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THE AMERICAN

FARM AND STOUR

MANUAL.

A COMPLETE READY REFERENCE LIBRARY

FOR

7 Farmers, Gardeners, Frit Growers
s and Stocknel.

“Sep \ \ THE PHELPS PUBLISHING CO.,
SPRINGFIELD, MASS.

PODS

h & (AZ % Eh : Sea NS a7
| : | .

A CHARMING ORNAMENT FOR YOUR PARLOR TABLE |

ems of Art and Poetry.

This is the title of a beautiful Portfolio or Album, recently published. GEMS OF ART
AND POETRY is unquestionably one of the most beautiful and attractive gift-books ever
issued. It is a book of 32 pages, size of page 932 by 12 inches, of heavy super-calendered
paper, and is filled with beautiful wood and reproduction steel engravings and fine poetry.
There is a beautiful engraving upon every page, and upon some pages more than one. The
poetry is in keeping with the character of the illustrations and consists of some of the
choicest productions of the following world-famous authors: Alfred Tennyson, J. G. Whittier,
H. W. Longfellow, Bayard Taylor, D. R. Locke, Jean _Ingelow, Alice Cary, and many others.
The names of these famous authors will be a sufficient guarantee ot the high character
of the poetical contents of the book. The illustrations are by the most famous artists in
America, and consist of landscapes, woodland views, wild mountainscenery, beautiful views
of rivers and brooks, artistic floral and other devices, beautiful designs from nature in
woodland, field, and dell; pictures of childhood, pictures of birds and animals, pleasing
home subjects, etc., etc. ‘‘‘GEMS OF ART AND POETRY?’is handsomely bound in Granite
covers, and is one of the most beautiful and attractive adornments for the parlor table that
could be devised. It would gracethe most luxurious home. Remember, it contains 32 large
pages of beautiful pictures and charming poems, and is substantially and handsomely
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beautiful engravings than does our ‘GEMS OF ART AND PoETRY.” Thetypography and

_ presswork are in the highest style of the printer’s art, the paperis of the best, and the bind-
ing very attractive. It is a book for every lover of the beautiful and will be treasured by all
who possess a copy. As we turn its many pages, itis a continuous succession of delightful
surprises, from the first to the last page in the work. No description, however, could
possibly do justice to this beautiful and elaborate work. It must be seen to be appreciated.
It would make one of the most beautiful and attractive presents for a friend or relative that
could be procured. This charming book will be sent by mail, post paid, upon receipt of price,
only Fwenty-five Cents.

Address all orders: THE PHELPS PUBLISHING CO.,
Springfield, Mass.

THE FAVORITE ALBUM
OF SONGS AND BALLADS.

Andante espress.

“- “

THE FAVORITE ALBUM OF SONGS AND BALLADS, recently published, contains thirty-two
pieces of choice and popular vocal music, full sheet music size, with complete words and
music and piano accompaniment. The music is finely printed upon heavy paper, and neatly
bound in one large and handsome book, with a very attractive cover, The following are the
titles of the songs and ballads contained in the Favorite Album: x

Asp NorHIng ELSE TO DO; THE DRAR OLD SONGS OF HOME; MOTHER, WATCH THE
LItrLE FEET; OH, You PRETTY BLUE-EyED WITCH; BLUE EYES; KAtTEY’S LETTER; THE
PASSING BELL; ISAwW ESAvu KISSING KATE; Won’? YOU TELL ME WHY, ROBIN; THE OLD
GARDEN GATE; DowN BELOW THE WAVING LINDENS; FADED LEAVES; ALL AMONG THE
SUMMER RosESs; TOUCH THE HARP GENTLY, My PRETTY LOUISE; I RwaLLy Don’t THINK
I SHALL MARRY; DREAMING OF HoME; THE OLD COTTAGE CLOCK; ACROSS THE SEA;
THERE’S A STLVER LINING TO EVERY CLOUD; STRANGERS YET; NoT YERT; SOMEBODY; A
YEAR AGO; BACHELOR’S HALL; RUTH AND 1; GOOD NIGHT; ONE HAPPY YEAR AGO; JENNY
a THE ORCHARD; THE OLD BARN GATE; JACK’S FAREWELL; POLLY; WHISPER IN THE

WILIGHT.

Thisis a very fine collection of real yocalgems, and gotten up in very handsome style.
Published in the usual way and bought at a music store, these 32 pieces would cost you
$11.20; here you have them all complete in one handsome book. It should be remembered
that this is not a cheap, poorly printed affair, but a handsomely bound book, and the pages
are the fullsize of sheet music as sold in the stores. Every lover of music should possess
acopy. THE FAVORITE ALBUM OF SONGS AND BALLADS will be sent by mail, post paid, upo
receipt of only Twenty-five Cents.

Address all orders: THE PHELPS PUBLISHING CO.,
Springfield, Mass.

re ig Ne a ea “a
yy ‘) er le’
i Rearecreras. (Sy et . 5

THE AMERICAN

Harm AND Srock MANUAL,

A COMPLETE READY REFERENGE LIBRARY .-
ROR

FARMERS, GARDENERS, FRUIT GROWERS
AND STOCKMEN, —

CONTAINING A LARGE FUND OF USEFUL INFORMATION,
FACTS, HINTS AND SUGGESTIONS,

a

pa § IN THE VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS OF

ws he Pg
LA 3 5
Yi)

AGRICUL TURE, HORTICULTURE, LIVE STOCK RAISING, PQULTRY
KEEPING, BEE KEEPING, DAIRY FARMING, FERTILIZERS,
RURAL ARCHITECTURE, FARM IMPLEMENTS, Etc.

WITH ONE HUNDRED AND EIGHTY-THREE eS TONS.

SPRINGFIELD, MASS, :
THE PHELPS PUBLISHING CO,

1886,

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RURAL ARCHITECTURE.

LL
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AN INEXPENSIVE COTTAGE.—ELEVATION,

An Inexpensive Cottage.—We give the plan of a neat and beautiful
country cottage, the low cost of construction of which adapts it to the wants
of those in moderate circumstances, while, in attractive appearance and gen-
eral convenience, it rivals those of a much higher cost.

This cottage is designed in the rural Gothic or English manner, but
much modified, so as to adapt it to almost any site. The light, open porch
may be omitted without injuring the design. In the plan, 4 is the porch,
from which we enter the hall or entry, 8 feet wide, with the two best rooms,
each 16x18 feet, on either side of it. Conneeted with the living-room, in its
rear, is a good pantry. B is the back entry, communicating with the kitchen.
Cis the back porch, which may be left open in summer, and inclosed in win-
ter, when it will serve as a place for coal and wood. On one side of the
kitchen fire-place is a closet, and on the other a sink, into which, if possible,

A

12 THE FARM.

a water-pipe should be brought. The first story of this cottage is 10 feet,
and the second story 5 feet, on the sides, and 8 feet in the middle of the
rooms. The pitch of the roof is a right angle. The cost of this cottage, with
the interior neatly finished and painted in oil color, and the two principal
rooms grained and varnished like oak, and their walls papered with suitable

paper—all the other rooms having brown walls whitewashed—would be
about $800.

An Ornamental Country Cottage.—We give on pages 13 and 14 illus-
trations of a plan and elevation of a cheap, but very ornamental, country
cottage, which will be found both convenient and comfortable for a small
family. If this plan is not extensive enough to meet your wants, it can be
easily enlarged upon by making additions, or by enlarging the size of the
whole plan, and thus in-
creasing the dimensions of
the rooms. This, however,
would necessarily add to
the cost of construction.
The cottage, as shown in
our illustration, presents a
very aristocratic appear-
ance, and, considering the
small amount of money re-
quired for its construction,
is, we think, a very desir-
able plan for a cheap and
good dwelling-house. The
dimensions of the rooms on
the ground floor are plainly
given in our second illustra-
tion. The porch, with its
seat, is large and roomy;
the living-room is of good
size, well lighted by a
square bay-window. The
kitchen is well supplied

AN INEXPENSIVE COTTAGE.—GROUND PLAN. With closets. The first floor

4 could be very much im-
proved by adding a one-story kitchen at the rear, making the living-room
into a parlor, and the kitchen into a dining and sitting-room; the additional
cost would be very small. The second floor contains three bedrooms, very
conveniently arranged, and each provided with a closet. The two down-
stairs rooms and the large front bedroom are supplied with open fire-places,
the value of which for ventilation is so often overlooked in cheap houses.
Besides this, there should be ventilating tubes or shafts in the chimney
sides, with registers opening from each room, thus insuring a good system
of ventilation. The roof should be ventilated by openings under the pro-
jected eaves. The estimated cost of this building is from $1,200 to $1,800,
according to locality and style of finish.

General Suggestions to Those Intending to Build.—The following
excellent recommendations are from the American Home and Farm Cyclo-
pwedia: Farmers can afford to leave cellar-kitchens, basements, third stories,
and all other unnecessary stair-climbing devices to their city cousins, who

Hy

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 13

have to count the cost of every square foot they build ttpon. The only ad-
vantage of second stories in the country is that they are more healthful for
sleeping apartments.

If every fire has a separate flue, and each flue terminates in its own par-
ticular chimney-top, there will never be any trouble over smoking fires, if
the chimney is high enough.

Proper care in the arrangement of various rooms will save those who
have to do the housework a thousand needless steps. Kitchen and dining-

iA il i

= JS
=

AN ORNAMENTAL COUNTRY COTTAGE.—ELEVATION.

room should always be adjoining apartments. The china closet best opens
into the dining-room. A trap-door connecting the pantry with the dining-
room is a great convenience. It is well to have the wood-shed very near the
kitchen, and connected with it by a covered way, avoiding exposure in in-
clement weather.

An attic over the entire house, with a window at each end, will be found
of signal utility for drying clothes in bad weather.

Provide plenty of closets and cupboards in all of the rooms. The lady of

the house, who is the one most vitally interested in this matter, should not

be allowed to insist upon this in vain. Varnishing wood will make the paint
last longer, and saves incalculable elbow grease in house-cleaning.

Shingles of cedar will last from thirty to forty years, and those of pine
from twelve to twenty years.

In the arrangement of out-buildings, the following relative proximity will
be found convenient: First, the house; attached to that the kitchen-wing,
with wood-house appended; then, at a little distance, the privy, carriage-
house, and workshop, with pig-sty and poultry-house adjoined.

Stone and brick walls should always be furred off, leaving an air space
between the stonework and plastering throughout the entire wall, and open-

KITCHEN
12.0 X 12.0

LIVING ROOM
10.6 % 14.0

AN ORNAMENTAL COUNTRY COTTAGE.—GROUND PLAN

ing into the attic. This prevents dampness, and insures an equable tem-
perature. Brick houses must have a slate, sheet-copper, or tarred paper
cut-off inserted in the foundation just below the water-shed, as otherwise
the moisture of the ground is worked up by the brick, keeping the walls con-
stantly damp.

Frame houses may be made much warmer and more comfortable than
they usually are by covering the studding with tongued and grooved
sheathing, and this in turn by tarred building paper, placing the weather
boarding over the whole. Fit the sheathing and weather boarding closely
around door and window-frames, and let the tarred paper lap over a little
where there is likely to be a crack.

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 15

Where ingrain carpets are to be used, it favors their economical cutting
. to have either the length or breadth of each room some multiple of their
usual width—one yard—as twelve feet, fifteen feet, etc.

~

Construction of an Octagonal Barn.—There are various plans for
laying out and building barns of this shape, in all of which the principles are
the same. There is a concrete or stone foundation wall, which may be either
below ground for a cellar or partially below it for a basement, or wholly
above it for a stable, an inclined way being built on two opposite sides to
give access to the barn floor. Upon this foundation the sills are laid, the

_ corners being made at an angle of 135 degrees, instead of 90 degrees, as in
the square building. There are no cross-beams necessary except upon the
floor, there being eight bents in the building, all on the outside, the plates

——

aN

: ey AO q

FIG. 1.—ELEVATION OF AN OCTAGONAL BARN.

being mortised exactly as the sills are, and the posts placed with regard to
‘the necessary doors and windows, and the strength necessary to support the
roof and stiffen the building. As many braces as may be thought needful
- may be used, but the braces must all be on the lines of the walls, and none
of them cross-braces. The roof is an eight-sided cone, strengthened with -
purlin plates, and may be open at the center for a cupola or ventilator. The
joints of all the plates and the sills will be at an angle of 62 1-2 degrees, in-
stead of 45 degrees, as in a square building. This form of the frame will
give a roof of the strongest kind—one that cannot spread, if well put to-
gether, and one that offers less resistance to the wind than any other form
of elevated roof. Inside of the barn there is nothing to interfere with the
piling of grain or hay to the roof, and a wagon may be driven anywhere upon

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16 : THE FARM,

the floor. The plan of the basement is shown at Fig. 2, a being a passage
for the cows, and a drive-way for removing the manure; b, b, are the stalls
for the cows, of which there are fifty-two, having the feed-trough toward the
center, and all reached by an inner drive-way. There are six stalls, and a
room at each end of the
stalls for harhess. At e
is a place for storing
plows, carriages, wagons,
or machines. A drive-
way (f, /) passes through
the basement from east
to west. AS many win-
dows as needed may be
built in the wall. The
sills of the barn are laid
upon the wall, as already
mentioned; the posts are
28 feet high, and the
plates upon these -sup-
port the rafters. The
plates are fastened to-
gether at the ends by be-
ing halved, and the cor-
ners fastened by half-inch
j iron bolts, as shown at
FIG. 2.—PLAN OF BASEMENT. Fig. 3. At each corner
is a brace of 8x8 timber,
bolted to and through the plates by three-quarter-inch bolts, and strength-
ened by an iron plate on the inside, through which the bolts pass. The
shoulders of the corner rafters rest upon these braces and plates, as shown
at Fig. 4. These rafters are of 6x12 timber. Purlin plates of 8x10 inch tim-
ber are bolted under the rafters, and are fastened together at the corners in
the same manner as the plates. The intermediate rafters rest upon these
purlins. Iron tie-rods may be used to
strengthen the rafters and hold them to-
gether, if thought necessary. Fig. 1 shows
the elevation, with a portion of the roof re-
moved to show the manner of laying the
_rafters and bridging them. A crown rim is
bolted to the rafters at the point of the roof
—or, rather, the rafters are bolted to the
crown rim—which supports a cupola. The
cupola is fifty feet from the floor of the barn,
the roof rising twenty-two feet, and the post
being twenty-eight feet high. The floor of rig. 3.—coRNER JOINT.
the barn is laid upon beams, supported by FIG. 4.—CORNER BRACE.
brick piers or timber posts in the basement.
A line of beams may be laid above the floor on either side, above which
floors may be laid; the space thus made may be used for granaries, or stor-
age of farm tools or machines, or other cumbrous property.

Plan for a Barn.—We present herewith a plan for a new and improved
barn, For convenience, neatness of appearance, and practical utility, it will

iG

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 17

be found most excellent, and should any of our readers contemplate build-
ing, they would do well to give this ar ticle a careful study; and should they
not desire to follow out the ‘plan to the letter, they might still be able to gain
from it some valuable hints in planning a barn of a differ ent style. The fol-
lowing is the description of the plan we have illustrated:

A, stables, 8x28, for nine cows, earth floor; B, man’s room; C, carriages;
D, harness room; E, meal
or shorts; F, shelled corn; Nn UA i Ih
G, oats; H, passage-way; I, We
passage-way, 4 feet wide,
platform floor, with pump;
L, box for mixing feed; M,
stairs; N, O, stalls, 5 feet
wide; P, Q, R, stables, 6
feet wide; 8, feed-bin for
cattle; V, feed-box for
horses; W, wagon shed,
earth floor, 18x21; X, wagon
shed, open at south and
east, 9x17; Y, tool room,
9x10; Z, feed-bin; W, T,
water-trough.

Main barn, 30x42 feet;
posts, 18 feet in the clear;
shed wing, 26x30 feet; posts,
12 feetin clear; lean-to shed,
14 feet wide, 42 feet long—
all to have roof at one-third
angle of rise.

There will be 230 feet in
length of wallunder ground,
to be built of rough stone 1 _
foot high and 18 inches thick.
Upon this is to be laid, in
courses, quarried stone, in
blocks, not less than 8x12
inches, 1 foot high and 1
foot thick, and all pointed.
There will be required
twelve piers, each 18 inches
square and 2 feet high;
these to be built of stone,
and four of them to have Millillis: 4
the upper stone 12x18 | nae | =| 7

v |

*NOILLVAHTH LNOUA—’NUVaA VY HOA NVId

inches. All to be laid in

good strong lime mortar, Hit SS || li |
and in a workman-like and aT ———

substantial manner. There will be required for sills 334 feet in length of 8x8
timber, and 42 feet in length, 6x8; this last for the sill in front of cones in
lean-to shed. For posts, girts of main beams, plates, etc., etc., there will be
required 913 feet in length, of 6x6. For purlin beams, girts, etc. there will
be required 454 feet of length, 4x6; and for intermediate girts, braces, ete.,
394 feet of length, of 3x4 stuff. The sides should all be of oak or white pine.

ig . THE FARM. |
The main veams, purlins, posts, girts, etc., may be of oak, ash, red birch,
white pine, or white wood. The joists are to be of oak or white pine, and
these will be required as follows: 103 pieces, each 14 feet long, 2x8; 20 pieces,

each 9 feet long, 2x8; 20 pieces, each 10 1-2 feet long, 2x8; and 11 pieces, each
8 feet long, 2x8. The rafters will be as follows: 42, each 19 feet long, 2x4 at
f

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gt

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x Se

PLAN FOR A BARN.—GROUND PLAN.

42

one end and 4x6 at the other, for the main beam; 21, each 17 feet long, 3x4,
for the lean-to shed; and 30, each 16 feet long, 2x4 at one end and 3x5 at the
junction of the first with the second stories (as shown from outside). There
should be a strip inserted of 2x2. The frieze board to be 8 inches wide and
2 inches thick. The boards all to be straight edge, and the whole to be bat-

tened with strips one inch thick and three inches wide, having the edges — :

beveled half an inch, exhibiting a face of two inches. The whole to be of |
good, merchantable, dry pine timber. The roof boards may be of any light

“RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 19

and durable timber, and shall be laid so that no space of over two inches
may be found. That portion of the roof which projects beyond the up-
right portion of the building shall be of double thickness. The shingles are

~. to be of the best quality, and laid only 4 inches to the weather. The win-

dows are to be made as per plan, all frames to be of seasoned pine, free
- from knots. The sash windows of 12 lights, each 9x12 inches, except two,
viz., one in south end of main barn, and one ana

in east side of same; these to be as shown in
plan. The blind windows to be hung with
butt hinges, and fastened with hasp hooks,
both outside and inside. They are to swing
outward.

The doors are all to be formed to present
an appearance outside same as balance of
barn. They are to be jack-planed sufficient-
ly to render them free of splinters in hand-
ling. They are to be placed and formed of
height, width, etc., as shown in plan. They
are all to be hung with wrought-iron strap
hinges, and secured by latches and hasp hook
staples.

A Complete Stock Barn.—We_present
herewith an illustrated plan, with careful de-
‘scription, of a complete stock barn, embrac-
ing many good and sensible points in its
construction, from which we trust our friends
may gather some valuable suggestions.

The body of the main barn is 100 feet long
by 50 feet wide, the posts 18 feet high above
the sill, making 9 bents. The beams are 14
feet above the sills, which is the height of the
inner posts. The position of the floor and
bays is readily understood from the plan.
The floor, for a grain barn, is 14 feet wide,
but may be contracted to 12 feet for one ex-
clusively for hay. The area in front of the
bays is occupied with a stationary horse-
power and with machinery for various farm
operations, such as threshing, shelling corn,
cutting straw, crushing grain, etc., all of
which is driven by bands from drums on
the horizontal shaft overhead, which runs
across the floor from the horse-power on
the other side; this shaft being driven by
a cog-wheel on the perpendicular shaft round which the horses travel.

A passage four feet wide extends between the bays and the stables, which
occupy the two wings. This extends up to the top of the bays, down which
the hay is thrown for feeding, which renders this work as easy and conven-
ient a8 possible.

A one-sided roof is given to the sheds (instead of a double-sided), to
‘throw all the water on the outside, in order to keep the interior of the
yards dry. Eavye-troughs take the water from the roofs to cisterns. The

*"NOCILVARIA—’NUVd MOOLS ALAIdWOO V¥

eas THE FARM.

cisterns, if connected by an underground pipe, may be all drawn from by at

single pump if necessary.

‘The floor of the main barn is three feet higher than that of the stables.
This will allow a cellar under it, if desired—or a deeper extension of the
bays—and it allows storage lofts over the cattle, with sufficient slope of

roof. A short flight of steps at the ends of each passage, admits easy access —

from the level of the barn floor. ‘

The sheds, which extend on the three sides of the barn, and touch it at
the rear end, are on a level with the stables. An inclined plane, from the
main floor through the middle of the back shed, forms a rear egress for
wagons and carts, descending three feet from the floor. The two rooms,
one on each side of this rear passage, 16 by 34 feet, may be used for housing
sick animals, cows about to calve, or any other purpose required. The sta-
bles at the front ends of the sheds are convenient for teams of horses or oxen,
or they may be fitted for wagon houses, tool houses, or other purposes. The
rooms, 16 feet square at the inner corners of the sheds, may be used for
weak ewes, lambs, or for a bull stable. :

Racks or mangers may be fitted up in the open sheds for feeding sheep

SPARE ROOM |
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HOOT NivW 3 AVM HY

STABLES

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MACHINERY
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A COMPLETE STOCK BARN.—-GROUND PLAN,

or young cattle, and yards may be built adjoining, on the rear, six or eight
in number, into which they may run and be kept separate. Barred parti-
_ tions may separate the different flocks. Bars may also enclose the opening
in front, or they may, if required, be boarded up tight. Step ladders are
placed at convenient intervals, for ascending the shed lofts. re ie

A granary over the machine room is entered by a flight of stairs. Poles
extending from bay to bay, over the floor, will admit the storage of much
additional hay or grain.

A Convenient Barn.—A recent inquiry about how to build a barn,
writes a correspondent of an agricultural periodical, tempts me to describe
mine, which I think very handy. My barn is situated on a side hill with an
incline of about seven feet in forty to the west. There is a bridge at each
end for a driveway, only one of which is shown in our illustration, Fig. 1.

On the right, as you enter the main door, the bays extend down to the
ground nine feet. Under the main floorway I keep my sheep. Under the
bridge each end is open, to give the sheep plenty of light and air, as it will

not do to keep them too warm. In stormy weather I close the doors.. On

van ee Ae oe oe

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. a

_ the left of the main floorway is the cow linter, and, beneath, the pig pen. The
arrangement will be more readily understood from the illustration, Fig. 2.

1. Sheep pen; 2. Barn floorway; 3. Standing floor in the linter; 4. Cows’
manger; 5. Iron strap used instead of stanchion; 6. Tie chain; 7. A trough
filled with dirt or sawdust for the animals’ front feet to stand on, thus pre-
venting slipping; 8. Cows’ feed door; 9. Sheeps’ feed door; 10. Sheep rack;
11. Pig pen; 12. Windows used for —~=——————
cleaning sheep pens and pig pens;
13. Tight partition; 14. Walk behind
the cows; 15. Scuttle for cleaning out
manure.

It will be noticed that the door
through which the sheep are fed
opens downward, and does not con-
flict with the cows’ feed door, which
liftsupward. By having these doors
the linter can be closed up tight in

cold weather, and the cattle will
keep warm. The main part of the
barn need not be clap-boarded. So
long as the roof is tight and the hay does not get wet, it is no injury to the
fodder to have it well ventilated. This ventilation is indeed beneficial and
necessary to carry off from the fodder the effluvia from the manure in the
cellar.

Cheap Barn Cellar.—But comparatively few farmers (as compared to
the masses) have yet been convinced that it will pay to construct a root-cel-
lar, and then to raise the roots to fill it with, but for all that, those who have

eset provided themselves with cel-
Z| | |

| AN lars find they pay. As it is not
i

always convenient to have one
WAI

i‘ beneath the barn, it may be
7g ‘&

——

—— y {|
A\

built above ground as follows:
Dig down three feet the size
| desired;, twelve by twenty feet
| makes a good large cellar; and
ten by sixteen feet will do for

Get on hand a lot of small logs
or poles from six to ten inches
in diameter, with which to build

——
i \ A.

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v
eo 5

A CONVENIENT BARN.—FIG. 2.

the portion above ground. Cut
the poles for each side three feet
longer than the width or length
of the excavation. Place the first

| | six or eight hundred bushels.
|
|
|

two poles on flat stones or blocks
back a foot from the edge of the hole dug, and upon opposite.sides. Flat-
ten the ends with the ax and lay two cross poles as you would in starting a
- log house. In these end pieces one foot from the end cut notches for the
next side poles to lie in. With each round, set the side poles in a foot,
which will give a regular slant to the roof, and make a very strong frame for
the weight that is to come upon it. The end that is to contain the door
should be carried up straight, while the other may be slanted up, as the sides.

* : he 4 ae Ss nib Sots akties, ee a 9 c se
LI ee ER TO OR Becher tae
Sieaen eh penta wesle ees

ag

22 TET PARI,

Cover this frame with cull or common lumber, laying the boards on up
and down. Next put on a heavy layer of marsh hay or straw to keep the
dirt from coming m contact with and rotting the lumber; over this put a
foot of earth. A shute should be provided for filling the house, and a small
ventilation flue for winter. The end where the door is located should be .

AN OLD BARN IMPROVED.—-ELEVATION.

double boarded and filled in between with saw-dust or cut straw; there
should also be a double door. A storing house of this kind, if well made,
will last eight or ten years, and give as good satisfaction a8 one costing $200.

How an old Barn was Improved.—We present herewith a brief de-
scription of how an old barn was remodeled and greathy improved without
much expense, and furnish illustrations showing the baxn after the changes

PT oa ee Py ee Oe
wie o , bd . ae Be

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. ae:
had been made, and the plan of the basement underneath in detail. By a
v1 careful study of this plan, our readers may be able to gather some valuable
hints and suggestions. The original building was the common 32x42 feet
barn, with fourteen posts, a fourteen-feet floor in the middle, with bay on
one side and stable on the other, with a lean-to of thirteen feet in the rear,
the building standing on the line of the road and facing the west, the
grounds descending say one foot in thirty to northeast. It was first raised
so that the northeast corner would clear six feet, dug out to a level of one

foot below that of the lowest corner; then a ditch was dug one and a half
feet below that under the outside sills, all around which was filled with

MANURE SHED \ ;
w LE wi. . oO
8 STALLS
28X12
»
=
=
he So eee eee ! 8 STALLS He
Ts 12K 2S. a =
ALLEY 12X28 ce
D> Ww
= 8
pees =
i WAY SHOOT *
eas

BAY

STONE WALL

"ROAD :

AN OLD BARN IMPROVED.—PLAN OF BASEMENT.

small stone. A substantial stone wall was laid on the west side, and twenty
feet on both north and south ends; the rest of the building was double-
boarded save where protected by other buildings. The front doors were
then closed, the floor taken up, cut out the bay girts, and laid off a floor of.
twenty feet on the west side (space reaching from the ground to roof), made
a floor twelve feet wide in upright and all of lean-to—in all twenty-five feet,
and cut a door in south end. The bay now would hold more than the whole
barn before; a large floor, 25x42, thirteen feet of which can be used to store
grain, and a space of 25x42 feet for stable. A good idea of the interior
construction may be obtained from the illustrated plan of the base-
ment.

he SE RT ht SP ail FI St al ay a iene te PCS Ui bes int
peered oe ! Poe ¥ ey Re EN a Ley -c CoE aS Tones Fn
one y, ; in . R S Ga eee ices

=)

Ves f wo ars

24 THE FARM.

Hanging Barn Doors on Rollers.—The great convenience of sliding
or rolling doors on the farm outbuildings is well known, and as every
farmer with a little ingenuity can construct them himself, there is no reason
why they should not be generally adopted. Our illustration, Fig. i, repre-
sents the sliding doors, completed, as applied to the barn; Fig. 2, the man-
ner of applying the rollers to the doors and track. The rollers, track and
other trimmings may be obtained at any hardware store. The track is first
awa = securely fastened to the edge
of an inch or two-inch board,
about four or five inches wide.
This is then firmly nailed or
spiked to the building, parallel
to and even with the top of the
doorway, and should extend
the width of the door on each
side. In order that the doors
may run easily, the track
should be laid as level as
possible, and upon one board.
The manner of fastening the
rollers of the doors is clearly
shown in the engraving Fig. 2. The doors are placed upon the tracks at the
ends of the latter, and are prevented from running off by placing a block at
the end of the track or upon the side of the door. The track should be pro-
tected from the weather by some kind of covering. Two narrow boards
nailed together similar to an eaves-trough, and fastened to the building
above the track and rollers, form the best kind of protection from snow or
rain.

PT ED OL SD BP FAT rT

Model Carriage-House and Stable.—Our engraving of the elevation,
on the following page, shows
doors of the rectangular, car-
riage-house portion of the
building; also door to hay-
loft. The carriage-house
doors are folding, and open
outward, as they can be made
closer when hung on hinges
than when hung on rollers;
and as it is desirable that all
doors and windows should
be as close as practicable,
that they may not affect the
ventilation, the ingress of which is provided for by a subterraneous air duct,
seen at A, in the ground plan. =

The posts are sixteen feet in length; the ceiling of the stable is nine feet
in the clear, with storage in the loft for twelve tons of hay.

The oat bin is a cylinder of one hundred bushels capacity, around which
circular stairs are built. Its location could not be more convenient, as six
horses can be fed grain with walking but fourteen feet, on account of the six —
stalls being with the head end around a semicircle of sixteen feet diameter.
This circular area is open to the cupola, and being supplied with air through
the floor, under the stairs, and the animals all breathing into a common cen-

FIG. 2..-_MANNER OF APPLYING THE ROLLERS.

RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 95

ter directly under the egress, the air is constantly changed without a per-
ceptible current, and it is nearly at the temperature of the earth below the
frost and solar influence; no doors nor windows need be opened.

_ Byreference to our illustration of the ground plan, it will be seen that
the stall partitions are radial. The stalls are five feet in width in front, and
eleven feet at the rear end. The stalls V and VI are arranged with strong
gates hung to the wall of the building, in a line with the stall partitions,
which, when closed, as seen in stall VI, form spacious, convenient box stalls.
There is no partition between the carriage-house, VII, and the stable por-

Lug
TT Hf MANNE MOAT TTOETT YT CATT in

op HN

MODEL CARRIAGE-HOUSE AND STABLE.—ELEVATION.

tion of the building, except that formed by the stall partitions and the gates
closed, as seen in stall VI.

The ventilation is so effectual that the air of the stable does not effect the
carriage-house; and it being arranged with three drive doors, three pairs of
horses to carriages may all be driven into the carriage-house at once, and
the doors closed behind them, and the horses taken to their respective
stalls. There are two harness closets, H, H. |

The rectangular figures in each stable floor, are cast-iron drip grates,
each covermg a sink, or pit, into which the urine falls. These are all con-
nected by pipes, which all connect with a main inner conduit, laid in the

26 THE FARM. ions Se ae

ground by way of the stable door. This conduit discharges into the manuré
“k house. The quadrant-shaped figures at the head of the stalls, are hinged —

iron mangers, which may be turned into the feeding passages for conven-~
lence in feeding, and the man-
gers may be unhinged and
removed from the building
when cleansed.

The circular figure in the
line of the stall partitions, is
the base of a sheet-iron hay
tube, which is supported at
the height of the manger, and
extends to the upper surface
of the loft floor, where it is
supplied with hay. These
tubes have an opening to each
stall, so that one tube sup-
plies two horses, the tube be
ing covered at the top, and
close, except the feeding open-
ings, and the lattice bottom to
them protects the hay from air
and dust, and is the most per-
fect and durable hay-feeding
if arrangement yet discovered.

MODEL CARRIAGE-HOUSE AND STABLE.— The object of the lattice bot-

GROUND PLAN. tom to the hay tubes, is to

preserve the hay seed which

sheds. It falls into a drawer for the purpose, and the seed thus saved is of

excellent quality, and the quantity thus collected well remunerates for the

cost of the arrangement. The cupola is octangular, and has four openings,

with stationary blinds, and four with glazed sash, which thoroughly light the
hay-loft and feeding passage.

The building is perfectly lighted and ventilated, and exhibits a pretty
elevation from any point of view,

FENCES AND GATES.

Farm Fences.—In the following list of farm fences we have endeavored
to illustrate and describe only those that are of practical value and in actual
use by many farmers. They illustrate the various modes of arranging rails
for the turning of stock and indicating the boundary line of farms. In many
sections of the country the common crooked, zig-zag (sometimes called the
Virginia or worm) rail fence is extensively used, and, in consequence of the
scarcity of the desired material, cannot be immediately replaced by the im-
proved board, post and rail, iron or stone fence. As commonly constructed,
with wide-spreading stakes at each corner, it occupies a strip of ground
nearly a rod in width, which is far worse than useless, affording a harboring
place for noxious weeds,
ete. :

- Fig. 1 represents a section
of a straight rail fence. The
stakes are first driven in
the soil from four to six
inches asunder, sufficient to
admit of a rail of medium
size; a stone or block of
wood a few inches in height
is placed between the
stakes, upon which are FARM FENCES.—FIG. 1.

properly placed two or three i
rails; a piece of annealed wire is then placed around both stakes, the ends
being well twisted together, upon which are placed rails until within a few
inches of the top, when another bit of wire, a wooden pin, or a wooden cap,
as most convenient, is attached.

In building this class of fence, it will be necessary to cut away with an axc
a portion of each end of many rails, that they may fit closely within the stakes.
In this, as well as other rail fences, the largest and heaviest rails should be
reserved for the top, rendering their removal by unruly stock and high
winds less easy. Keep the crooked ones in a panel by themselves, and if
they are very crooked it is policy to use them for stakes, or consign them to
the flames; for to have a fence to please and not to provoke the intrusion of
stock, use none but straight rails.

When economy of rails is desired, immediately after setting the stakes
cast up a ridge of earth by plowing two furrows on each side, throwing up
the second furrow with a shovel, making a ridge a foot or more in height,
and not less than a foot in breadth at the top; proceed as above in the con-
struction of the fence; sow grass seed upon the ridge. This plan saves two
rails to a panel, renders the stakes more firm and less liable to heave by the
action of the frost, and unruly cattle do not have the same advantage in
attempting to get through or over it. In situations not liable to the preva-

lence of high winds, this is the fence that should be used, occupying less

28 | THE FARM.

ground than many other kinds; and, when properly constructed, it is a
substantial and neat fence. .

Fig. 2, though in appearance somewhat resembling the previous one, is
more expensive, and is designed
especially for the use of poles or
slender rails that it would be im-
possible to properly arrange in a
fence by any other plan. To the
stakes are nailed cleats, as shown,
_ from four to seven at every set of »
stakes. Size of rails and purpose
of fence will decide this point. A
ridge of earth can be thrown up
as in the previous plan, with a
corresponding economy of timber.
_ Fig. 3 exhibits a mode of stak-
ing a zig-zag fence. After the
foundation has been laid, the

FARM FENCES.—FIG. 2. stakes should be driven; holes

should be made with a crowbar to

the depth of twenty inches at least. One man, standing on a box or bench,

drives them with a sledge-hammer or common wooden beetle, while an

assistant keeps them upright. Make all the holes before you commence

driving the stakes, which should be all sharpened, and the top end reduced

to a size admitting the caps to pass over them readily before they are brought
to the field. iy

When the fence is made four or more rails high (the size of rails, ete., will
govern), the caps are put upon, and the fence finished by the addition of two
or three more rails.

Tn localities where caps are expensive or difficult to obtain, good annealed
wire, size 10, will answer all purposes. It should be drawn tightly up
around the stakes; it will bury into them, and the weight of the rails above
the wires will rest upon the stakes, having a tendency to keep them in the
ground when acted upon by the frost. |

The most expeditious manner in which to sharpen stakes is to have a
large, flat block of wood for the stake to stand on, which is held upright with
one hand and sharpened with an axe held in the other; a hollow cut in the
upper surface of the block will consider-
ably expedite the operation. Hop poles,
stakes for grape-vines, etc., are best
sharpened in the above manner. -

In Fig. 4 is shown the best plan known
for staking the common rail fence. It
dispenses with stakes at the corners, and
in consequence of their central position,
they are not liable to be broken or
loosened while plowing; nor does the
fence occupy as much land as by the old
mode. In consequence of the central FARM FENCES.—FIG. 3.
point at which the stakes cross the upper
rail of fence, it is required to sustain the weight of the stakes and riders;
therefore, this part should be made strong and durable, of well-seasoned
material.

ia ; BOR ety ee ee ey ry A
Ro 2 BG A SATS Pe ae araay Seal

— loosely, so as to admit the

_ hewing the ends of the rails,

oe REN ORS AND GATES. = ee 09

' Fig. 5 represents a plan of bracing a rail fence, whether it be staked and
ridered, staked and capped, locked and ridered, staked and wired, or wired
and pinned, all of which kinds of fence are easily blown down by a heavy
wind, rails broken, stock let into fields of valuable grain, time spent, and
patience exhausted in rebuilding ale
them. The manner of using the
arrangement is clearly shown in the
figure. It consists in placing on the
inside leeward corner a piece of rail,
one end resting upon the ground, the
other placed underneath the third FARM FENCES.—FIG. 4.
rail from the top. A fence braced as
shown has stood five years without repairing, while a locked, staked and
ridered fence by the ie of it has been prostrated three times, although in a
less exposed sitnation, thus demonstrating the value of this attachment when
used in connection with the
common rail fence.

Straight Rail Fence.—
We present a section of
straight rail fence, which
will be found easy and cheap
to construct, and economical
eT SS in saving timber and occupy-

‘ete Wun, BS Space on the land.

ay Any A Cn MWA aya/” In constructing this fence
Dai \ ae \y NW V\ Ww Uv “

at Yes inant good posts should be firmly

FARM FENCES.—FIG. 5. set at such distances apart as

will admit of the rails reach-
ing from the center of one post to the center of the other. Tf necessary,
straighten the face of the posts with an axe, and hew down the ends of the
rails to a uniform thickness. These rails are fastened to the posts by means
of a stake, which rests on a
stone or block of wood, and
is firmly wired at the top
and bottom to the post. In
constructing the fence it. is
better to wire the bottom of
the stake first—at the proper
distance—and the top rather =

rails easily. When the rails
are laid up draw the top
wire tight, and if proper care
has been taken in straight-
ening the face of the post,

etc., the work will bind to- SECTION OF STRAIGHT RAIL FENCE.
gether very tightly.

The fence will last as long as the posts; it is strong, requires
no nails, nor any more wire than to stake an ordinary crooked fence,
and it takes but little over half the posts necessary for an ordinary board
fence.

30 THE FARM. ;

Durable Fence Posts.—We give herewith a drawing and description of
a fence post which we think will last one’s life-time. The bottom of the post
is formed of a stone—some kind that will drill easily—about eight inches
thick and twenty long. In
this stone two holes are
drilled, one an inch and a
quarter in diameter and three
inches deep, and the other,
= half an inch in diameter and
Hi T HT iii two inches deep; the holes
i it © should be about one foot
apart. Bed the stone in the
ground nearly level with the
surface, with the small hole
on the inside of the fence.
s Next take a scantling four —
It | Hina ake inches square and three feet

: —— long, and put a bar of inch
and a quarter iron into one
end, lengthwise, about six
inches. The end of the bar
should project four or five
inches. Place this into »the
largest hole in the stone, hold
it plumb, turn in melted
brimstone, and you have a
post. Bend the end of a rod
of half inch iron, and fasten
in the other hole in the same
way; the other end should
be flattened and attached to
the scantling with a stout screw. The bar should set tight in the post, and
about one inch space for air should be left between the scantling and stone.

Always-Ready Gate.—We give an illustrated plan of an always-ready
gate—a small gate for a
- barnyard or elsewhere,
where a passageway is much
used. Itis very convenient.
This gate swings in a Y-
shaped inclosure, or in two
sides of a triangle. Having
the top hinge the longest
and the post plumb, the
gate, at rest, always hangs =
in the center, and rightly Joe
constructed will always -
leave a passageway of two a
feet. Cattle cannot get ALWAYS-READY GATE.
through it, nor do we think
sheep will pass it. It is always shut and always open. It requires
no watching to keep it closed, and will be found convenient in many
ways.

ty Patée! aad ‘ete ae re a et SIN he, oe een Pom key
ani aver ioe nats et ae a3 x Aas “ati ah wat ates ?
nay, - Acre) « : a t ~
ae et eR ey Lend Si

FPENOCES AND GAPRS., 31

A Good Farm Gate.—We present herewith an engraving of a good
and serviceable farm gate, which may be easily and cheaply constructed as
follows:

Four posts are set firmly in line, so that the front will be true. Measure
fourteen feet, on line with those already set, and set the post the gate shuts
against. Then place the sill for the gate to run on, fourteen or sixteen feet
long, put down solid. The sill for the gate to run back on can be made of any
light material that will sustain the weight of the gate. The sill should have
about one inch down grade toward the shutting post, and be spiked fast to

WA

A GOOD FARM GATE,

the posts. The gate is made of any width lumber, and long enough to lap
four inches on the shutting posts, and about two feet on the groove post, to
keep it shady. At the bottom, the gate must have two boards to support the
bolts that the rollers turn on. These rollers should be six inches in diameter, _
an inch thick, to run on half-round iron, placed at a proper distance from the
bottom board of the fence, so as to let the gate pass without rubbing. The
iron rod should have holes punched so as to let twelve-penny nails through
to nail to the sill, about two feet apart. Nail down the rod and it is ready
for the gate. The gate is put together with
sixteen two and one-half inch bolts and
eight three and one-half inch bolts; the
three and one-half inch bolts go through
three boards at the bottom. The rollers
(as per drawing) go between the bottom
boards close under the brace, so as to get
the bearing; the bolts should fit the rollers |
-as tight as possible. These rollers in their “=
place, put up the gate on the rod, and run

it back on the fence; mark the four posts A CHEAP GATE.

one inch above the top of the gate; saw

them off square, in line; place on top of the posts a joist twelve inches wide,
two inches thick; let it project over in front of the gate far enough to clear it; _
now nail a six-inch strip on the edge of the joist, so that the top edge will be
even with the top side of the joist; the four inches projecting down will serve
as a groove for the gate to run in and keep it in its place; now spike the joist
to the top of the post firmly; let the gate lap on the shutting: post about four
inches on half the posts; then nail the ends of the boards to the post oecupy-
ing the other half, so that the gate will shut against the butts, which will
help sustain the post; now nail a board solid in line with the butts, and thick

69 PUR FARM.

enough to project a quarter to a half inch from the gate; nail a stout board
on the previous one, and let it project over about three inches toward the
gate, and in line with the post, so as to makea groove for the gate to
stand in. If it is properly shaped the gate will jam in it and remain solid
until it is removed back.

A Cheap Gate.—This gate, illustrated on preceding page, is designed
merely for farm use. Wood and metal or wire

Coe, — are combined in a novel manner in its con-
jK/p (A) struction. It may be cheaply made by un-
, skilled labor, and combines lightness with
/ \) ( durability. The gate is composed of two
/ wooden uprights, one at the hinge end and
the other at the free end, two horizontal

rails and an oblique brace connecting the
rods. An iron brace connects the upper end
of the inner upright, and is provided with
an eye which receives the pintle of upper,
hinge. Wires are stretched between the up-
rights, forming a complete panel. This gate
is very light, and at the same time simple
and strong.

ey, Gnlp SS =e

; i Some Fancy Gates.—For the benefit of
| | | | such readers as may be contemplating the
luxury of a new front yard or garden fence,
or, in fact, an ornamental fence of any de-
scription, we present on this and the following page four neat and orna-
mental designs of cheap, fancy framed gates, which any carpenter can make,
and which may be used appropriately with almost any style of picket or even
with iron fences. These gates are usually made three feet six or eight inches
wide. The space between the posts for an
ordinary door yard gate should be three —
feet ten inches. That is, however, a matter jp fp)

to be decided by convenience, and the use to

which it is to be put. A wide gate is more \ 1
convenient than a narrow one, especially SK

where baby carriages and wheelbarrows are

much used, and the gate is employed as a WL fp fp ff

common and general entrance and exit by | V),

the family for all purposes. manne f
To Preserve Fence Posts.—<A _ cor- OOOOH

respondent at Benton Harbor, Mich., sends
us the following statement by Parker Earle
(a widely known horticulturist), in the FANCY GATES.—FIG. 2.
Chicago Times, and requests our opinion of

his mode for preserving fence posts. In answer, it may be stated that no
single experiment, or no single series of experiments under like circum-
stances, can be adopted as a rule for unlike conditions. For general appli- ~
cation, we would recommend first impregnating the whole of the post with
crude petroleum as a general preservative, and when dry apply hot tar to
the portion going into the ground, but none above. The petroleum will
penetrate the pores, and the tar coating will hold it there. The following is

FANCY GATES.—FIG. 1.

FENCES AND GATES. 88

Mr. Earle’s statement: ‘“‘In building a fence around our young orchard,
several years ago, we tried many plans for preserving the posts. Having
occasion to remove the fence this winter, we noted the condition of the posts
as follows: Those set with no preparation
were decayed an inch or more in thickness;
_ those coated with a thick wash of lime were
better preserved, but were quite seriously
attacked by worms; those posts coated with
hot tar were perfectly sound as when first put
into the ground; those painted with petroleum
and kerosene were equally sound, and as
good as new. In future we shall treat all
posts in the following manner before setting:
Let the posts get thoroughly dry, and then,
with a pan of cheap kerosene and a white-
wash brush, give the lower third of the post,
the part to go into the ground, two or three
good applications of the oil, letting it soak in
well each time. Posts so treated will not be FANCY GATES.—FIG. 3.
troubled by worms or insects of any kind,
but will resist decay to a remarkable degree. This we find to be the simplest,
sasiest, cheapest, and best method of preservation.”—Country Gentleman.

Easy Method of Taking Up Posts.—Wishing to take up fence posts,
which were sound, and standing solid in
heavy clay soil baked hard by drouth, a cor-
respondent made his head save his muscle:
“T found that by pouring a pail of water
around the post it may be very readily
2NZ loosened by the hand. Then by hooking a
chain about it loosely, slipping the noose
down as far as possible below the surface of
the ground, and hooking the other end of
the chain around a piece of light scantling,
near the center, to act as a lever, the post
may be lifted out of its bed very easily.”

LEN

A Good Fence.—Raise black walnut
FANCY GATES.—FIG. 4. posts on the lot where they are wanted. If.
they grow fast they will do in from five to
seven years. Use the barb wire. Black walnut injures crops less than
almost any other tree.*®No stock will gnaw or hurt it. The roots run straight
down, so you can plow against the trunk. It grows straight and tall, and has
but few limbs. The working of the tree will not break the wire. Black wal-
nut will pay all expenses in a few years in fruit.

Post and Rail Fences.—We give herewith plain directions, with appro-
priate sketches, which we think will enable any ordinarily skillful farm-hand
to make the simple machinery necessary for boring the holes in the posts,
mortising them out, pointing the rails, digging the holes in the earth, and
putting up a good and substantial rail fence. The posts are 7 1-2 feet long
for a six-rail fence, which is the best and most generally used, and 3 to 4
inches thick by 7 to 8 inches wide. These posts are hewn out. The holes in
the posts are oblong (up and down the post), and in size are 2 1-2x6 inches,

JS Oe citale At eaten ae il

ayes Ta AE a ly Sh it os ae haa a Te

34 THE FARM.

The rails are 9 1-2 feet long, and 5 to 6 inches wide by 2 to 3 inches thick on
the bark edge, and a quarter to a half inch thick on the other edge.

In building the fence the bark edge is placed down, as the thin edge
sheds rain or snow more readily, which prevents rotting so rapidly. The
rails lap in the holes about five or six inches, as shown in the section, Fig. 4.

In making the posts the
NNN timber is cut into proper
a lengths, and then split in
proper size and hewn, leay-
ing the ground end for two
feet rough and unhewn,
giving a stout base. This
part of the work is done in
the forest, after which they
are hauled home, and put
in piles ready for boring.
The mode of making the
oblong holes in the post is
shown in the cut (Fig. 1),
a representing the post,
thin edge up. Two holes
are bored with a two-and-
a-quarter-inch auger at the
points shown by the holes |
in the post on the trestle at
a. The auger holes are six
inches apart from outside to
outside. The trestle frame
is made of stout timber and
planks, as shown in the fig-
ure. The planks are put
on the benches edgewise,
and fastened with stout
pins. A plank is placed
from one bench to the
other for the post to rest
on, and these benches are
Sie eleven and a half feet
| zclll us FA apart. In the two planks
ish as 1 it will be seen that notches
——— are sawed at points to cor-
i t==~ ' respond with the holes to
nD Se be made by the auger.
_ These notched planks are
placed thirteen or fourteen
inches dpart, to enable the round or square wheel (see Figs. 1 and 5) to run
easily in between them. The post is held on the plank firmly by stout
wooden pins and wedges. The bottom hole in the post is made two inches
above the ground level. The next hole is three inches from the top of the
bottom hole; the next four inches above that; the next is five above that;

CTT TT

FIG. 1.—TRESTLE FRAME USED IN BORING THE PCSTS,

and the top hole is six inches above the one below it. In boring the holes

the auger, which is firmly fastened in the wheel, must be moved (wheel and
all, of course) into the proper notches, and in this way every post is bored

eT ae Poe Mat vane em go hg
Dey ery Re pete 3 Pee ee oe aon ™

PENCES AND GATES. 35

alike, and all the holes in the post are the proper distance apart. After
your posts are bored, the next step is to have a narrow-blade axe, with a
short handle, as shown at c, Fig. 2 (a common axe, would do, however),
and with this mortise out the holes, which is done by laying the post flat-
wise on the ground, or on a ty
stout, low trestle, similar to
the ‘‘ pointer” shown at Fig. 3.
When one side is mortised half
out, turn the post and finish.
A good hand will bore and
mortise fifteen posts a day with
these tools. The rails for this
kind of a fence are split out in
the woods, 9 1-2 feet long, all
of the same length. A good
hand can cut down the tim-
ber and split out one hundred
of them in a day, in fair timber.
They are hauled home gener-
ally before being pointed. The
ends of the rails should fill the
holes as nearly as possible, so
as to exclude moisture, the

tighter the better. Pointing
the rails is simple work. Two
short-legged, stout trestles of
any rough logs are placed
about eight feet apart, as
shown at Fig. 3, in each of
which two large wooden pegs are driven to receive the rai], and between
these pegs the rail is placed, thin edge up, and fastened in between the pegs
with wedges of wood. They are now sharpened off to about an inch thick
for six to eight inches, the corners slightly nipped, and the work is done. A
man will point over two hundred in a day.

To make holes in the earth, a digger (see Fig. 2) is used. Itis about ten
inches long by five wide,
made perfectly straight,
and to weigh, handle and
= all, about twelve pounds.
It is made of good iron,
laid with the best steel.
Any blacksmith can make
one. They cost about $1.50,
without handle. The

a z handle should be six feet
FIG. 3.—TRESTLE FOR POINTING THE RAILS. long, and heavy. A club at
one end would do for a ram-

mer to run the dirt in the holes, In making the fence, set the first post
firmly, and slip in one end of the rails, as shown at a, in Fig. 4. After the
next hole is dug set the next post in, and before you put in the dirt place the
other end of the rails in on both sides, and drive; then fill up and ram
firmly, and so on to the end. Drive the rails with a wooden maul. Never

ry

use an axe. When you come toa corner, you must have a large post with

FIG. 2..-SHOVEL, AXE AND DIGGER.

SPO a te i ee ey ee ee oe UI ee Te Pe ee hn A ea Leas.
fe ie ge ee IAL I aR ati ie bau arn}

56 THE FARM.

holes in the sides—the other holes only half way through the post—to ré-
ceive the turn rails. In dig-
ging the holes, a little prac-
tice will enable you to throw
- out over half of the dirt with
: the digger (see Fig. 2), es-
pecially if the earth is tena-
cious. After that a long-
handled, small scoop shovel,

FIG. 4.__SECTION OF THE SIX RAIL FENCE. 8 Shown at d, Fig. 2, will be

found serviceable.

We neglected to say that the handle to the auger is about 3 1-2 feet long, .
and can be, as it usually is, fas- i a
tened on by a blacksmith. The
square wheel shown in Fig. 5 is
easily made, and is about 5 feet
in diameter. The trestle (Fig.
1) is 31-2feet high. The auger
is put in the wheel and hung
on the trestle precisely like an
ordinary grindstone. As to the
best materials for this fence,
black locust is the best for
posts, mulberry next, then
white oak. For rails, white
oak, ash, walnut, and cotton-
wood, in the order named.

Fence for Marsh or Soft
Soil._The improvement we
herewith illustrate is designed
for bracing the common board :
fences built across low, marshy ria. 5.—AUGER WHEEL.
ground, that is overflowed at
every fall of rain. The work, or face side, of the fence is supposed to (and
should) front up-stream; in
the rear, and four feet from
each post, is firmly driven
into the ground a stake (K),
left projecting one foot above
the surface. This stake is
connected with the. fence-

_ post by strip (B), as indi-
cated. The strength of the

| fence to resist the force of
rushing water that may
come in contact with it is in- _
creased tenfold. Where high
winds are prevalent, fences
may be braced in this way
FENCE FOR MARSH OR SOFT SOIL. upon the leeward side.

FIELD CROPS

Wheat Shocks.—The illustrations portray the various methods prac-
ticed for securing wheat, rye, oats, etc., in shocks, in which position they
should be arranged. Wheat should be cut from five to ten days before
maturity—that is, when about one-third of the chaff is yet green, or while
many of the berries can be mashed between the thumb and finger. The
points gained thereby are: By thus early reaping the grain is not as liable to
be prostrated by rain or high winds, and is not as liable to shell during the
process of gathering. The grain secured by this process and at the time
indicated, is heavier, and
the flour is better.

Fig. 1 delineates a large,
oblong shock which is made
by placing ten sheaves ina
double row, the bottom of
each pair being a foot asun-
der, set bracing and meeting
at the top, the whole covered
by two sheaves, whose ends,
each side of band, are so
spread that when in position
they will afford a more
secure protection from rain,
and render the liability to
derangement in high winds
much less. Feet VN
In Fig. 2 is shown a very WHEAT SHOCKS.—FIG. 1.
good plan for securing a
dozen or more sheayes in a round shat Two caps are used, crossing at
right angles above the center of the shock.

Fig. 3 illustrates another mode of capping a round shock. But six
sheaves should be placed upright in each shock, unless the straw be of extra
length, as in the case of rye. Bind the caps securely near the butts, break-
ing down all around before placing in proper position. The latter is a mode
seldom practiced, yet highly recommended by many farmers. Should the
sheaves be damp or contain slowly drying weeds, shock in the manner shown
in Fig. 1, which exposes a greater area of each sheaf to the combined in-
fluence of sun and air than by any other known process.

Harvesting Wheat.—Wheat, when cut before the grain has passed
from the milk to the dough state, will shrivel and give small measure and
light weight. The straw will be more valuable for fodder, however, than if
harvested later. On the other hand, if left to become over-ripe, the grains
grow harsh and rough, and the bran will be so thick and brittle that no after
manipulation of the kernels will bring the wheat in condition to make the best
quality of flour without carrying a large proportion of flour off with the bran.

38 THE FARM.

The cultivator’s safety lies, therefore, between the extremes of early and
late cutting. In a word, harvest the crop when the grain has passed from
the milky stage to a doughy one. If the wheat be cut when the grain reaches
the dough state, the bran will be thin and elastic, and can be separated more
readily from the flour than
when dead ripe. In addition
to the flour being finer, it will
also be increased in quantity
in consequence of the bran
being lighter than when ripe.
A saving of wheat is likewise
gained, which otherwise
would be lost by shelling in
the field.

The novice can ascertain
the exact time when wheat
fal: AWE and other small grain ought
aa) ee, ee to be cut by opening heads
AAMAS Za ANN in different portions of the
i i th \ field, and examining the ker-
| | \. Ws nels carefully. The straw
. Wf dl a 2 R near the ground will also
LP NIRAMNINS. REO _ proclaim the time for harvest
by its yellow hue.

Wheat cut in the dough

MEAT SHOCKS.—FIG. 2. state ought not to be dried

suddenly. It may be bound

and stacked at once, or, if there is only a small quantity, drawn to the barn.

Some farmers put it into small stacks. If stacked so that the wind and sun

will not dry up all the juices in the plant, enough of these will be slowly con-

centrated in the seed to accomplish the maturity of the grain in perfection.

If by rapid ripening in the sun the .

kernels are shrivelled, more bran is
formed in proportion to the flour.

A large class of farmers practice
threshing from the shock and hauling
erain direct to market. The advan-
tages of this plan vary with the season.
When the wheat has been bleached
out by hot suns and repeated rains, it
should be stacked and go through the
‘““sweat.” During this process the
straw and grain become damp and
heat is evolved. At such times the
grain cannot readily be threshed,
therefore it is not advisable to attempt
it until both straw and grain are dry. WHEAT SHOCKS.—FIG. 3.

Then it will be found that the berry

has been restored to color and exhibits a plump appearance, having absorbed
nutritive matter from the stalk. The grain has not only undergone a change
for the better, but the straw is also improved in quality.

It is suggested that farmers take time to look about for extra fine heads
of wheat for future seed. It will also be wise to carefully note the results of

FIELD CROPS. 89

the several varieties grown, with a view to comparing their respective merits,
and selecting for another year’s crop those sorts which promise best returns.
When fertilizers have been used, it will also be well to mark the results. It
is only by a careful comparison of different plants under different treatments
that a farmer surely arrives at conclusions which best suit the special require-
ments of his land and his location. ;

‘How to Stack Straw.—We give an illustration showing how straw can
be stacked so that it will be preserved from spoiling, and at the same time
answer for a shelter to protect stock from the storms. The pen should be
two or three logs high (or higher, if the logs are small), and large enough to
correspond with the quantity of straw. Then set fence rails or poles all
around inside of the pen, as represented. It can be built at the tail end of
the threshing machine, so
that the straw can fall in it.
It will require less hands to
stack.

Draining Wheat

Fields.—Ifno other method
has been devised for drain-
ing wheat fields, which are
sometimes too wet, it will
pay to plow furrows from
the lowest spot to some
lower point outside. Every
experienced wheat grower
knows that if water is al-
lowed to stand upon the
ground late in the fall, the
crop will not only be direct-
ly injured thereby, but will
also be liable to be severely
damaged by ‘“‘ winter kill-
ing,” and it should be the
aim to prevent, as far as HOW TO STACK STRAW.
possible, both of these evils.
A heavy rain will do little damage to a wheat field if provision is made for
the prompt removal of the surplus water, while a moderate rainfall upon
undrained land which is already too wet will cause the destruction of many
of the plants, and largely reduce the possible yield of the crop. While thor-
ough drainage is much better than any makeshift which can be invented, it
is much better to adopt the very imperfect plan recommended above than it
is to make no provision for the protection of the crop from injury by an ex-
cess of moisture in the soil.

Weevil in Wheat.—A correspondent of an agricultural paper says:
“Some years ago, hearing complaint of weevil in wheat about the close of
harvest, when I was ricking my wheat, I got fresh slaked lime and threw
over the rick in building it—laying two courses of sheaves, then lime suffi-
cient to whiten the stack. A neighbor who threshed his wheat from the
shock came to me a few days after, and said he should lose his wheat, for it
was alive with weevil. I told him to throw lime over it, and shovel it through
his wheat, which he did. Two days later there was not a weevil seen in it,”

40 THE FARM, : ee

Wheat Maxims in Small Compass.—The following information about
wheat growing has been condensed: 1. The best soil for wheat is rich clay
loam; 2. Wheat likes a good,
deep, soft bed; 3. Clover
turned under makes just
such a bed; 4. The best seed
is oily, heavy, plump, and
clean; 5. About two inches
is the best depth for sowing
the seed; 6. The drill puts

Pe a WM «= ins the seed better and
i Wil cheaper than broadcasting;
/H/) y HW == =7. From the middle of Sep-
7 Tj Hip i, tember to the last of Octo-
i } i: ber is the best time for sow-

:

WH Hi ing; 8. Drilled, one bushel

\ ti h broadcast, two bushels per
ly | . ma Pai i acre; 9. One heavy rolling
Tf fu Mh tit ©) 6after ‘sowing does much
i tut. : a)

of seed per acre; if sown

I
l il 2 good; 10. For flour, cut
= CP * when the grain begins to
harden; for seed, not until
it has hardened.

An Ohio Corn Crib.—
We give an illustration (Fig. 1) of a very convenient and substantial double
corn crib, with a wagon shed between. Such a crib can be built any size,
and filled with grain, without the least sign of weakness. One is a brace for
the other, and the more grain you have in it the firmer it will be. It is use-
less to explain how the tim-
bers should be put together,
and where every door should
be cut out, when one glance
at the illustration will an-
swer. Fig. 2 represents the
double doors made to corre-
spond with the entrance of
the shed. The doors, when
shut, are fastened to a piece
of scantling, standing per-
pendicular—-one entering
the beam, the other enter-
ing a block put in the
ground. The foundation
can be of wood or stone, as
suits best. This is what we
eall the “Ohio Dutch Yan-
kee corn crib.”

Hilling Injurious to
Corn.—Careful experi-
ments have proved that corn which is hilled will blow down more readily
than that which has level culture. This can be accounted for by the fact

FIELD CROPS. 41

that corn roots run very near the surface, and when hills are made they are
confined to the small space covered by the hill; while in level culture the
roots run from one row to the other, thus enabling the corn to stand strong,
as nature intended, and in no way liable to be blown down, except by winds
of unusual violence.

A Convenient Corn Crib.—We illustrate a very convenient style of corn
crib, which, while costing but a mere trifle more than an ordinary crib, pos-
sesses some of the main advantages of a corn house; namely, a space pro-
tected from the weather sufficient to accommodate a team with a wagon load
of corn. At the proper season the grain may be shelled therein, and it is an
excellent place to shelter a lumber wagon. The plan needs but little expla-
nation. It is simply two cribs placed side by side, and facing each other.
The cribs and space between them are covered by one roof. The cribs
should be about four feet wide at the bottom, and grow broader as they rise,
the taper being on the outside; the projecting roof throws the water clear of

A CONVENIENT CORN ORIB.

the crib. The height should be sufficient to allow easy shoveling of the
corn from the wagon into the top of the crib. If one wishes to make it rat-
proof, it may be elevated on posts, capped with inverted tin pans; but in
that case it would hardly do to store tools init. Some would suggest a floor
and doors, which can easily be added to the plan, if desired. The best ma-
terial is sawed scantlings for a frame, and three or four-inch-wide strips for
siding. The roof may be made of matched boards. In case it should be
determined to floor and hang doors, it would be well to board up the inside
of the crib with matched stuff to the height of the eaves.

Seed Corn.—No one will deny that great care should be observed in se-
lecting seed corn to plant, and yet numbers of farmers never see their seed
corn until it is carried to the field at planting-time. We think the best plan
is to place a barrel in a corner of the crib, and throw in it every large and
vigorous ear. Shell off about two inches of the large ends, in order to get
the largest and most prolific grains. This produces a large and healthy
plant, that grows much faster than small ones do. Many farmers may think
it quite a tedious job to select every ear of corn planted in this way; but they

42 THE FARM.

will not find it so after giving it a trial, and selecting as much as possible on
rainy days. This plan, once
adopted, will ever be adhered
to afterward. Try it; you will
not regret it, but find it re-
munerative. ~

Cheap Corn Cribs.—
There are many farmers who
follow a mixed husbandry,
and who raise comparatively —
small quantities of corn, who
cannot afford to pay much for
structures used for this pur-
pose. For such we herewith
give directions, accompanied
with drawings, showing how .
a cheap and yet suitable crib
may be made.

The elevation (Fig. 1) is

CORN CRIBS.—-FIG. 1. an excellent crib. The sills

are four by six inches, framed;

if only a small crib is needed, it will only be necessary to bore two-inch
holes at each corner, and one intermediate, and insert sharpened sticks
three inches square, to which secure slats horizontally, three-quarters of an

CORN CRIBS.—FIaG. 2.

inch apart. As this structure has but one door, it is best to divide the room
in two parts, the best or sound corn to be put in the near compartment, and
the poor corn in front, where it may be first fed out. A still cheaper plan

BOSH pa ee eed tT)
ean Da we we Ke :
CORN CRIBS.—FIG. 3.

weds A

‘
Me te

of construction is to use poles or small logs, secured together in the form
shown in Fig. 2. This is an exceedingly cheap and expeditious manner of
constructing a corn crib, If properly done, it will last for years, is easy of

“FIELD OROPS. 43

access, and, with a good cover, corn will keep in it as well as in those more
expensive.

Fig. 3 gives a side view of a crib constructed of poles or logs, showing the
manner of splicing at A, A, the logs midway between the supports. Pin or
nail the logs at the point of joining. In this way log cribs several hundred
feet in length are often constructed.

The Enemies of Corn.—lIts enemies in the field, the bin, and the mill
are numerous. Among its bird foes the crow is most dreaded by the
farmer. He is a bold, saucy fellow, well endowed with bird sense, and soon
sees a scare-crow is a humbug. The common devices used for this purpose
—an open newspaper, bright tin, a clapping wind-mill, an eftigy, ete., are
effective only for a short time, when something new must be found. A pr ac-
tical farmer suggests that early planting will circumvent him, since he is not
particularly an early bird. Another claims that the use of a planter which
covers the seed and presses down the earth upon it has been a perfect de-
fense for him. He has seen twenty crows pulling away after the corn had
got above the ground, and found they had nipped the tops off, yet could not
get,the kernel up.

Great damage is often done to the corn crop by a corn-worm ( Heliothus
Armiga), identical with the boll-worm, so injurious to the cotton crop. The
parent of the worm is a moth of brownish-yellow color, with dark brown or
black markings. The caterpillar is green with black stripes and dark spots,
and is covered with hairs. When full grown it measures about one and one-
half inches. It is extremely voracious, though not particularly dainty, since
it eats whatever comes in its way. Peas, stringed beans, tomatoes, pump-
kins, cotton or corn are all one to his greedy appetite. The moth deposits its
eggs upon the corn silk, and the young caterpillars. soon work their way
down to the tender kernel, When the caterpillar attains its full size it
descends into the soil a few inches and there weaves its cocoon. Two or
more broods are produced each year. Birds and parasites destroy this:
insect both as worm and moth. Men destroy it by means of torches, lamps
and lanterns, sometimes arranged over dishes of oil or water, into which it
falls and drowns. Plates of vinegar and molasses put among the corn will
entrap many of them.

Aphis Maidis, a litile plant louse, infests corn and lives upon its juices.
_ The eggs, which are laid in the ground, hatch in May, when the lice gather
upon the roots, and here remain until the roots harden so that they are
driven to the stem and tassels, where they are found in great numbers about
July. Their presence can be easily detected by an army of red ants dancing
attendance upon them, since they wear two black honey-tubes standing up
like horns on the upper and hinder part of the abdomen, which secrete a
saccharine fluid, of which the ants are very fond. They have a curious
history of reproduction. The female deposits her eggs in the ground and
dies. The brood are wingless females, and without the intervention of the
male bring forth alive another female brood.

These do likewise, and so continue for five or six or more generations.
The last brood are both males and females. These pair again, and deposit
their eggs, which remain over winter in the ground, and the next spring
begin the same round over again. It is claimed that nothing but cropping

against them is of any avail.
' -Phe corn-stalk borer is a comparatively new enemy, or, at any rate, has
been only lately described. The moth is of an ashy-gray color, and probable

1 inal Aaa i mit saaiicmia NR ASCH C 8 hu a
o ; ia ae I iby

y t
CRA
wyatt

44 THE FARM. ae

lays her eggs near the base of the leaf where the leaf is sheathed around thé
stalk. The worm is orange yellow, with rows of reddish warts, and a flat,
black head, with which it bores its way into the stalk. It sheds its skin four
times before it attains full growth. The cocoon is woven within the stalk,
and the moth makes its exit through the holes bored by the worm. Three or
more broods are produced each year. It hibernates in stalks and stubble.
The stalks not eaten by stock should be burned early in February, and the
stubble should be plowed up and burned, or plowed under very deeply.

Curing Corn Fodder.—Much corn fodder is spoiled while being cured.
A good way to prevent this is to set firmly in the ground a small stake or
large-sized bean-pole, around which a few armfuls of corn is set, and bound
securely near the top. This makes a firm center around which to build.
Then set up more corn, placing it evenly all around, and leaning it no more
than is necessary to have it stand. When enough is placed to make a large
stock, all that can cure, draw a rope, with a slip noose in one end, around
the stock as tight as convenient, using a step-ladder to stand upon if the corn
is very tall. An assistant can now bind with a straw band or with selected
stalks, after which the rope may be removed. If doing the work alone, the
rope can be tied while the band is being put on. Corn fodder well put up in
this way may be kept, if desired, in the field till winter.

Saving Seed Corn.—To save seed corn successfully in a cold climate,
you should not keep it in a warm place, or especially where it is warm but a
part of the time, as there is danger that the changes of temperature may de-
stroy the germinative power. Continued warmth is also conducive to de-
composition, which will destroy the life of the seed. Corn and similar seeds
are best kept in a dry, cool room, where the temperature is uniform. When
your seed from the ‘‘small pile over the living-room” failed to germinate,
the cause was probably due to both dampness and warmth, which incited
incipient decay. Seeds differ greatly in the degree of cold they will endure
without losing vitality. Corn has germinated after having been subjected to
the most intense cold of the polar regions, and an experiment is reported in
which other seeds germinated after having been frozen into a cake of ice.

Corn Culture.—‘ The suckers,” says H. M. Engle, in a prize essay,
**should, under all circumstances, be taken off before they appropriate too
much substance which the main stalks should receive, but under no circum-
stances allow suckers to tassel, for, whatever pains may be taken to bring or
keep corn at its greatest perfection by selection of seed, the pollen from the
sucker may undo what has been gained by years of careful selection. I
would as soon think of breeding from a scrub male to a thoroughbred ani-
mal as to have the pollen from suckers cast upon an excellent variety of
corn. It is also well known that the pollen from a neighboring field is oft-
times carried to an almost incredible distance, and consequently may cause
more mixture than is desirable.”

Points on Corn.—Deep plowing among growing corn after the roots
have met in the rows is disastrous; ‘“‘root pruning” is a mistake; to break
the roots checks the growth, and in hot, dry weather deep cultivation will
surely cause the corn to curl, showing injuring and suffering, while shallow
working will keep it fresh and green. As soon as a crust is formed on the
soil, it should be broken up to admit both moisture and air, for the one dis-
solves the fertilizing matter which is in the soil, and the latter effects its de- —

FIELD CROPS. 45

composition-and renders it soluble. So that after a rain, which has crusted
the surface, the cultivator should be started as soon as the soil is dry enough;
this tends to hold the moisture and prevent speedy evaporation.

Raising Good Corn in a Dry Season.—‘‘Some Yankee,” says a prac-
tical farmer, ‘‘ will ask, ‘ How do you raise good corn in a drouth?’ Tl tell.
I plowed and rolled my ground, spread my manure on, and harrowed it in;
put a handful of hen manure and fine bone composted in the hill; cultivated
it flat; did not hill any. When the drouth came, cultivated, but very shal-
low; the result was a good crop. On another plot the manure was spread
on the sod and turned under without any fertilizer in the hill, and was al-
most a failure. My neighbors report that they have very fair corn on land
that the manure was spread on after plowing and fertilizing in the hill.”

Husking.—Some people who husk corn throw the shock upon the
ground, spread it out, and go to work on their knees. They know no better.
If they will make a frame four feet wide and long enough to hold a shock
after it is spread out, with a board in the middle running lengthways to sit
on, they will find they have done a sensible thing. The frame may be eigh-
teen inches high, or any other height they may like better.

Cabbages with Corn.—aA writer in the Fruit Recorder says that one of
his neighbors planted some cabbage among his corn where the corn missed,
and the butterflies did not find them. He has therefore come to the conclu-
sion that if the cabbage patch were in the middle of the corn patch, the but-
terflies would not find them, as they fly low and like plain sailing.

Potato Culture.—Destroying the potato beetle, says the American Cul-
tivator, and its even more destructive larve, has come to be the most im- .
portant point in the successful growing of potatoes. Paris green is the com-
mon agent employed, though London purple is cheaper, equally effective,
and has the advantage, when used with water, of being soluble, while Paris
green, under similar conditions, is insoluble. It does not follow, however,
because these poisons will do the work, that every grower can make them
equally effective. In their indiscriminate use the inexperienced cultivator
is liable to do more harm than good. The young potato shoot is very tender,
and either Paris green or London purple applied in too strong doses wild
burn the vines. If the vines be injured at this early stage of their growth
from any cause, the resultant crop will be greatly diminished.

For nearly all early planted potatoes, when the vine grows slowly, hand
picking to destroy the first crop of beetles is very important. It should be
performed as soon as the shoots are up, and, if possible, before any eggs are
laid. In a potato-growing section, where old beetles from last year’s hatch
appear by the thousands, this indeed involves considerable labor. In fact,
in such a locality it is not easy to grow early potatoes on a large scale.
From a few short rows in a garden we have picked up by count between
eight hundred and nine hundred beetles on a warm, sunshiny half-day, just
as the potatoes were coming up. The next day the process was repeated,
with nearly half as many beetles secured, while more or less in number
were gathered every subsequent day fer a week. It was just at the time the
beetles were coming out of the ground, and the garden potatoes being early
planted, attracted all the beetles in the neighborhood. It is of little avail to
attempt to poison these beetles in the spring: Occasionally one will eat as
expected, but the majority are too busy propagating and laying eggs to

46 | THE FARM. —

attend to anything else. It is the fact that beetles are very numerous im
spring, together with the difficulty in destroying them by poison, which
frightens so many from the business. The inexperienced grower is apt, as
soon as he finds his vines infested, to prepare a dose of poison, making it of
very great strength, so as to make certain of killmg the enemy. In nine
cases out of ten the tender vines are injured, and the beetles are seldom
appreciably diminished in numbers. With close hand picking at first, and a
reserving of the poison until the larve make their appearance, the result is
very different and much more satisfactory.

The main crop of potatoes should be planted late—that is, if large quan-
tities are to be grown. Planting a few in the garden or somewhere else, as
a bait to draw the first beetles, greatly lessens the subsequent work. Even
in the same field the potato beetle is more destructive on some varieties
than on others. Those who have grown the Magnum Bonum say it is
especially liable to attack. Grown alongside other varieties, the bugs sin-
gled out this, while the others largely escaped. It has been suggested that
one or two rows of this kind be planted around the potato field as a protec-
tion to the main crop. On the other hand, it is said the Early Gem is
especially distasteful to the bugs. There is probably some difference in the
comparative liability of different varieties to this insect attack. We have
generally found, however, that the larger growing varieties and the strongest
hills of the same variety are least injured. It is possible to plant on highly-
manured ground, with seed so vigorous that its rapid growth will largely
reduce the cost of fighting the bugs. The female beetle instinctively chooses
a vine that is a feeble grower on which to deposit her eggs. Where the vine
is full of sap, either the eggs will not be laid or many of them will fail to
hatch. We hope very much, from the results of recent experiments, in dis-
covering the true way to cut potato seed. If the proper cutting of potato
seed will insure greater vigor or growth, many of the difficulties in fighting
the potato beetle will be overcome.

It should not be forgotten that the potato grower has insect friends as
well as enemies. All kinds of lady-bugs eat the eggs of the potato beetle.
It is the abundance of these lady-bugs about old apple orchards that often
makes potato growing successful near an orchard when the field crop will be
entirely destroyed. There are several varieties of insects that prey on the
potato larve. Farmers who use no poison sometimes find dead potato bug
larve on their vines. These dead specimens should always be left undis-
turbed, as in all probability they are filled with eggs of the parasite that has
destroyed them, only needing opportunity to hatch and continue the good
work. On general principles, if any insect is found in the potato field whose
habits are not known, it is best to leave it undisturbed, since it is quite
probably a friend engaged in destroying the farmer’s enemies. Entomolo-
gists have discovered thirty or more insect enemies of the potato bug in its
various stages of growth, and there are probably others not yet known. But
for these friendly insects difficulties in growing potatoes would be much
greater than those which now prevail.

Phosphate for Potatoes.—Wm. T. Woerner, of New Brunswick, N. J.,
writes: ‘‘In planting potatoes I have used no other manure than phosphate
of some reliable brand, for the last ten years, and in that time I have not had
a grub-eaten potato where I put the phosphate. All my potatoes grow as
smooth as a bottle, and of a large, salable size. I never use stable manure
of any kind on potatoes now. -I would not put it on if it was given to me,

FIELD CROPS. 47

and I had to pay fifty dollars per ton for phosphate. My neighbors have
tried it with a like result. It is a very cheap fertilizer; on good ground I
only use about two bags per acre (400 lbs.), which is a good manuring on
ordinary soil. I have raised four hundred bushels to the acre with nothing
but phosphate, applied in the row.”

A Handy « Bug-Catcher.”—Although it is now the custom of most of
our farmers to rid their crops of that terrible pest, the potato bug, by Paris
green poisoning, still we think the following illustrated sketch of a bug-
catcher, sent by a gentleman who has used the contrivance with great suc-
cess, will prove interesting and profitable to our readers. He says: ‘‘ With
- the pan I use for catching Colorado beetles, any one can do as much work as
three or four people collecting the pests, according to the ordinary method

CONTRIVANCE FOR CATCHING THE POTATO BEETLE,

of hand picking. The pan is made of tin, and any tinman can fashion it. It
is a box or pan, two feet long, one foot wide, and six inches deep. The bot-
tom should be round, or cylindrical, so that the rim of the pan can be got
close to the ground when the vines are small. Stitfen the edge with wire.
On the inside, at the top, solder a rim or flange about three-quarters of an
inch wide. This should slant downward somewhat, as its object is to pre-
vent the ‘bugs’ from crawling out when once they have gone in. On one
side of the pan solder or rivet a handle, such as those on common tin milk-
pails. On the same side as the handle solder a shield of tin eighteen inches
high, and of the same length as the pan, slanting backward a little. The
edges should be stiffened with wire. About four inches from the top of the
shield, and in the center, solder a loop or ring large enough to admit the
arm to the shoulder. In using, insert the left arm through the loop, and

— 48 THE FARM.
grasp the lower handle with the hand, then, holding the pan close up to the
vines and near the ground, with a crooked stick, like the one represented,
gather the vines over the pan, giving them a smart shake against the shield
and over the pan. A good, active man, with this contrivance, can ‘ bug’
an acre of potatoes effectively in two hours.”

The Potato Disease.—There are many devices suggested for avoiding
the disease known as potato rot. There is one made by an English writer,
who says it has been found that ‘‘ by hilling the plants up very high as
soon as the blight appears, the spores are prevented in a great measure
‘from being washed down by the rains, and the rot consequently much di-
minished. It was found that although the spores were readily washed
downward through one or two inches of earth, they very rarely reached a
depth of five inches. The experiment was repeated many times with the
uniform result that where the plants were not hilled up, and the tubers lay
but one or two inches deep, the percentage ef rot was very large. But
where the tubers were covered. to the depth of five inches, the damage from
the disease was inconsiderable.’’ If a physician were to say to a patient
having the small-pox that if the lower part of the body were swathed in
wet sheets the disease would not get down to the legs and feet, it would be
a parallel suggestion to this. The rot is a disease which infects the whole
plant. It has been found that when the disease began in the tops at a late
stage of the growth, mowing off the diseased tops saved the tubers. This is
something like amputating a gangrened limb to save the body, and is a rea-
sonable remedy. But the spores are not always, and are in fact rarely, ripe
at the season of growth, and are generally in the soil and infect the plant
from the roots. The tubers are not roots, but stems, and receive the infec-
tion from the roots when the source of it is in the soil. When the leaves are
infected by spores, carried in the air from distant fields, where they have re-
mained during the resting season, the disease spreads through the tissues
of the plant and reaches the tubers in that way, from within, and not from
without. The spores are not free until the plant decays, being set free by
the decomposition of the diseased tissues. This being distinctly known, it.
becomes of the greatest importance to destroy the infected vines by burning
them, and thus preventing the soil from infection by the matured spores in
the leaves and stems. Earthing up the potatoes might possibly have helped
to preserve the tubers from the disease by removing the water from the
saturated soil; this water being injurious to the plant and producing all the
conditions favorable to the spread of the disease. A more healthful condi-
tion of the plants would tend to prevent this unhealthful condition and con-
fine the disease ito the leaves and stems, and save the tubers. But every
’ gne who has had diseased potatoes, knows that tubers, apparently sound
when dug, will rot in the cellar. This is because the disease is already in
them when they are dug, and develops in them in the course of time from
the infection. Earthing up cannot save them then, nor can it at any other
time, excepting through its influence in the way we have pointed out. But
here, where our seasons are not so wet, it would not avail us as it might the
farmers of sodden England or Scotland or Ireland, where ‘‘ the rain it rain-
eth every day,” more or less. This difference of climate is very important to
be remembered when considering such matters as this from an English view.

. Methods of Raising Potatoes.—There is, writes a practical farmer, a
great variety of opinion in regard to raising potatoes, size of seed, and culti-.

} A ‘ s
4 } d =", + wh a
yf , Vd, me & el hriny 5 owes

eR Hy Ds ORO” B: 49
vation. Some advocate large, while others prefer small potatoes for seed,
thinking that they are as good or better than large ones. They may raise
good crops from small seed for one or two years, but if they do not obtain
their seed from those that do take pains to select large seed, I think they
will soon find their potatoes run out and become small. Why do we select
a nice, well-shaped ear of corn for seed, not always the largest, but the best
developed? Also, why screen wheat, oats, etc., to secure the plumpest and
best seed to plant or sow? (At least we should if we do not.) We thereby
raise a better quality of grain, and more of it, from year to year. I do not
wish any one to infer that we should take the largest potatoes for seed, but
those of a good marketable size, of nice shape, free from warts, scabs or
other deformity.

Having my seed selected, I cut them to single eyes, or at most two, and
plant them in drills three feet apart, and fifteen inches apart in the drills,
having the drills deep, in well-plowed and thoroughly pulverized soil. I
prefer a piece that had corn on the previous year, well manured and plowed
in for that crop, and kept under good cultivation during the season. On po-
tatoes I use some good commercial fertilizer that has plenty of potash in it,
and use it liberally—-400 to 500 pounds per acre. This will help keep the
wire-worms away, and will increase the potatoes in size and quality, Iam
quite certain. I harrow, as soon as I see the first plants breaking the
ground, with a smoothing harrow, to kill all the weeds that may have
started. I cultivate often, whether there are any weeds or not, until they
are in blossom. I have never failed to raise a good crop of nice smooth po-
tatoes, and there was always a ready market for them. I often get consid-
erable more than market price for them, which is quite an advantage in a
plentiful season. My crop averaged about 500 bushels per acre last sea-
son.

How to Keep Sweet Potatoes.—A Texas writer says: I would like to
give my plan for keeping sweet potatoes. I think the most essential thing
is to dig them at the proper time, and I think that time is about the full
moon in October (that is, in Texas). No matter about the weather, unless
the ground is too wet. I never wait for frost; but if frost comes before the
full moon, dig as soon as possible, or at least before any rain. I dig witha
bull-tongue plow; but any way, so they are not cut or bruised too much,
will do. In gathering them, sort out the cut ones; but before putting up
let them have at least one day’s sun. If the ground is wet, two days is
better; but in no case let them take the dew of the night. I put them in a
shallow cellar under some house, say from three to four feet deep. After
they are put away, throw a little fine, dry dirt over them, just enough to
dust over the cuts. That will cause them to dry and not commence rotting.
Let them lay that way till the weather begins to turn cool. Then begin to
cover up as the weather gets colder, till they are from ten to twelve inches
deep; in all cases cover with dry dirt. I differ with those who want straw
or leaves under potatoes; I want them on the ground.

When they are banked outdoors they should be on an elevated place, or
throw up the dirt so water will not stand about them. Put the potatoes on
the naked ground, about twenty-five or thirty bushels in a bank; set up corn
stalks around them; then throw some grass or leaves on the stalks; bank up °
enough of dirt against the stalks to hold them. Let them stand that way
till the weather begins to get cool; then begin to cover. When the weather
_ gets very cold they should be covered at least twelve inches; but in warm

50 RHE PARM,
weather they should have a little air at the top. In all cases have them
well sheltered; a very small leak will ruin a bank of potatoes. ,

Points About Potatoes.—In the judgment of the South Deerfield
(Mass.) Farmers’ Club, potatoes, when properly cared for, are, next to
tobacco, the best paying crop a farmer can raise. The trouble is, potatoes
are too often neglected and receive attention only when other-crops are
eared for. Turf land is the best; except in very dry seasons. Plow in the
fall and harrow in a good coat of manure in the spring. Furrow out, and
in the hills apply ashes and tobacco stalks cut about six inches long, at
the rate of sixteen loads per acre. Twelve hundred pounds of fish and
potash to the acre, harrowed in, with a little phosphate in the hill, produced
a good crop.

More attention should be given to selecting good seed potatoes. Use
good-sized smooth tuber cut into four pieces. Change the seed every year
or two. The Early Rose is the best kind for home use. Peerless, Beauty of
Hebron, and Burbank Seedling give larger yields, but are inferior in quality.
The Snowflake bakes well. Early Vermont resembles Early Rose, and is
better in yield and quality.

Hoeing potatoes is best done with a horse-hoe or tobacco-ridger. Go
through the piece three times with a horse-hoe, and you wouldn’t need to
put a hoe into it; that is, on smooth land free of stones. To get ahead of the
bugs, cover the potato tops about an inch deep as soon as they are up; in
about a week cut a lot of small potatoes into four or more pieces and wet
them and sprinkle Paris green on them, stirring well until the pieces are
covered with it; scatter these pieces over the field, and the beetle will eat
them and die. If all do not partake of this wholesome diet and slugs ap-
pear, apply Paris green mixed with plaster. Potatoes are a paying crop at
fifty or sixty cents a bushel, and the small ones are excellent to feed hogs,
stock, and horses.

Getting Potatoes Early.—Some years ago, writes a correspondent of
the Gardenei’s Monthly, I conceived the idea of planting my potatoes with
shoots to them. Probably the sprouts suggested the idea; at any rate I car-
ried out the plan, and have been so well pleased with it-that I have followed
it out for three years. A few weeks before planting time I select my seed
potatoes, and set them in a warm place to sprout. By the time my ground
is ready the shoots are about three inches in length. The potatoes are
handled carefully, so as not to break the growth, and cut up in suitable
sizes, as in the ordinary way. One strong shoot is left to each piece. The
sets must be put into the ground carefully, of course, or the shoots will be
broken off. As growth commences at once, the green tops show in a few
days. There is easily a saving of two weeks time at the start. Those who
have rather a low ground, which cannot be worked very early in spring, as
LT have, will find this method will enable them to compete with their neigh-
bors on higher ground, with success. By July 10th, I was using fine Beauty
of Hebrons (an excellent early sort by the way), planted April 25th. They
were not then fully ripe, though the yellow tint in the leaves was getting
quite perceptible. Generally the tops are dead at this date, but an unusu-
ally fine potato season kept them growing later this year.

Raising Potatoes.—The following suggestions are from a practical
farmer: I select a piece of suitable ground in the fall. Sod is best. Ma-
nure it heayily with good barnyard manure, and plow under so as to let the

“FIELD CROPS, 51

god rot before cold weather; then in the spring I manure with well-rotted
manure on the surface, and harrow thoroughly till the manure is com-
pletely incorporated with the soil; then I mark one way three feet apart
and plant two pieces in a place about one foot apart, about four inches deep.
Then, just as the potatoes begin to break ground, I harrow thoroughly, then
cultivate till it is time to lay by; then I use a single-shovel plow to hill them
with; keep all weeds down—they are death to potatoes. I have raised from
450 to 500 bushels to the acre in favorable seasons.

~ Now, as to the seed: I cut to a single eye; I would as soon think of plant:
ing a whole ear of corn in a hill as a whole potato. I have often, in case of a
new kind, cut the eye cluster into three or four pieces, and had a good hill
from each piece. As to time of planting, I always try to get my whole crop
in for early potatoes. I believe the earlier they can be got in the more cer-
tainty of a good crop. As to kinds, I have raised legions of them, but for
early, the Beauty of Hebron; for medium, the Burbank’s Seedling and the
Mammoth Pearl; and for late, the Belle and the Late Rose, Of course,
others are good and may do better in other places.

New Remedy for Potato Bugs.—aA farmer successtully tried a remedy
for potato bugs, as follows: He procured a number of boards and placed
them here and there among his potatoes, and on these boards were placed
raw potatoes sliced. Atnoon on the first day of the experiment he and his
hired men found every piece of potato covered with bugs. The men killed
this crop, and at night another crop was killed, though not so large, and in
a week not a bug could be seen, and his trouble with bugs after this was
comparatively small. He thinks it would be a good plan to dip the pieces
of potato in Paris green, as it would save the work of killing the bugs.

Potatoes in Winter.—Potatoes stored in cellars, in some cases, rot.
To check or prevent this, keep the cellar as cool as possible without freez-
ing. Then scatter quick-lime over them. This is of threefold benefit. It
keeps them from rotting, makes the potatoes dryer and better, and disin-
fects the atmosphere, preserving the family from malarial fevers.

Experiments in Plowing.—Mr. Knox, a veteran plow-maker, has
called our attention to the effect of deep plowing of some soils to offset
the danger from lack of rains in dry seasons. Some years ago an experi-
ment was made by a Western Massachusetts farmer in plowing portions of a
large field at varying depths. One part was turned over seven inches deep,
another ten inches, and a third, after being plowed ten inches, was sub-
soiled to the depth of ten inches more, making a soil comparatively loose
to the depth of twenty inches. The next year, which was a dry one during
the summer, corn was grown upon the whole field, which was treated uni-
formly throughout, and the yield of the three divisions carefully measured.
The seven-inch plowing yielded as well as the ordinary fields in the vicinity.
That part plowed ten inches deep was greener all through the season, and
gave decidedly better yield, but that which was plowed ten inches, and sub-
soiled ten inches in addition, produced just one-third more corn than that
plowed in the usual way, seven inches deep. The next year the whole field
was by agreement sowed to oats, as a continuation of the experiment, the
Season proving even drier than the preceding one, when corn was grown.
When the oats were about ready to cut, Mr. Knox, being in the neighbor-
hood, called to see them. Before reaching the farm, the field came in
view from the ¢ar windows, and Mr. Knox, who was on the lookout, said to

52 | 3 THE FARM.

a companion, that the gentleman had not done as he agreed, for he could: see
that he had sown different kinds of grain upon the different plots, the size
and color of the growth both marking the lines, dividing the land plowed at
three different depths. But on arriving at the field he found nothing but
oats, and as stated by the owner, all sown on the same day, and treated pre-
cisely alike in every respect.

On the shallow plowed section, the growth was short and the straw yel-
low; on the ten-inch plowing the oats were taller and less yellow, while on
the sub-soiled portion they were green and very heavy. The final tests
showed full one-third more grain on the sub-soiled part than on that which
was plowed only seven inches deep.

Now, it will not do for farmers to calculate that. deeply stirring every kind
of soils would alone add fifty per cent. in the yield of crops grown upon
them the following two years, for they would doubtless be disappointed in
very many cases. Yet, as a rule, a deep, mellow soil from which surplus
water can readily settle without making the land into mortar, and through
which the same moisture can again freely rise by capillary attraction, other
things being equal, will always bring a farmer the better results.

There are soils which naturally are never too wet, and rarely too dry, and
it will usually be found on examination, that they are in the same mechani-
cal condition for a considerable depth, say two feet or more, that one likes to
have his surface soil, light, friable, and containing a due proportion of vege-
table matter. They will also be found to contain sand and clay in about the
right proportion to keep the soil both mellow and moist through the varying
climatic conditions. Deep plowing of stiff clays is often dangerous at first;
but a good dry soil suits all kinds of crops in all kinds of weather. Deep
plowing tends to make sucha soil, but this alone will not always be sufficient.
Draining and manuring must accompany deep plowing.

Early or Late Fall Plowing.—'There is this against early fall plow-
ing, that it favors the springing up of grass and weeds, ‘which necessitates re-
plowing in the spring. The fall rains, should they be heavy, will pack the
surface of clay soil, which the frost that follows does not always relieve, and
never if pressed during the winter by a deep snow. This not only compels
plowing in the spring, but the soil then turns up rough, and generally too
wet and sticky, and also it is necessarily done late in the season, so that fall
plowing, instead of benefiting, hurts it, and the crop for the season is lost or
seriously affected—the land showing it for a year or two more. But as the
season is now advanced, there is little danger from the rains; the land would
rather be benefited by them. Late plowing, therefore, isin order. Land
ordinarily the wettest can now be plowed to the greatest advantage. It
requires more power to break it, but the improved condition in the spring
will more than pay the expense. This is a point not sufficiently considered.

If late fall plowing is an advantage, better still if it can be done in winter
or early in spring, so as to be followed by freezing and thawing. My best
success has been obtained by winter and early spring plowing. Yet there is
hardly a year in which one of the three seasons—either late in the fall, during
the winter or early in the spring—is not available. To make as sure as pos-
sible, do the work in the fall, if the ground will admit, but avoid making
mortar. The same applies to winter and early spring. .

Other soils, especially the sand and leachy shales, have less to fear
from water; they are also less benefited by the frost. They are the soils, -
therefore, that may be left unplowed till spring. One of the difficulties with

FIELD UROPS. 53

spring plowing is that it does not allow of the winter application of manure,
should it be required, though with an early spring and favorable weather,
this may be done without interfering much with the work which usually

_ requires all the time. The aim should be always to get the plowing done
near to winter (or in it) as possible, so as to get the benefit of the freezing
and thawing, and avoid the packing of the heavy rains.

The Philosophy of Hoeing.—_It may be overdone or underdone. There
is reason in everything, ‘“‘even in reasting eggs,” as the saying is. So in
hoeing crops. If we hoe up the soil in large lumps, as we are apt to do with
the yery serviceable modern prong-hoes, we let the keen, dry air into con+
tact with the starting but enfeebled roots, and, by their parching, an irre-
parable injury is done. Such lumps should be crushed down so as “to be
permeable to air throughout, and yet serve to protect the roots from its free
sweep. But, as in avoiding Scylla we may run to wreck on Charybdis, so, in
crushing the soil, we may make it too fine, in which case the first heavy rain
will run the surface together in a crust impervious to the air, and, for want
of enough of air, essential to active root action, growth will be checked until
the hoe or its equivalent is used.

Quantity of Seed to an Acre.—The following should be kept for
reference: ‘‘ Barley, broadcast, two to three bushels; bean, pole, in hills,
ten to twelve quarts; beets, in drills, five to six pounds; broom corn, in hills,
eight to ten quarts; buckwheat, one bushel; cabbage, in beds, to transplanr,
half pound; carrots, in drills, three to four pounds; Chinese sugar cane
twelve quarts; clover, red, alone, fifteen to twenty pounds; clover, alsike,
alone, eight to ten pounds; clover, lucerne or alfalfa, twenty pounds; corn,
in hills, eight to ten quarts; corn for soiling, three bushels; cucumber, in
hills, two pounds; flax, broadcast, one and one-half bushels; grass, Ken~
tucky blue, three bushels; grass, orchard, three bushels; grass, English rye,
-two bushels; grass, red top, three bushels; grass, timothy, one-half bushel;
grass, Hungarian, one bushel; grass, mixed lawn, four bushels; hemp, one
and one-half bushels; mustard, broadcast, half bushel; melon, musk, in
hills, two to three pounds; melon, water, in hills, four to five pounds; millet,
- common, broadcast, one bushel; oats, broadcast, two to three bushels;
onion, in drills, five to six pounds; onion for sets, in drills, thirty pounds;
onion, sets, in drills, six to twelve bushels; parsnips, in drills, four to six
pounds; peas, in drills, one and one-half bushels; peas, broadcast, three
bushels; potatoes (cut tubers), ten bushels; pumpkin, in hills, four to six
pounds; radish, in drills, eight to ten pounds; rye, broadcast, one and one-
half to two bushels; salsify, in drills, eight to ten pounds; spinach, in drills,
twelve to fifteen pounds; sage, in drills, eight to ten pounds; squash, bush
varieties, in hills, four to six pounds; squash, running varieties, hills, three
to four pounds; tomatoes, to transplant, quarter pound; turnip, in drills, one
pound; turnip, broadcast, half pound; vetches, broadcast, two to three
bushels; and wheat broadcast, one and one-half to two bushels.”

Soaking Seeds.—TI am often asked, writes a New England agriculturist,
whether it does any good to soak seeds before sowing them? In general I
believe it does more harm than good, and if done at all, a good deal of
judgment should be used to prevent mischief. Thus peas, beans and corn
are often soaked to hasten germination with the belief that they will come a
day or two earlier, but in case the weather is cold and wet for some time

after sowing the seed, it will be more likely to suffer.injury trom the weather -

Agent

«64 ‘THE FARM. Seat ee ed
than if sown dry. Especially is this true of the McLean pea and other deli-
cate green peas, and of the various kinds of sweet corn. When the weather
is dry and hot, however, it may be an advantage to steep the seeds before
using them, and especially so in the case of seeds that are slow to germinate, *
such as celery and parsnips and carrots. To steep these seeds for a few
days until germination has started and then dry them just enough to make
them pass readily through the seed drill, will hasten their coming up, so
that weeding will be less difficult in case the land is foul; but such seed
should not be sown upon foul land if it can be avoided. Care is required in
steeping seed that fermentation does not occur, which will frequently kill the
seed. It may be arrested by turning off the water and spreading out the
sced thinly upon a piece of sheeting and partially drying it. To steep seeds
in chemical solutions with the belief that this will answer in place of fertiliz-
ing the land, I believe, is sheer humbug and imposition upon common sense.
The only chemical stuffs that have proved useful, so far as I know, are the
blue vitriol to destroy germs of smut, strychnine to destroy crows and black-
birds and a smearing of tar on corn seed for protection from these birds.

Raising Roots.—The average farmer is now devoting all his energies to
the production of the greatest possible number of bushels of grain. Concen-
tration of effort is generally commendable, but when applied to one particu-
lar branch of agriculture to the exclusion of others just as important, or to
the detriment of the whole enterprise, it is not commendable. In other
words, it is very bad management, and the evil effects of such a course will,
sooner or later, become manifest in the exhausted condition of the soil, where
this system of indiscriminate grain raising has been pursued.

The true policy of farming is to produce good crops and feed them out, so
far as practicable, upon the farm. The larger the stock carried on the farm
the greater will be the amount of fertilizing material produced.

In this case, good management would consist in growing those crops from
which we could realize the greatest return per acre, thereby enabling us to
carry more stock upon a given area.

Considered in this way, the root crop is an important factor in stock
raising, as it yields largely to the acre, and is a most nutritious and whole-
some diet, when stock is deprived of other green food during the feeding
months. Aside from their nutritious qualities, roots possess a mechanical
value of no less importance, as they materially aid in the assimilation of dry
food, which too often forms the exclusive diet of stall-fed stock.

Of all roots, carrots are the most nutritious, and when the soil is deep,
rich, ad mellow, they will yield enormously, sometimes as high as ten or
twelve tons to the acre. They keep well and can be fed all the year round
if properly cared for. They are not so easily harvested as the beet and man-
gold, as the roots penetrate deeply into the soil, necessitating the use of the
spade or plow when harvesting. Probably, for this reason, they are not 80
extensively raised as they should be.

The mangold seems to be the favorite at present, as, perhaps, all things:
considered, it should be. Under the most favorable circumstances it will
yield even heavier than the carrot, and it also keeps well for spring feeding.
Rutabagas and turnips come last in the order when considered as to their
respective valuea. The greatest argument in their favor is, that they can be
raised with the least labor and can be raised as a second crop, sown late. in
the season. This is particularly the case with the turnip, which may be
sown as late as August Ist.

PIELD CROPS. | 55

fo raise roots profitably, we must, of course, do away as far as possible,
with all hand labor. The garden or field should be long and narrow, with
_ the drills running lengthwise, so that horse-power may be used to advan-
tage when cultivating them. For sowing, the garden seeder, run by hand,
is the best implement. When rightly managed this work need not interfere
with other farm work. Many farmers have an idea that such crops must be
in the ground the very first of the season, before the other field crops are
sown; but such is not the case. Those calculated for feeding out to stock
should not be started out before the first of June. By leaving them until
this time, the seeds will germinate more surely and rapidly, and the weeds
will not have three or four weeks the start of the plants, as is the case when
sown early in the spring.
Let us have acres of roots this year instead of rods. Iam confident that
the farmer who sows and properly cares for an acre of roots this year, will
want two acres or more next year.

~.Storing Roots.—A writer in the Nebraska Farmer says: ‘‘ We always
find turnips putin the cellar become pithy and worthless. My method is to
obyiate this, and I do it in this way: When I-pull my turnips I cut off the
top way down into the turnip, cut deep enough to cut all the eye out; then
cut the root off smooth and nice, and you have them ina condition to place
in a cool part of the cellar, or to bury out in open ground, and you need
have no fear of pithy turnips. Beets should be buried out of doors, with
manure over the dirt, so the ground will not freeze. In this way you can
get at them any time in the winter. A part of the parsnip crop should be in
the fall; they may be putin the cellar; no matter if they do wilt, they are so
much the sweeter.”

Cutting Clover Hay.—Clover hay is greatly improved by curing in the
cock. The method is as follows: The clover cut in the forenoon is left to
wilt in the swath until evening. Before the dew begins to fall it is raked
into winrows, and is thus left until noon the next day. Then it is spread,
and is exposed for an hour or two to the sun. Itis then raked and heaped
into cocks, about four feet wide and five feet high, and then left until the
whole crop is ready to carry off the field, or at least twenty-four hours. In
the cock it ferments, heats and sweats, but takes no injury, because the
heated vapor passes off freely, as may be noticed by walking in the field at
night. During this curing process, some of the woody fiber is changed to
starch and sugar, and the quality cf the hay thereby improved. Before the
hay is hauled the cocks are thrown over, and the insides are aired fora
short time, to evaporate any moisture. Itis then drawn to the barn, and al-
though it may heat again, it will suffer no injury. Generally it will not heat
after the first fermentation, and will go into the barn green, sweet and with-
out any loss of leaf by over-drying. Sometimes immature buds have bloomed
in the mow when the clover has been thus cured, and the hay has preserved
even the color of the fresh blossoms.

Making Hay—A Good Suggestion.—Farmers who have cut grass for
hay should let it alone during the continuance of wet weather. There is no
greater mistake than to break the swath, as grass never takes less harm and
throws off more wet than just as it is left by the scythe or machine. Every

~ blade of grass is provided by nature with a waterproof mantle in the shape-

of an impenetrable glassy covering of silica. This envelope is perfectly able
-to keep out the rain; but tedding and turning breaks it and opens joints into

56 THE FPARM, |

which the wet enters. It is then that the mischief begins, the external wet
mingling with the internal sap and causing fermentation. How long grass
will resist the bad effects of rain we hardly venture to state, but we are con-

fident that a week or ten days’ bad weather will be best met by the passive
system here indicated.

To Banish Crows From a Field.—Machinery of various kinds, such
as wind-mills in miniature, horse rattles, etc., to be putin motion by the wind,
are often employed to frighten crows; but with all these they soom become
familiar, when they cease to be any use at all. The most effectual method
of banishing them from a field, as far as experience goes, is to combine with
one or the other of the scare-crows in vogue the frequent use of the musket.
Nothing strikes such terror into these sagacious animals as the sight of a
fowling-piece and the explosion of gunpowder, which they have known so
often to be fatal to their race. Such is their dread of a fowling-piece that if
one is placed on a dyke or other eminence, it will for a long time prevent
them from alighting on the adjacent grounds. Many persons now, however,
believe that crows, like most other birds, do more by destroying insects and
worms, etc., than harm by eating grain.

About Tobacco Growing.—The ground for tobacco shoula be plowed
in the fall or early in spring, six to eight inches deep, and just before plant-
ing plow it again, this time more shallow. Pulverize.and level the surface
soil, then mark out in checks or drills. If White Burley tobacco is to be
grown make the rows three and a half feet one way by twenty inches the
other. Always procure well matured, pure seed, and be sure that it is true
toname. Some kinds are better adapted to certain soils than are others, and
you may labor under a disadvantage if seeds are not true to name. When
the plants appear above the ground, after being transplanted, begin using
the hoe and continue until they are too large to work in.

Seed Corn.—In an address on the subject of corn, Professor Beal re-
marked that the top-most ear was the best for seed; of two fields, one
planted with seed taken at random and the other selected in the field, the
latter yielded as much again as the former. Manure and cultivation may be
thrown away on poor seed. The best time to cultivate corn is before plant-
ing. A shallow cultivation was recommended. Twenty-three ears of corn
can be produced from one kernel: by proper cultivation and the use of the
best seed as high as twenty-five ears. Smutis a great damage to corn, and
smutty corn is very injurious to cattle.

Weeds.—There is no surer or better way to perpetuate weeds, than to
pull or mow them and cart to the barn yard or pig pen. The seeds will
ripen perfectly, and when carted out to the field again with the manure,
they will find plant food just where they would put it were they, instead of
us, lords over creation. If one finds a weed that he is choice of, with its
thousands of seeds just ripening, and fears that pulling and leaving it on the
ground will cause the seeds to rot from dampness, it is well to deposit such
weed on a rock or fence, where it will dry, and the seeds ripen in safety.

Improving Pasture Lands.—<A few years since, says a writer, I had
an old pasture that had almost run out, covered with weeds and patched
with moss. I mixed a few barrels of salt and wood ashes, and applied about
two barrels of the mixture per acre, covering about half of the lot. The
result surprised me. Before fall the moss had nearly all disappeared, and

ni Sec MENEDY CROPS. - at
the weeds were rapidly following suit, while the grass eame in thick, assum-
ing a dark-green color, and made fine pasturage. The balance of the lot re-
mained unproductive as before, but the following year it was salted with like
results.

Blue Grass and Timothy.—<A writer on blue grass says: ‘Prepare

the ground late the previous autumn, so that it may have a mellow, fresh

surface in the spring, and very early sow timothy, clover, and blue grass at
the same time. About two crops of clover and timothy are obtained before
the blue grass gets full possession. After that it chokes them out. The
land is not pastured in less than two years from sowing.”

Combining Different Varieties of Potatoes.—It is said that the
qualities of two different varieties of potatoes may be combined in one new
variety in the following manner: Cutan eye, with some of the flesh, from
one kind and insert it in a corresponding cut in another with which you
desire to mix. When the sprout starts it will feed for a time upon the
potato and partake of its qualities.

Killing Canada Thisties.—The best way is to let them grow until they
blossom, then cut them off near the top of the ground; the stalk will then be
hollow; the water will get in the hollow and rot them, so they will never
sprout again. If they are cut off with a hoe or plow, the ground will close
over them, and there will come two sprouts for one.

~ Late Weeds._In the old wheat fields, where the weeds have started up,
turn in the sheep. They are not dainty in the choice of food, and weeds that
are pushed forward by the late rains might as well be converted into mutton
as to remain and make the field foul.

FERTILIZERS.

A Few Words About Lime.—Professor Puryear, who is recognized as
a skillful chemist, gives in a recent paper the following succinct suggestions
on the uses and misuses of lime:

What are the uses of lime in agriculture ?

1. Lime is always one of the nine substances found in the ash of plants.
The grasses and forest trees particularly take it up from the soil in great
abundance. When lime is not present in the soil in sufficient abundance to
meet this demand, it should be added.

2. Lime is needed to hasten the decomposition of vegetable matter, and
so make it available as plant food. If we wrap up a piece of lime in a cloth,
in a short time the cloth is so decomposed that it will fall into shreds from
its own weight. Tanners use lime in their vats to rot the hair from the
hides. Now, lime behaves exactly in this way in the soil. The vegetable
matter in the soil is useless until it decomposes, and lime hastens the pro-
cess of decomposition. P

3. Lime is frequently necessary to correct acidity in the soil. Soils
charged with vegetable acids are never productive. On such soils we put
lime, which, combining with these acids, forms neutral salts of lime. A
person takes a little lime-water for the same reason when he suffers from
acidity of the stomach. When lands have been freshly drained, they are
always acid. The excess of water, with which the land was saturated, had
excluded the atmosphere, and so had prevented the complete decomposition
of vegetable matter. This vegetable matter, if the air had not been excluded,
would have been converted by atmospheric oxygen into carbonic acid, am-
monia, etc., but, without oxygen, its elements rearrange themselves, and
form those injurious compounds, ulmic, humic, and geic acids. When the
soil is drained, the atmosphere strikes through and destroys these acids,
but not entirely in a single season. The process, of necessity, is slow. The
soil to the depth of several feet, it may be, is sour, and it will be some time
before the atmosphere can thoroughly permeate this soil and burn out these
hurtful acids. Lime, then, comes to help the slow operation of natural
causes. When it is spread upon the soil, it is carried downward by the
rains, and combines with and neutralizes speedily and effectually the vege-
table acids. We cannot possibly err, then, when we put lime on freshly-
drained lands. In such lands there are not only free acids, but a large
amount of organic matter, which has not been decomposed because of the
exclusion of atmospheric oxygen. The application of lime to such soils cor-
rects this acidity, and, by decomposing, renders immediately available this
large amount of vegetable matter.

The ash of the grasses contains twenty-two per cent. of lime. Hence the
practice of top-dressing the grasses with gypsum, which is the sulphate of
lime.

Lime may be injuriously applied. If the soil contain but little vegetable
matter, the application of lime, particularly heavy applications, will cause

. FERTILIZERS.
this vegetable matter to decompose too quickly. When the crop approaches
maturity it finds that its quantum of vegetable matter has already becn
- decomposed and used up. The result will be conspicuously disastrous if
the soil was not deficient in lime. The lime has supplied no want, but has
only inflicted an injury,

1. Lime is known as caustic or quick lime. This is the article as we obtain
it from the kiln. Heat has expelled carbonic acid from the carbonate of
lime, and caustic lime is the result.

2. Hydrated or slaked lime. When we add to lumps of caustic lime
about twenty-five per cent. of water, the lumps fall down into a perfectly dry
powder, giving us slaked lime.

3. Upon exposure to the atmosphere, this slaked lime foses its properties.
It becomes the carbonate of lime, or mild lime—the very compound chemi-
cally from which the lime was originally obtained. This mild lime, or car-
bonate of lime, has no caustie or disorganizing properties whatsoever. It
may be asked; then, why we-do not use lime in its natural state, namely the
carbonate of lime, if it gets into that condition whee we spread it on the soil ?
We answer:

iz Although lime goes back to earbbriate of lime, it does not do so all at
once, and, in the process of returning to that condition, it decomposes
vegetable matter, and so makes it plant food.

2. The natural limestone rock—the carbonate—is very hard, and its re-
duction to a powder by mechanical means would be difficult and expensive.
Now, when lime slakes in the air, it falls down into a dry powder. No
mechanical reduction, therefore, is necessary. It requires less expenditure

of force to burn the limestone, and let the lime fall to powder of itself, than _

to reduce the natural rock by mechanical power.

Trees, like grasses, contain lime largely. The indication is to apply old
mortar, or lime in any form, to fruit or shade trees, and this should be tone
in the fall.

Home-Made Fertilizers for the « Common EFarmer.’’—The folio
ing is from the Ohio Farmer: Let us look at an average barnyard—one that
may be met with most anywhere. Here we see a large pile of horse manure
steaming away as though on fire. Here a pile of cow manure all frozen so it
cannot rot its own litter before summer. There a pile of dry corn-stalks, as
they have been thrown out of the feeding-room. In one part of the yard
stands a straw stack that the cattle run around and pull down, but the scat-
terings are left close around the stack, and are tramped two feet deep, while
a few feet from the stack the ground may be seen. The corner of the yard
where the out-door feeding is done is the only portion that is in any order
for manure.

Now I will leave it to my readers if I have not described an average barn-
yard. This is where farmers are to blame. Itis but little trouble to keep
our barnyards in proper shape if we only will. Let us ask the proprietor of
our sample barnyard if he has so much work during winter that he cannot
attend to his yard. His answer will be: ‘“‘No, but I thought the barnyard
could take care of itself.” With most of farmers there is a great deal of
_ Spare time during the winter. Their work, aside from stock feeding, is not
very pushing, and a day’s time now and then would not be missed. Let us
have that day once in a while to straighten up that yard, and I will see to it
that you are paid for it next fall. Let us take a fork every few days and go
around that straw stack, taking the loose straw that is under foot and cover

+o,

60 Fe THE FARM.

up that bare spot of ground. Throw it wherever the manure is thin, and the
cattle will tramp it more, making better manure of the straw, while it helps
the quality of what is already there. Take a horse and sled every week or
so, and move that pile of horse manure and that pile of corn-stalks. Put
them around in thin spots in your yard, like you did that straw, and then see
what a difference it makes in your yard. Above that cow manure pile just
have a few stock hogs where they can-get at it, and I dare say it will be taken
care of. Two or three hogs are the best aids you can find to assist about the
yards, but in justice to the hegs I will say that it is not the best thing for
them. But every farmer has a few stock hogs that he is carrying over
winter, and [am sure he cannot keep them cheaper than in his barnyard,
where they get most of their living out of the cattle droppings and what is
left after feeding. If your cattle are fed on corn in the stable, the hogs will
thoroughly scatter the manure pile to secure the corn,

But now let us look a little to the bedding of our cows and horses. You
read of A.’s or B.’s plan of securing liquid manure by troughs and pits, but
you say you cannot do that way. I will tell you what you can do. Go to
that straw stack and take largely of straw to bed your stock with. Don’t be
afraid of it, but make their bedding deep, especially behind them, where it
will catch all the droppings. Then in cleaning your stables don’t sort the
straw too close, but throw out all that is dirty and fill up again with clean
straw. The result will be that you are saving nearly all the liquid manure
as well as brother A. or B. does it, and you have not had any of the trouble
you were so afraid of. Moreover, your cows have had the benefit of a nice
bed to sleep on, and they come out of the stable looking clean, instead of
reminding you of a walking manure pile, as we often see cattle that are
poorly bedded. There are some who have not got this extra amount of straw
to lavish on their stock. To all such I say, go to your nearest saw-mill and
get sawdust, and use freely for bedding, as this is as nearly as good an
absorbent as straw, and makes good bedding.

Now, my brother farmers, such of you as will not give heed to the subject
of fereign fertilizers and articles pertaining thereto, just try my plan for
your own home-made fertilizers, and see how much you can increase them,
and just that much will you increase your profits of the farm. - Let us keep
our eyes open through the winter, and at every opportunity turn a hand
toward the barnyard, and manage carefully until we turn our stock out in
the spring, and then we will counsel together again as to how we will handle
what we have already saved, so as to improve the quality, and reduce the
quantity, thus lessening the expense of removing to the field.

Something in Regard to Fertilizers.—Different soils and different
crops require very much different treatment and different elements of plant
food. A judicious cultivation of the soil adds to its producing capacity. The
elements of plant growth contained in soils are unlocked and made available
to some extent by proper working of the soil. It was formerly believed that
it was necessary to add all the constituents of plant growth to the soil before
plants could be produced. That if we wished to raise wheat we must add
the constituents of wheat. If we wished to raise potatoes add the constitu-
ents of potatoes. This is not now considered absolutely necessary. If we
use a fertilizer rich in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, with judicious
rotation of crops, we may not only raise good crops indefinitely, Ss bring
the land up to a higher state of productiveness every year.

On some soils we could safely leave out the potash, enough being. yielded

PERTILIZERS. 61

annually by decomposing particles of soil—unlocking the sand grains, as it
were, to get their treasures. On some soils nitrogen perhaps would not be
called for at first, and on others, rarer still, phosphoric acid might for a
time be found sufficient in the soil.

Cereal crops are especially benefited by nitrogen and nitrogenous man-
ures. Usually from forty to eighty pounds per acre are required for full
crops or largest crops. Clover is the best medium to use in charging soils
with nitrogen. It is a nitrogen trap that is easily set and sure to catch.
Clover may be specially fertilized with plaster. Potash is of little value in
cereal growing, and phosphoric acid not greatly called for. In connection
with nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash are both useful in small
quantities.

For Indian corn phosphoric acid is perhaps the best enegul fertilizing
element. Land plaster often does good service. On some soils potash also
proves valuable.

Grass requires all the elements of plant food. Well-rotted manure is
perhaps the best special manure for it. Bone-dust comes next. Either of
these can be used at seeding, or afterward as top dressing. Clover requires
nitrogen and phosphoric acid in small quantities. Potash and lime are its
most valuable manures. Turnips require nitrogen and phosphoric acid, the
latter in soluble form. Superphosphates are specials for the turnip crop.
Mangels want more nitrogen and less phosphoric acid than turnips. Potatoes
are similar to turnips in their likes, and on most soils they need a supply of
potash furnished. There is usually potash enough in our common barnyard
manure for potatoes.

One hundred pounds of good bone, thirty-five pounds sulphuric acid, and
thirteen pounds of water, mixed in a wooden vat or tub, will make one
hundred and forty-eight pounds superphosphate dry. In mixing, however,
much more water will be found necessary to possibly properly mix the mass,
and when properly mixed, if after standing a day or two it is too damp, may
be dried by adding ground plaster, or other material. The bone-dust should
be wet with the water first, then the acid added, a little at a time; by so
doing the vessel in which the mixture is made is less acted upon, and the
incorporation with and action upon the bone is better. Stir with a wooden
hoe or mixer. Never attempt to reduce whole bones with the sulphuric
acid.

The advantage of reducing bones or rock phosphate with sulphuric acid
is to render the solubility in water the greater when applied to the soils.
Liming soils really adds no plant food to the soil, but has a tendency to
develop it in the soil by the caustic, dissolving, breaking-down effect that
the action of the lime has upon the particles of the soil, unlocking them,
making them give up their hidden stores of plant food. It not only acts
upon the mineral constituents in the soil, but upon the vegetable constituent
parts.

Variation in Manuyres.—The subject of manures is ef the highest im-
portance in practical farming, for it is the basis of every effort at improve-
‘ment. It is much better understood than formerly, thanks to the effort of
agricultural scientists, combined with the experiments of practical workers.
There are, however, some points which, though fully established, are too
often overlooked. One of the most important of these is that bulk counts
for little in fertilization as compared with quality. The introduction of
guano and similar concentrated fertilizers, as superphosphate, nitrates of

x
-

62 THE FARM.
potash or soda, has -had a wonderfully educating influence in this respect.
Farmers have marveled to see the large results from application of a few
hundred pounds per acre of these fertilizers, and in some quarters these re-
sults have led to an undervaluation of the home-made manures. The fact
that the concentrated fertilizer, being deposited generally with the seed, is
more immediately available, does not demonstrate its superiority except for
the single crop to which it is applied. The farmer who owns the land he
tills, as most American farmers do, is interested not only in immediate pro-
fits, but in maintaining, if not increasing, the fertility of his soil. It behooves
such a farmer to make himself thoroughly posted as to the comparative
value of stable and barnyard manures made from different feeds and by dif-
ferent animals.

There is a much greater variation in the value of stable manure than is
usually supposed, and this not depending on the amount or quality of the
litter used as an absorbent, but rather on the excrement itself. A well-fed

_horse standing idle in the stable passes more of the manurial value of what
he eats in his excreta than the same horse fed on the same material and
hard at work. The nitrogenous and phosphatic materials that are of great-
est value for all crops are precisely those which are retained in the working
animal to repair the waste of sinew and bone from labor. There is an equal
and invariable difference in manure, depending on the kind and value of the
food used. It does not follow that food of highly fattening qualities will
make rich manure. Few materials are more fattening than sugar, but as
sugar is only carbon, though it will lay on fat rapidly, it adds little of value
to the manure pile. Oil-meal makes a valuable fertilizer, for while the oil
in the meal is fattening, it is also rich in phosphates. English farmers have
grown rich, or, what is the same thing, made their farms rich, by feeding
oil-cake to fattening animals. The oil, of little value manurially, went into

- the fat cattle and sheep, while the principal part of the most valuable fertil-
izing material was returned to their farms. We have other feeds costing
much less than oil-meal, which for the resulting manure are nearly or quite
as valuable. Among the least understood of these feeds is wheat-bran and
coarse middlings. These are rich in the phosphates, comparatively poor in
fattening qualities, but of more value for working animals than is generally
supposed. It has been found by experiment that a mixture of wheat-bran
with corn-meal makes a much better feed for work-horses than corn alone.
It is not only in diluting the corn, which by itself is of too heating a nature,
that such a seed is valuable, but the bran is absolutely richer in nitrogen
and greatly ficher in phosphates than the corn-meal.

The time will undoubtedly come when progressive farmers in the older
sections of the country will feed for the purpose of making the most valuable
manures with as much carefulness as they now feed for growth, milk, wool,
or fat. In large sections of the country most of the profit of feeding must be
found in the manure pile. As this fact becomes better recognized, the ma-
nurial value of certain feeds and the difference in the resultant manures will
receive that attention which its importance in the farm economy deserves

How to Enrich the Soil.—The Farm and Fireside says: The produc-
tion of paying crops on old, upland clay soils depends largely upon restoring
to it, in the most economical way, the plant-food most needed by the crop to
be grown. If corn is to be grown, manures containing a liberal amount of
phosphoric acid and potash will be required. As these substances are valu-
able, constant cropping with corn will soon greatly diminish the value of the

| PERTILIZERS. ens.)
land. If wheat is to be grown care must be taken to supply the necessary
amount of phosphates. Wheat, oats, barley, and rye each require a large
per cent. of ammonia, which accounts in part for the excellent results that
follow the use of ammoniated superphosphates. If a crop of seven hundred
and fifty pounds of seed cotton is grown upon an acre of land, about six and
one-third pounds of phosphoric acid and seven and a half of potash will be
taken from the soil. In growing tobacco the soil is quickly exhausted of
potash; for this reason excellent results follow the planting of this crop on
newly cleared lands. Manures of all kinds should be carefully saved and
applied to suit the needs of the crop to be grown. Cabbage grows luxuriantly
when supplied with green manure. The bean plant, on the contrary,
requires that which is thoroughly rotted. Nitrogenous manures greatly in-
crease the yield of wheat and other grains, and when used with phosphates
on soils of average fertility, give a visible increase of root crops also. An-
other important factor in enriching the soil is a judicious rotation of crops, to
be determined to some extent by the soil, climate, and the leading crops to
be grown. Inthe North clover is indispensable, but in the South the corn-
field pea answers an excellent purpose, especially for green manuring. In
this section, where the soil is clay, and wheat and corn are the leading crops,
red clover is indispensable. Soil exhaustion may be measurably prevented
by even the simplest of all rotations, that of wheat, followed by clover, and
this by corn. Such a rotation may be begun by sowing red clover in March
upon the fields now seeded with wheat. Sow three pecks of red clover and
one peck of mammoth clover, and one peck of timothy seed upon each six
acres. The clover should not be pastured for the first year, except for a
sufficient time for the hogs to pick up the scattered grain after harvest.
After the ist of June of the second year the clover can be pastured, but a
sufficient quantity of that in which the most timothy grows should be
reseryed to cut for hay. This system provides for the accumulation of
manure in a level yard with raised sides, so that the liquids will keep the
entire crop of wheat straw and refuse cornstalks and other matter in a moist
condition, and the decomposition of these materials is much hastened. After
the haying and harvesting season is over, twenty-two horse loads of manure
are applied to the acre on the clover field; that is to be plowed to a depth of
eight to ten inches very early the following spring, where the corn corp is to”
be planted. Each load is divided into eight piles, placed five and one-half
yards apart. Before seeding to wheat the corn is cut and shocked, and a
heavy, sharp-toothed harrow precedes the drill. The high-cut stalks, when
harrowed down, act as a mulch for the wheat plants during the winter, and
measurably prevent washing even upon high ridges. A great advantage in
this method of rotation is that the labor required to bring up the land in
April is not half as great as in midsummer, and the corn, by being planted
fully a week earlier than it can be on similar soils where there is no sod,
yields abundantly and matures early, so that there is no delay in seeding
with wheat early in the fall. As may be inferred from what has already
been said, the prime factors for cheaply enriching the soil and increasing its
fertility annually, are the liberal application of properly-cared-for barnyard
manure, and a systematic rotation of crops, of which red clover is the basis.

Composting Manure.—Mixing manure or fertilizers is laborious work,
and if nothing is gained by it, it is labor lost. But something may be gained
by it when the condition of the material can be changed for the better, and
at the same time something may be lost when anything can be changed for

bd THE RARM

the worse. In composting, for instance, such raw substances as swaip-—
muck, leaves, tannery wastes, with manure, or in mixing various manures,
as from the horse stable, cow sheds, pig pens, and poultry house, valuable
results may be obtained; while in mixing lime or wood ashes with manure,
and especially in mixing the common fertilizer with poultry manure and
wood ashes, harm may be done and valuable fertilizing matter may be
wasted. In the one case the more actively fermenting horse or pig manure
will serve to decompose more readily the colder cow manure, and to pro-
duce decomposition in the abundant litter or raw matter that may have been
used. Besides, when the whole manure heap has been reduced to an even
* and homogeneous condition and quality, it is made more valuable for use in
the field, and ‘neither unduly or wastefully enriches one portion of it while
inadequately fertilizing another portion. It is, therefore, a judicious and
useful practice to mix these manures or these substances in the heap, either
in the yard or the field, and so add considerably to the value of a part with-
out detracting from the value other portions. But in the other case much
harm may be done by mixing any substances in the heap which may exert
an injurious action upon the others. This may happen when lime or wood
ashes are mixed with the manure or with the poultry manure; and the more
harm is done, the richer in ammonia the manure may be. Lime and potash
are alkalies, and when fresh are in a caustic condition. That is, they are
free from carbonic acid, which, when combined with an alkali, renders it
neutral, or mild and inert. When fresh lime or wood ashes are mixed with
manure they at once seek to combine with carbonic acid, from whatever
source they can procure it. Ammonia is an alkali, and in manure is gener-
ally in combination with carbonic acid as carbonate of ammonia. The lime
or wood ashes take the carbonic acid from the carbonate of ammonia, and
the ammonia escapes as gas into the air, and so far as the owner of the ma-
nure is concerned this ammonia is lost, and as ammonia is the most valuable
and costly fertilizing element in existence, the loss is very serious. It is
easy, however, to ayoid this loss by using the lime or the ashes by them-
_ selves on the soil, and not with the manure directly, in which way they will
do as much good.

But sometimes it is advisable to mix lime or wood ashes in a compost
heap, and this may be done safely when the special behavior of these three
indispensable substances are understood. If the manure is quite fresh
there is very little ammonia in it, and if there is more, a large proportion of
absorbent matter, as Swamp muck in the heap will absorb and hold it, and
carbonic acid will be produced by its decomposition in sufficient quantity to
saturate the alkali of the lime or ashes or to take up'the ammonia as fast as
it is formed or set free. In fact, a farmer who understands the chemical de-
compositions and combinations which go on in a heap of decaying manure or
compost may use lime and wood ashes with safety and with advantage.
With regard to the common mixture of ashes, hen manure, and plaster, too,
this may be safely and beneficially made at the time it is to be used, but not
if itis to remain mixed for any considerable time previously.

Salt as a Manure.—-Since soda, if essential in plant growth, is only re-
quired in small amounts, and chlorine, though essential for most plants, is
still required in only small amounts, and common salt is found in minute
quantity in most soda, chemists have asked why salt should be of any benefit
as a manure, and from theoretical grounds have been disposed to deny that
salt has any value asamanure. Yet practical farmers, not having the fear

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PERTILIZERS. | 65

of science before their eyes, have pointed to the increased crops, and asked,
** How is that?”

There can be no conflict between practice and science, because science is
the classified explanation of practice. I have said enough to show that it is
not enough to cause the rejection of a substance as manure to say that it is
not “‘ essential ” to plant growth.

Let us see what explanation can be made of the use of salt in agriculture
beyond the small amount required for the ash element.

Professor May showed that solution of salt would render soluble the am-
monia which had entered into insoluble condition in the soil.

Professor Atwater, in a recent report says: “ Something has been said
about the use of ordinary salt as a fertilizer. “One important office of the salt
is to make soluble, and consequently useful in. the plant, the materials al-
ready locked up, as it were, in the soil. Supposing you have been putting on
barnyard manure and other fertilizers. Some of the nutritive materials, as,
for instance, potash and phosphoric acid, may perhaps have been taken up.
by the soil, and remain there in a difficult soluble condition. Furthermore,
there are in the soil some of these ingredients that were in the original rock
of which the soil is made up, and are still, so to say, locked up, or, in other
words, still remain in an insoluble form therein. One effect of salt, as is the
case oftentimes with gypsum and lime, is to set loose that potash as phos-
phoric acid. You must expect, therefore, in putting on salt, that its chief
use will be, not as a direct nutriment to the plant, but rather as a means of
setting other materials loose; and salt is very useful on this account, because
' it is not readily observed in the upper layers of the soil, but often leaches
through into the layers; and it will have the effect of setting these materials
free all the way down.

**The German farmers say, however, that you must be careful in the use
of salt. If you put on too much it injures the vegetation. Further, it will
not do to put on loose soil. A very loose, sandy soil is not ordinarily bene-
fited by the application of salt. Again, itis best applied to soils which con-
tain considerable humus. And, finally, it should be used on soils which are
in pretty fair condition as regards the contest of fertilizing elements. On
soils which are not too loose, which have a good amount of humus, and
which are in pretty fair condition as regards the amount of fertilizing ma-
_ terial, organic and inorganic, contained in them, it is oftentimes a good thing
to apply salt.”

Refuse Salt as a Fertilizer.—A Wisconsin farmer writes: I have used
salt as a fertilizer for the last three years with good success, and I also find
that where I have sown 200 pounds per acre the previous year my crops are
much better than where I sowed salt in the spring of the same year. We
have better crops in this county than in any other county in the State of Wis-
consin, and produced by the use of salt. Farmers who at first could not be-
lieve that salt is good for anything are the most firm believers in it to-day.
Those who sowed salt last year will sow double, and those who did not sow
are going to sow next spring.

I sow the refuse salt from the packing houses. I have just finished
drawing 22,000 pounds home to sow on,my own farm. I shall try it on my
winter wheat this week at the rate of 300 pounds to the acre. I have spread
2 1-2 tons on an acre, but plowed and worked it up with the soil for a turnip
crop or for barley. It cost only 50 cents per ton, which made it a cheap fer-
tilizer. It is used very liberally in England, where I came from, Many

66 THE FARM.

people have a wrong impression about salt. They think when they salt
cattle and sheep that salt kills the grass, but this is not so. The stock kills
it by eating the ground where the salt was put down. I will admit that salt
will kill most plants, and would like to find some one who would pay for
enough for me to try the experiment.

T hold that in the West land needs salt as much as cattle do. The first
time Itried it was on a twenty-acre lot sowed with spring wheat. In two
weeks I cottld see the difference between what I sowed with salt and that

which had received no salt, and I could also see the difference when
harvested. The part sowed with salt had no chinch bugs, while on the
other, which had no salt, I could gather up a quart to every sheaf the reaper
threw off. Ihave never seen any damage done by chinch bugs where there
had been two hundred pounds of salt “sowed broadcast on the crop. The
time for sowing is when the grain is about four inches high. I have sowed
salt when the grain was coming out in head, and with good results, but
would prefer to sow it earlier.

I prefer packing salt because it contains more or less grease and fat, be-
sides blood from the meat, which is the essence of manure. Let farmers try
the experiment, if only on a small piece, and not wait for some one else.
Wheat yielded from twenty to thirty-five bushels per acre where salt was
sowed, and where it was not sowed the wheat was not worth the cutting.
Most of those who did cut it got nothing but No. 4 wheat, weighing fifty-one
and fifty-two pounds to the bushel.

Formulas for Commercial Fertilizers.—A writer in the Frwil
Recorder says: To produce a crop of wheat over what the natural yield
would be without manure, I use about two hundred pounds sulphate of
ammonia, one hundred pounds ground bones, forty pounds oil of vitriol,
fifty pounds of muriate of potash, forty pounds sulphate of soda, one hundred
and seventy pounds land plaster.

For Indian corn, to produce about thirty bushels aeied per acre, over
natural yield: one hundred pounds of ground bones, forty pounds oil of
vitriol, one hundred and fifty pounds sulphate of ammonia, one hundred and
twenty-five pounds muriate of potash, high grade or eighty per cent., thirty-
five pounds sulphate of soda, one hundred and twenty pounds land plaster.

For oats, to produce about thirty bushels over natural yield; One hun-
dred and fifty pounds sulphate of ammonia, fifty pounds ground bones,
twenty pounds oil of vitriol, fifty pounds muriate of potash (high grade),
thirty pounds sulphate of soda, one hundred pounds land plaster.

For cabbage, to produce fourteen or fifteen tons over natural yield:
Three hundred and fifty pounds muriate of potash (high grade), four hun-
dred pounds sulphate of ammonia, two hundred and fifty pounds ground
bones, one hundred pounds oil of vitriol, fifty pounds sulphate of soda, two
hundred pounds of land plaster.

For potatoes, to produce over two hundred bushels over natural yield:
Five hundred and fifty pounds sulphate of potash, two hundred pounds
sulphate of ammonia, one hundred pounds ground bones, forty pounds oil
of vitriol, one hundred and twenty pounds land plaster, forty pounds sul-
phate of soda.

For onions, to produce about four hundred bushels over natural yield:
Two hundred and twenty pounds sulphate of ammonia, one hundred and
fifty pounds ground bones, sixty pounds oil of vitriol, two hundred and fifty
pounds sulphate of potash, one hundred and twenty pounds land plaster,

ome PRRTILIZERS. | 67

For rutabagas, to produce ten to eleven tons over the natural yield: One
-_ hundred pounds ground bones, forty pounds oil of vitriol, two hundred and
seventy-five pounds sulphate of ammonia, six hundred pounds sulphate of
potash, one hundred and fifty pounds land plaster, thirty-five pounds sul-
phate of soda.

The above formulas are given in quantities for one acre of each kind of
crops. 5

It requires one hundred pounds oil of vitriol to dissolve forty pounds
ground bones. Put the ground bones into a water-tight plank box and soak
the bone with water for two or three days, turning on about twenty-five
pounds of water to each one hundred pounds of bone; then turn on your oil
of vitriol and stir it thoroughly with a wooden stick, two or three times a day
for five or six days, then mix in the sulphate of ammonia, next the muriate
of potash and sulphate of soda, and lastly the land plaster; thoroughly mix
the whole mass together. To dry it off and make it fit to handle, incor-
’ porate dry muck, fine charcoal or sawdust, but do not use lime or wood
ashes as a dryer. Sometimes farmers can collect bones on their own or
neighboring farms, or get them very cheap from a butcher, in this case they
want to mash them up fine with a sledge, and about sixty pounds oil of
vitriol used to one hundred pounds of coarse bones.

Fertilizers vs. Plant Food.—The Farmer's Magazine and Patron’s
Guide says: Experiments are becoming continually reported by farmers
that are misunderstood, and lead to conclusions, on the part of the experi-
menters at least, that are detrimental to agricultural progress. Take an
example now before us, that of a farmer who used lime, superphosphate,
guano, salt, a chemical fertilizer, and no manure, on as many plots of wheat.
The yield in each case was good, varying from twelve bushels on the unma-
nured to twenty-six to thirty-five bushels for the manured plots. The lime
gave the greatest apparent profit per acre, though the yield was not so large
as where guano, chemical and superphosphates were used. Reasoning from
the figures alone, this experimenter thinks he has a guide for future prac-
tice in wheat farming, and accordingly has now put seventy acres in winter
wheat manured only with lime.

We shall be interested to learn the result of several years of this practice,
but predict that it will prove an unprofitable venture. The soil on which
this experiment was tried is naturally fertile clay wheat soil. Lime on such
land always has a good effect for one or two applications—not as plant food,
however, but in acting upon the soil chemically to make available that
fertility which is contained in the soil, but in an unavailable condition. Lime
adds no element to the soil, but forces it to yield up its stores of fertility. It

should not be understood from this that lime is not plant food, for it is; but —

the great majority of soils, if not all, contain so much of it already that there
is no necessity for supplying more. This lime, however, is in such a form
that it does not have the effect upon the soil of newly applied freshly slaked
lime.

It is a wise economy to utilize whatever of fertility the soil contains, but
it must be done judiciously and not wastefully. So soon as it is found that
the application of lime no longer produces adequate crops, the true reason
should be assigned to the result, and that reason is that the supply of plant
food is being exhausted, and outside sources must be called upon to make
up the deficiency.

It is legitimate and proper to draw upon our bank account, but

BB THE FARM.
we must also deposit, or there will soon be nothing in the bank to draw
from. , “ee

Making Our Own Fertilizers.—A Virginia farmer writes: Having
studied the subject of fertilizing our lands when it is impossible to manure
with stable manure, and watched the effects on different kinds of land, I
have come to the conclusion that when commercial fertilizers are honestly
made it pays, even at the low*price of grain, to buy and use them on grain
lands, especially when being seeded down to grass, and when the land is
too thin to make a set of grass a certainty. My experience has been that the
money will be returned out of the gain. The set of grass will be always im-
proved; the benefit will be felt while the land is in grass, and there will be
a much heavier sod to turn under when the land is broken up. Nowif it
pays to purchase these fertilizers at from $25 to $90 per ton, besides paying
freight on them and hauling them from the depot, how much better it would
be for us if we could manufacture our fertilizers at home at one-fourth the
cost! Ionce heard a gentleman, who had had years of experience in this
line, say that pure Peruyian guano, even at $90 to $100 per ton, is the cheap-
est of all fertilizers. Now, unless Iam mistaken, Peruvian guano is simply
rotted bird manure, and must have lost some of its strength by being exposed
to the air and sun. I suppose the birds that made this guano fed on bugs,
fish, wild seeds, etc. We thus have one ingredient at least equal to the best
fertilizer known, right on our farms, and one that can be vastly increased
with very small additional expense. It is certainly of vast importance to the
farmer to see that the flock of fowls is kept up, and see that not one ounce of
manure is wasted.

Another thing is the hog manure. This is certainly a splendid fertilizer,
and should be saved with the utmost care. I have known farmers to build
their hog pens on a hillside leading to a branch to let the hogs get water,
and thereby lose nearly all their manure. It may not be equal to Peruvian
guano, but it is certainly half as good. Another valuable fertilizer is wasted
on nine-tenths of all the farms in the country. This is the night soil, and
everything that comes from the house—the liquid manures are as strong as
the solids. My plan is to save all these things; pulverizing and making
them into a real genuine fertilizer that can be drilled, handled, or used as
are commercial fertilizers. Sinkin your yard a vat that will hold two hundred
bushels. (If one is not enough, you can sink another.) It should be well
made out of two-inch oak planks, and havea lid with a good handle, so the
wash-woman can lift the lid and pour her soap suds into it as easy as
pouring it elsewhere, and where the chamber-maid should be required
always to put into it everything in her line. Now add all the hen manure
you can get; all the night soil, and a load or two of the best hog manure.
Then add muck, loam or plaster enough to absorb all gases and stop all
smell, so as to make it perfectly inoffensive. When the box is nearly
full, add (if there is not enough already) enough liquid to make the
mass mix easily, and with a long pole thoroughly mix, and keep
stirring for several days, so as to reducé all lumps. You can then
remove all sticks, cobs, etc., that may have found their way into
it, with a coarse sieve fastened on a long pole. When thoroughly
mixed and sifted, allow it to dry out, and if not dry enough when
you want to use, spread it on boards and dry thoroughly. This fer-
tilizer can be made at a small cost per ton, and will be found to do
good work, ‘

FERTILIZERS. 69

Home-Made vs. Commercial Manures.—A correspondent of the New
England Homestead writes: The great body of common farmers will never
profitably develop their agricultural resources or to any great extent increase
the fertility of their farms until they keep or fatten more cattle and sheep.
And the way to keep more stock is, to keep it without more ado-—-just as our
wise financier remarked that the way to resume specie payments was to re-
sume.

Notwithstanding the legislation for the protection of the honest manufac-
turer as well as the purchaser, the common farmer feels that in buying
many varieties of commercial manures he is not master of the situation.
This is why I advise farmers to keep stock or make their fertilizers upon
their own farms as much as possible—to buy animal food rather than plant
food. For horned cattle as a rule, buy firm cotton-seed meal, corn meal,
fodder corn or corn fodder and swale hay. In purchasing food for other
kinds of stock, we must be guided by their varied conditions, always feed-
ing such kinds and quantities as will be kindly relished and thoroughly di-
gested. ;

For several years I have bought twenty-five cords of stable manure an-
nually. A large proportion comes from Boston and costs me eight dollars
per cord delivered on my farm. Yet I consider it as cheap as any fertilizer
in the market., In a cord of good manure free from foreign substances, we
get the results of about two tons of hay together with the grain fed, less the
animal waste or growth. If judiciously applied, the ground that receives
the manure will in a number of years yield its full equivalent with interest.
If plant food is to be bought, buy first good stable manure, fine ground bone,
good hard wood ashes, and muriate of potash. When the honest manufac-
turer will sell these elements compounded as cheaply as the farmer can
purchase and compound them himself, it may do to buy still more largely
of commercial or chemical fertilizers. And in their application we must no
longer work blindly.

Use of Plaster and Ashes.—Henry Ives, one of the best farmers in far-
famed Western New York, writes thus sensibly to the Tribune: “To use
plaster on any of our growing crops requires so slight a cast and so often
proves beneficial, that one can hardly afford to neglect its application, al-
though occasionally no perceptible advantage is derived from it, and, at
best, we scarcely look for benefit except for the one season and the one crop.
But in using ashes we are more sure of benefit, and its good effects are so
lasting that after one liberal application, say of from 50 to 100 bushels per
acre (though if leached ashes are used one could safely apply three to six
times this quantity), the effect will show for five, ten, or even fifteen years,
by increasing fertility. When applying plaster to corn, or plaster and guano,
phosphate or hen manure, or even with a small quantity of ashes (in all
cases from 100 to 200 weight to the acre is enough of the plaster), the in-
gredients should be prepared and well mixed on the barn floor, loaded into
an open wagon, so as to have it along convenient to the work, and almost
any time in the early growth of the corn apply a small handful to each hill,
not as some do, by throwing it carelessly in a compact heap near to the hill,
but as it is thrown sift through the fingers, giving it an even distribution all
about the hill. But after the corn is a little more advanced I believe it
would do it more good, and without costing much if any more, to use two or

_ three times as much of the fertilizing mixture, sowing it broadcast over the
field. If, instead, the farmer could apply 60 or 80 bushels of ashes to the

THE FARM,
acre, it should be done before planting or seeding, so as to be well mixed ~
with the soil when preparing it for the seed-bed. This, I believe, is the

most lasting of any kind of fertilizer, and one of the cheapest, too, when the
ashes can be obtained without costing more than 25 or 30 cents a bushel.
After such an application of ashes, or other fertilizer, or manure, it is still
just as desirable as ever to plaster the corn growing on such fertilized land.”

Experience with Muck.—A correspondent of the Country Gentlemaii
gives his experience with muck as follows: As the attention of farmers is
drawn to the necessity of enriching their farms, I will give the result of sey-
eral years’ experience with muck. My practice has been as follows: In the
fall, when the muck beds are dry, I throw out into piles as much as I think
I need for the coming year. At some convenient time I draw a quantity near
the house, where I can throw on it the soap suds from washing, night soil,
scrapings from the hen house, and leached or unleached ashes. I generally
commence this compost heap in the fall, but if any one would commence in
the spring he would make a much larger amount.

In the spring I shovel over the pile once or twice; then it is ready for use.
This manure I use in the hill for all hoed crops, as phosphate is used. I
consider it far ahead of barnyard manure in the hill, and equal to phos-
phates, for the nature of manure is to dry up, while the nature of muck is to
attract moisture. It is about one day’s work for a man to put this into one
acre of corn or potatoes, putting a good handful in each hill. I have found
that this manure contains an alkali, or something, so that birds and crows
will not pull corn, and wire-worms will not eat the roots of corn. White
grubs will not gnaw potatoes that are planted in it. It makes a corn crop
ripen about one week or ten days earlier than without it. I have known
farmers to pay 50 cents a load for muck to make compost from to be used on _
tobacco, and they thought it paid them well. .

I have noticed that the first crop does not use up all the strength of one
application. It can be seen in the next crop. It does not hurt seed corn or
potatoes to be dropped into this compost, they will grow better than in com-
mon earth. This compost heap has some advantages over phosphate. It

does not cost any money if one has a muck bed, and it will keep insects
away from the roots of crops. I have drawn and mixed barnyard manure
and muck in piles during the winter, in the preportion of two of manure to
one of muck, and I consider it better than raw manure from the yard for any
crop.

What a Pint of Manure Did.—A Wisconsin farmer sends this experi-
ence to the American Agriculturist: “Last year, in hauling yard manure
across a field afterwards planted to corn, some of it scattered off in driblets,
from a handful to a pint or so ina place. When planting the corn, I found
portions of these droppings, and where noticed, drew them into the hills,
and with the hoe mixed fhem a little with the soil as the seed was dropped.
In three instances, where a large handful or about a pint of the manure was
thus put in, a stick was driven down to mark the hills. When hoeing, we
noticed that in these hills the corn plants had started off more vigorously,
were greener, and at the third hoeing they were six to twelve inches higher
than the other hills adjoining. Our curiosity being awakened, we followed
up the observations, and when gathering the crop each of the three stalks in
all the three hills had on it two large plump ears, while the surrounding
corn did not average one good ear to the stalk. =
“This set us to thinking and figuring. That bit of manure had given the _

- FERTILIZERS... - pat

young “corn roots a vigorous start, just as good feed starts off a young calf,
or pig, or lamb, and the roots penetrated further in every direction and
gathered more food and moisture. These stalks being better nourished
from below, ran far away from the poorly fed neighbors. As to the figures,
the rows were three and one-half feet apart, and the hills three feet distant
in the rows, say four thousand hills on an acre, and four thousand pints of
manure is about sixty-two and one-half bushels, or two large wagon loads.
Anybody can reckon the difference between six large, well-filled ears of
corn on each hill, and less three per hill, and the cost of the manure as com-
pared with the total value of the final crop. The plowing, and the seed, and
the hoeing, amount to the same in each case. All I have to say is, that
every corn-hill planted on my farm this year will have at least a pint of
manure in it.”

How to Double the Usual Quantity of Manure on the Farm.—
Provide a good supply of black swamp mold or loam from the woods, within
easy reach of your stable, and place a layer of this, one foot thick, under
each horse, with litter as usual on top of the loam or mold. Remove the
droppings of the animals every day, but let the loam remain for two weeks,
then remove it, mixing it with the other manure, and replace with fresh
mold. By this simple means any farmer’can double not only the quantity
but also the quality of his manure, and never feel himself one penny the
poorer by the trouble or expense incurred, while the fertilizing value of the
ingredients absorbed and saved by the loam can scarcely be estimated.

Josiah Quincy, Jr., has been very successful in keeping cattle in stables —

the year through, and feeding them by means of soiling. The amount of
manure thus made had enabled him to improve the fertility of a poor farm
of one hundred acres, so that in twenty years the hay crop had increased
from twenty to three hundred tons. The cattle are kept in a well-arranged
stable, and are let out into the yard an hour or two mornings and afternoons,

_but they generally appear glad to return to their quarters. By this process,
one acre enables him to support three or four cows. They are fed on grass,
green oats, corn fodder, barley, etc., which are sown at intervals through
the spring and summer months, to be cut as required; but he remarks that
his most valuable crop is his manure crop. Each cow produces three and a
half cords of solid, and three cords of liquid manure, or six and a half cords
inall. Five to eight miles from Boston, such manure is worth from five to
eight dollars a cord. From this estimate, he has come to the conclusion that
a COW'S Manure may be made as valuable as her milk.

Advantages of Sheltering Manure.—Many farmers allow the manure
made by their stock of cattle to be thrown out doors, where it remains
exposed in heaps or in the yard for several months. The rains fall upon it,
and streams of black water laden with the soluble and valuable elements of
the manure run away from the manure heap during every heavy rain, the
sun burns it, and the winds dry it, the volatile gases escape and are lost. In
this way a large part of the plant food contained in the manure is lost. That
a Serious loss is thus occasioned has been proved by experiment. A Scotch
farmer and land-owner showed by experiment that covered manure increased
the productiveness of his land enough the first year he used it to pay the
cost of rough sheds put up to protect it. Four acres of good land were
measured off; two of them were manured with ordinary barnyard manure,
and the other two with an equal quantity of manure from the covered shed.
_ The whole was planted to potatoes, The two acres manured with barnyard

a

72 THE FARM.

manure, which had been exposed to the weather, yielded five hundred and
sixty-four bushels of potatoes, while the other two acres manured with
covered manure, yielded nine hundred and thirteen bushels, or four hun-
dred and fifty-one bushels more than the other. The increased effect of the
covered manure did not cease with the*first year. The next year both plots
were sown with wheat, and from the two acres dressed with the barnyard
manure ninety bushels of wheat were harvested, while from the two acres
dressed with the covered manure, one hundred and eight bushels of wheat
were obtained. These facts show the importance of protecting the barn
manure from the weather.

The Fertility of Soils.—The fertility of a soil depends not alone on its
composition. A proper mechanical texture is essential. On the texture of
soils depends not only their suitableness for the growth of different crops,
but likewise the rapidity of their growth. It is the texture, also, which ~
regulates to a just extent the soil’s power of absorbing and retaining heat,
moisture and manure.

To be fertile the soil must be firm enough to afford a proper degree of
support to the growing plants, and yet loose enough to allow the delicate
fibres of the rootlets to extend themselves in all direetions. It must be
loose enough to allow free access of air and suitable drainage, and at the
same time close enough to retain sufficient moisture.

Unless there be a sufficiently free passage for the rain throughout the
substance of the soil the plant food will not be properly prepared, nor the
stationary roots of plants be fed.

The fertility of a soil is also dependent on the cumate in which it lies.
Local conditions as to rainfall, temperature, etc., must be considered in
estimating the value of soils. They may be the same in composition and
texture and yet differ widely in value. The amount of rain, the season of its
descent determine largely the value of the soil of localities for agriculture.

The temperature of the air in any given locality has an important bearing
upon the productiveness of the soil, whatever may be its composition and
texture and the amount of rainfall.

Green Manures.—I have never yet been able to make as much barn-
yard manure as I wanted, writes a Southern farmer, and commercial fer-
tilizers are dangerous things to come in contact with a farmer’s pocket, so
I touch them lightly; then what is the next best resort? Green manures.
In the fall of 1882, I determined to try rye as a fall crop, and I sowed a
twenty-five acre lot in it, and the following May I plowed it under, when
fully headed, and sowed black peas, one bushel per acre (having used the
same quantity of rye). We hada nice pea fallow, and plowed them under
about the first of October, and sowed wheat in the latter part of October,
1883. Last year we cut the wheat, and though it had the rust very badly,
we made between twelve and fifteen bushels per acre. The growth of the
straw was very fine, and I am confident we would have made from twenty
to thirty bushels per acre but for the rust, on land that would not, before
these green fallows, have made ten bushels of wheat. I now believe you
may grow wheat on the same lands every year by following each crop with a
pea-fallow, along with ten bushels of lime per acre, applied when the peas are
fallowed in. We did not apply any lime on our fallow, as the land had
been limed a few years before with fifty bushels per acre. I verily believe.
the lands can be cropped, as above stated, and constantly improved. We
should neyer buy peas to sow but once, and thus save our seed each year, _

FERTILIZERS. 73

_ even if you have to sow a separate lot for that purpose. I have tried peas
as a fallow crop for the past three years, and find them the best and cheap-
est substitute for barn-yard manures that the poor land farmer can find.
- They are good to sow on the corn lands, at the last working in June, and
fallow in when the corn is cut off in October: and I have been told, by some
old farmers, that they will impreve the land just as much if left until the
frost kill them, and then fallow, as when fallowed under green. If all
farmers would use every means in their power to feed and improve their
lands, we would soon have a different country from the present.

Bone Dust for Top Dressing.—In reply to a correspondent who asks if
bone dust would not make a good dressing for grass land to be applied in
the fall, the American Agricullurist says: ‘“‘ We think it would be better to
compost the bone dust with yard manure and then apply the compost. If
six or eight cords of this fine compost were applied to the acre it would only
furnish a good dressing of itself, which the land would be the better for,
would act as a sort of mulch or protection for grass roots, and if the soil was
at all inclined to ‘heave,’ it would be a positive benefit. But our corre-
spondent must remember that the haiti | of using bone dust or
ground bone alone, as a fertilizer, is the fact ot its slow action. The ni-
trogen and phosphoric acid which the bones contain is very slowly rendered
available for plants, on account of their insoluble nature; but where the
bone dust is added to yard or barn manure as a compost, the bones cause
the mass to ferment somewhat, and the heat engendered liberates the phos-
phoric acid and nitrogen, which is absorbed by the manure and given out
more quickly to plants when brought in contact with them. Good practice
and the last scientific authorities have united in recommending this as the
best treatment for ground bone and the best manner of its application to
plants. Fifty pounds of ground bone to a cord of manure would be suffi-
cient.”

Liquid Manure for Gardening.—It is well known that the liquid ma-
nure of animals is more valuable than the solids. In all densely populated
countries all these are carefully saved and carried direct to the fields, or
stored in tanks for future use.

In the West, and indeed all over the United States, but little attention is
paid to the liquid wastes of the stables and yards. This has given rise to
the saying that “‘ the leaks in the stable-are not in the roof.” The point is,
that it costs but little more in building a stable to provide drainage through
which the liquid manure may safely be carried to a tank or a tight-bottomed
pond in the yard, than it does to leave the whole without drainage, to rot the
foundations and saturate the soil beneath. Once conveyed to the place of
deposit, it may be pumped to the manure pile, or carried direct to the
garden, the meadow, or fields, where it will pay for the labor expended,
ten-fold.

For the garden it is especially valuable, for here the chief expense is in
the cultivation. It costs no more to cultivate an acre of thoroughly enriched
land than an acre of poor land; in fact, not so much, for on rich soil the
vegetation will quickly cover the ground, and thus smother the weeds,
while on poorer soil the weeds continue to grow during the whole summer.
If no other convenience be at hand, a hogshead may be placed in the wagon,
having an orifice at the bottom, to which a hose may be attached, and thus
the land may be watered on either side as the team passes through the cen-
tral drive, which every garden should have for convenience in hauling in

.. { Stet v

ae ee THE FARM.

and hauling out manure, trash and produce. If this be not feasible, on ac-
count of the small size of the garden, a can with a flat spout, or even large
buckets to which a flat pouring place is added, will be speedy and efficient.

Gardeners well know the value of manure, and especially of liquid ma-
nure. They spare no pains or price to get all they can, and often apply from
20 to 40 loads of compost or decomposed manure per acre, annually. It is
what makes or mars the profit in gardening. The result of the gardener’s
experience may be easily learned by any farmer who reads, if indeed, it be
not so devoted to impractical matter that the proper talent in this direction
is not retained. IJtis just this that makes the difference in the value of any
technical journal. If it spread over too much ground, it is efficient in no-
thing. Just so with the individual. If he engage in three or four separate
callings, some of them must suffer. The field of agriculture is broad
enough, and in this field there is none more important than the proper
saving and application of manure, and especially so in the vegetable gar-
den which no farmer, however few his acres, can afford to be without, es-
pecially if he have due regard for the health of his family.

Application of Fertilizers.—Recent experiments have demonstrated
that where the application of superphosphates to the soil has produced no
effect, the cause was to be attributed to a sufficiency of those salts already
existing therein. Where 2 cwis. soil contain less than 3 1-2 ounces of phos-
phoric acid, the superphosphate will prove beneficial. When it contains 5
ounces of phosphoric acid, the addition of the salt will turn out to be useless.
It follows from this that, contrary to the received opinion, it is not necessary
to apply nitrates mixed with the phosphates, when the latter are present in
the soil. M. Pagnoul continues his interesting experiments as to the solu-
bility of phosphates by diverse agents. He conclusively proves that stable,
indeed, we may add barn-yard manure, will dissolve natural phosphates in
the powdered state, and thus economize the expensive superphosphates.

A Patent Fertilizer Which Anybody May Use.—This invention re-
lates to a combination of chemicals to be used in connection with dry peat,
or muck and unleached ashes, or with any refuse matter having fertilizing
properties, to form a fertilizing compound; and it consists in combining dis-
solved bone, ground plaster, nitrate of soda, sulphate of soda and sulphate
of ammonia, in proportion substantially as follows:

Dissolved bone, three bushels; ground plaster, three bushels; nitrate of.
soda, forty pounds; sulphate of soda, forty pounds; and sulphate of am-
monia, thirty-three pounds. This mixture is incorporated with, say, twenty
bushels of dry peat or muck, and three bushels of unleached ashes.

The manner of preparing a fertilizing compound from the above ingredi-
ents is as follows: The peat or muck and ashes, if such matter be used as
the base of the mixture, are thoroughly mixed with the dissolved bone, and
the nitrate of soda, sulphate of soda, and sulphate of ammonia, after being |
dissolved in water, added thereto. The ingredients are next incorporated
with the ground plaster, after which the compound is allowed to stand for,
say, thirty or forty days, when it becomes ready for use.

The Work of Potash.—Potash is a fertilizing element whose restora-
tion to the soil is indispensable, as it is carried off by crops in considerable
proportions, This restitution becomes the more imperative when plants of
the leguminous family, such as clover, disappear, to be replaced by mass.
Unwashed wood ashes, containing six to eight per cent. of potash, and three

ae PERTILIZERS. 7

to four of phosphoric acid, often produce marvelous effects; the mass dis-

‘appears, and the clover and similar plants take its place.

MM. Rimpeau, at Schlanstedt, Saxony, and Prince William, at Schaum-
bourg, have been occupied with the influence of potash on the production of
sugar in beets. After the bedding was cleaned in the morning, the boards
were strewn with one cwt. of kainite and one-half ewt. of gypsum, per two
tons of soiled bedding; the latter, on being removed, was allowed to steep in
putrid wine, and in time applied at the rate of eleven tons per acre, to a
marly soil. The manure, enriched with kainite, produced a slight augmen-
tation in yield of roots, over the gypsum combination. The salient fact
elucidated by Prince William on his estate in Bohemia is, that chloride of
potassium exercises no essential action in humid years, while in dry seasons
one and a half cwt. per acre secures an increase of three tons of roots per
acre; that the salt of potash acts less by furnishing that element to vegeta-
tion, than by its absorbing and retaining humidity for the plant.

Ashes in the Compost.—When ashes are used in combination with
stable manure, the latter is decomposed too rapidly, but if immediately ap-
plied to the land there is no waste, or if covered with loam, the component
parts are rendered more soluble and the manure acts with greater rapidity.
If the liquid excrement from the cows is mixed with the manure, sufficient
soluble matter is thereby supplied for a first crop, and while the crop is
growing and maturing, the solid manure has been decomposing and prepar-
ing for another crop; or, it may be said, the liquid manure will give the
young plant a quick start, while afterwards the solid part will aid in tinishing
the crop. Ashes do not. act so quickly on hen manure as on stable manure,
since the former is much dryer; consequently decomposition does not take
place immediately- If applied soon after composting,-the compound will
give good results, but if allowed to remain too long after composting, the
ammonia will be lost to some extent. If the compost be covered with fresh
loam, there will be no logs, since the loam will absorb the ammonia.

How to Keep and Spread Manures.—It seems to be conclusively
settled in Europe that by far the best way to keep manure is to let it remain
under the animals all winter, accumulating to a depth of several feet under
‘them, and absorbing all the urine. When thus tramped down frmly it
never heats, and is fully one-fourth stronger than when piled out doors ex-
posed to the sun and rain, both of which injure it greatly. The animals are
kept clean by abundant applications of leaves, loose straw, etc., for beds.

Mr. Gregory, the great Marblehead seedsman, pronounces night soil or
privy manure to be fully fifty per cent. stronger than that of animals. It is
too strong to apply separately and requires to be decomposed with stable
manure to get the best results. In China, Japan and East, all homan manure
is carefully saved. There it is carried about in buckets, and is very highly
prized as a valuable article. In this country it is recklessly thrown away
and wasted, being treated as a nuisance. In no possible manner can the fer-
tility of lands be so kept up as by saving all the excrement from men and
animals, voided after eating their food, and returning it to the soil from
which it came.

_ Value of Home-Made Manure.—Of manures, that of the cow is the
poorest, that of the horse being double in value, and that of the hog five
times that of the horse. Hen manure, mixed with two or three times its own
_ bulk of muck, or even loam, is as good as most guano kept for sale. Ashes,

oe

ig das hee Be teas SBA
Pees ean

76 | THE FARM.

leached or unleached, are excellent. The contents of the closet may be kept
inodorous, and in an easily workable condition, by casting plaster on them
frequently until removed, and then by adding four times as much more of
muck or loam, you will have a fertilizer equal to poudrette. Bones, old
boots and shoes, hogs’ bristles, and all old scraps, which would otherwise
lie about as nuisances and eyesores to all who see them, may be made solu-
ble and fit for fertilizing by burying them in unleached ashes, with an ocea-
sional slight watering and stirring of the heap, and addition of ashes, until
reduced to a proper state for pulverizing. The pig should be supplied with
all the weeds you can gather before they seed, and peat, muck, turf, etc., if
thrown into his yard, he will work over, and pay for his keeping by largely
increasing the amount of manure. He will work over ten or twelve loads if
given to him.

Clover as a Fertilizer.—aA stick of wood burned on the surface mostly
passes off in gas, leaving only the ashes; but the same stick if burned in a
coal-pit, excluded from the air, forms a mass of carbon of nearly or quite its:
original size. Now all decay of yegetable matter is a slow combustion, and
when this is done under the soil, not only the gases retained in the soil, but
more carbon is formed, and this carbon has the power to appropriate the
valuable gases always present in the atmosphere. The great value of clover
as a fertilizer is due, first to the carbon furnished by the decay of the plant,
and second to the fine mechanical effect on the soil, which renders it porous,
so that the atmesphere penetrates it and deposits plant food. It is clear that
better fertilizing effects will result from the plowing down of the crop to
decay in the soil. Ordinarily more can be made out of the tops than they are
worth for manure, and if rightly managed, the roots will supply the needed
fertility.

Home-made Superphosphate.—A Western journal remarks that
almost every farmer has upon his own premises one of the best superphos-
phate manures known. The elements are found in the old bones, scattered
carelessly over yard, garden and farm, and common wood ashes, generally
allowed to go to waste. If the bones are gathered, placed under shelter,
thoroughly mixed with three or four times their bulk of ashes, kept moist
with water enough to make a good lye and occasionally stirred and mixed,
they will, in a few months, become so tender and friable that they may be
pounded into powder, arid in this state they form a valuable manure, better
than the average of the commercial fertilizers that seem so expensive, The
ashes, of course, should be mixed with the bones. The fertilizer thus made
should be applied by the handful in the hill of corn, and its effects may be
early seen in the deep, rich green of the growing plant. This may seem like
small business to a farmer who has but little spare time, but it is by just such
economy that our best farms become so profitable, and it is by lack of such
economy that so many farms fail to yield even a comfortable living.

Soap Suds.—The yalue of this article as a, stimulant of vegetable life can-
not be too highly appreciated. It contains the aliment of plants in a state of
ready solution, and when applied, acts not only with immediate and obvious
effect, but with a sustained energy which pertains to few eyen of the most
concentrated manures. When it is not conyenient—the most economical
method, perhaps, of using it—it should be absorbed by materials which may
be used as an ingredient in the compost heap. Suds, muck, and other

similar articles, should be deposited where the suds from the sink and

Met ak PR PILIZERS. "7

laundry can find its way to them and be absorbed for the benefit of the cxops.
In this way several loads of manure, suitable for the support and suste-
nance of any crop, may be made at comparatively small expense. The
highly putrescent character of this fermentable liquid qualifies it admirably
for the irrigation of compost heaps of whatever material composed. Being a
* potent fertilizer, it must of course impart additional richness to almost any
material to which it may be added. Try it, and mark the result.

Manure for Aimeost Nothing.—If you have any dead animal—say, for
instance, the body of a dead horse—do not suffer it to pollute the atmos-
phere by drawing it away to the woods or any other out-of-the-way place,
but remove it a short distance only from your premises, and put down four
or five loads of muck or sods, place the carcass thereon, and sprinkle it over
with quicklime, and cover over immediately with sods or mold sufficient to
make, with what had been previously added, twenty good wagonloads, and
you will have within twelve months a pile of manure worth twenty dollars for
any crop you choose to put it upon. Use a proportionate quantity of mold
for smaller animals, but never less than twenty good wagon-loads for a
horse; and if any dogs manifest too great a regard for the enclosed carcass,
shoot them on the spot.

Poultry Manure.—lifty fowls will make, in their roosting house alone,
ten ewt. per annum of the best manure in the world. Hence fifty fowls will
make more than enough manure for an acre of land, seven cwt. of guano be-
ing the usual quantity applied per acre, and poultry manure being eyen
richer than guano in ammonia and fertilizing salts. No other stock will
give an equal return in this way; and these figures demand careful atten-

tention from the large farmer. The manure, before using, should be mixed ~

with twice its bulk of earth, and then allowed to stand in a heap, covered
with a few inches of earth, till decomposed throughout, when it makes the
very best manure which can be had.

An Experiment with Ashes.—An experiment made with five wagon
loads of coal ashes on twenty square rods of ground may be cited as an in-
stance of beneficial mechanical effects. The amount of ashes was about two
hundred bushels, that is to say, ten bushels to the rod. They were drawn
on late in the fall, the ground having been recently plowed. In the spring,
the ground was plowed again, thus mixing the ashes with the soil. It was
then planted with garden stuffs. AIl the plants made more growth than in
the previous year, when the ground, after being liberally manured, was
planted to the same crops. But the favorable change was not attributable
to manurial properties in the coal ashes. Before the application the soil
was compact and heavy, a fault that the ashes corrected, aud. without doubt
this was practically the sole effect.

Peter Henderson on Fertilizers.—Peter Henderson says that the best
known fertilizers of commerce are Peruvian guano and bone dust. What-
ever kind of concentrated fertilizer is used, he finds it well repays the labor
to prepare it as follows before itis applied to the land: To every bushel of
guano or bone dust add three bushels of leaf mold, well pulverized dry
muck, yard scrapings, well decomposed stable matter, or, if neither of these
can be obtained, any loamy soil, but in every case the material mixed with
the fertilizer must be fairly ay, ag it is used as a temporary absorbent for
: the 8 ate

78 THE FARM, ¥
Top-Dressing.—Some farmers think that top-dressing with manure is

best done during the winter. In the fall the manure, unless very fine and
evenly spread, will cover up injuriously much of the plant. When spread
in winter, on the contrary, it acts as a mulch and a protection while the
plant is dormant, neutralizing the effects of freezing and thawing. An au-
thority on the subject advises that artificial fertilizers be spread on grain*
lands in the fall, and barnyard manure after the snow comes.

Improving Light Soil.—The best way to improve a light sandy soil is
to put on all the vegetable matter you can, either in the form of muck from
swamps, or by turning under peas, buckwheat, clover, or some similar crop.
If the land is very porous, more or less of the fertilizing materials applied
will sink out of the reach of ordinary cr ops. Your main point is to get the
land full of vegetable matter, not only to increase its fertility, but to make it
hold moisture in summer.

Liquid Manure.—The liquid voidings of animals are worth more (good
authorities say one-sixth more), pound for pound, than the solid excrements,
and are saved with greater care by the best European farmers and gar-
deners. All the leaks in the stable are not in the roof; those often in the
floor are quite as objectionable, and are the cause of a great deal of wastage.
Make the stablo floor tight, with a gutter at the heels of the stock to carry it
off to an adjacent tank, or into a heap of muck or other absorbent.

Saving Fertilizers.—One of the most prevalent errors among average
farmers is the neglect of making and preserving manure, and also its im-
proper application to the ground. Collect all the refuse material you can,
use your chip dirt from the wood pile in absorbing liquids. Apply it to the
flat lands at any time during winter. It can then be thrown on’ broadcast
and plowed in as soon as the ground opens. The necessity of returning as
much vegetable nutriment to the ground as has been taken off by the crop
cannot be too strongly impressed upon the attention of our farmers.

How to Apply Manure.—The old plan of plowing under manure has
pretty much been abandoned by many farmers as wasteful. Advanced
farming believes and teaches that the intimate and thorough incorporation
of the fertilizing principle, into that portion of the soil which is to be occu-
pied immediately by roots of the growing crop, is a truth taught by experi-
ence on all soils, and in all climates, and the more evenly and thoroughly
this is done the more surely will the crop be satisfactory.

Spreading Manure.—<An English writer says: ‘‘ The wasteful practice
of spreading manure on surface of the soil, and allowing it to lie bleaching
for weeks, and even months before being plowed in, is still carried on in
some counties in England, and stoutly defended by hosts of clay land
farmers,” and he expresses the opinion that “‘if the perpetrators of such
an enormity be right, science is at fault, analysis is an illusion, and am-
monia and all its kindred a family of impostors.”

Mixing Manure in Winter.—When teams are not otherwise employed
in the winter it is a good plan to draw the pile of horse manure around
horse stables and spread it over the heaps of cattle and sheep excrement.
The manure of the horse and the cow especially are admirable supplements
each to the other, that from the horse being naturally too active and that
from the cow too slow. Enough bedding should be placed under Heres to
absorb all their liquid excrement, so that none be wasted.

FERTILIZERS. 79

Home-Made Guano.—Save all your fowl manure from sun and rain.
To prepare it for use, spread a layer of dry swamp muck (the blacker it is
the better).on your barn floor, and dump on it the whole of your fowl ma-
nure; beat it into a fine powder with the back of your spade; this done, add
hard wood ashes and plaster of Paris, so that the compound shall be com-
posed of the following proportions: Dried muck, four bushels; fowl manure, |
two bushels; ashes, one bushel; plaster, one and one-half bushels. Mix
thoroughly, and spare no labor; for, in this matter, the effort expended will
be well paid for. A little before planting, moisten the heap with water, or,
better still, with urine; cover well over with old mats, and let it lie till
wanted for use. Apply it to beans, corn, or potatoes, at the rate of a hand-
ful to a hill; and mix with the soil before dropping the seed. This will be
found the best substitute for guano ever invented, and may be depended on
for bringing great crops of turnips, corn, potatoes, etc.

Materials for Compost.—In several of the States compost heap may be
made of muck or earth for a basis; to this may be added leaves, catton-seed, —
ashes, gympsum, night soil, stable manure, trash from the fields (except
weeds in seed), and all the slops from the houses and cabins. If desired,
bone-dust may be added, but the fine artificial fertilizers will be better, if
used by themselves.

Value of Vegetable Substances.—The tops of turnips, potatoes, beets,
_ carrots and parsnips are very valuable and should not go to waste. Those
of the beets are rich in nitrogen, while potato tops contain a large proportion
of potash. All of them contain both in more or less quantity. They rot
quickly, and should be added to the compost heap when unfit for other pur-
poses.

Facts Regarding Fertilizers.—The raising of thirty bushels of wheat
to the acre will remove from the land fifty-one pounds of nitrogen, twenty-
four pounds of phosphoric acid and thirty-nine pounds of potash. This can
be replaced by sixty pounds of sulphate of ammonia, 171 pounds of super-
phosphate of lime, and seventy-seven pounds of chloride of potassium.

Alternating Manure.—Market gardeners find it profitable to alternate
stable with other manures rather than use the same kind continuously on
the same land. Farmers can take a hint from thjs. Perhaps one reason
why phosphates have been so largely successful has been because the sta-
ble manures previously used have been deficient in phosphoric acid.

How to Use Hen Manure.—The manure from the poultry house is
valuable for any crop. It may be spread on grass very thinly, about two
barrels per acre being enough. One way to get it fine is to spread it on the
barn floor and thrash it with a flail, but a wet cloth should be tied around
the mouth or nose while this is being done.

Nitrogen for Potatoes.—Potatoes need nitrogen and potash. Fresh
manures applied in spring increase the liability of disease. We believe po-
tatoes can be raised profitably with chemicals, when farmers will experi-
ment at home and learn how to buy just whatis needed and nothing more.

_ Nitrate of Soda for Wheat.—An authority avers that an application of
100 pounds of nitrate of soda to an acre of wheat, when the crop looks weak,
will show its benefit in a few days, not only improving it in growth, but
largely increasing the yield,

THE FARM.

Combining Ashes and Bones.—Doctor Nichols gives the following —
exact figures of the quantities used in reducing bones with ashes: Break
one hundred pounds of bones into small! fragments and pack them in a tight
cask or box with one hundred pounds of good wood ashes, which have been
previously mixed with twenty-five pounds of dry, water-slaked lime, and
twelve pounds of powdered sal soda. Twenty gallons of water will saturate
the mass, and more may be added as required. In two or three weeks the
bones will be soft enough to turn out on the barn floor and be mixed with
two bushels of good soil. We should prefer road dust to the soil.

80

Fertilizers a Good Investment.—Farmers who have money at com-
mand cannot easily put it in a more profitable investment than judicious
outlay on their land. A careful use of good manure repays the expenditure,
even during the course of many years, and draining wet land is estimated
to return from forty to eighty per cent. on the yearly cost. In the same way
good stock pays far better than poor; good fencing, well selected fruit trees,
carefully looked-after homesteads, all repay the money laid out, and, be-
sides all that, add immensely to the comfort of the occupier.

Top-Dressing in Winter.—Some farmers think that top-dressing with
manure is best done during the winter. In the fall the manure, unless very
fine and evenly spread, will cover up injuriously much of the plant. When
spread in winter, on the contrary, it acts as a mulch and a protection while
the plant is dormant, neutralizing the effects of freezing and thawing. An
authority on the subject advises that artificial fertilizers be spread on grain
lands in the fall, and barnyard manure after the snow comes,

A Good Garden Manure.—The manure produced by sawdust when
used as a bedding for horses, is said to be a better fertilizer for certain gar-
den crops than any other. When mixed with the soil in which celery is
grown it is said to greatly benefit those plants.

A Useful Hint.—Coal ashes, scattered on the stable floor, will absorb
the liquid manure, prevent the cattle from slipping and falling, afford an
excellent addition to the pickings of poultry around the place, and can after-
wards be spread_on the soil. >

Salt and Plaster on Lawns.—A dressing of salt and plaster on newly
made lawns will result’ in great benefit to the young grass roots, making
them strong and hardy for wintering over.

Bran as a Fertilizer.—It is said by those who have tried it, that bran
is as good as the best commercial fertilizers for potatoes and corn, and much
cheaper.

STL, ee, te ae ae Ce ee Bree Te Pea
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Fee. mi a Ne ah Se) ’
: AF AMEN ages hy tt

THE GARDEN.

Saving Seeds.—In saving seeds only the best specimens of each kind
should be saved, and all inferior ones rejected; this is easy enough with such
plants as squashes, cucumbers, tomatoes, melons, etc., care being used to
save only the earliest, fairest, and most perfect specimens. The seed should
be allowed to ripen thoroughly before taking it from the fruit, which will re-
quire some weeks with squashes, after gathering from the vine; tomatoes
are placed in the sun for a few days, and melon-seeds may be taken directly
when the melon is fit to eat; seeds of this nature having a fleshy pulp are
usually cleaned by allowing them to ferment in water for a day or two, when
the pulp will easily wash off, after which the seed is spread upon a sheet in
the sunshine to dry. Seeds of vines keep longer if not allowed to freeze;
they will preserve their vitality five or six years if kept ina warm, dry place.
A closet near a chimney is a good place, and, since mice and rats are fond of
such tidbits as melon-seeds, it will be advisable to lock them up in a tin
chest or other rat-proof arrangement. When saving seeds of beets, cabbage,
turnip, etc., those who are most particular reject all but the seed grown on
the leading stem. Beet-seed is cleaned by threshing, sifting, and picking
over to get out the sticks; it varies much in size, and should be separated
by a sieve, in order to have it run evenly through the seed drill, for it is the
most troubleson-e of all seed to sow evenly. Perhaps some inventor will
discover a method of shelling out best seeds, so that they can be sown evenly;
if this could be done, one of the chief items of labor in raising beets would
be greatly lightened, and a saving of more than half the seed would be
effected also; for the beet-seed as now sown is a pod containing two to five
seeds each, and is so rough and uneven in shape as to give much trouble to
sow it evenly with a drill; in fact, to insure a good stand, very heavy seed-
ing and laborious thinning are essential. If the pod could be crushed and
the seed shelled out, it could then be drilled in as evenly as any other seed.
Seeds of all kinds keep best in a dry, even temperature. When to be kept
in large lots, they may be put in bags and hung from the ceiling of the room,
to keep them from the mice. Most seeds are good from two to five years, if
carefully kept; onion-seed, however, is very inferior after the first year, and
worthless after the second. When old seed is to be used, it should be previ-
ously tested by sowing a counted lot in a hot-bed or other suitable place,
and counting the number of plants that come up, and noting the vigor of the
plants; the plants from old seed are usually less vigorous than from fresh
seed, and sometimes are so weak as to be worthless.

The Best Garden Vegetables.—The following is an extract from an
essay on ‘“‘ Market Gardening,” read before the American Nurserymen’s
Association, at Dayton, O.: Within the past dozen years many important ad-
vances have been made in earliness and in quality of vegetables. Among
beets we have the Egyptian, which matures at least five days ahead of any
other variety, except the Old Bassano, which was too light in color to suit;
in cabbages, the Early Summer; and in cauliflower, the Snowball; in celery,

82 THE FARM, . Avia

the Golden Dwarf; and the next season is likely to develop a great improve-
ment in the New White Walnut celery—a stout, solid kind, having a rich,
walnut-like flavor, and graceful feather-like foliage. In lettuce, the black-
seeded Simpson and the White Summer Cabbage lettuce now lead all the
out-door varieties. In muskmelons, the Hackensack, of which many thou-,
sand acres are grown for the New York market, is almost exclusively planted.
In peas, a great improvement is developed in the dwarf variety known as
American Wonder, though for general early crop the improved Dan O’Rourke
is best. Potatoes vary so much in different localities that it is difficult to
say which of the new sorts are most valued; we find, however, that in our
general trade more of Beauty of Hebron is planted than any other of the new
sorts. In radishes, the Round Dark Red is now the main favorite, while
next in order comes White Tipped Turnip. In spinach, the Savoy and the
new Thick-Leaved are the best for general crop, though we find that the
Savoy should not be sown in spring, as it runs too quickly to seed. Though
every year brings out new claimants for favor in tomatoes, it is my convic-
tion that we have not advanced one day in earliness, unless in such varieties
as Key’s Prolific and Little Gem (which are of poor quality), in twenty-five
years, although we have now many varieties somewhat improved in quality.
The varieties now most popular with New York market gardeners are Acme
and Paragon, though, from the unusual advertising given to Trophy, the
general cultivation of that is greater than any other; but, as it is usually
found now, it is far inferior to many others, besides being one of the latest.

Rotation of Garden Crops.—Haye you not frequently noticed that
some men change.their garden spots every few years? If you ask them why
they do so, they will tell you that vegetables don’t seem to do-well there
after a few years’ cropping.

In starting a garden on an ordinary piece of ground, which has not before
been used for this purpose, two or three years are required to get it pul-
verized and enriched sufficiently to produce a first-class crop, hence the
necessity for retaining the same piece of ground for garden purposes, This can
be done by adopting a proper system of rotation. It is a good plan to make
a diagram of the plot used for a garden, and have it marked off into divisions
of suitable proportions for the vegetables required. Each division should be
numbered, or, what is just as good, the name of the vegetable raised there
written upon it. These diagrams drawn each year should be carefully pre-
served, so that, by referring to them, one could ascertain just what had been
raised on each particular division for years back, and by this-means keep up
a systematic rotation.

For convenience, the garden-plot should be long and narrow, thus
enabling a horse cultivator to be used to advantage. I have noticed that
most gardens are nearly square in form, but have never yet been given a
good reason for this. ‘

A garden 8x20 rods in size can be cultivated with a horse at less expense
and with less work than a garden 3x4 rods can be worked by hand, as gar-
dens of this size usually are.

Such garden vegetables as rhubarb, asparagus, and others of a like kind,
requiring two or more years to reach the proper bearing condition, should,
of course, be given a permanent place for several seasons; but they, too,
need removing about once in four years, in order to get the best possible re-_
sults. They should never be so located as to interfere with the cultivation
of other vegetables.

“THE GARDEN. ay

Many gardeners put these plants among their small fruits, but they are
as much in the way there as anywhere in the vegetable garden. They will
not do so well, and are also a heavy drain on the soil, causing an injury to
the bushes about them. The best way is to give them one of the long, nar-
row divisions, above referred to, clear through the length of the garden.

How to Make a Good Garden.—The soil must be well drained,
either naturally or artificially. It must be rich; and the manure should be

thoroughly worked into the soil. Plow the land in the autumn, and plow it

again as early as possible in the spring. If there is any rubbish, remove it

or dig holes and bury it below the reach of the plow. Then plow again, or-

work the land with a cultivator. I take off some of the inside teeth of the
cultivator, so that the horse can draw the cultivator as deep, or nearly as
deep, as the land has been plowed. This work should be done when the
soil is dry and the weather warm. You cannot possibly stir the soil toomuch
while the sun is shining. It lets in the sun’s rays and warms and mellows

the soil. On light, sandy soil, thoroughly and deeply plowed and manured |

the fall previous, there are many crops which can be sown to advantage
without again plowing in the spring. Itoften happens in this latitude that
five or six inches of the surface soil in the spring is thawed out and dry
enough to work, while underneath the ground is frozen solid. If we wait
till this frozen soil can be plowed, we frequently lose a good opportunity for
putting in early crops of peas, potatoes, onions, cabbage, lettuce, radish,
spinach, etc. And besides, the soil that we turn up with the plow, and
which comes to the surface, and in which we sow the seed, is cold and damp,
while the surface soil which we turn under is warm and dry.

Transplanting.—IJnexperienced gardeners are apt to think that a rainy
day is the only fit time for setting out plants, and will often delay a week or
two longer than is necessary waiting for it, and finally plant when the ground

is soaked and when they sink to their ankles in the soil. That is the worst

time that could possibly be chosen, excepting when the ground is congealed
with cold. For it is impossible that the mold, sticky and clammy while wet,
can filter among the roots, or remain of suitable texture for them to spread
themselves in, permeable to them and equally pervious to the air in every
part without anywhere exposing their tender parts to actual contact in

’ chambers of corrosive oxygen. A rainy day is an advantage if the plants are

set before the ground has become wet, but the safe and sure way is to go for
the plants as soon as the ground is fully prepared, no matter how dry the
weather. A pail or bucket should always be taken to carry the plants in,
having a little water in the bottom. The roots being set in this will absorb
until the plant is so gorged that it will endure a drying air after being set in
place. If the ground is very dry, water should be poured in before plant-
ing, which is very much better than pouring upon the surface, because of no
injurious crust being formed, for a continually open surface during the
growing season, to admit of free circulation of air and capillary action from
below, is absolutely essential to free, profitable growth.

Mushroom Culture.—Of all the edible mushrooms, the common
Meadow Mushroom (Agaricus edulis) is the only one~adapted for culture,
and, with proper care and management, it can be grown almost anywhere
and at all seasons. Nowhere has the cultivation of this delicacy reached so
high a state of perfection as in the vicinity of Paris, in France, and the fol-
Jowing description of the methods practiced there, given by Messrs, Vil-

mak

4 ig

84 “ee = i Adil.

morin-Andrieux, will, therefore, be of interest to those who contemplate
mushroom culture:

The chief conditions to obtain a satisfactory result consist in growing
mushrooms in a very rich soil and under a genial, as nearly as possible even,
temperature. To secure this latter condition, the culture is often carried on
in cellars; but any other locality, such as
sheds, out-houses, stables, railway arches,
etc., will suit as well, provided that either
naturally or by artificial means the tempera-
ture does not exceed 86 degrees, nor fall lower
than 50 degrees Fahr.

The first thing to be considered after the
choice of a convenient locality is the prepara-
tion of the mushroom bed, The most essen-

TUB. tial material being horse droppings, prefer-

: ence to be given to those of well-nourished

animals, collected as dry and as free from straw as possible. This ferment-
ing material would be too hot to be used by itself at once; to reduce the
strength it should be well mixed with one-fourth or one-fifth of its bulk of
good garden soil, when the bed may be prepared immediately, the fermen-
tation being slow and the heat produced only moderate and even. Care
should be taken to construct the bed in a be place, and to make the sides
firm and tidy. If it is in-
tended to use the horse-
dung by itself, as the
mushroom growers around
Paris do, it is necessary to
allow the first heat to
evaporate, which is done
by piling the droppings as
they come from the stable
in successive layers to the
height of about three feet,
in a dry spot, removing all
foreign matter from it and
pressing it into a compact
mass, sprinkling with wa-
ter such portions as are
very dry. In this state it
is to be left till the most
violent fermentation has
passed, which is generally
the case in six to ten days,
when the heap is to be re-
made, taking care that
those portions which were MOVABLE BEDS AGAINST A WALL.
outside, and consequently
less fermented, are placed inside, to msure an equal temperature. It should
be well mixed and firmly placed, so that the whole may be of a similar
texture.

Geurpaike a few days after being remade, the fermentation is so strane as
to render it necessary to be made up a third time.

Sometimes, after the second operation, it is ready for the ved oan

Te cs a Beaty ce Ae
¥ S ef oe Canoe, ie

2 ph Se aaa ae THE GARDEN.

made, which may be seen when the heating material has become brown, the ;
straw which is mixed with it has lost almost entirely its consistence, when it

has become greasy, and the smell is not longer the same as when fresh. It

is difficult to obtain a good material without preparing a heap of at least three

feet each way; and if that quantity is not required for making the beds, the
surplus may with advantage be used in the kitchen-garden.

The material is now brought to the place where the beds are to be made,
which may be of any
form and size; but
experience has
shown that the best
way to make use of
space and material
is to raise the beds
to a height of from
twenty to twenty-
four inches, with a
width of about the
same at the founda-
tion. An excessive
rise of tae tempera-
ture, in consequence BED WITH TWO SIDES PARTIALLY UNCOVERED.
of renewed fermen-
tation, is to be less feared than when the beds are of larger dimensions.
When a large place is at disposal, preference is given to beds with two slant-
ing sides; when the beds are resting against a wall, and consequently pre-
sent but one available side, the width ought to be less than the height.

Barrels sawn in two, so that each part forms a tub, are well adapted to
form beds, as well as simple shelves on which sugar-loaf-shaped beds may
be raised, which, already formed, may be carried into cellars, etc., where
the introduction of the raw materials would be objectionable.

The beds thus established
should be left for a few days
before spawning, to see
whether the fermentation
will not be renewed with ex-
cessive vigor, which may be
ascertained. by the touch of
the hand, but it is safer to
use the thermometer; as long
as the temperature exceeds
86 degrees Fahr. the bed is
too hot, and it should be al-
lowed to cool by itself, or by making openings with a stick to allow the heat
to escape.

When the temperature remains at 76 degrees, it is time for spawning.
Prepared spawn is found in the seed stores at all times, which may be kept
without trouble from year to year. The spawn sold in France is not in
bricks or solid lumps, as in England, but in light masses of scarcely half-
decomposed loose and dry litter.

A few days before spawning, it is advisable to expose the spawn to a
moderately warm moisture, which will insure a safer and more rapid growth;
it should be broken up in pieces about the length and thickness of the hand

MOVABLE SHELF.

eo ey re Tr em ie Bete ati a
¥ ‘ ‘ x . ;

eee

THE -

86 FA RM.
by half that width, and inserted into the bed ata distance of ten to ee
inches each way; on beds twenty to twenty-four inches in height, which are
mostly in use, it should be inserted in two rows, dove-tail fashion.

Where the bed is situated in a place under cover and of an even temper-

= ature, nothing else is to be done but to wait for the growth; if, however, the
bed is placed in the open air and exposed to change of the weather, it must
be covered with long litter or hay to keep a uniform temperature all around

the bed. 2

Under favorable circumstances, and if the work has been done well, the
spawn ought to show activity in seven or eight days; it is advisable to look
toit, and to replace such spawn as might not thrive, which can be seen by
the absence of white filaments in the surrounding materials.

Fifteen to twenty days later the spawn ought to have taken possession of
the whole bed and should come to the surface; the top and sides of the bed
should then be covered with soil, for which a light mold in preference to a
heavy one should be used, slightly moistening it, without making it too wet.
If it does not naturally contain saltpetre, it would be good to administer a
small quantity of salt or saltpetre, or to give it a watering of liquid manure.

The covering with soil should not exceed more than an inch in depth,
and be pressed strongly so as to adhere firmly; watering should only be
done where the soil becomes very dry. Where a covering has been re-
moved for some purpose it must be replaced at once.

A few weeks after, according to the state of temperature, more or less,
the mushrooms will appear. In gathering them care should be taken to fill
the empty spaces with the same soil as used for the covering. Leaving the
bed to itself, it will produce from two to three months; but its fertility may
be prolonged by careful waterings at a temperature of 68 degrees to 86 de-
grees Fahr., with an admixture of guano or saltpetre.

By establishing under cover three or four beds annually in succession, a
continued supply may be reckoned upon; besides, during the summer
months, beds may be raised out-of-doors at very little expense, securing an
abundant supply. Frames in which vegetables are forced may in the inter- .
vals be used for mushroom culture with very good results, providing the’
temperature be congenial, and that the young mushrooms are slightly. pro-
tected with soil as soon as they appear.—The American Garden.

Asparagus.—<A writer in the Massachuselts Ploughman says: I desire to
impress upon the attention of our farmers the importance of using asparagus
more largely as a luxury of the table. It is more rarely to be found in coun-
try gardens than any other esculent, and when found hard to take note of,
as the plat is scarcely bigger than a door mat and furnishes about enough
shoots for one square meal. When an expenditure of two or three dollars
will provide a bed which will last twenty or twenty-five years, and annually
furnish one of the earliest and most delicious vegetables, it seems almost
impossible to account for its being so much neglected by the farming com-
munity. Itis not only an appetizer and a luxury but a very valuable diure-
tic, and especially beneficial to sedentary persons and all who are troubled
with symptoms of gravel. Our best growers make a bunch of sixteen stalks
weigh four pounds. Almost every one who cultivates vegetables knows
how to make an asparagus bed, but the opinions as to its after treatment
are very discordant. For a private family the bed should not be less than
five feet wide and twenty feet long. Dig out the ground two, or better,
three feet deep, and fill up with chips, sawdust or sticks of wood Bien

BORN eee! AMM] daa SS Noe Seg Pa Peo ee

THE GARDEN. | 87
close together five or six inches from the bottom. Put on this six inches of
_the strongest stable manure, and fill up to the top with manure and dirt,
about half and half. The whole space need not be dug out at once, but the
- bed can be made in the usual mode of trenching. The roots may now be
put in over the entire bed ten inches apart, or in single rows two feet apart,
and ten inches plant from plant, and then covered with rich soil about three
inches deep, and over the whole a peck of salt and a peck of ashes mixed to-
gether, sown.

Aspar agus, being a marine plant requiring salt and alkalies for fertilizers,
needs in most loéalities an annual supply of these materials, though culti-
vators living within the influence of the sea-coast say they can find no bene-
fit in using salt. The beds,-of course, are to be kept clean at ail times, and
an abundant supply of liquid manure from the stable or washroom during
the summer will be found the best method of manuring. The ordinary
method of after culture in this country is to let the stalks grow until Novem-
ber, then cut them down. Cover the bed with coarse manure, and in the
spring fork itin. In France the stems are cut down to about thirteen inches.
In England they do as we, cutting down to the ground, but uncovering the
stools, so as to leave on only a very slight covering of soil. Now, for small
gardens in which asparagus is grown for family use, I doubt the propriety ot
cutting down the stalks in the fall, and consider it the best plan to let them
stand until spring, and then put on the bed all the old pea-brush or other
loose dry material, and burn them and the stalks together, and the ashes
will furnish all the manure required, and the bed go on improving indefi-
nitely. The practice of the Romans was to ‘‘burn the haulm in its own
place.” And later authorities say, ‘‘Cut the dry tops close early in the
spring, spread and burn them evenly on the ground, hoe and rake the beds

_over, and you will have large crops for twenty-five years.” Not far from my
residence is an asparagus-bed which the present owner, now an octogenarian,
helped make more than half a century ago. The only manuring it has re-
ceived for the latter half that period is the annual spring burning of the
stalks and refuse material on the bed, and it is not only vigorous, but im-
proving, sending up new shoots to fill the vacant places occasioned by too
late cutting. If this practice works well in Berkshire, where the frost de-
scends to the depth of several feet, and asparagus-beds are not injured,
though covered with nothing but the haulms, during such a winter as last,
when the white mantle of snow was wanting, it would seem to be adapted to
any climate.

The greatest injury to beds of aspar agus is cutting too late. Cut all the
shoots at a suitable age up to the 20th of June. Always cut below the sur-
face. In Spain, previously to the cutting, the bed is covered lightly with
dead leaves to the depth of about six or eight inches, and the cutting does
not commence till the plants peep through this covering. In France the
cultivators form over each stool a conical lump of soil, like a large mole-hill,
ten to twelve inches high, in early spring or soon as the ground is dry, and
the asparagus is gathered when it pushes an inch or two above the hills. In
the climate of Paris the cutting is never prolonged beyond the middle of
June. The experience of nearly all who grow this vegetable is, that if some
shoots are not allowed to go to seed, the plants will soon become weakened,
and die.

Celery.—Our manner of treating the celery crop of late years is very
much simplified, says Mr. Peter Henderson. Instead of sowing the seed in

Rares? ea ay aoe ek : SRY tit

iia os nba d tte
haat Skt eS
mo geese

86 THE FARM.
‘a hot-bed or cold frame, as practiced in Europe, it is sown in the opeii

ground, as soon as it is fit to work, in April, and kept carefully clear of

weeds until the time of planting, in June and July. In our warmer climate,

if raised in hot-beds, as in England, a majority of the plants would run to

seed. The tops are shorn off once or twice before planting, so as to insure

‘“stocky ” plants, which suffer less on being transplanted.

After the ground has been nicely prepared, lines are struck out on the
level surface, three feet apart, and the plants set six inches apart in rows.
If the weather is dry at the time of planting, great care should be taken that
the roots are properly ‘‘ firmed.” Our custom is to turn back on the row,
and press by the side of each plant gently with the foot. This compacts the
soil, and partially excludes the air from the roots until new rootlets are
formed, which will usually be in forty-eight hours, after which all danger is
over. This practice of pressing the soil closely around the roots is essential
in planting of all kinds, and millions of plants are annually destroyed by its
omission. After the planting of the celery is completed, nothing further is
to be done for six or seven weeks, except running through between the rows
with the cultivator or hoe, and freeing the plants of weeds, until they get
strong enough to crowd them down. This will bring us to about the middle
of August, by which time we have usually that moist and cold atmosphere
essential to the growth ot celery. Then we begin the ‘‘ earthing up ” neces-
sary for the blanching and whitening of that which is wanted for use during -
the months of September, October, and November. The first operation is
that of ‘‘ handling,” as we term it; that is, after all the soil has been drawn
up against the plant with the hoe, it is further drawn close around each
plant by the hand, firm enough to keep the leaves in an upright position and
prevent them from spreading. This being done, more soil is drawn against
the row (either by the plow or hoe, as circumstances require), so as to keep |
the plant in this upright position. The blanching process must, however,
be finished by the spade, which is done by digging the soil from between the
rows, and banking it up clear to the top on each side of the row of celery.
Three feet is ample distance between the dwarf varieties, but when larger
sorts are used the width of the rows must be at least four and a half or five
feet.

An Easy Method of Blanching Celery.—The common and laborious
process of earthing up and winter storage of celery is doubtless a great ob-
stacle in the way of its culture by many busy farmers. The Country Genile-
man suggests this easy method of blanching, which does away altogether
with the necessity of trenches or banking, at least for moderate supplies:
*‘Tf intended for winter blanching, about the middle of November they are
taken up on a dry day and placed in water-tight troughs or other vessels in
a quite dark cellar, the plants standing erect and closely together. Enough
water is poured on the roots to cover them, and the supply is continued
through the winter as it evaporates. This constitutes the entire labor. The .
stalks are gradually and handsomely blanched in the darkness, and many
new ones spring up during the winter months, especially if the apartment is
not very cold, and these new shoots are remarkable for their delicacy and
perfect freedom from any particle of rust, appearing like polished ivory. A
small separate apartment in the cellar, without windows, answers well for
this purpose. Boxes, tubs, or any vessels which will hold a few inches of
water may be employed. The plants, as grown in the open ground, need
uot be earthed up at all, or they may be slightly earthed to bring them into

., 5 aaa, a eat ean adh ens MR a Raat atha ie
ai aie Y a, tk nat en

THE GAPDEN. 89

‘@ more compact form, if desired. Probably the best way would be to adopt
the ceurse which is sometimes employed of setting out the plants in summer
on the level surface of deep, rich soil, eight or ten inches or a foot apart each

' way, in order that their close growth may tend to give them a more upright
form. They are merely kept clean by hoeing through the season.

Caulifiower.—The growing of cauliflowers is receiving more attention
than formerly, particularly so the earlier varieties. The crops of Dwarf
Erfurt and Snowball begin to come forward in June, and these, with the
later sorts, are in market almost without intermission until November.
Cauliflowers require very high cultivation, even more so than cabbages, and
plenty of moisture. Whether grown in the kitchen garden or upon a large
scale, the crop is a paying one. The demand is evidently rapidly increasing,
and there is no more delicious vegetable grown.

Cold-frame plants are probably the best and hardiest for early crops; the
frames, however, need rather more protection during cold nights than is re-
quired for cabbage plants. Seeds sown in hot-beds in February will pro-
duce plants that are not much, if any, inferior to cold-frame plants. They
should be transplanted out.once before setting in the open ground, and also
should be gradually hardened by exposure; in this way they may be in con-
dition to set out as early in April as the ground will permit. Set the early
sorts about two feet by fifteen inches, and cultivate the same as cabbages.
Where irrigation is practicable, great advantage is thus obtained during a
drought.

For late cauliflowers, sow seed in open ground, from the middle of May
till the middle of June, in hills, the same as directed for late cabbages.
Thin to one plant in each hill; this avoids the drawbacks resulting from
transplanting in a dry time. When the plants first appear, they are liable to
the attacks of a small black fly; guard against this by frequent dusting with
plaster, which apply in the morning, while the dew is on. When the heads
are forming, tie the leaves together at the top, thus avoiding discoloration by
exposure to the sun.

Tomato Culture.—Perhaps no other garden vegetable, says a com-
petent authority, has grown more or faster in public favor than the tomato.
It is one of the most profitable garden crops, if cultivated right and got into
the market early. I have made tomato culture a special study for the last
six or seven years, endeavoring to grow the best and earliest tomatoes.
I would get all the new varieties I could to test, cultivating them in the best
way according to my knowledge and judgment to make the vines produce
the earliest and nearest perfect fruit. I will give the mode of cultivating
that I have found to be the best and most profitable way as yet.

Start the plants in a hot-bed; sow the seeds in a box large enough to hold
the required number of plants wanted; sow in this box in rows one or two
inches apart the seeds thick, and insert in the hot-bed up to the top. When
the plants have four or six leaves, transplant in another hot-bed four inches
apart. Notice that the beds are the same or near the same temperature.
The transplanting is done to give the plants more room and give them abun-
dance of roots. The plants should be hardened by taking off all cover, or aye
if sash is used raise them of a warm, clear day. When all danger of frost is
past, transplant to the open ground. Break the ground deep and work it
mellow, mixing with the soil all the manure that can be spared from other
crops, for the richer the soil, if it is warm, the better. Mark off the rows
five feet apart; put one or two shovelfuls of rich, well-rotted manure every

”,

a
56 THE FARM, et
three feet in the rows, working it well with the soil, and set the plant somé —
deeper than it was in the bed. Before taking the plants up, wet the bed
thoroughly, and take up as much soil with the plant as you can. Setin cloudy
weather, if you can, if the weather is warm. The least check the plants re-
ceive the better. As soon as they start to grow, begin to cultivate them.
Cultivate the balk or space between the rows, deep and thoroughly, raking
the ground level. Cultivate every three days, if the weather will admit.
Remember, tillage is earliness! Tillage is manure.

As soon as the laterals or suckers appear keep them off. At the second or
third cultivation top-dress the ground with hen manure and work it in the
soil. If you have but little heu manure, just put it around the hills. Keep
the vines nicely and well tied up to stakes. As soon as the fruit begins to
form, go through the vines and keep all imperfect, deformed fruit off and all
laterals. Sell by the number, three to five cents each. Sell to the consumer;
they are the ones to appreciate nice fruit, and will pay for it too.

As soon as the fruit is grown let the suckers alone; they will give you
fruit later. Varieties—Perfection, Paragon; or Acme is very nice, but I pre-
fer the two first.

Training Tomato Plants.—There is no doubt that a greater quantity
of desirable fruit is obtained when the branches of each tomato plant are
elevated on brush or frames, as the fruit is by this means exposed to sun and
air; oftentimes only one stake is employed; any arrangement that brings
about the required exposure and keeps the fruit from the ground will serve
a good purpose.

The maturity of the first fruit that sets may be greatly accelerated by
pinching off the extremities of the tops and the surrounding shoots that
appear. A good rule is to stop side shoots at the first blossom.

A novel method of training the tomato plant appeared in a report of the
Maine Pomological Society. Stakes seven or eight feet long were inserted in
the ground the last of May, three feet apart, in a warm, sheltered location,
and strong tomato plants were procured, which had been started under a
glass and contained one or two blossom buds. These were planted near the
stakes. The plant was then tied to the stake with listing, and all the side
branches which had pushed at the axillar or angles formed by the separation
of the leaves, were pinched or cut out with scissors, so as to compel the plant
to grow on a single stem; and every week during the season, these branches
were removed, and the stems, from time to time, were tied to the stake.
When a sufficient number of clusters had been formed, the remainder were
removed, so as to concentrate the whole energies of the plant to the growth
and ripening of the remaining tomatoes; and the heavier branches were sup-
ported by tying them to the stakes. It was claimed for this method that the
ripening of the fruit was not only hastened, but its size increased.

Late Tomatoes. _—To raise late tomatoes a good plan is to stick into each
watermelon hill a tomato plant. They do not interfere with the former,
and come in after the garden crop gives out. Those coming in late are the
best for canning and putting up for winter use.

Onion Growing.—A successful gardener writes: Let me say to those
who, by reason of repeated failures, have become discouraged, and aban-
doned the growing of onions, that if they will put the following directions in
practice they will be astonished at the result. One of the most important
and first considerations is the soil, for it is of no more use to try on unsuit-

Pi Scie es IM Sgt Sila Mis aR alt

ee en en CARDEN, + O

able soil than it is to ‘‘ spit against the wind,” and if you attempt it you will rt
only ‘‘ get your labor for your pains.” ‘Ehe soil must be clean, rich, and ,

_ light, not a gravelly kind, or one so dry as to suffer from drouth—sandy
loam is the best. Next, the ground should be heavily salted, and this well
worked in before sowing. The sowing should be done in April, and as early
in the month as possible; ‘‘ delay is dangerous.” With a heavy roller, or
the feet, or in some way, the ground in which the seeds lie should be pressed
down quite hard. Weeding should be attended to as soon as you can safely
do so, and as often as the grass (which is the only weed that will be likely
to appear if the ground has been heavily salted) appears and is large
enough to pull (the smaller the better), being careful not to throw earth
upon the onions in any way or at any time during their growth. Follow’ -
these rules, and if weather favors, success is certain, and the weather must
be quite unusual to cause failure. The tops should be left on the bed or
field to rot, or to spade or plow in; and onions improve by being grown on
the same ground year after year. While I believe it to be better to work the
soil up fine for the reception of the seed, and after sowing to press the
ground down hard upon the seed, yet I have known very good crops grown
by making a groove or furrow with a sharp instrument in unplowed ground,
covering the seed with the earth thrown out by the process, pressing it down,
a heavy coat of manure having been applied as a top dressing the fall be-
fore, and raked or burnt off before sowing. Top dressing is a good practice
for onions, whether the land-is plowed or not. Plow shallow if you plow
at all.

A New Method of Raising Onions.—A new method of onion-growing
is strongly recommended by a French horticulturist. Some of the seedlings
in the original bed should be left standing at intervals of about a couple of
inches, and the spaces between them caused by the removal of the rest,
filled in with good garden mold mixed with pigeon’s dung, or ordinary
feces. The beds must be kept well watered, and it is said the resulting
crop will astonish the grower.

Keeping Winter Squashes.—Many farmers are at a loss to know how
some are successful in keeping their squashes in good condition, until May
or June, while they lose most of theirs before the end of February; they -
usually attribute their want of success to causes beyond their control, when
a careful investigation would show that mismanagement was the principal
cause. Squashes to keep well must, first, be well ripened; second, they
should be gathered before heavy frosts come; third, should be well dried;
fourth, the shell should be well glazed over, and while it need not be thick
it should be hard; fifth, they should be kept where the temperature is very
even, never very cold, or very hot; sixth, in handling, great care should be
taken not to bruise them; this is of the highest importance. Many farmers
leave their squashes out until the frost kills the vines; the squashes are
thus left exposed to the cold winds, and they are frequently left until it is
cold enough to freeze water, and change the color of the tops of the
squashes; this is fatal to their good keeping. Others, when they find that
cold weather has come, hurry them in just as night sets in, and in their
haste. to get them under cover, they load them into the wagon as though
they were stones; thus bruising nine out of every ten to a degree that causes
them to rot by Thanksgiving time.

Squashes are often stored in the barn, in one heap, until they get chilled,
when they are carried into a warm, damp cellar, where they soon rot, and

THE FARM,

the owner is at a loss to know the reason. When stored in heaps, if the
storehouse be. dry, the under squashes will send out moisture in such quan-
tities as to keep the whole heap surrounded by moisture. Squashes to keep
well, should not only be kept in a dry atmosphere with a very even tempera-
ture, buat they should be spread on the floor, or on shelves, so that the air
can easily pass between them.

All of the seft shell and unripe squashes should be disposed of as soon
as possible after they are harvested, and only the hard shell and perfectly
ripe ones should be kept for winter; crookneck squashes keep best with
most people; the reason probably is, they are ripe and are handled with
care, and are usually hung up ina dry place. The same treatment of mar-
row squashes would no doubt secure very satisfactory results.

Squash Culture.— A successful raiser of squashes says he manages in
this way: I dig holes as deep as I conveniently can with a hoe, six feet apart,
close by the side of early peas or potatoes. As soon as the weather will per-
mit I stamp a wheelbarrow of unfermented manure in each hole, pour in a
pail of water, and haul over the manure six inches of earth, being careful
that the hill is no higher than the surrounding surface. Plant ten or
twelve seeds in each hill; when they begin to run, thin to two vines in each
hill. The potatoes will be fit for family use before the squashes begin to
run, and can be dug ahead of them, leaving the ground mellow, so that the
squash vines will root at every joint. This is a great saving of ground in a
small garden. Train them all one way.

Experiments in Meion and Squash Culture.—A practical gardener
makes the following statement: ‘‘ Last year, as a test of a frequent practice
among growers of melons and squashes, I pinched the ends of the long main
shoots of the melons, squashes, and cucumbers, and left some to run at their
own will. One squash-plant sent out a single stem reaching more than forty
feet, but did not bear any fruit. Another plant was pinched until it formed
a compact mass of intermingling side-shoots eight feet square, and it bore
sixteen squashes. The present year a muskmelon-plant thus pinched
in, covered the space allotted to it, and it set twenty-three specimens of
fruit; the most of them were pinched cff. The pinching causes many lateral
branches, which latter produce the female or fertile blossoms, while the
main vines produce only the male blossoms. The difference in favor of the
yield of an acre of melons treated by this pinching process may easily
amount to 100 barrels.”

Hints on Melon Culture.—A correspondent at Brighton, Ill., writes to
an agricultural paper: ‘‘ Of course everybody who knows anything at all
about melon culture understands that melons do best on warm sandy land,
but everybody, perhaps, don’t know that I have raised fine melons on heavy
clay soil. I put the land in first-rate condition and fertilize in the hill with
well-rotted barnyard manure. I also raise the hills a few inches above the
level to make the ground warmer and dryer. I never put seed in the ground
until the weather is settled and the svil is dry and warm. I use plenty of
seed, so as to insure a good stand. The very day the vines begin to show
green above ground I begin sprinkling the hills with bone-dust, which opera-
tion I repeat every day “intil they are out of reach of the striped bug, that
foe to melon patches. Now I don’t say that sprinkling with bone-dust is a
‘sure preventive in all cases to the bug, but it has proved a paying- ‘applica-
tion tome. I have had fewer bugs in my melon patth since I began using

r it, and it also acts a8 a tonic to the vines, making them more vigorous. I do
net confine the applications of bone dust to melon vines, but use it where-
ever I fear the striped bugs.”

A New Method of Watermeion Culture.—A correspondent of the
Ruwal New Yorker describes the following method by which an extraor-
dinary crop of watermelons was raised: Holes were dug ten feet apart each
way, eighteen inches square and fifteen inches deep. ‘These holes were filled
with well-rotted manure, which was thoroughly incorporated with the soil.
A low, flat hill was then made and seed planted. When the vines were large
enough to begin to run, the whole surface was covered to the depth of a foot
or fifteen inches with wheat straw. The straw was placed close up around
the vines. No cultivation whatever was given afterward; no weeds or grass
grew. The vines spread over the straw, and the melons matured clean and
nice. The yield was abundant, and the experiment an entire success. This
is surely worth trying.

Boxes for Melons and Cucumbers.—lIt is a good plan to make boxes,
Bay twelve inches square and eight inches high, without bottom or top; these,
placed over the cucumber or melon hills, and covered with grass, give an
impetus to the plants early in the season that nothing short of a hot-bed will
effect. If very early, place a little fresh manure around these boxes to keep
the contents warm. Itis astonishing what an effect this simple contrivance
will produce; and not only is it valuable for protection from the cold weather,
but itis equally valuable as a protection from melon bugs and other predatory
insects that seem to watch for our choicest esculents.

Cucumbers on Treéllises.—No one who has not tried it can have any
idea of the Inxurious growth of a cucumber when trained on a stake, which

has a set of stubby side branches left along its length, and the crop on some ~

so trained was enormous. By this the vines occupy less space, and it is the
natural habit of the cucumber to climb instead of trailing on the ground.

How to Grow Early Cabbages.—A successful gardener writes: I
sow the seeds of the kinds I wish to grow in February or first of March, in
small or shallow boxes, in forcing-pit, hot-bed, or if these are not to be had,
a sunny window of the house will do. The boxes I use are eighteen by
twenty-four inches, three inches deep, made of one-half inch boards. The
kinds of early cabbage I generally raise are Early Jersey Wakefield (best if
pure), Winningstadt, Early Summer and Fottler’s Early Drumhead. The
first two for early, the others for second early. I only treated the tirst two
as above stated; the second early I sowin common hot-beds from the Ist to
the 15th of March. After the seeds sown in boxes are up and about three
inches high, it is necessary to transplant them in other boxes, like those they
were sown in, about one and a half to two inches apart every way; or put
one plant in each pot, and pots close together in boxes, treating the same as
if planted in boxes. Pots are better than boxes, and I use them largely.
About one week or ten days before planting in garden, they must be hard-
ened off by exposing gradually, night and day, in the open air. I set my
plants the end of April or beginning of May. The plants which are in boxes
are taken in the boxes to the part of the garden where the ground is ready
to plant. Plant Wakefield twenty inches in rows and Early Summer the-
same; the other kinds twenty-four inches. The rows should be thirty inches
apart, so that a cultivator can be used, Early radish, lettuce, spinach, etc.,

THE PARM.

can be sown between the cabbage rows, and be out before the cabbage nade
all the room. After cabbage, celery can besown, on the same ground. In
this way other vegetable plants can be raised to advantage. In fact, I have
raised all the following with success: Early cauliflower, early lettuce, early
kohlrabi, early savoy, early celery, early beet, early tomatoes, early
cucumbers and early squashes.

Fertilizer for Cabbage.—‘‘T find,” says a writer in the New England
Homestead, ‘‘ that cabbage needs more hoeing and stirring of the soil than
almost any other crop. Neither do I approve of too much stable manure,
except for an early crop, for it has a tendency to dry the soil and does not
furnish potash enough. I had much rather have tobacco stems or stalks, cut
up fine and plowed under broadcast, with some chemicals in the drill, for a
medium or late crop. As to chemicals, whether to be used alone or in com-
bination with other manures, I recommend .this formula as being best and
cheapest, which every farmer must make for himself: Two hundred pounds
of dry ground fish, two hundred pounds of bone meal dissolved in sulphuric
acid, two hundred pounds castor pomace and one hundred pounds of
muriate potash, or more if the potash salts (kainit) are used. The fish and
castor pomace furnish ammonia in quick and slow forms; the bone, phos-
phoric acid; while the potash is very necessary to a cabbage crop. A ton of
this mixture costs about #40, and is sufficient for an acre with light manuring,
or half the quantity if manure is used liberally. This is the. best cabbage
grower I have found. With it and tobacco stalks, used as described, I raised
cabbages that weighed over twenty pounds. One dozen, as they were taken
to market, weighed over two hundred pounds.”

Novel Method of Growing Cabbages.—A novel plan for setting
celery and cabbage plants which has several desirable points to reeommend
it, is to place them between the rows of your potatoes or sweet corn after the
last hoeing. The growing corn or potatoes will afford a partial shade which
is very desirable at the time of setting the young plants and until they get
fully established, and yet ripen and can be removed in time for them to
occupy the ground as a second crop. Two crops on one piece of ground
with ten dollars’ worth of labor and manure will afford more pee than one
crop on which five dollars are expended.

Parsley.—No garden is complete without a parsley bed, and nothing
looks prettier or more ornamental. It is not only useful in soups, but for
garnishing dishes of meats and vegetables it cannot be surpassed. ‘The only
objection to it is its slow germination. Asa small bed of parsley is sufficient
for a family garden, the labor necessary to its cultivation is trifling, as the
attention to a few square yards of ground can hardly be considered an
encroachment upon regular work. It is a native of Sardinia and loves warm
weather, but owing to the length of time required for the seeds to germinate,
M should be sown very early. It the seed is soaked for twenty-four hours
in warm water, previous to sowing, they will sprout in shorter time, or, what
is better, mix them with earth dampened with warm water, and keep near
the stove in a box until the seeds burst. The earth in the box should not
be allowed to become dry from evaporation, but the moisture should be
kept by frequent additions of warm water, care being observed not to have it
too wet. The ground should be very rich, with well-rotted manure if any
is used, spaded deep and fine, and well raked, in order that not the smallest
lump or stone may remain. Then sow the seed in rows, mixed with radish,

TRE Ry ee EM eT Ln wT oe
ag eth aS ea Sc tN aa

PHRE GARDEN. 65
and cover lightly. As the radish will soon push through and show the
rows, the grass can be kept down with the hand.

Spinach.—Spinach, though an aristocratic crop on some accounts, may
become also the one crop of the masses for early use, if they will only grow
it. And this is the way: Wheel some manure upon the patch where your
early garden peas were, spade the ground thoroughly, mark it off in drills
eighteen inches apart and an inch or so deep, and sow to spinach. That is
all there is to it. Sow the seed thickly in the rows, and when it has attained
sufficient size to thin out, what a delicious dish of ‘‘ greens” you will have

this fall, at a season, too, when, although green things are generally no rarity, —
yet, because of their extreme delicacy and lusciousness, you will esteem.

them a great and rare treat. Then with the on-coming of freezing ground,
cover with straw or litter of any kind. Let this remain till after the-frost is
out of the ground in the spring, when it may be taken off, and, with the first
tulips of your flower garden, you will also have spinach greens for your din-
ner—a most delicious and healthy dish. Moreover, if you do happen to haye
more than you want, just take them to the village market, and see how
readily you can sell the surplus. Perhaps, indeed, you may thus establish
- quite a profitable local trade in this delicious crop. Try it.

' Poles for Beans and Other Climbers.— White birches and alders so
commonly used for bean poles, are about the poorest, for they last only one
season at the best, and sometimes break off at the surface of the ground, and
let down the beautiful pyramid of green before the pods are ripe.- White
cedar from the swamps is durable, and the rough bark enables the vines to
climb without any help from strings, but these are not always accessible.
Red cedar is much more widely distributed, and on the whole makes the
best bean pole. The wood is as durable as the white cedar, and young trees,
from which poles are made, grow quite stout at the ground, and, if well set,
will resist very strong winds. A set of these poles will last for a generation.
For bean poles, all the side branches are trimmed off, but for a support for
ornamental climbers, these may be left on. A cedar, six or eight feet high,
with the branches gradually shortened from below, upwards, makes an ex-
cellent support for ornamental vines. One of these, covered with a clematis,
or other showy climber, makes a pyramid of great beauty. Itis well to pre-
pare a supply of poles for beans and other plants before the work is
pressing.

Beets.—fFor beets the soil should be rich, mellow and deep. Plant in
drills about tWwo inches deep and the rows about twelve or fifteen mches
apart. Set the seeds in the drills about two inches apart. For field culture
the rows should be wide enough to admit the horse cultivator and the roots
not nearer than one foot in the rows. The mangel-wurzel beets grow toa
very large size, are coarse and wonderfully productive, making excellent
food for cattle. Those who have never tried the mangels for stock have yet
to learn of their great value for cattle, both for milk and meat. Then, they
are juicy and refreshing, and add to the health and comfort of the animals.
In no way can so much good food be grown as cheaply as in mangels.

The Melon Worm.—The melon worm ( Phakellura hyalinatalis) is about
an inch and a quarter in length when mature, of a light yellowish-green
color, and nearly translucent. The moth is remarkable for its beauty, its
wings being pearly-white bordered with a narrow band of black, its legs and

on!
tye

96 THE FARM. A
body white, and the abdomen terminated with a feather-like tuft tipped with —
white and black. In our accompanying illustration, the chrysalis, worm,
and moth are shown. This worm belongs to the same genus as the pickle
worm (Phakellura mitidalis), the moth of the latter differing from that of
the former in having the ground-work of the wings a bronze-yellow, and
the black border a little broader. =

The melon worm is proving to be, in many parts of the country, a most
destructive enemy to melons, cucumbers, pumpkins, and other cucurbita-
ceous plants. It goes to work in an exceedingly business-like way, making

, skeletons of the plant
leaves or excavating
numerous cavities in
the fruit where it ap-
pears. Sometimes it
forces its way into the
melon until out of
sight, though more
frequently it makes a
shallow cavity an
eighth of an inch or
more in depth, and
in this pursues its
work.

Efficient remedies
for this pest are still
wanting. Paris
green and London
purple would proba-
bly prove effective,
but it is not safe to
use these on account
of their liability to
poison those who eat
the fruit. Pyreth-
rum, or Persian In-
sect Powder, might
prove as effective in
ridding the plants of
the worms, and it has

THE MELON WORM. the advantage of be-

ing entirely harmless

to human beings. Whatever poison is used, it should be applied to both

foliage and fruit, inasmuch as the destruction of the former will prevent the

latter from coming to maturity. Early planting, so that the fruit may be

picked early, or before the destructive brood appears, is a preventive, and if

the worms be destroyed on their first appearance on the foliage before the
fruit begins to form, there will be much less danger to the fruit crop.

Insects on Garden Vegetables.—The most common of these are the
eaterpillars of medium-sized butterflies, the wings of which are white, with
a few black spots; there are three distinct species, but all are similar in
their habits. Wherever these butterflies are seen flitting about over the
cabbage and cauliflower plants, trouble from “worms” may soon be ex-

Cee Aa ott ee Nie Mra ee AAP, fea ws: Nea Mee

poke | THE GARDEN. 97

t

pected. Safety consists in attacking them early. Some worms eat into the
forming head, and when they have thus hidden, nothing can be done, In
small gardens, hand-picking will answer, but where there are many cab-
‘bages, thisis not practicable. The Persian Insect Powder, the Pyrethrum,
is the best, and a safe application. There are in some localities cabbage
worms which come from other butterflies, but they are to be treated in the
same manner. The large green caterpillar, of the five-spotted Sphinx,
known as the ‘‘ Tomato Worm,” is most destructive; it will soon leave no-
thing but bare stems upon a tomato plant, eating the green fruit as well as
the leaves. When the tomatoes are supported by some kind of a trellis, as
they always should be in a garden, worms may be detected by the quantity
of large pellets of droppings found upon the ground. Where these are seen,
the worm should be sought for. Stems without leaves also indicate its pres-
ence. When not eating, it will be found close to the stems, on their under-
side, and as it is of nearly the same color, may escape notice. The
‘“worms” are never very numerous, and hand-picking is the best way
to deal with them. In spite of the horn at the tail-end, they can neither
sting nor bite. Frequently one of these will be found with its body nearly
covered with small egg-shaped white cocoons, often mistaken for eggs.
Worms with these should not be destroyed, as they are too weak to do
much damage, and the parasitic insect should have time to leave these
cocoons, a8 they are our friends, and should be encouraged. The tomato-
worm may sometimes be found on potatoes.—American Agriculturist.

Hot Water on the Garden.—Insecticides are in demand. The
farmer’s first interest is to gain an insecticide that is effective. The next
important point is that it be sufficiently cheap in cost to permit of free use.
Hot water some of the English gardeners accept as a cheap insecticide not pho.
sufficiently appreciated, and capable of more extended employment than is
usually believed. Hot water judiciously applied has been found effective
among American farmers for cabbage worms. In careful hands its appli-
cation, after the cabbage heads begin to form, has not injured the plants,
but has destroyed the bugs. Experiments with hot water on the aphis at
Stoke Newington and reported in the English journals, made it appear that
aphides perish immediately if immersed in water heated to 120 degrees
Fahrenheit. In order to ascertain the degree of heat infested plants could
endure in the dipping process, a number of herbaceous and soft-wooded
plants were immersed in water heated to various degrees above 120. Fuch-
sias were unharmed at 140 degrees and injured at 150 degrees. Pelargo-
niums were unhurt up to 150 degrees, but the slightest rise above that figure +
killed the soft wood and young leaves. Ferns, heliotropes, petunias, be-
gonias, mignonette and many other plants of soft texture were unhurt by
being dipped in water at 140 degrees, but the slightest rise above that point
proves detrimental. Roses grown in pots for market were kept clean by
dipping in water at 120 degrees without injury to the plants and every aphis
destroyed.

Gas Tar as a Remedy for Bugs.—<A correspondent of the Chicago T7i-
bune says: ‘‘ For the last five years I have not lost a cucumber or a melon
vine or a cabbage plant. Get a barrel with a few gallons of gas tar in it;
pour water on the tar; always have it ready when needed, and, when the
bugs appear, give them a liberal drink of the tar water from a garden
sprinkler or otherwise, and, if the rain washes it off and they return, re-
peat the dose. It will also destroy the Colorado potato beetle, and frighten

ae 2 et ee ee i oe one, >a. 7 ae
HBL Ae pep han Rak es lane ASR Oh a na PT ae ee ee

i) eae ; THERE FARM... .
the old long potato bug worse than a threshing with a brush. Five years
ago this summer both kinds appeared on my late potatoes, and I watered

. with the tar water. The next day all Colorados that had not been protected

- from the sprinkler were dead, and the others, their name was legion, were
all gone, and I have never seen one on the farm since. I am aware that ©
many will look upon this with indifference, because it is so simple and cheap
aremedy. Such should always feed their own and their neighbors’ bugs, as
they frequently do.”

Remedy for the Green Fly.—A writer in the Deutsche Zeitung states
that he last year had an opportunity of trying a remedy for destroying green
fly and other insects which infest plants. It was not his own discovery, but
he found it among other recipes in some provincial paper. Thestems and
leaves of the tomato are well boiled in water, and when the liquid is cold it
is Syringed over plants attacked by insects. It at once destroys black or
green fly, caterpillars, etc.; and it leaves behind a peculiar odor, which pre-
vents insects from coming again for a long time. The author states that he
found this remedy more effectual than fumigating, washing, etc. Through
neglect a house of camelias had become almost hopelessly infested with
black lice, but two syringings with tomato plant decoction thoroughly
cleansed them.

To Destroy Bugs on Vines.—To destroy bugs on squash and cucum-
ber vines, dissolve a tablespoonful of saltpetre in a pailful of water; put one
pint of this around each hill, shaping the earth so that it will not spread
much, and the thing is done. Use more saltpetre if you can afford it—it is
good for vegetable, but death to animal life. The bugs burrow in the earth
at night and fail to rise in the morning. It is also good to kill the “‘ grub” in
peach trees—only use twice as much, say a quart to each tree. There was 2
not a yellow or blistered leaf on twelve or fifteen trees to which it was
applied last season. No danger of killing any vegetable with it—a concen-
trated solution applied to beans makes them grow wonderfully.

Protecting Young Plants.—The striped bug is very destructive to
young plants, especially of vines. It is almost impossible to get a stand of :
early cucumbers, on account of this pest. A writer in one of our exchanges
states that a good protection is secured by cutting a sheet of cotton wadding
into nine equal pieces, and then spliting them, making eighteen, at a cost for
all of only four cents. These are placed over the hills before the plants are
up, the corners held down with small stones. They are elastic and stretch
as the plants grow. The bug cannot get through them. They are also some
protection against frost.

A Valuable Mixture.—<A valuable mixture to keep on hand is one of coal
ashes, sulphur and hellebore. The ashes should be very fine. It is best
after passing them through the ordinary coal-ash sieve. To one pailful of
ashes thus sifted, add a quart each of flour of sulphur and hellebore, and
mix together. For currant worms, plant lice, cabbage fleas, slugs on pear
trees, melon bugs, we found this so effectual that we confidently recommend
it. It is always best to use it in the cool of the morning while the dew is
upon the leaf.

To Get Rid of Grubs.—The carrot crop is rendered useless in many
gardens by grubs eating into the roots. This takes place in many well-man-
aged gardens. The best remedy is to scatter a quantity of soot and lime

THE GARDEN. 99

over the surface of the ground before forking it over for the carrots. This
works it into the ground, and keeps the soil free from all sorts of grubs for
the whole season. The next best way is to sow the lime and soot between
the rows and hoe it into the ground.

Coal Ash Walks for the Garden.—Good, sound, dry walks are a
necessity in all garden grounds, in order that the work in them may be car-
ried on with comfort during all weathers, and although there is nothing like
good gravel for walks in pleasure g grounds, it frequently happens that, from _
the difficulty of getting gravel in quantity within a reasonable distance, the
kitchen garden walks have to be made of what is most abundant. After try-
ing all sorts of materials in different counties, it was found that nothing
makes a better path than ashes. The way in which we use them is to form
grass verges one foot wide and about one foot deep. In the bottom of the
walk are put brickbats, stones, or other rubbish. On these a good layer of
clinkers is spread, and broken down tolerably fine, when a good coating of
ashes is spread evenly over the surface, and rolled down. These form one
of the pleasantest paths on which to walk, wheel, or cart that it is possible to
have. Weeds are not troublesome, for the material has been cleaned by
passing through the furnace, and if a few seeds blow on to the surface and
germinate they can be easily removed.

Club Root in Cabbage.—M. Waronin, an authoritative microscopic”
botanist of Europe, who has given particular attention to destructive insects,
and especially to those predatory in the cabbage, finds that the abnormal
growth on the roots, which he denominates club root, but whichis known in
the United States as club foot, is caused by a minute fungus, to which he has
given the name of Plasmodiophora brassice. Thin sections of the diseased
portions reveal the fungus with its spores, under the higher powers of the
microscope. As the spores are exceedingly numerous, the soil becomes in-
fested with them, and communicates the trouble to plants upon the same
soil next year. A diseased crop should not be followed by cabbage again.
Only healthy plants should be set. An application of lime to the soil has
proved of benefit, and from the nature of the trouble, he thinks, the use of
sulphur would be useful.

Soil for Sugar Beets.—The beet requires a deep, permeable soil, for
its roots penetrate deeply into the ground and are abundantly supplied with
fine fibers through which it receives its nourishment. If the soil does not
permit the root to grow down deeply the top will be forced to grow above the
‘ground, and the crown which grows out of ground is nearly worthless for
sugar purposes. A deep, sandy loam is the best soil to produce beets rich
in sugar. They will, however, grow on a variety of soils, and any soil which
will plow and subsoil to the depth of twelve or fifteen inches is a good beet
soil. Avoid all wet lands and muck bottoms as unsuitable. Beets will not
flourish on wet lands, and what grow are not sweet. Muck bottoms produce
large tops but small roots with little sugar in them.

Sulphur and Tobacco.—A mixture of sulphur and_ finely ground
tobacco, two parts of the former to one of the latter, has been found an ex-
cellent preventive of the ravages of insects on squash and other vines, as
well as for keeping lice from cattle, dogs and poultry. It is also recom-
mended for sprinkling trees and bushes that are eaten by canker worms or
~ eurrant worms,

-

joo pte FARM.

Cultivation of Tobacco.—To raise tobacco, select a sheltered situatioti;
where the young plants can receive the full force of the sun; burn over the
surface of the ground early in spring (new land is best), rake it well, and
sow the seeds; have a dry, mellow, rich soil, and after a shower, when the
plants have got leaves the size of a quarter-dollar, transplant as you would
cabbage plants, three and one-half feet apart, and weed out carefully after-
ward. Break off the suckers from the foot-stalks, as they appear; also the
tops of the plants when they are well advanced, say about three feet high,
except those designed for seed, which should be the largest and best plants.
The ripeness of tobacco 1s known by small dusky spots appearing on the
leaves. The plants should then be cut near the roots, on the morning of a
day of sunshine, and should lie singly to wither.. When sufficiently with-
ered, gather them carefully together, and hang them up under cover to cure
and prepare for market.

Starting Plants Early.—aA writer on gardening gives the following
hints on starting tender seeds, such as tomatoes, squashes, melons, and the
like: ‘‘ It is desirable in transplanting not to check the growth by disturbing
the roots. A good way to avoid this is to scrape out turnips, fill them with
good soil and plant in two or three seeds, setting them in a warm, light
place, and keeping them moist. When the weather is suitable, place these
ut in the garden.at the proper depth. The turnip will decay and the plant
will thrive unchecked if properly cared fur. Do not use potatoes instead of
turnips. Another method is to get squares of sod, say six inches wide, from
good, mellow soil, turn them bottom up, and put such seeds as squash,
melon or sweet corn, and treat them in the same way, not putting out till
the weather is quite warm, and then protecting against bugs. For more
delicate plants, flowers, etc., make little square paper boxes out of thin
writing paper, or thick newspaper, merely folding them at the corners as
you would the paper in»covering a book, and tacking them with a needle
and thread; make them about three inches square and two deep. Fill with
good soil; start the seeds and put them out at the proper time, boxes and
all, without disturbing the roots. If you fear the paper is too strong for the
roots to penetrate, cut carefully on the bottom of the box the shape of a
cross, and all will be well.”

Seeds for Small Gardens.—People who grow largely for market know,
as a part of their business, how many garden seeds to sow, but this is not
always.the case with the man or woman who has but a small garden. For
these we give the following: Asparagus, bed of 15 square yards, 1 pint.
Beet, row 50 feet, 2 ounces. Cabbage, bed of 8 square yards, 1 ounce.
Carrots, drill of 120 feet, 2 ounces. Carrots, bed of 12 square yards, 2
ounces. Celery, 4 square yards, 1 ounce. Endive, 4 square yards, 1 ounce.
Bush beans, row 80 feet, 1 pint. Leek, 2 square yards, 1 ounce. Lettuce, 4
square yards, 1 ounce. Onions, 9 square yards, 2 ounces. Parsley, row 80
teet, one and a half ounces. Parsnip, drill of 200 feet, 2 ounces. Peas,
early, row 60 feet, one and a half pints. Peas, large, late, row 80 feet, oue
and ahalf pints. Potatoes, row 30 feet, half peck. Radishes, 4 square
yards, one anda half ounces. Spinach, 10 square yards, 2 ounces. Spinach,
drill of 120 feet, 2 ounces. Turnip, 4 square yards, 1 ounce.

Asparagus as a Lawn Plant.—<A friend suggests a very good idea as
to asparagus: ‘‘ Of course the old plan of sticking the plants in close beds is —

all wrong. There are many bits of fine soil in gardéns, even the so-called

Se tear

‘ie PHE GARDEN. tot

pleasure grounds and hardy plant’ borders, where a strong clump of the
common asparagus would be a great ornament, as well as of use. I shall
_ plant a hundred or more good clumps ef asparagus in our borders here,
partly for its tender shoots in spring, partly for its spray for cutting during
the summer and autumn months, but mainly for its feathery grace as a
beautiful, hardy plant. In many a villa garden, even where good asparagus
may never be seen raised in the ordinary way, a capital supply could be ob-
tained by simply dotting a few plants here and there in borders, and on the
margins of shrubberies, not only as single specimens, but as groups and
masses —never, however, nearer to each other than four feet.”

Training Tomatoes.—A housewife, who vouches for the success of her
plan, makes these suggestions for tomato training: ‘‘ When the plants are
ready for the garden, make a considerable hill of good compost. Chip ma-
nure is excellent, and a quantity of chicken manure is good. After the hill
is made, drive a long stake through it. This may be six feet high. Set the
plant near it. The training will require attention. The plant will immedi-
ately begin to sucker, or throw outside shoots, just above each leaf. These
must be cut off, and then the plant will run up vigorously. Tie it to the
stake, and do not be afraid to use the knife. Keep on cutting each stem
that appears in the axil of a leaf, and keep on tying. The first bearing
branches come directly from the body of the plant. Remember that this
trimming must be continued as long as the plant bears. Thus trained, the
fruit is superior in size, quantity, and flavor, besides being less liable to rot
or drop off.”

Bending Down Onions.—Many old truck farmers have caused surprise
to lookers-on at their work,.to see them bending over their onion tops. The
time to do this is when some begin to'show signs of flowering. The method
is thus explained: ‘This operation may be done by the hand, but time is

saved by two persons each holding one‘of the ends of a pole in such a man-_

ner as to Binike the stems an inch or two above the bulbs. This is called
‘laying over,’ and is of great benefit to all crops of onions, as the growth of
the stems is thereby nich checked, and the whole nourishment thrown
into the bulbs. Itis an old practice in family gardens, and has never failed
to give satisfactory results.”

Early Cucumbers and Meions.—TFor early melons or cucumbers many
plant the seeds on inverted sods cut about four inches square. The sods
are placed in a frame of any kind, and covered to the depth of half an inch
with mellow, rich earth. The plants root firmly in these sods the same as
they would in small flower-pots, and may safely be transplanted as soon as
the weather becomes settled and warm. For melons this is an excellent
plan, since our seasons are scarcely long enough to ripen them before the
cool nights of autumn, when the seeds are planted in the ground in the
usual way.

Benefits of Hoeing.—Any one passing along where there are gardens
can nearly always find evidences of the benefits of a constant stirring of the
soil. The man who cultivates continually has always a better crop than has
the one who is satisfied with a hard surface. The benefits from a loose soil
are, in fact, so great as What many a load of manure gives. Those who have
flower-beds know how much better plants grow when the ground is stirred.
In the growing season all the rain that falls is needed by the crops, and a
_ loose soil keeps the rain which the hard ground allows to run off.

a scale aii’ aa es Meh ee

102 | THE FARM. oC

New Ideas in Asparagus Culture.—Gardeners eaioealts are bepinniny
to adopt the practice of giving at least one yard distance between the plants
in making new plantations of asparagus. They have found that the roots
run horizontally, and not directly downward, and, therefore, that it is not
advisable to continue the old practice of digging down two or three feet for a
narrow bed, to be filled with manure mixed with soil, on which plants are to
be set only a foot apart. Large shoots of asparagus an inch in diameter
cannot be had by such treatment.

Substitute for Bean Poles.—A New England farmer says: ‘‘ In my own
gardening I have found a most satisfactory substitute for bean poles, which
‘latter are not only expensive, but a source of trouble and care. I planta
- sunflower seed by each hill of beans, the stock answering the same purpose
as the ordinary bean pole, besides providing an excellent feed for my poul-
try. I have been using for this purpose a mammoth variety of sunflower
seed, many of the flowers of which measured fifteen inches across the seed
bed.

Potato Juice as an Insect Destroyer.—As an insect destroyer the
juice of the potato plant is said to be of great value; the leaves and stems
are well boiled in water, and when the liquid is cold it is sprinkled over
plants attacked with insects, when it at once destroys caterpillars, black and
green flies, gnats, and other enemies to vegetables, and in no way impairs
the growth of the plants. A peculiar odor remains, and prevents insects
from coming again for a long time.

To Force Radishes.—Radishes may be grown in a few days by the fol-
lowing method: Let some good radish seed soak in water for twenty-four
hours, and then put them in a bag and expose to'the sun. In the course of
the day germination will commence. The seed must then be sown in a well-
manured hot-bed, and watered from time to time in lukewarm water. By
this treatment the radishes will, in a very short time, acquire quite a large
bulk, and be very good to eat.

Culture of Sugar-Beets.—The best sugar-beet, when properly grown,
should be conical, and with a single tap-root. To grow such beets the soil
should be deep, mellow, free from stones, and abundantly rich. A deep,
sandy loam, with plenty of vegetable matter, may be expected to produce,
with clean culture, a profitable crop of sugar-beets. A strong clay is not
suitable, neither is a soil that is low and naturally wet and cold.

Weeds on Gravel Walk#—Weeds on gravel walks may be destroyed
and prevented from growing again by a copious dressing of the cheapest
salt. This is a better method than hand-pulling, which disturbs the gravel
and renders constant raking and rolling necessary. One application early in
the season, and others as may be needed, while the weeds are small, will
keep the walks clean and bright.

Water Necessary to Cauliflower. gentleman in Colorado informs
us that by irrigation he grew cauliflower-heads four feet three inches in cir-
cumference. Cauliflower is fond of water, and we have seen large planta-
tions on the continent of Europe that were regularly watered ore evening
except during rainy weather.

Pere en ay tN, De el oe ety
Ie “ Mars) qo

ORCHARD AND VINEYARD.

Pruning—Making the Cut.—In pruning branches from trees with the
knife, the method of making the cut is a matter of some importance. We
have had some illustrations made,
showing several ways, often fol-
lowed, which are wrong, and the
one which is right; a shows the
right method of making the cut, at
an angle of about forty-five degrees,
and having the bud at the back in
the best position for throwing new
bark and wood quickly over the
wound; 6 shows too. much of the
wood cut away, leaving the bud ex-
posed and liable to die by drying or
freezing; c, this cut was started
right, but, owing to a dull knife or
want of firmness in the hand, the
cut was made too sloping. This
will not heal over so quickly as the cut at a; d,e, and f are all wrong; the
wood above the bud dying will cause knots and perhaps decay. Crooked
limbs will also result from these ways of cutting.

Pruning Decid:aou; Trees.—.As a general rule, the less shade trees are
pruned the better. Nature will
form a better top and a more har-
monious tree in all its parts than
art. Severe pruning is no longer
practiced, even in fruit orchards,
by our best horticulturists. The
custom that formerly prevailed of
pruning evergreens and other
trees, so as to make top-shaped,
ovate, and other fantastic tops, is
no longer regarded as good taste.
If you want a tree with a low-
spreading top, plant one that grows
that way. If you want an ovate or
pyramidal top, plant a tree that will
make such a top, but do not at-
tempt to force trees to assume dif-
ferent forms from those which nature gives them. Each tree treated in this
way is a standing lie, and proclaims to every passer-by the folly of its owner.

The true idea is to make each species assume, as nearly as possible, the
typical form of that species. To do this, some pruning is sometimes neces-
sary. Ifthe trees are not crowded—if each one has room enough for the air

THE FARM.
and sunlight to have free access to it on all sides, it will round out and de-
velop its full proportions, and if it does not actually attain it, will approxi-
mate its typical form. Where the lower limbs are in the way, of course they
must be sacrificed; but where they are not, leave them, and you will have a
finer and more thrifty tree. Ifa limb, as is often the case with the elm in
our dry soil, extends beyond the rest, absorbing the strength and destroying
the symmetry of the tree, it should be cut back while yet small.

The soft maple often throws out limbs that have no firm attachments to -
the body, and they will sooner or later split off; these should be removed
while small. The idea of cutting back the top of a soft maple, or any other
tree, to prevent it from becoming top heavy, is fallacious; it relieves for the
time, but makes it worse afterward. If a soft maple, as some of them will
do, breaks bodily, and continues to do so, it is better to remove it and plant
another in its place. Severe pruning lowers the vitality of any ordinary tree,
making it less able to bear the drouth and heat of summer and the cold of
winter, and leaving it an easy prey to borers and other noxious insects,

As a strong man is able to resist disease, so a vigorous tree is able to re-
sist the attacks of its enemies, while a feeble one succumbs. ~

So far as possible all limbs should be removed while small. It is rarely
necessary to cut a large limb from a tree that has been properly cared tor.

The Best Time to Prune Fruit Trees.—-The correct principles which
underlie the pruning of fruit trees are probably as imperfectly understood
as any other point in fruit-growing. Most people prune in the spring, some
through the winter, others in the summer. Now, after carefully observing
the effects of pruning done at different seasons, I have come to the conclu-
sion that the best time to prune is in early summer, after the first rush of
sap is past, and before the trees have made much growth of new wood.

When trees are pruned in winter, a considerable time must elapse before
the wounds made begin to heal over. During this time the combined action
of the frost and sun are injurious to the newly-cut and exposed wood and
bark, and it will take a longer time to heal over than if the wound was made
at the time when the tree was beginning to make new growth...

When trees are pruned in early spring, the sap is then in a thin, watery
state; it oozes out of the cut, causing premature decay and permanent in-
jury to the tree.

When trees are pruned in early summer, after the rush of thin, watery
sap is past and the tree has fairly commenced to make a new growth, the
wounds will commence at once to heal over. The exposed wood will remain
sound for a longer period than if cut in early spring.

Another very important point in early summer pruning is, it does not
_ check the growth of the tree, as when it is done later in the season.

Some advocate pruning in July and August, but I would only prune then
im cases where the tree was making too much wood growth, which I wanted
to check and throw the tree into a bearing state.

Another very important point in pruning, and yet one which is very much
neglected, is to cover the cuts with some substance to protect them from the
influence of the weatmwer. Common grafting wax, or a mixture of clay and
cow manure, is beneficial; but perhaps the best thing, when it can be got
pure and good, is gum shellac dissolved in alcohol to the consistency of
paint. A protection of this kind 1s always beneficial to newly-pruned trees;
it neutralizes to a great extent the injurious effects arising from prening
trees at an improper season.

Piso ee te

a “, i: = ie \ ys Be 6 ware, a A ee le ae
ETM EEO Bey ce
5 al ook oN re ai x Ae
abe Yo " i ;

~

ORCHARD AND VINEYARD. 105

Pruning Versus Mutilation.—There is, perhaps, no one item in hor-
ticulture about which so little is really understood as the principle which
should govern in the pruning away of limbs and branches from trees. The

following illustration will serve, perhaps, better than a long homily, to
show how we would prune a tree and keep it in condition from year to year,
healthy and productive. Fig. 1 exhibits a tree which has had little or no
pruning; its top branches have become rather crowded, and some seasons
the fruit is not well colored. We take our long stepladder and a pair of good,
strong pruning shears, set our ladder just outside, underneath the limbs,
and with our sharp shears cut away the small spray and limbs that cross one
another and crowd the extremities, 80 as to prevent the sun’s rays penetrat-
ing to the center of the tree. The dark, short marks indicate some of the
cuts that we should make in pruning the tree. Fig. 2, shown on next page,
exhibits the tree as it is often found after the mutilator, not pruner, has
operated upon it. Vandals roam
the country every spring claim-
ing to know how to prune trees.
We hope what we have here said
and illustrated may save at least
one good orchard from this sys-
tem of murderous pruning.

Pruning for Fruit. — By
arresting or removing the little
faults of his children as soon as
they are shown, the wise father
prevents their attaining suchin- ~
veteracy as will not submit to .
correction, but burst out imme-
diately with fresh misdeeds. So
with orchard trees. Itis a great
mistake to let growth run on
without restraint for two or three
years, and to suppose that a
pruning then will set all to rights.
The fundamental rule of the art
is to take away all young shoots
that are not fitted to make per-
manent bearing branches. Re-
move these, the sooner the better, but remove no others. Cutout and sup-
press all wild shoots that issue below the graft, and whose growth would
rob or smother it. Cut out all shoots in the interior of the trees that will not
have light enough in summer for the leaves of any fruit buds that might form
on them, and which could, therefore, not mature into fruitage. Thin the new
growth all over top so that no shoot will shade another or be shaded; those
that are left being such as extend the main bearing branches, which gardeners
call “leaders.” Often a crowding branch can be propped or braced out into
open light, and so two branches be relieved with little or no pruning of either;
with a gain of large fruit-producing area. One other case must be noted:
that of a tree exhausted so much as to be covered with fruit buds and mak-
ing no new shoots. A tree in health should make new shoots every year all
_ over the top, at least eight inches long. If it does less, the soil is poor,
or the roots are robbed or dried, or the stem is injured and cannot carry the

PRUNING.—FIG. 1.

Nala ee Ra IC hy
alt Tile a oF arts Le ge:

106 | eae OP RM Oe

ap, or the wood of the top has become unsound. The thing to be done then
is to cut back the top, reducing it largely, to give the exhausted system less
to do and more chance to recover. The vexed question of even and odd
years, or fruitful and barren ones in alternation, which is so important to
growers of Baldwins, Greenings, and some other winter sorts is solved most
easily by a resolute thinning in the winter preceding the fruitful years, so as
to reduce the bearing, and increase the wood and bud forming. for the next
year.

Pruning Peach Trees.—<A fruit tree overloaded with fruit is very
unsatisfactory to its owner. The fruit itself is of no more value than half
the quantity of a better size. Then, too, the tree is often injured, so much
so as to cause it to lose a
year or two recovering. It
is better to be satisfied with
a small quantity of fruit,
and this judicious pruning
brings about. The Prairie
Farmer advocates the fol-
lowing system of pruning
peach trees: ‘‘The main
branches of a young tree
should be, early in spring,
cut back to eighteen inches,
being careful to leave on
them any sub-branches
near'their base. The next
spring the resulting, or
next crop of branches,
should be cut back in about
the same way, and sub-
branches half of them cut
clear away, leaving every
other one, and those not cut
away cut back one-third or
one-half. The summer after

SSS this the trees should give a
ZEISS splendid crop of fine fruit
PRUNING.—FIG. 2. that will need no thinning.
The after cutting back and
pruning should be after the same general plan, thinning out and cutting back
the upper and outer branches, but never thinning out the small branches
near the base of the large branches, except as above. As the trees grow
older it will be necessary to cut back and thin out more, year by year, and,
eventually, it will be necessary to cut back half the nrain branches near
their base at some point just above where a thrifty young twig is growing,
so as to form a vigorous head.”

Ny

ue 7
Vv, \

j ‘
Nat eh aa ga
\ \Y
Wal

NX

IAN

Necessary Precautions After Pruning.—After pruning the orchard,
care should be taken to clean up and burn all the brush before the embryo
insects harboring in it have time to mature. The loose bark should also be
scraped off and burned, and every cluster of the eggs of the tent caterpillar
be removed betimes and cast into the fire. Attention to these matters will
save a great deal of yexation and loss,

&

ee ORCHARD AND VINEYARD. 107
Grafting Apple Trees.—Apple trees may be grafted in spring, any time
after severe cold weather is past, until the leaves are fully formed. There
are many different methods of grafting
in vogue among nurserymen and or-
chardists, but for large trees in the or-
chard, what is called cleft grafting is
the one usually practiced. In per-
forming the operation, the main stem,
if not more than an inch or two in di-
ameter, or a branch, or any number of
them on a large tree, is sawed off, and
the portion remaining is split down-
ward two inches or more with a large
knife or chisel, being careful not to
bruise or break the bark. Thenacion
from a tree which we desire to propa-
gate is cut, with two or three buds
upon it, as shown in Fig. 1, the lower
end being cut on each side, forming a
long, slender wedge. The cleft in the
stock may be held open with a small
hard wood or iron wedge, driven in
the center. When the cions are pre-
pared, insert one on each side of the
cleft, as is shown in Fig. 2, being care-
ful to have the outside of the wood of
both cion and stock exactly even, and
then withdraw the wedge, and the
stock will grasp and hold the cions
firmly in place. The end of the stock
and the side clefts should then be
carefully covered with grafting wax,
for the purpose of excluding air and
water. To prevent the grafting wax
sticking to the fingers of the operator,
a little piece of tallow or other kind of
grease may be applied to the hand and
fingers each time, before taking hold SAREE
of the wax. Wah Fig. 1.
When cions are to be taken from
trees in the same orchard or neighbor-
hood, they may be cut and inserted
the same day, even if somewhat ad-
vanced in growth of buds; but, as a
rule, the cions should be taken from
the trees before the buds begin to
swell in spring, and then put in a cool
cellar and rolled in damp moss cloth,
or buried in earth, where their growth
will be retarded. Grafting trees is a very simple operation, and almost any
Soy who can whittle a stick can readily learn how to perform it successfully.
Make a clean smooth cleft in the stock, and use a sharp knife in preparing
the cion, and then see that the two join as we have directed, and there is lit-

(GS) {

Ml

FIG. 2,

108 THE FARM.

tle danger of failure if the cions are healthy and in proper condition. Strong,
firm one-year-old wood should be used for this purpose; that which is about
one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch in diameter is the most suitable.

The apple, pear, plum, and cherry may be grafted in the manner we have
described, and by almost any one who will try.

Grafting Wax.—There are a great many recipes given for making
grafting wax, but the following is, in our opinion, the best: To four pounds
of resin and one of beeswax add one pint of linseed oil; put in an iron pot,
heat slowly, and mix well. Pour into cold water, and pull by hand until it
assumes a light color; work into sticks, and put into a cool place until
wanted. In using, oil the hands, work the wax until soft, and press it tightly
around the graft and over the cracks, Ifthe day be warm, it is better to oc-
casionally moisten the hands
with water.

Grafting the Wild
Cherry.—The common
black cherry regarded as
*‘ wild” can be grafted with
other and best varieties as
easily as cherries usually
are. Many of these trees,
which produce the poorest
kind of fruit, can all be top
grafted, and may be made
to yield an abundance of ex-
cellent fruit. Only healthy
trees should be selected for
grafting, and the cions
should be in the best condi-
tion.

Transplanting Large
Trees.—Many and various
are the reasons for trans-
planting large trees. Many

persons desire to remove
TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES.—FIG. 1. from fhe foresteacieetaaa:

grounds trees of twenty or.

more feet in height for farming, new ornamenting, screens, or shade. Trees
of more than four inches in diameter should be removed with a ball of earth
attached. This operation is easily and safely performed in two different
ways, as the accompanying figures indicate. When the trees are to be re-
moved long distances, the plan used in Fig. 1 should be adopted. First dig
around and loosen the tree, care being taken not to injure the roots by dig-
ging too near the tree. Place the connecting pieces (M) of the standards
(R R) against the tree, to which fasten by ropes winding cloths or matting
about the tree, to prevent breaking the bark. One horse attached to the
rope (B) will easily raise the tree and ball of earth and place it upon the
stone boat or drag (P), upon which it may be transplanted long distances
without injury. It may be removed from this vehicle to the hole prepared
for its reception by the same process.

Auother quite common method is to use the rear wheel and axle of a

I
dl

x i x, LA '
oe De I ee, cctis |

ORCHARD AND VINEYARD. 109
farm wagon. Firmly secure on top of the center of axle a pole (8) twelve
feet in length, the short end projecting from the axle two feet, to which is
secured a short chain with hooks. Loosen the tree as before described;
wind about the tree, close to the ground, matting or old carpet, pass around
a small chain a number of times, into which catch in the hook, and by low-
ering the lever (S) to the ground the tree will assume the position shown in
Fig. 2. The heavy ball of earth keeps the tree in an upright position, and
one man holding the lever, and the other leading the horse, the tree is car-
ried to the place for its reception, and there deposited by raising the lever.

Care of Trees After Transplanting.—Newly transplanted trees that
are not starting properly should receive attention. The first suggestion is
always to pour water on the surface. But little, if any, of this moisture
ever reaches the roots, where it could be beneficial. Experience of late
years has taught our tree planters that when the soil is firmly pressed, so
a3 to come into immediate
contact with all the roots,
and of course stop all air
passages among them, but
little water after planting is
needed. During an exces-
sively dry spell, however,
several deep holes may be
made in the soil by means
of an iron bar, and water
poured in several times;
but in ordinary seasons a
liberal mulch over the sur-
face will answer. The best
restorative for a weakly tree
after transplanting is to
shade the bark, and this
may be done by wrapping a
the body loosely with news- —= =
papers, allowing them to TRANSPLANTING LARGE TR
extend even to the main
branches, if large. Moisture over the tops is quite as helpful as at the roots,
so that a thorough syringing among the branches every evening until active
growth sets in will answer an excellent purpose.

EES.—FIa@. 2,

Points on Pear Cuiture.—The cultivation, until the trees have come
into their second or third year of bearing, may consist in growing corn the
first year, as it affords considerable protection to the young trees from the
heat of the first summer. After this some hoed crop, like potatoes, peas
or beans, may be grown; and it should be fertilized with well-rotted stable
manure and thoroughly cultivated. This keeps the trees supplied with
food and the soil loose and friable. Hot, violent manures should never be
applied to an orchard, and especially to one of pears. Use an ordinary one-
horse cultivator, and a good one-horse plow. A good workman will go deep
enough with such a plow, and not injure the roots as he would with a large
one. By all means be sure of the efficiency and carefulness of a man before
admitting him into the orchard with a horse and cultivator or plow. The
damage a poor man did in one of our orchards in less than half a day would
not have been covered by two or three months of his wages. A five-year«

110 THE FARM.
old pear tree in vigorous health is worth fully. $10, and when a dozen such
are injured the aggregate loss is quite an item. The horse should bea
careful one, accustomed to such work.

Owing to other pressing duties, it occasionally happens that a heavy
growth of fall grass is permitted in the orchard, after the vegetable crops do
not longer need cultivation. It should not remain all winter, especially
around the trees, as it affords snug retreats for rabbits, field mice, etc.,
which too frequently gnaw the bark of the young trees, sometimes com-
pletely girdling them, and causing death. To prevent this, in the late fall,
with a hoe or strong iron rake, remove the grass from around each tree for
two or three feet, and to make a further protection, ridge up around the
trees with the plow, this ridge can be easily plowed or cultivated down in
the spring to give a level surface to the orchard.

Planting hoed and well-manured crops between the trees supplies them
with all the matter needed during the first few years. When the trees get
too large to make it either desirable or profitable to grow such crops, ma-
nure in some farm must be specially applied to make up the deficiency.
Bone-dust makes a valuable dressing, as does well-rotted stable manure,
which, no doubt, is the most easily obtainable on the farm. There is no-
thing which equals wood-ashes, and we attribute much of our success in
raising heavy crops and splendid specimens of pears to the liberal use of
this fertilizer. Not only did we use all that we could save on the place, but
bought liberally at good prices. If enough cannot be secured to put over
the whole surface spread the ashes around each tree. The best time to ap-
ply the manure is in late fall or early spring, after the plowing and before
the harrowing. If there is an undue growth of wood and foliage diminish
the supply of manure; and it is sometimes well to put the land down to
clover (never to timothy, wheat, rye or other uncultivated grain), and let it
remain one or two years in sod. It can then be plowed and planted with
corn to break the sod, and the ground either used for vegetables or kept fal-
low. ~—Agriculturist.

Waste Bones for Trees and Vines.—The bones of fish, fowls, and the
large and small pieces of bones which are purchased with beefsteak and
mutton, constitute the very Lest food for fruit trees and grape vines, if the
fragments are only placed where the roots can lay hold of them. Instead of
allowing pieces of bones to be cast into the backyard, as food for stray dogs
and cats, domestics should be directed to deposit everything of the sort in a
small tub provided with a cover. As soon as a few pounds have accumu-
lated, take the tub to some grape vine or fruit tree, dig a hole three or more
feet long, a foot or two wide, and not less than a foot deep, into which the
bones are dumped, spread over the bottom of the excavation, and covered
with the soil. The more the fragments can be spread around, the better,
but they should be buried so deep that a plow or spade will not reach them,
The roots of growing vines or fruit trees will soon find the valuable mine of
rich fertility, and will feed on the elements that will greatly promote the
growth of healthy wood, and the development of fair and luscious fruit.

Many horticulturists and farmers purchase bone-dust costing not less than
two cents a pound, simply to enrich the soil around and beneath their trees
and vines. Fragments of bones are just as valuable as ground bone, al-
though their elements of fertility will not be found available in so short a
time as if the large pieces were reduced to atoms. Nevertheless, if large
bones be buried three or four feet from a grape vine, the countless numbers ~

ORCHARD AND VINEYARD. lil

of mouths at the ends of roots will soon dissolve, take up, and appropriate
every particle. When cast out of the kitchen door, bones are a nuisance;

- whereas, if properly buried, they become a source of valuable fertility. Let
every person who owns a grape vine or fruit tree save all the bones that pass
through the kitchen, and bury them where they will be turned to some
profit.

Orchard Management.—TIn three years, says a writer, I improved the
production of my fruit trees from fifteen to two hundred bushels, by treat-
ing them in the following manner: I first reduced the top one-fourth, then
in the fall I plowed the soil as well as I could, it being quite rocky, and
turned a short furrow toward the tree. As I worked from them I let the
plow fall a little lower, and when between the trees I allowed the plow to
run deep, so that the water would settle away from them in the spring. I
hauled a fair quantity of coarse manure, pulverized it well, and marked out
the hills, measuring each hill. I planted corn and beans, and harvested a
nice crop of corn, beans, and pumpkins. The following spring I repeated
the same form of cultivation, and harvested the second crop of corn, beans,
and pumpkins, which paid me to satisfaction. My trees began to grow very
fast; and that fall I harvested seventy bushels of very good apples. The
following spring I manured for the third time, planted it to potatoes, which
grew very large, but rotted very badly. I made up the loss, however, by
harvesting 200 bushels of large and natural fruit. I changed the production
of a yellow bellfiower tree from three-fourths of a bushel to seven bushels,
and sold them for $1.25 per barrel, which I think a very good return for my
labor. From my experience I am of the opinion that most trees have too
much top for the amount of roots and a deficiency of nourishment for pro-
ducing a developed fruit. I like fall or winter pruning. Always cover the
cut with grafting wax or a thick paint. After removing the limbs by thin-
ning out the center of the tree, it has a tendency to make it grow broad.
Too many varieties are bad, and hardy stock is all that is needed.

The Roots of Fruit Trees.— While fruit growers are aware now that the
‘roots of trees and plants extend to a great distance, still it is difficult to
break away from the old habit of manuring about the trunks, trusting that
somehow or other the fertilizer will be appropriated, and fearing that if
spread broadcast it may some way become lost. It will be found difficult
to place manure in an orchard or vineyard where the plants will not reach
it, and if properly spread it will not be lost. Should it sink into the subsoil
the roots will follow it and bring it back by the ear, as a teacher would a
truant school-boy. We have observed the roots of apple trees in sand pits
extending downwards ten feet. We recently followed the roots of an old
grape vine twenty feet under the location of a defunct building. When we
stopped digging, the roots were as large as a little finger, were four feet be-
neath the surface, and probably extended ten feet farther. A pile of ma-
nure about the base of this vine would have done but little good. Know-
ing the extent and habit of root growth, it is apparent that cultivation close
about the trunks of the trees or vines is not necessary; and is often produc-
tive of more harm than good in marring and breaking, besides tempting pro-
fanity on the part of the plowman.

How to Fertilize Fruit Trees.—Here and there on all farms and in
most fruit gardens will be seen an occasional tree or grape vine which seems
to lack vigor—does not grow well, and yet seems to have no particular dis-

oy Se
4 Hep 2

112 THE FARM,

ease. The probabilities are that the wee is dying of etarvation and needs a
liberal supply of food. When you give it this ration do not pile a load of

- manure around the trunk of the tree or the body of a grape vine. That is

just the place where it will do the least good. Nearest the trunk of the tree
the roots are all large; the fibrous roots—the feeders—are farther off, near
the ends of the roots. These only can take up the nutriment. It is always
safe to assume that the roots extend as far from the trunk in every direction
as do the limbs of the trees, and to properly fertilize, spread the manure all
over that area. Then forkit in, and you have done a good work and done it
well. Ifsome disease has begun its work on the tree, you will put the tree
in a healthy, vigorous condition, the better enabling it to successfully con-
tend againstits enemies. We have seen numerous old pear and apple trees,
bearing poor and gnarled fruit, which the owners consider of no value, ~
which such treatment as we have outlined above would restore to their
original usefulness.

A Belgian Fruit Gatherer.—We illustrate a novel little invention for
gathering fruit as used by the Belgians. It is made as follows: Take a
pole ten or twelve feet long, and on top of this attach a thin disk, as shown
by the illustration, about six inches in diameter, set with wooden teeth, just
like the teeth of a hayrake. Carefully placing this under a pear so that the

pear rests on the disk, and giving a slight
twist, it will at once detach and bring down the
fruit without marring or injuring it in any way.

How to Renew an Orchard.—We would
plow the orchard in the fall, and then either
cross-plow it in the spring or cultivate it thor-
oughly, according to its condition. Thorough
working the ground will help the orchard and
also the crop. It should be plowed shallow,

BELGIAN FRUIT GATHERER. eSpecially under the trees, and care should be
taken not to break off or mutilate the roots.
Much damage is done to orchards by careless plowing. Corn is the best
hoed crop for an orchard, and beans the next best. Potatoes should never
be planted in an orchard, a8 they exhaust the potash from the soil, and this
is just what the apple trees require. Barley, or spring rye, is the best
adapted to be sown for the seeding. Under the apple trees the grain
should be thinly scattered, for much seed would only be wasted on
account of the shade, but the grass seed should be put on thickly. The least
exhaustive crop should always be grown in an orchard, or else the trees will
be robbed of needed sustenance; hence it is always best to pasture the
ground rather than mow it: nothing will run an orchard down so fast as to
make it a meadow, as it is a double robbery. The ground may be plowed in
the spring, but for an orchard, we would prefer turning it over in the early
autumn, in order that the trees may have the full benefit of the decayed sod
and the more mellow soil.

Errors in Fruit Tree Culture.—Deep planting is one error—to plant
a tree rather shallower than it formerly stood is really the right way, while
many plant a tree as they would a post. Roots are of two kinds—the young
and tender rootlets, composed entirely of cells, the feeders of the trees,
always found near the surface getting air and moisture; and roots of over

one year old, which serve only as supporters of the trees, and as conductors

Wee PEetam tr, eo ate he te

ORCHARD AND VINEYARD. 113
of its food. Hence the injury that ensues when the delicate rootlets are so
deeply buried in earth. Placing fresh or green manure in contact with the
young roots is another great error; the place to put manure is on the sur-
face, where the elemenjs disintegrate, dissolve, and carry it downward.
Numerou8 forms of fungi are generated amd reproduced by the application
of such manures directly to the yoots, and they immediately attack the tree.
It is very well to enrich the soil at transplanting the tree, but the manure, if
it be in contact with or very near the roots, should be thoroughly decom-
posed.

Fruit Tree Culture.—A writer in the Western Agricultwrist gives
these rules, which are of wide application: 1. Instead of “‘ trimming up”
trees according to the old fashion, to make them long-legged and long-
armed, trim them down, s0 as to make them even, snug and symmetrical.
2. Instead of manuring heavily in a small circle at the foot of the tree, spread
the manure, if needed at all, broadcast over the whole surface. 3. Instead
of spading a small circle about the stem, cultivate the whole surface broad-
cast. 4. Prefer a well pulverized, clean surface in an orchard, with a
moderately rich soil, to heavy manuring and a surface covered with a hard
crust and weeds and grass. 5. Remember thatit is better to set out ten trees
with all the necessary care to make them live and flourish, than to set out a
hundred trees, and have them all die from carelessness. 6. Remember that
tobacco is a poison, and will kill insects rapidly if properly applied to them,
and is one of the best drugs for freeing fruit trees rapidly of small vermin.

Protection of Trees._Mr. A. M. Daniels, in an address before the
Chenango County Farmers’ Club, in relation to the protection of trees, stated —
as the result of his observation that, ‘‘ when the fruit is stimulated to rapid
growth by an abundance of juices in the tree, it is affected by the hot sun
and drying wind. In the disease called the frozen sap blight, so disastrous
to young orchards when it affects the trunk, the tree dies. This occurs more
frequently after severe winters, by inactive or arrested circulation. Young
orchards should be protected from the hot sun or cold of winter by the use
of straw, cloth, or board boxes. The scorching rays of the sun should never
be allowed to come on the body of a tree, and Nature by the foliage provides
against it. No fruit tree can stand freezing and thawing in spring without
being injured by it. The great object to be attained in raising a young
orchard is ripened and mature growth. When that is attained we are on the
road to success. Late growth should not be stimulated.”

Fruit Cellars.—Fruit cellars need careful oversight; for the late sorts

“to come to proper perfection, and to keep well, they must be in a tempera-

ture as low as may be without freezing; it must not be forgotten that fruit in
ripening gives off heat, and this must be regulated by the admission of cold
air from without. In ripening, a considerable amount of carbonic acid is
given off, which would be of use in retarding the ripening, but very danger-
ous if allowed to accumulate in the cellar of a dwelling, hence ventilation by
means of a chimney, or in some other manner, is a matter that must be
attended to.

Thinning Fruit.—An orchardist who makes his trees bear a moderate
crop every year, of larger and finer fruit than when crowded, gives the fol-
lowing directions for doing the work: A light ladder is used to give ready
access to any part of the tree. The branch is held in the left hand, while

4t4 PHR PARM.

with sheep shears in the right, every bunch of apples is cut off, leaving a part
of the stem of each fruit. This is done as soon as the blossoms have fallen,
and before the young fruit has attained any size. When this branch is en-
tirely cleaned, the next branch is skipped, and the third cleaned of the fruit
like the first, and so on until every alternate branch is divested 6f its fruit.
This work is not done on the small limbs here and there over the tree, but
on main branches, and equally on both sides ot the tree. Of medium-sized
trees, an active man will go over fifteen or twenty ina day.

Destroying the Plum Cureulio.—<A great deal of useless advice has
been given out concerning easy methods of destroying the plum and peach
curculio. In most parts of the country it is impossible to raise plums unless
one exercises a daily warfare against the insects. Persons who have two or
three plum trees about the yard should succeed in raising fruit enough for
their own use, but this they are seldom able to accomplish. Tlae less trees’
one has, the greater will be the proportionate number of insects to attack
them.

Such methods as burning coal tar under the trees, hanging cobs, satu-
rated with molasses, among the limbs, are usually of no avail in saving a
crop of plums or peaches. The only sure method is persistent catching.
The curculios spend their nights near the base of the tree, under chips and
barks. Early in the morning they ascend the trees, to lay their eggs in the
young fruit.

There are two modes of catching them. The one devised by Mr. Ransom,
of Benton Harbor, Mich., is to nicely smooth the earth about the base of the
trees, and to lay a few small blocks of wood or chips on the surface. The
beetles crawl under these for shelter, and can be taken very early in the
morning before they ascend the trees. The chips should be examined as
soon a8 one can see in the morning. This is the method most practiced in
the extensive peach belt of Michigan.

The other method is to spread a large sheet under the tree, and jar the
beetles off on to it by means of one or two quick blows with a long-handled
mallet or bumper. Each of the large branches should be struck, and the
mallet should be wound with cloth to prevent injury to the trees. This
practice should be followed early in the morning also, as when the days get
warm the beetles are too lively to be caught. Many of the best peach and
plum growers practice both these methods. In the case of a few trees about
a yard both should be used, and there-will be little doubt as to a good
reward in fruit. The practice should be followed up every morning for a
couple of weeks after the blossoms fall, and at wider intervals until the in-
sects disappear. A sheet may be stretched over a large wooden frame for
convenience in handling.

A Suggestion to Growers of Plums.—If you want a good crop of
plums or damsons, as soon as your trees are out of blossom, and the fruit
formed, keep a hen with a brood of young chickens tied beneath the tree,
and give her a range as wide as the boughs of the tree, and she and her
brood will destroy every curculio, and reward your care and forethought
with a crop of luscious plums. Keep the chickens there until the fruit be
half or more than half grown.

Manure for Fruit Trees.—It is best to abstain from the use of stimu-
lating animal manures, unless decomposed, and previously composted with
mellow soil. Nothing is better than wood ashes to induce a sound, healthy

7

ORCHARD AND VINEYARD. 115
growth and good yield. The scrapings of the wood pile mixed with ashes,
decayed leaves, and road washings, are all of value as manures. Salt
sprinkled around the trees, or “applied in the form of brine,*is frequently
beneficial, especially where the fruit falls before ripening.

Maxims for Fruit Growers.— All fruit trees like a rather dry, rich soil.
On a cold clayey bottom diseases are usually frequent. Do not plant deep;
cut off tap roots, and encourage surface fibres. Surface manuring is the
best mode of doing this after the tree is planted. Do not allow anything to

grow vigorously around your trees the first year of planting, nor allow the

soil to become hard or dry.

Insects Injurious to Fruit Trees.—To keep the insects from the trees
requires the closest observance, and, soon as found, destruction must com-
mence. Their habits should be learned as much as possible. When the in-
sects are in the winged state is the time they lay their eggs. They multiply
with astonishing rapidity, one insect often hatching thousands in a single
season. June is the time most of the insects lay their eggs, and at that time
bonfires should be built at night, when the insects will fly into them and be
destroyed; or, if you have only a few trees in the garden, get some bottles
with wide mouths, and fill half full with a mixture of water, molasses, and

vinegar, and tie up in the trees; empty in a week, and fill again. And at

that time (June) the bark should be washed with soft soap, the trunk and
the limbs as far as can be reached; also sprinkle a handful of coarse salt
around the roots of the tree—we have found it valuable. Put coal ashes,
about a peck, around the base of each tree, as it not only drives away the
grubs, but acts as a fertilizer. The best way to kill insects on the tree is to
dust air-slaked lime over it when the dew is on the tree; or, steep tobacco
stems in boiling water, and, when cool, syringe the tree.

Birds are of great value in destroying insects, and they should have the
best of care given them, to encourage their building and living on the place,
especially our common sparrow (not the English sparrow), wrens, bluebirds,
robins, quails, etc. Don’t allow them to be frightened or shot at, and they
will pay well.

Toads and bats destroy a great many insects in the spring. As the green
fruit drops it should be gathered up and fed to the hogs, for it contains a
worm which burrows in the ground. Where small quantities of trees are
grown, as in the garden, it is a good plan to fence in the trees, and let the
hogs or chickens eat the green, wormy fruit as it falls; we have known plum
trees to bear enormous and paying crops when treated in this way.

Pear Blight and Peach Yellows.—Pear blight and peach yellows are
subjects of prolific and dissenting discussion at every horticultural meeting.
Mr. Satterthwait, in a report on the diseases of fruit trees to the Pennsyl-
vania State Horticultural Society, points out the great ditference between the
two diseases; namely, that while the yellows is extremely contagious, no one
need fear to plant a pear tree where a blighted one has been removed. He

' stated that he had thousands of trees, vigorous and entirely healthy, that

were planted beside the stumps of trees killed by the pear blight, and not
one was ever affected. He regards it as proved to a certainty that pear
blight is an entirely different disease in its nature from the peach yellows,
and he mentioned, as additional proof, that it is a usual occurrence for pear
trees to be locally affected, or in a single branch, without the disease spread-
ing, and the tree entirely recovering its health and vigor. ies

116 ii ig THE FARM.

Mr. Satterthwait reported favorably of the Kieffer pear, about which opin-
ions are 80 variable With him it has proven not only wondertully produc-
tive, but handsome in appearance and gaining high prices in market. He
believes the quality of this much-disputed pear depends largely on properly |
ripening the fruit. His plan consists in packing the pears in wooden boxes,
containing about one bushel each, and placing them in a cool, dry cellar, one
on top of the other. In this connection it may be well to state that C. M.
Hovey, of Boston, is credited with saying that the Kieffer is the least satis-
factory of all his eight hundred varieties of the pear—another indication that
the Kieffer gives different results in different localities under varying circum-
stances.

Tomato Leaves a Remedy for the Curculio.—‘ | planted a peach or-
chard,” writes M. Story, of the Society of Horticulture of France, ‘‘and the
trees grew well and strongly. They just commenced to bud when they were
invaded by the curculio (pulyon), which insects were followed, as frequently
happens, by ants. Having cut some tomatoes, the idea occurred to me that,
by placing some of the leaves around the trunk and branches of the peach
trees, I might preserve them from the rays of the sun, which are very power-
ful. My surprise was great, upon the following day, to find the trees entire-
ly free from their enemies, not one remaining, except here and there where
a curled leaf prevented the tomato from exercising its influence. These
leaves I carefully unrolled, placing upon them fresh ones from the tomato
vine, with the result of banishing the last insect and enabling the trees to
grow with luxuriance. Wishing to carry still further my experiment, I
steeped in water some leaves of the tomato, and sprinkled with this infusion
other plants, roses, and oranges. In two days these were also free from the
innumerable insects which covered them, and I felt sure that, had I used
the same means with my melon patch, I should have met with the same re-
sult. I therefore deem it a duty I owe to the Society of Horticulture to make
known this singular and useful property of the tomato leaves, which I dis-
eovered by the merest accident.”

The Codling Moth and Other Enemies of the Apple.—This old
enemy of the farmer is now getting in his work upon the growing apples.
Where an orchard is infested with them, we know of no reliable method cf
getting rid of them and saving the crop. The curculio, which is so destruc-
tive to the plum crop, is of late quite as damaging to the apples, in some
sections doing much more harm than the former; and there is still another
pest which is working a terrible harm to the crop—the apple maggot ( Trip-
peta Pomonella). This burrows in the apple, often several maggots being
found in the same apple. The eggs are laid by a small fly, somewhat resem-
bling the common house-fly, but much smaller, through a small opening in
the skin, made with its ovipositor. .

The best guard against these pests-is for every farmer who has an orchard
to keep sheep or swine running in it all the season through. These will eat
up every infected apple and thus destroy the larve, which, if left unmo-
lested, will bring forth a crop of pests for next year’s crop. If every one
would do this, it is safe to assume that the ravages of these pests would} be
materially decreased.

Diseased Cherry Trees.—Many of our neighbors’ cherry trees are ‘be-

coming knotty, and dying, writes a correspondent of The Rural New Yorker. —

_ A lady narrated in our hearing, a few evenings since, her experience with 4 ve

ORCHARD AND VINEYARD. 117

tree of the same description. A large tree, of the common red variety,
stood by the kitchen door. The body and limbs were knotty and rough, the
fruit scanty and worthless; the dead leaves in fall were continually drifting
over the porch and walk; in fact, in the good housewife’s eyes, the tree was
simply a nuisance, and she importuned her husband to remove it. He re-
fused to do this, however, and she determined to kill the tree. First, a bar-
rel of beef brine was poured about the roots, and this was followed by boil-
ing suds, every wash day. The result was satisfactory, but far from that
anticipated. The following season the tree was loaded with superior fruit,
and was free from all knots and other defects. The enormots crop and
changed appearance of the tree might not have been attributable to the ap-
plication of brine and soap-suds, yet we believe the experiment to be worthy
of trial.

Kerosene as an Insect Destroyer.—Kerosene is a cheap and effective
insecticide where it can be applied without injury to the growing tree or
plant, but to what extent it can be safely used has not been fully deter-
mined, the results obtained not being uniform. Spraying kerosene upon
the leaves of cotton killed the plant. The bark of elm-trees, around which
bands of felt saturated with kerosene had been applied, was destroyed
wherever the oil reached it. The trunks of orange-trees which had been
wet with kerosene to destroy scale insects were denuded of the greater part
of the bark to which the oil had been applied. On the other hand, a bark
louse, which was very abundant upon some ivy, was destroyed by the appli-
cation of pure kerosene, with no apparent bad results to the vine.

Protection Against Pear Blight.—The Gardener’s Monthly gives a
statement from G. R. Dykeman, uf Shippensburg, Pa., of his experiments in
applying oil to the trunks of fruit trees—a practice which has been strongly
recommended for its beneficial effects, among other things as a protection
against pear blight. Mr. D. applied oil last vear to 600 peach trees, 200
apple, several pear and plum trees, and 100 quince. All the peach trees,
five years planted, were killed; the other trees were not injured. Other
peach trees were painted with refuse lard and linseed oil, and these are all
dead. The object in greasing was to keep the rabbits off. Oil is sometimes
applied for the white scale.

Injuries to Trees.—Jnjunies to trees should be repaired as soon as dis-
covered. Limbs broken by snow and ice must be sawed off to make a
smooth wound, and this covered with paint, varnish, or wax. Barking by
mice or rabbits often looks more serious than it really is. The majority of
cases will recover if the wound is protected by a thick poultice of cow-dung
and clayey loam, bound on with a piece of coarse material. In very severe
cases the tree may be saved by connecting the bark above and below the
wound, by means of twigs of the same tree; the ends are chamfered, and
inserted under the bark above and below, to bridge over the wound, cover-
ing the exposed parts with grafting wax.

Protection Against the Plum Curculio.—<A fruit grower states that
he kept a plum tree from curculios by sprinkling the ground under the tree
with corn meal. This induced the chickens to scratch and search. The
meal was strewn every morning from the time the trees blossomed until the
fruit was large enough to be out of danger. The consequence was that the
fowls picked up the curculios with the meal, and the tres, being saved from -
the presence of the insect, was wonderfully fruitiul,

118 i a THR PERM ee ee

a Suggestions to Fruit Growers.—I find that lime, wood ashes and old —

iron put around the roots of declining fruit trees have a very beneficial
effect, writes a fruit grower of many years’ experience. These fertilizers
restore the tree to a healthy condition, and also greatly improve the fruit in
quality and quantity. I made the application on a Windsap and Never Fail,
about half a bushel of mixed lime and ashes to each, and dug it in with a
hoe some six feet around the trunk, and put the old iron immediately
around the base of each.

The trees put forth with renewed vigor, bloomed abundantly, and yielded
a good crop of fruit. An excellent wash for trees may be made thus: Heat
an ounce of salsoda to redness in an iron pot, and dissolve it in one gallon
of water, and while warm apply it to the trunk. After one applica-
tion the moss and old bark will drop off and the trunk will be quite
smooth. The wash has highly recuperative properties, making old trees
bear anew.

I have tried soft soap as a wash with good results, and also a coating of
lime in the spring season, which is a fine specific for old trees. The ques-

tion is often asked, is it best to manure trees in the fall or spring? I have

found the summer season to be a good time; I have much faith in mulching,
especially young trees, for several seasons after they are planted. Apple
trees are said to have two growths during the season—the secondary growth
takes place after midsummer, hence it is that a top-dressing of good manure,
and also coarse litter, facilitates the late growth, and often produces very
marked results in the habit and formation of the tree.

The good effect that mulching has to young trees is, that it wards off the
intense heat of the sun from the tender roots, and also has a tendency to
hold moisture. A good top-dressing of stable manure in the fall, around
young trees, with a good many corn cobs cast over the surface of the soil,
give satisfactory results.

Ants on Young Trees.—An authority says that ants do not destroy
trees. The ants are after the lice which are hurting the trees. These lice
exude a sweet substance which attracts the ants, and the ants do no harm.
To get rid of the lice make a solution of whale-oil soap, and add to a pailful
one drachm of carbolic acid. Syringe or spray this on the under side of the
leaves and it will either kill or drive away the lice, and the ants will be seen
no more.

Diseased Peach Trees.—The following is said to be a sure remedy for
the yellows in peach trees: ‘‘ One part of saltpetre to two of salt, placed
close to the body of a tree before a rain. It seems not only to destroy any
fungoid growth of vermin which may be infesting the roots, but to act as an
excellent fertilizer.”

Suggestion Regarding Apple Trees.—It is a good idea to wrap the
trunks of apple trees with burlap sacks, and to examine the wrappings
every few days, or at least every week, to ascertain if any of the grubs or
worms of the codling moth have found their way into them, that they may
be destroyed.

The Peach Borer.—A fruit-grower placed tobacco-stems around the _

trunks of peach trées, and there is not the slightest sign of a borer in any of

the trees so treated. He set the stems around the butts of the bash and

tied them at the top. It nacre off rabbits as well in faery

Fruit Growing Jottings.—‘‘Line upon line, precept upon precept,”

says a Southern fruit grower, must be written regarding the proper manner
of planting out fruit trees; not that there exists a great diversity of opinion,
but because so little heed is paid to the plain teachings of nature and com-
mon sense. ‘‘ The way father or grandfather did it” is authority for the ma-
jority, and they seek no further knowledge.

Now the world moves, and many new and valuable methods have been
devised which insure the desired kind and quality of fruit, hasten maturity
and prevent decay. The non-progressive orchardist sells his fruit for a
nominal figure, whenever he has any to sell, which is not often, and is con-
tinually complaining because his orchard ‘“‘ doesn’t pay.” It does pay for
all the labor bestowed upon it, but it will not pay for what it does not
receive.

Any kind of a fruit tree is an enormous feeder if it produces any amount
of fruit. Who can reasonably expect to receive barrel upon barrel from any
given tree, year after year, when nothing is fed to it? As well might the
owner expect to work a week on the memory of a Sunday dinner.

Trees should be fed, therefore, and liberally, too, if large crops of fine
fruit are expected from them.

The old-fashioned way of crowding trees in the space devoted to orchard
purposes is still persisted in, notwithstanding the teachings of nature to the
contrary. Trees are crowded in the rows like lodgers in a tenement house,
and the results are as disastrous in one case as in the other. Trees, like
human beings, need air and light. They must have these, or their lives do
not reach three score years and ten. Fruit will not grow in the shade, and it
is beyond the power of any man to cause it to do so.

Tis true, when trees are young, a proper space seems unreasonably
large—there seems to be a waste, but there really is none. It is question-
able if planting small crops, like strawberries, melons, tomatoes, etc., is ad-
visable, even in the earlier stages of growth, and it certainly is not unless a
liberal quantity of some proper fertilizer is applied. As the tree enlarges
and reaches out its arm-like branches, it asks for more food; it also asks
that God’s sunlight may be permitted to kiss it from topmost branch to root,
and unless this request is granted it shoots skyward, bearing no fruit except
upon its highest branches, and becomes liable to be attacked by numerous
diseases.

Who has not noticed that a tree, standing solitary and alone, always
bears a liberal quantity of fruit? Who has not noticed that such trees are
invariably healthy? Who has not remarked that if the entire orchard was
like this or that solitary tree, there would be money in fruit growing? Must
so plain a lesson be unheeded? Can we not learn so simple a lesson with-
out paying the immense price we do for tuition? The number of trees upon
a given area does not determine the value of the orchard. If they are in ex-
cess of the proper number, they certainly are, comparatively, of little worth.

One argument used by those who favor close. planting is that the shade
thereby produced kills the grass and weeds which would steal the life-blood
of the tree. This argument is born of pure laziness, and if carried into
effect, as it too often is, the tree is deprived of its means of thrift, that its
loafing owner may not blister his hands or burn his neck in his efforts to
keep grass and weeds from choking his trees.

We have often walked through the orange groves on the lower Mississippi
and been amazed at the imbecility so extensively displayed. A dense forest
instead of an orchard, dead limbs and clinging moss, close thorny tops with

ORCHARD AND VINEYARD. 119,

4 : j
< a r “9 7
a 2 ey Teles Peed REN ens Fs Mens ee

120 THE FARM.
small, sour, gnarly, diseased fruit on the extremities, is the rule. Occasion-
ally we find an orchard owned by a man who uses his brains for some useful
purpose, and there we find fine trees, with sunshine all around them, with
light, open branches, clean and smooth; large, perfect fruit on every twig
and branch from top to bottom, far better in quality than his neighbor pro-
duces. In the first instance the fruit is difficult to dispose of, and prices are
ruinous. The owner is always in debt and always will be. In the other
case the fruit finds eager purchasers at remunerative figures. The owner
‘‘gets ahead” in the world by using a small modicum of brains with his
muscle.

In raising fruit trees for profit, the following general principles should
not be overlooked: 1. Effective drainage; 2. Thorough preparation; 3. Lib-
eral fertilization; 4. Procuring best varieties; 5. Intelligent cultivation; and
each of these general principles may be sub-divided, and each will afford
the owner a theme for constant study.

That fruit growing, as now practiced, is non-paying, we are ready to
admit; that it may be made immensely profitable, we eonfidently assert. To
attain this desired object something must be done besides blindly treading
in the footsteps of old ways and expecting nature to perform impossibilities.

The whole Southern country can be made a vast fruit-field. Any and
every man may literally ‘‘ sit under his own vine and fig tree.” Millions can
be annually added to our material wealth. There need be no poverty in
such a country, and there will be none in the near future, when our almost
boundless resources are more fully developed.

What Pears Shall I Grow t_What is said regarding the growing of
apples, pears, field crops, flowers, or any plant or crop having a place in our
agricultural or gardening operations, must be said with reference to certain
wants, conditions, circumstances, or localities, if the directions would pos-
sess any value. No rule suits every case; no crop or plant is applicable to
every locality; no advice meets every condition. Still, there are certain
well-understood principles which are of value, because embodying the accu-
mulated results of the best practice, under varying conditions and circum-
stances.

Now, as regards pears, a farmer or gardener who is to set a number of
trees in spring would naturally ask, shall I set Dwarfs or Standards? To
this there might be given several answers, and they would take shape some-
thing after this form: For profit, for permanency, for market purposes, the
Standard; for quick returns at the expense of short life, for grounds of small
extent, for family uses, the Dwarf. The Standards are long-lived, grow
larger, and produce more fruit (one or two varieties excepted) than the
Dwarfs. Besides, the trees seem to have the habit of growing wood for
future use—a good quality where one is planting for profit and permanency.
The Dwarfs, on the other hand, come into bearing young, are well, adapted
for gardea culture, or where a few pears are wanted for family use, but at
ten or a dozen years old have seen their best days.

The tree is most at home in a rather heavy loam, but it must be warm
and rich, kept clean and mellow by frequent culture—something the trees
delight in during the growing season. Animai manure, wood ashes, and
farm compost are the best fertilizers, and these, as is well understood,
should be applied in the fall. The best pear-growers are united in the belief
that thorough and systematic pruning—not with saw and knife, on the
butchering principle, but the pinching off all surplus young shoots, when.

=

cif Sane St a ae ace

ORCHARD AND VINEYARD. 121
not over four to six inches long—regulates the growth and welfare of the
trees, and has a tendency to induce the maturity of the fruit spurs, by which
means an earlier and better quality of fruit is obtained, while the tree itself
is kept uniform, well balanced and handsome: If those not experienced in
pear culture are to set out trees, they certainly cannot have a better guide
than to ascertain from growers in their own localities the varieties best
adapted to their soil, situation, local circumstances, rather than to learn these
points by their own, perhaps expensive, experience. A day spent in obtain-
ing this information among one’s neighbors will be time well used.

After all, one likes to see varieties. So here is one, made up after much
study and inquiry, which it is believed will not vary greatly from the list
which a hundred of the best growers in the best pear sections of New Eng-
land would recommend. It is true some we have placed high on the list
might be put down a peg or two, and others brought to the top which we
have placed further down; but a list of the best eight varieties would be very
likely to include these sorts, in about these positions: 1. Bartlett, a general
favorite, of admirable quality and always salable at the highest price. 2.
Seckel, high flavor, productive, uniformly bringing a good price ia market.
3. Sheldon, a fine grower and good bearer, selling for the highest price. 4.
Beurre d’Anjou, an excellent, productive and profitable sort. 5. Duchesse
d’Angouleme, very popular and of the highest quality. 6. Beurre Bosc, an
esteemed late sort, high flavored and much in demand as a market pear. 7.
Lawrence, a good bearing sort, one of the best winter pears. 8. Vicar of
Wakefield, very productive, and, as it ripens out season of most others,
finds a ready market at good prices.

Girdling Fruit Trees.—Some years ago, on an Iowa farm, a span of
spirited horses, hitched to a wagon, got away from the driver and ran
through the orchard, running over and badly barking some dozen trees.
This was early in June. The next year those trees, and especially the

limbs most barked and scarred, were full of fruit, while theré was a very —

limited quantity on the balance of the orchard.

But what is the philosophy of this girdling trees or vines to make them ~

bear fruit? Trees and vines do not grow merely by the absorption of
moisture and material direct from the earth. Itis true the roots take up
from the earth the water and mineral matter necessary for plant growth, but
it does not go directly to the part where itis to stay. But these go up, not
between the bark and wood, but in the body of the tree or vine to the leaves,
where it is combined with the carbon which is absorbed by the leaves, and
goes through Nature’s secret laboratory of combining water, mineral and
carbon, until they are sufficiently digested to be used as wood growth, when
it passes downward and is deposited in the infinitesimal cells beneath the
bark. So that the growth is made by the downward flow of this prepared
material for wood growth.

Now, if the tree or vine be girdled on the body or limbs, this prepared
Sap cannot pass below where the bark is taken off, and consequently that
part above the girdle receives more than its share of sap, while none is sup-
plied to the body below the girdle. Thus the limbs are crowded with growth
food, which causes the development of fruit buds—makes the limbs grow
faster and the fruit larger. But this process, if the main body of the tree is
operated on, will in the end ruin the tree. The body and roots must have
nourishment as well as the branches, and this girdling deprives them of this
support. If this system is practiced at all, it should be only a part, leaving

iv
* :

THE FARM. :
the ungirdled limbs to supply nourishment to the balance of the tree. Juné
is the time girdling is done, which is only intended as preparatory to the
next year’s crop. It is claimed, however, that girdling in June makes amore
perfect development of the fruit then on ‘the limbs.

Girdling is done by taking out a rim of bark entirely around the tree, limb /
or vine, not over one-fourth of an inch wide. Sometimes this space is healed
up the first year, but certainly the second year, if the tree be not too feeble
and sickly. We advise all to go slowly and carefully in this matter, but it is
worthy of an experiment by all.

But yet there are many things which need studying, and diverse mattems
should be reconciled. One contends that girdling stops the rapid growth of
the tree, and causes a more abundant fruitage. Another that girdling
causes an abnormal growth ef the limb, and the largely-increased pro-
duction of fruit. Great are the mysteries of Nature.

{29

Covering for Wounds of TFrees.—It often happens that, either by in-
tention, as in pruning, or by accident, trees are wounded in various ways.
A common practice is to cover large wounds with coal tar; but this is ob-
jected to by some as injurious to the tree. Experiments made in the or-
chards and gardens of the Pomological Institute, at Ruthlegen, in Germany,
go to show, however, that its true use is notinjurious; but that, on the con-
trary, a callous readily forms under the tar, on the edges of the wound, and
that the wounded part is thus protected from decay. There is, neverthe-
less, another objection: for if the tar is applied a little too thick, the sun
melts it, and it runs down on the bark of the tree. This can be obviated by
mixing and stirring and thus incorporating with the tar about three or four
times its weight of powdered slate, known as slate-flour—the mixture being
also known as plastic slate and used for roofing purposes. It is easily ap-
plied with an old knife or flat stick, and though it hardens on the surface,
it remains soft and elastic underneath. The heatof the sun does not melt it,
nor does the coldest winter weather cause it to crack—neither does it peel off.

The same mixture is also useful for other purposes in the garden. Leaky
water-pots, barrels, pails, gutters, sashes, etc., can be easily repaired with
it, and much annoyance and loss of time be thus avoided. It will stick to
any surface, provided it be not oily; and as it does not harden when kept in
a mass, it is always ready for use. A gallon will last for a long time.

A most excellent preparation for small wounds and for grafting, is thus
prepared: Melt a pound of rosin over a slow fire. When melted, take it
from the fire and add two ounces of balsam of fir (Canada Lalsam), or two
ounces of Venice turpentine (not spirits of turpentine), stirring it constantly.
As-soon as it is cool enough, mix in four to six ounces of alcohol of 95 degrees
strength—according to the season—until it is as thick as molasses. It keeps
well in close-corked bottles for a long time. Should it become too thick, by
the gradual evaporation of the alcohol, it is easily thinned by putting the
bottle in warm water and stirring in sufficient alcohol to bring it to a proper
fluidity. Itis applied with a brush.

_ This preparation is much better than liquid grafting wax composed of
resin, beef-tallow and spirits of turpentine, which often granulates.. If
there be any danger that the cions will dry up by evaporation, they may,
beneficially, be brushed over with this composition, it being first made more
fluid by adding alcohol. By this means I succeeded, in February of last
year, in grafting a single eye of Hgle Sepinaria upon a lemon tree, ina dry
sitting-room, without the use of any glass covering.

VINEYARD. 123

Preserving Fruit.—Light and heat are the agents in ripening fruits.
The sagacious pomologist, therefore, keeps them in a dark place and at as
low a temperature as possible short of freezing. Heat and moisture cause
decay. Hence the fruit room, in addition to being kept cool, is also kept dry.
These three conditions were observed by Professor Myce in his system of
preservations, ice being used for cooling, and proper dryers for taking up
the superabundant moisture. We have had ripe tomatoes kept for three
months in such a house, and in the most perfect manner. Fruit-growers
may arrive sufficiently near the mark, so that fruit may be kept perfectly
during the cold months, by means of frost- -proof walls, and a careful! system
of ventilation, avoiding a thorough draft.

Since fruit i is easily. affected by odors, care should be taken that the air of
any fruit house should be kept clean and sweet. To this end nothing but
fruit should be kept in the fruit house— at least nothing that will give off un-
pleasant odors. So particular are some in this respect that they will not
« keep apples and pears in the same room. ‘To insure perfect cleanliness, the
walls and floors should be frequently whitewashed with lime. We see no
reason why the sub-earth air duct system may not be one of the best means
for winter ventilation, as it certainly must be for summer ventilation.

With care fruits may be retarded in their ripening for long periods.
When wanted for use they are removed to a warm and light place, where
they quickly mature. When extra fine specimens are to be preserved, they
are carefully packed in some dry odorless substance, as cotton-wool, bran,
buckwheat hulls, dry oak leaves, or pure sand. Land plaster is said to be
an excellent means for saving apples through the winter intact. A thin
layer of plaster is placed in the bottom of the barrel, then a layer of apples,
- and so alternately layer of plaster and apples until the barrel is filled, when
the barrel is headed and kept in a cool place until spring, coming out sound
and intact. This plan should keep russets, and other varieties liable to
shrivel, and those wishing to keep apples as late as possible, and having no
fruit house, may find this plan valuable. There will be no loss in the plas-
ter, for it will be worth all it costs, and more, for sowing on the land after
the apples are used

ORCHARD AND

Bark Lice on Apple Trees.—Judicious pruning of the branches, drain-
ing the land where the trees stand, manuring the soil and keeping it free
from grass and weeds, all have the effect to promote vigorous growth, and
are therefore useful in preventing the depredations of bark lice. Unless a
vigorous growth of a tree can be insured, it is of little use to apply sub-
stances to kill the lice. The lady-bird, whose presence should always be
welcomed on farms, is the mortal enemy of the bark louse, as it is of many
other sorts of insects. But hurtful insects increase so much faster than use-
ful birds do that we may never expect to see the latter exterminate the
former. Indeed, no amount of cultivation and no number of birds ever col-
lected in an orchard will be sufficient to clear it of the scale bark lice, if they
are generally distributed among the trees. If but a few trees have bark lice
on them, and they are well covered with them, it is best to cut them up.
This heroic treatment will prevent their spreading to other trees. The time
to kill the insects is when they begin to hatch. They are most readily killed
by applying some wash to the bark with a stiff brush or swab. The articles
most highly recommended for killing the lice are strong lye made of wood
ashes, a solution of caustic soda-of potash, diluted soft soap, and a mixture
of lime whitewash and kerosene oil. If the latter is employed, the propor-

8) vets : \

THE FARM.

tions of the mixture should be one pint of kerosene to a gallon of the white-
wash. Whatever substances are chosen, they should be applied thoroughly.
To insure complete destruction of the insect, a second application should be
made some days after the first.

Top Grafting Trees.-—A practical fruit grower gives the following as
his mode of top grafting: Ihave in a measure discarded the old system of
cleft grafting, for a cheap, safer and easier way. Isave the cions by cut-
ting them in the fall or early winter, pack in sand or sawdust and keep ina
cool cellar. After the trees have come out in leaf, durmg May and June,
cut a bud from the cion and insert under the bark well tied and waxed to
keep out the air and water, setting one bud in each leading limb all over the
tree. In the course of two or three weeks these buds will have connected or -
else have died. For all that have connected saw the limbs off above the bud
and throw the growth into them. Those that have died set again in July or
August with buds taken from the new growth of wood, and cut them off the
next spring. I set tops in that way in twenty seedling apple trees twelve
years old in June, 1878, putting in on aw average twelve to the tree. In
1884, six years from setting, they have forty bushels of Stark apples, worth
one dollar per bushel. The expense of budding was ten dollars. If the
same trees had been changed by cleft grafting the change would have cost
two or three times that amount.

Hints on Marketing Pears.—Pears, whether early or late, should
never remain on the tree until they become mellow. Whenever they have
made their growth they should be gathered. It is easy to tell the proper
condition by observing the ease with which the stem parts from the tree. If,
on taking held of the pear and lifting it, the stem readily breaks away from
the spur to which it is attached, the fruit has received all the nourishment it
can get from the tree, and the sooner it is gathered the better. Pears are
, sent to market in crates and half barrels; especially fine specimens are sent
in shallow boxes, only deep enough for a single layer of fruit, and each pear
is wrapped in thin white paper. Extra specimens of any of the standard
kinds will brmg enough more to pay for this extra care in packing. The
early varieties mature quicker after gathering than the later kinds, but all
should reach the market in a firm and hard condition. As with all other
fruits, it will pay to carefully assort pears. Make three lots, firsts and
seconds for market, and the third for keeping at home—for the pigs, if need
be; there is positively no sale for poor pears.

Ants in the Orchard.—Many of the leading orchard proprietors in
northern Italy and southern Germany are cultivators of the common black
ant, an insect they hold in ‘high esteem as the fruit grower’s best friend.
They establish ant-hills in their orchards, and leave the police service of
their fruit trees entirely to the colonists, which pass all their time in climb-
ing up the stems of the fruit trees, cleansing their boughs and leaves of
malefactors, mature as well as embryotic, and descending laden with spoils
to the ground, where they comfortably consume or prudently store away
their booty. They never meddle with sound fruit, but only invade such ©
apples, pears and plums as have already been penetrated by the canker,
which they remorselessly pursue to its fastness within the very heart of the
fruit. Nowhere are apple and pear trees so free from blight and destructive ~
insects as in the immediate neighborhood of a large ant-hill five or six years”
old. The favorite food of ants would appear to be the larve and pups of

ih Sach er ney Dc Sole a ERR]
a le as eS pois 7 *

ys

ORCHARD AND VINEYARD. 123

those creatures which spend the whole of their brief existence in devouring
the tender shoots and juvenile leaves of fruit trees.

Cultivating the Orchard._ A successful fruit grower pursues the
following plan: He plows his orchard one way, leaving strips close to the
trees about eight feet wide, and plants potatoes, covering them with straw.
In the fall, when he digs his potatoes, he piles the straw, and the next spring
he plows the ground crosswise and plants again, using the same straw.
After the straw has been used two years, it is turned under in the fall, to
manure the ground. In this way his orchard is manured with very little
trouble, and he cultivates his orchard at the same time. He says that he
does not believe, from his own experience, that it is good for fruit trees to
have the plow run any closer than four feet on each side, but thinks it better
to cultivate in this way between the rows than to seed down to grass and
pasture.

Hints on Gathering Apples and Pears.—Most people are disposed
to gather the autumn fruits too soon. A rule is generally adopted by gar-
deners, that if the pips of the apples or pears are turning brown, the crop
may be taken; but a decidedly dark and settled hue of the seed is a safer
criterion. As to the objection that waiting late into the autumn causes a loss
of the fruit by falling, it has little weight, because it is by this process that
the weaker and least sound fruit is got rid of, while the best remains. Tak-
ing the crop too early will not only injure the good fruit by causing it to
shrivel, but will also render frequent removals necessary in order to
separate from the stock the rotten ones, which would, of themselves, have
fallen from the tree if more time had been given.

To Preserve Pear Trees From Blight.—A New Hampshire fruit
grower preserves his pear trees from blight by winding a rope of straw
around the trunks so as to completely cover them from the ground to the
limbs, keeping it on, moderately tight, through the season. His theory is
that the blight is caused by the rays of the hot sun coming in contact with
the body of the tree, heating the sap and causing it to dry up and the bark
to grow to the wood of the tree.

Iron for Fruit Tree:.— The scales which fly off from iron being worked
at forges, iron trimming, filings, or other ferruginous material, if worked
‘into the soil about fruit trees, or the more minute particles spread thinly on
the lawn, mixed with the earth of flower beds or in pots, are most valuable
to the peach or pear, and, in fact, supply necessary ingredients to the soil.
For colored flowers they heighten the bloom and increase the brillianey of
white or nearly white flowers of all the rose family.

Secret of Raising Quinces.—Purchase the orange variety, and set the
trees from six to eight feet apart in rich soil. Bandage the stem with two or
three wrappings of old cloth as far down in the ground as possible, as the
root starts from near the surface. Let the bandages run six or eight inches
above the ground, then pack the soil a couple of inches around the band-
ages. This should be renewed every spring.

Fruit Pests.—At the time when fruit trees are blossoming, and when
sparrows have commenced their annual raids upon them, a good way of
driving away these diminutive plagues, consists of lime-washing the trees,

When thus whitened, the birds disappear.

126 THE FARM.

In the Vineyard.—We present herewith a brief illustrated article, from
the pen of a successful grape grower, giving some hints and suggestions on
the planting and culture of grape vines, which we think will be found inter-
esting:

““T have been looking over my former years’ work, have been reading
back, or rather over again the views of others, and after studying all I took
my spade and digging fork and went to an Isabella vine, planted some ten
years or more since, and
which has never shown any
disease, but yearly ripened
its fruit regularly and
evenly. It was on clay
soil. I dug carefully all
around it a distance of four
feet each way from the
vine, or eight feet diam-
eter, took out a trench with
the spade, then with my

\

(4

ey KK / fork I commenced to shake
> AK out roots, which I found

much as here represented
(Fig. 1).
th tan Via. 1 Of course the Jength of
the roots is not here shown,
for some I broke off in digging; but there was no direct tap root of any size,
and altogether the larger portion of the roots were within ten inches of the
surface. Small roots as large as a goose quill, it is true, were apparently
down below. Some of them pulled upon lifting the vine, others broke off,
but there was not a large or main root so situated. It may not be that this
is any guide showing the general habit of roots of the vine, when grown in
vineyards of clay soils and yearly pruned; but for the present I will so con-
sider it, and when I plant avoid, as I have generally heretofore, setting the
roots too deep. Most workers on the grape tell us that the roots must be
planted deep, at least, they must have ten inches of soil over and above the
upper root of the plant; and s_
they tell us that ifthe plants ~,
are too small for such pur-
pose, then we must excavate
a basin, set the plant, and as
it grows fill up around the
stem. The accompanying
figure shows this mode of
planting as I understand it
(Fig. 2). Astraight line drawn across from the ends of the dotted line would
show the level of the ground; the dotted line the excavation, with the plant
having two eyes, and set in just deep enough to cover the lower eye or bud
with soil. The roots aré shortened as here shown to about eighteen inches
in length and spread out regularly, setting the base of the main stem on a
little mound or rise, not a sharp cone, but a broad mound. 2.
The next manner of planting, highly recommended by a good cultivator, I
have followed with good results. It is to prepare the ground where this
plant is to stand by finely pulverizing it, then excavate a breadth or circle —
sufficiently wide to admit of straightening out the entire roots of the vine _

IN THE VINEYARD.— FIG. 2.

ORCHARD AND VINEYARD. ig
without cutting away a single inch; make the excavation about six inches
deep at the outside of the circle and rising so that the center is four inches
Below the level of the surrounding ground. Fig. 3 shows this method, the

straight line being the surface of the mound on which the plant is placed
before filling in the earth. This depth for planting I believe a good one.”

Winter Care of Grape Vines.—All varieties of grape vines not thor-
oughly hardy should receive some winter protection to secure best results,
and it is claimed by many that it pays to give protection to the hardiest
kinds even. Some growers atiribute their success with Delaware, Duchess,
Roger’s Hybrids, etc., simply to covering, while their neighbors signally fail
with the same varieties. As the treatment in both cases is exactly alike,
the different results can only be attributed to the protection given in one
case and its omission in the other. The process is simple, and depends on
the extent of the operation. After the vines have shed their leaves and ma-
tured their wood, they should be pruned, and on the approach of cold
weather, loosened from the trellis, bent down on the ground, and held there
with stakes, rails, or something similar. This is sometimes found sufficient,
especially when snow lies till late in the spring. If not satisfied with this
dependence, a slight covering with leaves, straw, cornstalks, limbs of ever-
greens, will prove effectual. 2
If danger is to be apprehend-
ed from the depredations of
mice, which in some sections
are very troublesome, a slight
covering of earth on the top
is all that is necessary. It
should be remembered that
it is the young wood of the
present season’s growth that
is to be protected—this contains the buds in which are the embryo fryit
cluster for next year’s crop. Of course, similar protection would not hurt
the old wood, but it is not always feasible to provide it. But the main ques-
tion necessarily preceding all this, on which depends the success or entire
failure of the whole operation, is the maturity and thorough ripening of the
wood.

Keeping Grapes.—In Europe a method of preserving grapes is now
very generally followed. The cluster is cut with a piece of the cane still
attached, and the lower end of the cane is inserted in the neck of a bottle
containing water. Grapes thus treated are kept in a perfect manner for a
long time. European journals have figured racks and other devices for
holding the bottles in such a manner that they may sustain the weight of the
fruit, and also to allow the clusters to hang free, and much as they would

upon the vine. We are not aware that this method has been tried with our -

native grapes. These, even at the holidays, when the price is the highest,
sell for too little to make this method of keeping profitable, but for home
use, the experiment seems to be worth trying.

Keeping Grapes in Cellars.—If grapes mature perfectly they may be
kept for a considerable length of time if cut without bruising, and hung up
in a dry, cool, and rather dark cellar. The stem should be covered, when
cut, with wax, and hung with the stem up. Immature grapes will not keep
in this way or any other.

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12k THE FARM.

IxXeeping Grapes in Winter.—Perhaps among the many methods and
devices employed in keeping grapes in their natural state for winter use,
there will be found none better than the simple ones we here illustrate and

FIG, 1.—KEEPING GRAPES IN WINTER.

describe. The ‘first method
is to take new soap boxes,
or any other box of about
that size, and nail cleats on
the inside of the ends or
sides about one inch from
the top, and between them
bars at various distances, as
required by the varying
length of the bearing shoot
cuttings. The bars are
made by nailing a small
strip on top of each, as
shown in our illustration,
Fig. 1. As late as possible
cut off the bearing shoots
containing the bunches, with

pruning shears, and shorten them so they will crowd between the end of the
box and the top part of the bar, resting on the bottom part, thus hanging the
bunches in their natural position. By this method the boxes can be handled
without shaking the shoots off the bars, carried to the light. each bunch ex-

amined as winter advances, decaying ber-
ries or bunches removed, and the best
kept without any moldy taste, as is so
common when they are packed solid.
Another method of preserving grapes
for winter, is in the first place to have the
bunches as perfect as possible. Cut
away all green, decayed or imperfect
berries. Air them sufficiently to slightly
dry or cure the stem, then keep the grapes
cool, dry and inthe dark. Shallow boxes,
of about five inches in depth, are well
adapted to keeping grapes, but the wood
should not be of a resinous character but
wholly odorless, that the fruit may not be
tainted. Our illustration, Fig. 2, repre-
sents a plan adopted by the French,
which is to suspend the bunches from
hoops in a warm room or dry cellar. In
this position they may be readily exam-
ined at any time. It is said that grapes
will keep well treated in this manner.

How to Prune the Grape.—The
custom kas usually been to prune in
February, but we believe it would be

FIG. 2.—KEEPING GRAPES IN
WINTER.

better if done earlier. The excised portions should be cut up in pieces from
one to two feet in length, as the buds might be best adapted to planting, tied
in bundles of, say, one or two dozen, and buried a few inches under the soil

1 Se: Ta Re ae a oD at

ORCHARD AND VINEYARD. 129

in a location whence the water would drain off, or under an open shed.

There they would keep fresh and in full life until planting in the spring.

The vines should be cut loose from the trellis and left to sprawl over the
' ground, in which position they will stand the winter much better.

A Cheap Trellis.—Our illustration upon this page gives a good idea of
a permanent and quite cheap grape-
vine trellis. The posts rest on stones _
sunk a little into the ground. The
posts may be of any desired size of
timber. A capping piece connects
them along each side, and cross pieces
join the opposite posts. Wire is used
for the lattice work. Such a trellis
costs about fifty cents a running foot,
and is not at all unsightly.

Culture of Hardy Grapes.—J. T.
Lovett, of Little Silver, the well-known
New Jersey fruit grower, says in re-
gard to the culture of hardy grapes:
Plant in rows six feet apart, and the
vines eight feet apart in the rows. Dig
holes twelve to fifteen inches deep, and
of a size amply large to accommodate
the vines. They should then be filled
to within six or eight inches of the top
with fine, rich soil, throwing in while
doing so a few bones or some wood
ashes, if to be had. Cut back one-year
vines to two eyes, placing the lower
one below the surface; two-year vines
to three or four eyes, and putting two
or three eyes below the _ surface.
Spread out the roots (which should
have previously had one-third their
length cut off), place the stock of the
vine at one side of the hole, and fill
with fine soil, pressing it firmly. When
planted, set a stake at the stock (to
which the vine should be kept tied),
which will be all the support required
for two years. Keep old wood trimmed
off, growing fruit on new canes. Any
manner of pruning that will admit the
sun to the fruit will insure a crop; and laying the vines on the ground, even
without.covering, will increase both the quality of the fruit and the size of
the bunches, besides insuring safety from injury by frost. For mildew
dust with flower of sulphur while the vines are wet.

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Bleeding Grape Vines.—It is stated that an English grape grower
stopped the profuse bleeding of a thrifty grape vine by forming a sort of
hard cement over the cut ends by repeated dustings at short intervals with
Portland cement,

iach ct als eae 3 a Ree

SMALL FRUITS.

Cranberry Culture.—The constantly increasing price of the cranberry,
and the great numbers of marshes with alluvium soil free from clay or loam
that one meets almost everywhere, prompts the question why cranberries
are not more generally cultivated. Of all the self-supporting crops, none
needs less care than the cranberry, if the conditions that govern its culture
are first complied with, and none certainly shows greater financial results.
The firs: essential is the marsh and its soil, with reference also to the ability
to control the water supply. A soil having any proportion of clay should be
avoided, and selection made of a combined decaying vegetable mass, with
natural sand, and the less loam there is in this the better. Eastern growers
cover their marshes with sand, but in the West, if the swamp, upon exami-
nation, seems to have a fair amount of sand or silex, it is quite probable that
success may be attained in putting out the plants without this sand mulch.
As a rule, it is a greater guarantee of success to have a stream of water
crossing the marsh, for then in dry weather the gates can be closed and the
marsh saturated, and if insect pests make their appearance the vines can be
submerged for a day, which will make the worms loosen their hold, but the
chances may be taken on a common ‘‘ dry” patch of swamp. It is supposed
that any one who attempts the culture of cranberries will make the dams
and embankments of the most solid and substantial character, with gates
that will not only work, but be water-tight, else failure will come with the
first freshet. Ditching should next be seen to, and rapid drainage secured.
This is done by a broad central channel and lateral ditches, which should
not be at right angles to it, but approaching it in diagonal lines. The
amount of water will have to be taken into consideration—the more water,
the more ditches—a fact that will determine also the width of the main out-
let. If the swamp is of some extent, it is to be presumed that a ditch at
least six or eight feet in width will be needed. These ditches should not be
over two feet in depth, and unless there are very heavy discharges of water
from the uplands, or natural water courses, the side ditches need not be
nearer than one hundred feet from each other. One ditch should always
run parallel with and about six feet, or even more, from the dam; the soil
thrown out can be utilized in building the dam. The planting requires some
discernment. If the muck is covered with alders, reeds, and the like, a
great amount of labor will have to be performed in advance, but the experi-
ence of a great many has been, where the muck was only covered with a
growth of wild grass, that the ditching and consequent dry soil will so hinder
its growth that the berry vines will thrive and soon force it into subjection,
and, upon the whole, it will, in the first year of the growth of the cranberry,
prove a source of profit in the way of protection from exposure and the like.
By this method the labor of setting the vines will only be one of thrusting a
narrow spade into the soil, pushing the handle over to one side, insert the
plants, three or four in number, and press the soil firmly about the plants
with the foot, Where weeds and wild sage have a strong hold upon the

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. er SMALL LOPR OLS.
- swamp, the removal of the turf is the only way to succeed with the cran-
berries. To pay $50 and $75 an acre to clear the ground, in addition to the
expense of ditching, seems a large outlay, but when_the plants have estab-
lished themselves and you find that the acre has produced one hundred to
one hundred and fifty bushels of berries, worth $4 per bushel, the “light
shines from an entirely different quarter.” Planting these hills three feet
apart each way gives both ample room and chance for cultivation, and in a
couple of years the plants will occupy the entire ground, and if no chance is
given to seed the ground with weeds, the care of the vines will be quite a
small item for several years.

131

Preparing Soil for Strawberries.—Upon this subject E. P. Roe writes
as follows: In the garden, light soils can be given a much more stable and
productive character, covering them with clay to the depth of one or two
‘inches eyery fall. The winter’s frost and rain mix the two diverse soils to
their mutual benefit. Carting sand on clay is rarely remunerative; the
reverse is decidedly so, and top-dressing of clay on light land is often more
beneficial than equal amounts of manure.

As practically employed, I regard quick stimulating manures, like guano,
very injurious to light soils. I believe them to be the curse of the South.
- They are used “to make a crop,” as it is termed; and they do make it for a
few years, but to the utter impoverishment of the land.

And yet, by the aid of these stimulating commercial fertilizers, the
poorest and thinnest soil can be made to produce good. strawberries if suf-
ficient moisture can be maintained. Just as a physician can rally an
exhausted man to a condition in which he can take and be strengthened by
food, so land, too poor and light to sprout a pea; can be stimulated into pro-
ducing a meagre green crop of some kind, which plowed under, will enable —
the land to produce a second and heavier burden. This, in turn, placed in
the soil, willbegin to give a suggestion of fertility. Thus poor or exhausted
soil can be made by several years of skillful management, to convalesce
slowly into strength.

Coarse, gravelly soils are usually even worse. If we must grow our
strawberries on them give the same general treatment that I have sug-
gested.

On some peat soils the strawberry thrives abundantly; on others it burns
and dwindles. With a soil, I should experiment with bone dust, ashes. et
until I found just what was lacking.

No written directions can take the place of common sense judgment, and
above all, experience. Soils vary like individual character. I have yet to
learn of a system of rules that will teach us how to deal with every man we
meet. It is ever wise, however, to deal justly and liberally. He that -
expects much from his land must give it much.

T have dwelt at length upon the preparation and enrichment of the land,
since it is the corner stone of all subsequent success. Let me close by
emphasizing again the principle which was made prominent at first. Though
we give our strawberry plants everything else they need, our crop of fruit
will still be good or bad in proportion as we are able to maintain abundant
moisture during the blossoming and fruiting season. If provision can be
made for irrigation, it may increase the yield tenfold.

When to Plant Strawberries.—The above question is often asked,
and its answer must depend upon circumstances. One fact about the straw-

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We ei | aac ORT ENE a Ream ET wee Es De
‘ 4 | ae aE g : . et ie ~
132 THRE FARM,

berry plant should be known, and this will enable each one to decide for |
himself. The plants that are sent out by nurserymen are those that were
formed last year by the runners from old plants taking root in the soil of the
bed. If these are taken up in the usual way and planted in a new bed—it
may be after the lapse of several days—they require a whole season to get
established and become sufficiently strong to bear a crop. If these plants
are set this spring, they will bear a crop next spring; if such plants are set
next autumn, they will require all of next season to grow in, and while they
may produce here and there a few berries, they will give no real crop until
the following year. Growers of fruit for Spa os set a share of their plants i in
the fall, becdtse then they have leisure and the ground is in excellent con-
dition. Ifthe plants are made to strike root in pots, these in early autumn
may be planted in beds without any disturbance of their roots, and will give
a fair crop next spring. Such plants are more expensive than others, and if
a crop of fruit is wanted next spring, itis better to set out the plants. now.
Making the rows two feet apart, and setting the ar one foot apart in the
row, a8 a general rule is best.

With regard to protecting strawberry plants, if some light material can be
put over the plants that will not smother and rot them, and yet will be just
enough to make shade from the winter sun and a screen from frosty winds,
it will be doing a good turn to the strawberry plant. Manure is bad. There
is salt in it, especially when fresh, which is destructive to foliage; but clean
straw, or Swamp, or marsh hay that is free from weeds, answers the purpose
very well. But it must not be put on very thick. The idea is, just enough
to make a thin screen, and yet enough to hold the moisture long. Shade
without damp is the idea. Such light protection is good for the plant.

Covering Strawberries.—The strawberry endures cold well, writes a
successful small fruit grower, but not the great sudden changes of tempera-
ture, and cold, drying winds. If the situation is such that the plants are not
exposed to the winds, and the stools are large and thick with foliage, this
foliage will be a sufficient protection; doubtful, however, should the snow be
very deep and close packed, and lie long, or ice form on the surface of the
ground, locking it for a long time. It is worse still if the frost extends deep
into the ground. Under such circumstances the smothering influence may
either kill the plant or seriously injure it. The plants without covering are
safe where the winter is mild and the soil has perfect drainage. But the safe
thing is to cover the plants. For perfect protection I find nothing so good as
hemlock brush, or straw kept in place by a hemlock bough, with the con-
cave side under, thus preventing the fatal pressure of the snow. I put on
the covering at the beginning of winter, and keep it on until spring frosts are
over. The plant will then come out fresh, strong and unharmed, and imme-
diately push its growth,

This answers for a small plot of ground. For field culture, light stable
manure with three or four parts of sawdust, or other fine vegetable absorb-
ent, to one of manure, succeeds well as a covering, but should be used only
where the soil requires the fertility, as too high manuring produces foliage
rather than fruit.

Vegetable material worked into the soil is one of the best elements in the
strawberry culture, as also in the culture of other berries. It loosens clay
and improves the character of sandy soil, seeming also to form the right
pabulum for the fruit. I also get the best crops and the finest berries in this
way. Two weeks ago I gave the plants a sprinkling of liquid manure

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°

SMALL FRUITS, : 138
(diluted urine), and they are brightening up and invigorated so as to with-
stand the winter better, and put out strong and early in the spring. This
attention is only a trifle, but it helps a good deal. The strawberry, like the

grape, is very susceptible to treatment, and can be made to do much more
than we usually see.

Cultivation of Strawberries.—An Illinois journal says that the pre-
paration of the ground for strawberries, and, indeed, for all berry fruits
raised in the garden, is exceedingly simple. Any land rich enough to bring
forty to fifty bushels of corn per acre, under good cultivation, will do. The
ground should be plowed deeply and thoroughly well pulverized. Mark the
land if for field culture, the distance as for corn. If for garden culture, the
field may be marked both ways, and one good plant placed at each intersec-
tion, spreading the roots naturally, placing the plants so the crowns will not
be above the surface, giving a little water to the roots if the soil be not fairly
moist, and after the water has settled away, drawing the dry earth over all.
For garden culture, one plant to three feet of space will be sufficient, unless
the plants are to be raised in stools, and the runners kept cut out, when a

plant to each two feet will be about right, if you want extra large berries. —

The cultivation is simple. The spaces between the rows, about two feet
wide, may be kept clean with the cultivator. In the rows the weeds may be
kept, early in the season, clean with the cultivator; later, when the runners
have encroached on the rows, the weeds must be pulled out if necessary,
but on fairly clean soil, the cultivation will not be difficult. Beds of the pre-
vious year, and which should be in full fruit this season, may be kept clean
between the rows with the cultivator... The weeds will not trouble much
until the crop is gathered.

About Raspberries.—Not one-half the people grow raspberries that
should. To say nothing of the excellence of this fruit freshly taken from the
vines, with cream or without, it is really the best there is for canning, and
either raw or canned it finds a ready market. It is easily cultivated, pro-
duces large crops, and has few insect enemies.

In starting a bed the best time is in the fall, but if neglected then, plant
early in the spring, pressing the earth firmly about the roots and cutting the

weeds

canes off six inches high. Count all suckers as weeds except three to five to.

the hill. The hills may be four feet apart each way, so they can be worked
with the plow and cultivator. No stakes are needed, for the canes are kept
stocky by being pinched off hen about a yard high.

As to varieties, of course there is none better for this locality than the
Brandywine. Itis true and tried. It carries well to market, and its bright
red color makes it the most salable berry in the catalogue. For home use
alone it is no better than the Herstine, but this is not solid, and the plants
need covering in winter north of this latitude. The Herstine is a splendid
berry—good enough for anybody. The Philadelphia is a valuable old stand-
ard, but is soft and too dark in color. The Reliance is nearly of the same
color, but we believe every way better than the Philadelphia.

The Cuthbert is immensely praised just now, and so many unite in com-
mending it, that it certainly must have merit. It is perfectly hardy, and
thrives North and South. Itis said to be very productive, the berries are
immense, and the bearing time holds on a long time. The Queen of the
Market is quite similar to the Cuthbert, in fact so nearly alike are the two
berries, that many consider them identical.

Or OV Oe as ele
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¢

134 TUR PARM OO” oO ee

The above are all red varieties. Of the black caps the Mammoth Cluster
is the old popular variety, but the new Gregg is said to be greatly superior
to it.

; The Blackberry and Whortleberry.—Those who find it difficult to
get good ripe blackberries and whortleberries may be glad to know that they
can be grown in their own gardens as well as the strawberry, and that with
the right treatment they will surpass in flavor and size any which may haye
grown in their grandfather’s day. The low-bush or running blackberry
grows best on a warm soil of either sandy loam or gravel, and when properly
grown and well ripened is much better than any of the high bush varieties.
The plants should be set in May, in rows three feet apart and two feet in the
rows. Care should be taken to select good strong young roots, and those
which bear large sweet berries, avoiding those which bear the sour berries
that ripen later in the season; it is best to mark the plants when the fruit is
ripening, or secure the assistance of one who knows where the right variety
grows. For garden culture the ground should be well hoed the first part of
the season, and mulched with leaves or hay about the first of August. If
properly cared for the first year, but little needs to be done the next spring;
the crop will be large if the vines are well supplied with water during the
ripening season; during this time they require quite as much water as the
strawberry. The berries should not be picked until fully ripe, and to bein
the best condition for sauce should be picked but a short time before eaten;
when thus picked, they surpass in richness and flavor the strawberry; as it
cannot be transported when fully ripe, any better, ifso well as the strawberry,
its good qualities are known only to those who cultivate it in their own gar-
den, and understand the right time to pick it. But few dishes can be placed
upon the table so acceptable as a dish of good, well-ripened blackberries of
the variety which grow on the low running vines. To keep the garden clean,
new vines should be set every year, and the old ones removed as soon as the
berries are picked. The whortleberry, both the high and the low-bush, re-
quires a different treatment from the blackberry; it will grow on almost any
soil. Bushes should be selected that are known to produce large-sized and
good flavored berries; they should be set near enough together to shade the
ground; a large portion of the top should be cutoff; the ground be mulched
with a heavy coat of leaves, and should not be disturbed by cultivation; but
should be kept well mulched until the bushes are thick enough and large
enough to shade the ground, and thus they protect themselves; when once
established they require but little care. When the bushes seem to have too
much old wood to bear well, they should be cut down to the ground in the
autumn; the next year they will make a vigorous growth, and the year after
bear some very large berries, but not a full crop until the following year.

Gooseberries and Currants.—_There is no reason why both these very
useful fruits should not be found abundantly in every garden. They are no
trouble to raise. They grow readily from cuttings. Take the wood of last
year, from six to ten inches in length; prepare the bed or place where they
are to stand permanently; force them into the ground not less than four ~
inches, press the dirt firmly around them, mulch them, and let them alone.
Ifa brush is desired let the buds on the cuttings remain; butif a tree or
single stem be preferred, remove all the buds that would go beneath the
surface. Let them stand about three feet in the row; and if there is more
than one row, let the rows be four feet apart.

“SMALL FRUITS.

In the spring the aead wood of both the gooseberries and currants should
be cut out, and the new growth should be thinned where there is too much,
as it will interfere with the product. The best red currant is the Dutch, and
the best gooseberries are Downing’s Prolific and Houghton’s Seedling.

Advantages of Mulching.—The Germantown Telegraph says: ‘‘ Al-
though we have suggested many times in the past the great advantage of
mulching raspberry and blackberry beds, it cannot be suggested too often.
But this mulching should not be done or rather renewed in the season until
the heat of the sun or drought requires it; neither should it be done until
after the suckers or new plants show themselves and are of sufficient height
not to be injured by the application of the mulch, which, if too thick and
applied too soon, will in a great measure prevent the sprouting, and where
it does not will cause the sprouts to be weak and spindling. Currant bushes
also delight in a moist, cool soil, and mulching provides this if applied in
sufficient quantity. Anything in the way of weeds, small branches of trees,
grass from lawn cuttings, etc., will answer. The mulching of tomato plants,
egg plants, etc., will prove very beneficial. We know that some persons
have not our faith in mulching, and prefer beds of plants, young trees, etc.,
to have the soil stirred up about them frequently. This, we are aware, is
excellent, but it does not hinder the mulching also. Let the old mulch be
removed, the soil well loosened, and then apply fresh mulch.”

Fall Setting of Small Fruits.—It is urged that those contemplating
setting small fruits should give one trial at least to fall setting. All that is
necessary is to either back up over the roots with earth, or throw a forkful
of litter over each plant, betore the ground freezes up, and in the spring haul
this away. First, because. they get settled in their place, and getting the
benefit of early spring rains, start early, and make a full growth next season,
while if set next spring, it cannot be done properly until the ground is set-
tled and the heavy spring rains have ceased. Seccnd, all fruit growers know
how pressed they are for time in the spring. Third, raspberries and black-
berries have very tender germs that start very early in the spring, and these
are likely to be broken off if set then, while if set in the fall, they have not
started enough to damage them in transplanting. And fourth, but not least,
a much larger proportion of them live when set in the fall—a fact abundant
in itself to show the superior merits of fall planting, especially of blackber-
ries, raspberries, currants, grapes, and such sorts.

Red Raspberry.—There is no fruit that is in greater demand at such
paying prices, and with which the market is so poorly supplied, as the red
raspberry, and one reason why the market is so poorly supplied is because
there has been sent over the country so many tender sorts that have so
easily winter killed, but now with such hardy and productive sorts as the
Brandywine, Philadelphia, Turner, Highland Hardy, Thwack and Cuthbert,
and that succeed so well wherever tried, there is no excuse for not haying
this delicious fruit in abundance. Another reason why they pay so poorly is
that they have been allowed to grow helter skelter all over the ground. If
you would have fruit in abundance, and of larger size, the suckers must be
kept down same as weeds, and the same cultivation that will keep the ground
in proper plight and keep weeds down will keep suckers down.

Easy Method of Cultivating Small Fruits.—A writer in the New
York Tribune says; “Tt is a source of constant regret with farmers that

Z eet Py % E 5
TEBE Sy hc Sse eel alten pene oP

136 | THE FARM, ets

small fruits require so much care and attention, and that, too, in the season
when they are hardest at work at something else. Field work must be done
at all events, and the ‘berry patch’ struggles on single handed with the
weeds and grass, till it submits to the inevitable sward. Some years ago
coming into possession of a patch of black cap raspberries that had received
the usual shiftless culture, i treated them in the following way: After care-
fully plowing and hoeing them, I covered the ground with a heavy layer of
very strawy manure, and the work was done, not only for that year but for
the two years following, only renewing the mulch each spring. Only a
few struggling Canada thistles will ever grow through such mulch; the soil
is always rich and moist, and the berries can ask no better treatment. Since
that time I have tried the same plan without removing the sod, and find the
result is quite as satisfactory. Farmers, try it, and you will not need to
complain that berries cost more than they are worth.

Winter Protection of Strawberry Vines.—A good strawberry pro-
tector is a cheap baked-clay saucer, twelve to thirteen inches in diameter,
with a hole in the center. The advantages claimed by its use are: a much
larger crop; much finer berries; cleaner, and free from sand and dirt;
mulching the ground; the retention of the rains to the roots of the vines;
killing the weeds; early ripening; easier picking. They are turned over as a
winter protection to the vines. Persons who have used it pronounce it the
most important invention ever made in connection with strawberry raising.

Setting a Strawberry Bed.—The old plan of spading under a portion
of the old strawberry bed, so as to leave the plants in rows, will not pay.
Better reset clean land with vigorous plants, arranging to grow a crop of
potatoes every third year to clean the land and mellow it. The picking of
berries on heavy clay lands causes it to become so packed as to require cul-
tivating at least one season in every four with some hoed crop. Strawberry
plants may be set in May or in August; in fact, at almost any time during the
spring, summer or fall season.

Easy Method of Disposing of the Currant Worm.—A successful
small fruit grower circumvents the ravaging currant worm by allowing no
sprouts to grow. He allows but three main stems to a bush, and rubs off
all root sprouts when about six inches long. The worms begin with the new
- growth first; hence, he says, no sprouts, no worms. The fruit also is far
finer on plants thus treated, the common red Dutch being nearly as large as
the Cherry currant, and a better bearer.

An Easy Method of Irrigation.—An old fruit can may be pierced
with one or more pin holes, and then sunk in the earth near the roots of the
strawberry or tomato, or other plants, the pin holes to be made of such size
that when the can is filled with water the fluid can only escape into the
ground very slowly. Practical trials of this method of irrigation leave no
doubt of its success. Plants thus watered yield bounteous returns through-
out the longest droughts.

Trellises for Blackberries and Raspberries.—-The fruit canes of the
blackberries and raspberries should be tied up to stakes or trellises.
The young growing canes form the fruiting ones for next year; cut away aly
except three to five to each stool, and when large enough tie them up; they =
should be pinched off at four feet for raspberries and six feet for blackberries.

LIVE STOCK.

How to Judge a Horse.—1. Never take the seller’s word. If dis-
posed to be fair, he may have been the dupe of another, and will deceive
you through representations which cannot be relied upon.

2. Never trust a horse’s mouth as a sure index of his age.

3. Never buy a horse while in motion; watch him while he stands at rest
and-you will discover his weak points. Ifsound, he will stand firmly and
squarely on his limbs without moving any of them, feet planted flat upon the
ground, with legs plump and naturally poised. If one foot is thrown for-
ward with the toe pointing to the ground and the heel raised, or if the foot is
lifted from the ground and the weight taken from it, disease of the navicular
bone may be suspected, or at least tenderness, which is a precursor of dis-
ease. If the footis thrown out, the toe raised, and the heel brought down,
the horse has suffered from lamnitis, founder, or the back sinews have
sprained, and he is of little future value. When the feet are all drawn to-
gether beneath the horse, if there has been no disease, there is a misplace-
ment of the limb at least, and weak disposition of the muscles. If the horse
stands with his feet spread apart, or straddles with his hind legs, there is
weakness of the loins, and the kidneys are disordered. When the knees are
bent, and totter and tremble, the beast has been ruined by heavy pulling,
and will never be right again, whatever rest and treatment he may have.
Contracted or ill-formed hoofs speak for themselves.

4, Never buy a horse with a bluish or milky coat in his eyes. They in-
dicate a constitutional tendency to ophthalmia, moon-blindness, etc.

5. Never have anything to do with a horse who keeps his ears thrown
backward. ~This is an invariable indication of bad temper.

6. If the horse’s hind legs are scarred, the fact denotes that he is a kicker.

7. If the knees are blemished, the horse is apt to stumble.

8. When the skin is rough and harsh, and does not move easily and
smeothly to the touch, the horse is a heavy eater, and digestion is bad.

9. Ayoid a horse whose respiratory organs are at allimpaired. Ifthe ear
is placed to the heart and a wheezing sound is heard, it is an indication of
trouble.

Feed for the Horse.—One of the most sensible articles on the treatment
of a horse is that which is given from a physiological standpoint by Colvin.

It is the opinion of this authority that the horse’s stomach has a compacity
of only about 16 quarts, while that of the ox has 250. In the intestines this
proportion is reversed, the horse having a capacity of 190 quarts against 100
of the ox. The ox, and most other animals, have a gall bladder for the re-
tention of a part of the bile secreted during digestion; the horse has none,
and the bile flows directly»into the intestines as fast as secreted. This con-
struction of the digestive apparatus indicates that the horse was formed to
eat slowly and digest continually bulky and innutritious food. When fed on
hay ib passes very rapidly through the stomach into the intestines. The

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138 THE FARM.

horse can eat but about five pounds of hay in an hour, which is charged,
during mastication, with four times its weight of saliva. Now, the stomach,
to digest well, will contain but about ten quarts, and when the animal eats
one-third of his daily ration, or seven pounds, in one and one-half hours, he
has swallowed at least two stomachfuls of hay and saliva, one of these hay-
ing passed to the intestines. Observation has shown that the food is passed
to the intestines by the stomach in the order in which it is received. If we
feed a horse six quarts of oats it will just fill his stomach, and if, as soon as
he finishes this, we feed him the above ration of seven pounds of hay, he will
eat sufficient in three-quarters of an hour to have forced the oats entirely out
of his stomach into the intestines. As it is the office of the stomach to digest
the nitrogenous parts of the feed, and as a stomachful of oats contains four
or five times as much of these as the same amount of hay, it is certain that
either the stomach must secrete the gastric juice five times as fast, which is
hardly possible, or it must retain this food five times as long. By feeding
the oats first, it can only be retained long enough for the proper digestion of
hay, consequently it seems logical, when feeding a concentrated food like
oats, with a bulky one like hay, to feed the latter first, giving the grain the
whole time between the repasts to be digested.

Feeding Horses.—Another authority writes as follows: The horse has
the smallest stomach, in proportion to his size, of any animal. This space is
completely filled by four quarts of oats and the saliva that goes into the
stomach with it. Horses are generally overfed and not fed often enough.
For a horse with moderate work six or eight quarts of bruised oats and ten
pounds of fine hay are sufficient. 'This should be fed in three meals, and is
better if fed in four. A horse’s digestion is very rapid, and therefore he gets
hungry sooner than aman. When he is hungry he is ineffective, and wears
out very rapidly. Water fills the stomach, lowers the temperature, and di-
lutes the gastric juice; therefore a horse should not drink immediately be-
fore eating. Neither should he be watered immediately after eating, because
he will drink too much and force some of the contents of the stomach into
the large intestine, which will cause scouring. Scouring is also caused by
too rapid eating, which can be prevented by putting half a dozen pebbles
half the size of the fist into the manger with the oats. Give only a moderate
drink of water to a horse. A large drink of water before being driven will
have a very quieting effect on a nervous horse. A race horse always runs
on an empty stomach. Digestion progresses moderately during exercise, if
the exercise is not so violent as to exhaust the power of the horse. I con-
sider bruised oats worth twenty per cent. more than whole. They are more
perfectly digested. I prefer oats to any other grain for horses. Cracked
corn is good under some circumstances, but I would not use meal or shorts.
The disease called big head is caused by feeding corn. Whena horse comes
in hot I would give a moderate feed immediately. If the horse is too tired
to eat I would take the feed away. A heated horse is a reason against water-
ing and for feeding, for the system is just then in a condition to begin diges-
tion. A horse will not founder if fed immediately when hot. J prefer dry
feed, unless the horse has some disease of the throat and lungs. I do not
consider it worth while to cut hay. I always feed hay from the floor, then
the horses do not get particles in their eyes.

Raising a Colt.— A colt is regarded as an incumbrance because he is
useless until he arrives at a suitable age for work, but it really costs very

cae “LIVE sToor. 139

little, compared with his value, to raise a colt. . When the period arrives at
which the colt can do service, the balance sheet will show in its favor, for
young horses always command good prices if they are sound and well

_ broken. One of the difficulties in the way is the incumbrance placed on the
dam, which interferes with her usefulness on the farm, especially if the colt
is foaled during the early part of the spring. Some farmers have their colts
foaled in the fall, but this is open to two Objections. In the first place, spring
is the natural time, for then the grass is beginning to grow, and nature seems
to have provided that most animals should bring forth their young in a sea-
son beyond the reach of severe cold, and with sufficient time to grow and be
prepared for the following winter.

Again, when a colt is foaled in the fall he must pass through a period of
several months’ confinement in the stable, without exercise, or else be more
or less chilled with cold from time to time. Should this happen, the effect
of any bad treatment will be afterward manifested, and no amount of atten-
tion can again elevate the colt to that degree of hardiness and soundness of
body that naturally belongs to a spring colt. Besides, a colt foaled in the
spring will outgrow one foaled in the fall. An objection to spring colts may
be partially overcome by plowing in the fall, or keeping the brood mares for
very light work, with the colts at liberty to accompany them always. A colt
needs but very little feeding if the pasture is good and there is water run-
ning through it. He needs then only a small feed of oats at night—no corn
—and if he is given hay it is not necessary to give him a full ration. What
he will consume from the barn will not be one-third his value when he is
three years old, and if he is well bred the gain is greater.

When a farmer raises his horses he knows their disposition, constitution
and capacity. It is the proper way to get good, sound, serviceable horses
on the farm. It should not be overlooked that a colt must be tenderly
treated from birth, and must be fondled and handled as much as possible.
He should never hear a harsh word, but should be taught to have confidence
in everybody he sees or knows. This is an easy matter if his training begins
from the time he is a day old. He can be thus gradually broken without
difficulty, and will never be troublesome. No such thing as a whip should
be allowed in astable that contains a colt. Colts should not be worked until
three years old, and then lightly at first, as they do not fully mature until
they are six years old, and with some breeds of horses even later. Mares
with foals at their side should be fed on the most nourishing food.

_ To Bit a Colt.—The true way to bit a colt is not to bit him at all; that
is, let him bit himself. When my colts are one year old, I begin to teach
them to hold the bit in their mouth. The bit is of pine, some half-inch in
diameter, and five inches in length. This piece of. soft pine is held in the
mouth by a cord tied to either end, and fastened on the head, back of the
ears. The colt loves to have the bit in his mouth, because it enables him to
bring forward the saliva process. He will bit, and work it over in his mouth,
and enjoys it hugely. He will welcome it, and will actually reach out and
open his mouth for it, as a trained horse will for a bit. After a few days, you
can tie strings making miniature reins to this bit, and teach the colt the
proper use of it. When this is done, he is ready for the regular steel bit.
Put your bridle on with a leather bit, large and pliant; throw your check-
line, if your bridle has one attached, into the pigsty; get into your wagon
_ and drive off. This is all the ‘‘ bitting” a colt needs. Treated in this way,
he will have a lively, vielding, sensitive mouth. He will take the bit bravely

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140 THE FARM.

when working up to his speed, but yield readily to the driver’s will. A
horse, bitted in this sensible way, can be driven a forty-clip with the lines
held in one hand, or be lifted
over a five-barred gate with
the strength ofa single wrist.
If you do not believe it, try
it and see.

A Convenient Horse-
shoe.—Among the numerous
horseshoes lately devised in
this and other countries, that
‘invention in England, by Mr.
Joseph Offord, seems worthy
of special notice. Its object
is to fit the hoof with a moy-
able but firm covering, which
can be readily adjusted to
fit every kind of work and
road, so that, like its master,
the horse may own several
sets of shoes for different
occasions. The device con-
sists in having one or more

= fd perfectly wedge-shaped holes
S| ~pere in the side and close to the
HORSESHOE.—FIG. 1. edge of each shoe (Fig. *), in
which triangular cogs, or
wedges, are inserted. These are fastened by the fangs being brought, with-
out touching the hoof, to tke outside of the shoe, over which they are
clenched with a small hammer. The
cogs do not penetrate the hoof, and
there is no risk of hurting the horse.
The holes being wedge-shaped, can-
not fill up with stones or dirt, and
the fangs being malleable, the wedges
are easily removed or inserted at
pleasure. It is necessary, however,
to get the holes punched in the shoes
before the horse is shod, and for the
coachman to be provided with a sup-
ply of these patent cogs to insure
safety on any road in frost or on
wood.

As many are accustomed to use a’
cog which screws into the shoe, Mr.
Offord has prepared a steel wedge-
shaped one (Fig. 2) for this purpose.
The screw cogs are, of course, more
expensive. In using them the shoe HORSESHOE.—-FIG. 2.
has to be drilled and tapped with
one or more holes before the horse is shod. The cogs are inserted into these
holes when needed, or removed at pleasure by means of a wrench provided

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LIVE STOCK. — Sy tad

for this purpose. We give two illustrations, reproduced from the Agricuwl-
tural Gazette, showing both these methods, with the punch, wrench, and
cogs, both cf which have stood the test of many vears’ experience, and have

given great satisfaction.

To Break Horses from Pulling at the Halter._ Two methods of
breaking a horse of this habit are here illustrated, as follows:

TO BREAK HORSES FROM PULLING AT THE HALTER.—FIG. 1.

Fig. 1.--Get a strong half-inch cord twenty-two feet in length; put the
center under the tail like a crupper; twist them a few times as you bring

them forward over the back; pass for-
ward on each side of the body, the

pass them forward through the halter
below the jaw. ‘Tie firmly to a tree,
post, or stall, and excite the animal by
any means that will cause him to pull,
until the habit is overcome. You may
even whip across the nose keenly until
there is perfect submission, which will
not require long. Hitch in this way
for a few days, or so long as there is

is any predisposition to pull on the

halter.

Fig. 2.—This contrivance consists
of an ordinary ring halter, with the
two side rings connected by a strong,
flexible cord. Whenever the horse
pulls, the inner part of the cord is
drawn forcibly against his jaw, and
the effect is a severer punishment than
he is willing to endure.

Warts on Horses.—A correspon-

TO BREAK A HORSE FROM PULLING
AT A HALTER.—FIG. 2.

dent of an English agricultural journal writes: ‘‘ Inquiries are made for a
cure for warts on horses, mules, and cattle. Many remedies are prescribed

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142 THE FARM. —

—many barbarous and cruel to the animal. I will give you a remedy often ae

tried, and never known to fail. Anoint the wart three times with clean,
fresh hog’s lard, about two days between times. I have had warts on my
horses—bleeding warts, of large size, rattling warts and seed warts, to the
number of more than one hundred on one horse’s head. I have never been
able to find the warts for the third application of the lard. All disappear
after the second application. I have sent this prescription to several agri-
cultural papers, hoping it would be of some use to farmers. But they all
seem slow to believe, perhaps, because the remedy is at hand and costs no-
thing. I own I was slow to believe myself; but, having a fe young mare
with large bleeding warts, that coyered parts of the bridle and girths with
blood whenever used, I thought there would be no harm in trying lard on
them. When the mare was got up for the third application, there were no

warts, and the scars are there now, after more than fifteen years, with very

little change. I may say that for cuts, bruises, galls, etc., the application of
fresh lard—either for man or beast—is worth more than any patent liniment
in use. It will remove pain instantly, and does not irritate raw flesh, as all
liniments do.

Stumbling Horses.—The Pittsburg Sfockman says: ‘‘ Some good horses
are addicted to stumbling while walking or moving in a slow trot. A well-
versed veterinarian states that there are two causes that would tend to pro-
duce this faulty action; one a general weakness in the muscular system,
such as would be noticed in a tired horse; the other a weakness of the ex-
terior muscles of the leg, brought about by carrying too much weight on the
we. To effect a cure, he adds, lighten the weight of each front shoe about
tour ounces; have the toe of the shoe made of steel instead of iron, it will
wear longer, have it rounded off about the same as it would be when one-
third worn out, in order to prevent tripping, allow one week’s rest; have the
legs showered for a few minutes at a time with cold water through a hese,
in order to create a spray; then rub dry briskly, from the chest down to the
foot. Give walking exercise daily this week, for about an hour, twice a day.
When you commence driving again omit the slow jog—either walk or send
him along at a sharp trot for a mile or two, then walk away, but do not
speed for at least several weeks. By this means the habit of stumbling
from either of the above causes will be pretty well overcome.

Cure for Balky Horse.—Hermann Koon, my German neighbor, writes
a correspondent of the Prairie Farmer, is as patient a man as belongs to
that patient race. Coming along the road a month or so ago, I saw Her-
mann lying in a fence corner, under the shade of an elm, quietly smoking
his pipe. A quarter of a mile or so beyond I saw Hermann’s horse and
buggy by the roadside, the horse evidently tied to a post. This was a queer
condition of affairs, for my neighbor is one of the most industrious men I
know. My curiosity was aroused, and I stopped for an explanation. In
broken English he told me his horse, a recent purchase, had proved balky,
had stopped near where he now stood and no amount of coaxing could in-
duce him to go on. Hermann did not curse the animal, he did not lash it
with his whip, beat it with a club, build a fire under its belly, nor resort to
any other of the brutal means some men use in such cases. He quietly got
out of the buggy, tied the horse to the post, and walked off. Hermann had
been taking it easy under the tree for three long hours. He thought the horse
would be glad to go now if requested to doso. It had once before stopped

a ie he

LIVE STOVK.

with him, and after a patient waiting alone, for an hour, it went on all right.
He expected about four hours, this time, would effect a permanent cure of
the bad habit. I*went on about my business, leaving the stolid German to
his pipe and his thoughts. To-day I met him again. He said the horse was
eager to start when he went back to the buggy, and though he has used it
every day since, no disposition to balk has been manifested. He believes

there will be no repetition of the offense. Most men think they cannot afford

to waste time in this way, perhaps, but if the horse is cured he is a valuable
one, whereas, if it had become a chronic balker, through cruel management,
it would be worthless. Hermann thought he could not make money faster
than by saving the reputation of his horse. It is a new system, but Hermann
says it will work well every time, if the horse is not naturally vicious. It
looks reasonable to me, and if my nag ever tries the stop game with me, and
I can command patience sufficient, I will try his plan.

Kicking Horses.—We present herewith a method that will be found
available in all cases of kicking by horses. The beast should have a good
pair of bits in his mouth, to .
which should be attached a i \
strap or rope sufficiently long
to reach back between and
behind the fore legs about
eight inches, and should pass
through the girt or surcingle.
A loop should be made in
this, the back end of the rope
or strap, about two inches or
more in length. Now take a
rope about seven or eight feet
long. (The length of the rope
will depend upon the size of
the horse; the rope should be
long enough to allow of a
free use of the horse’s hind
legs in traveling.) Pass one
end of the rope round the leg, upon the inside, so the fastening shall come
upon the outside, to prevent interfering, and bring it round upon the outside
. of the leg, and pass the end over and around the middle of the rope and wind
it round the rope upon the outside of the leg, as illustrated. Draw the noose
up round the pastern—i. e., between the fetlock and hoof—and pass the
unfastened end of the rope through the loop in the rope or strap which passes
through the surcingle, and fasten the end round the other leg, as was done
the first time in fastenmg. This mode of fastening is simple, is easily done
and undone, and will not work off, provided the noose is drawn up tightly
around the pastern. Ifyou havea horse thatis addicted to the unpleasant hab-
it of kicking, try this experiment, and you will find that it works admirably.

\
ES

HOW TO PREVENT HORSES FROM KICKING.

Training Vicious Horses.—A new and yery simple method of training
vicious horses was exhibited in West Philadelphia, and the manner in whieh

some of the wildest horses were subdued was astonishing. The first trial _

was that of a kicking or “‘ bucking” mare, which her owner said had allowed
no rider on her back for a period of at least five years. She became tame in
about as many minutes, and allowed herself to be ridden about without a

144 | THE FARM.

sign of her former wildness. The means by which the result was accom-
plished was a piece of light rope which was passed around the front jaw of
the mare just above the upper teeth, crossed in her mouth, and thence
secured back of her neck. It was claimed that no horse will kick or jump
when thus secured, and that a horse, after receiving the treatment a few
minutes, will abandon his vicious ways forever. A very simple method was
also shown by which a kicking horse could be shod. It consisted in connect-
ing the animal’s head and tail by means of a rope fastened to the tail and
then to the bit, and then drawn tightly enough to incline the animal’s head
to oneside. This, it is claimed, makes it absolutely impossible for the horse
to kick on the side of the rope. At the same exhibition a horse which for
many years had to be bound on the ground to be shod suffered the black-
smith to operate on him without attempting to kick while secured in the
manner described.

Galls and Sores on Horses.—If the owner of the horses, the farmer

Fit
AT

ONE CAUSE OF HIDE-BOUND.

himself, could always be among his work animals, they would receive more
attention and better treatment; but as he has so much to think about and
look after, he cannot give this department his careful supervision, and many
errors creep into the management which could not otherwise be found there.
There are some horses which chafe more readily than others, while some do
not have the collars and harness fit them, which will invariably cause galls
or sores; and even when the harness does fit properly, the warm weather, or
giving the horse a hard, warm day’s work, may cause shoulder or saddle
galls to appear, which will soon become larger and bad sores, if not
promptly attended to. Bathing the shoulders, with spring or well water
hardens them, and decreases the tendency toward galling. “When galls ap-
pear, wash the affected parts with good white castile soap (only use the best
castile and none other), and warm water to cleanse them. After the parts

LIVE STOOK. 145

have been dried with a soft cloth or rag or sponge, anoint the parts with a
mixture of pure glycerine in which a little carbolic acid has been mixed. Do
this at night after work. In the morn cleanse well again, as above, and put
on some pulverized alum if you work the horse regularly, Continue this
course until the sores are perfectly healed up.

Working Mares in Foal.—It is quite common to see or hear inquiries
as to how near the time of foaling, a mare may be worked without injury to
her or the colt, on the supposition that it is necessary for her to go idle for a
month or two before.

This is not the case; and in the hands of a careful man she may be kept
at such work as plowing, harrowing, or cultivating without the least danger,
until she is ready to foal. Of course, fast driving or working to a heavy
wagon tongue, on rough or muddy roads, or where heavy backing is to be
done, should not be allowed. The writer has always worked mares moder-
ately on the farm, when necessary, until it was evident they were hkely to
foal within a few hours, and has known of their foaling in harness, en route
from the plow to the barn, but never with any bad results. While we think
it more humane to let a mare have a few days’ liberty before this trying
event, there seems to be little necessity for losing the work of a strong mare
for any great length of time before foaling, and we would prefer to allow the
extra holidays afterward. Or dinarily, she will do first-rate work with a ten
days’ vacation, provided that she is not put immediately to work that is too
severe, and fed partly with something else than corn.

Kicking in the Stall.—The habit of kicking in the stable arises from
idleness. Regular day work is the best remedy, but when that is not suffi-
cient, a branch or two of some prickly shrub, nailed to the posts, will often
stop the habit, care being taken to arrange it so as not to prevent the animal
from lymg down and obtaining needed “rest. Mares are supposed to be
much more subject to this vice than geldings or stallions; but so far as our
personal experience goes, there is little difference. A broad leather strap,
to which is tied a small wooden log, are commonly applied to one or both
legs, but they are not always sufficient. A heavier weight than two pounds
should not be used, for if a horse is frightened by it, he may kick worse and
do himself injury. When, however, he is well used to a wooden log, and
has got over his first alarm, a heavier one may be put onif required. The
strap, which should be broad, is buckled around the leg above the fetlock,
and the weight suspended from it, which should not reach farther down than
an inch and a half above the coronet, as the coronet would inflame to a mis-

chievous extent if bruised. Sometimes a weight is required for each leg, if

the animal kicks at both stall posts. Occasionally, when all other remedies
fail, the practice will cease when the animal be turned loose in a roomy box
stall.

Reining Horses.—The habit of reining in horses very tightly finds less
favor with many persons than it did. Itis not easy to see in what way the

habit originated. Ifa man has a load of anything to pull, he wishes to get ©

his head as far forward as possible to pull with ease. But the horse is de-
nied this. His head is reined back tightly, thereby making it much harder
for him to pull the load. To our view, a horse looks better, and we know
he feels better, when pursuing a natural, leisurely, swinging gait. It is as
necessary for his head to oscillate in response to the motions of his body, as
it is for a man’s hands to do. the same thing. A horse allowed his

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146 - PHR FARM,

head will work easier and last longer than one on which a check is used.
_ Blinds are another popular absurdity in the use of horses. They collect
dust, pound the eye, and are in every way a nuisance. A horse that cannot
be driven with safety without them should be sold to a railroad grader. No
colt should be broken to them. Animals fear noises they cannot see the
case of much more than those they can. We would dispense with tight
reining and with blinds.

Colic in Horses.—This disease is caused by indigestion, over- -feeding,
or by giving cold water in lar ‘ge quantities, or by eating sour grain. If colic
occurs from eating sour grain, one of the best remedies is a few lumps of
charcoal. Pulverize it fine and pour on it about a quart of boiling -water.
When cool, strain off and give. Ifthe above does not give relief, stimulants
should be given, with a view to arouse the stomach aha get relief from the
fermented food which it contains. Purges are of no sort of use for the pur-
pose of relieving an overloaded stomach, and therefore if inflammation is
present, their use is positively injurious. The use of saleratus and turpen-
tine, which is so popular an agent with horsemen, are not always the proper
remedies. To make use of the former, being an anti-acid it is supposed to
combine with the free acid in the digestive organs, and thus neutralize it,
but if its use is persisted in, it will injure the mucous membrane of the
stomach. Turpentine is a powerful irritant, and it should never be made
use of except by those who understand its action, and neutralize it by mix-
ing it with linseed oil. The following has been used with good results, and
can be recommended as safe and efficacious: Sulphuric ether, 1 1-2 ounces;
oil of pepperment, 2 ounces; water, 16 ounces. Mix and shake well before
giving. If not relieved, give again in half an hour, and an injection com-
posed.of soap suds to be thrown into the rectum.

Dr. N. Rowe, of Chicago, gives the following as the best simple remedy
for colic in a herse: If it is ordinary colic, or gripes without flatulence, give
him a dose of whisky, say from two to four ounces, that being generally
handy; or a strong dose of peppermint or spearmint tea, hot; butifa drug
store is near, give from one to two ounces each of laudanum and spirits of
nitre; repeat the dose in half an hour if necessary. If it is flatulent colic,
the horse bloated with gas, give a teaspoonful of saleratus in half a pint of
warm water, repeat it in ten minutes; if this does no good, give an ounce of
turpentine in half a pint of linseed oil; or you may give half an ounce of
chloral hydrate in half a pint of cold water. In addition to the above direc-
tions, in all cases give warm water injections, and let the horse remain quiet,
allowing him to roll if he wants, to give friction to the belly, and give soft
feed and rest afterward for a day or two.

The Massachusetts Ploughman recommends salt, and as this is known
among housekeeepers as useful in colic, we give what the writer says:
“Spread a teacuptul of salt upon the back of the animal over the kidneys
and loins, and keep it saturated from twenty to thirty minutes, or longer if
necessary. If the attack is severe, drench with salt water. I have a yalua-
ble bull, weighing nineteen or twenty hundred pounds, which had a severe
attack of colic a year ago last summer. I applied salt to his back as above,
and it being difficult to drench, we put a wooden bit into his mouth, keeping
it open about two inches, and spread salt upon his tongue, which, together
with the salt upon his back, relieved him at once, and within a very short
time equilibrium appeared fully restored. I have for several years past
successfully applied this treatment to other animals in my herd.” —

LIVE STOCK. | 147

An ofticer who commanded artillery during the late war used the follow-
ing simple remedy for colic in horses, which he has tried with perfect suc-

cess in hundreds of cases: Rub the horse well between the fore legs and ~

around the girth with spirits of turpentine. Immediately relief follows.
Another remedy is the following: Take some good home-made soap, and

make about half a gallon of warm soap suds; then take a quart bottle, fill if,

and drench the horse. Sometimes as much as a half-gallon may be needed.

Bots.—The bot larve are liable to be found domiciled in the horse at any
and at all times. It only does noticeable damage when the number accumu-
lates in the passages, or when there is some disturbance in the digestion of
the horse, when, it is said, it cuts through the membrane of the stomach,
causing death to ensue. The bot-fly lays its eggs in the hair of the horse,
about the flanks and frent legs, where they get to the tongue, and from
thence are swallowed and hatch in the stomach. They live a certain period
of time and are discharged, to become flies again. Several doses are recom-
mended to be given to dislodge the grub, but when it is doing no perceptible
harm many horsemen prefer to let it alone rather than medicate the horse.
But some remove them by giving powdered aloes, asafcetida, each one-
fourth ounce; mix in hot water, and when cold add oil of turpentine, sul-
phuric ether, each one ounce. Give in linseed tea as a drench.

Another authority says: Botsin horses may be known by the animals oc-
casionally nipping at their sides, and also by red pimples rising on the inner
surface of the upper lip, which may be plainly seen by turning the lip up.
The cure is effected by taking two quarts new milk, one quart of molasses,
and giving the horse the whole amount. In fifteen minutes afterward give
two quarts warm sage tea; thirty minutes after give one pint of currier’s oil,
or enough to operate as physic. The cure will be complete, as the milk and
molasses cause the bots to let go, the tea puckers them up, and the oil car-
ries them entirely away.

Another remedy is as follows: Give the animal one quart of sage tea, in
which a large teaspoonful of soda or saleratus is dissolved. If not relieved
in one hour, repeat the dose, and repeat hourly until relief is obtained.

Founder.—Founder consists of inflammation of the lamine, or leaves of
the hoof—the most sensitive portions of the foot, which serve to connect the
interior part to the outer protecting covering of horn. It may be very severe
and acute, or a simple stiffness of the limbs and muscles. In this case two
drams of lobelia fmay be given, and the limbs bathed with hot water and
rubbed with liniment or kerosene oil. This may be continued for three or
four days. Warm blanketing, with hot fomentations, will be useful. When
the horse suffers very much, and the feet are hot and painful, a pound of
salts should be given, followed by twenty-drop doses of tincture of aconite;
the feet enveloped in large poultices of bran, or even sawdust, steeped in hot
water, and the legs bathed in hot water and wrapped up. A deep, soft bed
should be given, and the horse induced to lie down. After the worst symp-
toms are over the hoof and sole should be rasped down and the feet kept in
a puddle of clay and water. The shoes should be removed.

_ The following remedy, says an experienced farmer, of Texas, is a stre
eure for founder, viz: “‘A large tablespoonful of pulverized alum | aud a
tablespoonful of pulverized saltpetre mixed. Moisten the dose and admin-

ister it by pulling out the eee and Placing the ste as far back in the

Bera: as possible.” .

mrt

148 THE FARM,

Heaves.—If you want to have no trouble with heaves in your horses be
sure that they are fed no dusty and dirty hay, which is the prolific source of
this annoyance. Ordinary clean hay can always be fed with satety if prop-
erly cut up, moistened, and mixed with ground grain; but to feed the musty
or dirty sorts is very injurious. Clover, owing to its liability to crumble,
often gets dirty, even after storage, and should never be fed without being
previously moistened.

Very bad cases of heaves have been cured by simply feeding the animal
upon cut and moistened feed, of very good quality and in small quantities,
three times aday. For instance, four pounds of timothy hay and three quarts
of feed made of equal quantities of oats, corn, and wheat bran ground to-
gether. With this was mixed a small quantity of salt, and twice a week one
dram of sulphate of iron and halfan ounce of ground gentian root were given
in the feed. A liberal bran mash every evening will also be very useful. A
horse that cannot be cured by this treatment is of no value, and may be con-
sidered past cure.

The following is recommended by an agricultural authority: One dram
of tincture of aromatic sulphurie acid ina pint of water night and morning,
allowing the animal to drink from a bucket. The horse should also receive
in his food, night and morning, equal parts of powdered ginger, gentian,
sulphur, cream of tartar, charcoal, licorice, elecampane, caraway seed and
balm of Gilead buds (chopped fine), the dose to be an ounce. Be careful
and not overfeed the animal.

Still another remedy is the following: Asafctida, pulverized, one ounce;
camphor gum, pulverized, one-half ounce; mix and divide into four powders;
feed one every other night for a week.

Epizootic in Horses.—The disease known as “‘ the epizootic” is a com-

mon one, but is rarely so general as to be justly entitled to that distinction.
. It is simply a catarrhal affection of the bronchial tubes, the lining of the air-
passages of the lungs, and the nasal sinuses, in fact, what may be called a
very bad cold, with some fever. Itis treated by a saline purgative, as 8 to
12 oz. of Epsom salts, and afterwards half an ounce of saltpetre daily, with ~
warm drinks, general good nursing, and frequent rubbing of the limbs and
body to excite the circulation.

- Shying Horses.—A horseman whose horse is given to shying, ought
never to permit himself to evince symptoms of nervousness nor punish the
animal for exhibitions of timidity. Whenever a horse directs the points of
his ears in a certain direction, as though distrustful or afraid, the reins
should be pulled in another direction, thus diverting the attention of the
animal from the object causing the perturbation. If, on the other hand,
force or harsh means are used to compel an acquaintance with the object
feared the horse will be doubly excited, if net unmanageable. We have.
found, in cases of shying or halting at real or fancied objects of disquiet, that
stopping the horse and using soothing language, answers a very good pur-
pose. If the object is stationary, the horse, after a short time, will most
usually advance in the direction of it, approaching cautiously till satisfied
no danger is to be apprehended, when he will resume his way in a quiet
mood. But if chastised for shying, he will have two objects of fear instead
of one, and become more confirmed in the habit of distrustfulness.

Best Material for Stable Floors._A Western writer says: ce have. :
nsed plank, macadam, cinders and coal-tar mixed, and clay pounded hard

anaes LIVE STOOK. 149

for stable floor, but the best material for the purpose, and which gives me
the most satisfaction, especially on the score of cleanliness, is good, hard
brick, laid edgeways, with an inclination of about one-quarter of an inch to
the foot; the more level the floor is, the easier it is for the horse. Many a
horse has been ruined by standing on a stable floor with too much inclina-
tion. Persons making stable floors should study the comfort of their ani-
mals. Another great advantage of brick is, that it is always moist, which is
an object to be taken into account, as the hoof never becomes dry, conse-
quently there is no danger of contraction, providing the shoer leaves the frog
alone, which should not be cut, not even the ragged edgesofit. I have used ~
the brick floor for the last three or four years, and am well satisfied that
thereis nothing better.

Scratches on Horses.—<A veterinary authority says he has never known
a failure of carrot poultice for scratches on horses, and he gives the fellowing
directions, probably valuable, as carrot has an excellent effect on many un-
healthy sores: Wash the sores thoroughly with warm, soft water and castile
soap, then rinse them off with clear water, after which rub dry with a cloth.
Now grate some carrots (about a pint after grated) and bind them on the
sores. The best way to bind it on is to take a cloth and wrap it around the
sores, letting the lower edge come close down to the hoof; then tie a cord
around this lower end, after which’ put the grated carrot into the opening at
the top of the cloth, press it down around the sores, then tie another cord
around the top of the cloth, a little above the fetlock. This should be re-
peated every day for four or five days, when the scratches will be cured.

Ringbones on Colts.—For ringbones on colts, first pay attention te
shoeing. If he walks on the toe, have a high heel to the shoes; but if he
strikes the heel first, let it be thin and the toe high. . If there is inflamma-
tion, reduce it by rest and water bandages. Then blister with the following:
Powdered cantharides, Venice turpentine, and rosin, each two ounces; lard,
two pounds. Melt tle last three together, and when not too hot stir in the
cantharides. When the pustules appear, omit for a few days. Then apply
again and alternate for three or four times. Remember that in all diseases
or troubles of this kind there will be more or less fever, and attention should
be given to the general health of the animal, even when no particular symp-
toms of illness are seen

Cure for Spavin and Ringbone.—Venice turpentine and Spanish flies,
of each, two ounces; euphorbium and aqua ammonia, of each, one ounce;
red precipitate, one half ounce; lard, one and a half pounds. Pulverize all,
and put into the lard; simmer slowly over coals, not scorching or burning,
aud pour off, free of sediment. For ringbones, cut off the hair, and rub the
ointment well into the lumps once in forty-eight hours. For spavins, once
in twenty-four hours for three mornings. Wash well previous to each appli-
cation with suds, rubbing over the place with a smooth stick, to squeeze out
a thick, yellow matter. This has removed very large rmgbones.

Treatment of Sick Horses.—The practice of forcing a horse to stand on
his legs, or walk about,-while laboring under an attack of colic, is most in-
human. The same remark is also applicable to the plan of exercising a
horse during the time he is under the purgative action of a dose of physic.
He should be moved gently about before the medicine commences to operate,
but never after. Do those barbarians who knock the animal about while .

PES oe aE

i 2
Ce ee ee

150 THE FARM.

enduring the pains of colic or when suffering the purgative action of medi-
cine, ever think of what they are doing? If they were treated themselves on
the same plan under similar circumstances, they would soon come to their
senses regarding the management of the unfortunate animal which is placed
under their charge.

A Muzzie for Biting Horses.—This dangerous habit is ices the
horses by thoughtless owners or drivers by playing with them when eolks; or
teasing them when full grown. A sharp cut with a whip across the horse’s
nose when he bites may serve to break him from the habit; but when the
case is worse and incurable, a muzzle for this purpose may be made of
strips of light hoop iron or of leather. A band may be made to encircle the
muzzle to which strips of leather or iron are fastened. At the bottom of the
muzzle a round piece of leather should be fastened by rivets to keep the
strips in their place

How to Save Oats in Feeding.—A saving may be effected in the con-
sumption of oats for horses by simply soaking them in tepid wateg. Practi-
cal experiments which have been made show that by this method the ration
for each animal may be reduced by athird. Horses whose teeth have seen
their best. days masticate the grain in its ordinary condition insufficiently,
and younger animals often eat so greedily that the greater proportion of it is
swallowed whole. This waste may be obviated by the simple method recom-
mended, which so far softens the grain that it is more completely masticated
and digested, and consequently yields more nutriment. Three hours is a
sufficient length of time to soak the grain, provided the water is not too
cold.

How Blindness is Produced.—It is said that dark stables tend to pro-
duce blindness in animals. A veterinary surgeon says: ‘' Darkness produces
blindness, because nature is outraged in the “fact that the sight of the eyes is
destroyed by want of light to present objects properly to the vision, and
thus, by continued inactivity, producing blindness. Even so is blindness, or
imperfect vision, produced by an over-action of light upon the retina of the
eye, as is always the case when light is admitted by a window directly in
front of the horse. Nothing is worse than this light, so admitted. Nature is
outraged, and as a penalty we have nervous, fretful horses, shyers, erib-
bers, balkers, runaways, and anything but a reliable and pleasant horse.”

Care of Horses’ Legs.—Few men who handle horses give proper
attention to the feet and legs. Especially is this the case with the farmer.
Much time is often spent in rubbing, brushing and smoothing the hair on the
sides and hips, but the feet are not properly cared for. The feet of a horse
require ten times as much, for in one respect they are almost the entire
horse. All the grooming that can be done won’t avail anything if the horse
is forced to stand where his feet are filthy, for his feet will become disordered
and then the legs will get badly out of fix, and with bad legs and feet there

_is not much hope for anything. In short, to those owning horses we would
suy attend to the feet and legs.

How to Tell a Horse’s Age. The editor of the Southern Planter says:
The other day we met a gentleman from Alabama, who have us a piece of
information as to ascertaining the age of a horse after it has passed the
ninth year, which was quite new to us, and will be, we are sure, to most of
our readers. Itis this: After the horse i is nine years old, a wrinkle cones in

c : LIVE STOOR. 151
the eyelid, at the upper corner of the lower lid, and every year thereafter he
has one well-defined wrinkle for each year of his age over nine. If, for in-
stance, a horse has three wrinkles, he is twelve; if four, thirteen. Add the

- number of wrinkles to nine, and you will always get atit. So says the gen-
tleman; and he is confident it will never fail.

Sawdust for Stables.—Nothing makes so soft and easy a bed for our
“dumb animals” as sawdust, more particularly the horse, as it is natural,
before lying down, either by pawing or stepping back and forward, to brush
all their bedding, if straw is used, under their hind feet, but would be less
liable to move the sawdust. As regards injury to horses’ feet or lungs on
account of inhaling the dry dust, we know of a stable where horses are let,
and I was informed by the owner that he had used sawdust for twelve
years and never had been able to discover any bad effects from the use of it,
and pointed out several horses that had been thus bedded for ten or twelve
years; and had sold the manure at the usual rates, and never had heard of
any objections on account of the sawdust.

The Watering of Horses.—_M. P. Cartledge, member of the Royal
College of Veterinary Surgeons, urges the great necessity of allowing an un-
limited supply of water to horses; and he alludes to the very mistaken
notion among grooms and others having the control of horses that water
ad libitum is injurious. While grooms and others drink without stint them-
selves, they profess to know when a horse has drank sufficient, and so take
away the pail before his natural wants are half satisfied. Horses will not
drink to excess if watered frequently, and in their case drinking does no
harm.

Cribbing.—Cribbing is a vice which springs from habit more than any
other cause. It begins frequently from a desire to ease the teeth from in-
convenience or perhaps pain, at that period when the dentition is perfecting,
and then becomes fixed upon the horse as a vice. Itis not injurious except
when accompanied with ‘‘ wind sucking,” which is a series of deep inspira-
tions by which flatulence and belly-ache are caused. When the habit is fixed
on a horse it is difficult to break it, and the only effective method is to use a
muzzle which prevents him from thus using his teeth.

Linseed Oil for Horses.—Linseed oil is not only a valuable restorative
fer sick horses, but is exceedingly useful in cases of inflammation of the
membranes, peculiar to the organs of respiration and digestion; it shields
and lubricates the same, tranquilizes the irritable state of the parts, and
favors healthy action. Puta couple of handfuls of seed into a bucket and
pour a gallon and a half of boiling water upon it; cover it up a short time,
then add a couple of quarts of cold water, when it will be fit for use. In cage
of an irritating cough add some honey.

Windgalls or Puffs.—Windgalls are puffy swellings occurring along,
the tendons of the legs of horses, below the knee. They are the results of
sprains or strains of the tendons, and are generally filled with synovial fluid,
or lymph, or serum. A padded bandage, with astringent lotions applied two
hours a day at first, adding two hours every day after, until it is kept on
continually, is the usual remedy. Rest from work is helpful to a cure.

| Brittle Feet.—Some horses have such brittle feet that it is difficult to
_ keep their shoes on. This is often caused by a sudden change from exces-

- 188 pH PARE.

sive and long-continued wetness to extreme dryness. The best treatment is
to rub the soles and shells of the feet with a mixture composed of the fol-
lowing: Tar, two parts; beef suet, two parts; whale oil, four parts; beeswax
and honey, one part each; melt over a slow fire, and mix well.

Ignorance in Shoeing.—Some blacksmiths who shoe horses do not
know that the frog of the foot should be allowed to come to the ground; that
it should not be pared down, as is frequently done, nor should it be touched
when healthy. Itis meant to pound upon the ground, and it is the pound-
ing that it gets that is the life of the foot, and those horse-shoers who have
not yet learned this very important fact ought to learn it or quit business.
Most of the diseases and defects of horses’ feet come from cutting away the
frog or by raising it by high shoes clear away from the ground.

Avoiding Indigestion in Horses.—lIt is best to give a horse water be-
fore giving oats. The water stays in the stomach a very short time, but is
quickly absorbed or passed into the bowels, where it is absorbed and goes
into the blood. The horse secretes a very large quantity—more than four
quarts—of saliva while eating a meal, which is sufficient to reduce the food
to a pulp suitable for its digestion. So that to give water soon after eating,
except in very small quantity, would be apt to cause indigestion and waste
of the food by excessive dilution.

Flies and Horses.—A physician writing to the London Daily News
recommends, to prevent the torment inflicted by the flies on horses, applica-
tion to the latter, before harnessing, of a mixture of one part crude carbolic
acid with six or more parts of olive oil. This should be rubbed lightly all
over the animal with a rag, and applied more thickly to the interior of the
ears and other parts most likely to be attacked.

To Cool Horses When Hot.—There is danger of congestion when cold
water is thrown on the body of a horse when very hot and tired; and yet,
how many do it? The better way is to throw water freely on the fore legs
of the animal. This corresponds to the well-known custom of persons, when
overheated, bathing the wrists for some time before drinking much.

To Recruit a Hide-Bound Horse.—To recruit a hide bound horse, give
nitrate potassa (or saltpetre), four ounces; crude antimony, one ounce;
sulphur, three ounces. Nitrate of potassa and antimony should be finely
pulverized, then add the sulphur, and mix the whole well together. Dose,
a tablespoonful of the mixture in a bran mash daily.

Sprains and Bruises in Horses.—Dissolve an ounce of camphor in
eight ounces of spirits of wine; then add one ounce of spirits of turpentine,
one ounce of spirits of sal ammonia, half an ounce of oil of origanum and a

tablespoonful of landanum. Rubin a quarter of an hour with the hand, four .

times a day.

Flies in Horse Stables.—It is said that kerosene oil slightly sprinkled
_ on the floor of the horse stables will serve to abate the nuisance of flies. It
may be shaken out of a bottle through a hole in the cork. A pint will last a
week for the purpose.

Hemlock Cribs.—A horse will not bite a crib made of hemlock lumber,
nor will rats, mice, or other vermin gnaw through it,

LIVE STOCR. 153

Worms in Horses.—Worms in horses are caused by hard work, poor
food, and general neglect. For ordinary cases of worms, common salt, nu-
tritious food, and pure water will prove satisfactory. Salt should always be
kept in the stalls of horses.

Over-Reaching.—An over-reaching horse, one whose hind feet is fre-
quently hitting the forward shoes, should wear heavy shoes forward and
light ones behind. The theory is that the heavier hoof will be thrown a little
farther ahead than the lighter one.

Worms in the Rectum.—When a horse is affected with worms in the
rectum there should be injected in the rectum, once daily for a week, a
mixture of one pint of linseed oil and two drams of oil of turpentine. Feed
at the same time bran mashes and oil meal.

Sensitive Jaws.—Some horses are more sensitive than others in the
upper jaw, and will not go up on the steel bar or snaffle upper-jaw bit. In
such cases have a bit made of plain round leather, the usual size of the
uppex-jaw bit.

Best Method of Cleaning Horses.—The best thing to clean a horse
with is a corn-cob scrubbing-brush. It never can scratch his legs, as the
curry-comb of tin does, while it does more work in the same time than curry-
comb and brush put together.

Hints to Breeders of Shorthorns.—Tv learn a trade, is to do things
precisely upon the same principles, and up to the same general standard
that experts in the same trade attain to. The principles are simple, though
the parts are complicated. So of Shorthorn cattle. They are,merely ma-
chines for converting crude graiu or grass into bone, muscle, adipose mat-
ter, and hair; and the whole secret of excellence—the superiority of one
beast over another—consists in their ability to convert the most crude food
in a given time into the finest quality of the tissues named, so distributing
these as to give us aroomy frame of bone in the parts where we want room
for the vital organs and for the choicest cuts, and thick, fleshy, well-marbled
roasts, and broad, well-marbled steaks, in the parts where best fiber is pro-
duced. Such a conformation should be secured as will answer these ends so
effectively as the engine is expected to generate steam through the consump-
tion of fuelin the furnace. The conformation of the trunk of the cow is a
subject worthy of very careful study. The bony frame is of secondary im-
portance, the vital organs within being of the first importance, and the size
and vigor of these, if accompanied by a liberal distribution of cellular tissue —
throughout the system, ensures a rapid conversion of food into nutritive
particles and the disposition of these in the various tissues. Large lungs, and
large heart, stomach and liver give size and rotundity to the trunk and width
to the bosom. A large stomach is of the utmost importance, because fur-
nishing a large surface. From this the gastric juice issues, and when we
consider the inner surface of the stomach, and the air cells of the lungs, we
must prize an extended surface in those organs as highly as we do a large
surface in a steam boiler if we expect great results. Two of the worse faults
in the ccnstruction of a Shorthorn are the following, viz.: the ribs starting
from the spine in a downward direction, giving a wedge shape to the upper
third of the chest; the other is a long a deficient at the lower end, causing a
curve upward in the lower line immediately back of the fore leg. We doubt

154 THE FARM. |
if any other two defects are so hard to breed out as these. A drooping rump —
or low carriage forward may be brought up in one or two crosses, so that

with after care they may not reappear; but the defects in the chest pointed

out above depend upon deficient vital organs within. The re-organization
and enlargement of the heart, lungs, stomach, and liver require many dis-
creet crosses to accomplish. Passing from the chest backwards, we would
call attention to the importance of the short ribs being long, and standing
out horizontally from the spine, forming a level plane forward of the hips.

This broad, level loin generally keeps company with a round, deep chest and
is a point of excellence that should always be sought. The hind quarter

that holds its width well back, carries a large amount of meat not repre-

sented in the quarter that narrows in rapidly from the hip back. A perfect
symmetrically-crganized frame, with the fleshy part so well distributed and
packed as to make it difficult to tell where one portion of the carcass ceases
and the next begins This is the goal to be aimed at. The third and last
subject, ‘‘ quality,” we will treat very briefly. No intelligent breeder while
striving to increase the depth and breadth cf the carcass, loses sight of the
equally important point, the texture of those parts of the animal that are to
be consumed as human food. This idea of texture is never lost sight of by
the fruit grower, and the excellencies which fix the value of the apple, viz.,
fair size, smooth surface, and tender, juicy meat, are the three things upon
which we base our estimate of & Shorthorn. Now, the common notion is
that all animals that handle mellow have high flavored, tender flesh. This
is an erroneous idea, proved every day upon the butcher’s block. We couple
two animals together, expecting to secure well-fattened, ready feeders in the
progeny they will generally transmit it. But if both the parents have dark, —
unsavory figsh, they and all their get, and all the progeny after for all time,
will have the same, unless modified and improved by new crosses having
light-colored, savory flesh.

Selecting Breeding iiales.—The first object which any breeder of cat-
tle or sheep must keep in view is that his stock must be healthy. In the selec-
tion of a male animal, therefore, the first things to be considered are the in-
dications by which it may be possible to form a judgment as to his constitu-
tion. There can be no ‘doubt that this is one of the important points of form
or shape to which it is material for a breeder to look into in the selection of
either a bull or ram. Itis not enough to observe that they have wide breasts
or bosoms, but the width which is noticed in looking at them from the front,
should be continued along the brisket, which should show great fullness in
the part under the elbows; it is also important that they should be thick
through the region of the heart.

Another point to be carefully considered is the muscular system. Great
muscular power is not only indicative of a good constitution and good health,
but it has a merit in itself. Large muscles are the usual accompaniment ot
strength of constitution, and it also shows that when ready for the shambies
there will be a good proportionate mixture of muscle and fat in the meat. In
both bulls and rams a thick neck is proof of large muscles, and there can
hardly be a greater fault in either animal than to have this wanting. Other
indications of muscle will be more difficult to observe in sheep than in cattle.
In a good bull there should be a full muscle on each side of the backbone,
just behind the top of the shoulder blades. He should also have the mus- —
cles at the outside of the thigh full and extending nearly to the hough. A
bull having these indications will seldom be found deficient in muscle,

LIVE STack. 155

Ringing a Bull_—We give an illustration of a plan for putting a ring
through the nose of a bull worthy of the attention of stock-breeders. A ring
is undoubtedly the safest mode of controlling the bull. Clamp rings having
two knobs, which press into the nostrils, may be useful for occasional use,
but a good stout copper ring should be put through the cartilage of the nose
of every thoroughbred bull before he is four years old. This will last him
for his lifetime, and whether tied up in the stable or out for exercise, it will
effectually control him. ‘The old-fashioned plan of inserting the rings was
by burning a hole through the
cartilage with a hot iron, but
this was a cruel and difficult
process. The plan suggested
is to use a weapon styled a
- trochar, similar to the surgical
instrument employed for °
** tapping ” in case of dropsy,

-and for ‘‘ hoove ” in cows. It :
is a Sharp-pointed, round dagger (the point three-sided), carrying a silver-
plated shield reaching from the upper part of the point to the handle. The
above illustration will further explain.

The sheath being on the dagger when the operation is performed, the
whole is easily pushed through the nose, the sharp point of the dagger
piercing the nostril with so little pain that one man can easily hoid the head
still. The dagger is then withdrawn, leaving the sheath in the hole. The
ring is then inserted into the end of the sheath, which is slowly withdrawn,
leaving the ring in place. This is then closed and fastened with a screw.

These rings should be so
well. made that both the
hinge and the screw should
be perfectly smooth, and
80 fitting as to take a prac-
ticed eye to notice the join-
ing.

The manner in which
the operation is performed
will be seen at a glance at
the accompanying engrav-
ing.

The ring should turn
freely round in the incision,
which, having been made
with a three-cornered cut,
will be more sensitive
against a pull than the smooth-burned hole. Indeed, it is sometimes neces-
sary with the latter cruel operation to take the ring out after a time and re-
sort again to burning, in order to make the cartilage sufficiently sensitive for
the ring to be effective in managing the animal.

An Inexpensive Relish for Stock.—Stock men of large experience ap-
preciate the need of salt for stock, and usually make such provision that ani-
mals under-their care are daily provided with this relish. There are, how-
ever, many farmers who look upon salt as a luxury enjoyed by their stock
when placed within reach, but not necessary to their thrift or comfort. Ob-

156 e THE FARM.

servation and experience have proven to those who have given most at-
tention to the subject that cattle require for best results the salt they
crave.

The French Government at one time commissioned a number of practical
and scientific men to investigate the subject of salt as a relish for stock, and
ascertain the quantity required for different animals. While only approximate
figures could be arrived at in the numerous experiments made to settle this
matter, a scale was fixed upon by this commission as the minimum daily al-
lowances for the different animals in ordinary condition. In this a working
ox or a milch cow is allowed two ounces of salt per diem. Repeated trials
appeared to prove that the amount specified produced in milch cows the
greatest flow of milk. Oxen fed the same amount presented sleek coats,
while others receiving no salt were rough, mangy, and ill conditioned. The
scale in question allowed for fattening stall-fed oxen, two and a half to four
ounces of salt per day, and for fattening pigs, from one to two ounces. For
sheep, from one-half ounce to two-thirds of an ounce was allowed. One
ounce was set down as the daily portion for horses and mules.

The figures given above possess a practical value to feeders of stock, in
that they represent the respective amounts best calculated to produce de-
sirable results in the different animals named, and give an idea of the
amount required by each kind. On small farms with few animals salt can
be dealt out in small quantities each day, but where herds and flocks are
numerous, salt boxes and troughs become a necessity, and are in any case a
convenient and economical arrangement. These troughs or boxes ought, of
course, to be in sheltered places and at points where animals can have daily
access to them. Some should be placed at elevations to suit horses and
cows, and others set within reach of sheep.

A plan in favor in the far West, and which recommends itself on the
ground of economy, is mixing salt and hardwood ashes in equal proportions,
combined with a sufficient amount of water to make a solid lump or mass.
These lumps are distributed in the trough, where, with diligent licking,
each animal gets a small quantity, the belief being that they will take in
this form ne more than they really require. In addition to the fact that salt
is necessary to the thrift of animals, a strong argument in its favor in locali-
ties where cattle and sheep are allowed extended runs during the day, is
that it proves a strong attraction, bringing them home at night without other
incentive.

Cattle in Cornstaiks.—A Kansas farmer writes: If cattle are allowed
to run in stalk fields for an indefinite time they are apt to die from eating
too much food of an indigestible character. Cornstalks when left standing
in the field become woody and indigestible. Cattle when allowed to run, fill
themselves so full that the stomach becomes clogged, the food heats, does
not pass off, and the animal dies. For three winters I have fed my cows on
shocked cornstalks, feeding no hay or straw, and in all cases they have done
better than when fed on hay. In the winter of 1880 and 1881, I wintered
3,500 head of werking oxen. I bought all the stalk fields that were acces-
sible, allowed the cattle to run in them three hours each day, when I had
them driven out. My reasons for so doing was not on account of smut, but
because the stalks had become hard, woody and indigestible. I lost no cat-
tle from this management, and returned them in the spring with a loss of
only two to the hundred. Feeders have fed beef cattle for itso on
shock corn; they consider it the best and safest kind of feed, =

BDVE STO OR. : 157

Relieving Choked Cattle.—The accompanying engraving represents
the instruments employed for relieving choked cattle, as recommended by
Prof. Simonds, of the Royal Veterinary College of England.

‘In cases of choking,” says Prof. §., ‘‘ the amount of danger may mostly
be calculated by the abdominal distension, for deith results from the lungs
being unable to expand in conse-
quence of the pressure of the ru-
men against the diaphragm.”

He says: “In many cases
prior to unchoking the patient,
the gaseous compounds which
are disengaged from the ingesta
and distend the rumen, must be
given an exit to, by puncturing
the rumen, to prevent suffoca-
tion.”

The instrument for unchoking,
as shown in the sketch, con-
sists of a probang and a gag; the
latter is to be placed im the mouth

aS shown. Two assistants are re-
quired. One of these should be
placed on, either side of the ani-
mal, holding the handle of the
gag, which protrudes from the
side of the mouth, with one hand,
and the opposite horn with the
other. They must also keep the
head elevated so as to bring it as
near as possible in a straight line
with the neck. We give Prof.
Simonds’s instructions in opera-
ting as follows:

“The probang being held as
represented, is to be passed
through the opening in the gag
and carried caretully over the
dorsum of the tongue into the
pharynx, and from thence pushed
inwards until it reaches the ob-
struction. Sufficient and well-
regulated pressure is now to be
made until the obstruction yields,
when it is to be driven by the in-
strument into the rumen. Care
should always be taken to propel
the root into the first stomach, and we should never rely on the power of the
esophagus to do this after we have succeeded in removing it from its origi-
na‘ situation. Want of attention to this simple rule has often protracted suf-
fering to the animal, and not unfrequently death. The probangs in ordinary
use are seldom of sufficient length, nor are the bulbs with which they are
tipped of a proper shape. The instrument should not be less than six and a,
half feet long, and the bulbs should be large and slightly cup-shaped,”

STN
Ry

“HILLYO GHHOHO DNIAGITAA:

158 . THE FARM.

Bone Disease in Milch Cows.—For more than half a century there
have been occasional outbreaks of a peculiar disease in New England, mostly
affecting milch cows, and commonly known as bone-ail or stifle joint lame-
ness. Heretofore the trouble has been chiefly confined to Gres sections, but
seems now to be approaching the valleys.

This disease, technically called Cachexhia ossifraga, is not confined to
the stifle joint, frequently affecting the hip and other joints also. In one
case, where the hip joint was affected, examination showed that the articular
surface of the head of the tibia or shank bone had been worn through by its
friction with the femur, or thigh bone, by the absorption of the floating carti-
lage between the ends of the bones. Similar conditions were noticed in
other instances. As it is believed this cartilage cannot be regenerated, it
was at first a question whether the disease was curable. Before investiga-
tion, its cause was attributed to the phosphatic materials in the feed, and
this idea has been fully established. Where such materials were supplied in
the form of bran, the disease was thought to be occasioned by the excessive
use of such feed, as it was known that such excess changes the bone into a
sort of phosphate, while the healthy bone is an insoluble phosphate.

In former outbreaks, bone meal was found to be an effective remedy, and
in recent instances it has been used with good results. <A Suffield, Conn.,
man, of considerable experience, says that two ounces of the meal in a pint
of bran, three times a week during the early summer and fall feeding, will
generally cure, if accompanied with plenty of salt. In aggravated cases,
however, the free use of this material is recommended. Still, care must be
exercised lest it should be supplied too freely, as an excess is sometimes
liable to injure the butter, because the putrid, oily matter of the bone is ex-
creted by the udder as a sort of oleomargarine. Butif the meal has been
thoroughly clarified, this trouble is less apt to occur, and it may be avoided
altogether by the use of cotton-seed meal, which is rich in phosphates with-
out containing the obnoxious matter liable to be in bone meal. Bran is also
largely made up of phosphates, but it is well to add corn meal.

The necessary mineral element can probably be furnished in hay that has
been manured with superphosphates, which furnish lime and phosphoric
acid that are greedily taken in by the plant. Indeed, the recent outbreak is
accounted for by the fact that where it occurs, little, if any, mineral fertil-
izers are used. They are now being applied more extensively, and the
gradual disappearance of the disease will doubtless follow.

Marks of a Good Cow.—Those who keep but one or two cows natur-
ally want them for general purposes, do not want a mere butter cow nor yet
amere milk animal, but one which combines both in as great a degree as
can be found.’ Such cows are not plentiful, we admit, or at least are not
often for sale at a moderate price, so that when they are offered, it behooves
would-be purchasers to be able to tell them.

We do not believe in very small cows, nor yet in large, heavy animals, as
neither, as a rule, are capable of filling the bill, the former too often falling
short in the quantity, while the large ones are apt to run too much to flesh
to make them profitable dairy animals. The medium-sized ones invariably
produce the best results, and a heavy milker and a large butter maker 1s _
seldom fat, as the majority of the food she consumes is converted into milk
and butter. The head should be fine but bony, with small horns, large,
mealy nose and shapely ears.. The base of the horns and the inside of the
ears should be ofa bright golden color. We have never yet seen an animal

rs

Y

LIVE STOOK. | 139

with horns and ears well colored (golden yellow) which failed to make a fine
_ quality of butter and highly colored. It is an unmistakable sign. The body

should be of good size, and the width and depth rapidly increase as it runs

- to the rear or hind quarters. The milk veins should be large and prominent,

and the udder need not necessarily be large, so it is not meaty, but is small
when milked out. The teats should be of good size, and only have a single
hole in each; we have seen quite a number with teats having two holes.
The hair should be fine and soft, while the skin should be pliable, and
almost as soft to touch as velvet or kid. In color it should be tinged deeply
with yellow, especially on the shoulders and flank and along the back.
Color of the hair is rather a secondary matter, though the best cows are
generally yellow, tawn, gray or white, with dark marks edged with yellow.
Black cows but seldom prove to be good general-purpose ones, though of
course there are exceptions frequently met with.

Cattle Rack.—We give the following illustrated design for a rack to feed
cattle from in the yard. We think

it far superior in point of economy
and convenience to anything of the
kind we have seen. Itcan easily be
made by anyone possessing ordi-
nary skill in using tools:

The shape, as will be seen, is six
sided, or in the form of a hexagon.
It consists of-six upright posts five
feet long (3 by 4 scantling will an-
swer, or round poles 3 or 4 inches
through will do very well), and
twelve boards, each one foot in
width and five feet long. These
latter nailed to the posts horizon-
tally will form the box. To
strengthen the whole and keep the
cattle from stepping over the sides, SS")
nail strips of thick boards or plank CATTLE RACK.
flatwise across the upper end of
the posts. Then nail two boards diagonally upon each side, extending from *
the top of the posts to the bottom of the box, leaving a space of about a foot
and a half in the center on a line with the upper edge of the box. These
slanting boards serve as braces, and give strength and firmness to the
whole structure, and make six feeding places for the cattle. Ifscantling is
used for posts, it would be well to hew off the corner from each, so as to
make the boards fit well.

Mode of Construction.—Nail the boards to two sets of posts to form two
opposite sides. Cut two strips of boards about ten feet four inches long;
stand the side upright and nail these strips across the top and bottom—
across the diameter—then bring the other ends within five feet, and nail on
the boards across the end; you will then have three sides formed. Nail on
the other two opposite sides and end. Put on the braces anditis done. It
can be moved to different parts of the yard, and with care will last for years.

Economy in. Feeding Cattle.—There is more waste in feeding than in
anything else on the farm. Wheat straw, corn-stalks, and eyen chaff may be

160 THE FARM,

fed, if properly prepared. With a fodder cutter that not only cuts but
crushes, corn fodder can be made as palatable as clover hay, and wheat
straw, when cut into short lengths and mixed with hay, answers excellently
when grain is fed with it. Cows will always eat chaff if it is mixed with cut
food. Ifall such feeding material as corn fodder and wheat straw is cut up
fine, and well moistened, salted, and mixed with bran, shorts and meal,
with a pound of linseed or cotton-seed meal additional, a mess will thus be
prepared that is not only nourishing and healthy, but superior to hay alone.
It is not intended here to recommend straw in the place of better food, but
we claim that if a saving can be effected by feeding straw in connection with
concentrated food, there will be a saving, not only of the hay in the loft by
reason of the substitution, but also of much that annually goes to waste.

How wasteful it is to throw fodder and straw over the fence into the farm-
yard to be picked over and trampled in the dirt without being consumed.
Every pound of fodder and straw is valuable and can be put to useful service,
which is very important when the winter’s supply of hay seems unlikely to
last, and when the cold season is unusually long. Nor is it proper to allow
fodder to remain all the year stacked in the fields, for it is almost every time
that the winds biow it down, where it remains until fed, but it is not then in
as proper condition as if well cured and placed under cover. As to using
straw for bedding, this, also, is wastefully done, as if it possessed no value;
and if chaff is not preferred for feeding, let it be used as an absorbent in the
stables, for which purpose nothing is superior to it. A crop of turnips, or
what may be better, beets, parsnips, and carrots, should be grown for stock,
not only for their value for feeding purposes, in proportion to their cost, but
also because they afford a succulent diet in winter when every other kind of
food is dry, and at times not relished.

How Good Cows are Ruined.—Milking is an art, and the farm hand
who knows how to milk properly is more valuable to the careful dairyman
than any other help. Of course, anybody can milk, and some can milk a
dozen cows before breakfast. The caretul manager, however, is not 80 anx-
ious for fast help as he is to employ those who are careful. The operation
should never be hurried, but the milk should be drawn steadily, and, as it
flows, naturally. Some cows have very tender teats, and the rapid milkman
forgets this fact in his endeavor tomake speed. The cow that is naturally im-
patient and fretful does not like to submit to rough handling, and her disposi-
tion is soon ruined by such treatment. With the constant irritation she will
failin quantity, and be less productive, justas any human being would fail to
perform faithful service when laboring under mental affliction or trouble. °
As the udder becomes distended and filled with milk, the desire on the part
of the cow is to be relieved of its contents, and she willingly submits to it
for the relief it occasions. The constant practice of being milked at stated
intervals impresses itself strongly upon her, and she willseldom offer resist-
ance without cause. When acow, therefore, that has been a patient deliverer
of milk becomes fractious, the fault can always be traced to the milkman.
The careless dairyman is the one who complains of the failure of his cows to
keep up the flow, and bloody milk, garget and other evils are the results of
his own bad management. There is another point in the treatment of cows
that demands attention, and that is allowing them to stand a long time wait-
ing to be milked. With cows that give large yield it is very painful, and
when the udders have been filled to their utmost, and the milkman is not on
hand to relieve them, they become exceedingly nervous and restless. This

LIVE STOCK. 161

will do more to cause a cow to go dry before her period than anything else,
and many a good cow has been sent to the shambles through diminution of
quantity, simply because nature has revolted at her sufferings, and allowed

- her to dry.up because her storehouse was not emptied of its contents at the
proper times. She should also be milked to the last drop, if possible, and
as the last portion of milk is claimed to be the richest, the udder should be
left with nothing in it. With regularity in feeding and milking, and kind
treatment at all times, the cow will not only become gentle, and remain so,
but will milk on several weeks longer than otherwise. An experienced
dairyman needs help that are skillful, and he knows how to judge the milk-

* man’s work by the behavior of his cows. When a stable of cows begin to
give trouble in milking, it is only necessary v0 observe the manner in which
they are milked in order to
cure the evil. The udder
of a cow is a very delicate
‘structure, and she quickly
rebels at rough usage or
improper periods of milk-
ing.

To Prevent Cattle
from Hooking F'ences.—
The mode herewith illus-
trated will be found a sure
cure for cattle that hook
or put their heads through
fences. Take a one-eighth
inch annealed wire ten
inches long; make a ring
in one end (one inch and a
half); grind the other end
sharp, to punch through
the gristle inthe nose. The
animal’s head has to be
fastened securely in the
stanchions, in order to
bore the holes through the
horns, which should be

done with a three-eighth inch bit; then punch the wire through, and make the
same sized ring in the sharp end; now take a cord that will run easily through
the holes in the horns, and tie one end to the ring on one side and pass the
cord through the holes in the horns to the other ring; the wire should be
bent up above the nostrils to: prevent the breath from rotting the cord; the
cord should not be very tight when put on, for the rains will tighten it enough.

To keep a bullfrom jumping and hooking fence, put on the above and a
poke with the sword or arm running thr ough a Wire ring in the nose, long
enough to keep the arm from bearing on the wire, and +he Jonnie is at home
all the time.

Currying Milch Cows.—To the farmer the idea of currying a cow,
milch or otherwise, is an absurdity; but to dairymen who have highly-bred
cows, who take a pride in their business and get the top price of the market
for their produce, it is a matter of moment, in that it is known to increase the
milk flow and the butter produce by ten to twenty per cent,

TO PREVENT CATTLE FROM HOOKING FENCES.

162 THE FARM.

There are many points in the conduct of a dairy, unknown, indeed, un-
thought of hy farmers, that will presently have a prominent place in their

“management, very much to the benefit of themselves and those who receive

and make use of their produce.

Among those are: Succulent food, protection from inclement weather,
kind handling, thorough and careful milking, full and regular feeding, clean
stabling (when stabled), and an absence of foul odors, good ventilation,
plenty of light and that thorough cleansing of the skin without which no
milch cow can perform her duty thoroughly and well, With all these we
must, to havea “tip top ” article of butter, have the washing of the udder and
teats before milking, and with this an entire absence of the filth accumulated
in feeding and lounging between milkings. .

Of all these, one of the most important is that of periodical currying, in
that it cleanses the hide of superfluous hair, keeps it active and healthful
and void of that peculiar odor so commonly found in milk and sometimes in
butter. It promotes the secretion and disposition of the putrid particles of
the animal system which would otherwise be absorbed by the secretery
glands and be carried off in the
milk, and leaves the latter not
only purer but of a much better
quality, and gives promise to
the butter maker of a higher
color and a purer flavor to the
butter from the churn, hence a
higher price in the market.

Herein may seem lots of
trouble over details, but when
reduced toa system they occupy
little of time, laLor or expense.

To Prevent Cows Kick-
ing.—We give an illustration
of a patented device for pre-
venting a cow from kicking,
which is said by those who have used it to be effectual. It consists of a light
iron semi-circle intended to go over the back of the animal, with a joint and
ratchet at the side, and a wooden block at each end, which fits to the flank of
the cow, and prevents her from moving her foot forward. The inventor
claims that it can be affixed in three or four seconds and that its operation is
neither cruel nor harsh. On the contrary the habit has been entirely cured
after itis used for a short time. It will doubtless suggest a modification
that will be useful to farmers without infringing upon the patent.

TO PREVENT COWS KICKING.

Black Tongue ‘in Cattle.—The symptoms are inflammation of the
mouth, swelling of the head and face, discharge of bloody saliva, and high
fever marks the first stages. Ulcers soon appear under and on the sides of the
tongue. Then the throat and peck swell, and if the disease is not checked
gangrene ensues and the animal dies. The disease is said to yield readily to
early and proper treatment. The following has proved very successful: The
animal should be bled from the neck vein. Give him castor oil, one pint, to
be repeated in ten hours if it should not operate. Then use the following:
Powdered burné alum, four ounces; chloride of lime, two ounces; corn meal,
two quarts, Mix, and with this powder swab the mouth frequently,

| LIVE STOCK,
Lice on Cattle.—A correspondent of the Cownitiry Gentleman says on

this subject: The more common remedies recommended for relieving cattle
and stock from lice are more or less dangerous to life or health, and must

be used with extreme care. An unfailing remedy which may be used by

any one without danger to life or limb would be a boon to many farmers.
Such a remedy we have in the bee-larkspur of our flower-gardens. A strong
tea made from the seeds or foliage of the plant can be used as a wash with
perfect safety. Any part of the plant may be used in making the wash,
either green or dried. The plant should be gathered before it is frosted,
and cured and preserved as other herbs are. In the use of kerosene, mer-
curial ointment, tobacco, etc., great care must be used or injury results from
absorption; it enters the limbs or other parts of the animal and is often a
permanent injury. No such danger need be apprehended in the use of
larkspur. All the parts where the vermin lodge should be well scrubbed
with the wash, and if thoroughly well done in a pleasant, mild day, one ap-
plication is sufficient. In former days, when school children were troubled,
I have heard old people tell their experience in using this remedy to their
complete satisfaction. Another equally harmless remedy is aloes in fine
powder, which may be used dry by filling a common pepper box with the
powder and sprinkling it freely into the hair on the neck, back, sides and
rump of the infested animal. Rub it thoroughly through the hair and on
the skin with the ends of the fingers. Leave the animal undisturbed for a
week, then card thoroughly and apply as before. Continue this at intervals
of a week, till not a living parasite is left. Usually two applications, if thor-
oughly made, will suffice. :

Another writer says that to destroy lice on live stock he has found no-
thing better than strong carbolic soapsuds. The soap usually sold under
that name is not strong enough for the purpose. It may be easily prepared
and at any degree of strength that may be required. Get a pound of car-
bolic acid crystals, which may be had at any wholesale druggist’s. I get
them in Boston at a cost of sixty cents per pound, Take ten pounds of com-
mon bar soap, put in a pan with a little water and heat until dissolved.
Take out the cork from the bottle containing the acid, and set it in hot water,
which will cause the acid to become fluid; add this to the soap and stir well.
Set away to cool and you will have a soap at a small cost that will be strong
enough to kill any vermin which infest domestic animals, and which will
cure barn itch or any cutaneous diseases to which they are liable. It is
good to cleanse and heal sores, and a wash of it will be found good where
animals are hide-bound and the skin out of condition; it will be found good
to wash the inside of poultry houses to render them sweet and kill and pre-
vent vermin. Itis a cheap, safe and sure remedy, and should find a place
in all well regulated premises.

A stock-grower, writing to the New York club, gives his mode of de-.
stroying lice on cattle. He says: ‘‘I destroy them with brine—any kind of
salt water will doit. I find two kinds of lice; the blue lice, and I think the
other is hen lice. [I tried red precipitate one year; it killed the lice, two
yearlings, and a two-year old. But washing the cattle with brine is easier,
and they get into the habit of licking one another, and are more gentle
toward each other. .

Another writer recommends grease. He says: ‘Insects breathe by

means of small pores on their sides. Grease or oil that comes in contact
with the insects closes the pores and stops the breathing. Mercurial oint-

ment kills as much by the lard in it as by the mercury—that 18, so far as the

164 THE PARM. ; RSE oS:

vermin are concerned, but not as to the animals that lick it off from their —
bodies, so that almost any oily or greasy application will be destructive te
insect vermin that infest animals if it is applied where it will do the most
good.”

Still another authority says: ‘‘ A good remedy for lice on cattle is water
in which potatoes were boiled. For every one of your cattle take two quarts
of water and eight middle-sized potatoes cut in half. If you have ten,cattle,
you must take eighty potatoes and twenty quarts of water. When the
potatoes are soft take them out. Geta large sponge and wash the cattle
freely, choosing a warm day. Comb them with a currycomb, and you will
be astonished to see the effects of the potato water.”

Cheap Shelter for Stock.—Shelter for stock is one of the great needs
of farmers. It is costly to build a barn and shed, but for simple purposes of
shelter farmers might make greater use of their abundance of straw. In
some localities it is customary to burn this as the readiest means to get it
out of the way. A much better use might be made of it in constructing
shelter for all kinds of stock, both against rain and cold. A very good plan
is to make a frame of poles (as the engraving represents), and stack straw
oyer them. This work should be done at threshing time, but if it has been
neglected it may be done
at any later time. It pays
richly in health, thrift, and
in the saving of food, to
provide shelter.

The Soiling System
with Cows.—lItis a ques-
tion of economy as to
whether it is wise in us to
allow the herd the full oc-
cupancy of a pasture, in
order to reap the products

CHEAP SHELTER FOR STOCK. in the shape of butter and

milk. A large herd re-

quires a large pasture, and before any estimate can be made in the way of

profit and loss, the value of the pasture itself, and the probability of what it
may yield if cultivated, should be considered.

The soiling system, which demands that the cattle shall be fed at the
barn instead of pasturing in the field, has many advocates, and the reasons
in its favor are that fewer fences are required, more manure is saved, larger
yields of milk and butter are procured, and less space is required. Those
who oppose the method say that it requires extra labor, and that the health
-of the stock is improved by their having the liberty of the pasture.

Every consideration should be made, however, regarding the conditions.
Tf the stock is kept on farms that are too large for cultivation, and where
space is no object, with an unlimited supply of grass that cannot be utilized
except by being pastured, then the soiling system is not economical, for no
necessity arises for its practice; but on small dairy farms, where land is
valuable and the products within easy reach of the best markets, the system
of stall feeding of cattle is one that should be carried to an extreme, for the
result will be very profitable, any other method being suicidal in the
extreme. The extra labor required is equalized by the saving in fences, and

. | LIVE STOCK. 165
the care and management is balanced by the savings of the liquid and solid
manure. Both systems, therefore, are profitable under certain circum-

stances, the whole matter being regulated by soil, climate, capacity for pro-
duction, and distance from market.

Raising Calves.—aA stock grower writes: As a general rule, I let the
calf suck the cow for three days, then I take it away; and after it has been
twelve hours without food, I give it some new milk—about ten pounds, if I
can get him to eat it. If, while the calf is running with the cow, you can
handle it a little, so as to make it tame, it will learn to eat much easier. 1
am a large, stout man, and can easily hold a calf. If the calf is tame, so
that it will come up to you and suck your hand, you can get it to eat the first
time without much trouble; but if it is not tame, I get a-straddle of the calf, ~
back him up in a corner, hold the pail between my knees, put one finger in
the calf’s mouth, and with the other hand hold the calf’s head in the pail,
and keep doing so until the calf commences to suck. Sometimes he will
begin right off, and others will refuse for maybe ten minutes; but I never
had one but what would suck after a while. By the third time I feed him I
commence to take my finger out of his mouth, and do so more and more
until he drinks without having a finger to suck. I feed entirely on new milk
for ten days, then give about half new and half twelve-hours-old skimmed
-milk (using the cream I take off the milk on the table); then, after another
ten days, I drop the new milk, having done so by degrees, and feed half
twelve-hours-old skimmed milk and half skimmed milk. I work it so for a
little while; but soon give him all skimmed milk, giving about eleven or
twelve pounds ata feeding, and feed twice a day, arith: any meal or bran.
I give in winter all the hay they want, keeping some before -them all the
time. After a calfis three months old you can give it some meal or shorts,
if you wish; butI do not think it is best ifit can have plenty of milk. I feed
calves until about five months old, and then commence to wean them by
degrees. Ifcalves scour while they are being fed milk, I give them about
two teaspoonfuls of salt. In the summer I feed them their milk cold, and
it is generally thick, sour milk. In the winter I warm ita little, about milk-
warm or blood-heat. Itis well to handle your calves some while they are
eating, so as to make them tame, and that is one advantage of raising them
by hand, for they are generally tame.

Charcoal for Sick Animals.—TIn nine cases out of ten, when an animal
is sick the digestion is wrong. Charcoal is the most efficient and rapid cor-
rective. The hired man came in with the intelligence that one of the finest
cows was very sick, and a kind neighbor proposed the usual drugs and
poisons. The owner being ill and unable to examine the cow, concluded
that the trouble came from over-eating, and ordered a teaspoonful of pul-
verized charcoal to be given in water. It was mixed, placed in a junk
bottle, the head turned downward. In five minutes improvement was
visible, and in a few hours the animal was in the pasture quietly grazing.
Another instance of equal success occurred with a young heifer which had
become badly bloated by eating green apples after a hard wind. The bloat
was so severe that the sides were as hard asa barrel. The old remedy, ~
saleratus, was tried for correcting the acidity. But the attempts at putting it
down always raised coughing, and it did little good. Half a teaspoonful of
fresh powdered charcoal was given. In six hours all the SpuCatanes of the
bloat had gone, and the heifer was well.

166 THE FARM, ~-

How to Break a Heifer or a Vicious Cow to Milk.—<A vicious cow
becomes so only by education, or, as it is sometimes said, by being spoiled.
The case is much worse than that of a heifer, and when the cow is appar-
ently cured of a bad habit, it is liable upon slight provocation to return.
The principle involved in the treatment of all brutes is to employ kindness |
together with the means of proper restraint. In the case of the young or the
vicious cow, place her in stanchions or fasten her securely. Pass a girth—
either a strap or a rope—around the body, just in front of the bag, letting
it pass in the rear of the right hip and in front of the left. Draw the girth
somewhat tightly—more or less so, to correspond with the severity of the
case. Take pail and stool, and sit down to the milking. The case must be
_ avery obstinate one which will give any lasting trouble. The philosophy of
the treatment is that the strap so restrains the actions of the muscles of the
hind legs that the animal cannot kick to harm, or get its foot into the pail,
while the restraiat is steady and sure and the punishment not severe. A
woman or boy can manage an ordinary case. Heifers broken in this way, we
think, become more thor-
oughly gentle and sub-
missive. Of course an
even temper and kind
treatment must be strict-
ly observed.

pom Leen ees

Feed Rack for
Stock.—The rack rep-
resented in this engray-
ing is designed to be
placed against a building
or wall, under cover. It
may be adapted to any
kind of stock by placing

FEED RACK FOR STOOK. it at the proper height.

The cut plainly explains

its construction. The trough below the slats may be used for feeding grain
or roots. This style of rack is very popular in Europe.

Science Applied to Stock-Feeding.—TI¢ is often necessary to mix differ-
ent kinds of food to secure the best combination of flesh and fat-producing

elements. Experiments have been made in Germany to ascertain whats ~—

the proper combination of these principles. Ordinary food contains two
leading elements, one of which supplies the flesh and muscle of the animal
frame, and the other the fat and heat. These two elements should bear a
certain relation to each other. In the combination producing the best re-
sults, the ratio is one of the muscle-producing to three or four of the fat-
producing. Our common crop contains these elements in very different ra-
tios. In corn-fodder it is 1 to 10, which is too small proportion of the muscle-
producing element in proportion to the fat-producing. In wheat straw, they
are 1 to 15; in oat straw, they are 1 to 16; in German millet, they are 1 to 3,
so that this, when cut in the dough state, possesses the proper combination.
In corn (grain) they are 1 to 7 or 8, too much of the fat for the muscle-pro-
ducing elements. This corresponds to our experience. Corn is too heating
for work stock in our climate in summer. It is, however, excellent for fat-
tening animals. In oats (grain) these elements are 1 to 5, nearer correct

‘LIVE STOCK.
than incorn. In wheat bran, 2 to 8 1-2; in rye, 1 to 6. European field bean
has 1 to 1.8 (one and eight-tenths), showing too much muscle-producing
for the fat-producing elements. The proper medium may be attained by

mixing two kinds of food. Thus corn and peas mixed make the ratio about
correct. Clover hay is 1 to 3; lucerne, 1 to 2; vetch, 1 to a little more than 2.

How Practical Farmers Manage their Cattle.—A well-known firm
of practical farmers give the following information of the method pursued by
them: ‘‘Unless the weather is stormy, we turn our breeding bulls out for
exercise half of every day, often with the cows in the pasture, when noue of
them are in heat. After breeding our cows we keep them in a stable, where
they cannot be with the other cows for from ten to fifteen hours. We have
a few stalls that are specially designed for cows that are due to calve during
cold weather, and, of course, these are made as warm as we can get them.
We turn the cows out with their calves three times each day, until the calves
are six to eight weeks old, then only twice a day. We rarely allow calves to
run with dam in pasture, though we put the calves out to grass a8 soon as
they have learned to eat it. Feed young calves well on shelled corn, oats
and meal. Have separate pastures for bulls and heifer calves and do not
allow them to pasture together after the bulls are three or four months old.
‘Our dry cows we winter principally on hay, feed-
ing very little grain, except to young stock and
those that have calves at their sides, or those de-
signed for the show-ring. We breed our heifers
when about twenty months old.”

Calf Weaner.—This invention relates to the
class of calf weaners adapted to be attached to .
the central cartilage of the calf’s nose, like a
bull ring, the parts of the weaner being pro-
vided with sharp points that come against the
- cow’s bag when the calf attempts to suck. The
parts or sections of the device are attached together by a pivot forming a
part of one of the points. They are held closed by means of a small screw.
This device is very effective, simple and cheap.

Training Horns.—lf it is desirable to straighten a horn, you may fre-
quently scrape with a piece of glass, or a knife, the hollow side, which will
cause it to grow faster on that side; but in that case it must not be scraped
deeply, for then it becomes weaker on that side, and will be turned toward
the weaker side. Some scrape the side toward which they wish to turn the
horn quite thin, and then scrape the opposite side just enough to make it
grow faster, and that will turn it toward the thinly scraped side. If you
wish to turn a horn up, scrape on the under side just enough to make it
grow faster on that side. A very barbarous way to turn a horn is sometimes
practiced, by searing with a hot iron on that side toward which the horn is to
be turned. This prevents the growth of horn on that side, and the growth
upon the other side turns the horn. The horns may be polished by rubbing
them with fine sand paper, and then with pumice-stone, and then oiling
them. But this artificial manipulation of horns is seldom necessary. The
horns of well-fed cattle will generally grow in comely shape if let alone.

The hair is sometimes oiled to give it a glossy appearance, but the best
gloss is put upon the hair by rich and appropriate feeding. Nature, under
proper conditions, does this work best,

SARL ,
~*~

168 THE FARM.

Hollow Horn.—The first symptoms of the disease are readily seen. The
animal affected refuses to eat, and shows an indisposition to move about. If
not properly treated at once, the disease soon becomes so severe as to pre-
vent the animal from feeding at all, and death is generally the result. The —
old plan of boring the horns and pouring in turpentine should never*be re-
sorted to, as it does no good, and gives the animal unnecessary pain. The
horns are not effected, and consequently need no doctoring. The tongue is
the member wherein lies the trouble. By securing the animal’s head, so as
to prevent injury to yourself from its horns, and then pulling out the tongue
and pressing it downward, over the under lip, hundreds of little black heads
of so-called flesh-worms will rise above the surface. Take a dull table knife
and scrape off these black heads carefully and gently; then throw on the
tongue a little salt or pepper, or both mixed together, which will bring up
the saliva and set the animal’s tongue to working. In a few hours at most
the animal will begin to eat, and the trouble will be ended. We have never
known this remedy to fail, no matter how severe the case.

Taste of Turnips in Milk.—There are several remedies, says the
American Agriculturist, to prevent the taste of turnips in milk, but we be-
lieve no one of them can be strictly relied upon as effectual; we will, how-
ever, give them in order:

1. The objectionable taste comes from the crown of the turnip. ‘If this is
cut off and thrown away entire, the remainder will not affectthe milk. 2. Dis-
solve a teaspoonful of carbonate of soda in a teacupful of warm water, and
add this to six gallons of milk when first set in the pans. Fora single gallon;
of course one-sixth of the above would be sufficient, and for two or three
gallons in due proportion. The turnips ought to be given to the cow imme-
diately after milking. 3. Pulp or crush the turnips so fine as to make them
quickly and easily digested after eating, and when fed mix with cut hay or
straw. 4. Scald the milk as soon as drawn from the cows. The best way
to do this is to insert the milk can into a large pan or kettle about three-
quarters full of boiling water, and stir the milk until it reaches 80 to 90 de-
grees of heat, and then set it away to gradually cool off. The cream then
rises thick, comes off in a lump, and is churned quickly. All the above
remedies are so simple as to be easily tried, and if they do no good, cannot
effect harm.

Leaves for Bedding.—An economical farmer writes: ‘‘In the scarcity
of rye straw, and the absence of saw-dust and other material for bedding
cattle, we have been forced to use forest leaves to keep the horse and cow
in cleanly condition, and on the whole are much pleased with them. The
gathering was from the roadside, and along the walls, where brush and
leaves had accumulated for years. A few basketfuls were put under the
animals every morning, and kept there until they were well saturated with
the urine, and then thrown out into the manure heap. With a plenty of this
material, kept dry under a shed, and used abundantly, there is very little
loss of liquid manure. As an absorbent, it is much more effective than we
expected to find it. Leaves have a high reputation as a material for the hot-
bed and the compost heap, and are worth the labor of gathering, in most
cases for their fertilizing properties. Cords of them are going to decay in the
sight of almost every rural home, and it is the rare exception that they are
utilized. Meanwhile the fields and. garden are famished for want of manure,
or supplied with concentrated fertilizers at forty dollars a ton,

55: ep ida Pas i Sac tn an aR CR eR ahs
Pais oss ca .
te pres on

LIVE STOCK. 169

The First Milk.—The custom of weaning the ealf from the cow when
itis only three days old is a barbarous one. We are familiar with the fact
- that cows are sometimes injured by such a course, also, especially if she is
naturally of a nervous, anxious disposition, she soon learning the habit of
holding up her milk, and when a cow holds up her milk she has become
addicted to the most incurable vice known. There is another thing con-
nected with the weaning of the calf at so early an age, which is the plain
statement that we make in claiming that the milk is unfit for use, although
the calf is usually taken away in order that the milk may be sold. Those
who have had experience in the dairy know that milk from cows that have \
recently come in is ropy, and possesses a distinct characteristic in appear-
ance from that of cows that have been in service for a longer time. Thus, it
is not only unnatural to deprive the cow of her calf so early, but to use the
milk. It also pays to keep the calf on the milk until it is old enough to be
sold at a fair price.

Obstructed Teats.—The more the udder is stimulated to extra secretion
of milk, so much the more is it liable to congestion and inflammation. The.
pressure, too, of a great quantity of milk in the udder upon the circular
muscle (sphincter), which closes the end of the teat, tends to set up more or
less irritation there, and this will sometimes result in excessive thickening
of the walls and hard milking, or even complete closure of the orifice. The
simplest and best weatment is to slightly dilate the opening of the teat, once
or twice a day, with a perfectly smooth probe. A silver milking tube, about
a twelfth of an inch in diameter, will answer; or, when this is not available,
a probe of the same size made of gutta percha. A small size will be neces-
sary at first, and, after a Gay or two, when that passes easily, a larger one,
until finally the orifice is easily dilatable and the milking sufficiently free. In
every case the probe should be well oiled, and introduced with caution, so
as to avoid injury to the internal parts. A silver tube should be warmed
before it is introduced.

To Test the Health of a Horse or Cow.—In horses the pulse at rest
beats forty times, in an ox from fifty to fifty-five, and in sheep and pigs about
seventy to eighty beats per minute. It may be felt wherever a big artery
crosses a bone. For instance, it is generally examined in the horse on the
cord which crosses over the bone of the lower jaw in front of its curved posi-
tion, or in the bony ridge above the eye, and in cattle over the middle of the
first rib, and in sheep by placing the hand on the left side, where the beating
of the heart may be felt. Any material. variations of the pulse from the
figures given above may be considered as a sign of disease. If rapid, hard
and full, it is an indication of high fever or inflammation; if rapid, small and
weak, low fever, loss of blood or weakness. If slow, the possibilities point
to brain disease, and if irregular, to heart troubles. This is one of the princi-
pal and sure tests of the health of an animal.

Black Leg.—Black leg in young cattle generally attacks calves in the
fall when they get the rank growth of feed and are subject to sudden
changes of weather from rains and frosts. It sometimes attacks thrifty
calves in the winter when they are in the house and eating dry feed. We
believe the herdsman can trace the disease back to the cause, and we believe
the cause is the same in winter as in fall and spring; that is, rapid growth
from generous feed and liability to sudden chills from being kept in too
warm houses and exposures to cold while out during the day. Stables

yl THE FARM. | |
should not be too warm, nor should calves be deprived of exercise. Salt-
petre in salt is used by experienced herdsmen as a preventive; bleeding will

_ prevent the disease spreading among calves; for, although it is not con-
tagious, the cause that produces it in one is apt to produce it in others.

Treatment of Horn Brittieness.—In treating cows for horn brittle-
ness, a stock raiser in Austria found no good resulting from feeding bone
meal when the water used from a spring was perfectly soft—that is, without
mineral matter. But upon changing them to the water of another spring
containing carbonate, sulphate and phosphate of lime, and chlorate of mag-
nesia in small quantities, the effects were as follows: 1. The animals drank
half as much again as before. 2. The cows gave more and better milk than
before. 3. The worst diseased cows at once began to get better, and this
was the first case in which any of them recovered without removal. 4. The
oxen showed far better condition than could be previously attained on the
best of food and with the most careful attention. No fresh cases occurred as
soon as the change of water was introduced.

Sores on Cattle.—There are many sores on cattle, which if kept con-
stantly washed clean with cold water and kept free from dirt, would heal of
themselves. A very careful herdsman says his practice of curing hoof-rot is
to thoroughly cleanse the affected parts with warm water and soap; and then
apply warm tar between the hoofs. In very bad cases there will be a large
core to come out; remove it carefully with the thumb and finger, cleanse the
cavity as above with soap and water, and then fill it with warm tar. Keep
the parts thoroughly covered with tar, even if it is necessary to use a band-
age. Keep the animal ina clean, dry pasture. It is no more liable to affect
the whole system than any other ulcer. When once cured there is no danger
of its appearing again unless from the same cause.

How to Milk a Cow.—The most economical way to milk a cow, all
things considered, is to milk thestwo fore teats clean, leaving off with a
pretty full stream, and then milk the hind ones down to a short
stream, and, returning to the fore ones, milk them to the same
condition, not touching the hind ones again. This will leave the teats
empty, and the bag, too. Itis a false notion that tugging away at the teats
stimulates a cow to give more milk; but, on the contrary, emptying the bag
as soon as possible yields more; then the cow can have the extra time to eat,
which is a better stimulus than either. A slow milker is never tolerated in
the dairy districts, and a ‘‘ stripper” is an injury anywhere. The sooner a
cow is milked, and all the organs connected with feeding, digestion, and
secretion are left in their natural condition, the better it is for the cow.

Caked Udder.—When a cow’s milk suddenly dries up and becomes
clotted in the udder, it is probably due to garget or inflammation of the
udder from some one of many causes. The udder is then hard or lumpy,
and hot. A remedyis to give the cow at once eight or twelve ounces of
Epsom salts, with half an ounce of saltpetre, repeating the latter in six
hours. If the milk is difficult to draw, a solution of one ounce of carbonate
of soda in a pint of water should be injected in the teats with a syringe, and
then milked out. This will bring away the curded milk which, if left in, will
make matters very much worse. If the cow is feverish, the saltpetre may
be repeated for a day or two. To bathe the udder in cold water, rubbing
and squeezing it gently for a considerable time, is useful,

STOCK.

VE

we RarTa LT

_ Another remedy is to wash and rub thoroughly with water as hot as you
ean bear your hand. Then rub with a dry cloth. Then apply hog’s lard, or
what is better, grate good yellow carrot fine and simmer it in the lard to an
ointment and apply and rub as above.

171

Cows Winter Themselves.—Many farmers are accustomed to dry off
their cows early, milking them only about eight months. We think it im-
proves the milking qualities of the cows to milk them ten months, but they
should be well fed. We have a neighbor, who, ten years ago, found himself
short of hay in the fall, and lamented that he should have to pay out nearly
all of the product of his cows through the summer to purchase hay at high
prices to winter them. He had a moderate amount of straw, and we sug-
gested that the product of his cows from the first day of December, if well
fed, would pay for all the corn and meal, middlings, etc., necessary to
winter his cows in fine condition. He tried this, keeping account of pur-
chases of feed and sales of butter, and found that the butter came out ten
dollars ahead in the spring.

Cornstalks for Cattle.—A Maine farmer says: Farmers justly set a high
-value on well cured corn stalks, but some find a difficulty in getting their
stock to eat them as cleanly as they wish. I have overcome this difficulty
this winter by sprinkling them with hot brine. I withheld dry salt from the
stock a while, also husks, and made a brine by putting salt into a watering
pot and pouring on hot water; gave the husks a bountiful sprinkling and
fed them the last thing at night, instead of feeding them in the morning, as
formerly. I think if I had tried this plan years ago I should have saved a
great amount of fodder that was thrown out and trodden under foot.

Foul Foot in a Cow.—Cows and horses are subject to a disease of the
feet similar to scratches in horses. Diseased granulations, similar in ap-
pearance to the heart of a cauliflower, break out and excrete a thin acrid
matter. The treatment should be, to dress the diseased part with caustics,
such as powdered sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) or sulphate of zine
(white vitriol), rnbbed up smoothly, with clean, sweet lard, and give the
animal repeated doses of one ounce hyposulphite of soda, as an alterative.
The soda should be given every other day for a week or ten days.

Kicking Cows.—A writer says he once had a very valuable heifer
which was an exceedingly vicious kicker. To cure her of the habit, he put a
common garden hoe end in front of her off hind leg, and behind and above
the gambrel joint of the nigh hind leg. Then sitting down on the right to
milk, he put the handle cf the hoe well up under his arm and began milk-
ing. The heifer could not stir either hind leg, and after one week she could
be milked safely without fettering, and proved to be a valuable and gentle
animal,

Warm Water for Cows.—Warm water is an excellent thing for cows
giving milk; it is as good as two or three quarts of meal a day; but if you
mix meal and shorts with it cows must be allowanced, as they will drink too
much—enough to diminish the flow of milk. The quantity wiil vary with
the character of feed and the cow. A little good qrdaeteny is a nice thing
here, as everywhere else.

Roots for Stock.—The value of roots for stock is not appreciated to the
extent that it should be. In the rotation of crops in England turnips rank

e
i t
CTT Ps oe
Ye

172 THE FARM.

high, and it is not uncommon for a farmer to devote from twenty to fifty actes:

to this crop. Cattle are kept there in tine condition in winter on raw turnips,
and the latter also make excellent food for sheep. On rich land the crop
produces very largely, and a comparatively small space is sufficient for or-
dinary wants.

Jumping Cattle.—To stop a cow or steer from jumping over fences nail
a horseshoe on one forward foot. This prevents the hoof from spreading,
and consequently renders the animal unable to spring. This is calculated
to be very effectual.

Mixing Hay for Stock.—<A mixture of one-third clover hay with timothy
and redtop is recommended for any kind of stock. This mixture, it is said,
will produce more milk, more growth, and more fat in stock than clear timo-
thy and redtop.

Proportions of Food.—<A milch cow, on the average, requires daily three
per cent. of her weight in hay to keep her in health, an ox two per cent., or
two and a half per cent. if working moderately. An ox fatting, five per cent.

at first, and four and a half per cent. when half fat; sheep three and a half

per cent. to keep in store order. If other food is substituted for hay, or a
part of it, its comparative value as a nutriment must be ascertained. Thus,
eight pounds of potatoes are equal to four pounds of good hay, while

eight pounds of turnips are only equal to one and three-fifths pounds of

hay.

Carrots for Stock.—It is asserted, by those who have tested the matter,
that for stock-feeding an acre of carrots is worth about two hundred per
cent. more than the same ground will doin grass. This will pay for increased
expense of cultivation, and leave a fair margin of extra profit. Cattle take
readily to carrots as a portion of their daily food, and the large yield per
acre should make them a greater favorite with farmers than they generally
are. The thinning and weeding appear to be a great drawback to their more
general cultivation. But with this expense the crop pays well.

Celery Tops for Cows.—A writer in an Australian paper states that in
many instances the leaves of celery are highly esteemed as food for milch
cows, and are often prererred tu red ciover. The cows are said to eat them
greedily, and to yield on this food a far richer milk than on any other. Some-
times leaves are cut up small, scalded with hot water, and given as a mash
mixed with bran, and sometimes they are fed whole in their natural state
along with the other ordinary food

The Best Feed for Cattle.—We have seen pumpkins fed quite freely
with excellent result in quantity and quality of milk; but it is not fit or eco-
nomical to feed too largely of any one food. Potatoes fed in moderation are
excellent for milk; but given in too great a quantity they will reduce the
yield. Turnips or beets must not be given too liberally; corn fodder, given
as a sole ration, is unprofitable; but fed with half pasture will seek up the
yield of milk and add largely to the profit of the season.

Phosphates for Cattle.__A natural instinct leads cattle to eat bones
when their pastures are deficient in lime or phosphates of lime. If these
bones are brought home and reduced to a fine powder, mixed with salt, and
placed in a box or boxes fixed in the barn-yard, the cows will lick them and

—"s

“Live stook. 173
Pastis very great benefit from them, This will save their teeth, and prevent
them from choking themselves, as they might readily do with a piece of bone.

Those who have no old bones should purchase a few, and treat them in the
way indicated.

Straw and Bran.—Professor Henr y, of the Wisconsin Experimental
Farm, holds that it is wise economy on the part of the farmer who has a
great straw stack, and small herd of cattle, and some hay, and who will not
enlarge his herd, to sell the hay at $7 or $8 per ton, and spend the money in
buying bran at $11 and $12, and feed it with the straw, together with some oil-
meal. Good bright straw is made equal to hay by the addition of the protein
in the bran and meal, and the whole is thus made into a far better quality of
manure than usually comes from the usual way of feeding the hay, and half
washing the straw.

Feeding Bran with Meal.
in stalls and heavily fed, there is no better divisor for corn meal than wheat
bran. It is also cheap, and furnishes what the corn meal lacks. When cat-
tle are fed on corn meal as the principal food for fattening, it is apt to clog
if fed in too large quantities; hence, our best feeders are in the habit of using

bran as the cheapest and best means for rendering the meal fed more di-
gestible.

Rings on Cows’ Horns.—The first ring appears when the bovine is two

years of age, and sometimes before. The ring gradually increases during

the third year, and is fully formed at three years; the second ring appears
during the fourth year, and is complete at the end of the fifth year; after
that one additional ring is formed each year. A cow with three rings is six
years old; with four, seven years old.. After nine or ten years the rings are
no indication ef the age.

Care of Oxen.—Oxen that work on frozen roads, although there is no ice,
should be shod. The rough, hard surface wears down the hoofs very fast,
and causes inflammation of the interior; the trouble may not become appar-
ent until later, when the mischief is difficult to repair. If the feet are tender
and hot, and a slight lameness is perceived, examine the hoofs between the
claws, cleanse the feet, and apply the needful remedies without delay, and
so save trouble in the future.

Wo Exterminate Rats and Mice.—An English agricultural paper says:
** Several correspondents write to announce the complete extirpation of rats
and mice from their cow-stalls and piggeries since the adoption of this sim-
ple plan: A mixture of two parts of well-bruised common squills and three
parts of finely chopped bacon is made into a stiff mass, with as much meal as
may be required, and then baked into small cakes, which are put down for
the rats to eat.”

Garget in Cows.__It is said that eight drops of tincture of aconite dropped

on a piece of bread and mixed with the food at night, and next morning four
_ drops more given in the same manner, will generally complete the cure of
garget in cows.

Secours in Calves.—For scours in calves, a raw egg broken into their
milk is the most effectual remedy. A piece of rennet soaked in milk is also
good, but we prefer the raw egg.

For winter feeding, where cattle are kept —

ee

i74 THE FARM, f |

A Winter Piggery.—The object sought in the erection of this piggery
is to secure a neat, clean, cheap and comfortable shelter for young pigs. The
structure is thirty feet long, six feet wide, five and a half feet high in front,
and four feet high at the rear. The roof slopes only one way, and projects
fifteen inches, to throw water away from the pens. First make the spot on
which it is to be built a foot higher than the natu-
ral surface, with stiff, good clay soil. Gravel
must be put on this several inches deep. Set
round white oak posts a few inches in the ground
at every corner of each pen or division. Nail on,
with double-ten nails, scantling, two by four
inches. Board up with vertical boarding, one by
twelve inches. Cover the roof of building with
the same material, and make slatted divisions for
the pensinside. Ourillustration shows the trough
into which slops and water are poured from the
outside. These have a one-inch hole at one end,
with peg to let off surplus water in cleaning. A
piggery of this size will hold from ten to thirty,
according to size and age. It should be built —
facing the south, so as to allow as much sunshine
a8 possible to enter the doors. Whitewash fhe
inner apartments for health; also the outside,
which gives the structure a pleasant appearance.
The ornamental verge board is sawed out of one-
inch plank a foot wide, and a one-inch auger hole
put through the center of the figure, as shown in
the cut. The rafters project a foot over the front,
which proves asolid basis upon which to nail the
verge board. A little venetian red in some lime
is good to color the verge board, the corners and
doors. The doors are made of open slat-work,
and are furnished with small chains for fastening,
and strap hinges. This piggery can be built for
about $35.

Will it Pay to Steam Fodder!—Taking the
word fodder inits broadest sense, says the Ameri-
can Agriculturist, as any kind of food for gra-
nivorous animals, we may say that it will always
pay to steam or cook feed for swine, and often for
cows, in stables containing twenty-five head or
more, while for sheep and horses it will be of
doubtful expediency, and usually not advisable
under any circumstances. The cooking of feed
for fattening swine is so important as a matter of
economy, that it will pay, even though done with
little regard to the saving of labor and fuel. On the other hand, to cook the
feed for neat cattle with profit, not only should there be animals enough to
make it pay, but the .rations should beso carefully planned, that by min-
gling of palatable, with less relished and coarse fodder, a saving may be ef-
fected in that way. Besides the object for which the cattle are kept, is an
important factor to be considered in the feeding.

il

ia

d

—

4

A WINTER PIGGERY.

LIVE STOCK. 175

2

The flow of milk is increased by steaming the fodder—the color of the
‘butter is, however, injured. The same ration will prove more fattening,
while, at the same time, there will be little or no waste, if the steam is well
“managed. It is best to have the steamed ration composed of a variety of
feed, such as corn-fodder roots, hay or oat straw, with bran and corn meal,
or cotton-seed, or linseed-cake, or meal. The substitution of one kind of
fodder or meal for another, gives variety and relish. The coarse fodder is
cooked soft, and the flavor of the roots and of the meal pervades the mass.
It is not likely that any of the small agricultural steamers can be made to
economically cook the food for as many as twenty-five or thirty head of cattle.
When a boiler of several horse-power is employed to do other work, as
pumping, thrashing, sawing wood, grinding, cutting hay and corn fodder,
etc., steam may be economically used for cooking fodder: Of this there can
be little doubt. The steam box in which the fodder is placed for cooking, if
itis big enough, need not be filled oftener than twice a week, and if, as already
intimated, every pains is taken in the operation to save in the items of labor

and fuel, steaming fodder amt
for cattle will be found oo
profitable.

Convenient Trough.— 2

This trough is designed
more especially for an out-
door or field trough for sum-
mer and fall use. Itis very
desirable with many to feed
their swine outside of pens
in those seasons, and every
farmer is aware that it is
almost a necessity to have
the trough arranged to keep
the swine away, both from Pees
the person who feeds them CONVENIENT TROUGH.
~ and from the rgceptacle into

which their food is placed while the latter is being prepared. The trough
which we illustrate is adapted very perfectly to this purpose. It may form
part of the fence, so that the swine cannot come to the rear, from which side
the food is placed in it, and the additional advantage is the shelter of both
trough and animals from storms.

The cut requires little explanation. The cover is hung on pins and
fastened by a hook and staple on the rear side to keep it down. When food
is to be placed in the trough the hook is unfastened and the cover lifted up
in the position shown by the dotted lines. By this movement the swine are
completely shut away, and itis very convenient to place and mix their food.
A slight effort brings the cover back to its place, and they can then ‘‘ go in.”
» Perhaps sheep feeders might take a useful hint from this plan.

Pig Raising.—We will suppose that the farmer has a litter of good,
healthy pigs of good stock, one day old. He congratulates himself that,
haying escaped the dangers which are so thick at the critical period of far-
rowing, he will have no further trouble. The pigs are lively, and well de-
veloped; the mother shows no disposition to eat them, and is careful not to
overlie them, There are still two dangers right before the pig raiser

176 THE FARM.

into which he may ignorantly run—but which may be easily avoided—which
have caused the death of pigs by the million. The first is overfeeding the
sow with rich, heat-producing feed. I think there is no one cause that has
occasioned so much loss as this. Make it an invariable rule to feed sparingly
of corn for the first week. A failure to pay close attention to the matter of
diet at this time will often result in fever, which dries up the milk, the in-
sufficiency of which actually starves the pigs to death. When the result is
not so bad as this, the sow loses appetite, runs Gown rapidly in flesh, and.
although the pigs live they do not thrive, and before weaning the mother is
a skeleton. For the first week feed house slops and bran, with but one ear
of corn at a feed, and then increase gradually, and by the end of the second
week you can feed as heavily as you please. The second danger to young
pigs is that they become diseased for want of exercise. It the sow is kept in
a close pen and proves to be a good suckler, it is often the case that in two
or three weeks the pigs get so fat as to die. Many a farmer, with a valuable
litter of pigs shut up in a close pen, has seen them die-one after the other
until the litter disappeared, and yet he had no idea what was the matter.

Lay it down, then, as a second rule in pig raising, that young pigs must have

exercise.

Still another important thing is a clean bed. If allowed tosleep in dust
they are likely to die of thumps, and if in a wet place or a manure pile, they
become mangy, or contract colds and die. But we will suppose that the
farmer is wise enough to guard against the dangers I have spoken of, and
has brought the litter safely to the age of four weeks, with the mother in
good condition, and having a good appetite. It is now time to begin to pre-
pare the pigs for weaning. Make a pen near where you feed the sow,
and arrange it so that the pigs can go in and out at pleasure, but let it not
be accessible to the sow, and begin feeding with milk and soaked corn. The
quantity must be very small at first, and only what they will eat clean. In-
crease gradually, and by the time they are eight weeks old they will be eat-
ing enough so that they can be weaned without checking their growth. If,
as is often the case, there are in the litter two or three pigs that are not quite
up to the average, it will be good, both for them and the sows, to let them
run with the mother a week or two longer than the remainder of the litter.
For four months after wearfing feed liberally. No matter whether your pigs
are to be kept for breeders, fattened the first fall, or wintered over to be
pastured the next summer and fed the second autumn, the treatment should
be the same. Do not aim to make them fat, but get all the development of
bone and muscle you can. The food should not be corn exclusively, for we
want more of the flesh-formers, and they should have the run of pasture,
and be fed on bran slop with the corn. Exercise, a varied diet, with part
bulky food and not too much corn, will give a profitable hog.

Overfeeding Stock.—Overfeeding an animal is worse in its effects than
a spare diet. A great many more young animals are checked in their
growth, and otherwise injured, by overfeeding than by a deficiency of food.
In illustration of this statement, a correspondent tells the following story of
his own experience:

A rather opinionated and willful hired man, who requires the closest
watehing in feeding the stock, in defiance of ‘strict orders, gave some Berk-
shire pigs some cotton seed meal in their feed, in the expectation that it
would help them to grow. Their feed had been skimmed milk, with a quart
of wheat middlings to the pailful. Considerable more cotton seed meal was

LIVE STOUCK. 177
added to the feed during my absence from home fora day and night, and on
my return the next day two of the young pigs were taken with convulsions
and severe spasms. They died the next day, when two more were taken,
and soon after two more. The whole six died in the same way. First they
slowly turned around and around, then stood with the head in a corner and
pressed against the wall or yard fence; the jaws were chopped together, and
they foamed at the mouth. After a few hours they lay upon their sides and
struggled violently with the legs until they died. A dose of lard oil allayed
the symptoms for a time, and had it been given at first, would probably have
saved them. On opening them the lungs were found congested and very red
in patches, and the brain, also, was much congested, the blood vessels being
dark blue. The stomach and intestines were filled with cotton seed meal,
the milk having been digested. So short a case of indigestion, or stomach
staggers, as itis popularly called, is rare; but the pigs were but two months
old, and had probably been misfed previously.

A Convenient Feeding Trough.—We give an illustration of a con-
venient trough for feeding hogs or sheep. It is especially well designed for
feeding hogs, and may be placed in the pen, the swing door above the
trough forming one side. m
If desirable to use it out
ef doors, it may form part
of a fence. The construc-
tion is simple. Two up-
right board standards,
about four feet high, are
nailed to the ends of the
trough to support a swing
door or partition, which is
adjusted so that the lower
edge plays back and forth
just over the top of the
trough. The view given is A CONVENIENT FEEDING TROUGH.
of the rear side of the
trough, and the partition is swung forward to shut the animals away while
their food is being prepared. When ready, the slide is withdrawn, the par-
tition swings over the rear side, and the hogs can “‘goin.” Slats of wood
should be placed across the trough to keep the animals from standing in it.
By swinging the partition high enough, the hogs may pass under.

Sanitary Management of Swine.—One great fault in the manage-
ment is to keep too many hogs together in one shed or inclosure. From
want of proper protection in the way of housing, hogs are very apt to crowd
together in bunches during cold weather; and, coming into the sheds wet
and dirty, and being obliged to lie either on old and filthy straw bedding or
on a wet and damp floor, their sweating and steaming soon produces a foul
atnaosphere, and the bedding, not being removed at proper intervals, gets
rotten, and adds to contamination of the air. Being thus packed together in
the building, the hogs, in a warm and perspiring condition, are next exposed
to the influence of cold winds and‘wet, by being turned out in the morning
hours to run in the field among grass wet with cold dew or from rain or
hoar-frost, or to be fed from troughs in the yard. Among the common con-
sequences are congestion, cold or catarrh, and, if the so-called hog cholera

oo

i78 PILE PARM. — eee

happens to be prevailing, they are almost certain to be affected with that
disease, as their systems, under such management, are rendered predisposed
or susceptible thereto. In many places the hogs are keptin miserable sheds,
no provision being made for proper drainage, the ground sloping toward the
sheds, which frequently being unpaved, or without proper flooring, are con-
stantly damp and wet, while pools of urine and filth abound, and with wind
and sleet approaching from all quarters. In proportion as the standard of
breeding has become higher, so has the vital force, energy, and hardiness
become lessened; and the effects of improper quantity and quality of food,

filthy or stagnant water, faulty construction of houses, and undue exposure
to atmospheric influences, have become proportionately more baneful.

A Good Pig Sty.—We furnish herewith a plan for a good pig sty, with a
detailed description showing the best manner of constructing the same. Our
illustration represents the ground floor, 25 feet wide by 32 feet long. - A is an
entry five feet wide, running.the whole length of the building, with a door
at each end; it is used for feeding, as the troughs in boxes b, b, b, b, run
along one side of it. The roof extends only over the entry (a) and the boxes
b, b, b, b. The boxes ec,
c, ¢, c, are not under the
roof. The whole building
is floored with plank, with
aslight'depressionin grade
toward the front of about
half an inch to the foot, for
the purpose of drainage.
The inside partitions need
not be more than about
four feet high. The small
door between b and ¢ is
hung by hinges from the
top, so as to open either
way, made to work easy,
not reaching quite to the floor. The pig soon learns to push it open and
pass through, and the door closes after it. When pigs are put inte the
boxes, one corner of the box floor (c) should be made wet, and the pigs will
be careful not to wet anywhere else. O, 0, 0, 0, are feeding troughs. The
height of the building should be seyenor eight feet. No beddingis required.
Keep the floor clean.

A GOOD PIG STY.

Hog Cholera.—The Lewistown Gazette, published in Fulton County, Ili.,
says: ‘“‘ Every paper in the United States ought occasionally to keep the fact
before its readers that burnt corn is a certain and speedy cure for hog chol-
era. The best way is to make a pile of corn on the cobs, effectually scorch
it, and then give the affected hogs free access to it. This remedy was dis-
covered by E. E. Lock at the time his distillery in this county was burned,
together with a large lot of store corn, which was so much injured as to be
unfit for use, and was hauled out and greedily eaten by the hogs, several of
which were dying daily. After the second day not a single hog was lost,

and the disease was entirely conquered. The remedy has been tried in a
number of cases since, and never failed.”

The Washington (awa) Gazette says Mr. Donahey, of that place, furnishes
the following recipe for the cure of hog cholera: To prevent hogs from hay-

Ad ee Sab caters

LIVE STOCK, 179

ing cholera, quinsy, or pneumonia, use one gallon of soft soap, four ounces of
saitpetre, and half a pound of copperas. Mix well in swill, and feed to about
forty hogs in one day. In four or five days give the following: Carbolic acid,
eight drams, black antimony, two ounces, half pound of sulphur. Mix
well in swill, and feed to about forty hogs in two days. Repeat the above
once a month, and it will prevent any of the above diseases. I have used it
for ten years without a single case of any disease among my hogs.

A simple cure for hog cholera, says the Kentucky Live Stock Record, is
an infusion of peach-tree leaves and small twigs in boiling water, given in
their slop. Peach leaves are laxative, and they probably exert, to a moderate
extent, a sedative influence over the nervous system. They have been used
as a worm destroyer with reported success. They have also been recom-
mended as an infusion for irritability of the bladder, m sick stomach and
whooping cough. The cases of fatal poisoning from their use in children are
on record, as peach leayes contain prussic or hydrocyanic acid, but as it is
almost impossible to poison a hog, their use would not be objectionable. The
specific is worth a trial.

The report of the Georgia Agricultural Department has a statement to the
effect that forty cases of hog cholera were averted, if not cured, by turning
the animals on to a quarter of an acre of clover, to graze for one week. It
has long been held that this disease springs mainly from malnutrition, and
too much teeding on corn or other carbonaceous food. The fact that clover
—a nitrogenous fodder—in this case averted the threatened disease is of
great interest. The culture and use of clover in the South may through this
knowledge be greatly extended.

Nancy Agree, of Missouri, some years since claimed the $10,000 premium
effered by the legislature of that State for a cure for hog cholera. Her spe-
cific is as follows: ‘‘ Take inside bark of the wild cherry tree and boil it down
with water so as to make a strong solution, and give it to the hogs to drink,
excluding them from water. It has proven a perfect cure, even in the last
stages of the disease. I also recommend an admixture of the root of the 3

_bull nettle.” . Bee

A correspondent of the Journal of Agriculture recommends a half tea-
spoonful of carbolic acid in a gill of milk. This remedy, he states, has been
successful in every case and not only cures but stops the spread of the dis-
ease. Itis administered from the mouth of a long-necked bottle.

The Pig as a Plowman.—fFarmers everywhere, says the American
_Agricu'turist, are influenced by the construction of railroads and other means
of quick transportation, but none of them more so than those who grow meat
as a branch of their farm operations. The pork-raisers in the older States
come in competition with the swine products of the prairie States, where
the pig is a condenser of the corn crop, and among the most economical
methods of sending that cereal to market—yet even with cheap freights, it
will not do for Eastern farmers to abandon the sty, and look to the West for
their salt pork and hams. There are economies to be practiced in swine
raising that will make the Eastern farmer successful in his competition with -
the West. He has the protection of freights over long distances which can
never be very much reduced. The home market will always be remunera-
tive, so long as pork products are in demand. His lands need manure, and fe
_ that which is made in the sty and under cover, is among the best of the home ae
made fertilizers. Herding swine upon pasture, or old meadow, that needs - —
breaking up, is not very much practiced, but is one of the best methods of

180 THE PARM.

raising pigs. They are as easily confined within a movable fence as sheep,
utilize the grass and coarse feed quite as well, and perform a work in stir-
ring the soil that sheep cannot do. The nose of the pig is made for rooting,”
and we follow Nature’s hint in giving him a chance to stir the soil. A mova-
ble yard, large enough to keep two pigs, can be made of stout inch boards,
about fourteen feet long, and six inches wide. For the corner posts use two
by four inch joists. Nail the boards to the posts six inches apart, making
four lengths or panels four feet high. Fasten the corners with stout hooks
and staples, and you have a pen or yard fourteen feet square, which is easily
moved by two men. If you place two fifty-pound pigs into this yard they
will consume nearly all the grass and other vegetation in it in three or four
days, and thoroughly disturb the soil several inches in depth. When they
have done their work satisfactorily, the pen can be moved to the adjoining
plat, and so onward through the season. The advantages of this method
are, that it utilizes the grass and other vegetation, destroys weeds and in-
sects, mixes and fertilizes the surface of the soil about as well as the ordi-
nary implements of tillage. In the movable yard there is thoreugh work.
Even ferns and small brush are effectually destroyed. Worms and bugs are
available food for the pig. And it is not the least of the benefits that the
small stones, if they are in fhe soil, are brought to the surface, where they
can be seen and removed. The pig’s snout is the primitive plow and crow-
bar, ordained of old. No longer jewel this instrument, but put it where it
will do the most good, in breaking up old sod ground, and help make cheap
pork.

Charcoal for Hogs.-—-We have but little doubt that charcoal is one of
the best known remedies for the disordered state into which hogs drill, usu-
ally having disordered bowels, all the time giving off the worst kind of evacu-
ations. Probably the best form in which charcoal can be given is in the
form of burnt corn—perhaps, because when given in other forms the hogs do
not get enough. A distillery was burned in Illinois, about which a large
number of hogs were kept. Cholera prevailed among these hogs somewhat
extensively. In the burning of buildings a large amount of corn was con-—
sumed. To this burned and partially burned corn, the hogs had access at
will, and the sick commenced recovering at once and a large portion of them
got well. Many farmers have practiced feeding scorched corn, putting it
into the stove or building a fire upon the ground, placing the ears of corn
upon it, leaving them till pretty well charred. Hogs fed on still slops are
liable to be attacked by irritation of the stomach and bowels, coming from
too free generation of acid, from fermentation of food after eaten. Charcoal,
whether it be produced by burning corn or wood, will neutralize the acid, in
this way removing the irritating cause. The charcoal will be relished to the
extent of getting rid of the acid, and beyond that it may not be. Hence it is
well to let the wants of the hog be settled by the hog himself.

Iron Hog Troughs.—Upon the subject of the best material for hog
troughs, a writer says: “‘I make them out of iron, not out of iron-wood, but
east iron. I grappled with this problem a half dozen years ago and mas- .-
tered it. I became an inventor. I had an invention put into the form of a
model and got the proprietor of an iron foundry to cast eight troughs after
the model. They were put into the different pens and they are there now,

bright, clean, smooth, sound, and all right, and I expect to leave them just —_

in this shape to my heirs, The model cost $18, and the troughs 6 cents a —

LIVE STOCK. 181

pound, and they weighed an average of at least 100 pounds. The spout is
“east with the trough in one solid piece, and there are also feet cast and at-
_ tached, by which it is fastened to the floor. The corners are made rounding
and so is the bottom, so that freezing does not crack them, as the ice does
not press against the corners or sides, but around the whole. They are
easily cleaned ont, as the sloping sides allow the dirt to slide out before a
broom, are always in place, and will never wear out. The wear and waste
and annoyance of modern troughs became unbearable. Now I contemplate
this part of farm experience with a feeling akin to perfect satisfaction. The

trough is not patented.” ;

Phosphates Essential to Pigs.—Experiments made by Lehman upon
young animals showed that food containing an insufficient amount of phos-
phates not only affects the formation of the skeleton, but has an essential in-
fluence upon its separate parts. A young pig was fed one hundred and
twenty-six days upon potatoes alone; a result of this insufficient food, ra-
chitis (rickets, or softening of the bone). Other pigs, from the same litter,
fed upon potatoes, leach-out-meat, and additional phosphates, for the same
length of time, had a normal skeleton; yet even in these animals there was
a difference according to the kind of phosphate
added. Two that were fed on phosphate of pot-
ash had porous bones, specifically ligiter than
the others, which were fed upon phosphate and
carbonate of lime.

Pig Scraping Table.—This table can easily
be made by a handy man. It is formed by bars
of wood fixed into a frame. By using a table of
this description when scraping pigs, the water
and hair fall to the ground, and the latter is ef- PIG SORAPING TABLE.
fectually disposed of. It is a simple arrange-
ment, and its construction and use will materially aid in neatness and de-
spatch.

Preparing Food for Swine.—<A writer gives the following opinion:
“The present practice with the greater number, I believe, is to prepare food
for pigs either by steeping, steaming, or boiling, under the belief that cook-
ing in any shape is better than giving in the raw state. J am not at present
prepared to say definitely what other kinds of food may do, raw or cooked,
with pigs or other domesticated animals, or how the other animals would
thrive with peas or corn, raw or boiled;. but I now assert on the strongest
possible grounds—by evidence indisputable, again and again proved by
actual trials in various temperatures, with a variety of the same animals,
variously conducted—that for fast and cheap production of pork, raw peas
are fifty per cent. better than cooked peas or Indian corn in any shape.”

Hogs as Producers of Manure.—One hog, kept to the age of one year,
if furnished with suitable material, will convert a cartload per month into a
fertilizer which will produce a good crop of corn. Twelve loads per year
multiplied by the number of hogs usually kept by our farmers would make
sufficient fertilizing substance to grow the corn used by them; or, in other
words, the hog would pay in manure its keeping. In this way we can afford
to make pork at low prices, but in vo other way can it be done without loss
to the farmer :

,

182 THE FARM.

Swine Raising.—The American <Agriculturis( contains the following
sensible advice regarding the raising of swine: Pure air helps to make
pure blood, which, in the course of nature, builds up healthful bodies.
Out-of-door pigs would not show so well at the fairs, and would proba-
bly be passed over by judges and people who have been taught to ad-
mire ouly the fat and helpless things which get the prizes. Such pigs
are well adapted to fill lard kegs, whereas the standard of perfection should
be a pig which will make the most ham with the least waste of fat, the long-
est and deepest sides, with the most lean meat; it should have hone enough
to allow it to stand up and help itself to food, and carry with it the evidence
of healthy and natural development in all its parts. Pigs which run in a
range or pasture have good appetites—the fresh air and exercise give them
this—hence they will eat a great variety of food and much coarser than when
confined in pens. Nothing need go to waste on the farm for lack of a market.
They will consume all the refuse fruits, roots, pumpkins, and all kinds of
vegetables, which will make them grow. By extending the root patch and
planting the fodder corn thinner, so that nubbins will form on it, and by
putting in a sweet variety, the number of pigs may be increased in propor-
tion. A few bushels of corn at the end of the season will be ready the next
year for any crop, and ten times the advantage accrue to the farm than if as

the pigs are usually managed. i

Bone Meal for Strengthening Hogs.—Most farmers have noticed
that in fattening swine, especially when they are crowded rapidly, they
always appear weak in their hind legs, and sometimes lose the use of them
entirely. An intelligent farmer says that he and his neighbors have made a
practice of feeding bone meal in such cases, and find that a small quantity
mixed with the daily feed will prevent any weakness, and strengthen the
animals so as to admit of the most rapid forcing. As bone meal is known to
be a preventive of cripple ail and weakness in cows, 1t looks reasonable that
it should also be a benefit to hogs, which are often confined to a diet con-
taining but little bone-making material.

Keeping Hogs Clean.—The floor of a hog pen should be of plank. The
pen and hogs can then be kept clean. Ifthe animals are permitted to root
up the floor of the pen and burrow in the earth, they will. always be in an
uncleanly and unwholesome condition, and much food will be wasted. It is
quite unnecessary for either the comfort or health of the hogs to let them
exercise their natural propensity to root in the ground. The exercise is
really a waste of food and takes so much from their growth. Hogs will fat-
ten most quickly when they eat and sleep and remain perfectly quiet, as they
will do in a dry, warm pen, with a clean plank floor, and bedding of clean
straw and plenty to eat.

How to Give a Pig Medicine.—At a recent meeting of an English
Farmers’ Olub, Professor McBride spoke of the difficulty of administering ~
medicine to a pig. He said: ‘‘ To dose a pig, which you are sure to choke
if you attempt to make him drink while squealing, halter him as you would
for execution, and tie the rope end toa stake. He will pull back until the
rope is tightly strained. When he has ceased his uproar, and begins to —
reflect, approach him, and between the back part of his jaws insert an old
shoe, from which you have cut the toe leather. This he will at once begin ©
‘to suck and chew. Through it pour your medicine and he will swallow Rast ce
quantity you pleaees 72

ft.
sts Ae

LIVE STOCK. 183

Hay for Hogs.—Very few are aware of the fact that hay is very bene-
ficial to hogs; but it is true, nevertheless. Hogs need rough food as well as
horses, cattle or the human race. To prepare it you should have a cutting-
box (or hay cutter), and the greener the hay the better. Cut the hay short
and mix with bran, shorts or middlings, and feed as other food. Hogs soon
learn to like it, and if soaked in swill or other slop food, it is highly relished
by them. In winter use for hogs the same hay you feed to your horses, and
you will find that, while it saves bran, shorts or other food, it puts on flesh
as rapidly as anything that can be given them.

Paralysis in Pigs.—Pigs are frequently subject to a partial paralysis of
the nerves of the lumbar region, by which motion of the hind quarters is
rendered difficult or impossible. It sometimes results from inflammation of
the covering membrane of the spinal cord, caused by exposure to cold. The
remedy is to rub turpentine or mustard paste upon the loins, and to give a
teaspoonful of saltpetre in the food once a day. Dry pens and protection
from rains in the hot season are the best preventives.

Poisonous Swill.—A correspondent of the Prairie Farmer, having
complained ofa disease among his hogs, is told by another correspondent
that the symptoms are similar to those of hogs of his own, which he is satis- —
fied died from eating swill that had become poisoned by standing too long.
He says: ‘Chemists say that when swill stands a certain length of time
after it has soured, it becomes poisonous. I don’t know that this is so, but I
do know that I shall not feed any more old swill.”

Roots for Hogs.—Parsnips, carrots, Swedish turnips, and especially
mangel-wurtzels, will all fatten pigs. The roots ought not to be given in a
raw state, but always cooked and mixed with beans, peas, Indian corn, oats,
or barley, all of which must be ground into meal. When pigs are fed on
such cooked food as we have stated, the pork acquires a peculiarly rich
flayor, and is much esteemed, especially for family use.

Economy in Hog Raising-—One man who let his hogs run on grass
and artichokes all summer, was sure that his hogs paid him from fifty to
sixty cents per bushel for the corn they consumed (not counting anything
for the grass). Another man, who kept his hogs in a pen all summer with-
out anything but corn and water, did net realize more than ten or fifteen

~cents per bushel for the corm consumed.

Water for Hogs.—Hogs require free access to water in the summer
time. If they can have a place to bathe or wallow in, it is beneficial to them,
as it cools and cleanses the skin. Mud is not filth—it is a good disinfectant
and healthful. Sometimes mud baths have been found useful as medicinal
treatment for sick people.

Seurvy Pig ~=.—Itis said by a farmer who has tried the experiment so
often as to be sure of his ground, that buttermilk poured over the back of a
scurvy pig will entirely and speedily remove the scurf. The remedy is
simple.

Squash for Fattening Hogs.—A New York farmer declares that an
acre of Hubbard squash will fatten ten more hogs than the corn that can be
raised on the same ground. He has gathered from six to eight tons from an
acre.

is4

THE PAR WM.

Hurdling Sheep.—The accompanying illustration shows how an Eng-

lishman fed his sheep on an irrigated ares hie the use of hurdles of

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a peculiar ‘iésoriptien. The hurdles are twelve feet long and are made with
a stout pole bored with two series of holes twelves inches apart; stakes six
feet. long are put into these holes so that they project from them three feet

LIVE STOCK: 185

- 6n each side of the pole. One series of holes is bored in a direction at right
angles to that of the other, and when the stakes are all properly placed they
form a hurdle, the end of which looks like the letter X. The engraving
shows how these hurdles are made and the method of using them. A row
of these hurdles is placed across the field. The field in which they are used
consists of six acres. A strip of ten feet wide is thus set off, upon which four
hundred sheep feed. They eat up all the grass upon this strip and that
which they can reach by putting their heads through the hurdles. The
hurdles are then turned over, exposing another strip of rather more than
four feet wide at each turn. When this is fed off, the hurdles are again
turned over. The sharp points presented by the hurdles prevents auy tres-
passing upon the other side of them, and by using two rows of hurdles the
sheep are kept in the narrow strip between them. Their droppings are very
evenly spread over the field, and it is richly fertilized by them. At night
the sheep are taken off and the grass is watered. The growth is one inch
per day under this treatment, and when the field has been fed over, the
sheep are brought back again to the starting point and commence once
more eating their way along.

Raising Feed for Sheep.—The corn raised especially for sheep should
be planted in drills, three and one-half feet apart, and about six inches in
the drill. It will ear sufficiently, and should be shocked when the ear is
just passing out of the milk, in large, well-built shocks. And the most
profitable use that can be made of this for winter feeding is, to- run it
through a cutter, directly frem the shock, reducing to fine chaff, stalks,
ears, and all. If cut one-fourth of an inch long, the sheep will eat it all
clean; this we know from practical experience. With a large cutter, a ton
can be cut in twenty to thirty minutes. This cut corn, fed in properly con-
structed troughs, will furnish both grain and coarse fodder. The only im-
provement you can make on this ration, without cooking, is to feed with it
some more nitrogenous food, such as bran, linseed meal, or cotton seed
meal, Wocl is a nitrogenous product, and corn is too fattening a ration
when fed alone.

e

To Tell the Age of Sheep.—The books on sheep have seriously misled
- flock-masters on this subject. Almost any sheep owner will tell you that
after a year the sheep gets a pair of broad teeth yearly; and if you show
that his own three-year-olds have four pairs of broad teeth, he can only
claim that they are exceptions, and protest that they do not exceed three
years of age. Now these cases are no exception, for all well-bred sheep
have a tull mouth of front teeth at three years old. Some old, unimproved
flocks may still be found in which the mouth is not full until nearly four
years old, but fortunately these are now the exceptions, and should not be
made the standard, as they so constantly are. In Cotswolds, Leicesters,
Lincolns, South-Downs, Oxford-Downs, Hampshire-Downs, and even in the
advanced Merinos, and in the grades of all of these dentition is completed
from half a year to a year earlier. The milk or lamb teeth are easily dis-
- tinguished from the permanent or broad teeth by their smaller size and by
the thickness of the jaw bone around their fangs where the permanent teeth
are still inclosed. As the lamb approaches a year old, the broad exposed
part of the tooth becomes worn away, and narrow fangs projecting above the
gums stand apart from each other, leaving wide intervals. This is even
more marked after the first pair of permanent teeth have come up, overlap-

186 ; VHE FARM. Ss ee

ping each other at their edges, and from this time onward the number of

small milk teeth and of broad permanent teeth can usually be made out
with ease. Another distinguishing feature is the yellow or dark coloration
of the fangs of the milk teeth, while the exposed portions of the permanent
teeth are white, clear, and pearly. The successive pairs of permanent teeth
make their appearance through the gums in advanced breeds at about the
following dates: The first pair at one year; the second pair at one year and
a half; the third pair at two years and three months; the fourth and last
pair at three years. It will be observed that between the appearance of the
first two pairs there is an interval of six months, while after this each pair
come up nine months after its predecessors. For backward grades, and

the unimproved breeds, the eruption is about six months later for each

pair of teeth, but eyen with them-the mouth is full at three years and six
months.

Sheep Ticks__How to Get Rid of Them.—Sheep ticks are much more
numerous and more annoying than many suppose. Men of experience with

large flocks generally know and apply the necessary remediés, but there are
hundreds of farmers whose

time and attention are
principally directed to
grain growing, etc., and
who keep but a few sheep,
whose flocks are sorely
troubled by this parasite,
and they never discover
the cause of the evil. The
accompanying engraving of
the insect in its different
stages,.is from the Cyclo-
pedia of Agriculture.

The sheep tick or louse
: liyes amongst the wool, and
is exceedingly annoying to lambs. Their oval, shining bodies, like the pips
of small apples, and similar in color, may be found attached by the pointed
end to the wool. (See engraving Fig. 1; Fig. 2, the same magnified.) These
are not the eggs, but the pups, which are laid by the female, and are at first
soft and white. From these issue the ticks (Fig. 3; Fig. 4, the same magni-
fied), which are horny, bristly, and dull ochre; the head is orbicular, with
two dark eyes (Tig. 5), and a rostrum in front, enclosing three fine curved

FIG. 1.—SHEEP TICKS, MAGNIFIED.

. tubes (Fig. 6), for piercing the skin and sucking the blood. The body is

large, leathery, purse-shaped and whitish when alive, and notched at the
apex. The six legs are stout, very bristly, and the feet are furnished with
strong double claws. The English remedies are a wash of arsenic, soft
soap and potash, decoction of tobacco, train oil with spirits of turpentine,
and mercurial ointment. ‘
Ticks, when very numerous, greatly annoy and enfeeble sheep, and
should be kept out of the flock if possible. After shearing, the heat and
cold, the rubbing and biting of the sheep, soon drive off the tick and it takes
refuge in the long wool of the lamb. Wait a fortnight after sheaging to allow
all to make this transfer of residence; then boil refuse tobacco leaves until
the decoction is strong enough to kill ticks beyond a peradventure. This
may be readily tested by experiment. Five or six pounds of cheap plug to-

a

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LIVE STOCK. ; 187

bacco may be made to answer for one hundred lambs. The decoction is
poured into a deep, narrow dipping tank kept for this purpose, and which
has an inclined shelf on one side covered with a wooden grate, as shown in
‘our illustration below (Fig. 2). One man holds the lamb by the hind legs,
another clasps the fore legs in one hand, and shuts the other about the

- nostrils to prevent the liquid entering them, and then the lamb is entirely

immersed. It is immediately lifted out, laid on one side on the grate, and
the water squeezed out of its wool. Itis then turned over and squeezed on
the other side. The grate conducts the fluid back into the box. Ifthe lambs
are annually dipped, ticks will never trouble a flock.

Early-Lambs.—In many localities an early lamb will sell for more
money than will the ewe and her fleece; therefore, where there is a market
for early lambs the breeding of these is a very profitable business, if the per-
son who attempts it is pro-
vided with ample shelter
and understands the man-
agement of both ewes and
lambs.

Lambs for early market
are bred soas to be dropped
in February and March.
February isa hard month to
bring them through, and
without judicious treatment
and warm shelter many BSsSa_. i Ff yy JE=
lambs will be lost. The
chief aim is to get the lambs
ready for market as soon as
possible, as itis the earliest

San

eee y

Fares

replace en
pate mc a

est prices. It is necessary
to keep the dams in good
condition with sufficient
food to make plenty of FIG. 2.—TANK FOR DIPPING SHEEP.
nourishing milk. Experi-

ence and judgment are required in feeding the lambs; they must have food |

enough to promote rapid, healthy growth, and yet of a character that will
not produce scouring. While the lambs are still with the ewes, it is well-to
supply them additional food. They can soon be taught to drink milk which
is fresh and warm from the cow. Later on, oats, rye and wheat bran finely
ground together make an excellent feed. Asa gentle laxative a few ounces
of linseed oil-cake will be found beneficial and at the same time nourishing.
As the lambs approach the period for weaning extra food should be in-
creased; indeed, the weaning must be very gradually accomplished. The
sudden removal of the lambs from their dams is injurious to both. A plan
generally followed to avoid the evil effects of a sudden change, is that of
removing the lambs to a good pasture of short, tender grass, and at night
returning them to the fold with the ewes. The ewes must not be neglected. —
Their feed should be gradually diminished so as to diminish the yield of milk.

How to Make Sheep Pay.—Any farmer in the Eastern or Middle~
States having a farm of one hundred acres in good fence can keep a flock of

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188 eae THE FARM. —-

fifty sheep and receive larger profits than from any other investment of the
same amount, providing they will care for them in the following manner,
viz.: Haye your sheep in good condition when you take them from pasture
to winter. Have a sheltered pen, with plenty of room, to protect them from
the cold and storms; have an out-yard where they can be allowed to go in
on nice sunshiny days, in which throw cornstalks, oat or wheat straw, if you
have plenty of it, for what the sheep do not eat will make manure, so there
will be nothing lost. Also keep the sheltered pen dry, by throwing in straw,
as fast as itis cut up in manure. Feed them on clover hay. If you do not
grow any buy it, for one ton of clover hay is equal to two tons of any other
for sheep, in my experience. Try and have your lambs dropped in January
or February. Build a small pen alongside of your sheep pen, cut a small
hole, so the lambs can get in, but not large enough to admit the sheep. Put
troughs in the lambs’ pen, and feed them on ground feed. They will soon
find the hole and learn to eat, and if you haye never tried it before, you will
be surprised how much faster they will grow, and you will also find that the
_ butcher will buy your lambs earlier, and pay a larger price for them than he
will for your neighbor’s, who does not observe the above advice.

Feed Rack for Sheep.—Feed racks for stocks are indispensable
articles of furniture in the
sheds and yards of the farm.
We give an engraving of one of
these, designed especially for
sheep. Its dimensions are
thirty inches high, twenty-
eight wide, bottom formed by
nailing together four boards,
eight or nine inches wide, in
FEED RACK FOR SHEEP. the shape of two troughs, or

the letter W, resting on the
eross piece B. The novel feature, perhaps, is the cant boards A A, whichare
hinged and then fastened by movable braces. These boards serve as par-
ticular shelter to sheep, both from storm and chaff from fodder; and by
moving the braces they assume a vertical position, and thus keep ont the
sheep while one is filling in the grain.

Why Sheep are Profitable.—Sheep are profitable for several reasons,
among them being the small expense of maintaining a flock. By that we
do not mean the plan pursued by many of turning them into the woods and
fields to be called up occasionally to be ‘‘ salted,” but they cost but little
when cared for, because they are not choice in the matter of feeding. They
greedily devour much that would be unserviceable, and for that reason are
a necessary adjunct on a farm as a measure of economy. Where they become
serviceable mostly is on those pastures that are deticient in long grass, and
which are not used for making hay. Itis on this short grass, even if scatter-
ing, that the sheep pick up good feeding and thrive well. In fact, long
grass is not acceptable to sheep, as they graze close to the ground. A flock
of sheep would almost starve in a field of ‘tall clover, and will quickly leave
such for the privilege of feeding on the short herbage that grows in the fence
corners, in the abandoned meadows, and among the wheat stubble. The
crab grass, which becomes a weed on light soils, is highly relished by sheep
when just beginning to spread out, and even the purslane is keptdown by =

LIVE STOCK. 180

them. Fields from which the corn has been harvested afford them much
valuable pasturage, and they are always able to derive something for food
on places that would support no other animal. In saying this it is not in-
ferred that they require no care atthe barn. They surely do, but require
less than may be supposed.

They are also great renovators of the soil, scattering manure evenly and
pressing it in, thus improving the ground on which they teed. They multiply
rapidly, a small flock soon becoming a large one, and they produce profit in
three directions—wool, mutton and lambs.

Tar the Noses of Sheep.—The months of July and August are the ones
when sheep in many localities are subject toa most aggravating annoyance ©
from a fly (oestrus bovis), which seems bound to deposit its larve in the
nostrils. It infects wooded districts and shady places where the sheep
resort for shelter, and by its ceaseless attempts to enter the nose makes the
poor creature almost frantic. If but one fly is ina flock they all become
agitated and alarmed. They will assemble in groups, holding their heads
close together and their noses to the ground. As they hear the buzzing of
the little pest going from one to another, they will crowd their muzzles into
the loose dirt, made by their stamping, to protect themselves, and as the
pest succeeds in entering the nose of a victim, it will start on a run, followed
by the whole flock, to find a retreat from its enemy, throwing its head from
side to side, as if in the greatest agony, while the oestrus, having gained his
lodging place, assiduously deposits its larve in the inner margin of the nose.
Here, aided by warmth and moisture, the eggs quickly hatch into a small
maggot, which carrying out its instincts, begins to crawl up into the nose
through a crooked opening in the bone. The annoyance is fearful and mad-
dening, as it works its way up into the head and cavities.

The best known remedy is tar, in which is mixed a small amount of crude
earbolic acid. If the scent of the acid does not keep the fly away he gets
entangled in the tar, which is kept soft by the heat of the animal. Any kind
of tar or turpentine is useful for this purpose, and greatly promotes the com-
fort of the sheep, and prevents the ravages of the bot in the head..-

Increasing the Growth of Wool.—The use of chloride of potassium is
recommended in Germany as a means of increasing the growth of wool on
sheep. Some German chemists have made experiments with the article,
proving that the growth of wool is-promoted by its use. It is administered
in the proportion of one part of chloride to nine parts of salt. It not only
increases the production of wool, but improves the quality, and promotes
the general health of the animal, we are told; but the proper quantities to,
adaninister are not stated.

To Cure Poisoned Sheep.—Take rue leaves, as many as you can grasp
between thumb and forefinger. Bruise them; squeeze the juice into a half
teaeup of water, and drench the sheep with it. If the sheep are poisoned
very bad, drench the second time, which will never fail to cure.

Crossing Merino on Common Sheep.—A Mermo ram crossed on a
flock of common sheep will double the yield of wool through the first cross
alone, thus ‘paying for himself the first season, —

THE POULTRY YARD.

®

A Poultry House for Chickens.—The poultry house we have illustrated
is designed for young chicks. It can be attached to a coop, and is made of
laths. Itis the length of a lath and half a lath in height.

#uch an arrangement allows the mother some room to move about, and
enables the young chicks to reach air and sun. Almost any bright boy can
nail the laths together, and it will materially increase the chickens’ chances
of life. Remember that the first few days are the most critical and require.
extra attention.

More fowls are destroyed in infancy, like humans, by injudicious feeding
than at any other time. The first four weeks’ management of the young
chicks is everything, for no after cares can compensate for neglect during
the critical period. For
the first twenty-four hours
no food should be given
the chicks of any kind. At
first there may be given
hard-boiled egg, chopped
fine. This need only be
given for two or three days
- when the food should be
ee ee a ohanged to one consisting

A POULTRY HOUSE FOR CHICKS, of oatmeal cooked in milk,
to which an egg has been
added. The second week the milk and oatmeal gruel, stiffly made, should
be continued, and good wheat screenings allowed also. After the second
week the food may be varied so as to consist of anything they will eat, but
do not confine them to a single article of diet, as disease of the bowels may
occur. Green grass, cooked vegetables and milk may be given freely. The
chicks should not be allowed to roam outside with the hen, if possible, until
the sun is well up, as dampness is more injurious to them than cold. When
very young feed every two hours, as feathers, bone and meat are forming
fast, requiring plenty of nourishment. When cleanliness is observed but
few diseases appear. Never let a surplus of food remain after the feeding is
over, but see that they are sufficiently supplied before taking the excess
away. Young chicks are not troublesome to raise if a little system and care
are practiced. ?

A Model Hennery.—The breeding of new and choice varieties of poultry
has grown to be quite an extensive industry in this country during the past
few years, and it is not entirely confined to those who make it a business,
either, as many of our farmers have learned, at last, that it pays to devote
more time and attention to the raising and caye of poultry than they formerly

were willing to give to it. The model hennery herewith illustrated and de--

scribed combines all the essential requisites for convenience, cleanliness, the _

Srky

THE POULTRY YARD. 191
health of the fowls, and the separation of the different varieties, together
with all the modern improvements, from which many good hints may be ob-

' tained, if not wishing to adopt the plan just as it stands.
This building is nearly 75 feet long, 13 feet high, and 12 feet wide. Itis
built of wood, the roof shingled. To the highest pitch of the roof it is 13

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feet. The elevation or height from the ground or foundation in front is 4
feet, which cuts a twelve-foot board into three pieces; the length or pitch of
the roof 1n front is 12 feet—just the length of a board, saving a few inches of
a ragged end; the pitch of the rear roof is 6 feet, and the height of the build-
ing from the ground to the base of the roof is just 6 feet, which cuts a twelve-
foot board into two pieces. The ground plan and frame work are planned
on the same principles of economy of timber. By this plan no timber is

192 THE FARM,
wasted, as it all cuts out clean; there is also a great saving of labor. The
foundation of the building rests on cedar posts set four feet into the ground.

This house contains eight pens, each one of which will accommodate from
twenty-five to thirty fowls; each pen is nine feet long and eight feet wide. -
All the pens are divided off by wire partitions of one inch mesh. Each pen
has a glass window on the southern front of the house, extending from the
gutter to within one foot of the apex of the roof, fixed in permanently with
French glass lapping over each other, after the fashion of hot-bed sashes;
they are about eleven by three feet. Each pen is entered by a wire door six
feet high, from the hallway, which is three feet wide; and these doors are
carefully fastened with a brass padlock.

The house is put together with matched boards, and the grooves of the
boards are filled in with white lead and then driven together, so as to make
the joints impervious to cold or wet. Onthe rear side of the house there are

A MODEL HENNERY.—END VIEW OF INTERIOR.

four scuttles or ventilators, two by two feet, placed equidistant from each
other, and to these are attached iron rods which fit into a slide with a screw,
so that they can be raised to any height. These are raised, according to the
weather, every morning, to let off the foul air. Each pen has a ventilator
besides the trap door at the bottom, same size, which communicates with the
pens andruns. These lower ventilators are used only in very hot weather,
to allow a free circulation through the building, and in summer each pen is
shaded from the extreme rays of the sun by thick shades fastened upon the
inside, so that the inside of the house is cooler than the outside.

The dropping boards extend the whole width of the pen, and are about
two feet wide and sixteen inches from the floor; the roosts are about seven
inches above and over this board. They are three inches wide and crescent-
shaped on top, so that the fowls can rest a considerablé portion of their
bodies on the perches. Under these dropping boards are the nest boxes,
where the fowls lay, and are shaded and secluded. The feeding and drink-

Ss Ay i amide ut ait nea a > Des sl raph f ae CS Pita ® Su

a
Ven

THE POULTRY YARD. 193

ing troughs are made of galvanized iron, and hung with hooks on eyes, 6o
that they can be easily removed when they require cleaning.

One can stand at one end of this long house and see all the chickens on
their roosts. By
seeing each other in
this way the fowls
are made compan-
ionable and are
saved many a fero- .-
cious fight; at the
same time each kind
is kept separate
from the other. Each
pen has a run 33 by
12and 15 feet; these
runs are separated
by wire fences 12
feet high, with i
meshes of 2 inches. VATS

The house is sur- ae =
rounded with a NCS
drain which carries Noa |\\\\
off all the moisture
and water, and pre-
vents dampness. In-
side the house is
cemented all
through, and these
cemented floors are
covered with gravel
two inches deep.
The house is heated
in the cold weather
just enough to keep.
water from freezing.
The plan of this hen-
nery is remarkable
for its simplicity and
hygienic arrange-
ment. The cost of
the labor and ma-
terial is under $500.

Movable Poul-
try House.—Those
who have tried moy-
able poultry houses sy On nar LO
regard them as ex-
ceedingly profitable arrangements, and very desirable. We give an illustra-
tion of one in use in England, which is mounted on wheels, with a floor
raised high enough above ground to form a dry run. It has a set of mova-
ble laying nests at back, outside flap-door with lock, large door with lock,
for attendant, small sliding door and ladder for fowls, two shifting perches,

‘HSQOH AULTNOd AIAVAOM

a

AN

Ty;
Mi ee

194 THE FARM. ; ie
and sliding window. The benefit birds of all description derive from change
of place, not only arises from the pleasure every animal as well as man de-

rives from changes of scene, but by being preserved from the exhalations
emitted by excrementitious matter and decaying food:

Model Poultry House.—We give a plan of poultry house and yards,
combining many good

i with worked spruce or
H pine boards, put on ver-
| tically, and the height so

er TM Boiss spd convenicneos
arranged that each bourd

| The building is enclosed
| 1

IH PA Hy INLET will cut to avoid waste.

ELEVATION.—LENGTH, 24 FEET; WIDTH, 11 rent; All the pieces are cut off

HEIGHT, IN FRONT, 9 1-2 FEET; HEIGHT, IN REAR, of the full lengths in
6 1-2 FEET. front, making just half a

rear length. The rafters
of thirteen feet joist, with either battened or shingle roof as preferred. The
building is supposed to face the south. The entrance door, E, opening into
the passage, P, three and a half feet wide, which runs the length of the build-
ing; smaller doors, D, each two feet wide, opening into the roosting room, R.
The nests are raised about a foot from the floor, and also open into the room
R, -with a hinged board in the passage, so that the eggs can be removed with-
out entering the roosting rooms. The perches, A, are movable, perfectly
level, and raised two feet
from the floor. The parti-
tion walls are tight, two
boards high, above which is
lath; the passage wall above
the nest, and also the doors,
D, being of lath also.

The roosting-rooms are
seven and a half by eight
feet, large enough for
twenty-five fowls each. Win- H
dows are six feet square, !

raised one foot from the
floor. We prefer the glass
to be six by eight or seven
by nine inches—as these
small sizes need no protec- H
tion strips to prevent the se-+eees---+0-~ wenevseecuwnenwens sees ee
fowls from breaking them. PLAN AND YARD.

The holes, H, for egress and .

ingress of the fowls, are closed by a drop door worked by a cord and pulley
from the passage way. Another door can be placed in the other end of the
passage way if desirable. This arrangement of the yards, Y, of course would
not suit every one; some would prefer smaller yards, making each yard the
width of the room and adding to its height. The house above is designed
for only three varieties; but by simply adding to the length, any number of
breeds may be accommodated. The simplest and most economical founda-
tion is to set locust or oak posts about four feet deep, every eight feet, and

3
‘as often as desirable. -For f | | |

THR POULTRY YARD. i98

_ pike the sills on them. There is then no heaving from frost; and all the

underpinning necessary is a board nailed t> the sill and extending into the
ground a couple of inches. A se‘ting room can be added by making the
building four feet longer. The room should be in the end next the door, so
as to be always within notice.

Such a house built of seasoned lumber and well battened, will shelter any
fowls — excepting, perhaps,
the Spanish, Leghorns, and
a few of the more tender ya-
rieties—from all ordinarily
cold weather; and we be-
lieve it to be the cheapest
and most convenient house
for general use.

Chicken and Duck In-
closure.—We present here-
with a plan for chicken or
duck coops, with inclosures,
which will be found very
convenient fixtures in any
poultry-yard. These coops
are made so that they are
movable, and can be con-
structed by almost any one
conversant with the use of a
hammer and nails. Any fre-
fuse boards and odd pieces
are all that are necessary to
build them. The coops can
be set in any desired posi-
tion, then fenced in with
boards twelve to sixteen
inches wide, as shown in our
engraving, with stakes driven
in the ground on each side i)
of the boards at intervals, to iN

“AYOQSOIONI WOOd GNVY NAMOIHO

keep them from falling over. od
Put up in this manner the SUNIL!

stakes can be withdrawn at ANDRA AVN

will and the inclosure moved

1 U| | ;
partitions our engraving has Hill nN | Ais
shown a light wire mesh, ! | Ht | }}
which is easy to handle and
can be procured at a very small cost. This is fastened into position by pin-
ning down with wooden pins, which, in this way, is made also movable.

Caponizing.—Caponizing is not a very difficult operation, and any one
who is blessed with the average amount of brains and common sense can
goon learn to caponize as quickly and as successfully as an ‘‘ expert.” We
know that some one will probably tell you that the instruments used are
*‘ very delicate,” and the operation can only be safely performed by an ex-

i9é RE RARE OS. ey

pert; but don’t believe it. We once wrote out the directions for caponizing, —
and sent them to a lady who was anxious to know how to perform the opera-
tion. With the written directions before her, she first operated on some
half-dozen of cockerels that had been killed for table use, and then tried her
hand on the living birds, with excellent success. In three days, besides
doing her usual housework, she caponized 162 cockerels, and only three of
them died from the effects of the operation.

If you live near any one who understands caponizing, and is willing to
teach others, go and learn how, but if you cannot do that, go and get a set
of instruments and teach yourself. A set of caponizing instruments consists
of a pointed hook, a steel splint with a broad, flat hook at each end, a pair
of tweezers, and a pair of crooked concave forceps. In the first place, kill a
young cockerel and examine it carefully, so that you will be able to tell the
exact position of the organs to be removed. You will find them within the
cavity of the abdomen, attached to the back, one on each side of the spine.
They are light colored, and the size varies with the age and breed.

After you have ‘‘ located” the parts to be removed, practice the opera-
tion on chickens that have been killed, until you are sure that you can oper-
ate quickly and safely; then you may try your hand on the living birds.
Place the bird on its left side ina rack that will hold it firmly in position
without injuring it, or else draw the wings back and fasten them with abroad .
strip of cloth; draw the legs back and tie them with another strip; then let
the attendant hold the fowl firmly on the table, one hand on the wings and:
head, the other on the legs, while you perform the operation. Remove the
feathers from a spot a little larger than a silver dollar, at the point near the:
hip, upon the line between the thigh and shoulder. Draw the skin back-
ward, hold it firm while you make a clean cut an inch and a half long be-
tween the last two ribs, and lastly through the thin membrane that lines the
abdominal cavity. In making the last cut, take care and not injure the in-
testines. Now take the splint and separate the ribs by attaching one of the
hooks to each rib, and then allowjng the splint to spread; push the intestines
away with a teaspoon handle, find the testicles; take hold of the mémbrane
that covers them and hold it with the tweezers; tear it open with the hook;
grasp the spermatic cord with the tweezers, and then twist off the testicle
with the forceps. Remove the other in the same way. The left testicle is
usually a little farther back than that on the right, and should be removed
first. During the operation take care not to injure the intestines, or rupture
the large blood vessels attached to the organs removed. The operation
completed, take out the splint, allow the skin to resume its place, stick on
some of the feathers that were removed, which will absorb the blood and
cover the wound; give plenty of drink, but feed sparingly on soft cooked
food for a few days, or until they begin to move around pretty lively.

To prepare cockerels for caponizing, shut them up without food or drink
for twenty-four hours previous to the operation, for if the intestines are full
the operation will be more difficult and dangerous. Cockerels that are in-
tended for capons should be operated upon between three and four months
of age. Cockerels of any breed may be caponized, but of course the larger
breeds are the best. A cross between the Light Brahmas and Partridge
Cochins will produce extra large cockerels for capons, but only the first
cross is desirable. Capons grow fully one-third larger than the ordinary
male fowl of the same age and breed. Their flesh is more delicate and juicy,
and they command prices, from thirty to fifty per cent. higher than common
poultry, but outstde the largest cities there is no market for them,

re
a
pie

: ae”
als an
wu et op ESE Te
BPN Ne)
in
” a”

pHE POULTRY YARD. 197
Good and Cheap Incubators.—For the benefit of those who desire to

experience some of the pleasures and profits of artificial incubation, we here
give a model of a very simple and reliable incubator, with directions for

‘making the same. -

Have a pine case made somewhat like a common washstand (see Fig. 2)
without the inside divisions.

About a foot from the floor of this
case, place brackets like those in Fig-
1, and on a level with these screw a
strong cleat across the back of the
case inside. These are to support the
tank.

The tank should be made of gal-
vanized iron, three inches deep and
otherwise proportioned to fit exactly
within the case and rest upon the
brackets and cleat. The tank should

stein Ae Reith, ad uals yy
REN ee ee angie

have a top or cover soldered on when
itis made. At the top of this tank in

FIG. 1.—INSIDE OF INCUBATOR. FRONT
SECTION—T, TANK; L C, LAMP CLOS-
ET, B B, BRACKETS.

the center should be a hole an inch in
diameter with a rim two inches high, and at the bottom, toward one end, a
faucet for drawing off the water. When the tank is set in the case fill up all
the chinks and cracks between the edges of the tank and the case with plas-
ter Paris to keep all fumes of the tenn from the eggs.
Fill the tank at least two inches deep with boiling water.
To find when the right depth is required, gauge the water with a small
stick, Over the top of the tank spread fine gravel a quarter of an inch thick;
over this lay a coarse cot-
ton cloth. Place the eggs
Z = — on the cloth, and set a kere-
a il sene safety-lamp under the
lj) center of the tank.
cat a The door of the lamp-
“ closet must have four holes
| [ for ventilation, otherwise
j the lamp will not burn.
: ~The lamp-closet is the
== space within the incubator -
Tih under the tank. Turn the
eggs carefully every morn-
ing and evening, and after
turning sprinkle them with
quite warm water. Two
thermometers should be
kept in the incubator, one
half way between the center and each end; the average heat should be 105
degrees.
If the eggs do not warm up well, lay a piece of coarse carpet over them.
If they are too warm, take out the lamp and open the cover for a few min-
utes, but do not let the eggs get chilled. If they should happen to get down
to 98 degrees, and up to a 108 degrees, you need not think the eggs are

spoiled. They will stand such a variation once in a while; but of course a
uniform temperature of 105 degrees will secure more chickens, and they will

i I a

qo
TIL meu

FIG. 2.—INCUBATOR CLOSED.

2

i98 ORE ay ny ae FARM,

be stronger and more lively. In just such an incubator as ee one de
scribed, the writer hatched over two hundred chickens two years ago.
For ‘those who are ambitious to #ry top heat, the same sort of a tank is

required, but a boiler must
be attached at the side with
an upper and lower pipe for
circulation. Any plumber
can attach the boiler, and
the faucet must be at the
bottom of the boiler ou one
side.

The drawers containing
the eggs should slide be-
; neath the tank. A stand

FIG. 3.—TOP HEAT INcUBATOR, on TaBLE. fT the lamp should be

screwed to one end of the
case in such a position as to bring the lamp under the boiler (see illustration
above). This incubator can be cooled by raising the lid, turning down the
lamp and pulling the drawers part way out.

In both incubators while the eggs are hatching sprinkle them two or three |

times with quite warm water. After the chicks are et they need a
warm cover, a good run, plenty
of clean gravel, fresh w ater, fine
eracked corn, and green food

very day.

How to Raise Artificially-
Hatched Chickens.—The fol-
lowing article is from the pen of a gentleman who has given the matter of
the artificial hatching of chickens much careful study, and he tells how to
successfully raise the young chicks after being so hatched:

*‘Tt is evident to the most casual observer that chickens hatched without
a mother must be raised without a mother. Born orphans, they must re-
main orphans. When my incubator produced the first chick, what a com-
motion there was in the house.
The birth of a baby wouldn’t
have been a circumstance to
it; and while the women-folks
would have known what to do
with a new baby, we all
looked at one another with
blank bewildermenf when the
question was asked what we
should do with the new chick.
The thermometer outside was
down nearly to the freezing

FIG. 4.—¥FORM OF TANK.

point, while in the incubator —

the temperature was 105 degrees. The little chick’s hair stood on end, and
he was panting for dear life. He mustcome outof there, and as his brothers
and sisters were following him out of the shells, we began to prepare all
sorts of receptacles for them. We rigged up a mother on the heater, and
put in it several chicks that lived a few hours and then died. We de-
cided it was too cold, so we put others in a box and put them back in the

—_

ae.

Pe BEE POULPRY YARD. 199

i acavator. where some of them were smothered with the hen: It was

evident something must be done, or we would soon have no chicks to
experiment with. I determined in my own mind that a temperature of about

ninety degrees would be correct, so I rigged up the brooder and started the

Jamp, put in the thermometer, and when the proper degree of heat was
reached, put what was left of the chicks into the brooder, and they began to
brighten up. The problem was solved, though its solution cost me the lives
of many fine chicks.

** With further experience, I find the following treatment a complete suc-
cess: After the chick breaks the shell, let him scramble around and dry
himself in the incubator, which
will generally take a few hours,
though some are much strong-
er than others. After too much
exercise they begin to pant, and
should, of course, be removed.
I have a box twelve inches
square and six inches high. To
the lid of this tack strips of
woolen cloth an inch wide and
two inches apart. These rags
should hang within two inches
of the bottom. Puta half inch of dry sand in the box. The brooder is kept
at a temperature between eighty and ninety degrees. The young chicks,
when perfectly dry, are taken from the oven and putin the box, and the box
put in the brooder where the other chicks are. Air holes should be cut in
the lid of the box, for if cut in the side the other chicks peck out the feathers

- of the little ones through these holes. This box keeps the chicks warm, and

they soon brighten up, “and at the end of twelve hours are ready to take the
first lesson in eating. Take a hard boiled egg and chop the white and yelk
up together as fine as grains of wheat; with it cover the bottom of a little pan
—the top of a blacking box will do. Place this in the box with the chicks,
and, while tapping with the
finger in the feed, repeat
‘tuck, tuck,’ like the clucking
of a hen (Fig. 1). A _ little
patience, and one chick will
see something and peck at it,
when the others will follow
suit, and in a few minutes the
first lesson is learned. After
a few meais, with this process
repeated, it will be only nec-
essary to rap on the box, and the little fellows will be ready for their meal,
and also be spry enough to be put out of the box and run with the others in
the brooder.

** The next lot of chicks I feed as follows: Stale wheat bread is soaked in
water. A cupful of oatmeal or rice has boiling water poured over it, and is
stirred until it takes up all the water. I mix two handfuls of soaked bread,
with the water squeezed out, with one handful of this oatmeal, and dry it all
with unbolted cornmeal until it crumbles freely. A little salt is mixed up

with it. _This, with a little meat once a day, is their sole feed, and it is given

about every three hours until the chicks are a week old, or until the wings

=~ \
260 ; THE FARM.

are large enough to cover their backs, when they are putin a pen. This lot.
is fed the above mixture five or six times, with meat or worms once a day,
and a head of cabbage is hung in the pen for them to peck at. The bottom
of this pen is covered with dry sand and ashes, with a pile of old mortar and
broken oyster shells to be picked over.

‘‘For a water fountain I use a small tin pan, covering with a stone all the
top except just enough to allow the chicks to drink, as shown at Fig. 2. Turn
the open part next to the wall, so the little things cannot scratch dirt into it.
Chicks are very fond of scratching the feed out of the pan. To prevent this
I take a sheet of tin (Fig. 3), bend it over, and put the feed under the bent
part. This prevents their treading on or scratching out the feed, and caters
to their natural taste for hunting under things for food. It is also cleaned
more readily than a pan.

‘The body of the brooder (Fig. 4) is made of zinc, with an air-chamber
over and under the back
end. The lamp setting under
it sends the heat up through
the heater and out through
the top, where a nursery for
young or sick chicks is
placed to utilize the waste
heat. This form of brooder,
with a warm chamber and
the chicks feeding in the
open air, I believe to be bet-
ter than those where the
chicks are never subjected
to a cool atmosphere. The
short stay while they feed in
the open air tends to harden
and invigorate them. All
brooders, boxes, or pens, |
used to keep large numbers
of chicks in, should have the
bottom lined with zinc, as
wood or earth1s sure in time
to become saturated with

BROODER.—FIG. 4. excrement, no matter how

clean you try to keep it, and

it is the ammonia arising from these tainted floors that causes such’ pens
in time to prove fatal to the chicks. I promised to tell the truth
about my experience in hatching the eggs, and here it is: The
last eggs that hatched out were bought October 10th. Up to that time I
had purchased one hundred and. five eggs at thirty cents a dozen.
About one-third of these proved unfertile, and were cooked and eaten, or
hard-boiled and fed to the young chicks, leaving about seventy-five eggs for
the incubator to work on. Out of these I now have twenty-seven as fine
chicks as I ever saw. By my own awkwardness and want of experience, I
have killed or lost fully one dozen. My machine was an old one, and the
battery was worn out. The gauge never was worth a cent. All the defect-
ive parts have been renewed except the gauge, and I have learned to doctor
that. Owing to the above faults, the temperature in the oven has run toe
‘ew for days at a time, and for hours it has been at 82 degrees, while it has

THE POULTRY YARD, 7 201

taken short trips as high as 110 degrees. The only wonder is that I got a
chicken out of any of the eggs. It is astonishing how much an egg willstand.

_ “From my experience
with hens I am satisfied I

will be able to get more
chicks from a given num-
ber of eggs with the incu-
bator than I ever could with
hens. It would be a poor
hand who could not raise
from a fourth to a third
more chicks with brooders
than with the best hens.”

Packing Eggs for
Market.--We present here-
with three different styles
or methods of packing eggs
for shipment or for storage,
any one of which will be
found simple, inexpensive
and practical.

Our illustration, Fig. 1,
represents a substantial
carrying case, with nine &
drawers, the frames of ~

which are of wood covered FIG. 1.—CANVAS COVERED CASE.

with canvas or sacking,

with cords or strings underneath, for the purpose of keeping the eggs in
their places. The sacks, at the top and, bottom, have depressions, as
shown in the cover of the engraving, so that the eggs fit snugly and are not

il

Li

FIG. 2.—COMMON TRANSPORTING CASE.

liable to be displaced
by handling or trans-
porting. Each alternating
layer, coming between these
depressions in each box or
drawer, fills up the inter-
stices perfectly. Witk
proper care these cases will
last for years, are always
ready for packing and can
be filled as the eggs are laid,
thus avoiding repeated
handling. The eggs can
also be kept in them per-
fectly secure when the
owner desires to hold his
stock for better market.
There are nine layers or
drawers of eggs in this box,

each layer containing eight dozen, or a total ofseventy-two dozen of eggs.
‘Fig. 2. shows a cheaper case in every respect. It is a common packing
box, made with paste or binders’ board partitions, and each layer of eggs is

ea THE FARM. ~ feo re

covered with the same material. One point connected with packing in these.
boxes the shipper should know and guard against; that is, it is sometimes
the case that the pasteboard cover, on which the .eggs are placed, is com-
posed of two pieces, and during transporting or handling these pieces be-
come displaced, or pass each other; then the eggs above drop down on the
lower ones and break them. This difficulty, however, can easily be avoided
by passing a piece of stiff paper over the joints, which will prevent them
passing each other. Any sized box desired can be used for this style of case,
and, with a little care on the part of the packer of the eggs, can be carried as
safely as with any of the patent boxes now in vague, ’

Fig. 3 consists of an outside case or crate, in which are fitted a number of
trays with cord laced through the sides and ends, dividing the spaces into
small squares or meshes, and making a delicate spring, which responds to
the slightest jar. Rows of pockets are suspended from the cord work, giv-
ing to each a separate apartment, and so arranged that no jar nor jolt the
carrier may receive can
cause one egg to strike an-
other, and being thus sepa-
rated, a free circulation of
air is obtained, which pre-
vents heating by any pos-
sibility. Each tray is pro-
vided with a protector,

ae

wit

ull LN

ffi;

{i
Bi -

which keeps the eggs in the
pocket even though the car-
rier be overturned. As each
tray contains a certain
number, no errors in count

Mi eo . can ever occur, and the pur-
= Ill vii 4 | chaser can determine at a
m - glance both the number and
ig Saas quality of the eggs. By

FIG. 8.—SUSPENSION EGG CARRIER. using this carrier a child
can pack as well as a man.

One of these carriers, the size shown, will hold sixty dozen of eggs.

Milk for Hens.—F anny Field thus expresses herself as to the food value
of milk for hens: ‘‘I quite agree with the correspondent of the American
Poultry Yard, who declares there is no feed on earth so good for fowls and
chicks as milk in some form. For very young chicks we make the clabbered
milk into Dutch cheese, and use the whey to mix feed for other fowls and
chickens. From the time they are a week old till sent to market for broilers,
our early chicks have all the milk, sweet or sour, or buttermilk, that they
can drink. If the home supply of milk falls short of the demand, we buy
skim milk at two cents a quart, and consider it cheap at that. For laying
hens in winter there is nothing better than a liberal supply of milk. A pan
of warm milk, with a dash of pepper in it, every morning, will do more
toward inducing hens to lay in cold weather than all the egg-food in crea-
tion. For fattening fowls, we find that boiled vegetables mixed with milk
and barley or cornmeal will put on flesh at an astonishing rate. Don’t be —
afraid to give milk to fowls or chicks; from the time when the chicks are
given the first feed up to within the last day of the old fowl’s life, milk may ~
be safely and profitably given,”

THRE POULTRY YARD: 90%

Poultry Keeping for Profit.—During the year 1884, Mr. Henry Stewart
contributed to the New York Times a series of articles containing many
valuable suggestions for those who wish to make poultry-keeping a busi-
ness. His plan is briefly as follows: Each yard is to consist of a plot of
ground about 100x400 feet, containing nearly one acre, with a suitable
fence. The house is placed in the center of the yard and a cross-fence on a
line with the house divides it into two parts. These two parts are alter-
nately sown thickly with some crop that will afford forage for the fowls. In
September they are placed on one side sown thickly with turnips. The
other is immediately plowed up and sown with rye. The fowls will do very
well for the winter in one side, with an occasional day in the green rye. In
November wheat is sown, after the turnips are eaten off. In April we may
sow oats, in May corn, in June rape or mustard seed and in July begin the
rotation again with rutabagas.

As a rule a house twenty-five feet long, ten feet wide, eight feet high in
the front and five feet in the rear, will be quite large enough for the one
hundred fowls to be kept in each yard. This should be cleaned at least
once a week, the oftener the better. The inside walls are quite smooth, hay-
ing no fixtures except the roosting poles, which are on a level one foot from
the ground. This leaves no harbor for vermin. The nests are loose boxes.
Mr. Stewart also suggests that where a series of yards are kept, the inside
fences may be movable, so that while the fowls are all confined to one side,
the fences may be removed from the other, thus facilitating the plowing and
planting.

“Tt is evident,” he adds, ‘‘ that this system will greatly enrich the soil,
and this may be turned to good account by raising fruit trees in the poultry
yards. No other fruit crop pays so well as plums, but none is so hard to
grow on account of the pestiferous curculio. But when plums are grown in
a poultry yard this insect has no chance. The sharp eyes of the fowls let no
rogue escape, and one can raise plums with success and profit. As 200 of
these trees can be planted on one acre, there is a possibility of $400 per acre
from the fruit as well as $200 from the fowls; for every hen well cared for
should make a clear profit of two dollars in the year. The yards may be
planted with dwarf pear trees, with equal profit or more, because 300 of them
may be placed on one acre. The shade of these trees is invaluable.” It is ~
also recommended that a row or small grove of Norway Spruce, Arbor-vite
or Austrian pine be planted each side of the house to serve as a wind break
for the fowls in winter.

Raising Chickens by Artificial Mothers.— Mr. E. S. Renwick writes
from a large experience upon the above subject, in the American Agricul-
turist. He says:

When a fancier raises forty or fifty chickens a year, as amusement, the
amount of care which he gives them is never taken into account; but if the
number of chickens be increased to several hundreds, some means must be
provided by which so large a number can be taken care of without too much
labor. For supplying warmth and protection to young chickens, various
‘‘ artificial mothers,” or ‘‘ brooders,” have been devised. Those in ‘the mar-
ket are well enough adapted to the raising of a small number of chickens of
nearly the same age, but it becomes a difficult matter when from two hun-
died and fifty to five hundred are to be raised, and of all ages, from those
just hatched to those large enough for broilers. Young chickens must have

plenty of air, exercise and wholesome green food; and means of protection

204 THE FARM.

against injury must be provided. Where young chickens of different ages
are together, the elder tyranmize over the younger, the newly-hatched
chickens being frequently trampled to death, or are driven away from
their food by the stronger. Young chickens are very often lost in the grass
when at Hberty, and are frequently wet and chilled. Hence, to successfully
raise a large number of chickens by hand, various means must be provided
by which those of different ages can be separated, and by which the chickens
can be protected and at the same time have sufficient liberty for exercise
and development in the open air.

A Rustic Poultry House.—The rustic poultry house here illustrated is
not only convenient, but designed to beautify the poultry yard of any ama-
teur or breeder. For the rustic work, join four pieces of sapling in an ob-
long shape for sills; confine them to the ground; erect at the middle of each
of the two ends a forked post, of suitable height, in order to make the sides
quite steep; join these with a ridge pole;* put on any rough or old boards

from the apex down to the
ground; then cover it with
bark, cut in rough pieces,
from half to a foot square,
laid on and confined in the
Same manner as ordinary
shingles; fix the back end
in the same way; and the
front can be latticed with
little poles, with the bark
on, arranged diamond fash-
ion, aS shown in the en-
- graving. The door can be
= made in any style of rustic
form. The roosts, laying
and setting boxes can be
af placed inside of the house,
A RUSTIC POULTRY HOUSE. in almost any position,
either lengthwise or in the
rear. From the directions here giveu one can easily build a house of any
desired size, and in any location in the poultry yard he wishes; but to make
the rusticity of the Louse show off to the best advantage it should be placed
amid shrubbery.

Y

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VAT AN
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= BAe AE -: Fe

The Hatching Period.—Setting hens should have a daily run. Do not
remove them forcibly from their nests, but let the door be open every day at
a given hour for a certain time while the attendant is about. Perhaps for
the first day or two you may have to take them gently off their nests, and
deposit them on the ground outside the door. They will soon, however,
learn the habit and come out when the door is open, eat, drink, have a dust-
bath and return to their nests.

While hens are off their nests some people dampen the eggs with luke-
warm water. Itis claimed that moisture is necessary, and that the chicks
gain strength by the process. This may be correct, and in very dry weather,
perhaps, necessary. It is generally, however, a mistake to meddle too much
with nest or eggs; the hen is only made restless and dissatisfied by so doing.
While the eggs are hatching out it is best not to touch the nests. Itis very

“(HE POULTRY YARD. 208
5 Prcliah to fuss the old bird and make her angry, as she may tread on the

eggs in her fury, and crush the chicks when they are in the most delicate

stage of hatching.

Picking off the shell to help the imprisoned chick is always a more or less

hazardous proceeding, and should never be had recourse to unless the eng
has been what is termed ‘“‘ billed ” for a long time, in which case the chick is
probably a weakly one and may need a little help, which must be given with
the greatest-caution, in order that the tender membranes of the skin shall not
be lacerated. A little help should be given at a time, every two or three
hours; but if any blood is perceived stop at once, as it is a proof that the
chick is not quite ready to be liberated. If, on the contrary, the minute
blood vessels which are spread all over the interior of the shell are blood-
less, then you may be sure the chick is in some way stuck to the shell by its
feathers, or is too weakly to get out of its prison-house.

The old egg shells should be removed from under the hen, but do not
take away her chicks from her one by one as they hatch out, as is very often
advised, for it only makes her very uneasy, and the natural warmth of her
body is far better for them at that early stage than artiticial heat. Should
only a few chicks have been hatched out of the sitting, and the other re-
maining eggs show no signs of life when examined, no sounds of the little
birds inside, then the water test should be tried. Get a basin of warm water,
not really hot, and put those eggs about which you do not feel certain into
it. If they contain chicks they will float on the top, if they move or dance
the chicks are alive, but if they float without movement the inmates will
most likely be dead. If they (the eggs) are rotten they will sink to the bot-
tom. Put the floating ones back under the heh, and if, on carefully break-
ing the others, you find the test is correct ate puncture will be sufficient to
tell you this), bury them at once.

Chickens should never be set free from their shells in a hurry, because it
is necessary for their well-being that they should have taken in all the yelk,
for that serves them as food for twenty-four hours after they see the light,
so no apprehension need be felt if they do not eat during that period, if they
seem quite strong, gain their feet, and their little downy plumage spreads —
out and dries properly. Their best place is under the hen for the time
named.

When all are hatched, cleanse the nest completely, and well dredge the
hen’s body with sulphur powder; give her the chicks, and place chopped
egg and bread-crumbs within reach. The less they are disturbed during
the first two or three days the better. Warmth is esseutial, and a constantly
brooding hen is a better mother than one which fusses the infant chicks
about and keeps calling them to feed. Pen the hen in a coop and let the
chicks have free egress. The best place to stand the coops is under shel-
tered runs, guarded from cold winds, the ground dry, and deep in sand and
mortar siftings. Further warmth is unnecessary if the mothers are good:
and if the roof is of glass, so as to secure every ray of sun, so much the
better. Cleanliness of coops, beds, flooring, water vessels and flood tins
must be absolute. The oftener the chicks are fed the better, but food must
never be left; water must be made safe, or death from drowning and chills
may be expected. The moment weather permits, free range on grass for
several hours daily is desirable, but shelter should always be at hand.

Packing Poultry for Market.—All poultry should be thoroughly
cooled and dried before packing, preparatory for shipment to market. For

a

B06 THE FARM.

packing the fowl] provide boxes, as they are greatly preferable to barrels.

Commence your packing by placing a layer of rye straw, that has been
thoroughly cleaned from dust, on the bottom of the-box. Bend the head of
the first fowl under it, as shown in our illustration (Fig. 1), and then lay it
in the left hand corner, with the head against the end of the box, with the
back up. Continue to fill this row in the same manner until completed;
then begin the second row the same way, letting the head of the bird pass up
between the rump of the two adjoining ones, which will make it complete and
solid (see illustration, Fig.

[jee 2). ‘In packing the last

“ull Dy Wi row, reverse the order,

oe Williaa” placing the head against the

AZ = end of the box, letting the
== feet pass under each other.

: > Lastly, fill tight with straw,

PACKING POULTRY.—FIG. 1. so that the poultry cannot
move. This gives a firmness

in packing that will prevent moving during transportation. Care ghould be -

taken to have the box filled full. ‘

Poultry Raising as a Business-—Mr. P. H. Jacobs, a practical poul-
try man, writes as follows in the American Agriculturist: A flock of ten hens
can be comfortably kept in a yard twenty feet wide by fifty deep. An acre
of ground will contain forty such yards, or four hundred hens. No cocks
are necessary unless the eggs are desired for incubation. To estimate $1.50
as a clear profit for each hen, is not the maximum limit, but the profit
accrues according to the management given. Poultry thrives best when
running at large, but this applies only to small flocks. Hens kept by the
hundred become too crowded
while at large, no matter how
wide the range, and sickness and
loss occur. Large flocks must be
divided, and the size of the
yard required for a flock is of
but little importance compared
with that of the management.
There is much profit to be de-
rived from the sale of young
chicks—-and, where one pays
attention to the business—they
receive the greatest care. Each
brood, like the adult, is kept PACKING POULTRY.—FIG. 2.
separate from the others in a
little coop, which prevents quarreling among the hens, and enables the
_ Inanager to count and know all about the chicks. This is very important, as

there are many farmers who hatch scores of broods and yet cannot tell what
became of two-thirds of them. Hawks, crows, cats, rats, and other depreda-
tors take their choice, and the owners are no wiser. Each setting hen should
be in a coop by herself, and each coop should haye a lath run. The critical
period is the forming of the feathers, which calls for frequent feeding, and
when they have passed that stage, the chicks become hardy. The houses
need not be more than eight feet square for each family, and can be doubled.
If possible, it is best to have changeable yards, but, if used, a less number

Aho ia alee Blo Sar Jo) Te Sowa adie Saat lat Cte le etd
a bs | Work
a Oe en a” So WG oe
; nt a * ;

ee THE POULTRY YARD. 207

can be kept to an acre. If the yards are kept clean by an occasional spading,
however, green stuff may be grown elsewhere and thrown over to them.
This may consist of cabbage, grass, turnip tops, kale, mustard, lettuce, etc.
Watering must not be neglected, or the meals given irregularly. Care must
be observed not to feed too much, as over-fat fowls will lay few eggs, and
such eggs will not hatch. A good poultry manager is always among his
fowls, and observes everything. The breeds have special characteristics
also. The large fowls must be hatched in March, if early pullets are desired

_ for winter laying. This applies to Brahmas, Cochins and Plymouth Rocks.
If the manager finds this impossible, he should at once substitute cocks of
the Leghorn breed, which crossed with large hens, make good marketable
chicks, and produce pullets that mature early. A knowledge of the charac-
teristics of the several breeds is indispensable to success. Crossing pure-
bred cocks with common hens is excellent, but ‘‘ fancy poultry” is not
profitable to any but those who understand thoroughly the mating and
selection of the several breeds.

Poultry on a Large Scale.—People thinking of raising chickens on a
large scale will do well to note the following sound advice by the Poultry
Monthly:

*‘ There are many persons of moderate means who have had perhaps some
little experience with breeding poultry, and who get to wondering if it will
pay to breed poultry on a large scale; whether it will pay to embark in the
breeding of poultry for market purposes as a business, and if it is good policy
to give up a fair paying clerkship or small business to engage in it. Such
questions are very difficult to determine to the satisfaction of all persons
concerned, for much more really depends on the person than on the business
in nearly every department of human industry, and where one person may
make a success of any undertaking another one may fail, though having
started with equally as good chances of success. Poultry, to be successful
on a large scale, must be kept in small colonies of about fifty birds each, for
many more than that number in a single house is apt to cause sickness or
disease, ere long, among them. Small flocks like that can be given better
attention than larger ones, and the first approach of disorder can be seen
readily and promptly checked, while there is less danger of great loss when
thus kept in small flocks, as the trouble can usually be confined to the flock
in which it started by proper and prompt sanitary measures. When the
breeder is not too far away from large retail markets, and especially where
the breeder can market them himself, thus saving commission, freight, and
loss, it pays best to breed and keep poultry for the eggs they produce, as
eggs known to be strictly fresh are always in good demand at quite an in-
crease in price over that received for the ordinary “store” eggs. Such
breeds as the white and the brown Leghorns, and birds bred from them,

_ either pure breed or cross breed or grade, as a basis, are first-class egg pro-
_ ducers, while a game cock is also valuable to breed to good common hens,
producing, as a rule, vigorous, active pullets, which are invariably good
layers. Those who wish to raise poultry principally for the flesh should
raise the light Brahmas, Plymouth Rocks, dark Brahmas, or some of the
Cochin breeds, the first two named, however, being general favorites in this
respect, and also combining with it good laying qualities under favorable
circumstances. Those who cannot or will not give the poultry regular or
constant attention, shelter them properly, supply proper food in liberal

_ quantities and at frequent and regular intervals, and pay a strict attention

De torte . .

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208 THE FARM.

to cleanliness and thoroughness in all the details of the management, need
not expect even to succeed, not to even consider the question of loss or
profits, for success and profit here means work, work, work.”

Feeding Hoppers for Fowls.—We give herewith designs for two styles
of feeding hoppers for fowls,
deeming anything that has a
tendency toward economy
will be beneficial to the
farmer as well as to the
amateur breeder of fowls.
The illustration, Fig. 1,
represents a very good and
easily constructed hopper,
that can be made to contain
any quantity of corn re-
quired, and none wasted.
When once filled it requires
no more trouble, as the
grain falls into the receiver
below as the fowls pick it
¥IG. 1.—FEEDING HOPPER. away, and the covers on that
which -are opened by the
perches, and the cover on the top, protect the grain from rain, so that the
fowls always get it quite dry; and as nothing less than the weight of a fowl
on the perch can lift the cover on the lower receiver, rats and mice are
excluded.
_ Our illustration, Fig. 2, represents ‘‘a perfect feeding hopper,” which,
from the description here
given, can be easily con-
structed by any person. A is
an end view, eight inches wide,
two feet six inches high, and
three feet long; B, the roof pro-
jecting over the perch on which
the fowls stand while feeding;
C, the lid of the receiving
‘manger raised, exhibiting the
grain; E, E, cords attached to
the perch and lid of the manger
or feeding trough; I, end bar
of the perch, with a weight
attached to the end to balance
the lid, otherwise it would not
close when the fowls leave the
perch; H, pully; G, fulcrum.
The hinges on the top show
that it is to be raised when
the hopper is to be replenished. Whena fowl desires food it hops upon
the bars of the perch, the weight of which raises the lid of the feed box,
exposing the grain to view, and after satisfying its hunger jumps off, and
the lid closes. Of course the dimensions of either of these feeding hoppers
may be increased to any size desired, ty)

PHE POULTRY YARD. 909

Winter Egg-Production.—The following is from the Country Genile-
man: To obtain a breed of fowls that are perpetual layers is the object

at many aim at. This is an impossibility, for nature will exhaust itself
and must have a period of rest. In order that we have a perpetual produc-
tion of fresh eggs, the business must be arranged beforehand. There is a
difference in breeds, some laying better than others at any time of the year,
and others, again, giving their eggs in winter. There is little difficulty in
obtaining eggs in summer, but the winter eggs must be worked for, and the
fowls managed beforehand. Hens that have laid well during the summer
cannot be depended on for late fall or early winter, even if well fed, but will
generally commence in January, and keep it up throughout February and
March, giving a good supply of eggs if not too old. But itis better not to
allow such birds to go into the winter. They are generally fat, after having
finished the annual moult, and should be killed for the table. After the
second annual moult hens are apt to become egg-bound, especially if well
fed and fat. The excess of fat that accumulates about the lower intestines
and ovaries weakens these organs and renders them incapable of performing
their offices. Hence the fowl suffers and becomes profitless. When left too
long the bird becomes feverish and the flesh is unfit for food. The better
way is to avoid this trouble, since there is no cure, by not allowing the birds

_to go into the second winter. Trouble of this kind seldom occurs with
pullets or young hens:

To obtain a supply of winter eggs, we must have the chicks out in March
or April. Leghorns and some of the smaller breeds will doin May or the
first of June, but the Brahmas and Cochins must come off early, that they
may have the full season for growth. The Asiastics are generally good
layers in winter, and need less artificial heat, as nature has not furnished
them with any ornamental appendages which suffer by exposure to frost.
For them it is not necessary to spend large sums in warm buildings. What
they can dispense with in this respect they demand in feed, which must be
given regularly. The feed must be kept up and varied with animal and
vegetable diet. The supply of water must never fail. We must feed and
feed a long time before the eggs will come. Any breed of hens will con-
sume an enormous quantity of feed before commencing to lay, but after
having once begun they will not require, or even take so much grain. When
laying, their great craving is for vegetable and animal substances, and
crushed clam or oyster shells.

Fowls that are regularly trained have certain portions of the day for their
different feeds. My birds require their shells at night, as well as their
greens, and their grain in the morning, and always fresh water. When one
has the time and convenience, and enjoys the petting of fowls, making warm
stews on very cold days is an admirable plan, and the birds relish them
marvelously. Take beef or pork scraps, and put into an old kettle, having
them previously chopped fine, and fill it half full of water. While stewing,
throw in a dozen chopped onions, two dozen cayenne peppers, and the day’s
coffee and tea-grounds. Thicken the mixture with cornmeal, and serve it -
around among the hens hot. They relish it amazingly when once taught to
eat it, and will look for the ration daily at the certain time. On cold winter
days give this feed between two and three o’clock in the afternoon, and the
chicks get their crops warmed up for the coming coldat night. Ifscraps are —
not handy, boil unpeeled potatoes, and serve in the same manner, adding &
little grease or cold gravies left over from yesterday’s dinner.

i The combed Nae require warmer aarters and sunnier exposure

510 See THE FARM.

than the Asiatics, and are good winter layers after December and early
January. They will lay in the fall if early hatched, but the change of fall to
winter, and the getting into winter quarters affects them, and they seldom
commence again before the days begin to lengthen, at which time Brahmas
will cease egg-production and become broody. Where one has the con-
venience it is well to keep both kinds, in order to insure a supply of eggs. It
is useless to expect many eggs from old fowls of any variety. Haye the
buildings ready early, and the fowls of the right age and in condition to
insure success. The business of our domestic hen is to produce eggs, and

we must feed her for it.

A Chicken Coop.—
Nail short pieces of
matched boards together
as indicated in the cut;
= then board up the rear

end tightly, and nail nar-
row strips of boards or lath

CHICKEN coop.—FiG. 1. in front; put a floor of
boards in the back part of
the coop, large enough for the hen to brood her young upon, and lay a wide
board in front to feed upon, as long as the width of the coop. The coop
should be at least two feet high, and from two to three feet deep. The board
in front may be turned up at night to prevent the young against rats, cats,
etc., and should remain in the morning until the dew is off from the grass.
The coop should be moved every two or three days toa clean place. The
second engraving shows a coop of another construction, the tight apartment
at the end with a slide door to let down every evening, keeps the little
inmates secure from all enemies. A few auger holes must be made for ven-
tilation. The front is a
simple frame, with lath iM
attached at sufficient dis- i
tances to allow the chickens
to pass through. The top
should be made separate,
and attached to the side by
leather hinges.

Feeding and Laying.
—The best of feed some-
times failsto induce the hens
to lay. This is not because CHICKEN COOP.—FIG. 2.
the fowls do not get enough,
but because it is not the kind they desire. It may be feed consisting of
everything that serves to satisfy the demand for egg material, and yet no
eggs will be the result. There are several causes for these complaints, one
of the principal being the fact that a plentiful supply of pure fresh water is
not always within reach, and unless water is plentiful the fowls will not lay.
Water being the principal substance in an egg, it cannot be limited. Unless
the water can be procured for the egg the fowl cannot lay. And in cold
weather it must be so situated as to be either protected from freezing or else
have a little warm water added to it occasionally. Now this is a trouble-
some job in winter, but water will freeze on cold days, and consequently is

2 SS
LIZZ

~ ae el

fee Re POULTRY YARD. 211

useless to the fowls when ina frozen condition. The feed, however, even
when of the best quality, may not give satisfaction. In that case, when no
eggs are being derived, change it entirely for three or four days. Give
something entirely different in the morning from that previously given, even
if inferior, but still give whole grains at night in cold weather, for then the
fowls go on the roost early in the evening, and have to remain in the coops
until daylight, which is nearly thirteen hours, and so long a period demands
the solid food in order to keep them warm during the long cold nights.
Whole corn and wheat is best for them then, but in the morning any kind of
mixed soft food makes a good meal for a change. The changes can be made
by using good clover hay, steeped in warm water, after being chopped fine,
slightly sprinkled with meal, and fed warm, which will be very acceptable.
A few onions chopped fine will also be highly relished. Parched ground
- oats or parched cracked corn is a splendid change of -food for a few days
from the ordinary routine of every day. It stimulates them if fed warm, and
is a good corrective of bowel complaints, especially if some of the grains
are parched till burned. The matter of feeding is to give variety, and if the ~
food is of good quality also, a good supply of eggs may be expected at all
times, but with good quarters and plenty of water the prospects will be
better.

Successful Poultry Raising.—Mr. Charles Lyman, a successful raiser
of poultry, writes as follows: In raising poultry or stock of any kind, it
should be the aim of every one to keep it healthy and improve it. You can
do it very easily by adopting some systematic rules. These may be summed
up in brief, as follows:

1, Construct your house good and warm, so as to avoid damp floors, and
afford a flood of sunlight. Sunshine is better than medicine.

2. Provide a dusting and scratching place where you can bury wheat and
corn and thus induce the fowls to take the needful exercise.

3. Provide yourself with some good, healthy chickens, none to be over
three or four years old, giving one cock to every twelve hens.

Give plenty of fresh air at all times, especially in summer.

. Give plenty of fresh water daily, ‘and never allow the fowls to go
me

6. Feed them systematically two or three times a day; scatter the food so
they can’t eat too fast, or without proper exercise. Do not feed more than
they will eat up clean, or they will get tired of that kind of feed.

7. Give them a variety of both dry and cooked feed; a mixture of cooked
meat and vegetables is an excellent thing for their morning meal.

8. Give soft feed in the morning, and the whole grain at night, except a
little wheat or cracked corn placed in the scratching places to give them
exercise during the day.

9, Above all things keep the hen house clean and well ventilated.

10. Do not crowd too many in one house. If you do, Jook out for disease.

11. Use carbolic powder occasionally in the dusting bins to destroy lice.

12. Wash your roosts and bottom of laying nests, and whitewash once a
week in summer, and once a month in winter.
~ 183. Let the old and young have as large a apuee ag preeiiies tie larger
the better,

14. Don’t breed too many kinds of fowls at the same time, unldes you
ai going into the business. Three or four will ai you your hands

ane ; ; "

212 . - PHE FARM.

15. Introduce new blood into your stock every year or so, by either buy-
ing a cockerel or settings of eggs from some reliable breeder.

16. In buying birds or eggs, go to some reliable breeder who has ae
reputation at stake. You may have to pay a little more for birds, but you
can depend on what you get. Culls are not cheap at any price. 2

17. Save the best birds for next year’s breeding, and send the others to
market. In shipping fancy poultry to market send it dressed.

Fish for Poultry.—In preparing fish for fowls, we prefer to chop them
up raw, add a very little salt and pepper, and feed in small quantities in
conjunction with grain and vegetables; but for young chicks it is advisable
to boil before feeding, and simply open the fish down the line of the back
bone, leaving to the chicks the rest of the task. This food shall be given to
layers sparingly, or we may perceive a fishy smell about the eggs, especially
if the fish is fed raw. All who can will do well to try this diet for their
flocks, and note its effect on egg production. We have always marked a
decided increase in the rate of laying following an allowance of fish fed in
mcderate quantities.

There are hundreds of our readers who live near or on rivers or lakes, or
the sea shore, where they can get considerable offal fish, such as are either
too small to market, or are cast out as unfit to be sold. Hundreds of bushels
of these fish are annually used for manure, either composted or plowed in
direct. In this connection they are very good, though many a_basketful
could be put to better account by feeding them to your fowls; and they are
very fond of this diet, though care must be taken not to feed it exclusively,
for it may cause extreme laxity.

To Cure Pip.—This is a troublesome and somewhat fatal complaint to
which all domestic poultry are liable; it is also a very common one. Some
writers say it is the result of cold; others, that is promoted by the use of bad
water. But, whatever the cause, the disease is easily detected. There is a
thickening of the membrane of the tongue, particularly at the tip; also a
difficulty in breathing; the beak is frequently held open, the tongue dry, the
feathers of the head ruffled and the bird falls off in food; and if neglected,
dies. The mode of cure which, if put in practice in time, is generally suc-
cessful, is to remove the thickened membrane from the tongue with the
nails of the forefinger and thumb. The process is not difficult, for the mem-
brane is not adhesive. Then take a lump of butter, mix into it some strong
Scotch snuff, and put two or three large pills of this down the fowl’s throat.
Keep it from cold and damp, and it will soon recover. It may, perhaps, be
necessary to repeat the snuff balls. Some writers recommend a mixture of
butter, pepper, garlic, and scraped horseradish; but we believe the Scotgh -
snuff to be the safest, as it is the most simple.

Eggs and Puliets.—Unless you want a large proportion of cockerels do
not sell all the largest eggs you can pick out. There are no means known by
which the sex of eggs can with certainty be determined. Although many
thought some sign indicated the sex, yet after repeated fair trials, all these
indications have entirely failed with me, except the one which follows: With
regard to the eggs of most of the feathered kingdom, if you pick the largest
out of the nest, they are the ones that generally produce males, especially if :
they happen to be the first laid. Even in a canary’s nest it is noticeable that .
the first egg laid is very often the largest, the young from it is the first out,
keeps ahead of its comrades, is the first to quit the nest, and the first to sing.

2
Y
vi

th
x

THE POULTRY YARD. 218

_ How to Produce Layers.—Mr. L. Wright says: In every lot of hens
some will be better layers than others. Let us suppose we start with six
Houdans—a cock and five hens. Probably out of this five two may lay thirty
eggs per annum more than either of the others; their eggs should be noticed
and only these set. By following this for a few years a very great increase
in egg production may be attained. My attention was drawn to this subject
by a friend having a Brahma pullet which laid nearly three hundred eggs in
one twelve-month, though valueless as a fancy bird, and the quality de-
scended to several of her progeny; and I have since found other instances
which prove conclusively that a vast improvement might easily be effected
in nearly all our breeds were that careful selection of brood stocks made for
this purpose which the fancier bestows on other objects. Itis to be regretted
more is not done in this way, and having more room than I had, I hope my-
self to make some experiments in this direction shortly. I will say now that
I am perfectly certain the number of two hundred eggs per annum might be
attained in a few years with perfect ease were the object systematically
sought; and I trust these few remarks may arouse a general attention to it
among those who keep poultry for eggs only, and who can easily do all that
is necessary without any .
knowledge whatever of
fancy points, or any attempt
to breed exhibition birds.

A Grain Chest for
Fowls.—We illustrate an
excellent grain chest for

fowls. The trough (1), two —< ail
inches high ‘The ket ot §=— ss rr
the chest extends down- hee en eran gt Nee eo
ward no further than the
top of the trough, thus

leaving a free passage for
grain from the chest into GRAIN CHEST FOR FOWLS.

the trough. The dotted line (2) shows the position of a board in the chest,
placed there to conduct the grain into the trough as fast as it is eaten out by
the fowls. The platform (3) is for the fowls to stand upon while eating. It
should not be wide enough to induce them to form a habit of sitting upon it.
A board (4) is fastened to the front of the chest and extends over the trough
to prevent filth from falling into it. The cover of the chest (5) should ex-
tend a little over the front, that it may be handily raised, and should rest
inclined to prevent fowls from roosting on it. An extension of the back of
the ehest (6), with two holes in it, is provided so that it may be hung on cor-
responding wooden pins. Ifit is hung up in that way it will be necessary to
put some kind of a key through each of the pins, to prevent its being jarred
off from them. It should be hung so that the platform will be at least two
~ feet from the floor. It may be made any length. A square chest, for a post
in the yard, can be made on the same principle. :

|

How to Fatten Turkeys.—Nothing pays better to be sent to market in
prime condition than the turkey crop. Many farmers do not understand
this. Their turkeys grow on a limited range, getting little orno food at home
through the summer, and if fed at all with regularity it is only for two or
three weeks before killing. I see these lean, bony carcasses .in the local

214 THE FARM. * eg pla

markets every winter, and feel sorry for the owner's loss. They have re-
ceived a small price for their birds and a still poorer price for the food fed
out. The average life of a turkey is only seven months, and the true econ-
omy of feeding is to give the chicks all they can digest from the shell to the
slaughter. If they get all they can eat on the range, that is well. Usually
this should be supplemented by regular rations when they come from the
roost in the morning and two or three hours before they go to roost at night.
The food may be slack in the morning, so that they will go to the range with
good appetites, and fuller at night. They should be put upon a regular
course of fattening food as early as the middle of October, when you propose
to kill the best birds at Thanksgiving. The younger and lighter birds should
be reserved for the Christmas and New Year’s markets. They continue
growing quite rapidly until midwinter, and you will be paid for the longer
feeding. There is nothing better for fattening than old corn, fed partly in
the kernel and partly in cooked meal mashed up with boiled potatoes. Feed
three times a day, giving the*warm meal in the morning, and feeding in
troughs with plenty of room, so that all the flock may have a chance. North-
ern corn has more oilin it than Southern, and is worth more for turkey food. —
Use milk in fattening if you keep a dairy farm. Feed only so much as they
will eat up clean. Cultivate the acquaintance of your turkeys as you feed
them. No more charming sight greets your vision in the whole circle of a
year than a large flock of bronze turkeys coming at call from their roosts on
a frosty November morning. New corn is apt to make the bowels loose, and
this should be guarded against. There is usually green food enough in the
fields to meet their wants in the fall, and cabbage and turnips need not be
added until winter sets in. If the bowels get loose give them scalded milk,
which will generally correct the evil. Well-fattened and well-dressed tur-
keys will bring two or three cents a pound more than smaller birds. It will
not only be better for the purse, but for your manhood, to send nothing pus
finished products to the market.

Preserving Eggs.—Several Practiced Methods.—Several ways of
preserving eggs are practiced. The object is to prevent evaporation from
the egg. Cutting off the air from the contents of the egg preserves them
longer than with any other treatment. An egg which has lain in bran even
for afew days will smell and taste musty. Packed in lime eggs will be
stained. Covered with a coat of spirit varnish eggs have kept so perfectly
that after the lapse of two years chickens were hatched from them. A good
egg will sink in a body cf water; if stale, a body of air inside the shell will
frequently cause it to float. When boiled, a fresh egg will adhere to the
shell, which will have a rough exterior; if stale, the outside will be smooth
and glassy.

Looking through a paper tube directed toward the light, an egg held to
the end of the tube will appear translucent if fresh; but if stale it will be
dark—almost opaque.

Spirit varnish for preserving eggs is made by dissolving gum shellac in
enough alcohol to make a thin varnish. Coat each egg with this and pack,
little end down, so that they cannot move, in bran, sawdust, or sand; the
sand is best. Whatever is used for packing should be clean and dry. For
preserving in lime, a pickle is made of the best stone lime, fine, clean salt
and water enough to make a strong brine, usually sixty or sixty-five gallons
of water, six or eight quarts of salt, and a bushel of lime are used. The
lime should be slacked with a portion of the water, the salt and there- —

THE POULTRY YARD. -. 915

mainder of the water is added. Stir at intervals, and when the pickle is
cold and the sediment has settled, dip or draw the liquid off into the cask in
which the eggs are to be preser ved, When only a few eggs are to be pickled
a stone jar will answer.

At the Birmingham Poultry Show, England, prizes were ieerod for the
best dozen pr eserved eggs that had been kept two months. The eggs were
tested by breaking one of each get competing for the prize into a clean saucer,
also by boiling one of each lot.

The eggs that had been preserved in lime-water, it was found on breaking
them, presented cloudy whites. Eggs preserved by rubbing over with bees-
wax and oil showed thin, watery whites.

Eggs that stood best the test of boiling and which gained the first prize
had been simply packed in common salt. These had lost little, if any, by
evaporation, had good, consistent albumen, and were pleasant to the taste.
The exhibit which took the second prize was served as follows: Melt one
part of white wax to two parts of spermaceti, boil and mix thoroughly; or
_ two parts clarified suet to one of wax and two of spermaceti. Take new-laid
_ eggs, rub with antiseptic salt and fine rice starch. Wrap each egg in fine
tissue paper, putting the broad end downward; screw the paper tightly at
the top, leaving an inch to hold it by. Dip each egg rapidly into the fat
heated to 100 degrees. Withdraw and leave to cool. Pack broad end down-
ward in dry, white sand or sawdust. The judges were inclined to believe
that had the trial been for a longer period than two months, this latter
method would perhaps have proven the better of the two. The eggs were
excellent, and on stripping off the waxed paper the shells presented the clean,
fresh appearance of newly laid eggs.

The following is a recipe for packing in salt: Cover the bottom of a keg,
cask, jar, hogshead, or whatever you choose to pack in, with a layer of fine
salt two inches deep; upon this place the eggs, small end down, and far
enough apart so that they will not touch each other or the sides of the re-
ceptacle; then put on another two inch layer of salt, then another layer of
eggs, and so on until the package is full. This is the method that we used,
and is on the whole the best method for housekeepers and for those who
have only a small number to pack for market. The salt can be used over
and over again.

The following recipe is also given for keeping eggs: Put them in an open-
work basket or colander and immerse them for a moment in boiling water;
let them stay just long enough to form a film on the inside of the shell; this
excludes the air. Then place them in some convenient vessel, small end
down, and set them in the coolest part of the cellar, where they will on
till wanted for use. |

Cheap Poultry Houses.—The following aieeceuae for building cheap
poultry houses are clipped from W. H. Todd’s descriptive catalogue:

We find the best and most successful plan to manage and make fowls pay
is to scatter them over a large range in fields and orchards. For this pur-
pose cheap, convenient, and comfortable houses are best. My plan is to
build 16 feet long and 8 feet wide, 7 1-2 front (facing south), and 4 1-2 back,
boarded upright and battened, with a shed roof, shingled. Sills are 2x4
_ inch-plank halved together. Plates, same size. Rafters, 2x2. Lay the sills
-on sleepers, and on these lay a tight floor, which cover with dry earth 4 to 6

inches deep, removing and renewing twice a year. This keeps fowls dry,
warm and healthy. / Place an entrance door near one end, on the front, and

216 ~ é THE FARM.
at least two windows of six 8x10 lights. Partition across the middle, with a
door. Fix ventilators at the highest point in each end, sheathed to exclude
storm and wind. Erect roosts 20 inches high, for twenty fowls, with a mova-
ble nest or two, and a box, partly filled with dust and ashes, and you are
ready for ‘‘ business.” Forty large fowls can be accommodated and thrive
well. Since the house is double we are in shape for running two breeding
yards. Fence can be built cheaply with lath nailed upright to two 1-inch-thick
pieces, the lower one 8 or 10 inches wide, and the upper about 2, 30 inches
apart; the lath may be 3 inches apart, and a short piece 16 inches long,
tacked to the bottom board, and to a light strip running lengthwise the
panel. It is best to make this fence in panels about 12 feet long. Set a post
where they come together, and pass a wire around panels and post, fasten,
and you have light, cheap, strong fences. The house can be made warmer
if necessary by lining with tar-board sheathing.

An Inexpensive Chicken Coop.—A correspondent writes as follows:
“Having made a good discovery, I am desirous of giving it to the people.
Being engaged in raising chickens for profit, it was necessary to make chéap
coops to keep them in for a few weeks. I take an old barrel and tack every

: hoop on each side of a seam
between the staves with an
inch wrought nail; after
clinching the nail, I saw the
hoops off on the seam. Then
I spread the barrel open, as
shown in the illustration, by
cutting a board about twenty
inches long for the back of
the coop, and two small
pieces to tack laths on for the front part. I have the upper section of the
back fastened with leather hinges, so that I can open it at pleasure. Every-
body has old barrels which are almost valueless, and the trouble and ex-
pense of making a coop of this description is so small that it is not worth
mentioning, while to buy the material and make a coop of the same size, it
would cost about one dollar.”

AN INEXPENSIVE CHICKEN COOP.

Chicken Cholera.—A New Jersey correspondent gives this remedy:
Take of pulverized cupperas, sulphur, alum, cayenne pepper and rosin, of
each equal parts, and mix one teaspoonful in four quarts of meal. Give
three days in succession, then once a week as a preventive. I have seen it
used successfully. It will not cure those which have it, but will prevent
spreading of the disease. For a disinfectant, use crude carbolic acid—one
tablespoonful in one gallon of water. Sprinkle the hen house often, say
about twice a week.

Another correspondent says: I used a strong tea made of white oak bark,
which J used in the drinking water as a preventive. When a fowl was taken
sick I used it pure, giving several teaspoonfuls at a time, four or five times
a day. I have taken fowls so far gone that they were past eating or drinking,
and cured them in a few days with this simple remedy. As a disinfectant I
use crude carbolic acid, pouring it on a board in the chicken house and on
the perches, coops, etc., or anywhere that the fowls frequent. If you will —
try this plan for awhile, removing all infected fowls from the flock, and keep
the surroundings clean, I think you will soon get rid of the disease.

PhHE POULTRY YARD. a9

The following prescription we find in the Southern Cultivator, and it is
said to be very efficacious in chicken cholera: Glycerine and water, each a
half ounce;-carbolic acid, ten drops. When the first symptoms of the dis-
ease are apparent, give five drops, and repeat at intervals of twelve hours.
Usually the second dose effectsa cure. A neighbor informed me that cholera
was very destructive among his poultry, and at my suggestion he tried the
foregoing recipe. He reports that the progress of the disease was promptly
arrested, and in almost every case a cure was accomplished.

Infertile Eggs.—There are many reasons why eggs hatch so poorly,
when from pure bred stock, one of the greatest being want of stamina in the ©
flock from which the eggs came, caused by being kept too closely confined.
As a rule it is best to procure eggs for hatching from fowls which have free
range, which is a great promoter of healthfulness, though there is no reason
why eggs should not hatch well when from fowls in confinement, 7f those
fowls are given good care, plenty of food, and have good sized yards to run
in. Want of fertility may be duc :
to running too many hens to a
_ cock; about ten hens of the Asia-
tics (Brahmas and Cochins), and
from ten to fifteen of the laying
breeds (Leghorns, Hamburgs,
ete.) to a cock being about the
right number to secure good re-
sults, other things being equal.

A Cheap Chicken Foun-
tain.—Take an emptied tomato |
can, bend in the ragged edges
where it has been opened, make
a hole in the side one quarter of
an inch from the edge, fill it

with water, put a saucer on it, A CHEAP CHICKEN TOUNT AIN
and quickly invert both. The

- water will then stand in the saucer constantly at the height of the hole.
Chickens can drink, but cannot get in the water, which remains clean.

_ Chicken Lice.—The first signs of lice are with the early setting hens.
From their nests soon a whole house will be overrun with the pest. Chicks
show the presence of lice very quickly, and lice are certain death to them
if they are not protected. Have all nests movable, and change the contents
frequently. With sitting hen’s nests be sure to have the nest clean and the
box and surroundings whitewashed before she is placed. Whitewash and the
dust box are the surest preventives of lice. Put two or three coats of white-
wash on every interior spot in the building; the lice harbor in the crevices
of the rough sidings, and on the under side of the perches. Let the fowl
house have a dust box. Mix hot ashes with the dust occasionally to dry it.
Do all this early in the year, before spring laying and sitting. Kerosene and
lard when applied is a sure cure, but they are too often dangerous in their
effects. A little castor oil on the head and under the wings of sitting hens
is very effective. Don’t keep a brood hen ina little coop without a dust
wallow. If you want your fowls to be free from lice you must keep their
habitation clean. The best way to do that is by occasional change of the
nest contents and a thorough whitewashing of the apartment.

918 THE FARM. S :

Raising Turkeys.—The difficulty of raising turkeys is a serious draw-
back to the profits of the business, but the exercise of care will obviate the
difficulty. At first, and for about six weeks, turkey chicks are very delicate,
go much so that even a warm shower will finish them. If they can be kept
alive for about two months they begin to assume a more robust character,
and will soon become the very hardiest of poultry. The chicks, therefore,
should be provided with shelter, and the shed which furnishes ‘this would
be all the better if it had a wooden floor. The best feed for the first week is
hard boiled eggs, mixed with minced dandelion. It is thought the dande-
lion serves to keep the bowels in order. At all events thé young birds pre-
fer dandelion to all other green food. At the end of the first week add gradu-
ally to the boiled eggs bread crumbs and barley meal, constantly lessening
the amount of egg until at the end of three weeks it may be entirely diacon-
tinued. Now give boiled potatoes as a part of the food, and a small portion
of some small grain may be added, in fact making the food very much like
that of other poultry. If fed in this way and kept dry, they will come along
all right.

How to Raise Ducks.—A writer who thinks unlimited water a bad thing
for young ducks, recommends the following treatment for them: ‘‘ Ducks
are easily hatched, and, if properly managed, they are easily raised—much
more so than chickens or turkeys. Probably the worst thing for ducklings
is the first thing they usually receive, and that is unlimited range and water
toswim in. The little things are, ina measure, nude, and should be kept in
pens with dry soil floors or stone pavements that can be washed down daily.
No kind ot poultry will succeed on bare boards. All the water they need is
best furnished by burying an old potin the ground and laying a round piece
of board on top cf the water with room for the ducks to stick their heads in
and fish out the corn that is put in the water. This amuses them and does
no harm, while, if allowed to go off to ponds or streams, they are very liable
to fall a prey to vermin in some shape, or to get their bodies wet and chilled
from remaining too long in the water. Their pens must be kept clean if they
are expected to thrive.

Gapes in Fowls.—The parasite that causes gapes in fowls is of a red
color and about three-quarters of an inch long. The remedies are numer-
ous, but chiefly consist in removing the worms. One way is to moisten a
feather from which all but the tip of the web has been stripped, with oil,
salt water, or a weak solution of carbolic acid, introduce it into the wind-
pipe, twist it around once or twice, and then withdraw it. A teaspoonful of
sulphur mixed with a quart of corn meal and water, and fed to the fowls
morning and evening, is also a good remedy.

The Poultry World says: As soon as we discover any symptonis of gapes
among our chickens, we know that there are worms--yery small red worms
—in their windpipes, and we give them camphor in their. drinking vessels
strong enough to make quite a taste of the camphor. Then, if any get the
disease quite badly before we discover it, we force a pill of gum camphor
down the throat, about the size of a small pea, and the fumes of that dose
will kill the worms. No kind of worms ¢an hye! in camphor; hence, camphor
must be a powerful vermifuge.

A Connecticut poultry raiser writes: *‘ Perhaps some who raise foule will
be interested in my experiment tried last season on a chicken with the gapes.
I gave it about a quarter of a teaspoonful of kerosene, and as it seemed bet-

RM ae eae Se re eee), REE vt
he DM or A ah eee eae me OWT 4,
“4 ott hia 2

PHE POULTRY YARD. 219

ter for a day or two, I repeated the dose, giving nearly one half a teaspoon-
ful for the second time. The chicken was about the size of a robin at the

_ time, but is now full-grown, weighing several pounds. ‘I cured chickens
affected with a disease we thought cholera, by giving powdered alum dis-
solved in water.”

Eggs.—How Increased.—IJf an increase of eggs be desired in the poul-
try yard, before large sums are expended in the purchase of everlasting lay-
ers, we would recommend the system of keeping no hens after the first, or at
most, after the second year. Early pullets give the increase, and the only
wonder is that people persist, as they do, in keeping up a stock of old hens,
which lay one day and stop the next. In some parts of Europe it is the in-
variable rule to keep the pullets only one year. Feeding will do a great
deal—a surprising work indeed—-in the production of eggs, but not when old
hens are concerned; they may put on fat, but they cannot put down eggs.
Their tale is told, their work is done; nothing remains to be done with them
but to give them a smell of the kitchen fire, and the sooner they get that the
better.

Late Chickens.—Late chicks may be more profitable than early ones.
Chickens from eggs set in August and September may be kept warm in a
tight, glazed house, and fed so that they will grow continually through the
winter, and if they come later all the better, if they are well kept and fed.
The early broods will be salable at good prices, when the market is bare of
chickens, and the later ones will furnish spring chickens long before the
usual supply comes to hand. Spring chickens hatched in fall, or even in
winter, are rare, but not entirely unknown to a few persons: who made the
discovery that with good feed, warm quarters, a warm mess at least once a
day, warm drink and cleanliness, there is no difficulty at all about.raising
them, and at a good profit.

Cure for Scaly Legs in Fowl.—A sure cure of scaly legs in fowl is ~
effected thus: Insert a feather in the spout of a coal oil can so that too large
a stream will not run out; get some one to hold the fowl by the wings; take
hold of a toe of one foot at a time, and pour a fine stream from the hock
joint to the end of each toe, taking care that all parts of the foot are wet with
it. One application a year is enough, if done at all, and at the time when
they need it, say during January or February. The scaly appearance is
caused by an insect, which the oil most effectually kills, and leaves the legs
clear and bright looking. This will answer even when the legs are twice
their natural size, which is frequently the case when neglected.

Roup.—Fowls exposed to dampness in severe weather are apt to take
cold, which often culminates in roup, The writer has cured this disease by
injecting kerosene into the nostrils by the means of a bulb syringe, and then
using it to gargle the throat. The latter is effected by holding the throat
close enough to prevent swallowing, and, after the gargling, pouring the
liquid out on tothe ground. Repeat this once the next day; then feed with
boiled rice and scalded milk, keeping water away for a few days.

To Get Rid of Skanks.—To rid your poultry yard of skunks, purchase
a few grains of strychnine, roll it up in a ball of lard, and then throw it at
night outside the yard, where the animals’ tracks are seen. As they are
very fond of lard, they will swallow it quickly, and in the morning you will

220 THE FARM

find your enemy dead. But you must be careful to shut up the dogs and -
cats, aS they are equally fond of lard. It is the easiest way to kill any ver-
min, as they die very soon. Skunks will kill and eat full-grown ducks and
hens, and suck their eggs, whenever they can gain entrance into the poultry-
house.

Road-dust for the Hennery.—Collect a few barrels of dry earth, road-
dust, fine dry dirt in the cornfield or potato patch, or anywhere that is most
convenient. This is a handy thing to have in the fall and winter for sprink-
ling under the roosts and on the floor of the poultry-house. It absorbs am-
monia, keeps down smells, and keeps things ship-shape. It will pay to at-
tend to this when it can be so easily done. It costs but little, and is a real
advantage.

The Langshans.—There is a pevominent feature of the Langshans not
possessed by the Black Cochins, which is activity. They come in as an ex-
tra desirable breed, between the leghorns and the sitters, for they commence
to lay early, and when about to enter upon incubation are easily broken.
They are large in size, fine-boned, hardy, and grow rapidly. They are the
strongest rivals for public favor that the Plymouth Rocks have, and are just
as certain to go to the front as if they had been known for centuries. Their
qualities as a farmer’s fowl are good, and they will entirely supersede many
other breeds in time,

Poultry Manure.—Collect the droppings as often as possible, and com-
post them with dry dirt. If dry dirt is inconvenient on account of the earth
being frozen, use good ground land plaster instead. The mixture of ground
plaster and poultry droppings is better than either alone, and the ammonia
is thereby saved. A good dusting of plaster over and under the roosts, and
plentifully scattered all over the floor of the poultry house, conduces to the
health of fowls and destroys foul odors.

How Nests Should be Made.—Eggs hatch much better if the nests are
made by placing a cut turf, and shovel of mold, sand or ashes in the box or
basket, and on this a little short straw, than if straw only is used. In this
way a convenient hollow is obtained that prevents the eggs rolling out from
under the setting hen. In cool weather the eggs are thus kept of a much
more equable temperature than in nests made simply of loose straw.

To Fatten Geese.—To fatten geese, an experienced practitioner says:
Put up two or three in a darkened room and give each bird one pound of
oats daily, thrown on a pan of water. In fourteen days they will be found
almost too fat. Never shut up a single bird, as geese are sociable and will
pine away if left alone. .

Nests of Sawdust.—To prevent hens from scratching their nests make
the nests of sawdust. Do not have the boxes too large—only long enough
for two nests, with a partition. Place a little hay on the sawdust until the
hens get accustcmed to it; also sulphur, to prevent vermin.

Hens Eating Eggs.—If hens get into the habit of eating eggs, take
enough bran and corn meal of equal parts for one feeding, and enough vine-
gar warmed to make the meal wet enough for the hens to eat. Mix together
and feed it to the hens.

THE DAIRY.

Apparatus for Milking.—Absolute cleanliness in milk is as much to ~
be desired as in any other article of food. We fear that farmers and dairy-

men, as a rule, do not give as
much attention to this mat-
ter as it really requires. We
present herewith an illus-
trated article on this subject
from the pen of a practical
dairyman, which we consider
worthy of attention, and
trust that many will profit by
its suggestion:

“* Every reasonable person
desires to have his or her
food perfectly clean. Milk and
' dairy products are not always
clean, to put it very mildly,
and the filth that finds its way
into milk is of a very dis-
agreeable, if not unwhole-
some, kind. As a large por-
tion of the milk of a family
cow—and much of that sold
—is used by children, owners
of cows should be excessively

DAIRY PAIL.—FIG. 1.

careful to have the milk perfectly clean and pure. This is easy to be done

if it is desired. It requires

MILKING PAIL.—FIG, 2.

only the determination to do it, and a very
little attention. The cow is not a cleanly
animal, by any means, and some cows seem
to delight inmaking themselves filthy. One of
my best cows will take pains to lie down di-
rectly in her droppings, so that the udder is
always besmeared, and other cows are very
careless about it, at the best, so thatit is neces-
sary that a part of every milking apparatus
should consist of a pail of water, a sponge
andtowel. Before thé cow is milked the udder
should be washed and wiped dry. For this
purpose I have used a pail arranged as shown

‘in the engraving (Fig. 1), which is taken

to the barn at every milking. Previously: the
stable-man has brushed and carded the cows,
arid has cleaned and sanded or littered the

floor, so that there is no coarse filth to remove, and only the remaining

smears. But if these are left

on the teats, the filth will get into the pail in

oo, 2 Ser

292 THE FARM. a SSS eee

spite of all efforts. The pail has a hook on one side upon which the sponge
is carried, and a box on the other, in which an old towel or pieces of
cloth are kept. With these the udder and teats are washed and dried before
the cow is milked. The time used—not lost—is well spent.

‘‘ The milking pail should be provided with a strainer, and I have found
none made tor sale free from some objection,
either as regards the difficulty of cleaning or dura-
@ bility. I have my pails made to order with the.
strainer upon the half cover of the pail at the edge,
and with a lip at the edge to cause the milk to flow
easily. (See Fig. 2.) There is no difficulty in”
washing this pail, the wire gauze cannot be broken
in the washing, and it is perfectly cleaned with
ease. Hairs cannol be kept out of milk at some
seasons, and a fine hair carried lengthwise will
pass through the finest wire cloth. Itis therefore
necessary to use precautions in straining. A hair
will not pass through a cotton cloth, and in strain-
ing milk into a deep pail I use the strainer shown at
Fig. 3, which has a piece of washed, somewhat

STRAINER.—FIG. 3. coarse and thin, white muslin, fastened around

the bottom hoop. This causes the milk to pass

through three strainers at one time, which is sufficient. Where the milk of
several cows is strained, the strainer should be rinsed after each use, other-
wise the after milk passes over all the impurities gathered in the strainer.
For shallow pans the double strainer, Fig. 4, is excellent. The middle
strainer fits closely into the bottom of the basin over the fixed strainer, and
the basin rests in the perforated hoop ae
which stands in the milk pan. A cloth VR
may be tied over the top of the basin if
thought proper. With all these precau-
tions the most complete cleanliness is
within easy reach, and if the cow is
healthy and well fed, the most fastidi-
ous person may drink the milk without
any apprehension. While it is so easy
to be clean the conscientious dairyman
need have no excuse for violating pro-
priety, and excuse himself by the idea
that it can’t be helped.

““Every dairy utensil should be of
tin. No wooden vessel should be used
in milking, as the wood absorbs the
milk, which sours in the pores and there
curdles, and every particle of curdled
milk, whether effected by rennet or by ae
acidity, like the leaven of yeast, is an DOUBLE STRAINER.—FIG. 4,
active agent for souring other milk. As
curd of milk is hardened by heat and made insoluble, dairy utensils should
first be washed with cold water and soap, and when thoroughly well cleaned
they-may then be scalded. Ourd is dissolved by alkali, and the free alkali
of the soap not only removes the grease of the milk, but also any particles of
milk which by an accident may have been retained in a crevice or corner,,

THE DAIRY, — 993

and there soured or curdled. To make the cleaning of dairy vessels more
easy, it is well to have no sharp corners, but to have all the joints made
round, and this may be done easily if one has the milk pails made to order.”

Milk Cooler.—There are quite a number of devices for this purpose, and
some of them are too com-
plicated, which must al-
ways be a serious objection.
Our engraving represents
an English milk cooler,
which is heartily commend-
ed. In this apparatus a
very small quantity of cold
water, passing upward in a
very thin stream between
two corrugated sheets of
metal, rapidly abstracts the
heat from two shallow
streams of milk descending
outside the metal sheets
(Fig.1). Dis the inlet and §
F the outlet of the water,
which, being supplied from
a higher level, flows
through the refrigerator
(B) by the force of gravity.
A tap of the milk receiver
(A) regulates the flow of
milk into a small trough at
the top of the refrigerator,
punctured with holes,
through which the milk
runs, and is spread into so MILE COOLER.—FIG. 1.
fine a sheet that, instead of -~
falling rapidly from step to step, it follows the corrugations of the surface.
_ In the enlarged section (Fig. 2) of a part of the refrigerator the descending
arrows indicate the current of milk gradually cooling as it descends. The
current of water passing upward is warmed, so that when it passes out
of the spout at F it is very nearly of the same temperature as the milk
5s -———_—___—, in the receiver. This device appears to
| be quite simple.

How to Make Good Butter.—Be
sure the pasture is of the best, and that it
contains a variety of the sweetest grasses.
Do not change from winter feed to spring

~ MILK COOLER.—FIG, 2. pasture too suddenly, and, particularly,
a : ¥ do not turn out your cows too early to

shift for themselves. Let the milking be done by quiet persons, whether
male or female, at regular times morning or evening, knowing always that
the milking is conducted as cleanly as itis quietly. ~

Know that the utensils for holding the milk are of the best descriptio

and always scrupulously clean. : ; rah

j94 THRE FARM.

See that the milk is perfectly cooled to free it of animal odor. A ther-
mometer is an absolute necessity in all well regulated dairies.

Be sure the room for setting milk is cool, and so it may be darkened at.
will. Thorough ventilation is one of the golden rules in dairying. The
temperature of the dairy room should never be more than sixty degrees, nor
less than forty degrees.

Skim the milk as soon as the first indications of getting thick from lopper
are shown. Turn the cream
slowly into the jar, and stir
thoroughly when more
cream is added. Keep the
receptacle for the cream
cool, from fifty to sixty de-
grees, and cover with some
fabric that will keep out
minute insects, and at the
game time allow access
ae of air. .

POWER FOR CHURNING.—FIG. 1. Churn when the cream

is ripe, that is, when the

cream is sour, every day in spring, and every day in summer. Do not allow

the cream in the churn to rise much above sixty degrees. Do not churn too

fast. There is nothing gained by seeking to bring the butter in a few
minutes. From twenty to thirty minutes is about right.

Good grass will make nice colored butter. At such seasons, when the
color of butter is pale, use coloring carefully. It is better that butter be
rather light than a dark yellow.

When the butter comes in granules, stop churning. Wash with cold water
or cold brine; work only enough
to bring it to a firm uniform
mass. Do not salt heavily; from
three-quarters to one ounce of
salt to a pound of butter is
enough. Pack in tight, clean,
sweet packages; fill to within a
half inch of the top, cover with
a clean cloth, and add brine to
fill until sold. Keep it in the
coolest place you have, and _
there is no reason why you
should not get the top prices
for your butter.

Power for Churning.—
We present four illustrations, POWER FOR CHURNING.—FIG. 2.
with brief descriptions, showing
practical methods for labor saving in the usually Geass and monotonous
business of churning, from which may be gleamed some valuable hints.

Fig. 1, although not a power churn, is, nevertheless, a labor-saving
arrangement. It is simply a hickory sapling about twelve or fourteen feet
long, fastened firmly at the butt end, while at the other end is fixed a seat in
which a child can sit and perform the work with more ease than a grown
person in the ordinary way. The dash of the churn may be fastened at any

THE DAIRY. ~~ 295

| point to accommodate the spring of the pole. Fig. 2 is a vertical wheel with

a rim about two feet in width, on the inside of which the animal treads. It

’ is necessary to have this wheel

as much as eight or ten feet in
diameter. The engraving
gives ample insight into its
mechanical construction.

Fig. 3 is a water-power
churn, showing the water
wheel fitting easily into the
box or flume, at the outlet of
the dam, or it may be simply
placed in a swift-running
brook, as it does not require
much power or speed. The
wheel should be about three
feet in diameter. The power
can be transmitted any dis-
tance by means of two wires
fastened upon poles with
swing trees that receive a
backward and forward motion
from the crank of the water-

- wheel.

Fig. 4 represents a cheap
churn power, which is both
simple and practical. A is a
log, squared and set in the
ground far enough to be solid.

Sa ame
— ee

BOWER FOR OHURNING.—FIG. 3.

B is the sweep—a four-inch scantling sixteen feet long, with a two-inch hole
in one end and an axle on the other, and holes in the center for the standard,
according to the length of the dash. C is the drive-wheel, eighteen inches

in diameter, three inches
thick. D, the churn, which
stands still on a small one-
legged table, with the leg
running through the sweep
(B) and into the stationary ©
block. This arrangement
gives the dasher (E) two
motions, and causes the but-
ter to “come” in shorter
time. F, beam guide; G,
beam; H, standard; I, hitch-
ing stick; J, whiffletree; K,
| pitman. It is very easy to
operate.

POWER FOR CHURNING.—FIG. 4. Hard Churning and

Blue Cream.—lIi is a very

common thing for a person with one cow to complain that her cream will not
churn, or that it churns with great difficulty. The reason is the cream is
kept so long to get a churning that it becomes too sour. Putting in either

226 : THE FARM.
bicarbonate of soda or sal soda will reduce the acid and help the butter to
come, but the butter thus made is always inferior. The remedy is to churn
oftener, say évery other day, or if the weather is a little cool, twice a week, -
and to put in milk to make sufficient bulk for churning. The skimming, too,
should be done early—as soon as the cream is all up, or pretty near all up.
It is better to take in the top of the milk in which the last rising of the
cream lingers, than wait for the milk to get stale before removing the cream.
The practice which many people follow of letting the whey start on the milk
before skimming or on the cream before churning, is to a high degree detri-
mental both to the churning and to the quantity and quality of butter. If
easy churning is desired, the cream must be churned while it has a fresh
and new taste—not later than the first stage of sourness.

The “ blue or moldy-looking cream ” is not peculiar to any breed, and it
occurs in the milk of all cows if they and their milk are improperly cared
for. The cream of any milk may take on a dark or moldy appearance if too
long expcsed to light and to a damp atmosphere. It is more easily induced
in the milk of cows which, from any cause, have had their blood heated, or
by exposure to hot sun, by too fast or too much driving or from feverishness
by excessive feeding, etc. Milk inclined to have flecks in its cream is very
easily made to assume a moldy condition, for the dark coloris derived from
an actual fungus which develops in the milk and cream. An unusually
ready development of it is evidence that the cow is in some way sick—from
over feeding or other causes. There is always in milk a variable quantity of
albuminous matter which turns dark-colored upon exposure to air and light,
but it is heavier than cream and heavier also than the serum of milk, and is
inelined to settle to the bottom. This has probably no connection with dark- —
colored cream; it is more likely the result of unfavorable health and damp-
ness of cellar.

To Keep Butter.—-It is said that a compound of one part sugar,
one part nitre, and two parts of the best Spanish salt, beaten together
into a fine powder and mixed thoroughly with the butter in the pro-
portion of one ounce to the pound, would keep the butter in every respect
sweet and sound during two years. It is also said to impart a rich
marrowy flavor that no other butter ever acquires, and tastes very little
of the salt.

Cream and Cold.—It has been discovered by a French scientist that the
rising of cream is quicker, and its volume greater, the nearer the
temperature is to that of freezing water; further, that the yield ot butter
is greater, and the skim milk, butter and cheese are all of the better
quality under like conditions. These facts should be worth the attention of
dairy keepers.

Waterproof Butter Wrappers.—At the Pennsylvania State Fair in
1882 waterproof butter wrappers attracted considerable attention from
dairymen. Advocates of the waterproof paper claim for it that, being air-
tight, it preserves the freshness and flavor of the butter, and is about one-
sixth as expensive as cloth. ~

To Restore Rancid Butter.—Rancid butter can be restored by first
washing it thoroughly in cold water, then to every one hundred pounds add
two pounds pulverized sugar, two ounces powdered saltpetre, and salt to
suit, :

PHE DATRY. > 997

An Improved Butter-Worker.—This butter-worker consists of a table

a _ of maple (Fig. 1), or other hard sweet timber, in the form shown in the en-

_ graving, with three feet sides and six feet on curve, without side pieces. At
_ each edge is a deep groove to conduct the brine. At the front end is a rim,
projecting one-half inch above the plank. At the lower end is a deeper cross-
groove, with outlet at one side of the pr ojecting bed-piece, In this bed-piece
is loosely set a post with a
round tenon fastened by a
pin beneath. In this post is
set the lever, so loosely as
to admit of lifting the han-
dle of the lever a foot or
more. This lever is held in
the mortise by a pin, and
sets one-eighth of an inch
above the table at the post;
is of maple, four inches
wide and three inches thick;
lower side square cornered
plain, upper side rounded
or cornered. The handle is =
wrought at the upper side, IMPROVED BUTTER-WORKER.—FIG@. 1.
leaving a shoulder below, which sets just within the rim of the table.

Fig. 2 shows the frame-work of the table, into which the legs are formed.
The entire cost of this butter-worker will not exceed $3. The operation,
which differs from that of other workers in use, consists of pressing the but-
ter with a direct vertical pressure—no grinding strokes allowable. Then
strike the left side of the butter with a right upward motion of the lever a
few strokes, and it lies in a roll parallel to the lever. Now turn the roll at
right angles to the lever, and continue the three operations of pressing,

rolling, and turning, until it is
sufficiently worked.

French Butter Making.
—In the French system the
butter is made from very sour
cream, 18 washed in the churn,
not salted, but sold for present
use in Paris and England, and
the keeping quality is not

% =\ much studied. Notwithstand-
ing the extreme sourness of the
cream when churned, the but-

IMPROVED BUTTER-WORKER.—Fia. 2. ter has almost the same ap-
pearance as that made from

sweet cream—this is the result of the washing. The finest French butter is
shipped at once to the consumers, and generally consumed before the end of
three days; so its keeping qualities are not material. No salt is used for the
home market. Itis put upin large balls of 28 lbs. to 40 lbs., each ball being
covered by a piece of fine flannel and placed in a willow basket. Second and
third-class butter is made up in one pound rolls and packed in grape leaves.
For the English market, butter is put up in one poufid rolls and covered
with jaconet and lace paper, and packed insmall boxes 14x9x6 inches, twelve

928 - THE FARM.

rolls in each box. M. Lepelletier is the largest exporter of this kind of but«
ter, and is said to ship 1,200 boxes per week, his trade amounting to 12,000,-
000 francs per year. Itis sent in refrigerating cars. In Paris all butter is
sold by auction at ten markets. Women are mostly the buyers. Three or
four hundred lots are sold every hour. Sworn officials weigh and register
the butter, and make up the accounts of sale. The different kinds of butter
are named from the places where they are made, and classified according to
quality. The best butter is sold at 50 and 75 cents per pound.

Preparing Butter for Market.— After the milk has been kept in the
spring or cooling house about forty-eight hours, it is then taken out and
skimmed, and after the butter is made it is put up in half-pound prints for
market. Itis shipped in boxes, having an ice chamber in the center. The
boxes are 31 by 161-2 inches and 15 inches deep. The ice chest is of tin,
placed in the center of the box, and is 16 1-2 by 5 inches, 15 inches deep. At
the bottom there is a hole, which extends also through the box, for the es-
cape of water from the ice as it melts. Movable shelves with cleats on the
edges, are fitted in each side of the ice chest, one above the other, for hold-
ing the prints. The box holds 10 shelves, 5 on each side of the ice chamber,
and the shelves, when in
place, leave a space between
each of 2 1-2 inches. We
give a rough draft of the
movable shelf in our illus-
tration. Each shelf holds
20 prints, or 10 pounds of
butter. In packing the but-
ter a plain board is used to
receive the prints at the
bottom of the box; then the
shelf, as illustrated, is
placed on top, and thus con-
tinued until the whole number of prints are in. A movable shelf just com-
ing to the top of the box is placed over the top prints, so that when the lid
of the box is brought down it presses tightly on it and thus keeps the shelves
from shaking and prevents any injury to the prints.

MOVABLE SHELF FOR HOLDING BUTTER PRINTS.

Keeping Butter for Winter Use.—Good butter put up after the follow-
ing directions will keep in sound condition one year: Use for a package a tub
somewhat tapering, with heavy staves and heads provided at both ends, so
as to make a package that will not leak. In packing the tub is turned on
the small end, and a sack of cotton cloth is made to fit the tub, and into this
the butter is packed until it reaches to within an inch of the groove for hold-
ing the upper head. A cloth is next laid upon the top of the butter and the
edges of the sack brought over this and neatly pressed down; then the head
is put in its place and the hoops driven home. The package is now turned
upon the large end and the sack of butter drops down, leaving a space on
the sides and top. Strong brine is then poured into a hole in the small end
and until it will float the butter. The hole is tightly corked and the butter
is pretty effectually excluded from the air. Where only a small quantity of ©
butter is to be preserved, pack it in self-sealing fruit jars. By this plana
little brine is put inte the jar, which is then packed not quite full of granu-
lated butter. Some bleached muslin is laid over the butter, then the little

Pith DAIRY. . 99%

Plsks pe filled with salt, and finally enough strong brine, made from
butter salt, poured in to fill the can. When packing roll butter in jars the
_ brine should be made strong enough to bear an egg. To three gallons of
this brine add a quarter of a “pound of white sugar and one tablespoonful of
saltpetre. Boil the brine, and when it is cool strain carefully. Make the
butter into rolls and wrap each roll separately in white muslin cloth. Pack
the jar full, weight the butter down, and submerge in brine.

Suggestions in Milk-Setting.—Professor L. B. Arnold says:

First—To make the finest flavored and longest-keeping butter the cream
must undergo a ripening process by exposure to the oxygen of the air while

itis sweet. This is best done while itis rising. The ripening is very tardy
when the temperature is low.

Second—After cream becomes sour, the more ripening the more it depre-
ciates. The sooner itis then skimmed and churned the better, but it should
not be churned while too new. The best time for skimming and churning is
just before acidity becomes apparent.

Third—Cream makes better butter to rise in cold air than to rise in cold
water, but it will rise sooner in cold water, and the milk will keep sweet
longer.

Fourth—The deeper milk is set the less airing the cream gets while rising.

Fifth—The depth of setting should vary with the,temperature; the lower
itis the deeper milk may be set; the higher, the shallower it should be.
Milk should never beset shallow in a low temperature nor deep in a high
one. Setting deep in cold water economizes time, labor and space.

Sixth—While milk is standing for cream to rise the purity of the cream,
and consequently the fine flavor and keeping of the butter, will be injured if
the surface of the cream is exposed freely to air much warmer than the cream.

Seventh—When cream is colder than the surrounding air, it takes up
moisture andimpurities from theair. When the airis colder than the cream,
it takes up moisture and whatever escapes from the cream. In the former
case the cream purifies the surrounding air; in the latter, the air helps to
purify the cream. The selection of a creamer should hinge on what is most
desired—highest quality, or greatest convenience and economy in time, space
and labor.

First Principles in Butter Making.—Butter is finished in the dairy,
but not made there. The stamp of the dairywoman puts the gold in market
form; but the work must be commenced in the field or in the feeding stables;
and this leads at once to the consideration of feeding for butter. During the
early, sunny summer month, when nature is profuse of favors, there is little
to be done beyond accepting her bounty. The tender grasses are full of the
needed nutrition, and they afford the constant supply of moisture without
which the secretion of milk is greatly lessened. Yet, at this season, as well
as all others, a pure supply of water is absolutely necessary. It does not
meet the requirement if cattle have a wet hole full of surface drainage in the
pasture, or a frog pond. While it is not probable that the tadpoles and wrig-

-glers sometimes found in city milk have been drunk by thirsty cows, many
infusions do exist in such pools that are hardly eliminated or rendered en-
tirely harmless by the wonderful milk secretions of the animal. The cattle
should drink from spring-fed boxes; and as often as these, under the hot
sun, are seen to produce green growth or floating scum a pail of coarse salt
may be put in, and the curreut checked until the fresh-water growths are

930 | THE FARM.

- killed; the salt water is then drawn off, and for a long time the trough will
remain pure and the water bright.

Bitter Milk.—Bitter milk is a matter of frequent occurrence every fall
and winter, or soon after the cows are off from grazing. It is caused, first,
by bitter herbs in the hay—such as May weed, rag weed, John’s wort, ete.—
and also by the use of too much over-ripe food, such as straw, corn stoyer,
or late-cut hay. It never occurs when cows are fd on good food, and are
thriving, or even holding their own, and are kept comfortably warm. It can
be avoided, first, by correcting the error in feeding and exposure; and, sec-
ondly, by scalding the milk when it is first drawn, by setting it in pans over
a kettle of boiling water till the skin which forms on its top is well wrinkled,
and then setting it away to cool for the cream to rise. This treatment will
drive out the cause of the bitter flavor, and improve the butter and make it
easy to churn.

Borax for Salting Butter.—The Italian minister of agriculture ad-
dressed a communication to the chamber of commerce of Milan relative to
experiments in salting butter with borax which have been carried out at the
agricultural station at Florence. From the account which appears in the
Giornale di Agricoltura, borax would appear to have a most marvelous effect
in insuring its absolute preservation. Samples of fresh butter made at the
' Florence station, and purposely not carefully freed of their buttermilk, were
found, on the addition of about eight per cent. of borax, to maintain their
natural fine flavor, without the least change whatever, for upward of three
months. To attain this satisfactory result, it is necessary that the borax
should be perfectly dry, and in a very fine powder, and care must be taken
to its thorough mixture with the whole mass of the butter operated on.
Among the further advantages of this plan, it is noted that borax imparts no
flavor of any kind to the butter, while it is entirely harmless in its nature,
and also reasonably cheap. Still later experiments have shown that a very
much smaller proportion of borax suffices to produce the desired effect, and
also that simple solutions of the salt act quite as well as the dried powder.

Don’t Flavor Your Butter too Much._Jt js too true that unless we
adopt the improvements of the day and look carefully after our interests, we
shall be left in the background as to quality and profit. But why is it that
western creamery butter brings a better price? We are told itis because of -
its uniformity of quality. The butter is made from day to day, from week —
to week under the same conditions, and always free from anything that would
impart unpleasant flavors. Milk set in a farmer’s kitchen or in any place
where it will absorb unpleasant odors from cooking vegetables, from to-
bacco smoke or from clothing fully charged with the odor of the stables,
cannot make butter free from unpleasant flavor. We complain of low prices
received when we ourselves are to blame. The flavor of the butter is af-
fected by the feed of the cows. We lay the blame at the door of the dairy
woman, when he who feéds the cows is responsible.

To Color Butter.— As a rule, it is absolutely essential in the winter to
color butter in order to make it marketable, or at all attractive as an article
of table use at home. There may be a possible exception to this rule, in
cases where cows are fed largely upon yellow corn, pumpkins, carrots, etc.,
but this does not lessen the importance of the rule. Of the various sub-
stances used in coloring butter, we think\that carrots (of the deep yellow

: THE DAIRY i 231
variety) give the most natural color and most agreeable flavor. Annatto,
however, is principally used, with most satisfactory results. If carrots are
used, take two large-sized ones, clean them thoroughly, and then with a
_ knife scrape off the yellow exterior, leaving the white pith; soak the yellow
part in boiling milk ten or fifteen minutes. Strain boiling hot into the cream;
this gives the cream the desired temperature, colors it nicely, and adds to
the sweetness of the butter.

How to Detect Oleomargarine.—A Frenchman points out in a note to
the Belgian Academy a simple way of distinguishing between natural and
artificial butter, based upon the different behavior of the two substances
when exposed to a temperature of from 150 degrees to 160 degrees in a cap-
sule or test tube. At this temperature artificial butter produces very little
froth, but the mass undergoes a sort of irregular boiling, accompanied by
violent jerks, which tend to project some of the butter out of the vessel.
The mass grows brown, but this is by reason of the caseous matter separa-
ting into clots on the walls. The fatty portion of the sample sensibly retains
its natural color. Natural butter, on the other hand, at the same tempera-
ture, produces abundant froth, the jerks are much less pronounced, and the
‘mass grows brown, but ina different way. A good part of the brown color-
ing matter remains in suspension in the butter, so that the whole mass has
a characteristic brown look. All natural butter behaves in the same way.

Kirm Butter Without Ice.—In families where the dairy is small, a
good plan to have the butter cool and firm without ice is by the process of
evaporation, as practiced in India and other warm countries. A cheap plan
is to get a very large-sized, porous, earthen flower-pot, with a large saucer.
Half fill the saucer with water, set it in a trivet or light stand—such as is
used for holding hot irons will do; upon this set your butter; over the whole
invert the flower-pot, letting the top rim of it rest in and be covered by the
water; then close the hole in the bottom of the flower-pot with a cork; then
dash water over the flower-pot, aud repeat the process several times a day,
or whenever it looks dry. Ifsetin a cool place, or where the wind can blow
on it, it will readily evaporate the water from the pot, and the butter will be
as firm and cool as if from an ice-house.

THE APIARY.

Wintering Bees.—For the benefit of those who are interested in the

subject of bee-keeping, we present herewith an illustrated article upon win-

. tering bees, the suggestions

in which we think will be

found both valuable and
timely.

Prepare, of any sound
matched flooring, a plat-
form nailed to 2x4 or 3x3
= —=—— joists. When ready, set it
— upon blocks or stones, and

oe tab it will appear as shown in

oh Ake ea Fig. 1. On this you are to

put the bee hives, eight in number, and arranged as stated further on; also
a north-end board, two side boards, a south-end board and a movable cover
or roof. The arrangement
of your hives should be as
shown in Fig. 2, where a is

the north-end board, made c cC c 6
square, but with cleats, as
in the next figure; and bb

are two hives with their en-
trances facing the south;
cee are three hives with
their entrances to the east;
ddd are three hives with
their entrances to the west. FIG. 2.—ARRANGEMENT OF HIVES.
The object of this arrange-
ment is to vary as far as possible the ‘entrances, that the bees be less con-
fused when they fly out in winter. Experience shows that most of them find
out their own hives by this arrangement.
Fig. 3 shows the inside of the north-
end piece of the boxing about the hives,
the outside of which is perfectly plain,
and aa are two cleats that hold the
boards together, with the square wall
cleat at the bottom and the longer cleat
close by the first cleat, the three cleats
FIG. 3.—INSIDE OF END PIECE. making an inch space, marked dark,
which dark places allow the side pieces
to rest in and be held to the north piece. Fig. 4 shows first the outside of the
south-end piece, and that it has two cleats, but that the boards do not go
. down to the bottom of them. The construction of this south piece is further
seen in the end view, at the right hand of the larger view,

———

Bye THE APIARY. 233

Fig. 5 is a view of the west side boxing piece. It has two cleats at the
ends, aa. The one at the left
hand is a little in from the end,
as that end fits the dark place
in the left end of Fig. 3.. Two
cleats, shaped as in the small
figure of Fig. 4, are on the mid-
dle parts of the view. They
serve the same purpose as in
the large figure in Fig. 4. You
need not be told that a corre- FIG. 4.—-OUTSIDE OF END PIECE.
sponding east piece is to be
made. Now arrange hooks, or other contrivances, and put this boxing to-

© gether about your hives, ar-
; ranged as shown in Fig. 2,
and you have it ready to pack
the bees. The best packing
is dry saw-dust, or cut straw;
cut it not over an inch long.
Pack all about the hives, and
FIG. 5.—VIEW OF SIDE PIECE. at least six inches thick-over
the top of the hives. Now
make a roofing; the form, as shown by Fig. 6, which is made of triangular
boards, with boards nailed on the top of them. When done, the whole will
_ appear as in Fig. 7, which shows
the two hives, the south-end hav-
ing three small entrances, too
small for a mouse or rat to get in
at, and an inch round hole just
over the three entrances, which
hole is covered with wire cloth; “
these are all the holes for venti- FIG. 6.- DESIGN OF ROOF.
lation necessary. The dotted
lines show the form of an ordinary box hive, a foot square and a foot high.
Of course, in making your platform and boxing, you will make them to fit
as the hive you use, which will
alter lengths and breadths a
little, but not the general
shape of what we have de-
scribed. The side view
would be go similar to Fig. 7
that we do not give it. Qb-
serve this in putting your
bees in winter quarters: If
November ist to 16th passes
so cold that bees fly little,
this is a good time to pack
them in this boxing. [If itis
so warm that they fly a good
deal till December ist or
; 16th, then that time is the
best. Let them have a few coolish days without protection, and be shut up
f week or so before you change them from their summer stands to this win-

984 THE FARM.

ter packing. Leave the bottom boards of your hives on, and put a little
sawdust under them. A bee-house is useful if it has a large window in the
floor, for all operations that require to let the bees out in a room; then they
fly to the window and get in bunches at its bottom near the floor, and when
you are through with the changes

«ll i il ys hi to be made, they go easily into
AN aN iN the hive. Make a tin reeling ma-
13 haps chine; reel out your honey; put
iG it in neat glass packages; make

| holes oun the side of your old-

fashioned box hives, and get
boxes everywhere—that is the se-
cret of non-swarming; and make
winter packing sheds as we have
told you.

Bee Farming in Australia.
—We present herewith a very in-
teresting article on the subject of
bee farming, as practiced in New
South Wales, Australia, where,
as will be seen, the industry is
carried on on a very extensive
scale. The article is carefully
illustrated and the methods em-
ployed plainly described, and we
trust that all who take an interest
in the subject of bee keeping may
gain some valuable hints and
suggestions from a perusal of the
same.

The operations in bee culture
going on in Paramatta are well
deserving of being ranked as bee

‘farming. They are carried on
after the most approved system
ofthe German apiarians, which
differs only in the form of hive
used and a few minor details
from the approved system fol-
lowed in Britain and America,
But to get at the history of the —
company whose operations we
illustrate: It appears that, in —
- December, 1881, a skilled bee
master, Wilhelm Abram, arrived
in Sydney from Germany, where ©
bee culture is a recognized indus- —
try aud subsidized by the State, and is under the care of scientific entomolo-
gists, for the purpose of teaching the art of bee culture to those desirous of ©
making it their study, and at such an institution Mr. Abram was trained.
Before leaving Germany he purchased some of the prize swarms at an exhi-
bition of Italian bees in Germany, and the Italian Bee Company commenced ,

THE MAIN BEE HOUSE, SHOWING TIERS OF HIVES.

THE APIARY. 285

Operations with these at Parramatta, in January, 1882. An importation of
prize queens from America was made, and the operation of queen rearing

By
NU ’
Whe atl

AN
S\\ A \ \ \
hey SEW e

was entered on. In the meantime a number of colonies of the com-
mon black or English bee had been secured and transferred to frame
hives, and as Italian queens were reared, the black queens were removed
and replaced by Italians, the progeny of which replaced the black bees, as
the latter died out. Not much attention was paid to producing honey until
the race of Italian bees could be firmly established, and the result was that
in the spring of last year there were about eighty colonies of gold-banded
Italians actively at work.

The bee master is an adept at his profession. With a pipe in his mouth,

THE QUEEN BREEDING HIVES.

236

THE FARM,

he opens hive after hive, blowing a whiff of smoke upon them, to give the

——————-f f =

|

|

\ ig
iin

|

CENTRIFUGAL MACHINE, SHOWING INSIDE.

other end fastened to a stake.
the upper end of the bag, and
is quickly surrounded by her
followers. Thus the swarm
is captured with ease, the
alternate breadths of mos-
quito netting and calico mak-
ing the interior light and
enticing for the bees to enter
and cluster. They are then
shaken into a bar-frame hive.

The queen breeding hives §l

are much smaller than the
others, and are arranged at
distances of about twenty
feet apart alongside the
fences. Twoor three frames
of brood comb are put into
each hive, with a queen cell
coming to maturity. When
the queen bee hatches out of
the cell she makes a flight

(the only flight of her life) in order to meet a drone or male bee.
then fertilized, and becomes the mother and queen of a family, laying eggs

}
Hy

i

THE QUEEN CAGE.

bees something else to think
about when they seem any way
refractory, a projection from the
stem of the pipe allowing this to
be done conveniently. The
hives used are of the German
bar-frame kind. They open
from the back, and each hive is
two stories high; so that ample
space can be given to the bees
when they are storing honey
rapidly. The main house is
about 150 feet in length, 10 feet
high, 10 feet wide, and two tiers
of hives are arranged on each
side, as Shown in the sketch.
The swarming bag is one of
the best things we have seen in
bee culture. It is about six
feet in length and one foot in
diameter, and formed of alter-
nate lengths of calico and mos-
quito netting, each length having
a ring of cane inside to hold out
the bag, as shown in the sketch.
When the bees are about to
swarm, the bag is fastened on to
the front of the hive, and the

When the queen emerges she bounds up into

She is

THE APIARY. 237
at the rate of 2,000 daily when the season is good and stores abundant. The
centrifugal machine is used for extracting honey without destroying the
comb. The caps with which the bees seal up each cell of honey are sliced
off with a very thin-bladed knife of simple form, and the frames are set in

the metal basket of the inside of the machine. Then, by turning the handle,
the honey is thrown out and runs down the sides of the machine, from which
it is drawn by a tap, leaving the comb undamaged and ready to be returned
to the hives for the bees to fill over and over again with nectar. In this way
absolutely pure honey is got without any other substance whatever, and
without injuring the bees or annoying them. The queen cage, as shown in

_ illustration, is drawn to scale, as is the queen or mother bee seen inside.

The Culture of Buckwheat for Bees.—Prof. Cook gives the following
on this subject:

Buckwheat is valuable as a honey plant, as it can be made to bloom when
there would otherwise be a dearth of flowers. We have found in our experi-
mental beds that the Silver Hull variety has more flowers in the panicles,
and yields more to the acre. The honey is dark, but is preferred to all other
kinds by some people. It blooms from four to six weeks after sowing.

It will do fairly well on any soil, but thrives best on a rich soil. It should.
be sown broadcast, three pecks to the acre. It is usually sown here late in
July, but for bees it had better be sown early in June. Then it will bloom
about the middle of July, when bloom is usually absent, and will, I think,
yield just as well; though I judge simply from observing small plots. The
cultivation before sowing should be deep and thorough.

When ripe it is cut and allowed to lie on the ground to dry. When dry it
is bound and drawn to the barn, where it may be threshed at once, if it is
desirable todo so, In fact, the cultivation, scil and harvesting of buckwheat
are much the same as that given to oats.

It is safe in estimating that each acre of buckwheat sown within one and
one-half miles of an apiary is worth $100.

Buckwheat, like other plants, is capricious. Some seasons it yields but
little honey. It is not a favorite of bees; at least I have known bees to leave
it for other plants. Perhaps it contained no nectar at the time.

Will Bee Keeping Pay *—Of course it will. There is nothing that
either men or women can engage in that will pay anywhere as well as bee
culture; and there is nothing so well adapted for the farmers’ sons and
daughters as bee keeping, and if they would take hold of four or five
colonies of Italian bees they never would want for a few dimes to go to a
strawberry festival, or perhaps they might want to go to that world-renowned
exposition that always visits every village about the July days, and if they
have been good, industrious boys and girls, and will have looked after bees,
they will lave the satisfaction of having their own money, and will not have
to ask father for the money when he is so pushed with his crops and so short
of money to pay his hands. But to make the keeping of bees a success, you
must go into it understandingly, and if you have not already the bees on
hand, you will have to purchase a few colonies, and be sure to get Italians.
If they are not in a movable comb they will have to be transferred. You
will then have them in a hive that you have complete control over, even to
examine every comb and seeing every bee or queen in the hive.

Clipping the Queen’s Wing.—The clipping of the queen’s wing hay-
ing become a matter of acknowledged good policy, as we knew it would, the

588 THE FARM.
question naturally arises, What is the best method for clipping it? We
have tried all plans, and find the quickest, easiest and the least risk attend-
ing the following: Lift from the hive the comb on which you find the queen,
slant it toward the hive with the lower end resting on the ground and the
upper end against the hive, make no rapid motions to alarm the queen, but
deliberately wait till she is in a position that you can grasp the end of one
wing between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, then with a sharp
pocket knife and an upand backward motion cut off about one-third of the
wing. If deliberate in your movements, the queen will not become
nervous, nor will she be aware she had been meddled with, no scent of the
fingers will be left on
either her wings or
body, and no commo-
tion created in the hive.

Amn Unpatented
Bee Hive.—Apiarians
know full well the im-
portance of providing
the honey bee with a
properly constructed
aud well arranged hive,
in which these little
workers may safely
store the nectar care-
fully gathered from the
blossomin; sweets of
earth. Many good and
valuable hives for this

Zz purpose have been
4 constructed, and are
the subject of letters
- patent, for the manu-
facture and use of

|
|
|

Wl

ers Z
be t Z : ;
gf Asst ROS Wy, ig which a royalty is re-
a TW ah ug owns a pay quired by the owners
asanult Fe ee ; ‘ :
4 Bet sat der ae geek H(t et, ia ——————— = thereof.
ee nee eee KNX — The hive shown in
aie patenryis A || alee AS oe ai connection with this ar-
aw Brn rie ticle is, beyond ques-
BEE HIVE.—¥IG. 1. tion, the simplest,

cheapest, and best ar-
ranged unpatented hive extant. Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the hive as
it appears upon the sand. In appearance it has a neat, unpretending look
of self-recommendation.

The advantages gained by having a passage for the bees at the bottom,
and six inches upward therefrom, at one side of the hive, are: First. Dur-
ing winter snow and ice accumulate in sufficient quantities to entirely fill
and cover the lower series of holes, while the upper ones remain open, ad-
mitting fresh air, the importance of which all apiarians are familiar with.
Second. Bees alighting at the upper series of holes, upon returning from a
long and fatiguing flight, have but a short distance to traverse to reach the
plaee where the accumulated sweets are to be deposited. ;

THE APIARY. 239

_ The hive proper is 12x12x15—2,160 cubic inches, inside measurement.
When filled with honey it weighs eighty pounds—a sufficient quantity to
' feed a large colony of bees during the season not fruitful of flowers.

For supporting the comb in the desired position, small round sticks are
used in the same manner as in the old box hive. The cover to this portion
has its upper surface beveled near the edges, to receive and retain in
position a small or upper hive,
seven inches high and twelve
inches square, inside dimensions.
It is shown in proper place in Fig.
1, and raised in Fig. 2, disclosing
the surplus honey boxes, which
are two in number, 11 1-2 x 6x5 1-2
inches, outside measurement,
made from quarter-inch pine lum-
ber, with glass ends or sides,
either plain or ornamental, as the
contents may be designed for home
consumption or exhibition at the
sale-room, or to compete for pre-
miums at fairs. Each of said boxes
connects with the lower hive by
four one-inch holes, which are
made in hive and boxes at the time
of their construction. They afford
a sufficient passage-way to and .
from said boxes. The top of the ‘
hive is delineated in Fig.3. One | BEE HIVE.—FIG. 2.
series of holes is shown, while the
other is covered (in use both should be) by securing a thin strip in the
proper position by screws. They remain thus until the hive is thought to be
filled, or a sufficient quantity accumulated to successfully winter the bees.
At this juncture carefully remove the screws, slightly raise the
strip, place one of the surplus boxes at the end of the strip, and gradually,
or by a dextrous movement, get it in place, as shown in Fig. 2. When

both are in position, place over them
the cover, and, unless you are care-
less, not one bee is injured by the
operation. Should the surplus boxes
be provided with glass ends you may
at any time during the season view the
stores therein accumulated by raising
the cover. At or soon after the ap-
pearance of autumnal frosts, remove
BEE HIVE.—FIG. 3. the surplus boxes, cover the series of
holes as above stated. At the approadh
of winter again remove them; thereby all vapor arising from the breathing of
so great a number of insects passes into the empty space above, thus ina
great measure, preventing death by the congealing of this vapor. Other
points of merit could be noticed, but will suggest themselves.

Advice to Young Bee Keepers.—Beginners in bee keeping should
not, when going into the business, build costly bee houses, provide high-

NF ace ae fied “eu

240 : THE FARM.

priced, untested, patented hives, purchase a large number of colonies, or
buy “‘ three-banded ”’ Italian queens at a time when, as yet, they can hardly
tell a drone from a worker. Begin moderately and hasten slowly. The
needful experience in practical bee culture is much more easily and far more
efficiently acquired by careful attention to a few choice stocks, than by a hur-
ried supervision of a large number, even with the aid of manuals and text-
books. Plain, simple, movable frame-hives, too, will be found better suited
for the requisite manipulations than fanciful and complicated contrivances

e devised by persons really ignorant themselves of the habits and wants of
bees. And colonies placed in an open situation, with their hives readily
accessible from all sides, and somewhat sheltered or shaded by trees or,
vines, will be much more conveniently. managed than when placed in
ordinary sheds or out-door bee houses. Study first to know what is required
for success, and then extend your operations when you are sure that you can
have the business “ well in hand.”

How to Catch Swarms.—For the past ten or twelve years, Says a cor-
respondent of the American Bee Journal, I have not cut my fruit trees to
catch swarms. I get an ordinary sized basket, and nail a three-eighth-inch
board on the bottom, with some suitable springs under it; then bore a hole
in the center, and put an iron down through, with a loop on the top and a nut
on the inside, and screw it fast; buckle a strap, six or eight inches long with
a snap on it, in the loop. Have a pole cut from the edge of a two-inch plank,
dressed any length, from eight to ten feet, with a ferule on each end and
one-quarter inch iron rod sixteen inches in length; take a small ring, and
bend an eye on the end of the rod, with the ring in it; taper the other end,
and make it secure in the end of the pole; then curve it so as to project it six
or eight inches, in which snap the basket catcher.

To use it, push it among the branches of the tree which the bees are
making for, and if they do not light upon it, when they begin to cluster, put
the catcher up against them, and when you get part of them on your basket,
move it a little away and toward the branch that they are on, and they will

_ all settle on the basket infive minutes. .

To complete the pole, get a one-half inch rod of iron, twelve inches long,
tapered at each end, and secure it in the lower end of the pole; and when
the bees begin to settle on the basket, stick the spear in the ground and let
it stand, while you are preparing the hive, etc. Then take down the pole
and unhook the basket with bees, which may be carried any distance you
wish. Shake off the bees on an open sheet in front of the hive, showing
them the way, and they will go in faster than a flock of sheep into a yard
after the gate is open.

Mice in the Apiary.—During the winter mice are sometimes trouble-
some guests in the apiary, especially if the hives are surrounded by straw in
which they can harbor. The best preventive is to have hives so tight that
they can gain no admittance. For the sake of ventilation it is not well, how-
ever, to have the entrance closed air-tight; therefore, fasten a piece of wire
gauze over the entrance of the hives that may be in the cellar, or that may
be buried in the ground; this will exclude mice and admit air; and over the
entrance of hives that are covered with boxes, fasten a piece of tin about a
quarter of an inch above the bottom board, so that the bees can just pass:
under the edge of it, while the mice are excluded, :

FARM IMPLEMENTS.

Combined Roller and Vibrating Harrow.—The thorough pulveriza-
tion of the soil is, and will be, an important item in the tillage of the earth.
The most effective method,
therefore, of attaining this re-
sult, is one of interest to every
individual. Our engraving on
this page is intended to rep-
resent an arrangement of a
combinéd roller and vibrating
harrow, the successful work-
ing of which we have had the
opportunity of witnessing.
The invention consists of the
frame, A, roller, B, which
may be constructed of either
iron or wood, the axle of
which terminates at each end
in astrong crank, C, C, of from
six to nine inches in diameter.
These cranks are keyed upon
the axle in opposite positions.
Connected to the wrist pins of
each crank are the connecting
rods, D, D, which extend back-
wards, and are attached to
opposite corners of the har-
row, EK. The attachment of
the connecting rods to the

_cranks is made with universal
joints, so as to allow of a free
and easy working of all the
parts, and to permit the roller
and harrow separately to ac-
commodate themselves to the
inequalities of the ground.
The manner in which the har- NX
row is vibrated through the COMBINED ROLLER AND VIBRATING HARROW.
medium of the crank in rota-

ting with the roller, it is not necessary further to explain. If the machine
is used as shown in the drawing, the last operation performed will be that
of harrowing, but if ‘tis desiréd to leave the ground in a rolled condition,
all that is necessary to do is to turn over the tongue, I, of the roller, until
itrests upon the cross pieces, G, and attach the team by a chain, to what
will then be the front corner of the harrow. Or should it be desired to use

oF meee es Mees 3 Se _
Re u > oa . 7,
TS Ong aE Aone s ?

eee Seppe,

548 THE FARM:

the relist or harrow separately, they may be readily disconnected by driving oo
out two of the bolts in the universal joints. This invention is public prop-
erty for the benefit of the world at large.

Hay Elevating Apparatus.—We present herewith a sketch and de-
scription of a new hay elevator, in the form of a suspended track and hay-
fork traveler, which we think will not only prove a timely suggestion, but a
positive boon to many farmers. This track can be suspended in any barn,
high or low, without any additional timbers. The hay can be run up, and over
beams, without any scattering or dragging. Another great advantage in this
plan is having the rope double from the fork to the traveler. This gives the

(\ __ AR
a HATTA lt)

HAY ELEVATING APPARATUS.

horse great power on the fork just where it is needed, that is, when the
forkful of hay is separating from the load.

It consists in part of a track made of hard wood, in the form shown. The
center piece A is six inches wide and one and a half inches thick, put to-
gether with dowel-pins, until as long a8 wanted. The slats BB are two
inches wide and one inch thick. They are nailed on the lower edge of A,
breaking joints as they are put on. They are put on each side of A as shown
in sketch. There is a pulley C, six inches in diameter by one and a half
inches thick, put in the back end of the track. The box for this pulley is
made by bolting a short piece, six inches wide and one inch thick, on each
side of A. A, clevis; D goes over the track and is fastened on with the bolt
that goes through the pulley. C, a rope is put through the clevis and this
end of the track is drawn up close to the rafters. The front endis ‘suspended
- by a clevis and two ropes; it is hung a foot or so lower than the back end.
Screw into A the hooks that come with the fork, about eight feet apart, and
into each puta strong link six inches long by one and a half inches i inthe —

=

FARM IMPLEMENFS. 248

opening, as shown at E, E, E; these are for the rope to pass through, and
also to suspend it by.

The traveler consists of a pulley and pulley box, A, with sides four inches
apart, extending up some seven or eight inches, which carry two rollers, N
N, four inches in diameter and one inch thick, which roll on each side of A,
and directly on BB. There is an eye, O, on the traveler, in which one end
of the haul rope is tied; it then passes around a pulley on the fork, then
through the pulley in box H, around pulley C, through the links EE E,
around pulley P, and around a pulley at the floor, then to horse.

There is a latch, as shown at the right of the drawing, to hold the traveler
ever the load until the fork is elevated; when the pulley on the fork strikes
the bottom of the latch and raises the catches up, then the fork moves back;
when the fork returns, the catches slide over the pin.

There is a small rope (1) fast- =
ened to the traveler by a clevis, 2;
said rope passes over a pulley, 3,
down to weight, 4, around the pul-
ley fastened to the weight, up to
the eye, 5, where it is tied.

By this arrangement a long
track can be used in a low barn.
The weight will bring the fork back
without pulling on the trip cord.

In using this plan, the horse,
after he has drawn up a forkful, is
turned to the left; around to the
side of the rope, and walked back
to the starting place; he is then
turned around to the right, on the
same side of the rope that he came
back on; by so doing, there is no
stepping over the rope, which gen-
erally twists or untwists it, and
renders it very liable to loop
around a horse’s legs as the fork
comes back. The weight must be
only just heavy enough to bring
the fork back slowly, then the rope
will not pull on the horse when he
is coming back.

Home-Made Tools.— Fre- HOME-MADE TOOL.—FIG. 1.

quently the farm and garden tools

and contrivances that are home-made are quite as effective as expensive
boughten ones, and farmers that are blessed with a little ingenuity are con-
tinually “‘ fixing ” up some kind of a labor-saving machine to work with. Our
illustrations represent two very handy and useful implements, of which a
farmer writes as follows: “‘ While using to-day a tool which just suits me for
killing weeds, it struck me that it might just suit others, even if it 1s home-
made and not patented. To make it, take an old twelve or fourteen-inch
half round file; grind off the teeth, bend it as shown in Fig. 1, and put itin

an ordinary handle. Now, if you want to loosen the soil, or pull out sods or

; large weeds, you have a light pick to doit. If you want to kill ordinary. ...

244 THE FARM.

‘weeds turn the hoe flat on the ground and scrape away. Now, as the file or

hoe has two sharp edges, you can use either side; as it is long it will work
very rapidly; as it is narrow it will work easily, and not draw the dirt over
the weeds and re-plant them, but will tumble them on top for old Sol to deal
with.

** Another home-made tool now in season, and which has saved me much
labor between rows of mangel wurtzel, carrots, etc., is made by taking a
piece of old, thin, sharp tire, reversing the bend so as to bring the flat side
down, bending it to fit between the rows and with the two ends brought to-
gether so as to bolt to an old plow beam, as shown in Fig. 2. Make one,
hitch old Tom before it, and go to
work, and if it don’t work to a T,
tell.”

Care of Farm Implements.—
Any implement that with good usage
and protection will last eight years,
will become weak and defective and
generally useless, if exposed during
four years to dews, rain and sun. It
cannot be otherwise.: Dew is very
destructive to all wood, and sun
cracks admit rain and moisture to
the interior fibres, to work injury
there. To leave implements thus
exposed is a direct loss of fifty per
cent., a heavy tax. But to state it
mildly: An implement which, left
unprotected would last five years,
will undoubtedly last six years if
always kept dry and in the shade
\ When not in actual use. This will
\\ save one-fifth of its efficiency, or
twenty per cent. A few boards or a
straw cover, and attention to having
implements always put under, is far
more profitable than to ‘‘ work out”
the twenty per cent. to buy new ones.
Woodwork that must be left exposed, will be greatly benefitted by a fre-
quent application of paint, or simply a coat of painting oil and by filling up
all sun cracks, as soon a8 formed with such oil. The use of crude petroleum
tends to the preservation of wood, and may be applied to all unpainted wood-
work of implements.

HOME-MADE TOOL.—FIG. 2.

Improved Tread Power.—In the tread-mill power 1e have here illus-
trated, the endless traveler consists of cast-iron chain links joined together
and carrying lags which are connected to the links by a tenon on each end
fitting in a corresponding mortise in the link. Carrying rollers are fitted to
run in boxes attached to the frame, so that the chain links run along on them
from one to another, and in order that the rollers may be of larger than or-
dinary size and placed farther apart, the chain links have abutting shoulders

above the pivotjoints, which hold the lags up level for the horse to walk on.

Each lag cies) a rib or cleat nailed on the upper surface just back of the ai

= rae, a ae ee 1s%

FARM IMPLEMENTS. Mb

edge. The rollers that sustain the weight of the horse may be larger,
stronger, and easier running than where the rollers are attached to the
chains. For a brake to regulate the
“gpeed of the machine, a couple of centri-
fugal levers are pivoted to a couple of
the arms of the flywheel, and having a
brakeshoe on the short arm to act on a
friction rim attached to the frame, the
long arms of the levers being connected
to the rocker bar by rods, and to the
rocker one of the levers is connected by
a coiled spring and adjusting screw,
which tend to keep the brakes off the —
rim when the speed is not too high; but
when excess of speed throws out the centrifugal levers the shoes will be
pressed on the rim till the speed slows to the proper limit. The machine is
provided with a simple stop device and is improved in other details.

IMPROVED TREAD POWER.

A Good Corn-Marker.—The worst difficulty with ordinary three or four
tooth corn-markers results
from the inflexibility of the
long bar to which the teeth or
marker are attached. . In

_—-—= passing over uneven ground

some of the teeth will not

Ss touch the earth, and conse-

\ guess the position in which

quently the planter must
<i 33 SS \\\ \ —_ 1
: ‘ \\) __=====_ the seed should be planted.
bate \, x

\ = The marker we herewith il-
\\ —————==—=— _lustrate is constructed to sur-
. —— mount this difficulty—two
A GOOD CORN-MARKER. joints being made in the bar

which allow each tooth to
make its proper furrow on 4 very uneven surface. The joints are made by
sawing the bar apart at the places indicated in the engraving, then connect-
ing the sections by bolting on two stout iron straps, the bolts passing entirely

through the bar of woud. Four straps of light wagon tire iron, each six
space of one inchleft between the gcegy

i I
pose required. Y Hi

AW)

I
an ax. Nail boards 6 feet long on 2 as
Bore 2 holes (in place where indicated) with a half-inch bit; take 8 feet same

inches long, and four six inch TUTTI
i
sections of the bar will give suffi-
A Good Clod Crusher.— | il
‘
the bottom. They should be _ & GOOD CLOD ORUSHER. ©
sized rope, and tie loop in middle; put ends through holes and tie knot in

bolts will make the two joints. A

cient flexibility to it for the pur- XY | ! ll
Take two pieces of board 2x6 or Ls \ ni TTT : 7

8, and round the end of each with iy i \\ ts
about 1 1-2 or 2 inches thick, beveled and lapped, as shown in our engraving.

46 THE FARM.

each to keep it there. Hitch your team to it, jump on yourself, and drive

ahead. Once going over will be sufficient. Your land will be finer than you
could harrow it in a week. It is better than a roller, for it levels the land,
does not pack it, and draws easier than either harrow or roller, and can be

SPILE OR POST DRIVER.

¢ Wak i "
= 1S jv
33 <= |

made by a boy ten years
old in half an hour’s time.

Spile or Post Driver.
—Every farmer has often
seen the time, we believe;

-when he could have saved

himself or his men a great
deal of hard labor, if he
could only have had the
use of a spile or post
driver to sink a few spiles
here on this marshy land,
to build a dam, or to drive
down a few posts there to
erect a small building upon
or to drive down a line of
fence posts; but, not being
the possessor of one him-
self, and not knowing where
he could borrow one con-
veniently from a neighbor,
the work has been done
without it, and much un-
necessary labor wasted
thereupon. We consider a
post driver one of the most
useful implements, for gen-
eral use, to be found upon
afarm. We present an il-
lustration of a good and

‘substantial post driver,

with simple directions how
it can be made, and would
offer the suggestion that
the dull months of the
winter season will afford a
good opportunity for those
who wish to provide them-
selves with one of these
useful implements, to do

so, and thus have it in readiness for use when next season’s work begins.
The machine we have illustrated is of quite simple construction, and with
the exception of a little iron work, the pulleys and rope, may be made by

any farmer who is handy with tools.

The pair of runners (1) are 9 feet long,

made of oak 7 inches wide and 4 inches thick. The cross pieces (2) are of 4
by 4-inch scantling. The distance from the rear cross piece to the next one
is 10 inches, and from that to the front one is 2 1-2 feet. The rear one is left
open in the middle, as represented, for the post. Two pieces of 2 by 4-inch

< * PARM IMPLEMENTS. OMT

-scantling are bolted across the top of the cross pieces near the middle, as
seen in the cut. The two upright pieces (4) are 20 feet long, of 2 by 6-inch
seantling stiffened by a 2 by 4-inch piece spiked on the outside edgewise.
They would be better made of 4 by 6-inch stuff, or even 6-inch square, as
they are required to be stiff. The braces (5) are 2 by 4 inches, the front
ones a foot the longest. The weight, or block (6),may be round or square,
20 inches in diameter, and 2 or 21-2 feet long, of solid, heavy oak, and
grooved on the sides next to the uprights. In the top of this is a strong
staple, to which the shears, which are fastened in the sliding block above,
catch. The grooves in the weight are 6 inches wide, to take in the whole
width of the uprights (four pins on each side would answer the purpose of
the grooves). Two 2-inch auger holes are bored through the rear portion
of each runner, in order to drive in stakes or a crowbar to keep the machine
from being drawn forward while driving the post. The working will be
readily understood. A chain is fastened to the front cross-piece at the
points where the top pieces are joined, to which the whiffletrees are hooked.
It is then drawn forward by the team (a span of horses or mules) until the
weight is over the mark for the post. The post being placed, the whiffletrees
are then unhooked from the chain and hooked to the rope which pulls up
the weight. One to three blows will drive the post in to the required depth.
It is then drawn forward to the next post. Two men and a span of mules
will drive three-fourths of a mile of posts in a day, and one man will mark
for the posts and face them ready for the boards in the same time. The
posts are slightly pointed, and thus driven, set very firm. The cost of such
an implement is about $25, and it will pay for itself in a few days.

Noa C
‘to 4

A Conveniént Tool.—A cheap tool that will prove very handy and can
be made very cheaply and quickly, and used for setting out plants such as
sweet potatoes, cabbage, tomatoes, etc. Take a round piece of wood one
and a half inchesin diameter and about a foot long; sharpen one end neatly;
at the other end cut down to one inch in diameter, one inch below the end;
this will give a small shoulder all around.

Take another round piece of wood the same size, or if a little larger it
will answer as well. Cut it four inches long, in the center bore a hole with
an inch auger, and fasten this on the top of the other piece; this will serve
as a handle, and the stick can be pushed down into the soil easily and pulled
out, and can also be used to press the dirt firmly around the roots of the
plants that you are setting out. Ten minutes’ work will make one, and you
will find it very convenient for use, so as not to haye to hunt around for a
sharp stick every time you want to set out a few plants.

Implement for Small-Crop Hoeing.—A Massachusetts farmer writes:
‘**T beg to introduce a small hoe which has not been used among the agri-
culturists yet. It can be made of old discarded scythe-blades, cut sloping
at the corners, so that the face next the ground is nine inches wide and the
back six inches wide. At the corners, a quarter or half inch can be turned
up at an angle to make a hook like a blacksmith’s knife used to finish off
horses’ feet. Then a shank of three-eighths inch wrought iron can be welded
on to the center, and the other end into a good handle. Any person skilled
in hoeing trying this hoe to single out carrots, parsnips, etc., will wonder
why he did not think of it before. I get an old table knife and heat it, turn-
ing about two inches of the end toa hook shape, to thin out my cabbage seed
and onion beds, cutting the ground clean and quickly between the plants.”

248 THE FARM. f

Coulter Cleaning Plow Attachment.—Qur engraving represents
a simple attachment to a plow, intended to keep the coulter free from ob-
structions when plowing in stubble or turning under long manure. It
consists of a rod of iron, one end of which is attached to the wheel of the
plow ix such a manner that its turning will give the rod a backward and for-
ward motion. The rod passes
along under the beam and is
bent around its base, or the
Shank of the plow in
wooden beamed ones, just
above the mold board, and
forms a loop against the
coulter. This loop, working
backward and forward, works
off all obstructions from the
coulter.

A Farm Tool House.
One of the most useful and
money-saving buildings that
a farmer can place on his
premises is a spacious and
convenient tool house. It is
generally the case that there
is room enough in the various
outbuildings - to house the
farm implements ifit is econ-
omized; but it is a corner
here and a few feet of barn or
shed floor there; sometimes
in a cellar and sometimes in
a loft, possibly easy of access,
but probably difficult, and in
all such instances it is space
originally intended and
needed for some other pur-
pose. Tho main reason why
so many farmers neglect pro-
tecting their implements from
the weather when not in use,
is the lack of convenient and
roomy storage. We lay great
stress on its being spacious
and handy; for if it is thus,
James will always drive the
lumber wagon inside to take the hay rack off, and he will draw in the stone
boat with the plow and harrow and cultivator on it, and they will escape
the next rain or dew and the consequent coat of rust. A farmer needs a
tool house as much as a horse-barn or a woodshed. Our illustration is sug-
gestive. It is adapted to a locality abounding with stone. The walls of the
building are made of that material, laid without mortar. The foundation
is placed below the frost, and the earth is banked on the outside to further
protect them and to throw off water. The top of the wall is leveled with

COULTER CLEANING PLOUGH ATTACHMENT.

FARM IMPLEMENTS, ~ 249
mortar, and a two-inch plank laid on, to which the rafters are spiked. The
latter are braced on the inside by nailing on cross strips. The roof may be
made of the cheapest material, which varies with localities. There is one
window in the end opposite the door. The doorway should be twelve feet
wide to admit a reaper, und if the location is not too much exposed there is
little need of doors. The ground is the floor. The walls are but six feet
high, and the structure should be twenty wide by thirty or forty long. Such
a building will cost but little where stones are in the way. The farmer can
build it, and will save many es
dollars in twenty years, and
many steps each year other-
wise taken after mislaid im-
plements.

A Home-Made Corn-
Sheller.—This is simply the
use of a bar of iron laid
across a box. The box is
made of a convenient height =
to sit upon, say twelve or ;
fourteen inches, and is eight- ~ ==
een by thirty inches square. ARM TOOL HOUSE.
This size will hold over two
bushels. The bar of iron (or, better, of steel) should be 3-4 by 1-4 of an
inch in size, and a little longer than the box. Puta staple sufficiently large
to admit the bar into the middle of the upper edge of one end of the box,
and cut a notch the size of the bar in the other end. Putin the bar, put a
piece of board across the notched end fora seat and go ahead with your
shelling. Both hands are used in the operation, the lett clasped tightly
around the bar between the legs of the operator, while the ear is drawn up-
ward by the right hand, the fingers of the left holding it firmly against the
bar, and slightly pushing it upward. Shell two thirds of the small end first,
then turn and shell the butt. Two bushels of our small corn can be easily
shelled in an hour, after getting a little accustomed to the manipulation. I

= have tried many other
SS - SS . ways, but none haye

=e eee

— ss Ss proved at once so easy

SSS and so rapid as this. We
present a sketch of the

box and bar.

A Good Weeding Im-

plement.—We give a

CORN-SHELLER. sketch of an excellent

weeding implement which is valued very highly by those who have used it.
It saves at least the wages of three men. By actual experiment one man
will do more weeding with it in the same time, and do it better, than four
men with hoes. The implement costs about three dollars—not more, cer-
tainly—-and will save fifty dollars worth of labor during one season. The
frame is eighteen inches long and twelve inches wide. It is light, made of
two or two and a half inch material. The wheel is ten inches in diameter,
of inch and a half or two inch plank, with a tire of sheet iron. The knife in
the rear is a bar of steel two inches wide and a quarter of an inch thick, bent

950 THE FARM, *
so as to lift the frame about five inches from the ground as it sits upon the
surface. Each edge is sharp in order that it may cut both ways—the opera-
tor pushing it before him by means of the handles, cutting off the weeds,
then drawing it back the same distance and lifting the knife at the same
time, in order to insure a displacement of the weeds. The knife may be
made of a width to suit any space between rows of vegetables. The form of
the knife is such as that it may
be run as close to the rows
as is desired, without endan-
gering the roots of plants—
for it cannot cut under.
Weeders of this character
are sometimes made with the
knife before the wheel. Any-
body can make the wood-
work of this weeder who has
the tools. Ordinary plow
handles that can be pur-
chased for twenty-five cents
will answer. The knife, the
braces to the handles, and
the tire of the wheel, is all
the iron aboutit. We have
devoted this much space to
its description and commen-
dation because there are
many farmers who are turn-
ing their attention to root
culture and to the culture of
small fruits, and there are
many others who would de-

SS
p See

il

|

i
| | |
\

A G00D WEEDING IMPLEMENT.

vote more acres to these
crops were labor available.
Those who grow carrots,
onions, turnips, parsnips, the
sugar beet, or even straw-
berries, will find, for money
invested in one of these im-
plements, a sure return.
There is no patent on it that
we know of, and any man
with gumption can make one.

Thomas’ No-Patent

Scraper. —Our illustration
represents a practical and

very useful implement for use on public or private roads, and as there is no
patent upon it, it can be easily made by any one as follows:
Take a hard wood plank, say three by fourteen inches, seven feet long.

Bevel the back side, rivet on an old mill saw for the edge. Put in a mortise
wide enough to receive the tenon of the pole on an angle—a common ash
wagon pole with a tenon say two by four inches, and five feet of medium
' size cable chain fastened on each side of the pole two and a half feet from

ic Tires SST Gai Na te ic
: alae PONCE AIR Ch HTN, Hy
\ ay a i ee ae

FARM IMPLEMENTS. 951

the tenon. Fasten to the plank, on a line below the mortise, one grub hook
two and a half feet from the mortise, on each side of said mortise, to hitch
to the chains on the pole. Unhook the chains, and your scraper is in two
pieces, handy to pack away under cover. Estimated cost:

Pole, 25c.; plank, 25c.; old saw, $1.00; making woodwork, 50c.; ee
and iron work, $1.50. Total,
$3.50.

Set your scraper at the
right angle'to carry the gravel =
or earth toward the center of 2&
the road, and drive on ata —¥
good brisk walk, the driver
to ride or place on weights
whennecessary. Ifthe road
is very rutty or uneven, it is
better to change the angle
and drive back on same side,
as the scraper would cross its
own angle going back, and
still carry the earth toward
the center of the road.

A Clod Crusher._We
illustrate a very cheap, sim-
ple, but efficient implement
—first made and used, we
believe, in England—for
breaking lumps of earth on
plowed fields and leaving THOMAS NO-PATENT SCRAPER.
the surface smooth and finely pulverized. Itis a very good substitute for
the roller to smooth the surface of the field and cover grass seed sown after
spring rains. It is made in this wise: Lay two oak scantlings, 3x3 inches
square and three and one half feet long, parallel on the shop floor, three feet
apart. Then spike a strip 2x2 and five feet long across two ends of the scant-
ling; then four two-inch planks eight inches wide and five feet long, spiking
them on like clap-boarding, and
finish with a plank fourteen inches
wide for the front. Turn your
crusher over, affix a stool for the
driver and the chains to the cross-
pieces for the team to draw by, and
the implement is completed.

h
a
Mi

j

i

iL
ry

Tm

Improvement of Roads.—A
Good Scraper.—We would like
to call the attention of all lovers of
good roads, and especially of those who are overseers, to the importance of
some system in constructing and repairing public highways.

In the first place, all roads should be made and kept rounding. Phe
ditches at the side should be deep, and of such a grade that the water may
quickly run off. A road constructed in this manner may be kept rounding
for a number of years by the frequent use of the large A scraper, drawn by
four horses abreast. hice this important road implement in some dis-

CLOD ORUSHER.

252 THE FARM, . s es i
tricts is an unheard-of contrivance. Judging from the looks of many roads,
we think it must be so, and for the benefit of overseers in such districts, we
give a drawing on this page of the best large scraper we have ever seen.
The scraper here represented is constructed of oak plank 11 feet long, 14 °
inches wide, and 2 4-2 inches thick, set up edgeways, in shape of the letter
A, with the top cut off. The
rear cross-piece is near the end,
and also near the top edge of
the plank. The next is distant
from the other 1 1-2 feet, and 2.
inches lower, for the purpose of
allowing the guide-pole to pass
over the rear one, and the end
under the other, giving the
other end the right length to
take hold of. The front cross-
piece is also near the end, and
is the center of the plank. The
} rear end should be one foot
| throat; the front any desired
@ width. To the inside of the
plank, at the lower edge, are
bolted plates of cast iron 5
inches wide and 1 1-2 inches
thick, the holes through the
same being slots longest up and
down, that the iron may be low-
ered as it wearsaway. Thecut
_ of the scraper may be altered
by moving the draw-clevis in
the chain to one side of the center, causing one side to do the whole work,
as is many times necessary. The great advantage of this scraper over others
is that it continually draws the dirt toward the center, and leaves the road
perfectly smooth and rounding.

GUDEROLE

A GOOD ROAD SCRAPER.

A Snow Plow.—The snow plow here illustrated is built so as to be fixed
upon the forward part of a
double sled. The frame is
made of 4x4 oak scantling, and
is similar in form to a double
mold-board plow. One runner
is fixed to the forward part, at
such a distance below the edge
of the plow as to raise it to
clear obstacles such as stones
or frozen mud which may bein
its way. Four inches would on eee :
probably in general be a safe distance. The hinder part of the plow rests
upon the sled as shown in the engraving, and is bolted toit. A long tongue
is fixed into the place of the ordinary one, and is fastened to the front of the
plow by an iron strap, which is bolted to the frame. The hinder portion of
the plow may be covered over with boards, and a seat fixed firmly upon it.
When it is used, it is best to load itas much as possible. The sides of the

FARM IMPLEMENTS. | 253

plow are made of half-inch oak or basswood strips, steamed and bent into
shape. The outer surface of these strips should be dressed smoothly, which
will make the draft easier.

Bag Holders.—Farmers who raise crops of cereals for market are well
aware of the trouble and
labor involved in the one
operation of bag filling.

It oftentimes happens that
one person is required to
hold open and fill the bag
atthe same time; this, how-
ever, is a slow and tedious
process, and to expedite
this important operation,
at the same time render it
less laborious, the bag
holders shown in our illus-
tration were invented. A
proper size of the one de-
lineated in Fig. 1 is platform
K, 24x14x2 inches, either
pine or oak; standard B,
4x3x36 inches; hopper P,
16x16 inches at the top,
beveled to admit of the
hooking thereon of the bag
D,as shown. It is obvious
that, by having the upper BAG HOLDERS.

portion of the hopper of -
larger dimensions than the top or mouth of the bag, the operation of filling
can be pertormed much quicker, and with less liability tospill the grain; the
bag holder also dispenses with one hand.

Fig. 2 illustrates a simple arrangement for the purpose. The hopper is
of the size of that in Fig. 1. Itis supported by three short straps or chains,
RRR, attached to as many of its several sides, which in turn are attached at the
point M. This bag holder
is cheap, simple, portable,
and durable. Itcan be at-
tached to the granary wall,
or any portion of the barn
above the floor. By pro-

with a hook, it can be
raised or lowered to ac-

commodate bags of various
lengths.

Hand Plow.—Most
vegetables are greatly benefitted by Having the ground stirred frequently
around them. Hoeing is a tedious operation both for time and patience.

We give a drawing of a small shovel plow with a wheel set in the tram,
which can be pushed like a wheelbarrow. When loosening the soil is the

viding the main chain M «

i ay itis a very expeditious machine. The tram is made by screwing to- |

-

hy oe ae aes epee as Fie MeV, oO TMT toe OEE f Pte erence
A e . te ‘?er-9 5 Or ‘ ¥

a

254 THE FARM.

gether pieces of hard wood boards. The wheel should have a “broad
tread” to prevent cutting in. A large cultivator tooth does tolerably well
for a shovel. It works well for boy-power, by tying a drag rope to the end
of the tram. With this a garden can be gone over in less than a fourth of the
time required to hoe it, the same time may be given on different days with
so much greater result, as the plowing is nearly as good as hoeing each time.

Keep the Farm Tools Sharp.—Too often these things are not thought
of until the articles are wanted, when much valuable time is lost in putting
in order what might as well have been done during the dull winter days.
It has been computed that the same man can do as much in two days with a
sharp scythe as in three days with one comparatively dull, and the same
expenditure in force. And it is just the same in regard to all other tools or
implements, whether operated by hand, steam, or horse power. The en-
gineer continually oils the machinery, and a good saw or file is oil to hand
implements. We know one who has a great deal of hand hoeing to do by
hired labor, and he believes the continued use of the file on the hoes makes
a difference of nearly one-half in the labor. His calculation is that every
ten-cent file he buys saves him ten dollars in his laborers’ bills. Look after
the spades, scythes, hoes, chisels, saws, etc. A good grindstone and a set
of files are among the best of farm investments. The bestof all forehanded-
ness is that which prepares ia advance a full set of good and well-repaired
tools to work with.

RO PENT A ryt ae ee ee
as ola Fe tl Fs 4
; .

AROUND THE FARM.

Making and Keeping Ice.—The method of making and keeping ice
we here illustrate and describe will be of practical use oaly to those who
are fortunate enough to have a spring or stream of running water upon their
place; but the same result might be obtained by pumping in the water,
though it would involve much more labor and trouble.

The icehouse should be built firmly of rough boards, as shown in our
illustration. Put high up on the outside of the house a penstock, with
which connect, by means of a
hollow plug, a tin pipe about
two inches in diameter, on g
the inside, making a hole ‘ail
through the siding for the (A
purpose. This tin pipe may r yi
pass through the center of i,
the icehouse, or it may be
fastened to the side walls, , a, ¢ i
passing partly or entirely |
around. If passing through
the center, conical tubes
similar to the muzzle of an
oil can, about an inch in
altitude, should be soldered
on either side of the tin pipe = ——

so as to discharge jets at an * MAKING AND KEEPING ICE.
angle of about 30 degrees to
aperpendicular. If passing around the sides, cones should be so soldered
on that the jets shall be thrown inward. The aperture through the apex of
' these cones should be very fine, about the size of a small pin. At the dis-
charge end of this pipe, passing through or around the icehouse, should be
fastened a rubber pipe of from four to six feet in length. By raising the
movable end of this rubber pipe we give whatever head we desire to the
jets; in severe cold weather the greater head, and as the weather moderates
less. Should it be thawing or too mild to freeze, then lower the rubber
pipe so that the water will flow through the pipe without being discharged
from the cones. For this purpose the pipe should have a gradual descent
toward the discharge end. Should this not effectually prevent any water
flowing on the ice, then bore a hole in the penstock below the pipe passing
through the icehouse, and let the water discharge from this hole during
mild weather. The jets may be within two feet of each other. Better re-
sults attend a large number of fine jets than a less number discharging the
same amount of water. In starting, the bottom of the icehouse should be
covered with sawdust. The ice will form very slowly at first, but after the
bottom is covered it will congeal more rapidly. After a sufficient quantity
of ice has been formed, the sawdust may be put on, covering thickly around

eae Py Rak LS Nee tegen eee ae

~~ yee?

256 | THE FARM.
the edges, so that as the ice melts the dust will fall down and protect it. Ice
formed in this way will keep better than if sawed and packed in the usual

way. We consider this mode of saving ice worth a practical test by all who
have running water and sufficient fall. :

Whitewash for*Buildings and Fences.—If people knew how easily
whitewash is made, and how valuable it is when properly applied, it would
be in more general requisition. It not only prevents the decay of wood, but
conduces greatly to the healthfulness of all buildings, whether of wood or
stone. Out-buildings and fences when not painted, should be supplied once
or twice a year with a good
coat of whitewash, which
should be prepared in the
following way: Take a
clean, water-tight barrel,
or other suitable cask, and
put into it'a half-bushel of
lime. Slake it by pouring
water over it boiling hot,

=S= and in sufficient quantity
wis Maina iam == ___ tocover it five inches deep,
sR | and stir it briskly till thor-

Ava aL oughly slaked. When the
= Fin slaking has been thorough-
== init =| ly effected, dissolve it in

ese} TT

== iin ' water and add two pounds

SS GA wale ss :
== i anowmuiin aaa ja of sulphate of zinc and one
> EMA Te | of common salt; these will
=e Tees “
ee oF

———————SS

Ht
Mee cause the wash to harden
“il i a a DAB and prevent its cracking,
—_— kai which gives an unseemly
appearance to the work.
If desirable, a beautiful
cream color may be com-
municated to the above
wash by adding three-
pounds of yellow ochre; or
a good pearl of lead color
SMOKE HOUSE.—-FId. 1, by the addition of lamp,
vine, or ivory black. For
fawn color, add four pounds of umber, Turkish or American—the latter is
the cheaper—one pound of Indian red, one pound of common lamp-black.
For common stone color, add four pounds of raw umber and two pounds of
lamp-black.

Smoke Houses.—Our first illustration, Fig. 1, represents a smoke house
built of brick, 6x7 feet square, and suitable for a large farm. The bottom is
excavated the size of the building, two feet deep, filled in with small stones,
and on this a brick floor, well cemented, is laid. This insures dryness.
The walls are of brick, eight inches thick and seven feet high, with a small
door on one side, lined on the inside with sheet-iron or zinc. Hooks should
be firmly attached to the joists, on which to hang the hams and shoulders. —
This style of smoke house is not very expensive, is safe from fire, and when ~

AROUND THE FARM. 957

not in use for smoking meat, is an excellent receptacle for ashes, which

ought never to be kept in fe
contact with wood, on ac- _——
count of the danger from Ya
spontaneous combustion. Yt

Our next illustration, Fig. OTe TT MEELIS

2, represents one of the best
arranged smoke houses that
we have ever seen. It
was large and built of brick,
with an iron door which is

UT) AMM pana ii
PRREREES (CMAN ACTA

generally kept locked. In it
the gable end there is a fire- pth
place with a door. ‘‘A” “ie aS HAR THA CTE EE
shows the fireplace with PERT EL SOSH ri
door, for making the smoke, can it a [Moyen
a chimney leading up on the aa | a |

e Ij iL Us QmUNYUUI ;

lil

inside of the wall letting the
smoke into the room. The
advantage of this arrange-
ment is that the fire for
smoking is built without en-
tering the building, and sim- SMOKE HOUSE.—FIG. 2.

ply by opening the door of

the fireplace. The smoke passing up the chimney on the interior side of the
wall is cooled, and thus the
meat does not come in con-
tact with heat from fire. In
the ordinary smoke-house,
as is well known, the pieces
of meat often break loose
from their fastenings and

partitioned off and the meat
kept in a room by itself,
and the door being always
kept locked, except at such
times as the meat is de-
sired for the table, there is
no chance of loss from
thieves or flies. One can
keep theat in this house in
perfect condition from one

and no losses can accru
from any source. :

SMOKE HOUSE.—FIG. 3. For those who want a

cheap, easily made smoke

house, our illustration, Fig. 3, will meet the requirement. It is made in a

slight rise of ground, by an archway of brick, at the lower end of which the

fall into the fire or ashes ~
underneath, and are in-
jured or destroyed. Inthis —
plan the ash room may be’

end of the year to the other,

258 THE FARM,

fire is made, while at the upper end is placed a barrel or box containing the
hams and other meat to be cured. The lewer end is closed after the fire is
well started, to prevent a too rapid burning of the corn cobs or other ma-
terial used in smoking the méat, and also to direct the smoke to the upper
orifice for escape.

Ensilage.—This word, which is only afew years old, grows out of the
discovery made by a Frenchman, Auguste Goffart, that green crops, when
stored in water-tight pits called silos, under a heavy pressure, do not rot,
but are preserved fresh and sweet, and retain all their nutritive juices for a
year or more; and that, when offered to cattle in this condition, in the win-
ter, are preferred to any dry food. It is not surprising that the discovery
made a sensation among farmers and cattle feeders in this country, and that
there is exhibited a keen desire to know all about it; for, not only can a great
deal more in weight, of green food than dry, be raised on an acre, but ensi-
lage possesses the advantage of supplying cattle with succulent summer
feed in the winter—an advantage of great value to milch cattle. Any green
crop that stock are fond of when in a growing state is good material for ensi-
lage—grass, clover. rye, young corn, sorghum and vegetables; but corn,
clover and the grasses are most generally used, because when growing they
are full of juice, which is lost in curing into hay or fodder, but preserved in
the silo. Several kinds of green crops may be packed in the same silo, and
the ensilage is said to be improved by the variety. Corn, either drilled or
cultivated or sown broadcast, and cut in its most juicy condition, is the basis
of most ensilage experiments in this country; it may be packed in the same
silo with clover or grass of any kind cut green, and successive crops of corn
may be planted for mixture with different kinds of grasses in their season.
As it is estimated that ten to twenty tons weight of green crops may be cut
from an acre of good soil—five to ten times as much as the weight of a dry
crop of grain or hay—it is easy to see how much more profitable it is to save
green crops in the form of ensilage than to allow them to mature and dry.
Col. J. W. Wolcott, of Boston, who owns a farm near that city, raised 460
tons of ensilage on thirty-four acres—being fourteen tons to the acre—one
year. By raising two crops on the same soil he has gathered as much «as
twenty-one tons per acre. On one piece of ground he gathered thirty-one
tons per acre, but ‘‘ that corn was fourteen feet high,” he says. He adds:

‘**T am satisfied that an acre of ground will keep a cow twenty-four months.” ©

When the silo is opened in winter the contents are found ina sort of
cheesy condition, and require to be sliced off with a sharp axe. They have
undergone a slow and slight fermentation which does not impair their merits
as feed and is not offensive to cattle. Indeed, the first smell of ensilage ‘is
said to *‘set cattle wild for it,” and they prefer it to any other kind of feed.

Silos are variously constructed. The usual plan is to dig pits ten feet
wide, fifteen feet deep, and as long as may be desired, on sloping ground,
and make them water-tight with cement. Mr. C. W. Mills, of Pompton, New
Jersey, prefers to build a strong frame, boarded up tight and close with
thick lumber, entirely above the ground, something in the fashion of an ice
house. The green crops may be packed into them, either whole or cut up
with a cutter; each plan has its advocates, though the weight ofsopinion is
in favor of cutting, as it allows of closer packing. As the crops are thrown
in they are tread down as closely near the edges as possible, and when the
silo is full it is covered and weighted with heavy rocks or earth, and then
shedded over to protect it from the weather, In a few weeks the ensilage is

a r if i
acd Ral AR eg
: - : sey Ae
A € 4

f oe J . ‘ . <A AN a ae

AROUND THE FARM. 959

‘ripe ” and ready for ise. One end of the silo, if built along the ground, may
be opened and the ensilage cut out and fed as it is wanted. Tts quality will
depend on the crops of which it is made and the care with which they are
packed away. Nearly all animals will eat it; cattle like it and thrive on it,
and for milch cows it is particularly valuable, as it increases their flow of
milk and keeps them in cheerful, healthy condition.

What Goes with a Farm.—When a farm is bought or sold, questions
often arise as to what goes with it, and disputes may often be avoided if
farmers know just what their farm deeds include. In brief, says Mr. Haigh,
of the Detroit bar, n the American Agriculturist, where no reservations are
made in the deed, the conveyanee includes the land, the buildings upon it,
and all such chattels or articles as have becomé so attached or fixed to the
soil or to the buildings, as to become what is known in law as “fixtures.” —
What constitutes a fixture depends largely on the intention of the owner in
putting it there, and also upon the manner in which it is affixed. Anything
so affixed to the roll or the buildings that it cannot be removed without in-
jury nearly always goes with the farm, and anything of a permanent nature, ~
fitted for permanent use, and annexed thereto by the owner with that inten-
tion, generally goes with the land, though it might be severed without any
injury, as the following examples will illustrate: All fences on the farm go
without, but not fencing materials, as rails, etc.; if bought elsewhere and
piled upon the farm, and not yet built into a fence, they have never yet been
“annexed.” But rails built from timber standing on the farm and piled up
for future use go with it; their original annexation is not severed by being
ehanged from standing trees to rails. If, however, they were cut with the
intention of using them elsewhere than on the farm, they would then bé per-
sonal property and would not pass. The bare intention in the mind of the
owner in this instance makes the difference between real estate and personal

- property. Hop poles, if they have once been used upon the farm, are re-
garded as a part of it, though at the time of sale they are stored away for
future use. Loose scaffold poles, however, laid across the beams of a barn,
have been held not to be a part of the realty. Standing trees, of course, are
a part of the farm; so are trees cut or blown down, if left where they fall,
but not if corded up for sale; the wood has then become personal property.

To Tan Hides.—wWe think that many farmers would tan sheep and other
skins, with the hair and wool on, if they were told how. They are very con-
venient for sleighs, wagons, house rugs, and many other purposes. We give
the followmg from a reliable source, remarking that it is essentially the same
that we found in use by the trappers and hunters in the wilderness: All
fatty and fleshy matter should first be removed from the skin, and with
sheep skins the wool should be washed clean with soft soap and water, and
the suds be thoroughly rinsed out. For each skin take four ounces of salt,
four ounces of alum, and half an ounce of borax; dissolve these in one quart
of hot water, and when cool enough for the hand to bear, stir in sufficient
rye meal to make a thick paste. This paste is tobe spread thoroughly over
every part of the flesh side of the skin, which is then to be folded together
lengthwise, and left for two weeks in an airy place. Then remove the paste,
wash and dry the skin, When nearly dry, it must be worked and pulled,
and scraped with a blunt knife made for the purpose, shaped like a chopping
knife, or with a piece of hard wood worked toa sharp edge. The more the
skin is worked and scraped as it dries, the more pliable it will be. Other
furs can be tanned with the fur on.

THE FARM,

Weasel, Rat, and Vermin Traps.—The common steel rat-trap is fre= _
quently used with good success in destroying these vermin, but we give
herewith an engraving of a trap in this connection (Fig. 1), which we think
will be found more effectual, and it is so simple,in its construction that any
one can make it. The trap consists of an oblong box, the end of which draws
out, and is provided with a looking-glass in the internal side, which attracts
the vermin on looking i in. The entrance of the trap is formed of two spring
doors made of are, which allow the vermin to enter with least pressure.

These doors have sharp
points where they meet,
which, although not felt by
- the vermin when entering,
will prevent it from with-
drawing after having once
introduced its head. Near
to the looking glass a bait is
suspended, and a cage is also
fixed with a chicken to serve
asa decoy. These traps are
self-setting, simple, inexpensive, fit for all sizes of vermin, and safe for the
house, farm-yard, or game preserve.

We also give an illustration of another trap (Fig. 2), which can be easily
made by any person conversant with the use of a saw, hammer and nails.
The top and bottom of the trap are made of oak board one inch thick and
twenty inches square. It is divided into two parts, making really two distinct
traps. The corners are of wire about one-quarter of an inch in diameter,
and the sides and partitions of No. 7 wire. Holes are bored both top and
bottom, and the wires inserted. The corner wires are riveted, holding the
trap firmly together; the doors are of oak, three quarters of an inch thick,
and are kept in place by a cross wire on the top board of the Bae and by
two small staples near the bottom

edge of the door, which slide on the
uprieht wires on each side. The
treadle X is also oak, working on
the upright pin O, as a fulcrum,

be ;
| He
and being held in place by the wire r Frc mill
hook V working on a pivot at P, and inna
on the lower end of which the bait at

is placed. One side of the trap is
represented as set, the other as
sprung. ;

TRAP—FIG. 1.

aa ! >|

iN

Trapping the Mink, Skunk, TRAP—FIG. 2.
Etec.—Next to the weasel, the mink is most dreaded among poultry. In
localities near salt marshes, swamps, ponds, and sluggish streams they most
abound. The ravages of the mink are easily told from those of the weasel
or any other animal. He almost always carries off a portion of his prey and
tries to secrete it. Ifyou find a half-grown chicken or old fowl dead and
dragged wholly or partly into a stone wall or under some building, you may ~
be certain it is the work of a mink; and if you go to work right, you will be
just as certain to trap him.

One peculiarity of the animal makes his capture easy—he always returns
to a spot where he has hidden his quarry, or where he has made a raid; and

Ses AROUND THE FARM. 261
_ if he misses it, will go searching around for it. A knowledge of this fact led
to the invention some years since of the trap we now illustrate. It is un-
patented and our readers our free to make and use it.

The trap should be three feet long, one foot wide, and one foot high, out-
side measurement, and may be made of ordinary faced pine boards.

Nis the only solid part of the top, to which is hinged the lids L and D,
and also in which the standard 8 is mortised. The lid L is held up by the
rod A, in which are one or more notches to elevate it the desired height,
catching or hooking over the pin B, and projecting a few inches beyond.
Under A, and hinged into the standard by the pin P, is the lever T, also pro-
jecting an inch or more beyond. C is a treadle board, hinged at Y to the
bottom of the trap, and connecting by the wire W to the lever T, elevating it
about two inches when set. H is the bait box, separated from the main trap
by a wire screen, X X. O is a window, of which there should be one on each
side about three or four inches square, also covered with wire or wire cloth,
and D is the lid of the bait box, fastened down by the pin E.

If you have a chicken or fowl that has beenskilled by the mink a night or
two preceding put that into the bait box and close the lid, placing the trap as
near the spot where the dead fowl was found as you can. If a live fowl is
putin, no harm can be done to it, the screen effectually protecting it. The
mink enters the trap, and
as soon as his weight gets
well up on the treadle
it pulls down the lever T,
the projecting end of
which dislodges the rod A,
and drops the lid L. It is
best to have a we/ght upon
L, or else a catch to hold it
down when sprung, as we
have known an old mink to A MINK TRAP.
pry up the lid and get out.

We have never known this trap to miss when set immediately succeeding
the depredations of one of those varminis.

Next to the mink, the skunk is the most destructive to poultry. The
best way to trap him is with eggs, of which they are passionately fond.
They are not particular about the quality, as they seem tu favora rotten one,
or one with a dead chicken init. Tie the egg in a piece of netting, and fasten
it to the treadle of a steel trap, or toa common boxtrap. Find their burrow,
and set your trap near the mouth. It is nearly useless to set a trap where a
theft has been committed. The animal may not go back there for months.
He might possibly be caught in anightortwo. But the chances are against it.

Crows and hawks are to be classed among the enemies of poultry. The
former prey only on young chickens and eggs. Cutch one.and hang it in
your poultry yard; no other crow will come near it. The quickest and surest.
trap for crows is to place a steel trap in the shallow water of a pond, so that
the jaws when open, are just under water. On the treadle place a small tuft
of grass or moss, making a miniature island.. Then cut a small stick with
three branches, forking in such a manner as to support an egg on them;
stick this about six or eight inches from the trap; lay a little moss, grass, or
leaves over it, and place the egg on the forks, so it will appear as if floating
on the water; cover the remainder of the trap lightly with grass, so as to
hide it from sight, for Mr. Crow is very observant. To obtain the egg the

Re Le ete Oey Wi ia Vas SORE RRL ns! = fal ec eae OLS OMG RRR ee
Eeree eat ne RTs en a eal wet Se DS Lele he oa tg
‘ ‘ ay ee , i pae<ty YR " aS

Da "7. THE FARM.

crow will light on the ‘‘ island,” and find too late he is caught. When hawks
are troublesome the only remedy is to shoot them. You will soon notice
that he visits your yard about a certain time every day, and by watching for
him you can soon rid yourself of the troublesome visitor—of course provided
you are a good shot.

Trapping Ground Moles.—We give an illustration upon this page of a
very good and simple trap that may be successfully used in catching that
troublesome little pest, the ground mole. It is made of two ash boards, a
full inch in thickness, seven inches in width, and two feet six inches long,
attached to one end by a broad butt hinge. The form given to the bottom
board is shown in the cut, the central slit being made to admit the free play
of the trigger, which is represented by itself in the right-hand corner of the
sketch. Itis of iron, ten inches long; the lower part shaped like a paddle,
five inches long, one and one-eighth inches wide, and the left-hand end,
notched as shown, and three-quarters of an inch wide perpendicularly. The
post, sixteen inches high, is curved to the circular sweep of the top board on
its hinge. The teeth, six in number, on each side, are riveted seven-eighths

of an inch apart, in a
plate five and one-
fourth inches long and
one inch wide, contain-
ing four screw holes,
placed zigzag, and this
is found much firmer
and more secure than
if the teeth were in-
serted directly in the
upper plank. The trap
is set, as shown in the
cut, across a mole
track, first digging a

A GOOD MOLE TRAP. hole eightinches square

and six inches deep,

and returning the soil, taking care to exclude all stones and large pebbles.

Press the earth down pretty firmly, and set the trap so that the trigger

touches the surface of the ground exactly over the line of the track. When

the mole goes along his accustomed road, and finds it obstructed, his move-

-ments in reopening the track inevitably heaves up the surface, so as to set

off the trigger, and the teeth on one side or the other will catch him. Weight
the trap with a heavy flat stone.

Ridding the Land of Stumps.—We have frequently noticed persons
when clearing land make a brush pile oyer a green stump, with the expecta-
tion, apparently, that they were pursuing the right course to effectually rid
the land of its presence immediately, while in fact no better means could be
resorted to in order to insure its indefinite preservation. It has been the
experience of the writer that a stump should never be fired until it has be-
come sufficiently “‘seasoned” to insure its entire consumption, else the
charred remnant becomes impervious to the action of the elements, and it
will remain a troublesome customer to deal with for long years after.

These thoughts are suggested from a quite recent experience in dealing
with some very ‘old settlers,” which the hands on the farm wished to fire

AROUND THE FARM. 268

_ several years back, and were only prevented from doing so by a positive

command to the contrary. By a little patient waiting we are gratified with

seeing ‘‘the places which once knew them, know them no more forever.”
This is one plan of treatment.

Martin Boxes.—The box-house does very well if made of any small box
about fifteen inches square (which can be had of any grocer), with a division
put in it so that two families can inhabit it. A square hole should be sawed
out at the bottom edge opposite each
division, and the bottom nailed on. firs
Place the box on a pole from twelve to a
fifteen feet high, or on the gable end of Ant “lll
a roof, or eyen in a tree, and your rin
house is finished. It can be painted
or not, or even made in fancy designs,
which are quite attractive to the eye.
The illustration given on this page will
convey the idea. A hop, or other
rapid-growing climber, if planted at
the bottom of the pole, will climb up
it and cause it too look quite orna-
mental and picturesque. We have
seen them built two stories high, made
like a diminutive gothic cottage, which
is quite pretty. The house should be
made before the martins come, as
they are generally in a hurry to locate
and go to ‘‘ housekeeping.” By all
means give them some kind of a home.

Cisterns.—Many who have cisterns
and depend upon them for their sup-
ply of water for family use, hardly
realize the importance of keeping them F )
sweet and clean. Rain water as it
comes down from the clouds is prob- Af a

t v7) Rl
ably as pure as any water can be, but fli Ui it
after it has washed over a roof and ad bi
down the conductors into the cistern,
carrying with it dust, leaves, and other
rubbish that may have gathered on the
roof or in the gutters, it is not strange — oni
that the cistern should need to be MARTIN BOX,
cleaned out every year or two. If the cistern is not much used the water is
quite likely to become bad. It may look all right, and not taste very bad
either, and yet not be healthful. Of course all cistern water should be
filtered, and a soft brick filter is perhaps the best; but even then it will be- —
come necessary to clean the cistern as often as every two years, and better
every year.

il

To Purify Cisterns.—Throw in two ounces powdered alum and two
ounces borax to a twenty barrel cistern of rain water that is blackened or
oily, and in a few hours the sediment will settle, and the water will be clari-
- fied and fitfor washing

Sn A, SRS) A\, B53 .
Be) ek ea ers

264 THE FARM, ae ee

Silos and Ensilage.—The new system of preserving and feeding ensi-
lage, says an intelligent writer, is one of such simplicity that doubting minds
‘are incredulous as to possible results. If the building of a silo and the sub-
‘sequent process of filling with ensilage were some wonderful secret, or per-
haps a new discovery protected by a series of patents—if the use of the sys-
‘tem were permitted only under the payment of heavy royalties—there is a
‘class of skeptical minds who fatten on uncertain qualities, and who have but
little faith in any practice which is within the reach of persons of ordinary
intelligence and common sense. It is difficult for many minds to realize the
facts claimed for ensilage or to explain to themselves why such results
should be secured by processes so simple and by apportions so economical.
Yet proof, absolute demonstration, is within the reach of every inquiring
mind, or of every enterprising farmer who is willing to spend fifty dollars
for commencing experiments upon his own farm.

It is a most singular fact that the doubting minds are those who haye
had no practical experience on the subject, but whose conservatism is on
the parade. It is equally surprising that no intelligent, practical attempt at
silo building or ensilage feeding has resulted in failure, although men of all _
classes and attainments have experimented with the new system. It would
be reasonable to expect many failures among so many beginners of varying
capacities, were there anything intricate or uncertain in the process and its
auxiliaries. No authority in this country is competent to pronounce posi-
tively upon the future success or failure of this new system; it is for the in-
terest of no one to urge or induce the adoption of the system by any unwill-
ing farmer, and no one is to be enriched by the multiplication of silos,
except, perhaps, the individual owners. Many a conservative farmer will
await the report of his more enterprising neighbor, who. has built a silo, yet
it is certain that before many years every one will have an opportunity to
judge the merits and drawbacks of the system of ensilage.

New Way with a Silo.—A Massachusetts farmer records his experi-
ence as follows: We had always raised more or less Indian corn, using the
stalks for wintering our limited number of cattle. After increasing our herd
we planted fodder corn to help out our stock of corn stalks. However, the
hard labor attending the cutting, binding, shocking, and curing the fodder
made us willing investigators of the new and highly recommended system
of ensilage feeding. From all who had constructed silos and tested ensilage
we heard uniformly favorable reports. We could not learn of a failure,
hence we determined to test ensilage for ourselves, only hesitating on ac-
count of the probable labor and expense attending the erection and weight-
ing of a stone silo.

Learning that wooden silos found favor with some farmers who pro-
nounced them equally as good, so long as they lasted, as the more costly ;
stone affairs, we determined upon constructing our silo of wood. Our barn|
is a two-story building, measuring 40x80 feet. It contains several large
bays, the dimensions of which are 20x24 feet. We sealed up one of these
bays with 1 1-4 inch matched spruce boards covered with tarred paper. We
cemented the bottom of the silo, also the walls under the sills of the barn.
We coated the inside of the silo with coal oil to prevent the effects of mois-
ture upon the boards.

We stored about 125 tons of corn fodder in the silo, treading it down by
men, instead of horses, by reason of the small size of the silo. We were
about three weeks storing the whole of our fodder on account of the lack of

AROUND THE FARM. 265

help. For covering the silo we used hemlock boards and tarred paper, no
other weighting being applied until some three or
four weeks later, when we stored a quantity of dry

corn stalks upon the top of the silo. Upon opening

- the silo we found the fodder in a perfect state of pre-
servation, the ensilage showing no mold, except a
little on top, just under the cover. In preparing the
fodder, we employed a two-horse power to run our
cutter, the latter being provided with a carrier for
delivering the fodder in the silo.

Rustic Seats for the Lawn.—The garden and
lawn are incompletely furnished if they are not sup-
plied with some kind of seats whereon one may
recline at ease. Fortunately these seats need
not be costly; it would, indeed, show bad taste to

, have them so.
A\\\ Something easy,
graceful, fan- pusric suaT.—ria. 1.
tastic, rustic—
something that the sunshine or the
wind will not harm, or have its beauty
destroyed by the rain. The materials
for such seats are nearly always at
hand—at least on every farmer’s prem-
ises. All that is required is a little
skill and patience to construct them,
The branches of the trees may be bent
= and shaped into tasteful chairs, and
any desired form given to them. The
branches of the red cedar tree and wild

—
VOD tm * . e ‘i
ee etek cere grape vine furnish the best of material
RUSTIC SEAT.—FIG. 2. for this style of rustic seat. Our illus-

tration, Fig. 1, shows a very pretty chair

made in this manner. A few pine boards cut out and nailed together, as
represented in the engraving, Fig. 2,
will form a cheap and convenient
rustic seat, which will be admired
for its very simplicity and quaintness.
A favorite shade tree on the lawn
may be surrounded with seats so at-
tached that one in sitting may lean
against the trunk Our illustration,
Fig. 3, will give a good idea of how
seats of this kind may be constructed.
Of materials there are plenty
around almost every homestead—
tasteful labor only is wanting to
make appropriate rustic seats. The
position of such seats is worthy of
consideration. As they are mainly
intended for use in warm weather, Was

they should be amply shaded. A ; BUSTIO SEAT.—FIG, 3,

266 oe THE FARM.

position should be chosen that cornice a good prospect—if not a distant
landscape, then of the beauties of the lawn and the flower garden. Some,
at least, should be screened from observation by shrubbery—fragrant if pos-
sible—where one may read or work. It is during the warmer months that
the garden and lawn offer their greatest attractions, and everything that
tends to make them more enjoyable should be provided.

Hiow to Preserve Cider.—A pure, sweet cider is only obtainable from
clean, sound fruit, and the fruit should, therefore, be carefully examined
and wiped before grinding.

In the press use hair cloth or gunny in place of straw. As the cider runs
from the press let it pass through a hair sieve into a large open vessel, that
will hold as much juice as can be expressed in one day. In one day, or
sometimes less, the pomace will rise to the top, and in a'short time grow
very thick. When little white bubbles break through it draw off the liquid
through a very small spigot placed about three inches from the bottom, so
that the lees may be left behind. The cider must be drawn off into very ~
clean, sweet casks, preferably fresh liquor casks, and closely watched. The
moment the white bubbles before mentioned are perceived rising at the
bunghole, rack it again. It is usually necessary to repeat this three times.
Then fill up the cask with cider in every respect like that originally contained
in it, add a tumbler of warm sweet oil and bung up tight. For very fine
cider it is customary to add at this stage of this process about half a pound

- of glucose (starch sugar), or a smaller portion of white sugar. The cask
should then be allowed to remain in acool place until the cider has acquired
the desired flavor.

In the meantime, clean barrels for its reception should be prepared, as
follows: Some clean strips of rags are dipped in melted sulphur, lighted and
burned in the bunghole and the bung laid loosely on the end of the rag so
as to retain the sulphur vapor within the barrel. Then tie up half a pound
of mustard seed in a coarse muslin bag and put it in the barrel, fill the bar-
rel with cider, and add about a quarter of a pound of isinglass or fine gela-
tine dissolved in hot water. This is the old fashioned way, and will keep
cider in the same condition as when it went into the barrel, if kept in a cool
place, for a year.

Professional cider makers are now using calcium sulphite (sulphite of
lime) instead of mustard and sulphur vapor. It is much more convenient
and effectual. To use it, it is simply requisite to add one-eighth to one-
quarter of an ounce of the sulphite to each gallon of cider in the cask, first
mixing the powder in about a quart of the cider, and giving the latter a
thorough shaking or rolling. After standing bunged several days to allow
the sulphite to exert its full action it may be bottled off. The sulphite of
lime (which should not be mistaken for the sulphate of lime) is a commer-
cial article, costing about forty cents a pound by the barrel. It will preserve
the sweetness of the cider perfectly; but unless care is taken not to add too
much of it, it will impart a slight sulphurous taste to the cider. The
bottles and corks used should be®perfectly clean, and the corks wired
down.

A little cinnamon, wintergreen or sassafras, etc., is often added to sweet
cider in the bottle, together with a dram or so of bi-carbonate of soda at the
moment of driving the stopper. This helps to neutralize free acids, and
renders the liquid effervescent when unstopped; but if used to excess, it
may prejudicially affect the taste.

AROUND THE FARM. 267

- What Birds Accomplish.—The swallow, swift, and hawk are the
guardians of the atmosphere. They check the increase of insects that other-
wise would overload it. Woodpeckers, creepers, and chickadees are the

uardians of the trunks of trees. Warblers and flycatchers protect the foli-
age. Blackbirds, crows, thrushes, and larks protect the surface of the soil.
Snipe and woodcock protect the soil under the surface. Each tribe has its
respective duties to perform in the economy of nature, and it is an undoubted
fact that if the birds were all swept off the face of the earth man could not
live upon it, vegetation would wither and die; insects would become so
numerous that no living being could withstand their attacks. The whole-
sale destruction occasioned by grasshoppers which have devastated the
West is to a great extent, perhaps, caused by the thinning out of the birds,
such as grouse, prairie hens, etc., which feed upon them. The great and in-
estimable service done to the farmer, gardener, and florist by the birds is
only becoming known by sad experience. Spare the birds and save the fruit;
the little corn and fruit taken by them is more than compensated by the
quantities of noxious insects they destroy. The long-persecuted crow has
been found by actual experience to do more good by the vast quantities of
grubs and insects he devours than the harm he does in the grains of corn he
pulls up. He is, after all, rather a friend than an enemy to the farmer.

Recipe for Curing Meat.—To one gallon of water take one and one-
half pounds of salt, one-half pound sugar, one-half ounce saltpetre, one-
half ounce potash. In this ratio the pickle can be increased to any quantity
desired. Let these be boiled together until all the dirt from the sugar rises
to the top and is skimmed off. Then throw it into a tub to cool, and when
cold pour it over your beef or pork. The meat must be well covered with
pickle, and should not be put down for at least two days after killing, dur-
ing which time it should be slightly sprinkled with powdered saltpetre,
which removes all the surface blood, etc., leaving the meat fresh and clean.
Some omit boiling the pickle, and find it to answer well, though the opera-
tion of boiling purified the pickle by throwing off the dirt always to be found
in salt and sugar. If this recipe is strictly followed, it will require only a
single trial to prove its superiority over the common way, or most ways of
putting down meat, and will not soon be abandoned for any other. The
meat is unsurpassed for sweetness, delicacy, and freshness of color.

Value of Drainage.—As a matter of fact there is very little land in our
country that would not be improved by drainage. Many light soils are
8pringy, and the crops are injured in them by stagnant water. Heavy land
can never do its best until drained. Vast areas of low-lying but rich land
are practically valueless for want of drains to carry off the redundant mois-
ture which forbids the growth of any but aquatic plants. Many who admit
the importance of this improvement are puzzled about the ways and means
of effecting it. The Drainage Journal mentions the following plan, which is
well worthy of serious consideration: ‘‘ Some enterprising tile manufacturers
select careful farmers who own flat lands, and make them something like
the following proposition: That the farmer make a careful estimate of his
average crops, and the tile manufacturer proposes to furnish the tile neces-
sary to drain thoroughly the lands designated in the agreement, the farmer
to furnish the labor of putting in the drains at a stipulated price, to be paid
out of the excess of crops grown on the land over and above the average
yield before agreed upon, and the tile manufacturer agreeing to take the

268 THE FARM.” ae is

balance of the increase in four or five crops (a8 agreed) to cover the cost of
the tile. On ievel lands, where the average crop runs low and the land by
nature is rich, it is a safe proposition for the tile manufacturer, if the farmer
honestly performs his part of the contract. On rich level lands that need
drainage, and need it badly, it will pay twenty-five per cent. annually on the
investment, and in some instances more.”

Rustic Garden House.—No accessories to the garden add more to its
beauty and comfort than pleasant, comfortable seats and resting places.
They may be composed of a few sticks, forming a simple seat under the
shade of some tree, or may be made in the form of rustic houses. Simpli-
city, however, must not be Jost sight of, and no foolish attempt should be
made to eclipse the simple beauty of nature by any expensive display of art.
In our.travels on the Hudson we once stopped at the beautiful garden of
A. J. Downing, and after admiring the fine specimen trees it contained, and
surveying the finely-kept lawn, we found ourselves reclining in a pretty rus-
tic house, a view of which
is given in the engraving
on this page, and we now
present it as a model for
this kind of work. A lit-
tle patience and taste
and a very few tools will
enable one with ordinary
mechanical skill to erect
such a house at leisure
times, almost without
cost.

How to Make Sorgo
Vinegar.—A corre-
spondent writing from
Loutre Island, Mo., in the
Rural World, tells how
he made 1,000 gallons of
No. 1 vinegar mostly from
sorgo skimmings. He says: ‘‘Of course the first skimmings are not used.
t had two 160-gallon tubs. Into these I put about 70 gallons of apple pomace
(cider and all), 25 to 30 gallons of skimmings, according to thickness, then
filled up with rain water. I let it remain for two or three days, then drew it
off and put in a large 1,000-gallon cas, which I finished filling by the latter
part of October. Next spring I drew it off in 40-gallon barrels, put them in
a warm place where the sun shone on them part of the day, and I soon had
the very best of vinegar. The above casks were in an 01t-house where it
was as cold as out of doors. Of course it had no time to sour that fall, as
winter set in early in November; consequently freezing did not hurt it,
though it should not freeze after once becoming sour. Pressed or dry po-
mace is just as good, only add skimmings and water for the cider taken.
Vinegar made this way is better, I think, than when made of sorgo alone. It
can hardly be detected from pure cider vinegar, and is just as good. Bear in
mind that only enough water should be added to reduce the strength of the
skimmings to about that of cider. You need saccharine to make good vinegar.
You can’t make vinegar from a few apple peelings and a barrel of rain water.”

—
———

RUSTIC GARDEN HOUSE,

Ee a RN Fee ot er ok Wie a

AROUND THE FARM. 269

Blasting Stumps.—The following is the modus operandi of blasting
stumps with dynamite: Make a hole an inch in diameter near the stump,
_ inclining at an angle of about forty-five degrees, so as to reach underneath
the body of the stump. This hole may be made with a crowbar through the
soil, but if there be a large deep tap-root it will be necessary to continue the.
hole into the body of the tap-root by means of a long auger. A cartridge
containing three or four ounces of dynamite is then inserted to the bottom of
- the hole, and a slow match having a peculiar percussion cap on the end is
inserted in the cartridge. The hole is then tampered with earth, and when
all is ready the outer end of the match is lighted, and the operator retires to
a safe distance. The explosion usually not only extracts the stump from
the ground, but tears it into pieces small enough to handle easily. The
dynamite costs about forty cents per pound, so that a three or four ounce
charge, with its fuse, would cost #bout ten cents—making the cost of blow-
ing up a stump about ten cents, besides the labor.

How to Thatch Roofs.—Rye straw threshed with a flail and kept
straight, with the short /

or broken straws raked
out, is the best material.
The roof is made ready
for thatching by nailing
strips of boards, say one
by two inches, across the
rafters, putting them a
foot apart. The pitch
should be steep, to in-
sure a waterproof and 1
durable roof. The straw I it | 4 i HN oi
should be cut to a uni- hi i) ily i i Hi Hl Ma
form length, and care aL i f} (i! wt i! i Half ith 3
taken to have it straight )

and all right. The HOW TO THATCH ROOFS.

sketch shows how the

roof is prepared for the straw, and the manner the courses are laid. Tie
the straw in bundles that will average six inches in thickness. The band
should be close to the upper end, the one which is fastened to the cross
strip. The courses should overlap, so a8 to make the roof the thickness of
three bundles.

Fish Culture for the Farm.—No farm should be without a fish pond,
well stocked, any more than it should be without poultry. This may bea
startling announcement to farmers who have to go one hundred feet to
water, but it is none the less practical, as much as to keep stock on such a
farm. Water must be produced in either instance. On most farms the
drainage is favorable to ponds by throwing a dam across some sag or ravine
and retaining the water that would naturally run off. The pond would
serve the purpose of both stock and fish. Where this plan is not practicable,
a@ pump worked by a wind-mill will answer as well if kept running; the sur-
plus water drained into an artificial pond would supply the water. The
pond should be at least eight feet deep in the center. This would give the
fish an opportunity to place themselves beyond the reach of ice. A pond of
fifty feet in diameter would accommodate a reasonable supply of fish for an

270 ; THE FARM,

ordinary family if the fish are properly fed. Perhaps there is no fish 80 well
calculated for this character of farming as the carp. Itfeeds on vegetables, —
and in its habits has about the relation to an ordinary game fish that the

farm yard fowl has to the game fowl. ‘

A Suggestion for Drainage.—A Missouri farmer relates an experience
which offers suggestions, which, while they may not be exactly new, may
have for many, great practical value. There were upon his farm several

_ depressions which in wet seasons held ponds of water. To drain these by —
ordinary means would have been very expensive, because no gravel could
be got near the farm, and there was no tile factory in that vicinity. Open —
ditches were out of the question.

The services of an expert well-borer were secured. He sank several
test shafts in various parts of the farm, and found that the underlying
ground was a tenacious blue clay, fourteen to sixteen feet thick, and almost
perfectly impervious. Beneath this was found a strata of white sand. The
well-borer and his machine were placed in a wagon, which by means of a
long rope was hauled to the deepest parts of a pond about an acre in extent.
Here he bored a well down to the sand, completing the operation before
sunset of the day when the work began. In thirty-six hours the water had
disappeared and the pond was dry. Tomake this short perpendicular drain
permanent he had it cleared of sediment, sunk the shaft about two feet into
the bed of sand, and filled to the top with clean, coarse gravel from a creek
bed. The gravel was heaped about a foot high above the shaft to strain the
water properly that the shaft might not become choked.

They are thousands of places in the West where, year after year, farmers
have plowed around such wet spots, giving them up to the possession of
rushes and frogs. Yet they could be drained easily by a few hours’ work.
In Western Michigan a large swamp lay for years on the southern edge of a
village, a noisome barrier to progress and a bone of contention in village and
township politics. To Grain it a large ditch a mile or two long would have
been required; but some one, fortunately, discovered that a thin sheet of
clay was all that kept the water from going down into a deep strata of gravel,
boulders and sand. The wells were sunk and the swamp thoroughly drained
at an almost nominal cost, leaving rich black soil, which is the most produc-
tive and valuable in all that district. There may be thousands of similar
swamps, where two or three days spent in sinking test shafts would show a
ready means for converting sloughs or swamps into fields of wonderful
fertility.

Important Use of Coal Oil.—A Southern farmer says: “‘I once read an
article enumerating some of the practical uses to which coal oil can be suc-
cessfully put, in which the writer suggested that it would be an effective
remedy against the apparently indestructible bott or grub in horses. I had
a horse which had always been sohopelessly infected with both grubs and
the small intestinal worm, that he could never be kept in a better condition
than that of a skeleton, and with a ravenous appetite, and the best of treat-
ment with the use of all known remedies, appeared to be nothing more or
less than an improved type of a successful worm manufactory. Out of pa-
tience and disgusted with my patient, and not knowing how much kerosene
a horse could take without injury, yet determined to ‘ kill or cure ”—not
caring much which—I commenced to drench with a gill of oil, intending to
double the dose every day till a “cure” or a ‘‘ kill” was effected. On the

_ AROUND THE FARM. 271
first day I gave a gill, on the next a half a pint, and on the third a pint, and
it was very soon apparent that that was enough both for the worms and the
horse. Large quantities of both kinds passed, and the horse appeared to be
on the point of passing too, but he didn’t; and soon after all the usual symp-
toms of worms had disappeared, and the horse commenced to improve rap-
idly in flesh and general condition, and is now in better condition than I
have ever seen him, and still impr<ving.

“T also experimented with kerosene on cut nails to make them take the
place of wrought nails in a cart body I was building. I brought the nails to
a red heat, dropped them into the oil and let them stand until cool, when
they could be clinched, bent and twisted into any desirable shape almost
with as much case and safety as a piece of wire, of the same size. My cart
body required 100 nails, for which any blacksmith would have charged me
one dollar. Two pounds of ten penny nails cost ten cents, leaving a balance
of ninety cents in favor of the kerosene. This is asmall item, but the farmer
can save many such during the year, and it is the little things that pay.”

Draining Wet Land.—The objects of draining are:

1. To carry off surface water, by open drains.

2. To lower the water line.

3. To prevent waste of the surface-applied manure, by washing off the
soluble elements before they become incorporated in the soil.

4,.To put the soil in a condition to be benefitted by the use of lime, ashes
and alkaline substances. There is no use in manuring or liming land that
lies under water half the year.

5. To make the land a better absorbent of ammoniacal, nitrogenous and
carbonic acid gases—so necessary for the growth of all crops.

6. To make the soil more porous, so that rains and melted snow shall
descend through the soil, leaving their fertilizing elements in the earth that
has acted as a filter, instead of flooding the surface and carrying all their
rich freights off of the land.

The infinitely wise Father has provided a vast reservoir of the richest
agricultural elements which He pours upon the earth, in the rain and snow,
for us to utilize. The science of agriculture is teaching the wise how to se-
cure and utilize these elements. One way to do it is, to render the soil
porous and friable, ready to receive and hold the nitrogen and carbonic acid
gas that is precipitated upon it in showers andsnow. The nitrogen thus
precipitated by rains goes down to the alkaline elements constantly being
liberated in the soil and unites with the potash, soda and lime, forming the
nitrates of lime and soda and potash, thus making the soil one vast labora-
tory, on nature’s grand scale, for the production of a fertilizer that will never
deplete but constantly enrich the lands of the intelligent agriculturist.

7. To enable the farmer to start his plow from ten days to three weeks
earlier in the spring, and to keep it going when lands undrained are unfit to
work. The time lost on undrained lands in the spring and fall and after
heavy rains, which can be improved on well drained lands, will be sufficient
in from one to three years to satisfactorily drain most farms.

8. To make the land earlier and later. Well drained land is much
warmer and advances the growth of plants faster than land saturated with
water. As we can start our plows from ten days to three weeks earlier on
drained fields than on undrained, there is more than a corresponding differ-
ence in maturing of the crops in consequence of a warmer and quicker soil.
And as the plow can run later in the season when the fall rains are made to

272 | ae THE FARM.
percolate through the soil into drains, so the season is not only earlier in —
the spring but correspondingly prolonged in the fall, enabling one team to
accomplish during the season much more work. Every farmer knows what
a rush and hurry there is, when ground is undrained, to push things when
soil is tempered just right for work. Well drained land is always tempered
right. Steady work, wkich accomplishes the most, and not hurry, becomes
the order of the day, while there is always time to do everything well.

9. Another object of draining is to deepen the soil. Where the water
line has been six inches from the surface, thatis the depth of the man’s farm
for all practical purposes. Neither cereals nor root crops will go down below
the water line. Trees dobadly. Apples, pears and quinces blight when the
top roots go below the water line. Lowering the water line twelve inches
gives the tiller of the soil a new farm more ‘valuable than the first. The
potash, soda, phosphoric acid and lime of the first six inches has sunk down
into the strata below. As these substances, so necessary to the growth of
plants, sink down into the earth when wet, so they rise in the form of nitrate
when the ground is dry. So that underdraining gives the farmer control
by clovering and root cropping, of more valuable elements and greater
quantities of them, than he can affor d to buy.

10. The last object of draining we will mention is, to render the farm and
neighborhood more healthy. This is no unimpor tant consideration. We
know of districts of country many miles square which twelve years ago were
greatly subject to chills and fevers, but which, by only partially dr. aining and
liming, have become almost entir -ely free from these maladies. It is just
what any thinking person would suppose. Where the land is low and the
water lies either on the surface or within an inch or two of it, the surface
vegetation is decomposed by the action of the moisture as soon as the warm
rays of the sun fall uponit. Malarial marsh gas is eliminated; bilious and
intermittent fever, stomach and bowel afflictions, that carry off numbers of
children, follow as a natural and necessary consequence. Where there is
only a small pond hole, that dries up in summer, near the house, doctors
are sure to be in demand. We hardly know where to stop writing on this
important subject. Many other reasons for draining will readily suggest
themselves, and farmers should study the various methods of draining wet
land. 2

How to Cure Hams.—This receipt is fifty years old, and it is the best.
To each twenty pounds of fresh meat make a mixture of one-fourth of a
pound of brown sugar and a dessertspoonful of ground saltpetre; rub this
well by hand into the meat; then with coarse salt cover the bottom of a bar-
rel, say to half an inch; put in hams, and cover with half an inch of salt, and
so on until the barrel is full; hams should remain in a cvol*place four weeks;
when salted, wipe and dry them, and get some whole black pepper, which
you must grind yourself, and pepper thoroughly, especially about the hock
and bone; let the ham lie for two days; then smoke for eight weeks.

Axle-Grease.—< first-rate axle-grease is made as follows: Dissolve half
a pound of common soda in one gallon of water; add three pounds of tallow
and six pounds of palm oil, or ten pounds of palm oil only. Heat them to-
gether to 200 or 210 degrees Fahr.; mix, and keep the mixture constantly
stirred until the composition is cooled down to 60 or 70 degrees. A thinner
composition is made with half a pound of soda, one gallon of water, one gal-
lon of rape oil, and a quarter of a pound of tallow, or palm oil. 4

pus

AROUND THE FARM. 273

Driving Nails Into Hard Wood.—The editor of an agricultural peri-
odical witnessed an experiment of driving nails into hard seasoned timber,
fairly dried. He says that the first two nails, after passing through a pine
board, entered about one inch, and then doubled down under the hammer;
but on dipping the points of the other six or eight nails into lard, every one
was driven home without the least difficulty. Carpenters who are engaged
in repairing old buildings sometimes carry a small lump of lard or tallow for
this purpose on one of their boots or shoes..

Good Well Curbing.—The best timber for curbing a well is hemlock,
which is very durable when under water, and gives no’flavor to the water.
Of the woods some mention, all would rot very quickly except pine and
tamarack, but pine is objectionable on account of its strong flavor. If hem-
lock cannot be procured, tamarack would be the best. The timber should
be cut in two or three inch planks, and put together by halving the timbers
at the end, and holding the halved parts dovetailed or cornered together, so
that the sides cannot be forced in by the pressure of the earth, the upper
half of one piece fitting upon the lower half of the other piece.

To Repair Leaky Roofs.—One of the very best preparations for repair-
ing roofs that leak is to procure coal tar at the gas-works, and mix finely-
sifted coal ashes or road dust with it till about as thick as mortar. Plaster
with this carefully around leaky-roofed valleys or gutters, or about chimney
flushings. It will soon set as hard as stone, and apparently as indestructi-
ble. This preparation is very cheap, and would probably answer equally
well spread all over a rcof previously laid with felt or roofing paper. Once
put on properly, it would seem to be there for all time.

A Cheap Rain Gauge.—To make a rain gauge for farmers’ use, just as
good as if it cost three dollars, take a quart fruit can free from dents, hold
the top in the fire until the solder is melted, then knock it off; place the can
on a post, with brackets nailed around to keep it in place. Make a rule six
inches long, divided into tenths of inches—one made out of a strip of slate is
best. Measure the rain every morning after falling. An inch of rain is a
good rainfall, if it comes gently. This in weight will be 226,875 pounds, or
113 tons 875 pounds to the acre.

Burning Stumps.—Tree stumps are said to be easily removed by boring
a two-inch hole eighteen inches deep into the stump. Do this in the fall,
and fill with a concentrated solution of saltpetre, and plug up to keep out
water. By spring it will have permeated every part. Then fill the hole with
kerosene, set on fire, and the whole stump, it is said, will be consumed,
even to the roots. It would seem to be feasible, and it is certainly an
_ easy way to get rid of stumps. The ashes will remain to fertilize the soil.

How to Get Rid of Rats.—The English Standard says: ‘‘ Several corre-
spondents write to announce the complete extirpation of rats and mice from
. their cow-stalls and piggeries since the adoption of this simple plan: A mix-
ture of two parts well-bruised common squills and three parts finely-chopped
bacon is made into a stiff mass, with as much meal as may be required, and
then baked into small cakes, which are put down for the rats to eat.”

| Whitewash That Will Stick.—To make whitewash that will not wash
off by the rain, one peck of lime should be slaked in five gallons of water, in
which one pound of rice has been boiled until it is all dissolved. The rice

274 THE FARM.
water should be used hot, and the mixture covered up closely until the lime
is slaked. Then add a pound of salt, and the wash heated to boiling when
used. It is not an expensive preparation. It can be prepared by any
person wishing to use a good wash, and is highly satisfactory. Brother
farmers, try it.

—

Signs of a Prosperous Farmer.—When lights are seen burning in his
house before the break of day, in winter especially, it shows that the day
will never break on the breaking in of the winter of adversity. Met

When you see him drive his work instead of his work driving him, it
shows that he will never be driven from good resolutions, and that he will
certainly work his way to prosperity.

When he has a house separate from the main building purposely for
ashes, and an iron or tin vessel to transport them, it shows that he never
built his dwelling for a funeral pyre for his family, and perhaps himself.

When his hog-pen is boarded outside and in, it shows that he is “‘ going
the whole hog or none,” in keeping plenty inside his house and poverty out.

When his sled is safely housed in summer, and his farming implements
covered both winter and summer, it plainly shows that he will have a good
house over his head in the summer of early life and the winter of old age.

When his cattle are properly shielded and fed in winter it evinces that he
is acting according to Scripture, which says that ‘“‘ a merciful man is merciful
to his beast.” é

When he is seen subscribing for a newspaper and paying for it in advance,
it shows that he is speaking like a book respecting the latest movements in
agriculture, and that he will never get his walking papers to the land of
poverty.

To Clean an Old Roof.—Those wishing to know the best means of re-
moving moss and earth accumulations from an old shingle roof, are advised
to sprinkle lime freely along the comb of the roof, and let the rains dissolve
and carry it over the shingles. Every particle of dirt and moss will be re-
moved by it. If kept clean, shingles will last much longer. This method
is as good and cheaper than any direct application to the shingles.

Paint for Farmers.—Farmers will find the following profitable for
house or fence paint: Skim milk, two quarts; fresh slaked lime, eight ounces;
linseed oil, six ounces; white burgundy pitch, two ounces; Spanish white,
three pounds. The lime is to be slaked in water, exposed to the air and
then mixed with about one-fourth of the milk; the oil in which the pitch 18
dissolved to be added a little at a time, then the rest of the milk, and after-
ward the Spanish white. This is sufficient for twenty-seven yards, two coats.
This is for white paint. If desirable, any other color may be produced;
thus, if cream color is desired, in place of the part of Spanish white use the
other alone.

To Prevent a Carriage from Spotting.—A newly-varnished carriage
is liable to spot. To prevent this some wash the carriage two or three times
in clean cold water applied with a sponge instead of using a hose; this will
help harden the surface, and prevent it to some extent from being injured by
the mud or water getting splashed on the job. Never let mud dry on the
surface, and then wash off expecting to see no spots on the varnish. You
will certainly be disappointed, and the only way to remedy this evil will be
to have it revarnished. Soft watexis better than hard water for the washing

me AROUND THE FARM. 3 O75

of carriages, as the lime which is in the hard water is very liable to injure
the varnish.

Removing Carbonic Acid Gas or Foul Air from Wells.—A corre-
spondent gives an account of an extemporized apparatus for removing car-
bonic acid gas from wells. It was simply an opened out umbrella let down and
rapidly hauled up a number of times in succession. The effect was to re-
move the gas in a few minutes from a well so foul as to instantly extinguish
a candle previous to the use of the umbrella. Whenever there is an escape
of gas inan apartment, the adoption of this plan will be found useful.

To Render Wood Uninflammabie.—Professor Kedzie, of the Agri-
cultural College of Michigan, an expert chemist, says that a paint or wash
made of skim milk, thoroughly skimmed, and water brine, will render wood
uninflammable, and he proved it by experiment. He said this paint, or white-
wash, is durable, very cheap, impervious to water, of agreeable color, and,
as it will prevent wood from taking fire, urged its use, particularly on roofs,
outbuildings, barns, etc.

Remedy for Burdocks.—It is said that a certain and speedy remedy
for burdocks has been found in kerosene oil. A small quantity poured into
the heart of a plant, directly after cutting, leaves no trace of their existence
Save a small hole in the earth where they stood. Refined or crude oil will
accomplish the purpose just as well.

Paint for One Cent a Pound.—To one gallon of soft, hot water, add
four pounds sulphate of zinc (crude). Let it dissolve perfectly, and a sedi-
ment will settle at the bottom. Turn the clear solution into another vegsel.
To one gallon of paint (lead and oil), mix one gallon of the compound. Stir
it into the paint slowly for ten or fifteen minutes, and the compound and
paint will perfectly combine. If too thick thin it with turpentine.

A Good Word for Toads.—Toads, according to Prof. Miles, live almost
entirely upon slugs, caterpillars, beetles and other insects, making their
rounds at night, when the farmer is asleep—and the birds, too—and the in-
sects are supposed to be having their own way. French farmers understand
these facts so well that they purchase toads, at so much a dozen, and turn
them loose.

Protect the Swallow.—Among insectivorous birds the swallow is
worthy of great encouragement. An examination of the stomachs of eight-
een swallows killed at different seasons of the year showed that they con- _
tained an average of 406 undigested insects each, and not a single grain of
coru (of any kind), or the least particle of fruit or a trace of any vegetable.

Plan for Keeping Hams.—A very good way of keeping hams is to wrap
them in strong brown paper so that the ashes cannot come in contact with
‘them. Then pack them in clean, hard wood ashes, in dry boxes or barrels.
This will keep well cured hams quite sweet, as the ashes serve as a protec-
tion against insects. The boxes should be set in a cool, dry place.

Improving Lawns.—For ridding lawns of unsightly weeds, such as
plantain and dandelions, the following plan is recommended by an experi-
enced gardener: To the end of alight wooden rod attach a small sponge,
or better, wind a few thicknesses of cloth around it, dip the sponge in oil of

276 THE FARM.

vitriol, and with it touch the heart of the weed. The oil of vitrol may be car-
ried in a wide-mouthed bottle at the end of another rod.

Mold in Cellars.—To get rid of mold in cellars, put some roll brimstone
into a pan and set fire to it; close the doors, making the cellar as nearly air-
tight as possible, when the fungi will be destroyed and the mold dried up.
Repeat this simple and inexpensive operation every two or three months for
two or three hours at a time.

Thawing Frozen Apples.—It is stated by those who have had the ad- —
vantage of experience, that if apples which have been frozen are thawed in
the dark they are uninjured; but ifin the light, they very soon become
unfit for use. We should suppose the same result would most likely appear
if the experiment were tried with potatoes.

Washing Harness.—It is bad policy to wash harness with soap, as the
potash injures the leather. Ifthe harness becomes rusty rub off the dirt as
well as possible with a soft brush, and apply a dressing of grain black, fol-
lowed with oil or tallow, which will fasten the color and make the leather
soft and pliable.

A Good Suggestion About Harness.—Add a little glycerine to the
grease applied to harness, and it will be kept in a soft and pliable state, in
spite of the ammoniacal exhalations of the stable, which tend to make it
brittle.

Gas Tar for Wagon Wheels.—<A farmer who has tried it speaks in the
‘highest praise of gas tar for painting wagon wheels, stating that it tightens
tires and spokes better than anything that can be tried.

Mice in the Grain Chest.—If you are troubled about the grain chest
with mice, watch for their holes and scatter a little copperas in them. A few
grains will drive them away.

Rats and Mice.—Rats and mice will go into a trap much more readily if
a piece of looking-glass is put in any part of the trap where they can see
themselves. They are social little creatures, and where they can see any of
their tribe, there they will go.

This book is a complete
ready reference library for
farmers and housekeepers, =a 5
being filled with useful fees int Hee —
facts, hints and suggestions fj ELT. | LEN
upon all subjects pertain- (gy | NN
ing to rural and domestic Wy ty | [S x
affairs, embracing the re- h*a(faggZ777| aN \\
sults of experiment and | y yy ——
research by scientific and jiyy | Ge
practical men and women
in all civilized countries.
It contains the cream or
substance of more than a
dozen ordinary agricultural
an:l household books, and is
the only first-class work of
the kind ever sold at less
than six dollars. It is a
book to be consulted every
day in any emergency, and
to be read at all times with
interest and profit. It is
such a book as every farmer
and housekeeper needs and
ought to have, supplying
the universal want of a re-
liable counsellor upon every
topic relating to the farm
and household, and will
save its small cost every
week in the year. The work
is profusely illustrated, and
is divided into two general : f
headings, viz.: The Farm and The Household,each of which occupies half the
book. These are again sub-divided into a number of departments, as follows:

K SAY
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tin

Rural Architecture — Fences and Gates — Field Crops — Fertilizers — The
Garden —- Orchard and Vineyard — Small Fruits — Live Stock — The
Poultry Yard — The Dairy — The Apiary — Farm Implements — Around
the Farm— Cooking Receipts —Ladies’ Fancy Work -— Floriculture —
The Home Physician — The Toilet -- The Laundry — Hints and Helps.

: All of the above subjects are fully and ably treated in this valuable book.
It isa vast storehouse of useful facts, hints and suggestions of the utmost
‘value to farmers and housekeepers, and no man who has a home and an acre
or more of land can afford to be without it. The publishers know full well
that farmers are a class who have no money to waste upon luxuries, and are
equally well aware that the purchase of this book will be to them the most
profitable of investments. While other books of this character are sold for $6
and $10, for all practical purposes they are no better than this. The book

- meets a universal want, and should find its way into every rural home. THE

FARM AND HOUSEHOLD CYCLOPDIA is a large and handsome book of 544
pages, 12mo, printed upon fine paper, and elegantly bound in cloth, embel-
lished with artistic designs in black and gold. it contains Two Hundred and
Forty-nine Illustrations, the original cost of which was nearly $5,000. The
book will be sent by mail, post paid, upon receipt of price, only One Dollar.
It is as large and as handsomely gotten up as books usually sold at $1.50 and
$2, and its contents are worth the weight of the book in gold to every farmer
and housekeeper.

Address all orders: THE PHELPS PUBLISHING C@.,
Springfield, Mass.
N.B.—Every purchaser of this book will receive FARM AND HOME for one year,

ya

A BOOK THAT EVERY AMERICAN CITIZEN SHOULD POSSESS !

THE POPULAR HISTORY of the C1VIL WAR!

We suppose that almost any
intelligent American of the
present day, if he were limited
to the possession of three books,
would select.as follows: 1. The
Bible; 2. A Dictionary: 3. A
History of the Civil War. The
great Civil War between the
North and South, in the years
186] to 1865 inclusive, was, next
to the American Revolution,
the most stupendous event in
the history of our great country.
During those memorable four
years, when our fair land was
bathed in the bleod of its
gallant sons, the whole world
looked on with breathless in-
terest. It is but natural that
an event of such paramount
importance in our national
history should have engaged
the attention of every promi-
nent American historian. Al-
most a multitude of books di-
rectly bearing upon the Rebel-
lion have been published. Yet
it is our firm belief that the
War Histories heretofore pub-
lished are but meagerly adapt-
ed to the wants of the masses
of American citizens to-day;
first, because they are too ex-
pensive, involving an outlay
greater than the majority of
oe : Me people can afford tomake; and,
00 HL Buell second, because they are too

UM Dat lengthy, going so minutely into
I particulars and details that
they become dry and uninter-
esting, This work is most aptly and appropriately entitled * THE POPULAR HISTORY OF THE
CIVIL WAR,” because it meets the populay demand foran authentic history of the Rebellion,
written in the mostentertaining manner and published at a price within the reachof all.
The bookisa thorough, complete and authentic history, not only of every im, ortant battle
and naval engagement that occurred during the war, but is likewise very complete in its
treatment of the political conditions, sectional differences and other causes which brought
on the great conflict. Itisjustsuch a war history as every American citizen should possess,
and will prove of the utmost interest and value, not only to those who we]l remember, and
some of whom participated in the war for the Union, but especialiy to that large class who
have grown to manhood and womanhood long since the war closed, none of whom, not
having read and carefully studied the history of the greatest contest of the Nineteenth
Century, can claim to be well-informed and intelligent American citizens. _

The new edition of this book, now offered, is greatly enlarged, both as to size of pageand
number of pages, and contains, in addition to the history proper, asketch of The Grand.
Army ofthe Republic, bya prominent officer of the organization, likewise an appendix
devoted to Anecdotes of the Rebellion, containing a large collection of humorous,
pathetic and thrilling narratives of actual experiences during the war, embracing
reminiscences of bivouac and battle-field, camp life and picket duty, thrilling adventures of
scouts and spies, narratives of remarkable heroism, stories of prison life, stories of the great
Generals, stories of Mr. Lincoln, etc., etc. This additional matter will be found quite as
interesting asthe History itself, and renders this unquestionably one of the bestand most
complete War Books ever published.

“THE POPULAR HISTORY OF THE CIVIL WAR” is a large book of 644 pages, 12mo, hand-
somely printed in large type upon fine paper, and elegantly bound in cloth, embellished
with designsin black and gold. It is profusely and elegantly illustrated, the engravings
representing scenes of the prominent battle-fields and naval engagements, camp life and
picket duty, likewise portraits of the great Generals, both Union and Confederate, and
other prominent men upon both sides who were identified with the struggle. It is a most
magnificent volume, as attractive in appearance asits contents are instructive and enter-
taining, and would richly grace any man’s library or parlor table. The book will be sent
by mail, post paid, upon receipt of price, only One Dollar. No other first-class history
of the Rebellion can be obtained for less than five times that sum, and the majority of books
upon this subject cost not less than $10.00.

Address all orders: THE PHELPS PUBLISHING CO.,
Springfield, Mass.

N.B.—Every purchaser of this book will receive FARM AND HOME for one year.

A BOOK THAT SHOULD BE IN EVERY AMERICAN HOME.

Tha anily Cpeopaa of Unf Krowetg

This is unquestionably
one of the most interest-
ing; entertaining and in-
structive books ever pub- Ae
lished. It is a universal FE SMW TN N Vy ANOS
educator for every member A 4 wy)
of the family circle, filled SS oe ) Ss
with useful information 4
from beginning to end, and
this information is givenin
such an attractive and
pleasing way that the book
is quite as entertaining as
it is instructive. It treats
of hundreds of subjects of
which no man, woman or
child who seeks to be well
informed can afford to be &
ignorant, yet of which the §
masses of people are en-
tirely unlearned. It con-
tains the cream or substance
of a dozen ordinary vol-
umes, and is one of the
most valuable and useful
books a family can have in
the house. No living man
is so well informed that he
may not learn from it. Itis
a book for the masses, for
old and young, rich and
poor, and will be read with
pleasure and profit by all.
It will likewise be found of
great value as a work of reference. The book is profusely and elegantly illus-
trated, and is conveniently divided into departments, as follows:

Biography.—History.—Natural History.—Travels, Manners and
Customs, etc.—The World Illustrated.—Useful Arts and
Manufactures.—Trees, Plants, Fruits, etc.—Great In-
ventions.—Mining.—Wonders of the Sea.—
Familiar Science.—Law for the Masses.
—Statistical and Miscellaneous.

All the above subjects are fully and ably treated in this valuable book. It
is a vast storehouse of useful and entertaining knowledge—unquestionably
one of the best and most valuable books ever published in any land or
language. No cyclopedia evér heretofore published at twice the cost is to be
compared with this book in point of artistic make-up, beauty and excelience
of illustration, and quality of contents. Asa holiday or birthday present for
any one nothing more appropriate or acceptable could possibly be selected.
THE FAMILY CYCLOPHDIA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE is a large and handsome
book of 544 pages, 12mo, printed upon fine paper and elegantly bound in cloth,
embellished with artistic designs in black and gold. It contains Two Hun-
dred and Seventy-three Beautiful Dlustrations, the original cost of
which was over $5,000. The book will be sent by mail, post paid, upon receipt of
price, only One Dollar. It is as large and as handsomely gotten up as books
usually sold at $1.50 and $2, and in the quality of its contents is worth a dozen
ordinary volumes.

Address all orders: THE PHELPS PUBLISHING C®O.,

Springfield, Mass,

N.B.—Every purchaser of this book will receive FARM AND HOME for one year.

eee Tee Ae Rak ee! is “ee eS
~ ae ‘ ~ Sj ie i, ie

A FAMOUS BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL WORK.

LIVES OF OUR PRESIDENTS!

There is no class of men the
event; of whose lives are so in-
Yi teresting to American citizens as

those who haye been elevated to
Wi the highest office in the gift of the
=} People. This book contains the
life of every man who has occu-
pied the Presidential chair, from
George Washington to the present
incumbent. The biographies aré
not brief sketches or outlines, but
are full, complete and exhaustive,
narrating every prominent event
in the life of each President, from
the incidents of his boyhood down
to his death, or to the present pe-
riod, together with extracts from
his most. important speeches and
public documents. Incidental to
‘the biographies, we have almosta
complete history of our country,
jrom the time of the struggle for
Independence to the present day,
for no class of men have been
more closely identified with our
ational growth than have our
chosen rulers, and each Adminis-
tration has formed a distinct era
in American history. Thus, in
the life of Washington we have a
full account of the military ope-
rations during the Revolutionary
War, while in the lives of John
Adams and Thomas Jefferson we
coe wade fully ect pa ee with

- 1e . diplomatic and legislative

— ee TT mm details of that great struggle.

mae re ArT In the lives of James Madison and
TL + LAC Andrew Jackson we find a history

Uitrengy. of the War of 1812, in that of Har-
rison the exciting incidents of the Wars with the Indians, while in those of Taylor and
Pierce a fullhistory of the Mexican Warisgiven. Coming down to the late struggle for the
Union, we find in the life of Abraham Lincoln a complete narrative of the political features
of the contest, andin that of General Grant an account of the more important military
operations. Thusare history and biography blended in this book, and the result isa work
of the mostinteresting and instructive character. No person who would be familiar with
the history of hiscountry and the lives of its chosen rulers (and no American citizen can
claim to be wellinformed without such knowledge), can afford to be without this book, and
every father should buy itfor the instruction of his children. It is written in such an en-
tertaining manner that young people will read it as readily asa novel, from which no useful
informationisgained. Thelives of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln contained
in this volume are alone worth the price of the book. :

Th new edition of this book, now offered, is greatly enlarged, both as to size of page
and number of pages, and contains, in addition to the lives of allthe Presidents, over one
hundred pages devoted to the Early History cf America, from the discovery by
Columbus to the period of the Revolutionary War. _ The graphic narrative here given of the
early struggles of the Colonists will be found exceedingly interesting, and this additional
matter, embracing as it does a complete history of the country during the period precedin
the time of Washington, renders the book complete as a history of the United States, as we
as one of the most interesting and valuable biographical works ever published.

‘(LIVES OF OUR PRESIDENTS’ isa large book of 544 pages, 12mo, handsomely printed
from large type upon fine paper, and elegantly bound in cloth, embellished with artistic
designs in gold and black. It contains a full page portrait, reproduced from a steel plate,
of each of the Presidents, with a fac-simile of his autograph, together with many other
beautiful and interesting illustrations, such as the birthplaces and early homes of the
Presidents, historical scenes and incidents, public buildings, etc. Itis a book which would
grace any library or parlor table; it is a book which will be read with both pleasure and
profit, and may be handed down in a household from generation to generation, for itis a nar-
rative of facts and not of fiction, and will be just asinteresting and instructive to your
children’s children as itis to yourself. ‘‘LIVES OF OUR PRESIDENTS”? will be sent by mail,
post-paid, to any address, upon receipt of price, only One Dollar. It is the cheapest
book of the kind ever issued, no work of its scope and character ever having been published
heretofore for twice that sum.

Address all orders; THE PHELPS PUBLISHING CO.,
Springfield, Mass.

N.B.—Every purchaser of this book will receive FARM AND HOME for one year.

ted

‘«@
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Ze

"4

es Se a BOOK THAT EVERY LADY NEEDS.
IE LADIES’ GUIDE
TO FANCY WORK.

How to make the Home Beautiful at small cost
is asubject now uppermostin the mind of every
lady of good taste. This book is a complete
practicalinstructor in every description of Ladies’
Fancy Work, and the only first-class work of the
kind ever published ata low price, It contains
nearly 300 Illustrations, and the instruc-
tions given are so plain and simple that by their
aidevena child may make the many beautiful
things which the book describes. It gives plain
and practical instructionsin Drawing, Oil Paint
ing and making Wax Flowers ; likewise all kinds
of Fancy Needle Work, Artistic Embroidery, Lace
Work, Knitting, Tatting, Crochet and Net Work.
It contains designs for Monograms, Initials, Cross
Stitch Patterns, Knit Edgings, Embroidered Bor-
ders and Corners, Macrame Work, Applique Em-
broidery, Berlin Work, Java Canvas Work, Tricot
and Burlaps, Antique Lace, Beaded Lace, Darned
= Net Work, Tidies, Lambrequins, Ottomans,
Counterpanes, Rugs, Carriage Robes, Brackets,
Wall Pockets, Waste Paper Baskets, Work Boxes,
Work Ragietss Work Bags, Pen Wipers, Hanging Baskets, Catchalls, Pin Cushions, Foot-
stools, Handkerchief Boxes, Glove Boxes, Card Baskets, Sofa Pillows, Table Covers, Table
Scarfs, Screens, Scrap Bags, Hand Bags, Table Mats, Toilet Mats, Lamp Mats; Lamp Shades,
Pillow Shams, Pillow Sham Holders, Curtains, Toilet Stands, Picture Frames, Slipper
Cases, Letter Cases, Toilet Sets, Clothes Brush Holders, Cigar Boxes, Hassockg Sachets,
Fancy Purses, Slippers, Dressing Gowns, Music Portfolios, Knife Cases, Fans, Flower Baskets,
Plant Stands, Flower Pot Covers, Shawls, Dress Trimmings, Window Shades, Feather Work,
Spatter Work, Leaf Photographs, and many other things. Itis book that should be in
every American household. With it as a guide you may make hundreds of beautiful
things for the adornment of
your home and for presents to
your friends at the most trifling
expense, and no employment
for ladies is more fascinating
and useful. The book willrepay &
itssmallecost many timesover &
ina very short time. Every lady
will be delighted with it. Itis
a’ large book of 64 large 3-
column pages, with handsome
cover, is’ finely printed, and,
asabove stated, contains nearly W
300 illustrations. It willbe sent
by mail, postpaid, upon receipt *
of price, only ‘aha nie bie bd
Cents.

Address all orders: THE PHELPS PUBLISHING CO.,
Z Springfield, Mass,

Books, Three Cents Each!

The following books are published in neat pamphlet form, many of them handsomely

illustrated, and all are printed from good type upon good pa
variety of subjects, and we think no one can examine the list without finding therein
In eloth-bound form these books would cost $1.0u

that. he or she would like to possess.
each. Each book iscomplete in itself. -

1. The Widow Bedott Papers. This is the
book over which your grandmothers laugh-
ed tillthey cried, and it is just as funny to-
day as it ever was.

2. Fancy Work for Home Adornment, an
entirely new work upon this subject, con-
taining easy and practical instructions for
making fancy baskets, wall pockets, brack-
ets, needle work, embroidery, etc., etc., pro-
fusely and elegantly illustrated.

3. Grimm’s Early Stories for the Young.
The finest collection of fairy stories ever
published. The'children will be delighted
with them.

4. The Lady of the Lake. By SIR WALTER
Scotr. ‘The Lady of the Lake” is a
romance in verse, and of all the works of
Scott, none is more beautiful than this.

5. Manual of Etiquette for Ladies and
Gentlemen, a guide to politeness and good
breeding, giving the rules of modern eti-
quette for all occasions.

6. The Standard Letter Writer, for Ladies
and Gentlemen, a complete guide to corre-
spondence, giving plain directions for the
composition of letters of every kind, with
innumerable forms and examples.

7. Winter Evening Recreations, a large
collection of Acting Charades, Tableaux,
Games, Puzzles, ete., for social gatherings,

rivate theatricals, and evenings at home;
illustrated.

8. Dialogues, Recitations and Readings, a
large and choice collection for school exhi-
bitions and public and private entertain-
ments.

9. Parlor Magic and Chemical i ta a
a book which tells how to perform hundreds
of amusing tricks in magic and instructive
experiments with simple agents.

10. The Home Cook Book and Family Phy-
sician, containing hundreds of excellent
cooking receipts and very, housekeepers,
also telling how to cure all Common ailments
by simple home r dies,

1. Manners 1 Customs in Far Away
Lands, a very inti ‘esting and instructive
book of travels, describing the peculiar life,
habits, manners and eustoms of the people
of foreign countries; illustrated,

12. Sixteen Complete Stories by ‘Popular
Authors, embracing love, humorous and
detective stories, stories of society life, of
adventure, of railway life, etc., all very in-
teresting.

13. The Budget of Wit, Humor and Fun, a
large collection of the best funny stories,
sketches, anecdotes, poems and jokes that
have been written for some years; illus-
trated.

14. Useful Knowledge for the Million, a
handy book of useful information for all,
nye many and various subjects; illustrat-
ed.

r, They treat of a great
any

15. Called Back. A Novel. By Hvucu
Conway, author of ‘‘ Dark Days,” etc.

16. At the World’s Mercy. A Novel. By
FLORENCE WARDEN, author of ‘‘The House
on the Marsh,” etc.

17. Mildred Trevanion. A Novel. By “THE
DvucHEss,”’ author of *‘ Molly Bawn,” etc.

18. Dark Days. A Novel. By HUGH Con-
WAY, author of ‘‘Called Back,” ete,

19. The Mystery of the Holly Tree. A Novel.
By the author of ** Dora Thorne.” ‘

20. Shadows on the Snow. A Novel. By B.
L. FARJEON, author of ‘‘Bread-and-Cheese
and Kisses,” ete.

21. The Grey Woman. A Novel. By Mrs.
GASKELL, author of ‘Mary Barton,” ete.
22. The Frozen Deep. A Novel. By WILKIE
a aia author of ‘*The Woman in White,”
ete.

23. Red Court Farm. A Novel. By Mrs.
HENRY WOOD, author of ** East Lynne,” etc.

24. In Cupid’s Net. A Novel. By the author
of ‘‘ Dora Thorne.”’

25. Back to the Old “Home. A Novel. By
MARY CECIL Hay, author of ** Hidden Perils,”
ete.

26. John Bowerbank’s: Wife. A Novel. By
Miss MULOCK, author of ‘‘John Halifax, Gen-
tleman,’’ etc. '

27. Lady Gwendoline’s Dream. A Novel. By
the author of ‘‘ Dora Thorne.”

28. Jasper Dane's Secret. A Novel. By
Miss M. E. BRADDON, author of ‘Aurora
Floyd,” ete.

29. Leoline. A Novel. By MARY CECIL Hay,
author of ‘‘ Brenda Yorke,” etc.

30. Gabriel’s Marriage. A Novel. By WILKIE
COLLINS, author of ‘‘No Name,”’ etc, ‘

31. David Hunt. A Novel. By Mrs. ANNS.
eo author of “ Fashion and Famine,”
ete.

32. Reaping the Whirlwind. A Novel. By
Mary CECIL HAY, author of ‘* Old Middleton’s
Money,” etc.

“33. Dudley Carleon. A Novel. By Miss M.
E. BRADDON, author of “Lady Audley’s
Secret,’ etc. ;

34. Essica: or. The Mystery of the Head-
lands. A Novel. By Etta W, PIERCE, author
of ‘*The Birth Mark,” etc.

35. A Golden Dawn. A Novel. By the
author of ‘‘ Dora Thorne.”’ s

36. Valerie’s Fate. A Novel. By Mrs. ALEX-
ANDER, author of ‘‘The Wooing O’t,” etc.

Sister Rose. A Novel. By WILKIE COL-
LINS, author of ‘*The Woman in White,” etc.

38. Anne. A Novel. By Mrs. HENRY Woop,
author of *‘ East Lynne,” ete.

39. The Laurel Bush. A Novel, By Miss
MULOCK, author of ‘‘John Halifax, Gentle-

man,” etc.
40. Amos Barton. A Novel. By GEORGE
EnioT, author of ‘Adam Bede,” ‘‘The

Mill on the Floss,” etc. ;

a= Any four of the above books will be sent. by mail, post-paid, upon receipt of 1%
Cents; any ten for 25 Cents; any twenty for 50 Cents; the entire list (40 books) for:

81.00.
Address all orders:

X895 7,

THE PHELPS PUBLISHING C@.,

Springfield, Mass.

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Os Rat OV
PAL al ut iA

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00025862302