable,) have been so bred out, that but little now remains in them val- uable for milk. The natural history of these breeds was noticed in Chapter I, and it will not be necessary to refer to it, further than to say of the Herefords that, originally named from the country of Hereford, England, where, and in adjacent counties, similar cattle have been bred for hundreds of years, few, if any, of the popular beef breeds have shown more wonderful im- provement within the last fifty years. II. The Hereford Color. Originally red or brown without white, the Herefords bred to brown- ish or yellowish red, and even brindled. Within about the last 100 years their faces became white or mottled-white, until finally the distinctive white of the face was made to extend along the top of the neck, and along the throat, dewlap, brisket, belly, and flanks, and they are now fash- ionably bred with the addition of white legs, and the switch of the tail white, the rest of the animal being of a uniform red color. Ill. The Herefords fifty years ago. Mr. Marshall writing of them as they existed in England fifty years aco, and as then improved, describes them thus: ‘* The countenance pleasant, cheerful, open; the forehead broad; eye full and lively ; TO MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE—THE HEREFORDS. a79 horns bright, taper, and spreading; head small; chap lean; neck long and tapering; chest deep; bosom broad, and projecting forward ; shoul- der-bone thin, flat, no way protuberant in bone, but full and mellow in flesh ; chest full; loin broad; hips standing wide, and level with the chine ; quarters long, and wide at the neck ; rump even with the level of the back, and sharp above the quarters; tail slender and neatly haired ; barrel round and roomy; the carcass throughout deep and well spread ; ribs broad, standing flat and close on the outer surface, forming a smooth, even barrel ; the hind parts large and full of strength ; neck bones snug, not prominent ; thigh clean, and regularly tapering: legs upright and short ; bone below the knee and hock small; feet of middle size; flank large; flesh every where mellow, soft, and yielding pleasantly to the touch, especially on the chine, the shoulder and the ribs; hide mellow, supple, of a middle thickness, and loose on the neck and huckle ; coat neatly haired, bright, and silky; color, a middle red; this, with a bald face, is characteristic of the true Hereford breed.”’ IV. Youatt’s Testimony. In Youatt’s day they were the peers of the Short-Horns, and to-day they compare favorably with that famous breed, and take an equal share of prizes with them in our best exhibitions and fairs. They fatten, said Mr. Youatt, to a much greater weight than the Devons, and run from fifty to seventy score; a tolerable cow will average from thirty-five to fifty score (1000 pounds); a cow belonging to the Duke of Bedford weighed more than seventy; an ox of Mr. Westcar’s exceeded one hun- dred and ten score (2,200 pounds). The Hereford ox fattens speedily at an early age. They are not now much used for husbandry, although their form adapts them for the heavier work, and they have all the hon- esty and docility of the Devon ox, and greater strength, if not his activity. The Hereford cows are worse milkers than those of Devon, but then they will grow fat where a Devon would starve. The beef is sometimes ob- jected to from the largeness of the bone and the coarseness of some of the inferior pieces, but the best sorts are generally excellent. V. The Herefords in America. Since there has been so much controversy—sometimes acrimonious— between some Hereford and Short-Horn breeders in the United States, and especially in the West, where the Herefords have of late grown into the highest favor, we again quote, from Mr. L. F. Allen, the veteran }Yreeder of Short-Horns, and editor of the American Short-Horn Herd Book. Mr. Allen writes of the Herefords as follows: DSO THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. ‘At what date they were first imported into this country, we have no aceu- rate account ; but that some Herefords came out among the early impor- tutions, is evident from the occasional marks of the breed among our native cattle where late importations have not been known. In the year IS1L6 or 717 the great Kentucky statesman, Henry Clay, imported two pairs of them into his State, and put them on his farm at Ashland. They were bred for a time with each other, and the bulls were crossed with other cows ; but it is certain that they left no permanent impress on the herds of that vicinity, as Mr. Clay himself became a breeder of Short- Horns soon afterwards, and eventually discarded the blood from his herds, if he had for any length of time retained it. No trace of them is now seen in Kentucky. VI. The Imporiation of 1840. “The largest importation of Herefords into the United States, was made about the year 1840, upwards of twenty in number, by an Englishman into the city of New York, and taken into Jefferson county, of that State. A year or two afterwards the bulk of the herd were removed to the farm Mr. Erastus Corning, near Albany, N. Y., and some of them went into Vermont, where they were for Some years bred, sold and scattered. While the stock were at his farm, Mr. Corning, with his accustomed lib- erality and enterprise, sent out again to England to purchase more animals, which safely arrived, and were added to the herd. They were then successfully bred for several years, many sales made into different and distant parts of the United States, and they acquired considerable popularity. The herd was subesequently divided, Mr. Corning retaining his share, and his partner taking his, some twenty or more in number, to a farm three or four miles from Buffalo, on the banks of the Niagara. Here they were bred, and several sales made, to go to different parts of the country, during the four or five years they remained ; but the herd gradually waned, mainly from want of proper care and system in their keeping. ** Mr. Corning retained his herd at his farm, where he has successfully bred, and made sales from them since, and in the hands of his son, Mr. E. Corning, Jr., who is more an amateur than a professed cattle breeder, added to by occasional importations from England, they remain fine specimens of their race. VII. Hereford Grades Forty Years Ago. ‘© Mr. George Clark, at Springfield, Otsego county, N. Y., obtained several Herefords from this herd, and, we believe, made an importation or two from England. Tle bred them successfully, distributed his bulls MIDDLE-IIORNED CATTLE—THE HWEREFORDS. 581 on toseveral of his farms, and bred many excellent grade Herefords from the common cows. His bullocks have, in past years, been highly approved in the New York cattle markets. VIII. The Ohio Importation. ** About the year 1852-3, Messrs. Thomas Aston, and John Humphries, two English farmers in Elyria, Ohio, near Lake Erie, imported several fine Herefords. They bred them well and successfully, as seen in the specimens we have several times met, but with what success in their sales we have no intimate knowledge. IX. Herefords in Canada. “In the years 1860 and ’61, Mr. Frederick Wm. Stone, of Guelph, Canada West, made two importations of superior Herefords from the herds of Lord Bateman, in Herefordshire, and the late Lord Berwick, in the adjoining county of Shropshire, England, numbering, together, two bulls and eleven cows and heifers. These were remarkable for their high breeding, and generally good points. From them down to January, 1867, there were bred about sixty, and about half the number have been sold at satisfactory prices, and distributed, mostly into the United States. Some of the cows have proved excellent milkers, and all, together with the crosses of the bulls with common cows, have proved profitable eraz- ing animals. xX. Early Imported Herefords Not Fairly Tried. ‘© On the whole, the Herefords have not had a fair trial in the United States, in the hands of veteran cattle breeders who had the means and opportunity to properly test them by a thorough and persistent course of breeding. Had the fine herd which was for several years on Mr. Corn- ing’s farm, been taken to good grazing lands in New York, or some of the Western States, and properly cared for, their history, we fancy, would have been far different from that which is here recorded.’’ XI. The Herefords West. Since Mr. Allen wrote, the Herefords have been tried in many West- ern States, and in no respect either in kindly fattening, early maturity or heavy weights have they failed fairly to compete with the best Short- Horns in the principal prize fairs of the West, often carrying off the highest honors. Besides the breeders already mentioned, none have done more for the Herefords in the United States than Mr. Miller and Mr. Culbertson, of Illinois, each of whose large herds is composed of the very highest-caste animals to be found anywhere. TH AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. IMPROVED HEREFORD BULL. MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE—THE HEREFORDS. 583 XII. The Hereford as a Work-Ox. As work oxen the Herefords are inferior to the Devons, when activity is wanted, but for heavy draft they have no superior, being muscular, steady and patient at the yoke. Their capacity for standing fatigue, and their constitutional hardihood and resistance to cold are indeed remarka- ble, and of late years they have become great favorites with the ranch- men in the far Western States and Territories. XIII. The Hereford Cow. Two years ago, in collecting information about this valuable beef breed, we wrote, and now repeat : The Hereford cow compared with the ox is small and delicate, and not always handsomely made, to the superficial observer. Here again this breed would seem to show its relationship to the Devon. She carries but little flesh in breeding condition, and when breeding, should not be fed sufficiently to accumulate much fat, for, in order that the young be superior, the dam should have plenty of room inside, With the Herefords, experience has shown that the dam may not be too large or coarse but she should be roomy. Then the breeder will get, even from apparently inferior cows, large, handsome steers, that will fatten early, and kindly, and to great weights. When the cow is done breeding, and ready for fatting, it will please the owner to see how she will spread out, and accumulate flesh and fat, and this to a greater degree than if not allowed to breed. The Herefords are a hardy, gentle race, maturing early, and are long- lived. ‘The flesh is superior, handsomely marbled, heavy in the prime parts, and they fatten to weights fully as heavy as any known breed. Their massive strength, honesty and gentleness make them the best working oxen known, and the potency of the bulls, when crossed upon red or nearly red cows of the country, renders the steers easily matched in color, as they will be easily matched in general characteristics of the progeny. XIV. Points of the Hereford. In judging the Herefords as beef animals the same scale of points may be adopted as for Short-Horns, except that the Herefords are, if any- thing, more placid, closer to the ground, heavier in appearance, and, as a rule, thicker-meated than the present fashionable Short-Horns. XV. The Hereford of To-day in England. It has been claimed, and we think with truth, that in some show rings in the West the Herefords were discriminated against. Be this as it may, DS84 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. in England there is no such feeling against them, and, besides, the Eng- lish system of judging precludes, to as great an extent as possible, any shadow of favoritism. : Speaking of one of the great show rings there in 1878, the Bath and West of England, the Mark Lane Haupress says of the Hereford exhibit : ‘** They are not so numerous as the more fashionable breed, but the quality throughout is excellent. In the aged bull class there are five animals of which the Hereford men need not be ashamed. «The heifers in milk or in calf numbered only three, but two of them were such animals as it was worth while coming to Oxford on purpose to see. Leonora (first premium) is one of the most perfect animals that has been shown for years. ‘It was first last year as a yearling at Liver- pool, and will likely be first wherever it goes. The champion prize given by the Oxfordshire Agricultural Society was awarded to this heifer as the best female horned animal in the yard. The companion heifer, Beatrice, is also very handsome, and took second to Leonora’s first at the Royal last year, as it did last week at Oxford. If Leonora had been a Grand Duchess Short-Horn «a poem would haye been composed in her honor, and translated into several languages by this time. But no Short-Horn that we have ever seen was cast in such a mould.”’ XVI. High and Authoritative Praise. The following is high praise, and authoritative, as coming from an Eng- lish agricultural paper of the highest class. The Agricultural Journal, of London, says: «© This breed enjoyed the remarkable distinction of producing both the champion animals at Oxford, Grateful being declared to be the best bull, and Beatrice (a two year old heifer )being declared to be the best cow or heifer in the yard. Both, as may be supposed, were very good, the heifer pre-eminently so. She is a daughter of the famous bull, Winter de Cote, and another instance of hereditary merit. ** The yearling heifers and calves indicate that this breed is, as beef makers at an early age, quite up to the highest Short-Horn standard. The Teeswater may milk better, and be more ready in adapting itself to local circumstances ; but where the pasture is good, it is hard to beat the white-faces for grazing.” Again, the Chamber of Agriculture Journal, the organ of the Royal Agricultural Society, gives the following testimony : *'The old bull Hereford class produced an extraordinary animal in Grateful, who secured the reserve at the Hereford show in 1876. He has made wonderful development since appearing as a two-year old, as is proved by the fact that Thoughtful, who was then placed above him, MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE—THE HEREFORDS. D805 and has since taken firsts at Birmingham, Liverpool and Bath, has now been put second to him ; and that not only was he selected by the judges as the best Hereford bull on the ground, but in the contest for the cham- pionship succeeded in carrying it off against such a Short-Horn competitor as Sir Arthur Ingram. Grateful, at four years old, has capital loins and chines, with ¢reat thickness and depth of frame, and is very level all over ; but his grand feature isthe astounding mass of flesh with which his frame is covered. His girth is eight feet ten and one-half inches. “Tn the cow class, Lady Blanche, which took second prize at Bath, now ‘ame tothe front position. She is marvelous at her fore flank, and dis- plays a great mass of flesh on a well-shaped, grand frame, which, however, fell off slightly at the rump. The second prize cow, Little Beauty, was highly commended at Bath, and wonderfully retains her show-yard merit at eleven years old. The two-year old heifers, Leonora and Beatrice, were, of course, sure to win. Beatrice has recently reared a calf, which is slightly against her for showing ; but Leonora is in full bloom with her beautiful head, symmetrical form, and all that loveliness which is so tak- ing to the eye. After being selected as the best Hereford female on the ground, she carried off the champion prize against a remarkably shapely Short-Horn heifer, and one of the best Devons that has appeared for years, so that both cups were awarded to Herefords.”’ XVII. Distribution in the South-west and Far West. Since neither pains nor money has been spared in bringing the best English animals to this country, there is no doubt but that the West to- day possesses Herefords, both bulls and cows, as good as there are in the world. Hereford bulls are being sent off and distributed in the far West, and South-west, where they are regarded with fully as much favor as the Short-Horns. Why should they not? There is plenty of territory left for the spread of both these admirable breeds of beef cattle. CHAPTER VIII. MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE—THE DEVON AND THE SUSSEX. I. ANTIQUITY OF THE DEVONS, Il, THE DEVONS COMPARATIVELY SMALL CATTLE. Ill, NATURAL GRAZING GROUNDS OF THE DEVONS. IV. WORKING QUALI- TIES OF THE DEVONS. V. THEIR DECEIVING APPEARANCE.——VI. POINTS OF THE DEVON.——VII. NOTABLE CHARACTERISTICS. VIII. THE LEGS OF THE DEVON. IX. THE BODY AND TAIL.——xX. THE DEVON COW.——XI. MR. AL- LEN’S TESTIMONY.—KXII. THEY ARE ACTIVE AND HANDY.——XIII. IN THE FIRST CLASS FOR BEEF.—XIV. WEIGHTS OF THE DEVONS. XV. SUSSEX CATTLE.— XVI. THE SUSSEX COLOR.—XVII. DISTINGUISHING MARKS OF THE SUSSEX,—— XVIII. THE SUSSEX COW.——XIX. GLAMORGAN CATTLE. I. Antiquity of the Devons. In Chapter I, the general history of this ancient and superior race of cattle is given. They are the only breed of middle-horned cattle, ex- cept the Herefords, that has attained celebrity in the United States. In England, where they have been known from the earliest times, they have been bred pure. In certain sections, and especially in North Devon, par- ticular pains was long ago taken in raising them. There the Devon unites all the characteristics of the tribe, including medium size, dark color, eminent working qualities and great excellence of beef. The pecu- liarities in color and substance about the eyes, nose and ears, have caused them to be known as North Devons, in contradistinction to the lighter- colored, larger and coarser cattle of other districts, but which combine some of the better qualities of the true Devon. II. The Devons Comparatively Small Cattle. The chief objection to the Devons, in the West, is that they lack size to prove profitable on the flush and comparatively level pastures of the prai- rie region. They are, also, somewhat slow in maturing ; in fact it used to be the practice in England to put the steers to work at three years old, and fatten them at five or six years old. Then, fully matured and spread, they wholly or partially paid for their keeping, and the quality of their flesh was only surpassed by that other slow-maturing, but wonderful cattle in the quality of their beef—the West Highland cattle of Scotland. III. Natural Grazing Grounds of the Devons. To-day in all our hill country, or where the labor of the steers can be utilized, they are the most valuable of any of the known breeds of cattle. In all the hill country, North and South, they will be found among the DS6 MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE—THE DEVON AND THE SUSSEX. 87 best, if not the very best, of domesticated cattle, when we consider the ease with which they are kept, their powers of withstanding extreme heat and cold, and their valuable working qualities ; for they are able to per- form fully as much work as the horse in plowing, especially in small fields where there is much turning. IV. Working Qualities of the Devons. We have known them to keep fully up with horses, day after day, in heavy plowing—a yoke of Devon steers at the beam, and a pair of horses ahead. So, in stubble plowing; a single yoke of Devon steers, week in and week out, would do fully as much work on small lands as a good pair of horses ; and they turn the furrows quite as steadily as the horse team. The horses would gain something in going straight ahead, but in coming about the Devon steers always made it up. This was when the DEVON WORKING STEER, steers were fed grain the same as the horses. When both are kept on grass, the Devons will do more work than any pair of horses of the same weight. In catching times, in hauling hay and grain to the stack, we have driven Devon steers at a six-mile trot in going back light; and their wonderful tractability, under kind but firm training, certainly makes them most admirable teams for new or thinly-settled districts. For log- ging in the woods, or hauling logs to the mill, there are no better or quicker teams, and it is surprising, under good keeping, the load they will start, and the power with which they will move it along the road. V. Their Deceiving Appearance. The Devons are essentially muscular cattle. They are far heavier than they look. This is owing to their fine bone—nearly as hard as that of a blood horse—their round, compact form, and the full flesh they carry. d88 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. The cows are small; and the bulls are smaller than the steers. When properly developed by two years of work, the oxen are splendidly filled out, and are certainly the most beautiful of all the domesticated ox tribe. The illustration we give will show the Devon ox in good working con- dition. The cut of a high-caste bull, illustrating especially the full, soft, mossy coat of hair, as given in Chapter I, is a most excellent and life- like drawing. VI. Points of the Devon. Youatt describes the points of the Devon of his day most minutely. Except that they have now, through better feeding in America, been in- creased in size and early maturity, the description is as applicable to-day as when it was written. It is as follows: *¢ The horn of the bull ought to be neither too low nor too high, taper- ing at the points, not too thick at the tip. The eye should be clear, bright, and prominent, showing much of the white, and have around it a circle of dark orange color. The forehead should be flat, indented, and small, for, by the smallness of the forehead, the purity of the breed is very much estimated. The cheek should be small, and the muzzle fine ; the nose must be of a clear yellow. The nostril should be high and open; the hair curled about the head. The neck should be thick, and that sometimes almost to a fault. Excepting in the head and neck, the form of the bull does not mate- rially differ from that of the ox, but he is considerably smaller. There are exceptions, however, to this rule. The head of the ox is small, very singularly so, relatively to his bulk ; yet it has a striking breadth of forehead ; it is clean and free from flesh about the jaws. The eye is very prominent, and the animal has a pleasing vivacity of countenance, distinguishing it from the heavy aspect of many other breeds. Its neck is long and thin, admirably adapting it for the collar, or the more common and ruder yoke. It is accounted one of the characteristics of good cattle, that the line of the neck, from the horns to the withers, should scarcely deviate from that of the back. VII. Notable Characteristics. ‘‘In the Devon ox, however, there is a peculiar rising at the shoulder, reminding us of the blood-horse, and essentially connected with the free and quick action by which this breed has ever been distinguished. It has little or no dewlap depending from the throat. MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE—THE DEVON AND THE SUSSEX. 589 The horns are longer than those of the bull, smaller, and fine even to the base, and of a lighter color, and tipped with yellow. The animal is light in the withers; the shoulders a little oblique ; the breast deep, and the bosom open and wide, particularly as contrasted with the fineness of the withers. The fore legs are wide apart, looking like pillars that have to support a great weight. The point of the shoulder is rarely or never seen. There is no pro- jection of bone, but there is a kind of level line running on to the neck. Angular bony projections are never found in a beast that carries much flesh and fat. The fineness of the withers, the slanting direction of the shoulder, and the broad and open breast, imply strength, speed, and aptitude to fatten. A narrow-chested animal can never be useful either for working or grazing. With all the lightness of the Devon ox, there is a point about him, disliked in the blood or riding horse, and not approved in the horse of light draught—the legs are far under the chest, or rather the breast pro- jects far and wide before the legs. We see the advantage of this in the beast of slow draught, who rarely breaks into a trot, except when he is goaded on in catching times, and the division of whose foot prevents him from stumbling. The lightness of the other parts of his form, however, counterbal- ances heaviness there. VIII. The Legs of the Devon. The legs are straight, at least in the best herds. If they are in-kneed or crooked in the fore legs, it argues a deficiency in blood, and compara- tive incapacity for work, and for grazing, too; for they will be hollow behind the withers, a point for which nothing can compensate, because it takes away so much from the place where good flesh and fat should be thickly laid on, and diminishes the capacity of the chest and the power of creating arterial and nutritious blood. The fore-arm is particularly large and powerful. It swells out sud- denly above the knee, but is soon lost in the substance of the shoulder. Below the knee the bone is small to a very extraordinary degree, indi- cating a seeming want of strength; but this impression immediately ceases, for the smallness is only in front—it is only in the bone ; the leg is deep, and the sinews are far removed from the bone, promising both strength and speed. It may be objected that the leg is a little too long. It would be so in an animal destined only to graze ; but this is a working animal, and some length of leg is necessary to get him actively over the ground. 590 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. IX. The Body and Tail. ‘There is some trifling fall behind the withers, put no hollowness, and the line of the back is straight from thence to the setting on of the tail. If there is any seeming fault in the breast, it is that the sides are a little too flat. It will appear, however, that this does not interfere with feed- ing, while a deep, although somewhat flat chest is best adapted for speed, The two last ribs are particularly bold and prominent, leaving room for the stomach and other parts concerned in digestion to be fully de- veloped. The hips, or huckles, are high up, and on a level with the back, whether the beast is fat or lean. The hind quarters, or the space from the hip to the point of the rump, are particularly long and well filled up—a point of importance both for grazing and working. It leaves room for fiesh in the most valuable part, and indicates much power behind, equally connected with strength and speed. This is an improvement quite of modern date. The fullness here, and the swelling of the thigh below, are of much more conseqnence than the prominence of fat which is so much admired on the rump of many prize cattle. The setting on of the tail is high, on a level with the back, rarely much elevated or depressed. This is another great point, as connected with the perfection of the hind quarters. The tail is long and small, and taper, with a round bunch of hair at the bottom.” X. The Devon Cow. We have stated that the bulls are smaller than the oxen. All steers when mature, may be fatted to greater weights than the bulls, whatever the breed. In the Devons, the increased size of the steers is especially noticeable. The Devon cows are also naturally smaller than the bulls, but especially elegant in their compact, rounded forms, constancy and beauty of color, and are noted for docility of temper when kindly treated and for their active, ardent temperaments. They will resent abuse, for they have the courage of the blooded horse. There is no more beautiful picture than a herd of Devon cows in the pasture, for there is no animal more elegant in form. Yet small as the cows seem, put them on the scale, and the person not used to judge them will be surprised at their weight. All Devons are noted for their round, full, clear eyes, the golden circlet about the eyes, and the yellow skin of the inside of the ears, as well as for the orange or yellow-colored muzzle. The cow is particularly notice- able in these characteristics. Add to this their cheerful and intelligent MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE—THE DEVON “AND THE SUSSEX. 59] countenance ; the clean jaws, throat and dewlap; the magnificent loin ; the round barrel; the muscular hind quarter, quite free from angles of any kind; the long, tapering tail; and for elegance, fine flesh and great working powers, the Devons have no superiors among cattle. “MOO NOADTG GAAOUdMNI SS eee cc ee = ee se ey Ete XI. Mr. Allen’s Testimony. Let us see what the venerable editor of the Short-Horn Herd-Book says of them as working oxen: They are, among cattle, what the thoroughbred is among horses. Ac- cording to their size, they combine more fineness of bone, more muscular 592 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. power, more intelligence, activity, and ‘* bottom,’ than any other breed. They have the slanting shoulder of the horse, better fitted to receive the yoke, and carry it easier to themselves than any others, except the Here- fords. With all workers of oxen, the nearer the beast approaches in shape, appearance, and action to the Devon, the more valuable he is considered, according to weight. For ordinary farm labor, either at the plow, the wagon, or the cart, he is equal to all common duties, and on the road his speed and endurance are unrivalled. It is in these qualities that the New England oxen excel others of the country generally, and why the people of that section often call their red oxen ‘* Devonshires,’’ when they cannot, to a certainty, trace any, or but a small portion of that blood in them, only by a general appearance and somewhat like action. XII. They are Active and Handy. For active, handy, labor on the farm, or highway, under-the careful hand of one who likes and properly tends him, the Devon is eyery- thing that is required of an ox, in docility, intelligence, and readiness, for any reasonable task demanded of him. Their uniformity in style, shape, and color, render them easily matched, and their activity in movement, particularly on rough and hilly grounds, gives them, for farm labor, almost. equal value to the horse, with easier keep, cheaper food, and less care. The presence of a well conditioned yoke of Devon cattle in the market place at once attests their value, and twenty-five to fifty dollars, and even higher prices over others of the common stock, are freely given by the purchaser. The Devon, in his lack of great size, is not so strong a draught ox as some of the other breeds—the Herefords, for instance—or perhaps some of the larger of the common eattle ; but, ** for his inches,’ no horned beast can outwork him. On light soils, and on hilly*roads, none other equals him, although we intend to give all their due share of merit. XIII. In The First Class for Beef We must place the Devon in the first class, for fineness of flesh and deli- cacy of flavor. Its compact bone gives it the one, and its rapid and thor- ough development under good feeding gives it the other. In growth and size it matures almost, equal to the Short-Horn, and its meat is finer erained, juicy, and nicely marbled, (the lean and fat intermixed.) In the London markets, Devon beef bears the highest price of any, except the Highland Scot—usually a penny a pound over that of larger breeds, and our American butchers quickly pick the Devons from a droye, when they can find them, before most others. They feed well, take on flesh rapidly, and inthe quality of their flesh are all that can be desired. MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE—THE DEVON AND THE SUSSEX. D983 XIV. Weights of the Devons. While the Devons are called small cattle, they are only relatively so in comparison with Short-Horns and Herefords. A full-grown ox in good condition will weigh from 1,400 to 1,600 pounds, and when well-fattened they will reach 2,000 pounds. The cows will weigh from 800 to 1,100 pounds, and the bulls 1,200 to 1,400. We bred one that at 8 years old weighed 1,819 pounds, and he was as extraordinary in his fineness and style, as a premium taker, as he was in weight ; not large to look at, but weighing like a lump of lead. XV. Sussex Cattle. Sussex also has long been noted for a breed of middle-horned cattle— all red, but lighter in color than the Devons, larger and in every way coarser. Still they are better milkers than the Devons and fatten kindly. There are a number of breeds allied to the Devons or descended from them in England. The Sussex is one of these breeds. XVI. The Sussex Color. The color is a light chestnut or blood bay, much lighter than the true North Devon, but fully as uniform. The cut of a Sussex cow will, with the description given below, serve to explain the points of difference. They are mentioned here mainly, if not solely, for the reason that they have been sold as Devons. If you buy Devons, or any other highly-bred stock, be sure there is no stain in the pedigree. It is a matter of the utmost importance to the breeder of high-caste cattle. XVII. Distinguishing Marks of the Sussex. On this subject Youatt says: ‘* The horns are more tapering, pushing farther forward, and turning up more. The head is small and well formed, the eye full, largeand mild in the ox, but rather wild and unquiet in the cow. The throat is clean and the neck long and thin, but coarser than in the Deyon. The shoulder is wider and rounder on the withers ; straighter from the top of the withers towards the back, and carries much flesh, giving too much weight to unprofitable parts. On the other hand, the barrel is round and deep, the back straight, and the back-bone entirely hidden by the muscles on each side. The heart and lungs are full and large, and the belly and flank capacious. The barrel is well-ribbed home. The loins are wide, the hip-bone low, free from raggedness, large, and well spread, and the space between the hips well filled up. The tail, which is fine and thin, is set on lower than in the Devon, yet the rump is nearly as staight, for the deficiency is supplied by a mass of flesh and fat swelling above. The hind quarters are cleanly made, and if the thighs appear to be straight without, there is plenty of fullness within. 38 P| TILE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. XVill. The Sussex Cow. ** The cows have fine hair, a mellow, ratherthan thin skin ; a small teat ; horns fine, clean, and transparent, which reach forward from the head aad turn up at the tips; the neck is thin and clean; back and belly A SUSSEX COW, straight ; ribs round and springing out well; shoulder flat, but projecting at the point. ILlips and rump wide ; the tail set on level with the rump, and the car- cass large ; the legs are rather short and fine. MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE—THE DEVON AND THE SUSSEX, DOD ihe cows are not good milkers; they are often uneasy in the pasture, and often unquiet in temper.”’ They have been exhibited and sold as Devons in the United States, a thing which, of course, none but the most unprincipled of men would at- SSS = *ATLIVS NVOYONVTS tempt. Give them a wide berth. They have little or no value in this country among better cattle. XIX. Glamorgan Cattle. The cattle of Glamorgan, Wales, are noted for good messes of milk, for docility, ability to forage for themselves on their native hills, and for OG THE AMERICAN PARMER’S STOCK BOOK. taking on flesh kindly when dry. ‘They are undoubtedly of Devon origin and belong to the Middle-Horns, They are an ancient race, and have heen preserved pure in their native region, but are little known away from there, Occasional specimens have been imported to the United WIND gly SM af mht) | WS A a | iii! hilt MODEL HOLSTEIN HEIFEF States, more as curiosities than for intrinsic value, either for milk or . . . . . . ry heef, when there are so many superior breeds in either direction. Che illustration shows their characteristics perfectly. CHAPTER IX. POLLED CATTLE. Ill, POINTS OF THK 1. POLLED CATTLE IN GENERAL.-——II. THE GALLOWAYS. GALLOWAY.——IV. THE LIMBS AND HEAD.——V. THE SKIN.——VI. THE COLOR. ——VII. THE GALLOWAYS IN AMERICA.——VIII. POLLED ANGUS CATTLE.——IX. COLOR OF THE POLLED ANGUS.——X. ANGUS COWS AS MILKERS.——XI. TIE ANGUS COMPARED WITIL THE GALLOWAY, I. Polled Cattle in General. Of the various breeds of polled or hornless cattle, however good in England, none have proved valuable in the United States and Canada, except the Galloways and the Polled Angus. Of these only the Gallo- ways have been at all widely disseminated. Docility of temper even among old bulls ; the little space taken up in the feeding stalls, on account of their mild disposition and absence of horns; their hardiness ; the ease with which they take on flesh, and the thickness and_ fine quality of the beef are some of the principal characteristics of excellence in polled cattle. II. The Galloways. For the colder and hilly districts, when all cattle must be protected in winter, and in all regions where the Short-Horn proves too tender, the Galloway cattle are steadily gaining in favor. They are essentially beef cattle, it being unusual for the cows, even under good keeping, to give more than twelve quarts of milk a day, and the average is given at six or eight quarts. But the milk is rich, yielding a pound of butter, accord- ing to English authorities, to eight or ten quarts of milk. The cows, as arule, go dry for two or three months in the year, even under the best of management. It has been said of them that there is, perhaps, no breed of cattle which can be more truly said to be indigenous to the country, and incapa- hle of improvement by any foreign cross, than the Galloways. The Short-Horns almost everywhere else have improved the cattle of the dis- tricts to which they have traveled; at least in the first cross produced manifest improvement ; but even in the first cross, the Short-Horns have done little good in Galloway, and, as a permanent mixture, the choicest short-horn bulls have manifestly failed. The intelligent Galloway breeder is now perfectly satisfied that his stock can only be improved by adher- ence to the pure breed, and by care in the selection. 59 i Bye THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. III. Points of the Galloway. Mr. L. B. Allen gives, on the autnority of an eminent judge and breeder, the characteristics of this breed, as follows : The Galloway cattle are straight and broad in the back, and nearly level from the head to the rump. They are round in the ribs, and also between the shoulders and the ribs, and the ribs and the loins, They are broad in the loin, without any large projecting hook bones. In round- ness of barrel, and fullness of ribs, they will compare with any breed, and also in the proportion which the loins bear to the hook bones, or protu- herances of the ribs. When viewed from above, the whole body appears beautifully rounded, like the longitudinal section of a voller. They are long in the quarters and ribs, and deep in the chest, but not broad in the twist. The slightest inspection will show that there is less space between the hook or hip bones and the ribs than in most other breeds, a consider- ation of much importance, for the advantage of length of carcass consists in the animal being well ribbed home, or as little as possible lost in the flank. IV. The Limbs and the Head. The Galloway is short in the leg, and moderately fine in the shanky hones,—the happy medium seems to be preserved in the leg, which secures hardihood and a disposition to fatten. With the same cleanness and shortness of shank, there is no breed so large and muscular above the knee, while there is more room for the deep, broad and capacious chest. Ile is clean, not fine and slender, but well proportioned in the neck and chaps; a thin and delicate neck would not correspond with the broad shoulders, deep chest, and close, compact form of the breed. The neck of the Galloway bull is thick, almost toa fault. The head is rather heavy ; the eyes are not prominent, and the cars are large, rough, and full of long hairs on the inside. V. The Skin. The Galloway is covered with a loose, mellow skin of medium thickness, which is clothed with long, soft, silly hair. The skin is thinner than that of the Leicestershire, but not so fine as the bide of the improved Durham breed, but it handles soft and kindly. Even on the moorland farms, where the cattle, during the greater part of the year, are fed on the seantiest fare, it is remarkable how little their hides in- dicate the privations they endure, VI. The Color. The prevailing and fashionable color is black—a few are of a dark brindle brown, and. still fewer are speckled with white spots, and some “"ITAG XVMOTTVS V POLLED CATTLE. d99 ae sir Nh if Mf Ht i) 600 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. of them are of a dun or drab color, perhaps acquired from a cross with the Suffolk breed of cattle. Dark colors are uniformly preferred, from the belief that they indicate hardiness of constitution. VII. The Galloways in America. The Galloways are said to have been first introduced into Canada about the year 1850. Since that time they have steadily increased by breeding and subsequent importations, and of late years a good many have been bred in the Northwestern States, where they are greatly liked for their many good qualities, and now have a regular series of prizes offered for them at all our principal fairs. They are also attracting attention in the Southwest as a means of improving the Texan eattle. To our mind, they should prove valuable in reducing the horn, refining the bone, and thick- ening the body of the Southwestern cattle, and, especially, in breeding out the wildness and viciousness of the Texans. VIII. Polled Angus Cattle. This is a breed yet rare in America, though much thought of in Scot- land. Finer in their make up than the Galloways, of which they are relatives, they have many admirable qualities to commend them in hilly districts. There have always been some polled cattle in Angus; the country people call them umilies or dodded eattle. Youatt says that their origin is so remote, that no account of their introduction into Eng- land can be obtained from the oldest farmers or breeders. The attention of some enterprising agriculturists appears to have been first directed to them about sixty years ago, and particularly on the eastern coast, and on the borders of Kincardineshire. Some of the first qualities which seem to have attracted the attention of these breeders were the peculiar quiet- ness and docility of the doddies, the easiness with which they were managed, the few losses that were incurred from their injuring each other in their stalls, and the power of disposing of a greater number of them in the same space. A few experiments upon them developed another valuable quality— their natural fitness for stall-feeding, and the rapidity with which they fattened. This brought them into repute. They bave much of the Galloway form, and by those unaccustomed to cattle would be often mistaken for the Galloways. A good judge, how- ever, would perceive that they are larger, somewhat longer in the leg, thinner in the shoulder, and flatter in the side. Climate and management have caused another difference between the Angus doddies and the Galloways. The Galloways have a moist climate ; they have a more robust appearance, a much thicker skin, and a rougher VOLLED CATTLE. GOL coat of hair than the Angus oxen. The angus cattle are regularly kept in straw yards during six months of the year, receiving turnips with their fodder every day, and in summer «re grazed on dry and warm pastures. By this mode of treatment they look and feel more kindly than the Gal- oways. "MOO SQONV GHTI0Od IX. Color of the Polled Angus. The greater part of them are black, or with a few white spots. The next general color is yellow, comprehending the brindled, dark red, and silver-colored yellow. They are a valuable breed, and have rapidly gained ground on the horned cattle, and become far more numer- ous, particularly in the Lowlands ; and when the agriculturist now speaks of the Angus breed, he refers to the polled species. 602 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. xX. Angus Cows as Milkers. The quantity of milk yielded by the dairy cows is various. In the hilly districts from two to three gallons are given per day, but that is very rich. In the lowlands the cows will give tive gallons during the best of the season. The cows of this district were formerly regarded as some of the best dairy-cows in Scotland, but since the breed has been more im- proved, and greater attention paid to the fattening qualities, they have fallen off in their character for the pail. XI. The Angus Compared with the Galloway. Thus while Angus cattle have great value in their native climate, they would seem to possess no value in this country over the Galloway. When removed to a warmer latitude, in England, they degenerate, and the probability is, that in this country they will not prove so good as the Galloways, though it is probable that they will find admirers on account of the greater excellence of their flesh. CHAPTER X. DAIRY CATTLE—THE AYRSHIRES. I. THE ANTIQUITY OF AYRSHIRE CATTLE.——II. AYRSHIRE ANCESTRY. Ill. THE AYRSHIRE AS A MILKER.——IV. QUALITY OF THE MILK. Vv. MR. YOUATT’S OPINION. VI. QUALITY OF THE FLESH.—VII. THE AYRSHIRES IN AMERICA. VIII. AYRSHIRE POINTS EIGHTY YEARS AGO. DAY. X. POINTS OF AYRSHIRE CATTLE, XII. THE POINTS SUMMED UP. MILK POINTS. XVI. THE HEAD. XVIII. IMPORTANCE OF GOOD TEATS, IX. THE AYRSHIRE OF TO- XI. ESCUTCHEON OR MILK MIRROR. XIII. THE BODY. XIV. THE SKIN. XV. XVII. THE NECK, BODY AND LIMBS.—— XIX. COLOR, STYLE AND CONDITION. I. The Antiquity of Ayrshire Cattle. There are few climates better adapted to dairying than Ayrshire, in Scotland, and no other part of Great Britain has so long been noted for its superior milking cows. The climate is moist, with frequent soft rains and no severely cold weather in winter. The grasses therefore are natu- rally succulent and sweet. The origin of the Ayrshire cow is in doubt. In 1733 it is recorded that no such breed existed in Scotland. Mr. Robertson, writing in 1703, credits the introduction of Ayrshire cattle into Scotland, on the authority of Mr. Bruce Campbell, to that Earl of Marchmont who suc- ceeded his title in 1724, and died in 1740. II. Ayrshire Ancestry. In relation to their origin Mr. Robertson says: From what particular part of the country they came, there appears no evidence. My own con- jecture is, that they are either of the Holderness breed, or derived from it; judging from the varied color, or from somewhat better evidence, the small head and slender neck, in which they bear a striking resemblance to them. These cattle, from which, by crosses with the native breed, the present improved Ayrshire arose, were first introduced on Lord March- mont’s estate in Berwickshire. A bull of the new stock was sold to Mr. Hamilton of Sundrum; then Mr. Dunlop, in Cunningham, imported some of the Dutch cattle, and their progeny was long afterwards distin- guished by the name of the Dunlop cows. These were the first of the improved, or stranger breed, that reached the baillery of Cunningham, Mr. Orr, about the year 1767, brought to his estate of Grongar, near Kilmarnock, some fine mileh cows of a larger size than any which had 603 G04 THE AMERICAN PARMER'S STOCK BOOK, heen on the farm. It was not, however, until about 1780, that this improved breed might be said to be duly estimated, or genarally estab- lished in that part of Ayrshire, although they had begun to extend he- yond the Irvine, into Kyle. a MODEL AYRSHIRE COW. About 1790, according to Mr. Aiton, Mr. Fulton from Blith, carried them first into Carrick, and Mr. Wilson, of Kilpatrick, was the first who took them to the southern parts of that district. So late as 180d, they were introduced on the estate of Penmore, on the Stonchar, and they are DAIRY CATTLE—THE AYRSHIRES. 605 the established cattle of Ayrshire; they are increasing in the neighbor- ing counties, and have found their way to most parts of Britain. III. The Ayrshire as a Milker. The quantity of milk yielded by the Ayrshire cow is, considering ner size, very great. Five gallons daily, for two or three months after caly- ing, may be considered as not more than an average quantity. Three gallons daily will be given for the next three months, and one gallon and a half during the succeeding four months. This would amount to more than 850 gallons; but, allowing for some unproductive cows, 600 gallons per year may be considered as the average quantity obtained annually from each cow. IV. Quality of the Milk. The quality of the milk is estimated by the quantity of butter or cheese that it will yield. Three gallons and a half of this milk will yield about a pound and a half avoirdupois, of butter. An Ayrshire cow may be reckoned to yield 257 English pounds of butter per annum, or about five pounds per week all the year round, besides the value of the buttermilk and her calf. V. Mr. Youatt’s Opinion. Mr. Youatt, writing in the early part of the century says: They will feed kindly and profitably, and their meat willbe good. They will fatten on farms and in districts where others could not, except supported by artificial food. They unite, perhaps, to a greater degree than any other breed, the supposed incompatible properties of yielding a great deal of milk and beef. It is, however, on the inferior soil and the moist climate of Ayrshire, and the west of Scotland, that their superiority as milkers is most remarkable. On their natural food of poor quality they give milk abundantly and long, and often until within a few days of calving ; but when they are moved to richer pasture, their constitution changes, and they convert their food more into beef. It cannot be denied that even in this tendency to fatten when their milk begins to fail, or which often causes it to fail, the Ayrshires must yield to their forefathers, the Highlanders, and to their neighbors, the Galloways, when put ona poor soil; and they will be left considerably behind their Short-Horn sires when transplanted to luxuriant pasture. It will be long, perhaps, before they will be favorites with the butchers, for the fifth quarter will not usually weigh well in them. VI. Quality of the Flesh. Their fat is mingled with the flesh rather than separated in the form of tallow ; yet this would give a more beautiful appearance to the meat, and GO THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, should enhance its price to the consumer, ‘Phis faet of their flesh being so fully marbled with fat, would be an important consideration at the present time, not when Mr. Youutt wrote, for tallow is not so valuable now ws formerly, since the disuse of tallow candles, and this marbled flesh in much sought by butchers, Vil. Tho Ayrshiros in Amorica, Mr. Allen, writing in L867 in relation to their importation into America saya: ‘The Ayrshires first began to be imported into the United States about the your E83L, ‘They were somewhat different in appearance from the latter importitions, being in color usually deep red, or brown, flocked with white, of rather plain look, and haying mostly black noses. In recent importations, or those within the last fifteen yerrs, many of (hem have assumed more the Short-florn colors, the red in them being of ‘tighter shade, and less of it--white being the prevailing color in many and some of them a lively patehed roan, with yellow noses, and hand. some, dnd more symmetrical forma, but alike bearing the marks of good millers, VIII. Ayrshire Points Highty Yoars Ago. According to) Mr, Aiton, the Ayrshire as it was found in its native country and in its improved form, in the beginning of the present cent. ury had these characteristies : Tlead small, but rather long and narrow al the muzzle; the eye small, but smart and lively ; the horns small, clear, crooked, and their roots at a considerable distunee from each other; neck long and slender, tapering toward the head, with no loose skin belovy ; shoulders thins fore-quarters light; hindquarters large; back straight, broad behind, the joints rather loose and open; carcass deep, and pelvis eupacious, and wide over the hips, with round fleshy buttoelks ; tail long, and small; logs small and short, with firm joints ; udder capacious, broad and square, stretehing forward, and neither fleshy, low hung, nor loose ; the milkeveins lavee and prominent; teats short, all pointing outward, and at considerable distance from each other; skin thin and loose ; hair soft and woolly, ‘The head, bones, horns, and all parts of Teast value, smalls and the general figure compact and well proportioned, IX. Tho Ayrshire of To-Day. The Ayrshire of to-day is noted for giving a large quantity of milk, rich in both butter and cheese 5 and also for the wonderful development of the thighs, the bulls being selected with reference to their feminine ap- pearance, ‘They are docile in’ temper, hardy, sound-constitutioned ~the bulls broad in the hook bones and hips, and full in the flanks. Of late yeurs Chere have been a number of herds introduced into the West, and “MOO UNV T11d AYIHSHAY EF, | i | IK Hit Will’ Neu I | i (A AAA I Me, (||| Wall ill 607 60S THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. wherever used they have been greatly liked. Careful selection has done much to keep down their fattening qualities on full feed, and it is prob- able that there is no strictly dairy cow that to-day combines so many good qualities as the Ayrshire cow. X. Points of Ayrshire Cattle. Dr. G. Lewis Sturtevant, of Massachusetts, a scientific investigator, and careful farmer, who has given particular attention to the characteris- tics and breeding of Ayrshire cattle in New England, minutely describes the points of Ayrshire cattle. With slight variations the same rules will apply to the Dutch or Holstein cattle to be hereafter noticed : The usefulness of the dairy cow is in her udder, and toward the udder, its shape and its yield, all the capabilities of the cow should be directed. We may first view it as a reservoir for the milk. As such, it must be large and capacious, with broad foundations, extending well behind and well forward, with distinct attachments ; broad and square, viewed from behind, the sole level and broad, the lobes even-sized, and teats evenly distributed ; the whole udder firmly attached, with skin loose and elastic. Such a form gives great space for the secreted milk, and for the lodgment of the glands, while allowing the changes from an empty to a full vessel. The glands should be free from lumps of fat and muscle, well set up in the body when the cow is dry, and loosely covered with the soft and elastic skin, without trace of flabbiness. Such a covering allows for extension when the animal is in milk, while the glands are kept in proximity with the blood-vessels that supply them. XI. Escutcheon or Milk Mirror. I think a broad escutcheon is fully as good a sign as along one; that quantity or quality mean more than shape, yet I would not discard the shape entirely. The udder and its dependencies, the milk veins, and the eseutcheon mark, may be considered the foundation of the Ayrshire cow. These influence profit, and also the shapes of the body and the form of the animal. The milk vessel is placed in the pubic region of the cow, and is protected on either side by the hind limbs. The breadth of its attachments secures breadth of body, and the weight requires also a depth of quarter and of flanks. The breadth below requires breadth of hip above, and length of loin here appears related to length of pelvis. So much for the physical portion. The physical function of milk-producing demands a great and continuous flow of blood, for it must not be for- gotten that milk is blood, so to speak. This flow is dependent on the supply of food, and on the facilities of digestion. To gain this, a large hody 1s required in order to hold the suitable digestive organs. To gain the most of our blood after it has absorbed the chyle from the digestive DAIRY CATTLE—THE AYRSHIRES. 609 organs, reason shows that it should find its way freely and speedily through the system on its labors of supply and remeval, cleanse itself in the lungs, and again pass on to its duties. All this points to a healthy heart, not cramped, and lungs of sufficient capacity ; for the yield of milk drains much nutriment from the system, and the constitution must needs have the vigor given by healthy and active heart and lungs. In this way the chest is correlated with the udder. The reproductive functions require hook bones of good size, and a broad pelvis is desirable, as underlying within are the generative organs. Defects here are to be shunned. XII. The Points Summed Up. The points of the Ayrshire cow, as given by the Ayrshire Agricultural Society, and the New York State Agricultural Society, have been summed up as follows : XIII. The Body. The whole fore-quarters thin in front, and gradually increasing in depth and width backward, yet of sufficient breadth and roundness to in- sure constitution ; back should be straight and the loins wide, the hips rather high and well spread ; pelvis roomy, long, broad and straight, hook bones wide apart, quarters long, tolerably muscular, and full in their upper portion, but moulding into the thighs below, which should have a degree of flatness, thus affording more space for a full udder; the flanks well let down, but not heavy ; ribs, behind, springing out very round and full, affording space for a large udder—the whole carcass thus acquiring increased volume toward its posterior portion. XIV. The Skin. In connection with the body and the udder, the skin isof great value in assisting our judgment. Between the portion of the external covering used for leather, and the muscle, there occurs a layer of cellular tissue, which contains a larger or smalleramount of fat cells, and the mellow handling caused by these cells indicates a free circulation throughout this meshwork. The skin varies from a thin, papery hide, covered with silky hair, to a thick, supple, elastic hide, well coated with hair, on the one hand, and 2 similar variation, with harsh hair and coarseness, on the other. The thin, papery hide indicates quick fattening and a delicate constitution ; thick, elastic hide, cushioned on fat, and which on the flank comes into the hand almost without grasping, indicates the height of vigor, accompanied by the fattening tendency, and the possessor of this hand- ling endures climatic changes, low quality in his food, and neglect, with 610 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. remarkable hardihood, and quickly responds to full feed and good care. The harsh handler is a dull feeder, consumes much food, and generally contains more than a just.proportion of offal or waste. In the Ayrshire cow we desire neither of these extremes, for it is in the milk product that we wish the feod to be utilized, and it is almost an unchanging law of nature, that deficiency in one direction must be compensated for by excess in another direction, and vice versa. At any rate, the cow that lays on fat too quickly is seldom a first class milker ; and how well known is it that the cow of large yield milks down her condition. A cow that has a moderately thin, loose skin, of sufficient elasticity and suppleness of touch, without being fat-cushioned, as it were, with hair soft and mossy or woolly, if of correct form otherwise, will usually milk a large quantity, and when she becomes dry, will rapidly come into condition. In truth, the handling of the Ayershire cow must be good ; it cannot be too good ; but it must not be of exactly that quality sought for in the grazing breeds. There, as everywhere, the dairyman must keep to his line; milk, not fat, is his profit ; and in seeking excess of both, he will be liable to fall below the average of either. XV. Milk Points. It is an axiom of breeders to diminish the useless parts of an animal as much as possible, or, in other words, to reduce the proportion of those parts not conducive to profit to as great extent as possible. Applyin this rule to a dairy breed, we should desire a small neck, sharp shoulders, $ small brisket and small bone. Moreover, small bone usually accompa- nies thrift, and is universally found in improved breeds. We thus havea reason for these other Ayrshire points : Shoulders lying snugly to the body, thin at their tops, small at their points, not. long in the blade, nor loaded with muscle; brisket light ; neck of medium length, clean in the throat, very light throughout, and tapering to the head; tail long and slender; legs short, bones fine, joints firm. XVI. The Head. The head should be small, in shape either long and narrow, or broad in the forehead and short, according to the type of animal preferred by the breeder, generally preferred somewhat dishing ; the nose tapering to an expanded muzzle, with good clean nostrils. Opinions differ as to the general shape of the head. A broad forehead and short face occurs more frequently in bulls, and are generally esteemed a masculine charac- teristic ; a more elongated face is called feminine. Yet some families of well-bred and good milking Ayrshire cows have the broad and short head, and such were, at one time, if not now, the favorites in the show- yard in Scotland. DAIRY CATTLE—THE AYRSHIRES. 611 The eye should be moderately full, lively yet placid looking. The eye is a mirror of the disposition, and interprets the character of the cow, a fretful, irritable animal is seldom a quick fattener, and usually disap- points at the pail. It also gives expression to the features, and physiog- nomy aids our judgment. The ears should be of a good size, but thin, and their skin of rich yellow color. Coarse ears are usually found on ill-bred animals, and these may be considered, to a certain extent, indicative of general coarse- ness. The color of the skin, as shown inside the ear, is usually considered indicative of the richness of the milk in butter. The horns should be of medium size, of fine texture, with an outward and upward turn, or inclining upwards and curving slightly inwards, ac- cording to the taste of the breeder. They should be set on rather widely apart. A coarse horn may indicate a coarse and thick hide, as there seems an intimate relation between the composition of the horn, hair, and hide, and the influence of climate on horn and hair gives an appear- ance oftentimes of correlation hetween the two. XVII. The Neck, Body and Limbs. The neck should be of medium length throughout, and tapering to the throat, which should be clean or free from loose, hanging skin. Yet too thin a neck is not desirable, as it usually indicates a delicate animal. id oe) tay EB dD WOH); GPO Li 4, yj? OL jp LOTTE With this latter importation he was so unfortunate as to import pleuro-pneumonia. The ravages of this dread disease extended to the entire herd, and with the exception of a single young bull, DAIRY CATTLE—THE DUTCH BREEDS. 621 they were entirely destroyed. In 1861 Mr. Chenery made another importation of a bull and four cows, which came over sound. These and their descendants were the only pure-bred herd in America for years. That they were the best representatives of their breed is certain from the fact that they were selected with care from the best dairy herds of North Holland, and were so certified to by the official authorities of the districts where they were bred. Later, as they gained a foothold in the West and showed their eminent adaptability to the climate, and their wonderful yields of milk became known, sagacious breeders undertook the importation as a business spec- ulation. These cattle are now pretty well distributed from Ohio west, and, with full summer and winter feeding, are regarded by many dairy- men, especially cheese-makers, as superior to any other known milking breed. XVIII. What Prof. Roberts Says. Prof. Roberts, in an address before the New York Dairyman’s Associa- tion, gives the following in relation to breeding aud care in North Hol- land and Friesland, from actual observation there : In the first place, but few bulls are kept, and these but for two or three years at most, when they are sold in the market for beef. These bulls are selected with the utmost care, invariably being the calves of the choicest milkers. But little attention is paid to fancy points or color, though dark spotted is preferred to light spotted, and more attention is now being paid to color in order to suit American customers. All other bull calves with scarce an exception are sold as veals, bringing about one and a half times as much as with us. In like manner the heifer calves are sold except about twenty per cent. which are also select- ed with care and raised on skimmed milk. Theage of the cow is usually denoted by the humber of her calves, and in no ease did I find a cow that had had more than six calves, usually only four or five. Theirrule is to breed so that the cow’s first calf is dropped in the stable before the dam is two years old, in order that extra care and attention may be given. There are other objects gained by this method ; for should the heifer fall below their high standard she goes to the butcher’s market before another wintering, and though she brought little profit to the dairy she will more than pay for her keeping at the block. Here we find a three fold method of selection. First in the sire; second, in the young calf, judged largely by the milking qualities of the dam ; and lastly is applied the greatest of all tests, performance at the pail; and not till she answers this satisfac- torily is she accorded a permanent place in the dairy. 622 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. XIX. Measurements Adopted for Dutch Friesian Cattle. The measurements adopted by the Dutch-Friesian Association of Amer- ica in estimating value, with a view to tabulated records in future, inelud- ing milk records, are as follows: 1—Lenegth from point of shoulder to point of pelvis. 2 Length from forward point of hips to point of pelvis. Width of hips. 4—Width at the thurl. 5—Heieht at shoulders. 6—Height at hips. 7—Girth at the smallest cireumference immediately 9 o back of shoulders. XX. How to Select Dairy Cows. To sum up the whole matter of dairy breeds in a few words: If rich milk, without regard to quantity, is desired, select the little Jerseys. HOLSTEIN COW AND CALF. “Astrea 2d,’’ the cow which took the Sweepstakes Prize at the Illinois State Fair last year. She is five years old, weighs about 1650 pounds, and is a good milker, giving from 56 to 64 pounds of milk per week. They will certainly satisfy the most difficult to please. If both butter and milk are wanted, our preference would lie with the Ayrshires. But if great quantities of milk excellently adapted to the manufacture of cheese were the object, we should have no hesitation in saying, the Dutch cattle will quite fill the most sanguine expectations. CHAPTER XII. THE RAISING AND ECONOMICAL FEEDING OF CATTLE. I. IMPORTANCE OF PROPER CARE WHILE YOUNG.——II. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GOOD AND BAD CARE. Ill. THE STARVED CALVES AT GRASS. IV. THE OTHER SIDE. V. GOOD WINTER KEEPING FOR CALVES. VI- WHEN AND HOW TO CASTRATE. VII. YOUNG BEEF. VIII. HEAVY STEERS. IX. FULL FEEDING AND EARLY MATURITY. X. ECONOMY IN FEEDING. XI. THE TRUE, POLICY WITH YOUNG STOCK. XII. FEEDING THE YOUNG CALVES. XIII. FEED GRASS AND OATS EARLY.——XIV. WHERE THE PROFIT COMES IN.— XV. FEEDING FOR BEEF AND FOR LABOR.——XVI. REACHING RESULTS. XVII. WHEN AND HOW TO FEED. XVIIT. OUT-DOOR FEEDING WHERE CORN Is CHEAP. —XIX. A GOOD CONDIMENT.—XxX. SO-CALLED PERFECT FOODS. I. Importance of Froper Care while Young. There is no more important factor in the management of cattle than proper care while young. Those who imagine that they are doing the correct thing if they can manage to keep life in a calf until it is three months old, and then have it get fat on grass hefore winter comes, al- ways have a set of ‘‘scrawns,’’ with their digestive organs destroycd by improper food, and which never make either healthy steers or cows. They are always runts—contemptuously called ‘*scalawags,’’ by the butchers in our markets—and sell for one and a half to two cents a pound, when good cattle are worth from four and a half to six cents. Il. Difference between Good and Bad Care. A single illustration will suffice. One man will give calves new milk until they are six weeks old, and then gradually reduce the quantity, substituting oat-meal porridge or fine corn-meal mush, with a.very little linseed added, or mixing equal parts of oat-meal and corn-meal in the milk, until the calf is four months old. Then it will do well on soft grass and oats. The other man takes the calf from the cow at one day old, and feeds it skim-milk until the age of three weeks, when half-cooked, coarse meal—husks and all—is mixed with the milk; and finally at six weeks or two months old, the calf is turned out to grass, receiving, perhaps, an occasional ration of sour whey. It is poor, does not grow, takes ‘the scours,’ which is only another name for indigestion, and if the animal gets through the first winter with what such a man calls special nursing, and occasional greasings with ‘‘anguintum,”’ to kill lice, he finds himself the possessor of a scrubby yearling, ready (?) for grass, that will weigh, skin and bones, from seventy to ninety pounds. 623 + 624 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. III. The Starved Calves at Grass. He expects his calves to get on their feed the next summer. Calves are endowed with great vitality, and if their stomachs recover something of tone, they will have shed ther old hair, (what has not been eaten out by vermin) by the first of July, and by fall, if it be a good year for grass, they will be in half-decent store condition, and perhaps weigh 150 to 170 pounds each. That is, they will have gained from sixty to eighty pounds of flesh, each, to cover their bones. They are at the end of eighteen months, just where a good calf should have been at weaning time the fall BADLY WINTERED. WELL WINTERED. before, but with constitutions ruined so far as profitable feeding is concerned. Thus, this kind of feeding goes on; starved in winter and allowed t s, this g@ goes ; sti : ‘ ed to shift for themselves in summer, at the age of three years they will aver- age 800 pounds, gross weight, if no epidemic seizes them. oS IV. The Other Side. The common-sense feeder keeps his calves growing right along, with plenty of new milk until their stomachs are capable of digesting solid food, when meal mush is added, and the cream taken from the milk. As soon as they will eat oats and grass, they are given as much of these as they want; and in the autumn, when ready for wintering, it would not be strange if they should average 200 pounds each. V. Good Winter Keeping for Calves. They are given warm shelter and the best and softest hay, with a gen- erous allowance of meal daily. So they grow right along, and mity be made to gain a hundred pounds during the winter. The next summer they are kept on flush pasture, or, if grass is bad, they get some corn, with plenty of pure water, and a place is provided where they may es- cape flies. Thus at three years old the steers are heavy beeves, and the heifers will have produced a fine calf, each, and be ready to do justice to them in the way of nourishment. THE RAISING AND ECONOMICAL FEEDING OF CATTLE. 625 VI. When and How to Castrate. Many persons put off gelding their calves until they are ue months old, and often until they are a year ig This will do if ‘* stags ’’ are wanted ; but stags, however fat, sell for one or two cents a pound less in the mar- ket than steers. The proper time to geld bull calves is not later than the age of four weeks. When the calves are about three weeks old, drive them into a close pen. Secure a calf so it may stand at ease, but not struggle severely ; or, it may be thrown on the left side for the operation. Seize the scrotum with the left hand, and press the testicles rather firmly to the bottom ; with a keen blade, rounded at the point, cut at a single stroke down through the scrotum and into the testicles, first one and then the other. Separate the membrane carefully, but quickly, when it unites, and draw out the testicles until about six inches of the cords are visible. Cutthe cords, first one and then the other, with a pair of dull shears (this prevents much bleeding), and let them pass back. If severe bleeding ensues, inject a little muriate of iron into the cavity, and wet a soft rag with the same and pass it gently into the cavity. Some use salt and lard, but this is painful. So proceed until all are castrated, andthen turn them into a place where strange cattle or flies will not molest them. It is as little dangerous, this mode of castration, almost, as cutting one’s finger. The parts should heal in a week. Castration often comes awkward to the beginner, but it soon becomes easy, if fearlessly and care- fully practiced. VII. Young Beef. In England it has been the practice for years to force fattening animals from birth, so that they are heavy weights at eighteen months old, and fully ripe at three years old. Some results of this policy are recorded in the Royal Agricultural Journal of England. Among others Mr. Stanford, of Charlton Court, is credited with having sold high-grade Short-Horn heifers and steers in 1878 at ages and prices as follows : Return per month Price. from birth. One eleven-months-old steer. .....eeeeeecesecee Rye isleteheretetata ¢ 74 00 $ 6 73 One thirteen-months-old steer...... mialafarataleietetats tatelaveleleletalere 101 64 7 82 Three fourteen-months-old heifers, average.............- 92 40 6 60 Three fifteen-months-old heifers, average...... Bonrinasaoed 101 64 6 77 One‘sixteen=months-old) steers. <<... cclemelccicicscc vevsiccicces 102 30 6 39 One eighteen-months-old steer.. meric S45 115 50 6 42 One eighteen- and-a-half- months- ‘old steer. 129 36 7 00 Two eighteen- and-a-half-months-old steers, average 122 10 6 60 The weights were not given, but the price is stated at from 16 to 18 cents per pound, net weight—meaning the four quarters. The best 16 months old steer must have weighed something like 1,200 lbs. alive, allowing the 40 626 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK, quarters to have been 65 per cent. of the whole weight—a not very large allowance for such cattle. In the Chicago Fat Stock Show, the same year, the best steer, 28 months old, weighed 1,636 Ibs. The best steer, one year old and under two 1,838 lbs., showing that our best feeders not only show fully as early maturity as English feeders, but likewise as wonderfully good weights. VIII. Heavy Steers. Until the inauguration of the annual Fat Stock Show in Chicago, under the auspices of the Illinois Board of Agriculture, at which cattle were shown for the best feeders and breeders in the West and South, but few reliable data as to the gain of animals in feeding could be gotten. At the time of the first show, in 1869, it was demonstrated that Western and Southern breeders perfectly understood the principles of fattening cattle, both young and old, and that they kept in view the fact that the young animal gains faster in proportion to the amount of food consumed than the ma- ture animal, and the older and fatter the animal becomes, the less the daily gain. From the statements of exhibitors, sworn to in some of the more important classes shown there, and the reports of committee thereon, we quote : Among the heavy cattle were the following, and credited to weigh, as taken from the pasture and feeding yards, as follows: The steer, Goy. Morton, 3,190 lbs; Burnside, 2,870; Hoosier Boy, 2,640; Nels. Morris, 2,840 pounds. The following are the actual weights as given by the committee, on animals 1 year to 4 years old: Messrs. Graves & Co., one steer 4 years old, 2,445; one steer 3 years old, 2,060. A. F. Moore, one steer 2 years old, 1,786. J. D. Gillet, one steer 3 years old, 2,139. Wing & Thompson, one steer 4 years old, 2,240 ; one steer 4 years old, 2,166; one cow, 1,525; one cow, 1,610. John B. Sherman, one steer 3 years old, 2,019. J.N. Brown’s Sons, one steer 2 years old, 1,446; one steer 2 years old, 1,449; one steer 2 years old, 1,636; one steer 2 years old, 1,316; one steer 2 years old, 1,246; one steer 1 year old, 1,338; one steer 1 year old, 1,249; one steer 1 year old, 1,198. Dexter Curtis, one cow, 1,833; one cow, 2,042; one cow, 1,986. This record is specially valuable as showing the great weight attained by one, two and three-year-old steers, as well as the great ultimate weights attained by mature oxen, viz.; Best one-year-old, weight 1,838 pounds ; best two-year-old, weight 1,786 pounds ; best three-year-old, 2,139 pounds ; and the heaviest 3,190 pounds. THE RAISING AND ECONOMICAL FEEDING OF CATTLE, 627 In the foregoing we find a steer one year old and under two, weighing 1,193 pounds—as much as could be expected from a fairly-fattened four year old fed as the average farmer feeds. Does any one suppose the feeder spent as much on that yearling as the farmer ordinarily does on his four year olds? IX. Full Feeding and Early Maturity. By studying the foregoing it will be seen that the best guin was in the steer one year old and under two, the next best is a steer two years old and under three, and the third best gain is another steer two years old and under three. The four-year old steer made the least average gain, and the older the steer the less was the daily gain. Every observing farmer knows that a calf allowed to run out during the winter and shift for himself with the other cattle, if fed on hay, with perhaps a nubbin of corn now and then, will weighless in the spring than it did the fall before. And those who have tried both systems of feeding (full feeding from birth, with proper shelter, and allowing young stock only hay with such shelter as they may be able to find) know there is no profit in the latter, but absolute loss. There are, indeed, places where hay may be had simply for the making, where the grazing is ample and where cattle may be raised at a minimum cost, if good shelter is provided. But year by year such sections are being more and more contracted, through the settlement of the country. Asa rule, the best profits are now made by the seeding of meadows and pastures, by providing good shelter, and by the cultivation of corn enough to carry the stock in good condition through the winter. This is really the basis of profitable feeding in the West and South-west. X. Hconomy in Feeding. We have striven throughout this work to show that in the rearing of stock, the same strict attention to business principles should prevail that is necessary to success in any other calling. There must be a strict ac- counting of profit and loss, else no man can know, except in a haphazard way, whether he is making money or not. The feeder should know, in a general way, what food containing the elements of growth and possess- ing fattening qualities is cheapest. This, of course, will vary with dif- ferent sections of the country. An experience of forty years in the West has taught us to rely princi- pally on corn for all kinds of stock. For eattle, when the price was forty cents a bushel or less, unground corn has been found the best ; while for horses, sheep and swine, our experience has been that it does not pay to grind when the price is below sixty cents, for these animals masticate or 628 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. grind their food pretty thoroughly. For fattening cattle we prefer, first, shocked corn, next snapped corn—that is, corn snapped from the stalk with the husk remaining—and next, husked corn in the ear, the waste to be gathered by store hogs. We have found that, with good shelter, five pounds of corn and ten pounds of good sweet hay per day was a good fattening ration to each 1000 pounds weight of steers fed. When feeding shock corn, give all the animals will eat clean as to the vars. They will take what blades are needed, and stock steers may fol- low to glean, with stock hogs after, to pick up what grain is wasted or left in the droppings. Sheltered from winds and storms the stock may thus be economically fed to heavy weights. For young and growing cattle there is nothing better than equal weights of corn and oats, or corn and barley ground together, whichever may be cheapest, with plenty of good hay or corn fodder that has been shockel before frost. In the South cotton-seed meal, and mill stuff may take the place of corn and oats, or corn and barley, while pea vines, or other good fodder natural to the climate, may be used instead of hay. The economy of feeding, may thus be summed up: First, good shelter ; second, plenty of food to keep the animals constantly improving, and third, feed whatever substantial and nutritious food may be cheapest. XI. The True Policy with Young Stock. We may be allowed to repeat nearly verbatim what we have before written upon the subject of raising young cattle. The breeder and feeder must exercise sound and careful judgment. It will not pay to starve even the commonest stock. A calf, to use a common expression, “knocked in the head with a pail of skimmed milk,” will never make a first class steer or cow. Neither is it nec- essary that they suck the cow. In fact, in the case of the dairy cows or heifers intended for the dairy, they should not suck, for it surely tends to diminish the flow of milk, except the calf is turned with the cow at stated intervals, and the cow milked clean at the same time. In the case of heifers, they should be milked as soon as the calf has drawn the first milk, both as a means of training and to develop the flow of milk as much as possible ; besides this, a calf taken at two or three days old 1s easily taught to suck the finger or an artificial teat attached to a reser- voir. XII. Feeding the Young Calves. For the first two or three weeks they should have nothing but new milk. It should be as warm as it comes from the cow, and the calf should be fed four times a day. Then they may have milk twelve hours THE RAISING AND ECONOMICAL FEEDING OF CATTLE. 629 old, from which the cream has been taken, adding four ounces of finely ground meal made into thoroughly cooked mush, to each meal, for strong, hearty calves. Thus they may be fed for two weeks more, changing to oat-meal or wheat flour if the calf is inclined to scour. Some feeders add a teaspoonful of linseed meal once a day; it is not a bad plan. When the calf is four weeks old it need be fed but twice a day, giving milk warmed to about ninety or ninety-five degrees, which last is the natural animal heat. From this time on, more and more mush, or its equivalent, may be added as the calf increases in size and strength, until it begins to eat grass and threshed oats, which it should be encouraged to do. XIII. Feed Grass and Oats Early. At ten weeks old the calf should eat freely, and at three months old it may be gradually weaned from milk and taught to subsist on grass and oats. During all this time the calf should be sheltered from the hot sun and rain, by providing a shelter to which it may retire, well ventilated, dry and clean, and sufficiently dark to keep out green-head and other bit- ing flies. In the autumn its rations of grain should be increased, and as erass fails the finest meadow hay should be substituted—whatever it will sat clean of both. Offer it water occasionally after it is a month old, and when weaned see that it never lacks for water. XTV. Where the Profit Comes In. If during the winter you have kept the calves in the warmest quarters possible, and fed liberally with grain and hay, in the spring you will have received the best profit that you will ever reap from the animal at any subse- quent age; but upon comparing debit and credit with your neighbor who has fed skim-milk alone in summer and poor hay in winter, you will find that the loss on his calves has gone in the shape of profit in yours. From this time on feed liberally of grain in the winter, and give a little all summer when they will eat it. Let them be so warm in winter that they never become chilled. So continue until the animal is within six months of being ripe for the butcher. Then feed the best you can, and you will find that you will get two to three cents a pound, gross weight, more than your neighbor who has only half fed and has turned off his rattle totally unfit for the butcher. The same rule will hold good for those calves intended for cows. To make a good cow, she must-be fed well to bring early development and maturity. She may thus be brought forward strong and lusty, and in better condition at two years past to bring you a perfect calf, than those of your neighbor at twice that age, whose policy has been to grudge them feed and allow them to shift for themselves. 630 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. XV. Feeding for Beef and for Labor. The following, originally written for the American Encyclopedia of Agriculture, contains in the extracts given the gist of our conclusions on the subject of feeding : The time is long since passed when it is considered true economy to allow young stock to shift for themselves without the intelligent care of the master and proper feeding. The most successful feeders of to-day feed all stock liberally, and such as are destined for human food, are fed fully from birth, and until ready for the butcher’s block. But the system of forcing is carefully avoided with all stock intended for either labor or breeding. The object here is to develop strong constitutions and ample bone and muscle, that a long and useful life may result. Hence a different class of foods are used from those intended for mere fat- tening. In this, again, the question of the proper foods to be used be- comes important. XVI. Reaching Results. The food must be perfect food ; that is, adapted to the special require- ments of the animal. Young animals ; those required for labor ; those to be used for fast driving, and those ready for feeding ripe (fully fat ) each require different food, and, indeed, different care. In the fattening of animals, the sooner they can be brought up toa fully fat weight, the greater will be the profit; a weight of, say 1,500 pounds for cattle, 300 pounds for the large breeds of swine, 200 pounds for the small breeds, and from 100 to 150 pounds for sheep, according to the breed. To do this they must be pressed forward from birth, by means ef the food best adapted to the animal, and marketed before they become fully grown. In summer a pasture containing a variety of good grasses will furnish this perfect food. If anything is needed more, it may measurably be found, for fattening, in Indian corn, or meal as a supple- mentary food, to be given at night. For young animals, working and fast driving stock, oats are proper, The two first, however, may have any kind of mill stuff, with profit, if cheaper than oats. In the winter all stock, in addition to good, sweet hay, should receive daily such grain as will best answer the end, except that corn meal, or corn, may constitute a part of the daily ration for all classes of stock, since more fat is required for the animal waste than in summer. For dairy stock the young animals should be fed identically as for working stock, but not forced, since sufficient frame-work for continued usefulness must be provided. Milking stock may receive largely of corn meal, in winter, and ground rye, oats, barley, or mill feed, accord~ ing to relative prices. THE RAISING AND ECONOMICAL FEEDING OF CATTLE. vd lL Another important matter is the necessity of changing their diet. An- imals will live on one particular food. They will even thrive for a time ; but the best results, economically considered, have always been gained by varying the food, according to the appetite of the animal. The change from green to dry, and dry to green food, however, should not be made too suddenly. XVII. When and How to Feed. Hay, in the West, is one of the most expensive of the stock foods raised in all that great region known as the corn belt. In the more central portions of the corn zone, 2 ton of corn and fodder can be produced for less money than aton of the best meadow hay. Hence, feeders use as largely of corn as possible, and when finishing off cattle fat, it is given almost exclusively, or with only enough rough fodder to properly divide it. Regularity in the amount of the ration fed is of particular importance. All animals should be fed at exactly regular hours, and just what they will eat clean. If any is left, it should be removed and given to other hungrier animals. As to the time of feeding, three times a day is sufficient for all except horses and swine. In fattening swine the best results are obtained by giving them what they will eat clean four times aday. There will always be some animals that will be delicate and indifferent feeders. These should always be separated from the hearty ones and given special care and food. Get rid of them at the first possible opportunity ; certainly as soon as they are in passably salable condition. There is no money either in trying to raise or fatten such. When eattle are kept ina stable there should be a room, frost proof, where the morning’s food may be prepared over night, if mixed food or wet food is given. If meal or other grain food is given without mixing with hay or straw—and in our opinion this is better for cattle—it should be given only moist enough so it will not be dry. A little experience will soon enable the feeder to so prepare the meal for the whole stock over night, that it will be in proper condition inthe morning. If it be mixed with cut food, use clear bright oat straw if possible, and not cut shorter than two inches. XVIII. Out-Door Feeding where Corn is Cheap. In the milder latitudes of the West it has been found economical to feed in the open air where the shelter of timber or artificial plantings may be had. Careful experiments made some years since at the Illinois Indus- trial University, as between feeding in stables with ground and unground corn, showed a decided profit in the latter way of feeding. This we have also found to be the case. Under this system of feeding, whether the stock are fed snapped corn, or fed with husked corn, very little is lost. 682 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. The cattle are fed plentifully. What they leave and that which passes undigested is picked up by swine, two hogs being usually allowed to each steer to be fattened, and at the end of the day the hogs are given some corn additional, if they need it. Thus, exeept in very inclement weather, steers may be made fat on about fifty bushels of corn in about three to four months’ feeding, and the shoats require but little additional food to bring them up to heavy weights. The best plan we have ever tried for out-door fattening is to feed corn cut at the roots and shocked. This is hauled daily on truck wagons, when the ground is hard, or on sleds when there is snow, and fed, corn and fodder together. The cattle are not expected to eat the fodder clean, but usually they may be expected to consume the blades, which with the ears are the valuable part. The feeding is twice a day, in feeding lots— alot for the morning feed and one for the evening feed. ‘The cattle being about done with the cars, hogs are turned in to glean the seattered corn and droppings. Thus, whatever the system of feeding, if cattle have shelter from stormy and inclement weather, they may be made very fat, and healthfully so, and, where labor is scaree and corn cheap, at a minimum expense. XIX. A Good Condiment. We do not believe in condimental food for animals as a rule, but when it is deemed necessary, the following will be found to be a good condi- ment for special feeding, to be given one pound with each feed of meal : Twenty-five pounds ground linseed oilcake, ten pounds ground flaxseed, forty pounds corn-meal, twenty-four ounces ground turmeric root, two ounces ginger, two ounces caraway seed, eight ounces gentian, two ounces cream of tartar, one pound sulphur, one pound common salt and ten oun- ces coriander seed. Mix the whole together, and when fed use a quarter of a pound of molasses to each feed, the molasses to be used in the water for wetting the food in which the condiment is given. Where sorghum molasses is made, this will not be found to be expensive. XX. So-Called Perfect Foods. So much has been said by theorists about perfect foods, and the danger from feeding corn, that many persons have been brought to be- lieve that corn is almost a dangerous food for growing animals ; that thus fed, they will lack bone and muscle, and cannot be expected to grow up healthy. If an animal were to be raised exclusively on corn this might be true, but the same would be true of other grain. Neither horses, cattle, nor sheep ean be properly raised exclusively on grain. Oats are THE RAISING AND ECONOMICAL FEEDING OF CATTLE, 638 undoubtedly the best grain that can be fed to growing stock in connec- tion with hay. Oats, however, cannot be afforded. Good hay is aw per- feet food, so far as the distension of the stomach is concerned, The an- imal cannot eat enough to fatten upon. Our pastures make a perfect food, so far as muscular development is concerned. For cattle, whole corn, that is, ears, husks, and leaves, forms a perfect food either for growing or fattening stock in winter, so soon as they get strength of jaw sufficient to crush the corn. Therefore, no breeder need be afraid that cattle from calfhood up will fail to develop, with plenty of good hay and corn, or corn-meal in winter, and plenty of good, flush pasture in summer, with pure water at all times. CHAPTER XIII. PASTURAGE AND FEEDING FOR PROFIT. I. STUDY THE CONDITIONS. Il, PROVIDE AGAINST DROUGITITS. Ill. KINDS OF FEED TO RAISE.——IV. PASTURE THE POOR MAN’S WEALTH. Vv. THE VALUABLE CLOVERS. VI. ALFALFA OR LUZERNE.——VII. CLOVERS NOT GENERALLY VAL~ UABLE. VIII, FORAGE AND FEEDING PLANTS. IX. GRASS IS THE MOST VAL- UABLE X. GRASSES OF SPECIAL VALUE.—-xXI. THE COMING GRASSES FOR THE WEST.——XII. THE TIME TO PASTURE.——XIII. FEEDING IN WINTER.——XIV. WATERING. XV. FEEDING IN SUMMER.——XVI. ECONOMY OF FULL SUMMER AND WINTER FEEDING. XVII. SUMMING UP,——-XVIII. FINISHING A STEER, XIX. WHEN TO SELL. I. Study the Conditions. In every country, and, indeed, in every district of a country, the cir- o and fatten- > cumstances attending the rearing, and especially the feedin ing of stock are so varying and diversified, that the aggregate cost of a comparatively insignificant group of items is what makes the difference between profit and loss in feeding. For instance, afew cents a bushel more or less in the price of corn, an extra month of winter, or greater cost of watering in one case than in another may give one man profit and an- other man it may carry into loss. Insufficient shelter, imperfect conve- niences and little wastes, here and there will often turn the scale both in summer and in winter feeding. II. Provide against Droughts. In summer, a drought which finds the feeder unprepared with green food, other than grass, will destroy profits, as also will a failure of water, The reason is simple. Every case of this kind which stops or retards fattening, is not only a loss through the shrinkage of flesh, but after the animals again begin to improye, it takes some time before they really be- gin to thrive again when the pastures become flush. Not so with the D farmer who provides against a lack of water during droughts, and has sufficient green fodder to supply deficiencies arising from bare or partly bare pastures. IiI. Kines of Feed to Raise. The question of feeding-material is an important one, and here the feeder must be guided by soil, climate and such other natural contingen- cies as he may have to encounter. Any fodder crop does best on a rather 634 PASTURAGE AND FEEDING FOR PROFIT. O35 porous but rich soil. Hence, if the soil is stiff, it may be opened by plowing under long manure deeply. If already too light, give it cow manure, ashes, and such special manures as you may be in the habit of using. Corn is the great soiling crop for farm animals North and South. Next come sorghum, and the many varieties of Doura corn or Hast Indian millet. In the South, cow-peas are valuable. Alfalfa, once it is established, gives heavy cuttings of fodder. In the North this plant has not, as a rule, proved valuable, but some varieties of the cow-pea can be erown and matured in from seven to eight weeks, It is worthy of experiment. Sown after the nights become warm, this crop is a most valuable one to turn under as a fertilizer if not wanted for feeding. With proper care in seeding thick on rich soil, any forage crop may be eut with a mowing machine, so that the labor of gathering is compara- tively light, and it may be fed occasionally in the field or in the yards, night and morning, or only at night, as circumstances may dictate. It must be remembered as «a first principle in feeding, whether for growth or for fattening, that animals must not be allowed to shrink, since every time they do so it is at a loss of flesh to themselves and of profit to the owner, IV. Pasture the Poor Man’s Wealth. Upon plenty of good pasture depends suecess in summer feeding ; with the majority of farmers the pasture provides the sole summer feed. Hence the necessity that it be strong and vigorous. Nothing is gained by overstocking a pasture. It is better to get rid of some of the stock than to feed the pasture too close, for animals that have to busy them- selves all day to satisfy the cravings of their stomachs never come out fat. If you have provided for contingencies, by means of fodder, you mily, of course, stock your pastures closer than otherwise. If not, stock them only so the cattle can easily supply their wants. V. The Valuable Clovers. The best clovers, or those which do well generally, are practically in- cluded in three species, viz: The Red clover, the White or Duteh clover, and the Alsike clover. The soils best adapted to Red clover are such as will bring good crops of winter grain, though Red clover does well on all soils which do not heave badly in winter. White clover will grow on any land adapted to Blue grass, and also on many*vather moist soils. It favors a firm, not a spongy soil. It must be confessed that cattle do not like it, but it makes rich feed, and if mixed with Blue grass, or other soft grass, cattle will take both together. 636 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, Alsike clover—often called Swedish cloyer—does well on most soils, and will bear considerable flooding, if the flooding is not too long contin- ued. We consider it as altogether superior to White clover for pasture, and on soils too wet for Red clover it makes good hay for cattle. VI. Alfalfa or Luzerne. Alfalfa or Luzerne—its truce name—is a valuable barn forage ; it should be cut and fed fresh or partly wilted. It thrives on deep, dry soils, Which are not subject to hard freezing in winter. It has become thor- oughly naturalized in California, and would probably do well on the Western plains in ‘Texas and in New Mexico, as it has done in some of the Southern States cast of the Mississippi. VII. Clovers Not Generally Valuable. What we have previously written under this head, we have since seen no reason to change. There are many other species of clovers, some of them indigenous to the West, which we only mention as a caution against their beine sown. ‘These two species of so called Buffalo clover—the upright and the running Buffalo clovers—the upright or yellow clover, and the low hop clover, a half-creeping variety. ‘There is only one more variety worth mentioning, and this simply as a warning to farmers not to sow it, except for bee pasturage, and then only when it may not become a troublesome weed. We have reference to the tree clover or Bokhara clo- ver, specifically the white-flowered melliotus. Tt has been recommended as valuable for soiling, that is, for cutting green for feeding to stoelk in stables. We @ive the same advice about sowing this clover that the erabbed lawyer did to a young client who asked his advice about getting marricd—Don t. If there are bee men near, your hedge rows and waste places will be well seeded with this Bokhara clover. At least such seems to be the case, much to the disgust of the general farming community. It does make good bee pasture—no doubt of it—but it is a nuisance in every other respect. VIII. Forage and Fooding Plants. We have already spoken of the value of forage plants, and, in a pre- ceding chapter of root crops. ‘Purnips, rape and mustard, so valuable in Muelind and some other parts of Kurope, belong to what botanists eall cruciforous plants. The ruta-baga, the kohl-rabi and the cabbage are the principal plants of this tribe that are valuable to the farmers in the United States; and, in the West, these are not especially valuable for feeding. Of the other special fruit and root crops, the gourd family includes PASTURAGE AND FERDING FOR PROFIT, O37 pumpkins and squashes, which find a large place in feeding stock in many portions of the United States. The composite family, the largest of the natural families, furnishes artichokes and a few others seldom used; but it is remarkable in its lack of useful species although wonderful in orna- mental ones. The night-shade family gives us the potato, The parsley family gives us the carrot, the parsnip and some others of value, and the goosefoot family furnishes the sugar beet and mangelwurzel, valuable for feeding in the West. IX. Grass is the Most Valuable. All these plants placed together are of minor account in comparison with the great grass family, which includes our cereal grains. We do not use botanical names usually in speaking of grasses. We only introduce them below in connection with the common names, be- cause in some cases the same grass goes by different names in different parts of the country. The feeder may select from the following list : Timothy, ( Phleum pratense) a better name for which would be Cat’s- tail grass, and, for the reason that in some sections of the country it is called Timothy, a8 in Pennsylvania, and IHerd’s grass in New Wngland and New York. Neither of these names gives an indication of its char- acteristic flower-head, while the former names do. In Blue grass, (Poa pratensis); Wire grass, (Poa compressa); Red-top, (Agrostis vulgaris) confusion of names again comes in. In Pennsylvania, Blue grass is called Green grass, and Red-top is called Herd’s grass. Orchard grass, (Dactylis glomerata) ; Yowl-meadow grass, (Poa serotina), and Meadow fescue, (estuca pratensis), are also most valuable grasses. X. Grasses of Special Value. For feeding during droughts, Indian corn, sown at the rate of two bushels per acre, in drills two feet apart, cultivated thoroughly once or twice, and cut when in blossom will make a good reliance, as also will German millet (Panicum Germanicum), ard common millet (P?. mili- aceum). Were we have nine varieties of grass that do well generally. The first, second, third and fourth, with the clovers heretofore named, constitute the bulk of the grasses cultivated for pasture. Orchard grass is one of the most valuable in the whole list, and should be tried every- where, on land not wet. Fowl-meadow is also well worthy of trial. Fowl-meadow grass especially has been found to take the place of Blue grass in those sections of the Northwest where Blue grass does not suc- ceed, Especially has this been the case in Wisconsin. It is hoped it may be found so in the Southwest, where Blue grass is not natural to the soil. 638 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. XI. The Coming Grasses for the West. We believe Orchard grass and Fowl-meadow will be found to be two of the most valuable grasses for the West, the Northwest, and perhaps for the Southwest, when they come to be better known. Orchard erass, also, gives good satisfaction in the middle region of the South, and we think that Fowl-meadow will also prove most valuable there. Mr. Frank KE. Hoyt, a careful farmer of Wisconsin, in relation to this grass, says he knows of no grass in the Northwest that will compare with it, either for pasturage or the production of hay. It has never been winter or sum- mer killed, and he has found one acre of marsh well set in Fowl-meadow equal for pasturage to three acres of upland, set in Blue grass, and the hay produced the second year after seeding has never failed to pay the entire expense of cultivating and seeding the land. Fowl-meadow hay is especially valuable for horses, having all the advantages of wild hay, being free from dust, that infests timothy and clover, while it pos- sesses all the nutriment of the best tame hay; and those dairymen who are acquainted with it, pronounce it valuable hay for milch cows, XII. Time to Pasture. The time to pasture is when the dew is on, the earlier in the morning the better, Our plan has always been to allow cattle to lie in the pasture all night; and this rule is good even in the spring and fall, if shelter is provided against cold storms, and the pasture is not too remote from the house. In that case the mileh cows must lie in the yard, but should have some food they like, early in the morning, unless milked at day-break. XIII. Feeding in Winter. Whatever the stock, or the place of feeding, give the first meal as soon after day-light as possible in winter—just what they will fully eat. If eaten pretty clean, give a little more feed again at noon, and again at night, so that the animals may lie down on fairly full stomachs before dark. If only one feed of grain is given daily, it should be given at night. Stock should be graded in the feeding yard as to age and strength. The weak and the strong should never be fed together, else the strong will get better feeding than the weak ones, even when the fullest allow- ance is given, Special attention should be paid to the allowance of salt. Cattle should have it where they can take it at will. They will consume less than if it be given them at regular intervals. Salt taken in large doses is cathartic, but in such quantities as animals naturally crave daily it aids digestion and is necessary to all herbiverous animals. PASTURAGE AND FEEDING FOR PROFIT. 639 In feeding in stables observe the same rule—full feeding of good proy- ender, early and late and at noon. This is what keeps animals growing continuously and insures profits ; for thus the feeder secures the greatest possible gain, with the least loss, to the animal system. It is poor policy, when grain is cheaper than hay—and it is so in many portions of the West—to feed largely with hay. Corn and good bright straw, with, say, five pounds of good hay daily per steer will keep them growing right along. Dry corn with little fodder tends to unnatural heat and fever. Therefore keep the stomach distended with a proper quantity of fodder of some kind, and if the corn can be fed after being soaked so much the better. XIV. Watering. Cattle should have water offered them twice a day in winter, and in summer it is desirable that they get it whenever they happen to want it. People sometimes need but little water and at other times a great deal. It is the same with stock of all kinds. If the water is in pools, do not cut holes in the ice for stock to drink through, unless precautions have been taken to prevent their slipping on the ice. This hint may seem needless ; and yet, there is more loss on stock, every year, from this cause, than would provide suitable pumps and troughs, and also pay for the labor of pumping. XV. Feeding in Summer. In fattening cattle it often happens that the grass is not sufficient, or if it be sufficient to keep them full, they do not fatten fast enough. It is just as cheap for the farmer who only fattens a few head yearly to make prime cattle, as it is for one who fattens hundreds. In fact a man who fattens but a few head should make better cattle than one who feeds many. In England when grain is high, the most of it being imported, summer feeding of grain with grass has been practiced for years. Why should it not be so here in the West, where the grain is grown that the English feeders buy? The pastures during July and August will not graze as many head of cattle as in spring and autumn. Hence, the English farm- ers can fully stock their pastures by supplying what meal the cattle will eat while the grass is scant. When pastures are flush and in full succu- lence but little if any of the meal will be taken. What meal they do eat is so much clear gain in fattening. Animals, when on succulent pasture, require some dry food. They will even eat a little hay daily at such times. Thus meal, or if the cattle are used to it, soaked corn, not only modifies the sueculence of green grass and clover, which contains 640 TILE AMERICAN FARMBR’S STOCK BOOK. from eighty to eighty-five per cent. of water, but it promotes the growth of young cattle, and brings well-matured steers fully fat at midsummer, and at other seasons when prime beef brings the best prices. XVI. Economy of Full Summer and Winter Feeding. rom what has been written the reader will have become convinced that we believe in the economy of full summer and winter feeding, and this from calfhood up until the animal is sold to the butcher. The same rule will apply to stock intended for breeding and also to cows raised for their milk product. In the two latter cases, however, the feeding must be more diversified ; for breeding and milking animals need to have fully- developed frames. This is not so necessary for stock that is to be sold as soon as fit for the butcher. We have shown that three years from birth is ample time in which to prepare cattle for the butcher’s block. The principal economy in feeding grain to fattening animals the year round is, that thereby your pastures may be more fully stocked than otherwise, and thus may be fed more evenly. By this course, also, you will have more land left for the production of corn for winter feeding, We have cultivated over sixty acres of corn to the hand ina field of 1,500 acres, the outluy being only one-third of a day’s work per man per acre up to, but not including, the labor of husking. The average yield was within a fraction of forty bushels per acre for the whole area, and the final result was of corn put into the erib, over seventeen bushels for every day’s work of each hand employed. The same may be done by any farmer on measurably clear land in any season. The first proposition in relation to full feeding, winter and summer, is, that your pastures will thereby carry more cattle. The second is, that animals, going into winter quarters fat, will waste less flesh during the winter, since the animal heat is more easily kept up in a fat than in a half- fat orlean one. ‘The third and not the least important point is, that you hasten maturity and thus save interest on capital, insurance, and other items of cost. XVII. Summing Up. The whole matter may be summed up as follows: The pasture grasses mixed make a perfect food. ‘Therefore make the most of them. Clover, Timothy, Red-top, Orchard grass, and Fowl-meadow grass also make a perfect food. When they can be economically raised (and where in ¢ grass country can they not?) make the most of them, Raise all the = roots you can, (inthe West carrots and beets) to supplement your grasses with. But do not expect to fatten stock without grain. It cannot be done unless extra warmth is provided, and this is not economical. Never PASTURAGE AND FEEDING FOR PROFIT. 641 attempt to fatten stock of any kind without due attention to comfortable shelter. For this, expensive structures are not necessary. We have fat- tened cattle in a structure of posts and poles covered with hay and em- banked at the sides, and with no flooring but the natural earth, but with a thick bedding of straw. Yet, if the means of the farmer will allow, a good frame structure willpay, simply in the lessened cost of labor in care, feeding and cleaning. Once you begin to fatten, never allow the stock to lose, but keep them going right alone, and increase the richness of the food as the animal progresses to ripeness. Hay will bring a steer into tolerable condition for fattening. ‘Then he will stop. Good pasture will carry him still farther. He will make good, succulent, healthy beef, but cannot be made fully fat on grass. Hence, he must at least be finished off with grain. Indeed, tomake him ** ripe ” (fully fat) meal and even oil-cake must be used. XVIII. Finishing a Steer. If the steer has been liberally fed from a calf, he will be ready to begin fattening the spring he is three or four years old, according to the breed —if a Short-IMorn or Hereford, at two years old perhaps. Turn him on pasture and add what soaked corn or meal he will eat; give him shelter from the heat and flies. If the aftermath is good add pumpkins, or corn in the husk, as soon as it begins to glaze; and continue increasing the corn as the grass fails. Do not let your steers suffer for wantof shelter from storms, and when the grass gives out put them in a warm stable, and finish them with meal, or meal and oil-cake, allowing of the best hay not over ten pounds aday, with a peck, daily, of roots or the equivalent in pumpkins, as long as they last. If the steers are to be continued in the fields—where the climate and shelter will admit—feed shocked corn, and let store cattle and hogs consume the leavings. Thus you may always have them in condition to sell when the price suits. XIX. When to Sell. Sell in the fall or early winter if the demand will warrant it. If not, keep the steers until the price coincides with your views. Your books should tell you just how much your cattle haye cost, and just what the profits would be at any time, if you weigh them on your home seales, or those nearest you; you will have cattle that buyers will always come to you for ineither case. Andif they are stall-fed—as we have shown how to stall-feed—they will always bring the price of fancy beef ; and two to three cents advance over the price of half-fattened beef is just where the profit of feeding ties. 11 CHAPTER XIV. HERDING AND GRAZING. I. GREAT HERDS OF THE SOUTHWEST.——II. LOSSES FROM COLD AND NEGLECT.—— It1l.——CATTLE DO NOT WANDER FAR.——IV. THREE THINGS NECESSARY IN HERD- ING. Vv. HOW TO RAISE WATER.——VI. TANKS AND POOLS FOR STOCK.——VIL. HAVE THE POOL DEEP.——VIII. PROTECTION AGAINST STORMS. I. Great Herds of the Southwest. In the United States the capital invested in cattle not confined within the boundaries of farms, but which sare herded summer and winter, is enormous. Ten years ago the herds of Texas and New Mexico numbered over 4,000,000 head, or about one tenth of all the cattle of the Union. These gaunt, bony, long-horned, half-wild descendants of the original Spanish cattle were ever impatient of restraint, not easily confined within enclosures and at an early date overran all the fertile but dry region of Texas and New Mexico, and even became acclimated in Southern Kan- sas and the Indian Territory. Immense droves of them were driven North into Kansas, where they were herded during summer, and thence were carried into Missouri, Illinois and Jowa and eastward, to be fattened in winter, or else sold di- rectly from the grass to the butchers. Still later, the vast herding grounds of Colorado, Montana and Wyoming have been oceupied by sim- ilar cattle and by their descendants, crossed with improved bulls of Short- Horn or Hereford stock. Much attention has also been given to the ac- climating of well-bred northern cattle in Texas for improving them. In California also, there were originally great: herds of these Spanish eattle, but more lately they have been nearly or quite supplanted in that State by improved stock. II. Losses from Cold and Neglect. Little or no efforts were made to provide food for these half-wild herds in winter, and hence great numbers often died in Texas, New Mexico, California and the Indian country from lack of feeding, and also from the deep snows and severe weather encountered when they were taken into the more northern plains country. A little forethought in providing some sort of shelter, and putting up hay for feeding during storms, might 642 HERDING AND GRAZING. G43 have prevented this, but the pioneer is too often improvident, and hence the immense losses suffered by the herds in bad seasons, especially in the winter of 1880-81. III. Cattle Do Not Wander Far. Cattle, unlike their relatives the Buffaloes or half-wild horses, do not wander far from their native feeding grounds. Horses will make long journeys in search of food and water, and Buffaloes yearly make long inigrations, extending from the Southwestern plains well up into the Brit- ish possessions. It is not so with cattle. In times of great drought they perish if not relieved by man, and if from any untoward cause their feed fails in their immediate range, they will not make long journeys in search of it. Their only migration is that gradual one which year by year, from increase of numbers, pushes herds further and further from their native feeding grounds. IV. Three Things Necessary in Herding. Since the Indians have been pretty generally confined to reservations, the danger from loss of cattle from their depredation upon herds has been nearly extinguished. The three principal requisites for perfect herding now are free access to water, plenty of range contiguous to the water, and proper provisions for feeding in winter during prolonged droughts or periodical storms. The great herding ranges of the Rocky Mountains, and of Texas and the plains, can only be made available where they are traversed by running streams, since the plan of getting water by means of artesian wells, once thought to be feasible, has not generally realized expectation. Many portions of the great Southwestern plains regions are also sparsely cut by living streams, and much of the country is arid and subject to ex- treme droughts. Hence, although some artesian water has been found, by boring under Government supervision, and occasionally by private en- terprise, the probabilities now seem to be that only the region contiguous to natural water can be permanently occupied, and thus the cattle range ‘annot extend more than about five miles from permanent streams, except whete the deficiency may be supplied from wells. V. How to Raise Water. Wherever water can be found within twenty-five feet of the surface, it may be easily raised by means of the modern windmill, and the ordinary lift-pump. If the water lies further from the surface, the question be- comes more serious, and «a force-pump must be used. As the depth in- creases the difficulty increases, so it may be considered impracticable to raise water on the plains for a large herd of cattle without the aid of O44 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. steam. Hence in regions where no fuel is to be found in a week’s travel many of our otherwise good grazing grounds remain unutilized. VI. Tanks and Pools for Stock. The water when once pumped may easily be saved for use, by digging deep tanks or pools in the ground and thoroughly puddling and grouting the bottom ; or, in the case of a porous soil, the pools must be prevented from leaking by a layer of clay eighteen inches or two feet thick on the bottom, well tramped by cattle while quite soft with water. This grout- ing of clay must, of course, extend some distance above the intended water line at the top, and the reservoir should not be less than six or eight feet deep, to prevent undue loss by evaporation. Another important point is that trees must never be planted about the pool, for the roots will surely find their way to the water, and thus fur- nish the means of leakage through the grouting. VII. Have the Pool deep. The importance of having the pool deep cannot be overestimated. A shallow pool will quickly evaporate under a hot sun, but not so the deep pool. There are two reasons for this. In the first place, a pool, say six feet deep will hold six times as much water as the pool only one foot deep; and at the same time the evaporation from the deep pool will be less than that from the shallow one, since the water in the former always remains much colder, and will never become so strongly heated by the sun. Another advantage is that the deep pool does not so readily breed germs dangerous to the health of the cattle. A deep pool, as described, may quickly be scraped out by means of teams, and the earth used as an embankment. Thus, an oblong pool, say thirty feet wide by three hundred feet long, will hold an immense quantity of water, and allow of the drinking at one and the same time a ereat number of cattle. If advantage is taken of some place where water flows, even temporarily, after rains or during thaws, a dam thrown across one end, above the pool, may furnish a reservoir, to fill the pool and keep it gradually supplied, except in cases of extreme drought. VIII. Protection against Storms. Severe storms must be provided against, for in the great herding grounds of the West they ave sometimes very destructive. Where there are gulches they may be taken advantage of for shelter. Where there are no guleches the best protected locality must be sought, and this should be further protected by planting timber adapted to the soil. If the soil is dry, yellow pine and Norway spruce are the trees to plant, but the HERDING AND GRAZING. 645 belts of the trees must be protected from the cattle. Where there is sufti- cient moisture for grass, cottonwood will generally grow if protected for afew years. The catalpa (Speciosa, not Bignonioides) would be most valuable. It is hardy, grows fast and is less injured, when of some size, by the tramping of cattle, than are most trees. If the cattle kings, who have acquired great wealth by herding in Col- orado and the territories, had attended to this matter, and to the provid- ing of fodder for use during storms, it would have saved them heavy losses, not only from storms, but from the stampeding of their herds. The cattle would be practically safe from stampeding when in the timber, and even when stumpeded on the range they would instinctively seek this shelter if once turned towards it. CHAPTER XV. THE HUMANE MANAGEMENT AND CARE OF CATTLE, I. A MERCIFUL MAN IS MERCIFUL TO HIS BEAST.——II. WIIAT CONSTITUTES GOOD CARE AND KINDNESS.——III. HOW TO MANAGE A KICKER.——-IV. TO PREVENT SUCKING.——V. DEVICES TO PREVENT GORING.——VI. DRIVING TO AND FROM PASTURE. VII. AMENITIES OF TITE BARN YARD.———VIIT. As BETWEEN GOOD AND BAD MANAGEMENT——IX. ASSIMILATION OF FOOD,——X. TWO WAYS OF LOOKING AT IT.———XI_ THE PROFITS OF HUMANE TREATMENT. I. A Merciful Man is Merciful to his Beast. No argument should be needed to show that in the management of an- imals good care is good policy, or that in kindness to them there is money as well as merey. Examples of both methods of dealing with farm animals can be seen in every day life in the yards and pastures of the farms we ‘pass on any country road. When the stock is managed by blows and main foree, the animals are wild, vicious and unmanageable both in the yard and the pasture, They regard every visitor with suspi- cion, and are ready to take to fight at the least sign of danger, or they raise their heads and snort at every noise. If cornered they will either fight, or else seek to rush over or around the supposed source of danger, how- over trifling it may be. On the other hand, when the cattle are kindly cared for, they take no notice of anything but their own individual wants, and are ever ready to seek and enjoy the kind word or caress they are accustomed to receive. Ii. What Constitutes Good Care and Kindness. Humane treatment of animals consists in providing comfortable quar- ters ; the training of stock to what they are expeeted to perform, rather than ‘* breaking’? them into it; furnishing plenty of good and whole- some food, and so placing it that it may not be trampled under foot and wasted. Once the owner gets the confidence of his stock, the balance is easy, and it is cheaper to do this than to bave them lose flesh, from the constant fear of injury. Two illustrations will suffice: The first shows a cow that has been beaten with the milking-stool, when restless from being annoyed by flies, 646 THE HUMANE MANAGEMENT AND CARI OF CATTIE, GAT or from brutal handling of the teats, She has resented this treatment with her heels. She kicks and rung at ev- ery opportunity, and often, at length, with- out provocation, — If offered for sale, unless deceit is practiced, she will not bring half the ‘ price of a well-trained RESULT OW HAD ILANDLING, cow; and» man once cheated with such an animal will steer clear of the person who deceived him, The second picture represents a cow that has been properly cared for when young, She has been trained to know that she will not be abused, and instead of kicking over the pail, will simply move her feet or her tail when the flies bother her. Uf flies ave bad, cover her with a sheet when being milked, or have a rather dark place to milk in, RESULT OF GOOD ILANDLING, TIIl. How to Manage a Kicker. Have you been so unfortunate as to become the possessor of aw cow made ugly and vicious? [Hf she kicks, a harness made like that represented in the illustration, so that a pad can be brought to press tightly in each flank, by means of the guards forced down into one of the notches, will cure her. Tt will, in fact, hurt her when she kicks. A strong cord drawn tight just back of the shoulders will answer inthe majority of cases, lor exceptionally bad kickers a close pen must be made, into which the cow is driven. Tt must be only wide enough to admit her, and havea post set at the proper place against which totie herlog. Atilengthitwill 79 ?S2vENT A COW InOM KIOKING: only be necessary to throw the strap around the lee, and finally she may be inilked by simply driving her into the pen, In all this no violence must he used, Get her quietly into the pen a few times, ab whatever pains, O48 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, and she will soon learn to go in without difficulty, Hither of these plans is casior and cheaper than trying to break her of the habit by blows, ‘Phat only makes a bad matter worre, IV. To Prevent Sucking. Sometimes a calf, not properly weaned, will acquire the habit of sucking other cows, and there are generally good natured cows that will allow it. To prevent this, have a spiked muzzle made as shown in the engraving, not so tizht as to prevent erazing, but sufficiently so to prevent her from sucking. If a cow suck her own milk, a harness as shown in either of the {wo cuts of harness for cows, on the next page, will keep her all right. The second form we consider preferable. TO PREVENT SUCKING, V. Devices to Prevent Goring. If an animal—eow, ox or bull—is vicious with the horns, it should be gotten rid of abonce, untess it be so valuable as to make it an object to vo to considerable trouble to pre- vent its doing mischief. The same rule will apply to animals having any vice, Sell them or fatten them, unless their value makes if necessa- ry to suffer the inconvenience, A good arrangement to prevent hook- ine is represented in the annexed picture, of a vicious ox’s head, Once it is attached, the animal attempting to gore will only pull its own nose, An effective harness for hampering w vicious bull is also shown in the TO PREVENT HOOKING, illustration on next page. With this horness on, no bull, however ugly, can do serious harm, either to man or beast. In mild cases, good balls securely fixed on the horns will be effeetive to prevent goring. They should always be fixed to the horns of bulls, and of THIS WUMANE MANAGEMENT AND CARE OF CATTLE, O19 sharp-horned oxen and cows as well, Select rather large-sized brass tips, with a good serew thread inside, Masten the animal securely ; put two HARNESS TO VREVENT SUCKING, A WET THA FORM, large, round potatoes in the oven to roast, and when sufficiently hot, stiek one on each horn, to soften the tips. When soft enough, or before the WAMPERING A VICIOUS BULL, potato becomes cool, serew the balls as firmly as possible on the end, using a wrench and they will never come off, VI. Driving to and trom Pasture. This, if entrusted to boys, without due caution, often results in injury to the animals, From sheer animal spirit, the boys will offen drive them on a run, or make them jump the partially lowered bars. The first dimin- ishes the flow of milk if it does not’ make it bad from overheating : rm? and the second often occasions injured limbs. We have even known a cow to G50 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, fall and break her neck in jumping the bars, to say nothing of the breachy habits they are apt to acquire from such usage. Hence it is important that the boys be perfectly trained, as well as the cows. VII. Amenities of the Barn Yard. If all farm stock are properly trained, they will live together in good fellowship, if the occasional incorrigible one is prevented from doing mischief, Even a too belligerent cock may be rendered crest-fallen by cutting his spurs, and a goring cow may be prevented even from injuring sheep by the nose piece and cord through the horn. Yet it is altogether A HAPPY FAMILY. better to get rid of unruly stock at any price, and then your farm yard may present the appearance of the picture we give of “A Tlappy Fam- ily.”’ VIII. As Between Good and Bad Management. We have already stated that humane management does not consist in ex- pensive buildings, or costly fixtures, The poor man’s stock may be just as well cared for at a cost within his means, as that of the rich man. The rich farmer may not, indeed, make so much profit as the poorer one, even with all his fine buildings. The profit in feeding, for instance, is in so managing as to get the best returns for the food given, Some kind- hearted persons stuff their animals so full that they are uncomfortable. This is neither kindness nor good management. THE HUMANE MANAGEMENT AND CARE OF CATTLE. 651 IX. Assimilation of Food. The system will properly assimilate a certain amount of nourishment, and no more. All that is given beyond this is a dead loss. All that is given below the required quantity is at a sacrifice of future profits. Both show bad management. While general rules may be given, every man must be competent to judge for himself, and hence the care we have taken in explaining and describing all that relates to the animal, so far as may be judged from outward appearance, and from the bony and physi- cal structure. THE PASTURE OF FARMER **WELL-TO-bO.” A pleasant picture may be seen in a view of a portion of the farm of Farmer «Well-to-do.’’ Here we have the general appearance of quiet and good management; it is a far more eloquent lesson than whole pages of print. xX. Two Ways of Looking at it. The wealthy man, especially the amateur, too often spends money for the sake of appearances solely. IlLis stables will be too costly for profit, his appliances too elaborate for practice. The practical man will reach the sume end so far as feeding and shelter are concerned, and with profit to himself and comfort to his animals. His shelters may be most homely, even made with poles and straw, but they are warm and comfortable. 652 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. He cannot afford iron mangers and water pipes in his stables, but his troughs are tight and solidly built, and his animals are regularly fed and watered. He may not have blankets in winter and sheets insummer, but his animals will be well and carefully fed, and sheltered from the earliest age until ready for sale. XI. The Profits of Humane Treatment. Two years ago, in writing on this subject, we reviewed the matter of feeding as follows. We do not know that we could better it by re-writ- ing it, ana thus we quote: ‘*The humane man will get ten dollars more for 2 cow because she will be gentle and well trained to give down her milk without resistance. His steers will bring from one to two cents per pound extra in market, for the reason that the constant care given them will have resulted in extra weight and condition. Let us see what two cents per pound amounts to. His steer of a given age, say three years, is fed from birth so that it has never fallen in condition, but has coustantly gained, and will weigh from 1300 to 1600 pounds, according to the breed. The steer of the man who does not believe in feeding nor properly treating his ammals, will weigh off of grass 900 or 1000 pounds. The good feeder will get five-and-a-half cents per pound gross weight, or $71.50 for the 1300 lb. steer, and $88 for the heavier one. The poor feeder wil! get, say three cents per pound, or $27 to $30. One may see this every day of the year at the stock-yards of our western cities. If does not cost $20 more to make the good steer than the poor one ; so the enhanced profits are nearly $25 in the one case and $48 in the other; in other words, the good and humane feeder gets the enhanced price on the poor feeder’s 1000 pounds, and on what he has put on besides by his con- siderate care and constant good feeding. We have partially shown this in another part of the work, in alluding to the daily animal waste. That is one integer. Another is that animal waste may be produced excessive- ly, whatever the system of feeding, if animals are subjected to frights and bruises, as well as by exposure to storms and lack of sufficient food,”’ The little cut at the end of this chapter prettily illustrates some results of humane treatment of stock. The cow and calf are quietly chewing the cud in the foreground and in the distance one cow is watching for danger while the other drinks. CHAPTER XVI. THE TRAINING AND WORKING OF CATTLE. I. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRAINING AND BREAKING. Il. WHEN THE WHIP IS NECESSARY.——III. TWO WAYS OF DOING IT.—IV. ADVANTAGES OF TRAINING YOUNG.——V. WHAT AN OX SHOULD BE TAUGHT.——VI. TRAINING THE CALF. VII. TRAINING TO LEAD. VIII. TRAINING A BULL.——IX. TRAINING A MILCH coOWw.—xX. HOWTO MILK PROPERLY.——XI. DO NOT FEED AT MILKING TIME. —XII. HOW TO MANAGE A KICKING COW. XIII. HOW TO TRAIN STEERS. XIV. TRAIN THEM WHILE THEY ARE YOUNG.——XV. A SUMMING UP. XVI. A SAILOR AS A TEAMSTER. I. The Difference Between Training and Breaking. This subject of training vs. breaking has been pretty fully treated of in the chapters on horses, and the same general rules will apply to all farm stock. The horse must be highly educated in order to get the most satis- factory labor out of him; so must all other farm animals, but it is not necessary that their education be as perfect as that of the horse. The difference between the two systems is, that in the one case the law of kindness is used, by which the animal is taught to rely solely on the mas- ter’s will, and is also taught that disobedience will result in inconveni- ence and pain. In the other case, the animal is subdued by main force, under the whip alone, and comes to regard the master as a terrible power simply to inflict injury, and consequently works solely under the impulse of fear. II. When the Whip is Necessary. In some cases, even after careful training, the whip is necessary in sub- duing a refractory animal. Perverseness, however, is often the result of misuse by a previous owner. If the animal has been broken under the whip, the continued use of the whip will be necessary. If he has been properly trained, the whip will seldom be necessary, and, generally, only as an admonisher when some extraordinary exertion is to be made. This is its sole use, except as an instrument of correction fora refractory animal when training, and sometimes after the animal is trained. A bull must be trained under the whip; but once trained to the service he is to perform, the whip will seldom he required, if a good ring is put in his nose. Animals are not naturally stubborn unless their innate power of resis- tance is brought out by abuse. They will generally do what is required een Doe GD: THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. of them when once they know what 1s wanted. Animals cannot be ex- pected to understand as a child will They have not the power of direct MD Trani UNDER THE WHIP. A BROKEN TEAM. speech, and thus we must use signs, their natural means of communica- tion, as well as words. IIl. Two Ways of Doing It. give two pictures from real life. We One shows a savage teamster working his animals by main vorce, under the whip. Inthe other is seen BY THE POWER OF KINDNESS. A TRAINED OX. a good trainer driving his willing ox without lines, and guiding him solely by the sound of the voice. It is not difficult to see which will get the most THE TRAINING AND WORKING OF CATTLE. O55 labor out of his team and in the easiest manner. Of course, the time has passed when tobacco is rolled to the warehouse in the manner represented in the first picture. But in many new settlements, a single oxis stillused to plow corn and other crops ; and a very good and tractable power he \ (\ {i “THE GOOD OLD WAY.’’ makes, if rightly handled. We have even seen a cow plowing corn, and if the master have no better team, kind and careful usage will get con- siderable labor from her, and milk besides. Such labor is certainly no harder on the cow than is the task imposed on the woman who rears a family, and has to do the household work. It is not economical or hu- mane in the one case or the other, except under dire necessity. OO6 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. IV. Advantages of Training Young. In the preceding chapter we have illustrated the difference between ill and good usage in the management of cattle. [tis with animals as with childven, © Brought up under blows and curses, they make in the one case, vicious or unwilling servants, in the other case brutal men, ‘The earlier the training of all farm animals is begun the better, In the chapters on horses we have ineuleated the principle that colts should be trained young, and have shown that this course really takes no more time in the end than to allow the animal to get its full strength before beginning to train. The same is true in the training of cattle, In faet, it is an economy of time and labor to begin the training at an early age, for the young animal has not the power of resistance, and being subjected to the influence of a kind master, never learns its strength. In nine cases out of ten, all the difficulty experienced in ** breaking’? results from the fact that the animal has been allowed to go too long without being made familiar with the presence and control of the master. V. What an Ox should be Taught. All that is expected of a pair of oxen is, that the off ox shall stand quiotly to be yoked, and that the other shall come promptly forward at the word, and pass under the yoke; then, that they shall step briskly forward with the load, tum promptly to the right (haw) or to the left (vee), and stop promptly, or back up at the word, Tho instructions given in the chapters on the training of horses, will suffice for haltering and training of cattle, with such modifications as will naturally suggest themselves in addition to the hints given below, ‘Phe trainer must distinguish between stubborn ugliness, and lack of compre- hension inthe animal. But even stubbornness is more easily conquered, by simply rendering the animal uncomfortable until it attends to the wishes of the master, than by beating it for something it Knows not what. VI. Training the Calt. Let us suppose the calf not to have been raised by hand,—for if so riisedit should have been taught to fear nothing—but that it has sucked the cow until ready for weaning. In this case the first thing to do is to give itv name and thereafter call it by that name, If the name is associated with something the calf likes, the calf will soon understand it and come when called, The next step is haltering. Get the calf, as quietly as possible, into w close plaice, with its dam, and put on a halter it cannot break. ‘Turn out the cow and let the ealf pull until it gives up, watehing that it does not injure itself, and pushing it forward occasionally to cause it to know that it is easier to stand without pulling. THE TRAINING AND WORKING OF CATTLE, O57 VIII. Training to Load. The next step is training to lead. Take the calf into a close yard, Have a six-foot rope at the end of the halter, Standing in front of the calf, say ‘scome,”? calling it by name, At the same time pull a little on the rope. The calf will not, of course, doas bid, Call again, and let an assistant touch it lightly from behind with a whip, gather in the rope, and when you succeed in getting the little animal near you, fondle it and give it something it likes—sugar or salt, Be patient. Do not lose your tem- per. When the calf will come to you, and follow you, toach it to lead —walking by its side and restraining itif necessary. ‘Then teach it to be ONE WAY OF RINGING A BULL, ‘ handled, carded and brushed in the stable. It will not object to this if you do not hurt it. This accomplished, the animal is half-trained if a cow ealf, and nearly so, if a steer. In using the card and brush, do so with a light hand, never using the card, or curry comb, over the bony surfaces. , VIII. Training a Bull. Bulls require the most careful training and management. They must never be allowed to gain the mastery. If so they will soon assert their power, and become dangerous. They should have a good ring placed in ’ ra fore Y “ ’ roar i j sony " 5 1 the nose before they are one year old, To insert the ring, first whittle {2 658 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. a piece of soft pine, so it may be entered into the nostril to meet the blow given on the punch. Select a punch to make a hole corresponding to the ring. Tie the bull securely and let an assistant hold the piece of pine. Set the punch in the opposite nostril, low enough so that it will not cut the cartilage (gristle) of the nose, and strike a smart blow, form- ine the hole, Put in the ring, set the serew tight and the work is done: The illustration will show the old fashioned manner of ringing a bull, with a cutting awl. The plan we have described is better. IX. Training a Milch Cow. ILandle the udder and teats of the heifer often while she is growing, Chis will have «a two-fold effect. It will cause extra development in those parts, and at the same time make the heifer gentle, so that when she comes really to be milked, but little difficulty will be experienced, If the heifer, or cow, has never been thus handled, a pen should be made five feet high, and just wide and long enough for the animal to stand in. Have a safe bar behind, at the height of her buttocks, and a place at the side to milk through. Tie her by the head. Then gentleness and perseverance must do the rest. In no case strike her. There is no dan ger of the milker being kicked, for the left hand holding the teat with the wrist pushed strongly against the stifle, will prevent the heifer or cow from using her heels for injury. Patiently show her that she will not be hurt, and under careful milking she will soon come to feel that the operation is connected with ease to herself. If the udder is inflamed or the teats sore, use cold water for the first and elycerine for the latter. This again will cause her to associate the idea of relief with the opera- tion of milking. X. How to Milk Properly. Always wash the teats and udder with lukewarm water if they are dirty, or brush them with a soft brush if they are only dusty. Set down on the off or right side, so that the right hand will be nearest the cow's head. ‘Take hold of the rear teat nearest you with the left hand, and using the word *hoist,’’? induce the cow to place the leg, against which you press your wrist, farther back than the opposite one. The pressure of the arm should carry the leg back. In milking, grasp the teats by the upper portion, and, diagonally ; that is, one fore and one hind teat on opposite sides. Grasp the teat well up to the udder with the thumb and fore finger, and bringing the other fingers successively together, with a slight pull force out the milk. So proceed with one hand and then the other until the milk is about drawn, and then change to the other teats. Never strip the milk by pulling THE TRAINING AND WORKING OF CATTLE, 659 the teat with the thumb and fore-finger, from endtoend, Every drop canbe drawn by pressing the top of the am hand well up under the udder, grasp- 2 ing the teat, gathering the milk with the thumb and fore finger, and draw- ing it with the other fingers. It must DEVICE FOR HOLDING THE PAIL. be learned by practice, but is not at all difficult. Another important thing 1s to learn to milk fast. If the milk is not drawn as fast as it is given down, in the end it may be withheld. In any event, slow and especially imperfect milking soon dries up a cow. As an assistance to the milker two illustra- ra de- tions are given, the first showing vice for holding the pail, which any blacksmith will quickly make, and the other the manner of using it in hold- ing the pail. One of these for each milker will save many times its cost in MANNER OF HOLDING THE PAIL. a single season. XI. Do not Feed at Milking Time. Many persons, supposing that it induces the cow to let down her milk, or that she will stand more quietly, give a feed at milking time. This should never be doné. The act of eating induces moving about; and, expecting the mess, if for any reason it be withheld, the cow becomes restless, however gentle she may be. Many good dairymen feed only after milking. It is a good plan, under the rule of compensation. Yet, if the stable is to be cleaned before milkine—and it should be—the better plan is to feed before milking time. It is the rule we have always adopt- ed. We have also caused the milker to give the cow a taste of salt, or a single mouthful of the best, sweet, soft hay just before sitting down to milk. There is nothing puts an animal in better humor with the milker. Once milking is begun, milk fast and steadily, and without talking, until it is finished. = If you have a milker that cannot keep a cow quiet, be sure something is wrong with the man. You cannot afford the loss in milk, that will inevitably ensue from this cause, and the proper way is to discharge him at once, or put him at other work. XII. How to Manage a Kicking Cow. One peculiarity of animals is, that once they acquire a vicious trick, it is difficult to break them of it. If a horse once runs away, he is never 660 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. safe thereafter. So, if once a cow acquires the habit of kicking, she will try it on with every new milker who takes her in hand. Hence the advice we have given, to convert all tricky cows into beef as quickly as possible. If the cow has some unusually good qualities to compensate, it may pay to keep her; but, remember that tricks ‘+ are catching,’’ simply from the restlessness created in the milking yard. How we once subdued an inveterate kicker, but deep milker, is as fol- lows: A strong man held her steady by the horn and nose. Seizing a teat firmly in each hand, but without attempting to milk, except to per- form the motion, she was allowed to kick to her heart’s content. Soon she found that the wrist and arm brought the kicking leg back again to its proper place on the ground, without fail. When she ceased kicking, milking proceeded, and when she kicked, the grasp was tightened. In the end she submitted quietly. The next lesson was to teach her to stand quietly without holding. This was accomplished by following and foreing her to walk about the yard, until she was willing to stand still. At the end of a week she became perfectly quiet to milk, so far as her trainer was concerned, but no other person could milk her. A better way for all such animals, is to provide a pen, such as we have previously described, and then any good and quiet milker can manage the most refractory animal. XIII. How to Train Steers. All that is required of oxen is that they move briskly at the word ; draw steadily ; back promptly, and as much as they can draw forward ; that they exert themselves to the fullest extent, but slowly, when neces- sity requires, and that they stand quietly. To meet these requirements you must have something better than dull, lazy, logy brutes. If for heavy logging, of course agility must be sacrificed to strength; but if cireum- =) stances will allow, three yoke of smart steers are better and more eco- nomical, than two yoke of heavier slow ones. They must, however, be trained to pull together, and in using a single yoke, it is absolutely nee- essary that they walk and pull evenly. Select steers of medium size, compact and as near alike in disposition, carriage, pace and color as possible. If they ave three years old past, they may be put in a freighting team, if possible, with a well-trained yoke of cattle at the pole and another in the lead. Tie them up so they may be yoked, and so proceed until you have the requisite number to- gether that are tobe trained. Once yoked, put them in the team, and do not unyoke them until they understand what is wanted of them. It may take a week. Feed well, and see that the yokes are well-fitting, so as not to gall the shoulders or necks. When they pull steadily forward, understand ‘shaw’? and ‘*gee’’—that is, to turn to the left or right asthe THE TRAINING AND WORKING OF CATTLE, 661 vase may be,—and back promptly with the well broken oxen, they can be trained as single yokes, which must be accomplished with each yoke sepa- rately. XIV. Train Them while They are Young. As heretofore stated, the real, preliminary training should be done when the steers are quite yonng. Teach them to walk quietly, but quickly at your side, to turn to the right or left, and to back at length twelve or fifteen steps at atime, and then come forward promptly again at the 5S word, holding their heads well up when they stop, and remain so. In working them on the road teach them to move briskly, and together. Few steers are so evenly matched that they will act and move precisely together. If it is necessary to admonish both, touch the slow steer first, andthe other immediately after. It is a nice art to touch both so near to- gether that the act shall seem simultaneous. Use always the same mo- tion, the same words, and the same tone of voice, never loud, for the act you wish the steer to perform. If one ox is slower than the other, put the slow one on the near or left side. XV. A Summing Up. To sum up the whole matter in a nut-shell, use common sense, and know what you are training for. If simply for general farm work, log- ging, or for ‘string’? teams on the road, it will not pay to spend too much time on the training. Yet a well-trained, evenly-matched yoke of oxen will always command «a sufficiently good price to pay for the training—fully as much so as a well-trained and well-matehed pair of work horses. There will be, for vears to come, in the West, the Southwest, and es- pecially in the lumber region, plenty of work for which neither horses nor mules are so well adapted as oxen. And in the settlement of anew country, where until farms are brought into subjection, there is no other feed than the wild grasses, well-trained oxen are indispensable ; for a well trained yoke of steers will do one-third more, and better work, than untrained ones. Once you get such a team, train also the driver to handle them properly. An ignorant, careless or brutal driver will soon reduce the value of any team. XVII. A Sailor as a Teamster. We once hearda good story illustrating this. A New England farmer had a finely-trained yoke of Devon steers, suchas were not uncommon there, twenty years ago, and are not now uncommon. He hired a sailor, and sent him to market with the team, having instructed him, as he thought, O62 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, ina month’s time, sufficiently in driving. Coming to a bridge when there were other teams passing the sailor ‘lost his head,’’ and forgetting bee] ’ 5 S the proper words, reverted to nautical language. ‘Starboard, (to the ’ right) you lubbers,’’? he eried, and giving them a punch, the steers sprang forward and side ways, and striking the rail, it was crushed, and oxen and load went into the creek twenty feet below, turning the yoke in the fall. Upon reaching home, and being asked what had become of the team, he answered: ‘Oh, the lubbers fell off the deck, and the larboard ox got on the starboard side, and the starboard ox got on the larboard side, and the whole craft went to Davy Jones’ locker together.’ The moralis: Fora thing to be well done, one must know what he is about ; users, in doing i‘. CHAPTER XVII. SHELTER FOR CATTLE. I. THE ECONOMY OF SHELTER.——1I. THE NATURAL HEAT MUST BE KEPT UP.——-ITl. FOOD AS RELATED TO SHELTER.——IV. FOUR CLASSES OF STOCKMEN.——V. HOW TO SHELTER.——VI. SOMETHING THAT WILL BEAR REPEATING.——VII. A CHEAP AND GOOD SHED.——VIII. A FRAMED SHED WITH LOFT,.——IX. CATTLE TIES.—— X. BARNS FOR VARIOUS USES.——XI. THE BASEMENT AND OTHER FLOORS. XII. AN OBLONG BARN.--——XIII. A BARN WITIT WINGS.——XIV. A MODEL BARN BASE- MENT.——XV. MAIN FLOOR OF MODEL BARN. XVI. ROUND AND OCTAGONAL BARNS.——XAVIT. BUILD FOR THE END DESIRED,——XVIII, SUMMER SHELTER, I. The Economy of Shelter. The necessity of shelter of some kind for all farm stock is taken for granted, even by those who simply provide the warm side of a stack, or who consider themselves fortunate if they have a ‘chunk’ of timber Neither the one nor the other is shelter in reality, since shelter means not only protection from cold winds where the cattle can ** keep warm.’’ but also from storms. This neither of them gives. In all that region where cattle must be fed during four or five months of winter, the protection of barns and tight sheds becomes absolutely necessary, since one cold storm will take off more flesh than can be re- gained ina month. In fact, farm animals cannot thrive in the winter unless sheltered. Without shelter they must certainly lose much weight in winter, except at the expense of feed that would pay the cost of a simple structure in a single winter, and amount to from fifteen to twenty per cent. on the cost of a common-sense barn. II. The Natural Heat Must Be Kept Up. The natural heat of the body must be kept at 96 degrees, winter and summer. If it goes below this, a chill ensues, and in the effort of nature to counteract the effect of this, which, if continued, would kill, fever takes plate. The fever also would kill if continued, so nature wwain comes to the rescue, and the sweating stage supervenes. This is chills and fever. The animal, to remain in health, must be kept at a normal temperature, and this is only to be accomplished by an excess of food, or by shelter, as one of the integers. Whether it will do to go to a great expense in providing shelter is a question of cost, as related to cheapness or dearness of food. 665 664 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. III. Food as Related to Shelter. Where grain is cheap the increased food with simple shelter is un- doubtedly cheaper, and yet food may be so scarce and high, that even fire heat may profitably be resorted to. The Esquimaux drink train oil, to give the body natural heat in winter ; civilized people eat fat meats for the same purpose, and in cold weather, it is well known that animals always crave oily food. The reason is, that such food assists in keeping up the animal heat. Hence, since stock waste more from exposure to cold, it is always economy not only that they be fully fed, but also that they be warmly sheltered. The reason is quite simple. In a still atmosphere, the animal retains his natural warmth, imparting a small portion of it to the air immediatly surrounding him ; but when the atmosphere is in motion the animal warmth is, so to speak, blown away as fast as given off, and a fresh supply of cold air constantly takes the place of that warmed from the animal’s body. Hence the greater vase with which a person will keep warm always in a still, cold atmos- phere, than in a warmer one, but with wind blowing. If the wind is accompanied with rain, hail, sleet or snow, the loss of animal heat is still greater. Thus we have the question of shelter brotght down to one of dollars and cents, in which shelter wins. IV. Four Classes of Stockmen. There are four classes of farmers: First, those who give no shelter ; second, those who provide shelter next == to nothing; third, those who have com- _fortable shelter, but fail to use it to its full extent, and fourth, those who have good shelter, and keep their stock under it. The first class does not need illus- trating. The second, third and fourth we present in a series of cuts which tell A SHIFTLESS FARMER'S BARN. their own story pretty fully. The Shiftless Man’s Shelter—This man always has ‘* hard luck,” and all his surroundings are of the same kind as his luck—hard. His animals are never in condition for labor, for they are half starved and badly sheltered. His barn is worse than ‘* all out doors,’’ since water drips through the roof, and the wind blowing through, creates drafts, and the temperature is actually below what it is outside. Hence, such shelter is really worse than none, for, while cooped up in it, the poor brutes are denied the privilege of exercise. Farmer Slack.—Farmer Slack has abundance of shelter, as the illus- tration shows, but believes that store cattle, at least, need to be toughened SHELTER FOR CATTLE. 665 by exposure to the winter blasts. — If a sudden storm comes on he ‘* guesses the brutes can stand it,’ with a ‘*morsel more’’ of fodder. His fattening and working stock and milch cows are in the barns. Can he not see that if it pays with them it will pay ¢* all around.”’ Farmer Thrifty.—larmer Thrifty believes in having good shelter and in using it. He believes not only in sheltering his stock, but in sheltering his yards and barns also. With the snow lying thick over everything, there is no sign of life in the ample yards, save the hands about their work, and the chickens, which also have warm quarters at night. The cattle are all comfortably housed inside. V. How to Shelter. It seems unnecessary to follow the subject into details. The most simple shelter is the artificial protection of wind-breaks, obtained by the planting of belts of evergreens and deciduous trees. It is the erudest sort of protection, next to a tight board fence. If the fence is topped with a lean-to roof we have one of the sim- plest forms of shelter. Another form of shed—and the crudest—is of posts and poles covered with slough hay. If placed in the timber it makes an excellent protection for store cattle. A Good Shed.—Still another cheap shed is made by setting posts in the PRIMITIVE SHELTER. ground in two lines, sawing the tops level, fastening on plate pieces, laying on seantling for the peak, supported temporarily, and nailing on boards, for a roof, at one-quarter pitch, up and down from the plates to the peak, FARMER THRIFTY’S SHELTER, covering the joints with wide battens and boarding up the side whence the prevailing winds come. If twelve feet boards are used for the roof, a shed may thus be formed over twenty feet wide, that will furnish good 666 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. shelter for stock cattle where forage is cheap. If the shed be placed in the timber, or where timber belts protect from wind, there need be no sides, and a rack may be put through the center out of which the cattle may feed, the hay being put in from the ends and directly from the wagon. VI. Something that will bear Repeating. We have heretofore written on this subject of cheap shelter in new countries, and have lived to see these crude structures give place to sub- stantial feeding barns and basement stables ; we repeat the direction orig- inally written at various times during our journalistic experience. There is yet a vast outlying territory to be settled up, and, when the pioneer FARMER GOODENOUGH’S BARNYARD. has to livein a log house or sod hut, the steck protection must necessari- ly be crude. In the directions given in the next article we leave much to individual judgment, since any structure must not only be modified to suit the purse of the builder, but also to suit the materials which he uses. In fact, one of the warmest sheds we ever saw was laid up at the sides. with sods, and protected from being thrown down from the inside by poles. A shed boarded up is really all the better for a ‘*backing’’ of sods. Vil. A Cheap, Good Shed. Any farmer tolerably handy with hammer and saw, assisted by his hired men, can make one. Suppose the structure isto be a simple roofed shed affair. Decide upon the length. The width should not be more than twelve feet for asingle pitch roof, Allow that it is to be ninety-eight SHELTER FOR CATTLE. 667 feet long. Set four heavy posts forthe corners, three feet in the ground, and of the required height. The lower it is the warmer it will be, so it be high enough for the cattle to walk under the plates. Between the two end posts set, exactly in line, six posts each fourteen feet apart, and five and one-half feet high from the average ground line. Proceed in the same manner with the front, the posts to be nine feet above ground. At the back, now set seven lighter posts in the fourteen feet spaces. Saw them all off to an equal height, spike on four inch scantling from post to post in front, and two by four for the back. It is now ready for the roof, which is to be firmly nailed from front to rear. Board the front down to within five and a half feet of the ground, and the ends and back entirely down to the ground. ‘Thus the shed is complete, except A SLACK FARMER’S SHELTER. banking up. This is important and will add fully one-half to its warmth. A good way to do this is to lay two lines of sods at the rear, breaking joints as in laying brick, carrying the banking at least four feet high ; or posts may be set two feet from the wall, with sufficient strips nailed thereon to hold litter, and the whole filled in and rammed tight. It is simply « question of the adaptation of the means at hand to the end sought. From this we may go onto more and more elaborate struct- ures until we come to the barn proper. VIII. A Framed Shed with Loft. This may be made by running the posts up eighteen feet and framing in cross-ties to support a floor. In the upper twelve feet of this shed a good deal of fodder may be stored, to be fed from when the weather is 668 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. too inclement to allow it to be handled on wagons. In this case a feed- ing rack may be placed below, with feeding holes from.above. Thus the hay may be thrown directly into the loft. In such a shed it would not he economical to form a single pitch roof. It should slant both ways. Converting the Shed into aStable.—If the shed form is to be con- vertedto astable, use the directions given for a hip or double-roofed shed. Board the whole tight all around, leaving space for doors and windows ; batten the cracks, lay the floor, put in stanchions or uprights for fasten- ing the cattle, leaving a feeding place in front, and the whole is com- plete. IX. Cattle Tios. We prefer rings that slide up and down, upon standards three inches thick, to stanchions. This style of stable will not be strong enough to allow their being fastened to the floor above. Set strong posts seven feet apart and four and a half feet high, sawed off square on top, and three feet out from the wall. Prepare six-inch scantling to be pinned firmly to the posts, twelve inches from the ground, and on the inside next the wall; the scantling bored, each three feet, with two-inch holes. This will be wide enough for cows. Larger cattle must have three feet, three inches. Prepare other scantling bored in similar manner for the tops of the posts. ‘Take three-inch smooth saplings; sharpen the lower ends just so they will drive firmly into the holes in the lower scauntling when it is pounded in place below. Shave the upper ends so they will fit the holes in the scantling above. Drive them solidly into the holes below, pinning each one fast with a half-inch pm. Slip a four-inch iron ring over each stake. Lay the upper scantling on top, entering the standards as yougo. It is better that they have some play. Lower the scantling on top of the posts, and pin and spike them firmly to the posts. Cut stout rope six feet, six inches long, splice a four-inch loop on one end, whip the other end with small cord so it will not unravel; pass the rope through the ring and back to the loop so the end of the loop will be eight inches from the ring; pass the end of the rope through the loop, draw tight and make fast with two half hitches, or, better, whip the two por- tions of rope together as far as the loop. The cattle are then ready to be tied up by passing the rope about the neck and through the loop, and drawing just tight enough so the animal cannot slip it over the horns. Iron chain bails that will last a life-time are kept ready made by agricultural implement men, and are much the cheapestin the end. Tied thus, cattle can easily reach their food, can lick themselves, can rest per- fectly, but cannot reach to injure each other. A six-inch board nailed SHELTER FOR CATTLE. 669 along the standard at a proper height, say about six inches below the tops of the shoulders of the cows, will prevent their reaching too far into the feeding passage. xX. Barns for Various Uses. As soon as the farmer is able so to do, it will be found cheaper in the end to build substantial barns. They are a permanent investment and are to be estimated simply in relation to the interest on the original cost, and wear and tear. Modern barns are always built high. Modern implements and ma- chinery for storing forage and grain, deliver into the top of a barn about as cheaply as from below. When there is a location suitable for a base- ment, use it by all means ; and the nearer square or oblong the barn is, the more economical it will be, especially if wings are to be added, as the increasing necessities of stock and forage may require. By a basement we do not mean a cellar, but the lower floor of a barn built on a declivity, so it may run into a bank at one end. A fall in the land surface of six feet in the length of the building will be sufficient, since the earth exca- vated may be used for the embankment at one end. XI. The Basement and other Floors. Thus the basement may be used solely for stabling cattle, sheep and calves ; or a part of it may be used for storing heavy tools and machinery. The main floor will contain bags for hay and grain, the threshing floor, harness-room and a granary. The grain,however, is better stacked outside, unless the intention be to thresh it by means of a small stationary power, as it may be wanted, for feeding and bedding—the power also to be used for grinding feed and chopping fodder. Make the barn as high as the power will carry hay and grain. Con- tinue the hay to the roof. Cover the horse stable, if there is to be one, the harness room, granary etc., with matched lumber, and form a mow overhead ; also, a floor may be carried over the threshing floor, and this space utilized in the same way. Practically you have the space at less expense. In fact, utility will be suggested in many ways, other than we have mentioned. XII. An Oblong Barn. In the West and South, the farmer of 160 to 200 acres may get along very well with a side-hill barn forty-two by sixty feet. It will give ample room for a bay 16 by 60; a floor 13 by 60; horse stable 13 by 60, con- taining 5 single and 1 double stalls, or 2 single and 3 double stalls ; a room for implements 10 by 13; a granary 12 by 13, and a tool room half that size ; while the basement may be devoted entirely to the stabling of cattle, O70 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, with calf pens, a sheep pen, and, if necessary, a shed enclosed on three sides, ‘The granary will hold over 600 bushels of grain, and may be divided into bins for Winter and Spring wheat, oats, barley, and ground food for stock, The basement may contain two rows of cattle stalls, with passage way between, six feet wide, with shoots leading to the upper part of the barn for delivering hay, grain, and other feed, This will leave a space 12 by 60, which may contain ealf-pens and a plaice for sheep, and it may be so arranged by means of sliding doors that it may be entirely closed in in- cloment weather, ‘Chis basement will contain stalls for thirty-two cattle, and the manure may be thrown directly inte a cart or wagon and hauled where it is wanted, This barn may be enlarged by adding on, to accommodate any required number of stock; but if a much larger barn than this is wanted, the square form should be used, Tt will give largely increased room in pro- portion to the cost. XIII. A Barn With Wings. Below we give an outline of the basement of a barn forty feet wide and sixty feet long, with a lean-to overshot extending twenty feet im front, * TAY Noun ‘ MAIN BARN a MAIN FLOOK OF BARN, This barn will contain about 100 tons of hay. ‘The barn would be better facing the south if the liy of the land as to declivity will allow. The hay-house may extend twenty feet in width and height in the form of an Land of such a length as may be wanted for storage, say forty feet. Chis barn, if the space below the hay-house is utilized, will stable six horses and forty cattle, Tho basement of the main barn may be divided into stabling as follows : A, horse stables 12 feet deep, with mangers two and a half feet wide for hay, with suitable troughs for grain and manger for hay; Band C are SHELTER FOR CATTLE, O71 cattle stalls. Those in B hung with swinging gates, opening side ways, G the same, but each stall having a separate gate entering direct from the yard. Kis the main entrance eight feet wide and may contain feod chests ; e is an entry five fect wide, with steps up to door D, and having an en- trance into the horse stables at each end, I? is the overshot or shed. G is the portion under the hay-house to be utilized in stalls, if the hay is not desired to run clear to the ground ; and IL is the yard connected there- with, If necessary this may be roofed over making additional shed room. XIV. A Modol Barn Basomont, The following diagram for a basement to be used for fattening or dairy stock will explain itself. We have shown a cistern and meal room TRASK FOR MANURE TRUOK See ea Bec | gerrnmrenrerererernrer rary {ivay | A MODEL BASEMENT, protected from frost. Orit may be used for roots and other feeding material that requires to be kept from freezing. XV. Main Floor of Model Barn. The following diagram shows the main floor of the same barn and needs but little explanation: @ is a ventilating shaft, 6 feed shoots to base- ment through trap door, shown in the plan of the basement. When extra care is to be given, as in the case of very valuable cattle or those to be finished up as show cattle, box stalls or pens are sometimes built in the feeding room or in a separate building as shown in the illus- tration. Where expense is not a consideration they furnish the very best, 672 TIT AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, though not the most economical means of fattening. The feeding and water boxes may be arranged to slide on rods, to any required height, MAIN FLOOR OF FEEDING BARN, and the hay rack is suspended on chains, so all may be easily taken down when not required, and the space arranged for other purposes. XVI. Round and Octagonal Barns. These can neither be called practical nor economical. They cost more to bisespubats square or oblong barns, if for no other reason than that i | ie | i au | 4 CS al mn if u : BOX STALLS FOR FATTENING SHOW CATTLI they are unusual. The barn for profit should be built square as to the central building, if it is to be over forty feet wide, and a wing or wings SHELTER FOR CATTLE. 673 should be thrown out for the additional space needed. Tf a simple structure designed for general purposes is required, build forty feet wide and of the requisite length required for the stock. XVII. Build for the End Desired. The farmer ought to know, in a general way, the purposes for which his barn is required. Architects seldom give proper attention to the con- struction of barns. When they do, the barns they build are often elabo- rate, but costly and unsuited to the economical purposes required. The best barns in the country are those of farmers who have carefully studied the conveniencies and economies, and have stated their wants to the archi- tect or carpenter in charge of the job. The illustrations we have given will pretty well cover the wants of our readers. Machinery is now made to perform so much of the labor of the barn, that a great saving may be accomplished through its use. Utilize all such conveniences that you can. They are economical in the long run, since they are in the nature of per- manent improvements ; wear aud tear, and interest on the capital invested, only, having to he considered. Some of the most important things to be considered, are ventilation, perfect drainage, and the ease of providing water. If a reservoir be placed in the center of a mow it will not freeze ; and if connected with a well by a pipe and pump, operated by wind power, and provided with a waste pipe to the ground so that it shall not run over, it will be found one of the best investments about the whole building. Irom this reser- voir water may also be earried to the dairy and dwelling, and thus several forms of utility can be secured by one outlay. XVIII. Summer Shelter. The question of summer shelter is important, especially in the West and Southwest, where biting insects are so plentiful. The most that is needed is a partially dark, but well ventilated shed, to which stock may re- tire at will. Discard pasture trees. They are poetic, but not practical. A shed covered with boughs is better than the shade of a tree, and there are no roots to suck moisture from the surrounding grass. Stock in open fields seldom seek shelter from the sun. It is flies they dread. If there is a water course in the pasture, plant it by all means with trees, but do not be fooled by the old poetic sentiment of single trees here and there. Stock will often spend time under them that ought to be em- ployed in feeding. While in motion in the act of grazing they do not suffer from heat. Therefore it is better that they be obliged to do some 43 674 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. travel to reach the shade, .and this shade if natural, will generally have water near. If not, the artificial shade,should be given at places where water may be had most cheaply. Shelter can, of course. be given in the barns or sheds in spring, until the grass is so flush that stock require no other feed; and when the pastures become so bare inthe autumn that some feeding is necessary, the same rule will apply. What is wanted is a range where stock may not only be secure from the winds of driving storms, but where they may retire for shetler during the extreme heat of summer days. This is not to be had by planting single trees here and there. So far as protection is con- cerned, shed-room is the best in every respect. CHAPTER XVIII. DAIRYING AND DAIRY BUILDINGS. I. A PROFITABLE INDUSTRY.——II. OUR DAIRY PRODUCTS.——III. THE DAIRY BUILD- iNGS.——IV. HOW THE FACTORY IS BUILT.——V. THE MANAGEMENT OF MILK. ——VI. PATENT CREAMERIES. VII. DRIVING OFF ANIMAL ODORS.——VIII. TEM- PERATURE OF THE DAIRY ROOM. IX. BUTTER MAKING IN EUROPE.— X. DAIRY BUTTER IN THE WEST.——XI. HOW TO COLOR BUTTER.——XII. SALTING.——XIII,. HOW TO PACK BUTTER.——XIV. PREPARING A PACKAGE FOR USE. XV. CHEESE MAKING—CHEDDAR CHEESE'——XVI. CHESHIRE CHEESE.——XVII. HOW TO PRE- PARE RENNETS.,. I. A Profitable Industry. The dairy interests of the United States have assumed immense pro- portions within the last ten years. It is well known that under the old way of guessing at temperature, proportion of rennet, quantity of salt and other flavoring, no uniformity could be attained in the manufacture of cheese. Under the new or factory system, great uniformity in quality is secured, and a great saving in labor and material effected. The making and curing of cheese are, for the most part, a series of chem- ical transformations, requiring precision and care. The same is true of butter. Great cleanliness is required throughout. In either case the milk must be scrupulously kept from taint or bad odors. To this end a proper dairy building, and a suitable ice house are necessary. The cows for the dairy require to be selected with care. These have been fully treated of in the chapters on cattle. Grasses for the dairy are also im- portant, as well as other proper food. These, also, bave been treated of in Chapter XIII. Without grasses, sweet, succulent, and that shall follow the season in succession, says the American Encyclopedia of Agriculture, the dairyman can not hope to compete with his more practical, if not more intelligent, neighbor, who has paid due attention to this keystone of dairying, grass. With a succession of sweet, succulent grasses from spring to fall, supple- mented with proper forage plants during the latter part of July and the whole of August, plenty of good clover, Timothy, Orchard grass, and Red-top for winter feeding, and an abundance of ground grain, to be used both during the drought of summer, and during the winter, and proper implements, utensils and buildings, we have the foundation laid for mak- ing money, in one of the best paying branches of agriculture. 675 O76 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. II. Our Dairy Products. The United States is producing annually 750,000 tons of butter, of which we exported 11,000 tons during the year 1879 ; and 100,000 tons of cheese, of which we exported 61,000 tons during the year 1879. In 1880 the export of butter was about 20,000 tons, and of cheese nearly 72,000 tons; and the work just quoted adds, upon the subject of this branch of agriculture that, within the last twenty years, an export of cheese alone of 1,168,000,000 pounds, and a total value of exported butter and cheese of $185,000,000 has been made. During the last ten years 885,000,000 pounds of cheese have been shipped abroad. Thus it will be seen that the dairying interest is one of vast and in- creasing magnitude. Its rapid growth in the Kast will be equalled and surpassed in many Western States adapted to dairy products. In 1869 Commissioner D. A. Wells estimated the value of the dairies of the United States at $400,000,000. In a paper read at Philadelphia, in 1876, Prof. X. A. Willard thought it much within the truth to state the value of the products of the farm dairies for that year at $600,000,000. Ill. The Dairy Building. That our readers may be able to know just what is necessary in the way of a dairy building—one which may be easily modified to suit the circum- stances of the owner—we give on next page a ground plan of a model creamery and cheese factory combined. This building is 26 by 52 feet, with an extension on each side. The walls have three air spaces ; one of these is between the outer siding and the sheathing ; the next between the sheathing and building paper, and the last between the paper and plaster- ing. The windows are also double. Thus is completely secured an equal temperature, and also a perfect isolation of the milk and cream from odors either of manufacturing or curing. The milk, when received and weighed, is strained directly into the vats or into deep cans for setting in the cold pools. The pools are of cemented brick ; they are twenty inches deep, and are supplied with water from a deep well and force pump, and also with ice. There is a press room ad- joining the cheese-making room, and a stairway leading thence to the curing room. IV. How tho Factory is Built. With good drainage there may be a basement three feet below ground, built of stone or brick. It is ,indeed, better that the superstructure be of brick. ‘There should also be a perfect chart made of the drainage pipes so that they may be readily found at any time. The drains should be made with ample fall to the outlet, and in the best possible workmanship. DAIRYING AND DAIRY BUILDINGS. 677 The water drains may be of tile, but all drains for carrying off whey, buttermilk or other liquids except pure water should be of tight pipes, and the pipes and drains must be laid before the floor is put down and the cement carefully fitted to them. The drains should all be of sufli- cient size not to clog. Itis better that the foundation of the floor have a coating of tin shavings, or broken glass, six inches thick well pounded down, and covered with water lime cement. Upon this a flooring of flags or bricks may be laid, covered with cement of water lime, which in time will become entirely hard, and the tin or glass below will prevent all GROUND PLAN OF COMBINED CREAMERY AND CHEESE FACTORY. Explanation.—A—Milk receiving room. &—Cheese manufacturing Press room. D—KEngine room. M—Pool. #—Cream and room. CO churning room. G—Butter working and delivering room. //—Refrig- erator. a a—Cheese vats. b—Curd sink. ec c—Wash vats. d d— Churns. e—Butter worker. f—Boiler. g—Engine. h h—Whey drains. O78 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. burrowing of rats. The walls of the dairy-house should be plastered and should receive a coat of hard finish, so that they may be washed when necessary. The ice-house should be plastered with water-lime, and a vacancy left between the ice and the bottom of the house, to allow the water an easy way to escape thence into the cooling pool. V. The Management of Milk. The management of milk requires care in every stage from milking until it is converted into butter or cheese. We have used great care in the past, as author and editor, in writing upon this subject both from a practical experience and from the writings of the best authorities. The following directions, reproduced so far as may be necessary to a fair understanding of the subject, will pretty fully cover the ground. If the reader wishes to enter into the minutiz of the subject, in every particular, the works of Willard, Arnold and other authorities will be found useful. VI. Patent Creameries. There are various ways of setting milk; among them is the Hardin method, in which the milk is strained directly after being drawn into deep pails and then covered with a tight lid to exclude air and water, the refrig- erator having an ice space above the pails, from which ice water con- stantly drips below. If there is a spring of very cold water at hand this may be used instead of ice. The Coaley system consists in setting the milk in deep cans, which have close fitting covers, and are surrounded by ice cold water. If the heat and animal odor be expelled before putting in, there is no tainting or sour- ing. The cream is taken perfectly sweet, in from twelve to twenty-four hours. By this system a medium-sized refrigerator box may contain the milk of a dozen cows. Both the systems mentioned are patented. If the milk is set in open pans under the old system, see that there is no taint of foul odors near. And all utensils must be regularly cleaned and scalded, not merely with hot, but with actually boiling, water. The essence of success in dairying is absolute cleanliness in every depart- ment, and in every stage of progress from milking to packing the butter and cheese. Vil. Driving off Animal Odors. It is important that the animal odor be driven off before raising the cream or setting the cheese. This is done by contact with pure air. The milk is poured into a receiver, in the bottom of which are small holes, through which the milk is allowed to drop into a tank. This tank stands in cold water nearly to its brim; in this the milk remains until quite cold, DARYING AND DAIRY BUILDINGS. 679 when it is ready for further manipulation. Heating the milk to 100 or 110 degrees will answer the same purpose; and then allow it to cool. The former however is the better plan. VIII. Temperature of the Dairy Room. The temperature of the dairy room should never be above 60 degrees, and this is the proper temperature for churning cream. The temperature of the milk should be kept as near 40 degrees as possible; and in the storage room for butter the temperature should be kept as low as 40 de- grees if possible. IX. Butter Making in Europe. Prof. Caldwell, of Cornell University, gives the following as among his observations in Europe: Among the different systems prevalent in Europe, we notice the Dutch method in which the milk is cooled down to 60 degrees in a water tank, which requires usually from one and a half to two hours, and the milk is then set to the depth of four or five inches in a room where the temperature ranges from 54 to 60 degrees, and remains about twenty-four hours ; the Holstein method, in which the milk is set at about the same temperature, without being first cooled in water, to the depth of one and one-half to two and one-half inches; the Devonshire method, described as long ago as 1784, where the milk is put in a cool room, standing at a depth not greater than from three to four inches for twelve hours; the vessel containing it is then set over the fire and heated till blisters begin to appear in the cream, or to about 200 degrees, when it is set aside again for twelve hours ; the cream is very firm in consistency and can be made into butter by simple kneading, and has a sweet, pleasant taste. X. Dairy Butter in the West. Mr. C. C. Buell, one of the best dairyman in the West, describes his method of butter making in the following concise manner: Cows were common stock—Durham grades and sprinkling of Jersey. Fed by running in fresh corn stalks during day time, on Timothy and clover at night; in stable, with two messes of meal daily, consisting, by measure, of two parts corn and one part oats, together with the greater part of the sour milk and buttermilk from the dairy room. Number of cows, forty. The milk was strained through an iron strainer into deep pails, as soon as drawn, standing in open air until the milking was finished. It was then strained again into the same pails through a double thickness cloth strainer. The milk was set in a room without fire, temperature being between 40 and 50 degrees, Fahrenheit. During a part of the time, the temperature being above 50 degrees, the milk was set in water twelve hours. The milk was skimmed after standing twelve to forty-eight hours, it being OO THE AMBRICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, considered desirable to mix the newer and older cream, for the sake of flavors but the whole stood mixed together from two to four hours after (ho last skimming and during the process of warming to proper temperi= ture for churning, Most of the mille was skimmed a second time, the cron being included ina suceceding churning. Tho churn (a dash churn with solid dasher, surface underneath conenve ), wis started at a temperature of 62 degrees; as the buttermilk began to appear a couple of gallons of tolerably strong brine was added at a tem- perature of 58 degrees, and the churn stopped a moment afterward,—as with the addition of the brine, at the proper temperature, the butter sep- wvates very rapidly, As much brine as necessary was used in washing down sides of churn, cover and dasher, ‘Phe butter was then dipped into w bath of not more than two gallons of brine; a churning of forty or fifty pounds being washed in four parts, in the same brine, Removed to a worker with rolling lever; the butter was so handled as to mix with the proper amount of salt with the loast working possible, Tt was then placed ina tubslightly packed, covered with brine and allowed to stand three or for hours, when it was again placed on the worker, lightly worked and packed for market. XI. How to Color Buttor, Good grass butter needs no coloring. But it has become fashionable, noweteduys, to color all butter that does not come up to the real ‘grass colors”? annotta is the substance used, Tb is innocent, and is now sold prepared especially for dairymen’s use. ‘Che quantity to be used must be determined by experiment according to the season, Do not color too high rathor under than over the true yellow of grass butter. XII. Salting. Just as the butter is forming in granules in the churn, suddenly reduce the Lomperaturo by moans of ico water to about 56 degroos, The butter will not then mass together, Wash and take out of the churn and place ih on the slab for working, and give it threo quarters of an ounce of salt to the pound of butter, This is light salting, One ounce is the usual rulo; and one ounce and a quarter to the pound is heavy salting, Use none but the best salt, Romember that salt is not used to preserve the butter, but to bring out its Mavor., Never guess at the amount of salt; woivh the butter and then add the proper proportion of salt. XII. Wow to Pack Butter. Nover uso any but the best new, clean packages. Let them be uniform in sive and appearance; a slovenly package will often condemn the best DAIRYING AND DAIRY BUILDINGS. ited | butter. The butter being at a temperature of GO degrees, rub the pack- ave, sides and bottom, with salt, put in a quantity of butter not more than you can evenly and firmly press closely to the sides. So continue until the package is filled to within an inch of the top, Lay ona cloth wet with brine and half an inch larger than the package. Work the edges down, and cover with, say, a quarter of an inch of salt ; cover this with another cloth, Head up the package and bore a hole through the head ; fill up with brine, plug tight. Keep at a low temperature and when it is wanted the butter will be found good, XIV. Proparing a Package tor Uso. Serub them thoroughly, outside and inside, with a brush and clean hot miter, Fill them with pure cold water and let them stand two days. Then serub again, rinse with cold water, rub thoroughly with salt and they are ready for use. Teart white oak makes the best butter tubs, XV. Cheoso Making —Cheddar Choose. The making of Cheddar and Cheshire cheese is described by a cele- brated English maker as follows. Cheddar Cheese.—The morning's and evening’s milk are together brought to a temperature of 80 degrees Kahr. Tf the night has been warm, a temperature of 78 degrees will give as great effectiveness to a given quantity of rennet us one of 82 or 84 degrees would give if the milk had been at a lower temperature for some hours of a cold night. The evening’s milk having been placed in shallow vessels dur- ing the night to cool, and having been stirred at intervals during: the evening, is skimmed in the morning, and the cream with a portion of the milk, is heated up to 100 degrees by floating it in tin vessels on the boiler. The whole of it is then poured through a proper sieve into the tub—into which the morning’s milk is being also stirred as it arrives—so as to raise the whole, as I have said, to from 78 to 8&2 degrees Fahr, This tub may be a large tin vessel, capable of holding 150 gallons, and provided with false bottom and sides, enabling hot or cold water to be passed under and around its contents. The rennet, made from two or three dozen vells, in as many quarts of salt water, and allowed to stand three weeks, is added—half a pint to 100 gailons—and the curd sets in about half an hour, The small vells (rennets) of Irish calves, which are killed at about a week old, are pre- ferred, and they should be eighteen months old before use, ‘The curd is slowly cut with a single long blade to and fro throughout its depth, in lines forming a 4-inch mesh upon the surface, and the whole mass is gently turned over from the bottom with a skimming dish and the hand, O82 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. The whole is then again worked throughout with a ‘shovel breaker,’’ a four-fingered paddle with wires across the fingers—great care being taken to do it gently, so that the whey shall not become too white. The curd is thus broken up into pieces not much larger than peas, and at least half an hour is taken in the process. Hot water is then let into the space around and below the cheese tub, and the whole is raised to 100 deg. ahr. ; and this, too, is done gradually, so as to raise the whole by de- grees, not heating any portion to excess. This also takes half an hour. The hot water is then drawn off, and the curd is stirred by the hand and a skimming dish for another half hour in the midst of its hot whey, be- ing at last reduced to a mass of separate bits the size of small peas. The whey, after settling for half an hour, is then remoyed—ladled, sy- phoned, or drawn—to its vat, where it stands about six inches deep, and is skimmed next day, yielding a butter which should not exceed in quan- tity six to eight ounces per cow per week. , The curd stands half an hour after the whey is drawn off, and it is then cut in four or five pieces, turned over and left for half an hour, after which it is again cut and left for a quarter of an hour. After this, it should be in the slightest degree acid to the taste. If allowed to be- come too acid, it will not press into a solid, well-shaped cheese, but will be apt to sink broad misshapen, It is now torn into pieces by hand and left to cool; and thereafter it is packed in successive thin layers in the vat—a cylindrical or wooden vessel twelve inches or more wide and twelve inches deep—whence, after being pressed for half an hour, it is taken out (it is then probably midday,) and broken up by hand, and allowed again to cool. Then, when cool, and hard, and sour, and dry, and tough enough, (all this, of course, being left to the judgment of the maker), it is ground up in the curd mill; two pounds of salt are added to the ewt. of curd, and the whole is allowed to cool, and as soon as cold, it is put in the vat, and taken to press. It is ‘then probably 8 p. m. ‘The pressure on the cheese may be 18 ewt. The cloth is changed next morning. A calico coating is laced on it the second day, and the third day the cheese may be taken from the press, placed in the cheese room, bandaged, and turned daily, and afterwards less frequently. The cheese room should be kept at nearly 65 degrees Fahr. The cheese will not be ready for sale for three months. ‘The process of making Cheddar cheese lasts all day, and the cheeses are made of various sizes, generally twelve inches wide and a foot high, but’ sometimes larger in both dimen- sions, and from 70 to 100 pounds in weight; the object being to make all the milk of one day on a farm of thirty to forty cows into « single cheese, DAIRYING AND DAIRY BUILDINGS. 683 XVI. Cheshire Cheese. Cheshire cheese, like the Cheddar, is made only once a day. The evening’s milk is placed, not more than six to seven inches deep, in tin vessels to cool during the night, on the floor of the dairy ; it is skimmed in the morning, and a certain portion is kept for butter—in early Summer, only enough, perhaps, for the use of the house, but in Autumn more, and in some dairies at least, nearly all the morning’s cream is thus taken for churning. The skimmed cream, with a portion of milk, is heated up to 130 deg. Fahr. by floating the tins which hold it, on the boiler—suflicient quantity being taken to raise the whole of the evening’s and morning’s milk together to 90 deg. or thereabouts. The rennet is made the day before it is used ; 12 or 14 square inches of ‘‘vell’’ (rennet skin) standing in a pint of salt water, kept in a warm place, making rennet enough for 100 gallons of milk. ‘The Irish vell (rennet skin ) is used, as it is obtained from very young and milk-fed calves. The curd is set about 50 minutes; it is then cut with the usual curd- breaker, a sieve-shaped cutter, very slowly. ‘The whey is syphoned, pumped, or lifted out as soon as possible ; but before it is all removed a portion is (on some farms where the Cheddar system is followed), heated and returned to the tub, and the curd is left in this hot whey for half an hour. The whey is then drained away and the curd is left to get firm. When firm enough to stand on the hand in cubes of about a pound weight —this is an intelligent indication—without breaking asunder, it is lifted out on the drainer (a false bottom of rods), in a long tub with a stop-cock to it, and there left covered up for 45 minutes, after which it is broken up and well mixed with the hand with 3 1-2 to 4 1-2 Ibs. of salt per ewt. It is then allowed to stand with a light weight upon it for about three- quarters of an hour longer, and is turned over once or twice during the time, being cut for the purpose into squares with a knife. It is then twice passed through the curd mill, and at length put into the vat, a cloth being first pressed into place by a tin hoop, and the salted curd being packed gently by hand within it. The vats will hold a cheese of 70 or 80 up to 100 Ibs; and tin hoops, placed within them, are used to eke them out, and give capacity for a larger quantity of curd if necessary. After stand- ing in the vat, with a weight upon it, from one to two hours, according to the weather, it is turned over and put, still in its vat, into the oven,— a warm chamber in or near the brickwork of the dairy chimney—where it remains at « temperature of 90 deg. to 100 deg. during the night. Both when in the press and here the cheese is skewered, skewers being thrust into it through holes in the vat and every now and then withdrawn, so 1s to facilitate the drainage of the whey. ‘The cheese is taken out of the O84 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. vat in the morning and turned upside down ina fresh cloth. It is in the press three days, and it is turned in the press twice a day, being dry- clothed each time. It is then taken out dry-clothed, bandaged, and re- moved to the cheese room, where it is turned daily, and at length only occasionally, until it is ready for sale. In some dairies all skewering is dispensed with, and no pressure is used at the time of making, nor for two days afterwards, but the whey is allowed to run out of its own ac- cord. Cheese manufactured in this way requires from 5 to 7 days in dry- ing, but afterwards matures more quickly for market. The cheese varies considerably in quality throughout the year, the varlier make of March and April being considerably less valuable than that of Summer and early Autumn. Some of this varying quality is owing to the quality of the milk, the cows being house-fed ; but more of it is, in all probability, owing to the necessity of holding a portion of curd over from day to day, when the quantity is insufficient to make even one, or it may be two, full-sized cheeses daily. In such cases it is com- mon to make one full-sized cheese, and hold the remainder of the curd over till the next day, keeping it wrapped up on the drainer or pan, and grinding it up in the curd-mill along with the curd of the next morning. XVII. How to Prepare Rennets. Rennet is a preparation of the membrane of the stomach of grass eating animals, taken at an age so young that they have taken no nourishment except the milk of the dam. In its broad sense it is an infusion of ani- mal membrane. The stomachs of pigs are sometimes used, but those of calves are the best. Taken when the calf is from two to six weeks old they are better than when taken at any other time. They are now an article of commerce, and are regularly kept by dealers. They may be prepared by the following directions, with or without spices, as the fancy may dictate: Rennet never should be taken from the calf till the excrement shows the animal to be in perfect health. It should be emptied of its contents, salted and dried, without scraping or rinsing, and kept dry for one year, when it will be fit for use. It should not be allowed to gather dampness, or its strength will evaporate. To prepare it for use, into ten gallons of water (blood warm) put ten rennets, churn or rub them often for twenty-four hours, then rub and press them to get the strength ; stretch, salt and dry them as before. They will gain strength for a second use, and may be used when the weather will admit of soak- ing them to get the full strength. Make the liquor as salt as can be made, strain and settle it, separate it from sediment, (if any,) and it is fit for use. Six lemons, two ounces of cloves, two ounces of cinnamon, and two ounces of common sage are sometimes added to the liquor to DAIRYING AND DAIRY BUILDINGS 685 preserve its flavor and quicken its action. If kept cool in a stone jar, it will keep sweet any length of time desired, and a uniform strength can be secured while it lasts. Stir it before dipping off to set milk; take enough of it to curdle milk firm in forty minutes. The ordinary way of saving the rennets, however, is as follows: The rennets should be taken out immediately after the animal is killed, turned inside out without washing, thoroughly cured with dairy salt, perfectly dried, and then kept in strong paper sacks until wanted for use. For use, the rennets should be soaked in clean whey, saturated with salt for twenty- four hours before using, frequently squeezing them with the hand, that they may become thoroughly macerated. After being soaked, the liquor should be kept as cold as possible without freezing, and in tight vessels. iy Anes ; A at tilebe “ wh Al} ee Ae i vii tay mh 1 daghel Me lA : ei ae We aaelht ad a ; ; on f ag og a ag IMSEASES OF GATTLE: HOW TO KNOW THEM; d THEIR CAUSKS, PREVEN- TION AND CURE. DISEASES OF CATTLE. CHAPTER I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. I. IMPORTANCE OF THIS DEPARTMENT OF PRACTICE.—HII. PATHOLOGY OF CATTLE AND OF THE HORSE COMPARED. Il. ACTION OF REMEDIES IN CATTLE.—IV. THE ONLY SAFE PRINCIPLES FOR MOST CATTLE OWNERS. V. FAMILIARIZE YOUR- SELF WITH THE PHENOMENA OF HEALTH. VI. THE PULSE, RESPIRATION AND TEMPERATURE.——VII. OTHER SPECIAL SIGNS OF DISEASE. As eattle occupy a foremost place in the wealth and resources of the country, furnishing its beef, milk, butter and cheese, and, as secondary products, its hides, tallow, glue, animal charcoal, etc., the prevention of especially, of contagious diseases—and their treat- disease among them ment when sick, become very important, not only from a financial standpoint, but also from considerations of the public health and com- fort. II. Pathology of Cattle and of the Horse Compared. Cattle are a phlegmatic, plethoric race of animals, intended by nature to eat large quantities of bulky food, to be digested lying down and by the process of rumination, and to take but little exercise. This fat, ple- thoric condition of the system renders them more susceptible to certain classes of diseases than the horse, especially to the blood poisons, that with them are so rapidly and certainly fatal, such as rinderpest, anthrax, variola, ete. Onthe other hand, their nervous organization being much less sensitive, they are not nearly so liable to attacks of such disorders as tetanus, paralysis, etc. Cattle not being fed to produce muscle without fat, are not subject to lameness and disease of the air-passages to the same extent as the horse, with whom speed and endurance are the main points. In fact, soundness or unsoundness, as the terms are used by horsemen, is of little importance to the cattle owner, so long as the animal can move with any degree of comfort at all; while such affections of the wind-passages as roaring, whistling and heaves are to him unknown. Still, that distressing, incur- able disease, so common in the human race, pulmonary consumption, 690 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. is very prevalent among certain classes of cattle, as a result of too much in-and-in breeding, or of overfeeding and forcing on highly stimulat- ing diet. On account of their lower grade of vitality, they are more susceptible to influences that develop local diseases, as, for example, the miasma of low, marshy ground, especially that which has been overflowed ; and also to poor fodder, from must, or being affected with ergot, ete. There is a peculiar sympathy in disease among cattle, as is illustrated in regard to abortion. It is a familiar experience that if one cow aborts through accident, one or more of the others will abort through sympathy. Owing to their natural tendency to plethora, cattle seem peculiarly pre- disposed to malignant ulcers, swellings, glandular enlargements and even gangrene. To these they are more subject than any other of the domes- tic animals. The nostrils, pharynx, larynx and trachea (wind-pipe) are much smaller than in the horse, which is one reason why they cannot travel so fast nor so long as the latter,—the wind fails. This also explains why suffocation is 2 more imminent danger in cases of throat inflammation in cattle than in horses, needing specially prompt and active treatment, even to the op- eration of tracheotomy. The different arrangement of the digestive apparatus in cattle as com- pared with the horse, is very marked, the former having four distinct stomachs, while the latter has only one stomach, but a greater length of intestines, which are also much more sensitive. Inflammation of the bowels, so common with the horse, is quite rare with the ox. Cattle are less tolerant of disease and pain than the horse. They give up in discouragement, after one or two attempts, and pine away under pain very fast. They soon become indifferent to life, often refusing to make one effort to rise when perfectly able to do so; and, as weakness follows more rapidly in inflammatory diseases, these require more energetic measures and an earlier administration of tonics and stimulants than when treating the horse. III. Action of Remedies in Cattle. Remembering the phlegmatic nature of cattle, remedies work very dif- ferently with them than with the horse. Medicines should always be given them in liquid form, and more bulky than for the horse; and they should contain something in the nature of a mild stimulant to hasten their passage through the first three stomachs, and onto the fourth stomach and intestines, where they can be taken up into the system by the absorbents. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 691 Aloes, though so excellent a purgative for horses, is of no use with cattle; while epsom salts, that are so drastic and cold for horses, on rattle work like a charm. Calomel and other forms of mercury act violently on eattle, salivating them very soon, and is excreted through the milk, often affecting sucking calves seriously. Oils, used as purga- tives, act well on cattle, and especially melted lard. Mustard, as a blister, acts with more vigor on cattle than on the horse, but turpentine less. IV. The Only Safe Principles for Most Cattle Owners. But few outside of the more common diseases of eattle will be treated of in this work, the better to adapt it for its ready use, as a book for reference, by the average stock owner: and the recipes will be as few and simple as they can be made without detracting from their value. It is a mistake to suppose that any great variety of violent drugs can be used with advantage by the public generally. The public would, no doubt, learn by experience, but it would be at the cost of losing many valuable animals. What we advocate and would like to instil into the minds of our readers, in conjunction with the importance of thorough preventive measures, is to treat the ordinary diseases as early and vigorously as pos- sible, with the simplest efficient remedies, and when any extraordinary case arises requiring more violent means, to employ an educated, well qualified veterinary surgeon. V. Familiarize Yourself with the Phenomena of Health. As it is obvious that no person is fitted to treat disease who is unable to distinguish at least its prominent symptoms, every stock owner should familiarize himself with the ordinary phenomena of health, espe- cially with the pulse, respiration and temperature. Scarcely less im- portant than these, in many forms of disease, are the appearance of the hair and skin, and that of the eye; the posture and movements ; and the character and frequency of the appetite, and also of the discharges. VI. The Pulse, Respiration and Temperature. The normal pulse in cattle ranges from fifty to fifty-five per minute ; in old animals, but especially in calves, it is somewhat more. The pulse is the most conveniently taken from the artery passing over the middle of the first rib, or else that beneath the tail. In health it is softer and Jess tense than it is in the horse. The breathing it requires no special skill to diagnose—only a moderate amount of practice. The soft, rustling sound of the healthful ‘* respira- tory murmur,”’ when the ear is placed to the chest, is altogether changed when there is any ailment affecting the lungs or air passages. The num- ber of respirations per minute (ordinarily ten to fifteen in cattle) can be 692 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. easily counted by the heaving of the chest. Some practice, however, will be required to make one a first-rate judge of the sound obtained by percussion, which, in health, is always clear and resonant. Percussion consists in placing the forefinger of the left hand upon the chest, and striking it smartly with the ends of the first three fingers of the right hand. The temperature, in all animals, is a vital index of unsurpassed value. It can be approximately measured by feeling the skin, ears and legs,—in cattle the horns also, at their root. But what is termed the ‘clinical thermometer,’’ which is so shaped that its bulb can be conveniently inser- ted into the rectum, (to remain two or three minutes ), is infinitely better, as it gives results so much more exact. Its use has established the im- portant fact that different febrile diseases have different ranges of tem- perature, each having its own ‘*dead-line,’? beyond which recovery is im- possible. Thus, a horse with cerebro-spinal meningitis will certainly die soon after reaching a temperature of 104° ; yet 108° or even 109° by no means indicate a fatal termination, in w case of pneumonia, VII. Other Special Signs of Disease. A “staring coat,’’ as it is termed, in which the hairs stand out like bristles, is an obvious symptom, and sometimes the only one, of a low state of health. Shivering, when the animal is exposed to only moder- ate cold or to none at all, challenges immediate attention ; for itis, infal- libly, the ushering in of an.attack of some disease, usually severe. Cold sweat coming out on the skin of an animal severely ill indicates a desper- ate, if not fatal, condition. The posture when standing, the method of lying down or getting up, the action in moving around,—these are all significant, and should be noted carefully. The countenance, and especially the eye, if observed closely, will betray the distress and pain which the dumb sufferer cannot express in words. The muzzle, which in health is moist, (or covered with ‘*dew,’” as many call it), in disease, especially in fever, becomes unnaturally hot and dry or cold, and sometimes changed in color—sometimes paler, but more commonly injected with blood. One of the earliest signs of serious con- stitutional disturbance, as well as of certain special disorders, in the case of eattle, is the suspension of rumination,—that is, ceasing to chew the eud. A nearly coincident general symptom, in cows, is the drying up of the milk. CHAPTER II. CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. II. RINDERPEST OR CATTLE PLAGUE.—— IV. CONTAGIOUS ECZEMA, VI. VA- i. CONTAGIOUS PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. Ill. TEXAS FEVER, SPANISH OR SPLENIC FEVER. FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE OR EPIZOOTIC APHTHA.——Y. ANTHRAX. RIOLA VACCINZ OR COW-POX. I. Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia. This is the most fatal and contagious of the diseases to which cattle are subject, except rinderpest, (a2 contagious enteric fever), which has never yet gotten a hold in America, and Texas or Spanish fever, (splenic fever). It is still successfully contined to the region in which it was first intro- duced, viz: The region contiguous to New York city, and portions of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland. It is, in fact, now restricted to comparatively narrow limits, and it is to be hoped that the strict measures taken to prevent its spread will keep it confined entirely to that portion of the country east of the Allegheny mountains. It is a contagious fever of cattle, with local inflammation of the pleura, (the thin membrane lining the thorax and investing the lungs), accom- panied by great prostration, and in its more malignant forms ending in death in a few days. It is, however, often slow in its development, weeks, or even months elapsing during which the contagion works in the system, before finally revealing its fatal symptoms. So terribly contagious is this disease that but little assurance can be given that any known remedy will prove valuable, since in the attempt to cure one animal, the whole herd may be attacked. Hence, the farmer suspecting it in his herd should at once apply to a competent veterinary surgcon, if there is one within reach, to verify the disease. If such ex- pert authority be not at hand, kill the animal or animals at once, slash the skin to prevent any person from digging the animal up for the sake of the hide, and bury deeply ; if quick lime can be gotten, use it freely 695 694 THE AMBRICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. over the carcass. Then disinfect carefully all stables and outhouses, and incase other animals are suspected, isolate and quarantine them and await developments. How to know it.—The esrlier symptoms are apt to pass unnoticed, The first is a rise in temperature to 108° or 106° F., shown by introducing a clinical thermometer into the rectum, the average temperature being 101° ; there will be loss of appetite; a staring coat ; slight shiverings ; a hard, dry cough; a loss of milk; scanty urine, higher or darker colored than usual. Then will follow tenderness upon pressure between the ribs over the lungs ; the cough will inerease ; and the breathing quicken ; the nose will extend; the back be arched; the hind legs will be drawn under the body, and the elbows will be turned out. Later, there will be a watery or a more pronounced discharge of matter from the eyes and nose; obstinate constipation, or a watery foetid diarrhea; a ft f | l wih rapid weakening of the system, ending in death. Upon percussion (striking) over the lungs, there will be given back, in the earlier stages, a clear, resonant sound; later, it will be dull and heavy. So, in the first stage, there will be a dry, crackling sound ; later, it will be a whist- ling or rough breathing sound. Any of these may be easily distinguished from the sound oceasioned by pereussion upon an animal in health. In America pleuro-pneumonian does not show the most violent symptoms except in warm weather. Yet this very slow incubation shows PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. the extreme care that should be exercised in . ry . . Section of affected lung in conta. Witchfulness. The seeds of the disease once gious pleuro.pneumonia. The thin end shows black hepatization; the center, red. At the thick end interlobular infiltration and several blocked vessels are shown, in the system, the incubation is only a question of time, and warm weather will bring out the disease in all its intensity. What to do.—As to remedial measures, it seems useless for the farmer to resort to them, since this is a disease that the veterinarian alone can cope with, and then only when perfect isolation may be had. The safest CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 695 and also the cheapest plan, is prompt killing and burial of infeeted ani- mals, thorough isolation of the rest of the herd, and perfect disinfection. In the matter of disinfection, the easiest, cheapest and best way is to re- move allanimals from the barn or shed, and close it up tightly and burn sulphur in it for a couple of hours; then open and air it, and whitewash it thoroughly with lime. Prevention.—Proper quarantine of stock imported into this country, for a period of time sufficiently long to decide for a certainty, that no latent contagion is hanging around them, say two months ; destruction of all affected animals ; and isolation of those that have been exposed to the contagion. Some very high authorities in Europe recommend inoculation of those that have been exposed, and even of whole herds and dairies. It is a disease, the occurrence of which in an animal onee, confers immu- nity from subsequent attacks. It is found that inoculation does not always produce the same disease, ut least the disease produced by inocu- lation is not always located inthe same place, but the constitutional effect is produced with the same result of immunity from subsequent attacks as the original disease ; and the proportion of deaths among inoculated ani- mals is small as compared with those who take the disease in its regular course. The conclusions arrived at by the Belgian Commission in regard to inoculation, as stated by Prof. Gameee, are as follows : ©]. The inoculation of the liquid extracted from the lungs of an animal affected with pleuro-pneumonia does not transmit to healthy ani- mals of the same species the same disease, at all events so far as its seat is concerned. 2. The appreciable phenomenw which follow the inocula- tion are those of local inflammation, which is circumscribed and slight on a certain number of animals inoculated ; extensive and diffuse, with g@en- eral reaction proportioned to the local disease, and complicated by gangrenous accidents on another number of inoculated animals, so that even death may result. 3. The inoculation of the liquid from the lungs of an animal affected with pleuro-pneumonia exerts a preservative influ- ence, and invests the economy of the larger number of animals subjected to its influence with an immunity which protects them from the contagion of this malady, during a period which has yet to be determined.” The losses sustained during the experiments of the Commission amounted to 11.11 per cent. The number of animals on which the effect of inoculation was benignant, was 61.11 per cent.; the proportion in which there was gangrene and loss of a portion of the tail, 27.77 per cent. ; in twenty-one subjects the inflammation was very severe, and complicated by gangrenous phenomena, causing the death of six; and, lastly, the recoveries amounted to 88.88 per cent. 696 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. The place recommended to insert the virus is on the end of the tail, it being less lable to work violently, and terminate fatally from gangrene, when inserted there than at any other part. II. Rinderpest, or Contagious Enteric Fever. General Description Whatever may be said to the contrary, this terrible plague has never yet been introduced into any of the countries of the American hemisphere. At least, there is no well authenticated record of any case. Its ravages have been mostly confined to the herds of Europe and Asia, and especially to those of the southern portion of- European Russia and adjacent districts. It is devoutly to be hoped it never will find its way to America, for it is terribly contagious, desper- ately fatal, and swift in its work of death. Where it originally started is not known. In Southern Russia, on the Asiatic steppes, in various parts of India, in Southern and Southwestern China, Cochin China, in Mongo- lia, Burmah, Hindostan, Persia, Thibet and Ceylon, it has long been known, and has been carried thence to various European States. The principle of contagion has not yet been discovered, but when once an animal is affected, it extends to every tissue and secretion. It is, however, mostly contained in the secretions of the mucous membranes, and healthy animals will be infeeted by coming near infected animals, or near anything contaminated by their secretions and exhalations, and without actual contact. So, any object may be infected, and carry the disease indefinitely, as clothing, wool, hay, straw, litter, wood-work, for it may remain latent in any of these objects for a long time. For- tunately, air is said to be the most potent and effective means of destroy- ing the virus; and hence, thorough aeration by a direct and continuous current of air is one of the best ways of diluting, and at length destroy- ing, the seeds of this dread disease. So quick is the development of the disease that death sometimes oceurs after the second day, though usually after the fifth day ; and an average of from seventy to eighty per cent. of the animals attacked die. Goats, sheep and deer are also attacked, and the proba- bility is that all ruminating animals are subject to the contagion ; but sheep and goats are not liable to so large a percentage of mortality as are neat cattle. Many of the symptoms of rinderpest occur in pleuro-pneumonia in its contagious form; also, in maliguant catarrhal fever, and in foot-and- mouth disease. But pleuro-pneumonia is distinguished from rinderpest by the absence of the characteristic eruptions upon the mucous mem- branes. Malignant catarrhal fever is distinguished therefrom by the dimness of the transparent cornea of the eye, which in rinderpest CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. O97 remains clear. The foot-and-mouth disease differs from rinderpest by ulceration of the feet, and the less degree of fever. The alteration of the mucous membrane in rinderpest, heretofore spoken of, may very soon be observed in the vagina of cows, which becomes spotted or striped with red, and, in about twenty-four hours after, small yellowish white or gray specks are clearly distinguished on the red spots and stripes. These are formed by the loosening of the cuticle, which may be rubbed off, leaving in its place a dark red depression. There is no known remedy for this disease, and hence the only security against its spread is in the enactment of the most stringent laws, first, for its prevention ; second, for its extinction, by isolation of ali sus- pected animals, and the prompt killing and burial of all infeeted ones. In this respect the laws of the German Empire are the most perfect, and our State and general governments might take a lesson therefrom, in dealing with pleuro-pneumonia and other malignant contagious diseases of animals, if the machinery of politics could be successfully dissociated from the appointment of officers for the investigations sought. When an animal has this disease, and recovers, he is rendered insus- ceptible to another attack. How to know it.—A perceptible rise in the temperature of the body occurs about two days before any other symptoms present themselves ; and it has been shown that the virus exists in the blood at the time a rise in temperature is first noticed. Inoculation with serum of the blood taken from an animal at this time, will produce the dis- ease. The temperature in the course of two days rises to 104° or 105° F., when the following symptoms will be noticed: Shivering ; muscular twitching ; restlessness ; colicky pains; sometimes a husky cough; yawning; great dul- ness, with drooping of the ears ; -oceasional fits of delirium ; the appetite is soon lost; the milk of cows is suddenly and entirely stopped, RINDERPEST. more so than in any other disease. In the later stages, the animal grinds its teeth ; arches its back ; draws its legs together; moans and grunts with each expiration, at which time the breath is held for av instant and then expelled with a grunt. At first the bowels are constipated, but this 698 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. condition is soon followed by violent purging; the dry, hot, red condi- tion of the eyes, nose and mouth, which exist in the early stage, is fol- lowed by a discharge of a glairy, watery character, soon running into an opaque and turbid form, which is very typical of the disease. In some cases the visible mucous membranes become altered in appearance, by assuming a salmon-red appearance over the whole extent, with deep crim- son red patches dotted over the surface. When lying down, the head is usually turned upon the upper flank ; the twitching of the muscles will be noticed more about the neck, shoulders and hind quarters. The dis- charges from the bowels are at first black, but soon change to a pale greenish brown ; they are very feetid and are voided with much straining. The urine is scanty and high colored, and sometimes albuminous. The pulse rises to 120° to 140° per minute; the surface of the body gets deathly cold ; weakness increases, the animal lying most of the time ; the areolar tissue becomes, in most cases, bloated with air; the animal be- comes drowsy, and soon after unconciousness sets in; the nostrils flap ; the mucous membranes become lead-colored, with purple patches ; flatu- lence supervenes, with involuntary evacuation of faces, and death soon follows. Sometimes the eruption covers the entire body, and, again, it may be wholly wanting. III. Texas Fever, Spanish or Splenic Fever. This disease, which has its origin in the low lands of Mexico and Texas, more nearly resembles the rinderpest of Asiatic Russia than any other. It is, however, not nearly so destructive ; is not communicated from one field to another; the germs are surely killed by the first frost, and are only communicated to Northern cattle by the Texas cattle driven over- land infecting other cattle passing along the same road or feeding ground. The animals taking it in this way do not communicate it to others, and hence the probability that its malignant, contagious form is not ripened in climates in which frosts occur. Hence, again, in all those districts where Texas cattle are not permitted to pasture there is no danger of the disease breaking out. It was noticed in Missouri as long ago as 1849, through the introduction of Texas cattle, and continued to increase in that region until, in 1858, the trade in Texas cattle having become very large, the Legislature of Kansas attempted to stay its ravages by restrictive en- aectments. In 1868, through the importation of Texas cattle, and their carriage by railway, the loss to native stock in the grazing States east of the Mississippi became so great, especially in Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, that the most stringent measures were taken by the Legislatures of various States to prevent such cattle from being brought in. These: CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 699 measures operated successfully, since of late years but little trouble has been experienced. The disease is not communicated after frosty weather sets in, and Texas cattle wintered in the North do not communicate the disease the following summer. Incubation.—The stage of incubation is from four to five weeks. The blood undergoes a material change, and some of its elements escape into the various tissues of the body and into the urine, giving the latter a bloody appearance. How to know it.—As in pleuro-pneumonia, a marked symptom is an increase of heat, to 104° to 106° ; the pulse rises from 40 beats a minute (the average for healthy steers) up to 120 4 minute. ‘The fever is gen- erally preceded by a chill; the dung and urine become scanty, high col- ored, or bloody ; the milk fails rapidly ; yellow matter is discharged from the nostrils and mouth ; the animal assumes a peculiarly dejected look ; the back is arched ; the flanks become hollow; the gait unsteady or stag- gering, and the hair rough; the cough is more or less frequent; the urine coagulates on boiling ; the mucous membranes are deep yellow or brown color, and that of the rectum dark red. There is but little trace of disease in the first three stomachs, but the fourth stomach shows congestion, and the intestines are still more gorged and blood-stained. The liver is not seriously affected, but the gall bladder is filled with thick, dark colored bile ; the kidneys are also congested, and the secretion in the bladder is bloody or blood-stained ; the spleen is much affected and enlarged. In a healthy animal the spleen should weigh a pound or a pound and a half; in cattle dying of Texas fever it has been known to reach a weight of eight pounds; hence, the specific name of splenic fever. What to do.—Treatment for this disease, like that for pleuro-pneumo- nia and rinderpest, is not satisfactory in the majority of cases. There is this point, however, in the treatment—since cattle infested from Texans do not give it to others, and since isolation isa security against contagion, the animals should at once be put into confortable quarters and receive good nursing. IV. Contagious Eczema, Foot and Mouth Disease, or Epizoétic Aphtha. This disease is unknown in America, but it is very common in the older countries. Owing to its very short period of incubation—twenty-four hours to three or four days—there is very little danger of its importa- tion; and quarantining any affected herds before allowing them to Jand, will effectually prevent its introduction. It as an eczematous or skin disease affecting the mouth, tongue, lips, feet, legs and udder. The contagion lies in the discharges from the 700 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. mouth and feet, and the virus is strewn along the road and over the pas- tures by the droppings from the mouth, and the matter running from the feet, and is conveyed from field to field by small vermin, dogs, cats, ete. It is contagious to nearly all the lower animals and to man. It is not often fatal, but it causes much loss to the stock owner, through the loss of flesh in eat- tle that are being fattened, and the failure in milk, the supply being lessened by from one to two-thirds of the usual yield. The milk is affected not only in quantity, but contains much of the poison of the dis- ease, and affects young animals to which it is given warm, causing cramps, violent diar- rheea, intestinal irritation, which often prove fatal. It is considered by good authorities to be equally injurious to infants. By the aid of the microscope vibrioues, bacteria and monads are found, which appear to be more injurious to the consumer when the milk is drank warm, fresh from the cow. Some authorities say to boil it before using, and others that this makes no difference, but it is certainly less injurious when it has stood a few hours and got thoroughly cold. How to know it—The usual symptoms are rough, staring coat ; shiver- ing fits, dry, hot mouth and muzzle; pulse and temperature raised ; the mouth, tongue, lips, teats. udder and interdigital spaces become red, swollen and sore; on the second or third day little pustules break and discharge ; saliva drools from the mouth; the animal keeps working-the tongue in great uneasiness ; EPIZOOTIC APHTHA OR FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE. lameness in the feet is seen, the fever in them being sometimes such as to cause the hoofs to drop off, the joints to become opened, and extensive sloughing to take place. There is great inclination to lie down. The EPIZOOTIC APHTHA. greatest damage to the feet is Indications of the fect being afficted. seen among sheep and swine. The latter sometimes lose some of the digital bones, What to do.—The treatment is of little consequence, as the disease runs a definite course, and usually terminates in recovery in about fifteen days. Give soft food to eat anda bountiful supply of clear cold water to drink ; an ounce of saltpeter dissolved in each pail is an advantage. Pay the most attention to the feet, wash them clean and remove any CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. TOT horn that may be detached ; if the inflammation and swelling are great, apply a linseed poultice till there are raw surfaces, then change them to the following lotion : No. 1. 1 Ounce sugar of lead, 2 Drachms ecarbolie acid, 1 Ounce Jaudanum, Water to make one pint, Mix. Apply three times a day. When suppuration ceases, bind the feet up in tar bandages. If great weakness follows, with prostration and loss of appetite, give whiskey, brandy, etc., in oatmeal gruel. Give no purga- tives, not even a laxative; for the bowels, although constipated at first, soon become loose and should not be interfered with, as that is one of the efforts of nature to expel the poison from the system; and never bleed. If extensive sloughing around the feet takes place, apply the following lotion : No. 2. One part carbolic acid. Kight parts olive oil. Mix. Apply three times a day. V. Anthrax. This is known by many different names, according to the part attacked, and the impression made upon the mind of the person deserib- ing it—Black Leg, Black Quarter, Quarter Ill, Charbon, Chancre a la Langue, Sang de Rate, Mal de Savy, Splenic Apoplexy and Broxy in Sheep, Bloody Murrain, etc. Under the above names are included a group of diseases very virulent, malignant and contagious, appearing under different forms, externally and internally, and attacking the differ- ent species of lower animals and man, in an epizo6tic, enzoétic or sporadic manner, according to the influences that produce it, or whether it is got by inoculation. It arises spontaneously in low, damp, rich pastures, and along the banks of overflowed rivers, or where ponds have been drained off or dried up, the soil containing a great amount of organic matter, and when cattle are fattened too fast, by feeding on rich, succulent food, especially clover. Long continued, warm, dry weather, favoring the ema- nations of organic matter and miasmatic gases, with great changes in tem- perature between day and night, especially in a still atmosphere, favor its development. The main characteristic of the disease is black, tarry blood, that will not coagulate, and containing rod-like bodies (bacteria) ; and shortly before death, spores develop, which are the active part of the virus in inoculation. 702 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, Blood containing these spores has been dried, reduced to dust, and kept four years, and found to be as active as ever in’ producing the fatal disease, (Koeh.) The spores do not continue to increase after death, and ave not found in any great quantity. The rods are found in greatest quantity in the spleen. ‘Phe spleen, liver and lymphatic glands enlarge and become soft. The bloody flux may locate in any part of the body, with the tendency to gangrene, death and decomposition of the part affected, and the formation of gases that distend the tissues, making a crackling noise when the hand is passed over it. When it commences on one point of the surface, a small blister forms, gathers, breaks and dries up, and others form around it, and so on in consecutive rings it spreads, This constitutes malignant pustule, and is the form it usually tikes in man, got by inoculation, from handling carcasses and skinning animals dead from anthrax, handling dirty rags, ete. Anthrax has two distinet ways of manifesting itself, with external lesions and without them. ‘To the former belong the black leg, black quarter, or bloody murrain, black tongue, Siberian boil plague, and car- bunculur erysipelas of sheep and swine, and malignant sore throat of the latter; to the latter, all those having specific changes in the blood, with engorgement of the spleen, exudations and blood-stained spots in the internal orewns, and sudden death, The Stberian Boil Plaque attacks horses, eattle, sheep, goats and pigs, and manifests itself in swellings on the sheath, udder, throat, breast, dewlap, ete., Which are hard, yellowish, and streaked with red, and some- times spotted. The animals die in from twelve to twenty-four hours, This, inoculated into man, produces malignant pustule, or charbon, Black leg or bloody murrain is malignant anthrax, characterized by engorgement of a quarter or a lee, shoulder or a side. It usually ocewrs among young, fast growing, thriving cattle, and is so sudden in ‘ts attack, short in its duration, and fatal in its effect, that one or two of a herd may be found dead in the morning, when nothing whatever was wrong with CARBUNCULAR ERYSIPELAS BLACK LEG them the night before, There is a OW QUARTER ILL. stiffness in the affected quarter, with some diffuse swelling and heat, fever, and an appearance of plethora ; the swollen quarter soon mortifies, becomes cold, gas forms under the skin and erackles if rabbed, and death soon follows. Sometimes there is an effusion of yellow looking lymph from the swelling. Recovery is very rare, and is slow and tedious, and the swelling is apt to slough ex- tensively and form slug ‘ish, unsightly sores, CONTAGIOUS DISEASES, TONS The black tongue is seen in cattle, and sometimes in horses, and is known by red purple or black blisters on the tongue, palate and cheeks, sometimes attaining the size of a hen’s ege ; they burst and run an ichorous, scalding matter, and the sore becomes unhealthy and ulcer-like, with more or less swelling ; the discharge, as it \\" runs from the mouth, is bloody ; the fever runs very high, the system be- comes poisoned throughout, and death WW ensues in twenty to forty-cight hours. Carbuncular erysipelas in sheep corresponds to black lee in eattle, and, like it, always attacks the finest, fattest and most thriving one in the flock. The symptoms are the same gross-anrHRAx OR BLACK TONGUE. as black leg, and death follows in from ten to sixty hours. Swine have the carbuncular erysipelas the same as sheep; also, black tongue, tumors about the throat, and pharyngeal anthrax ; the latter is the most common form, and is probably caused by eating the carcass of some anthrax animal. There is fever, swelling about the throat, neck and breast, which is red, shining, tender, and soon becomes purple, cold and insensible, and pits upon pressure; nausea, vomiting, retching and loss of appetite; purple patches form around the eyes and on the snout ; breathing becomes difficult, and the mouth livid; the temperature falls, and death follows in from one to two days. Dogs, cuts and other small animals die from anthrax, developed in the sume manner as it is in pigs, and coming from their eating anthrax car. msses. They are affected in the mouth, throat and digestive organs, giving rise to vomiting, fever and death. Birds and poultry die of anthrax, from eating bits of anthrax vietime. It developes in them in fever and swelling on the head, comb, breast and feet. In man, malignant pustule or charbon developes by inoculation ; a small red spot shows itself with itching, and inereasesin size. In the course of twelve hours, a blister forms, breaks, dries, and a new crop springs up around the old one, and so it spreads. The affected parts run through all the shades of color from red to black, when gangrene sets in, and sloughs in case of recovery, but, alas, it is too often fatal, the same as in the lower animals. Anthrax without external swelling is known as anthrax fever, splenic apoplexy, broxy, ete., according to the animals attacked. Torses, cattle, TOA THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. sheep, swine and fowls are liable to attacks of anthrax fever. This is characterized by high fever, plethora, engorgement of the spleen and other internal organs, and colicky pain ; redness, and often purple spots, are seen on the mucous membranes ; bloody, frothy mucus comes from the nose and eyes; the dung is streaked with blood; great weakness fol- lows, and death in twelve to twenty-four hours. What to do.—Treatment is of no avail in the first cases, owing to the rapid fatality of the disease, but in subsequent cases, when the patient can bear it, bleed freely, then give purgatives. Of Epsom salt, give a pound to cattle when full grown ; calves, three or four ounces, and young sattle in proportion ; sheep and pigs, four to six ounces. Horses may have two ounces, or Barbadoes aloes, five to seven drachms, made into a ball withsyrup. The salts are given dissolved in warm water, with extract of ginger, one or two ounces. Follow these with No. 3 1 Drachm nitro-muriatie acid, 3 Grains bichromate of potash, 2 Drachms chlorate of potash, 13 Pint water, Mix. Give as one dose, wo or three times a day. If the patient is weak, instead of giving the salts give stimulants— rye whiskey, ale, turpentine, or ether in from one to two ounce doses, three or four times a day. Sponge off the body with cold water and rub dry ; cauterize all wounds, if the disease comes through inoculation, with clear carbolic acid, sulphuric or nitric acid, or with chloride of zine, but the whole of the diseased tissue must bereached. After cauterizing them, and also the tumors that may follow, apply poultices to them to encour- age suppuration. In case of diffuse swellings, bathe them with vinegar, cold water and weak lotions of carbolic acid, ete.,—say one part to sixty of water; and inject beneath the skin, in several places, weak dilutions of sarbolic acid,—one part of acid to one hundred of water. Prevention.—Drain the soil in the pastures; either confine the stock to smaller pastures or increase the stock to feed the pasture more closely ; when cattle, especially young ones, are thriving very fast on a rich sue- culent pasture or aftermath, confine them in a barn-yard four to six hours a day. Shelter the stock at night during late summer and fall, when the days are hot and nights cool, or rather cold,—when the dews are heavy and the air gets quite chilly towards morning; it is ut this time that internal congestions are apt to occur. In dry, hot weather, remove the stock to high ground, where miasmatic gases exist to a less extent. Secure clear, pure water to drink ; avoid too sudden fattening; see that barns and sheds are well ventilated and not overerowded. The diseased CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 705 animals should be separated from the healthy ; carcasses should be buried deeply, six feet at least, without being skinned, and covered with quick lime, and the graves fenced for a couple of years; the buildings where deaths have occurred or sick animals been, should be thoroughly disin- fected. Avoid touching them, so far as possible, and wash the hands both before and after doing so, in carbolic acid, oue to a hundred of water. Prevent: dogs, cats, etc., from coming in contact with them, and never allow meat that is affected, or suspected of being affected, to be eaten. VI. Variolo Vaccinz, or Cow-Pox. This is a contagious disease, and has been proven to be identical with small-pox of the human family ; either can be produced in either men or rattle by inoculation from the other species. A heifer inoculated with virus of small-pox, will have a disease identical with the cow-pox ; and men inoculated with cow-pox will have a disease that may be considered either cow-pox or avery mild form of small-pox. To have either, secures immunity from a subsequent attack at least to a great extent, or for a longer or shorter period, sometimes only for a year or two, and some- times for a lifetime. Cow or kine-pox is a specific blood poison that has a period of incubation of three to nine days, shows itself by a slight fever for a couple of days, then breaks out in pimples on the teats, udder, flanks, escutcheon, and around the vulva, nose, mouth and eyes. These pimples, red at first, enlarge from day to day, till they attain a diam- eter of about half an inch to an inch, and become yellow. A distinet vesi- cle forms, breaks, runs a yellowish lymph, which is the active virus of the disease, dries up, a scab forms over it, and the whole trouble disap- pears as gently as it came. The only trouble to be had from the disease, isin milch cows, from the teats getting sore, These are sometimes absolutely covered with the vesicles, and even confluent, rendering milking a very painful operation. It runs a definite course, and heals up and disappears of itself, in from ten to twenty days. No treatment is necessary, except to avoid taking cold, and give a little extra care in the way of nursing. If the teats are so sore as to be very painful in milk- THE TEAT SYPHON. ing, the teat syphon may be used ; if it is cold weather, warm the syphon; oil it with olive oil, and pass it up the teat very carefully, and draw off the milk. Anoint the sores on the teats and udder nicely, twice a day, with carbolic salve or other healing and softening ointment. If the udder swells very much, fre- quent bathing with hot water and supporting with a bandage, as recom- mended for mammitis, will be a benefit. 45 CHAPTER IIT. NON-CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES. I. PLETHORA.——II. ANASMIA.——III. RHKUMATISM.——IV. URACMIA. Vv. SEP- TICASMLA AND PY AMIA.-——VI. TUBERCULOSIS AND PHTHISIS PULMONALIS. Vil. CANCEROUS ULCERS AND OSTEO SARCOMA, VIII, PURPURA HAMORRIMAGICA,— IX. ASTHENIC HASMATURIA, OR RED WATER IN CATTLE.——X. MALIGNANT CATARRIT.——XI. MALIGNANT SORE THROAT. I. Plethora. This, which may be deseribed as an over fat condition of the blood, is conducive to many very serious results by interfering with the circulation, especially that Uhrough the vital organs, rendering them inert and unable to eliminate from the system the effete material which, at such a time, ex- ists in increased quantities. These impurities, left in the system, lead to blood poisoning, and to excessive congestions and inflammations in case of disease, thus greatly enhancing the dangers attending disorders of all kinds. Causes.—lIt is caused by rich, stimulating food, such as oil-cake, corn and other grain, roots, and too succulent green food and pastures,—in fact, anything that fattens very fast. How to know it.—Unusually rapid improvement, exuberant spirits, sleek hair, loose skin, and tendency to fatten very fast. Occasionally, slight fever may be seen, at first of short duration, but increasing with rach attack till violent congestion occurs, followed by inflammation ; and death supervenes after a run of very high fever, or suddenly during the congestive stage. What to do.—Deplete either by bleeding or purging. Take from two to six quarts of blood, or give a few doses of salts, in quantities of a single handful, morning and night for a week, at the same time remoy- ing to less luxuriant pasture, or curtailing the meal. The restricted diet and salts are preferable to bleeding. II. Anemia. Causes.—This condition, the reverse of plethora, is seen when the animal is thin in flesh from lack of sufficient or proper kinds of food, especially when this is accompanied by exposure to the weather or im- poverishment by parasites. It is apt to lead to purpura hemorrhagica, rheumatism, ete., and always predisposes to lice or other vermin, 706 NON-CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES. TOT What to do.—Destroy any existing vermin, and give the following recipe in the feed: No. 4. 14 Ounce copperas, 1 Handful oil-cake, Powder and mix. Give as one dose. Repeat it morning and night, and let the diet be a nourishing, generous one. IIt. Rheumatism. Causes and forms.—The immediate cause of rheumatism is the accu- mulation in the system of a peculiar kind of acid, which has a tendency to settle around the joints, along the sheaths of tendons, and in the syn- ovial membranes. Inthe acute form, which is that which it generally assumes, the affected parts swell, and often suppurate, discharging con- siderable quantities of pus, and with it more or less synovial fluid. It often extends to the bones and the membranes covering them, when it generally becomes chronic, and more or less exostosis is thrown out, which may anchylose (stiffen) the joint. Rheumatism frequently extends to the chest, and settles in the pleura, heart, etc., and sometimes causes diseases of the latter organ and death. The exciting causes are poverty of the system, thinness in flesh, and exposure to cold and dampness,—to the two last-named either from want of shelter or from dampness in the stable caused by poor drainage. How to know it.—There is lameness, stiffness, and disinclination to move, with a staring coat. After this has runon for a few hours, (or, it may be a day or two, ) a joint—perhaps, two or three joints—will begin to swell, and is found to be quite hot, hard and painful; next morning the swelling will very likely be noticed in some other joint or in another leg, as the disease has a great tendency to fly from joint to joint and leg to leg. There is considerable fever, with high pulse, increased temper- ature, reddened mucous membranes, and a marked inclination to remain lying down all the time. The bowels are apt to be constipated, and the urine scanty and high colored. Abscesses form and discharge pus. The animal becomes emaciated, and frequently dies in a state of hectic. What to do.—Put the animal in a dry, warm place to lie in, with plenty of bedding. Give generous diet and the following recipe : 5D No. 5. 2 Drachms colchicum, 2 Drachms nitrate of potash, Mix. Give as one dose, and repeat it morning and night in soft feed, for a week ; then give No. 4 for a week, and change back to No. 5. Alter- TOS THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. nate them in this manner for a month. As local treatment, apply the following to the joints : No. 6. 1 Ounce laudanum, | Ounce spirits of camphor, 1 Ounce turpentine, Water to make one pint, Mix. Apply three times a day, with friction, and bandage. If great weak- ness ensues, give the following : No. 7. | Ounce gentian root, 's Ounce ginger, 1 Quart oat meal gruel, Mix. Give as one dose, and repeat three times a day for two weeks. IV. Uremia. In this disease, in consequence of the kidneys and bladder being our of order, the urine 1s absorbed back into the system, causing a peculiat poisoning of the blood, from an excessive accumulation of urea. How to know it.—Dullness, loss of appetite and failure to secrete urine ; the mouth and nose are dry, and the former is foetid ; rumination ceases, the coat stares, and a smell of wrine is detected on the skin ; pulse and respirations become slow, and the former is also soft; the pupils are dilated, and, too often, delirium, coma and death close the scene. What to do.—Examine all parts carefully, in order to ascertain the rsause, and then treat vigorously to remove it. Give large quantities of linseed tea to drink and, as a mild purgative, the following : No. 8. 12 Ounces epsom salts, 1 Ounce ginger, 1 Ounce gentian, 4 Ouncessyrup, Water to make two quarts. Mix. Give as one dose. After it has operated, give a tablespoonful of salt- petre, three times a day, for two days. V. Septiceemia and Pyzemia. This is a condition resulting from the absorption into the system of putrid, poisonous matter, or pus, especially that from an ulcer or suppurating surface, How to know it.—There will be a high fever, with increased tempera- ture; pulse is fast and hard, and breathing quickened; the breath is feetid ; rumination is suspended ; there is loss of appetite, staring coat, and emaciation, and in fatal cases, delirium. NON-CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES. TOO What to do.—Disvover the cause if possible, and if it is a sore of any kind containing pent up pus, (the most common cause), liberate it and dress the wound with the following lotion : No. 9. 46 Ounce carbolic acid, 1 Pint water, Mix. Apply two or three times a day with a syringe, if there are passages ; if the sore is on the surface, bind on a sponge wet with the lotion. If there is an ulcer, treat it as prescribed in the next article. Give the fol- lowing mixture : No. 10. 2 Drachms iodide of potash, 2 Ounces whiskey, 1 Ounce powdered cinchona, ! Pint gruel, Mix. Give as one dose, repeating same three times a day, and feed liberally. VI. Tuberculosis and Phthisis Pulmonalis. This disease, which is analugous to phthisis in the human being, is characterized by small, gray, caseous (cheese-like) granules that soon run into calcareous masses. Causes.—Any previous inflammation in the course of which the poison of suppuration has been absorbed into the system, the poison locating itself in the form of caseous tumors, varying in size from a small pea to when's ege. These tumors may be found in the lunes, pleura, perito- neum, sides of the diaphragm, and in various glands—mesenteric, liver, kidneys, ete. The flesh of such animals is sometimes unfit for food. This is always the case when the tumor, instead of becoming calcareous remains in # semi-fluid state, and is re-wbsorbed into the system, poisoning the whole body, and rendering the muscles pale and watery, and pitting upon pressure. When, however, these granules become hardened, and eneased in a caleareous form, they are inert, and may be carried till the death of the animal, without harmful consequences to those partaking of its flesh. Its hereditary character.—This cachexia or depraved condition of the system, with predisposition to tubercle, is oftentimes hereditary in all grades and classes of cattle, those called deep milkers and cold blooded, as well as the high, in-and-in bred ones. Still there can be no question that it is oftenest seen in the latter. Prof. Williams, who regards it as both hereditary and congenital, says that he has seen a three months old calf die filled with caseous and cal- careous, gray tubercular tumors. Prof. MeKEachran says it is hereditary and mostly found in strains of breeds that are related to each other by 710 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. too high a degree of consanguinity. The strain of the Dukes and Dutch- esses, wmong the Durhams, seem to be peculiarly liable to it As mentioned in Chapter I, this Part, cattle seem peculiarly susceptible to this form of pulmonary disease. Tlence, the breeder should guard this point carefully, and whenever he finds that his stock are deteriorating in constitutional vigor and hardiness, from too continuous in-and-in breed- ing, he should immediately change to an out cross. How to know it.—The cachexia may either accompany or precede the tuberculosis, the earliest symptoms being a general unthrifty condition, the milk becoming poor in quality, thin and watery, although not much less in quantity. The appetite is capricious; the hair looks dull, and where it is white, there isa yellow skin; a dry, dull cough will be noticed ; the animal no longer licks itself; if the cow is with calf, she is apt to abort ; if not so, the condition of nymphomania is likely to exist. Ema- ciation ushers in the second stage, and progresses rapidly ; the cough gets worse, but there is no expectoration ; indigestion, tympanitis and diarrhees follow, and soon reduce the sufferer to skin and bones. Auscultation, and percussion of the lungs may or may not detect a fullness and muffled breathing and other signs of disease, but nearly always some pain will be evinced when the sides are struck, or the fingers pushed forcibly in between the ribs. Those affected always remain standing; the tubercles increase, some- times breaking out on the surface of the body; the blood gets thir and watery, wanting in red corpuscles ; and, often, fatal diarrhcea sets in. What to do.—The treatment consists in counter-irritation to the chest by applying mustard paste or fly blister repeatedly, and giving oleaginous food, as oil-cake, cocoanut oil, ete., in liberal quantities, which will some- times keep them along a good while, Avoid roots and grasses, since, in the weak condition of the digestive organs, these tend to produce tympanitis ; but by suitable fattening food, supplemented by the use of cod-liver oil to the amount of half a pint a day, they may be fattened fast, if taken during the first stage. This secured, they might as well be slaughtered by the butcher ; in later stages, nothing can be done to pre- vent gradual pining and death. The oil is best given with lime water ; a little oil of turpentine may be added, if there is a tendency to tympan- itis and diarrhea. The flesh is unfit for food in the second stage, or when pining and emaciation begin. The following recipe may be of service along with the generous diet. NOs ws 2 Drachms saccharized carbonate of iron, 2 Drachms powdered cinchona bark, Mix. Give as one dose in soft feed, twice a day. NON-CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES. 711 VII. Cancerous Ulcers and Osteo Sarcoma. Tuberculosis sometimes shows externally, attacking the glands, especi- ally the parotid and sub-maxillary, or the bones, in the latter case being TUBLERCULAR ULCER ON TILE OSTEO SARCOMA OF TILE LOWER PAROTID GLAND. JAW. known as cancer of the bone, or, more strictly, Osteo Sarcoma. This enlargement of the bones may come on the jaws, ribs or any part of the body. The tubercular deposits usually start in small, loose nodules, which BAD EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE OSTEO SARCOMA OF THE WASIE) Qe! CANWISAISISE UPPER JAW. A large hole through the cheek into the mouth, from excessive use of caustics in the treatment of bone cancer. increase in size till inflammation sets in, and nutrition being cut off from the skin, the latter sloughs off, leaving a large raw sore that defies all treatment and, instead of getting better, grows worse continually. Larger and more angry-looking becomes the sore; an ulcerous, saneous discharge flows from it ; other ulcers are likely to form around it ; and the enlargement beneath increases till, if the trouble is in the glands above-mentioned, it presses upon the pharynx and larynx, thus interfer- ing with the breathing and swallowing. Tubercles sometimes locate around joints, causing lameness, which is aggravated by strong liniments and blisters. Treatment is of no avail, further than to afford a suitably generous diet. ee THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. VIII. Purpura Heemorrhagica. This is « specific blood disease quite common in the horse and pig, but rare in cattle. It originates in an impover- ished condition of the system, more especi- ally the blood, which becomes deficient in red corpuscles, fibrin, ete., and oozing through the coats of the vessels, falls by gravita- tion to the more dependent portions of the body, causing swelling of the legs and belly, and also of the head, beginning with the SWELLING OF THE JAWS, : : : CHEEKS AND MUZZLE, IN muzzle and gradually working up till it PURPURA HAMORRHAGICA, . . reaches the brain. Foran extended deserip- tion of this disease the reader is referred to the account given in the Horse department of this work.—Chapter XIII, of Part II. What to do.— The system needs to be toned up, the blood improved, and swellings fomented in hot water. Foment the head especially, as continuously as possible, and give the following recipes : No. 12. 1 Ounce oil of turpentine, 15 Pint linseed oil, Mix. Give as one dose ; repeat three times a day, for two or three days. No. 138. 1s Ounce tincture muriate of iron, 1 Ounce tincture of cinchona, 2 Ounces water, Mix. Give as one dose; repeat three times a day, giving it in between the doses of No. 12. As to food, give whatever the animal will eat. IX. Heematuria, or Red Water in Cattle. As the name implies, this is a blood disease. Large quantities of albumen and some iron are secreted by the kidneys and excreted with the urine, which looks as though it were colored by blood, beginning, as it does, in a pale pink color, and running through the different shades till it heeomes a dark brown. Really, there is no blood in it; the appearance in ques- tion is due to the presence, in excessive quantities, of albumen and iron and the coloring matter of the blood. As the secretion of the two former increases, the color darkens. There are also discharged numer- ous epithelial cells from the mucous membrane of the kidneys and bladder. The blood undergoes a change ; the cells or corpuscles break, and let their contents escape into the liquor sanguinis, and hence the commingling of the coloring matter of the blood with the urine. Causes.—These are obscure, but seem to depend in some Way upon the food. Most commonly seen in cattle pastured in low, swampy lands, the disease disappears in such cases when the land is drained. NON-CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES. 713 How to know it.—In addition to the color of the urine, a characteristic feature is the great increase in its quantity. It may run on for two or ‘three weeks without apparant damage ; then the milk will fall off both in quantity and quality ; emaciation sets in; the bowels at the outset may he loose, but soon become obstinately constipated ; the pulse gets quick and weak; the cow blows more and more, from increasing weakness ; at the left side the heart may be heard to palpitate with quite a perceptible noise, owing to the watery condition of the blood; the debility and anemia rapidly increase, and death soon follows. What to do.—Give a purgative recipe, No. 8, and follow it with recipe No. 4. Continue the latter for three or four weeks. Make a complete change of food, and feed liberally on oil-cake, ete. xX. Malignant Catarrh. In this malignant blood disease, the sinuses of the head are affected, -ausing offensive discharges from the nose. These, at first, are watery, but further along become purulent, and in the last stage are acompa- nied with extensive sloughing. How to know it—It is ushered in with a shivering fit, with all the attending symptoms of fever ; the muzzle is hot and dry ; the animal hangs his head and isolates himself in the pasture ; the membranes are of a bluish color ; the eyes are closed and swollen ; soon the nose and eyes begin to run a watery fluid, and saliva drools from the mouth. The pulse is quick and not over strong; a dry, hard cough ensues ; the bowels are usually costive, the foeces being black and hard, but diarrhcea is liable to set in at any time. There is great thirst, but no appetite, and the urine is scanty and high colored. In the course of twenty-four hours, the discharges become purulent, taking off the hair wherever they touch; the sinuses of the head become so much inflamed, and so filled up with pus, that when the head is tapped on the outside with the fingers, a dull heavy sound is heard. The breath becomes feetid, and the temperature rises to 104° or 105°. Cows with calf are apt to abort. The last stage is marked hy exten- sive sloughing, so muchso that some- times the feet and horns come off. The prostration is very great; the pulse becomes imperceptible ; convul- MALIGNANT CATARRH—LAST STAGE, sions follow, and a great fall in tem- — Showing extensive sloughing, and discharge of ‘ * anc the humor of the eye, from ulceration of the perature, sometimes to 95°, or even cornea. to 90° ; in some cases, ulceration of the cornea takes place, letting out 714 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. the humors of the eye. Death follows 1m the course of nine to eleven days. On post mortem examination, the blood is found to be black and not coagulated, What to do.—Remove to a cool, isolated place, 1f in summer ; to a warm place, if in winter. Give recipe No. 8, and follow it with Nos. 10, 11 and 4, alternating them. Foment the head with hot water liberally, and rub the following liniment well in once or twice a day : No, 14. 1 Ounce linseed oil, 1 Ounce oil of turpentine, 1 Ounce liquor ammonia, Mix. Apply the following lotion to the eyes, if not eaten through : No. 15. 10 Grains nitrate of silver, 1 Ounee water, Mix. Apply twice a day to the cornea with a camel’s hair brush. If the cornea is punctured, touch it once a day with a stick of lunar saustic, in addition to using lotion No. 15. Touch the caustic directly to the hole in the cornea. XI. Malignant Sore Throat. This is 2 disease that centers itself in the throat, in the form of acute inflammation, followed by an effusion that 1s apt to cause suffocation by pressure on the lar- ynx. Its scientific designation is adema glot- tidis. It is fatal to cattle; also to swine, in which it is known as quinsy. The malignant sore throat of anthrax is a different thing, though many of the symptoms are similar. How to know it.—It starts like a common MALIGNANT sore THROAT. cold,—some fever, injected muceus membranes, cough, etc. ; the throat swells enormously ; the tongue becomes spotted with purple, and is protruded; the animal gasps for breath, until at length he falls suffocated, struggles a little, and dies. What to do.—It usually attains its height in three or four days. Ap- ply recipe No. 14 to the throat, externally, and inject a little of the fol- lowing well back into the throat, several times a day: No, 16, 1 Ounce chlorate of potash, 1 Pint water, Mix. If speedy suffocation is threatened, tracheotomy must be performed. (See ‘*Operations.”” ) The flesh of cattle affected with this disease is very poisonous, causing putrid fever in those eating it. The careass should be buried deep, with- out removing the skin. CHAPTER IV. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. I. SIMPLE CATARRH OR COLD.——II. LARYNGITIS, OR COMMON SORE THROAT.——III. BRONCHITIS. IV. PNEUMONIA.——V. PLEURISY. VI. HYDROTHORAX.—— Vil. EMPHYSEMA OF THE LUNGS. I. Simple Catarrh or Cold. Simple cold or coryza, is inflammation, more or less acute, of the mucous membrane lining the nostrils and sinuses of the head, usually implicating the eyes and throat. If neglected, it is apt to run down to the lungs, and cause bronchitis and pneumonia. Cause.—Damp, badly drained stables, and those built so as to allow drafts ; exposure to storms and winds; sleeping on the ground ‘in cold weather, ete. APPLICATION OF STEAM TO THE NOSTRILS WITH THE JET. How to know it.—There is more or less fever, with fits of shivering ; hot mouth, dry nose, and horns hot at the head and cold at the tips; ears and extremities cold; sneezing, and sometimes a cough. At first, watery mucus discharges from the nose; the eyes are red and inclined to weep, with the eyelids swollen; and the bones of the forehead are hot and tender when tapped. After a day or two, the discharge from the nose becomes purulent, and the tears begin to scald the cheek ; the 715 716 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. coat stares ; the pulse is rapid and rather hard; the appetite fails, and rumination ceases ; the urine is scanty and high colored, the bowels very likely being constipated. All these symptoms will be aggravated, should the fever run very high and the inflammation tend decidedly to run down the air passages. What to do.—Remove the cause, by putting the animal in a comforta- ble, dry place. Give a pint of melted lard, if the bowels are constipated ; if too loose, give the following : No. 17. 1 Pint infusion of quassia, 1 Ounce laudanum, Vy Ounce sulphuric ether, 1 Pint thin gruel, cold, Mix, Give with a bottle as one dose; repeat it after six or eight hours, if necessary. But begin on a fever mixture, as follows: No. 18. 3 Ounces spirits of nitre, 2 Drachms tincture aconite root, 14 Ounce fluid extract of belladonna, 2 Ounces nitrate of potash, 2 Ounces muriate of ammonia, Water to make one quart, Mix. Give half a teaspoonful every two or three hours till better. Rub mustard paste well ia to the throat and over the forehead between the eyes. Ifthe breathing is interfered with, steam the head in w nose-bag, or with a hose from the snout of a kettle, or over a tub with a blanket thrown over the head to confine the steam, the object being to soften the discharge and make it run off. This may be repeated sey- eral times a day if necessary, taking care, in using the steam jet, to avoid scalding or suffocation. Let the animal have all the water he desires, placing it before him, so that he may help himself. Feed on soft, sloppy food. When the fever is broken, the appetite being good, give the following recipe in the food : NOSE-BAG FOR STEAMING. No. 19. 2 Drachms nitrate of potash, 2 Drachins gentian root, powdered, 1 Drachm ginger, Mix. Give as one dose, repeating it morning and night for about a week. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. (Ali?) If the appetite is too poor to take it thus, give the following from a bottle : No. 20. 14 Pint infusion of gentian, 1 Drachm ginger, 1 Drachm carbonate of ammonia, 2 Ounces syrup, 16 Pint water, Mix. Give as one dose. Repeat it three times a day, till the appetite is good enough to take No. 19 in the feed. When the fever has left entirely, give the following in soft feed, a bran mash or oat meal, morning and night : No. 21. 3 Drachms sulphate of iron (copperas) , 2 Drachms gentian, 1 Drachin ginger, 1 Drachm foenugreek seed, Powder and mix. Give as one dose, twice a day for a week or two. II. Laryngitis, or Common Sore Throat. This is, as the name indicates, an inflammation of the larynx or upper part of the windpipe. It is dangerous on account of the interference to the breathing which is caused by the swelling, aud also its tendeney to run down to the lungs. Cause.—It is usually brought on by the same influences as 1 common cold. Some animals appear predisposed to it, almost every slight exposure being sufficient to induce an attack. How to know it.—There is inability to eat, and the cud is not chewed ; the head is hung, the ears droop, and saliva drools from the mouth ; upon examination, the throat is found to be much swollen, and if the finger be inserted under the tongue, the mouth is hot. The pulse is raised and breathing quickened ; if the tumefaction is very ereat, especially on the inside, the breathing may also be labored. There is more or less fever, and when water is drunk some of it is likely to come back through the nose, owing to the difficulty of swallowing. What to do.—Rub mustard paste in well onthe throat ; after an hour wash this off and rub in more; if after two days the swelling does not come down, apply to it a linseed poultice, hot and soft, to LARYNGITIS OR SORE THROAT. encourage suppuration. Disolve a table- spoonful of saltpetre in the water drunk morning and night, and with a 715 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. syringe shoot a little of the following mixture well back into the throat, as a gargle, several times a day : No. 22. 2 Ounces chlorate of potash, 1 Quart water, Mix. As additional treatment, a severe case might require tracheotomy. (See ‘sOperations.’?) Any of the mixtures prescribed for catarrh in Section I. might also be used. III. Bronchitis. This is inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the bronchial tubes, which extend from the lower end of the windpipe to the lungs. Causes.—It may develope as the immediate consequence of exposure, accompanying 2 common cold, or it may arise from the extension of the inflammation in laryngitis or catarrh. How to know it.—There will be rapid, painful breathing, with a slight grunt at each expiration ; a deep, hard, distressing cough ; after it has run a few hours, considerable fever will be noticed ; the pulse will be soft and full, ranging in different cases from fifty to eighty per minute ; the tem- perature from 103° to 106° , as indicated by a thermometer inserted in the rectum ; and while the surface of the body, nose, horns near the head, and mouth will be hot, the tips of the horns, ears and legs are very likely to be cold. The sufferer will not liedown. When the ear is placed to the sides and front of the chest, a dry, grating sound can be heard. After two or four days, the height of the disease will be reached, when the cough will get softer, the pulse softer and weaker, the temperature of the body more even, and when the ear is applied to the chest a mucous rollis heard, like air gurgling through water. Considerable mucus and phlegm are now raised with the cough, and when the sides are tapped a resonant sound is got, but not quite so distinct as in health. In a favorable case (which is what we are considering), at the end of five to eight days the fever sub- sides, the pulse gets fuller and stronger, the respirations are less rapid and painful, the cough diminishes, the mucus in the bronchial tubes is absorbed, and the appetite and normal discharge of the functions gener- ally are restored, when he may be pronounced safely convalescent. If, however, it goes against him, the temperature increases, and all the symp- toms are aggravated ; before long, the inflammation extends to the lungs and pleura, and then we have a case of pneumonia or pleurisy and hydro- thorax on hand. What to do.—Put him in a warm place with good ventilation, and if the disease is in the first stage, that of congestion, give the following: No. 23. 2 Ounces Mindererus’ spirit (acetate of ammonia), 20 Drops tineture of aconite root, 45 Pint water, Mix. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. (19 Give us one dose. Repeat it every two hours till the chill is over and che pulse reduced to soft, instead of being hard; then change to No. 18, Which should be continued till convalescence is well established. Then change to No. 20, and after a few days to No. 21. Early and vigorous application of mustard paste to the sides is very important. Allow all the water to drink he will take, and feed on soft food. IV. Pneumonia. This is inflammation of the lung tissue—that is, of the lung itself. A severe cold (catarrh) may develop rapidly into this form, but it is oftener the sequel of laryngitis, bronchitis, ete., from their inflam- matory conditions extending to the lungs. It is more common among cattle than any other domestic animals, and may affect one or both lungs. How to know it.—The animal shows obvious preliminary symptoms, such as a severe shivering fit, staring coat, loss of appetite, cessation of rumination, aud, if a milch cow, loss of milk. She is very averse to lying down, owing to the increased pressure it would cause upon the chest, thus augmenting the pain and difficulty in breathing. The pulse is full, soft and quick, ranging from 60 to 80 per minute ; respirations from 30 to 40 per minute ; and the temperature about 104° to 106°. When the sides are tapped, a dull, heavy, full sound is heard, and on placing the ear to the side there will be noticed an absence of the respiratory murmur in all affected parts: the expired air is hot; the ribs are fixed, the breathing being done by the abdominal muscles; the flanks heave, the nostrils are diiated, and the countenance has an anxious look. The lung becomes more or less hepatized (solid like liver), and this may terminate in resolution by absorption of the infiltration, and complete recovery follow, or it may go on to suppuration, with discharges of pus through the nose, which soon carries the patient off. Death may take place in any of the stages, viz: congestion, or first stage ; hepatization, or second ; or in suppuration, or third stage. When the lung becomes solid, the cow braces herself and pants furiously, heaving the flanks as though each breath would be the last. If the head is raised quickly, she will fall backwards. When she has to fall finally, she drops first upon her knees and chest, and then down, and dies in afew minutes. On post mortem examination the diseased lung will be found to be solid from the exudations within the interlobular tissue. When gangrene has taken place, which may occur before death, that part of the lung will be of a bluish black color, while the rest of the organ will be more of a dark brownish purple. 720 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. In case of abscess of the lung, there is a slow pining away, and death in an emaciated condition, What to do.—The same treatment prescribed for bronchitis will answer in this case. Bleeding is not to be thought of, except in the very first stage, that of congestion, as, later, its weakening effects render it decidedly objectionable. If a fair chance is given the patient, recovery is probable in most cases, and although it sometimes leaves the wind hurt by the permanent solidification of a lung or part of a lung, this, in cattle, is a matter of small consequence. V. Pleurisy. Plourisy is inflammation of the pleura, which is the serous membrane lining the cavity of the chest and investing the lungs. Of itself it is not fatal, but inflammations of all serous membranes are prone to abundant effusions, and the effusion following pleurisy is excessively great. It is called Aydrothorax (water in the chest), and always indicates a very criti- cal case, Cause.—It is caused by exposure to cold storms, winds, ete., the same as other diseases of the breathing apparatus. Cattle seem to be particu- larly subject to it. How to know it.—There is more or less fever; the pulse is quick, small and hard, and inclined to be wiry ; the breathing is quick and pain- ful; the elbows are turned out; the ribs are fixed, and the breathing done by the abdominal muscles; there is a crease, running from the elbows along the ribs towards the flanks, where the ribs join the cartilages of the chest. The inspirations are short and imperfect, but the expirations awe prolonged and more easily effected. Pressure between the ribs causes intense pain and a grunt, and on applying the ear to the sides ¢ grating, rasping sound is heard, like rubbing dry sheep skin together. The head is hung low, the ears droop, the nose is dry, and though the eyes are partly closed, the a pee at hl, countenance wears an anx- iouslook., Rumination stops, the appetite is lost, the flanks ~\\\ are tucked up, there is a haek- anys: ked uy v hack ing, painful cough, and the animal remains standing, with = evident disinclination to move. ACUTE PLEURISY. There ave sharp, shooting pains through the chest, that make the animal turn his head around to his sides. Unlike pneumonia, percussion on the ribs produces a clear, DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS, 721 resonant sound, the expired breath is not hot, the nostrils are not dilated, and there is no mucous roll. Pleurisy may terminate in resolution by absorption, etc., the patient getting well very quickly, without any il effects, or it may go on to the stage of great effusion, and terminate in hydrothorax. What to do.—If taken right at the start, give recipe No. 23, but if the fever is far advanced give No. 18. When the fever is subdued, give No. 20, if the appetite is poor; if it is good, give No. 19. During con- valescence give No. 21. Apply mustard paste to the sides assiduously. VI. Hydrothorax. As explained in the last section, when the chest fills with water from the excessive effusion of pleurisy, it is called Hydrothorax. How to know it.—As soon as the effusion begins, all pain ceases, res- piration is deeper, longer, and less painful, the belly drops, the elbows no longer turn in, the appetite returns, the eyes get bright, and to a casual observer, the animal appears to have taken a decided turn for the hetter ; but in a very short time the practiced eye discovers unfavorable symptoms, such as flapping of the nostrils, a quick, labored breathing, and heaving of the flanks. The lees and chest become dropsical, the eyes sparkle, and the countenance resumes ifs anxious look. No respira- tory murmur or other sound is heard by the ear, when placed to the side —none at least at the bottom—though, later, a splashing may be heard when the water reaches the heart; percussion on the ribs elicits a full, dull sound ; the pulse becomes rapid but small, and gradually fades away until imperceptible. Death occurs from suffocation. Post-mortem examination reveals the chest filled with water, and shreds of lymph clinging to both the lungs and ribs. What to do.—If the sides are not thoroughly blistered from the mus- tard previously applied, apply fly blisters energetically, to get up a great amount of vesication (skin blistering ), and give the following recipe : No. 24. 2 Drachims gum camphor, { Drachms saltpetre, 1 Ounce spirits nitre, 1 Pint water or gruel, Mix as directed below. The camphor must be dissolved in the nitre, and then the saltpetre and water (or gruel) added. Give as one dose, and repeat it every four or six hours. Give ale, porter, etc., in liberal quantities. It is advisable to tap the chest early, repeating it if necessary. (See chapter on opera- tions. ) 4G 722 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. VII. Emphysema of the Lungs. This is a condition of the lungs very apt to mislead the inexperienced, there being few signs other than negative ones. The milk is noticed to be diminishing, and the cow fall- ing off in flesh; the coat is star- ing and dirty, and hide-bound exists; the bowels are irregular, and the appetite poor; still, the mouth and nose are cool and moist, and the breath is sweet. The head is carried low ; the back is arched, and tender on pres- EMPHYSEMA OF THE LUNGS. sure; and there is weakness in walking. The temperature falls below the normal standard, and so does the pulse. Later, the ears and extremities become deathly cold, rumination ceases, and an uncontrollable, offensive diarrhoea sets in; the back arches more and more ; the belly is tucked up; milk entirely stopped, the udder and teats being soft and flabby ; the legs are spread to avoid falling ; the pulse gets smaller and weaker, though not much faster; the appetite all gone, weakness becomes excessive ; and death follows, after progressive symptoms running over a period of two months or more. The post-mortem reveals ruptured air-cells, and extensive emphysema of the lungs. Very few blood vessels are found, owing to so many hav- ing been absorbed when the circulation became so weak as to allow the smaller vessels to collapse and become obliterated. The right ventricle of the heart is weak and thin, and contains a portion of « clot. What to do.—While the disease is not curable, it can be alleviated by generous, oleaginous diet. This will fatten the cow, and fit her for the butcher, before it is too late. CHAPTER V. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. I. GLOSSITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE TONGUE; AND PARALYSIS OF THE TONGUE. —II. HOVEN, OR TYMPANITIS. III. IMPACTION OF THE RUMEN, OR MAW- BOUND.——IV. IMPACTION OF THE OMASUM, OR FARDLE-BOUND.—YV. DYSPEP- SIA. ——VI. CONSTIPATION. VII. DIARRHEA, OR SCOURS. VIII. DYSEN- TERY.—I1X. ENTERITIS. X. PERITONITIS. XI. HERNIA.—XII. STRAN- GULATION, OR GUT-TIE. It will be readily seen by the annexed cut, that the stomachs of rumi- nants are very complicated, and hence when out of order, serious results often follow. By noticing the relative positions of the compartments, COMPAKIMENTS OF THE STOMACIL OF RUMINANTS. «, Wumen, or first compartment- d- Abomasum, or fourth compartment. b. Reticulum, or second do, e. Césophagus, or gullet. . ¢. Omasum, or third do, J. Entrance to the intestines, or pylorus. the following pages will be more readily understood. The four com- partments (or, as they are often termed, the four stomachs) all float loosely in the cavity of the trunk, excepting the paunch (ramen), which evows to the side in the left flank. 724 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. I. Glossitis, or Inflammation of the Tongue ; and Paralysis of the Tongue. The mouth and tongue are frequently wounded from drenching in a careless manner, or by foreign bodies in the fodder, thorns, etc. The TROCHAR AND CANNULA. swelling is sometimes very great, especially if it is the tongue that is in- jured. Temporary paralysis of that organ occasionally ensues, in which case it hangs from the mouth, like some lifeless appendage. What to do.— Examine the mouth care- fully, and remove all offending substances. If the tongue hangs pendulous, foment it with hot water; if very bad, a few scari- fications, to make it bleed a little, will do it good. Apply the following lotion three or four times a day, with a swab: No. 25. 1 Ounce vinegar, 2 Ounces honey, 1, Pint water, Mix. II. Hoven, or Tympanitis. This is distension of the rumen or paunch with gas, the product of fermentation PARALYSIS OF THE TONGUE FROM accompanying acute indigestion. It com- AN INJURY. > monly follows a hearty feed on clover or other succulent diet, or is one of the seguele in a case of choking. How to know it.—The paunch is terribly distended with gas, so much so that the space between the last ribs and the points of the hips is puffed up above the surface, and when tapped, is elastic and resonant, like a drum, especially on the left side. The breathing is difficult and painful, becoming more so as the gas increases ; the nostrils are dilated, the eyes look wild, and gas and food are belched up from the stomach, and dribble from the mouth. The animal OX SUFFERING FROM ILOVEN, moves slowly and uneasily about, moaning with each expired breath. If not relieved, death follows from suffocation, rupture of the stomach, or blood poisoning by the gases. “1 bo On DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. What to do.—If it is a very urgent case, plunge the trochar and can- nula into the region of greatest distension on the left side, at a point WOODEN GAG. BALLING IRON. midway between the spines of the loins, last rib and point of the hip, pointing the trochar in and down- ward, and letting it pass in obliquely to avoid the kidney. When food gets over the end of the tube (can- nula), pass in a piece of whalebone and push it off. If the measures above directed are not practicable, and a probang is handy, insert the gag or the balling iron in the mouth, and with one man to steady the head, pass in the probang, which will evacu- py,¢Ram, SHOWING WHERE TO TAP THE ate the gas from the stomach. After TTS OES OMEN the acute symptoms are over, give a Insert trochar at point where the lines cross, brisk purgative. No. 8 willbe found effectual. Feed light for several days. TII. Impaction of the Rumen, or Maw-Bound. After an unusually full meal, the grain often becomes impacted in the animal’s stomach, causing its temporary paralysis, the whole mass lying there like so much sogey stuff in a leather bag. Great distress necessa- tily follows, which is aggravated when fermentation sets in, death often resulting from suffocation, or in a more protracted case from nervous prostration and blood poisoning. 726 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. How to know it.—It will have the same outward appearance of tre- mendous distension as tympanitis, but when the bloated section is touched it is found to be soft and pitty, so that when dented the dent remains or rises slowly. TAPPING THE RUMEN. To evacuate the gas, in a case of hoven, What to do.—When paralysis of the stomach has actually taken place from engorgement, there is nothing of any avail but to empty the rumen with the hand. This operation, which is termed rumenotomy, will be found described in the chapter on operations. When the stomach is SECURING WITH THE WOODEN GAG, Prior to passing the probang to evacuate the gas from the stomach. emptied, and before sewmg up the wound, pour in carefully the purgative No. 8, with half a pint of ale added as a stimulant. Restrict the diet for a few days, giving only easily digested food—grass, sloppy mashes, ete. IV. Impaction of the Omasum, or Fardle-bound. The omasum, orthird stomach, is a sack of a great many leaves, arranged soas to rub constantly on one another, keeping up a grinding action a DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 727 on the food. This stomach is apt to suffer from want of moisture, whereupon the food becomes impacted between the leaves, leading to inflammation. This condition is variously know ss fardle-hbound, bake of the many-plies, bake of the manifolds, ete. RUMEN EXPOSED FOR MECHANICAL REMOVAL OF ITS CONTENTS. How to know it.—It comes on gradually as an ordinary case of con- stipation, with abdominal pain, a ‘looking around to the right side, and disinclination to move ; fever sets in, and slowly increases as the disease makes progress ; there is great tenderness in the right side just below the ribs, at which point a hard round substance can be felt; the colic pains and fever grow more intense ; the animal makes constant attempts to pass feeces ; delirium and vertigo set in. and death soon follows. What to do.—The treatment must be prompt and persistent. Give a full cathartic as follows: No. 26. 145 Pounds epsom salts, 2 Ounces ginger, 2 Ounces gentian, 2 Drachms calomel, 20 Drops croton oil, 1 Pint syrup, 2 Quarts warm water, Mix. Give as one dose, and encourage the drinking of as much water after- wards, from time to time, as possible. (Give injections of warm water and soap every half hour. If it is cold weather, blanket the patient 728 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. warmly. To insure the action of the purgative, give every two hours a stimulating dose composed as follows : No. 27. 1 Ounce liquor ammonia, 1 Quart warm ale, 1, Ounce essence of ginger, Mix. It is not safe to repeat the cathartic, nor would it be of any use ; for if it remains inoperative, in spite of the stimulants, double the dose would not be any more likely to effect a passage. When a passage is despaired of, and asa last resort, tepid water may be injected into the jugular vein, or galvanism applied to the region of the stomach ; but the case is well-nigh hopeless. V. Dyspepsia. The lower animals are not supposed by the great majority of people ever to be troubled with dyspepsia, but they are, nevertheless. All the domestic animals are liable to suffer from chronic indigestion from irregu- lar or improper feeding, especially if to this is added exposure to the cold storms and winds of the straw yard, without housing, ete. How to know it.—A capricious appetite is noticed. Dainty at first, the animal may shortly be seen licking walls, dirt, or lime, and chewing sticks, etc. ; he is inclined to eat the bedding, or take up coal, stones, etc., to chew, showing a depraved appetite for something he has not got. After a while, there will be a staring coat, eruptions, belchings from the stomach, and emission of gas from the rectum ; the manure is small in quantity, dry and glazed; the flanks drop in, except when dis- tended with gas; the skin and hair feel dry and coarse ; and there is a rapid loss of flesh. It is not often a very serious condition in itself, but it weakens the animal and lowers the tone of the vital functions, so that he is unable to resist other diseases; and it especially predisposes to attacks of tympanitis, constipation or diarrhcea, tuberculosis, cancerous uleers, and purpura hemorrhagica. What to do.—Give phosphate of lime in the form of ground bones, and a little lime water—about half a teacupful—morning and night in a bran mash, or the following recipe : No. 28. 3 Drachins bi-carbonate of soda, 2 Drachms gentian, 2 Drachms ginger, Mix. Give as one dose, repeating it morning and night. Give a complete change of food, including some green grass, roots, ete. =~l bo ito] DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. VI. Constipation. This is the condition which exists when there is not sufficient moisture in the stomach and bowels, and the feces are passed tardily and in hard, dry lumps. It is always aggravated, and often caused, by too dry food, insufficient or impure water and too little exercise. It is often symptom- atic of other diseases, especially of liver complaints. How to know it.—It is recognized by the hard, dry manure, which is also sometimes glazed. It is apt to run into inflammation of the bowels, colic, etc., and when existing as asymptom of other diseases, nearly always indicates serious derangement of the system. What to do.—If it is in the winter or late in the fall, give from one to two quarts of melted lard; if in the spring or summer, give recipe No. 8. Give laxative food with more bulk, and plenty of good, pure water to drink. Salt the cattle at least twice a week in winter, and three times in summer. Ifa mild case, it is quite possible that laxative food, with a handful of salt and plenty of water, will be all that is needed. Injections of warm water and soap are valuable adjuncts to either laxatives or purgatives. Vii. Diarrhea, or Scours. This is caused by improper and inferior food, irregularity in feeding, etc., and like its opposite, constipation, often accompanies other dis- eases, particularly indigestion and dyspepsia, especially if dependent upon an acid condition of the system. How to know it.—The manure is passed much too often, and in a thin, watery condition, at times with considerable straining. If it runs on long, there is a feverish condition of the stomach and bowels, with great thirst, but little or no appetite ; rumination is suspended ; the milk dries up; the belly is tucked up and the back arched; the coat stares ; in some cases there is considerable flatulence. The further progress of the disease is marked by rapid loss of flesh and animal heat, the temper- ature falling more and more below the normal; the pulse rises as the weakness increases, and at length becomes imperceptible ; and death fol- lows, as a result of the cessation of the digestive functions, and conse- quent lack of nutrition. It is further hastened by the weakening effects of the excessive discharges. It is particularly fatal to young calves, among whom it is quite common. What to do.—Usually, the best plan is to give alkalines along with CALF SUFFERING FROM DIARRHGA. astringents, with anodyne enemas. It is often the case, however, that laxatives, or even purgatives, are 730 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. needed, to restore a healthy condition to the stomach and bowels. For young calves that are fed on milk,—with whem an acid condition of the stomach is common,—eive one or two tablespoonfuls of limewater, in the milk, night and morning; and a teacupful of gentian infusion, with a quiurt of starch gruel, may be added to the milk and limewater. Any of the following mixtures may be given : No, 29. 1 Ounce prepared chalk, ts Ounce powdered catechu, 2 Drachms powdered ginger, 's Drachm powdered opianm, 's Pint peppermint water, Mix. Give, morning and night, from two to four tablespoonfuls, according to the size of the calf. No, 30. 2 Ounces tincture of catechu, 2 Ounces tincture of cardamoms, » Drachms carbonate of soda, Mix. Divide into two to four doses, according to age of calf, and give one of them morning and night. No. 31. ', Drachm powdered opium, | Ounce tineture of cardamoms, 3 Drachms sulphuric ether, 1 Pint linseed tea, (or starch gruel), Mix. Divide into six doses, and give one of them night and morning. — If astringent mixtures and the limewater do no good, give from two to four tablespoonfuls of castor oil, or, instead, the following mixture : No. 32. { Ounces tincture of rhubarb, 2 Drachms powdered ginger, 4 Ounces warm gruel, Mix. Give as one dose, and follow it with some doses of No. 30 or 31. The four recipes above given, it must be remembered, are all for calves, Kor full grown cattle, give some of the following mixtures : No, 33. 144 Ounces prepared chalk, 2 Drachims powdered catechu, bs Drachin powdered opium, 2 Drachms powdered gentian, | Pint starch gruel, Mix. Give as one dose, and repeat in twenty-four hours if necessary. DISEASES OF TIIE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 731 No. 34. 2 Drachms powdered opium, 4 Ounces powdered starch, 1 Ounce sulphurie ether, 1 Pint cold ale, Mix. Give as one dose. By substituting tepid water for the ale, this recipe may also be used with advantage as an injection. No, 35. 's Drachm tannie acid, | Drachm powdered opium, 1 Ounce powdered gentian, 1 Pint warm ale, Mix. Give as one dose. If laxatives are required, give half a pint of melted Jard, or, instead, the following mixture : No. 36. 1 Drachm calomel, 2 Drachms powdered opium, 1 Quart gruel, Mix. Give as one dose. In all cases, restrict the quantity of drinking water, allowing it often but only a little at a time, and dissolving an ounce of chlorate of potash in each pailful of water. Feed on light, easily digested food, and keep the animal perfectly quiet for a few days. VIII. Dysentery. How to know it.—The inflammation of the mucous lining of the stomach and bowels which characterizes this disease, causes severe strain- ing, snd watery, offensive, bloody discharges, and high fever, with exces- sive thirst ; there is loss of appetite; the secretion of milk ceases, as does rumination also; emaciation begins early and rapidly increases: dis- charges from the eyes are seen ; colicky pains occur frequently, the back being arched, and tail elevated; the general prostration is very great, and often proves fatal. If too much water is drank, tympanitis is liable to ensue and cause death suddenly from suffocation. Causes.—Dysentery may follow the ingestion of acid, poisonous plants, or it may come on as the sequel of neglected diarrhaa, or of almost any other debilitating disease. What to do.—Give «: laxative as follows : No. 37. 7 Ounces epsom salts, 2 Drachims powdered opium, 2 Drachins powdered gentian, | Pint gruel, Mix. oe ad 732 THE AMERICAN PARMER S STOCK BOOK, Give as one dose, Or, instead, No, 86 may be given. Dissolve chlorate of potash in the drinking water, as prescribed for diarrhoea, Give frequent injections of starch grucl, with an ounce of tincture of opium ineach one. If the faces are very offensive, give the following, half of it by the mouth, and the rest as an injection : No. 38. '5 Ounce chloride of lime, 1, Ounce tineture arnaiea, | Ounce sulphurie ether, 2 Quarts stareh gruel, Mix. Any of the astringent recipes given for diarrhoa are applicable, follow- ing the administration of laxatives, eed lightly, and nurse carefully, IX. Enteritis. This is inflammation of the digestive apparatus, and especially (as its name implies) of the intestines, but is quite different from the inflam matory state of dysentery. Causes. —It may come from eating various poisonous substances, either vegetable or mineral; or it may follow the too sudden checking of diar- rhaa. Injuries to the abdomen sometimes cause it. How to know it.—There is constipation, such faces as are passed being hard, dry, and coated with mucus, and sometimes offensive and bloody ; high fever and quick, hard pulse; dry mouth, with an offensive fur over the tongue and cheeks; the thirst is insatiable; the appetite fails, and so does the milk ; rumination is suspended ; colicky pains muy oceur, though the pain is more likely to be constant; breathing becomes labored, and more or less tympanitis may be noticed; the urine is scanty and high colored; the back is arched; the animal moans, grinds his teeth, and refuses to move; the pulse gradually becomes imperceptible, and the extremities cold; and death soon follows, after an illness lasting from one to two weeks, Post mortem appearances are usually as follows: ‘The first and third stomachs are filled with food, dry and impacted—almost baked, and when this is taken out, the epithelium of the stomachs comes off with it; the fourth stomach and bowels are inflamed ; and more or less lymph, in shreds, is found, as also seme ulcers, in the laree intestines. The liver is vonerally softened, and all other internal parts very much bleached, indicating great wasting. What to do.— (Give a pureative as promptly as possible. No, 26, omitting the croton oil, will be the thing. Eneourage the animal to drink large quantities of water and other fluids, and supplement the purgative with the following injection : DISEASES OF ‘THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. T3533 No, 89. 1 Pint linseed oil, 1 Ounces oil turpentine, 40 Drops eroton oil, 1 (Quart warm water, 1 Ounce soft soap, Mix. Repeat three times a day till a full purgative action is got, If the con- stipation does not yield, give hypodermic injections as follows : No. 40. 1 Grains etrychnine, 1 Ounce spirits of wine, 6 Drops sulphurie acid, Mix, When dissolved, inject from ten to twenty drops under the skin with a syringe suitable for the purpose. Ten drops of this solution contain one- twelfth of a grain of strychnine. If prostration follows, give the fol- lowing : No. dl. 2 Drache camphor, ‘6 Ounce sulphuric ether, 1 Ounces acetate of ammonia (as directed below), Mix. The camphor is to be dissolved in the sulphuric ether, and the other ingredient added afterwards. Give as one dose in ale or gruel. If violent purgation takes place, it can be controlled with flour and water,—«a double handful of flour to four or five quarts of water; or linseed tea may be given to drink. ‘The prescriptions for diarrhaw will be found convenient in cases of superpurgation, Xx. Poritonitis. This is inflammation of the peritoneum, # serous membrane lining the cavity of the belly, and covering the bowels and other abdominal viscera, Cause.—It is always the result of injury, or of secondary inflammation following the operation of rumenotomy. How to know it.—The animal stands dejectedly, and has fits of shivering, which are especially noticeable around the flanks and hind parts ; all the symptoms of fever are present, the pulse, urine, tempera- ture, rumination, etc., all being affected; the breathing is lnbored and done mostly with the chest, the ribs being fixed ; the sufferer looks around to her flanks, and paws or crouches with pain; all the symptoms become aggravated, and the temperature suddenly falls below the normal; the belly fills with water, and death speedily follows. If a post mortem is had, large quantities of reddish water will flow from the belly, a8 soon as the membranes are cut, and unmistakable signs of inflammation will be seen around the injury; and sometimes there are adhesions between the intestines. 734 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. What to do.—Give recipe No. 8, following it six or eight hours after with No. 36; also, frequent injections of soap and water. No. 18 may also be given with advantage. If prostration follows the action of the purgative, give No. 41. During convalescence, give No. 21. XI. Hernia. This is familiarly known as rupture. The investing membrane of the abdomen is torn, as a result of external injury or of severe strain, thus letting out the intestines into the adjacent spaces. The swelling or enlargement of the hernia is sometimes seen as large as a half bushel. It is soft, and is easily pushed back if not very large. Sometimes, when a great quantity of the intestines is protruded, whatis called strangulated hernia results, which is always dangerous, and unless reduced, causes death from inflammation and mortification. Umbilical hernia (at the navel) is sometimes seen at birth in calves. What to do.—For calves, a compress or truss is put on, as shown in the annexed cut, adjusting it so as to make considerable pressure. If this fails, wooden clamps, applied so as to include the skin over the rupture, and just tight enough to set up a certain amount of adhesive inflamma- tion, will be effectual, the compress being applied over the clamps. In ventral (belly) hernia, little can be done, unless the rupture is small, in which case the same appliances may be used. In acase of strangu- lated hernia, when the gut cannot be pushed back, the skin may be opened and the parts put back and the wound sewed up again,— first that in the abdominal wall, and then the skin,— and a compress applied. TRUSS FOR UMBILICAL HERNIA. Scrotal hernia is very difficult to reduce. The animal must be castrated by what is called the covered operation, for which a qualified veterinary surgeon will be required. XII. Strangulation, or Gut-tie. This is a passage of the intestines into the abdominal ring. It is only seen in steers and oxen. The contraction of the spermatic cord follow- ing castration leaves the abdominal rings open, and during severe exer- tion, as in hard work, the intestines are force through. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 735 How to know it.—All the symptoms of abdominal difficulty are seen, together with pain and soreness in the flank affected. What to do.—The ox must be cast, an opening made in the flank, the gut replaced, and the opening sewed up again, and a compress applied, most of which are difficult and delicate operations, that require the ser- vices of a qualified veterinary surgeon. CHAPTER VI. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. I. NEPHRITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. II. RETENTION OF THE URINE, OR DYSURIA.—III. INCONTINENCE OF URINE, OR ENURESIS IV. ALBUMI- NURIA, OR ALBUMINOUS URINE.——V. HA4MATURIA, OR BLOODY URINE.——VI. CYSTITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER.——VII. LITHIASIS, OR GRAVEL. VIII. CALCULI. I. Nephritis, or Inflammation of the Kidneys. Causes.—External violence, wounds, strains, etc.; eating acrid, diu- retic plants ; and too free use of diuretic medicines. How to know it.—It is rather rare in cattle. When it occurs, there are colicky pains, with great uneasiness ; the urine is thick and dark colored, and voided often, in small quantities and with much straining and pain; there is tenderness over the loins, especially at the sides, immediately below the transverse spines of the lumbar vertebre ; the gait is straddling, and lame- ness is noticeable,—sometimes in one leg, ie rs pa ae a le sometimes in both; the appetite is poor; MATION OF TILE KIDNEYS. fever runs high; rumination ceases ; some- times blood, and in the later stages pus, is evacuated with the urine; the nose becomes hot and dry, the horns and extremities cold, and the breathing labored. Diarrhcea often sets in, and sometimes dysentery ; and this state is usually followed by constipation. > There is profuse sweating, great pain, and arching of the back ; the pulse tol te) becomes small and weak ; and stupor and death soon follow. Post mortem shows the affected kidney or kidneys enlarged and con- gested—usually, with an abscess also. What to do.— Avoid purgatives, especially salines, but give the follow- ing recipe in preference : No. 42. 3 Ounces Mindererus’ spirit, 20 Drops tincture aconite root, 1 Pint linseed tea, Mix. Gave as one dose. Repeat it every two hours till better, then drop: off in frequency as the case will admit. Give large quantities of linseed tea or slippery elm water to drink, with warm water injections. Apply 7356 ~l ay ~l DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. hot water rugs to the loins. Feed on sloppy food, and keep the patient perfectly quiet. If the animal recovers, he had better be fed for the butcher, for the trouble is liable to recur, and unremitting care would be required to guard against the effect of storms, extremes of temperature, etc. II. Retention of the Urine, or Dysuria. Cause.—It may be brought on by eating acrid herbs, causing inflamma- tion of the urinary organs, irritability and spasms of the neck of the bladder. Most commonly, however, it is a symptom of some other dis- ease, the pressure upon the neck of the bladder resulting from inversion of the reetum, caleuli, or other visceral trouble. How to know it.—Frequent but ineffectual attempts to pass the urine, straining, and colicky pains; the hind legs are raised and moved about restlessly, and the animal looks around towards the flank. Whatto do.—Give hot water injections by the rectum, (and in the female by the vagina also) ; add to the injection one ounce of opium, or three drachms of fluid extract of belladonna. Repeat these in fifteen min- utes. If there is still no relief, the urine must be drawn off with a catheter. With the female this is very easily done, the catheter being inserted through the opening to the bladder, which will be found on the floor of the vagina, and about three inches from the external orifice. With the male it is a far more serious operation, and, unfortunately, retention of the urine is far more common in the male than in the female, owing to the peculiar formation of the urethra, a slight pressure on one URETHRAL CANAL, ETC., OF THE OX. a, The bladder. b. The urethral canal. c. Curves of the urethral canal. da, The retractor muscle of the penis, of the curves being sufficient to cause the difficulty. The operation nec- essary to draw off the urine from the ox will be found described in the chapter on operations. After using the catheter, give the injections pre- scribed above, with a light diet and some linseed tea, for a few days. 2 a ) 738 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. III. Incontinence of Urine, or Enuresis. This difficulty may be considered the opposite of that just considered ; the urine dribbles away involuntarily. Cause.—Paralysis of the muscular coat of the bladder and sphincter vesice ; calculi; or pervious urachus after birth. What to do.—Give purgative No. 8, and follow it with one and a half drachm doses of nux vomica, morning and night, in soft feed. If there are calculi, remove them. If the case is a bad one, inject cold water into the rectum, and give teu grains of powdered cantharides in soft food, morning and night. IV. Albuminuria, or Albuminous Urine. This is the same as Bright’s disease in the human subject, and, in strictness, is probably a blood disease. Cause.—The blood is impoverished, to « certain extent, by too much and too long continued sameness of diet, in consequence of which there is a deficiency of blood forming constituents, with a low, unassimilable quality of albumen, which is excreted by the kidneys. This leads in time to a degeneration of those important organs in two different forms,—the large, white kidney, and the small, red kidney. The former secretes very little urine, the latter great quantities of it. Albuminuria is most common in sections where turnips are the almost exclusive diet. They cannot, alone, support the system in a healthy condition, and the impairment of the vital functions thus resulting, seems to affect the kidneys more than other organs, and in this peculiar way. It is generally regarded as the effect of bad management and injudicious feeding. How to know it.—In those rare cases where the trouble arises from an injury, the back will be arched and the feet drawn together, indicating injury to the loins; but in ordinary cases, the most common and charac- teristic symptom is the stretching at full length, getting the hind and fore feet as far apart as possible. Generally, there is constipation, a straddling gait, stiffness, and disinclination to move. The urine, which is thick, mucilaginous and dark colored, often fails to produce albumen on the application of heat (a common test), but with tincture of galls, solution of bi-chloride of mercury and alcohol, will always separate some. Death often results from paralysis of the hind parts, blood poisoning and coma. What to do.—Examine the bladder; if full, evacuate it as described for retention. Give recipe No. 8, and injections, to overcome the con- stipation, and afford a complete change of diet, cutting short on green food, except grass, which should be from uplands, but allowing more DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS, 739 grain. Also, give milk, eggs, ete. If it still continues, give the follow- ng recipe = No. 48. 2 Drachms sulphuric acid, 1 Ounce tineture of cardamoms, 1 Pint water, Mix. Give as one dose. V. Hematuria, or Bloody Urine. Of this there are two kinds. Traumatic hematuria is the effect of external violence, by which the loins and kidneys are injured, and may be recognized without difficulty, by the blood passing in clots distinet from the urine which contains them. Idiopathic hematuria follows active congestion of the kidneys from calculi, eating acrid herbage, excessive use of diuretics, and the like causes. It may be distinguished by the red appearance of the urine. There are also signs of fever, and, upon suitable tests, the urine will be found to contain albumen. Inflammation of the kidneys (nephritis) is apt to follow. What to do.—The traumatic form is best treated by injections of cold water into the rectum, and by cold cloths laid over the loins. The idio- pathic kind treat the same as albuminuria, (see preceding section), and rub mustard paste well into the loins. VI. Cystitis, or Inflammation of the Bladder. This is inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the bladder. Causes.—Any derangement of the digestive organs is apt to change the character of the urine, making it acid and irritating, instead of alkaline, as it isin health. In other instances, cystitis is caused by eating poi- sonous plants, by calculi, and incautious use of diuretic medicines. Cantharides is peculiarly apt to cause it, either by being absorbed when spread over too large a surface of the skin, or by being given internally in too large doses. How to know it.—By colicky pains, nose turned towards the fiank, efforts to vomit, and, if a male, by the testicles being drawn up towards the body ; the urine is passed with pain, and is albuminous ; its flow may be either retarded or accelerated ; there is evident constitutional disturb- ance and prostration ; the feces are often covered with blood; there is profuse perspiration ; gastro-enteritis or nephritis may ensue ; and death results from either rupture of the bladder or prostration. The main feature on post mortem examination, is the inflammation of the lining of the bladder. There are signs of blood poisoning also, 740 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. usually in the purple spots, and the odor of urine is present throughout the entire body. What to do.—Avoid oleaginous purgatives, resorting, in preference, to large quantities of linseed tea, or gum arabic water. Give recipe No. 8, and soothing injections. In short, adopt the same treatment as for nephritis. (See Section I. ) VII. Lithiasis, or Gravel. Abnormal conditions of the urine, in which either an acid or alkaline condition exists to an excessive degree, predispose to the formation of sand-like deposits in the bladder, from the union of the acids or alkalies with the urea in a changed condition. The presence of these deposits excites the bladder to contract, and hence may be noticed the inclination to void the urine often, though in small quantities and slowly. The uri- nation is, of course, quite painful. Sometimes particles of the deposit may be seen hanging to the long hairs around the external organ. Gravel is always more prevalent among males than females. What to do.—Wash out the bladder with tepid water, which is easily done in case of the female. For the male it will be necessary to cut through the penis, as described for retention of urine. (See chapter on operations.) In order to dissolve the deposit, inject into the bladder a weak solution of hydrochloric acid, as follows : No. 44. 1 Drachm hydrochloric acid, ‘1s Pint water, Mix. Give internally the following mixture : No. 45. 20 Drops hydrochloric acid, 3 Drachms gentian, 1 Pint oat meal gruel, Mix. Give as one dose. Repeat it morning and night for a few days, and then change to the following : No. 46. lg Pound bi-carbonate soda, 4 Ounces gentian, 2 Pounds linseed meal, Mix. Give two tablespoonfuls morning and night. Continue this for two or three weeks. VIII. Calculi. or Stones in the Bladder. Caleuli, like gravel, are the product of a mechanical union of small particles of phosphates, ete., that accumulate in the bladder and other : -_ : ac parts of the urinary apparatus. They are most common in localities where the water is hard, as it always is on a limestone formation. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 741 How to know it.—The symptoms are almost exactly identical with gravel. To verify the diagnosis, make 1 manual examination by the rec- tum ; the stone can be felt in the bladder. What to do.—The stone or stones must first be removed, by the method described in the chapter on operations. The subsequent treatment will be the same as for gravel, CHAPTER VII. DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. I. MALPRESENTATIONS, ETC., IN PARTURITION.——II. PROLONGED AFTER-PAINS.—— Ill. RETENTION OF THE AFTER-BIRTH. IV. ABORTION AND MISCARRIAGE,— V. UTERINE HEMORRITAGE, OR FLOODING. VI. INVERSION OF THE WOMB.—— Vil. METRITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB.——VIII. PUERPERAL FEVER, OR METRO-PERITONITIS. IX. PARTURIENT APOPLEXY. X. LEUCORRH@A, OR W HITES.-———HXI. GONORRH@®A.— XII. MAMMITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER.— XIII. SORE TEATS. XIV. NYMPHOMANIA AND STERILITY. I. Malpresentations, etc., in Parturition. This, to the breeder at least, is the most important part of cattle pathology, aside from the contagious diseases. Oftentimes a valuable cow or calf, or both, are lost, when a knowledge of the subject would suave them. A little timely aid, properly given, in a difficult case of par- turition is invaluable, but if the assistance comes tardily, or is rendered in a bungling manner, the damage done may be irremediable and fatal. In order to be able to recognize « malpresentation, some degree of familiarity with the natural presentation, and its attendant phenomena, is necessary. The period of gestation in cows is about nine months, sometimes a few days (or even weeks) more or less than this, but usually a few days more. ‘The first calf, especially, is generally carried a few days longer. When the time for delivery approaches, the udder increases in size anc fills, the vulva enlarges and thickens, the hips spread, and the space be- tween the root of the tail and the joints of the haunch drops. ‘The time being up, the cow endeavors to seclude herself and hide away from the others ; the labor pains or throes come on gradually, increasing in force from time to time; in most cases, the cow lies down,—sometimes on one side, and sometimes on the other,—and occasionally stretches right out. The first object expelled is the water bag, which is usually about the size of a man’s head; sometimes it breaks in the passage, at others it hangs unbroken, as low even as the hocks. The two fore feet next present, and then the nose lying between the feet. Three quarters of the labor is required to expel the head; the remainder, to pass the shoulders, after which the delivery is accomplished without further effort. The cow usually rises, and commencing immediately to lick the calf, in a very few minutes has him all licked off, when he dries quickly without chilling. 742 ‘ DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 743 Unaided by the maternal instinct in this manner, the calf would bea . much longer time in drying off, and in cold weather would become seri- ously chilled. The foregoing, as before intimated, is an outline of a natural case of labor, when ‘‘everything is right.’’ If the labor is severe and is prolonged more than half an hour, the cow should have help. The assistant should be the man whom the cow is accustomed to see ; heshould be very quiet and gentle in his movements, and have no spectators, neither human nor cattle. If in any case, a sec- ond person is present, there should be as little talking as possible. When the feet are properly presented, catch hold of them, one in each hand, and pull—not with anything approaching a jerk, but with a firm, even traction—at exactly the same time that the cow strains, and only at that time, relaxing the traction entirely during the intervals of quiet between the throes. Judgment and good common sense are required to manage a case well, and these must be the operator’s main reliance ; no printed directions can take their place. In a case of malpresentation, the first thing to be done is to push the foetus back out of the passage, in order to introduce the hand and arm JOINTED HOOKS. far enough to get hold of the parts that ought to come first, and so bring about a natural presentation. This is always a difficult task. If the cow is standing, the calf can be pushed back readily, but if she is lying down, the more fussing there is done the more the womb contracts, and the more difficult it becomes to push the foetus in against the throes. The simplest, quickest, and easiest way is to fixa pulley and tackle around the cow’s legs above the hocks and to something overhead, and by these STRAIGHT HOOK. means to elevate the hind parts so that the operator can get at the case, and push back and ‘‘turn’’ the calf. When all the arrangements for delivery have been completed, let her down, and she will soon return to 744 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. the labor pains. Work as lively as possible while the cow is elevated ; it is an unnatural position, and under very unfortunate circumstances, and if she is kept in it long at a time very bad results might follow. The instruments necessary are a piece of soft rope, (the size of a man’s little finger and about ten feet long), a jointed hook, straight hook, con- cealed knife, and embriotomy knife. The last named, is a small curved blade fastened to a ring that fits over the big finger, so as to carry the knife in the palm of the hand. First Malpresentation.—If one fore foot and the nose are entered in the passage and the other foot bent back, the calf cannot be delivered without first bringing up the retracted foot into its proper position, on account of the obstruction which the shoulder would offer. Tie a small rope around the foot presented, in order not to lose it ; then push the xn ; Soe Lys Be CONCEALED KNIFE. FIRST MALPRESENTATION. One fore foot and the nose entered, the other foot bent back. ealf back, to allow the arm to be introduced and find the other foot ; take in a noose of the rope, and put it over the foot as shown in the annexed cut ; then—with the hand placed over the foot, so as to cover the toes, and thus prevent them from lacerating the womb—draw it up with the other hand. This accomplished, delivery will soon be effected. Second Malpresentation.—When one foot is presented, the other foot and the nose being turned down, proceed in a manner similar to that just DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 7A5 described. Tie the rope to the foot presented, so as not to lose it, and SECOND MALPRESENTATION, One fore foot presented, the other foot, and also the nose, turned down. bush the calf back so as to catch the nose and raise it into the passage ; then get the other foot in the way directed for the first malpresentation. Third Malpresentation.—W hen the nose is presented and both feet bent fHIRD MALPRESENTATION. The nose presented, and both fore feet bent back. back, the head may be entirely expelled, the neck being in the passage and the shoulders against the rim of the pelvis. If the foetus remains 746 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. long in this condition, the head swells so as to render it utterly impos- sible to push it back, and the calf dies of course,—he is choked to death. In this extreme, the only feasible plan is to cut the head off, then push the body back and get the feet as directed for the first malpresentation. Such a case once occurred in the practice of the writer; it was managed in this way, securing delivery without trouble, and saving the cow. The foregoing applies only when the head is swollen. When this is not the case, push the head back and bring up the feet as before described. Fourth Malpresentation.—In this the fore feet are both presented, but the head is turned back against the side. Tie the rope to the feet, and carry a piece of it in, with a view of getting it into the mouth and FOURTH MALPRESENTATION. The fore feet in the passage, the head turned back on the side. around one of the jaws. Failing in the latter effort, hook the straight hook into the eye socket, and then push the feet back, till the head can be brought into the passage. Fifth Malpresentation.—Here, the foetus is lying on his back, with the poll presented and the feet bent back upon the belly. Delivery may be made in this position, but the nose and feet must be brought into the passage first. To do this, pass in a noose for each foot, and another for the upper jaw, putting it in the mouth ; then push the calf back, so those parts can be liberated and brought up. Carefully guard the womb from laceration by the toes, in all cases. When ina favorable presentation, let an assistant pull, while the main operator raises the withers of the foetus over the rim of the pelvis. DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. TA7 Sixth Malpresentation.—Both hind feet are in the passage, the calf’s back being against the loins of the mother. Delivery is not necessarily FIFTH MALPRESENTATION. The feetus on his back, with the poll presented, and both fore feet bent back. difficult, but when once well started, it is very desirable to hasten it to the utmost limit of prudence, as there is danger of the calf suffocating. SIXTH MALPRESENTATION, The hind feet both in the passage. Seventh Malpresentation.—The breech is presented, and the hind feet are up against the cow’s back. The feet must be drawn back into the 748 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. passage. Pass in the rope, take a noose around the hocks, and pull the foetus down so as to get the noose around the feet and draw them back ; SEVENTH MALPRES The calf lying on his back, the hind feet up against the cow’s back, and the breech presented, this done, and the points of the buttocks being raised over the rim of the pelvis at the proper time, the calf may perhaps come without further EIGHTH MALPRESENTATION, The breech presented, with the back up against the loins of the mother, and the feet bent downwards. trouble. But if otherwise, persevere, and turn it into the position seen inthe cut for the sixth malpresentation. Failing in this, and as a last DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 749 resort, it may be necessary to cut the calf up, and take him away piece by piece, with the concealed knife. The latter operation requires con- siderable skill, in order to avoid wounding the womb and vagina. It cannot safely be attempted, except by an expert. EBighth Malpresentation.—Vhis is a breech presentation in which the aulf’s back is up against the mother’s loins, and the feet are bent down- wards. This is considered to be the hardest position of all to rectify. ‘Pass in the ropes, and take a noose around the hocks, and then around the feet ; then, bv elevating the cow very high behind and pushing back the foetus, and drawing up the lees and feet into the passage, it can be delivered. Ninth Malpresentation.—The neck is presented in the passage, the head being bent around to one side and the legs down against the belly. First, get the feet up as directed for the first three malpresentations ; then turn the head into the passage, as directed for the fourth. We need hardly say that before introducing the hand and arm, in any of the cases we have mentioned, they should be thoroughly anointed with lard or oil. The exact position of the fatus should be determined beyond a doubt before attempting to change or ‘*turn’’ it. These nine malpresentations do not comprise all the difficulties attend- ing parturition ; for there may be abnormal developements of the foetus, NINTH MALPRESENTATION. Neck presented, with the head turned against the side, and both feet down. rendering it 2 mechanical impossibility to effect its delivery alive. By far the most common phenomena under this head are hydrocephalus (dropsy of the brain) and ascites (dropsy of the belly. ) 750 THE AMERICAN YARMER’S STOCK BOOK. Hydrocephalus. —TVhis occurs mostly in old, thin cows, but sometimes also in excessively fine-bred ones, ‘The head must be tapped with the Nin = ra - PIM Wry NTT NY v AN HYDROCEPITALUS, WITH MALPRESENTATION,. trochar and cannula, thus evacuating the water; then crush in the skull, and deliver, Ascites. —Carry in the concealed knife, and with it tap the belly and ASCITES, OR DROPSY OF THE BELLY. The presentation is natural, let the water out into the mother’s womb. If this is not successful, use a lone trochar and cannula, as shown in the cut, DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 751 The cow dying, to save the calf.—In case of serious malformation of the cow, when all hope of saving her is given up, and the calf is still alive but cannot be delivered, resort should be had to the Cvesarian operation, (See chapter on operations. ) Some treatment,—or, rather, special care—is very necessary both be- fore and after parturition, If the delivery is easy, a warm bran mash with a little salt in it is soothing and slightly nutritious. The cow should be dicted for a few days before calving, to loosen the bowels; if on hay, give roots and bran. Ayoid having breeders too fat, the other extreme being just as bad. If too fat, puerperal fever is much more apt to fol- low; if too thin and weakly, the placenta is sure to be retained. Avoid- ing both these extremes, have them in middling flesh up to within a month of calving; then increase the feed up to within two days of that time, so as to have them in a thriving condition. If the cow is fat, it is a good plan to give, a day or two before, half.a pound of epsom salts in a quart of water, to loosen the bowels. If delivery is long and exhausting, give a pint of warm ale during its progress, and again afterwards. If the udder fills very full before caly- ing, it is well to milk a little to relieve its painful tension. In all eases, milk the cow immediately after calving, while she is drinking her slop, and feed the calf, before he gets up, about a pint of the milk, giving the rest to the cow. Tt will act upon her as a healthful laxative. Inasmuch asthe mill at this time is very different from what she ordinarily gives, there is very little danger of begetting the habit of milking herself, The milk, at first, is rather thick and yellow, and is not fil to use for family purposes under three or four milkings. Some people indeed have iwainst using if ander two weeks; nevertheless, except for a prejudice : drinking, it is good for all purposes after the third milking, provided there is no disease in the cow. II. Prolonged After-pains. These sometimes occur after protracted and painful delivery, from failure of the womb to contract, or from retention of the after-birth,— most commonly in weak, thin, old cows. For treatment, injections of cold water thrown up the vagina will usually suffice. They should not he allowed to continue, as they are apt to lead to inversion of the womb. III. Retention of the After-birth. When the placenta or after-birth is retained, mecnanical means are necessary to remove it; for it becomes a foreign body as soon as the foetus is delivered, and begins at once to decompose, «und the impure matter being absorbed into the circulation, the general health of the ani- mal suffers decidedly. It is best to let the placenta remain till the end of the second day, or waz THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. beginning of the third, to soften a little. It may then, perhaps, come away of its own weight ; if not, it is easily removed by inserting the hand and arm to the shoulder, and then with the other hand, applying gentle traction to the hanging membrane ; at the same time take each cotyledon or button by which the placenta is attached to the womb, in turn, and by pinching it a little between the thumb and fore finger, it will detach from it, much as in unbuttoning a garment. Great care is required not to pull off one of these cotyledons, or the resulting hemorrhage might prove fatal. If, however, this should be done by mischance, cold water thrown over the loins will be the proper treatment. IV. Abortion and Miscarriage. Premature expulsion of the feetus is called abortion in the earlier periods of gestation, and miscarriage or premature labor in the later ones. It not infrequently takes on an enzootic character, and by running through a whole herd entails enormous loss on the stock owner. This tendency, as was remarked in Chapter I of this Part, is stronger among cows than any other of the domestic animals. It is usually explained by attributing it to sympathy, using the word pathologically. By some, however, it is regarded as strictly the result of contagion. If so, the con- tagious principle must be in the smell of the discharges that follow ; for the sense of smell in horned cattle is very acute, and is apparently in very close connection with the nervous system. Causes.—The most common causes are accidents, or violence of some kind,—being hooked and pushed about by other cattle, or kicked and clubbed by brutal herdsmen ; jumping, leaping, falling, ete. Some sup- pose it to be caused, in many cases, by ergot in the hay or other fodder, such as has been badly harvested or grown in a wet season, especially on low, swampy ground. How to know it.—There will be dullness, suspension of rumination, anxiety in the countenance, separation from companions; at length, a small water bag will be passed, and a little later a foetus. Or, perhaps, all that may be noticed, to indicate something wrong, will be a tiny foetus found somewhere. More or less discharge will follow. It will be of a bloody, mucous character, and is likely to become purulent after a few days. Treatment.—F or the original case, (in which the mischief is nearly always completed before discovered ), nothing special can be done, except to syringe the parts out well with tepid water, and follow this with a car- bolie lotion, viz- No. 47. 1g Ounce carbolic acid, ', Gallon water, Mix. Inject a little twice a day. Continue it a week or more. DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 753 Prevention.—This is really the important point. Isolate the cow that has aborted immediately, and with the above treatment very likely the bad effects of her example will be arrested. Otherwise, some of her companions will probably abort from two to six weeks later. As general precautions, prevent violent commotions among the cows when out of the stable, and never allow them to be run by boys or dogs, but drive them as quietly as possible. Always shut up a cow when bulling ; her jumping on the others, or, instead, being ridden by them, is apt to injure them and her alike. The feeding of hemp seed deserves considerate attention, owing to the experience of recognized authorities on breeding. It is given in pint feeds once a day, with other food, from the time immediately preceding the bulling season through four or five months. As to the general diet, feed well so as to keep cows in good, strong condition, but avoid obesity. V. Uterine Hemorrhage or Flooding. Bleeding from the womb or vagina sometimes follows protracted labor, from injuries to those parts by carelessness or accident during parturi- tion ; or it may result from unskillful removal of the placenta. The con- tinuance of bleeding is due to the failure of the womb to contract, as it should do, after delivery. It is called flooding on account of its coming away in such large quantities, the womb-full being evacuated at a time. What to do.—Throw cold water, by the bucketful, over the loins ; cool the hand and insert it into the womb, which will sometimes ciuse in the latter to contract upon it. If ri eS these means prove insufficient, in- NZ ject cold water into the womb,-with a suitable syringe. VI. Inversion of the Womb. Following immediately upon par- — pxaGGeRATED ILLUSTRATION OF UTER- turition, after-pains sometimes come HSHD) SHOR COLS SEU NEE on so violently that the womb is forced right out through the vagina, and is turned inside out, and lies or hangs behind the cow a pink, bag- like substance covered with cotyledonous (mulberry-like ) excrescences all over the surface. What to do.—If dirty, take it up on a clean sheet, and wash it with tepid water with a little alcohol in it—a wineglassful to a pint of water. (If the placenta is still attached, remove it as directed in Section III.) Sponge it over with laudanum, and carefully return it. This is an 48 7a4 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. exceedingly delicate task, though not difficult otherwise ; the utmost care is necessary to avoid punching the fingers right through the membranes, which would cause death. Find the most dependent portion, then place the clenched fist beneath it, and let the womb fall down over the hand and arm as it is raised ; and, with the parts in PESNASIETSI AOS UA LMGH Ss NASM this position, promptly insert the arm at full length into the body of the cow, being very careful not to use undue violence. The uterus will generally suck down into its proper place without any difficulty, but if necessary to manipulate the walls of the vagina somewhat, this may be done—always with extreme care and ria" | » | $< ——= —————. TO PREVENT INVERSION OF THE VAGINA. the minimum amount of force that will accomplish the object. Then place the cow in a stall where the hind feet will be at least six inches higher than the forward, and apply a harness and compress over the external opening, as shown in the annexed cut. Ora rope, twisted as shown in the smaller cut, maybe used, the object, in either case, being to prevent arecurrence of the displacement. If straining is violent und continues any length of time, give internally the follow- ing’ mixture : No. 48. 1 Ounce chloral hydrate, 1 Pint water, TWISTED ROPE. Mix. To tie over the vulva, and thus preven* in- ar . A version of the womb, Give as one dose ; if necessary, repeat it in half an hour. ~l] DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. VII. Metritis, or Inflammation of the Womb. This affection is not very often seen in the cow, owing to her phleg- matic temperament, and her proneness to other complications, arising at an earlier stage, in connection with parturition. It is the result of in- juries to the womb during difficult parturition ; it may develope also from a cold caught at that time. The inflammation soon extends and involves other parts, making a very serious condition indeed. See further in the next section. VIII. Puerperal Fever, or Metro-Peritonitis. This disease is often confounded with parturient apoplexy, so that, notwithstanding the difference between the two conditions, they are mis- taken one for the other. Puerperal fever is erysipelatous inflammation of the uterus and peritoneum, and may affect cows of all ages. The antecedent facts will usually be found to be difficult parturition, exposure to cold storms or extremes of temperature, retention of the placenta, or overdriving prior to calving, and the like circumstances. Thin, poor cows that have been changed suddenly from a dry, short pasture to rich succulent feed at or near the time of calving, are especially apt to have it. It may come on at any time from a few hours after calving up to the third or fourth day. How to know it.—High fever, with all of its attendant symptoms, such as dry, hot nose, horns and extremities hot or cold; capricious appetite, with rumination suspended ; colicky pains ; kicking at the belly ; getting up and lying down frequently,—sometimes, remaining on the knees sev- eral minutes. The head is turned towards the flanks ; the pulse is quick, hard and wiry; the respirations are accelerated, short and confined to the thorax, so as to avoid moving the abdomen as much as possible; the belly is tucked up, the urine is scanty and high colored, and usually there is constipation. All the symptoms, and especially the belly pains, increase ; prostration comes on; finally, stupor (coma) sets in. Death soon follows. Post mortem examination shows all the evidences of inflammation of the womb and peritoneum, with purple spots here and there; and the drain is visibly affected, showing ecchymosed spots, etc. What to do.—Give recipe No. 26, and supplement its action with injee- tions of soap and water. Give No. 42 every two hours, till the pulse is improved. If in the very early stages, a little blood may be drawn, but this is not allowable after the first day. If the stupor comes on before the purgative can be gotten down, give the latter through the stomach pump, to avoid the danger of letting it run down into the lungs. Apply ~I « THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. blisters—mustard paste or flies—to the belly. If no symptoms of pur- gation show themselves in eight or ten hours, inject No. 40 under the skin every half hour till the bowels have moved. If constipation is still obstinate, a pint of tepid water may be injected into a vein. \ RR tae tl al POW all USING THE STOMACH PUMP. Manner of giving medicine or food during stupor. Conyalescence will be indicated by a return to sensibility, cessation of pain, purgation, copious secretion of urine of a good color, and a return of strength. When these symptoms are noticed, give No. 19, repeating it three or four times a day. IX. Parturient Apoplexy. This is a blood disease affecting cows of a plethoric habit at time of calving. It is never seen following difficult or protracted labor, uterine hemorrhage (flooding ), abortion, nor the retention of the placenta. There must be a constitutional tendency to congestion of the brain, coma and apoplexy. The first attack is usually fatal; even if not so, the trouble is very likely to recur at the next or some subsequent calving. How to know it.—There is at first a staring, wild look about the eyes, disinclination to move, loss of milk, and increased temperature ; but these symptoms are seldom so marked as to attract special notice. They are followed by a staggering gait and weakness across the loins, till suddenly the animal falls, when the eyes are found to be bloodshot and glassy, the pupils dilated and the lids twitching. The mucous membranes become purple; she gets perfectly blind and comatose (stupid); the head is usually turned back to the side; the pulse gets gradually slower, fading into imperceptibility ; the breathing is slow and stertorous. In this stage the pupils contract, the temperature falls decidedly, sometimes as low as 95°. The udder becomes hard and unyielding; the paunch fills with DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 757 Gas, causing marked interference with the breathing ; convulsions set in, and death soon follows. The post-mortem shows a fat, full body, blood vessels full of fluid, black blood, and purple spots on the brain and spinal column and in other parts of the body. There are many other abnormal appearances in the brain, most of which can only be distinguished by an expert. What to do.—Prevention is the main thing. If the cow is manifestly plethoric, give light, soft diet, with laxatives (No. 8 is excellent) once or twice a week for three weeks before calving. When the attack comes, if the cow is seen in the first stage, when the pulse is always full, bleed freely, and give recipe No. 26 ;,after two hours give No. 20, repeating the latter every two or three hours as long as necessary. Give injections also every few minutes. Apply cold water and ice to the head, and heat in PARTURIENT APOPLEXY. the form of hot rugs, hot smoothing irons, ete., to the body. Ii the purgative does not work, give a hypodermic injection of No, 40, repeat- ing it every two hours. If these means fail, open the jugular vein, and inject a pint of clean, tepid water. During convalescence, treat the same as for puerperal fever. If she recovers, do not breed her again, but sell her to the butcher ; for, as before mentioned, it is almost certain to occur again, and at no distant day to end in death. If it is necessary to give any drenches during the coma, use the stomach pump, to guard against turning them in upon the lungs. ya X. Leucorrhea, or Whites. This is catarrh of the vagina and womb, with a chronic discharge of a muco-purulent, white fluid that hangs around the vulva and tail, and has a very offensive odor. It is not attended with serious constitutional dis- turbance, but sometimes causes nymphomania or ‘‘bullers.’’ Such cows rarely breed, and evenif they do so, are apt to abort. Sometimes the discharge is so profuse as to keep the cow poor. 758 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. What to do.—Syringe out the parts with tepid water, and inject lotion No. 47, repeating this twice a day. Feed on nutritious but light diet, and give No. 21 in the feed. XI. Gonorrhea. This is catarrh of the generative parts of the bull,—little ulcers or chaneres in the sheath and on the penis, with «a whitish discharge, which is chronic. How to know it.—Painful urination is the most characteristic symptom ; with all his frequent efforts, only a few drops are passed, and those not without great uneasiness, which is further manifested by his stepping for- ward and back or from side to side, and by raising the hind feet, lashing the tail, ete. What to do.—Suspend all service, and give him the laxative recipe No. 8, and when the bowels return to their normal condition give No. 21 in the feed, repeating the latter morning and night, for three or four weeks. Draw out the yard with soft linen cloth, and bathe all affected parts with the following lotion: No. 49. 4 Ounces spirits of camphor, 1 Ounce sugar of lead, 2 Drachms sulphate of zine, 1 Quart soft water, Mix. Continue the application, once a day, till cured, and do not let him serve a cow, for the reason that it is contagious. If any chancres are seen, touch them once a day with lunar caustic. Feed on green food, if possible. XII. Mammitis, or Inflammation of the Udder. This is most common after a parturition which occurs before the secre- tion of milk has assumed a normal condition, especially in the case of heifers at the first calving. Sometimes, it has no connection with caly- ing, but is contracted by lying on cold, damp ground, or in the case of middle-aged and old cows, develops in hot weather, taking on the form of garget or curdled milk. Cows in high condition are the most subject to it, the attack being usually induced by driving them until overheated. The inflammation, in some cases, will subside and go away, and the milk- ing function go on as before with very little loss ; in others, it goes on to suppuration in one or more quarters of the bag, or even to mortification. How to know it.—The type of mammitis that takes on the active in- flammatory character is ushered in with a shivering fit, which is succeeded in a short time by fever and dullness. The bag becomes hot and hard, red, swollen and sore. It being so painful to the touch, the cow is very DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 759 averse to being milked. The milk is often curdled, and sometimes bloody. The trouble may stop here and terminate in resolution, or it may go on to suppuration, the pus in some cases discharging inside and coming away with the milk, and in others through an opening on the out- side. Again, it may not suppurate at all, but become indurated and re- main permanently enlarged, or gangrenous and slough off. The milder type of mammitis, that which is not connected with par- turition, but is simply curdled milk or garget, yields readily to treatment. What to do.—If dependent upon calving, and the cow is fat and fever- ish, give recipe No. 8. Foment the bag with hot water several times a day, and as often as three or four times a day remove the milk that does form, and apply the following lotion : No. 50. 4 Ounces gum camphor, 1 Pint olive oil, Mix. Rub well in three timesa day. If the inflammation does not go out by the time purgation ceases, give No. 19, repeating it morning and night for a week or two. If the case goes on to suppuration, and it breaks on the outside, foment the bag, and inject recipe No. {, two or three times a day. In allcases where there is much swelling, support the bag by a ban- dage passed around the body over the loins. Tf a quarter sloughs off, dress the wound with = : ‘5; METHOD OF SUPPORTING No. 9, and give internally the following : THE UDDER. No. dl. 1 Ounce sulphate of soda, 2 Drachms nitrate of potash, Mix. Give as one dose in a bran mash, and repeat it morning and night for a week or two. Isolate the patient, on account of the smell. When it is merely a case of curdled milk (garget), give a tablespoon- ful of saltpetre night and morning ina bran mash, and milk her with special care, to make sure of getting all the milk away. XIII. Sore Teats. Cows’ teats are very apt to become chapped, cracked and very sore, rendering the milking exceedingly painful to the cow and very annoying to the milker. Unfortunately, the latter is often so thoughtless as to fly into a passion and abuse the cow. Great patience and kindness should always be exercised in such cases, the milker taking plenty of time to soften the sore teats well with the milk before attempting to squeeze them, 760 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. When done milking, anoint them nicely with the following mixture : No. 52. 1 Ounee alum, | Drachm carbolie aeid, f Ounces lard, Powder the alum and mix. Or, instead, this may be used: No. 53. 's Ounce tannic acid, 1 Drachm ecarbolic acid, 1 Ounces lard, Mix. Little pea-like tumors sometimes grow in the milk passage, in the teat, evyentuating, in some cases, in its complete obstruction, and the subse- quent loss of that quarter. Many expedients have been tried for the cure of this troublesome condition—such as teat siphons, probes, bistouries, needles, ete.—but all to no avail, for the teat very soon gets sore, and milking becomes dangerous, if not well-nigh impossible. The only feasible way of managing the case is just to let it go till the cow goes dry, milking that quarter as well as possible without any instrumental aid; and then to cut into the teat, remove the exerescences, and let the wound heal over a silver probe. If this is properly done, the teat will be as good as ever. XIV. Nymphomania and Sterility. Nymphomania is chronic inflammation of the clitoris, giving rise to a constant desire for the male. Such cows take the bull at any time, but rarcly conceive, and even when they do so, are almost sure to abort. They are called **bullers.”? It often happens that they are barren nat- urally, twins being especially prone to that condition. Sometimes, high bred cows will not breed to a high bred bull, yet will do so to 1 mongrel, especially a young bull. What to do.—For cows naturally barren nothing can be done. For others the difficulty can often be overcome by reducing them in flesh (for they are nearly always fat), and by judicious management. Keep them in a short pasture for a few weeks, and give them a handful of Glauber’s salts every second day, At the proper time, put them to a young, vigorous bull, one or two leaps being sufficient. If this does not succeed, try a mongrel bull. If the cow is continually riding the other cows, keep her to herself, if possible, and feed from half a pint to a pint of hemp seed once aday for two months. In some cases hemp seed seems to have a magic effect. Feed it both before and after the service —beginning say three weeks before coming in heat, and continuing it right along till she conceives. If the cow is thin in flesh, fatten her up a little, even if she has to be shut up to do this. CHAPTER VIII. / DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. I. PHRENITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN.—II. APOPLEXY.——III. EPILEP- SY.—IV. PARALYSIS. Vv. TETANUS. VI. RABIES OR HYDROPHOBLA.—— VII. NERVOUS DEBILITY AT PARTURITION. I. Phrenitis, or Inflammation of the Brain. This distressing disease, which is most common during the summer months, may be cither idiopathic (primary disease) or symptomatic. It may result from fever, or from inflammation in some other part, its im- mediate cause being too great a flow of blood which presses on the tem- poral arteries, and causes increased action in all the circulatory vessels. How to know it.—There will be strong pulsation in the temporal arter- ies, constant watchfulness, and finally raving. The eyes are inflamed ; the animal will fall suddenly, soon rising again, however; there will be trembling and starting of the tendons; the skin will be harsh and the urine suppressed. In a more unfavorable stage, there will also be grind- ing of the teeth, and total want of rest. Really idiopathic phrenitis is rare. It is generally caused by acute indigestion, impaction of the omentum, and other local troubles. What to do.—The treatment consists of a good cathartic, as, for in- stance, No. 8, the effect of which should be assisted by injections of warm water and soap. Bleed from the jugular vein; keep the head cool by means of ice or very cold water; and if the limbs are cold, use mustard or strong embro- cations of ammonia. Aconite is also considered beneficial, but it should never be used except under the direction of a veterinarian. During re- covery, the animal should be kept quiet, and have good nourishing and easily digested food. II. Apoplexy. In true apoplexy, the animal drops suddenly, and death ensues very soon, unless immediate relief is given. The means to be used are bleed- ing from the jugular vein, and the administration of a purgative, such as No. 8, with injections of soap and water. Give a change of food. III. Epilepsy. Epilepsy is rare, except in the case of young animals. There will be severe convulsions, followed by stupor, with foaming at the mouth. The 761 762 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, howl beats are strong and violent. The visible membranes are height- ened in color, and either dangerous lethargy supervenes, or the animal quickly recovers, Recovery is seldom so perfeet, however, that the ani- mal will not be subject to other attacks, What to do.—Dash cold water over the head and face, and when the attack subsides, give good food and special care, with such remedial meas- ures as may be indicated by the general state of the system, as, for ex- tuple, indigestion or constipation, IV. Paralysis, In those rave cases where paralysis exists as a distinet affection, death usuilly occurs very soon, Its most common forms are those known as paraplegia wd hemiplegia, The former is when the whole fore or hind parts ave affected; the latter, when one side of the body only is so, Paralysis is a loss of voluntary movement, and usually occurs as a symp- tom of other diseases, as softening of the brain, effusions of fluid thereon, ete, What to do.—Cive recipe No. 8, supplementing it with the following : No, SA, 2 Drachma nux yvomlea, ‘4 Ounce salipetre, Mix. Give as one dose ; repeat morning and night for a month, V. Totanus or Lockjaw. ‘Totanus is a general and continued spasm (or, more strictly, contrac- tion) of the muscles of the body, both voluntary and involuntary. When the muscles of the jaw are principally affected it is called Grésmes, or in popular language, lockjaw, the term tetanus being more properly lim- ited to the general form, Causes,— There are two forms of this disease, one (traumatic) arising from local causes, as we prick or injury to the foot, The other (idio- pathic) form, though often of obseure origin, has been known to arise from bad food, and exposure, Hither form may follow castration. How to know it.The disease is insidious in its operations, until the dangerous stage comes on, ‘The animal may be dull, off its feed, and voneraully disinclined to move. Then the whole body may become affected, with the hind legs wide apart, the nose protruding, head and tail oloyated, breathing quickened, and the pulse frequent and corded, ‘The bowels are strongly bound, Sometimes the back is depressed downward, and sometimes arched up; and sometimes the spasm throws the head to ono side, ‘There are different technical names for these several manifes- tations, DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 768 What to do.—Little can be done, except to remove all irritating ob- jects, give calming medicines, and operate on the bowels as soon as pos- sible. ‘The nervous excitment will be lessened by keeping the patient in a dark place. VI. Rabies or Hydrophobia. It seems needless to repeat the general statements respecting this dis- ease given in Part IL of this work, pages 898 and 899. It is, of course, incurable, and from its exceedingly dangerous nature, the suspected ani- mal should be immediately confined, and killed as soon as ever the symp- toms become pronounced, VII. Nervous Debility at Parturition. This disease must not be mistaken for parturient apoplexy or periton- itis. It is readily distinguished from these by the iat absence of any tendency to either high fever or lethargy. It is not confined to animals in high condition, but is found quite as often among those that are lean, How to know it.—The pulse may be somewhat fast, but will be com- pressible and often weak. The udder remains soft, andthe milk is plen- tiful and easily drawn ; and though there may be constipation, the appe- tite will be good. What to do.—Keep the animal warm and in good quarters, with plenty of bedding. Evacuate the bowels by warm injections, at the same time giving a mild purgative, No. 8. Give stimulants, sloppy but nutritious food, hay tea, etc., and remove the milk frequently from the udder. CHAPTER IX. DISEASES OF THE SKIN. I. SIMPLE ECZEMA.——II. CITRONIC ECZEMA, OR PSORIASIS. Ill. ERYSIPELAS. I. Simple Eczema. This is « skin disease in which crops of vesicles come up, burst, run a little watery matter, dry up and heal, but while these are healing an- other crop breaks out in another place. It is attended with intense itch- ing, which worries the animal exceedingly. What to do.—Give a purgative, No. 8, repeating it after a week ; also, a change of food and good care. Let the cattle have salt at least twice a week. Bathe the affected parts frequently with lotion No. 47. II. Chronic Eczema, or Psoriasis. When simple eczema is neglected the disease becomes chronic. The skin thickens, gets hard, dry and sore, and cracks into fissures or fur- rows; the discharge continues and be- comes greasy, offensive and ichorous ; and the hair gets thin and stands straight out, or perhaps turns the wrong way, giving the parts the ap- pearance of rat tails, by which name the disease is often known. It is very troublesome, frequently causing lame- ness, and always proving hard to cure, What to do.—Apply hot linseed meal poultices to the affected parts till all inflammation and soreness are gone; then embrocate freely with lo- tion No. 9, using a cotton bandage wet in the lotion and applying it loosely. If there are any points of proud flesh, burn them down daily with lunar caustic. When all sore- ness is gone and the disease appears to be under entire control, apply CHRONIC ECZEMA, OR **RAT TAILS.” either of the ointments Nos. 52 and 53. III. Erysipelas. This is a diffuse inflammation of the whole thickness of the true skin, sometimes extending to the subcellular tissue, and causing much pain and iritative fever. 764 DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 765 How to know it.—It is indicated by an intensely red skin, there being, moreover, no disappearance of color under pressure. The parts are hard and internally red, but not severely swelled, but the cellular tissue is in- jected and infiltrated, often inclining to a pustular state. The disease terminates in resolution, suppuration or ulceration—sometimes even in mortification and gangrene. If the head is attacked, there is danger of a fatal termination. What to do.—If there is symptomatic fever and the animal is fat, deple- tion is necessary,—give No. 8; but if the animal’s condition is the reverse of this, give No. 13. Follow this with nitre, in half ounce doses, twice aday. In connection with the above constitutional treatment, there should be local applications to the inflamed part, such as lotions of lead or zine. A strong solution of nitrate of silver is sometimes applied, and with decided benefit, to the outer edge of the inflamed parts. A poul- tice of ripe cranberries is probably one of the best remedies for reduc- ing the inflammation, if applied early. It is to be followed with glycer- ine in which a small quantity of ammonia has been dissolved, or with recipe No. 1. CHAPTER X. PARASITIC DISEASES OF CATTLE. I. HOOSE OR HUSK (VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS).——II. THE GADFLY AND GRUB (@&S- TRUS BOVIS). Ill. LICE.——IV. TAPEWORM.——Y. MANGE. VI. RING- WORM, I. Hoose or Husk (Verminous Bronchitis.) The symptoms of this disease are similar to those of bronchitis. The difficulty is caused by a species of strongulus—worms—(filaria bron- chitis) the eggs of which are swallowed in grazing. Calves, and especially sheep, are the most likely to be affected, for the reason that they bite closer than cattle. How to know it.—There will be a slight, husky cough, recurring at irregular intervals. The coat will soon become staring, and the breath- ing more and more embarrassed. The cough becomes more frequent, and in character more suffocating and mucous; worms, either singly or rolled together, will also be coughed up. What to do.—F eed liberally with the soundest and most nutritious diet possible, including linseed or cotton cake, and roots, mixing in the food some good tonic, such as recipe No. 4. For calves, make four doses of the recipe. Burn turpentine on pine shavings in the pen with the calves, and let them breath the fumes, and give them a tablespoonful of sulphur in the food once a day for two weeks. Prevention.—This is better than cure. The forms from which filaria bronchitis emanate are found in low, wet, undrained pastures. Hence, keep the stock off such pastures when the trouble is found, especially when wet with dew or rain. Do not allow animals to drink from stag- nant ponds or pools, and look to the proper drainage of the pastures. II. TheGadfly and Grub (Géstrus Bovis). Little rounded tumors will often be found along the backs of cattle, during late winter and spring. These are called warbles, and are the lairs of the larvee of the ox gadfly (estrus bovis). Each tumor contains a grub, which may Ox GADFLY (as- ‘Pe squeezed out by pressure ,some- TRUS BOVIS.) times escaping with such force as GRUB OF GADFLY. to fly several feet. Sometimes it is necessary to enlarge the orifice with ns 766 PARASITIC DISEASES OF CATTLE. 767 the lancet, for the more easy expulsion of the grubs. The cuts show the two forms of the insect,—the perfect fly and the grub. III. Lice. Various species of lice infest the ox, the principal being the ox louse proper, the calf louse, (both of which are species of Hematopinus, or blood suckers), and a certain kind of bird louse, one of the tribe of ach wa ane OX LOUSE. CALF LOUSE. BIRD LOUSE. Trichodectes, having no sucking tube, but with strong biting jaws. The cuts show all these parasites, of course very much enlarged. APPEARANCE OF A COW AFFECTED WITIT LICE. There are also ticks infesting cattle at certain seasons, and especially plenty on Texas cattle. By many, indeed, they are supposed to be the exciting cause of Texas fever; and while this opinion is doubtless erroneous, it is net at all improb- fp able that these ticks, which especially infest pastures traveled over by Texas cattle not i wintered north, really do assist in poisoning We the blood of native cattle in some degree. The accompanying cut shows the ox tick. OX TICK. What to do.—The remedy for ticks consists in careful currying and | 768 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. picking them off. For lice on cattle the following will be found among the best remedies in use : No. 55. 1, Pound of tobaeco, 1 Gallon of water, Steep for two hours. Wash the affected animal with this infusion thoroughly, using it warm. IV. Tapeworm. It is not necessary here to go into a dissertation on the tapeworm. The microscopic eggs (a single worm is estimated to lay as high as 25,- 000,000) are passed with the exuvie of dogs, and are taken up by graz- ing stock. One of the forms in which it exists in cattle is the cystic, found in the muscles. The parasite which is the mature tape- worm is found in the bowels of the human family, and in animals, especially dogs. The cut shows the head of atapeworm of the species known as tenia mediocan- ellata. Prevention.—Prevention of the parasites in the imma- ture form in stock consists in destroying all exuviee of ueAp or rapr- dogs in pastures, wherever found. Once encysted in veneer. ®himals, there is no remedy. For prevention of tape- worm in the human family, eat no meat, not even smoked meat, without thorough cooking. V. Mange. There are a number of parasitic insects which attach themselves to ill- conditioned cattle, producing itching. The latter is intensely aggravated in hot weather. A species of dermatocoptes, similar to the itch or seab insect, is the most prolific cause of this class of affections. There is also a microscopic insect, the gamasus of musty*hay, which sometimes infests the skin of animals feed- ing thereon. The cut shows the last named insect highly magnified. Treat about the same as for mange in the horse. (See page 435). VI. Ringworm. This is somewhat common in cattle, show- GAMASUS OF MUSTY FODPER. ino as a greater or less number of round bald spots, covered with white scales, and surrounded with bristly or split hairs which are scabbed around the roots, with some eruption on the skin. PARASITIC DISEASES OF CATTLE. 769 The microscope shows it to be a vegetable parasite. It is readily trans- mitted from one animal to another. What to do.—Clip off the hair, and wash the part with soap and water, to remove all scabs ; when dry, rub in well a little of the following: No. 56. 2 Ounces tincture of iodine, 1 Ounce oil of tar, 2 Ounces glycerine, Mix. Repeat the application once a day until cured. Or, instead, the fol- lowing may be used in the same way: No. 57. 1 Ounce solution iodo-bromide of calcium compound, 3 Ounces water, Mix. , Rub well in once a day. CHAPTER XI. DISEASES OF THE EYE. 1. OPHTITALMIA OR CONJUNCTIVITIS.———-II. FUNGUS HASMATODES, OR BLEEDING CAN- CER.—ITl. TORN EYELIDS. IV. INVERSION AND EVERSION OF THE EYELIDS. ——V. FOREIGN SUBSTANCES IN THE EYE. I. Ophthalmia or Conjunctivitis. As a rule, cattle ave subject to but few diseases of the eye, the most common being simple soreness or inflammation of the conjunctiva (lining of the lids), from the introduction of foreign bodies, exposure to cold winds, scratching of thorns, or blows from horns of other cattle, or else from kicks or some similar violence on the part of the attendants. How to know it,—There is swelling and congestion of the lids ; weep- ing, the tears running down over the cheek ; shaking and hanging of the head ; refusal of food ; suspension of rumination, ete. On examination, it will be found that the eye is kept closed or nearly so, and is very red ; and the small blood-vessels of the eye-ball are enlarged and injected. The in- flammation may extend to the internal parts of the eye, and pus may gather and fall to the bottom of the anterior chamber, forming a whitish yellow spot. Cataract may result from this, or, at least, opacity from the for- mation of a white film over the surface of the eyeball (cornea). What to do.—Give a mild purgative, No. 8. Bathe the eye with warm milk and water, half and half, several times a day, and apply the follow- ing lotion with a camel’s hair brush directly to the eyeball and all other parts, several times a day. No, 58. 2 Grains sulphate of atropia, 1,Ounce water, Mix. After the active inflammation is subdued, apply the following lotion in addition to the other treatment, which should still be continued : No, 59. 10 Grains nitrate of silver, 1 Ounce water, Mix. Apply directly to the eyeball, morning and night, with a camel’s hair brush. Continue this till all opacity is gone, that is, till the white half- moon spot at the bottom of the anterior chamber is absorbed. 770 -~l =~ — DISEASES OF THE EYE. II. Fungus Hematodes, or Bleeding Cancer. This is a cancerous growth that may develop on any part of the body but is especially apt to come in the eye, destroying that organ, and form- ing a large, spongy, fungus-like excres- ence that bleeds upon the slightest in- jury, in fact almost upon a mere touch. What to do.—When the exact nature of the disease is recognized, the eye should be dissected out, and the animal fitted for the butcher as speedily as pos- sible. The operation is the same as that deseribed under ‘* Extirpation of FUNGUS HA!MATODES. the Eye’’ in the Horse department. (See page 456). III. Torn Eyelids. As in everything of the nature of a ‘* blemish,’’ an injury to the eye is of less consequence in cattle than inthe horse. Still, both humanity and self-interest dictate that it should not be neglected. Ina case of torn eyelids,—an accident that may happen in various ways,—bring the edges neatly together, and sew them with fine silk. Dress them afterwards with a weak carbolic or other healing lotion, applying the same two or three times a day as long as necessary. IV. Inversion and Eversion of the Eyelids. These are more of an annoyance than « serious ailment, and are not of very frequent occurrence in cattle. Their technical names are entropium and ectropium, respectively, under which they have been described in the Horse department, on page 428, to which the reader is referred. They are identical with what oculists are often called on to treat in the human subject. V. Foreign Substances in the Eye. Hayseed, hair, or other foreign particles in the eye always occasion great annoyance, and often real suffering, which the animal will manifest by keeping the eye partly closed, and perhaps by turning the head slightly awry. Anything of this kind should be removed at once, the head being well secured, so that the operator will run no risk of injury from the horns. The method of procedure, as also the subsequent treatment, will he similar to that described on page 424 for the horse. CHAPTER XII. ACCIDENTS, ETC. I. CHOKING. SPRAINS. Il. FRACTURES. VI. WENS. Ill. WOUNDS. IV. DISLOCATIONS.——V. In this chapter we shall treat of the more common accidents, such as every stock-man is called on to face more or less frequently every year. They often require immediate attention, and even if a veterinary sur- geon is within reach it will in many cases be very desirable to take a half dozen stitches or so, while waiting for him. I. Choking. This is a common accident where roots are fed, and it may happen on any farm in the fall, if the cattle have access to apples, ete. The im- perfectly chewed turnip or apple sticks in the gullet, (which in cattle is small), and resists all the animal’s efforts to dislodge it. How to know it.—There is always tympanitis; the head is extended and neck stretched out; saliva drools from the mouth; the animal mani- fests restlessness and pain; she keeps chewing and making frequent efforts to swallow ; and an anxious expression is seen on the countenance. Death may follow, either from suffocation or from rupture of the dia- phragm. What to do,—Ascertain if the object is in the throat or neck, and if it is, place a balling iron inthe mouth, (ora plow clevis may be used, pro- vided it will open the mouth wide enough to allow the hand to be inserted ) ; have the head steadied, and insert your hand and take it out. An assist- ant to manipulate the obstruction on the outside, and push it up against you, will facilitate its removal wonderfully. If it cannot be reached, tap the paunch with the trochar and cannula, to evacuate the gas; (see cuts on pages 725 and 726); then pass down the probang, and with steady, gentle force push it through into the stomach. In the absence of a prox bang, a strong, three-quarter inch rope may be used. Dip it in hot water and oil it; then pass it down, twisting occasionally with the twist of the rope. Even, gentle pressure on the probang will make the obstruction yield in a few minutes. It. Fractures. As arule, « broken bone is more easily repaired in the case of cattle than in horses, owing to their being more quiet. Fractures are classified T712 ACCIDENTS, ETC. 773 as transverse, oblique, ‘‘ green-stick,’’ simple, compound and complex. In transverse fracture, the bone is broken square off; in oblique, it is broken obliquely across ; in ‘* green-stick,’’ it is bent and split but not broken clear off. In simple fractures, only the bone is broken without any complications ; in compound, the ends of the broken bones punch through the flesh, and protrude ; in complex, the bone is shattered into many small pieces. How to know it.—The only reliable tests, when there is displacement, is the unnatural position of the parts and the crepitation (grating of one bone upon another) that may be heard when the parts are moved. TRANSVERSE AND OBLIQUE FRACTURES OF BONE. What to do.—In case of a broken leg (by far the most common frac- ture in cattle), place the bones in position as nearly as possible, and put on a plaster of Paris bandage, to enclose the leg and maintain the parts in place. In the absence of plaster of Paris, sole leather, softened with water and fitted to the leg may be used ; bind it on with a bandage. Keep the animal as quiet as possible. Compound and complex fractures are generally fatal, on account of the inflammation that follows. III. Wounds. Wounds on the body may be sewed up with any of the different su- tures described in the Horse department, on page 460. | Wounds on the MANY-TAILED BANDAGE FOR LARGE LACERATED AND OPEN WOUNDS. legs are best held together with bandages. The many-tailed bandage is particularly handy to draw the edges together and hold them in place. T7A TI AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, Bandages should be kept serupulously clean, by washing them once or twice a day and bathing them with recipe No. 9. When the wound is well filled up, apply No. 1, with No. 2 occasionally IV. Dislocations. Cattle ave peculiarly liable to dislocation of the patella, It slips off on the outside when the leg is back of a perpendicular position, and the ani- mal is unable to bring it forward, ‘This is well shown in the accompany- DISLOCATION OF TILE PATELLA, ing illustration, Lt is best reduced by pulling the foot forward with a rope passed around the pastern, and pushing inwards on the stifle bone (patella), when it will snap in, and locomotion can be resumed at once, SIMPLE METIOD OF PREVENTING A RECURRENCE OF DISLOCATION OF TITE PATELLA, In the first few instances, the joint is injured, so that considerable swelling takes place and causes great lumeness, but after a few dislocu- tions it slips in and out easily. What to do, —Fasten the leg forward with the rope passed around the neck as seen in the annexed cut. Foment the joint with hot water ACCIDENTS, ETC. 175 several times a day, and when the inflammation is gone, blister thoroughly with the following blister: No, 60, 1 Ounce powdered cantharides, 4 Ounces lard, Mix. Rub well in. V. Sprains. The best treatment for sprains is to foment them with hot water or hot vinegar three times a day, and apply the following liniment, rubbing it in thoroughly : No. 61. 2 Ounces tineture arnica, 1 Ounce aleohol. 1 Ounce turpentine, 1} Ounce lvudanimn, 1 Ounce liquor ammonia, Water to make one pint, Mix. If practicable, bandage tolerably tight. Give rest till the lameness is all gone. VI. Wens. These are hard, fibrous tumors resulting v, usually, from a blow or other sxxternal violence. They are frequently seen on the ribs, legs and jaws of Oxen. What to do,—If noticed when first started, when they are sore, foment them with hot water several times a day; after a few days, the soreness being partially gone, paint them with tincture of iodine once a day. If, however, they become large and hard, nothing will be of any use short of dissecting them out. This may be done without any danger. After- wards dress the wound with recipe No. 9, two or three times a day, CHAPTER XIII. OPERATIONS. I, TAPPING THE CHEST, AND TAPPING THE BELLY.— II. TRACHEOTOMY.——III. TAP- PING THE RUMEN (PAUNCH) FOR HOVEN. IV. RUMENOTOMY.——YV. CASTRATION. VI. SPAYING. Vil. TAPPING THE BLADDER OF THE OX OR BULL.——VIII,. SUTURES AND BANDAGES.——IX. CHSARIAN OPERATION.——X. BLEEDING. I. Tapping the Chest, and Tapping the Belly. The first of these operations (paracentesis thoracis) has for its object the removal of water from the chest in hydrothorax. Clip off the hair from a spot about three inches back of the joint of the elbow, and ona level with it. Make an incision through the skin and muscles to a depth of about two inches, being careful to locate it so that it shall pass between two ribs, and not too close to the posterior aspect of the anterior one of the two—about midway if possible. Then pass in the trochar and cannula, withdraw the trochar, and leave the cannula to act as a spout for the water. If lymph or other substance clogs the hole, MAKING THE INCISION WITH THE KNIFE THE FLUID FLOWING FROM THE CHEST THROUGH THE CANNULA. push it away with a whalebone probe. The other side may be tapped in the same way. The trochar for this operation should be about a quarter of an inch in diameter. 776 OPERATIONS. 17% Paracentesis Abdomenis is the same operation, to empty the belly in peritonitis. Make the incision in the center line of the belly just back of the navel. Use the same trochar, but do not insert it deeper than two inches. In either of these operations, when the instrument is withdrawn the hole will close without any aid. II. Tracheotomy. This is the insertion of a tube in the windpipe, in case of threatened suffocation. It is identical with the same operation on the horse, de- scribed on page 461. III. Tapping the Rumen (Paunch) for Hoven. Insert the trochar, which may be a large one (2 of an inch in diame- ter), in the center of a triangle made by the last rib, the anterior point of the hip and the ends of the transverse processes of the lumbar spines on the left side. Point it downward and inward obliquely, and it will pass directly into the paunch, which grows to the left side only, and only in this vicinity. Pull out the trochar, and the gas will escape through the cannula. (See the article, with cuts, on Hoven.) IV. Rumenotomy. This is an operation to empty the paunch in case of engorgement, when a passage cannot be effected in the regular way. Clip off the hair from the triangle described in the last article, on the left side, (see cuts on pages 725 and 727), and make an opening, running up and down, large enough to insert the hand ; open first the skin, next the muscles, then the wall of the paunch. Insert a towel, and arrange it to cover the lower edge of the wound, to keep the latter clean. Then empty the paunch with the hand. When nearly empty, pour in recipe No. 26, wash the wound, and sew it up with cat-gut sutures. First sew the paunch, leay- ing the ends hanging inside ; then draw the muscles together, the ends of the ligatures hanging outside; then sew up the skin. Dress the whole with lotion No. 9, keeping the parts wet with it nearly all the time. V. Castration. This may be done to calves by laying them down on their backs, open- ing the scrotum and cutting through the tunies to the testicle, letting it out, when the tunics may be cut from their attachment at the end of the testicle, and the testicle pulled out, tearing away the spermatic cord. Pour a little cold water into the scrotum, and let the calf up. Old bulls may be castrated standing. Make a separate opening for each testicle, and let the testicle out of the tunics; cut off the cord with the ecraseur well up towards the body; if no ecraseur is procurable, apply clamps, which may be removed after two days. 778 THE AMBRICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. VI. Spaying. This is an operation on the female to remove the ovaries, and corres- ponds to castration of the male. In young, small heifers it is best done in the flank. Lay the heifer on her left side with the legs stretched back. Clip off the hair from the angle between the point of the hip and last rib ; make an incision, running up and down, large enough to admit the hand ; pass the hand into the abdominal cavity and find the womb ; follow up a horn of the womb till the ovary is reached, pull the ovary out, and cither cut or twist it off,—preferably the latter, to avoid bleeding. If cut off, the artery should be twisted, to arrest the hemorrhage. The parts are put back, and the other ovary is brought up and operated on similarly. This one may be more difficult to bring out, but gentle trac- tion will accomplish it. Select warm pleasant weather for this operation, to avoid chilling the intestines. Great care should be taken to keep everything as clean as possible, as hair or other foreign particles, intro- duced into the belly, might cause fatal peritonitis. Stitch up the walls of the belly first; then the skin with cat-gut, interrupted sutures. Dress the wound with lotion No. 9. Cows are best operated on standing. Make the incision through the upper wall of the vagina close to the os uéer?, large enough to introduce two fingers, by which the ovaries are pulled out and excised with an eera- seur. A couple of stiches may be taken in the wound. Dress it after- wards with lotion No. 47, twice 1 day. Feed lightly for a day or two before the operation, and give bran mashes for a few days after. If peri- tonitis sets in, (which, however, it is not very likely to do), treat it according to the directions for that disease. VII. Tapping the Bladder of the Ox or Bull. When it is necessary to draw off the urine of the male, an opening must be made at the point where the penis turns over the angle of the pelvis, and the catheter introduced as seen in the annexed cut. The in- cision should be made very carefully, and no larger than really neces- sary to introduce the instrument. Dress the wound with No. 9, twice a day. It will be advisable to take a stitch in it, of course. The eurve in the urethral canal (see cut on page 737) is what makes this operation necessary, as it renders the introduction of a catheter by the penis impossible. VIII. Sutures and Bandages. Sutures are used in sewing wounds, whenever they are longer than half an inch. The material generally used is silk, doubled once or twice, to make the cord large enough to prevent it from pulling out. Silver wire OPERATIONS. 779 may be used, but has no special advantages over the silk. Pass the needle through the skin about half an inch back from the edge and tie loosely, leaving the ends about half an inch long. TT TSS : \\y OPERATION FOR REMOVING URINE FROM THE OX. Bandages are particularly useful in cases of wounds on the legs, since there the stitches will almost invariably pull out, unless thus reinforced. The many-tailed bandage shown on page 773 is very useful. For further details see the corresponding article in the Horse department. IX. The Cesarian Operation. This is resorted to for the delivery of the calf, in the extremity men- tioned on page 751. The belly is opened high up in the flank on the right side, and an incision made in the uterus, and the calf taken out. It is seldom resorted to, for obvious reasons. X. Bleeding. A cord is passed around the neck, and tied tight enough to raise the vein, over which a fleam is held and struck with the blood-stick. When sufficient blood has been taken, remove the cord and close the wound with a twisted (‘figure 8°’) suture. The article on Bleeding, in the Horse de- partment, should be read in connection with the foregoing directions. OX PREPARED FOR BLEEDING. \ Rtas: Rts IY Ni CHAPTER XIV. RECIPES FOR CATTLE. As a matter of convenience to the reader, to whom time will often be precious in treating his sick stock, we add this chapter, recapitulating all our prescriptions for cattle. No. 1. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. HEALING LOTION. Sugar of lead, 1 ounce, Carbolie acid, 2 drachms, Laudanum, 1 ounce, Water to make 1 pint, Mix. Apply three times a day. ANTISEPTIC LOTION. Carbolie acid, 1 part, Olive oil, 8 parts, Mix. Apply three times a day. ANTISEPTIC DRENCH. Nitro-muriatie acid, 1 drachm, Bi-chromate potash, 3 grains, Chlorate potash, 2 drachms, Water, '4 pint, Mix. Give as one dose two or three times a day. TONIC POWDER. Copperas, ‘3 ounce, Oil-cake, a handful, Powder and mix. Give as one dose, and repeat morn- ing and night. POWDER FOR RIEUMATISM. Colchicum, 2 drachms, Nitrate of potash, 2 drachms, Mix. Give as one dose, and repeat night and morning for a week. No. 6. INO Wie No. 8. No. 9. 780 LINIMENT FOR RHEUMATISM. Laudanum, 1 ounce, Spirits camphor, 1 ounce, Turpentine, 1 ounce, Water to make 1 pint, Mix. Apply three times a day with frie- tion, and bandage. TONIC DRENCH. Gentian root, 1 ounce, Ginger, 's ounce, Oatmeal gruel, 1 quart, Mix. Give as one dose, and repeat three times a day for two weeks. MILD PURGATIVE. Epsom salts, 12 ounces, Ginger, 1 ounce, Gentian, 1 ounce, Syrup, 4 ounces, Water to make 2 quarts, Mix. Give as one dose. CARBOLIC LOTION. Carbolie acid, !s ounce, Water, 1 pint, Mix. Apply two or three times a day; in case of a surface sore, bind on a sponge wet with the lotion. No. 10. No. 11. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. RECIPES FOR CATTLE. ALTERATIVE AND STIMULATING DRENCH. Iodide potash, 2 drachms, Whiskey, 2 ounces, Powdered cinchona, 1 ounce, Gruel, 1 pint, Mix. ; Give as one dose, and repeat three times a day. TONIC POWDER. Saccharized carbonate of iron, 2drs. Powdered cinchona bark, 2 drs., Mix. Give as one dose; repeat morning and night. DRENCH. Oil turpentine, 1 ounce, Linseed oil, 14 pint, Mix. Give as one dose, times a day. TURPENTINE repeat three TONIC DRENCH., 4 Tincture muriate of iron, 144 ounce, Tineture cinchona, 1 ounce, Water, 2 ounces, Mix. Give as one dose; repeat three times a day, between the doses of No. 12. AMMONIA LINIMENT. Liquor of ammonia, 1 ounce, Oil of turpentine, 1 ounce, Linseed oil, 1 ounce, Mix. Rub well in to the face and head once a day. SILVER LOTION. Nitrate of silver, 10 grains, Water, 1 ounce, Mix. Apply twice a day with a camel’s hair brush. No. 16. No. 17. No. 18. No. 19. No. 20. No. 1. 781 A GARGLE. Chlorate of potash. 1 ounce, Water, 1 pint, Mix. Inject a little into the throat as a gargle several times a day. MIXTURE FOR DIARRITCSA, Infusion of quassia, 1 pint, Laudanum, 1 ounce, Sulphuric ether, 14 ounce, Cold, thin gruel, 1 pint, Mix. Give as one dose. essary. Repeat, if nec- FEVER MIXTURE. « Spirits nitre, 3 ounces, Tincture aconite root, 2 drachms, Fluid extract belladonna, % 0z., Nitrate potash, 2 ounces, Muriate of ammonia, 2 ounces, Water to make 1 quart, Mix. Give half a teacupful every two or three hours till better. TONIC AND ALTERATIVE POWDER. Nitrate of potash, 2 drachms, Gentian root (powdered), 2 drs., Ginger, 1 drachm, Mix. Give as one dose; repeat morning and night for a week. STIMULATING DRENCII. y y8 Infusion of gentian, pint, Ginger, 1 drachin, Carbonate of ammonia, 1 drachm, Syrup, 2 ounces, Water, \% pint, Mix. Give as one dose, and repeat three times a day. TONIC POWDER. Sulphate of iron (copperas), 3 drs., Gentian, 2 drachms, Ginger, 1 drachm, Fonugreek seed, 1 drachm, Powder and mix. Give as one dose, and repeat morn- ing and mght for a week or two. 782 No. 22. No. 23. No. 25. No. 26. NO: 27. THE AMERICAN A GARGLE, Chlorate of potash, 2 ounces, Water, 1 quart, Mix. Shoot back into the throat, as a gargle, several times a day with a syringe. PEVER MIXTURE. Mindererus’ spirit (acetate of am- monia), 2 ounces, Tincture aconite root, 20 drops, Water, 14 pint, Mix. Give as one dose, and repeat every two hours till better. COUGH MIXTURE. Gum camphor, 2 drachms, Saltpetre, 4 drachms, Spirits of nitre, 1 ounce, Water (or gruel), 1 pint, Mix as directed below. Dissolve the camphor in the nitre, and add the water (or gruel) and saltpetre, and give as one dose, Repeat every four or six hours. HEALING LOTION. Vinegar, 1 ounce, Iloney, 2 ounces, Water, }¢ pint, Mix. Apply three or four times a day. POWERFUL PURGATIVE. Epsom salts, 1} pounds, Ginger, 2 ounces, Gentian, 2 ounces, Calomel, 2 drachms, Croton oil, 20 drops, Syrup, I pint, Warm water, 2 quarts, Mix. Give as one dose. STIMULATING DRENCH. Liquor ammonia, 1 ounce, Warm ale, 1 quart, Essence of ginger, 46 ounce, Mix. Give as one dose. No. 28. No. 30. No. 31. No. 32. No, 33. FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. ANTACID POWDER. Bi-carbonate of soda, 3 drachms, Gentian, 2 drachms, Ginger, 2 drachms, Mix. Give as one dose, and repeat morn- ing and night. ASTRINGENT DRENCH. Prepared chalk, 1 ounce, Powdered catechu, ‘4 ounce, Powdered ginger, 2 drachms, Powdered opium, !5 drachm, Peppermint water, 14 pint, Mix. Give from two to four tablespoon- fuls, according to the size of the calf, morning and night. ASTRIN T DRENCH. Tineture of catechu, 2 ounces, Tincture of cardamoms, 2 ounces, Carbonate of soda, 2 drachms, Mix. Divide into two to four doses, ac- cording to age of animal, and give one of them morning and night. ASTRINGENT DRENCH. Powdered opiun, 3 drachin, Tincture of cardamoms, 1 ounce, Sulphuric ether, 3 drachms, Linseed tea (or starch gruel) 1 pint, Mix. Divide into six doses; night and morning. give one ALTERATIVE DRENCH. Tincture of rhubarb, 4 ounces, Powdered ginger, 2 drachms, Warm gruel, 4 ounces, Mix. Give as one dose, and follow it with some doses of No. 30 or 31. ASTRINGENT DRENCH. Prepared chalk, 1's ounces, Powdered catechu, 2 drachms, Powdered opium, ‘5 drachm, Powdered gentian, 2 drachms, Starch gruel, 1 pint, Mix. Give as one dose; repeat in twenty four hours, if necessary. No. 34. No. 35. No. 37. No. 38. No. 39. RECIPES FOR CATTLE. ASTRINGENT DRENCH. Powdered opium, 2 drachms, Powdered starch, 4 ounces, Sulphurie ether, 1 ounce. Cold ale, 1 pint, Mix. Give as one dose. By substituting tepid water for the ale, it may be advantageously used as an injec- tion. ASTRINGENT DRENCH. Tannie acid, 14 drachm, Powdered opium, 1 drachm, Powdered gentian, 1 ounce, Warm ale, 1 pint, Mix. Give as one dose. ALTERATIVE DRENCH. Calomel, 1 drachm, Powdered opium, 2 drachms, Gruel, 1 quart, Mix. Give as one dose. ALTERATIVE DRENCH. Epsom salts, 7 Powdered opium, 2 drachms, Powdered gentian, 2 drachms, Gruel, 1 pint, Mix. Give as one dose. ounces, ANTISEPTIC MIXTURE. Chloride of lime, 14 ounce, Tincture of arnica, 14 ounce, Sulphuric ether, 1 ounce, Starch gruel, 2 quarts, Mix. Give half by the mouth and half by injection. STRONG INJECTION, Linseed oil, 1 pint. Oil turpentine, 4 ounces, Croton oil, 30 drops, Warm water, 1 quart, Soft soap, 1 ounce, Mix. Repeat three times a day as an in- jection, till a full purgative ae- tion is ot. No. 40. No. 41. No. 42. No. 43. No. 44. No. 45. 783 STIMULATING SUBCUTANEOUS INJECTION. Strychnine, 4 grains, Spirits of wine, 1 ounce, Sulphuric acid, 6 drops, Mix. When dissolved, inject from ten to twenty drops under the skin. ANODYNE FEVER MIXTURE. Camphor, 2 drachms, Sulphuric ether, 14 ounce, Acetate of ammonia, 4 ounces, (as directed below), Mix. Dissolve the camphor in the sul- phurie ether, and then add the acetate of ammonia. Give one dose in ale or gruel. as FEVER MIXTURE. Mindererus’ spirit, 3 ounces, Tincture aconite root, 20 drops, Linseed tea, 1 pint, Mix. Give as one dose, and repeat every two hours till better. STIMULATING DRENCH. Sulphurie acid, 2 drachms, Tincture of cardamoms, 1 ounce, Water, 1 pint, Mix. Give as one dose. ANTILITHIC INJECTION. Hydrochloric acid, 1 drachm, Water, 14 pint, Mix. Inject into the bladder. ACID DRENCH. Hydrochloric acid, 20 drops, Gentian, 3 drachms, Oat meal gruel, 1 pint, Mix. Give as one dose, and repeat it morningand night for afew days. 784 No. 46. No. 47. No. 48. No. 49. No. 50. No. 51. THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. ANTACID POWDER. Bi-carbonate soda, 'g pound, Gentian, 4 ounces, Linseed meal, 2 pounds, Mix. Give two tablespoonfuls morning and night for two or three weeks. ANTISEPTIC INJECTION. Carbolie acid, 1s ounce, Water, ‘5 gallon, Mix. Use as injection twice a day. ANODYNE DRENCH. Chloral hydrate, 1 ounce, Water, 1 pint, Mix. Give as one dose; repeat, if neces- sary, in half an hour. HEALING LOTION. pirits of camphor, + ounces, ugar of lead, 1 ounce, ulphate of zine, 2 drachms, oft water, 1 quart, Mix. Bathe the parts once a day. MM RM SOFTENING LOTION. Gum camphor, + ounces, Olive oil, 1 pint, Mix. Rub well in three times a day. ANTISEPTIC POWDER. Sulphite soda, 1 ounce, Nitrate potash, 2 drachms, Mix. Give as one dose ina bran mash; repeat morning and night for a week. ASTRINGENT OINTMENT. Alum, 1 ounce, Carbolie acid, 1 drachm, Lard, 4 ounces, Powder the alum and mix. Apply twice a day. No. 53. No. 54. No. 06. No. 57. No. 59. ASTRINGENT OINTMENT. Tannic acid, tgounce, Carbolic acid, 1 drachm, Lard, 4 ounces, Mix. Apply twice a day. NERVINE AND ALTERATIVE. Nux vomica, 2 drachms, Saltpetre, 1g ounce, Mix. Give as one dose, repeating it morn- ing and night for a month. LOTION FOR LICE. Tobacco, !s Pound, Water, 1 gallon, Steep for two hours, Apply warm. MIXTURE FOR RINGWORM. Tincture of iodine, 2 ounces, Oi] of tar, 1 ounce, Glycerine, 2 ounces, Mix. Rub well in once a day. MIXTURE FOR RINGWORM. Solution iodo-bromide of calcium compound, 1 ounce, Water, 3 ounces, Mix. Rub well in once a day. EYE WASH. Sulphate of atropia, 2 grains, Water, 1 ounce, Mix. Apply several times a day with a camel's hair brush. EYE WASH. Nitrate of silver, 10 grains, Water, 1 ounce, Mix. Apply directly to the eyeball, morn- ing and night, with a camel’s. hair brush. No. 60. No. 61. RECIPES FOR CATTLE. 785 FLY BLISTER. Powdered cantharides, 1 ounce, Lard, 4 ounces, Mix. Rub well in. LINIMENT FOR SPRAINS. ‘Tincture arnica, 2 ounces, Alcohol, 1 ounce, 50 ‘Turpentine, 1 ounce, Laudanum, 1 onnee. Liquor ammonia, 1 ounce, Water to make one pint, Mix. If practicable, bandage tolerably tight. Give rest till the lameness is all gone. —_ S| “a —— == es ~ ae = ae oS a -_ Pall a LIS HISTORY, MANAGEMENT AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS | le ‘ po: iam diya baie | ¥, 7 a rem EN hy a | | SWINE. CHAPTER I. HISTORY AND STATISTICS OF SWINE. I. ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE HOG. Il. THE NATIVE AMERICAN SPECIES. Ill. SWINE OF EUROPE, ASIA AND AFRICA.—IV. THE WILD HOGS OF EUROPE.— Vv. TEETH OF THE HOG.—-—-VI. BROUGHT TO AMERICA BY COLUMBUS. Vir. THREE GREAT SWINE PRODUCING STATES.——VIII. IMPORTANCE OF THE PORK IN- TEREST. I. Origin and Antiquity of the Hog. The original country of the hog, like that of the other domesticated animals of the farm, is lost in the obscurity of the past. Yet, ever since history began, the hog has been known in a wild state in Asia, Africa and in Europe. That the hegs of all these countries have a common origin is shown by the fact that they all belong to the same scientific classification, sus scrofa, and also by the more important fact that they are all fertile together, and continue to produce fertile offspring, from generation to generation. The great antiquity of swine is shown by the fact that fossil remains have been found in the tertiary and diluvial deposits of Europe ; and fos- sils of a species closely allied to them have been found-in as ancient de- posits in India. Whatever their origin may have been, their aptitude for taking care of themselves in a wild state—for they are both flesh and vegetable feeders—and their great fecundity would soon have enabled them to overrun large territories. II. The Native American Species. While the original of the domesticated hog was only found in Asia, Africa and Europe, yet allied native species are found in America. In Australia, the Polynesian groups, and the other Pacific islands, swine were unknown until introduced there by civilized people. The same is true of America. The allied species here are not, we believe, continuously fertile with the domesticated hog. 7T9L 792 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. TII. Swine of Europe, Asia and Afriéa. While it is a fact, as previously stated, that the swine of Europe, Asia and Africa have a common origin, there is no means of knowing how or when they were first introduced. The probability, however, is that they spread spontaneously over these countries ; for the original forest cover- ing rendered the means of migration easy to them, since thick timber and all the lands along streams furnish their natural feeding grounds. IV. The Wild Hogs of Europe. It matters little, practically, how any of the farm animals originated, vr how they were naturally disseminated over the earth; though to savants, of course, the question is curious and interesting. It is worthy of remark, that of all domestic animals used as food by man, the hog is the only one that has preserved his native characteristics unmodified in a Sane SSSA ANY NY. p a Dy Dy) wild state. Ay Nyy 7 “Ge Ye Ss 3 Da ILL ===RH.M. net 1WOGS RUN WILD IN THE WEST AND SOUTHWEST. The hunting of wild hogs has formed an exciting chase in all ages of the world, both on account of their fleetness and their savage courage when brought to bay. In the southern portions of the United States, in sparsely settled districts, swine are found escaped from domestication, and showing all their natural savage traits, including dangerous fierceness when brought to bay. Forty years ago the writer hunted wild hogs,— the descendants of Indian breeds,—in the swamps and morasses of north- ern Indiana and the timbered river bottoms of the Calumet. The hard winter of 1844, however, destroyed the last remnant of these wild hogs, they having all died in their lairs, from exposure and want of food. Wild hogs are now rarely found in Europe, and this when preserved in royal forests as in Denmark, rai and Greece. In France and Germany they have become extremely rare, and in Great Britain the wild species bas long been extinct. HISTORY AND STATISTICS OF SWINE. 793 V. Teeth of the Hog. The teeth of swine are 44 in number, as follows: Incisors, six upper and six lower, (12); canines or tusks, two upper and two lower, (4) ; molars, or grinding teeth, fourteen upper and fourteen lower, (28) ; mak- ing 44, including what were formerly called wolf teeth, but are now classed with the molars. They are represented scientifically by the den- tal formula: § —3—}$—44. Furstenburg, a careful German author- ity, gives the manner of determining the age of swine as follows : Born with eight teeth, four corner incisors and four tusks, on the eighth or tenth day the second or third temporary molars appear. The four nippers, two on the upper and two on the under jaw, appear at four weeks old. At the fifth or sixth week the first temporary molars appear in the upper and lower jaw. At the age of three months the intermediary incisors appear. At the sixth, the so-called wolf teeth are seen, and also the third per- manent molars. At the ninth month the permanent corner incisors, the permanent tusks, and the second permanent molars will be seen. At twelve months the permanent nippers will have appeared, and by the thirteenth month, the three temporary molars will have been shed, and the permanent ones will be seen; at fifteen months these will be fully up. At the age of eighteen months the permanent intermediary incisors and the permanent rear molars will show, and at the twenty-first month these will be fully developed, thus completely finishing the permanent denti- tion. From this time on, the means for determining the age is by the wear of the permanent teeth, and also by the increasing length of the tushes, which at from four to ten years, attain such size and become such formid- able weapons that it is said that hogs have been known to cope success- fully with the lion. Certain it is that no beast dares attack them when herded together, and it is only hy the strategy of man that they may be successfully hunted and killed. And so dangerous has this pastime always been considered, that a boar’s head has been counted as one of the most valuable trophies of the chase. VI. Brought to America by Columbus. The history of the introduction of swine into America is that they were brought by Columbus to Hispaniola in 1493, and to Florida in 1538 by De Soto; they were brought to Nova Scotia and Newfoundland in 1553 by the French, and into Canada in 1608, In 1609 they were brought 794 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. into Virginia by the English adventurers, and eighicen years thereafter it is recorded that their numbers had so increased that the settlement at Jamestown had to be surrounded with palisades to keep them away. VII. Three Great Swine Producing States. From 1871 to 1878 the swine of the United States increased from 29,457,500 to 32,362,500 head. Inthe latter year the three greatest hog producing States were Illinois, 3,855,500; Ohio, 2,341,411, and Iowa 2,244,800 head. In that year there were packed in Chicago alone, over 4,000,000 head, in 1879 nearly 5,000,000, and in 1880, over 4,500,- OOO head. VIII. Importance of the Pork Interest. In the whole Mississippi Valley there were packed in 1877-8, 6,502,- 446 head of hogs. In 1878-9, 7,475,648 head, and in 1879-80, 6,946,151 head. The average net weight of these hogs, was for 1878, over 226 pounds, for 1879, over 217 pounds, and for 1880, nearly 213 pounds. The total export of hog products for 1876 to 1880 inclusive was as follows: FrRoM Boston, PHILADELPHIA, BALTIMORE, PORTLAND, NEW | ORLEANS AND MONTREAL. From NEw YORK. Bacon Bacon « Pork | and Hams, Lard, Pork and Hams, Lard, barrels pounds pounds. | barrels. pounds. pounds. iy Mosagonbasnoosac 198,981 | 220,338,187 | 153,010,890 | 70,642 | 195,849,415 | 57,402,146 LBV Fics sera cormrte 203,506 | 236,909,669 | 176,546,193 | 67,536 | 188,691,271 | 54,275,151 UST und August. The eggs being deposited, the mag- gots hatch and find their way through the sinuses, causing much pain. When the gadflies are seek- ing the sheep, the animals will crowd together, suker GAb- With their noses to the ground, stamping violently FLY. GRUB OF at times, and will run from one place in the pas- GADFLY. ture toanother. When the maggots reach their resting place they attach themselves by their hooks, and are not easily dislodged. GENERAL DISEASES. 897 What to do.—The grubs may often be extracted by a competent sur- geon, but it is a nice operation, and scarcely pays except in the case of a very valuable animal. Burning leather under the noses of the sheep ina close place, to cause violent sneezing, used to be practiced, but it is un- safe. Injecting up the nostrils equal parts of sweet oil and turpentine will often dislodge the grubs when they are not firmly fixed, but care must be taken not to strangle the sheep. Prevention.—Prevention is in this case far the best remedy. Keep a portion of the field plowed so the soil is loose and dry. Smear the sheep’s noses once a day with tar during the season of the fly, and catch as many of the flies as possible, by means of a light bag-net. V. Hydatids on the Brain. Causes.—The bladder worm, causing this dangerous disease, is one of the forms of the tape worm, preceding the true or sexually perfect worm. It is rare in America, probably from the fact that there are fewer dogs in proportion to the population than in England. What to do.—Once fixed, nothing practically can be done, though, when located, surgeons have pierced the cysts with a strong hypodermic syringe, injecting therein half a teaspoonful of the following : No. 2. 1 Grain iodine, 5 Grains iodide of potash, 1 Ounce water. Mix. Prevention.—Never allow dogs to feed on sheeps’ heads, or other gar- bage, unless cooked in the most thorough manner, remove the excre- ments of dogs wherever found in the pastures, and kill all dogs that make a habit of prowling about, away from home. VI. Apoplexy. This disease is mostly confined to sheep that are plethoric and fat. What to do.—The sheep will leap suddenly in the air, fall, and unless promptly relieved, will die in a few minutes. Then the only remedy is sudden and copious bleeding from the jugular vein. Prevention.—F at sheep should be carefully watched for the earlier symptoms. If a sheep appears dull and partially unconcious of what is going on; if the nostrils and pupils of the eyes are dilated, and the membranes of the nose deep red or violet ; the pulse hard and the breath- ing stertorous, bleed immediately and give afterwards two ounces ‘of epsom salts, to be followed by an ounce every six hours, until a full evacuation takes place from the bowels. 57 SoS THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. VII. Inflammation of the Brain. This is produced by the same causes that produce apoplexy, and is often a secondary effect of apoplexy. The animal is dull and inactive ; the eyes red and protruding, and, as the symptoms intensify, the animal rushes about in the wildest delirium. The general treatment is the same as for apoplexy. VIII. Inflammation of the Eyes. What to do.—If there is serious inflammation, take a little blood from the facial vein, the vein running down obliquely from the eye. Bathe the eyes with the following wash : No. 3. 5 Grains nitrate of silver, 1 Ounce soft water, 15 Drops laudanum. Dissolve the nitrate of silver in the water and add the laudanum ; mix. Bathe the eyes well three times a day and apply the lotion twice a day with a camel’s hair brush. IX. Swelled Head. Causes.—This is produced by a variety of causes, the bites of yvenom- ous serpents and malignant insects, etc. Snake bites usually produce death before the animal is found. What to do.—In case of the bites of venomous insects, cut the wool from around the parts, and bathe with strong saleratus water and give internally, if necessary, each hour until relief is obtained, the following: No. 4. 1g Drachm chloral hydrate, 1 Ounce soft water. Mix. X. Vegetable Poisoning. What to do.—In case of trouble from vegetable poisoning, bathe the affected parts thoroughly with warm water, and keep moist with the fol- lowing lotion : No. 5. 1 Ounce sugar of lead, 1 Pint soft water. Mix. XI. Tetanus or Lock-Jaw. Causes.—There are various causes producing this difficulty, as inflam- mation of the membranes after gelding, injury to the horns and _ hoofs, or a wound on any part of the body. How to know it.—The animal, if able to walk at all, does so with great distress ; the jaws are set, and death generally takes place quickly. It is an excited condition of the nervous system. GENERAL DISEASES. soo What to do.—Treatment is of little use, the malady being usually fatal, Put the sheep into a dark place alone, and put a piece of Solid Extract of Belladonna, the size of a pea, on the tongue twice a day; put oatmeal water in the pen for him to drink. Warmth and quiet are essential. Bleeding used to be considered a specific by many, but it should not be practiced. Move the bowels as soon as possible, and follow this up with belladonna. Give four ounces of castor oil as the laxative. When the worst symptoms are overcome, give gruels and other soft nourishing food until recovery. XII. Paralysis or Palsy. Lock-jaw and epilepsy are often mistaken for palsy; yet, it is the direct opposite of them. Like the two first it is somewhat rare in America. What to do.—The first thing to do is to make the lamb warm and com- fortable. Give warm gruel, with a little ginger as a stimulant. If the bowels are costive give four ounces of linseed oil. Give twenty grains of powdered Nux Vomica in soft mashes three times a day ; continue this two or three weeks. If the paralysis is severe, clip off the wool and apply a blister of Spanish flies to the spine, from the points of the hips to the shoulders. XIII. Rabies or Canine Madness. Sheep are particularly liable to be bitten by rabid dogs in their first stages of madness. The flock-master should not hesitate to destroy all strange dogs, and, of course, the sheep if attacked with rabies must be killed at once. CHAPTER II. PARASITIC AND OTHER DISEASES. I. SCAB, TICKS AND LICE.——II. FOOT-ROT. Ill. FOUL IN THE FOOT.—IV. SWOLLEN FOOT AND GRAVEL.—V. MAGGOTS FROM BLOW FLIES.——VI. IN- TESTINAL WORMS. Vil. THE ROT OR LIVER FLUKE.——VIII. LUNG WORMS. IX. SHEEP WORRIED BY DOGS. X. SPRAINS, STRAINS AND BRUISES. CARE WHEN LAMBING. XII. NAVEL ILL. XI. I. Seab, Ticks and Lice. Causes.—Scab is produced by a minute microscopic, parasitic insect, which burrowing just beneath the cuticle, produces extreme irritation, and sauses the exudation of a watery fluid, serum. This, in drying, forms the scab which brings away with it the wool in larger or smaller patches. ; The disease is very contagious, and the insect is so : DS tenacious of life that it has been said to have remained ee ina pasture three years and then spread the infection. A careful flock master should examine every sheep purchased minutely, and take every means to keep Mot the Sheep and dogs it the infection from his flock. The illustration shows eruption. sheep affected with scab in its extreme form. How to know it.—The sheep will be restless and irritable ; will rub against anything near ; will bite its fleece, and scratch with its hoofs. At length the fleece becomes ragged, and drops off, to permanently infect DEMODEX the pasture. What to do.—It is not difficult to cure, but the means must be thor- ough. A good effective remedy, though poisonous, is the following : No. 6. } Pounds arsenic, ) Pounds pearl ash, 6 Pounds sulphur, 6 Pounds soft soap, 20 Gallons boiling water. Mix, but avoid the fumes, and when cold, add 180 gallons of cold water, and stir until well mixed. Prepare a tank that will readily allow a sheep to be dipped in it. From this a slanting, slotted drain, having a water- tight bottom underneath, and extending just over the edge of the tank, should be laid. Dip the sheep, back foremost, into the tank, allowing him to remain submerged in the liquid, except the head, for one minute. Then 900 PARASITIC AND OTHER DISEASES. 901 place him on the slats and squeeze the wool thoroughly, and when well drained turn into a clean yard until dry. Then go over the heads of the flock with the following : No. 7. 2 Pounds mercurial ointment, 6 Pounds lard, 2 Pounds rosin, 1 Pound oil of turpentine. Place the lard and mercurial ointment im a suitable iron pot, and im- merse in a vessel of hot water, say about 180 degrees, and stir until well mixed. Then dissolve the rosin and turpentine, and when the lard is cold, rub it all well together. Apply it by parting the wool on the head between the ears, on the forehead, and under the jaws, the idea being to reach every part not touched by the dip. SCAB IN SHEEP, In preparing No. 6, for ordinary cases, twenty pounds of strong tobacco may be simmered in the water, instead of the arsenic, and the other ingre- dients may be stirred in while the liquid is boiling hot, having first re- moved the tobacco leaves and stems. When this dip is used, the head may also be dipped, from time to time, being careful that the liquor does not get in the nose and eyes. The sheep may remain in the liquor, as hot as can be borne, four or five minutes, dipping the head occasionally, and No. 7 need not be used though it would be better. The wool must be pressed and dried, as before stated; so proceed until the flock is all gone over, using some means to keep the liquor hot 902 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. A dip in great repute in Australia, where immense flocks are kept, is the following: No. 8. 10 Pounds tobacco leaves, 10 Pounds sulphur. 50 Gallons water. soil the tobacco in the water, andadd the sulphur while hot. Dip the sheep in the liquor, as hot as can be borne, for five minutes. Tick.—The sheep tick is a dipterous insect, but with no wings devel- oped. The ticks are large and live on the surface of the skin and suck blood. They are plainly seen when the wool is divided, or when the sheep are shorn; then the ticks will go off to the lambs, where there is more wool. The treatment for them may be the same as for scab. Lice.—Lice are sometimes found on sheep; they SHEEP TICK WITH EGGS. are of the variety of bird lice, (Trichodectes ), with large, broad head, with biting jaws, but no sucking tube. Bird lice are usu- ally very irritating. The treatment given above will apply for lice as well as for scab and tick. II. Foot Rot. How to know it.—The skin at the top of the clefts of the hoofs and over the heels, which is naturally smooth, dry and pale, becomes red, moist, warm and rough, as though chafed. Next, there is a discharge; and ulcers form, extending down to the upper portion of the inner pprcHopEctTEs wall of the hoof. Then the walls become disorganized, and OF THE SHEEP. the disease penetrative, between the fleshy sole and the bottom of the hoof, an offensive and purulent matter is thrown out, and the whole foot becomes a mass of corruption, often filled with maggots. The animal early becomes lame and loses appetite, and at length dies from exhaustion. If the attack is violent, and in the first cases it gene- rally is, it may reappear the second and third years, but in a milder form, if proper measures be taken, and this should be done at the first symp- toms of lameness. What to do.—Cut away all the diseased parts, cleaning the knife from time to time in weak carbolic acid. Prepare a tank and fill it to a depth of four inches with a saturated solution of blue vitriol (sulphate of copper). Keep this as hot as the sheep can bear to stand in, by oeca- sionally introducing a piece of hot iron. Let each sheep stand in this for ten minutes or more. Then cover the hoof with chloride of lime, and PARASITIC AND OTHER DISEASES 903 fill the cleft of the hoof with a fillet of tow, long enough for the ends to he twisted into a string to tie about the fetlock. Keep the sheep in a dry, well-littered yard on dry, short pasture, and examine the hoofs daily for some time. Renew the chloride of lime, if necessary, and feed plenty of nourishing food. It is probable that a tonic may be needed; if so, prepare the following : No. 9. 2 Drachms common salt, 1, Drachm sulphate of iron, 13 Drachm nitrate of potash. Mix as a powder, and give once a day, as circumstances may dictate. III. Foul in the Foot. This is a common disability, especially in sheep that have been driven on the road. What to do.— When it is only the effect of travel, the remedy issimple. Wash the cleft and other parts of the hoof with warm, soapy water, and then touch the tender or thin parts with a feather dipped in oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid), and cover them with tar. Apply a strong solution of blue vitriol (sulphate of copper), to the cleft if any signs of foul are ap- parent. In driving sheep, these three things, viz., soap, sulphuric acid and blue vitriol should be kept on hand ; or in place of sulphuric acid the following : No. 10. 1 Part solution chloride of antimony, 1 Part compound tincture of myrrh. Mix and keep ready for use in incipient foul or travel sore. If it isa had case the foot should be bandaged. IV. Swollen Foot and Gravel. How to know it.—The issue (biplex canal in the front and upper part of the hoof ) becemes swollen and inflamed. What to do.—-Examine it to find if any substance is imbedded therein ; if so, extract it; if swollen and inflamed, treat as advised for other swell- ings ; if ulcerated lance it lightly to let out the matter, and dress with the compound tincture of myrrh. If the hoof becomes graveled, extract the gravel at any cost; dress as above, and cover with a small plug of tow dipped in tar. V. Maggots from Blow Flies. There should be no excuse for maggots accumulating m wounds, much less from the collection of filth about the thighs. If found, cleanse the 904 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. parts thoroughly, extract the maggots and touch the wounds with the following : No. 11. 1 Part creosote, 4 Parts alcohol, Mix. Bathe daily with tincture of myrrh. Prevention.—Keep the sheep well tagged by shearing from under the tail and thence diagonally down the thighs. VI. Intestinal Worms. The presence of intestinal worms is seldom known to the ordinary ob- server until after the death of the sheep, when they may be found by dissection. If the worms are thus found, the presumption is good that other sheep are seriously infected, for, as a rule, unless they are abund- ant, they do little or no harm. What to do.—As a simple vermifuge, when their presence is suspected, ordinary wood soot, mixed with the salt the sheep naturally take will do good. In fact, if sheep are allowed plenty of salt, with the soot mix ture once a week, when worms are suspected they will do well enough ; or give every two weeks, in ground feed, the following, which is enough for 80 to 100 sheep : No. 12. 2. Pounds common salt, 1 Pound sulphate of magnesia, 13 Pound sulphate of iron, 1g Pound powdered gentian, Mix. For good simple vermifuge for round and thread worms, to be given as a drench, take No. 18. 4 Ounces linseed oil, 1g Ounce oil of turpentine, Mix. If the sheep are known to have tape worm, give in molasses and water the following : No. 14. 2 to 4 Drachms powdered areca nut, 10 to 20 Drops oil of male-fern, Mix. The first quantities for small, and the latter for large sheep. In the case of a large sheep, administer half a pint of linseed oil on the following day. Vil. The Rot or Liver Fluke. Causes.—Small flat worms (Fasciola Hepatica and Distoneum Lan- ceolatum) in the liver, called the liver fluke, are the cause of rot. PARASITIC AND OTHER DISEASES. 905 How to know it.—There will be tenderness and weakness about the loins ; the belly will be swollen and enlarged ; the eyes yel- low as in jaundice ; and if the skin be rubbed back and forth, when taken up between the thumb and fingers, it is soft and flabby, with a crackling sensation. What to do.—If there is diarrhea, a weak heart beat, and general stupor, remove the sheep to a high dry pasture, or to well ventilated airy places, as the case may be. Prepare the following : No. 15. ‘4 Pound sulphate of magnesia, 6 Drachms oil of turpentine. Mix the magnesia sulphate with three half pints of water, add the turpentine and give one-third of it every two days, — FASCIOLA - Brant ce i F HEPATICA. shaking the bottle before using. Follow the above with the tonic: No. 16. 40 Pounds oat meal, 4 Pounds powdered gentian or anise seed, 4 Pounds common salt, 1 Pound sulphate of iron, Mix. Give half a pint to each sheep once a day for a week: then wait three weeks and repeat. Remove the sheep to high dry pasture or salt marsh, both being poisonous to the fluke. Do not put the sheep in a wet pasture, for there they only sow the seed to perpetuate the DISTONEUM LANCEOLATUM. trouble. VIII. Lung Worms. Causes.—This disease is caused by the presence of worms (Strongylus Filaria), which are usually found in the wind-pipe, and bronchial tubes and sometimes in the lungs. How to know it.—There will be a husky cough; quickened breathing ; / loss of appetite and flesh; and the sheep will rub its nose onthe ground ; | srron@yius FrLARIA, MALE ENLARGED. there may be dysentery with feetid evacuations. Examine the mouth and throat, and also the stools, for in- dications of the worms. Prepare the following: No. 17. 6 Ounces sulphate of magnesia, 4 Ounces nitrate of potash, 4 Ounces sulphur, 4 Ounces sulphate of iron, Mix. 906 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. Give a single handful te each sheep in or corn meal once a day for a week; then wait three weeks and repeat. Burn turpentine on pine shavings under their noses so as to make te breathe the fumes. IX. Sheep worried by Dogs. Sheep that have been torn by dogs, are apt to die, owing to the lacer- ated nature of the wound, especially if the skin has been stripped from considerable surface in hot weather. What to do.—The lacerated surfaces must be brought together, in such away that they may unite; and, if necessary, stitched. In hot weather flies must be guarded against, and the wounds should be treated advised in the case of horses when wounded. X. Sprains, Strains and Bruises. What to do.—These also are to be treated precisely as advised in the ‘vase of horses. In simple cases hot fomentations and the subsequent application of camphor is the rule usually followed. For a sprain, to immerse the limb in water as hot as can be borne, for half an hour at a time, and repeated several times a day, usually effects a rapid cure. XI. Care when Lambing. What to do.—The ewes should be well fed for several weeks previous to lambing, so as to be strong and have the lambs strong and well devel- oped when dropped ; but avoid having ths ewes fat. Have a dry, com- fortable place for them to run in, not too warm; they should be put in a ae 0 ony N } \ \ i ‘ v dl SWELLING OF THE UMBILICUS IN CHARBON (NAVEL ILL.) warmer place when lambing than they have been accustomed to, in order to avoid chilling the lamb. Allow no spectators around the sheep while lambing, except the man they are accustomed to; let him watch the progress of events to see that help is given if needed. PARASITIC AND OTHER DISEASES. 907 Sometimes wrong presentations are made, and then the shepherd should be ready with his hand oiled and warmed in warm water to render assistance ; let him insert his hand and change the position of the foetus as the case requires, being very careful indeed not to wound or torture the ewe. If the lamb is dropped at night and gets chilled, put it into a warm water bath and dry it thoroughly when taken out, and give it a few spoonfuls of milk, diluted a little and sweetened, and with a dusting of red pepper init. Keep the ewe separate from the others for a week or ten days, and feed on soft food and roots if it is too early for grass. XII. Navel Il. Charbonous fever, or carbuncular erysipelas in lambs, in addition to the other symptoms, usually manifests itself in swelling of the umbilicus. The swellings are not confined to the umbilical region, but are often found in other parts of the body. It is sometimes seen as a symptom or complica- tion of rheumatic disease of the joints of lambs, foals and calves. It was considered by shep- herds, not many years ago, to be a distinct THE ROT. disease, known as Navel Ill. See illustration on preceding page. uu oO ea » 7 7 ; b | yi Alb eh oe) Vile Fouhiliia sat * mi rile (Phage » oly PAAy me ; ee a ence ae RN eae is + evi Le 0 ae ie UL, CRY. HISTORY. MANAGEMENT AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS. — 7 PO WHeitine @ CHAPTER I. ORIGIN AND VARIETIES OF FARM BIRDS. I. ORIGIN OF THE WORD POULTRY.——II. TYPES AND NATIVE COUNTRY OF BARN-YARD FOWLS. Ill. CHANGES DUE TO BREEDING. IV. DIVISION OF FOWLS. Vv. THE WILD TURKEY. VI. | DUCKS. VII. GEESE. VIII THE SWAN.— IX. PHEASANTS. X. GUINEA FOWLS. XT. PEAFOWLS. XII. ANATOMY OF THE HEN. I. Origin of the Word Poultry. The word poultry comes from the Latin word pullus, a chicken, or the young of any animal. In its broad sense it is now used to designate any domestic fowl bred or fed for human food, and for the eggs and feath- ers. Hence, the peaceck may reasonably be included, since its feathers are an important article of commerce. The modern word poultry, how- ever, more properly comes from the French word poule, hen, just as our word pullet comes from the French poulet, a chick. The cut of the French Creve Coeur will illustrate a singular departure from the wild type given on the next page. In a more modern sense the word poul- try is generally applied to barn-yard fowls or the genus ga//us—the word fowl being used with a prefix, as water-fowl, which includes ducks and geese, Guinea-fowl, etc., while turkeys, peacocks, pheasants and other later or only partially domesticated birds are designated by their proper or common names. II. Types and Native Country of Barn-Yard Fowls. The originals of all the varieties of barn-yard fowls were inhabitants of thickets, and other openings of the forests, rather than of the dense forest itself; there are a number of species. A variety closely resem- bling our common barn yard fowl, is the Sonnerat fowl, ( Gallus Son- neratii) a native of the Ghautes, separating Malabar from Coromandel. Damphier, previous to the discovery of Sonnerat, found wild fowls Closely resembling our old barn-yard fowls in the islands of the Indian Archipelago. So it may safely be said, that our fowls with long flowing tails, are’natives of India. 53 913 914 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. III. Changes Due to Breeding. The great wild species of Southern Asia, and the wild Malay and Chit- tagong, were probably influential in modifying the large Asiatic breeds of to-day ; and our bantams undoubtedly spring from the Bankiva jungle fowl, although careful and systematic breeding and selection have given us bantams of all the principal breeds of barn-yard fowls, including the games. Aguin, as showing a marked departure from the wild form, we CREVE CdEUR COCK AND HEN. give cuts of two heads, one the Breda, or Gueldre, retaining the wattles, but not the marked comb, and a variety of Brahma, with no wattles, and with only the rudiments of a comb. IV. Division of Fowls. Our barn-yard fowls may therefore be divided into the common or mixed breeds, Asiatic fowls, European and American varieties, and Ban- tams. Each of these will be treated in their proper places. ORIGIN AND VARIETIES OF FARM BIRDS. 915 V. The Wild Turkey. The wild turkey is a native only of Ameriea; there are several so- ealled species, but they are, however, only varieties that have bred con- stant to type, perhaps having escaped from some ancient domestication. They are all fertile one with another. The turkey is native to all that region from Central America, north, up to 45 degrees, wherever suitable timber covert can be found; but in all the more thickly settled regions they have long since been exterminated. The illustrations show the common wild turkey hen, and the Mexican wild turkey cock. GALLUS SONNERATII. VI. Ducks. None of the wild fowl seem to have been more easily domesticated than the duck, though the domestication of birds of any species seems easy, Whenever they prove valuable enough to pay their keeping. Only the larger varieties have, as a rule, been thought worth domestication, though of late years some of the smaller and beautifully plumaged birds have been bred in a tame state. They make very handsome adjuncts to water scenery, in connection with swans and the rarer species of geese. 916 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. The common white duck and the Rouen are two of the oldest domesti- eated varieties of ducks ; while the Cayuga, or black duck, an American variety is among the latest. HEAD OF SINGLE WATTLED BRAHMA FOWL. HEAD OF BREDA, OR GUELDRE. Vil. Geese. Geese, as well as ducks, being birds of passage, are found in all cli- mates, from sub-tropical latitudes up tothe Aretic Circle. Foilowing the WILD TURKEY HEN. season of spring into the North, they breed in summer from latitude forty-five up to sixty, and return in the autumn to their winter quarters ORIGIN AND VARIETIES OF FARM BIRDS. 917 in the sub-tropical regions. ‘Che common gray goose is the nearest ap- au i “ip Dy, y, f 1) My? i My Fd ay ffi, 4 Misa, lla» lilly, Uy MEXICAN WILD TURKEY COCK. proach to the wild type, and these are becoming scarcer and scarcer each 915 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. year, gradually giving way to improved breeds. Of these, the Embden, or Bremen, combine a pure white color, softness of color, and heavy weight. The origin of the gray and the white geese is generally sup- CAYUGA DUCKS. posed to be the Gray-lag goose (Anser Ferus), of the North of Europe. The American wild goose (Anser Canadensis), is a distinct species ; this variety breeds freely, and is tolerably contented under domestication, ORIGIN AND VARIETIES OF FARM BIRDS. SMES) even in the first generation. It is but a few years, compa ratively, since they were first domesticated. Asia and Africa have furnished us with ‘ASdady NAW UO “NACA i: Hill IN PAN AL ya PERMA) RROD a four sub-families of geese, three of which come from China, and the fourth from Africa—the African goose. 920 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, VIII. The Swan. The swan has long been known in history, but is not a useful bird except as an ornamental appendage to the ponds and lakes of parks. The most common is the white swan ; there are, besides, a number of rare and ornamental varieties, among them the black swan from Australia, and the black-necked Chili swan. The head and neck of the latter are jet black ; the body, wings, and tail, pure white, the bill having a rea knob or protuberance, IX. Pheasants. None of the pheasants (P/hasianus) are natives of the United States, the so-called pheasant of the South and some other sections of the United States being really the ruffed grouse ( Tetrao wnbellus). The common half-domesticated pheasant of Europe and America (Phasianus Colchi- cus) is found wild in the Caucasus, and about the Caspian Sea. In the United States we have five varieties which breed in confinement, but none of them are more capable of domestication than the peacock. These varieties are: ‘The ring-necked, originally from China ; the ash-colored ; the whites and the parti-colored, The ring-necked pheasant is said to be originally from China. The male of the silver pheasant (Phasianus nycthemerus ) originally from the north of China, is a most beautiful bird, of a silver white color, with regular, slender, lice-like black markings on the feathers of the back, while the under parts are of a black color; the long, drooping tail is also silver white, barred with black. The female is of a dull reddish color, and of a smaller size. The golden pheasant ( Phasianus thaumalea pic- fus) is one of the most beautiful of birds, bred in a state of half-domes- fication, and is much smaller than either of the pheasants before men- tioned. The under part of the male is of a red color, the head is orna- mented with a splendid golden yellow crest, the neck i» hidden or oyer- hung by a somewhat projecting ruff of feathers of a bright yellow color, striped or barred with black. The wings are of a dull blue, the hind parts of the body are of « golden color, set off with red, and the tail is long and brown, barred with black, The female of this species is also inconspicuous in color, These birds have bred well in some forests in Europe, and in a state of domestication have produced three varieties, viz: the ordinary golden and red color, the black, and the Isabella or fawn. They all, like the Guinea-fowl and peafowl, roost on high trees and elevated points, and wander considerably ; but in close confinement they will permit handling. ORIGIN AND VARIETIES OF FARM BIRDS. 921 X. Guinea-Fowls. Guineafowls are of two varieties and are now quite widely dissemi- nated. The varieties are, the pearl and the white, the latter yet rather rare. They have been grouped by naturalists into a number of varieties, rrr) ON SPECKLED GUINEA-FOWL. but the distinction was more fanciful than real, since all the varieties readily mate one with the other, and the progeny are continuously fertile together. Their original home may be inferred from their generic name, NViwm- ida; they come from Numidia and other portions of Africa from Gam- WHITE GUINEA-FOWL. bia to the Gaboon. The so called Cape Verde and Jamaica Guinea~ fowls are undoubtedly descendants of these, become wild after having been carried there. The cuts of the white and speckled species will give a 922 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. good idea of the whole tribe. A very rare species is the Vulturine Cuinea-fowl, so called for its vulture-like head and neck. The whole species are among the most watchful and wary of birds, giving instant alarm with their shrill note of danger. When bred, they should be allowed full liberty, since they do not stand confinement well. XI. Peafowls. This magnificent bird, quite useless except for the splendor of its plum- age and the value of its tail feathers, is rare in farm yards, from its sup- posed want of adaptation to northern climates. This, however, is & mis- take; they are as hardy as most of the breeds of barn-yard fowls. The male is cruel and cowardly, and is given to destroying the eggs of the Nae ATS OM\\\. 4 wy\\3 PEACOCK, female. Tence the hens are very secret as to their nests. They do not lay their eves until late in the season, and keep their broods away from the yards until driven thither in the autumn for want of food. They have considerable powers of flight, and the males, especially, wander long distances from home ; they should be allowed their full liberty. XII. Anatomy of the Hen. The anatomy of the hen will answer for all the land birds, and, in a measure (for all but the scientific breeder) for water-fowls as well, since the frame of the latter is only so modified as to permit their swimming and diving in water. Both in land and water-fowls the more valuable ORIGIN AND VARIETIES OF FARM BIRDS. 923 portions for food are the breast, the thigh, the leg, the neck and the wing. The back and rump give but little flesh, very choice in flavor. Fig. 1 represents the skeleton of a hen of average size and in the pro- portions as ordinarily met with. Explanation.—A—The head, length 2 3-4 inches. #&—The neck, length 5 1-3 inches. C—The back or spine. J—The hips or hip bones, (the back and hips comprise from the shoulder to the tail,) length 5 9-10 inches. H—Rumyp or coccygis, length, 1 1-2 inches. #—Shoulder- blade or shoulder. G—Collar bone or ‘merry-thought.’ //—Chest or thorax, composed of the sides and breast-bone (bone of the throat); it contains the heart, liver, ete. /—The breast-bone, ) length a little over 3 1-2 inches. J The wing bones, as will be seen, are composed of the humerus or shoulder- bone of the wing, length 3 1-7 inches ; also the radius and the cubitus, the fore- arm or pinion, length 2 3-4 inches; the tip of the wing, or that which takes the eRe SE Pe EM: nee: place of the hand and fingers, length 21-3 inches. A— The leg, composed of d— (Fig. 2.) the thigh bone, length 3 1-7 inches; e—the shin bone, length 4 1-3 inches; f—the bone of the foot, the tarsus, length 8 1-7 inches ; g—the claws, that of the middle, length 2 1-3 inches; the two to the right and left, length 1 6-10 inches ; that of the back, length 8-10 inches; / —the patella or knee ; 7—the os calcis or heel. The foot as shown in Fig. 2, is all that part (/) from (7) to (7). The hen—like nearly all four-footed animals, and unlike man—walks on the toes. If the hen walked on the foot, all that portion from the toe (Fig. 2). nails up to 7, would rest on the ground, and hence tke position of the rear toe would be different. As it is placed, it supports the other toes im walking and especially when on the perch, at night; for all land breeds are peculiar in this, that when they are at rest, they retain their position securely by the simple weight of the body, which causes the sinews and muscles to contract and thus draw the toes firmly around the object grasped. Some fowls have five, and even six toes, but four only are used to advantage—three before and one behind. The rest are really super- uamerary—auas much so as two thumbs on a man’s hand. CHAPTER II. BARN-YARD FOWLS. Il. SILVER GRAY DORKINGS.——III. GRAY V. BLACK DORKINGS. Vill. LA I. ENGLISH BREEDS—DORKING FOWLS.- DORKINGS. IV. FAWN-COLORED DORKINGS. BOLTON GRAYS, OR CREOLES.- VII. FRENCH FOWLS—HOUDANS. FLECHKE FOWLS, IX. CREVE CCEURS. X. BREDA OR GUELDER FOWLS.— XII. HAMBURG FOWLS—BLACK HAMBURG. XI. SPANISH FOWLS. XIII. PENCILED HAMBURGS.——KXIV. LEGHORN FOWLS. XV. WHITE LEGHORNS. XVI. AMERICAN BREEDS.——XVII. DOMINIQUE FOWLS.——XVIII. OSTRICH FOWLS.——XIX. PLYMOUTH ROCK FOWLS. I. English Breeds—Dorking Fowls. Of the distinct English breeds of barn yard fowls, the Dorkings, in their varieties, confessedly stand first. The old White or Surrey Dork- ing is the original type from which the others have sprung. The Dork- ings all have five toes, are full wattled, with long sickle-shaped tail feath- ers and generally single serrated combs. The White Dorkings are plump, compact birds with strong head and bill. The plumage is pure white without spot, and the legs, also, are white. The mature cock will weigh fully ten pounds, the hen eight or nine pounds, and year-old birds eight or nine pounds when fat. They are fairly hardy, good layers, care- ful and watchful of the brood: and the flesh is most excellent. None of the Dorkings can stand cold storms ; but they are altogether the best of the distinct English breeds. II. Silver-Gray Dorkings. The Silver-gray Dorking is undoubtedly a chance variety of the White Dorking, which has been continued by careful breeding and selection. They vary much in their markings, unless the greatest care is used, and even then many chicks must be discarded from the breeding yards. Their mixed origin is fully shown in the fact that dark colored birds often produce handsome silver-gray chicks. III. Gray Dorking. The distinguishing colors of this variety are: Breast, tail and larger tail feathers perfectly black; the head, neck, hackle, back, saddle, and wing bow a clear, pure, silvery white: and across the wings a well de- fined black bar, in striking contrast with the white outside web of the 924 BARN-YARD FOWLS. 925 quill feathers and the white hackle of the neck and saddle. The neck of the hen is silvery white ; the breast salmon red, changing to gray nearthe “highs ; the wings silvery or slaty gray, without any tinge of red; the tail dark red, the inside nearly black. The chicks grow rapidly, if well fed, so that they may be made ready for broiling before they are fully fattened. es WHITE DORKING COCK, IV. Fawn-colored Dorkings. Birds of this variety are handsome, but with tails shorter than the others ; they have black legs and a highecarriage. The hens lay large eggs. The matured cocks will weigh up to nine pounds and the hens seven 926 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. pounds of excellent flesh. They are said to have heen produced by : eross between the White Dorkings and the fawn-colored Turkish fowl. V. Black Dorkings. The black Dorkings differ but little from the other varieties. They are, however, thought to be more hardy than the other sub-families ; the hens are good layers and careful nurses, and the eggs are large. According to Wright, the pure-breds are jet black ; the neck of some cocks tinged GRAY DORK NGS. with gold, and the hens silver tinged; the comb usually double, short, sometimes cupped, but sometimes single; the wattles small; the tail feathers shorter and broader than those of the White Dorking ; the legs black, short, and with the two under toes separate and distinct. VI. Bolton Grays or Creoles. This breed, once famous in England, was said to have been bred with such nicety that individual fowls could scarcely be distinguished one from another. They are great layers ; not inclined to set ; short-legged ; plump ; medium-sized ; the eggs, however, rather small ; the color is white, thick- ly spotted with black as to the neck and body, with black bars at the ex- tremity of the tail. BARN-YARD FOWLS. 927 VII. French Fowls—Houdans. The four varieties of French fowls that have been more or less dissemi- nated in the United States are the Houdans, the Creve Ceeur, La Fleche, and the Breda. The Houdans rank in France with the Dorkings in England, and in the United States they are regarded with favor. They are said to have been originated from a cross between the Dorking and the silver Padoue, and have the fifth toe as do the Dorkings. In color they should be white HOUDAN HEN. and black, evenly distributed, making them distinctly speckled. Red feathers are not admissible, but an occasional stained featheris sometimes seen in the best fowls. They love to wander, but bear confinement well. The comb is double leafed, and they have whiskers and beard growing well up en the face which, with the crest or top-knot, gives them a curious appearance. The crest of the hen is quite thick, rounded and full. They are hardy, fatten kindly, lay good-sized eggs, and the flesh is of the first quality. Veo THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. VIII. La Fleche Fowls. These are hardy ; tall, rather angular, but compact-bodied ; jet black : strong-limbed, with dense, firm plumage. They lay excellent eggs, and the flesh is superior to that of any other French breed, and excelled probably by none. They are a full wattled fowl, and the protuberant AND HEN LA FLECHE COCK feathers behind the serrate comb give them the appearance of being double horned. Their ears are large and opaque. The beak moderately curved, neck hackles long and fine, reflecting violet and green-black colors, as do the breast, wings and upper tail feathers. The legs are BARN-YARD FOWLS. 929 long, slate-blue in young fowls, and a lead-gray when old. The hen is colored like the cock. The cocks are fully mature at a year and a half old and the hens at twelve months. IX. Creve Cours. The Creve Coeurs are among the most elegant and stately of French fowls. ‘heir color is black, reflected with a glistening greenish hue ; DO AAAMO Ht "STMOT 10 Hi} Wl MH | i their antler-like, deep crimson combs and crested heads give them a bold, striking and dignified appearance. They are, also, probably the most useful of the French breeds, when we take into consideration their ood fecding qnalities, their great merit as steady producers of large 59 950 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. eggs, their easy fattening qualities, and their constitutional hardiness. Their color should be jet black, though as age approaches an occasional white feather may appear in the crest. They are short-legged, compact fowls, with little offal, and of the non-sitting order—so much so that the eggs should be placed under other hens, or those more apt to be reliable as sitters and nurses. In England they are reputed somewhat tender, but in the United States we have heard no complaints of this kind, after they were once acclimated. The heads of the cocks are topped with handsome crests, before which are seen large, toothed, two-horned combs. Their wattles are handsome and pendent, and they have dense cravats of feathers on the fore part. of the neck. The illustration admirably shows their chief characteristics. X. Breda or Gueldre Fowls. These fowls are called after the French province of the same name,. where the breed originated ; but though they are classed as French fowls they evidently skow an infusion of Asiatic blood, while they are Polish in NH { uh \ 4 BREDA OR GUELDRE FOWLS. shape and undoubtedly closely allied to that breed. There are severalsuch varieties distinguished by color—the cuckoo-marked being called Guel- dres, and the black, Bredas, though the latter term seems to be applied to all that are not cuckoo or dominique marked. BARN-YARD FOWLS. 935L They have just a perceptible crest, pendent wattles, and very little comb. Whatever the color, they have but few feathers on the legs, which are slaty blue, and the thighs vulture hocked. The plumage is close and compact, the ear lobes and wattles bright red and peculiar in shape. The chicks are hardy and feather quickly, and the eggs are large, smooth and excellent in flavor. Two peculiarities of this breed are the almost total absence of comb, causing a depression in that part, and their cavernous and conspicuous nostrils. The accompanying illustration, to- gether with the cut of head on a previous page, will sufficiently portray their distinguishing characteristics. XI. Spanish Fowls. There are a number of Spanish varieties besides the Pure Black and the Pure White, as the Minorea or Red-faced Black, the Ancona, the Gray or mottled, and the Andalusian or Blue Spanish. They have long been yalued in the United States for their great laying and non-sitting BLACK SPANISH FOWLS. qualities, but are too tender to stand a northern climate, without extra protection, and they do not do well anywhere, when exposed to wet. With proper attention, the fancier may get good returns in large, meaty, well- flavored eggs, and plenty of them. To the average farmer they are not a valuable breed. 932 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. The characteristics of the two principal varieties are sufficiently well portrayed by the illustration in connection with the following discription : The weight of 2 full-grown Spanish cock should not be less than seven BLACK HAMBURGS. {11} | WH |! HAA pounds, nor its height, when erect, less than twenty-two inches. The color should be pure black, or pure white, according to the variety, without white in the black or black feathers in the white variety. The eye should be full, bright and of a dark brown color. The ear lobes and BARN-YARD FOWLS. 933 white face are important characteristics; the comb of the cocks high, firm, single and deeply serrated, while in the hens it will often fall over on one side; the wattles large, long, and of the deepest vermilion color, as is also the comb. XII. Hamburg Fowls—Black Hamburg. All the Hamburg fowls have these constant characteristics: Bright, double combs, firmly fixed, and ending in a long point behind and some- what turned up; medium size; upright carriage ; long upright tails, and long flowing plume feathers. They are hardy and robust, great layers of excellent flavored eges, but seldom sit, even when they have a free range, and almost never when kept confined. The black Hamburg is one of the best of fowls for farms where free range can be had and plenty of eggs are desired. They will lay even in the coldest weather if given warm quarters and warm food. The eggs are not large, but they make up in quality what they lack in size. The plumage should be deep black, relieved with a metallic lustre. XTII. Penciled Hamburgs. ate There are two varieties,—viz., Golden and Silver penciled, as there are two varieties of Spangled Hamburgs, the Golden and the Silver. In fact, GOLDEN PENCILED HAMBURGS. the Silver penciled variety are probably but little different from the old Bolton Gray, previously described, and descended probably direct from 934 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. the Turkish fowl described long ago by Aldrovandus. Tegetmeier says of them, that perhaps no variety of fowl ever rejoiced in more synonyms than this very pretty, and, in suitable situations, profitable breed: they have been long termed Bolton Grays, from being extensively and success- fully cultivated in and about Bolton, in Lancashire ; Creoles, from the intermixture of the black and white in their plumage ; Creels, which is a provincial mode of pronouncing Creoles ; Corals, because the numerous points of their polished, bright scarlet rose combs bear no distant resem- blance to red coral; Penctled Dutch, because many are imported from Holland ; Dutch Hvery-day Layers and Everlastings, for the same rea- SILVER PENCILED HAMBURGS. son, and their great productiveness as layers; and Chitteprats, the deri- vation of which is not so obvious. Chitteface, according to Bailey, the lexicographer, means a meagre child; and Chitteprat, if intended to de- scribe a diminutive hen, would not be misapplied to one of this variety. The general characters of Penciled Hamburgs may be thus stated: They are birds of small size, compact and neat in form, sprightly and cheerful in carriage. In the plumage on the body of the hens, each feather (with the exception of those of the neck-hackle, which should be perfectly free from dark marks) is penciled with several transverse bars of black on a clear ground, which is white in the silver, and a rich bay in the golden birds. These pencilings have given rise to the name of the BARN-YARD FOWLS. 935 variety. In the cocks, however, there is a general absence of these mark- ings, the birds being either white or bay. In both sexes the legs are blue, with fine bone. The comb is a rose, square in front and well peaked be- hind; the ear-lobe a well-defined white ; the face scarlet. In weight and size, Silver-penciled Hamburgs are considerably below the general standard ; the carriage of the cock is very erect ; the tail is well borne up, and the head occasionally thrown back so far that the neck often touches the tail; the general form is exceedingly neat and elegant. In the hen the carriage is sprightly and active, but not so impudent as that of the cock ; both sexes are alike noisy and restless in their habits, neat and very pretty in their form. The neck-hackle in both should be pure white ; penciling with black, a very frequent fault in the hackle of the hens, being very objectionable. The saddle of the cock must be pure mealy white. The cock’s tail is black, the sickle and side sickle-feathers being glossed with green, and having a narrow white edging. In the hens the tail must be distinctly barred or penciled with black. The breast and thighs of the cock are white, as are the upper wing-coy- erts or shoulder, but the lower wing-coverts are marked with black on the inner web, showing « line of dots across the wing, forming a bar. The secondary quills, or those flight-feathers which are alone visible when the wing is closed, are white on the outer web and blackish on the inner web, and have a rich green-glossed black spot at the end of each feather. In the hens the entire plumage of the body, namely, that of the breast, back, wings, and thighs, should have each feather distinctly penciled or marked across with transverse bars of black; the more defined these are the better, as there should be a perfect freedom from a mossy appearance, which is caused by the two colors running into one another. The legs and feet in both sexes should be of a clear leaden or slaty blue. The comb in the cock is evenly set on the head, square in front, well sprigged above with small,even points, not hollowed on the upper surface, and ter- minating ina single flattened pike behind, which inclines slightly upwards. In the hen the comb is the same in form but very much smaller. The ear-lobe in both sexes must be a dead opaque white, free from red on the edge. The hens of either variety must have the body distinctly and definitely penciled, and the hackles of either sex must be entirely free from dark markings. In the spangled varieties the markings must be distinct, like spangles, or speckled. The other characteristics range uniform with those of the other varieties. Whatever the variety, they are most valu- able either to the farmer or fancier, but with the farmer, unless he be ¢ fancier as well, if a little off color in breeding it is no detriment, so far as egg-laying is concerned. g-laying 936 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK, XIV. Leghorn Fowls. The Leghorn fowls are of the Spanish type, except in color. The White Leghorn is regarded with most favor, although the Brown Leg- horn has its fanciers. There are also other grades of colors except black. STANDARD WHTTE LEGHORNS,. Whatever the color, they have all the good laying qualities of the Span- ish, without their tender qualities, and indeed dispute the palm with the Hambures in every good point. The illustration shows what are accepted among breeders as standard White Leghorns. XV. White Leghorns. These birds are among the most elegant of barn-yard fowls, eitherin the yard of the farmer or amateur. They are similar to the Spanish in ap- pearance, except that the plumage is white, with hackle or neck, and the saddle or rump feathers tinged golden. Unlike the Spanish, they are hardy, standing even our western winters excellently. They are good winter layers, and seldom desire to sit; the young early take care of BARN-YARD FOWLS. 937 themselves, and feather so early that they look to be miniature fowls when six weeks or two morths old. They are quiet and docile. The eggs are superior in flavor, and as a table fowl they have few superiors among the gallinaceous tribe. “SNHOHDAT ALIHM XVI. American Breeds. The distinctive American breeds of barn-yard fowls that have attained wide celebrity are the Dominique, the Ostrich fowl, and the Plymouth Rock. The Dominique have often been confounded with the Scotch Grays, and also with the Cuckoo Dorkines and other fowls bred to the 938 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. cuckoo feather of England and France ; they are, however, an old and entirely distinct American race. The Georgian Game is also a distinct American breed, but this will be treated of under the head of Games. XVII. Dominique Fowls. For the farm-yard, when both eggs and chickens are desired, this breed when pure, (unfortunately now rather rare), is one of the most valuable of the known breeds, for it combines hardiness of constitution with good for- aging qualities ; is prolific of eggs, and when killed shows plenty of good flesh. The true color is a soft and undulating shading of slaty blue, upon a light ground all over the body, thus forming bands of various NN \ hy) (r : ms N ASSET NS AON TRY WANNYS DOMINIQUE FOWL. narrow widths, and finely penciled among the smaller feathers. The cocks have heavy hackle and saddle feathers. The feet and legs must be bright yellow or buff, and the bill of the same color, The combs of the cocks, however, are variable, some cocks having a single and others a double comb. BARN-YARD FOWLS. 939 XVIII. Ostrich Fowls. This breed is not widely disseminated, but in their native region— Bucks County, Pa.—they are highly esteemed for their weight, valuable laying qualities, excellent flesh, and weigh nine pounds at maturity an OSTRICH FOWLS. XIX. Plymouth This is one of the latest-formed The cocks will d the hens seven to eight, wid will often lay forty to fifty eggs before wanting to sit. The color of the blue-black, the of the feathers tipped with white. The a golden or yellow tinge, the hackle dark glossy blue. The cocks have a double hardy constitutions. cock is ends wings rose-col- The legs are short and strong, and the body thick and plump. The hens are marked similarly to the cock, but more soberly, and the is single, high and serrated. Rock Fowls. ored comb, and large wattles. comb of American breeds, first shown at PLYMOUTH ROCKs. Boston in 1840. It is evidently a breed made up of various crosses, and 940 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. unfortunately was disseminated before its characteristics became uniform or well fixed in any respect. It gave rise to much bitter controversy, in which even the common dunghill was stated to have had a large share in the origin. Of late years, what is called the Improved Plymouth Rock has appeared and shows care and uniform breeding. They are said to grow fast, fledge early, take on flesh rapidly, and to combine excel- lent qualities as egg producers and as table fowls. They have not yet become popular, except with a comparatively few fanciers, and for the reason, perhaps, that their really good qualities are not yet known among farmers. ~~ a Seesaw! A PAIR OF BANTAMS. CHAPTER II. GAME FOWLS AND OTHER RARE BREEDS. I. GAME FOWLS AND THEIR VARIETIES. Il, EARL DERBY GAMES.——IIIl. BROWN- BREASTED RED GAMES. IV. DUCK-WINGED GAMES. V. WHITE GEORGIAN GAMES. VI. GAME BANTAMS. Vil, OTHER BANTAMS. VIII. THE SEA- BRIGHT BANTAM.——IX. JAPANESE BANTAMS.——X. FRIZZLED FOWLS.——XI. RUMPLESS FOWLS.——XII. SILKY FOWLS. I. Game Fowls and their Varieties. The Games are the most elegant as they are the noblest of the gal- linaceous tribe. Watchful, without fear, attacking an enemy—even in- truding dogs—with boldness, and fighting to the death, they at the same time are hardy, good foragers, and the hens produce eges of the finest flavor. Infact, many fanciers breed them simply for the excellence of their eggs and the delicacy of their flesh. Public sentiment is justly against the barbarous practices of the cock-pit, in which birds are pitted against each other until one or both are killed. The varieties are numerous, and the sub- varieties are many, each having a local celebrity. As mere fighting birds, the English, Irish, Cubans, Mexicans, Spanish and Malays all have their favorites, while in many sections of the South the Georgian Games are held to be superior in point of shape, carriage, plumage, hardiness and courage, as they undoubtedly are superior in point of flesh, and the quality of the eggs. Among sub-varieties that have acquired more or less celebrity, the Salmon-pile Games, and the Dominique or Cuckoo Games may be noticed as combining many excellent qualities. What- ever breed is selected, but one variety can be kept ina run, since it would give rise to endless battles and killing of birds; besides, of all gallina- ceous birds, the breeder of games should carefully keep them from inter- mixture. II. Earl Derby Game. This most excellent strain of game fowls is really the Black-Breasted red Game, but bred with the greatest care and attention for over a cen- tury in England. They are unsurpassed in style, beauty and courage, and for the table are among the best. As bred in England and in this country they are identical; they are described as having a round, well knit body, on long, strong legs, with white feet and claws; the head long, the bill lance-shaped and elegant ; the face bright red, with small J4i 942 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. comb and wattles red; they are daw-eyed, that is, the eye is gray like that of the Jackdaw; back mtense brown-red; lesser wing coverts maroon colored; greater wing coverts marked at the extremity with steel-blue, forming a bar across the wings; primary wing feathers bay ; tail irridescent black; hackle well feathered, touching the shoulders ; wings large and well quilled ; back short; breast round and black; tail long and sickled, being well tufted at the root ; the carriage is upright and elegant. E 4 if if CF My £. ' yp / y) Sy)!" EARL DERBY GAME, Beeton, an English author describes them as follows: Head fine and tapering ; face, wattles and comb bright red; extremities of upper man- dible and the greater portion of the lower one white, but dusky at its base and around its nostrils ; chestnut brown around the eyes, continued beneath the throat; shaft of neck hackles light buff; web pale brown edged with black ; breast shaded with roan and fawn color; belly and vent of an ash tint; primary wing feathers and tail black, the latter carried vertically and widely expanded; legs, feet and nails perfectly white. GAME FOWLS, AND OTIIER RARE BREEDS. 943 III. Brown-Breasted Red Games. Not inferior perhaps to the foregoing in point of elegant carriage and courage are the Brown-breasted reds. Tegetmeier justly says that since they have long been sought for the pit, by men who rear them solely to this ‘AWVY TAN AALSVANA-NMOUA end, variation in shades of color is cared nothing about. Hence under the name of Brown-breasted red are included streaky-breasted, marble- breasted, and ginger-breasted reds, and various other shades of color. There is no breed of Game having so many variations in color, caused by 944 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. mating together blues, piles, duns, and brown and black-breasted reds ; so that there is little uniformity of color in the strain. In the purest strain is a light streaky breasted cock, with back and shoulder coverts dark crimson ; saddle red maroon on centre, passing off to a dark lemon and straw; hackle red, with the middle of each feather dark. The hen should have a nearly black body, but intermixed with gray on the wing ; the hackle bright, brassy or golden. IV. Duck-Winged Games. Like the Brown-breasted reds, there are several varieties of the Duck-wings. The Silver Grays are considered to be, perhaps, the purest in type; but each fancier has his own peculiar strain. Tegetmeier des- cribes the best cocks, correct in color, as haying the hackle nearly clear white, with « very slight tinge of straw color, without any decided yel- low tinge or dark streak on the feather. The saddle should be as nearly as possible the color of the hackle: the breast a maroon straw ; the DUCK-WING GAME FOWLS. shouider coverts « rich brass or copper maroon; the breast and tail pure black. The hens to match these cocks should have their necks of a clear silver, striped with black, the silver to go right up to the comb, but being a little darker above the eyes; the back and shoulder coverts a bluish- gray, shaft of feather scarcely showing any difference from the rest of the feather, any approach to red or penciling being decidedly objection- able ; the breast salmon color, of a rich shade. GAME FOWLS, AND OTHER RARE BREEDS. 945 V. White Georgian Games. This magnificent breed of Southern games makes one of the prettiest sights we have ever seen on the lawn. Their elegant carriage, pure white color, great courage and intelligence, make them decided favorites NVIDNOGD WLIMTM “SUNVOD wherever known. They are of European origin, like all other Games, but have been bred pure in the South, and are now, we believe, unknown in Europe except by specimens carried there. They are as good farm fowls —the eggs being delicate, the flesh excellent CO as they are game in the N46 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. pit. Their characteristics are: In color they must be pure white all over, with no shade whatever on neck, breast, hock or tail. The legs may be white or yellow ; and the beak should harmonize with the legs ; the comb, ear lobes and wattles must be of the deepest vermilion color. The yellow beak and legs are generally preferred, since they eco sup- posed to indicate greater hardiness; but we have never scen any differ- ence in this respect between the white and yellow legged birds. Still, the latter will continue to be preferred for cooking, im respor + to a somewhat popular, but probably erroneous taste, BARREN, FULL FEATHERED, VI. Game Bantams. Many of the varieties of the large games have their representatives in the bantams; specimens of the game bantams are often but little larger than pigeons, but they all possess the erect carriage, wonderful courage, and brilliant plumage of their larger relations. To our mind, the Black- breasted reds combine more good qualities than any other. They may be kept in the yards with the large Asiatic breeds without any danger of intermixture, but they will nevertheless be found fully masters of the yard, and will always give due warning of danger to the flock, and assist ma- terially in its protection from intruders. Fall broods of any of the han- tums make the handsomest and smallest specimens, and show birds are usnally thus bred. GAME FOWLS, AND OTHER RARE BREEDS. G47 VII. Other Bantams. The principal varieties bred are the Black, the Cochin, the Feather- legged, the Nankin, the Pekin, the White, the Seabright and the Japan- ese. The two latter will be sufficient for notice here as being the two most distinct and elegant of all the varieties. VIII. The Seabright Bantam. These are of two varieties, the Golden-penciled, and the Siiver-penciled, identical, except in the color of their plumage. A peculiarity of these is, that occasionally an old hen, or a barren one, will assume the plumage of the cock, a remarkable reversion. It is worthy of note, however, that the males of the Seabrights are all what are called hen-tailed breeds. The standard for the Seabrights whether Gold or Silver-penciled, is: The weight of the cock should not exceed twenty ounces at most; the hen not more than sixteen. Hens have been shown weighing not more than twelve ounces. The plumage of the Silver bantam is of a silver- : white color with a jet black margin. The Golden SS variety is identical except that the ground color of SEABRIGHT BANTAM. — the plumage is golden. The legs are smooth, the heads are clean, the comb double and pointed at the back, and the tail straight and without the long sickle feathers. Whether they be golden or silver spangled, the value of the birds consists in the delicacy and pen- cilings of the markings. IX. Japanese Bantams. These are without doubt the most striking of any of the varieties of bantams. Their carriage and general contour remind one of the best specimens of the white Leghorn, except that the comb of the hen is fully upright. This rare breed has a pure white body, the tail long, and the shafts of the sickle feathers white, long, upright, with the ends slightly curved, but carried over the back. The comb should be very long, broad, and moderately serrated, extending well back ; the wattles long, pendant, and bright red. The legs are short and yellow ; the body of the wings is white, but the quill feathers black. The hens are fan-tailed and the comb somewhat crinkled. These fowls cannot stand hard weather, and the chicks are quite tender. Hence they should not be hatched until warm weather sets in. The illustrations show perfect representations of these elegant fowls. 948, THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. X. Frizzled Fowls. Among the most curious of the gallinaceous tribe are the frizzled fowls, originally said to have been brought from Java, and occasionally found in the collections of amateur fanciers. The color should be pure white, though there are varieties bred brown and also black. Their peculiarity consists in their feathers being frizzled or rolled back. They are not useful, and their only value consists in their curious appearance. JAPANESE BANTAM COCK. JAPANESE BANTAM PULLET, XI. Rumpless Fowls. Rumpless fowls have been known for centuries at least. They were known in Virginia in the last century, and Buffon would have had the generation for whom he wrote believe, that short tails, or the want of tails was a characteristic of American animated creation; and he gravely accepted as truth that English fowls gradually lost their tails when trans- planted to America. If he had been better informed he would have known that Aldrovandus described the rumpless fowls more than a hun- dred years before his time. It is the Persian or rumpless cock of Latham. They have been bred of various colors, including black. The most fashionable variety now is pure white, with a small single comb as shown in the illustration. Rumpless bantams have also been bred. In GAME FOWLS, AND OTHER RARE BREEDS. 949 fact, it would seem not difficult to breed off the tail feathers of any fowls. None of the rumpless breeds, however, have particular value except as curiosities. H ig iN ; oll i | | WAN li. ei i WY Ul, @& ia pads ac acy RUMPLESS FOWLS. XII. Silky Fowls. This is also a breed more curious than useful. Its chief peculiarity is, that the feathers are filamentous and lack cohesion, giving the plumage a silky appearance. They are sometimes called negro-fowls, from the fact that the skin is of a dark violet color, or almost black, and the wattles and low, flat comb often dark purpie, and covered with wart- like excrescenses. The bones are also covered with a dark membrane, so that taken altogether they may be regarded as the most singular of the 950 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. whole gallinaceous tribe. The silk fowl is a native of Asia, and the most fashionable specimens are now bred pure white. The young chickens are covered with a yellow, silky down and are most interesting. Aside from their curious appearance, they have little value. WHT HH I) | | il I i NN Ni PAIN OF SILKY FOWLS. CHAPTER IV. ASIATIC FOWLS. I. THE VARIOUS ASIATIC BREEDS. Il, DARK BRATIMAS. Ill. LIGHT BRAHMAS. ——IV. COCHIN FOWLS.-——V. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COCHINS.——VI. WHITE COCHINS. VII. BUFF COCHINS. Vill. PARTRIDGE COCHINS. I. The Various Asiatic Breeds. Of all the varieties of the large Asiatic breeds introduced into the United States, first and last, the Brahmas and the Cochin Chinas alone have held their own with other popular breeds, and have been generally disseminated, The so called Shanghai and the Chittagong—the latter confessedly the giants of the larger breeds of fowls—have not fulfilled expectations. We shall, therefore, give the Chittagong only a passing no- tice, and simply delineate the principal varieties of the Brahmas and the Cochins. Of the Shanghais it may be remarked, that, when first intro- duced, they were the largest of the fowls imported up to that time, and were of various colors, gray, buff, cinnamon-colored, partridge and black ; and it is more than probable that some varieties of the Cochins owe their parentage to a union of the Shanghai and Chittagong, if indeed the so called Shanghai be not a Cochin and nothing else. However this may be, neither the Cochins nor Brahmas were originally from the Brahma-Pootra river, in India, since this region having been in the pos- session of the English so long, these remarkable fowls, if they had existed there, could not have remained unnoticed. II. Dark Brahmas. As bred both in England and America the characteristics of the dark Brahmas are as follows: The head of the cock should be surmounted with what is termed a ‘*pea-comb.’’ This resembles three small combs running parallel the length of the head, the centre one the highest : beak strong, well curved ; wattles full; ear-lobes red, well rounded and falling below the wattles. The neck should be short, well curved ; hackle full, silvery white striped with black, flowing well over the back and sides of the breast; feathers at the head should be white. Back very short, wide and flat, rising into a nice, soft, small tail, carried up- right ; back almost white ; the saddle feathers white, striped with black, 951 952 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. and the longer the better. The rise from the saddle to the tail, and the side feathers of the tail to be pure lustrous green-black (except a few next the saddle), slightly tipped with white, the tail feathers pure black. The breast should be full and broad, and carried well forward ; feathers black, tipped with white: wings small, and well tucked up under the saddle-feathers and thigh fluff. A good black bar across the wing is important. The fluff on the hinder parts and thighs should be black or dark gray ; lower part of the thighs covered with soft feathers, nearly black. The markings of the hen are nearly similar to those of the cock. Both sexes should have rather short yellow legs and profusely feathered DARK AND LIGHT BRAHMAS. . on the outside. The carriage of the hen is full, but not so upright as that of the cock. The markings of the hen, except the neck and tail, are the same all over, each feather having a dingy white ground, closely pen- ciled with dark steel gray, nearly up to the throat on the breast. III. Light Brahmas. The best of these fowls should be mostly white in color, but if the feathers are parted, the bottom of the plumage will appear of a bluish- gray. The neck-hackles should be distinctly striped with black down the ASIATIC FOWLS. 953 center of each feather. The plume of the cock is often lighter than that of the hen; the back should be quite white in both sexes. The wings should appear white when folded, but the flight feathers are black ; the tail black in both cock and hen ; in the cock, however, it is well de- veloped, and the coverts show splendid green reflections in the light ; it should stand tolerably upright, and open well out laterally, like a fan ; the legs should be yellow, and well covered with white feathers, which may or may not be very slightly mottled with black; ear-lobes must be pure red, and every bird should have a perfect pea-comb. The illustra- tion shows both the penciled or dark and also the light Brahma. WHITE COCHIN FOWLS. IV. Cochin Fowls. As an indication of the steady and increasing popularity of this, the largest of valuable barn-yard fowls, it is only necessary to enumer- ate some of the principal varieties into which they have been broken up, according to the taste or fancy of breeders. These are, White, Buff, 954 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. Cinnamon, Grouse or Partridge Cochin, Lemon, Silver Buff, Silver Cin- namon, Black Cochin, Cuckoo, and Silky-feathered Cochin. We illus- trate three of the best known breeds, the White, the Partridge and the 3uff Cochin. Although among the largest of barn-yard fowls, they endure confined quarters well; but it must be remembered that even the BUFF COCHIN COCK. most domestic of fowls cannot remain healthy unless they are allowed a fair amount of exercise. Among the best of the breeds for farmers are the White Cochins, the Buff Cochins, and the Partridge or penciled Coch- ins. It may also be remarked that the principal objection to the Brah- mas, and especially the Cochins, is that they accumulate fat so rapidly at ASIATIC FOWLS. 955 maturity that they are subject to apoplexy and kindred disorders. This may, however, be avoided by plenty of exercise, and a rather low diet. The engravings of Buff Cochin cock and hen show the general shape and carriage of the several sub-familes. V. General Characteristics of Cochins. The characteristics which will apply to the several varieties are now generally accepted to be as follows: In the cock the comb single, BUFF COCHIN HEN. fine, rather small, upright and straight, with well defined serrations, stout at the base and tapering to a point; head small and carried rather for- ward ; eye bright and clear; deaf ears pendant and large ; wattles large and well rounded on the lower edge; the hackles of the neck full and abundant, reaching well to the back ; back broad, with a gentle rise from the middle to the tail, and with abundant saddle feathers ; wings small, the primaries well doubled under the secondaries, so as to be out of sight when the wings are closed; tail small, curved feathers numerous, the 956 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. whole tail carried rather horizontally than upright ; breast deep, broad and full; thighs large and strong, well covered with soft feathers ; vul- ture hocks, those with long, stiff feathers, are objectionable ; the fluff soft and abundant, well covering the thighs and standing well out behind ; legs rather short, thick and bony, wide apart, and well feathered on the outside to the toes; toes stout and strong, the anterior and middle toes well feathered ; the carriage not so upright us in other breeds. The hen should correspond with these points, but be more feminine in appearance ; for instance, the comb should be single, very small, fine, low in front, perfectly straight with well defined serrations, and the tail, of course, lacking the sickle feathers. VI. White Cochins. These are sturdy, heavy birds, and among the best foragers of any of the Asiatic varieties. The standard for color, the other characteristics being as given under the general head, is: Comb, face, deaf-ear and wattles, brilliant red; plumage pure white throughout, the cock as free from yellow tinge as possible, the hens entirely free from any tinge whatever; legs bright yellow. VII. Buff Cochin. The points for cocks of this breed are as follows: Comb, face, deaf- ear and wattles, brilliant red ; head, rich clear buff ; hackle, back, wings, and saddle, rich, deep golden buff, the more uniform and even the bet- ter; quite free from mealiness on the wings; breast, thighs and fluff, uni- form, clear, deep buff, as free from mottling and shading as possible ; tail, rich dark chestnut, or bronze chestnut mixed with black, dark chest- nut preferable ; legs, bright yellow; leg feathers, clear deep buff. The color of the hen should be as follows: Comb, face, deaf-ear and wattles, same as cock; hackle, back, wings and saddle, same as cock, but slight marking at ends of feathers of the neck not a disqualification 3 legs, bright yellow, with feathers same color as those of the body. VIII. Partridge Cochins. The illustration will give a good idea of this magnificent breed of fowls. The points of color are: Cotor oF Cockx.—Comb, face, deaf-ear and wattles, rich brilliant red; head, rich red; hackle, rich bright red, with a rich black stripe down the middle of each feather; back and shoulder coverts, rich dark red; wing bow, rich dark red ; greater and lesser wing coverts, metallic greenish black, forming a wide bar across the wings; primary wing quills, bay on outside web, dark on inside web; secondary wing quills, rich bay on the outside web, black on the inner web, with a metallic ASIATIC FOWLS. 957 black end to each ‘feather ; saddle, rich bright red, with a black stripe down the middle of each feather ; breast, upper part of body, and thighs, rich deep black; tail, glossy black (white at the base of the feathers ob- jectionable, but not a disqualification. ) “SNIHOOOD FNCINIUNVd Cotor oF Hren.—Comb, face, deaf-ear, and wattles, brilliant red; neck, bright gold color on the edge of the feathers, with a broad black stripe down the middle; remainder of the plumage, light brown, dis- tinctly penciled with dark brown ; the penciling to reach well up the front 958 THF AMEKICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. of the breast. The shaft of the feathers on the back, shoulder coverts, bow of the wing, and sides, creamy white ; remainder of the plumage, rich brown, distinetly penciled with darker brown; the penciling reaching well up the front of the breast, and following the outline of the feathers ; legs, dusky yellow, with brown feathers. FEEDING THLE PIGEONS. CHAPTER VY. BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 1. A STUDY OF POINTS NECESSARY. Il. EXPLANATION OF POINTS III. POINTS OF THE HEAD. IV. THE PLUMAGE ILLUSTRATED AND EXPLAINED.——Y. IDEAL SHAPE OF FOWLS.——VI. BREED TO A FIXED TYPE. Vil. NUMBER OF HENS TO EACH COCK.——VIII. HOW TO MATE.——IX. BREEDING UPON A MIXED FLOCK. SO INCUBATION OF VARIOUS FOWLS.—XI. GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. XII. PROPER FOOD FOR FOWLS. XIII. POULTRY HOUSES AND COOPS. —XIV. FEED BOXES AND DRINKING FOUNTAINS.——XV. BREEDS FOR MARKET. ——XVI. BREEDS FOR EGGS.——XVII. HOW TO FATTEN.——XVIII. KILLING AND DRESSING FOWLS. XIX. PACKING AND SHIPPING TO MARKET. XX. GLOSS- ARY OF TERMS USED BY POULTRY FANCIERS. I. A Study of Points Necessary. Careful study of the points and characteristics is fully as necessary to success in the breeding of poultry as in any other department of breeding. It is not enough that you have a general idea of how fowls are to be fed and cared for; but to succeed—especially as a breeder of pure fowls— . . ry ry 2 . : . 1 : POINTS OF POULTRY. ILLUSTRATED. one must understand the probable results in mating fowls for a particular purpose. Not only must the contour and physical make-up be under- stood, but the breeder must have a knowledge of, and nice discrimination for, the various feathers, markings and characteristics, else he cannot hope 959 960 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. for the best success. He should also understand the technical terms used, so that he may school his mind to their exact meaning in applyig them to the fowl. The preceding illustration and references will fully explain all the points. They have been compiled from the best authorities extant, such as the writings of Tegetmeier, Wright and others. II. Explanation of Points. The first illustration, with lettered references, is all that will be re- quired in learning the technical terms relating to the exterior of fowls. Explanation.—A—Neck hackle. #—Saddle hackle. C—Tail. D— Breast. 4—Upper Wing coverts. /. Lower Wing coverts. G— Primary quill. H—Thighs. I—Legs. K—Comb. L—Wattles. —Kar-lobe. III. Points of the Head. For the following analysis of the points of the head, and of the plum- age, we are indebted to Moore’s Rural New Yorker. The cut will explain the precise situation of the several parts of the head. POINTS OF THE HWEAD OF COCK. Explanation. —1—The comb, which surmounts the skull. 2—The wat- tles which hang underneath and on each side of the beak. 3—The ear wattles, which hang under the cheek. 4—The tufts of little feathers. which cover and protect the auditory organ. 5—The cheeks which com- mence at the beginning near the nostrils, cover all the face and re-unite behind the head by a continuation of the flesh of the same nature, but BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 9651 covered with feathers. 6—The nostrils which are at the beginning of the beak. 7—The beak, of which the two parts, the upper and lower man- dible, are horny. The head of the cock, as of the hen, iscomposed of two principal parts : 1st, the skull is a firm union of bones, which include the upper part, or mandible, of the beak; 2nd, the lower part or mandible of the beak, be- ing the lower jaw-bone, formed by a single piece. In the skull are the sockets or cavities which contain the eye; the nostrils are in front of the eye; the auditory organ, or ear, is behind the eye. The head, excepting the beak, is entirely covered by a fleshy covering, round which may be seen several appendages or caruncles, which are the crest, the two ear- OUTER AND INNER WING PLUMAGE. (See Article IV.) lobes, and the two ear-wattles. This covering forms the cheeks. The color, the size, the form of each of these parts is varied according to the variety, and often serves te characterize each. A tuft of short feath- ers called ‘the tuft’’ covers the ear. The comb is straight of drooping; it is single when it is composed of only one piece, double when there are two alike united or near together, it is triple when it is formed of two alike and one in the middle ; it is trizzaled when full of granulations more or less deep, and erect excres- cences ; it is a crown when it is circular, hollow, and indented ; it is goblet shaped when hollow, vascular, and not indented. There are other forms but they are composed of parts or unions of those particularized. 61 962 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. IV. The Plumage Illustrated and Explained. With the hen there may be three kinds of feathers distinguished: 1. The large feathers on the wings for flying, and on the rump to form the tail; 2. the middle-sized feathers which cover the large feathers, and are also found on the wing and rump; 3. the neck, the back, the sides, the throat, the shoulders, and a part of the wings. They are always in lay- ers compactly covering those beneath them like tiles. We shall des- ignate them by the name of the places they occupy, and refer to the engravings to render them easy to recognize : POINTS OF THE FOWL. Explanation—A—The upper feathers of the head are small in those fowls not tufted. They surround the skull. B—The under feathers of the head are almost like bristles. They cover the cheeks in the space which separates on the wattles. C—The upper feathers of those at the back of the neck are short, and lengthening lower down, forming what is called the hackle. They become longer between the shoulders when they cover the beginning of those on the back and the commencement of the wings. BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 953 D—The feathers of the back, forming a layer about 10. These feathers are of the same nature as those of the neck, but a little larger, and form the saddle. F—The feathers of the breast cover the entire length of the two breast muscles extend- ing beyond the breast-bone at each side and uniting at its end. The whole forms what is termed the breast. These feathers, with the feathers of the loins, overlap those of the sides. G—The feathers on the sides cover the loins, taking in the back as far as the rump, which they go beyond and cover the lower part of the feathers of the tail. They also cover the commencement of the feathers of the flanks, thighs and abdomen. H—The feathers of the flanks are light and fluffy. They cover the upper part of the thigh feathers and slip under those of the breast. SHOWING POINTS. J—The feathers of the abdomen cover and envelop all this part from the end of the breast to the rump. These feathers are generally fluffy, of a silky nature and spread out in a tuft. J—Vhe outside feathers of the thigh cover those of the abdomen and leg. L—The outside and inside feathers of the leg stop at the heel, or in some varieties they proceed lower and form what are called ruffles or vulture hocks. M—vhe feathers of the feet or sole are long, short, or entirely absent, in the different varieties. ‘These feathers are along the shank either in one or several rows. They are always on the outside part. 964. THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. N—Vhe feathers of the toes appear on the outsides. O—The middle tail feathers envelop the rump and cover the bases of the large feathers of the tail. P—The larger tail feathers are in a regular line of seven on each side of the rump, and form the tail. @—The outside feathers of the shoulders cover a part of the other feathers of the wing. They form the shoulder. R—Vhe inside feathers of the shoulders are small, thin, and slender. S—The larger feathers of the pinion form, when the wing is opened, a large, arched surface, and are of different sizes. ‘These feathers grow out of the under side of the pinion. 7—Vhe small outside feathers of the pinion are of different sizes. They come on all the outside surfaces from the shoulder to the pinion. They begin quite small on the out- side edge, and finish a medium size on the inside edge. U—The inside feathers of the pinion are close, middle-sized, and small, covering the bases of the large feathers of the pinion. V—The large flight-feathers, or feathers of the hand, are large and strong, and are of most use to the bird in locomotion. They begin at the under edge of that which is called the top of the wing. X—The outside tlight-feathers cover the large ones; they are stiff and well flattened on the others. Y—The inside flight-feathers are, some small and others medium-sized; cover the bases of the tlight-feathers. Z—An appendix called the pommel of the wing, which represents the fingered part. It is at the joint of the pinion and has some middle-sized feathers of the same description as the large pinion feathers, and have some small ones to cover them. These feathers assist the flight. V. Ideal Shape of Fowls. The Dorking fowl may be taken as the embodiment of as much ex- cellence in the same compass as can be found inany other breed. Hence IDEAL SHAPE OF FOWL. we give an illustration of the Dorking, figured to represent the ideal shape of the barn-yard fowl. BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 965 VI. Breed to a Fixed Type. In breeding fowls, always avoid violent crosses. Disparity of form in mating birds can only end in disaster through the cropping out of undue form, and especially by bad effects in the feathering, even after the lapse of many years. The same general rule should be borne in mind that we have stated in previous chapters on breeding live stock: avoid crosses as much as possible, and breed pure when it is possible to do so. VI. Number of Hens to Each Cock. The number of cocks to be kept according to the hens will vary with different breeds. One cock to eight or ten hens is sufficient in any breed, This will be the right number for Games, Dorkings, and French fowls ; with Spanish Brahmas or Cochins two more hens may be allowed. One Ham- burg cock will generally serve for twelve to fourteen hens. When several males are kept, it is better to keep all but one or two of them confined, allowing them to take turns with the flock, since this prevents worrying the hens and ensures better service. When the raising of chickens is alone concerned, it is better to have plenty of males, to ensure fertility. When only eggs are wanted for market, as many will be laid whether properly fertilized or not. VIII. How to Mate Fowls. From the age of one to four years is the best time for laying. Hens two years old and over make the best sitting hens. Avoid vulture hocks {feathers running down at the hocks as in vultures) in all fowls, and PROTECTING HER BROOD especially in the Asiatic breeds. In breeding Asiatic fowls, let the males be as full-colored as possible, since the tendency of these fowls is to breed to lighter colors ; but judgment must be used not to get too violent 966 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. contrast in the sexes. So, if the hen is long-backed select a short-backed cock, but if the hen is short-backed, never breed to a long-backed cock ; you cannot well have the back too short. In breeding to color, all self-colors should be as solid as possible, and in parti-colored fowls study the birds for mating carefully, so that you may breed as near to a feather as pos- sible, according to the characteristics of the breed. As a rule, heavily penciled males will get heavily penciled chicks, but if the saddle is very heavily striped, or the neck hackle very dark, the chicks will incline to be spotted ; but cocks with dark hackles, and hens with hackles lightly penciled will produce chickens delicately penciled. IX. Breeding upon a Mixed Flock. If you cannot afford pure-bred stock, buy a sufficient number of cocks for your hens, or select a dozen hens and mate them with a good cock, from which to raise chiexens. Once you begin, stick always to the same strain, and in three years you will have a strain of fowls—if you have carefully selected the chicks, always using pure males—good enough for market purposes and eggs. In the meantime, get a clutch of eggs from pure fowls and breed them separate from the others, and soon you will have the pure breed also. There is no farm stock that it pays better to breed pure than poultry, whether they be land or water fowl. X. Incubation of Various Fowls. The following table will show at a glance all necessary information in relation to the incubation of various fowls. | PERIOD OF INCUBATION. NAME OF BIRD. | SHORTEST MEAN LONGEST PERIOD. PERLOD. PERIOD. Turkey, sitting on) Hen.... ( .....-+es-.-0e- | 17 24 28 the eggs of Duck... | ssoonnosnesscce 24 27 30 TRG acl Murky \ieenteee = pretsiniete 24 26 30 Hen sitting on the ) Duck... { .--...-..-++-+- 26 30 34 eors Of theo) ELen seit ll! neem (ie weiss wislsle 19 21 24 Duck...... GUS DINOC JOD BRIEDCrAROa Coon denercac 28 30 32 GROOSE ieiceraicrciedadalatcncvavater stn c/oieye's c/ticialctetefotetatacreetera 97 30 33 Pigeon fete (a minetoteletetatel sratetsvelalis efetetueren tre! aicretetetereteteta 16 18 20 XI. General Management of Fowls. In order to raise poultry successfully, proper buildings and plenty of range must be provided. ‘The buildings need not be expensive, and on tk 3 BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 967 farm any warm out house will afford comfortable quarters, and range enough is providedin the out fields. On the farm in summer fowls will pick up a good share of their living, insects chiefly, and thus, while partly supporting themselves, they are at the same time profiting their owner by the destruction of insect pests. In fact, fowls, if allowed, will wander consider- able distances in search of food, as illustrated > in the cut ‘‘Foraging for themselves.’ Those who keep fowls in villages and subur- ban places, must provide animal food and also green vegetable food in addition to the grain fed. This, with com- fortable quarters, care in feeding, and due attention to the health of the birds, constitute about all there is practically in poultry raising, except FORAGING FOR THEMSELVES. that pure breeds are kept with a view to the rearing of very superior birds. In the latter case a more careful study of the anatomy, physiology, and points of fowls must be made as in breeding any other animals. XII. Proper Food of Fowls. Fowls need a variety of food; they are nearly omniverous feeders. Animal food is essential, but the bulk of the feeding may be grain, either raw or ground. If mixed feed (ground grain) is used, have the dough so stiff that it willnot run; never feed sloppy food. Indian meal and pota- toes boiled and mashed together, so stiff that the dough clings when squeezed in the hand, is one of the best of foods. Feed on clean ground —never in a trough in summer, since moist food so fed will inevitably become sour, and the troughs are seldom properly cleaned. In winter, ground feed should be fed as hot as the hens can eat it, and a little chop- ped onion mixed in is excellent ; provide other green food also, as cab- bage leaves. For animal food, a sheep’s pluck, hung so high that the fowls can just reach it, is excellent; so are the greaves from trying establishments. To keep the hens in good laying condition, they must have animal food, and also bones broken so fine that they may be easily swallowed. Very little meat, however, is necessary, for if too much is fed the fowls may lose their feathers. Whole grain, and the drinking water should be kept in some receptacle, so the fowls may take it at pleasure. The grain fed may be screenings from wheat, rye, buckwheat and oats. XIII. Poultry Houses and Coops. Poultry houses, however simple, should be both warm in winter and well lighted. The side containing the glass should face the South for the 965 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. advantage of the sun’s warmth in winter. The windows should also be provided with iron netting, so the sash may be raised to admit air in summer, and also in mild weather in winter. One portion should be half- dark, for the laying and sitting hens, and a proper dust bath must also be provided. Have the perches not more than two feet from the floor in the roosting place, and all on one level; let them be large. A two by four scantling, well rounded and set on edge, is not too large for heavy birds. The whole house should be whitewashed once a month in summer, and kept scrupulously clean at all times. If lice make their appearance, fumigate thoroughly, and after cleansing, whitewash with lime to which a little car- bolic acid is added. Sprinkle Seotch snuff among the feathers on the backs of the fowls, and give fresh materials for dust bath. The proper coops for hens with young chickens will readily suggest themselves. A barrel with one head out, laid on its side, and with stakes driven along one end to admit the passage of the chicks is a good make- shift. The ordinary triangular coop is well known. The best coop is a square box 18 by 24 inches, and roofed to shed rain ; from the open end of this a runway is thrown nine inches high and as wide as the coop, so closely slatted at the top that old fowls cannot get their heads through to feed. At the end are orifices to give egress and ingress to the chicks. In this way they may be fed without interference from the mother hen or other fowls, and it also furnishes a safe place of refuge from danger. XIV. Feed Boxes and Drinking Fountains. Both the feed boxes and drinking fountains should be self-feeding. A three-gallon jug filled with water, and turned mouth down in a suitable dish, and properly supported, makes a toler- able drinking fountain, and will suffice to conyey the idea. For a larger number of fowls, a five or six gallon kee, with a faucet with a long spout to rest near the bottom of the drinking trough is good. If filled, bunged tight, and the faucet opened, just enough water will be given up to keep the supply in the trough at a uniform height. Feed boxes are made on the same general principle, a box narrowing to the bottom, and with an orifice large enough to allow a free flow of grain, and resting near enough the bottom of the feeding box so that but little will be given down at atime. Slats sufficiently wide apart so the fowls can feed through them, also keep the poultry from wasting the erain. A GOOD FORM OF FOUNTAIN. BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 969 A Perfect Hopper.—The best form of feeding hopper is shown in the annexed cut ; it can readily be constructed by any person by aid of the following description with references : A An end view, eight inches wide and two feet six inches high. £—The roof, three feet long, projecting over the perch on which the fowls staud while feeding. C—The lid of receiving man- ger raised, exhibiting the grain. #,# —Cords attached to the perch and lid of manger or feeding trough. /—End bar of perch, with a weight attached to the end to balance the lid, otherwise it would not close when the fowls leave the perch. //—Pulley. G—Fulerum. The hinges at the ridge are for raising the top when the hopper is to be replenished. Whena fowl desires food, it hops upon the bars of the perch and the weight of the fowl raises the lid of the feed box, exposing the grain to view, and after satisfying its hunger jumps off and the lid closes. Of course the dimensions can be increased as desired. A Rat-Proof Hopper.—A stool hopper—as shown in the annexed cut— inaccessible to rats may be built by the following directions: Make a platform two or three feet square, as A PERFECT FEEDING HOPPER. the case may be; then make a square box, three inches high and sixteen inches square ; nail it in the center of the plat- form; saw strips one and a quarter inch square and eighteen inches high for the posts ; nail strips of boards, two inches wide, to the posts at the top to secure and steady them: then take common lath or any thin stuff, one and a half or two inches wide, and nail them to the top and bottom, up and A STOOL FEEDING HOPPER. down, leaving spaces of two inches be- tween the slats, so that the fowls can get at the feed. The roof may be four-square, as shown in the cut, and detached so that it can be raised for the hopper to be replenished with grain. Elevate the hopper on a post about three feet from the ground, as shown in the cut, which makes it rat and mice proof. The fowls will soon learn to leap upon the plat- form and feed from the grain box between the slats. 970 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. XV. Breeds for Market. The Dorkings are superior table fowls ; they are, however, rather ten- dev and hard to rear, and have not gained special favor m the United States. The Dominiques are hardy, good layers, and good table fowls ; the Plymouth Rocks are larger, and perhaps better if you have the stock. A Dominique cross on Brahmas or Cochin Chinas, will give chicks that grow fast, feather well, and make plump fowls. A Dorking cross on the large Asiatic breeds, is regarded in England as excellent. All things con- sidered, we think the Brahmas and the Cochins will give the best results, and the Brahmas especially are good winter layers. In this, however, every breeder will have his own fancy. The Houdans and La Fleche are in good repute among breeders, but the price of the original stock must, of course, be taken into consideration. XVI. Breeds for Eggs. As laying fowls simply, we have found the Polands all that could be desired. The Leghorns, Houdans, Hamburgs and Black Spanish are fully as good layers, and all of them are non-sitters ; but the Leghorns and the Hamburgs have the reputation of being tender, and the Spanish are decidedly so. The Houdan and La Fleche have hardly been tried sufficiently in this country to warrant a decided opinion as to their true value. XVII. How to Fatten. The fattening of poultry, if they are in good flesh to start with, does not takelong. In fact the bulk of the chickens marketed are taken direct from the yards without extra feeding. This isbad economy. Fifteen to twenty days’ feeding, if they are confined in a dark place, will render them fat. When fat, market immediately, since they will soon begin to shrink. Market when they cease to feed full. Corn meal, made into a thick mush, with as much additional meal as can be worked in while boiling hot, and allowed to cool, is the best feed. Put the fowls in coops so smill that they cannot turn round, and feed three times a day, allowing to take what water—skimmed milk is better—and clean gravel they will. The last week omit the gravel, and keep the pens clean and well littered with straw all the time. XVIII. Killing and Dressing. Let the fowl fast at least twelve hours before killing. No man ever made money by selling a fowl with half a pint of raw corn stuffed in the crop. Tie the legs of the fowl together, hang it up, open the beak, pass a sharp thin-bladed knife, into the mouth and up into the roof, BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 971 dividing the menibrane ; thus the bird is killed instantly. Then deftly cut the throat and let it bleed. The nicest way to pick, is without scald- ing and while the bird is quite warm. It may be easily done and the bird not torn; thus dressed it will bring enough more in a city market to pay the extra trouble. To Scald a Fowl.—A well known buyer and dresser for the Chicago market, in answer to the question, how to dress and pack, gave the writer the following information which is here reproduced : Have the water just scalding hot—not botling—190 degrees is just right. Immerse the fowl, holding it by the legs, taking it out and in, until the feathers slip easily. Persons become very expert at this, the feathers coming away by brushing them with the hand, apparently. At all events, they must be picked clean. Hang turkeys and chickens by the feet, and ducks and geese by the head to cool. Under no cireum- stances whatever, should ducks and geese be scalded ; they must invaria- bly be picked dry. Take off the heads of the chickens assoon as picked, tie the skin neatly over the stump, draw out the insides carefully, and hang up to cool. Never sell fowls undrawn. They will bring enough more drawn and nicely packed, with the heart, gizzard and liver placed inside each fowl, to pay for the trouble. Let them get thoroughly cool— as cold as possible—but never, under any circumstances, frozen. There is always money in properly prepared poultry ; the money is lost in half fitting them for market, the fowls often being forwarded in a most dis- gusting state. There is money in the production of eggs; there is money in raising poultry for the market. The money is lost in improper packing, and in a foolish attempt, occasionally made, to make the buyer pay for a crop full of musty corn, at the price of first-class meat. XIX. Packing and Shipping to Market. The poultry, having been killed as directed, carefully picked, the heads cut off, and the skin drawn over the stump and neatly tied—or if pre- ferred, leave the head on, the fowl will not bring less for it—and the birds chilled down to as near the freezing point as possible, provide clean boxes and place a layer of clean hay or straw quite free from dust, in the bottom. Pick up a fowl, bend the head under and to one side of the breast bone, and lay it down flat on its breast, back up, the legs extend- ing straight out behind. The first fowl to be laid in the left hand corner. So placed, lay a row across the box to the right, and pack close, row by row, until only one row is left, then reverse the heads, laying them next the other end of the box, the feet under the previous row of heads. If there is a space left between the two last rows, put in what birds will fit sideways. If not, pack in clean, long straw, and also pack in straw at the 972 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. sides and between the birds, so they cannot move. Pack straw enough over one layer of fowls, so that the others cannot touch, and so proceed until the box is full. Fill the box full. There must never be any shak- ing, or else the birds will become bruised, and loss will ensue. Many packers of extra poultry place paper over and under each layer before filling in the straw. There is no doubt but that it pays. Nail the box tight; mark the initials of the packer, the number of fowls and variety, and mark plainly the full name of the person or firm to whom it is con- signed, with street and number on the box. Thus the receiver will know at a glance what the box contains, and does not have to unpack to find out. XX. Glossary of Terms Used by Poultry Fanciers. Beard.—A bunch of feathers under the throat of some breeds, as Hou- dans or Polish. Breed.—Any variety of fowl presenting distinct characteristics. Brood.—F amily of young chickens. Broody.—Desiring to sit. Carriage.—The attitude or bearing of a bird. Carunculated.—Covered with fleshy protuberances, as on the neck of a turkey-cock. Chick.—A newly-hatched fowl, until a few weeks old. Chicken.—Applied to indetinite ages until twelve months old. Clutch.—Given to the batch of eggs under a sitting hen, also to brood of chickens hatched therefrom. Cockerel.—A young cock. Comb.—The red protuberance on top of the fowl’s head. Condition.—The state of the fowl as regards health, beauty of plumage —the latter especially. Crest.—A tuft of feathers on the head; the top-knot. Crop.—The receptacle for food before digestion. Cushion.—The mass of feathers over the tail and end of the hen’s back, covering the tail ; chiefly developed in Cochins. Deaf-ears.—Folds of skin hanging from the true ears, varying in color, being blue, white, cream-colored, or red. Dubbing.—Cutting off the comb, wattles, &e., leaving the head smooth. Bar-lobes.—Same as deaf-ears. Face.—The bare skin around the eye. Flights.—The primary wing feathers, used in flying, but unseen when at rest. Fluffs.—Soft, downy feathers about the thighs. BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 973 Furnished.—Assumed full character. When a cockerel obtains his tail, comb, &e. Gills.—A term applied to the wattles, sometimes more indefinitely to the whole region of the throat. Hackles.—The peculiar narrow feathers on the fowl’s neck. Hen-feathered, or Henny.—Resembling « hen, in the absence of sickles. Hock.—The elbow-joint of the leg. Feel.—A word sometimes used to denote the breast bone. Leg.—the scaly part, or shank. Leg-feathers.—TVhe feathers on the outside of the shank. Mossy.—Confused in marking. Pea-comb.—A triple comb. Penciling.—Small stripes over a feather. Poult.—A young turkey. Primaries.—The flight-feathers of the wings, hidden when the wing is closed. Pullet.—A young hen. Rooster.—The common term for the male bird. Saddle.—The posterior of the back, reaching to the tail in a cock, answering to the cushion in a hen. Secondaries.—The wing quill-feathers, which show when the bird is at rest. Self-color.—A uniform tint over the feathers. Shaft.—The stem of a feather. Shank.—The scaly part of the leg. Sickles.—The top curved feathers of a cock’s tail. Spangling.—The marking produced by each feather having one large spot of some color different to the ground. Spur.—The sharp weapon on the heel of a cock. Stag.—Another term for a young cock. Strain.—A race of fowls, having acquired an individual character of its own, by being bred for years by one breeder or his successors. Symmetry.—Perfection of proportion. Tail-coverts.—The soft, glossy, curved feathers at the sides of the bottom of the tail. Tail-feathers.—Applied to the straight, stiff feathers of the tail only. Thighs.—The joint above the shanks. Top-knot.—Same as crest. Trio.—A cock and two hens. Under-color.—The color of the plumage as seen when the surface is lifted. 974 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. Vulture-hock.—Stiff projecting feathers at the hock-joint. Wattles.—The red depending structures at each side-of the base of the beak. Web.—Expressing a flat and thin structure. The web of a feather is the flat or plume portion ; the web of the foot, the flat skin between the toes; of the wing, the triangular skin, seen when the member is extended. Wing-bar.—Any line of dark color across the middle of the wing. Wing-bow.—The upper or shoulder part of the wing. Wing-butts—The corners or ends of the wing. Game fanciers denote the upper ends as shoulder-butts ; the lower as lower-butts. Wing-coverts.—The broad feathers covering the roots of the seconda- ry quills. CHAPTER VI. THE TURKEY, AND ITS VARIETIES. I. VARIETIES OF THE DOMESTIC TURKEY.—lI. THE BRONZED-BLACK TURKEY. Ill. THE COMMON TURKEY.——IV. THE OCELLATED TURKEY.——V. ENGLISH TURKEYS. VI. RARE VARIETIES. VII. THE CARE OF TURKEYS. I. Varieties of the Domestic Turkey. Notwithstanding the length of time that the wild turkey has been do- mesticated—over 300 years—it still retains some of its wild habits, even under the most artificial conditions. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that the turkey endures close confinement to a less extent than any of the domestic land birds, and hence these traits of wildness, wandering and the hiding of nests and young, have not been entirely bred out. The same is true of the pheasants, still less domesticated, although they have been in more or less subjection to man since ancient times. All turkeys, whether of the wild or domestic varieties, breed freely, one with the other, and continue fertile, thus proving conclusively that they came originally from one species. They are now broken up into every color, black-bronzed and white-mottled being the original wild color. Among the sub-species, are: The Common turkey ; Black-and- white-mottled ; Black-bronzed:; the Mexican; the Ocellated or Hondu- ras; the White; the Buff; the Fawn-colored ; the Copper-colored, and the Parti-colored. Temminck, in 1813 described Isabelle yellow turkeys, with fine full crests of pure white. Lieutenant Byam described crested wild turkeys as seen by him in Mexico; it is probable that this observer mistook curassows for turkeys, since this bird is domesticated there and nobody else has found crested turkeys in Mexico. II. The Bronzed-Black Turkey. This variety is said to have been produced by « cross of the Wild tur- key upon the Common turkey hen, the produce fixed and improved by careful selection and breeding. They are the largest, as they are un- doubtedly the best, of the domestic varieties. The average for mature hirds, well fattened, is about thirty pounds, while forty pounds is not uncommon for extra male birds. The hens will weigh from twenty to twenty-five pounds each, when mature. They are as hardy as they are beautiful in plumage. 975 976 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. The best specimens are described as follows: In the cock, the face, ear-lobes, wattles and jaws are deep rich red, the wattles warted and sometimes edged white, the bill curved, strong, of a light horn color at the tip and dark at the base. The neck, breast and back black, shaded with bronze, which in the sunlight glistens golden, each feather ending in a narrow glossy black band extendmg clear across. The under part of the body is similarly marked, but more subdued. The wing-bow 1s BRONZE TURKEYS. black, showing a brilliant greenish or brown lustre, the flight-feathers black, barred across with white or gray, even and regular ; the wing-coy- erts rich bronze, the end of each feather terminating in a wide black band, giving the wings, when folded, a broad bronze band across each ; tail black, each feather irregularly penciled with a narrow brown band, and ending in a grayish-bronze band. Fluff abundant and soft: legs long, strong, dark or nearly black. The hen is similarly colored, but more subdued. THE TURKEY, AND ITS VARIETIES. y ~l ~ Ill. The Common Turkey. The common turkey is white and biack mottled, having the head and wattle of the wild turkey. They are of medium size, and, probably from the fact that they have been more generally disseminated and longer domesticated than the other varieties, they are less inclined to wander. THE COMMON TURKEY. When simply dollars and cents are concerned, they are the most profit- able to breed, since they are hardy, of medium size, and mature early. They will weigh, fat, at eight months old, from eleven to twelve pounds, and, when fully grown, sixteen pounds. IV. The Ocellated Turkey. This is one of the most elegant of the whole genus; it is a native of Central America, and is found wild all over that region. It breeds kindly with our domestic turkey, and the progeny remains quite fertile, but both the true and cross breed are too tender for the North. Our bronzed green and gold turkeys undoubtedly owe their markings to this variety. The ground color of the plumage of the Honduras, or Ocellated turkey, is bronzed-green, banded with gold-bronze and shining black ; lower down the back the color is deep blue and red ; upon the tail the bands become fully defined and sharp, producing the peculiar oceliated or eye-like ap- 62 Y7S THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. pearance, whence their name. The wattle is also peculiar, and the top of the head is covered with wart-like protuberances, as shown in the cut of a young Ocellated hen. We NR" ", ieee YOUNG OCELLATED TURKEY HEN. V. English Turkeys. The so-called English turkey is simply a sub-variety of the common American domesticated turkey already described. Careful breeding and selection have increased the size and rendered them quite uniform in color. One sub-variety is the Norfolk turkey, black with a few white spots on the wings. Another sub-variety, valued in Cambridgeshire, is bronze-gray, and longer-legged than the Norfolk ; these, however, vary from a light copper color to dark, the latter being preferred. THE TURKEY, AND ITS VARIETIES. 979 VI. Rare Varieties. There are a number of more or less rare varieties of turkeys, the Buff, the Fawn, and the Pure-white being the principal ones. They are all considered more tender than the varieties heretofore named. ‘Turkeys of the white variety are especially handsome, the color being relieved by the tuft on the breast, which remains jet black, which, with the blue-white and red caruncles of the head and neck, present a most elegant appear- ance. VII. The Care of Turkeys. Turkeys will bear confinement less than any of our domestic fowls, if we except the peacock, and perhaps the Guinea-fowl. They must have plenty of range, and will not roost under shelter, unless compelled to do so, even in the winter. Their favorite resort is a high, bushy tree, just as the peacock favors the highest peak of the house and barn. An eccen- tric fancier was not much out of the way who said the three best house guards are turkeys, peafowl and geese. The two first see everything, and the latter hear everything, and, he quaintly added, their clatter quick- ly arouses the ‘*noble watch dog,’’ who, awakened from a sound sleep, contributes his bark, and gets the credit of the whole alarm. When full grown, turkeys are hardy, and fully able to take care of themselves. The young chicks, however, are quite tender, up to the age of four weeks, and again about the time they begin to acquire the red head, which oceurs at six or seven weeks old. During this time they should be protected from hot suns, heavy rains, and the night dews. For the first two weeks, hard boiled yolk of eggs rubbed up with oat meal or cornmeal makes the best feed. After this, cracked wheat, oat- meal grits and cracked corn should form the staple of the feed, and if a little bruised hempseed is added until the chicks are two months old, they will thereafter pretty much forage for themselves, except for their daily feed of whole grain. Young onions chopped fine and mixed with their feed should be given pretty often. The curd of sour milk is also excellent for them. In fattening, cornmeal, cooked to a hard mush, is the usual feed, and if to this be added what skimmed milk they will drink once a day, with plenty of pure water at other times, they may be fattened to heavy weights. WATER FOWL. CHAPTER VII. GEESE AND THEIR VARIETIES. I. THE MANAGEMENT OF GEESE.——II. EMBDEN OR BREMEN GEESE. III. TOU- LOUSE GEESE. IV. WHITE CHINESE GEESE.——V. HONG KONG GEESE.——VI. THE AFRICAN GOOSE.——VII. THE CANADA OR WILD GOOSE. GEESE. VIII. EGYPTIAN I. The Management of Geese. The management of geese is very simple. A good dry spot for their resting place, plenty of range, with young grass, and a pond, or running water, if possible, will enable any one to raise geese successfully, if plenty of grain, corn and wheat screenings are given to make up what they fail to get in their rambles. The grain fed should always be given in a deep vessel of water in summer, if deep natural water is not near, since geese are often annoyed by insects getting in the ears and nostrils, which they rid themselves of by thrusting their heads well down into water. In fattening for market, corn-meal and potatoes boiled together to a thick mush, is as good as anything. They should be sold as soon as fat, which should be in about two weeks of feeding. If the mush is made with skimmed milk the geese will become very fat, if given as much as they will eat three times a day. Geese are subject to but few diseases. For diarrhcea, give one or two drops of laudanum in a little water, and repeat if necessary. For giddi- ness bleed them in the prominent vein which separates the claw. Geese live to a great age, and old geese are the best mothers. Ganders, how- ever, are best at from one to three years old, since as they get age they are apt to become cross, and sometimes injure small children. II. Embden or Bremen Geese. There is no doubt but the Embden is the most valuable of the domesti- cated varieties of geese. They should be pure white, with prominent blue eyes; strong, medium-length neck ; heavy bodies, with the feathers SO GEESE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. 951 rather more inclined to curl from the shoulder to the head, than in other varieties ; the bill is dark flesh color and the legs orange. Young birds of the year have been made to weigh over forty pounds, and mature birds hil ‘ASdaD NAGANA “SN SIs” 96° 5 near sixty pounds. The average for breeding birds may be put at about twenty pounds. They are early layers and may be made to rear two broods in a season. S2 THLE AMERICAN PARMER’S STOCK BOOK. III. Toulouse Geese. These maguificent birds, next in merit to the Embden, and by many fanciers preferred to them, have compact bodies, rather short legs, and will often outweigh the Embdens. Their bodies and breasts are light gray; the neck dark gray, the color deepening as the head isapproached ; the wings are colored like the neck, but getting lighter towards the belly, Wi i ih AMAA TC i ug Cli IK i ' sa a il TOULOUSE GEESE. which, together with the rump, is white. The legs and feet are a deep reddish orange, and the bill the same color, but inclining to brown. In quality of flesh there is little if any difference between the Embden and the Toulouse. IV. White Chinese Geese. The White Chinese geese, from their immense size, pure white color, and swan-like appearance are much admired by fanciers who have ponds of water. Whether swimming or on land, they are pleasing and graceful GEESE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. 983 in movement. ‘The color is pure white; the bill and the knob on the head orange colored, and the color of the legs the same. ’, z. > AYLESBURY DRAKE. the shell. The Aylesbury is rather inelined to fall down behind from the stretching of the abdominal muscles. In breeding, always avoid such birds, and as soonas it is noticed, kill and dress them for market, since as soon as this becomes the case they are generally sterile. This will apply to all ducks, and hence, in the selection of the male, take those that are especially free from this disability. IV. Rouen Ducks. This name is probably a corruption of Roan duck; at all events there is no evidence that the breed originated at the French town of this name. oO THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. It is undoubtedly a variety of the Mallard or Gray duck, and bred together the young come uniform in their markings. The color should closely {lI HHHH1() | | Hi | 2 } | HATA TT ; iets i AIAN HH ANCA WI ATA | I Nl WHT approximate that of the wild Mallard duck. In fact, the markings of the wild duck will perfectly describe the tame, enlarged and improved va- riety. The eyes, however, ure more deeply sunken, and they have the ROUEN DUCKS. VARIETIES OF DOMESTIC DUCKS. 99] disability of soon falling behind, the abdominal protuberance being deyel- oped at an early age. They are the largest as they are the most quiet of ducks, and seldom wander. When fat, they have been made to weigh nearly twenty pounds the pair, and drakes of nine or ten weeks old have been known to weigh more than twelve pounds the pair. The flesh is most excellent and they are prolific layers of large, rather thick-shelled, bluish-green eggs. V. The Common White Duck. This duck is too well known to need description. They are not unlike the Aylesbury, except in size. Since the introduction of the larger breeds, they have fallen into disrepute and are now seldom found pure. LS == COMMON WHITE DUCK. VI. Cayuga Black Duck. Of the origin of this famous American duck, nothing positive is known. They have been bred about Cayuga lake, New York, for many years. They are essentially a water duck, rarely rising from the water, and so clumsy on land that theyseldom wander far. In color they are black, or rather deep brown black, with a white collar about the neck, and white flicks on the breast ; the drakes usually show more white than the ducks, and the green tint on the head and neck being far more pronounced ; in fact the duck should have but a faint strip of green onthe head, neck and wings. In breeding, the darkest males should be selected, since they in- cline to breed to white. They are good layers, producing about eighty Hoy THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. to ninety eges ina season when well fed. The flesh is excellent, dark and high flavored, and the birds hardy. The weight of the birds at six to eight months old, if well fattened, is from twelve to fourteen pounds \ NN CAYUGA BLACK DUCKs., per pair, and sixteen pounds has been reached. For rearing entirely on land, we have not found them so good as the Rouen or Roan, but near lakes, ponds and streams there are no better or more profitable ducks. VII. Muscovy Duck. The Musk, or Brazilian duck was once regarded with great favor, and certainly they are both handsome and large, the drakes often weighing ten pounds The color is a very dark, rich, blue-black, prismatic with every color of which blue is a component; there is a white bar on each wine, and more or less white about the head and neck. The feathers in =o ¢ the back of the drake are fine and plume-like ; the legs and feet ave dark. In warm climates they are said to be prolific, but our experience with them, years ago, was that they are neither hardy nor good layers. They are readily distinguished by the red membrane surrounding the eyes and covering the cheeks. VARIETIES OF DOMESTIC DUCKS. 993 VIII. Black East Indian Ducks. These are really black, and are among the most beautiful of ducks. From time to time they have appeared under various names, as East Indian, Labrador, Buenos Ayres, and Brazillian ducks. They are quite BLACK EAST INDIA DUCKS hardy, and their color would suggest that they are closely related to the Mallards. Their beauty and hardiness, together with their small size will recommend them to amateurs ; but for profit they cannot compare with the best of the large breeds. SSS — — SSS GRAY CALL DUCKS. IX. Call Ducks. There are two varieties of ducks which bear the same relation in size to the large breeds that Bantams do to other barn-yard fowls. These 63 994 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. are the Gray and the White Call duck. The Gray is the miniature counterpart of the Roan or Rouen duck, and the White resembles the Aylesbury except in size and color of the bill, which in the White Call duck is a clear yellow, while in the Aylesbury it is a flesh color. They WHITE CALL DUCKS. yt Nu at Tue iN yt he are pretty things on a lake or piece of water in ornamental grounds, and the colored variety is used by sportsmen as decoys for other ducks, they being noted for their loud, shrill, aud oft repeated call; hence the name. VARIETIES OF DOMESTIC DUCKS. 995 xX. Other and Rare Ducks. Among the ducks of elegant plumage lately domesticated is the Wood duck, known all over the West, and now disseminated as the Carolina duck. It isone of the most beautiful of any of the varieties in the bril- lianey of its plumage and varied elegance of the markings, one of the most striking in the graceful plume of feathers falling back from the head. They are so easily domesticated that they will allow themselves to be handled, if always treated with gentleness. The Mandarin duck, a Chinese variety, is also a bird of splendid plum- age, but rare. Of the crested ducks, the White and the Black Poland are best known. Both are crested, the crest varying in size, but always bearing a ball of feathers, quite round. Another very rare duck, the Crested duck, said to be native to America, is described by Mr. Latham as being ‘* the size of the wild duck,’”’ (an indefinite description), ‘‘ but much larger, for it measures twenty-five inches in length; a tuft adorns its head; a straw yellow, mixed with rusty-colored spots is spread over the throat and front of the neck; the wings, speculum blue beneath, edged with white ; the bill, wings and tail are black ; irides red, and all the rest of the body ashy-gray.”’ ARCTIC WATER FOWL. .= ; ‘ ro J f ( PAA an via | tiff i i‘ warn otk Wl ee ‘ ; pi” (ke ee oe val mi? ares ae : oa 40 rh x ; oy ul, 1 Vali : Ta ii Ale ss An A is - @ 5 y f PA ene DishAsSeS OF LOULERY. HOW TO KNOW THEM; THEIR CAUSES, PREVEN- TION AND CURE. DISEASES OF POULTRY. CHAPTER I. THE CARE AND TREATMENT OF SICK FOWLS. I DIVISION OF DISEASES INTO GROUPS. Il, APOPLEXY.——III. VERTIGO.—IV. PARALYSIS.——V. CROP-BOUND.——VI. DIARRH@A. VII. CATARRH.—VIII. BRONCHITIS. IX. ROUP. X. GAPES. Si ELS XII. CONSUMPTION. XIII. INFLAMMATION OF THE EGG PASSAGE. XIV. LEG WEAKNESS. XV. RHEUMATISM.——XVI. POULTRY LOUSINESS. I. Division of Diseases into Groups. The diseases to which poultry are subject, are comparatively few. Poultry lousiness; roup, a contagious disease; gapes; crop-bound ; diarrheea ; catarrh ; inflammation of the egg passage, and rheumatism, are the principal ones. These and a few others, only, will be noticed. They may be divided as follows: Diseases of the brain and nervous sys- tem; diseases of the digestive organs ; diseases of the lungs and air pas- sages ; diseases of the egg organs ; and diseases of the skin. II. Apoplexy. Causes.—The cause of this disease is usually overfeeding and confined quarters. The bird may be moping for some days, but usually the trouble is not noticed until the fowl falls, and dies with hardly a struggle. What to do.—The remedy is to open the largest of the veins under the wing. By pressing on the vein between the opening and the body, the blood will continue to flow until the pressure is released. Prevention.—The prevention is plenty of exercise, and abstinence from over-stimulating food. III. Vertigo. This is caused usually by strong feeding and lack of exercise. The fowl runs in a circle with but partial control of the limbs, and sometimes falls and dies. What to do.—When observed, hold the head of the bird under a stream of cold water which will soon give relief. Ten grains of jalap may be administered afterwards, and the bird be kept on a rather low diet. 999 1000 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK IV. Paralysis. This is also induced by the same causes as the two last mentioned dis- eases, and is the direct effect of some disorder of the spinal cord. But little can be done, when once a bird is thus attacked. Prevention.—Plenty of exercise, 1 mixed diet, and well ventilated but dry quarters. V. Crop-Bound. Causes.—This is caused by irregular feeding. A hungry bird stuffs his crop to such a degree, that the whole, when moistened, becomes a dense impacted mass. Sometimes any large hard substance will serve as a nucleus for the gradual gathering of other substances around it. What to do.— The treatment is to puncture the upper part of the crop, ~ loosen the mass by degrees with a blunt instrument, and gradually re- move the lump. If the incision is large, the slit may be sewed up, and the bird kept for ten days on soft food. If in good condition, the cheapest way is to kill the bird unless it be a valuable one. VI. Diarrhea. The symptoms are obvious. What to do.—The remedy is to give something to check the purging. Try the following: No: 2: 5 Grains powdered chalk, 5 Grains Turkey rhubarb, 2 Grains Cayenne pepper. If this does not check the discharge, give the following, until the bird is relieved : No. 2. 1 Grain opium, 1 Grain powdered ipeeac. Give every 5 hours, until relief is had. VII. Catarrh, Causes.—Damp quarters, and roosting in exposed situations. What to do.—In simple cold or catarrh there will be swelling of the eyelids, 2 watery or other discharge from the nostrils, and the face may be more or less swollen at the sides. What to do.—Remove to comfortable quarters, and give warm food, liberally dusted with pepper. This will usually effect a cure. VIII. Bronchitis. Causes.—Bronchitis results when the effects of 2 cold expend them- selves in the lungs and air passages. THE CARE AND TREATMENT OF SICK FOWLS. 1001 How to know it.— There will be cough, a raising of the head to breathe, and a more or less offensive smell. What to do.—In severe cases, give the following : Nios 3. 1 Grain calomel, 1g Grain tartar emetic. Strip a feather, also, to within one-half inch of the end, and swab the throat thoroughly with powdered borax; also, let the fowls drink of the following : No. 4. 1, Ounce chloride of potassium, 2 Quarts soft water. This disease is sometimes called croup. Preventives —Good ventilation, cleanliness, and proper care, IX. Roup. When this disease is once found, the affected fowls should be either killed and burned, or else removed out of the way of the well ones. Or, better, remove the well ones to other quarters. Separation must be complete ; otherwise the entire flock will be subjected to the disease. It is one of the most fatal pertaining to fowls, and action should be decisive and promptly taken. How to know it.—The symptoms, at first, are like those of severe catarrh ; but the discharge from the nostrils is thick, opaque. and of a peculiar and offensive odor. Froth appears at the inner corners of the eyes: the lids swell, and often the eyes are entirely closed ; the sides of the face become much swollen, and the bird rapidly loses strength and dies. What to do.—The fowls must have dry, warm quarters, and soft and stimulating food. Give, as soon as possible, for a small fowl, a tea- spoonful, or for a large fowl, a tablespoonful of castor oil. The nostrils should be syringed, by inserting a small syringe in the slit of the roof of the mouth, with one part of chloride of soda to two parts of water. Three or four hours after the oil has been given, having divided the fol- lowing into thirty doses, give one, two or three times a day : No. 5. 15 Ounce balsam copaiba, 14 Ounce liquorice powder, 1, Drachm piperine. This is enough for thirty doses ; enclose each dose in a little gelatine, and administer as directed. If the fowls continue to get worse, kill at once and bury them. 1002 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. X. Gapes. This is caused by parasitic worms (Sclerostoma syngamus) in the wind-pipe, and occurs usually in chickens from two to four months of age. It has been said to be produced from a small, tick-like parasite, lodged on the heads of the chickens. If a case occurs, examine the chickens with a pocket lens, and if the parasites are found, destroy them with the fol- lowing, which is good, also, for hen lice: Nox 6: 1 Ounce mercurial ointment, 1 Ounce lard oil, Ounce flowers of sulphur, “i 72 14 Ounce crude petroleum. Mix, by melting in a warm bath, and apply GAPE WORM. when just warm. “WREUNSTSEGS Sp CHF cet To cure the gapes, strip a small quill feather to within half an inch of the end; dip it in spirits of turpentine, and insert it into the opening to the wind-pipe at the base of the tongue; turn it around once or twice, and withdraw it. If relief is not had, repeat the operation again the next day. Give warm shelter, good, soft food, well mixed with alittle black pepper, and skim-millk to drink. XI. Pip. This is not a disease but the result of another disease. It is the forma- tion of a seale or crust at the tip of the tongue. What to do.—Remove the incrustation ; wash with chloride of soda, and if the nostrils are stopped, inject as advised for roup; if the fowl is very much ailing, give a teaspoonful of castor oil. XII. Consumption. This is a rare disease among fowls that are kept on the farm. It is a gradual wasting away, with cough and the throwing out of matter, and is the result of too close confinement in damp, unhealthy quarters. It often becomes hereditary in fowls so kept, and if you are unfortunate enough to have got such fowls from some breeder of pure-bred fowls, who was not attentive to his stock, kill them, since it is worse than use- less to breed from them. XIII. Inflammation of the Egg Passage. How to know it.—The indications of this disease, rare in fowls kept on the farm, are as follows: If the inflammation is at the lower end of the passage, the egg is without shell; if the inflammation is in the middle THE CARE AND TREATMENT OF SICK FOWLS. 1003 portion, the membrane is misshapen, or incomplete; if the whole pas- sage is inflamed, the yolk is passed out without any covering. The laying of soft shelled eggs is not evidence of inflammation. It may be the effects of being driven about, or of a want of lime material in the system to form the shell. In inflammation there will be fever, and the feathers, especially over the back, will be ruffled. The hen will be moping, and at times will strain to discharge the contents of the passage. What to do.—The proper remedy is to give the following ; No. 7. 1 Grain calomel, 1-12 Grain tartar emetic. To be given in a little gelatine. Keep the hen afterwards, for some time, on nourishing but not stimula- ting food. As a rule the cheapest way, unless in the case of a valuable fowl, is, if the difficulty returns, to kill the fowl. XIV. Leg Weakness. This is a disease of young fowls and more generally of young males, rather than of pullets. The bird seems unable to support its weight, and constantly sinks down. The large Asiatic fowls are most subject to it. The remedy is nourishing diet, with a due proportion of insect or animal food. The grain should be cracked wheat, coarse oat-meal or barley meal, and if from three to eight grains of citrate of iron be daily given, it will greatly assist as a tonic. XV. Rheumatism. Causes.—Lhis is a disease arising from cold, damp quarters, or those badly ventilated. Another cause is the chickens running in the dew or wet in the early season. Cramp is produced by the same causes. Little can be done, once they are affected. Prevention.—The prevention is obvious. Good, clean, well ventilated quarters, and plenty of nutritious and varied food. XVI. Poultry Lousiness. There would seem to be little need for the appearance of this nuisance, if care were taken, and if new fowls introduced were first examined with aulens; for the parasites are very minute. The common hen louse, is larger than the ‘‘hen spider’ so called, which is almost microsepic. What to do.—The first may be destroyed by sprinkling the breeders and nests with Scotch snuff or flowers of sulphur, at intervals of two or three days. The hen spider is more difficult to exterminate. When hens have been allowed to roost in a horse stable, we have known the horses and every 1004 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. crevice to be so infested that only the most rigid means could extermi- nate them. This was by the application of flowers of sulphur, moistened with kerosene, applied to the roots of the manes and tails of the horses, and athorough application to the fowls themselves. In addition, every part of the building must be thoroughly cleansed and washed, and every surface, erack and crevice filled with lime, slacked with ammoniacal liquor from the gas works ; or in place of this use a little carbolic acid with ordinary lime wash. Wash, also, all the furniture, perches, nests, ete., with a solution of one pound of potash, to a quart of water, or the ammoniacal water of a gas factory. Then put in plenty of dust baths, and the difficulty will probably be ended. PAs eer DO Gass HISTORY, MANAGEMENT AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS. DOGS: CHAPTER I. DOGS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. I. SOMETHING OF DOG HISTORY.——II. ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF DOGS. Ill. SO-CALLED WILD DOGS. IV. THE DOG AS A COMPANION OF MAN. Ve CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GENUS CANIS. VI. GESTATION OF THE DOG. Vil. PECULIARITIES OF DOGS. VIII. THE PRINCIPAL VARIETIES OF DOGs. Ix. THEIR DIVERSIFIED CHARACTER. I. Something of Dog History. It has been thought by many that the dog was the first animal domes- ticated by man. ‘To substantiate this there is nothing but theory, and the added fact that even the most savage and degraded tribes of the human race all keep dogs; but mere savages use them not so much in the chase, as to give warning to the camp of the approach of danger. And, notwithstanding the brutality of their treatment, the dogs of savages evince the same reliant attachment to their masters, and the same submission to their will, as those of more intelligent and civilized people ; but they lack that self-reliant character, intelligence of action, faithful self-denial, and aptitude to anticipate every want of their masters, that the improved and better educated dogs of enlightened people possess. In fact, the dogs of the savage and those of selfish or brutal masters, compared with better treated ones, all prove conclusively that the dog is simply what he is made, and a pretty good index to the character of the master. The dog will partake of his master’s savagery, meanness, selfishness, foppishness and dishonesty, as he will of any of the nobler qualities that actuate human kind. These qualities, as in men, may be inherited, und strength- ened through successive generations, or they may be bred out through successive generations of intelligent care. II. Zoological Classification of Dogs. The dog belongs to that division of animals known to naturalists as vertebrates, that is, having a back bone extending backwards from the 1007 1008 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. skull; the class, mammalia, suckling its young; unguilata, having its extremities armed with claws or nails; the order digitigrades, because they walk on theirtoes. Thegenusis named canis, and includes the wolf, THE GASCONY HOUND. jackall and fox; but although there is a general resemblance of form be- tween all these animals, there is little else in common between the dog and the other animals of the genus. As with the horse, the ox and the sheep, the truly wild species is extinct, if indeed either of these animals DOGS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 1009 has existed in a wild state since the historical period began. In fact, all the so-called wild dogs, of which stories are told, are dogs escaped from domestication, and which have bred and multiplied in a semi-wild state. The so-called wild dogs really partake more of the character of the wolf than that of the true dog; for it is a fact that the wolf may be domesti- cated, and it is also true that the wolf and dog will breed together, and their progeny is said to be fertile. III. So-Called Wild Dogs. In some parts of Germany, Italy, Spain and Turkey, there are dogs essentially wild, so far as their ownership and care by man are con- cerned. In India, there are troops of them, to which the Dhole, the Pariah, the wild dog of the Deccan, and the half-wild Thibiet dog belong. The Dingo or wild dog of Australia, is decidedly wolf-like ; and the Esquimaux, and other dogs used for drawing sledges on the snow, are of the same character; the dogs of the North American Indians also par- take of this wolf-like nature. The Hare-Indian dogs are peculiar to tribes of Indians, (Hare-Indians) who roam along the Mackenzie river and Great Bear lake. They have neither courage nor strength sufficient to destroy the larger animals, but they are peculiar in their broad feet, and light bodies, which enable them to run over a slight crust on the snow, and thus overtake and keep at bay the reindeer and moose until the hunters come up. IV. The Dog as a Companion of Man. The horse, the elephant and the dog are the only three animals sub- ject to man, that in the least seem to indicate a decided affection for and reliance upon their master. The two first, unless in very exceptional instances, simply submit to man and perform the tasks required of them. Only under the most humane and intelligent treatment, do they requite the favors received and evince constant affection; otherwise, they eat, drink, and rest as may be provided; submit to commands, recognize the voice of the master, but show no regard, except such as results from the gratification of their appetites. Not so the dog; our home is his home, our property his care, our will his pleasure, our sports his pastime. His affection and veneration for his master are shown in every possi- ble way. Whether hungry or well-fed, or whether ill or carefully pro- vided for, he is the same sagacious, painstaking, docile servant-friend, talking volubly in his dog language, evincing by his intelligent eye and eloquent tail his eagerness to serve. His master’s friends are his friends too, and the home of the friend his home so long as the master wills. In tae words of the poet Burns: ‘See how the dog worships his master ; GA 1010 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. with what reverence he crouches at his feet, with what’ reverence he looks up to him, with what delight he fawns upon him, and with what cheerful alacrity he obeys him.”’ Or, as Byron expressed it : “But the poor dog, in life the firmest friend, The first to welcome, foremost to defend, Whose honest heart is still his master’sown, Who labors, fights, lives, breathes for him alone.” The dog was the same in ancient times. The ancient poets give testi- mony of his incorruptible fidelity and lasting affection for his master. Thus Homer in the ‘*Odyssey’’ has immortalized the aged dog Argus ; when all others had forgotten the returning hero, Ulysses, the King in the disguise of a beggar at length coming to his palace, was recognized by none, even an old servant of the house, but— -*‘Arous the dog, his ancient master knew; And, not unconcious of his voice and tread, Lifts to the sound his ears, and rears his head, He knew his lord—he knew and strove to meet; In vain he strove to crawl and lick his feet; Yet all he could, his tail, his ears, his eyes, Salute his master and confess his joys.” Cuvier, the great naturalist, avers that the dog exhibits the most com- plete conquest man has ever made. Whether the master be rich or poor, each individual dog adopts his manners, distinguishes his voice, defends his goods, and remains attached to him even unto death ; all this springs not from necessity or constraint, but arises simply from gratitude and true friendship. The dog is the only animal that has followed man all over the earth ; he is the only animal capable of becoming man’s ally against other ani- mals, and is hence an imperative necessity in the establishment of society. Ile is a most valuable ally by reason of his swiftness, acute sense of smell, his great strength, wonderful courage and unswerving fidelity to his mas- ter, which neither the threats nor blandishments of others can overcome. Hence, the dog may be considered one of the first and most important factors in civilization ; he guards the flocks of the barbarian, the home of the more civilized, and among enlightened people, becomes a sagacious and unswerving friend; performing duties for the shepherd, the drover, the sportsman, and about the home, that could not be compassed by any other means. V. Characteristics of the Genus Canis. The general characteristics of the dog and wolf are not dissimilar; they have the same elongated nose; their dentitions, (teeth) are similar ; both delight to hunt in packs; their food and their digestive organs are DOGS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 1011 alike ; their period of gestation is the same, and they are said to be fertile together. The Jackall, the Wolf, the Fox and the Dog, are: principal members of the Genus Canis. It will not be necessary here to follow the matter further, than simply to state the opinions of some naturalists on the subject : Buffon thinks the Shepherd dog the original type, and has ingeniously sought to trace all the varieties from that source. Others, again, be- lieve the wolf the original of the dog. Youatt, a critical authority, be- lieves the wolf and dog to be distinct, notwithstanding the many, points of resemblance. Our opinion is that the dog is quite distinct from the wolf ; more so than the Chinese and Caucasian races of men. This, however, is a matter of little consequence. We have the dog in its varied useful forms, and so long domesticated, that his noble qualities have been hand- ed down to us since before written history. We have also grown out of the dislike to dogs, which prevailed among the Jews and other oriental nations, who tolerating dogs simply as scavengers, applied to them the meanest terms of reproach. To call a man a dog is still regarded among Oriental nations as the most opprobrious epithet that can he bestowed ; and among our more ignorant and vulgar population, there are some who hold to the same sentiments. | The more enlightened rightly regard the dog as at the head of the animal kingdom in respect to intelligence, honesty and faithful devotion. VI. Gestation of the Dog. The proper age at which the dog should begin to bear young, is two years ; the reproductive power lasts to eight or nine years. The number of young produced at a birth will average six; the most favorable season for copulation is early in the spring or late in winter, and the average period of gestation is sixty days, the shortest being fifty-five days, and the longest period sixty-three days. VII. Peculiarities of Dogs. As distinguished from other members of the Genus Canis, the dog (sub-genis canis familiaris,) has the pupil of the eyes round, while those of the wolf are oblique, and those of the fox upright and long; the dog carries its tail curved upwards, and if it has a hairy tip, it is generally white ; another peculiarity is that the genus canis always has two tuber- cular or hollow teeth behind the large carnivorous or eye teeth, in the up- per jaw. A late English writer, George Frederic Pardon, has the following in relation to wild dogs, which will raise a smile at the ignorance of the writer, both in confounding the prairie-wolf with the dog, and in speaking 1012 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. of the troops of wild dogs, obeying the voice of no owner, in the South-west- It is, however, not further out of the way than the assertion of another writer, who stated that all the wild animals of America, had ‘‘short tails ;”’ this latter assertion was in the last century, but Mr. Pardon’s testimony is of recent date. He says: ‘¢TIn the extreme western districts of North America, and even in the neighborhood of towns in the South-west, troops of dogs, obeying the voice of no owner, and living upon such game as they can eatch, or prey- ing upon the careasses of any animals that have happened to die on the PAIR OF GREYHOUNDS. road, or in the woods, wander about lawlessly, and disturb the quiet night with their howls. In the far West these wild dogs are known as prairie-wolves, but if caught when quite young, they are easily tamed.”’ The fact is, that the prairie-wolf is no more easily tamed than the large gray wolf, or the fox, and not nearly so easily domesticated as the black bear, or its diminutive relative, the racoon. Neither are they dog-like in any sense, but are essentially wolves, and unlike the fox, do not seek the habitations of man, nor increase with the settlement of a country, as co foxes. DOGS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 1013 VIII. The Principal Varieties of Dogs. The dog tribe in all its varieties may be distinguished by the following peculiarities : ; 1. Dogs having the head, and especially the muzzle, lengthened as the Greyhound, in its varieties. To these belong the Greyhound, the Italian Greyhound, and the noble Seotch and Irish Deer-hounds, and the Albanian hound. 2. Those having the head and muzzle less elongated, as the Hound, Shepherd-dog, Spaniel, Setter and Pointer. This class comprises the ae et aa aes ES POINTER AND SETTER. most useful, intelligent and noble of the whole tribe, including allamong the Spaniels, the noble Newfoundland, and the sagacious St. Bernard dogs. 3. All that class notable as having the muzzle essentially shortened, and the cranium on top of the head elevated, as Terriers and Bull dogs. Among the valuable farm dogs of this class are the Mastiff, now quite rare, and the Terriers : the dangerous ones are Bull dogs, and the useless are Pug dogs, though the latter are not deficient in affection and intelligence. 1014 THE AMERICAN FARMER S STOCK BOOK. Again, dogs may be divided into classes in which all of the class pos- sess peculiarities in common, intensified in special directions. Thus the Shepherd dog, belonging to the Spaniel class, is a dog of remarkable sa- gacity, and affectionate attachment to its master. So wonderfully have its special qualities been intensified by careful breeding and selection, that the Scotch Colley has come to be regarded as a distinct breed of the family of Spaniels to which all true Shepherd dogs belong. Next may be taken the Mastiff and all that class of large, short-haired dogs noted especially for their strength and determination. Among the dogs of HEAD OF BLOODHOUND, flectness and staying qualities are the Greyhounds in their several varie- ties, the Deerhound, Foxhound, and Bloodhound. Then come the Newfoundland, the Water Spaniel, the Pointer, Setter, and Poodles. Among dogs especially used to hunt vermin (rats, mice, badgers, etc.) are the Terriers, including the Black-and-Tan, Scotch, and Skye Terriers. Among pet dogs, of the larger class, the Dalmatian, or Spotted Coach dog is best known, and of the more diminutive or trumpet-dogs are the Blenheim Spaniel, the King Charles Spaniel, the small terriers, the Italian Greyhound, the Poodles and Pugs—the latter as unmitigated nuisances DOGS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 1015 both in temper and physical infirmities as could well be imagined. Of the large class, the Mastiff is a noble dog, and faithfully submissive to THE DALMATIAN OR COACH DOG. his master, but dangerous to strangers, while the only valuable quality of the Bull-dog is his obstinate but blind courage, and tenacity of grip. The SMALL SKYE TERRIER, Bull-dog is valuable, however, when modified by crossing with more intel- ligent dogs of the larger breeds, and especially valuable in the sub-breed known as the Bull-terrier. 1016 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. The most common, and most diversified of the dog tribe, are those known as Curs ; they are of no particular breed, but are seemingly made up ST. HUBERT HOUND, of chance crosses of short-haired breeds. They are by no means to be despised, since they are deficient, as a rule, neither in affection, sagacity, courage, nor devotion to their masters. DOGS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 1017 IX. Their Diversified Character. No animal ever brought under subjection to man has assumed such diversified characters as has the dog; it is one of the most wonderful exhibitions of variation of species in the natural history of animated nature. Yet, in all this wonderful variation, there is no departure from the permanent characteristics of the species. They differ as to form, size, color, length of hair, temper, courage, and constancy of affection ; and yet, from a scientific point of view, they are all the same, and have remained so in their attributes since the earliest ages. As illustrating this we give two forms—one a diminutive and highly-bred Terrier, of the Skye type, the size of which may be estimated by that of the goblet beside it, the other, the St. Hubert hound, combining in a considerable degree the courage and tenacity of the Bloodhound, with the strength and fleet- ness of the Deer-hound. The one is a mere toy, the other one of the noblest of dogs of the chase. Upon ordinary observation they might be relegated to different species, and yet, from a critical view, not only of the same genus, but of the same species—nay, even of the same family, that of canis familiaris. CHAPTER II. DOGS OF THE CHASE. I. LOUNDS. II. THE ENGLISH GREYHOUND.——IIl. THE ROUGH SCOTCH GREY- MOUND OR DEER-HOUND. IV. THE GRECIAN GREYHOUND’ V. THE PERSIAN GREYHOUND. VI. THE RUSSIAN GREYHOUND. Vil. THE TURKISH GREY- HOUND.— VIII. THE IRISH WOLF-HOUND.——IX. THE STAG-HOUND. x. THE FOX-HOUND.——XI. THE BLOOD-HOUND.—XII. THE DACHSHUND.——XIII. OTHER HOUNDS.——XIV. THE FOX-TERRIER. I. Hounds. Under the name hound, in its original meaning, were included all dogs of the chase, or those used by man in securing game. Later, the term was restricted to dogs of the chase and field, including, of course, the Setter and Pointer; and it is now narrowed down to include only dogs that follow game by scent or sight, such as the Greyhound and its varie- ties; the Blood-hound, the Stag-hound, Fox-hound, the German badger- hound (Dachshund), Terrier and Beagle. II. The English Greyhound. For beauty and grace of form, and great speed combined with a fair amount of courage, the Greyhound has been famous from the earliest historical times, and has always been a favorite with the wealthy. Up to the time when the world became disenthralled from the despotism of feudalism, the Greyhound was the companion of Kings and so-called nobles. The larger and more powerful are still valuable, where large game may be coursed. Improved fire-arms, however, have gradually rendered this class of dogs less and less useful in the chase, and they are now kept principally for coursing the hare, as coursing dogs in exhibitions of speed, and for their noble appearance and beauty as pet compan- ions to men of wealth. Aside from its elegance, the Greyhound has little claim as a faithful companion to man, since it lacks real affection as well as sagacity. Its beauty and high breeding, however, are supposed to make up for its lack of sense and sensibility ; and there are many instances reported from the far past showing it to have been deficient neither in courage, sagacity nor fidelity. One notable instance is of the hound Gelert, belonging to Llew- ellen, son-in-law to King John, in 1205. The master going to hunt could not find his favorite Greyhound, and was obliged to depart without him. 1018 DOGS OF THE CHASE. 1019 Returning from the chase his dog met him, covered with blood. Going to the chamber where his infant son lay in his cradle, the whole apart- ment showed signs of violence; the clothes were disturbed and bloody, ‘SANNOMAAND HSTTONG \ and upon calling the child no response was heard. In arage Llewellen plunged his sword into the breast of the hound, which, dying, looked reproachfully into his master’s face. A closer search showed the infant 1020 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. quietly sleeping beneath the bloody clothing, and a gaunt wolf lying dead close by, showing that the faithful hound had remained at home to pro- tect and save the life of the young heir of the Welsh principality. The story is somewhat poetical, but it is good enough to be true. The English Greyhound is the finest of the Greyhounds of to-day. Jlegant in shape, possessing high breeding, good courage, fair sagacity and tractability, they are now kept principally in the United States for their beauty and swiftness on the course, and for hunting hares and rab- bits. The illustration will give a good idea of the finer specimens. That this dog, 400 years ago, possessed the highest characteristics of the best dogs of to-day is shown by the rhymes of Wynken de Werde, printer and poet, 1496, or at least attributed to him. ‘They are as follows: Headed lyke a snake, Neckyed lyke a drake, Footed lyke a catte, ‘Tayled lyke a ratte, Syded lyke a teme And chyned lyke a bream. If by ‘*teme’’ we understand deep sided, and by ‘*bream,’’ we under- stand that it had a strong, broad back and loin, we have the counterpart of the best dog of to-day. remembering always that the poet’s license has exaggerated all the points; with this exception the rhymes will describe the smooth Greyhound, which was a dog of Kings and nobles, in Britain so long ago as the days of Canute. The most fashionable colors now are black, or maltese (bluish lead-color), though good dogs are shown of red, fawn, brindled and white as well as black or maltese ; dogs with a tinge of gray about the jaws are especially good. III. The Rough Scotch Greyhound or Deer-hound, This is one of the noblest and most valuable of the Greyhounds, but now, like the famous Irish Greyhound, almost extinet—in fact, absolutely so in its purity. The modern Scotch Greyhound is a cross between the smooth Greyhound and the old Rough Scotch Deer-hound. It is a larger dog than the pure Greyhound, reaching a height of 28 inches, and a girth of 52, and weighing in working condition over 80 pounds. The color is red or fawn with black muzzle. They have speed sufficient to reach a deer, and a brace of the best of them the strength to pull one down. They have, also, courage, sagacity and docility. IV. The Grecian Greyhound. This is an elegant dog, smaller than the English Greyhound ; the hair rather long, somewhat wavy ; the tail having a thin brush of hair; the DOGS OF THE CHASE. 1021 legs also slightly feathered ; the ear pendulous ; the eyes large and intel- ligent. It is supposed to have been descended from the hound of the Greeks and Romans. V. The Persian Greyhound. This is a dog of great elegance and beauty ; as delicate as the Italian, but large enough for coursing, and exceedingly swift ; it is used in Persia for coursing the antelope and hare. The height is about twenty-four inches ; the ears are pendulous and silky haired ; the tail also silky haired, having been compared to that of a silky haired Setter; the hair of the body, however, is smooth. VI. The Russian Greyhound. This dog, like the Deer-hound, hunts by scent as well as by sight. He is swift and stout, and fairly courageous, and is considered a match for the wolf, the wild boar, or bear, when the hounds are hunted in packs. In height he is about 26 or 27 inches; ears short, pricked, but turned over at the tips; the hair not long, but thick ; that of the tail long, fan- like, and with a spiral twist. The color of the animal is dark brown and gray. VII. The Turkish Greyhound. This dog is described as being small, almost hairless, and rather rare even in Turkey, and probably worthless either as a pet or for any practi- cal use. VIII. The Irish Wolf-hound. For a dog differing from the these last mentioned, and superior to the Russian, and to the Scotch Deer-hound, the Irish wolf dog, a true Grey- hound, as it existed 200 years ago, may be taken as a type of elegance, combined with great strength, fleetness, courage and tractability. Evelyn, the father of English horticulture, who wrote 250 years ago, describing the savage scenes of the bear garden, says: ‘*The bulldogs did exceed- ingly well, but the Irish wolf-dog exceeded, which was a tall Greyhound, a stately creature, and did beat a cruel mastiff.”” Campion, a contempo- rary of Evelyn describes them as Greyhounds of great bone and limb. Goldsmith relates that he knew one as tall as a yearling calf. There are said now to be no thoroughly pure dogs of this once famous breed. IX. The Stag-hound.. The Stag-hound is the modern representative of the Talbot, or old Eng- lish hound used in the chase when large game, like deer, ran wild in the forests of Great Britain. Shakespeare evidently had the Stag-hound in 1022 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. mind when he described the hounds of Theseus. in ‘*‘ Midsummer Night’s Dream.”’ “My hounds are bred out of the Spartan breed So tlewed* so sanded}; and their heads are hung With ears that sweep away the morning dew, Crook-kneed and dewlappedj like Thessalian bull; Slow in pursuit, but matched in mouth like bells, Each under each. A cry more tunable Was never hallo’d to, nor cheered with horn.’ 3 It is related of this magnificent dog, that in a hunt, the pack being at fault, two dogs took up the chase, and ran the deer from Kingtield park in Northumberland to Annan in Scotland and back, a distance of more than 100 miles. In returning, the deer leaped the wall of the park from which he started, and died. One of the hounds pursued to the wall, and expired, unable to leap the barrier, and the other hound was found dead from exhaustion a short distance in the rear. In 1482, a deer was pur- sued fifty miles across the country in four hours, by a pack of these hounds without a break; the severity of the pursuit may be understood from the fact that nearly twenty horses died in the chase ; but, again, later civilization has rendered these hounds of little practical value. xX. The Fox-hound. The modern Fox-hound was produced by a cross between the old Eng- lish hound and the Greyhound. They combine courage, stoutness and fleetness, with great power of scent, and like all dogs that hunt in packs, they give tongue as it is called, (cry out) when on the scent. If the dog, when he finds, is not quite sure, the note is given undecidedly and at in- tervals ; the scent being sure the dog runs open-mouthed, in full ery, and ull the other dogs rush immediately to the call, and the whole pack are in full, united ery. There are few more exciting scenes than a pack of hounds in pursuit, giving tongue, with a party of horsemen cheering them on. In England, fox-hunting is the national sport of the wealthy, and in the South it is keenly followed by many of those whose wealth allows them to keep hounds, and participate in the sport. As a guide to those who may fancy these dogs, the following condensation from the National (English ) Dog Club Book of Points will be interesting: The head should he light, very sensible, and at the same time full of dignity ; with a cer- tain amount of chap, and the forehead a little wrinkled; the neck long and clean, with no approach to dewlap or cravat ; the ears set low and lie *Note.—Flewed: deep mouthed, Flews are hanging chops, giving the peculiar appearance to the heads of the hounds. + Sanded: speckled; of a sandy color, ¢ Dewlap: the loose hanging skin of the neck. DOGS OF THE CHASE. 1023 close to the head ;-the shoulders should be long and well sloped back ; the chest deep and wide; the elbows in a straight line with the body ; the fore legs quite straight, large in bone and well clothed with muscle ; the “SaNNOH-XOd4 HSITONA pasterns or ankles must be large, strong and straight, without turmme in ‘ or out; the feet round, and rather flat than arched; the division between each toe should be just apparent ; the sole of the foot hard and indurated. 1024 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. The back of the Fox-hound should be straight, wide and muscular ; the loins strong and square ; the back ribs deep, and the hind quarters pow- erful. The tail should be carried gaily, but not hooped, nor feathered at the end. In color, the Fox-hound should, for choice, be black, white, and tan. When the colors blend, the animal is said to be pied. The best pie col- ors are hare, badger, red and yellow. The coat should be dense, smooth and glossy. XI. The Bloodhound. Of all dogs which hunt by scent, the Bloodhound is the most extraor- dinary for his power of following the trail upon which he is put, com- bining marvelous power of scent, persistent determination—however the track may have been crossed and recrossed—courage amounting almost to ferocity in the attack, but at the same time when pure, unequalled in faithfulness, gentleness and affection to his master and friends. The breed in its purity is rare, they generally being crossed with the Bull-dog to render them ferocious. It is one of the oldest of English-bred dogs, and has been known as the Sleuth-hound, the Leash-hound, the Slouth and the Slugg-hound, but while bearing the general characteristics of the old English or Talbot hound, it is undoubtedly distinct. When kept chained he is morose and ferocious, as indeed all dogs are, more or less, and at all times he is inclined to be touchy and savage, and never will permit the approaches of strangers. His height will range from 24 to 30 inches at the shoulder. The color a reddish tan, darking towards the head and back, and quite free from white on the face or white patches ; but if the brown of the body be flecked with white, it is consid- ered good. In the best type of the English Bloodhound, the coat should be close, silky, short, and strong; the forehead long and narrow ; the eyes deep and sunken, but expressive, and plainly showing the haw or third eyelid, which gives a peculiar look of redness to the eyes. The ears should be long, thin, and pendant, hanging straight down the sides of the face; if they rise when the dog is excited it shows that there is cross blood in him. The face and upper jaw, to the nose, should be nar- row, the nose itself large and black, or nearly black, the lips or flews should be long, thin, and pendulous. In a perfect Blood-hound the ears and the flews are long enough to touch each other when brought under the chin. The neck should be long and strong, the shoulders and fore legs straight and powerful, the feet compact and close at the toes, which should be well split. The skin of the throat should be loose and wrinkled, or what the huntsmen call throaty. The back and loins should be broad, ihe chest deep and full, the stern tapering, and the tail well set on and DOGS OF THE CHASE. 1025 earried in a graceful upward curve. His voice is deep and sonorous, and in pursuit, 2 full, deep, mellow and prolonged bay. The illustration will give a faithful idea of the pure English Bloodhound, now unhappily rare aNuL AHL ‘aINQOH-dooTd as WN o\\ \\ \ = \\ nS : GNC ASS nh from having been so much crossed with other savage dogs. Yet the instinct of the Bloodhound lies simply in one direction, and hence, except for tracking felons and other criminals, they are of but litle use. 65 1026 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. XII. The Dachshund. The German Badger hound, Dachshund, incorrectly called Dashound, is one of the most valuable of dogs for hunting badger, raccoon, and other animals of that class. For foxes, in a country where the hunter waits at arun for a shot, they are of great value, being sure of scent, slow in pursuit, and the most persistent of dogs in following. In the United States they are rare, and in Europe are seldom found except in the kennels of the wealthy. We think that in the South this breed should be of great value for hunting foxes, and as general farm dogs, since it is agreeable, cheerful, of consummate courage, and devoted tothe Pee SN THE DACHSHUND. master and family. The Germans have a proverb that where a Dach- shund fastens he holds—** Wo ein Dachshund fangt er halt.” The dogs will weigh about 20 pounds ; the hair is short and moderately hard, and the skin remarkable for its thickness as well as for its elastic- ity, so that when seized in fighting, the dog can turn and also seize his adversary by the throat or fore leg. The prevailing colors are black, with tan markings ; brown, with tawny markings ; fallow red and gray, with blue or brown flecks. The engraving is a faithful representation of this sturdy (some would call him homely) and valuable dog. DOGS OF THE CHASE. 1027 XIII. Other Hounds. The other hounds that may be mentioned are the Harrier, the Beagle, and the Otter-hound. The Harrier resembles the Fox-hound, but is smaller. A cross of the Greyhound upon the Southern hound, and this produce bred again to the Southern hound will bring an excellent dog for hunting hares—for the wild animal we call rabbit is a true hare. This dog is now quite rare in England, and almost unknown in America. The Beagle.—The true Beagle, like the Harrier, is almost extinct. They may be called small and delicate hounds, in size ranging from 14 inches down to less than ten inches in height. They have long, pendent ears, long bodies, and are more pretty than useful. The Otter-Hound.—The Otter-hound is a rough, wiry-haired dog, otherwise much like the old fashioned Bloodhound. They are so savage that instances are on record of half a pack being killed in a single night fighting with each other. They are delicate in power of scent, good swin.- mers, and can endure cold water well. Added to this, they are of the most enduring courage in fighting enemies, and have the peculiarity of biting savagely and deep, and instantly tearing out their hold. Hunting the hare is thus described by one of the best of English poets : ‘+ Poor is the triumph o’er the timid hare, Yet vain her best precaution, though she sits Conceal’d, with folded ears, unsleeping eyes, By nature raised to take the horizon in, And head conceal’d betwixt her hairy feet, Tn act to springaway. The scented dew Betrays her labyrinth; and deep In scatter’d sullen openings, far behind, With every breeze, she hears the coming storm, But nearer and more frequent, as it heeds The sighing gale, she springs amazed, and all The savage soul of game is up at once.” XIV. The Fox-terrier. The Fox-terrier was once considered a most useful dog for pulling foxes from their holes of refuge, and was originally kept as an addition to every pack of hounds. This was in the day of slow hounds. Now-a- days the hunting pace is too fast for him. But as his usefulness ceased here, he still held a place, and he is now a fashionable companion for young men of leisure. Their weight is about 16 pounds. The head is flat and narrow between the eyes, but widening up to and between the ears ; the ears are set rather back, and lying close to the cheek, and are small and thin; the jaw is strong, smooth, level, and armed with strong teeth; eyes small, black and keen, nose black, shoulder straight, chest 1028 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. full and round but not deep; neck light and rising finely from the shoulder; back straight, and thighs well bent and powerful. The color is white, with black, black and tan, or with tan markings about the head. The tail is short, and the limbs straight and strong. The coat should be fine but hard, and not at all inclined to silkiness. The cut will give a good idea of this intelligent and really handsome and useful dog. POX-TERRIER. CHAPTER III. SPORTING OR FIELD DOGS. I. THE POINTER. II. THE SETTER. Ill. POINTS OF THE ENGLISH SETTER. —IV. POINTS OF THE IRISH SETTER.——Y. TRAINING TO WORK.——VI. THE ENGLISH SYSTEM OF TRAINING.——VII. THE ENGLISH RETRIEVER.——VIII. THE CHESAPEAKE BAY RETRIEVER.——IX. THE CLUMBER SPANIEL. xX. THE ENGLISH SPANIEL. XI. THE IRISH WATER SPANIEL.——XII. THE SPRINGER. THE COCKER SPANIEL. XII. I. The Pointer. All dogs used in field sports, for finding birds, or as it is termed, for re- trieving game, when shot, and also the Newfoundland, the St. Bernard, and many of the long-haired household pets are of the Spaniel class. The Pointer seems farther removed from the type than any other, and yet he belongs to this class. He has the most delicate scent of any of the field dogs, is exceedingly staunch in pointing game, but in the West his feet are not strong enough to stand the sharp stubble of the prairie grasses. All sporting dogs take naturally to the finding and pointing of game, but to make them perfect and reliable, their education must be careful and complete. They are, all of them, the most intelligent of dogs, and a number of instances are recorded, in which both Pointers and Setters have refused to work longer, when loaned to a person who proved an indifferent marks- man. Looking back in astonishment at the bad marksmanship, after a few ineffectual attempts to bring down the bird, they trotted off home, and no coaxings, blandishments or commands could call them back. A case is reported in which a Pointer became so incensed at his master’s bad shooting, as several times to have attacked him in a manner not to be mistaken. Many of the Spaniel class will hunt indifferently well, but it is only the well-bred Pointer and Setter that become cataleptic, that is immoyable, upon getting the scent of game. It has been said that the original instinct of the Pointer was to steal cautiously up to his game, and then spring suddenly, and his pointing is a modification of this habit acquired by education. This is disproved by the fact that the puppy will point as truly and naturally as old dogs. Among the most interesting of the anecdotes, showing the immovable staunchness of Pointers upon scenting game is that of Mr. Gilpin who 1029 1030 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. tells of a brace of Pointers standing an hour and a quarter without moving, This, however, was exceeded by Clio, a dog belonging to a Mr. Lee, who stood with her hind legs upon a gate for more than two hours, with a nest. t\ is iy THE POINTER, COURSING, of partridges close to her nose. She must have seen them as she jumped over the gate, and had she moved an inch they would have been frightened away. Mr. Lee went on, and, having other dogs, did not miss Clio for SPORTING OR FIELD DOGS. 1031 a long time ; at length he perceived she was not with the rest, and neither came to his call nor his whistle ; he went back to seek her, and there she stood just as she had got over the gate. His coming up disturbed the birds, and he shot some of them, but Clio, when thus relieved, was so stiff that she could not move, and her master sat down on the grass and rubbed her legs till she could bend them again. Again, as showing the intelligent sagacity of the Pointer, Mr. Jesse, in his “‘Gleanings,’’ tells the following story: An old friend of mine had a very sagacious Pointer, which was kept in a kennel with several other dogs. His gamekeeper having gone one day into the kennel, dropped his watch by some accident. On leaving the place, he fastened the gate as usual, but had not gone far from it when he heard it rattled very much ; and on looking round he saw his favorite Pointer standing with her forepaws against it and-shaking it, evidently for the purpose of attract- ing his attention. On going up to her, he found her with his watch in her mouth, which she restored to him with much seeming delight. II. The Setter. The Setter is undoubtedly the most valuable, as it is the most intelli- gent, of field dogs. His head shows remarkable development of brain, combining intelligence, affection, docility and courage. They have been ealled timid, and so they are if they have been cowed, but it is a fact that well-trained Setters are among the most watchful and trusty of house dogs, as well as the most reliable in the field. The original colors were dark bay, and white, or else decided chestnut. The English Setter is white, with black or brown marks. The least adulterated are bred in Ire- land ; and importations into the United States are from the very best of the class both English and Irish. The Gordon Setter, an English strain, is heavier in build and not so fine in the head as the white and brown English, or the Ivish Setter. The color should be quite black, or black with a tinge of brown ortan. The black of the purest animals should be rich and without mixture, and the tan should be a deep mahogany red without any tendency to fawn color. The Irish Setter is of two distinct strains, the red and the white-and-red. III. Points of the English Setter. Tue Skuty.—The skull has a character peculiar to itself. It is with- out the prominence of the occipital bone so remarkable in the Pointer ; is also narrower between the ears, and there is a decided brow over the eyes. Tue NoseE—This should be long and wide, without any fullness under the eyes. There should he, in the average dog Setter, at least four inches 1032 THE AMERICAN FARMER S STOCK BOOK. ) from the inner corner of the eye to the end of the nose. Between the point and the root of the nose there should be a slight depression—at all events there should be no fullness—and the eyebrows should rise sharply \ = N & \ & n ea) m et =) eX from it. The nostrils must be wide apart, and large in the openings, and the end should be moist and cool, though many a dog with exceptionally good scenting powers has had a remarkably dry nose, aniourting in seme SPORTING OR FIELD DOGS. 1033 cases to roughness like that of shagreen. In all Setters the end of the nose should be black, or dark liver-colored, but in the very best bred whites, or lemon and whites, pink is often met with, and may in them be pardoned. The jaws should be exactly equal in length, a ‘* snipe nose,”’ or ‘* pig jaw,’’ as the receding lower oneis called, being greatly against its possessor. Kars, Lips, AnD Eves.—With regard to ears, they should be shorter than the Pointer’s, and rounded, but not so much so as those of the Spaniel. The ‘ leather”’ should be thin and soft, carried closely to the cheeks, so as not to show the inside, without the slightest tendency to prick the ear, which should be clothed with silky hair little more than two inches in length. The lips also are not so full and pendulousas those of the Pointer, but at their angles there should be a slight fullness, not reaching quite to the extent of hanging. The eyes must be full of ani- mation, and of medium size, the best color being a rich brown, and they should be set with their angles straight across. Tue Necx.—The neck has not the full rounded muscularity of the Pointer, being considerably thinner, but still slightly arched, and set into the head without that prominence of the occipital bone which is so re- markable in that dog. It must not be ‘throaty,’ though the skin is loose. SHOULDERS AND Cuxst.—The shoulders and chest should display great liberty in all directions, with sloping deep shoulder blades, and elbows well let down. The chest should be deep rather than wide, though Mr. Laverack insists on the contrary formation, italicising the word wide in his remarks at page 22 of his book. Possibly it may be owing to this formation that his dogs have not succeeded at any field trial, as above remarked ; for the bitches of his breed, notably Countess and Daisy, which I have seen, were as narrow as any Setter breeder could desire. I am quite satistied that on this point Mr. Leverack is altogether wrong. I fully agree with him, however, that the ‘* ribs should be well sprung behind the shoulder,”’ and great depth of the back ribs should be especially demanded. Back, Quarters, AND StrrtEs.—An arched loin is desirable, but not ‘to the extent of being ‘‘ roached’’ or ‘* wheel-backed,’’ «a defect which generally tends to a slow up-and-down gallop. Stifles well bent, and set wide apart, to allow the hind legs to be brought forward with liberty in the gallop. Leas, ELgows, anp Hocxs.—The elbows and toes, which generally go together, should be set straight; and if not, the ‘* pigeon-toe”’’ or in- turned leg is less objectionable than the out-turn, in which the elbow is confined by its close attachment to the ribs. The arm should be mus- cular, and the bone fully developed, with strong and broad knees, short 1054 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. pasterns, of which the size in point of bone should be as great as possi- ble (a very important point), and their slope not exceeding a very slight deviation from the straight line. Many good judges insist upon a per- fectly upright pastern, like that of the Fox-hound ; but it must not be for- gotten that the Setter has to stop himself suddenly when at full stretch he catches scent, and to do this with an upright and rigid pastern causes a considerable strain on the ligaments, soon ending in ‘‘knuckling over ;”° hence a very slight bend is to be preferred. The hind legs should be muscular, with plenty of bone, clean strong hocks, and hairy feet. Tue Frer.—the feet should be carefully examined, as upon their capa- bility of standing wear and tear depends the utility of the dog. A great difference of opinion exists as to the comparative merits of the cat and hare foot for standing work. Fox-hound masters invariably select that of the cat, and, as they have better opportunities than any other class of instituting the necessary comparison, their selection may be accepted as final. But, as Setters are specially required to stand wet and heather, it is imperatively necessary that there should be a good growth of hair be- tween the toes, and on this account a hare foot, well clothed with hair, as it generally is, must be preferred to a cat foot, naked, as is often the case, except on the upper surface. Tue Tart.—The flag is in appearance very characteristic of the breed, although it sometimes happens that one or two puppies in a well-bred litter exhibit a curl or other malformation, usually considered to be indic- ative of a stain. It is often compared to a scimitar, but it resem- bles it only in respect of its narrowness, the amount of curl in the blade of this Turkish weapon being far too great to make it the model of the Setter’s flag. Again, it has been compared to a comb; but as combs are usually straight, here again the simile fails, as the Setter’s flag should have a gentle sweep ; and the nearest resemblance to any familiar form is to the scythe with its curve reversed. The feather must be composed of straight, silky hairs, and beyond the root the less short hair on the flag the better, especially towards the point, of which the bone should be fine, and the feather tapering with it. SymMetry and Quatrry.—In character the Setter should display a great amount of ‘*quality,’? a term which is difficult of explanation, though fully appreciated by all experienced sportsmen. It means a com- bination of symmetry, as understood by the artist, with the peculiar attributes of the breed under examination, as interpreted by the sports- man. Thus, a Setter possessed of such a frame and outline as to charm an artist would be considered by the sportsman defective in ‘‘quality’’ if he possessed a curly or harsh coat, or if he had a heavy head with pend- SPORTING OR FIELD DOGS. 1055 ent Bloodhound-like jowl and throaty neck. The general outline is very elegant, and more taking to the eye of the artist than that of the Pointer. Tue Harr.—The texture and feather of coat are much regarded among Setter breeders, a soft silky hair without curl being considered a sine qua non. ‘The feather should be considerable, und should fringe the hind as well as the fore legs. Cotor.—The color of coat is not much insisted on among English Set- ters, a great variety being admitted. These are now generally classed as follows, in the order given: (1) Black and white ticked, with large splashes, and more or less marked with black, known as ‘blue Belton ;’’ (2) orange and white freckled, known as orange Belton; (3) plain orange, or lemon and white ; (4) liver and white; (5) black and white, with slight tan markings; (6) black and white; (7) liver and white ; (8) pure white; (9) black; (10) liver; (11) red or yellow. IV. Points of The Irish Setter. The points in which the Irish differs from the English Setter are given as follows. The description applies to the pure reds, but the white-and- reds are identical with them except in color : Tue Sxuty.—The skull is somewhat longer and narrower, the eye- brows being well raised, and the occipital prominence as marked as in the Pointer. Tue Nosr.—This is a trifle longer, with good width, and square at the end; nostrils wide and open, with the nose itself of a deep mahogany or very dark fleshy-color, not pink nor black. Eyes, Ears anp Lirs.—The eyes should be a rich brown or mahogany color, well set, and full of intelligence ; a pale or gooseberry eye is to be avoided. Ears long enough to reach within half an inch or an inch of the end of the nose, and, though more tapering than in the English dog, never coming to a point; they should be set lowand close, but well back, and not approaching to the hound’s in setting and leather. Whiskers red; lips deep, but not pendulous. Tue Bopy.—In frame the Irish dog is higher on the leg than either the English or black-and-tan, but his elbows are well let down nevertheless ; his shoulders are long and sloping ; brisket deep, but never wide; and his back ribs are somewhat shorter than those of his English brethren. Loin good, slightly arched, and well coupled to his hips, but not very wide ; quarters slightly sloping, and flag set on rather low, but straight, fine in bone, and beautifully carried. Breeders are, however, going for straight backs like that of Palmerston, with flags set on as high as in the Engtish Setter. 1036 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. Tue Lecs.—Legs very straight, with good hock, well-bent stifles, and muscular but not heavy haunches. Tur Ferr.—The feet are hare-like, and moderately hairy between the toes. Tue Tar.—The flag is clothed with a long, straight comb of hair, never bushy or curly, and this is beautifully displayed on the point. Tue Coar.—This should be somwhat coarser than that of the English Setter, being midway between that and the black-and-tan, wavy but not curly, and by no means long. Both hind and fore iegs are well feath- ered, but not profusely, and the ears are furnished with feather to the same extent, with a slight wave, but no curl. Tur Cotor.—The color should be a rich blood red, without any trace of black on the ears or along the back ; in many of the best strains, how- ever, a pale color or an oceasional tinge of black is shown. A little white on the neck, breast, or toes, is by no means objectionable, and there is no doubt that the preponderance of white, so as to constitute what is called ‘*white and red,’’ is met with in some good strains. V. Training to Work. The training of the Pointer and Setter is identical. They are quick to learn, and should not be unduly punished, for it is only perseverance and care in training that make the perfect dog. Professional trainers are apt to be brutal and too severe, therefore once the dog is fairly way-wise, the owner had better finish the training himself. In shooting on the prairies, but little trouble will be experienced, though to make the most of any dog, tact and patience are required as well as experience. They must be made to obey, and if they are stubborn and willful, aside from natural high spirits, they must be punished, and that always with the whip, never with the ram-rod or gun. It does not pay to run the risk of break- ing the gun in an insane attempt to break the dog. Always use the same words for any given command ; these as generally used are as follows: To prevent breaking over a fence or barrier—‘ Ware fence ;’’ to cease chas- ingeats, hares, poultry, ete.,—‘*Ware chase ;’’ to come to heel, and walk quietly behind the master,—* To heel,’’ or ‘‘ Heel;’’ to run or course forward,—‘* Hold up ;’’ to lie down,—‘* Down charge,’’ or ‘* Down;”’ to prevent taking food placed near, or to prevent running in on birds,— “Toho.’’ If the dog is too full of spirits, a light cord twenty or thirty feet long trailing behind him, will soon sober him. VI. The English System of Training. The training of bird dogs, where the fields are small, especially in Eng- land, where manors must not be tresspassed on, is more difficult. Upon SPORTING OR FIELD DOGS. 1037 ‘this subject a competent English authority says: The education of the ATTA Ho NO PYNILOOHS WoAOWD livid . ? “Sal A Pointer, and of the Setter also, has only to be carried up to the point at 1038 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. which it was compelled to stop, for want of the gun; and that there are’ some few essentials in regard to which it requires finish. The ¢* Down- charge’ is dependent upon the rising of the birds, and can better be taught at pairing-time ; but, however well inculcated, is too apt to be for- gotten, and to be lost sight of, in the anxiety to bag the game. The Poin- ter or Setter should not be used as a retriever ; another dog should be specially set apart for that purpose. If this is not the case, the chances are ten to one that the young dog is allowed to go to his bird, if a runner, without waiting for his master’s order. If this is done once or twice, the habit soon increases, till at length both dogs rush at their bird, in their anxiety to retrieve it. The ‘‘gillie’? should have charge of the dogs at this critical moment, and he as quietly as possible should keep them steadily down. This is all he has to do at that moment, though he may well do that and mark at the same time. He may also lead the retriever, till he is steady enough to walk at yourheels. His grand use, however, is to keep the dogs down when the birds rise, and this he should do under all circumstances. Dogs do not require to mouth their game us an encouragement; they are quite satisfied if they see it fall, and will continue the work as long as their strength will allow, without touching a feather. By adhering strictly to this plan, all danger of their acquiring this inexcusable fault is done away. If any dog is wanting in self-confidence, be careful in fol- lowing him up, pay great attention to his point, and take care to shoot his bird, if possible ; or, at all events, to shoot at it. In this way, the dog finds that you estimate him higher than he thought, and he learns to depend on his own powers, instead of following another dog, and always looking out for ** points.”’ In grouse-shooting, there is not the annoyance of the constant hedges, which are so detrimental to the Pointer in the pursuit of the partridge ; but there is a much greater chance of the dog pottering over a foot-scent, because the grouse runs so much more than the partridge, and being feathered down the leg, his foot-scent is so much stronger. It is here that a good Setter shows his superiority, as he generally makes out a foot-scent better than «a Pointer; though I have seen Pointers that would make out anything. The very highly-bred Pointer often has no notion of this ; he points as stiff as a Chinese idol the moment he comes upon scent of any kind, and nothing will move him as long as that scent continues. Such dogs are useless on the moors. You not only want to know that there is game somewhere, but also where it is. The essential feature of a good dog is, that he shall stop the moment he feels the scent, and satisfy himself that game is before him. As soon as he is quite sure of this, he should wait until vou are within distance; on being assured SPORTING OR FIELD DOGS. 1039 of which, he should draw upon his birds, if they are running, taking care to stand quite steady if he hears the faintest ** Toho’’ from his master. This is sometimes necessary if the grouse are strong runners, as the shooter must often head them before they will rise, though good sports- men prefer walking rapidly up to them, and putting them up, as they will seldom, till they are become very wild, get far enough before you to rise out of shot. Some dogs learn to leave their first point, and go round and circumvent their game; but this is only a rare accomplishment, and is scarcely to be desired; it is much better to send your man well on before them, ordering him to dropto the ground the moment they rise. VII. The English Retriever. Retrievers proper are cross-bred dogs. The English Retriever is a cross between the Irish Water Spaniel and the Newfoundland, the object of the cross being to make them stout enough to bear heavy game like hares and large birds, and to impart endurance in cold water. They are generally curly, but whether curled or smooth haired, the coler should be black, or black-and-tan, or black with tabby or brindled legs. The cross with the Spaniel and short, flat-coated St. John’s Newfoundland are said to make the best dogs. They have wonderful intelligence, a soft mouth, strength to carry, and are thorough swimmers. Mr. Cobbett, an English authority, describes the Retriever as follows : He should have a long head, a large eye, a capacious mouth. His ears should be small, close to his head, set low, and with short hair on them. His nose should be large, his neck long, that he may stoop in his quest, his shoulders oblique and deep, and his chest broad and powerful. His loins, back, and hind quarters are all of great importance ; for though a hare will be the maximum of weight he will have to carry, he may have to carry it a long distance, to get over a stone wall with it, or to make his way through a strong covert. His legs should be strong, straight, and muscular; his feet round and moderately large, with the toes well arched. If he be required for punt-shooting, his coat should be short und close ; but for general purposes it should be flat, shining, and abund- ant. If black, he should be all black; if black and tabby, the tabby should not go far up the leg, and should be free from white. The tail should be well feathered, moderately short, and carried gaily. The feather should be decidedly heavy, but tapering to the point. No Retriever deserves the least consideration from a judge at dog shows unless his temper is good. Temper is the foundation of a good Retriever. He should be about 24 inches at the shoulders, moderately long in the body, and fairly short on his legs. He should be as clean cut 1040 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. as a Setter under the angle of the jaw. The Setter cross is said to be the best, but it certainly diminishes the liking for the water, and, in some ENGLISH RETRIEVER. ' SSSA mi SSW OA? instances, the produce has a marked disinclination to quest in thick or tangled woodland. SPORTING OR FIELD DOGS. 1041 VIII. The Chesapeake Bay Retriever. There are three strains of these noble dogs: Ist, the Otter breed, of atawny sedge color with very short hair; 2d, the Red Winchester, a “MHAMIULAM AVA AMVAdVSAMO dog with long, smooth hair; and 3d, the Curly Retriever, having curled hair and of a red-brown color. A white spot in the breast of either class is not considered a disqualification. ... L042 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. They are said to have sprung from a pair of Newfoundlands, secured from a wrecked ship in 1807. Goy. Lloyd, of Maryland, into whose pos- (ENGLISH.) 7 \) ) CLUMBER SPANIEL Ss — = ss session the dog came, trained him carefully, and ‘Sailor’ as he was called, gave origin to the progeny known as the Sailor breed. The bitch SPORTING OR FIELD DOGS. 1045 also became famous as a staunch retriever of ducks and other game, and crossed with the [vish Spaniel they have since become famous. The Maryland Poultry and Fancier’s Association, at the first show held at Baltimore in 1877, appointed a committee to draw up a standard of points for judging this breed. As showing the tractability and intelligence of the Retriever, the fol- lowing aneedote related by Mr. Cubbett, of a dog belonging to his friend Sir Charles Taylor, will suffice. He says the sagacity of this dog was extraordinary. Sir Charles would send him out in the morning to see if the weather would suit for shooting, saying, ‘*Go out and see if it will do.’ The dog would go out, walk round the house, putting his nose up in the air for afew moments, and then come back to the house. If ‘+it would do,’ he would jump up on his master’s knees and spring about the room in the most lively manner. Sir Charles would then tell him to fetch Tom, the keeper. Off he would go, sometimes to the distance of about amile, tofetchthe keeper. He would scrape at the keeper’s door, run towards the corner where the guns were kept, and by delighted barks tell Tom that he was wanted to go out shooting. And then they would both be soon ready for the day’s sport. If, on the contrary, ‘it would not do,” the dog would come in slowly, looking down on the carpet in a dejected way, throw himself at length on the rug, and go to sleep. IX. The Clumber Spaniel. In England, where peculiarities of breeds are accurately looked to in the hunting of game, the Clumber Spaniel is used for partridge shooting. This dog remains perfectly mute, even on the hottest scent, his great merit being his silence, so that he becomes valuable with game that takes wing at the slightest noise. He is thought to be animproved type of the old English Springer or Cock-flusher. The Clumber is sagacious, strong, slow in hunting, and easily gets through underbrush. His color is pale yellow and white, or orange and white, the white always being the pre- vailing color. He is large-boned with great length of body ; the head large ; the eye full and expressive ; hair short and exceedingly thick, and the tail fully feathered. X. The English Spaniel. The old English Spaniel is one of the best of water dogs, never refus- ine when there is game, and a capital swimmer and diver. His nose is excellent, and his intelligence high, but he is rather restless, and wants to he kept under good subjection. As a hunting dog, he is now but little LO44 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. used, but he has been so highly bred, that he has become an exceedingly handsome and companionable dog, especially the smaller and fine breed —-for there are two varieties as there are of the Irish Water-Spaniel. The illustration shows one of the most perfect specimens of the breed. ENGLISIL SPANIEL. XI. The Irish Water-Spaniel. Irish Water-Spaniels are ef two varieties. Those of the South of Ireland, are uniformly of a pure liver color; ears long and well feath- ered, sometimes two feet across from the point of one ear to the point of the other; the hair consists of short, erisp curls; the body long, strong and low; the tail round, and earried slightly down, but straight and with- out being at all feathered. The North of Ireland Spaniels have short ears, with but little feather on them, or on the legs: the coat is somewhat curled, and liver-col- ored, but with considerable white, so much so, sometimes, as to make him really liver-colored and white. The pure liver-colored dogs of the South of Ireland, are most highly prized, as are those having a well- defined top knot, not straggling across, but coming down in a peak on the forehead. XII. The Springer. The Springer, like the Clumber, is a stout, slow but heavy dog, and is not adapted to hard work. Many of them are mute, and this, in connec- tion with their acute and discriminating sense of smell, their tractable temper and the ease with which they may be managed, renders them well SPORTING OR FIELD DOGS. 1045 adapted to beating small coverts. On wild woodlands of thick under- brush or on the woodland openings, the Clumber would be the best for partridges. XIII. The Cocker Spaniel. The term Cocker is generally used to designate every field Spaniel except the Springer and Clumber, so the varieties are innumerable. The Cocker is higher in the leg than either the Springer or Clumber, more active, and apt to be wild, but nevertheless a useful dog in England when well broken. The colors are various ; liver-and-white and black-and- white being common, though lemon-and-white, self-colored liver, black, and even black-and-tan are sometimes met with. NORTH IRISH WATER-SPANIEL. CHAPTER IV. WATCH DOGS. I. HOUSE WATCH DOGS. Il. THE MASTIFF. fil. THE BULL-DOG. IV. THE BULL-TERRIER. V. THE NEWFOUNDLAND DOG. VI. THE ST. BERNARD DOG, VII. SHEPHERD DOGS. VIII. THE SCOTCH COLLIE. IX. THE SPANISH SHEPHERD DOG. X. THE DROVER’S DOG.——XI. THE POMERANIAN OR SPITZ DOG. XII. THE GERMAN SHEEP DOG. I. House Watch Dogs. Dogs kept in or near the house, whose duty it is to guard property, are known as guard or watch dogs. As a rule, these are the veriest curs of mixed breeds, and of but little value for the purpose for which they are kept. If the property to be guarded requires a large, strong dog, that will inspire fear, the Mastiff is undoubtedly the best; but those of pure breed are difficult to get, and, of course, no dog is a sufficient pro- tection against professional thieves. When the care of children is a part of the duty required, the Newfourdlands or St. Bernards are the best, since their natural instinct lies in this direction. If unswerving courage, fidelity, refusal under any circumstances to make friends with strangers, and prompt watchfulness in giving the alarm are what is required, the pure Bull-terrier is one of the most useful of dogs. The Bull-dog proper is of no value whatever simply as a watch dog, but is useful as a cross on more intelligent dogs to increase their courage and tenacity of purpose. For guarding flocks and herds, and as aids in driving them from place to place, the Shepherd dog and the Drover’s dog, in their several varieties, are all that could be desired. II. The Mastiff. This noble dog is of great antiquity in the British Islands. Unfortu- nately the pure Mastiff is one of the rarest of dogs, many of the so-called Mastiffs being simply smooth-haired mongrels of great size. The true Mastiff is docile, intelligent, honest and trustworthy, courageous, but not ferocious, grave, sometimes sullen-looking, but vigilant ; a dog, withal, which nothing can tempt from his duty. In the sixteenth century—nearly 800 years ago—Conrad Herebatch thus describes him: ‘* Neither too gentle nor too curst, that he neither faune upon a theefe nor flew upon his friends ; very waking; no gadder 1046 win WATCIL DOGS. 1047 about, nor lavish of his mouth, barking without cause; neither maketh it any matter though he be not swift, for he is but to fight at home and give warning to the enemie.”’ Their rarity is caused by their immense size and consequent cost of keeping, added to the fact that modern safe- euards for the protection of property have, in a measure, superseded their a —— — \ i \\ MASTIFF AND BLOODHOUND CROSs. use. Still, their habit of silence renders them exceedingly valuable in euarding hunters’ camps, and for all situations where the dog is expected to give assistance in an encounter they are invaluable. If crossed with the Bloodhound or Newfoundland, the progeny is apt to be ferocious, and crossed with the Bull-dog they are often sayage brutes. Hence, 1048 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOR. every big brown dog must not be taken for a Mastiff; the illustration shows the head and shoulders of a Mastiff crossed with a Bloodhound. Over forty years ago, as 2 boy, the writer used to hunt with such a dog and a finely-bred Greyhound, and many a prairie-wolf and deer have we carried home on the saddle as the result of the chase. The Mastiff was quiet enough at home, never molesting strangers nor the farm stock, but once aroused at the sight of game he was ungovernable. No game native to Northern Illinois but he had killed, an eight-pronged buck, otter, wild hogs, wolves innumerable, and a full-grown eat, being the trophies of his take, but without the courage to attack, or even participate in the struggle. Hare alone would he pick up, and these could seldom double on him. individual prowess ; for the Greyhound was simply fleet enough to over- He seemed when coursing them to be rolling like a hoop; suddenly his head and lithe neck would swerve to one side, the hare was seized, and the trophy carried to the Mastiff to kill. As showing the tenacity and great courage of this Mastiff, he killed, without help, a full-grown wildcat, of the short-tailed species, after two successive struggles, one in the dense thicket, where the cat broke from him. On the edge of a ravine the eat attempted to enter a hole, but the dog was too quick for her ; seizing her by the rump they both rolled to the bottom, and so fierce was the com- motion that it was impossible for me either to shoot or get near. At length the Mastiff seized the cat by the back and then made short work with her. She measured three feet eleven inches from the nose to the tip of tail, the tail being seven inches in length. After the battle, the Mastiff looked as if he had been dipped in blood, the claws of the cat having scored him from end to end. Ill. The Bull-Dog. Whatever the British Bull-dog may have been in other days, he is now valuable for only two purposes, viz: blind ferocity in fighting—if this may be considered valuable—and for crossing upon other more tender- mouthed dogs, to give them grip and holding qualities. Thus, as before observed, the cross upon the Terrier makes a most valuable dog. The illustration shows the characteristics and form of the pure-bred English Bull-dog perfectly—sullen ferocity, combined with great muscular power. The points of the true Bull-dog are summed up by a Sporting English authority, as follows: A Bull-dog cannot be too wide across the chest, but his loins should be gradually tapering ; with the barrel or ribs quite. round, a slight fall behind the shoulders, the spine well arched, and rising gently to the stern, which should be full and thick, joined well to the loins, and with a downward tendency to the tail. ‘OO0d-TTAdI HSItTOna WATCHL DOGS. 1049 The tail should be fairly long, but not too long; straight, fine, and a i J a i slightly curved towards the tip. i The curve known as a ‘ring tail,’’ and 1050 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. that called a ‘screw tail’? are both objectionable, and lessen the value of the dog. The tail should always be set low on the body, and be carried straight, and never hanging down, which latter point is considered a sign of poor blood ; as also is the directly bony ‘rat tail.’ The legs should he short and well bowed, as very straight legs, especially fore-legs, show a want of strength. The elbows should project, and the hind-legs should he rather longer in proportion than the fore, so as to raise the loins. The hocks, or hamstrings, should be straight, and the stifles, or joints of the hind legs, not turned out. The toes of all the four feet should be even and not ailowed to turn out. All the toes should be small, and well split up, so that the Dog has a good firm footing without the toes turning either in or out. The coat should be fine and smooth. Its color is not of much conse- quence, but it should be unmixed, either red or red-smut, fawn, or fawn- smut, blue or blue-smut, or white. A little black is no deterioration. In weight, the Bull-dog may vary from 10]b. to 701b., but, whatever his weight, he should be muscular without being fat ; strong without being bulky : courageous without savage ferocity ; sagacious, open-eyed, loud- tongued, and not too affectionate ; for, as Mr. Mayhew says, the Bull- dog most given to show its fondness is least to he depended on. IV. The Bull-Terrier. The perfect Bull-terrier has been defined as containing just so much of the Buil-dog cross, as to combine the full head, strong jaws, well de- ENGLISIL BULL-TERRIER. veloped chest, powerful shoulders and thin fine tail of the Bull-dog, with the light neck, active frame, strong loin and full hind-quarters of the WATCH DOGS. 1051 Terrier. This gives them great stamina, good running powers, and a height varying from ten to twenty inches. Half-bloods make fighting dogs, while somewhat less blood of the Bull, will produce a dog that will easily learn tricks, that will fetch and carry well, take water like a Spaniel, hunt all day, and fight to the death, and at the same time with alm courage. They are obedient and good tempered, owing to intelli- gence combined with affection, and with a courage that never gives in. This is the English Bull-terrier, that by careful breeding and selection for generations, leaves but little to be desired as a house dog, or one that will show his value either in the yard or in the field, hunting and destroy- ing all that class of predacious animals infesting the farm. The illustra- tion represents one of the best of the breed. The color most sought is pure white, or white patched with black ; equally good dogs, however, may be patched blue, red fawn or brindle. Black-and-tan or self-colored red are not so desirable. There should not be any projection of the under jaw, crooked fore-legs, or small or weak hind-quarters ; for until these entirely disappear, the Terrier cross should be continued. As an instance of the intelligence and understanding of the Bull- terrier, the following from Sir Walter Scott will be interesting: ++ The wisest dog I ever had, was what is called the Bull-dog terrier. I taught him to understand a great many words, insomuch that Iam positive that the communication betwixt the canine species and ourselves might he greatly enlarged. Camp once bit the baker, who was bringing bread to the family. I beat him, and expiained the enormity of his offence ; after which, to the last moment of his life, he never heard the least allu- sion to the story, in whatever voice or tone it was mentioned, without getting up and retiring into the darkest corner of the room with great appearance of distress = Then if you said, ‘The baker was well paid,’ or ‘The baker was not hurt after all,” Camp came forth from his hiding- place, capered, barked, and rejoiced. When he was unable, towards the end of his life, to attend me when on horseback, he used to watch for my return, and the servant used to tell him ‘his master was coming down the hill, or through the moor,’ and although he did not use any gesture to explain his meaning, Camp was never known to mistake him, but either went out at the front to go up the hill, or at the back to get down to the _moor-side. He certainly had a singular knowledge of spoken language.” V. The Newfoundland Dog. There are three classes of Newfoundland dogs, considered pure, besides the many long-haired mongrels that pass for Newfoundlands 1052 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. among those ignorant of this truly magniticent breed. These are: 1, The true Newfoundland. 2. The Large Labrador. 5. The St. John’s, or smaller Labrador. The Large Labrador, is more loosely built than the true Newfoundland, and the coat is more or less mixed with white. The hair is longer, more woolly, and curly, The St. John’s Newfoundland is a dog seldom over 24 inches high, and often less. The head is proportionally larger; the ear fuller; the neck larger, and the body much more compact; the hair shorter, glossy and not woolly. The color should be jet black. The limbs and feet of this strain are most excellent. It is this dog, crossed with the Water Spaniel that makes the best Retrievers. The true Newfoundland is the perfect type of dog intelligence and sagacity, combined with courage, affection and devotion to his master and his friends. He has but one disability as a house dog; if not carefully washed once a week with soap and water, and as carefully brushed every day with a hard brush, the odor is most disagreeable. Thus attended to, the skin is kept perfectly clean and the objection is removed. The characteristics of the true Newfoundland are graphically described by a surgeon of the English navy. We have owned a number of them bred pure, and will vouch for the accuracy of the description: The head of x Newfoundland is remarkably grand and full of character, and its expression yery benevolent. Across the eyes the skull is very broad, and he has a large brain. The forehead is frequently wrinkled ; the eyes are small, but bright and intelligent; they are generally deeply set, but should not have a blood-shot appearance. The ears must be small, smooth, set low, and hanging close; they are very seldom set up, even when the animal is excited. Nose and nostrils large; muzzle long and quite smooth; mouth capacious ; teeth level. The neck is naturally short. It is well clothed with muscle, as are the arms, legs, and fore-hand; but there is a slackness about the loin, which accounts for his slouching and somewhat slovenly carriage. He is frequently short in his back ribs, and some of the largest dogs have a tendency to weakness in the back. The feet are long and strong, but the sole is not so thick as that of a well-bred Pointer, nor are the toes so much arched as in the average of hunting dogs. This peculiar structure of the foot is adapted for his sledge work on snow, and accounts for his power in the water, and has given rise 10 the vulgar error that he is ‘semipalmated.’ The shagey-coated Newfoundland has a smooth face, but within two inches of the skull the coat suddenly elongates, and, except that he is WATCIL DOGS. 1053 very clean to the angle of his neck, he isthoroughly feathered in his out- line. Jlis coat generally parts down the back, and this parting is con- tinued to the end of the tail, which is bushy and carried very gaily. THis hind legs are closely-coated from the hock, and his feet all round are nearly as free of feather as a cat’s. 7 i WN “POd ANWTAINIOAMAN AHL The color is generally black; and a brown, or brindled tinge is a val- ued characteristic of the true breed. The black and white is not consid- ered so good. L054 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. In form he is colossal. He has been known to reach thirty-four inches in height, and he is frequently to be found from twenty-eight to thirty inches, or even more. That the more intelligent dogs have the power of reason in a high degree, there isnodoubt. We once had a noble Newfoundland, who con- stituted himself a kind of police among dogs. He would walk among a crowd of fighting dogs and throw them right and left, and if they attacked him, he killed—his prowess in one afternoon accomplishing the death of three dogs in succession which had attacked him. Usually he was calm andserene, any child being perfectly safe with him. If attacked by a person with a stick, he invariably seized it, and kept it. A little pet fox-terrier used to bother him unmercifully by fawning upon him and leaping up in front of him to bar his progress. One day he started for the barn to inquire into some fancied trouble there, and the terrier annoying him as usual, he seized her and walking to the horse trough, gave her a good ducking, notwithstanding her frantic shrieks for help, and then setting her on her feet, pursued his way without further notice. Another Newfoundland also showed a true reasoning faculty. He used to play ball with the children; they throwing a soft ball into the air, it Was his aim—generally successful—to catch it before it reached the ground. One day a croquet ball of wood was thrown and he caught it to the injury of his teeth. Never after that would he catch a ball until it had struck the earth and rebounded. . diarrheea will nearly always carry them off. What to do.— Put the patient in a dry, clean, well ventilated comfort- able place, with a temperature of about 60° or 62° ; allow him plenty of clean fresh water to drink, In the early stage of distemper, before complications have arisen, give tincture of aconite root, in one drop doses in a teaspoonful of water, every half hour, and three grains of quinine, morning, noon and night. If the lungs are affected, apply a mustard paste to the sides, well rub- bed in, putting on a blanket to confine the fumes; and if after an hour he is still very bad, wash the mustard off with warm water and make a fresh application, and give the following: No. 1. 30 Drops tincture aconite root, 144 Ounce sweet spirits of nitre, 46 Ounce tincture of gentian, 2 Ounces syrup of tolu, Water to make 4 ounces, Mix. Give a teaspoonful every two hours. Feed on beef tea, raw eggs, bread and milk, ete. If the bowels are affected, give a tablespoonful of syrup of buckthorn, and supplement it with the following: No. 2. 2 Drachms prepared chalk, 1 Drachm aromatic confection, 46 Ounce tincture of opium, 2 Drachms gum arabic, Water to make 8 ounces, Mix. Give one or two tablespoonfuls, according to the size of the dog, three or four times a day, or, if very bad, after every loose evacuation. Or, instead, the following may be used: No. 3 1 Ounce laudanum, 1 Ounce spirits camphor, 1 Ounce extract ginger, 1 Ounce brandy, 1 Ounce tincture catechu, Give a teaspoonful, in a little sweetened water, after each loose stool. If there is straining, give the following injection : 1076 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S STOCK BOOK. No. 4. 1 Ounce sulphuric ether, 1 Ounce laudanum, 2 Ounces water, Mix. Inject a teaspoonful into the rectum occasionally. If these do not prove efficient, give a tablespoonful of castor oil and repeat No. 2, or give the following: No. 5. ‘4% Grain nitrate of silver, Bread crumb, Make a pill. Give this night and morning. Feed on mutton broth thickened with arrow-root, rice-water and a little port wine. . If the brain is affected, it will be shown by delirium and fits, with a desire for pressure on the head. Insert a seton across the back of the neck and close to the poll, just beneath the skin, and smear turpentine on the tape, to increase the suppurative action. Apply ice poultices to the head. Give No. 1, and, in addition, the following mixture : No. 6. 6 Ounces elixir bromide of potassium, 3 Drachms tincture of gelseminum, Mix. Give a teaspoonful every two hours, till the brain symptoms are abated ; then drop off to three times a day, continuing for two more days. When the fever is abated and the stage of exhaustion comes on, give the following : ‘ No. 7. 2 Ounces elixir calisaya, iron and bismuth, 2 Ounces syrup of tolu, 3 Drachms chlorate potash, Water to make 6 ounces, Mix. Give a tablespoonful every three or four hours, and feed on beef tea thickened with arrow-root. Feed this four or five times a day, a little at atime. Continue the quinine in two grain doses, morning and night. Or, instead of the quinine, the following may be given: No. 8. 2 Ounces compound tincture of bark, 14 Ounces decoction of yellow bark, Mix. Give three tablespoonfuls three times a day to a large dog. Mr. Ar- nold Burges, of Hillsdale, Mich., says this treatment will sometimes revive dogs that to all appearances are dead; so never give them up till you are sure life is extinct. The diet of distemper patients should be diligently attended to. They require very little the first two or three days,—that is, while the fever is DISEASES OF DOGS. 1077 high, and they should get no solid food whatever, but simply broths and gruel. When the fever is gone, and there is great exhaustion, give strong beef tea every four hours, pouring it down the throat, if they will not lap it. It may be thickened with arrow-root ; and port wine, thick- ened with the same, may also be given every four hours, alternating them ; they can take from one half to a whole teacupful at a time. + ve cle aia 798, 811 Bighead, or osteo sarcoma....---...++ 318 Birds. anthrax Uns. cs 6s. - Blue disease, in foals............ Boar, care, service, etc......... os we PERO S PAV Mol alotei ies 2\ 01210, o(0 oicle/e\nleie cin le ein Boil plague, Siberian (anthrax)...... Bolting, vice Of. in horses, -....0.0+:+. Bolton Grey fowls sacopoose atcteleisteteets Bone spavin...... See Spavin. Bones, broken............... See Fracture. ss diseases of... Broken knees, in hors pack. 10. Koy aes do. ae down, do. ec tail do. * wind, do. “ teeth, do. se TIER c)sie s.cs0 soccod See Fractures. Bronchitis, in horses............ scoen Bu5? ao in cattle 718 39 verminous 766 32 in poultr 1000 Bronchocele, in hor; 325 Broncho-pneumonia, in hor 346 Boots, for interfering horses..... nope gill Border Leicester sheep ........ seanaae 861 Bottle, drenching..........See Drenching. Ta Pie See eoeenea eatetettlateisietarceretel alcie vel 432 SGnsGibacs epaeeea Re Ne a arches See Intestines. ** jnflammation of, in cattle...732, 732 ee ts SON MOPS ieee. LOLS Brace for broken knees.............-- 291 EpareRVEMET ANE OGG cle erefateccleseis cla ciwie.«!o (slisinic'e s/s 951 e ~ 951 .. we 952 Brain, inflammation of, in 1 horse... - 375 es do. in cattle... ancfejccs 761 KG do. in sheep....-- 898 * congestion of, in swine........ 836 *» hydatids on, insheep........-. 897 ‘: diseases of, in Glos ccobceoudee 1077 Brazilian or Muscovy duck 997 Breaking versus training....... 39, 166, 162 a MMUIES eres ca seine ss000 dccc0 15) = halter, vice of......-189, 223, 439 Ke DMS saeconcanncengannes 650, 656 See Training. Breathing..........-..... See Respiration. Breda fowls............ nduccoScconesee 930, Breeding, ar ficial eeteeieroleieicieiciers s5005 By general pr ANCIPLES ta ~ pie) 2)=1° 38 te heredity itis “Gb poApoOSSOERL EYAL £6 of trotte LadagoouCE 133 Ss colts, principles.........--. 144 st back, or atavism...148, 519, 523 se variation in............148, 520 = to color and form........- - 149 » size of sire and dam in...-. 150 st in-and-in......- 38, 150, 520, 535 =5 BGORS Sica ale enee D0, O19, 521, 523 se MTIGLUTIG se tereieCel 778 See Breeding, Cow, ete. spb PhySososqoo cosa eosonesne 1048 “terriers... .. 5 1050 Bullens tam ceteie sis egantetenad nepre 757, 760 Butter and butter making............. 675 ‘making in Europe. Pevalabelslenteleeere 679 us ae BUNS RW Esters cteteccleiete 679 ** coloring, salting and packing. . 680 Buying a horse bilewslsicee 91, 209, 21: 3, 463 OO OV isaan so0oco sss cooconees 532 G3 EnaenwWkoa On GaocvonboooeoosmD 563 Csesarian operation............... 751, 779 Calves, care and feeding...... 623, 627, 628 “ (eblsintinbaveescnp seecnaseaucec 625, 777 ee profit in feeding.............. 629 1140 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S PAGE. Calves, training. ....+++.+.se.e+seeeee 656 cS SCOULS.ccceccscees patents sisiatniniole 729 = NOE esate cicieiete nies eicinieretersie mieten oe A hoose or husk..... SOO DCAGSSS . 766 Calving...--.--+++2seee eee eee eecaoane hl Cale uli in horse’s bowels........2.+. 373 ee ‘s bladder, kidneys, ete. 409 a biliary (gallstones) ..----+...- 420 eS cutting to remove....+++..-++- 456 te in bladder of cattle....... meisisiey 140. Calks, in horse’s foot........- RPC Oicy TT! Call ducks... stafatelclalnveletaiexeiaresveter Oo Calomel poisoning....----++ sme oiea] aibve 466 Canada roose-..........- sesaagac HosC 985 Canadian pony.... ..--- noogoec asses 117 as ELOULOIS « Soe) ola See doses 339 BEE RGU ki nvelste ce cases opacities 715 * malignant, in cattle..... raion ALG ** to tell do. from rinderpest.... 696 * malignant epizootic in swine.. $28 or snutiles, in swine.-........ 836 * malignant epizootic, insheep. OS SN) Ona eagea eo soneermo.Acae 1000 RS oo dogs Galore iststutelale’ mew Steele 1079 ee maliohcis dale alalaiavals' oie niermatniaietee 237 he pap Sp ritinn tian atstatatyc vis, afeluiaicin . - 472 ‘attle and horses, their p: thology COMPANEM nem vole siniecle ee’ s 375, 689 ‘© wild and semi-wild........ 491, 492 « SO Of Mig andies's ses'eine clr cnes 503 ancient mention OL isin hiei-tee 491, 516 "PORTS Bes sich ote reneate Gia aiatain's ate - 492 STOCK BOOK. PaGk. Cattle, Devons ee 586 Hereford s. sare cis ciewteelsisteleie sls AUD ante ‘© Durham or - Short-horn.. a 498, 538 €0i | nishiivecer- errs Beda Scie BO: . SSCOCE Mo ta/c/a'oa ateraie cinleleietatnintaleln ete cc 6Galloway -.... st ci dteieldeleeminns -501, 597 COR eisiyieiodaaueaorodrdccontigoaaase Fl, cS Dutchassaeae -502, 613 bt POI Stein tere n-ne ----502, 618 CET Oe cooanéacdcaod Spocooanccs Uli: 3° -Alldetne yi Seo serets atelier eles ciated eaenr «¢ ~6Guernsey ...-.. sfolsiahalara coats sioteietaeet eh EtES CO USS Se- lalate lnterotetsts SocGobGCE soles tee (OOEe | Glamorcan .... ass smmede ove)ao's/ ga C6) (POMC iin. ctssave:s ete oraie cs alge 597 LO 2s Wiher ommanaaonnnncodaa0205 cc - 600 Os CRAY DGaaoromoco: lon aneode 603, 613 Ge Wasa Cewmace ones coda occcacas ls CS mntisthilogose esta aiohaiele erates Banca (is ‘“ Batavian .....- Aeaac oak se ‘© Danish - 614 SP LOSSi) Kem 503 ‘early history of British......... 504 LO" NEAR W A Sooom goose aralnie\alesseyorenOnUes ‘head and teeth. Goonoscoooc sl. 15° to tell/are --- 1. Seilevclhestes Adsl: ‘breeds, improvement OF 6. concn pee tc breeding... .......000.- ---516, 527 ‘cof the Campagnas....-... seeecee DIO ‘s intluence of shelter and feed.... 521 ‘© principal types of.......-..-.-. 525 ce Toots: fons cerns BobuSoopododcoscs. Fst) ‘* yaising and feeding....... -623, 634 ‘¢ pasturage Of.........+0s0+---=s O34 - salting -..... aeiere wa feyofafatelelara SromeHtEes uC grazing and herding Saiietsters ate eT Wy humanity and eare..... teens + 646 ‘© training and working.......- -- 653 * Sturm’s classification of........ 615 ‘¢ shelter for..... 2 SGOS05 Boron kitis: te eS dese. ss sepeiemeene vse ae OES 80s SHADER cya sie ets 926 BHlephantiasis............ sierale aidbneteiee - 301 Dorset hog, Black.....-....... havoc - 802 Elephant leg.............- sie sieeesace BOS (6 SHEEP... 2 eee eee eer eeeee scence 872 | Embden geese...........-.2---++-- «+ 980: BEB Sareleinissieierelevs als cv=vaigijeie =< See Medicines. | Emetics............... ap pinialpioie wig niet » 200 Draft, training for..........----+.0-- 176 Drainage of stables.............-+++- 441 Emphysema of the lungs in cattle.... 72] Drawing-knife........ SGOT M TOO MOOT 473 JO} hone anon Soeeenoosat noones Aron ity Drenching, directions for... .. 239, 448, 478 See Syringe. 6 BOL aieierens slarayatcauemceale tae English horse, history Of- <<< <<. sss 121 lbnenteNDoodudoooe TOD BOmaeeD See Recipe disuse of trotting ............ 141 Drenching, in horses.......----.-+.+- 315 ch RGTetOrts eieiaeietecreeeaeleittere 58% Dressing fowls... ..+---.sssecceen aces 970 “ breeds of sheep.......+-- 872, 876 Dribbling of the urine...... see Enuresis. é tC HC FOWIB cies, «aieatsisiers . 924: Driving horses, light....-..---.-..... 113 “turkeys ...-. SS cagen ances vrei O79 ee COWS. -ccrccccsccccccccece 649, 753 cS ereyhound e-em acerieer 1018 aS ASE Sed omand 6 CODCOD OOOO OOS 661 ce PicoGdhound ees ietteee er ie 1024 Drones......-- L094, 1096 ee system of training field dogs. 1036 Dropsy, in horses 331 3 retriever .--..... poesescaascc 1039 Ke of stallion’s scrotum 411 oe spaniel .....--...seeees ones 1043 oe “ head.......See Hydrocephalus. Ue bull-dog....... Rao gUnOS CGS 1048 Me Weill sao ogaodoosooEs See Ascites. US bull-terrier ........ ce ereeeees 1051 Droughts, providing against. - - -. 634 See American. Drover’s dog, the......---.--.----+- 1058 | Enteritis, in horses..... BOODL OCOD DD Oe 370 Droves.....See Herding, Texas Cattle, ete. Se KONG ELIG vorcictelcisrac stevetoiote rs ctotere 732 Drugs, ¢ ompounding. .-See Medicines, ete. | Entropium 8, 771 Duck-winged game fowls....- ome ceo 944 Enuresis, in horses....-......-. Siero ” 407 Ducks, domestic TOUS CLC rs aiala\ey=e's eee OLD oe “ind @secane ces acenon05 ce FANE ‘. varieties, etc........ Sucrsheteborars « 987 Epidemic..See Contagious, Malignant, ete. SMONMUMG TaN elaleielstoisisiplalcieialala'= «(a0 O71 Bypilepsy imicattle tii. cte ois ee eceieels 761 ‘s raising, feeding, etc.....-.--- - 988 be or fits of dogs..........-.--107 “Qn 55445545560 sa0ddssae0ssne 993 Epizootic of 1872, the great.......... 387 Oth pbc an anpAdaNOOnep aoe 987, 995 “ apbtha of cattle ..... Soase07 699 Durham cattle..... eat cictata catalina’ te erateratals 498 i PUZOObY; AW HOLEES RAG 60 Beagle - 2.0002 .s.ccees --+- 1027 “ (© iver “= . horses. . 419 REM UBIOR=LELTICI to(oicts (nite clelela «lela ele « 1027 se SS) iris “ se. 406 See Greyhound. Ke “tongue in cattle..... 724 House watch dogs............+-..0.- 1046 ce “ bowels *¢ * .732, 733 cc poultry ... c 967 v ‘¢ kidneys ‘+ ‘* sis0 MOO IS Voyf0\) Ap ocintraeocrad 724 Os Co) bladders cms sii MOO “tapping paunch 110 Poodoaneean mt Ttrir ts “ udder ‘ -cows ... 708 Husk, or hoose, in cattle..... SaaS oond 766 ve «brain “* ‘cattle: 76 Humanity to stock, and good care, ts ee es Be yaw -.. 898 their economy - 198, 521, 646 a SaLevies fs re - 898 Hubback, the famous bull......-----+ 539 < “the egg passage.. - 1002 Hunter, or hunting horse...----- -109, 219 Inflammatory diseases of swine-...... $35 Hunting wild hogs......------ ete 792 Us a ** sheep ...-. - 895 cb PAIN GUCKS) Ue sete eee ese = O94 Influenza, INWHOTSeS- <6. -tetejeleicle a «1=1s1er 387 te the hare........ Soreterecieosters.s 1027 Inguinal hernia, in horses............ 333 sc with hounds..........------1022 Injections ................. SO DOM OOD - 479 s¢ yeminiscenCes...+++++-+-++-- 1048 Gk hypodermic. ............. - 478 See Dogs See Syringe and Recipes. Hybrids....... ss0006 Sopa nesogesade 150 Inoculation for pleuro-pneumonia .... 695 Hydatids on the brain .......-- ssisierels: COL Insects, to protect from. -470, 821, 881, 888 Hydrocele in stallions ......-- potetiate 411 Instruments, veterinary.....---..--- - 472 Hydrocephalus in foetus.---.+----+--- 750 a ODSteinI Caer eters 744 Hydr ophobia i RO USES ctste ls case afore ataiare 398 Intelligence a valuable trait in stock... 39 COC ATIC. <0 ccicees oven 763 Interfering, in horses....-....---- 226, 313 “ % sheep...-seseesee- * 899 Intestines, diseases of, in horses....... 354 “e se dogs picinisteleleraisi a! =: 1077 ds "1079 “= oe CeCe Cate esracieiit= 723 bes preci GUHODE. oes rac. Sees 1080 Intestinal worms.............See Worms. Hydrothorax in horses ....-.-- -- 2301 459) || Intussusception: 220. irre cs cea. cea 374 ae SE GLA ie aie aicceres Ssiea 721, 776 Inversion of eyelids............ - 428, 77 Hy pertrophy of horse’s heart ------- 383 ue ** womb, in cows....- ease Lo Seno codecnodacas 420 a se uC ‘ bitches........1087 Hypodermic injections. - - -- sococoneda “fA Iowa, hog, production.....-. Aan od boos YM Hysteria, in mares.....-ssse+++--eee> AN LUIS CHGtLG satararedatetotelatevaretslotaYole: alatelentert= 500 ** grazier Hom neeseeae: aletalatorareratsrot OUT Icterus, in horses...-.--...--+--- sews 420 “ wolf- hound Bayelaielsters Srsleie sl sseteeiete 1021 Illinois. hog production..... eiclaraaratats 794 ‘¢ water spaniel...... steielaleieletetoisvee - 1044 Impaction of the rumen...---.------- 725 Ibu, maienesboouseenoosoebecovucGaS 426 ce “© 6¢ omasum.....----+-- 726 Italian grey-hound......- ssecgnecocs ili! cS * «© bowels, in dogs....-. 1078 Itchy skin, or prurigo..... s {aii ieysiaietatete 335 Imperfections of the horse..-.------- - 224 See Parasitic diseases. 1148 PAGE. Jacks, breeding.....ss++ee-e+ +++. 158, 161 ‘+ those pr resented Was hington. - 158 Japanese Bantams.....-.0 sees sere eee 947 Jaundice, in horses........-+++++++++ 420 Jaw, bony tumoron....... aiefaln\stare/aiate - 319 Jefferson County hogs...-- Sin ihahetate .. Sll Jersey Cattle... 1... --22 sees eee eeees 558 eS “© critically described. +561, j75 a ‘© for rich milk.. , 622 : * seale of points 573 es ‘in America...... 576 Jersey red swine......- 5 $11 Joint, open, in hors 288 ‘© oil, OF SYNOVIN...- +--+ eee eee - 288 se out of??= 2... +++++.See Dislocation Jugular vein, inflamed.....--++++. +6 - 328 Kennel, the dog ...-.--.-.++ nanos -- 1070 Kicking, in the stall.........-.--- 187, 439 «© vice of, in horses.....-+-223, 227 sf BE TEER PEST COMMIS 0 elepuieysyene 647, 659 Kidneys, inflammation of, in horses... 401 zt 3 “cattle ... 736 ss congestion of, in horses..... 403 Kidney worm of swine........++..+6 839 re te 6 OgS....52-200e -.--- 1086 sh ‘6 «© horses. sielarersia EOL Kindness to stock pays......--+- 198, 440 Kine-pox..... onpobS Bietotelslele einicinteisiatstet= 705 King Charles spaniel.......+++-++-+++ 1066 Knees, broken, in horses......227, 228, 290 Knee@-sprung..... 6... eee eee ee eee ees 292 Knives, veterinary.........+--..---:> 472 ee DSCC DN Get eteteteleterel lel leteieieionettnee 7 Knuckling the fetlock...... . -292, 293, 310 Lachrymal duet, obstructed...... sone 429 IDE I ya neyo, Roocd cose eta bdngonK - 928 Lamb creeps...-...---- 880 Lambing ......... 906 Lambs, castrating 885 es docking ...-........5.- Pipod iets) $s WEANING. -.- see cers cece eres . 886 ag care of young..........-- 886, 907 rs nursery fOV.... ee eee eee ee ee 887 BS TV lOL sareetctoteisipisisiereisteiete 907 Lameness.. . 310, 311, 313, 316 2: inciirable, from hidden cause. 311 ES QYOLOY = iow wicjcis wales sieicies oes 254 ac GPP OMIGS ciotereta e aime = sisvatetm(aVelerere 255 hs RH OULMGHE amine eteleiesesimetelels 295 & Bip ieteierteta(eLelety state “ sg from grease..... . See Sprains, Neurotomy, Corns, Founder, Spavin, Ee Laminitis....... sos ccceeedal, 249, 201 Lampas (or -Jampers” ; 357 Lancashire hogs S804 Lancets, veterina 472 and worm sOl SB wWinene <2 jess levreeiacls 839 BUALY MP TMIS AN MOLSES ri w)s cis mlelnioicieueltarete 341 ch GB (COLCLE delereramtelerarersianaterercies 717 Larve'Of Deeg ss vias se ciesetee cesses sia 1093 £6 PES=INOUNS w-torereow oe inet siaeroe 1107 Laws, sanitary, for stock.......... 697, GOS HRAULVEN so Wels, cisisaiie cleisiniense oe da cletarae ate 237 Lead POISOMUDPs nicest ota dieiatecoreye 468 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. PAGE. Leghorn fowls. «sss sees eeeeneee reese 936 ee SO WIDILE ccteietsisieleininiolet-laetek oa) Legs of horse, str ucpures.» voce eee D0, 54, 66 ine « — diseases ..268, 282, 298, 443 ae * tendons oe as oe 309 sc «6 Devon cattle.... -« 689 “weakness of, in chickens .......1003 Leicester Sheep: ..060seencee sesec sna SOO Leprosy, so-called, of swine..... (ete TAO) Leucoma, in the horse................ 426 Leucorrhea, in mares.........-....-. 415 se Ge GOW «.:c.0\e0'svc cease ee aM Edie! On HOLSES's\c:eteteie o cinisisiviele’sleinioty slaletetetare G8 Ch ORG? s.-insisr-feeivivolein sisal tet - 767 COREECUR lose OU ODOM OAOdOO Gaon > (az!!) SIO }0Y21:) neonoonono nocd seine a eee 8) 66 QHIGKENS . 661 ‘© out-tie in ........- sma od Sterility in cows....... 760 Stifled. ‘© horse.--.... eeepc eons ve LON Me * + cramps often mis- LRM Wea se Sete abc 296 SHOE Segag one cencecaahe 238 See also Recipes. Stings of bees, wasps, etc............ 470 es * rattlesnakes, centipe des, et Stock raising, intelligence in at the West...See Herd- ing, Range, West, ete. Stocking or swelling of legs.......... 301 Stomach, diseases of, in horse........ 354 “ “ « staggers, in horse.......... 360 we pump for giving medicine... 757 ruminants’....... taGianaaeee 72: RIUM CHEGS Sat nheleiierieinints/el sai acetic 238 Stone, or calculi... .......... See Calculi. ‘+ bruises inhorse’s foot.... ano eiril Or wraiatntete-t sialic tiretetes amet See Sprains. Strang or distemper.........- 397, 459 Strangulation or gut-tie..... eeeeeecee Gad Stricture of horse’s gullet............. 358 $s rae MLETHLS ae c.ce same - 408 Biin Dal iiss< a cmiaisicee ss ie 27, 312 “Stripping” in milking 659 Stry chnia poisoning EO ACRE eG -- 469 Stumbling, MIGOLOLs (eno sleeie weet ie 223 Stupor, giving medicines during..... 757 Subcutaneous injections. .See THypodermic. Sucking, vice of, in cows............. 648 BUGGING isn Ce oon en acheeeaee foes 937 Suffocation, operation to relieve threat- ened...... See Tracheotomy. Siuffolk hoped sis ace siatesien’ac owen sqCOSASLL Sulphate of copper poisoning........ 467 THE AMERICAN FARMER’S STOCK BOOK. PAGE. Sulphate of iron poisoning....---.-.- 468 Sulphur as a poison..... Sse 28) Sumach, or poisonous oak. siecle 400 Summer feeding of cattle .......++++- 639 ee shelterfor’ “cece ccemaciOns “feeding of swine......-..s+-. 820 Sunstroke of horses........-- Mialeicina aie Superpurgation, in horses ..........- 368 Suppression of urine.........5ee Dysuria. Surfeit, in horses......... Specoceasds Ba BS * dogs Sordasomodo accel Mol) Surgery, veterinary,....-.-See Instru- ments, packet: ete. Sussex cattle ..0... 225... esccce ‘* inferior to Devons.....- Sutures, kinds and uses........+-460, v7 SW ASoosoescesc HaehRoddrisae sGcsc" oa Swarms and swarming of bees 1102, 1108 ac motherless .....- = sss Soe Sweat, cold, asa symptom.....ese+-- G92 ES blisters wee 454 Sweeny - weenie Apapog onan. BEF Swelled head, in sheep....-- sacsecees OOS CU FOOtien sos 903 Swelling of horse’s legs, 301, 302, 305, 306 . FON GLOPS Pie e-1-n- ee va=— ol we ae Reode 33s! Swine, history and characteristies.... 791 “raising, statistics............. 794 “breeds Bopsaneanos VElh “* errors in breeding ....----803, 811 «care and SEESROROO aU eC aS is «ringing of-....- © 2: «a(ecainie Sinini esi EEE oe rooting oe Ae els) SS feeding and fattening. Suooaane iy) « pens and barns for ..........- 822 *¢ malignant and epidemic diseases...... ----+- 703, 827, 841 * ~—otther’ GiseaseS... 6222 e cee ween Oo ‘© treating sick, hints.......827, 833 Swiss cattle...... Siete ere sis fs) eine aye'sie OU Sympathy, pathological, in cattle..... 752 Symptoms of disease in the horse, general hints....-.-.++++ 231 a in cattle & ,c.cseseceseeuGoll “ *“ swine “ ..... aysiplela/ ste Synovia unlike pus......--..++0+e+-++ 288 Syphon, TORE gc cd cre nceiele e's nic eaneete Sane Syringe:...2+-+++« sic ris ain we ejacee me AS RCEi hernia. . Tagging sheep---+...+-++eseeee sees ee SST Tail, oblique or wry, in horses........ 226 “broken, in horses........eeseee. 323 tS rat Of NOPSeS siete) ohetatetetats 228, 294 Windpipe........... See Tracheotomy, ete. Wind-sucking, vice Of .....-.++++...- 438 Wine measure, table of...... pel betel eee hay Winter feeding of cattle.......... 688, 640 Ot “ calves. Lecce ic ue LOAN syoodenopepeagr ss ‘© shelter for cattle....... tore 663 “care of hogs........ eeeee e817, 823 & ce GUM eGR cisic.ci= Sooncde oes ne LOE Withers, fistulous...... alareteera (ol ofote plo immer Wolf and dog, similarities..........--1010 66 prairie.........2. SHODOOD SSNS 1012 Wes Gate valettetebeleveterststeinieteisteleteyoiete 226, 355 * hound, Irish BOHDOOACC -10 ‘* dog, Spanish....... sonascad coals) Womb, inflammation of, in mares..... 415 ae Bes EE COW Ses enee v6)) re inver sion of, in COWS...--...0 753 ae « bitches........ 108% Wood duck, ‘dou catienteal Bhdaporcicc 995 Wool, divisions @ioosonsa¢ aaroaieissva sie 851 fine and coarse..... eis clic “Telatale anne ‘6 versus mutton....- PICOODIO Hcua.cics Les) Ga Feremiincseoconeo aan Fonaeoannane - 875 ‘< per sheep, in different countries 876 “preserving samples.....-...---- 880 sc shearing. .......-. ROnGOS aves ieisYeba 887 6 HYIMG....eeeceee cece eerees eens S87 Wonks Ox nctlcsioinetteleiieet= -See Ox and Steer “ cow used for . Bdonocoersced (iy Worker bees.........-- poagader 1094, 1096 oceseens eGo oe sheep scisscs;aceme 897 Worms may cause lockjaw..----....- 378 Worm in horse’s eye... ‘s Dladder in swine. “ “ce “in thehorse.........+.- eeccces 450 “ * cattle, causing hoose....--- 766 66% SWINE. oeeee sees o ceccceesee OOO G6! * (6 GNESI ns opninte arererm eats sic eee ee « «OU 6¢ & liver of sheep..--+-eeeee+-- 904 Cer SOMO eS Se Sierras - 905 SO : chickens’ wind- -pipe (aupes) 1002 “ce Wounds, treatment, in hoteet! as pics SEE BUS fod 6 Gattle. c.0.00 0) tee - a “ dogs...-++++++.1087 sé = tetanus from...----... + et tehentiee ‘¢ of stallion’s penis----.--- «-- 412 é See Sutures, ete ‘Yellows,’ in HOrses... 22+ «ses anseece 420 Yoke oxen, matching and training.656, 660 “¢ ‘¢ driving.......- o «0 siaten/elececa OM Yorkshire hogs..... seciemeamere 2803, 811 we CEITICN. <\: menetsdietete a a /olatarertatete 1061 ce) y ties Ae Ta v A Hine? Wy it a eee Fi Na cn a eA f ‘a ry dye Ps bv ea han ae fy ee Ae, ie 4 3% % ne i 4 i .. 2 iq 4 1 pul BATE , sired bh ania a