THE

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST.

A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY

AND

ALLIED SCIENCES.

EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS.

Prof. Samuel Calvin, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.

Dr. Edward W. Claypole, Buchtel College, Akron, O.

Dr. Persifor Frazer, Franklin Institute , Philadelphia, Penn.

Dr. Lewis E. Hicks, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.

Mr. Edward O. Ulrich, Geol. Survey of Illinois, Newport, Ky.

Dr. Alexander Winchell, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Prof. Newton H. Winchell, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.

VOLUME III.

January to June, 1889.

MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.

1889.

THE SWINBURNE PRINTING COMPANY.

CONTENTS.

JANUARY NUMBER.

Roland Duer Irving. [Portrait]. Pres. T. C. Cham¬
berlin . 1

The geological history of the Ozark uplift. G, C.

Broadhead . 6

The glacial origin of cliffs. [Illustrated]. W. M. Davi-s . . 14

The diabasi'c schists containing the jaspilyte beds of

northeastern Minnesota. Horace V. Winchell. . 18

Note on the geology of Mt. Stephen, British Columbia.

R. G. McConnell. . . . ... 22

Some geological problems in Muscatine county, Iowa,
with special reference to the rectification of the
supposed Kinderhook near the mouth of Pine

creek. S. Calvin . 25

Soils of Nebraska as related to geological formations.

[Map.] L. E. Hicks . 36

Editorial Comment . — The exhaustion of anthracite coal, 45.

Review of recent geological literature. — Synopsis of Rosenbusch’s new
scheme for the classification of massive rocks, W. S. Bayley, 48.
— Proceedings and transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute of
Natural Science; papers by Du. Honeyman, 48. — Specimens of
Eozoon canadense and their geological and other relations, Sir J.
Wm. Dawson, 48. — Gold fields of Victoria, 49. — Prof. C. L. Her¬
rick’s investigations of the Waverly group of Ohio, 50. — Die
steinkohlen, ihre Eigenschaften, A'orkommen, Enstehung, und
nationalokonomische Bedeutung von Franz Toula, 50. — Notes on
the geology of western Texas, Robt. T. Hill, 51. — On the origin
of primary quartz in basalt, Jos. P. Ijddings, 52. — Microscopical
physiography of the rock-making minerals, H. Rosenbusch, 53.
Recent publications , 54.

Correspondence , 55. — Exogenous nature of the trunks of lepidodendrids
and sigillarids of the Coal Measures, E. W. Claypole, 55. — The
need of an elementary work on petrography, A. Winchell, 57. —
Further notes on “a green quartzite from Nebraska,” J. E. Todd,

59. — Some remarks on professor Henry S. Williams’ report of the
sub-committee on the upper Paheozoic (Devonic) Jules Marcou,

60.

Personal and Scientific News, 61.

An unjust attack, Persifor Frazer, 65.

FEBRUARY NUMBER.

Glaciers and glacial radiants of the ice age. Dr. E. W.

Claypole . 73

Notes upon the Waverly group in Ohio. [Illustrated].

C. L. Herrick . . . 94

Fossil wood and lignites of the Potomac formation. F.

H. Knowlton. . . 99

Physical theories of the earth in relation to mountain

formation. T. Mellard Reade . 106

The Chouteau group of eastern Missouri. R. R. Row-

ley .

Ill

IV.

Contents.

The artesian well at City park, Davenport, Iowa. A. S.

Tiffany . . 117

Barrande and the Taconic system. Jules Marcou ... . 118

Editorial Comment. — A new glacial theory, 138. — The Geological Soci¬
ety of America, 140.

Review of recent literature, 146. — Useful minerals of the United States,
Albert Williams Jr., 146. — The visual area of the trilobite
Phacops rana, John M. Clarke, 146. — Geological survey of the
state of New York, James Hall, 147. — The attachment of Platy-
ceras to crinoids, C. It. Keyes, 148. — The American Anthropolo¬
gist, 149. — Relations of Homosteus and Coccosteus, Traquair,

149. — Pressure as a factor in metamorphism, Harker, 150. — More
fossils in the Lower Cambrian of North Wales, T. McK. Hughes,

150. — Ueber die eruptive Natur gewisser Gneisse sowie des
Granulits im sachsischen Mittelgebirge, E. Danzig, 151.

Personal and Scientific News, 152.

MARCH NUMBER.

Conglomerates enclosed in gneissic terranes. Alexan¬
der Winchell . 153

Natural science at the University of Minnesota. [Illus¬
trated.] N. H. Winchell . 165

Foliation and sedimentation. Andrew C. Lawson. . . . 169

The Newark system. Israel C. Russell . 178

Mr. Forster on earthquakes. R. D. Salisbury . 182

The original location of Gryphsea pitcheri. Jules

Marcou . 188

Editorial Comment. — Rejoinder to Dr. Lawson, 193. — Another old
channel of the Niagara river, 195.

Review of recent literature. — Recherches sur les Poissons Paleozoiques,
Lohest, 196. — The iron ores of the Penokee-Gogebic series of
Michigan and Wisconsin, Van Hise, 197. — The great lake basins
of the St. Lawrence, Drummond, 198. — Northern Kansas : Its .
topography, geology, climate and resources, Hay, 199. — Les
min6raux des roches, Levy and Lacroix, 199. Discovery of the
ventral structure of Taxocrinus and Haplocrinus, and consequent
modification in the classification of the Crinoidea, Waciismuth
and Springer, 200. — Crotalocrinus : Its structure and zoological
position, Wachsmuth and Springer, 201. — Preliminary report of
the Dakota School of Mines upon the geology and mineral
resources and Mills of the Black Hills of Dakota, Carpenter and
Hofman, 202.

Recent publications , 204.

Correspondence. — On glacial erosion, J. W. Spencer, 208. — Two sys¬
tems confounded in the Huronian, A. Winchell, 212. — Artesian
well at Woodhaven, L. I., John Bryson, 214.

Personal and Scientific News, 215.

APRIL NUMBER.

Memoir of Mr. G. W.Featherstonhaugh. [Portrait]. J.

D. Featherstonhaugh . 217

American petrographical microscopes. [Illustrated]. N.

H. Winchell . 225

On the relation of the Devonian faunas of Iowa. H. S.

Contents.

v.

Williams . 230

Preliminary description of new Lower Silurian sponges.

[Illustrated]. E. 0. Ulrich . 233

Recent observations on the glaciation of British Colum¬
bia and adjacent regions. Geo. M. Dawson . 249

Conglomerates in New England gneisses. C. H. Hitch¬
cock . 253

Conglomerates enclosed in gneissic terranes. [Supple¬
ment]. Alexander Winchell . 256

Editorial Comment. — The building of the British Isles. . . 262

Review of recent geological literature. — Brachiospongidse : A memoir on
a group of Silurian sponges, Beecher, 268. — On the Ophiolite of
Thurman, Warren Co.,N. Y., Merrill, 268. — A deadly gas-spring
in the Yellowstone National Park, Weed, 269. — Geological survey
of Arkansas, second annual report, Branner, 269. — Texas
geological and mineralogical survey ; first report of progress,
Dumble, 270. — Les modifications et les transformations des gran-
ulites du Morbihan; par Charles Barrois, 271.

Recent publications , 272.

Correspondence. — Observations on three Kinderhook fossils, R. R.
Rowley, 274. — Foliation and sedimentation, A. C. Lawson, 276.

Personal and Scientific News, 278.

MAY NUMBER.

Uriah Pierson James. [Portrait.] . 281

A portion of the geologic story of the Colorado river

of Texas. [Illustrated]. Robert T. Hill . 287

Carboniferous glaciation in the southern and eastern
hemispheres, — with some notes on the Glossopteris

flora. C. D. White . 299

Variation exhibited by a carbonic gasteropod. [Illus¬
trated]. Charles R. Keyes . 330

Editorial Comment. — Unconformity at the falls of the Montmorenci, 333.

Review of recent literature. — Examination of water for sanitary and
technical purposes, Leffman and Beam, 334. — Bommeloen og
Karmoen med omgivelser geologisk beskrevne, af dr. Hans
Reusch, 335. — Shall we teach geology? A. Winchell, 336.

Recent publications , 337.

Correspondence. — Two systems confounded in the Huronian, Selwyn,
339.

Personal and Scientific News, 340.

JUNE NUMBER.

Quaternary deposits and quaternary or recent elevation
of regions and Mountains in Brazil, with deductions
as to the origin of Loess from its observed condi¬
tions there. James E. Mills. . . 345

The story of the Mississippi-Missouri. E. W. Claypole 361

On Lingulasma, a new Genus, and eight new species of

Lingula and Trematis. [Illustrated]. E. O. Ulrich. 377

The Mesozoic rocks of southern Colorado and northern
New Mexico. J. J. Stevenson.

391

vi. Contents

Editorial Comment. — A sandy simoon in the Northwest, 397.

Review of recent geological literature. — Marine Shells in the till near Bos¬
ton, Warren TJpham, 399.— Seventh annual report of the U. S.
Geol. Survey, Powell, 399. — Elemente der^Paleontologie, Stein-
MANN, 401.

List of recent publications , 402.

Correspondence. — Solubility of phosphates in iron ores, Taft, 402.
Personal and Scientific News, 403.

JANHARY, 1559.

THE

VOL. Ill, No. I-

AMERICAN

GEOLOGIST.

A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF

GEOLOGY AND ALLIED SCIENCES.

EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS:

Prof. Samuel Calvin, University of Iowa , Iowa City , Iowa.

Prof. Edward W. Claypole, Buchtel College , Akron , O.

Dr. Persifor Frazer, Franklin Institute , Philadelphia , Penn .

Dr Lewis E. Hicks, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.

Mr. Edward O. Ulrich, GW. Survey of Illinois, Newport, Ky.

Dr. Alex ander Winchell, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Prof. Newton H. Winchell, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.

$ii}C)l<? ^timbers, 35 <$ei}ts. Yearly Subscription $3.50.

PAGE

Roland Duer Irving [Portrait]. Pres. T.(j.

Chamberlin . . . . . 1

The Geological History of the Ozark

Uplift. JC. Boadhead . 6

The glacial origin of cliffs [Illustrated].

W. M. Davis . . . . . 14

The diabasic schists containing the jas-

' PILYTE BEDS OF NORTH-EASTERN MIN¬
NESOTA. Horace V. Winchell . 18

Note on the geology of Mt. Stephen,
British Columbia. R. G. McConnell 22
Some geological problems in Muscatine
i county, Iowa, with special refer¬
ence to the rectification of the sup¬
posed Kinderhook near the mouth

of Pine creek. S. Calvin . 25

Soils of Nebraska as related to geo¬
logical formations [Map]. L. E. Hicks 36
Editorial Comment.

The exhaustion of anthracite coal _ 45

Review of Recent Geological Litera¬
ture. . 48

Synopsis of Rosenbusch’s New Scheme
for the Classification of Massive Rocks.

W. S. Bayley, 48. — Proceeding's and
Transactions of the Nova Scotian Insti¬
tute of Natural Science; papers by Dr.
Honeyman, 48.— Specimens of Eozoon

THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, MINNEAPOLIS.

General European Agent, W. P. Collins, 157 Great Portland St., London W. Eng.

Entered at the Minneapolis post-office as second-class matter.

canadense and their geological and other
relations. Sir J. Wm. Dawson, 48 —
Gold fields of Victoria, 49. — Prof. C. L.
Herrick’s investigations of the Waverly
group of Ohio, "50. — Die steinkohlen,
ihre Eigenschaften, Vorkommen, Entste-
hung und nationalokonomische Bedeu-
tung, von Franz Toula, 50.— Notes on the
geology of western Texas, Robt. T. Hill,
51— On the origin of primary quartz in
basalt. Jos. P. Iddings, 52. — Microscopi¬
cal physiography of the rock-making
minerals, H. Roseribusch 53. , fjf &

Recent Publications . . 54

Correspondence . 55

Exogenous nature of the trunks of lepi-
dodendrids and sigillarids of the Coal
Measures, E. W. Claypole, 55. — The need
of an elementary work on petrography,
A. Winchell , 57. — Further notes on “a
green quartzite from N ebraska,” J. E.
Todd, 59. — Some remarks on professor
Henry S, Williams’ report of the Sub-
Committee on the Upper Palaeozoic (De-

vonic y Jules Marcou , 60.

Personal and scientific news . 61

An unjust attack — Persifor Frazer. 65

... f

The American Geologist, Prospectus for 1889.

The editors of The American Geologist announce the contin¬
uance of the periodical during the year 1889, under the same
general plan as in the past. The leading purpose is to give ex¬
pression to American thought on geological themes,, and to
offer a medium of ready communication for educational, bio¬
graphical and bibliographical information, and geological news.

They hope the working geologists of the country will con¬
tinue to favor it with their interest and co-operation, and will
bear in mind the fact that no other journal on the continent
devotes its entire means and energies to an adequate representa¬
tion of the science which brings all other sciences under contri¬
bution. The editors hope The Geologist will become generally
recognized as the organ of geological opinion and interests in
America; and that briefer memoirs and items, especially those
not designed for final publication, may be directed to its pages
for presentation to the public.

It is the editors’ intention, also, to continue and improve the
treatment of geological themes connected with education.
They have not yet been able to accomplish all which has been
in intention from the beginning; but the purpose is to embrace
under educational topics the discussion of questions relating to
the place of Geology in Education ; the exhibition of methods
and devices for the presentation of geologic facts and doctrines,
and the description and illustration of the scientific resources of
leading Universities — especially those of the West, as being
least known. In respect to geological biography, it is intended
to offer brief memoirs accompanied by portraits, commemora¬
tive of deceased geologists who have done worthy service for
science. In geological bibliography the editors still hope to sup¬
ply information somewhat full and complete, together with crit¬
ical notices and reviews of the most noteworthy publications.

The Geologist appeals for support to the intelligence of Amer¬
ica; especially to those able to devote some time to geological
reading; to those interested in the teaching of Geology and in
the advancement of geological instruction in the schools. The
editors hope the list of subscribers may be largely recruited with
the beginning of the second year; and they beg each old sub¬
scriber to constitute himself an agent for the procurement of
a new name.

With three hundred working geologists in the country, as
there are, and many thousand intelligent readers of geological
literature, the editors confidently anticipate a noble support for
the only literary representative of geological learning and inter¬
ests in the journalism of America.

The subscription price will be $3.50 per yearin America, and $3.75 in foreign coun¬
tries of the Postal Union. The general European agent is Mr. W. P. Collins, 157
Great Portland st , London W., England. Correspondence may be addressed to any
of the editors, or to

October 23, 1888. THE GEOLOGIST,

Minneapolis, Minn.

THE

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST

Vol. III. JANUARY, 1889. No. 1.

ROLAND DUER IRVING.

By President T. C. Chamberlin.

Professor Irving was born in the city of New York, on the
29th day of April, 1847. His father, the Rev. Pierre P. Irving,
was a clergyman of the Episcopal church and a nephew of
Washington Irving. His mother was a daughter of chief
justice John Duer, of the supreme court of New York. Sprung
thus from a family of literary talent on the one side and
of judicial on the other, professor Irving inherited tastes
and capabilities that especially fitted him for his subsequent
work. His birth and early education in the metropolis of our
country impressed upon him something of the breadth and
complexity of its commercial, social and intellectual activities
and gave to a mind naturally disposed to large and analytic
conceptions a pronounced breadth and a discriminative habit.
His youth was spent upon Staten Island, to which his father
had removed in his second year. A lack of entire robustness of
health, emphasized by frequent attacks of illness and a weak¬
ness of s^ght, interfered with systematic study and checked the
indulgence of his passionate fondness of reading. His early
training was therefore conducted mainly at home, his father
and sisters being his chief instructors. It was only in his 12th
year that he entered school. His dominant studies were classi¬
cal, but he was fortunate in falling under the instruction of a
teacher whose frequent rambles with his pupils fostered a love
for natural history. Young Roland became especially in¬
terested in the collection of the rocks and minerals that were
accessible upon the island. The identification and classifica¬
tion of these may be looked upon as the inititation of his subse¬
quent scientific studies. In 1868 he entered the classical course
of Columbia College. Forced by the condition of his eyes to
suspend his studies in his sophomore year, he spent six months

2

Roland Duer Irving — Chamberlin.

in England, the impress of which in certain choices of language
and methods of thought remained with him throughout his life.
On his return he was able to resume studies, though it was neces¬
sary that the greater part of the texts should he read to him. This
probably strengthened a memory naturally retentive and drove
him to meditative and independent thought, since he was
measurably cut off from indulgence in simple acquisition. A
full course in the School of Mines, of Columbia College, gave
him the technical foundation for his future work .

During two of his summer vacations he found employment
and practical experience in the coal mines of Wiconisco, Penn¬
sylvania. Soon after graduation he was appointed superinten¬
dent of the smelting works at Greenville, New Jersey. Follow¬
ing this he was employed during parts of two years upon the
Ohio geological survey. His career thus far had lain chiefly in
the line of technical work. From this he was turned aside in
1870 by a call to the department of geology, mineralogy and
metallurgy in the University of Wisconsin, and from that time
onward his activities took two parallel lines, instruction and
investigation. As an instructor his work was characterized by
thoroughness, by a masterly command of the subjects he taught,
by clearness of presentation and a graphic and humorous ex¬
position, by perfect candor and sincerity, by earnestness, devo¬
tion and indefatigable industry — a rare combination of qualities,
which made him not only a singularly effective instructor, but
a worthy leader in all those moral and manly influences which
characterize the true teacher.

Professor Irving’s first independent geological investigation
consisted of the demonstration that the Baraboo quartzites of
central Wisconsin are very much older than the adjacent upper
Cambrian sandstone (Dikelocephalus horizon,) which was at
the time a battled question.* Shortly after he made similar in¬
vestigations on the quartzites near Waterloo, Dodge Co., Wis.f

Upon the inauguration of the recent geological survey of Wis¬
consin, (1873,) professor Irving was appointed one of the three

*Onthe Age of the Quartzites, Schists and Conglomerates of Sauk Co.,
Wis. Am. Jour. Sci., vol. nr, Art. xv, p. 93. The same in Trans, of Wis.
Acad, of Sci. Arts and Letters, vol. n, pp. 107-119.

jNote on the Age of the Metamorphic Rocks of Portland, Dodge Co.,
Wis. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. v, Art. xxxi, p. 282.

Roland Duer Irving — Chambdrlin.

3

commissioned assistant geologists and began his well-known
investigations in that connection. During the first year he
was assigned to the study of the Penokee iron range. He was
here compelled, at the outset of his official career, to encounter
unwarranted expectations raised by previous flattering opinions
respecting the richness of the iron deposits given by incautious
and inexpert explorers. His perfectly candid and unreserved
report brought the usual reward of frankness and sincerity in
the face of opposing desire, at first a storm of protest and of
adverse criticism, which even threatened the existence of the
survey, later, a sullen acquiescence in the truth, and finally, an
admiration for the correctness and the courage of the position
taken and a diversion of enterprise from unprofitable into suc¬
cessful lines of exploitation. In the second and third years of
the survey professor Irving’s field embraced the Paleozoic
and Archaean strata of central Wisconsin. In the last years
he returned to the lake Superior field and laid the broader
foundation upon which nearly all of his subsequent investiga¬
tions were based. The results of his studies in this official re¬
lationship are recorded in the four volumes of the reports of
the Wisconsin geological survey, (1873-1879). Meanwhile he
had published several short articles in the American Journal of
Science, the Trans, of the Wisconsin Academy, and elsewhere.
Among these the more important are the “Age of the Copper-
Bearing Rocks of Lake Superior and the Westward Continua¬
tion of the Lake Superior Synclinal/1* “Some new points in
the Elementary Stratification of the Primordial and Cambrian
Rocks of south central Wisconsin. ”f “The Stratigraphy of
the Huronian Series of northern Wisconsin, and on the Equi¬
valency of the Huronian of the Marquette and Penokee Dis¬
tricts.”;!;

In 1880, professor Irving began those investigations upon the
geology of the lake Superior region for the United States gov¬
ernment which continued until the time of his death. The first
of these consisted of a comprehensive study of the copper¬
bearing series, the results of which he gathered into a mono¬
graph which perhaps stands as the best single expression of his

*Am. Jour. Sci., vol. vm, Art. vii, p. 46, 1874.

fAm. Jour. Sci., vol. ix, Art. vii, p. 440, 1875.

JAm. Jour. Sci. vol. xvir, Art. xlix, p. 398, 1879.

4

Boland Duer Irving — Chamberlin.

work.§ This was the first approach to a unified and systematic-
discussion of this great formation occupying a tract of 40,000
square miles and embracing portions of Michigan, Wisconsin,
Minnesota and Canada. Whatever differences of opinion may
continue to exist concerning the interpretation of the debated
phenomena, this must ever be recognized as a monument of in¬
dustrious and able investigation and of candid and careful induc¬
tion. Following these studies upon the copper-bearing series,
professor Irving took up in a correspondingly comprehensive
manner the investigation of the iron-bearing formations of the
lake Superior region and their correlation with each other and
with the original Huronian of Canada. Upon this work he was* *
engaged at the time of his death. He had in preparation and
nearing completion a monograph upon the Penokee-Gogebic
range and had well in hand a large amount of material relating
to the Marquette, Menominee and Vermilion lake series, as
well as the original Huronian and Animike groups. His loss
at this fruitful stage of his work, incalculable as it is, might
have been still greater but for the fact that all his material
passed into the hands of his co-laborer, professor Van Hise, wlm
is intimately familiar with his unwritten as well as written
views.

Some of Dr. Irving’s leading conclusions from his later
studies were set forth in his presidential address before the
Wisconsin Academy of Science Arts and Letters, entitled
“Divisibility of the Archaean in the North-west,1’* and more
especially in the following very notable papers: “Preliminary
Paper on an Investigation of the Archaean Formations of the
North-western States, ”f “On the Classification of the Early
Cambrian and Pre-Cambrian Formations. A Brief Dissussion
of Principles; Illustrated by examples drawn mainly from the
Lake Superior Region, ”J “Origin of Ferruginous Schists and
Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Region,” [| “Is there a Huronian
Group ?”^[ and the introduction to a forthcoming Bulletin of

§“Copper-Bearing Rocks of Lake Superior.” Monograph V., U. S. Geol.
Survey, 1883.

*Am. Jour. Sci., vol. xxix, pp. 237-249, 1885.

tU. S. Geol. Survey, Fifth Annual Report, pp. 1S1-241, 1885.

JU. S. Geol. Survey, Seventh Annual Report, 1886.

|| Am. Jour. Sci., vol. xxxii, p. 255, 1886.

f Am. Jour. Sci., vol. xxxiv, pp. 204-249, 1887.

Roland Daer Irving — Chamberlin. 5

the U. S. geological survey, “On the Greenstones of the
Menominee and Marquette Regions,” by Dr. G. H. Williams.

During these later years in which he was chiefly engaged
upon monographic studies, he published numerous special
papers, among which the more important were, “On the Nature
of the Induration of the St. Peter’s and Potsdam Sandstones,
and of certain Archman Quartzites in Wisconsin,”* “Para-
morphic Origin of the Hornblende of the North-western
States, ”f “On Secondary Enlargements of Mineral Fragments
in Certain Rocks, (jointly with professor C. R. Van Hise),
and “The Junction between the Eastern Sandstone and the
Keweenawan Series on Keweenaw Point, ”§ ^jointly with presi¬
dent Chamberlin).

Professor Irving’s greatest contributions to science lay in the
department of structural geology and genetic petrography.
His investigations upon the great copper and iron-bearing
series and the adjacent formations of the lake Superior region,
constitute a contribution of the first order. The deep sym¬
pathy of the present writer with professor Irving’s views on
questions that have been subjects of divergence of opinion
should perhaps restrain him from a full expression of his ap¬
preciation of the profound value of this work lest a color of
personal partiality be thrown over this sketch, but it is not too
much to assert that supporter and opponent alike recognize the
ability which has characterized these investigations and the
high order of value which must attach to them whatever inter¬
pretations may finally prevail.

In the line of petrographic genesis professor Irving made
two very notable contributions, first, the demonstration of the
prevalence and importance of the secondary growth of certain
fragmental constituents of clastic rocks and the crystallo¬
graphic co-ordination of the additions with the nuclear parti¬
cles. The existence of such a second growth in quartz grains
was an earlier discovery of others but was hit upon by him inde¬
pendently. Jointly with his co-laborer, professor Van Hise, he
demonstrated a similar second growth of hornblende and other

*Am. Jour. Sci., vol. xxv, p. 401, 1883.

|Am. Jour. Sci., vol. xxvi, p. 321, 1883.

ju. S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin No. 8.

§U\ S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin No. 23.

6 Geological History of the Ozark Uplift — Broadhead.

minerals and showed that such rebuilding was a prevalent
process, constituting an important element iij those changes
heretofore designated metamorphic, thereby contributing an
important factor in the elucidation of that mysterious process.

Perhaps the most important single determination by pro¬
fessor Irving, and one of his latest, was the demonstration of
the origin of the iron ores of the lake Superior region. By a
series of admirable investigations he traced step by step the
transformation of the ores from original earthy carbonates of
iron to their present forms, and made it altogether clear that
they were primarily deposited as sediments in a manner closely
similar to that of the iron ores of the Coal Measures. This
discovery has given added significance to the association of
these ores with carbonaceous shales, and has led to the recog¬
nition of the iron-bearing series as marking in some sense a
pre-Cambrian carboniferous period.

The characteristics of professor Irving as a scientific investi¬
gator and writer are too well known to the readers of this
magazine to need analysis here. Personally, to those who
came within the circle of his intimate acquaintance, he possessed
rare charms of character. Sincere, frank, conscientious in the
highest degree, he was a warm and true friend. Possessed of
a rollicking brusque humor, his intercourse was marked by a
freshness that was a source of constant enjoyment and attrac¬
tion to his intimate associates. No phrase better expresses it
than picturesqueness. Modest and retiring, the number of his
close friends was not large but their attachmeut to him was
strong. The full strength of these attachments has only been
realized in their breaking.

He leaves a wife, a daughter and two sons. The artistic
skill of Mrs. Irving appears in some of the sketches and par¬
ticularly in many of the microscopic illustrations of her hus¬
band’s works.

THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE OZARK UPLIFT*

By Gr. C. Broadhead.

To the southern part of Missouri, the general term “Ozark
Mountains” has for a long time been applied. This district

* Abstract read before American Association for the Advancement of
Science; Cleveland meeting, August. 1888.

Geological History of the Ozark Uplift — Broaclhead. 7

may include about 36,000 square miles within the state of
Missouri, and is chiefly limited on the east by the Mississippi
river and a line not very far west of that river, but excluding
the most of St. Louis county and 3,000 square miles of the
swamp district in the south-east. Its western limit is an approx¬
imate line passing south-west from Glasgow, via Marshall and
Sedalia, thence near the line of the M. K. & T. R. R. to the Osage
river, thence southwardly to Stockton, and south-westwardly to
and beyond McDonald county. Its southern boundary is not
far from the Arkansas river.

The Ozark plateau, near its eastern line, is 700 to 800 feet
above the sea, and about the sanie elevation on the highlands
near its northern line. The Archaean peaks of south-east
Missouri rise 1,200 to 1,500 feet above the sea, while the un¬
altered sedimentary rocks surrounding them are but little over
a 1,000 feet above the sea, increasing in elevation as we pass
westward, until in Webster county they are 1,500 feet, in Wright
county 1,700 feet and in Barry county over 1,500 feet above
the sea. 4 little further west along the state line the elevation
is 800 to 1,050 feet, reaching to over 1,100 feet in north-west
Missouri, and in the south-west increasing still more in the
direction of the Boston mountains.

A little beyond the western line of Missouri there begins a
rise gradually increasing as we pass westward across Kansas,
while on the east just across the Mississippi the general surface
maintains a nearly uniform elevation but very little over 500
feet above the sea in southern Illinois.

The rock structure of this plateau includes the Magnesian
limestone series of the Missouri geological survey, the equiva¬
lent of the calciferous sandrock of the New York system, or
the Upper Cambrian as defined by C. D. Walcott.

Dr. Shumard’s measurements have given:

Pulaski. Phelps. Franklin.

First Saccharoidal sandstone, . . 30 ft. 175 ft.

Second Magnesian limestone, . .... 150 ft. 300 ft.

Second sandstone, . . . . 100 ft. 150 ft. 140 ft.

Third Magnesian limestone, . . . 600 ft. 180 ft. 300 ft.

Prof. Swallow recognized 50 feet of sandstone on the Osage
below the Third Magnesian limestone with 300 feet of a Fourth
Magnesian limestone still below. In Madison county I have

8 Geological History of the Ozark Uplift — Broad head.

recognized over 200 feet of Magnesian limestone below the
Third, and containing Lingulella lamborni Mk. From this
occurrence I have referred these lower beds to the Potsdam
group including also 20 feet of Ozark marble at the base, rest¬
ing on a few feet to 90 feet of sandstone and conglomerate. The
latter reposes on the Archaean rocks, granites and porphyries.
The latter prevail in Iron, Madison and St. Francois counties,
with occasional peaks in Reynolds, Washington and Wayne.
The granite occupies the lower hills and valleys, the porphyry
rises into peaks a few hundred feet high to nearty 700 feet above
the valleys. The evidence is that the sandstones and magnesian
limestones (Potsdam and Calciferous) were deposited in Arch¬
aean valleys of erosion, for they generally repose nearly horizon¬
tally, or with slight inclination, upon the Archaean.

The only exception is, that the Ozark marble beds are not
always horizontal. The following section of rocks was taken
by Dr. Shumard in Ste. Genevieve, and will serve to show what
strata occur along the eastern margin:

Lower Carboniferous . . 800 feet.

Chouteau group . 120 “

Devonian . 50 “

Upper Silurian . 250 “

Hudson River group . 160 “

Trenton group . 250, “

First Magnesian limestone . 150 “

First sandstone . 80 “

Second Magnesian limestone . 250 “

Second sandstone . 150 “

Third Magnesian limestone . 200 “

On the northern side of the Missouri river we find that the
Second Magnesian limestone is the lowest rock, near the west¬
ern line of St. Charles count}^, and continues to be so as far as
ten miles west of Jefferson City. The Upper Silurian is not
recognized along the same line, and the Devonian does not ex¬
ceed 100 feet in thickness, and thins out in the eastern part of
Boone county. The Trenton thins out in the eastern part of
Callaway county; and as we go west and south-west the Mag¬
nesian limestone series of the Calciferous is only separated from
the Coal Measures by the Lower Carboniferous.

The Magnesian limestone series are the rocks seen along the
streams and on the hills throughout the Ozarks, generally the

Geological History of the Ozark Uplift — Broadhead. 9

Third limestone forming the bluffs with Second sandstone, or
Second Magnesian limestone occupying the higher lands.

In Wright county, Dr. Shumard, observed rocks of the Chou¬
teau group on the higher knobs — relics of former extensive
deposits.

The First sandstone is chiefly found on hills near the margin
of the Ozark plateau.

Prof. Worthen speaks of a mountain ridge 500 to 600 feet
above the level of the river at Cairo, crossing the southern part
of Illinois from near Bailey’s landing to Shawneetown, soon
disappearing beneath the Coal Measures. In Schoolcraft’s
Travels in the Mississippi Valley , 1821, this range of hills is
laid down and called Oshawano (Shawnee) mountains.

The Devonian is tilted up at Bald Bluff and Bake Oven,
Jackson county, Ill., 25°.* The Trenton limesfone is elevated
70 feet and forms a reef of rocks at Grand Chain, in the river,
with a high bluff on the Illinois side, and still higher on the
Missouri side.* There is also a remarkable dislocation and
downthr®w at Salt Lick, Monroe county,* crossing the Mis¬
sissippi river at Plattin rock and upturning the Saccharoidal
sandstone to view.

Another, well defined axis crosses the Mississippi river be¬
tween this and the mouth of the Merrimac river, and is well
displayed near Columbia, St. Clair county, Ill., where the Coal
Measures rest on the upturned Lower Carboniferous. Prof.
Worthen speaks of a well defined anticlinal at the latter place.
On the west side of the river the Trenton is thrown up to view.
The strike of these axes produced passes along a monoclinal
in the direction of Sulphur Springs, St. Louis county, to
near Augusta, St. Charles county, which may be considered
part of the eastern boundry of the Ozark uplift. A northward
extension from Augusta shows an uplift of Trenton limestone
on Dardenne creek, and of the Devonian near the west line of
St. Charles county, on Peruque creek, with a lesser elevation on
Cuivre river, in Lincoln county.

The Cap-au-gres axis crosses the Mississippi river bringing
up to view the Second Magnesian limestone just above the
mouth of Sandy creek with the Saccharoidal sandstone above,

* Worthen.

10 Geological History of the Ozark Uplift — Broadhead.

while south of Sandy creek the Burlington limestone is elevated
at an angle of 80°, and not far down the bluffs the St. Louis
limestone is seen reposing horizontally.

The Cap-au-gr6s axis crosses the Illinois river six miles above-
its mouth. In Missouri it passes north-west and is recognized
along its line by a series of sink holes, and is soon lost beneath
more recent rocks.

Another axis seems to branch off from this, coming to view
near Auburn, in Lincoln county, thence near Prairieville, Pike
county, and Frankfort and Jones siding, showing the Lower
Trenton near Freeman’s and Trabue’s lick on Salt river, Ralls
county, and is last seen in a slight rising of the Chouteau beds
near Newark, Knox county.

The Lower Carboniferous (Keokuk group) appears on the
east fork of Chariton in Randolph county, indicating a slight
uplift, for the adjacent and neighboring rocks are all of the age
of the Lower Coal Measures.

A few miles north of Cameron, in DeKalb county, there is a
slight disturbance of the Upper Coal Measures cracking and
tilting the strata, and subsequent filling of the cracks with
calcareous vein matter.

The Mississippi channel is apparently along or near the axis
of a monoclinal fold; the Missouri river evidently so, from St.
Charles county to Cooper, its channel being directly on the
strike of the monoclinal and thus limiting the northern exten¬
sion of the Ozark plateau. On the Missouri bluffs from
Augusta to within a few miles of St. Charles there is a down¬
throw of 1,000 to 1,200 feet, leaving the St. Louis limestone
nearly horizontal at St. Charles; but as we pass westwardly the
Keokuk group ascends in the bluffs, then the Burlington, then
the Chouteau, then the Trenton, Black River and Birdseye
groups, until finally the Magnesian limestone series with 183
feet of Saccharoidal sandstone; and as we approach Augusta the
Second Magnesian limestone is apparently nearly horizontal.

Along the Missouri, from St. Charles to Boone, the strata
are nearly horizontal, the Second Magnesian limestone capped
with First sandstone forming the escarpments along the river.
At Hermann the Second sandstone appears at the base of the
bluff, and wdiile the First sandstone is generally the cap rock
on the south side of the river, we find the Trenton group occu-

Geological History of the Ozark Uplift — Broadhead. 11

pying the summit on the north side. Passing northward from
the river we find that in 12 miles these strata with the over¬
lying Trenton and Devonian have disappeared and are replaced
with those of the lower Carboniferous. The general surface
being about the same elevation on the south side would indi¬
cate a dip northward. We thus know we are on the confines
of the Ozark uplift.

A few miles below Glasgow an anticlinal brings the Chou¬
teau limestone to view, while the strata a few miles below and a
few miles above belong to upper members of the Lower Car¬
boniferous, indicating an upthrow of probably 200 feet.

Near Glasgow the Lower Coal Measures are at the base of
the bluffs and continue so for a long distance up stream. At
Miami, Saline county, nearly 100 feet of Lower Carboniferous,
beds appear in the bluffs, while on the north side the Lower
Coal Measures are the lowest strata.

At Sedalia the surface rocks are Lower Carboniferous (near
the base) and on Muddy creek, west, we find the First Magne¬
sian limestone soon replaced by the upper members of the
Lower Carboniferous and the Coal Measures. South of Sedalia
are only found the Magnesian limestone series and in the north¬
east part of Cedar county they are the surface rocks while the
Second Magnesian limestone is the lowest seen at Dunnegan’s
Mill, east of Stockton. On Cedar creek, west, the Keokuk is.
the bed rock. We therefore know that Marshall, Sedalia and
Stockton must lie near the break of the great monoclinal on
the west. All along this line the Coal Measures are only a few
miles west, separated by the intervening Keokuk outcrops from
the Chouteau or the Magnesian limestones lying eastward.
Westwardly the Coal Measures extend into Kansas and then
dip beneath, the Permian and the latter beneath the Cretaceous
as we ascend towards the mountains.

The southern foot of the Ozark uplift is probably near the
Arkansas river. The Ozark plateau probably dates the begin-
ing of its uplift in the early Carboniferous, or while the Chou¬
teau beds were being deposited, and continued during the
Burlington period; and these rocks in many places have been
deposited directlv upon the Magnesian limestones but were
soon eroded. This is shown by occasional local beds around
the margin of the great uplift.

12 Geological History of the Ozark Uplift — Broadhead.

The effort nearly ceased after the Burlington era except at a
few points where the succeeding Keokuk and subsequent Coal
Measures are slightly disturbed; then all was quiet.

This great plateau seems to have been uplifted by forces act¬
ing at different places upon a broad or flat surface forming a
massive anticlinal, and breaking off into a monoclinal around
the margin.

The upthrust was quaquaversal.

We do know that several axes like* unto anticlinals have
passed out on the east and north and have thence been traced
for some distance away. If they had worked together, they have
acted as a massive geanticlinal. On the west we observe rocks
dipping to the west but no evidence of any, re markable upthrust
of the Lower Carboniferous, but there may have been more
active energy. On the north there is evidence of upturnings
in Howard, Saline, Cole, Callaway, Randolph, St. Charles,
Lincoln, Pike, Knox and St. Louis.

It thus seems that the uplifting began just before the close
of the Lower Carboniferous period and continued until after its
close, and there may have still lingered a slight force into the
succeeding Upper Carboniferous. This was nearly contempo¬
raneous with the close of the Appalachian revolution .

While this extensive area was being uplifted deposites were
gradually forming east, north and west, first sandstones, then
successions of clay beds; then Coal plant marshes, dry land
with luxuriant trees, the bark of which went to form the coal.
The sea would roll in and overwhelm the laid down mass; sea
shells and crinoids were innumerable, soon to die and be broken
and ground together; life after life and deposit after deposit.
Thus were the Coal Measure limestones formed. Sands and
clay beds would also accumulate and be slightly uplifted so as
to form the soil to grow another forest to form coal. So the
process would go on, and when complete it would be slightly
elevated in north-west Missouri, and the sea-trough, a little
west of Missouri, be prepared for the ensuing Permian.

Along the Mississippi river, from St. Louis to Commerce, the
lower exposed rocks are Trenton, Upper Silurian and Lower
Carboniferous, with the First sandstone at one place. East-
wardly, in Illinois, these are soon covered by the Coal Measures,
while on the west, and only a few miles away, the surface rocks

Geological History of the Ozark Uplift, — Broadhead. 13

are the Lower Magnesian limestones, indicating a rapid rising
on the west; the same remarks will apply to the northern flank
along the Missouri river, excepting that the base rock in sight
is generally the Second Magnesian limestone as far west as
Boone county.

Around the western margin the Lower Carboniferous gen¬
erally rests upon the Magnesian limestone series, while only a
few miles on the west, are the Coal Measures.

Around the northern and western margin of the plateau, we
find, through Warren, Montgomery, Callaway, Boone, Page,.
Cole, Morgan, Pettis, Moniteau, Cooper, Benton, Cedar and
Jasper, occasional isolated deposites of coal chiefly impure
varieties of cannel or bituminous. These so-called “pockets” are
almost invariably dipping at a certain angle, whereas the coal
beds of the state in their proper place are nearly or apparently
horizontal. These pockets are rarely of any great extent hori¬
zontally, but may be 5, 10, 30 or nearly 100 feet thick, and
often of no greater dimension in any other direction. Cannel
and bituminous are often found in the same pocket. Organic
remains are extremely rare, but we more often find with the
coal small deposites of pyrite or sphalerite, and sometimes even
galena. Many of these deposites occur in side valleys tributary
to larger ones and about directly against Lower Carboniferous
or Magnesian limestone strata. These beds often are found
high up in the hills adjacent, while the coal reposes at the foot,,
but in no case do they overlie the coal.

Certain of these pockets occur at the lead mines of Webb
City and Joplin, and it would seem that their disturbance was
in a measure coincident with the formation of the ores of these
mining districts. These facts showing the Ozarks to be at a
greater elevation above the sea than the country east, north and
just west, would indicate their age. The rocks are all older
than those in the districts east, north, west and south, although
the latter occupy a lower level above the sea. Facts also indi¬
cate a gradual rising up of the whole plateau at a period subse¬
quent to the deposite of the Carboniferous strata.

14

The Glacial Origin of Cliffs — Davis.

THE GLACIAL ORIGIN OF CLIFFS.

By W. M. Dayis.

The trap-ridges in the Triassie areas of Massachusetts, Con¬
necticut, New Jersey and Pennsylvania are much alike in the
chief features of their physical history from their formation
•down to the glacial period; but when the ice came the ridges
south of the moraine escaped the heavy rubbing that the more
northern ones suffered, and it appears that a consequence of
this recent difference stiff remains in the contrast between the
generally bold front and steep,, rocky talus of the glaciated
ridges and the more rounded, tree-covered slopes of the others.
As far as my observation goes in the four states named above,
the contrast is distinct. It is particularly well marked between
the ridges of Massachusetts and Connecticut and those of middle
New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania. About Meriden, Con¬
necticut, for example, the faces of the cliffs are high and almost
or quite vertical, and the talus slopes below them are often bare
of soil and support no plants, save lichens, for hundreds of feet
together: the sharp-edged stones lie loosely at the angle of
maximum slope and move easily under a climber’s foot. The
protection against sliding afforded by an occasional small tree
is indicated in the grayer color j ust below it, caused by greater
growth of lichens. On the other hand, in New Jersy, at the
southern end of the Watch ung mountains, in the neighbor¬
hood of Bound Brook, the ridge is heavily timbered, and while the
outcrop cliff and its talus are indeed distinctly perceptible, they
are both of gentle expression. It seems as if this difference
may be because the talus of the northern ridges has not yet in
postglacial time reached the normal condition of balance be¬
tween supply and loss, that must have obta ned there in pre¬
glacial time and that still prevails in the nonglaciated area.

The strong cliffs and steep talus slopes of the northern ridges
can hardly be ascribed to any peculiarity of their preglacial
history. Like the southern ridges, they are the outcropping
•edges of sheets of dense trap lying in most cases conformably
between beds of much softer sandstones and shales. Since they
were given their present monoclinal attitude, they have been
reduced by pre-Cretaceous and Cretaceous erosion nearly to a
base-level surface. Shown in vertical cross-section as bl, fig. 1;

The Glacial Origin of Cliffs — Davis.

15

and this ancient low-land has been in post-Cretaceous time
bodily elevated and greatly eroded, the softer bedded rocks hav¬
ing been thereby reduced nearly to another lowland on a second
base-level, bl, fig 2, seen in the low country between the present

ridges, while only the crest-lines of the strongest trap ridges
remain to testify to the first base-level bl. Still another eleva¬
tion of moderate amount is noted in New Jersey, but not in
New England. There is reason to think that the chief ones
of these processes were practically contemporaneous from
Massachusetts to Pennsylvania, and the rocks throughout are
so much alike that we should expect the topographic profile of
the two districts to be closely similar; and indeed so it is, except
in the detail of cliff and talus.

We may briefly consider the general development of the talus
before questioning whether the New England ridges owe their
present form to glaciation. The talus is a special form taken
temporarily by the waste of the land on its way to the sea.

16

The Glacial Origin of Cliffs — Davis.

When the rapid weathering of a soft bed, S, fig. 3, undermines-
the outcrop of a hard bed, H, the fragments from the cliff-face
of the latter fall down the slope and form a protective covering
or talus which retards the further wasting away of the soft bed
beneath it. An approximate adjustment of form will be at¬
tained when the supply of stony blocks from the cliff about
equals the loss by weathering from the talus. If the supply
be for a time faster than the waste, the outline, a a, will change
to b b, or to c c, until the supply is reduced by the gentler slope
and smaller face of the weathered and partly buried cliff and
comes to equal the loss from the talus, which has been in¬
creased by reason of the greater surface exposed to weathering.
This adjustment undoubtedly prevails in the non-glaciated part
of the country. Complete adjustment however is not reached.
The loss must be always a little in excess, for the mass as a
whole is slowly wasting away. As the waste progresses, the
cliff that was steep and bold in the youth of the region, falls
back and weakens in its middle life and fades away in its old
age.

Although the conditions that determine whether b b or c c
will be the form selected by the balance of natural processes,
during early maturity , the occurrence of a strong transporting
agent at the foot of the slope may be named first. A sea-shore
cliff has little talus; the waves carry the cliff-waste away as fast
about as it falls. A river may locally be as effective but these
agents do not enter our problem, unless perhaps in the case of
the Palisades, and even there the Hudson is so quiet as to exo-rt
little control. Climate is also an important condition in de¬
termining the form and size assumed by the talus. In a wet

The Glacial Origin of Cliffs — Davis.

17

climate transportation is so active that the talus is reduced to a
minimum of volume and coarsest texture; in a dry climate,
transportation is reduced to its lowest terms, and the waste from
the mountain slopes accumulates in maximum of volume and
finest texture as is seen in our arid western regions, or in Persia
where Blanford has described it as a controlling feature of the
Piedmont country. But between New England and New Jersey,
we cannot look for existing differences of climate of value suf¬
ficient to account for the differences of topography here dis¬
cussed. Let us turn instead to secular variations of climate,
ssuch as brought a sheet of ice over the northern ridges.

Heavy glaciation, long enduring, would scrape away the
loose material of a talus and undercut the soft beds beneath the
hard layer. When the ice melts away, the profile would be
like d d, fig. 3, in which the cliff is very strong and the talus is
practically wanting; then for a time the wasting of the cliff-
face would be at its highest rate, both from its s eepness and
from the great hight of the face exposed; and the supply of
material for a new talus would be rapid. A new adjustment to
sub-aerial conditions of supply and loss would be approached at
a quick rate at first, but slower and slower as it is neared; the
glaciated trap-ridges seem to be about half way advanced in
this progress. The lower Connecticut valley affords excellent
examples of these uncompleted taluses, surmounted with cliffs
of a strength that most New Englanders do not expect to find
so near at home. The notch in the Hanging Hills, in which the
Meriden reservoir has been constructed, between West Peak
and Notch Mountain, fig. 4, is enclosed by superb cliffs, c c, over

N‘*c

\L-Jb

18

The Diabasic Schists — II. V. Winchell.

loose rocky slopes, d d. The cliffs are freshly scarred where*
blocks have lately fallen; the talus is steep and barren, and
many large blocks lie at its foot. The location of the notch i&
such as to protect it from any exceptionally rapid erosion under
ordinary conditions, it being a divide between streams to the
north and south and not a water-gap; but it is closely in the
direction of glacial movement, and a strong stream of ice
must have been turned through this passage between the high
enclosing hills.

Let the preglacial profile be a a; Glacial erosion must have
been particularly severe in such a trough, and after the pre¬
glacial waste had been scoured out, the bed rock must have
been attacked and ground out to a depth of many feet, chang¬
ing the profile from aaa to bcb. The notch was thus deepened
and widened, and when the ice was at last melted out of it, a
clean U-shaped trench was revealed. Since then the small
amount of weathering on glaciated surfaces assures us that
there has not been nearly enough time for the talus to attain a
form of adjustment; the first rapid, weathering by which the cliffs
retreat from b to c has furnished the beginning of a waste-
heap in the talus, d, below; but there is yet needed a long
period before a new form of equilibrium, fgf, will be reached,
such as characterizes the non-glaciated ridges.

We may conclude therefore that we owe not only our lakes,
our waterfalls and our gorges, but also our refreshed and em¬
boldened cliffs to the glacial period. Post-glacial time must
have been brief, because so little advance has been made to¬
wards the more mature forms of all these features. Only the
smallest lakes have been filled; only the weakest barriers have
been cut away. The waterfalls have worn but a little distance
up stream, and the gorges still retain nearly vertical walls.
The cliffs of the New England trap-ridges show equally little
progress towards the more conservative forms of middle life .

September, 1888.

THE DIABASIC SCHISTS CONTAINING THE JASPILYTE
BEDS OF NORTH-EASTERN MINNESOTA.

By Hokace V. Winchell.

Several divergent theories have been presented and ably
supported regarding the nature of the rocks associated with the

The Diabasic Schists — II. V . Winchell.

19

jasper and iron ore beds of the Vermilion lake region in Min¬
nesota. The jaspilvte and the enclosing rocks have both been
considered sedimentary;* * the jaspilvte has been called eruptive
and the green schists in which it lies sedimentary ;f the jaspi-
lyte has been regarded fragmental and the schists eruptive. J
A few considerations on the subject prompted by recent ex¬
plorations and developments in this region may be of interest.

In the western part of the iron region the ore is nearly all
in the sesqui-oxide state, and it has been supposed to be such
throughout the range. The schists which enclose the ore and
jasper beds (jaspilyte), are frequently iron stained to such a de¬
gree as to render it impossible to form an opinion as to their
original nature and appearance. Dr. Wadsworth refers to
them as “baked” by the intrusive action of the eruptive jas¬
pilyte. They are very generally soft and schistose. In places
there is a banded structure nearly or quite coincident with the
schistosity. This has been accepted as proof of aqueous dep¬
osition.

Going east along the iron range the green schists are seen to
be less strongly impregnated with iron rust and less schistose.
There is also seen in them a coarse conglomeritic structure in
which the boulders all seem to be of the same material as the
schist itself, but contain calcite amygdules around their peri¬
phery and to a certain extent in the boulder-mass. The iron
ore is no longer hematite only, but is intimately associated
with magnetite.

Around Ely, in the vicinity of the Chandler mine, on the shores
of Long lake, north of the mine and a mile inland south of the
mine and lake, this coarse conglomerate is seen to have an im¬
mense development. East of Ely the iron ore becomes' more
and more magnetitic, until, in township 63-9, west of Snow¬
bank lake, are found large lenticular masses of jasper and
magnetite included in the green schistose conglomerate.

In this township the green schist also assumes new characters.
It is seen to rise in hills or ridges 250 feet or more, stretching
for three or four miles toward the east-north-east. In it is

*A. Wincliell, 15th Annual Report Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur., Minn. p. 193.

*fM. E. Wadsworth, Bui. Mus. Comp. Zool., Geol. Series i.

JN. H. Winchell, 15th Annual Report, Geol. and Nat. Hist. Snr., Minn.-
p. 221.

w

The Diabasic Schists — II. V. Winchell.

still seen the well marked, coarse conglomeritic structure which
can be seen in it north of Tower in the Stuntz Island con¬
glomerate, and which is seen at intervals in the line of strike
all the way to Ely.

The boulder-forms in this green rock become smaller and
smaller until they are only an inch or a fraction of an inch in
length. The entire rock for acres around is in many places
destitute of any covering of drift or vegetation, and is seen to
be composed of these elongated pebbles of greenstone. In many
places even here there are traces of sedimentary action in the
arrangement of this basic material.

Toward the north side of this greenstone-conglomerate
ridge, in township 63-9, the rock becomes more massive. The
schistose and conglomeritic structures fade out, and the rock
instead of being fine-grained and soft, or almost amorphous,
becomes firm, tough and finely crystalline. The crystals grow
larger and the rock coarser and more massive until it forms
hills and ridges of moderately coarse diabase.

In the midst of this massive, basic, eruptive rock are found
the large lenticular deposits of jasper and magnetite mentioned
above. The contact between the jaspilyte and the diabase is
everywhere abrupt and perfectly distinct. Masses of jaspilyte
from the size of a pea to deposits a hundred feet thick and a
quarter of a mile long are seen at innumerable places in sec¬
tions 5, 6, 7 and 8, 63-9. Many samples from this place show
the nature of the diabase and the manner of contact. The
diabase is usually quite fine and slightly schistose at the im¬
mediate contact; but a few feet or even inches away it becomes
coarse and massive. Threads of the basic rock often penetrate
into or cross entirely the jaspilyte masses.

The strata of jasper and magnetite are here, as elsewhere, ex¬
cessively folded and contorted, but they appear to stand a3 a
rule in vertical arrangement just as the jasper and hematite
rock does at Vermilion lake. The jasper contains a larger pro¬
portion of dark-colored bands than farther west.

The massive form and basic nature of this green rock are not
the only evidences of its eruptive origin. The rock on the
north and east sides of it, (for the diabase swings around so as
to strike north and south, east of Snowbank lake,) is, or was,
mica schist. Where this comes into proximity with the dia-

The Diahasic Schists — H, V. Winch ell.

21

basic rock it has been hardened and rendered massive and
porphyritic. It gradually resumes its original character as we
recede from the greenstone ridge.

That this diabase is of an old date is proved by later eruptive
greenstones which intersect it in the form of dykes. These are
composed of fresher looking rock, and though they are occa¬
sionally faulted, have evidently not undergone such epochs of
pressure and disturbance as the greenstone which they cut.

Following the diabase again north-west wardly across the
strike it becomes schistose and less like an eruptive rock.
Grains of free silica may be seen here and there and signs of
sedimentary arrangement are more numerous. These changes
go on until the rock is found to be siliceous and even flinty,
and has unmistakable sedimentary bands, or is a smooth, soft
argillyte of a gray or nearly black color.

The above very condensed account is intended to bring into
notice two points regarding the origin and the mutual relations
of the jaspilyte and diabasic schists. First , the jaspilyte is con¬
tained in a basic eruptive rock which is frequently conglom-
eritic and generally schistose ; but which is at times perfectly
massive and crystalline. Second , this basic rock has in many
places undeniable evidences of aqueous arrangement, and grades
conformably into siliceous stratified rocks which are purely
fragmental.

To explain how a basic, eruptive rock can thus change by in¬
sensible gradations into a siliceous fragmental one is not a diffi¬
cult matter.

Suppose a region, as in north-eastern Minnesota, which for a
long period was the seat of basic volcanic eruptions. The
Sandwich islands and the island of Java furnish examples of
similar regions existing at the present time. In the shallow
ocean there would be formed islands by the volcanic accumula¬
tions, and others by elevations of the earth’s crust. These ex¬
posed districts would be subject to erosion and would furnish
acidic sediments and siliceous deposits. From the craters erup¬
tions would take place and sheets of lava would flow down the
sides of the volcanoes into the sea or over the land as the case
might be. At the same time volcanic dust and ashes would be
thrown up to a great height and carried perhaps for miles be¬
fore they were deposited in the surrounding waters. Accom-

22 Geology of Mt. Stephen — McConnell

panying these phenomena would be volcanic bombs and ejec¬
tions of basic matter such as those mentioned by Dr. Johnson-
Lavis in the American Geologist for December, 1888, p. 424

These would be thrown to great distances and would appear in
the sediments where they finally found a resting place as bould¬
ers in a conglomerate of material similar in the composition of
its matrix to the boulders themselves.

The eruptive material would be subjected to the action of the
waters in which it fell. Some of it would be immediately de¬
posited as a basic sediment. Other portions would be mingled
with siliceous grains derived from the wearing away of other
adjacent shores. During intervals of volcanic inactivity
siliceous sediments only would be formed on top of the basic
deposits already made. Sometimes the fragmental and eruptive
materials would be mixed in about equal proportions; and again
one or the other would predominate and the resulting rock
would be acidic or basic.

These various inter-gradations and commixtures of different
materials are all represented in the rocks of the region referred
to. Although this belt of diabasic schist is immensely thick
and extends for miles it is no greater than volanic deposits are
known to be in other places on the globe. Of course it is un¬
derstood that the distance across the strike represents only the
depth or twice the depth, or thickness, of the deposits and not
the lateral extent of the overflows; for the rocks of the region
have been folded and pressed together, the horizontal strata
turned to verticality and the prevailing schistosity thus produc¬
ed in the greenstones.

Minneapolis , December, 1888.

MOTE ON THE GEOLOGY OF MT. STEPHEN, BRITISH
COLUMBIA.

By R. G. McConnell.

I have just returned from an extended exploration in the
north, and find that during my absence several papers have
been written by Dr. Rominger and Mr. Walcott on the Cam¬
brian fauna of Mt. Stephen. Dr. Rominger, on authority no
doubt, states in his first paper, published in the Proc. Acad, of
Nat. Sciences , of Philadelphia, that the locality from which the

Geology of Mt. Stephen — McConnell . 23

fossils he describes were obtained was accidentally discovered
by Mr. Klotz. It is difficult to see on what this claim is based,
seeing that Mr. Koltz’ share consisted in sending his cook to
make a collection after the beds were found and pointed out to
him, and after the collections from that and other places, now in
the museum of the geological survey of Canada were obtained.
The presence of fossils in Mt. Stephen was first made know in
1884 by Mr. L. Lambe, of this office, who found them loose in
the talus at the base of the mountain. Afterwards, in 1886,
while working in the neighborhood my attention was drawn by
Mr. Klotz, I think, to a “curiosity” which one of the men work¬
ing on the railway had in his possession. This, on examina¬
tion, proved to be a trilobite, and learning on enquiry that it
came from the slopes of Mt. Stephen, I found without difficulty
the beds from which it had fallen.

Mr. Walcott complains in his paper published in American
Journal of Science, September, 1888, of a lack of stratigraphical
knowledge of the district, and as Dr. Rominger, after a personal
examination, admits his inability to supply this, although it is
possible his researches might have been attended with better
results if he had taken the trouble to make himself acquainted
with what had already been done, a few remarks on the geology
of the mountain may not be without interest.

The stratigraphy of Mt. Stephen, in its general features at
least, is exceedingly simple, although no detailed measurements
of individual beds have yet been made. It will hardly be un¬
derstood, however, without a brief reference to the various
formations found in the district. The series of beds which I
have called the Bow River group, forms the basal member of
the section as exposed along the line of the Canadian Pacific
railway, and consists mainly of a great development of dark-
colored, greenish and reddish argillites, associated more especi¬
ally in its upper part with some schists, sandstones, quartzites
and conglomerates. The base is no where visible but the part
exposed has an estimated thickness of over 10,000 feet. Fol¬
lowing this is the Castle Mountain group, a formation which
agrees very closely in age and composition with the Pogonip
limestone of Clarence King’s Middle Nevada section. It con¬
sists mostly of massive crystalline dolomites, alternating with
fine grained, evenly bedded dolomites, ordinary limestones, and.

24

Geology of Mt . Stephen — McConnell.

calcareous shales. In some places the dolomites and limestones-
are replaced in part, or altogether, by a great series of greenish
calc-schists and greenish and reddish shales and slates. The
Castle Mountain group is found at intervals across the whole
width of the range, but it is otherwise with the succeeding
formations. In the eastern part the section is very imperfect,
as both the Silurians, as well as all the formations between the
Carboniferous and the Middle Cretaceous, so far as known, are
wanting. In this section the Castle Mountain group is over¬
laid by the intermediate limestone of Devonian age, and this
by the Banff limestone of Devono-Carboniferous age, above which
and forming the top of the section come the shales, quartzites
and conglomerates of the Cretaceous. In the wertern part of
the range the Castle Mountain group graduates upwards into a
series of black shales holding graptolites which professor Lap-
worth has assigned to the Utica-Trenton fauna, above which
comes a limestone holding Halysites catenulatus. This suc¬
cession is expressed in the following section :

Zone of Halysites catenulatus . Halysites beds.

Zone of Graptolites (Utica-Trenton) . Graptolitic shales.-

Zone of Asaphus . )

! Castle Mountain group.

Zone of Paradoxides . )

[■ Bow River group.

Zone of Olenellus . . )

Total thickness 23,000 feet.

In Mt. Stephen and its eastern neighbor, Cathedral mountain,
only the two lower formations are present. In the latter moun¬
tain the beds of the Bow River group were composed princi¬
pally of quartzites, with some slates and schists, alternating
above with the limestones of the Castle Mountain group and have
been carried up by an anticlinal to a hight of over 8,000 feet, and
are well exposed all along the lower slopes of the mountain. The
upper cliff-part of the mountain shows the limestones, shales and
dolomites of the Castle Mountain group, to the steep weather¬
ing of which the peculiar configuration from which the moun¬
tain derives its name is due. The beds of the Bow River group
can be traced westwards to Mt. Stephen, but here, although
the easterly dip is still maintained, they suddenly disappear,
and the whole mountain from base to summit is composed of

Some Geological Problems — Calvin. 25

beds belonging to the succeeding formation. The cause of this
disappearance is due to a steep downthrow fault with a dis¬
placement of over 3,000 feef, which passes between Mt. Stephen
and Cathedral mountain, and on the opposite side of the valley
cuts through the eastern shoulder of Mt. Field. The beds of the
Bow River group brought down to the surface by this fault,
are arched up again a few hundred feet, by a second anticlinal,
and are then exposed for some distance along the base of Mt*
Stephen, but soon afterwards dip to the west and disappear for
good about a mile east of Field. They are overlain and fol¬
lowed round the anticlinal by the dolomites, limestone and
shales of the Castle Mountain group of which the upper and
greater portion of the mountain consists. J

No fossils have been detected so far in the lower part of the
Bow River series, but specimens of Olenellus gilberti were
found about 2,000 feet below the top of the formation by Dr..
Dawson in 1884. The next fossiliferous zone in ascending
order occurs near the junction of the Bow River and Castle
Mountain groups, at which point specimens of Paradoxides and
other fossils were found. Between three and four thousand
feet farther up occurs the fauna described by Dr. Rominger.
Higher up in the same formation, but some distance farther
west, specimens of an Asaphus were found, above which come
the graptolitic shales referred by professor Lapworth to the
Utica-Trenton.

Office of the Geological Survey of Canada, Dec. 1, 1888.

SOME GEOLOGICAL PROBLEMS IN MUSCATINE COUNTY,
IOWA, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE RECTIFI¬
CATION OF THE SUPPOSED KINDERHOOK NEAR THE
MOUTH OF PINE CREEK*

By S. Calvin.

More than thirty years agof Prof. James Hall, then state
geologist of Iowa, made a geological reconnaissance along the

JA section through mount Stephen and Cathedral niountain may be
found in Part D, Annual report, Geol. Survey of Canada, 1886.

♦Published simultaneously in the bulietin of the laboratories of natural
history of the State of Iowa, vol. i, No. 1.

|In the years 1855 and 1856.

26

Some Geological Problems — Calvin.

Mississippi river, from Lansing to Keokuk, for the purpose of
obtaining a general knowledge of the geological structure of
the eastern part of Iowa. The same ground had previously
been traversed, at least in part, by the geologists D. D. Owen
and B. F. Shumard, and the work of Hall, while correcting
some mistakes, tended in the main to confirm and establish the
conclusions of the earlier geologists. Considering the unde¬
veloped condition of the country, the vastness of the field at¬
tempted to be covered in a short time bv the surveys of Owen
and Hall, and the scantiness of the materials for observation
as compared with those now available in our quarries, railway
cuttings and other artificial excavations, we cannot but admire
the skill and success with which the several geological problems
were worked out. Mistakes of course were made, mistakes
were under the circumstances unavoidable. While Hall, by
reason of better facilities for study, was able to rectify some of
the errors of his predecessors, he was himself occasionally led
into error, and one of these errors has been the cause of some
confusion among geologists. The desire to correct this error
must stand responsible for the addition of this paper to the
already overburdened literature of geology.

In the days of the geological reconnaissance referred to, the
present town of Buffalo in Scott county, Iowa, was known as
New Buffalo. New Buffalo figures in all these earlier reports,
for near the village occurs an interesting fossiliferous lime¬
stone, exposed along the river or in the sides of the ravines; and
the reports of Owen and Shumard* and Hallf are in accord in
referring this limestone to the age of the Hamilton group of
-New York.

The Hamilton limestone of Buffalo with its peculiar associa¬
tion of fossils, disappears beneath the level of the river at or¬
dinary stages a short distance below Montpelier in Muscatine
county. The last seen of it in that immediate region, it forms
a low ledge or reef, exposed at low water, and running out into
the Mississippi river a hundred yards or more at a point almost
directly in front of the present residence of Mr. G . W. Robin¬
son. If, however, we follow the bank of the Mississippi, we

♦Owen’s Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota, Phila¬
delphia, 1852.

t Report on the Geological Survey of Iowa, by James Hall, 1858.

Some Geological Problems — Galvin. 21

shall find, a short distance above the mouth of Pine creek, an
exposure of yellowish sandstone with interstratified shaly beds.
The position of this sandstone leaves no doubt as to its relations
to the Hamilton limestone. Although along the river the con¬
tact is not seen, the sandstone is evidently superimposed on
the limestone.

The relation of the sandstone, coupled as it is with an entire
change of lithological characters, led Hall to refer it to the
‘Chemung period,’15 and a fossil spirifer that occurs abundantly
in the form of internal casts in one of the layers, is described
as a new species under the name of Spirifer capax f and oc¬
cupies a conspicuous place among the figures of species supposed
to represent the Chemung fauna of Iowa.

A yellowish sandstone resting upon greenish shales occurs in
the bluffs along the river at Burlington. This sandstone con¬
tains easts of brachiopods in abundance, but it does not contain
a single specimen of Spirifera capax. Nevertheless Hall re¬
gards the Burlington sandstone as the equivalent of the spiri-
fer-b earing sandstone of Muscatine county, and refers it like¬
wise to the age of the Chemung group of New York.J

Thus matters stood until Meek and Worthen, in a paper on
the Goniatite limestone of Rockford, Indiana, § proposed the
name Kinde f kook group to include, not only the Goniatite beds
in question, but the yellow sandstone at Burlington and all the
equivalent strata of the Mississippi valley that had previously
been referred to the age of the Chemung. Furthermore a study
*of the Kinderhook fauna at Burlington, near the town of
Kinderhook in Illinois, at Rockford, Indiana, and at other lo¬
calities where the formation is typically developed, showed that
the Kinderhook group is not only not Chemung, that it is not
Devonian at all, but that it is related to the strata above it rather
ithan to those below it, and must therefore be transferred to
*the Carboniferous series. Accordingly Meek and Worthen in
their reports on the geology of Illonis, || have placed the Kinder-

*HaH’s Geology of Iowa, vol i, Part i, p. 89.
fid., vol. i, Part n, p. 520, Plate vii, figs. 7 a-d.
fHall’s Geology of Iowa, vol. i, part i, p. 89 et. seq.

§Am. Jour. Science, vol. xxxii, No. 95, Sept. 1861.

|| Geological Survey of Illinois, vols. x-vir. See particularly vol. r, pp„
44 and 118.

28

Some Geological Problems — Calvin .

hook group, including the yellow sandstone at Burlington, at
the base of the Sub-carboniferous. The conclusions of Meek
and Worthen are justified by the total absence of Devonian
species from the beds of the Kinderhook. Even such wide¬
spread Devonian genera as Atrypa, Strophodonta, Acervularia
etc., are conspiciously absent. On the other hand the crinoids
and fishes, as well as the Productidse among the brachiopods, all
impart to the Kinderhook fauna an unmistakable Carboniferous
facies .

Dr. C. A. White follows Meek and Worthen in referring the
sandstones at Burlington to the Carboniferous instead of the
Devonian.* Without quoting authorities farther it may be as¬
sumed that all competent geologists are now in accord as to the
correctness of the position in the geological series that later
and more careful study has assigned to these sandstones.

Up to the present time no one so far as I know has called in
question the propriety of assigning the yellow sandstones above
the mouth of Pine creek in Muscatine county to the same
horizon as the yellow sandstones at Burlington. Hall’s state¬
ment as to their equivalency has been accepted as final, and
when the sandstones of Burlington were transferred from the
Chemung period to the Sub-carboniferous, by common consent
the spir if er-bearing sandstones of Muscatine county were sup¬
posed to be similarly transferred. White speaks of the Kinder¬
hook beds as striking the Mississippi river an Muscatine, f S. A.
Miller refers Spirifera capax% Hall to the Kinderhook group.
Hall in a recent publication§ speaks of S. capax as from the
“Lower Carboniferous, mouth of Pine creek, Iowa.” Calvin in¬
fluenced by the general concurrence of opinion states that “the
Kinderhook is seen resting on the Hamilton in Muscatine
county.” || Other writers, similarly influenced have been led to
support the view that the sandstones at Burlington and the
sandstones near the mouth of Pine creek belong essentially to
the same geological horizon .

* White’s Geology of Lowa, 1870, vol. i, p. 189.

f White’s Geology of Iowa, 1870, vol. i, p. 189.

j American Palaeozoic Fossils, 8. A. Miller, 1887, p. 129.

§Report of State Geologist for the year 1882, Albany, N. Y., Plate 52,.
figs. 15, 16, and description of plate.

(J Notes on the Geological Formations of Iowa, p. 7. Prepared for distri¬
bution at the World’s Industrial Exposition at New Orleans, 1885.

Some Geological Problems — Calvin . 29

During the past ten years the writer has made repeated excur¬
sions to the region near the mouth of Pine creek, atracted first by
unusual facilities offered for collecting beautifully preserved
casts of the so-called Spirifera capax , and afterward by the de¬
sire to study anew the strati graphical phenomena of the region.
A very casual study of the facts now available in determining
the geological problems of the region in question, is sufficient
to demonstrate that the spirifer-bearing sandstone at Pine creek
is not the stratigraphical equivalent of the Kinderhook sand¬
stone at Burlington. The two sandstones do not belong to the
same period, nor do they even belong to the same age. The
writer has handled more than a thousand specimens of Spiri¬
fera capax, the specimens occurring in the form of casts in the
supposed Kinderhook sandstone. Impressions of the external
surface of the shell are often very perfectly preserved, revealing
every detail of surface marking. From the study of such an
array of material showing every phase and character of the
species there can be.but one conclusion, and that is that Spiri¬
fera capax is simplj the cast of Spirifera parry ana Hall, a
species more or less common in the limestones at Buffalo —
limestones that Hall and Owen and Shumard, with the full
concurrence of all geologists who have examined the region,
referred to the horizon of the Hamilton group of New York.
Spirifera capax is therefore a synonym of Spirifera parry ana * *
Associated with the casts of Spirifera parryana (S. capax),
in the sandstones about Pine creek, occur the casts of such
typical Devonian species as Atrypa reticularis Lin; Spirifera
aspera Hall; Strophodonta demissa Conrad; Orthis impressa or
Orthis iowensis Hall; and many other well known bracliiopods.
There is not a single Kinderhook species in the entire beds
so far as observed, nor is there a species that could by any
stretch or reasonable allowance be regarded as a representative
of any of the Carboniferous or Sub-carboniferous groups. On
the contrary all the species are identical with species occurring
in the Hamilton limestones at Buffalo, Pine creek Mills, Han-

*The two species are described and illustrated in the same publication,
Hall’s Geology of Iowa, vol. i, part 2. 8. parryana however is entitled to
precedence since it is characterized on page 509 and Plate IY, while the

• description and figures of 81 capax are not given until we reach page 520
and Plate VII.

80

Some Geological Problems — Calvin.

son’s Quarry, Atalissa and all other points where limestone* con¬
taining Spirifera parryana is exposed.

The yellow sandstones above the mouth of Pine creek there¬
fore are of the same age as the limestones near Buffalo. They
are not even Chemung unless the limestones are also Chemung;:
much less are they Lower Carboniferous or Kinderhook.

Owen gives a recogaizable figure of Spirifera parryana as it
occurs with the shell preserved in the Hamilton limestones
along Pine creek, and another figure of a cast of the same
species as it occurs in the overlying sandstones.* Both forms
are described as Spirifera euruteines , but it is interesting to
note that the specific identity of the two forms is distinctly rec¬
ognized, and that furthermore the beds containing them are-
referred to the same period.

No Kinderhook or Sub-carboniferous of any kind has been
observed by the writer in the reg:on about Pine creek in Mus¬
catine county. A very complete section of the rocks of the
region may be studiei in the bed and banks of Robinson’s
creek, a small stream emptying into the Mississippi a short dis¬
tance below Montpelier. Near the mouth of the creek is the
ledge of limestone already mentioned as exposed at low water,
and extending out into the river for more than a hundred
yards. This limestone is the same as that found at Hanson’s
quarry, Pine Creek mills and many other points, and is char¬
acterized by the presence among others of the following fossil
species: Spirifera parr yam, S. aspera, Atrypa reticularis,
and Athyris vittata. Following up the channel of Robinson’^
creek we find, — 1, beds of arenaceous shale with some thin beds
of limestone, containing branching polyzoa, Atrypa reticularis,
Strophodonta demissa, very large forms, and Orthis iowensis;f
— 2, argillaceous shale only a few feet in thickness and contain¬
ing no fossils; — 8, layers of sandstone among which is a bed
about 14 inches in thickness containing casts of Spirifera par¬
ryana, (S. capax) with which are associated either in the same
bed or in adjacent beds both above and below, casts of Atrypa
reticularis, Strophodonta demissa, Orthis iowensis , and Spiri -

*Owen’s Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota, Table
III, figs. 2 and 6.

1 No opportunity has yet been found to measure the thickness of the
several members of the section.

Some Geological Problems — Calvin. 31

fera aspera ; — 4, a considerable thickness of sandstones con¬
taining no fossils as far as observed; — 5, arenaceous beds con¬
taining casts or impressions of corals related to Cladopora
and impressions of what seem to be immense masses of Stro-
matopora; — 6, a bed of fragmentary materials interstratified
with irregularly interrupted flexuous beds of shale and sand¬
stone, varying greatly in thickness and spread over the uneven
and apparently eroded surface of the underlying sandstone; — 7,
flexuous beds of shale, with a bed of impure coal from two to
three feet in thickness; — 8, evenly bedded friable sandstone
varying in color from yellow to gray, and containing in some of
its layers numerous impressions of Calamites , Sigillaria and
Lepidodendon. Casts of the stems of Lepidodendon, apparently
of the species recognized by Owen as L. aculeatum Sternberg,*
were observed more than nine inches in diameter.

The beds i-5 are of Devonian age and must all be referred
to the same period as the limestones at Buffalo and Pine creek
Mills. Beds 6, 7 and 8 are of much later origin; they belong
to the Carboniferous period and were probably contempora¬
neous with the upper Coal Measures of southwestern Iowa.

Practically the same succession of strata as seen in Robin¬
son’s creek, may be observed in what is know as the railroad
quarry at Montpelier. An immense quantity of stone was
taken out by the railway company and used as riprapping to
protect the embankment from the wash of the river. The
magnitude of the work performed here may be inferred from
the fact that the riprapping extends, sometimes for miles con¬
tinuously, as far as Muscatine, a distance of sixteen miles.
The beds worked were Devonian sandstone, the equivalents of
3, 4 and 5 of the section on Robinson’s creek. The spirifer-
bearing layer is here about two feet in thickness; it is harder
than at the localities on Robinson’s creek or on the river above
the mouth of Pine creek, and it would seem to have furnished
a very large proportion of the material used in riprapping. At
the upper end of the quarry, coal-measure shales and sandstones,
are seen resting unconformably on the Devonian sandstones.
The lower beds are very flexuous and distorted. A well mark¬
ed layer at any point may thin out and disappear in a distance

♦Owen’s Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota, Table'
VI, figs. 1 and 2.

32

Some Geological Problems — Calvin.

of twenty feet. The conglomerate bed, number 6 on Robin¬
son’s creek, is here well marked, the fragmentary materials being
interstratified with irregularly contorted beds of shale and sand¬
stone disposed at all imaginable angles and frequently thinning
out within a few feet. At one point observed in the face of the
bluff the conglomerate bed had a thickness of eight or ten feet,
while only a short distance to the left the same layer had thin¬
ned to eight or ten inches. In the face of the bluffs at a
height of about fifteen feet, occurs a layer of impure coal about
ten inches in thickness, and above the coal are regular, horizon¬
tal, even-bedded layers of sandstones representing number 8 on
Robinson’s creek. Below the coal seam all the strata are con¬
fused, contorted, irregular; above the coal seam the layers are
even, regular and horizontal.

There are two distinct sandstones belonging to different ages,
in the region about Pine creek and Montpelier in Muscatine
county, Iowa. One belongs to the Middle Devonian, the other
to the Lower Carboniferous. To avoid confusion I have used
at different times in this article the term Spir fer-bearing
sandstone to denote the earlier of the two. We may speak of
them hereafter respectively as Devonian and Carboniferous
sandstones.

The Carboniferous sandstone is extensively developed through¬
out the region from Buffalo to Muscatine. An exposure of
nearly a hundred feet in thickness may be seen at Wild Cat
den, a mile and a half above Pine Creek mills. At Wyoming
Hill, a short distance below Fairport, it is well exposed and
furnished numerous remains of Coal-Measure plants. In the
lower part of the city of Muscatine it is again seen in the high
bluff, lying as usual above a layer of rather impure coal. At
one locality on Pine creek, above Wild Cat den, this sandstone
is somewhat more indurated than usual, and is quarried to sup¬
ply the local demand for building stone.

The coal seam which appears everywhere to accompany the
Carboniferous shales and sandstones of the region, varies in
thickness from eight or ten inches to two or three feet. For
the most part the coal is of inferior quality, being more or less
shaly, and containing large quantities of pyrites of iron. At a
few localities, however, notably near Buffalo, the coal has been
profitably worked.

Some Geological Problems — Calvin.

33

The Devonian sandstone, as developed at and near Mont¬
pelier, seems not to have a very wide geographical distribution.
The conditions favoring its deposition were evidently local.
In the particular locality affected by them, these conditions,
whatever they may have been, operated disastrously on most of
the Devonian fauna. During a part of the time, however,
Spirifera parryana found the conditions unusually favorable.
The great number of casts of this species occurring in the
spirifer-bearing layer would indicate that the sea-bottom was
fairly crowded for a time with large, healthy, vigorous individ¬
uals; and that the species occupied the region to the almost
total exclusion of everything else. Spirifera aspera , the con¬
stant associate of S. parryana in the underlying limestones is
almost entirely absent, only two or three S. aspera being seen
among many hundred S. parryana. Even Atrypa reticularis ,
that most ubiquitous of all Devonian brachiopods, apparently
capable of living anywhere and under any circumstances, was
represented by a comparatively few widely scattered individuals.
The Orthis ioivensis attained a larger size than usual, but the
number of individuals was small. Athyris vittata which is
one of the most abundant shells in the subjacent limestones, is
unrepresented in collections from the sandstone. In the fossil-
iferous portion of the sandstone individuals of Strophodonta
demissa are about as numerous as in the limestone.

It is only in one layer, and that not very thick, that Spiri¬
fera parryana occurs. Some of the species mentioned persis¬
ted after S. parryana abandoned the struggle. They range a
foot or two above the spirifer bed, but brachiopod life soon
ceased, and the sandstone through several feet of its thickness
shows no traces of fossils.

There is but a siugle fish tooth in the collections from the
sandstone, and it is apparently identical with an undetermined
species occuring in the Hamilton limestones at Solon and Iowa
City.

The most significant facts recorded in the Devonian and
Carboniferous strata of Muscatine county have been recogniz¬
ed by all geologist who have personally examined the region.
These facts are detailed with scientific minuteness in the re¬
ports on the geology of Iowa and Illinois. Briefly stated, we
have evidence that at the close of the Hamilton period, after

34

Some Geological Problems — Calvin.

the limestone and sandstone strata had been finished the sea
retired southward and westward, and Muscatine county became
a part of the growing continent. The strata of the Kinder-
hook, Burlington, Keokuk and St. Louis epochs were succes¬
sively deposited in the gradually retreating sea, and at succes-
cessively greater and greater distances from Muscatine county.
All this while the agents of erosion were at work in what is
now the region of Pine creek and Montpelier. There is abso¬
lutely no evidence that the region ever received any Sub-car¬
boniferous deposits. The epochs of the Lower and Upper Coal-
Measures seem successively to have followed the St. Louis
epoch in Iowa, and the Iowa coal basin proper, occupies an
area to the south and west of the region occupied by the St.
Louis group. While, however, the Carboniferous shales and
sandstones about Buffalo and Montpelier are of the same age as
what is known as the Middle or Upper Coal-Measures, I do not
believe that any very direct connection exists between them
and our Iowa coal field. The connection seems more direct
with the Illinois coal field. After a period of subaerial ex¬
posure, represented by the strata of the Sub-carboniferous and
probably by a considerable portion of the Coal-Measures, the
region about Pine creek that had been left bare at the close of
the Devonian, was, by subsidence, carried down beneath a sea
that gradually encroached upon it from the southeast and caus¬
ed the Illinois coal field along the Mississippi above and below
Davenport, to overlap eroded strata, not only of the Devonian,
but of the Upper Silurian age.

Channels and ravines had been cut in the older strata during
the long interval they were above the sea level, and in these
channels and ravines the encroaching sea deposited strata of
the Carboniferous age. The Carboniferous deposits may have
overtopped the ridges and highlands, but the relation of their
upper limit to the present strata cannot be ascertained. Sub¬
sequent erosion, the chief agent being probably the great ice
sheet of the glacial period, has stripped off the larger part of
these Carboniferous beds in their northwestern extension, leav¬
ing but fragments of the strata as outlying patches in areas
that were in some manner peculiarly sheltered. It will be re¬
membered that some of the strata were originally deposited in
ravines walled in by relatively hard beds of Silurian or Devonian

Some Geological Problems — Calvin.

35-

age, and it is in such ravines that the outlying patches chiefly
occur. The conditions would be most favorable for the protec¬
tion of the soft sandstone strata, at least from the agents that
operated during the glacial period, when the ravine occupied by
the strata was comparatively narrow and had a direction at
right angles to the flow of the ice sheet. The largest masses
and most extensive area of outlying Coal-Measures occur along
the Mississippi, between Buffalo and Muscatine. Between
these points the river runs from east to west. Was there an
old Mississippi occupying the same channel practically in pre-
Carboniferous times ? Were these great masses of shales and
sandstones laid down in a valley of erosion, and have they been
preserved from denudation because the valley had a direction at
right angles to the ice flow when glacial conditions and glacial
erasion were at their culmination? These questions may be
answered affirmatively or negatively by some one who has time
and facilities for working out the problem.*

A sentence or two in the fifth volume of the Geological Sur¬
vey of Illinois, page 223, would seem to have some bearing on
the question under discussion. The authors of the chapter on
the Geology of Rock Island county, Messrs. Worthen and Shaw,
say: “There are also some brown beds near Andalusia that
contain numerous Gasteropods and Orthoceratites , and a few
miles below, these are overlaid by from eight to ten feet of a
brown magnesian limestone that contains casts of a large
Spirifer like S. parry anus and Strophomena demissa. These
brown beds are directly overlaid near the mouth of Stonecoal
creek by the sandstones and shales of the coal-measures.”

Near Andalusia then it would seem that we have essentially
the same geological phenomena as in the region about the
mouth of Pine creek, with this difference, that the sandstone
containing casts of Spirifera parryana (S. capax Hall,) is re¬
presented by a magnesian limestone. A magnesian limestone
as all know, does not preserve calcareous structures, and so in
the Devonian dolomite near Andalusia, as in the Niagara and
other dolomitic limestones of the northwest, the fossil brachio-

*For particulars relating to the distribution of outliers of the Carbon¬
iferous age, the reader is referred to Hall’s Geology of Iowa, vol. i, part
1, pp. 120-133; White’s Geology of owa, pp. 228-9; Geological Survey of
Illinois, vol. v, pp. 228-232.

36 Soils of Nebraska — Hicks .

pods are, for the most part, preserved only as internal casts of
the shell.

The fact that a dolomitic bed near Andalusia passes , into a
bed of sandstone farther west in the region of Pine creek, Iowa,
would be in perfect accord with what I have already pointed
out in the American Geologist for January, 1888, vol. i, page
30 — namely, that the great dolomitic masses of strata represent¬
ing the Niagara, Galena and Lower Magnesian limestones of
Iowa, were formed off shores, and that farther seaward, or at
least further to the south and west, where they are generally
concealed by newer strata, the place of the dolomites was taken
by sandstones and shales.*

301 LS OF NEBRASKA AS RELATED TO GEOLOGICAL
FORMATIONS.

By L. E. Hicks.

The soiPupon which the farmer and fruit grower depends for
the success of his labors is a thin stratum spread over the sur¬
face of the earth, varying from a few inches to two or three
feet in thickness, and composed of two elements, humus and
mineral matter. The first element is organic, derived chiefly
from plants, but partly from animals, and has undergone partial
decay. It is the essential element of fertility. But notwith¬
standing its prime importance it is, in point of origin, secondary
and dependent upon the mineral matter. This possessed some
degree of fertility in itself, and so produced a crop of plants
whose decay enriched the place of their growth, and began that
course of production and accumulation of humus which has re¬
sulted in the elaboration of the deep black soils which rejoice
the heart of the Nebraska farmer. The mineral element of our
soils varies greatly in composition, and these variations bring
to view at once the relation of soils to the underlying rocks.
It might be supposed that so thin and superficial a stratum as
the soil, a stratum, too, which derives its most characteristic
.element from organisms growing freely in the air, would be in¬
dependent of the rocks beneath. The bed rocks are often

*Notes on the Formations passed through in boring the Deep Well at
Washington, Iowa, by Professor S. Calvin, American Geologist, vol. i, p.
:28 et. $eq. Published January 1888.

Soils of Nebraska — Hicks.

37

Soils of Nebraska — Hicks .

m

buried deep under many feet of clays, sands, and gravels, so that
their relation to the soil seems to be extremely remote. But
these clays, sands, and gravels, which constitute the subsoil, are
derived from the bed rocks, either those of the immediate
vicinity, or the bed rocks of some region not very remote. All
the mineral matter of soils and subsoils is derived from the bed
rocks by decomposition and disintegration. I have already
shown that the humus is dependent upon the mineral matter.
Hence, the whole mass of the soil with all of its constituent
elements is derived from the rocks. If all the loose material
above the bed rocks were scraped off from the state of Nebraska,
not many centuries would elapse until a new soil would be
formed. If then we wish to understand the nature and origin
of our soils, we must study the bed rocks. To facilitate this in¬
vestigation I present herewith a Preliminary Geological Map of
Nebraska upon which the geological distribution of the bed
rocks is represented. This map has cost me much labor in the
field, but I do not claim for it anything more than approximate
accuracy. It is such a map as a geologist would construct to
illustrate a preliminary reconnoissance, not such as would ac¬
company the final report of a geological survey.

By reference to this map you will see that the oldest forma¬
tion in the state is in the southeast. Underlying the counties
of Richardson, Pawnee, Johnson, Nehama, Otoe, and Cass, and
parts of Lancaster, Sarpy, and Douglas, the bed rocks are lime¬
stones, shales, and sandstones, with a few thin seams of coal.
These rocks belong to the series of the Coal Measures of the
Carbonic system. The coal in them is too thin and poor in
quality to be of much commercial importance; still it is mined
for local use in several counties. About 1,300 tons were taken
,out in 1887. Of the three kinds of rocks in the Coal Measures
the sandstone is least important, both as to quantity, value as a
building stone, and effect upon the soil. A few thick layers of
it occur along the Missouri river, but it plays no important part
in the industries or wealth of the counties underlaid by the
Coal Measures. The shales are more abundant than either the
limestones or the sandstones, constituting more than half of the
entire thickness of the Coal Measures. They are of no value ex¬
cept as the basis of soils and of brick and fire clays. The clays
produced by the decomposition of shales are often of superior

Soils of Nebraska — Ricks.

39

quality. As the basis of soils these coal measure shales are good
or bad according to the other elements mixed with them.
Shales alone will weather down to a soil which is heavy and
difficult to till. But if mixed sufficiently with sand and lime
a rich loam will be the result. The shales of the Coal Measures
are often calcareous enough to furnish the lime necessary for a
good soil, and if not, the presence of limestones in the same for¬
mation yields a happy combination. The sandy element, which
is needed to combine with the disintegrated shales in order to
make a light, tillable soil, is furnished by the glacial drift and
loess; two formations which lie upon the bed rocks in Eastern
Nebraska. These are the newest of the Nebraska deposits (ex¬
cept the alluvium which is still forming along the streams) as
the Coal Measures are the oldest, and they will be described in
the proper place.

The limestones of the Coal Measures are the most important
of the series in point of their economic value for lime and build¬
ing stone, as well as their influence on the soil. The decay of
limestones always tends to enrich the soil — a fact so obvious as
to challenge the attention of the most careless observer. Lime¬
stones weather and decay much more rapidly than is generally
supposed. The carbonic acid of the air and water attacks them
with great vigor. Frosts crack their surfaces and the roots of
plants enter and enlarge the fissures by their growth. Little
by little the rock is broken down or dissolved, yielding its
nutritive elements to the soil.

I have stated that the oldest rocks in Nebraska are in the
south-eastern corner. Going westward from the Missouri river
one constantly encounters newer rocks lapping over on the
older ones. Passing from Pawnee to Gage county we pass from
the Coal Measures to the Permian, the last series of the Carbonic
system. The rocks of this series are very similar to those of
the Coal Measures, the distinction between the two being based
upon a difference in the fossils and the absence of coal. Hence
in the area underlaid by Permian rocks the same soils may be
found (so far as they depend upon the subjacent rocks) as in
the counties where the rocks belong to the Coal Measures. The
Permian occupies about two-thirds of Gage county and small
portions of Saline and Lancaster counties.

After the Permian epoch there was a long interval during

40

Soils of Nebraska — Hicks.

which no rock-forming sediments were deposited in the region
now known as Nebraska. During the Carbonic period the sea
prevailed over this region and in it were deposited the mud,
sand, and lime which have hardened into the shales, sandstones,
and limestones of the Coal Measures and Permian. Then the
sea retired, and during the Triassic and Jurassic periods while
thick strata were formed in other parts of the continent,
Nebraska was dry land. The streams of water upon its surface
cut deep valleys during this interval. Then as the land slowly
sank again the sea once more invaded this region. In the val¬
leys formed by running water, which were approximately in
the same lines with the valleys now in existence, the incoming
sea formed deep bays along its eastern shore. In these bays
and all over the region covered by the incoming sea, was de¬
posited a series of sands, clays, shaly sandstones, hard sand¬
stones, quartzite, lignite, conglomerate, and shale, which now
forms the Dakota group of the Cretacic system. This is found
in Dakota, Burt, Cuming, Dodge, Washington, Douglas, Sarpy,
Saunders, Lancaster, Seward, Saline, Jefferson, and Gage counties*
as the reader will see by reference to the map. Some of these
counties are almost wholly occupied by the Dakota groupr
others are just touched by this formation.

Of the varions kinds of rock above mentioned as occurring in
the Dakota group, the sands, sandstones, and clays are most
abundant, and exert the greatest influence upon the soil. The
clays are valuable for brick and pottery. Where they form
continuous strata of considerable extent, with a level surface,
the water is retained, causing boggy or swamp land. By them¬
selves these clays impart too great heaviness and tenacity to
the soil, but with a suitable proportion of sand intermixed a
good loam is formed. An abundance of sand and sandstone is
everywhere present in the Dakota group to temper the clays.
In some places the sandstone predominates so much as to form
sandy knolls with a thin and poor soil or none at all. But these
bald knobs are not numerous, and are never of great extent.
The glacial drift and loess cover the country occupied by the
Dakota group so generally that it is only on the high points
projecting into the valleys that the sandstone foundation is in
sight, making thin land.

West of the Dakota group comes the Colorado group of the

Soils of Nebraska — Hicks.

41

Crefcacic system, extending through the east central portions of
the state. Its eastern boundary is the Dakota group as already
indicated. Its western boundary runs from the north-west cor¬
ner of Brown county in a south-easterly direction to Boone
county, thence almost due south to the Kansas line, near the
point in Nuckolls co nty where the Republican river leaves
Nebraska. Besides this great central belt of the Colorado group
there is another area in Cheyenne, Keith, Lincoln, and Perkins
counties along Lodge Pole creek and the South and North
Platte. The rocks of: the Colorado group are limestones, shales,
and clays, which exert the same inffuences upon the soil as
already ascribed to such rocks occurring in the Carbonic system.
A characteristic difference, however, between the Carbonic lime¬
stones and those of the Colorado group is that the latter are
extremely soft and friable, thus the more readily breaking up
and yielding their nutritive elements to the soil. So well
marked and general is this characteristic that these strata of
the Colorado group are generally known as “rotten limestones.”
They are full of shells of the genera Inoceramus and Ostrea.
Some of the outcrops look like dumping grounds of an oyster
market, as if the shells had been thrown down by the wagon
load and partially cemented together by the solution and redep¬
osition of the calcareous matter. This process of solution and
redeposition has in some places produced large masses of crystals
of calcite. In northern Nekraska the limestone of the Colo¬
rado group is quite chalky, so that it is known as “chalk rock.”
Fine sections of it may be seen in the hills bordering the
Missouri river in Cedar and Knox counties. In western
Nebraska the limestone of the Colorado group is firmer in tex¬
ture than in the central belt, but still readily yielding to the
action of the elements, and thus enriching the soil.

The Cretacic rocks both of the Colorado and Dakota groups
were deposited in seawater. Marine fossils occur in them
from top to bottom. After the close of the Cretacic period
much of Nebraska was dry land, but a fresh water lake covered
all the western and central counties. In this lake, which varied
in its extent from time to time, were deposited the rocks of the
Tertiary era the most widely distributed of all the geological
formations of Nebraska. It is indicated on the map by oblique
strokes from the right above to the left below. The rocks of

42

Soils of Nebraska — Hicks.

the Tertiary include nearly all the kinds previously mentioned.
Limestone of the ordinary kind, rotten limestone, ordinary
sandstone and calcareous sandstone, indurated clays and soft
clays, conglomerate, lignite, and quartzite, are all found in the
Tertiary. Loose sands also occur in great abundance, and as
they are driven to and fro by the wind form the belts of “sand
hills” which mar the beauty and productiveness of many town¬
ships. Marl of fine quantity for fertilizing, and thick beds of
peat, are also found in the Tertiary.

The so-called “bad lands,” or mauvaises terres, of the Tertiary
are formed by erosion in the indurated clays and marls which
yield to running water readily enough to form deep gullies in
the line of the current, and yet have the requisite firmness and
tenacity to stand up in steep walls against the weather. These
bad lands constitute a temporary stage of the evolution of sta¬
ble land surfaces in soft strata. So long as the little streamlets
have a rapid fall they gouge out deep gullies with steep walls.
Each side channel entering the little valley forms a tributary
canon, which again forms its tributaries, until an intricate
maze of principal and tributary canons is produced. In the
process of formation while erosion is in rapid progress no vege¬
tation can obtain a permanent hold in any of the gullies. But
as the system enlarges and the tributary canons run into each
other, the central stem of the tree-like system widens out and
ceases to become deeper because the natural drainage level has
been reached. Grasses, weeds, shrubs, and trees take root.
The steep walls are washed down to gentle slopes which pres¬
ently take on the grateful green of the valley. Thus the whole
region which the water had cut into barren, forbidding, and
impassable gullies, may be transformed into fertile valleys. The
process is too slow, however, to make it advisable to locate
claims in the bad lands. Like all geological processes, it re¬
quires ages to work these changes. The whole continent is
gradually approximating a condition of stability as regards
erosion but that condition will not be reached until the whole
surface is reduced much nearer to the level of the sea than it is
at present.

The bad lands and sand hills, however, form but a small part
of the country occupied by the Tertiary. Some of the best
grazing and arable land in Nebraska may be found in the bed

Soils of Nebraska — Hicks.

43

of the old Tertiary lake, and it owes its fertility directly to the
sediments deposited there. Much of that sediment is indistin¬
guishable from the loess of eastern Nebraska, one of the best
foundations in the world for a fertile soil, as shown more fully
below . Both are fresh water formations, much resembling the
dried mud of existing lakes and rivers, whose fertilizing qualities
are exemplified in bottom lands, in the beds of lakes reclaimed
by drainage and in the effects of the overflowing waters of the
Nile upon the lands of Egypt.

This completes the enumeration of the bedrocks of Nebraska,
-as they are delineated upon the accompanying may . There are
two additional formations not represented on the map, but men¬
tioned in this paper because of their great and direct influence
upon the soil. These are the glacial drift and the loess, both of
which belong to the Pleistocene or latest period of geological
history. They are not shown upon the map, for two reasons.
In the first place, their extent in Nebraska, especially that of the
loess, is not thoroughly known. In the second place, they over¬
spread several of the older formations so completely that if
they were represented on the map the underlying formations
would be hidden. It would require a separate map to exhibit
these Pleistocene deposits, or two maps in addition, since the
loess partially overlies the drift, and requires a map by itself.
The glacial drift is composed of sand, gravel and clay. It was
•carried down from the north or north-east, and spread over the
eastern part of Nebraska by the agency of ice, or of ice and
water combined. The clay of this drift sometimes forms a
“gumbo” soil as, indeed, the clay of any geological age may
Ho, if not mixed with sand and lime.

But in general the glacial drift has about the right propor¬
tions of sand, gravel, clay, and lime (from the limestone peb¬
bles and bowlders) to form an excellent soil and subsoil. A
soil formed from and resting upon glacial drift is usually loamy,
*easy to till, with good drainage, and not soon injured by
drought. The loess has nearly the same general distribution
ns the glacial drift — i. e., it may be found over much the same
territory, though neither drift nor loess covers every square
mile of the general region in which they are found, and one
may be wanting where the other is present. Whenever in
Nebraska at least, both are present the loess is above the drift,

44 Soils of Nebraska — Hicks.

and forms the surface of the country, thus exerting a more
direct influence upon the soil than any other formation . This
influence depends upon the chemical and physical properties of
the loess. In its chemical composition the loess contains all
the essential elements required in the growth of plants, in so
far as that growth depends upon the mineral kingdom. Hence
when the organic matter of the humus is added to loess (some
organic matter being already contained in the loess itself) the
happiest combination for a fertile soil is secured. The physical
properties ol the loess are of even greater importance than its
chemical composition. It is permeable to moisture, and there¬
fore insures good drainage to the soils formed and underlaid by
it. At the same time, water does not run through it so rapidly,
or pass away so completely, as in sand or gravel. Every cubic
foot of it retains a large amount of moisture, and, since it has
a thickness of more than a hundred feet in many places, the
aggregate amount of moisture retained by it is enormous. As
the surface dries in the heat and drought of summer this retained
moisture is brought up to nourish the growing crop. In the
rainy season a fresh stock of moisture is laid up. This storage
of moisture is much facilitated by the loosening of the surface
in the operations of tillage. The loess is capable of assuming
almost the hardness of stone, a fact which accounts for the ex¬
cellent natural roads in Nebraska. By the trampling of animals,
the sun’s heat, and the beating of storms, the natural surface of
the prairie became hard and nearly impermeable, causing the
rain-fall to pass off in sudden floods . The breaking up of this
hard stratum by cultivation causes the retention of a much larg¬
er percentage of the rain-fall, and indirectly increases the rain¬
fall itself.

The loess is a deposit of sediment in a fresh water lake which
covered eastern Nebraska during a very late period of geologic¬
al history. I have already spoken of another fresh water lake
in western and central Nebraska, in which the Tertiary rocks
were laid down. It is difficult to distinguish between the late
Tertiary strata and the loess — a fact not at all comforting to
the field geologist, but quite the contrary to the farmer in west¬
ern Nebraska. In many counties formed of Tertiary strata the
upper member is a fine loamy clay or marl, in every respect simi¬
lar to the loess — so similar, indeed, that some geologists have

Editorial Comment.

45

described it as loess. Whatever it is in the geological classifi¬
cation matters not to the practical farmer, as he reaps bountiful
harvests from it.

Alkali lands are caused by standing water. A tract thorough¬
ly drained will never be permanently alkaline. Underdraining is
better than surface draining, because it tends to draw the mois¬
ture downward from the surface. The opposite result occurs
where standing water evaporates. Not only are the alkalies in
the water precipitated as the evaporation proceeds, but more
alkali is brought up from beneath by the ascending moisture.
Drainage and tree-planting will cure nearly all the alkali patches
in Nebraska.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

The Exhaustion of Anthracite Coal .

In 1880 Mr. P. W. Sheafer, of Pottsville, Penn., made esti¬
mates of the amount of anthracite coal remaining in the three
fields of Pennsylvania,* viz.

Area, square

First, or Southern coal-field.
Second, or Middle coal-field..
Third, or Northern coal field.

miles, Acreage.

146 93,440

126 80,640

198 126,720

Total . 470

Yards.

First, average total thickness of beds . 25

Second, average total thickness of beds . 15

Third, average total thickness of beds . 3 5

300,800

Tonnage.

11,306,240,000

5,854,464,000

9,199,872,000

Total tonnage . 26,360,576,000

Amount to be mined, one-third . 8,786,858,666

Total shipments to January 1st, 1888 . 628,612,720

Adding for local sales and amount used at mines as per Geol. Rep.

(1887, est’d 6 per cent.) . . . 53,119,40

Total production to January 1st 1888 . 681,732,129

Present available supply, workable . 8, 107,125,537

At present rate of production would last 202 years.

With maximum rate of production from 1890 (50,000,000 tons),
would last 162 years.

From which he conludes:

The total amount of coal still to be mined is 26,360,570,000 tons. The
total waste, as experience has shown, is equal to two-thirds of the coal
deposit, and reaches the appalling amount of 17,573,717,334 tons, leaving

* American Association for the Advancement of Science. Proceedings,
1880.

46

Editorial Comment.

us only 8,786,858,666 tons to send to market. In all our calculations of
anthracite we have counted the area as if in a level plain, and made no
allowance for the undulations which must necessarily increase the amount
of coal. But as many of the flexures are abrupt and broken, making
much faulty and refuse coal, it will cover any over-estimate of area or of
thickness we have made in our calculations. Our tables show that 860,-
017,817 tons have been sent to market in the 59 years from 1820 to 1878
inclusive. Our consumption now amounts to 20,000,000 tons annualiy.
The increase of production for the past ten years has been 187,112,857
tons. At this rate we shall reach our probable maximum output of 50,-
000,000 tons in the year 1900, and will finally exhaust the supply in 186
years.

Recent re-estimates made by the editor of the Mining and
Engineering Journal vary considerably from these results.
These estimates fix the amount of coal in the ground as 9,000,-
000,000 tons, two-thirds of which is waste, leaving 3,000,000,-
000 tons as the total amount of available coal to be mined.
With the present lavish methods of mining, and with the pre¬
sent increasing amount of coal marketed, this would be exhaust¬
ed in seventy-five years. This causes Mr. Sheafer to reconsider
his former calculation and he comes to the conclusion that the
time he formerly allowed for the exhaustion of the anthracite
coal deposits was too great, and that the aunual output is in¬
creasing at a rate hardly expected by any statistician ten years
ago. He distributes the present available tonnage as follows:

Tons. Tons.

1st. Southern field . 4,000,000,000 Workable {%) . 1,833,000,000

2nd. Middle field . 1,800,000,000 “ 600,000,000

3d. Northern field . 3,200,000,000 “ 1,066,000,000

The present rate of shipment is:

First field, percenta shipment, 30 per cent . 12,000,000

Second field “ 18 “ “ . . . 7, 200,000

Third field, “ 52 “ “ . 20,800,000

100 40,000,600

At these ratios of shipment, the Wyoming region would exhaust itself in
51 years, leaving the other regions to supply the demand with workable
coal after that time.

Tons.

Southern field . . 721,000,000

Middle field . 232,800,000

Assuming each field to double its proportion and ship as follows:

Southern field, 65 per cent, Middle field, 35 per cent, in ]§% years more,
or 67 yz years hence, the Middle field would be totally exhausted, leaving
the Southern field with less than 300,000,000 tons of coal to mine, that
would last 734 years longer, or a total exhaustion in 75 years.

Mr. Sheafer calls attention to some improved methods of

Editorial Comment.

47

mining. “The large shipments of onr railroad companies seem
to be for the purpose of securing the most tonnage possible, and
lead to tbe working of mines for large production more than
careful mining. Those who own lands are exercising more
care in mining, so as to seecure a continuance of the supply.
But when we have large coal beds, say from 20 to 40 feet in
thickness, as in the Mahanoy district and part of the Wyoming
region, how can we secure half of the coal if we must support
the surface? Neither timber nor even iron props will answer
the purpose. Any bed of coal less than ten feet in thickness
can be mined so as to secure three-fourths of the coal. In bitu¬
minous beds you can rob the pillars and let the surface fall and
no harm results. The same is true in smaller anthracite beds.
But when you have to mine the Mammoth bed, you cannot
confine the great pressure of the surface to a small area. The
heavy sandstone rock which covers it, when disturbed by the
removal of a pillar, brings on a pressure that affects the whole
mine. * * * * There has been recently adopted a plan

at the workings of the Kohinoor colliery, in the Shenandoah
district in Schuylkill county, that, I think, will enable us to
secure three-fourths of the coal in the mine. At this point the
Mammoth bed is 40 feet thick and lies nearly horizontal. To
support the surface and the town upon it, will naturally re¬
quire grejt pillars of coal, at least half of the mine. The plan
devised, and now being worked, is to bore through the superin¬
cumbent strata, 400 feet thick, eight-inch holes to the top of
tbe coal bed. Cast-iron troughs 10x12 inches wide, with con¬
tinuous bands of scrapers moving in them, or what is now call¬
ed a “scraper line,” connect with the immense culm banks at
the breaker, some 1,600 feet distant. The scraper line delivers
continuously a large amount of culm at the mouth of the hole.
This meets there a stream of water, and a mixture of about
three-fourths water and one-fourth culm constantly drops into
the river below and there distributes itself, permeating every
nook and corner of the cavities. The deposit becomes so hard
as to require a pick to remove it. It entirely fills tbe chamber
even to the roof, and supports the pillars, but leaving them
accessible to the miner for removal when the large spaces sur¬
rounding them are entirely filled. Of course we must direct the
currents of water and culm, limiting the culm by dams or

48

Revieiv of Recent Geological Literature.

batteries, and allow the water to flow back to the main sumpt
of the mine, where it is pumped out to be again used in carry¬
ing more culm to its original abiding place. Filling with
culm alone would not answer the purpose; it would form a
cone of loose dirt and of no strength; but if deposited as above
described it becomes a nearly solid mass, an abundant support
to the surface or strata above the vein. The material is cheap,
abundant and conveinent. We can now realize, after a year’s
trial, that we secure three-fourth of all our coal where this
method has been adopted. I hope our further experience will
yield even better results.”

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

Synopsis of Rosenbusch's New Scheme for the Glassification of Massive
Rocks. By W. S. Bayley. This is a separate issue of 24 pages of Prof.
Bayley’s three contributions on the subject to the American Naturalist.
This condensed view of Rosenbusch’s classification is timely, and Prof.
Bayley’s pamphlet, if accessible, will be a great convenience to the in¬
creasing number of petrographic investigators who may not as yet have
provided themselves with the second edition of the original work.

Proceedings and Transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural
Science , of Halifax, Nova Scotia. Yol. vii, Part ii, 1887-88. This part con¬
tains three important geological papers by Rev. D. Honeyman, D. C. L., on
“Glacial Geology of Nova Scotia;” “Carboniferous Flora with attached
Spirorbes,” and “Nova Scotian Superficial Geology, Systematized and
Illustrated.” Mr. Honeyman concludes that the facts as observed by him
conflict equally with Sir J. W. Dawson’s theory of absence of glacier
agency, and Thomas Belt’s opinion that the Nova Scotian Drift is a “local
phenomenon.” The same Part contains a third paper on “The Carbon¬
iferous of Cape Breton, with Introductory Remarks,” by E. Gilpin, Jr.,
F. G. S., F. R. S. C.

Peter Redpath Museum , McGill University , Montreal. Specimens of Eo-
zoon Ganadense and their Geological and other Relations. Montreal, Sep¬
tember, 1888. By Sir J. William Dawson, L. L. D., F. R. S., F. G. S., &c.
This memoir, of 107 pages, is the result of an attempt to catalogue and
describe the original specimens on which the name Eozoon was based,
together with those later acquisitions which have thrown further light on
its structure. The collections made by Sir W. E. Logan are now for the
greater part in the Museum of the Geological Survey at Ottawa. Those
accumulated by the author of these notes, as well as duplicates presented
by Sir W. E. Logan, are in the Peter Redpath Museum. Large and valu¬
able collections, more especially of microscopic preparations, were also in
the possession of Dr. W. B. Carpenter at the time of his death .

Review of Recent Geological Literature.

49

Many have supposed that the attacks made on the assumed organic
nature of Eozoon by King and Rowney and by Mdbius and others had
settled the question adversely, but Sir W. Dawson comes forward with a
mass of evidence old and new, on which he bases his faith with undis¬
turbed security. In his summary of arguments in support of the animal
nature of Eozoon canadense , he embraces the following statements : 1 .
It occurs in masses in limestone rocks just as Stromatoporce occur in the
palaaozoic limestone. 2. In small or limited individuals it assumes a
regular rounded, cylindrical or more frequently broadly turbinate, form .

3. Microscopically it presents a regular lamination, the laminae being
confluent at intervals so as to form a net- work in the transverse section .
The laminae have tub erculated surfaces or casts of such surfaces, giving
an acervuline appearance to those laminae which are supposed to be the
casts of chambers . 4. The original calcareous laminae are traversed by
systems of branching canals, now filled with various mineral substances.
5. In some specimens large vertical tubes or oscula may be seen to pene¬
trate the mass. 6. On the sides of such tubes, and on the external surface
the laminae subdivide and become confluent, thus forming a species of
porous epidermal layer or theca. 7. Fragments of Eozoon are found form¬
ing layers in the limestone, showing that it was being broken up when
the limestones were in process of deposition. 8. The great extent and regu¬
larity of the limestones show that they were of marine origin, and they
contain graphite, apatite and obscure organic (?) fragments other than
Eozoon. 9. The mineralization is identical with that of Silurian and other
fossils. 10. Sometimes the calcareous filling of the canals and chamber-
lets can be distinguished as different from the calcite of the original wall.

11. The specimens have been folded and faulted with the containing lime¬
stones, showing that they are not products of any subsequent segregation.

12. Similarly they are crossed by the veins of chrysotile which traverse
the limestones and are of later origin. 13. All the forms and structures
are such as might be expected of a gigantic generalized rhizopod of
primitive times. 14. Many of the objections raised have been based on
insufficient or imperfect specimens, or on want of the necessary experi¬
ence in the study of the more ancient fossils in various states of preserva¬
tion.

Functionally Eozoon was a collector of calcareous matter from the sea .
Its role was the same as that of the stromatoporoids and calcareous spon¬
ges, smaller foraminifers and corals of the later times. Zoologically
Eozoon presents some resemblances to stromatoporoids, but the position of
these is in dispute. They are evidently divisible into different groups,
and Eozoon may represent one of them. Eozoon is probably more akin to
the calcareous-shelled rhizopods than any other modern group. “ The
modern Polytrema which encrusts shells and dead corals in the warmer
seas seems to me to present more resemblance to Eozoon than any other
organism I know.”

The Gold Fields of Victoria. Reports of the mining registrars for the
quarter ending 30th June , 1888. Compiled and arranged by the Secretary
for mines. (C. W. Langtree.) Melbourne. 4to. pp. 92. From this docu-

50

Revieiv of Recent Geological Literature.

ment it appears that the yield of gold for the quarter was 150,193 ounces.
The ground actually worked upon was 32434 square miles. The mining
population was 25,679, of whom 12,795 were employed in quartz-mining,
and 12,884 in alluvial mining. The Chinese miners number 3,980. The
total of dividends paid was £117,214. The deepest shaft was 2,409 feet.
The total value of the machinery employed was £1,815,731. The mining
interests of the colony appear to be chiefly confined to gold, and their con¬
dition is prosperous.

Prop. C. L. Herrick has recently issued the third part of the bulle¬
tin of the laboratory of Denison University at Granville, Ohio. The prin¬
cipal part of the volume is occupied with a paper on the results of Prof
Herrick’s investigations on the Waverly group of Ohio. The fossils are
described and a very large number of them are well figured.

Prof. Herrick divides the Waverly into three parts and characterizes
them paleontologically as follows:

No. I, contains 25 species with a decidedly Devonian habit (often close¬
ly related to Hamilton species) and only 2 or 3 species of Carboniferous
habit .

No. II, contains 12 species of Devonian affinity (often Chemung) and
9 of Carboniferous habit .

No. Ill, contains no species showing Devonian relationship and 7 that
indicate a Carboniferous habit.

As the outcome of his study he is evidently inclined to place the
Waverly group lower in the scale than has hitherto been done by geolo¬
gists. Of the second group he says : “Most of the strata may have been
deposited while the Catskill was forming at the east but the fauna was es¬
sentially of Chemung character.”

It would require more space than we have at present at command to ex¬
press fully the work of Prof. Herrick, but we may say that he has made a
valuable contribution to the solution of the vexed question of the true
place of the Waverly in the geological column.

Another article of geological interest in the volume, is by Mr. Aug.
Foerste on some palaeozoic fossils. The chief species noted are Microdis¬
cus punctatus from the St.Johns’ group, N. B., a new JLichas from the Cin¬
cinnati group which he proposes to name L. halli ; the so-called Sphere _
ochus romingeri , of Hall, which so far as the Ohio specimens are concern¬
ed, he says, is identical with the European S. minis ; and several new
species of trilobites and corals from Australia.

Die Steinkohlen , Hire Eigenschaften , V orkommen, Entstehung und
nationaloekonomische Bedeutung. Von Franz Toula,Wien , 1888, 12mo,pp. 1-
208 , pi. i- vi. The Society for the Propagation of Scientific Knowledge, in
Vienna, has published under the above title, a work which, for its concise
and comprehensive treatment of the general subject, as well as its special
adaptation to the needs of working field geologists, is worthy of notice .
The opening chapters are devoted to a discussion of the different kinds of
coal, their properties and characteristics, and the results of numerous
chemical analyses. Following this, the author treats of the geology of
the palaeozoic coals and their geographical distribution, illustrated by

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 51

many sections and maps, with tables of their production in the various
countries, together with a very brief history of their exploitation in those'
countries. In a somewhat extended discussion the physical conditions
under which the different coals were formed are considered, as well as
some of the problems as to the age of the eastern and southern coals.
The latter he regards as of true Carboniferous age, the change in the plant
life from a palaeozoic to a mesozoic facies being credited to a change of
climate caused probably by glaciation, occurring in the latter half of the
Carboniferous epoch. The synopses of the great families of the coal
plants, described in un-technical language, with brief characterizations of
many of the principal genera and species, is a feature of the work which
geologists in the field will duly appreciate in such a hand book. In the
systematic classification of the coal flora the author proves himself fa¬
miliar with the work of the leading European authorities on palaeozoic
plants, and he adapts it to the most recent results obtained by Stur, Weiss,
Williamson, Renault and Grand Eury in the course of their palseobotani-
cal investigations. This is illustrated by six quadruple plates of the most
widely distributed coal plants, engraved with unusual excellence, and
giving special prominence to the nervation and detail. The form con¬
venient for the pocket, in which the book is published, suggests the
utility of an English translation in a similar edition.

Notes on the geology of western Texas. By Prof. Robert T. HrLLv
(Reprint from the Texas Geological and Scientific Bulletin; Austin, Oct.,
1888.) Professor Hill reports on two trips made by him over “the vast
prairie and mountainous areas of western Texas which seem to be the
geological terra incognita of the United States.” Along the line of the
Texas Pacific Railway he finds a rich field “for competent scientific inves¬
tigators.” Equally important was the trip from Texarkana westward to-
Henrietta, and thence north-west over the plains and up the valley of the
Canadian to Tucumcarri mountain in New Mexico. “The surface of the
Llano Estacado,” he says, “is an early quaternary loam, and a direct con¬
tinuation of the great plains of Kansas and Nebraska, while the white-
matrixed conglomerate which appears so clearly as the surface of the
valley dividing the north and south plains is a later quaternary deposit.
This all implies: first, a great basin of aqueous sedimentation in early
quaternary time of the region now occupied by the Llano Estacado;
Second , a subsequent elevation to a bight, but in no way approaching its
present altitude; Third , a subsequent semi-submergence, during which
time the sediments (tierra blanca of the Mexicans) of the trans-Pecos
mountain valleys, and of the wonderful sub-plains or valleys now occu¬
pied by the Pecos, Rio Grande and Canadian were cut ; fourth, a later,
rapid and enormous uplifting of the region to the present altitude, the
course of which is recorded in the extrusions of eruptive masses of
‘malapais’ or recent volcanic rocks. In fact these plains, and the geology
of the whole region bring to the eastward many miles our knowledge of
the wonderful phenomena of Mount Taylor and the Zuni plateau, west of
the upper Rio Grande, and give us the connecting link between the

52 Review of Recent Geological Literature.

marvelous quaternary phenomena of the lover cotton belt and of th©
great plains.”

The detailed results will be given in Prof. Hill’s forthcoming report on
the geology of south-western Arkansas.

On the origin of primary quartz in basalt. By Joseph P. Iddings, of
the U. S. Geol. Sur. (From Am. Jour. Sci., Sept, 1888). This paper
describes certain specimens of basalt which exhibit a remarkable number
of porphyritic grains of quartz, recently collected in Hew Mexico, in the
vicinity of the Rio Grande Canon .

These quartzes are plainly not the product of alteration nor infiltration,
for the rocks are fresh, and on the surface of the olivines but slight
change is visible. Each grain is closely surrounded by a shell of augite
crystals intimately connected with the enclosing rock mass. The quartz
is pure and free from inclusions of gas, fluid or glass. Each grain is a
single individual with uniform optical orientation throughout. They are
not made up of an aggregate of small grains, the form which secondary
.quartz usually assumes. The grains are rounded or subangular. They
are not like the quartzes of granites, gneisses and sandstones which are
more or less permeated with inclusions of gas and fluid, but are like the
porphyritic quartz grains of volcanic rhyolytes.

The author mentions several other similar chemical occurrences that
seem paradoxical under ordinary physical conditions of crystallization,
such as an iron olivine in a rhyolyte with 75 per cent of silica and less
than 2 per cent of iron oxide. He concludes that when such anomalous
•coincidences are found the surrounding physical conditions which attended
\the solidification of the magma must have been exceptional. The excep¬
tional physical conditions may have preceded the final solidification, and
been of such a character as to demand the secretion and crystallization of
the anomalous mineral forms, and indeed seem to have been so in the
.case of the quartzes, and to have ceased. This is evinced by the resorp¬
tion of the angles and edges of the crystals into the general basic magma,
resulting in the rounding of the grains .

After enumerating the various physical conditions and agents which are
likely to vary within the crust of the earth, such as temperature, pressure,
viscosity, wrater vapor, eutectic substances, and their combined as well as
-their separate action on the magma, he applies them to a hypothetical
case in the production of known quartz-bearing basalt; and suggests that
through the agency of absorbed water, acting under favorable conditions
of pressure and temperature, a partial consolidation of the deep-seated
magma may be effected in the production of extremely acid and basic
silicate minerals in unstable solidification, the dissociating action of heat
or of super-heated steam being sufficient to nullify the ordinary chemical
affinities but not able to suspend the tendency to isolation and crystalliza¬
tion. On the removal of the exceptional physical conditions, the unstable
solidification may be broken up and the crystals partially or wholly re-
: sorbed again into the general magma; or if final solidification supervened
they may be embraced as indigenous though abnotmal crystals in the
.resulting rock. The paper is a very interesting and valuable one to the
petrographic student. *

Review of Recent Geological Literature.

53

Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals: an Aid to the'
microscopical Study of Rocks. By H. Rosenbusch. Translated and
abridged for use in Schools and Colleges, by Joseph Iddings. Illustrated
by 121 woodcuts and 26 plates of photomicrographs. New York, John
Wiley & Sons, 1888.

Every well executed effort to introduce to American students and inves¬
tigators the recent views and methods of European, and especially of
German petrographers, deserves a cordial reception. For such reasony
we are glad to welcome the translations, complete and partial, which have
been made of Hussak’s Gesteinbildende Mineralien, and of Rosenbusch’s.
Classification of Massive Rocks, condensed in a translation by Professor
Bayley. It would still further aid American petrographic studies if we-
could see in an English dress such other works as Des Cloizeaux’ Manuel'-
de mineralogies Yon Lasaulx’ Einfuhung , Roth’s Allqemeine und chemische
Geologie (1879-1887) and Kalkowsky’s Elemente der Lithologie.

Mr. Idd'ngs’ translation has been a work of considerable magnitude and
delicacy. The effort at abridgment has also involved much responsibility.
Such enterprises embody no temptations to selfishness or ambition. The
abridgement consists chiefly in the omission of historical and literary
portions — in part also, of portions explanatory of the diverse views and
expedients of investigators. It involves the omission of many citations of
authorities. To a limited extent it consists in the condensation into a
brief statement, of matter more expanded in the original. The effects of
these various methods of abridgement are various. Sometimes the omitted
matter sustains no connection of dependence with matter retained — being
merely accretionary, and hence separable without violence. Such are the
“ Historical Introduction” and other historical paragraphs, the description
of the microscopes of Fuess — even his new microscope — and of Voigt and
Hochgesang, since the action and appliances of the Nachet microscope
cover about all the ground . Such also are some of the various appliances
for getting stauroscopic effects, and for accomplishing various other ends.
Sometimes the omissions are amplifications which in the original shed
additional light on difficult points. Sometimes also they are intermediate
steps in a verbal or algebraic argument ; and here the difficulties of com¬
prehension are evidently increased. Learners need amplification rather
than ellipses. This is somewhat felt, for example, in the condensation of
the mathematical discussion of the theory of the behavior of doubly re¬
fracting plates in parallel polarized light.

As a final result of abridgement we have in this translation 833 pagesy
and 121 cuts in the text. The original contains 664 pages of the same size
(includidg 88 pages of titles) with 171 cuts in the text. The beautiful
Newtonian scale of colors is also wanting from the translation. On the con¬
trary, the twenty- six plates of “microgrammes” are reproduced without visi¬
ble deterioration. The abridgement was planned probably, in the interest
of the American student, “omitting” as the translator says, “what seemed
to be refinements beyond the needs of the average student.” For the
greater part, this is the result ; but in some cases the omissions increase
the learner’s difficulties. Simplicity sustains no direct ratio to brevity.

54

Recent Publications.

So far as the work of translation is concerned, the author’s success is
deserving of great commendation. Sometimes we find the long and
knotty sentences of the original broken up — English and Gallic fashion —
to the great advantage of clearness. Generally, the sentences have under¬
gone such transpositions and reconstructions as set the meaning forth in
good idiomatic English. Occasionally however, obscurities and inaccura¬
cies of the original are too faithfully reproduced. An example occurs on
page 85, in the paragraph next to the last, in the expression ‘ when the
principal axis is parallel and perpendicular to the direction of the rays.”
Evidently, this is a geometric impossibility. The author and translator
intend to say “when the principal axis is parallel and when it is perpen¬
dicular to the direction of the rays.” So on page 49, the translator, follow¬
ing the author, says: “the short or inclined diagonal of the end faces of
-the nicol prism which has a rhombic form.” Evidently, they mean “have
rhombic forms.” A similar solecism occurs at the top of page 61, where
the translator says: “The actual appearance, however, is different for an
optically uniaxial and biaxial substance” — as if such substances were nor¬
mal occurrences. Here however, the translator has deviated from the
author’s “verschieden bei den optisch einaxigen uiad den optisch zweiaxi-
gen substanzen.” So sometimes, the translator has overlooked the presence
of a German idiom, and imported an obscurity. This happens in his trans¬
lation of “beide,” which he renders “both,” where the meaning would
better appear if rendered “the two.” Examples occur, p. 39, 14th line
from the top, p. 62, 5th line from the top, and p. 82, 3d line from the top.
In general, however, the meaning of the original is brought out with ad¬
mirable lucidity, surpassing that achieved by the author. Again and again,
this feature elicits our commendation. Occasional typographical errors
are noticed, but these are mostly obvious, though in some cases, the learner
would not readily detect them, and in all cases they are regrettable.

A work like this is onerous if a mere literal translation; but where con¬
densation is also sought, the labor quite surpasses that of translation. This
great work of Rosenbusch— Mineralien and Gesteine — embodies a vast
amount of industry and abstract thought. It is to be hoped that both
author and translator of this volume will find adequate reward for an un¬
dertaking so desirable in its results and so satisfactory in its achievement.

REGENT PUBLICATIONS.

1. State and Government reports.

Reports on the geology of Bath and Fleming counties. By W. M. Lin-
ney. Roy. 8 vo 85 pp. Colored geological map. Geological survey of Ken¬
tucky.

The present condition of knowledge of the geology of Texas. 95 pp.
By Robert T. Hill. Bulletin No. 45, U. S. Geol. Sur.

Analyses of waters of the Yellowstone National park. 84 pp. By Gooch
and Whitfield. Bulletin No. 47, U. S. Geol. Sur.

Correspondence .

55

3. Papers in scientific journals.

Canadian Record of Science, vol. Hi, No. 4. On some Canadian rocks con¬
taining scapolite, with a few notes on rocks associated with the apatite de¬
posits. Frank D. Adams and Andrew C. Lawson. Eozoon canadense,
Sir J. William Dawson. On the Eozoon and paleozoic rocks of the At¬
lantic coast of Canada in comparison with those of western Europe and
the interior of America. Sir J. William Dawson. The St. Lawrence
basin and the great lakes, J. W. Spencer . The study of mineralogy. T.
Sterry Hunt. Mineralogical evolution, T. Sterry Hunt.

Am. Jour. Sci ., November No. Mineralogical notes, by Penfield and
Sperry; (1). Beryl; (2) Phenacite; (3) Monazite; (4) Sussezite; (5) Twin
orystals of quartz with inclined axes ; (6) Oligoclase with abnormal optical
jDroperties; (7) Barium Feldspar (the cassinite of Dr.Lea); (8) Pure magnesia,
mica, Phlogopite. Mineralogical notes, by W. E. Hidden; Xenotine from
several places. December No. A brief history of Taconic ideas, by J. D.
Dana. Puget group of Washington territory, by C. A. White. Sulph-
antimonites from Colorado, by L. G. Eakins. New Thorium Mineral,
Auerlite, by Hidden and Mackintosh.

American Naturalist , August No. The Dikes of the Hudson River high¬
lands. J. F. Kemp. Dr. N. O. Holst’s studies in Glacial Geology, Josua
Lindahl.

4. Excerpts and individual publications.

Notes on the Sub-Carboniferous series at Sedalia, Mo., by F. A. Sampson.
Description of two new species of Carboniferous trilobites. By A. W.
Yogdes. From the Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. June 4, 1888.

The language of paleolithic man. By Daniel G. Brinton, M. D . Read
before Am. Phil. Soc. Oct. 5, 1888.

Report on bones of Mastodon or Elephas found in association with
human relics in the village of Attica, W}mming Co., N. Y. By J. M.
Clark. 7 pp. 8 vo. one plate.

On Perlitic Felsites, and on the origin of some Epidosites. By Frank
R utley. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. for November 1888.

5. Foreign publications.

Neue Beobachtungen ueber die Quartaerbildungen der Magdeburger
Borde, von R. D. Salisbury and F. Wahnschaffe. Separat-Abdruck a. d.
Zeit. d. d. geol. Gesell. Bd. X L. Heft 2. 1888.

Recent observations on the glaciation of British Columbia and adjacent
regions. Geo. M. Dawson. Ext. from the Geol. Mag. Decade III, vol. v,
p. 347; Aug. 1888.

Ueber dm Dolerit von Londorf. von A Streng in Giessen, mit Tafel v.
Separat-Abdruck a. d. Neuen Jahrbuchfur Mineralogie etc. 1888 Bd II.

CORRESPONDENCE.

While in E ngland, and through the kindness of Prof. W. C. Williamson,
of Owens College, Manchester, I had the pleasure and privilege of examin-

56

Correspondence.

ing, in company with Dr. Stur of Vienna, and Mr. Seward of Cambridge
the immense and critical collection of microscopic sections on which rest
the statements which for the past twenty years Prof Williamson has put
forward regarding the nature of the lepidodendrids and sigillarids. As is
well known to all students of this department of science. Prof. W. has
maintained almost single-handed against others the partly vascular nature
of the stem of these great trees of the Coal Measures. Mr. Carruthers, of
the British museum has been the most prominent leader on the opposite
side.

No one can, I think, rise from an examination of the beautiful series of
slides which the industry of the professor has accumulated in the course
of a long life’s work without feeling that the structure of these old trees
was what he has affirmed it to be. I was previously familiar with the
engraved figures in the proceedings of the Royal Society of London, but
there always lurks a certain, or rather an uncertain, amount of doubt in
regard to the “personal equation” of the observer. By an almost un¬
conscious omission, and an equally unconscious amount of commission, a
drawing often becomes a diagram and ceases to be truthful. It represents,
not what the microscope shows, but what the observer saw, and these, as
every microscopist knows only too well, are two distinct things. But
after a careful examination of Prof. Williamson’s material, no doubt can
remain in the mind of the observer, that the existence of a true woody
cylinder in both these genera is fully established. Abundance of teal
fibre and of medullary rays may be seen in the sections of their stems
which the professor has made . Many other points of which I have not
the time to write just now, are also established by his work. We need no
longer, therefore, hesitate to conceive of these giants of the palaeozoic
forests as huge exogenous cryptogams containing in themselves the essen¬
tial structure of the Lycopodium and that of the dicotyledonous trunk of
the present day.

Soon afterwards I had also the pleasure of visiting Mr. R. Kidston of
Sterling, another enthusiastic worker in the same field, whose beautiful
collection of the same kind only confirms in the strongest and clearest
manner what Prof. Williamson has published. Mr. K’s results have been
laid before the scientific world in a series of papers published in the trans¬
actions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in the Quarterly Journal
of the Geological Society @f London. It is only fair to add that fortune
has favored the workers on the other side in a singular manner by afford¬
ing them specimens of the coal plants in a state of preservation that renders
them well adapted for the purpose of microscopic research. No similar
specimens have, so far as I am aware, been yet discovered on this side of
the Atlantic. Silicified and calcified fossil trunks of Lepidodendron and
Sigillaria lend themselves easily to the work of the lapidary and the micros¬
copist, and though these are rare even in Europe yet they have been
found in quantity sufficient for the purpose. The pyriti&ed remains of
which such specimens usually consist in this country, though confirming
the results above stated as far as their evidence goes, yet fall far short of
the complete demonstration afforded by the transparent sections of Europe.

Correspondence.

5?

A chair of palasobotany has been established in the University of Cam¬
bridge, England, and will be shortly filled by the appointment of Mr.
Albert C. Seward, B. A., F. G. S., of St.Johns’ College, to the professor¬
ship. It is a subject for congratulation that this important and in¬
teresting, though new science, will now be represented at one of the old'
universities of England, and with the advantage of the long established
Wood wardian museum by its side.

Akron , 0. E. W. Claypole.

The need of an elementary work on petrography. — The writer after con¬
siderable study on the subject, is convinced that a suitable elementary
work on the difficult science of microscopic petrography remains to b&
written. The several works available to the student, purporting to be
elementary and suited to the necessities of the learner, are indeed, exposi¬
tions opening the science in logical gradations of thought. They are
entirely adequate viewed as memoirs addressed by experts to experts. The
method and style are those of learned discussions in elaborate treatises,,
and journals of special scope. It does not seem to be appreciated that the
style and method of learned exposition are not the best style and method
for elementary instruction. To make an abstruse subject intelligible to a
beginner requires fundamentally different handling from that employed in
addressing a learned society or an expert coterie. Too often the treatises
called elementary are mere compilations from scientific periodicals or
books, without any apparent consciousness of the fact that what is good for
the learned may be very unsuitable for the learner.

The underlying motive in these elementary treatises seems to be the
belief that every step must be logically taken, and that no foresight of the
outcome must be permitted. Authors expect the student to labor through
a body of abstract definitions, statements and doctrines, before affording
glimpses of the phenomena which they underlie. Such work can be done1
by bright students. The work can be accomplished by any good student,
provided he have a competent instructor to whom he may turn in case of
insurmountable difficulty. But the writer holds it to be a first principle in
the preparation of a book for learners, that it should be made a self-suffi¬
cient illumination and guide, and that it should render its subject easily
accessible, stimulating and attractive. In fact, it should be adequate for
Selbststudirende.

In the field of petrographic instruction it might be well to devote an
introductory course to an exemplification of the phenomena, without much
if any, attempt to impart the science. The first and most natural thing is
to show the student th e facts the explanations of which he will receive later.
Let detailed directions be given as to methods of manipulation. Let a
large range of observations be provided, embracing every class of phe¬
nomena applied in the theoretical exposition which is to follow. Let at¬
tention be directed to every feature of the phenomena which may possess
critical significance. Let observations be multiplied. Let the pupil even
learn the characteristic behavior of the leading minerals before he is pre¬
pared to understand why they behave thus and so. The acquisition of
such a mere empirical acquaintance with optical characteristics would not

58

Correspondence.

be scientific study ; but it would form a foundation for scientific study. It
is even true that the well informed expert tends somewhat to lose sight of
some of the principles involved in the phenomena which he witnesses, and
by familiarity and long acquaintanceship with different minerals declare
at sight that this is leucite, this is olivine, this is rhombic amphibole, and
that is monoclinic pyroxene. It is not suggested that critical observations
be undertaken ; nor that research could be carried on without a sound in¬
sight into crystallographic and optical principles. The writer contemplates
the acquisition of a stock of observed facts to which appeal may be made
in subsequent illustration of theories. As our manuals are constructed,
the student is first introduced to a study of explanations and then to a
knowledge of the things explained. The natural process is inverted.

In connection with the empirical course might well be associated the
work of preparing thin sections. After practice in sections made in aim¬
less directions — more particularly in rocks — the pupil should have plain
and detailed directions in the section-making of minerals in predetermined
directions. By this time, if the pupil is not already acquainted with
descriptive crystallography, he ought to acquire the rudiments of the sub¬
ject. He will thus learn, in due time, that the optical phenomena afforded
by a species of mineral depend on the direction in which it is cut. Much
profit would be gained if the manipulation did not proceed beyond sections
of uniaxial minerals. These will illustrate most of the fundamental
phenomena.

The student now is in possession of a stock of facts, and he may justly
be summoned to an exposition of underlying principles. With a recollec¬
tion of observed phenomena vividly in mind, the theoretical discussions
will be vastly more intelligible than when they treat of a mass of indica¬
tions which have never been matters of observation by the pupil. In the
study of optical principles it will place the learner at a disadvantage if he
is put off with some abbreviated and generalized presentation. The mag¬
nitude of the science is no less when condensed into a few pages than
wheD expanded into a general treatment. All therefore, which is not
supplied by the book-help must be worried out by the thought and per¬
plexity of the learner. Difficulties greater than necessary drive the
student toward abandonment of theory and repose in virtual empiricism.

After familiarizing the learner with a wide range of phenomena, and
after supplying him with ample theoretical explanation, the book help
should afford detailed indications of the manipulations necessary in enter¬
ing on the investigation of an unknown mineral — say one detected in a
crystalline rock. The analytical chemists have set the proper example in
the formation of guidance-tables. Rosenbush has supplied a general table
of the kind required. But each subdivision of it ought to be subjected to
further analysis. In fact, the method might be carried to the actual de¬
termination of all the common mineral species. The tables of Hussak
might here be made available.

But the book-help might do more. It might well select for illustration
some actual case of such character that the pupil could secure a duplicate
of it, and carry the investigation through bjr an application of the analytical

Correspondence.

59

table or tables. Authors of works on determinative botany have set us
the example of this sort of aid at such a stage of study.

It is at once apparent that a proper compilation of aids for Selbststudi-
rende furnishes occasion for models such as have never been constructed,
to illustrate ellipsoids of elasticity, bisectrices, and other doctrines. It is
even more apparent, that a demand exists for purchasable thin sections of
minerals cut in definite directions. These might be accompanied by full
printed explanations of phenomena presented in light of various kinds, in
rays parallel or convergent, and in different positions of the nicols. These
however, might be omitted if suitable book-helps were to be had. An
undertaking of this kind is commended to those who have means and time
for makiagthin sections. The writer does not ignore the value of J ulien’s
numerous sections ; but we find them, with their accompaning descriptions,
rather intended to illustrate to experts the nature of different rocks and
minerals, than to explain to the learner how and why the appearances
presented justify the conclusions announced.

To the writer it seems that the petrographer who will give the public
an elementary book conceived along the lines above indicated, will do
American students a very great service. But American students are in no
need of another work revealing an ambition to construct a fabric of mere
solid logic, and a fear that due simplicity will be mistaken for limited
knowledge.

A work like Rosenbusch’s Mineralien , presenting a thorough and com¬
plete digest of the doctrines of optical investigation possesses inestimable
value. But it is rather a “manual” or “handbook” for consultation by
investigators than an elementary guide for learners. It is not a book based
on true pedagogic philosophy. Its general plan and frame-work are those
of a full systematic treatise, without due cognizance of the historic laws
of the acquisition of knowledge. The guiding principle of its method is
logic rather than psychology. To the subject-matter the justice done is
ample; to the student, scant. Similar statements may be made respecting
E. S. Dana’s able treatment of the optical properties of minerals. Mr.
Hawes’ admirable exposition, besides lacking the true method, is too brief
for the necessities of the learner. We yet need a learner’s guide to
microscopic petrography. A. Winchell.

Ann Arbor, Dec. 27, 1888.

Further notes on “a green quartzite from Nebraska .” — I trust that a few
additional notes, /which have been suggested by Dr. Hicks’s remarks on
the “green quartzite,” in the November number of the Geologist wrill not
be out of place.

Mr. Bailey’s observations accord with my own, as regards the limit of
the drift. Seethe map on page 393, Proceedings of A. A. A. S., vol.
xxxm [1884]. In the same connection it is interesting to notice that Gen.
G. K. Warren who had traversed the region a little further north stated
at the Chicago meeting of the A. A. A. S. [1868] that the Missouri marked
the limit of the drift in that latitude, and accounted for it in a way quite
similar to that independently arrived at by myself in the paper before
mentioned; viz.: That the course of the Missouri was determined by the

60

Correspondence.

escape of waters southward around the edge of the ice. Between a few
miles south of the mouth of White river and the mouth of the Niobrara,
I have found no trace of drift more than three or four miles west of the
Missouri, although I have examined at four separate points. A prominent
reason for this close correspondence between the river and the edge of he
drift is found further in the fact that a high table land, more or less capped
with this same “green quartzite,” abuts upon the river through most of
this distance. Above the White river and below the mouth of the Nio¬
brara, the limits of the drift leaves the immediate vicinity of the Missouri,,
as the adjoining land becomes less elevated. The bearing of this on the
origin of the drift in those regions is significant .

The first point where I met with this “green quartzite” was upon the top
of the Bijou hills, where it forms a capping 12 to 15 feet in thickness. W est-
of the Missouri it caps similar buttes, including the conspicuous Medicine
butte, and 40 feet below the upper stratum there is another thinner but
similar. The rock is fine grained sand sometimes obliquely stratified,
irregularly thin-bedded, solidified for the most part into very compact
vitreous stone. It often contains worn pebbles some of them resembling
pitch-stone. By weathering it becomes whiter, and then resembles-
mortar.

I have observed it in the following localities, which are beyond the-
eastern boundary, so far as I have yet seen it published. It is found
widely exposed on a butte eight miles east of Greenwood, Yankton Reser¬
vation. Many blocks of it lie together, as though nearly in situ, about two-
miles south-east of Niobrara, Neb., also a similar collection upon a butte,
in Nebraska, five or six miles south-west of Yankton. A quarry of
it occurs near Jackson’s, half way between Niobrara and Creighton. A
sandstone resembling it, but softer, is found about 100 feet below the
summit of the hills at Wessington Springs, Jerauld Co , Dak. The quart¬
zite stratum is quite easily recognized, and though thin, is quite persistent.

I have taken the following notes on its altitude, Bijou hills, 2,000 feet
above the sea; opposite the mouth of Pratt creek, 1,950; east of Greenwood,
1,675; 10 miles west of Niobrara 1,650; south-east of Niobrara, 1,525; near
Jackson's, 1,675; south-west of Yankton, 1,500; Wessington Springs, 1,850.
These are all barometric, and several only approximate estimates, but
enough to indicate considerable dip to the east.

I have not observed fossils sufficient to identify the formation, but from
stratigraphical relations there is little doubt that it is later Teritary. Dr.
Hayden referred the strata in Bijou hills to Pliogene [Loupfork]. Although
not speaking particularly of the quartzite, he mentions “yellowish-wThite
grit” and “gray sand with a greenish tinge.” His experience with the
field along the Niobrara and Loup Fork gives this opinion much weight..
(See Prelim. Rep. Expl. in Neb. & Dak. 1855-57. p. 78.)

Tabor, Iowv, Dec. 8, 1888. J. E. Todd.

Some remarks on professor Henry S. Williams ’ Report of the Sub-Com¬
mittee on the Upper Palmzoic ( Devonic ), in The American Geologist , for
October , p. 226. Professor H. S. Williams says : “ In the final report,,
(1842, for the 3d district, p. 13,) Lardner Vanuxem proposed the name

Personal and Scientific News.

61

Erie division’ (of the New York system) for the series of deposits called
Upper Silurian by Conrad, but added to them the Chemung group.”

First — “Vanuxem proposed the name Erie division.” In his final report
i(1842, for the 8d district, pp. 12 and 13,) Vanuxem says: “The views of Dr.
Emmons were cordially embraced and adopted.” .... “adopting the terms
Champlain , Ontario and Erie.” Dr. Emmons in the final report (1842, for
the 2nd district, p. 100,) says: “Following out the plan of the nomencla¬
ture for the rocks of New York (using national names,) I have considered
that, for purposes of study, they might be arranged in four groups as fol¬
lows: Champlain group, at the base of the Transition system; Ontario
division . . . .the Helderberg series; and lastly the Erie group.” The names
of group , division and series , being all used indifferently and in the same
paragraph. There is no possible doubt that Dr. Emmons is the author of
the national names of “Taconic system,” “New York system,” “Champlain,
Ontario, Helderberg and Erie divisions.”

Second — Conrad added the Chemung and Portage groups to the Catskill
group, and referred the whole to the Old Red sandstone or Devonian
system, in his fifth annual report, pp. 41 and 42, 1841.

Those two quotations and dates are at variance with professor Williams’
expressed opinions.

Farther on professor Williams says: “In 1846, (Paleontology of New
York, Vol. i, p. xvii,) professor Hall first announced the opinion that
‘from a paleontological point of view the deposits down to the Oriskany
should be included in the Devonian.’ Thus the term Devonian became
established in ihe nomenclature of American geology.” First, the Paleon¬
tology of New York, Vol. i, did not appear in 1846, but in 1847. Second ,
at p. xvii, there is no such paragraph as the one quoted by professor
Williams; and no such paragraph exists anywhere in the volume. Third,
the term Devonian comprising the deposits down to the Oriskany was
established by de Verneuil in 1846, during a visit to Schoharie, and the
collection of John Gebhard in that village, (“Note sur le parallelisme
des roches des depots paleozoiques de l’Amerique septentrionale, etc.”
Seance du 19 avril 1847, p. 677, in Bulletin , Soc. geol. France, tome iv, 2d
series) .

There is no question that de Verneuil, established with its proper mean¬
ing the term Devonian in the nomenclature of American geology.

Professor Williams refers to the name Erian as proposed in 1871, by
Mr. J. W. Dawson, “as equivalent to Devonian.” It is simply the term
Erie division of Dr. Emmons, with the termination an for homophony.

Jules Marcou.

Cambridge , Mass., 8 Nov., 1888.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Mr. B. Shimek, a contributor to the Geologist, on the
subject of the fauna of the Loess, and formerly an instructor

62

Personal and Scientific News.

in the Iowa City high school, has been appointed to the position
of instructor in zoology in the state university of Nebraska.

Dr. C. Rominger devoted some weeks during the past au¬
tumn to the study of the geology along both shores of lake
Champlain. He is now occupied in the search for ores of zinc
in southern Misssouri.

The Committee of Organization of the American Geologi¬
cal Society have called the first meeting for Thursday, Decem¬
ber 27, 1888 at 9 a. m. in the botanical lecture room of Cornell
University at Ithaca, N. Y.

The Geological Survey of Texas has been organized by
the appointment of E. T. Durable as state geologist, and pro¬
fessor W. H. Streeruwitz and W. F. Cummins as assistants.
The parties have already entered the field. Mr. J. H. Hernden
was appointed chemist to the survey, with Messrs. Smith and
R. B. Hadley assistants.

Number I* volume 1, of the bulletins from the laboratories
of Natural Science in the State University of Iowa, is now in
press and will soon be ready for distribution. It will contain
articles on geology and palaeontology by S. Calvin ; on Sapro¬
phytic fungi by T. H. McBride; on parasitic fungi by A. S.
Hitchcock; on Iowa mollusca by B. Shimek, and on local
coleoptera by H. F. Wickham.

Coal Mines in China. The output and consumption of
coal from the Tong colliery, Kaiping, amounted in 1887, to
nearly 200,000 tons, and is expected to reach 270,000 tons for
1888. This colliery is in the province of Chi-li, about 90 miles
from Tientsin. The railway connecting Kaiping with Tient¬
sin is now completed. Extensions are planned toward the
north and the south, and Kaiping coal will before long be de¬
livered from Pekin to the regions beyond the Great Wall.

Coal Mines of British Columbia. In another quarter of
the world new developments in coal production are attaining
great magnitude. During September the foreign shipments
from the Nanaimo and Comox coal mines amounted to 43,908
tons. For customs purposes this is valued at $4 a ton. The
greater portion was shipped to San Francisco.

The town of Florence, between Pueblo and Canon City,
Colorado, is enjoying a “boom” on account of the recent dis¬
covery of coal oil of excellent quality and in paying quantities
in its immediate vicinity. About twenty wells have been bored
apparently within a space not exceeding two or three hundred
acres, and those that are pumping yield on an average about 70
barrels a day. According to Prof. Newberry the wells are
bored in a dark Carbonaceous shale of the age of the middle
Cretaceous. This shale is found over a comparatively large
area, and the oil production of the region therefore is capable
of practically indefinite extension.

Personal and Scientific News.

63

The placer mines about Downieyille, on the Yuba river,
had the reputation in 1851 ’52, of being among the richest in
California. Not only the “flats” along the banks, but the bed
of the river and of each small tributary were mined, and every
foot of bed-rock was searched over for the precious metal.
After a lapse of more than thirty years we find companies of
Chinese washing over the old gravels and obtaining from
American waste sufficient to satisfy all the conceptions of
Chinese wealth. A white man whom we found washing over
old gravels in the solitude of Slug Canon, reported that from
April to July he had obtained, in gold, an average of four dol¬
lars a day. When the gravels were first worked it was not un¬
usual to take out an average of $150 to $200 a day for each
man employed.

The Association of Western Naturalists held its first
regular annual meeting October 24th and 25th, at Champaign,
Illinois. About thirty members were present, embracing rep¬
resentatives from Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, Illinois
Iowa. Papers on methods of observation, and methods of
teaching in geology were presented by T. C. Chamberlin, Presi¬
dent of the State University of Wisconsin, and S. Calvin of the
University of Iowa. T. C. Chamberlin was elected president
of the Association for the next year. Madison, Wisconsin, was
chosen as the next place of meeting.

Dr. Treub, director of the government botanical gar¬
dens, in Java, has recently visited the volcanic island, of Kra-
katoa, and finds it covered with verdure from shore line to sum¬
mit. The significance of this fact will be appreciated when it
is remembered that during the terrific explosions of the volcano
a few years ago the heat generated was sufficient to destroy
all the vegetation on this island and all the adjacent islands for
a radius of several miles. The plants that first established
themselves on the old cinder heaps and restored the beauty of
waving foliage to the once desolate island, are, curiously enough,
ferns. The ferns however, seem to have been preceded by cyan-
oppyceous algae, which spread as a thin film over the surface
of the moist rocks and einders, and furnished the necessary
conditions under which fern spores might germinate and the
prothallus stage be safely passed. Without the algae it is doubt¬
ful whether the ferns could have gained a foothold. Phaenog-
amous plants are gradually getting possession of stations a-
long the shore, and they will in time, in part at least, displace
the ferns. Geologists will be reminded by all this of the man¬
ner in which the palaeozoic continents received their flora.
Ferns and their allies were the first occupants, and for a long
time there was nothing but the fern-like forms. Was some
low, creeping alga of which traces have not yet been detected,
a necessary precursor of the palaeozoic ferns?

64

Personal and Scientific News.

The large collection of fossil fishes, made by Dr. Clark, of
Berea, 0., to which we recently called attention in these pages
{see American G-eologist for July 1888, p. 62 ) has been purchased
by Dr. Newberry. America is to be congratulated on the fact
that so large and valuable a mass of perfectly new material in
palaeontology has not been bought out of the country and taken
to Europe as has already happened with many fine collections
in the past. It is a thing greatly to be regretted that in so
many instances the men who understand the value of such col¬
lections have not the means to buy them, while those who have
the means do not understand their value. Some of the finest
have been sold out of the country in years past and can now only
be seen on the other side. This is the case with the fine arch¬
aeological collection of Messrs. Squier and Davis now in the
Blackmore Museum at Salisbury, England.

We understand that the same or a similar destination would
ere long have awaited the fossils of Dr. Clark had they not been
secured by Dr. Newberry.

Just before selling the collection Dr. Clark was fortunate
enough to find several specimens which appear to throw a
new light on the structure of Dinichthys and perhaps of
some other kindred forms. Doubtless Dr. Newberry will in
due time announce his conclusions in regard to them and it
would be premature to say more than that these last finds seem
to place several of the large plates of the armour in new and
unexpected relations. At least it is exceedingly difficult to un¬
derstand how these plates could have been found in the posi¬
tion in which they occurred if they were situated as shown
in the published plates.

An Unjust Attack — Frazer.

65

AN UNJUST ATTACK.

(ltEPLY TO ARTICLES CONCERNING THE AMERICAN COMMITTEE OF THE
INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF GEOLOGISTS BY PROF. J. D. DANA AND MAJ.

,j. w. powell, in the American Journal of Science for December, 1888.*)

In the December number of the American Journal of Science, 1888,
appear, by a singular coincidence, two articles bearing on the report of
the American Committee International Congress of Geologists, both of
them calculated to produce an impression upon the mind of the reader un¬
favorable in proportion to his ignorance of the real facts of the case. As
one of these articles is written by the chief editor of the journal, the
tutelar, and the other by major Powell, the official representative of U. S.
geology, a reply to them becomes necessary.

Firstly, it is unfortunate that in this article of Prof. J. D. Dana there is
not a single statement which of itself would convey a just idea of that
with which it deals to one unfamiliar with the facts and there are many
which would convey to such a person an entirely erroneous idea.

To begin with it states of the report, “It contains valuable papers on
American stratigraphical geology prepared chiefly by the chairmen or
^reporters’ of several sub-committees, and interesting reading as the per¬
sonal opinions on various questions which were gathered in by the as¬
siduous secretary and some of the reporters through epistolary canvassing.
But on controverted points it is a ‘majority’ report of the committee and
•of its several sub-committees, and a minority report as regards American
geologists.” “The canvassing gathered opinions but not final views which
free discussion am mg the geologists of the country would have evoked.
Moreover, the methods of the committee tended to suppress free discussion
even in the sub-committees.”

This statement so clouds the facts of the case that a not unnatural in¬
ference would be that it had been written by one who had never read the
reports. It contains various and incongruous charges. In the beginning is
the implied charge that the reports were written by chairmen or reporters,
while in the end it is objected that there was “epistolary canvassing” for
the views of American geologists. Then this epistolary canvassing only
elicited “opinions, but not the final views which free discussion among
the geologists of the country would have evoked.”

The s atement about controverted points if understood is unfounded.
Each reporter had his own way of preparing his report. Some like
Profs. H. S. Williams and Cope wrote didactically, preserving their
identity throughout the report. Others were content like the writer to re¬
flect the opinions of the leading geologists without seeking to improve
them. And just here it is applicable to remark that in the judgment of
many competent persons the record of the answers of some forty odd well

*A short answer embodying the gist of this communication was sent to the
American Journal of Science, but was refused admission to its pages.

66

An Unjust Attack — Frazer.

recognized geologists to the same series of important questions is a more
valuable one than twice the amount of writing from the pen of any one,
were he even the Nestor of American geology. Some such thought must
have actuated Prof. J. D. Dana himself when he warmly complimented
the writer and expressed his satisfaction at the writer’s report during that
session at New Haven of which he speaks.

All the reporters have largely quoted the opinions of others in their re¬
ports, on “controverted points” especially. No idea of adopting a side in
a controverted question was ever entertained by the committee, of which
the aim was “to represent,” not to manufacture American opinions. The
picture Prof. Dana suggests of these “opinions” being cry stall izable into
“final views” by any free discussion which the Committee could have
brought about is extraordinary. How much free discussion for instance
would have been required to transform his own and Mr. Marcou’s
“opinions” into “final views,” and in what would the “final views” have
differed from the ‘‘opinions,” and by how much would these have been
brought into harmony?

The alleged tendency to suppress discussion in or out of the sub-com¬
mittee is diametrically opposite to the fact. After the sub-committees
were appointed by Prof. Hall in New York, May 22nd, 1886, and they
failed to report at Philadelphia December 28th, ’86, and again in Albany
April 6th, ’87, (although all reports had been ordered to be prepared before
May) on motion of Prof. Stevenson, the plan of the English Committee was
adopted and “Reporters” were appointed, each charged with the duty of
preparing as perfect a report as he could. These reports were to be sub¬
mitted to the whole Committee at the subsequent meeting in Spring Lake
N. J. and after thorough discussion there in the light of the contributions
from all geologists which were invited were to be submitted to the judg¬
ment of Section E at the immediately following meeting of the A. A. A. S.
in New York; and with the emendations there made, were to be finally
printed and sent to England.

The fullest discussion was invited and was had during this time:] through
private letters, cards in the scientific journals and lists of questions every
effort was made to reach the ear and enlist the interest of every geologist
in the country. It was therefore with astonishment and the disapproval
(in some cases unexpressed) of a majority of his fellow members that at
Spring Lake major Powell’s proposition to interdict the expression by the
Committee of formal approval of the reports, as reports, was heard. The
only restrictions to free discussion, alteration, and amendment, up to the
hour that the reports were going through the press, were proposed by him
and those in the committee who followed him. After the Spring Lake
meeting and the submission of the reports to and their formal approval
by Section E in New York the time for discussion and alteration should
have terminated, yet so anxious were the reporters to embody in their
reports the latest results, that from August to December 29th, at which
latter date a meeting in New Haven was held, as many duplicate galley
proofs of his report as he desired -were furnished to each reporter, and
these were sent by him among his scientific colleagues for corrections and

An Unjust Attach — Frazer.

67

amendments. At the New Haven meeting all the reports were ready for
the press with the exception of the Lower Paleozoic and the Interior
Oenozoic, and the reason that the former was held open was stated by the
Reporter to be his desire to have the most recent work of Mr. C. D. Walcott
properly represented there, Mr. Walcott having withdrawn his former
contribution to this report after it was in type thus deranging the entire
text to which his essay was the largest contribution. Every effort was
made by the committee as a body, by the reporter on the Lower Paleozoic,
Prof. N. H. Winchell, and by the secretary, to induce Mr. Walcott to com¬
municate his views (then being published in the American Journal of
Science) but without avail. Finally late in May, 1888, the Secretary cut
out such portions of Mr. Walcott’s then completed communication as he
thought epitomized Mr. Walcott’s views, and sent them to their author for
approval as a fair digest of his work; and received them back with two
additions as “suggestions. ’ When Prof. Winchell’s report embodying
these excerpts was received the secretary wrote to Prof. Hall for guidance'
as to appending Prof. Winchell’s comments on Mr. Walcott’s paper to the
report, and his decision was that Prof. Winchell’s comments ought
to appear. The printers who had held the type for nearly a year were
anxious to release it, and the reports had then bee i finally revised with
the exception of B. The latter, with some few modifications by the editor,
was therefore printed as it came from the hands of its reporter.

The justice of the charge of suppression can be judged from the above.
Prof. Winchell in a private letter in answer to one from the writer urging
him to hasten the completion of his report, says : “Mine in particular being
on a vital and long discussed question of nomenclature should not be forced.
It ought to have the merit at least of having been open till the last moment
for the reception of opinions and facts,” etc. Prof. Dana further says:
“The Preface of the published report states that ‘all geologists were in¬
vited to meet the American committee in Albany during its session there
(April 6th, 1887,) in order to aid it in arriving at a correct view of Ameri¬
can opinion.’ Such a call was published in vol. xxxiii of this Journal
(1887) but the notice of the next meeting at Philadelphia communicated
to the same volume by the Secretary, shows that it failed of the object
announced.”

The meeting in Philadelphia was held before the issue of the first No.
of vol. xxxiii, or on December 28th, 1886. The notice to all geologists
was printed in the last or June No. of vol. xxxiii, six months later. Prof,
J. D. Dana has inserted the order of the years and their events. It was in
fact the desire for this touch with American geological thought feit at the
Philadelphia meeting which induced the committee to invite all geologists
to the next following Albany meeting.

Prof. Dana says further, “At the only meeting attended by the writer,
that of January last, at New Haven— not then resuming active member¬
ship, as the published report states in its preface, but taking my first ex¬
perience in membership after receiving my first notice that I was a
member,” etc. This casts a doubt on the accuracy of the statement in the
preface which is easily removed. The same preface in giving a history

68

An Unjust Attack — Frazer.

of the creation and changes of the American committee mentions that the
names of G. H. Cook, J. D. Dana, and Clarence King were added to the
American committee at the Saratoga meeting in 1879. At the Boston
meeting of the next year the American committee was discharged and no
mention is made of it for the two ensuing year3. In the volume of the
Proceedings of the A. A. A. S. at the Montreal meeting the committee re¬
appears with some but not all of the names which it included when dis¬
charged. The same names continue in 1888. la the Proceedings at
Philadelphia 1884, more of the original names are found with some new
ones. It had frequently been commented upon that Prof. Dana’s name
was not on the committee, and after discussion it was considered more
courteous to him to assume that this omission had been an oversight.
This was declared to be the case by the chairman of the New Haven
meeting and on motion of Prof. Stevenson “the Secretary was instructed
(in accordance with the chairman’s decision that Prof. Dana had already
been a member of the committee since 1880) to invite Prof. Dana to be
present at the future meetings of the committee.” Whatever error the
committee may have made in this case resulted from its desire to show
respect to Prof. Dana.

Prof. Dana continues: “During the day the reports of some of the sub¬
committees were read and passed, but no opportunity was allowed for the
discussion of any of the propositions to the International Congress which
they contained.” This statement is at variance with the minutes which
say (Dec. 30, 1887) “The Chairman decided that no one can speak
longer than five minutes except the originator of a motion who can
dose after the discussion is finished.”

“The report on the Archean was called for and read by the reporter,
profs. Winchell, Cope, Hitchcock, Maj. Powell, and Prof. Dana discussed
the report, and three motions concerning it were voted upon.”

“The report on the Lower Paleozoic was called for in the afternoon.”
The major part of the report as printed was read and the Reporter ex¬
plained why the complete report could not be prepared by that date.
(This has been explained above.) The report was discussed by Maj.
Powell, Prof. Dana, Dr. Newberry, Prof. N. H. Winchell, and Dr. Hunt.

“Prof. Stevenson moved that the report be re-committed to the sub-com¬
mittee and adopted and printed as the sub-committee return it. Carried.”

Prof. H. S. Williams’ report on the Devonic was read in abstract, and
discussed by Profs. Newberry and Stevenson. It was voted that this re¬
port be printed under the same conditions as the former reports.

Prof. Stevenson read the report on the Carbonic and the same vote re¬
garding it was passed.

Prof. Cook read the report on the Mesozoic and it was discussed by
Powell, Cope, Frazer, Winchell, and Newberry.

Prof. Cope read the abstract of his report on the Interior Ceaozoic
and a motion similar to that in the case of Prof. Winchell’s report was
passed. The report of Prof. E. A. Smith on the Marine Cenozoic was
read, discussed, amended, adopted and ordered printed. The report on
the Quaternary, Recent and Archeology having been called up major

An Unjust Attack — Frazer.

69

Powell stated that he considered the abstract prepared for Section E, A.
A. A. S., last summer his report. It was accordingly read and ordered
to be printed like the others.

Dr. Frazer was unanimously elected editor of the reports; and major1
Powell and Dr. Newberry each subscribed $20.00 towards the publication
of the reports. This latter circumstance is of interest as showing major
Powell s feeling at the time of the last meeting he attended in person or
by proxy (although in fact he never paid his subscription.) If Prof. Dana
was not aware that the above votes had been passed, it was because he
did not remain in the room either while they were passed or when the
minutes were read.

“Finally at the April meeting it was voted that no copies of the report
should be delivered before September 17th, or in other words that the
printed report with its final additions should be kept from the members
of the Committee until the day of meeting of the Congress in London.”

In the minutes of the April meeting it is recorded that “It was moved
that the Committee declare it to be their opinion that the report of the
Committee should not be made public until the meeting of the Congress
on Sept. 17th, 1888, and that the copies remain in the meantime in the
custody of the Secretary until he can transmit the edition intended for
the Congress to the Executive Committe thereof. Providing that each
Reporter shall receive a copy of his own report, and that the chairman
receive a copy of the volume containing all the reports. Carried.”

It is scarcely necessary to italicize the two words above to exhibit the
discrepancy between Prof. Dana’s allegation and the actual state of things,
nor is it worth while to defend the propriety of so obvious a proceeding
as guarding the report to the Congress from the public until the Congress
had received it. Every member of the committee was asked and expect¬
ed to be familiar with every report and to contribute his best efforts toward
perfecting it. So that when Prof. Dana continues: “Under such partisan
management the conclusions in the printed reports of several sub-com¬
mittees were not likely to represent fairly American geological opinions;”
he makes a wanton and unfounded charge against the committee the
vehicle for an illogical conclusion as to the fidelity with which it has rep¬
resented the opinions of American geologists. Fortunately many letters
from these geologists have been introduced into the volume, and (in the
case of at least one Reporter) so introduced just to prevent a charge of this
nature, which it was never thought would proceed from him, however.

“It is true that in connection with each of them (the reports) a large
display is made of the names of the members of the sub-committees, and
of all of them in each case as if they were alike responsible for the con¬
tents, and as if they had met, at least once, and consulted together, read
the last emendations and signed the document.” No man’s name was
attached to the reports without his consent or in spite of his objection.
The writer believes that every member of every sub-committee received a
galley proof of every report to which his name was attached which he
was free to amend or alter as he liked and forward with his remarks to
the Reporter. Whenever this was done it is believed that the reporter'

10

An TJnjnst Attack — Frazer.

introduced a statement of the modification made into his report. In this
case all the members of the sub committees were equally responsible for
the contents of the report even though no meetings of the members of
the several Sub-Committees were held. Indeed such meetings would
have been impossible as the members were scattered widely over
the country, and in the adoption of the ‘Reporter’ system the idea of
meetings was abandoned .

If major Powell has the right to complain that after his resignation
from the committee his name was still retained on the Sub-Committees,
he must know that this was done because the Committee decided, (in
spite of objection on the part of some of its members) not to accept it at
once out of courtsey to him. This is one of the penalties that he pays for
enjoying his exalted official position.

“My name is on two of the sub-committees but has no right to a place
on either, although I gave assent to the request,” etc. The latter part of
this statement answers the first. Moreover as the sub committee of which
the writer was the Reporter is one of those two he can state that he en¬
joyed and profited by the advice and assistance of Prof. Dana through¬
out his work. Not a word was printed which was not sent to Prof. Dana
with a request for corrections, and those suggested by him were alwTays
made.

“In fact changes after the January meeting were made impossible ex¬
cept by the reporter.”

Naturally so, some time limit had to be set in order to get the volume
through the press, but up to the last page proof every effort was made to
introduce any pertinent thing sent by any body .

“The views of Mr. Walcott are unfairly presented with great injustice
to him.” etc.

This subject has been treated before. If Mr. Walcott’s views are un¬
fairly presented the fault is solely his or that of thos« by whom he was
controlled.

“It” (the report) “is now in the hands of the secretary of the Londbn
meeting of the Congress awaiting a second publication as if the expres¬
sion of the views of the majority of American geologists. Its right to
appear in the volume of the proceedings of the Congress for 1833 should
be seriously considered if it is not already too late.”

Its right to appear in the volume of the proceedings of the late Con¬
gress is unquestionable. 1st, Because it is the fruit of three years of patient
and unremitting labor of a committee duly and legally appointed to pre¬
pare it for that Congress. 2nd, Because it embodies the independent views
of ail American geologists so far as those views could be obtained by
questioning, reading and “epistolary canvassing.” No clique of geologists
is recognized and none is excluded from the report. It is American and
pan-American. 3rd, It has already been distributed by direction and
authority of the comite fondateur to the members of the Congress, and
forms one of the most important of those documents which the Execu¬
tive Committee of the Congress of 1888 agreed to send with its volume to
the absent subscribers to the Congress. 4th, Its contents have been high-

71

An Unjust Attack — Frazer.

ly commended by some of the best judges in the world, and it should
appear in the forthcoming volume by right of the information it contains,
which can not elsewhere be obtained.

Major Powell objects to the use made of his name by attaching it to the
report of the American Committee. Some of the members of the Ameri¬
can Committee objected to this also but those who insisted upon it did so
from outward respect to major Powell, and these were in the majority.
He thinks that the subject matter of the report is not of such a nature
that a deliberative body can determine it by vote, and every one will agree
with him. The subject matter was determined so far as anything in
geology can be by the work of many persons in the field, a d a com¬
parison of their results. Wo votes on the subject matter, (for example on
the truth or error of this or that theory of the relations of the rocks,) has
ever been taken or was meant to be taken. The votes in the committee
have had exclusive reference to the fitness of a report to go out over the
names of the Reporters and their associate members of the sub-committees.

The subjects considered were very similar to those which were con¬
sidered in the English report to the Berlin session of the Congress, but
from all possible American standpoints. As is well known the Congress
of London adopted a new and fair method of taking votes but actually
took none. Major Powell says “ther e is no body of men so wise or power¬
ful that it can establish the science of geology by authority and he
might have added no body of men outside of a few official geological
surveys have been foolish enough to make the attempt. He adds, “The
papers which appear in the report were not presented to the committee
in printed form while I was present, but most of them merely in abstract,
and the Reporters finally published what they severally desired.” The
reports on the Archean, Devonic, Carbonic, Mesozoic and Marine Cenozoic
were read in extenso in his presence twice — once at Spring Lake, and once
at New Haven — as they were finally printed. His own report made six out
of the eight ; and this would have been printed exactly as it was read at
New York (as an abstract) and New Haven, had he not withdrawn it after
it was in print. The only two which were not in exactly the condition in
which they finally appeared at New Haven (which was the place of the
last meeting that major Powell attended) were Prof. Winchell’s report on
the Lower Paleozoic and Prof. Cope’s report on parts of the Mesozoic and
of the Interior Cenozoic. And even these were nearly the same. The
difference in the report on the Lower Paleozoic consisted in adding the
digest of Mr. Walcott’s work which the editor of the reports was able to
get Mr. 'Walcott’s assent to only late in May, and which was appended to
the report B which major Powell heard read, together with a note on the
same of four and a half pages by the Reporter.

Major Powrell adds, “The paper I prepared was brief, but was, I thought,
pertinent to the subject in hand; but evidently it did not meet with the
approval of the committee, for other reporters included the consideration
of the Quaternary formations in their papers ; that is, the members of the
committee were determined that the Quaternary formations should be
discussed in such a manner as to exhibit a supposed best classification, or

72

An Unjust Attack — Frazer.

at least such a one as they would recommend, all of which required a
review of the general subject of the Quaternary formations of the country,,
and the more or less final settlement of many problems yet under dis¬
cussion.” Certainly no action of the committee justified major Powell in
supposing that his abstract report did not meet its approval. As soon as
he declared at New Haven that he considered his report to be the abstract
(dictated and type- written at the Buckingham Hotel the evening before
the meeting with Section E devoted to the American Committee, and read
before it with the other abstracts) the committee ordered it printed like
the other reports. It is true that Prof. Spencer contributed a part of Prof.
Cope’s report G treating of the Plistocene, but that was strictly in accord
with the policy which major Powell so strongly insists on, of allowing
freedom of thought to all, so that the best may finally survive. If “na
body of men is so wise or powerful that it can establish the science of
geology by authority,” would he claim that one man can be so wise or
powerful as to establish his view of the Quaternary by authority?
This is clearly a case where two geologists, to use his own words, have
“gone on devising, amending, and improving their systems severally, each
new worker adopting such a system as he may think best, until by a
course of intelligent selection, a common system is evolved.” Yet so vastly
easier is theory than practice that major Powell was not true to his own
principles, for “seeing that the report prepared by myself was like that of
Prof. Williams, upon a general theory of procedure different from that
held by most of the persons who were present at the meetings of the com¬
mittee, I withdrew it at the time I resigned from the committee and
another member was appointed who prepared a paper more in harmony
with the general views.” But major Powell has already said that other
reporters had treated of the Quaternary before he resigned. The newly
appointed Reporter on the Quaternary therefore had the same difficulties,
but nevertheless performed his work. It would be interesting to know
what the general views of the American Committee on the Quaternary are.
The writer is not aware that they have been expressed. The report of
Prof. Williams “is in harmony with my conclusions and I believe germane
to the purpose for which the committee was organized. The other papers
are not germane to the proper function of the committee as understood by
myself,” etc. This reads like two premises with the understood con¬
clusion that “papers which are not in harmony with ‘my conclusions’ are
not germane to the proper functions of the committee.” But if this be an
argument, what becomes of the liberty of thought and freedom of the
individual worker? It really looks as if major Powell were not consistent
in this position, for immediately af ten wards he assigns as a reason for not
associating himself with the committee, that these Reporters have employed
various taxonomic schemes, none of which are used in the U. S. Geological
Survey.

Philadelphia , Dec. 11, 1888. Persifor Frazer.

I fully concur in the above statements made by Dr. Persifor Frazer.

T. Sterry Hurt.

Organizer and Secretary of the Comite-fondateur of the International
Geological Congress ; Member and late Secretary of the American
Committee of the Congress; Vice-President at the Sessions of the
Congress at Paris, Bologne and London; Member of the present Inter¬
national Geological Council.

New York, December 19, 1888.

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The American Naturalist

Was commenced twenty-two years ago, by an association of the stu¬
dents of Professor Agassiz, at Cambridge. While it has followed the for¬
tunes of its founders from comparative youth to a vigorous maturity, it
has gathered to its support most of the biologists and geologists of North
America.

Its constituency of authors includes a majority of the men of this
class in the country.

The proprietors have associated with Professors Cope and Kingsley, its
principal editors, a number of leading scientists, whose names are a guar¬
antee of editorial ability.

Dr. C. O. Whitman, of Milwaukee, one of our ablest histologists, di¬
rects the department of Microscopic technique.

Prof. W. T. Sedgwick, late of Johns Hopkins University, now of the
School of Technology, Boston, has charge of Physiology.

Prof. C. E. Bessey, of the University of Nebraska, edits the Botanical
department.

The division of Anthropology is under.direction of Mr. Thos. Wilson,
whose connection with the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.,
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Mineralogy.

Mr. W. N. Lockington, naturalist and man of letters, of Philadelphia,
furnishes the best, and indeed the only abstract of the results of Geo¬
graphical Explorations of the World that is published on this Continent.

Prof. J. A. Ryder, of the University of Pennsylvania, edits the depart¬
ment of Embryology, a subject in which he is a well-known master.

Besides the editorial corps the contributors to the Naturalist include
the following well-known scientists: —

Dr.L. Stejneger, Smithsonian Institution.
Prof. Theod re Gill, “ “

Dr. R. E. C. Stearns, “ “

Mr. Jno. Murdoch, “ “

Dr. T. H. Bean, “ “

Dr. C. H, White, U. S. Geological Survey.
Mr. G. Frederick Wright “ “

Mr. J. B. Marcou “ “

Dr. C.H. Merriam, U.S. Agricultural Dep’t.
Mr. Theobald Smith, “ “

Walter Hough, Bureau of Ethnology.
Julius Nelson, Johns Hopkins University.
E. Lewis Sturtevant, M. D., N. Y. Agricul¬
tural Station.

Prof. O. P. Hay, Butler University, Ind.
Dr. T. Sterry Hunt.LL. D., Montreal.

Dr, Samuel Lockwood.

Prof. J. S. Newberry, Columbia College,
Hon, J. D. Caton. [N. Y,

Prof B. G. Wilder, Cornell University.
Prof. H S. Williams, “ “

Prof. Thos. Dwight, Harvard University.
Prof. W. M. Davis, “ “

Prof. J. W. Fewkes, “ “

Prof. N. H. Winchell, State Geologist of
Minnesota.

Prof. H.W. Cohn, University, Middletown,
Conn.

Prof. W. N. Rice, ,s “

Conn.

Prof. T. Wesley Mills, University College,
Toronto.

Prof. J,W Spencer, University of Georgia.

Prof. E. W. Claypoie, Buchtel College, O.

Dr. S. Y. Clevenger, Chicago, Ill.

Prof J. B. Steere, University, Ann Arbor,
Mich.

Dr. J. M. Coulter, Crawfordsville, Ind.

Prof. A. J. Cooke, State Agric. Coll. Lan¬
sing, Mich .

Dr. F. M. Endlich.

Mr. Charles Morris.

Mr. Edward S. Burgess.

Prof. A. S. Packard, Brown University,
R. I.

Prof. C. L. Herrick, Denison University,
Ohio.

Prof. Josua Lindahl, Augustana Coll., Ill.

Prof. Jos. James, State Agric. College, Md.

Prof. Henry F. Osborn, Princeton, N. J.

and many others.

It has been the aim of the Naturalist to preserve its well-known national charac¬
ter, which is illustrated in the wide distribution of its editorial responsibilities.

It appears to be the most favored medium of publication of the naturalists and
biologists in the United States, when they wish to bring the resu.ts of their investi¬
gations before the general public in a more or less popular form. It is the only
magazine in the world to day that keeps its readers en rapport with the work of
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octavo pages per month, with numerous illustrations. Terms: $'4.00 per year; 4o
cents per Number. 3L©onard Scott Publication Co-,

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Scientific and Medical Boob, Minerals,

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No. 1223 Belmont Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Circulars, Price Lists and Specimen copies of the Naturalists’ Leisure Hour, of
32 pages, sent free. Subscription 75 cents a year. For club rates
and premiums, see each issue.

Finely crystallized Mazapilite, Sulphohalite, Dumortierite , Hanlcsite , Cole -
manite, Descloisite , Thenardite in crosses, lied and yellow Wulfenite ,
Azurite, and Malachite pseudomorph after Azurite, Vanadinite ,

Opals polished and rough , silver minerals. Over 130 boxes
of choice minerals from Mexico , California , Arizona ,
and the south-west have been purchased or collected
at the localities by Professor Foote in a trip
of over four months .

Hanksite Crystals and Fragments, 10c to $25. Groups similar to Aragonite, 25c.
to $5.00. Extra large museum groups $5.00 to $ 10.00.

The best Colemanite we got came from a collection made several years ago.
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$10.00. Thenardite in fine crossed crystals, 5c. to $1.00.

ARIZONA MINERALS.

Well crystallized specimens, some associated with Vanadinite crystal, $2.00 to
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Vanadinite doubly terminated crystals, with straw-colored centres and red termin¬
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Malachite fibrous in beautiful surfaces and tufts, 5c. to $5.00; same penetrating
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Cuprite brilliant 5c. to 5.00.

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Opals. We brought back from Mexico this time the finest lot of these we have
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Twin Calcites from Guanajuato, 10c to $5,00.

Apophyllite, 12% x 10 inches, very fine surface entirely covered with large crystals,
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Rose colored Apophyllite, $3.50 to $20.00.

Valencianite, from the old Valenciana mine, in fine museum specimens, $2 to $10.

Turquois, New Mexico, deep blue pieces, 10c to $7.50.

Minerals from other American localities have been received in large quantities,
but we have only space to mention the very interesting crystals of Magnetite from
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Pheuacites, Megabasite, and a large quantity of the Copper Minerats from Utah,
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Over 400 boxes of Minerals and Scientific books received in 1888.

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QOfJs

PAGE

LACIER8 AND GLACIAL RADIANTS OF THE

ice age. Dr. E. W. Claypole .......... 73

[OTES UPON THE WavERLY GROUP IN OHIO
[Illustrated]. C. L. Herrick. ........... 94

'gssil wood and lignites of the Potomac
formation. F. H, Knowlton . ......... 99

’HYSICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH IN RELA¬
TION TO MOUNTAIN FORMATION. T.

Mellard Reade . . 106

'he Chouteau group of eastern Mis-
i sour 1. R. R. Rowley ................. Ill

'HE ARTESIAN WELL AT ClTY PARK, DAVEN-

port, Iowa. A. S. Tiffany ............ 117

•ARRANDE AND THE TaCONIC SYSTEM.

Jules Marcou. ............ _ .... _ 118

Editorial Comment.

A new glacial theory. ................. 138

The Geological Society of America .... 140

iPAGTSS

Review of recent literature . . 146

Useful minerals of the^United States.

Albert Williams Jr. 148— The visual area
of the trilobite Phacops ran a. John M.
Clarke , 146— Geological survey of the
state of New York, James Hall . 147.—

The attachment of Platyceras to crinoids.

C. ' R. Keyes, 148.— The American An-
thropologist, 149— Relations of Homos-
teus and Coccosteus, Traquair , 149-Pres¬
sure as a factor in metamorphism. Hark-
er , 150— More fossils in the Lower Cam¬
brian of North Wales, !7. McK. Hughes,

150— Ueber die eruptive Natur gewisser
Gneiss© sowie des Granulits im sachsi-
schen Mittelgebirge, E. Danzig, 151.

Personal and Scientific News ... ; „ . . . 159.

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THE

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST

Vol. III. FEBRUARY, 1889. No. 2.

GLACIERS AND GLACIAL RADIANTS IN THE ICE-AGE.

By Dr. E. W. Claypole, Akron, O.

The Glacial Theory has already in its comparatively brief ex¬
istence seen several ebbs and flows. The great principle of
glaciation laid down by Agassiz and Gnyot has never been suc¬
cessfully assailed. That at least one era has occurred in the
history of the earth when ice played a very conspicuous part is
now doubted by few, though the exact extent of its action is
among the unsolved problems in geology. It has been so with
other geological questions that have from time to time passed
under discussion. Long after the main principle involved has
been accepted by all parties there remain numerous points of
detail requiring for their final settlement tedious and careful
investigation.

It is this, we may remark in passing, that often leads men
not familiar with the subject to charge geology with uncertainty,
to denounce it as a mass of speculation destitute of all solid
base and to declare that what one age builds up the next pulls
down. This is utterly untrue regarding the main doctrines of
the science and to make the assertion indicates a want of exact
knowledge of the subject.

Among other doctrines of geology that come in for their
share of popular scepticism in this way is the glacial theory.
Now the doctrine that ice has had much to do in comparatively
recent times in moulding the contour of the surface in the
higher latitudes of the earth is well established, but its influence
has been alternately magnified and diminished as the pendulum
has swung now this way and now that.

The author of this theory — the late Prof. Agassiz — in his per¬
haps pardonable enthusiasm over his new-found geological
engine, went so far as to assert that evidences of glacial action.

74 Glaciers and Glacial Radiants — Clay pole.

could be found on the great plain of the Amazon at the earth’s
very equator, a statement which seems to carry as a consequence
the glaciation of almost all the dry land at one time or another.

Dr. James Croll, of the Scottish Geological Survey, carried
away with the belief that he had found an astronomical cause
for the cold, has extended the time of the action of ice over
160,000 years, sees in imagination a vast ice-cap on either pole
alternately many thousand feet in thickness and follows M.
Adhemar in trying to compute the effect of such an ice-cap in
changing the centre of gravity of the earth.

Professor Ramsay in a well known paper has advocated the
opinion that the eroding power of a glacier was so great that it
was able to excavate its bed in certain spots and thus to form
basins or boat-shaped hollows. To this cause he attributed the
existence of many lakes in the temperate regions of the globe
and the great depth of many of the fiords along some of our
northern coasts.

All the above mentioned writers have pushed the effects and
the power of glacier-ice to an extreme in one direction, but on
the other hand there are not lacking geologists who would con¬
fine this power within very much narrower limits. Some of
these go so far as to doubt the ability of a glacier to erode at
all and have even affirmed that the ice is a positive protection
to the rocks on which it lies. When considering the phenomena
of the ice-age they deny altogether the existence of a conti¬
nental ice-sheet, and attribute all the observed phenomena to
the action of local glaciers flowing off spots of elevated ground
in the glaciated region, and aided largely by floating ice.

This conflict of opinion is a necessary stage in the investiga¬
tion, and time and study alone can show exactly where the
truth lies. As in many similar cases, it will in all probability
be found between the two extremes.

The writer has on more than one occasion opposed the views
of those glaeialists who maintain an excessive abrading power
for glacier-ice.'* It is difficult to see in the facts brought for¬
ward any justification of the often expressed opinion thai pro¬
found modifications of the surface have been wrought by this
agent. Even admitting that valleys can be deepened unequally

*See the Canadian N aturalist for 1879, and the Proceedings of the Amer¬
ican Association for the Advancement of Science for 1881.

Glaciers and Glacial Radiants — GlaypoU. 75

by a glacier so that on the disappearance of the ice small lakes
may occasionally appear or fiords of no great depth ensue, there
is not sufficient evidence that lakes and fiords are generally due
either entirely or chiefly to glacial erosion. And when the
theorist advances to the position that most of the lakes in
glaciated districts owe their origin to this cause and even main¬
tains a similar view regarding the beds of the great lakes of
North America his position becomes very unsafe. He is then
carrying the effects of a small cause beyond all due bounds.
His zeal and enthusiasm have got the better of his judgment.

In like manner the advocacy of an ice-cap covering the pole
and extending far down toward the equator can scarcely be re¬
garded as the product of, calm calculation. There are no data
of sufficient importance yet brought forward to warrant so vast
a deduction. The past history of the earth reveals many start¬
ling facts but none that justify the construction of a shell of
ice 6,000 feet thick at the pole and the consequent lowering of
the sea-level by the conversion of so vast a quantity of its
water into cloud, snow and ice.

On the other hand it is impossible to explain the observed
phenomena, especially those of the North American Continent,
by the existence of mere local glaciers. The marks of the ice-
chisel are too numerous, too wide-spread and too nearly uniform
in direction to allow of so partial a cause. Local glaciers on
the highlands could never produce a general striation from the
northward on the rocks in the middle and northern United
States. Marks so produced would necessarily radiate from the
centre of production and would not usually become confluent.
Nor on this theory can we explain the existence of ice-printing
on the surface of the rocks in the midland states — an almost
level district, where no mountains and few hills can be found
to afford gathering-ground for ice and snow. This difficulty
has led to the advocacy of floating ice as the glaciating agent in
regions where it was apparently impossible that water in suffi¬
cient quantities could exist.

The wisest course will therefore be to abandon both extremes
and seek some middle ground. In so doing several conditions
must be taken into account.

One of the chief conditions necessary for the production of a

76 Glaciers and Glacial Radiants — Claypole.

glacier is a large snow or rain-fall. Without this the material
will be lacking. The north-eastern portion of the continent is
now a region of great precipitation and the same was true, so
far as any evidence to the contrary is concerned, at the time in
question. We must consequently look for great developement
of ice in that region. In consonance with this is the testimony
of the ice-printing on the rocks, which, speaking generally, ra¬
diates to the south-east, south and south-west from that district,
that is from the area near Hudson’s bay. That the ice was
there very thick is scarcely to be doubted. The evidence from
the mountains of the north-east seems conclusive on this point.
They were apparentl y buried in ice. We need not perhaps go
so far as some have gone and suppose that the ice-sheet was so
thick as to move over them without any diversion. This is
scarcely probable. But all the phenomena point to a very great
depth — probably greater than anywhere else in the eastern part
of the continent. Westward however we fail to find proof of
this great thickness. The south-westerly direction of the groov¬
ing of the rocks in that region indicates clearly enough that the
flow of the ice was off the Laurentian highlands toward the
great lakes and the valley of the Mississippi. And that ail this
country was also buried in ice can not be disputed. But that
the ice-sheet in the midland states was very enormously thick
we have no evidence to prove. Indeed what evidence has been
obtained looks in the opposite direction and tends to show that
the thickness was small when compared with that of the north¬
eastern glacier.

The massive glacier of Lower Canada and New England soon
reached the Atlantic and its south-eastward advance was stopped
by the water. Farther west the Laurentian ice felt the effect
of the high ground of the Appalachian mountains which it was
apparently unable to climb, and its southward progress was
therefore arrested. But in the midland states these barriers did
not exist and the striation shows that a vast extent of land in
that direction was under an ice-slieet that traveled to the south¬
west. But that its thickness was not enormous seems evident
from the fact that a large district in Wisconsin remained per¬
manently uncovered and is now known as a “driftless area,”
showing none of those traces of ice-action that are so abundant
in the surrounding county.

Glaciers and Glacial Radiants — Claypole. 77

The direction above mentioned, namely from the north-east,
is that in which the general flow of the ice over the midland
district might have been expected to occur, if we allow due
weight to the datum stated above. Granting a heavy precipita¬
tion in the north-east of the continent, where the land was also
high, it is natural to expect that the ice would move off toward
the valley of the Mississippi where the land is low. Accord¬
ingly we find the greatest southward extension in the states of
Indiana, Illinois and Missouri. Farther west the line of the
extreme south limit of the ice rapidly recedes to the north until
it nears the boundary line or perhaps altogether retires into
Canada.

This is in perfect harmony with the fact that this interior-
northern region is now the region of least precipitation. The
same was most likely true at the time in question. The vast
mass of the ice would be formed in the north-east and its quantity
diminished to the west and south.

We may therefore regard the highlands of Labrador and the
vicinity of Hudson’s bay as the great gathering ground of the
eastern ice-sheet which flowed away to the south-east, south and
south-west in the way above described.

Data are yet scanty regarding the region to the north of this
district. Extreme writers have taken it as a matter of course
that it was covered with a sheet of ice creeping down from the
area round the pole. But this has been for the most part a
matter of inference or of assumption. Granting that in all
probability the Atlantic border was the region of great precipi¬
tation here as in other parts of the continent it is nearly certain
that the snowfall diminished inland, so that this region was
under conditions similar to those that prevailed farther south.

Greenland was doubtless then as now a glacial radiant. The
wild and desolate strip of land between Lancaster sound and
Hudson’s strait was another great gathering ground. But the
vast polar archipelago around Melville sound was nearly
in the condition of the midland plain of Canada and the states,
and afforded less material for glacier-making. There seems to
be consequently little basis for the construction of an ice-sheet
of enormous thickness in this region.

In Confirmation of this assertion we find from the geological
reports issued by the Canadian survey that the indications are

78 Glacier 's and Glacial Radiants — Clay pole.

strongly in its favor. Thus in the volume for 1885 (p. 13 DD),
in a report on the region of Hudson’s bay the following remark
is made concerning Gilmour island.

“Nearly the whole island bears marks of glaciation. On the
southern and central parts the principal striae run N. 20° to
40° E. Another set was found to run N. 75° E. On the east¬
ern side of the island the grooves run N. 5° W,” “The forms
of the roehes inoutonnees and other evidence afforded by the
grooving and fluting of the rocks of this island go to show that
the direction of the glaciating force was from the southward
aud south-westward and not from the contrary direction.”
“Much of the shingle of the island consists of dolomite from
the Manitoiinuck group to the southward.”

In the same volume, in a report by Mr. Lawson on the region
surrounding the Lake of the Woods, we find a long list of
glacial groovings every one of which is in a direction interme¬
diate between south and west. Some of these are as high as S.
75 W. (p. 132 CC.)

Again in the volume for 1886, in a report by Dr. Bell, the
assistant-director of the Canadian survey, we find a similar list
occupying a whole page, in which several striae are given with
a similar bearing and direction, and mention is made of a newer
set whose bearing is in some cases as high as B. 80° W. (p. 35
G.) Dr. Bell also remarks, “The general direction of the glacial
striae is to the south-westward as is the case throughout the great
Lauren tian region between James’s bay, lake Winnepeg and
lake Superior.”

Bearing yet more strongly in the same direction are some
facts brought together by Dr. George M. Dawson of the same
survey in the volume already quoted (p. 57 R). He says:

“Along the Arctic coast and among the islands of the archi¬
pelago there is a considerable volume of evidence to show that
the main direction of the movement of erratics was northward.
Thus, in the Appendix to Captain McClintoek’s Voyage, Prof.
Haughtbn mentions boulders of granite, supposed to be derived
from North Somerset, that were found 100 miles to the north¬
eastward, and pebbles of granite identical with that of Granite
point, also in North Somerset, found 135 knots to the north¬
westward. The east side of King William Land is also said to
be strewn with boulders like the gneiss of Montreal I. to the

Glaciers and Glacial Radiants — Clay pole. 79

southward. Dr. Bell has also found evidence of a northward or
north-eastward movement of glacier-ice in the northern part of
Hudson bay.”

The truth regarding the ice-sheet in that portion of North
America seems therefore to be that there was not a huge accu¬
mulation of ice, thousands of feet in thickness over the whole
northern region of the continent, but that the maximum oc¬
curred in the north-east on the highlands of Ontario, Quebec and
Labrador— in fact around Hudson bay — where the precipitation
was greatest; and that from this region, as from a radiant, the
ice floived east, south and west over the lower lands in those
directions and probably also, as we have seen, over the equally
lowlands to the northward. No doubt it was everywhere re-in-
forced with a certain quantity due to local precipitation but this
was quite inadequate to changing its line of flow or overruling
the general directing force.

In thus stating the general direction of the ice-motion we
do not ignore the fact that over the area above spoken of as the
midland states a great number of instances may readily he found
where the striation is in a slightly different direction — as for
instance south-east or southward. Local causes of course pre¬
vailed locally and produced a divergence from the general azi¬
muth. But looking at this area as a whole, little exception can
be taken to the statement made above, especially in the northern
portion .

In thus speaking of the Laurentian area as the great centre
of radiation during the ice-age we do not desire to imply that
it was the only one. The mountains of New England doubtless
afforded their quota but at the epoch of greatest extension and
for a certain time both before and after that date this centre of
dispersion was completely confluent w ith the Laurentian ice,
and of so much smaller mass that it might be considered only
an extension of the Canadian ice-sheet. The same may be
said of the glaciers which must have formed over the Adiron¬
dack region and descended to the surrounding plains. They too
were merged in the wider flow from the great north-eastern
radiant so that these three may for present purposes be consid¬
ered as practically one.

In the Arctic regions also we can hardly doubt that other
ice-centres existed, some of whose glaciers may have become

80 Glaciers and Glacial Radiants — Claypole .

.confluent over more or less of: the land lying within the Arctic
circle. Indeed the climate of this area will warrant us in be¬
lieving that the ice was continuous over large districts around
the pole. But unless the configuration of the land and water
was very different from that which now prevails we can scarcely
in accordance with physical laws admit a solid mass of ice even
in this extreme latitude. For glaciers do not form at sea and
ice-bergs cannot be born where glaciers are not. Floe-ice and
sheet-ice of even considerable thickness may form and float but
no known conditions can produce a massive continental ice-sheet
over a sea-area. And so far as we can judge from our present
knowledge the region of North America toward the pole con¬
sists of an archipelago whose islands are not of great flight,
while to the extreme north there is apparently a polar sea ex¬
tending perhaps round the globe. Such an area would afford a
not very good gathering-ground for snow and ice and conse¬
quently not a very good birth-place for an extensive glacier.

Should it eventually prove to be the case that the polar area
is occupied by a deep and open sea nothing less than the severest
evidence — proof beyond all controversy — could bring us to the
belief in a polar glacier of enormous thickness. No case can be
quoted from the existing geography of the earth where an open
ocean is or has been a glacial radiant. For the production of a
glacier in such a position ice must form on the surface and
gradually thicken downward until the sea is frozen solid to the
very bottom. Then the accumulation of snow could begin and
the formation of an ice-sheet might become possible.

But the greater warmth of the sea-bottom would constantly
dissolve off the roots of the ice-floe and the scanty snow-fall of
those high latitudes would scarcely be able to keep pace with
the continual melting below and the powerful action of a con¬
stant sunshine of six months’ duration.

While therefore not denying the possibility that an ice- radi¬
ant existed at the very pole we submit that there is no evidence
sufficient to support it but a very high probability against it.
That huge ice-floes and heavy sheet-ice were formed there dur¬
ing the ice-age, as now, we fully admit. That these ice-floes
may have been both constant and continuous so as to be unable
to flow away through the narrow intricate channels of the polar
archipelago we also freely allow. That currents may have borne

Glaciers and Glacial Radiants — Claypole .

81

huge masses of floe-ice far surpassing in size any of those seen
by Nares in what he has somewhat poetically termed the Paheo-
crystic Sea may also he readily granted. But when all this has
been conceded the result falls almost infinitely short of a huge
polar ice-cap thousands of feet in thickness and covering the
whole of the arctic and part of the north temperate zones.

Greenland also according to our present knowledge does not
appear to extend in one continuous mass far to the northward
of the great Humboldt glacier, in lat. 80°. Above this line it
seems to pass into an archipelago by the meeting of the deep
fiords from the two coasts, so that even of the Greenland ice a
certain part may actually flow off that so-called continent to
the northward into a polar sea. All this however must be left
for the decision of further investigation.*

Meanwhile we may consider it plain from the indications
above set forth that the conditions were not favorable for the
production of a vast polar ice-cap of fabulous thickness and al¬
most continuous down to low temperate regions.

I have already quoted the opinion of Dr. George M. Dawson
on the direction of the ice-flow from the region of Hudson bay.
It is consequently with very great interest that I have read a
paper of his, published in August last, ( 1888) detailing the
results of some investigations made in British Columbia during
the summer of 1887.

Dr. G. Dawson had previously shown that a vast glacier once
existed in British Columbia and the adjoining portions of the
United States, covering with its confluent ice-sheets all the in¬
terior plateau between the Coast Range and the Rocky moun-

*Since the above sentences were written there has come to hand the re¬
port of the last expedition to this greatest of glacial radiants now existing
in the northern hemisphere. From the scanty anticipatory details thus
far received (the explorers being caught by the lateness of the season and
■compelled to remain at Gotthaab till next spring) we are able to see plain
ly why the cold of Greenland is so intense and why that country is so pro¬
lific a parent of glaciers and ice-bergs. The adventurous ice travelers
crossed on snowshoes from the eastern coast in latitude about 64° to the
western coast in nearly the same degree. They at. first intended to reach
Christianshaab in latitude 68° but severe snowstorms compelled them to
•change their course and take the shorter route. Even at this compara¬
tively low latitude, the leader, Dr. Nansen reports an altitude of 10,000
feet and a temperature in September of — 40° to — 50° C.

With these conditions prevailing it is not surprising that Greenland
should lie a powerful glacial centre.

82 Glaciers and Glacial Eadmnts-~C lay pole.

tains, from the 49th to the 55th degree of latitude, and extend¬
ing south over Washington and Idaho territories. He has also
shown that the ice flowed across the Coast Range and down the
fiords, which if filled, into the broad channel between Van¬
couver Island and the coast. This channel h entirely blocked
and then escaped into the Pacific ocean through the narrow
outlets between the islands. He farther states that the coast
strip of Alaska presents similar features.

But beyond all this Dr. Dawson now adds that iri the upper
valleys of the Yukon, along the Pelly and Lewes rivers, at the
north end of the range above named and on ground not hem¬
med in by high land he finds unmistakable evidence of a north¬
ward flow. Striated rock-surfaces were found on the Pelly river
where it 'crosses the 130th. meridian and on the Lewes as far
north as latitude 61° 40’, of which he says that although local
variations are met with yet the glaciation is not susceptible of
explanation by merely local agents but rather implies the pass¬
age of a confluent or more or less connected glacier over the
region. Again he says that the main gathering-ground or n£v£
of the great Cordilleran glacier of the west coast of Canada was
included between the 55th and 59th parallels of latitude in a
region of exceptionally mountainous character .

Dr. Dawson sums up in close agreement with the statements
of this paper that the facts already made known indicate a gen¬
eral movement of ice outward from the great Lauren tian
axis or plateau extending from Labrador round the southern
end of Hudson bay to the Arctic sea while a smaller though
still very important region of dispersal — the Cordilleran
glacier-mass — occupied the Rocky mountain region on the west.
South of the 49fch parallel also there existed a series of radiants
in the western range whose glaciers spread merely east and west
because they could find no outlet to the north or south.
In fact these ranges probably composed an almost continuous
gathering-ground as far south as Lower California.

North America when looked at in this light shows us not
one vast mass of ice covering all the northern part of the con¬
tinent; but on the other hand we see a great glacial radiant in
the northeast sending off its glacial streams to the east, south,
west and in a less degree to the north, while several other and
smaller radiants existed in the far west, in . the Cordilleras of

Glaciers mid Glacial Radiants — Claypole . 8H-

the Rocky mountains, from which in like manner the ice radi¬
ated west into the Pacific ocean and north and east in the lower
lands there lying.

This view of the ice-age enables us to understand another
fact. The Canadian surveyors have several times remarked
that the distribution of the drift in the great inland basin of the
Mackenzie river indicates rather the action of floating ice than
the determinate action of a land-glacier. Obviously the theory
here advocated will allow us to suppose that during at least
some part of the time of duration of the ice-age a gulf of the
Arctic ocean may have reached up to a considerable distance
southward over this basin and have afforded a means for carry¬
ing ice-bergs and drift material. In that case we should expect
however to find some traces of the presence of the sea in that
region. Whether or not this is the case must be left to be de¬
termined by the future labors of the Canadian surveyors in this
difficult and little explored country.

There is vet one oilier point that deserves a moment’s con¬
sideration in passing. I allude to the depression which occurred
in the northern part of the continent probably during the glacial
era. Without entering here on any discussion of the causes of
this depression about which great divergence of opinion exists
the geological evidence clearly substantiates the statement that
about that epoch some of the northern parts of the continent did
subside to a very considerable extent — many hundred feet at
least, — from which depression they have never fully recovered..
Hence these lands now lie lower than they lay in pre-glacial
days. The intricate lines of many of our northern coasts, such
for instance as those of Maine, S. Greenland, British Columbia
and Alaska, cannot as formerly be attributed to the eroding
action of ice, but must be explained on the theory that they
are submerged lines of inland drainage — the beds of streams
that were once above the sea but are now depressed below it
and into which the sea consequently runs as far as the level
will allow. A very cursory examination of the valley of any
river having many tributaries will show how closely in accord¬
ance with nature is the above explanation. The intricacy and
the depth of these fiords show little resemblance to ice- valleys,
even if the eroding power of ice were sufficient for the purpose,.

84 Glaciers and Glacial Radiants— Claypole.

but they are clearly parallelled by the intricacy and depth of
many river valleys especially in hilly or mountainous districts*
These, if sub merged, would produce just such fiords and inlets
as those which jag and fringe the northern coasts of America.*

This greater preglacial altitude of the ice-radiant regions
will also aid in the outflow of the ice. If the Lauren tides and
the Adirondack^ and the White and Green mountains were
then higher than now, not only is this difficulty (if it formerly
existed) removed, but another also disappears. It has some¬
times been suggested that if an ice-sheet of the dimensions once
asserted really existed, every point of high land on the eastern
side of the continent must have been deeply buried beneath it
and consequently no boulders could have been obtained and
carried in moraines on the surface of the ice as was evidently
done. This has been felt as a serious objection to the theory
of a polar ice-cap but is obviously of far less weight against
the theory here advocated when aided by greater pre-glacial
altitude of land.

Having now shown the adequacy of the theory above enun¬
ciated to explain the phenomena of the ice-age in North America
we will turn to the Eastern World and try if it agrees or dis¬
agrees with the facts there observed.

It is beyond all reasonable doubt that all northwestern
Europe was, at a date not geologically very remote, covered with
a sheet of ice which like that in North America moved over the
surface in various directions. Observations show that the Nor¬
wegian mountains were the birthplace of a host of confluent
glaciers which crept down the Dovrefeld Cordilleras to the
Atlantic coast and even reached the British Isles, so that Scot¬
land and the northern and central parts of England were clad
in the same icy mantle. Over the plains of northern and east¬
ern Germany we find evidence of the same condition. It ap¬
pears as if the even now shallow Baltic was then no obstacle in
the way of the passage of this northern glacier. European Rus¬
sia shows signs of glaciation in striated rock-surfaces and travel-

*The tremendous precipices and profoundly deep water of the Sag¬
uenay and other parts of the Lower St. Lawrence can scarcely be ex¬
plained without the admission of greater pre-glacial altitude of the land
in Lower Canada.

Glaciers and Glacial Radiants — Claypole . 85

led boulders indicating a movement of ice from the northwest.
Erratics of Finland granite lie scattered over the great plain on
which stands the city of St. Petersburgh.

How incompatible with the theory of a vast polar ice-cap are
the observed phenomena in this part of Europe may be seen at
once on reading the following passage from Sir Charles Lyell’s
“Elements of Geology” (p. 149, 1865).

“The signs of glacial action in Norway and in Sweden consist
chiefly of furrowed and polished rock-surfaces, of moraines and
erratic blocks. The direction of the erratics as that of the fur¬
rows has usually been conformable to the course of the princi¬
pal valleys; but the lines of both sometimes radiate outwards in
all directions from the highest land in a manner which is only
explicable by the hypothesis of a general envelope of continental
ice like that of Greenland. Some of the far-transported blocks
have been carried from the central parts of Scandinavia towards
the polar regions ; others southward to Denmark; some south-
westwards to the coast of Norfolk in England; others south¬
eastward toM Germany, Poland and Russia. Sir Roderick
Murchison and his fellow-labourers, M. de Verneuil and Count
Keyserling, have shown in the map illustrating their great work
on the geology of Russia how this drift ‘proceeded eccentrically
from a common central region.7

“It appears from their observations that the blocks scattered
over large districts of Russia and Poland agree precisely in
mineral character with rocks of the mountains of Lapland and
Finland while the masses of gneiss, syenite, porphyry and trap
strewn over the low sandy countries of Pomerania, Holstein and
Denmark are identical in their composition with the mountains
of Norway and Sweden.

“It is found to be the general rule in Russia that the smaller
blocks are carried to greater distances from their place of origin
than the larger, the distance being in some cases 800 or even
1,000 miles and the direction from the N. W. or from the
Scandinavian mountains over the low lands and seas to the
south-east.”

Obviously we have here no evidence of the portentous polar
ice-cap. All the observations point in a different direction and
indicate an ice-radiant in the north-west of Europe in Norway
and Sweden of immense gathering power from which the ice

S6 Glaciers and Glacial Radiants — Claypole.

radiated off to the west in which direction its progress was soon
arrested by deep water of the Atlantic; to the south-west where
it was reinforced in some degree by the ice from a small radiant
in Scotland where, says Agassiz, the Grampians were covered
with a vast thickness of ice whence erratic blocks were dispersed
in all directions;* to the south where it spread over the low
flat lands of Denmark, the Netherlands and N. Germany and to
the east where the flat plains of Russia offered no impediment
to its flow.

We may remark in passing though the subject is too large
for investigation here, that in all probability the ice in this last
direction terminated in an inland sea of considerable size over
which the bergs that broke from the ice-foot transported vast
masses of earth and stones.

The southward flow above spoken of was greatly strengthened
by subsidiary but considerable glaciers coming off the mountains
of northern Germany and France — the Sieben Gebirge, the
Schwartz wald, the Vosges, &c. — each of which was doubtless a
glacial radiant. In all probability the supplies coming down
from these sources so lengthened out the ice-sheet from the
Scandinavian Cordilleras that it became continuous with that
which flowed from the great Alpine radiant of Switzerland.
In this case there was one continuous glacier from the North
Cape to the valley of the Po, and this may have been still far¬
ther extended to the southward by the assistance of smaller
contributions from the higher ridges of the Apennines in Italy.

Accepting therefore this picture as that which the facts war¬
rant us in drawing we see western and north-western Europe
during the glacial era nearly buried beneath a vast sheet of ice
produced by the confluence of a number of distinct glaciers
flowing down off the higher lands of Norway, Sweden, France,
Germany and Switzerland. Of its maximum thickness vve can
form little idea but the indications are that it was not at all in¬
ferior to its North American counterpart in this respect. As to
area the smaller dimensions of its gathering-ground did not
allow so vast an accumulation of ndve and it did not probably

*Mr. T. F. J araieson in 1858 adduced a grear body of additional facts to
prove that the Grampians once sent down glaciers from the central regions
toward the sea in all directions. The glacial grooves he says radiate out¬
ward from the central hights toward all points of the compass.” Lyell,
Elements, p. 151.

Glaciers and Glacial Radiants — Claypole . 87

in square miles cover so great a part of fcbe surface of the earth
as did the North American ice-sheet.

Here again as in the Western World we are confronted with
the fact that the great mass of the ice was found where the
precipitation was, or at least is now, greatest. The damp
climate of western Europe is the most favorable place in the
world for the production of glaciers. The warm west winds off
the Atlantic, moisture-laden from the gulf-stream, on striking
the colder highlands of Scotland and Norway pour down their
watery contents in so great a quantity in some spots that these
surpass in rainfall all others in the temperate regions During
the glacial era the intenser cold changed this to snow and on
the mountain-tops and sides the mass accumulated until the
confluent glaciers became one great ice-sheet which relieved it¬
self in all directions along the lines of easiest flow.

In a less degree the same was true of the mountains of west¬
ern Germany and of the Alps of Switzerland. The heavy rain¬
fall of to-day was then a heavy snow-fall and the glaciers grew
under this abundant supply to dimensions which would be
incredible were they not established beyond all possibility of
doubt by the classical investigations of Guyot and bis comrades
in that country. At that time the now puny glacier of the
Rhone concealing itself in the secluded recesses between the
Bernese Oberland and the St. Gotthard massif, so that to find it
is not easy, grew to dimensions so vast as to fill the whole valley
of the Rhone down to Martigny; to turn the angle formed by
the opposition of the Mt. Blanc group; to bend round and enter
the lake of Geneva; to fill that lake from end to end and down
to the very bottom; to rise at its western end high up the slope
of the facing Jura aud failing to pass this huge barrier to split
and send one fork to the north-east over the lake of Neufchatel
and the plains of northern Switzerland and the other to the
south-west along the present course of the Rhone, through the
narrow gorge, where the mountains almost dam the river and
of which Julias Caesar has given us the earliest and best de¬
scription, down almost to the site of the present city of Lyons —
a total distance from the St. Gotthard of more than 200 miles.
When this was the gigantic size of the Rhone glacier we may
readily believe that the other glens and straths of Switzerland
were not behindhand in ice-production and that their united

88 Glaciers and Glacial Radiants — Claypole.

n£v£s were a powerful radiant for the western part of central
Europe.

Such facts are enough alone to establish the existence of an
ice-age by necessary implication without any consideration of
the direct evidence found to the north of Switzerland. It is
impossible that glaciers could have been formed of such size
there and have descended so low without the occurrence of a
climate that must have covered the northern mountains with a
still larger ice-sheet.

Of the condition of the northern isles at the date in question
we need now say nothing. Of their severe glaciation there can
be no question, but that Novaya Zemlia and Spitzbergen, Jan
Mayen and Iceland sent down glaciers that became confluent
with those of the continent so as to form one continuous polar
ice-sheet, there is no evidence sufficient to prove. On the con¬
trary the greater extent of the polar sea on the eastern hemis¬
phere is directly opposed to any such belief. As we have already
shown, the formation of glaciers is not possible on a marine area
except under conditions so far from any now existing that the
severest proof must be given of their past occurrence before the
doctrine can be accepted. That the polar sea was covered with
ice during the greater part of the ice-age may be readily ad¬
mitted even over the European area and that the ice was very
thick admits of little doubt, but that the whole Arctic ocean was
solid to the bottom with ice so thick that it flowed away all
round the pole by the pressure of its own mass is an assertion
transcending all the bounds of legitimate deduction.

Passing now farther east we come to the Ural mountains.
Were this range situated as are the Dovrefelds of Norway they
must have formed another great gathering-ground for snow and
ice. But in the drier inland climate of the great continent of
Europe-Asia the rainfall is less and what is equally important
in this connection the evaporation is much greater than on the
sea^coast. Antecedently therefore the same results can scarcely
be expected. We accordingly find, though the glacial geology
of the Ural mountains is yet very little known, that the evidence
of extensive glaciation is wanting.

The great ice-sheet which covered northern and central Rus-

Glaciers and Glacial Radiants- — Clay pole. 89

sia though, far from equalling* that of midland Nor ill America
has left abundant traces of its presence as far south as Kiev,
Pultava and Voronetz but its boundary then turns northward
and rudely coincides with the courses of the Volga, Kama and
Petchora so far as it has yet been followed. East of this line
the marks of glaciation have not been reported. It is evident
that as in North America there is no close connection between
the terminal moraine or the extreme marks of ice-action and
the parallels of latitude. In all probability it will be found that
a glacial radiant of considerable size existed on the northern
part of the Uralian range whose ice may even have become con¬
fluent with the wide sheet that was advancing to meet it from
Norway and Sweden. But testimony so far as it can be ob¬
tained is almost unanimous that in the middle and southern
parts of the Urals no trace of ice-action can be found.

The evidence from Europe therefore places itself in line with
that from North America and directly opposes the theory of
a great polar ice-cap while favoring that which is here advocated
of a number of separate radiants whose ice-streams sometimes
became confluent and covered very large areas in the northern
and western parts of the continent.

The area covered by the ice on the present theory is indeed
equal to all that has been claimed by the partizans of the op¬
posing view so far as depends on direct evidence. The funda¬
mental difference between them lies in the fact that the former
restricts the extent of the ice-sheet within those limits which
the facts warrant, while the other extends it without ground
over an immense area from which no evidence has yet been ob¬
tained and enormously magnifies its thickness. The latter has
therefore been in large part a matter of secondary inference and
there is no little reason to fear that in many cases an imagina¬
tion, not truly scientific, has been the chief constructor of the
edifice .

It should be further pointed out that we have in Europe as in
America evidence of greater elevation of the land during pre¬
glacial and probably during early glacial times in the deeply
indented shore-lines. The coasts of Ireland, Scotland and Nor¬
way show us the most intricate system of fiords and inlets that
the earth’s present geography affords. These excellent har

90 Glaciers and Glacial Radiants — Clay pole.

bours are unfortunately for the most part situated where they
are of little use for commercial purposes. As in America it
would be a priceless boon to the Pacific coast if a few of the-
unused inlets of Alaska could be transferred to California, so in
Europe both France and Spain would be immensely benefited
by buying and removing at almost any cost a few of the Nor¬
wegian fiords or some of the deep bays of western Ireland now
lying nearly idle. But however unsuited for the purposes of
trade these northern inlets may be the geologist cannot help
reading in them the story of a former higher level of the north¬
ern lands and a striking evidence of the unstable condition of
the earth’s crust. He watches ice-laden Greenland slowly sink¬
ing beneath its load and sees Norway now relieved of its icy
burden as slowly regaining some of its former position and is
tempted to ask if the load and the movement do not stand to-
one another in the relation of cause and effect.

Granting then this former greater elevation of Norway and
Sweden their adaptation to the purpose of collecting snow and
feeding glaciers was largely enhanced. And if, as seems likely
from the structure of the basins of some of the Swiss lakes, the
Alps also possessed greater hight then than now, their impor¬
tance as a glacial radiant must have been proportionately greater.

Regarding the eastern coast of Asia we have at present al¬
most no information bearing on the present subject. But what
slight details can be obtained seem to indicate a development
of glacial phenomena to a degree that is considerable but less than
on the Atlantic coast of Europe. Indeed the evidence seems to
show a smaller production of glaciers and less glacial action on
the two shores of the Pacific than on the twro shores of the At¬
lantic. This may be due to the fact that the precipitation along
the Pacific sea-board is less than along that of the Atlantic and
this again is in accordance with the small dimensions and less
effect of the Japan current— the Kiwu-Siwu — the return equa¬
torial current of the Pacific when compared with the gulf _
stream of the Atlantic. The coasts of Kamtschatka and Japan
though considerably indented do not by any means show a sys¬
tem of profound inlets such as those that fringe the coasts of
Alaska, Maine and western Europe. In so far as these parts
then of the evidence are concerned we do not find there the

Glaciers and Glacial Radiants — Claypole. 01

signs of extensive glaciation and change of level which we
found on the coasts that we previously examined. But our
knowledge of the glacial geology of these regions is so imperfect
that they may be dismissed without further discussion.

There only now remains in the northern hemisphere for con¬
sideration the vast, dreary, desolate plain of Siberia without a
mountain to break the monotonous level from the Ural mount¬
ains to the Lena, from the Altai to the Arctic ocean, — a region
of permanently frozen soil, of scanty vegetation, of vast north¬
ward flowing rivers and of annual floods on a vast scale, — the
widest plain and the coldest country on the face of the earth —
the convict-prison of Russia. Cold as is the present climate of
Siberia it nevertheless yields to the geologist none of those
traces of severe and long-continued glaciation which are af¬
forded by many other countries of happier climate and more
fertile soil. This has been a standing puzzle to glacialists ever
since the fact first came to light. No erratic blocks, no true
drift, no striated rock-surfaces occur there to testify to the for¬
mer presence and action of glaciers. Had a polar ice-cap ever
existed it surely ought to have strewn evidence of its presence
in a land where if glaciers were born mainly of cold the condi¬
tions for their birth were so eminently favorable. But if the
chief conditions for the development of glaciers are, as here
maintained, high ground and abundant prec pitation, we find
the result in Siberia in perfect accord with what might be ex¬
pected. Small glaciers very likely fringed the slopes of the
northern Urals and moved eastward; others probably flowed
northward from the Altai range and the high table-land of
central Asia; a third group probably radiated from the Stanovoy
and Tukulan mountains that skirt the Aldan river but these
were apparently insignificant in size when compared with the
vast plain into which they debouched. The fact remains that
except along the borders of these ranges we find no evidence of
ice-action over the great plain of Siberia. Obviously the reason
is that there was no gathering-ground for the formation of
glaciers in so level a district while the open ocean to the north¬
ward equally prevented their development in that direction.
The glaciers were therefore cut off at their very source and their
formation rendered impossible. On no other view are we able
to explain the anomaly that the coldest area on the surface of

92 Glaciers and Glacial Radiants — Clay-pole.

the inhabited earth had no glacier- system and perhaps even no
continental ice-sheet during the colder times of the ice-age.
Doubtless this great flat between the Altai and the polar ocean
was covered with snow and ice during the winter as now, but
these most likely disappeared with the returning sun as they do
at the present time. Or if the summer failed to melt the whole
of the accumulation of the preceding winter, yet at any rate the
reduction was so great that the mass never became sufficient to
produce motion by its pressure.

We have now taken up all the leading features of the glacia¬
tion of the northern hemisphere that concern the rival theories
regarding its cause. It is evident that the views here advocated
are much more in accord with the facts than either the extreme
theory of a polar ice-cap or that of merely local glaciers. As
above enunciated it differs from the latter inasmuch as it re¬
quires an ice-sheet of continental proportions in both the Old
and the New W orlds. But it attributes the formation not to cold
and snowfall over the whole region covered but mainly to the
accumulation of neve on the high lands which thus acted as
gathering-grounds and from which the ice radiated in all direc¬
tions, reinforced in some degree by local precipitation. It is
more likely however that this latter contribution acted rather
by protecting than by thickening the ice below it so that the
summer sunshine, not probably then very intense, was com¬
pelled to expend a great part of its force in thawing the snow
that fell during the preceding winter. In this indirect way
local precipitation may have largely aided in lengthening out
the existence and the extent of the continental ice.

On the other hand these views differ from the opinions of
extreme glacialists less in regard to the temperate than in re¬
gard to the frigid zone. The members of that school will have
little difficulty in accepting all that has been said of the former
region. But the divergence begins when the area to the north
of the ice-radiants above described is considered. Instead of
looking to this part of the earth as the great gathering-ground
for all the glaciers and ice-sheets to the southward and as a re¬
sult seeing there, in imagination, a parent neve thousands of
feet thick and even massive enough to affect the very centre of
gravity of the earth we And no ground for the belief that there

Glaciers and Glacial Radiants — Claypole. 98

ever existed an enormous accumulation in that area. Viewed
in the light of facts the supposition is extravagant and un¬
founded. Besides the arguments already given, the evidence of
meteorology might be cited in the same direction. If the pole
should turn out, as now appears probable, to be situated in the
midst of a considerable ocean it will certainly be less cold than
the surrounding zone and as every wind there is southerly the
atmosphere must be dry and eager for moisture. The precipi¬
tation must therefore be very little and the evaporation very
great. Both these causes would combine with those above given
to prevent the formation of neve and glaciers over that area.

It will be obvious then that the theory above enunciated while
avoiding the extravagant assumptions of the one party goes be¬
yond the too narrow restrictions of the other. At the same
time it is more in accord with observed facts than either and is
we believe fully capable of explaining all the phenomena of
glacial action as manifested on the earth during the ice-age.

In conclusion then we deduce from the facts and arguments
stated above that all the observations of glacial action in the
northern hemisphere are explicable by assuming the existence
of enormous and confluent glacier-systems in and about the
high-lands of Europe, Asia and America, 'which highlands be¬
came therefore glacial radiants and shed their load of ice in all
directions over the lower adjacent ground along the lines of
easiest flow; that this theory does no violence to the analogy of
the existing order of things requiring merely an enlargement
of actual glaciers by the intensification of actual conditions;
that abundant evidence can be obtained, as for example, from
Switzerland that the present glacier-system of the earth was
once of sufficient magnitude to produce all the observed phe¬
nomena; that the most important glacial radiants in the north¬
ern hemisphere were, in North America, the district round
Hudson bay, New England and the Adirondack^, with certain
areas in the western Cordilleras, and in Europe the Norwegian
Dovrefelds and the Alps, Asia apparently possessing none of
commensurate importance; that it satisfactorily explains also
the previously puzzling absence of glacial action over the great
plain of Siberia, the coldest portion of the northern temperate
zone; that the belief in a vast polar ice-cap thousands of feet

94

The Waverly Group in Ohio— Herrick.

thick covering the whole Arctic region and extending almost
continuously down to low latitudes is an assumption doing
violence to observed physical facts and to probability, that it is
not required to account for the phenomena and in fact is con¬
tradictory to some of them.

{Geological notes from the laboratory of Denison University.)

IL

NOTES UPON THE WAVERLY GROUP IN OHIO

By C. L. Herrick.

To all thoughtful persons any evidence bearing on the unity
of geological history must have special interest. Every year
adds fresh material to the already enormous mass of evidence
attesting the correctness of the view that life has pursued a
continuous though devious path from its humble origin in the
dawn-period to the present. Though perhaps all competent
geologists now assent to this view from a theoretical standpoint,
as all biologists certainly do, nevertheless there are many stub¬
born groups of facts which even yet are difficult to bring into
harmony with this general conclusion. It is easy to say in a
sweeping way that each age or epoch presents us with a distinct
advance in structure and type, but it is not yet possible in all
or even many cases to indicate the intermediate steps by which
the fauna of one epocli gradually passed into that of the im¬
mediately following geological horizon. For example, one
need not be greatly at a loss to discover the general path of
evolution during the time represented by the Sub-carboniferous
limestones in the central basin, nor yet is his credulity taxed to
believe that out of these faunse there sprang the wonderfully
homogeneous assemblage everywhere characteristic of the Coal
Measures. But in the eastern portion of the central basin, where
the integrity of the series is apparently broken and the lime¬
stones are nearly absent, the problem is very much more com¬
plicated. Indeed, the bridge between the Devonian and Car¬
boniferous has proved all but a pons asinorum , and he must
be bold who ventures over. Out of the shales and free-stones
lying between well-marked Hamilton shale below and the

The Waverly Group in Ohio— -Herrick.

95

mill-stone grit or Coal-Measures conglomerate geologists long
•ago erected an independent group called the Waverly or Cuya¬
hoga division.

First supposed to be the stratigraphical equivalent of the
Chemung in New York, it has of late been generally regarded as
Carboniferous though no attempt was made to correlate its
strata with any higher horizon than that of the Kinderhook.

Prof. Alexander Winchell who has most extensively studied
the Waverly approached it in a comparative way, having already
•discovered its homologue in Michigan to be of composite nature,
and subdivided it into the Huron and Marshall, the latter division
being regarded as the specific equivalent of the fossiliferous
upper portion of the Waverly.

The correctness of this view was shown by the discovery of
Prof. Newberry that the Erie shale is a real equivalent of at
least a part of the Chemung or Portage.* In spite of sundry
suggestions, however, up to the present time the consensus of
geologists seems to be that the Ohio formations lying above the
Erie, including Bedford shale and Berea grit, constitute a unit
of the column and should be assigned to an age at least later
than the top of the Chemung and essentially Carboniferous in
fauna. To this Prof. Winchell is an exception, though only
hypothetically suggesting that some portion of the lower
Waverly may be an equivalent of his Michigan Huron group.

It is not intended to here enter into a discusssion of the
history of opinion of which Prof. Winchell has given an ad¬
mirable summary.

The present writer was induced to enter upon an examina¬
tion of the Ohio Waverly rather from the stand-point of a biol¬
ogist than that of a geologist. The question prominently in
mind throughout has been that relating to the vital conditions
and changes indicated by the remains so poorly and ficklv pre¬
served in these sandy strata. The study has been of absorbing
interest and the results are in some measure represented by the
papers published during the past two years in the bulletin of
Denison University. Incidentally a considerable number of

*The following species have been collected by us from the Erie shales.
Spircfer altus , S. disjunctus , S. prcematurus , Leiorhynchus mcsacostalu ,
Streptorhynchus chemungensis , Ortkis tioga , Terebratvla sp., lihynchonella
. sappho , Leiopteria , sp., OrtJioceras bebryx , Productus (like lachrymosus.)

•96 The Waverly Group in Ohio — Herrick.

species supposed to be new to science have been collected, of
which 80 species or more are described by the writer while
about 25 new species of bryozoa are described by Mr. E. 0.
Ulrich, whose kind services are worthy of special notice. But
the portion of the study which has chiefly occupied and in¬
terested us has been the discrimination of separate and relatively
distinct horizons and the effort to discover the historical in¬
terpretation which their relations warrant. The present pur¬
pose is to indicate in outline the conclusions to which the study
has led. They are briefly these:

First, that the Waverly has no autonomous existence, but is
a term of purely geographical value. The series of strata
grouped under this head are to be distributed in all the sub¬
divisions of American stratigraphy between the Hamilton on
one hand and the St. Louis on the other.

Second, the prevailing character of the fossils in the upper,,
middle, and lower portions, respectively, permits their reference
in a general way, to the age of the Sub-carboniferous limestones
(Burlington and Keokuk), the Kinderhook, and a transitional
zone partaking of upper Chemung characters with out being its
specific representative. That the middle portion is equivalent
to the Kinderhook admits, in view of known facts, not the
slightest doubt, yet we hesitate to make the specific correlation
suggested by Prof. Winchell between the Kinderhook and
Catskill, believing the latter an extreme and one-sided local
factor in a series itself aside from the normal or generalized
progression in time. That the Catskill is in some sense repre¬
sentative of the Kinderhook we readily admit.

The middle Waverly or Kinderhook has been strangely over¬
looked by Prof. Newberry and others who have based their
opinion on the succession of strata called Cuygahoga shale...
The recent study abundantly shows that in north-eastern Ohio
the typical middle Waverly (that which has often been un¬
happily termed Waverly* conglomerate) is entirely absent, but
fossiliferous horizons, which in central Ohio are separated by
over TOO feet of the most prolific rock, are in the Cuyahoga^
valley in juxtaposition.

Third, the Bedford shale forms no part of the groups above
discussed. Its fossils which, contrary to the previous state¬
ments, are numerous and well-preserved in favorable localities.

The Waverly Group in Ohio — Herrick. 97

express great similarity with the Hamilton and Portage. A
considerable number of species are indistinguishable from
Hamilton forms,* others are obviously related but have at least
varietal differences. In the characteristic chocolate beds of
the Bedford in the Cuyahoga valley and near Columbus the
same association of forms has been found with no admixture of
Waverly species. This we desire to make prominent in view of
the published statement of Dr. Newberry that Syringothyris
etc. occur in the Bedford. The accompanying plate illustrates
the above statement. (Plate n.)

Fourth, in spite of what has been said, it is true that a very
few' species extend with very slight variation, from the lower
into the middle, and from the middle into the upper division,,
while a still smaller number appear to ascend from the middle
of division i into division hi. A number of species thought to*
give to the Waverly a decidedly Carboniferous aspect do not
apparently enter the Waverly at all. Such are Productus
cora, Chonetes mesoloba, Productus nebrascensis, etc. In some*
cases the mistake seems to be the result of false identification,
while in others an accidental commingling or confusion of
gatherings has been responsible.

It is not necessary to burden these remarks with lists of
species as these are presented in the paper referred to. But it
should be noticed that the statements above made indicate that
there is no serious hiatus in the column from the Hamilton to-
the Coal Measures. In other words, we may here trace with
some degree of confidence the changes in fauna gradually
supervening under rather constant conditions through an

*List of Fossils from the Bedford Shale.

1. Lingula melie, H. 5. Ambocoelia umbonata, H .*

2. Orbiculoidea newberryi, H. 6. Ilemipro 'rites, sp.

3. Orthis vanuxemi, II .* 7. Macrodon hamiltonce, II . *

4. Chonetes scitula, II .* 8. Microdonbellistriatus, Con. *

9. Leda diversa , var. bedfordensis , var. n. (*)

tO. Palceoneito bedfordensis (=var. of P. constrict.a.)

11. Pterinopecten , sp.

12. Bellerophon newberryi f (*)

13. Bellerophon lineata , H. ?

14. Loxonema , sp. (resembling L. delphicola .*)

15. Orthoceras , sp. (resembling O. linteum.*)

16. Goniatites , sp. (resembling Portage sp.

17. Pleuroiomaria (cf. sulcomargiaata.*)

*Species so designated are of Hamilton age or closely related to such
species.

98 The Waverly Group in Ohio — Herrick .

enormous interval, during which in most parts of the northern
hemisphere there were remarkable disturbances. A slender
thread of history piloting us through an epoch of disturbance
and extermination must be most valuable.

Nevertheless, we are somewhat disturbed by the fact that,
except for 100 feet of the Erie shale, only seen for a short dis¬
tance along the north-eastern margin of the Waverly domain,
the Chemung is apparently absent. The fact that the Bedford
shale with an almost Hamilton fauna rests upon this shale still*
further complicates the matter. It is not possible in the
limited space here afforded to discuss the reasoning employed,
but we may simply indicate the conclusions tentatively ad¬
vanced.

Notice first, however, a few points concerning the Chemung.
Its area is different from that of the Waverly. It is a littoral
formation. Where its western edge is in terstra titled with the
Waverly is a sudden change of dip — instead of N. E. it becomes
S. E. Its strata thicken towards the N. E., while those of the
Waverly grow thicker southward. The Chemung has no
Lingulae, no trilobites, and its own fauna is one-sided and tickle
in distribution. Our suggestion is that in time the Chemung
in New York was equivalent to a continued Hamilton facies in
Ohio. That the Bedford shale was such a belated member of a
fauna preserved in the quiet weedy sea of Ohio after New York
had been the scene of a sudden but one-sided development due
to changing conditions. That littoral conditions are competent
to greatly disturb the fauna is plainly shown within the
Waverly domain. Thus to the east, in the Cuyahoga shales,
the Devonian Atrypa reticularis and Strophomena rhomboid-
alis rise into association with species of the highest horizon
{Keokuk) while in western Ohio they do not pass the littoral
middle Waverly. The lower part of the Waverly, if we
correctly read, contains a faunal but not an exact chronological
equivalent of the upper Chemung. Here, then, we may expect
to trace the gradual evolution of types exterminated by the
conflicting conditions in New York. In fact we find a striking
confirmation of the hypothesis. A complete succession of
trilobites, including the Devonian genus Fhcethonides of the
Hamilton in several species, several species of Proefcus and one
of Dalmanites or Ceraurus , in the lower portions, followed by

The Waverly Group in Ohio — Herrick.

PLATE 1.

"Figs. 1-3.

Figs. 4-5.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

Figs. 9-15.
Fig. 10

Fig 11

Fig. 12

.Fig. 13

Fig. 14

.Fig. 16

Proetus {Phillips ia ?) precursor, Her.

Phcethonides spinosus, Her.

Phillipsia meramecensis , Shum.

Proetus minutus, Her. Camera drawing of nearly perfect
individual, highly magnified.

Phillipsia serraticaudata.

Phcethonides immaturus , Her.

Phcethonides occidentalism Her.

Phillipsia serraticaudata?? hypostome.

Proetus {haldemani ?)

Proetus {Phillipsia) sp. close to P. auriculatus.

Proetus {Phillipsia) auriculatus , H. (— shumardi .)

Phillipsia ( ?) censors. Her.

Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13.
.Fig. 14.
Fig. 15.
Fig. 16.
Fig. 17.
Fig. 18.
Fig. 19.
Fig. 20.
Fig. 21.
Fig. 22.
Fig. 28.

PLATE IL

Sphenotus valoulus , 30 feet below congl. I.

Prothyris meeki , Gann. Div. II.

Ctenodonta houghtoni ? 30 feet below congl. I. Union Station .

Palceaneilo curia. Freestone Div. II.

Dexiohia ooata. Near congl. II.

Oracardia cornuta , sp. n. Lamellibranch layer below congl I.
Dexiohia ovata , Gann.

Oracardia ornata , sp. n. Freestone, Granville.

Hinge view of same specimen.

Oracardia ornata. Large specimen.

Nuculana , sp. Gann, near congl. II.

Nuculana , sp. Freestone, Granville,

Nuculana similis Below congl. I.

Palceaneilo consimilis. Shale 1 mile east of Harlem, 0.
Palceaneilo ignota. Moot’s run.

Nuculana saccata ? Below congl. I.

Palceaneilo sulcatina. 30 feet below congl. 1.

Palceaneilo? mar shallensi s. Div. III. Rushville.
Macrodonneioarkensis. Div. III. Newark.

Spathella ventricosa. Freestone, Granville .

Mytilarca fibristriata. Moot’s run.

Nuculana diversa? Peninsula, O.

Nuculana nucullceformis ? Above congl. II. Newark.

The Waverly Group in Ohio-- Her nek.

Fig. 1.
Fig. a.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.
Fig. 15.
Fig. 16.

PLATE III.

Edmondia sulcifera. Right valve, Moot’s run.

Hinge view of smaller valve of same species .

Grenipecten cancellatus. Moot’s run.

Leiopteria ( Leptodesma ) ortoni , largest specimen yet collected
40 feet below congl. I.

Leiopteria, sp. Freestone.

Leptodesma scutella. Freestone, (Cf. vol. iii, Plate IV.)
Gonoeardium (Cf. alternistriatum.) Moot’s run.

Leiopteria , sp. Freestone.

Grenipecten caroli , t Gann. Freestone.

Streblopteria. Gann. Freestone.

Aviculat subspatulata , sp. n. Div. Ill, Newark.

Pterinopecten cariniferous , peculiarly modified left valve .
Pterinopecten Icetus, H. Moot’s run.

Grenipecten crenistriatus. Div. Ill, Newark.

Streblopteria , sp. Div. Ill, Newark.

Orinoid arm, Sciotoville.

Fig.

1.

Lingula melie.

Fig.

2.

Orbiculoidea newbervyi ?

Fig.

3.

Amboccelia ( umbonata .)

Fig.

4,

Macrodon hamiltonce .

Fig.

5.

Goniatites, sp.

Fig.

6.

Strophomena rhomboida Us.

Fig.

7.

Airy pa reticularis.

Fig.

8.

Palceaneilo bedfordensis .

Fig.

9.

Microdon bellistriatus.

Fig. 10.

Orthis vanuxemi.

Fig-

11.

Bellerophon newberryi.

Fig.

12.

Pterinopecten , sp.

Fig. 13.

Leda diversa, var.

Fig. 14.

Pleurotomaria , sp.

Fig.

15.

Loxonema , (cf. delphicola.)

Fig. 16.

Orthoceras, sp.

All but 6 and 7 from the Bedford shale in central and northern Ohio,

Plate I.

6,

Plate !l.

Plate III.

C. £ ^Arr!c/(_

Plate IV.

A

Fossil Wood and Lignites — Knowlton. 99

the Carboniferous genus Phillipsia, permits one to follow the
evolution very easily. In the upper layers Phillipsia mera-
mecensis is associated with numerous other Keokuk forms,
especially bryozoa.

In like manner a succession of Lingulae from forms like L.
subspatulata to a close analogue of L. scotia of the Coal
Measures affords the same kind of evidence. The lamelli-
branchs begin with Pterinopecten and Lyriopecten of Devonian
habitus and by simple and easily-followed graduations lead to
species of Aviculopecten and Crenipecten, while Leiopteria gives
place to species of Avicula or the like.

The evidence of other groups is the same. Indeed, indi¬
vidually we rise from the study with the belief in the continuity
of lines of evolution strongly fortified and the last vestige of
leaning towards the geological dogma of cataclysms removed
forever.

The plates accompanying are intended to convey an idea of
the variety and character of the fauna as well as to incidentally
illustrate these brief remarks.

Denison University , Granville , Ohio.

THE FOSSIL WOOD AND LIGNITES OF THE
POTOMAC FORMATION .*

By F. II. Knowlton.

Perhaps no American geological formation, which has been
made the subject of recent investigation, has given rise to more
extensive discussion or has furnished more valuable scientific
results, than has the Potomac formation. First clearly differ¬
entiated by Prof. W. B. Rogers as long ago as 1840, it has
during the past decade, and more particularly during the last
three years, been made a special study by Messrs McGee, Fon¬
taine, Ward, and Marsh, and at the present time the history of
its deposition and abundant animal and plant life, is better
known than is the history of many of the European formations
with which it has usually been correlated. Its stratigraphic
position however is still unsettled although strong presumptive

*Paper read before Am. Asso. Advance Sci. Cleveland meeting, Aug,,
1888. Resume of Bulletin U. S. Geol. Survey, (in press).

100

Fossil Wood and Lignites — Knowlton.

evidence is at hand. It was called by Rogers the Jurasso-Cre-
taceous or Upper Secondary sandstone. In 1885 Mr. W, J.
McGee, arguing mainly from the then available paleobotani-
cal evidence, considered it to be “Lower-Cretaceous in age — the
American equivalent of the European Neocomian.” Prof, Wm_
M. Fontaine of the University of Virginia, who has so
thoroughly worked up the plant impressions, regards it as
Wealden, while Prof. 0. C. Marsh who has studied the numer¬
ous vertebrate remains, claims for it a Jurassic age.

It is remarkable for containing the oldest dicotyledonous-
flora yet discovered. Of the 365 species of plants described
from the Potomac formation by Prof. Fontaine, no less than 75'
species are dicotyledons. They do not consist of the highly
differentiated genera and species which characterize the other -
dicotyledonous floras, such as the Dakota group, but are new
and archaic in appearance, showing that this class had, as has
been argued by Prof. Ward, an ulterior period of development
and transition.

My own studies of the Potomac flora have been exclusively
devoted to an investigation of the internal structure of the*
lignite and silicified wood which is very abundant in this forma¬
tion, and in this connection it may be well to speak of their
mode of occurrence.

The Potomac formation, which has an aggregate thickness
probably of more than 400 feet, is readily divisible into two**
members, an upper, called by Prof. Fontaine the clay-member r
and a lower called the sandstone-member. The upper member
contains little plant life and the material upon which the
following observations are made, as also those by Fontaine, came
wholly from the lower member.

The remains occur principally in lenticular pockets of hard,-
bluish clay, which pockets bear evidence of having been trans¬
ported en masse from the original beds in which they were
laid down. These pockets \ary in their dimensions, some being
only a few feet in length and one or two feet in thicknessr
while others are from ten to fifteen yards long and from three
to ten feet thick. It is more than probable that originally this
material was deposited in shallow water, which was- fresh, or at
most but slightly brackish. An unknown thickness, filled
with the debris of vegetable growth, was here accumulated,.

Fossil Wood and Lignites — Knowlton.

101

after which there was a gradual uplifting of the land. This
newty emerged land was now subjected to the powerful action
of moving water which cut down and transported a large por¬
tion of it, leaving now and then these irregular or lenticular
masses intact which were eventually surrounded and covered by
a lighter material and the whole was finally buried under the
Tertiary.

Good exposures of this formation, containing lignite and
silicified wood, occur at Fort Washington, White House Land¬
ing and Acquia Creek on the Potomac; at Dutch Gap and vicinity
on the Janies river; and also in the cities of Washington and
Baltimore where excavations have been made. Cuts along the
lines of rail-ways which pass through this formation often give
good sections. Most of the material upon which the following
observations are based, came from these localities .

The wood of this formation occurs under two widely different
conditions, viz: as lignite and as silicified wood. There seems
to be almost no transition between the two forms, although in
one instance, in a silicified specimen from the new reservoir,
Washington, a few small lignitized areas were detected. There
is reason for supposing, however, that some of the silicified
forms are also represented in a lignitized state; that is, owing
to different conditions of fossilization some specimens of a
species were silicified, while others were turned to lignite.

The lignite is much more abundant than the silicified form,
occurring in the above mentioned lenticular masses in pieces of
considerable size and in the loose surrounding material as
minute fragments, which shows that this latter is the result of
the wearing away of a large part of the original deposit. One
of the largest specimens noted was found at Fort Washington.
This was a log about five feet in length, eight inches in width,
and four in thickness. A cross section of this specimen, of
course, would have been lenticular, showing that it had been
subjected to great horizontal pressure. A transverse section as
seen under the microscope shows the cells completely collapsed
and distorted by the pressure.

In color this lignite is almost uniformly jet black, in only a
few cases being of a slightly brownish cast. It has a specific
gravity of about 1.B33, and breaks with a true conchoidai frac¬
ture like ordinary anthracite. When thus broken it does not

102

Fossil Wood and Lignites — Knowlton.

exhibit superficially the slightest trace of organic structure,
although careful microscopic examination of thin sections
shows it to he generally present. It may, however, be split
along certain lines, notable in a direction parallel to the medull¬
ary rays, where very plain structure shows superficially.
Viewed as an opaque object, the outlines only of the wood
cells and medullary rays are detected.

Supposing a priori that all parts of this lignite must exhibit
traces, at least, of organization, its intense blackness naturally
becomes a serious obstacle in the way of a satisfactory examina¬
tion, since, in order to make a successful study with the higher
powers of the microscope the specimen must be thin enough to
be viewed by transmitted light. An attempt was made to grind
down sections, after the usual manner of cutting rock sections;
but, even when the sections were so thin as to begin to break
in fragments and be torn from the slide, they still remained too
opaque for even a ray of light to pass through. Other methods,
as incineration, boiling in acids, etc., were equally unsuccessful.
The method finally adopted, and which proved eminently suc¬
cessful, was that recommended by Griffith and Henfrey in their
Micrographic Dictionary (2d Edition, p. 178) for the examina¬
tion of coal. The specimens are macerated for a week or more
in a strong solution of carbonate of potash, uat the end of
which time it is possible to cut tolerably thin slices with a
razor. These slices are then placed in a watch glass with
strong nitric acid, covered, and gently heated; they soon turn
brownish, then yellow, when the process must be arrested by
dropping the whole into cold water or else the specimens would
be dissolved. The slices thus treated appear of a darkish amber
color, very transparent, and exhibit the structure, here existing,
most clearly.” The specimens are then best examined in
glycerine, and may be mounted permanently in cells in this
fluid.

The translucency obtained by this process is brought about
by the dissolving out of the hydrocarbons by the potash. This
shows that there can be little or no free carbon present, else it
CQuld not be dissolved by the liquids used. The intense yellow
color produced is probably due to the presence of picric acid, of
which, owing to its great coloring power, only a trace would
be necessary.

Fossil Wood and Lignites — Knowlton. 108

The silicified wood occurs in situations similar to the lignite,
but generally in larger pieces. One trunk seen by Messrs
McGee and Ward at the new reservoir, Washington, was about
twenty feet below the surface and was reported to have been
between thirty and forty feet long. It had a diameter of near¬
ly two feet and was but slightly flattened. Other smaller speci¬
mens from the same locality were more flattened, and a trans¬
verse section as seen under the microscope shows the cells to be
distorted by pressure. Generally, however, the tissue is very
perfectly preserved in the silicified specimens and admits of
careful dissection and study.

In color the specimens vary from almost white to jet black,
sometimes showing a transition between the two colors in the
same specimen. The only examples of a decided yellow were
collected by W. J. McGee in a cut on the Baltimore & Ohio R.
R., half way between Montello and Reeves Station, D. CL
These were small fragments yet they have the structure very
perfectly preserved in places.

The method employed in preparing these woods for study is
that commonly followed in the preparation of petrographic
specimens, viz: slicing and grinding to the requisite thinness
and mounting in Canada balsam.

SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF LIGNITE.

A great many specimens of lignite have been examined by
the process mentioned above; from Baltimore; from the new
reservoir and vicinity, Washington; from Fort Washing¬
ton on the Potomac; from the Dutch Gap on the James river,
and from other localities throughout the area covered by this
formation ; and the result, although not as satisfactory as could
be wished, is probably all that could be expected under the
circumstances. The most casual examination shows that this
material has been subjected to great pressure, which has so en¬
tirely crushed and distorted the cellular elements that it is
difficult in many cases to recognize the original form. The
examination of a large series of sections serves however, to
give a pretty correct general idea of it. A transverse section
shows the lumen of the cells to be almost entirely closed up,
the result of lateral pressure. This specimen, which was col¬
lected in the new reservoir, Washington, by Mr. McGee, is one
of the best obtained. In most of those studied the pressure had

104 Fossil Wood and Lignites — Knowlton,.

seemingly been greater and consequently the original outlines
of the cells were more difficult of determination as they had
been crushed and crowded upon one another in great confusion.

A radial section shows the medullary rays to be in great
abundance and, like the wood cells, to have been considerably
distorted by pressure. In a few cases some of the cells of the
rays were filled, before being subjected to this pressure, with a
hard substance, which was more resistant to pressure, and con¬
sequently they retain nearly their original form. The number
of cells entering into the composition of each ray varies con¬
siderably, ranging from as few as two or three, to as many as
fifty or more. In most cases the rays are but one cell wood,
although in a few cases sections have been obtained with the
rays two cells wood. In one poorly preserved example there
seemed to be several cells, perhaps as many as four, with a
larger one in the center. This appearance may have been the
result of pressure, and, if so, would have no value, but if
natural it would indicate that the specimen belonged to the
genus Pityoxylon. It is, however too indefinite to be more
than suggestive.

As for bordered pits or markings, they seem to have been
pretty generally wanting, or at most rarely to have been pre¬
served in a satisfactory manner. They have been observed only
in one instance, where only two pits or circular markings were
noted

In tangential section the medullary rays are seen to be very
numerous, but this appearance is due partly to the collapsing
•of the wood cells by pressure, by which they are made to occupy
nearly one-third less space than when in a turgid condition,
thus bringing a greater number of rays into the field at once.
Most of the cells are crushed flat, only the one mentioned
above escaping.

In regard to the identification of this lignite it is manifestly
impossible to attempt more than an indication of its general
character and position. That it is coniferous is beyond question.
The absence of cellular elements other than tracheds, which
were provided in some cases at least, with borderered pits, and
the number and arrangement of medullary rays, make the
coniferous nature clear. From the abundance of the genus
eupressinoxylon in the Potomac formation, as shown by the

Fossil Wood and Lignites — Know!, ton. 105

silicilied examples, it is probable that most of the lignite may
be aho of this genus, particularly as there is in many cases a
marked resemblance, so far as I am able to interpret the dis¬
torted structure, between it and some of the species described
from silicified specimens. Also several species probably entered
into the composition of this lignite .

SYSTEMATIC RELATIONS OF THE SILICIFIED MATERIAL.

As I have before stated the cellular elements are much better
preserved in the silicified examples than in the lignite, and the
results are more reliable and satisfactory. The tissues are here
preserved with little if any alteration in shape and retain all
their markings in the highest state of perfection.

This silicilied material is all coniferous. It belongs to two
well known genera, Cupressinoxylon with four species and
ArauCarioxylon with a single species.

Cupressinoxylon. This genus as now understood has a
somewhat comprehensive meaning, and includes according to
Kraus what were at one time regarded as several distinct
genera. Thus we have Thuioxylon of Unger and Endlicher;
Fhysematopitys of Goppert; a part of Pinites of Goppert and
Pence of Witham all embraced under the genus Cupressinoxy¬
lon. It is the largest genus known in which the species are
founded entirely upon internal structure, and it has represen¬
tatives from the Carboniferous to the Tertiary. This genus is
thought by eminent authorities, such as Goppert, Mercklin and
Schmalhausen, to represent the wood of Sequoia, since the des¬
cribed species have a great structural resemblance to the living
species of Sequoia, and moreover are usually found associated
in the fossil state with leaf and cone impressions that undoubt¬
edly belong to Sequoia. This view is strikingly confirmed in
the present instance as Prof. Fontaine has described from leaf
and cone impressions no less than twelve species of Sequoia
from the Potomac flora, and typical cones have been found at
Beltsville, Maryland, associated with the lignites and silicified
wood. The individuals belonging to this genus must have
been exceedingly numerous during the reign of the Potomac
flora as their abundant remains testify. It is altogether
probable that some of the species 1 have described from in¬
ternal structure may represent the 'wood of some of those

106 Physical Theories of the Earth — Eeade.

described by Prof. Fontaine from leaf or cone impressions,
and it would, of course, be of great interest if these could be
correlated, but until they are found organically connected this
is manifestly impossible. This state of affairs is, however, no
reason why both leaves and wood should not be named and
described, for we shall now have two sets of criteria which will
enable us to make out the life history of the genus and also
furnish valuable remarks for stratigraphic determination.

The species, although having evident affinities with several
described forms, are all regarded as new, and have been named
as follows: Cupressinoxylon pulchellmn , G. Wardi , C . McGeei
and C. Columbianum.

Araucarioxylon. The genus to which I have referred the
other species, has also been regarded as a comprehensive one
although recent investigations of Grand, Eury, Felix, Morgen-
roth, and others make it probable that it must be again divided.
It represents in a fossil state the wood of the Araucarian pines
of Australia and the Pacific islands. It is characterized by the
hexagonal areolatioos on the wood-»cells, by the absence of
resin ducts and faint line of demarcation between the annual
rings of growth.

The species I have called Araucarioxylon virginianum. It
was obtained from Taylorsville, Va.

CONCLUSION.

The conclusions reached in this paper are briefly as follows:

The fossil wood of the Potomac formation is all coniferous.
It exists under two different conditions, viz: as lignite, which
owing to the great pressure to which it has been subjected, is
much metamorphosed and distorted and is incapable of specific
determination; and as silicified wood. The latter material, very
perfectly preserved, belongs to two genera, Cup ressin oxy l o n
with four species and Araucarioxylon with a single species.

U. S. National Museum, Washington , A C.

PHYSICIAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH IN RELATION TO
MOUNTAIN FORMATION.

By T. Mellard Reade, C.E., F.G.S., F.R.I.B.A.

In an article entitled ‘’On some investigations regarding the
condition of the interior of the Earth,” in the June and July

Physical Theories of the Earth — Rmde, 107

numbers of the xlmerican Geologist, Prof. E. W. Claypole, has
discussed from a geological point of view the effect of the dis¬
covery of a “level of no strain11 in a cooling globe on current
geological thought. The article is fairly and dispassionately
written and evinces an appreciative knowledge of these later
physicial investigations. There are, however, some underlying
inferences with which I cannot agree and perhaps as being the
first to demonstrate that there exists a stratum, or more ac¬
curately speaking a “level,11 in a cooling globe in which neither
extension nor compression takes place, I may be allowed to
discuss some of the points Prof. Claypole touches upon.

My views on the strains set up in a cooling globe were first
published in chapter xi, “Origin of Mountain Ranges11 1880,
though I had arrived at a clear conception of the existence of a
neutral zone or shell five years previously, as can be conclu¬
sively proved by my notes. Since then, as described by Prof.
Claypole, investigations have been carried on by Davison, Fisher
and G. H. Darwin with the effect of fixing the limits of depth
at which this neutral shell or “level of no strain11 must occur
in the case of our own globe.

And here I may remark — what appears to be lost sight of by
these investigators — that the existence of such a level of-no-
strain is quite independent of the general rigidity of the globe
which is another question. In fact I was led to the discovery
by considering the probable behavior of such a crust as is as¬
sumed by the supporters of the contraction hypothesis to exist
in the case of our own globe. It matters not whether the
nucleus be solid, fluid, or plastic; for so soon as the exterior
shell becomes solid by cooling, within that shell there will
exist a level-of-no-strain; always provided that the continuity
of the shell is preserved by pressure produced by gravitation.
This may not at first sight be obvious but it arises from the
relations between the circumferential and radial contractions
of such a cooling globe, by which the thickness of the solidify¬
ing crust is always greater than the depth of the level-of-no-
strain.

Professor Claypole while giving due.weight to these investi¬
gations thinks that the mathematicians may have erred in
their numerical calculations, and placed the neutral shell in
the case of our own globe too near the surface. His ground

108

Physical Theories of the Earth — Meade .

for thinking so is that rocks from a much greater depth than
the calculations give for the position of the neutral shell have
been forced up to the surface; the underlying idea evidently
being that only by the compression of the exterior shell of the
globe through secular contraction can this have happened. Is
this not begging the question in favor of what is called the
“Contraction” theory of mountain formation and ignoring other
possible explanations of the origin of the corrugations of the
earth’s surface?

Professor Claypole seems to think that the strata immediately
below the level-of-no-strain must be in a state of “aqueo-
igneous” or even “igneous plasticity,” and therefore we are
driven to place the foci of earthquakes and other disturbances
in the strata above the level-of-no-strain, a limitation of depth
for which we have no warrant in observation. I fail to see
in what way the existence of the level-of-no-strain affects the
question at all. It can no more do so than can the existence
of a neutral axis in a bent beam affect the solidity of the wood
of which it is composed either above or below such a mathe¬
matical line.

When I developed the idea of the existence of a level-of-
no-strain, or neutral shell, if was partly with the object of
showing that the current ideas of the effects of secular contrac¬
tion on the crust of our globe were undefined and fallacious,
—“foggy” perh aps would be the correct word — and this though
eminent mathematicians and physicists had been at work on the
problem for some 50 years, curiously showing how a seemingly
obvious result may escape minds that trust too much to mechan¬
ical modes of thinking.

It indeed seems extraordinary that a mathematician and a
practical engineer like the late Robert Mallet, who devoted
years to the development of a theory of volcanic action depend¬
ent upon the heat evolved by the crushing of the crust of the
globe, should have failed to discover in such a crust the exist¬
ence of a neutral zone. Had he done so,, he would probably
have abandoned his theory. Many pages of the transactions
of the Royal society and much good mathematics would have
been saved; but no doubt the working out of such problems,,
even if founded on false data, is one of the necessary steps in
the development of true ideas concerning the complicated
operations of nature.

Physical Theories of the Earth — Eeade. 109

The existence of a level-of-no-s train though most important
was only one of the objections I had to urge against the accept¬
ance of the contraction theory as an explanation of the origin
of mountain ranges. It may not be unprofitable for me to
summarize these objections, that those American geologists
who have, the opportunity and desire may test the ideas in the
field.

One of the great arguments formerly relied on by the sup¬
porters of the contraction theory was the enormous amount of
lateral compression which many mountain ranges had under¬
gone.

This in the case of the Alps is estimated by Heim to show
a shortening of 72 miles, and according to Prestwich, Prof.
Claypole estimates the linear compression of the Appalachians
at 88 miles. These of course are only meant as approxima¬
tions, but l contend that the system of measurement is falla¬
cious though I accept it for the purpose of illustration A*

The only possible way of accounting for such extensive
movements was by a shortening of the earth’s radius, which
of course any theorizer is at liberty to do for himself on any
scale he pleases so long as he does not work on known data.
This shortening given and a crust in compression of the requir¬
ed thickness, the whole phenomena of mountain ranges are sup¬
posed to be accounted for. Let us see what such an hypothesis
involves. Taking for example the Appalachians; as the whole
of the strata from 8 to 10 miles thick from base to summit are
said to be practically conformable, the shrinking of the earth
cannot have affected this area from the commencement of the
Cambrian period to the close of the Carboniferous, a space of
time in which is comprised a considerable portion of the geo¬
logical history of the globe. The Triassic rocks are uuconfor-
mable to the Carboniferous, so that the main elevation of the
Appalachians must have taken place between the latter part of
the Carboniferous and the beginning of the Triassic periods.
To this space of time then, we must perforce limit the trans¬
verse shortening of the strata. If correctly estimated at 88
miles and the whole were the effect of the earth ’s contraction
it would, on the highly favorable assumption that the whole of
the linear circumferential contraction was disposed of on this

*This is explained in the “Origin of the Mountain Ranges.”

110 Physical Theories of the Earth — Read e*

section of the earth’s surface, mean a radial shortening of about
14 miles. The time taken in the elevation of the Appalachian
chain, occuring as it did within the limits already mentioned,
can only have been a fraction of the geological history of the
globe; we are thus placed in the dilemma of invoking a sort of
geological Frankenstein, for the total contraction of the globe
since the dawn of geological time, on this estimate, is too tre¬
mendous to be admitted by any physicist. According to Sir
W. Thomson, G. Darwin and other eminent authorities, the
cooling of our earth cannot now have extended deeper than
about 400 miles, so that the total radial contraction, on the
most favorable assumptions, cannot have been more than from
10 to 15 miles since the first sedimentary beds were laid down.
If therefore the earth’s contraction is to be considered the cause
of this estimated shortening of the Appalachians, we await the
discovery of some contracting agent, other than loss of heat.

Having surmounted, if we are able, all these preliminary dif¬
ficulties, we are met with another of a different class. All
mountain chains so far as known are composed of enormous
thicknesses of sedimentary rocks; a fact first pointed out by an
American geologist. Why should the earth in contracting
select these particular areas for the compression of its crust and
the piling up of its surplus material? If sediments are thrown
down only on weak places in the crust, as some are fain to be¬
lieve, the compression would be continuous during the time of
sedimentation. The exact opposite is the case. It has been
attempted, in explanation of this awkward fact, to show that
the rocks below have been weakened by sinking down into
zones of higher temperature. This explanation is, it appears
to me, altogether to pretty and complete; an individual case
might be admitted but to assume that these several events
always take place together, without exception, is rather a draft
on one’s scientific faith. But to what extent would the crust
really be weakened? The sinking rocks though increasing in
temperature would be as strong as those replaced at the same
temperature; so that the supposed weakness would only arise
from the replacement of the original surface rocks by the new
sediments. These sediments while sinking are undergoing con¬
solidation by pressure, chemical reactions and increasing tem¬
perature; so that, for all we know to the contrary, they

The Chouteau Group— -Rowley. Ill

may be as strong in the mass as the rocks they displace.

It is not, however, necessary though it would be no difficult
task, to go on multiplying these difficulties by examples drawn
from our own planet. If contraction by secular cooling is so
potent an influence in creating the relief of our own globe we
should expect to see in our satellite — the moon which has run
out most of its history and is in astronomical parlance “dead,” —
more marked examples of linear packing and folding than any¬
thing we witness here. A careful telescopic survey of the
moon’s surface fails to reveal anything of the sort; on the con¬
trary she is covered over with innumerable volcanic cones
which shew no evidence of distortion or. displacement by lateral
pressure, nor do the so-called plains exhibit it either. It seems
strange when we have above us what is described as an epitome
of the history of our own planet, and a warning finger pointing
to what the earth will eventually become — which parenthet¬
ically I express my disbelief in — that none of the favorers of
the contraction theory have looked to the moon for confirma¬
tion or otherwise of their theories, or if they have they have
been silent.

These objections and reasons are so cogent and plain that the
conventional scientific language of a treatise seems to me lack¬
ing in the graphic element necessary to bring them clearly be¬
fore the ordinary mind. My object has been, in which I trust
I have not altogether failed, to make it plain that we must look
to some other cause than that of secular contraction, for an ex¬
planation of the building of mountain chains. Elsewhere I
have attempted a systematic theory on other lines but it was
not my intention, nor have I space, to expound it here.

For the final establishment of any theory much more infor¬
mation than we have is required concerning the actual struct¬
ure of mountain ranges, and as American geologists have done
so much in the past to supply us with what knowledge we pos¬
sess, I trust that in the future they will not be found wanting.

THE CHOUTEAU GROUP OF EASTERN MISSOURI.

By K. It. KOWI.EY, OURE.Yvm.LE, Mo.

To the Missouri fossil collector there is no more interesting
series of rocks than the beds denominated, in the old geological

112

The Chouteau Group — Rowley.

reports, Chouteau, group. If these rocks are interesting to the
collector they are doubly so to the skilled palaeontologist, not
that they yield any new or striking genera of fossils, but from
the fact the species are peculiar to the beds, for the most part,
and fail to point satisfactorily to the position of this group in
the great palaeozoic series of the Mississippi valley .

These beds have been at different times ranged under the
Chemung, Hamilton and Kinderhook groups without any
special reasons for the transfers, and at present they are quietly
resting in the latter group.

We do not propose in this paper to disturb this sleeping relic
of the by-gone ages and definitely refer it to any of the recog¬
nized divisions of the palaeozoic rocks, but we do think it should
retain the name of “Chouteau group,” at least until sufficient evi¬
dence has been gathered to place it in its right shelf in the cabinet.

The firs! notice, so far as we know of this group, was in the
old Missouri report by Prof. Gr. C. Swallow, and, after collec¬
tions had been made at Chouteau Springs, Cooper county,;
Hannibal, Marion county, and Louisiana and Clarksville, Pike
county, the beds were referred to the Chemung group and
divided into the following subdivisions; “Chouteau limestone,”
“Vermicular sandstone and shales,” and “Lithographic lime¬
stone,” in a descending order, the latter division being said to
rest directly on the Hamilton shale. Later on Dr. Shumard,
in speaking of these beds, still left them where he had previous¬
ly placed them, but when it came to Prof. James Hall’s time to
turn these rocks over and view them from a distance, he slid
them down into the Hamilton shelf.

Meek and Worthen made the final transfer to the Kinder¬
hook, and western geologists have generally recognized this
disposition of the vexed question.

In the New York report for 1882, on Palaeontology, Prof.
‘Hall copied his figure of Productella pyxidata from the old
Iowa report and stated the specimen from which the figure
was drawn was found in Iowa, while in the former report he
gave the locality in Missouri. He made a similar mistake in
Productella shumardiana , which if it is found at all in the
Lithographic limestone at Clarksville is only a young specimen
of P. pyxidata . We doubt whether the original specimen came
from Missouri at all .

The Chouteau Group— Rowley

113

We have never collected in person from the Chouteau lime-
stone but have received fossils from it from other collectors.
As to the other divisions of the series we have made thorough
examinations of them, ranging through fourteen years and
have collected five series of the beautiful fossils.

At Louisiana, immediately underlying the base of the Bur¬
lington limestone, is about three feet of a yellow argillaceous
sandstone filled with worm-like burrows and casts of brachio-
pods, lamellibranchs, gasteropods, one goniatite and a peculiar fu-
coid. Beneath this sandstone are, perhaps twenty-five to thirty
feet of dove-colored shales, entirely destitute of fossils.

The Lithographic limestone, forty or fifty feet in thickness,
lies beneath the shales and is made up of thin layers of a very
close-grained and hard, light-brown and pale-blue limestone,
the strata increasing in thickness downward from an inch or
two at the top to twelve or fourteen inches at the base. The
material between the layers of limestone being yellow and to¬
ward the bottom but little harder than clay.

The Lithographic sandstone rests on two or three inches of
a soft clay-like shale or sandstone of a yellowish cast, this
latter passing downward into fifteen or sixteen inches of a
dark blue shale. ~ -

A black shale of three feet in thickness underlies the blue
shale and overlies an oolitic limestone referred by Drs. Shu-
mard and Swallow to the Corniferous group but now known to
be the equivalent of the Niagara. The black shales were re¬
ferred to the Hamilton by the same authors, though they failed
to find a single fossil in the beds. However, as we have found a
few remains and all identical with species from the shales above
these beds, undoubtedly, form the base of the Chouteau group.

The upper part of the Lithographic limestone is destitute of
fossils, the middle beds yield the plume-like Felicites gracilis.

In the two or three base layers and in the yellow partings
are found the characteristic fossils, while, higher up remains
are scarce. In the underlying yellow shales and often passing
into the blue is an abundance of fossils but largely crushed and
half-valved specimens.

About five inches from the top of the blue shale is a bone
bed filled with bones, teeth and coprolites of fishes, associated
with one or two species of sponges.

114

The Chouteau Group — Rowley.

In an inch layer of a white or ferruginous (white in fresh
exposures but stained with iron in weathering) siliceous coarse¬
grained sandstone, near the base of the black shales are to be
found the fish remains mentioned above, together with a small
Lingula also identical with a form in the shales above.

The fossils in the Vermicular sandstone are casts and very
poorly preserved, while the remains in the Lithographic lirne-
stoneand underlying shales are often in a fine state of preser¬
vation.

Three miles north-east of Curry ville is an outcrop of a
brownish, earthy, thin-bedded limestone that yields a series of
fossils unlike either the forms from the Cooper county Chou¬
teau or the Lithographic limestones. Unfortunately these
fossils have been changed to calc-spar and defeat structural
examination.

While the Lithographic limestone has but few and small
corals, these beds offer quite a series of polyps, ranging from
single corals an inch long to those five or six inches in length.
One cyathophylloid is extravagantly frilled and may be Dr.
White’s Chonophyllum sedaliense , while another is very
tortuous, strongly reminding one oiAmplemis yandellL

Another is spinose, like a Keokuk Zaphrentis. Along with
the cyathophylloids are two species of M ichelinia,one undoubt¬
edly the M. placenta of Dr., White, described in Hayden’s f£th
annual report; the other an extravagant form mimicking a
compound cyathophylloid. A fine Syringopora , an Aulopora
and Zaphrentis calceola complete the list of most striking
forms.

Among crinoids are a small Actinocrinus an Ollacrinus a
Platycrinu s and a small blastoid, like Granatocrinus.

Of brachiopods, a small Spirifera , an Orthis, like that from
the Kinderhook (Lithographic) at Louisiana but much smaller,
a little Chonetes, a small Athyris like hirsuta, a large smooth
Athyris , a Rhynchonella and Strophomena rhomhoidalis , like
the Burlington variety.

The presence of Zaphrentis calceola, Michelinia placenta and
Chonophyllum sedaliense seems to make these beds the equiva¬
lent of the Sedalia strata, referred to the Chouteau limestone
by Dr. White. But as Z. calceola ranges through the entire
Burlington group and an Orophocrinus, perhaps but a variety of

Tne Chouteau Group — Rowley. 115

0. stelliformis , a well known lower Burlington form, has been
reported from Sedalia, it may be a question of some doubt
whether these “Placenta beds” are Kinderlxook or Burlington.
Near Curryville they strongly remind one of the Devonian
from their abundance of corals .

It might not be improper here to state we have also found
PorcelUa nodosa in the Lower Burlington at Louisiana,
associated with Zaphrentis calceola, Z. elliptica , Granatocrinus
melo and Spirifera grime si. P. nodosa was described by Messrs
Meek and Worthen in the 3rd Ill. report as a Kinderhook
species.

Along the railroad cut, one mile north-east of Bowling
Green, Mo., the “Placenta beds” are also to be seen, while we
have noticed a great thickness of them four or five miles north¬
west of Yandalia, Audrain county, Mo., also six or seven miles
north-west of Curryville, on Spencer creek.

We subjoin a complete list of the fossils found at Louisiana
in the Chouteau group, giving the specific names so far as we
have been able to identify the forms.

Many of the species are rare and a number of them yet un¬
described.

It might not be improper to state the Orthis was long ago
identified by Prof. Hall in the Iowa report as O. vanuxemi but,
no doubt, is quite district from that species.

Spirifera hannibalensis , Cyrtina acuiirostris and Athyris
hannibalensis strongly resemble species in the Lower Burling¬
ton at Louisana but are doubtless specifically distinct.

In the list the species found in the “Vermicular sandstone”
are numbered 1. Those from the “Lithographic limestone” 2;
from the underlying yellow and blue shales 3; and from the
black shales 4.

3 & 4 Pish bones and teeth.

3 & 4 Coprolites.

3 Phillipsia sp? (mere fragments.)

2 Orthoceras (very rare.)

1 Goniatite (have seen but one specimen.)

1 Loxonema, like gasteropod (but one specimen.)

2 XTndet. fragment of a gasteropod (one only.)

3 Platyceras sp ?

1 An Avicula-like lamellibranch.

1 & 3 Allorisma hannibalensis.

2 Aviculapecten? sp? (but one example.)

116

The Chouteau Group — Rowley,

2 Undet, cast (lamellibranch.)

1, 2, 3 Spirifera marionensis (very comiaau.)

1, 2, 3 “ hannibalensis.

2 & 3 “ sp? (very rare.)

2 “ sp? (spinose,) (but one.)

2 <te 3 Cyrtina acutirostris, (common . )

2 & 3 “ sp? (very small.)

2 & 3 Athyris bannibalensis (not rare.)

2 & 3 “ sp? (small and rare.)

2&3 “ sp? (very small.)

3 Terebratula sp? (rare.)

1 “ sp? (cast.)

3 “ sp ? (very small.)

2 & 3 Rhynchonella mlssouriensis? (rare.)

3 “ sp? (rare.)

2 & 3 Orthis sp ? (like mnuxemi,) (common,)

2 & 3 Hemipronites sp? (not rare.)

1 “ sp ? (large.)

1, 2, 3 Productella pyxidata (very common.)

1 “ sp ?

2 & 3 Cbonetes ornata (common.)

2 & 3 “ sp? (very small.)

3 & 4 Lingula sp ? (very small.)

3 Crania rowleyi (Gurley’s species,) (rare.)

3 Crania sp? (rare.)

3 Discina sp?

3 Conularia sp? (fragments.)

2 & 3 Spirorbis kinderhookensis (Gurley’s species.)
2 & 3 Cornulites carbonari us “ “

2 Minute cyst-like parasites.

2 & 3 Diehocrinus? sp? (basal plates and columns.)

2 & 3 Zaphrentis? sp? (not rare.)

3 “ sp? (rare.)

3 “ calceola??? (one specimen.)

3 Undet. cyatbophylloid-like fossil (one example.)

2 & 3 Favosites ( Michelinia) sp ? (not rare.)

2 & 3 Palaeacis enorme (rather uncommon.)

2 & 3 Undet. incrusfing bryozoan.

2 & 3 “

2 & 3 Bryozoan sp ? (rare.)

3 Ptyckostylus subtumidus (Gurley’s species.)

3 Sponge ? ?

2 Felicites gracilis (rare.)

1 Fucoid.

The Chouteau Group — Rowley .

117

THE ARTESIAN WELL AT CITY PARK,
IOWA.

DAVENPORT,

By A. S. Tiffany,

This well is situated 160 feet above low water in the Missis¬
sippi, and 688 feet above the sea.

Drift 100 feet

1.

Coal Measures

0 _

30 feet.

3.-

Corniferous

4.-

390 feet.

5-

6.

7.-

Lower Helder-

berg, 80 feet.

8.-

Niagara

9.-

10-

175 feet.

11.-

Cincinnati and

12.-

Trenton,

13,

300 feet.

14.-

15.-

Calciferous

16.-

17.-

group

18.-

Magnesian

19.-

limestone of

20.-

the Mo. reports

21.-

512 feet.

22.-

23.-

-Loess 40 feet; Boulder clay 60 feet. .... 100

—Dark clay shale . .

—Hard drab limestone .

—Cream-colored limestone _

-Hard, porous limestone, buff.
—Drab limestone, hard .

.... 30

.... 220

.... 30

.... 20

.... 90

—Very dark blue calcareous shale . . 30

-Soft, buff limestone, Le Claire . 80

-Hard, rough, drab limestone . 50

-Drab limestone . . . 75

-Hard shaly limestone . 50

—Dark gray limesto e. „ . 125

- Dark drab limestone . 50

-Soft white limestone . 75

—Soft white limestone . 50

-Blue clay shale, with silica . 10

-St. Peter sandstone, white . 90

-Arenaceous shale, drab, blue and red. . . 15

-Magnesian limestone, with ten per cent,
silica; cement rock . 210

-No record . 25

-Sandstone, (by City engineer). . . . 10

-Limestone, (borings washed away) . 100

-Limestone . 262

1,797

Note. — No. 4 contained fossils, viz: Paracyelas tenuis Hall,
Platystoma turbinatus Hall, Cyrtina hamiltonensis Hall. Olado-
pora and Pleurotomaria, undetermined; No. 7, contained Pan ta-
merella arata Con. or P. papilionensis Hall.

It appears that 80 feet or more were eroded from the Cor¬
niferous before the coal shales were deposited. The upper 80
feet of the Corniferous at this place have well marked litho¬
logical features, which could be readily recognized in the

130

350

380

400

490

520

600

650

725

775

900

950

1,025

1,075

1,085

1,175

1,190

1,400

1,435

118 Barrande and the To conic System — Marcou.

borings. Nos. 4 to 7 do not outcrop in this county, having
been depressed by the great fault, nine miles above at Valley
City. The St. Peter sandstone furnished abundance of water,
which stood within 50 feet of the surface. The porous strata at
400 feet let the water escape. The well was piped 1,100 feet,
when the water stood 22 feet from the surface. Pumping 125
gallons per minute did not lower the water. The porous
stratum No. 5 appears at the artesian wells at the glucose works
at Davenport, and at the paper mill at Moline, two wells being
adjacent at both places, and the water flows through this porous
stratum from one well to the other.

BARRANDE AND THE TACONIC SYSTEM.

By Jules Marcou.

Mr. James D. Dana says that Barrande adopted “in his me¬
moir in full the views of Emmons on the Taconic system” —
“and thus confusion was introduced by Barrande along with the
light. It would not have been so, we are sure from his careful
Bohemian work, had he been within reach of the stratigraphi-
cal problem, for he would have withheld his general conclusion
until he had investigated the region of the Taconic area” (“A
brief history of Taconic ideas,” Anier. Jour. Sci ., vol. xxxivr
Dec., 1888, pp. 410 to 427.)

That the person who has never found the Primordial fauna
in the original Taconic area or anywhere, and has referred the
Taconic system to the Champlain system “or younger” should
speak of Barrande’s having introduced “confusion” in American
geology is such an extraordinary accusation, that at first I was
inclined to let it pass without any notice. Barrande is so far
above the imputation of the adversaries of the Taconic system,
that it seems useless to answer. But the persistance of attacks,
made as usual in the American Journal of Science, by Messrs.
Dana and Walcott, call for a persistance in the defence.

Never has such a statement absolutely the reverse of truth
been propounded on a geological question. It is to be regretted
that Mr. Dana did not express his opinion before the death of
Barrande; but as no one has been nearer Barrande in opinions,
vievrs, and friendship than I, the duty devolves on me to defend

Barrande and the Taconic System — Marcou. 119

once more the great services he has rendered to geology in gen¬
eral and to American geology in particular.

Besides in one of his published letters to me, Barrande says:
“You possess all the necessary qualities for those explorations
(speaking of researches in the Taconic region), which require a
clear intellect, an independent spirit and a true devotion to
science.” (“The Taconic system and its position in stratigraphic
geology,” by Jules Marcou, in Proceed. American Acad. Sci.,
vol. xii, p. 194, Cambridge, 1885). The constant approbation
of Barrande in all my work on the Taconic question, and our
frequent interchange of views and observations by letters and
in long conversations on the subject, impose on me the obliga¬
tion to show who has made “confusions,” and who has disen¬
tangled the Gordian knot.

Primordial faun- a in Texas. — Barrande as far back as 1853
recognized the existence of the Primordial fauna in Texas,
which Mr. Ferdinand Bonier had described in his “Die Kreide-
bildungen von Texas,” as belonging only to the Silurian system,
without any reference whatever to the Primordial fauna of
Bohemia and Scandinavia, well established eight years previ¬
ously by Barrande with the complete approbation of Angelin
for Scandinavia.

Primordial fauna on the Upper Mississippi and in Mis¬
souri. — In 1859, Barrande showed that eleven species of trilo-
bites of the Upper Mississippi region, described bv D. D. Owen,,
belonged to the Primordial fauna of Europe; saying that they
have in their forms, “appearances which assimilate them to the
ParadoxidesP The same year, Barrande referred Swallow and
Meek’s discovery of two trilobites in Missouri to the Primordial
fauna.

Primordial fauna in the Taconic area. — Finally in 1860
and 1861, in his masterly written and extremely important
memoire: “Documents anciens etnouveaux sur la Faune Pri-
mordiale et le systeme Taconique en Amerique,” Barrande hav¬
ing at last received communication of Emmons’ Memoirs, which
until then he had never seen, did not hesitate; 1st, to recognize
the priority of Dr. Emmons’ discovery of the Primordial fauna
in the original Taconic area; 2nd, to point out the great and very
grave errors of the adversaries of the Taconic system, pointing
out in a special chapter YI, p. 301, the extraordinarily incorrect

120 Barrande and the Taconic System — Marcou.

“Vertical transfer of the Primordial fauna of Sweden by James
Hall;” and 3rd, to give conclusive evidence of the good determi¬
nation of Dr. Emmons for his Taconic fossils, referred by him?
as far back as 1844, as a special fauna. That paper of Barrande
is a model of clearness, of straight forward opinions on the
Taconic system, as well stratigraphic as paleontologic, and the
most honest protest ever published on any controverted geolog¬
ical question.

Barrande by dates, descriptions and reasoning has proved be¬
yond any possible doubt that Dr. Emmons has truly the priority
over every body, even himself, on the question of the first dis¬
covery of the Primordial fauna, contained in strata which
Emmons has called the Taconic system and which he has placed
at its proper position in the stratigraphic scale, below the Cham¬
plain and as pre-Potsdam. And to think that such an honest
and illustrious geologist, who has rendered to American geology
such services and shown such a cosmopolitan spirit and such an
unprejudiced and noble mind should be taxed of having intro-
duced“eonfusion” into American geology, by a writer of a Man-
nal of Geology for schools, who has failed during fifty years to
recognize twenty- five thousand feet of strata as older than
the Champlain system and the Potsdam sandstone, is a feat
without a precedent.

Barr aide’s doctrine of Colonies. — As to the supposition
that if Barrande “had been within reach of the stratigraphical
problem, he would have withheld his general conclusion” it is
simply a last expedient of an adversary of the Taconic forced
in his last entrenchment. For Barrande, from the first moment
he took the Taconic question into his hands, called my atten¬
tion to his “doctrine des colonies,” telling me that very likely
there was something of that sort in the Taconic area. At first
I was opposed to the doctrine, as it will be seen in my two
papers of 1860 and 1861, in which no reference whatever is
made to it. But conviction came little by little, by direct re¬
searches at Pointe Levis, St. Albans bay, S wanton and Phillips-
burgh; first recognizing the lenticular character of all the
limestones inclosed in the slates, a great step to disentangle the
complicated stratigraphy of the whole Taconic area, and sec¬
ondly afterwards pointing out the prophetic types and colonies
of the second fauna, found by me now and then, never contin-

Barrande and the Taconic System — Marcou. 121

uously, in the Pointe Levis and Phillipsburgh group as far back
as 1862, and published that year in my “Letter to M. Joachim
Barrande, etc.,” Cambridge. Several years after, during 1873
and 1874, I recognized the same existence of prophetic types
and colonies in the Swan ton or Citadel Hill of Quebec slates
group, and published my observations in 1880, in my paper,
under the significant and very appropriate title of “Sur les colo¬
nies dans les roches Taconiques des bords du Lac Champlain”
{ Bulletin Soc. geol. , France, tome ix, p. 18).

The last paper received the full approbation of Barrande, as
it will be seen in his letter of the 10th of March, 1882, a part
of whieh I have published in the Proceed . American Acad.
Science, vol. xii, p. 220, Cambridge, 1885; and it will be sus¬
tained even more by numerous quotations in his last memoir,
“Defense des Colonies,” which will soon be published as a post¬
humous work of Barrande by the “Musee Boheme.”

If Barrande had investigated and explored the Taconic area
from Pointe Levis and Quebec city to Phillipsburgh, Swanton,
Highgate, Georgia, Bald mountain, Williamstown and Pough¬
keepsie, he would have recognized at first the existence of
colonies, on account of his long practical experience of that
phenomenon in the strata of Bohemia, and he would have advo¬
cated with all his power, as a writer and an observer of genius,
as he was, the acceptation of the Taconic system of Dr. Em¬
mons, with the addition only of that small and local group of
the Potsdam sandstone.

I do not say that he would have extinguished all opposition,
and removed all wounded self-love; for the reputation of being
a good observer or a bad one hangs over the heads of all those
concerned in the Taconic question, friends or adversaries; and
the resistance he encountered to the acceptance of his “doctrine
des colonies” in Bohemia, first from the Bohemian geologists,
Zippe and Krejci, secured from the officials of the Geological
Survey of Austria Haidinger and Lipoid, third from the pro¬
fessors of paleontology at the school of Mines and the Jardin
des Plantes in Paris, d’Archiac and Bayle, and finally from the
messenger, Mr. John E. Marr, sent to Bohemia from Cambridge
University, England, by the successor of Sedgwick, Mr. T. Mc-
Kenny Hughes, prove that prejudices and error “die hard.”

The final verdict on the Taconic. — But with all the papers

122 Barrande and the Taconic System — Marcou.

of Barrande and Marcou in his hands, every geologist may
make up his own mind and draw his own conclusions. The
final verdict may be delayed a few more years, until a thorough
survey with geological maps on a large scale where every fact
as it exists in the field will be noted and figured; and a detailed
description of all the strata, outcrops, sections; fossils with all
their meaning, such as abundance or variety, and associations
carefully noted; of the entire Taconic and of the Champlain
areas, have been completed.

The future of the Taconic system has been fully assured
since the day of the publication of the joint paper of Barrande
and Marcou, by the Boston Society of Natural History in De¬
cember, 1860; and ever since opposition, confusion, obscurity,
omission, contradiction, continual changes of opinion and un¬
happily also even “discourteous acts” have been the exclusive
monopoly of the adversaries of the Taconic system. Unscrupu¬
lous and unintelligent; such are the two expressions properly
applied to the consolidated association of those who since 1842
have constantly opposed and even denied the existence of the
Primordial fauna and the Taconic system in America. Errors
and misujiders landings may be reasonably expected in any diffi¬
cult geological question ; but for the last twenty-five years the
discussions have degenerated into a struggle of wounded self-
love, in order to cover, as long as possible the damaged reputa¬
tion of three or four leaders, too deeply engaged to retrace their
steps backward, and accept openly their defeat.

Mr. Dana’s conclusions. — The conclusions of the last paper
of Mr. Dana are in harmony with his appreciation of Barrande’s
“confusions” introduced in American geology.

Here are Mr. James D. Dana’s anti-Taconie ideas, which ac¬
cording to his judgment and extreme desire must settle the
Taconic question and suppress it forever:

“It is thus finally made positive that the Taconic system is not
a pre-Silurian system, and that the claiming for it equivalency
with the Huronian was but a leap in the dark. It is manifest
in fact, that Taconic system is only a synonym of the older
term, Lower Silurian, as this term was used by geologists gen¬
erally, twenty, thirty and forty years since, and by many
writers till a much later date.”

“It is almost fifty years since the Taconic system made its

Barrande and the Taconic System — Marcou. 123

^abrupt entrance into geological science. Notwithstanding some
good points, it has been, through its greater errors, long a hin¬
drance to progress here and abroad. It has also been a promoter
of investigations of wide bearing and influence. But, whether
the evil or the good has predominated, we may now hope, while
heartily honoring professor Emmons for his earnest geological
labors and his discoveries, that Taconic ideas may be allowed to
he and remain part of the past.

1841-1888.”

(See “A brief history of Taconic ideas,” p. 427, Amer. Jour. Sc.,
vol. xxxvi, 1888.) A last but not least “leap in the dark,”
which completes the dozen leaps of the adversaries of the
Taconic system.

The expression “ long a hindrance to progress here and
abroad” applied to the Taconic and its supporters, is simply a
jewel, worth all the utterances of Mr. Dana.

“Leaps in the dark” of the adversaries of the Taconic. —
An enumeration of the progress claimed by Mr. Dana and his
associates, i3 so curious a reading that I take great pleasure in
placing it under the eyes of geologists, for it is unique in the
history of progress of our science.

Here are a dozen of “leaps in the dark:”

I. 1843. — W. W. Mather says: the Taconic rocks are the same

in age as those of the Champlain division modified in
character by metamorphic agency.

II. 1847. — James Hall says: the rocks of the Taconic system

are clearly Hudson River group acted upon by gradual
metamorphism .

III. 1847. — James Hall says: the fossils described by Dr.

Emmons are unequivocally identical with well-known
species in the Hudson River group: Atops trilineatus
is unquestionably the Calymene Beckii of the Utica
slates.

IV. 1859. — James Hall says: the trilobites of Georgia belong

to the Hudson River group, adding: “It would be quite
superfluous for me to add one word in support of the
opinion of the most able stratigraphical geologist (W.
E. Logan) of the American continent.” Barrande did
not think it “superfluous to add one word;” and that

124

Barrande and the Taconic System — Marcou.

word is “error” of Mr. Hall in trying to transfer the
Primordial fauna above the second fauna.

V. 1861. — W. E. Logan says: the Quebec group is the equiva¬

lent of the Chazy and Calciferous; it is brought to the
surface by an overturn anticlinal fold with a crack and
a great dislocation running along the summit. This
dislocation proceeds from lake Champlain to Quebec*,
keeping just north of the fortress, thence it coasts the
north side of the island of Orleans, and from the east
end of the island it keeps under the water of the St..
Lawrence; — a leap in the water.

VI. 1862. — James D. Dana says: light came in again through

the Vermont Geological Survey. Now in the report of
this survey the Red sandrock is regarded as the equiva¬
lent of the Medina group, the Georgia slates of the
Oneida conglomerate, and the Stockbridge limestone as
Devonian and Carboniferous. So according to Mr. Dana
the referring the Georgia slates with their Primordial
fauna by Messrs. Hitchcock to the Upper Silurian is
“light.” ’

VII. 1862. — Charles H. Hitchcock proposes the “Georgia group”

on account of the existence of the trilobites found in the
township of Georgia, and he does not know where the
Parker’s quarry is situated, coloring on his geological
map the whole part of the township of Georgia in which
the Primordial fossils exist as Oneida conglomerate, or
Upper Silurian; a “confusion” unique in the proposal
of typical localities for a group in geology.

VIII. 1877. — Hall and Dana say: the eastern quartzite forma¬

tion is of the age of the later Trenton or Cincinnati
group; and Dana adds, or “younger.”

IX. 1879. — A. R. C. Selwyn says: that the anticlinal fold of

Logan is a synclinal and that it is a mistake to make it
“pass to the rear of the Quebec citadel,” for it passes in
front , but under the river. Mr. Selwyn kept his “great
St. Lawrence and Champlain fault,” from the south of
the city of Quebec to the middle of the Gulf of St. Law¬
rence, where he stops it, constantly under water; another
leap in the water.

X. 1888. — Charles D. Walcott 'discovers a “Potsdam off-shore

Barrande and the Taconic System— -Marcou. 125

deposit” of calcareous and argillaceous mud; a leap in the
mud. He gives a geological section across the Taconic
area with fifteen faults; a leap among faults. Mr,
Walcott “rules out the name Taconic from geological
nomenclature;” he shows that “the name is not applica¬
ble” being “based on errors and misconception originally*
and used in an erroneous manner since;” and he proves
that “Barrande was misled into crediting Emmons with
a discovery that was based on errors of field observations.1 f
He “invalidates the claim of priority of the discovery of
the Primordial fauna” put forward by Barrande. He
regards Emmons1 primordial fossils as a “fortunate hap¬
pening,” and “not a scientific induction based on accurate
observation and comparison.” And finally Mr. Walcott
makes a declaration of his “principles,” which he pro¬
claims are “the result of accuracy of his original obser¬
vations” made “hammer in hand;” and having all the
time “in mind,” (1) “priority of definition,” (2) “scien¬
tific induction,” (B) “accuracy of original investigations,”
and (4) “the light of later results of his field work;11 an
array of imposing and weighty sentences never brought
up before in American geology; and anything but credi¬
table to its author.

XI. 1888. — Re-statement of the transfer of a part of the Pri¬

mordial fauna above the second fauna, by Mr. Walcott
who thinks that “Dr. Emmons had not a clear idea of
the position of the shales of the Hudson river valley that
contain the graptolites described by Prof. Hall, nor of
the shales of Pointe L6vis carrying the graptolitic fauna;”
and consequently Mr. Walcott transfers the second and
third zones of graptolites to the Utica slates or upper
part of the second fauna; — a leap among the grap¬
tolites.

XII. 1888. — Mr. J. D. Dana discovers the “confusions intro¬

duced by Barrande;11 which have been “a hindrance to
progress here and abroad.” He advocates the total sup¬
pression of the Taconic system, referring all the Taconic
rocks of Dr. Emmons to the Champlain division, as
Mather did as far back as 1842, burying with great
solemnity and honors the “Taconic ideas.”

126 Barrande and the Taconic Spsteni — Marcou .

What a record of progress entirely due to the adversaries of
Taconic ideas. It would be easy to duplicate that dozen of
“leaps in the dark,” but it is best not to abuse quotation;
enough has been said of the “principles” used by the adversaries
of the Taconic and of their “abrupt entrance into geological
science,” to satisfy the appetite of those interested in the con¬
troversy.

Honoring Professor Emmons.— However I shall call the
attention, to another most extraordinary feature of the opposi¬
tion made by some of the adversaries of the Taconic. They
say: “heartily honoring Professor Emmons for his earnest geo¬
logical labors and his discoveries” (Dana’s A brief history of
Taconic ideas ); “Professor Emmons was right in his Berkshire
stratigraphical observations” (Dana’s, The views of Professor
Emmons on the Taconic system ); Dr. Emmons deserves great
credit for the work that he did;” also “There is no doubt that
Dr. Emmons was correct in classifying the upper Taconic as
pre- Potsdam. To him belongs the credit of recognizing and
describing the Middle Cambrian series of North America as a
distinct formation, both on structural and paleontologic
grounds;” and also “I cordially unite with M. Barrande and
Professor Marcou in according to Dr. Emmons the credit of
publishing the first fossils of the Primordial fauna in America”
(Walcott’s* paper, 1886-88).

Notwithstanding those fine sentiments expressed in such glow¬
ing language, Messrs. Dana and Walcott’s conclusions are an
entire suppression of all the discoveries and good work of Dr.
Emmons, the destruction of the best part of the national record
of American geology, and the complete surrender to the English
geologists of all the right of priority belonging to America.

The friends of the Taconic have simply sustained Dr.

* A few months after uttering those eulogies on Dr. Emmons, Mr. Wal¬
cott changed his attitude in regard to honoring Dr. Emmons’ researches
and discoveries, in his paper: “The Taconic system of Emmons and the
use of the name Taconic in geologic nomenclature.” Not only does he not
honor any more Dr. Emmons, but he attacks him on every possible point,
trying to crush to atoms all his discoveries and descriptions cm the paleon¬
tology, stratigraphy, lithology, nomenclature, use of the name Taconic,
rightof priority, as a collector of fossils, and even as to the disappearance
of his geological map from the first volume of the Agriculture of New York.
What a pity that Mr. Walcott was not at Albany in 1846, for he would have
obtained at the office of the secretary of state of the state of New York,
the three thousand copies “stolen or destroyed” of that most important
map.

Barrande and the Taeonic System — Marc oil 127

Emmons1 discoveries and nomenclature, and maintained without
flagging and sternly the rights of American classification and
nomenclature of the Lower Paleozoic strata. Barrande has
stepped forward without any hesitation or reticence. His me¬
moir and letters [thirteen letters have been published by Marcou
in the Proceed. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist, and Proceed. American
Acad. Arts and 5c/.] on the subject are models of justice and
honesty, entirely cosmopolitan in character, and free from all
prejudice as to nationalities or as to observers.

On one side are men who have constantly, during fifty years
united their efforts t@ suppress and destroy the greatest discove¬
ries made in American geology; and on the other side men who
have sustained the truth in its full meaning. On one side men
who care nothing about names used in geological nomenclature,
and on the other side men who think that priority of discoveries
cannot be set aside. On one side men who prefer the mainte¬
nance of their errors even at the expense of the national record,
and on the other side men of “elevated minds,11 cosmopolitan
in the best acceptance of the word who do not hesitate to recog¬
nize truth when they find it in America as well as in Europe.

Friends of the Taconic. — This paper is addressed to the
independent American geologists, who have shown already by
their publications of papers on the matter, and also by their
private good words of sympathy for the cause of discoveries
made on this continent, that they have at heart only the truth
and the good reputation of American geology.

The future generation of geologists will not easily understand
how it came that the best and most creditable observations made
on American classification and nomenclature, have been kept
so long in the back-ground, and how errors of the most stupen¬
dous character have been maintained and adhered to with such
persistency. Wounded self love combined with a jealousy un-
paralled in geology have never acted so openly and with so
much help from geologists who know not what they do, and
who being unable, either by their subordinate position or by
their limited knowledge, to form or express an independent
opinion, have simply fallen into the ranks at the command of
their leaders.

Billings had the courage to publish in 1872, the following
remarks, which are applicable even now: “It frequently hap-

128 Barr ancle and the Taconic System — Marcou.

pens that a science, such for instance as that of geology, pos¬
sesses a sort of aristocracy, consisting of the most talented,
learned, active and influential of its devotees. The views of
this body of men, on any difficult problem that may present
itself, are usually regarded as conclusive, and are quietly
adopted by the less distinguished members. Indeed, the opinion
of any one of these latter, would be scarcely listened to, pro¬
vided it should happen to be contrary to the established creed
of the dominant party. As a general rule the leading men are
right, and yet it will sometimes happen that they are wrong.
One of the most remarkable instances on record, is that of the
great question in American geology, relating to the age of the
rocks which Dr. Emmons called the Taconic system. Upon this,
question nearly all of the leading geologists of North America
arranged themselves upon one side, and, as it turned out after
twenty years discussion, on the wrong side. Although they were
wrong, yet so overwhelming was the weight of their authority,
that for nearly a quarter of a century, Dr. Emmons stood al¬
most alone. He had a few followers, but they were not men
who had made themselves sufficiently conspicuous and influen¬
tial to contend successfully against an opinion that was sup¬
ported by all the great geologists of the continent in one
compact body. In consequence of this powerful opposition, the
Taconic theory gradually sank so low in reputation, that it was
at length considered to be scarcely worthy of the notice of a
scientific man.

“During the last thirteen years, a great revolution of opinion
has occurred with regard to the views of Dr. Emmons. Al¬
though not entirely adopted, they are now considered to be, in
a general way, well founded. The opposite theory, that all of
those rocks which he placed in the Taconic system are above
the Potsdam sandstone, instead of below it, as he maintained, is
completely exploded. It is at this moment dead, more so than
was the Taconic theory in 1859, the year in which the subject
was reopened. As I understand it at present, some of the Ta¬
conic rocks are certainly more ancient than the Potsdam, others
may be of the same age, and perhaps some of them more recent.
The details are not yet worked out, and judging from the
manner in which the strata are folded, broken up and thrown
out of their original position by almost every kind of geological

Barrande and the Taconic System — Marcou. 129

disarrangement, I venture to say that no man, at present living,
will ever see a perfect map of the Taconic region.

“The theory, that the Taconic rocks belonged to the Hudson
River group, was an enormous error that originated in the
Geological Survey of New York, and thence found its way into
the Canadian Survey.”

* * “Dr. Hunt, in his published address to the American

Association, in August last, indirectly associates Prof. Hall with
me in the rectification of the mistake, whereas neither Prof.
Hall nor Dr. Hunt contributed any aid whatever, but on the
contrary, opposed the change that has been made to the ut¬
most.” (“Remarks on the Taconic controversy,” in the Cana¬
dian Nat., April, 1872.)

The aristocracy complained of by Billings, although not
composed of the most talented and learned American geologists,
has succeeded in maintaining its influential position notwith¬
standing their three or four dozen of “leaps in the dark.” It
is not that their position is as secure as it was formerly, nor
that they form so compact a body as it used to be in 1860; but
it is still solid enough to control in a certain degree and keep
under their influence the majority of less active or less influen¬
tial geologists, who do not dare yet to shake off the yoke under
which they have labored so long. Their submission has become
for many of them a sort of matter of course, almost a creed.

The control of the whole body of American geologists by two
men, backed by half a dozen assistants, a little less conspicuous,
but also strongly intrenched in official positions of some sort,
is still an easy task, although it is not so easy as it was thirty-
five or even four years ago. There are signs of relaxation in
the old and powerful hold of the leaders. American geological
questions are no more the monopoly of a privileged few; and
the confidence that those leaders as a general rule are right, has
received so many and repeated shocks that if it were not for the
complication, the ingeniousness and perfection of the machine
(as it is called in politics), the whole would have fallen into
pieces, and would have been for some time “part of the past.”
At the present moment American geologists do not know ex¬
actly how to extricate themselves from their sad condition of
ancient and total submission to unprincipled leaders, and they
remain in statu quo fearing that a change would be for the

130 Barrande and the Taconic System — Marcou.

worse; that is to say for fear of falling entirely into the hands
of “geologist politicians,” another breaker which has constantly
menaced them during the last twenty years.

Fifty years of misrule cannot be blotted out in a few months.
It will take a long time, several years at least, to obliterate the
past, and bring back a right spirit of honesty and fair play,
and replace American geology as it was at the time of L. Yan-
uxern, Samuel Gr. Morton, Ebenezer Emmons, Charles T. Jack-
son, T. Conrad, Charles Lyell and E. de Yerneuil, all of them
well-trained field practical geologists, excellent observers,
scholars, and gentlemen.

Adversaries of the Tacohic. — The pathetic appeal of Bar¬
rande, which I shall repeat here for it is too good, fell on an
association of deaf men. He says in his letter of the 14th of
August, I860* “I can well imagine, from the position previous¬
ly taken by our learned American brothers on the subject of the
Taconic system, that the final solution of which I speak will
not be obtained without debate, and perhaps some wounding of
self-love, for some opinions that appear to be dominant must be
abandoned. But experience has taught me that in such cases
the most elevated minds turn always first to light, and put
themselves at the head of the movement of reform.”

Unhappily there was not a single “elevated mind” among the
adversaries of the Taconic; all resisted in one way or another,
contesting every point and granting always most ungracefully
the concession of the existence and true geological position of
the Primordial fauna, and of twenty-five thousand feet of fossil-
iferous strata below the Potsdam sandstone.

Controlling everything in American geology, the association
lead by Messrs Hall and Dana know well their list of American
geologists. They feel sure that having and retaining in their
hands a combination of the directors of the Geological Surveys
of states and provinces, and of the general government of
the United States and Canada Dominions, with all the scientific
periodicals under their control and in their possession, that they
will be able to encounter fearlessly the small band of op¬
ponents.

From 1842 to 1860 they have easily suppressed all the obser-

*“On the Primordial fauna and the Taconic system by J. Barrande, with
additional notes by J. Marcou,” p. 376; and also ‘‘The Taconic System” by
J. Marcou, p. 183.

Barrande and the Taconic System — Marcou. 131

vations made and published by Dr. Emmons and Jules Marcou
on every point of American geology; and after the publication
of the joint paper of Barrande and Marcou, they thought that
it would be just as easy for them to continue their suppressions.
They kept in their possession the copy of the letter of Barrande
to Bronn during six months without a word of answer, hoping
that the letter written in French, would be published only in
Europe, in French or in German; and they did not fear its in¬
fluence here. But the publication in English of that letter
with two others, and remarks of my own, was the beginning of
an opposition which they did not expect, and they met it by an
omission of my name, showing their contempt for the collabor¬
ator of Barrande on this side of the water. So much so, that
Barrande in one of his letters to me, dated 27th March, 1861,
says: “I have noticed that in the article of the Silliman's Jour¬
nal your name has been omitted. It is a mean act of the
editor.11

At that time the number of geologists interested in the
Taconic question was very small, only ten or twelve; two-thirds
of whom were uncompromising adversaries of the Taconic sys¬
tem under any form, the very name being hateful. But now,
and since the publication in 1885, of my paper: uThe Taconic
system and its position in stratigraphic geology11 it is very
different; the “elevated minds” hoped for by Barrande are
numerous and do not fear to express openly their adhesion to
Dr. Emmons1 discoveries and nomenclature. The friends of the
Taconic instead of being limited to only three or four, are now
ten times that number, with almost all the young geologists as
sympathizers and friends, while the adversaries have remained
stationary, hardly being able to fill up the vacancies in their
ranks caused by death or desertion.

Public opinion of American geologists.— The constant and
persistent errors of the adversaries of the Taconic are not of
the kind always freely allowed in all geological descriptions and
nomenclature; such for instance as the union of some subdivis¬
ion with one group or even a system to which it does not be¬
long truly; but by their nature the errors affect the whole
classification and nomenclature of American geology. For it is
no small concern to know, (1) whether a great fauna is above
or below another; (2) whether twenty-five thousand feet and

132 Barrande and the Taconic System — Marcou.

more of strata are at the base of the scale of formations or be¬
long to systems far above; (3) and whether we shall have to
abandon stratigraphy and lithology to tbe mercy of incompetent
palaeontologists — incompetence proved again and again by their
inability to determine fossils, blundering not only in their iden¬
tification of species, but even in their determination of genera
and families.

Never have so many errors, as well in stratigraphy as in
palaeontology, and even in lithology, been committed. In any
country where there exists a great number of free and inde¬
pendent geologists — say one thousand or fifteen hundred geolo¬
gists, instead of two or three hundred as we are still limited to on
this continent— the maintenance of such extraordinary errors dur¬
ing so many years; — almost fifty years — would have been ma¬
terially impossible, more especially after the interference of Bar-
i^nde and Marcou. The want of a free geological “public opin¬
ion” has been taken advantage of with great and persistent alac-
crity, and an easy coalition of Directors of Geological Surveys
and editors of scientific periodicals, has imposed their ideas and
conclusions without any sort of control, going so far, even
until this day, as to omit systematically every fact and every
memoir or paper which it is disagreeable for them to answer.

But free and independent geologists have begun, during the
last five or six years, to be conscious of their own existence as a
body, in committees, in new periodical journals, and in associa¬
tions of scientific men; there are now enough to constitute a
certain “public opinion,” with which all the Geological Surveys
and partisans associations should be obliged, before long, to
reckon, and look for approbation or disapprobation of their
purely scientific work . It is a long wished for desideratum in
North America. And now, we can say with certainty that the
errors of the last fifty years will not last another half of a cen¬
tury before they are “allowed to be and remain part of the past.”

Mr. Dana’s letter to von Dechen. — The cause of the Ta¬
conic system is just and has raised the interest of all geologists,
the world over. My paper: “The Taconic system and its
position in stratigraphic geology,” 1885, and a French transla¬
tion of it, chapter vi, ‘Taconic versus Cambrian and Silurian”
in the Bulletin Soc. geol ., France, tome xii, p. 517, 1884, have
been read most extensively and have put the question on such a

Barrande and the Taconic System — Mareou. 133

strong basis that it can now stand all attacks. Mr. Dana to
thwart as much as he could its effect, has written a letter to
the Honorary President von Dechen, of the “Congrks Geologi-
que international,” at Berlin, in 1885. The volume of “Compte-
rendu,” issued only in September, 1888, contains that letter at
pp. cxx and cxxi; it shows some new “leaps in the dark” even
more startling than those we are accustomed to. For instance,
he says: (1) “The Taconic rocks, or those of the Taconic range
* * are of Lower Silurian age, none of them older than the
Potsdam sandstone of the New York series. (2) There is no
horizon of unconformability at any place in the series between
the quartzites representing the Potsdam sandstone and the top
of the Lower Silurian. These results are based on long-con¬
tinued stratigraphical investigations, and also on the existence
of fossils in portions of the rocks where least metamorphosed.”

Against those clear and short results and conclusions, taken
even in the “light” used by one of the association of the adver¬
saries of the Taconic there is a margin of eighteen thousand
feet of strata containing primordial fossils, confronting Mr.
Dana. For Mr. Walcott regards the Georgia formation, four¬
teen thousand feet or more of strata, and the “eastern quartzites”
two thousand or more feet thick, as being all below the Potsdam
sandstone of the New York series. Mr. Walcott’s* researches
have been made in the original Taconic area of the Taconic
range of mountains and of Washington county, and his views
express the “result of the accuracy of his original observations.”

Eighteen thousand feet of strata form a very respectable sys¬
tem, thicker and more important than any recorded in the
general nomenclature of American geology; for according to
Dr. Emmons’ estimate the three superior systems above his Ta¬
conic; that is to say the Champlain system, or true Cambrian,
the Silurian system and the Devonian system, all three together
have only a thickness of eight thousand feet. Eighteen thous¬
and feet of Taconic strata according to Mr. Walcott, in the

* Mr. Walcott has not yet recognized the two most important groups of
the uoper part of the Taconic : the Phillipsburgh and Pointe L6vis group
and the S wanton and Citadel hill group, which he continues to refer to as
the equivalent and the homotaxis of the Calciferous, Trenton and Hudson
of the state of New York. It is the last hope and a forlorn hope, which
will be made use of with the tenacity peculiar to the not “elevated minded”
adversaries of the Taconic system.

184 Bar ramie and the Taconic System — Marcou.

original Taconic area, is certainly a system which is not to be
despised and passed over.

So the words, “none of them (the Taconic rocks of the Ta¬
conic range) older than the Potsdam,” as his result of “nearly
ten years of study in the Taconic region,” are anything but
creditable to one calling himself an original investigator.

As to his “no horizon of un conform ability at any place in the
series between the quartzite and the top of the Lower Silurian,”
it is even more, if possible, in discord with the results arrived at
by his associate, Mr. Walcott, who gives in the only section he
has published of the original Taconic area, no less than fifteen
cases of uncomform ability by faults.

Not being sure that his letter to von Dechen would insure the
suppression of the Taconic system, as he intended it to, Mr.
Dana succeeded, after one year of hard struggle, in drawing to
his side Mr. Walcott of the United States Geological Survey.
Only if he has succeeded with Mr. Walcott, there is an element
most essential in the question, on which he has not made the
smallest impression; I refer to the rocks themselves, which re¬
main there in the Taconic area, exposed every day to the full
light of day. Nobody can monopolize them and keep many
thousand square miles of Taconic rocks shut up in drawers of
collections, or inclosed in the series of volumes of the American
Journal of Science .

Opposition, omission, use of erroneous classification and no¬
menclature for geological maps, sections and memoirs will come
to an end. The sort of revival given to the adversaries of the
Taconic by the defection of Mr. Walcott will not last long.
Careful surveys in the Taconic and Champlain original areas
will put promptly an end to that face about ( volte-face ). The
course taken by Mr. Walcott will do him more harm than any
one else, and it will not affect the final result; for to try to
break down and destroy the national record of American geol¬
ogy, is an herculean task, far above the power of any man or
combination of men. It will hurt neither the Taconic system
nor Dr. Emmons nor Barrande, nor Dewalque, nor Marcou. I
have full hope in the future; the rights of American geology
will be recognized and accepted, and the time will come when
the Taconic system of Dr. Emmons will be used on all the con¬
tinents, and will contribute the foundation and the first step of
the geological nomenclature of the world.

Barrande and the Taconic System — Mar con. 135

Nomenclature is International. — If any thing in geology
is ever international, it will be certainly the classification and
nomenclature of strata of the whole world. To impose a no¬
menclature by voting has, at last, been recognized as an im¬
possibility, at the London Congress of 1888; thanks to the
exertions and excellent objections and reasons given by Messrs.
Mojsisovics and Neumayr at the Berlin Congress, and the re¬
marks contained in my paper: “American geological classifi¬
cation and nomenclature” against the abuse of temporary^
majorities as variable as the places of meeting of the Congress.
Such a solution as the acceptance and use of an harmonious,
just, and well balanced general classification and nomenclature
in historical geology, must come little by little, by mere con¬
viction and a better knowledge of all the complicated elements
of the question ; and not by the voting of a very limited number
of geologists, combined more or less with an association and a
previous understanding of five or six of the most powerful and
important Geological Surveys. Liberty and complete independ¬
ence in science, have always been the last word on every question
and it is good always to remember that very often one good
observer is right against all others. In geology we have the
remarkable examples of William Smith, Alexander Brongniart,
de Charpentier, Louis Agassiz, Sedgwick, Barrande and also
certainly of Dr. Ebenezer Emmons.

At the Berlin Congress of 1885, Mr. A. Geikie said: “the
question of the classification of the Cambrian and Silurian rocks
is mainly ( avant tout) an English question.” (Compte-Rendu,
p. lxxxii.) Loud murmurs was the sentiment at once expressed
by the majority, almost the unanimity, of the geologists present
at the meeting; and ever since I have received many protests
against such an exclusive assumption on the part of English
geologists. I shall quote an extract from a letter of the Director
of one of the most important Geological Surveys of Europe:
“Comme vous avez tihs bien dit en combattant la maniere de
voix de M. Geikie, qui voulait donner une nationality anglaise
au probleme de subdivirer le Cambrien et le Silurien; cette
question, comme toutes celles qui se rapportent a la geologie
sont eminemment cosmopolites, et leur solution rentre dans la
categorie des affaires internation ales.”

The work of classification and nomenclature has began in

136 Barrande and the Taconic System — Mar con.

Europe, and is extending gradually all over the world. In that
extension America has proved to be a pioneer of the first order;
and not contented with recognizing the great geological system
of Europe, has succeeded in creating the most important of all
the systems, because it is the first stepping stone and conse¬
quently the base of the whole structure, discovering at one
stroke the Taconic system and the Primordial fauna. A dis¬
covery accepted and proclaimed as good and true by Barrande,
the “father of the Primordial fauna.”

The Secretary of the International Commission for the uni¬
formity of nomenclature, professor Gr. Dewalque, has accepted
the just claim of America, and in his two reports at Berlin in
1885, and at London in 1888, he has insisted on the recognition
to America of the right of having first discovered and proposed
the first and oldest system of stratified rocks containing special
faunae. M. Dewalque with great candor and justice says, “that
the acceptance of the Taconic system in the general nomencla¬
ture has the advantage to give a place to American geology; at
the same time that it conforms to rights of priority as they exist
in natural history.”

So Barrande and Dewalque, the two most competent men in
Europe on questions of nomenclature, have recognized and pub¬
licly made known that to America belongs the honor of having
established the Taconic system and discovered the Primordial
fauna. The competence of Barrande is indisputable; as to pro¬
fessor Dewalque he was elected secretary of the commission for
the uniformity of nomenclature at the congress of Bologna in
1881, and his numerous and remarkable memoirs and geological
maps, joined to his well established reputation for independence,
and the honesty of his character as a free geologist ( geologue
lihre ), is well established.

Murchisonian and Sedgwickian controversy.— In Eng¬
land the questions of priority and discoveries of the Taconic and
its Primordial fauna have never been contested in any paper
or periodical article.* Privately, I know that almost every
English geologist admits the American claim as right and in-

* Professor Charles Lap worth, is the first English geologist, to my knowl¬
edge, who has admitted the priority of Dr. Emmons’ discovery of the
Olenellus fauna, in 1844. (“On the discovery of the Olenellus fauna in the
Lower Cambrian rocks of Britain,” Gteol. Mag., vol. v, November, 1888, p.
484, London.)

Barrcmde and the Taconic System — Mar coil 137

contestable, but they have recourse to old habits, and their pride
is too much and too deeply engaged in the matter, to expect
from them justice, for at least two or three generations of geol¬
ogists to come. They have first to settle among themselves the
question of priority in regard to the second fauna, appropriated
by Murchison as an annex and subdivision of the third fauna,
which has always been justly contested by Sedgwick as a special
system, forming half of his too great Cambrian system. Mur-
chisonians and Sedgwickians are as much divided as ever, and
as far from a compromise as at the time of the discussion be¬
tween their two great leaders.

The Geological Survey of the United Kingdom led by its
present Director-general, Mr. A. Geikie, with all his influence
not only in England and Wales, but also in Scotland, Ireland,
India, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, maintains all the
claims of Murchison to keep the second fauna as a part of the
Silurian system while Cambridge University and its Woodwardian
professor, actually Mr. T. MacKenny Hughes, backed by other
universities, colleges and museums, cling strongly to the pos¬
session of the second fauna as belonging by right of discovery
to Sedgwick, with a certain tendency, however, to accept as a
compromise a new name for the second fauna; but as a matter
of course a Welsh name (Ordovician); for all the rights of other
nations are kept carefully in the background and completely
ignored, because as Geikie says, “it is mainly an English ques¬
tion;1

With two such factions, matters will remain in statu quo for
several generations. One of the ablest of rising young English
geologists, writes to me: “Taconic has the right of priority,
still in England Cambrian has acquired a right by prescription
which it would be impossible to dispute successfully; the same
applies to Silurian, and I doubt if geologists here are prepared to
add a new name (referring to Ordovician).11

Conclusion. — Time has always favored the Taconic system
and the Primordial fauna; while on the contrary it has con¬
stantly brought up most disagreeable surprises for their adver¬
saries. Attendons !

188

Editorial Comment.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

A New Glacial Theory.

The elaborate review of “glaciers and glacial radiants” by Dr.
Claypole published in this number of the Geologist seems to
point to the necessity of two conclusions that bear on the main
question of the cause of the glacial epoch. 1st. The cause, what¬
ever it was, was terrestrial rather than cosmical. There does
not appear to have been that general polar ice-cover which has
been supposed. The northern part of Asia, under cosmical
causes, must have been as well fitted for glaciers as northern
America or Europe. 2nd. The cause which exempted Asia
from perpetual land-ice and not America and Europe could not
have consisted in any seasonal or annual increment of average
cold for the northern hemisphere but must have been due to
some change in the physical relations of the continents to the
climatal agents that determine the existence or absence of per¬
petual ice.

These reflections are prompted by a new “glacial theory” that
has been proposed by Prof. Franklin R. Carpenter of the Da¬
kota School of Mines, with which the considerations presented
by Prof. Claypole are in perfect accord.

In a recent letter to one of the editors he suggests that the
great Tertiary, or Quaternary eruptions of molten lava which
spread over large areas in North America and Europe, had a
profound effect on the climate of those continents. Such effect
must have been a local elevation of temperature. The effect of
such local elevation of temperature would be the certain and
long continued transference of the moisture that is borne by
the western and south-western winds further toward northern
latitudes. Once within colder latitudes and beyond the effect
of the lava sheets, this moisture would be precipitated in great
volume in certain areas wherever it met with the condensing
action of northern winds or higher altitudes. “The eruptions
were accompanied probably by vast volumes of steam and clouds
of volcanic ash. The effect of the first would be to augment
the amount of precipitation, and the second, slowly settling to
the north, would intercept the sun’s rays and tend to increase
the cold, as the ashes of Krakatoa seem to have done.”

Editorial Comment.

139

There are two lines of research that have borne evidence of
the validity of this hypothesis, and Prof. Carpenter appeals to
both. First. There is a continually increasing amount of
evidence that the glacial epoch was comparatively recent. He
refers to the conclusions of Prestwich, placing it not more than
fifteen or twentj^-five thousand years ago, terminating probably
eight or ten thousand years ago; the late revised calculation of
the recession of the falls of Niagara (see the Proceedings A. A.
A. S. Buffalo meeting, 1886) as well as of that of the falls of
St. Anthony (vol. n, Final report of the Minnesota geological
survey); also the results reached by Dr. Andrews in his discus¬
sion of the “great lakes as chronometers of post-glacial time,”
and other data that have been employed to determine the date
of the glacial epoch, conspire to bring it still nearer the present,
and probably within the limit of ten thousand years.* Accord¬
ing to Prof. Jos. LeConte the great over-flow eruptions of the
western part of the United States occurred at the close of the
Miocene and this seems to have been within the human period,
reasoning from the human remains reported by Prof. Whitney
from beneath it in California.

Second. Prof. Tyndall says : “Cold will not produce glaciers ;
you may have the bitterest north-east winds without a flake of
snow;” and again: “It is perfectly manifest that by weakening
the sun’s action, either through a defect of emission or by the
steeping of the entire solar system in space of a low temperature,
we should be cutting off the glaciers at their source.” (Heat
considered as a mode of motion.) In short Tyndall has shown
that in order to have a glacial epoch we need more heat, not
less, that we must make our “pumping engines” do more work,
to supply greater precipitation. Dr. Croll says (Climate and
Time, p. 74) : “Heat to produce evaporation is just as essential
to the accumulation of snow and ice as cold to produce conden¬
sation.” Sir John Lubbock says (Prehistoric Times): “Para¬
doxical as it may seem the prevailing cause of the glacial cold
may be after all an elevation of the temperature of the tropics.”
Prof. Jos. Henry in a communication to the Washington Phil¬
osophical Society (Bulletins, vol. 2, pp. 35 and 37 — 1875 to 1880)
held a similar view, and applied it to the existence of “extensive

^Compare also, “The life-history of Niagara.” by Dr. Julius Pohlman, in
the Am. In§t. Mining Engineers.

140

Editorial Comment.

outbursts of submarine volcanoes in equatorial regions sending
out immense volumes of steam,” suggesting a hypothesis similar
to that of Prof. Carpenter. Mr. J. E. Clayton presented a paper
to the California Academy of Sciences, (Proceedings, vol. E,
pages 123-131) advocating a similar view, in which he calls at¬
tention to the sheets in question. Mr. R. C. Hills in a recent
communication to the Colorado Scientific Society has mentioned
the probable influence of a certain overflow in Colorado in ex¬
panding a Tertiary lake which he describes. None of these,
however, seem to have applied the resultant heat as a primary
agent in the transference of moisture in the manner required
by the theory of Prof. Carpenter.

UA sheet of lava hundreds of miles long, hundreds of miles
broad and thousands of feet thick, like that of the western part
of the United States, was an ‘engine' of immense power. This
sheet was only one of many. They would cause the transfer of
a large amount of the precipitation, which prior to their erup¬
tion fell in middle latitudes, to the north. The moisture-
laden air would lose none of its load in passing over these sheets
— nay would be additionally laden by the temporary elevation
of temperature that it would experience. * * * An

ice-sheet once established, acting as a powerful condenser, would
exist for ages, and would disappear much more slowly than it
was formed. The heated outpourings, occurring at intervals,
would cause the ice-sheets to advance and retreat, thus forming
the interglacial periods. ” Prof. Carpenter will elucidate his
theory and enforce it with facts, and calculations on the climatal
effects of these lava sheets, in a future number of the Geologist.

Geological Society of America.

On the twenty-seventh of December last a national geological
organization was effected at Ithaca, New York. This is a con¬
summation which has been contemplated for several years.
Efforts have been initiated on different occasions for its accom¬
plishment, and though they failed temporarily, it was generally
admitted by American geologists that an independent organiza¬
tion would necessarily arise in the fullness of time.

The first movement was made by the geologists assembled at
the meeting of the American Association at Cincinnati, in 1881.
A committee was appointed to consider the advisability of the

Editorial Comment.

141

project, and take requisite preparatory steps. Professor N. H.
Winchell was chairman and professor C. H. Hitchcock, secre¬
tary of the committee, but no published records preserve the
names of the other members. Circulars were issued by the
committee, and 126 answers were received, all but two of which
favored the organization of a separate society. The committee
reported to Section E. at the Montreal meeting of the Associa¬
tion, in 1882. It was there voted expedient to establish a geo¬
logical magazine. A proposed constitution for a society was
presented, discussed and laid on the table for future considera¬
tion. Some hesitation was manifest on the part of some of the
older members who had not participated in the earlier proceed¬
ings. It was suggested on one hand, that Section E. of the
Association offered all the advantages of a geological society;
and on the other, it was alleged that the requirements of Cana¬
dian geologists were met by the recently organized Royal
Society of Canada. It was also suggested that the organization
of a separate society might conflict with the interests of the
American Association. The whole subject, therefore, was laid
over to a subsequent occasion. At the Minneapolis meeting of
the Association, in 1883, the consideration of the magazine and
the society was resumed; but little was accomplished beyond
the appointment of a committee to confer with the Mineralogi-
cal and Geological Section of the Philadelphia Academy of
Natural Sciences. For various reasons, the subject was not
discussed at the Philadelphia meeting of the Association in 1884,
the Ann Arbor meeting in 1885, or the Buffalo meeting in 1886.
Meantime, the necessity of a separate geological organization
became more apparent; and some who were at first indifferent,
began to express a desire that further steps be taken. At the
New York meeting in 1887, no action was taken by Section E.;
but the American Committee of the International Congress,
which existed under the sanction of the American Association,
adopted the following resolution: “That the American Com¬
mittee of the International Congress will approve of a call for
the meeting of an American Geological Congress, whose object
shdll be the discussion of important geological questions.”

In accordance with the judgment of American geologists
present at the Montreal meeting, that it was “expedient to es¬
tablish a geological magazine,” an association of seven geolo-

142

Editorial Comment.

gists, representing different portions of tlie country, began on
the first of January, 1888, the publication of “The American
Geologist,” a monthly periodical, with editorial management
fixed provisionally at Minneapolis. In the June number of this
periodical appeared from the Chairman and Secretary of the
committee which had been constituted at Cincinnati in 1881, a
call “upon all American geologists” to assemble at Cleveland on
the day preceding the opening of the meeting of the American
Association, for the purpose of organizing, if deemed expedient*
a national geological society. The basis of organization sug¬
gested in this circular restricted membership in the contemplated
society to the members and fellows of the American Association,
and devolved on the Association the election of the president and
secretary of the new society. It was also contemplated that the
permission of the Association should be asked for Section E. “to¬
ll old meetings at such time and place as they may desire.”

Promptly on August 14, 1888, in pursuance of the published
call, the geologists in attendance at Cleveland assembled for the
purpose of discussing the organization of a national society.
Alexander Winchell was chosen chairman, and Julius Pohlman
secretary. It was at once apparent that interest in the proposed
organization amounted to zeal. It was unanimously resolved
that an American Geological Society was now desirable. As to
the relation which it should sustain to Section E., of the Amer¬
ican Association, different views were expressed; but they were
speedily harmonized. It had been often urged as an objection
to the projected society, that it might impair attendance at the
meetings of the American Association. With a view to avoid-,
ing all conflict, it was suggested on one hand that the member¬
ship of the society should be coextensive with that of Section
E., and on the other, that its officers should be the same as those
chosen for Section E. Some, with more zeal for the interests
of geology than for those of the Association, advocated complete
independence. Both ends were reached by a compromise which
provided that the “original members” of the geological society
must be active workers or teachers of geology, who were either
members or fellows of the Association; but, that after January
1, 1889, other persons would be eligible. The compromise fur¬
ther provided that a summer meeting should always be held at
the same time and place as the meeting of the Association; but

Editorial Comment.

148

the business meeting of the society was to be during the winter
holidays. The meeting pronounced in favor of publications,
and, in this view,®an annual assessment of ten dollars. A com¬
mittee was appointed to draft a constitution to be presented at
an adjourned meeting on the following day. The committee
consisted of Alexander Winchell of Ann Arbor, chairman, J. J.
Stevenson of New York, secretary, Edward Orton of Columbus,
Charles H. Hitchcock of Hanover and J. R. Proctor of Frank¬
fort.

At the adjourned meeting, August 15, the committee pre¬
sented the form of a provisional constitution which, with slight
changes, was adopted. As to membership, meetings and fees,
it embodied the instruction^ of the earlier meeting; and beyond
this, contained only the usual provisions for name, officers and
amendments, and a clause providing for going into effect. The
same committee was continued, with instructions to give the
requisite attention to the completion of the organization.

It is noticeable that the action at Cleveland was not under¬
taken by Section E., but by American geologists in pursuance
of a call addressed to “all American geologists.11 Nor did the
plan of organization contemplate restricting the society to per¬
sons connected with the Association. It is thus in no way
subordinated to Section E., nor to the Association, though it
proposes to hold an annual meeting conjointly with the Associ¬
ation . It possesses complete autonomy of its own, and requires
no sanction from the Association in its attempt to represent the
interests of American geology.

Thirty-seven eligible persons subscribed to the constitution
before the adjournment of the Association. Immediately after
adjournment, the Committee of Organization resumed its efforts,
and by November 1, more than one hundred names had been
obtained, and the first meeting was promptly called to assemble
at Ithaca, under the hospitality of the Cornell University. An
informal conference was held on the afternoon and evening of
December 26, and at 10 a. m. December 27, the formal meeting
convened in the hall of Sage College. The attendance was
small, but it was well understood that the attendance was not
an exponent of the deep and general interest felt in the move¬
ment. The meeting was called to order and presided over by
the chairman of the Organizing Committee. In a preliminary

144

Editorial Comment.

statement made by the committee, it appeared that 137 persons
•had given their adhesion to the Society, of whom 70 were fel¬
lows of the American Association, 45 were members, and 22
were not connected with the Association. Of the 115 “original
fellows,” 89 had paid their fees, and during the progress of the
day, this number was raised to 102. On a canvass of the ballots
returned through the mails, to the Organizing Committee, it
appeared that 22 others had been eleoted, who by the constitu¬
tion, would become active fellows after January 1, 1889.

When the meeting proceeded to the election of officers, it
was agreed that candidates standing highest on the nominating
ballots returned through the mails, should constitute a ticket.
On duly balloting, the board of officers was found elected as
follows:

James Hall, Albany, President.

Vice Presidents.

James D. Dana, New Haven,

Alexander Winchell, Ann Arbor,

J. J. Stevenson, New York, Secretary.

H. S. Williams, Ithaca, Treasurer.

J. W. Powell, Washington, )

J. S. Newberry, New York, > Fellows of the Council.

C. H. Hitchcock, Hanover, )

The foregoing board constitutes the Council of the society.

A committee was chosen by ballot for reporting a revision of
the constitution. This consists of Alexander Wincnell, H. S.
Williams, J. J. Stevenson, H. L. Fairchild and C. H. Hitchcock.
The subject of publication is one of the most important ques¬
tions to be considered by the Council of the society; and an
Advisory Committee was chosen consisting of J. L. LeConte of
Berkeley, California, W. J. McGee of Washington, I. C. White
of Morgantown, West Virginia, N. H. Winchell of Minneapo¬
lis, and W. M. Davis of Cambridge.

The name of the society was discussed, and though fixed by
the constitution for the present, as American Geological Society,
it was generally agreed that a preferable title would be “The
Geological Society of America.” It was also formally agreed
that fellowship in the society should be indicated by the initials
“F. G. S. A.,” and it was recommended that this title be em¬
ployed on all suitable occasions.

It was finally voted that the secretary should prepare a report
of the meeting to be printed in pamphlet form for distribution

Editorial Comment .

145

to the fellows and others; but it was distinctly provided that
this should not stand as No. 1 of the recognized publications of
the society. The form and style of publication remain to be
fixed by the Council and Advisory Committee .

At the close of the business the chairman called upon the
president elect to address the society. Professor HalJ, the vet¬
eran American geologist, still in the possession of abundant
vigor, ascended the platform, and in an address of thirty min¬
utes, tendered the society thanks, congratulations, counsel and
a reference to historic events stretching over a period of fifty
years. His choice as first president of the society he considered
the greatest honor of his life. The organization of a distinct
geological society was something he had long desired and long
expected. It was the working geologists of America who formed
that first nucleus around which had grown up the bulky organ¬
ization of the American Association. For many years the
Association proved of great service to geology, but he had felt
for some years past that younger men were becoming so numer¬
ous that the day had arrived for the pioneers to stand back.
At the same time the popular character of the Association had
rendered it somewhat an undesirable arena in which to introduce
the results of the profounder labors of geological investigation.
He counseled harmony and mutual forbearance. He under¬
stood what provocations sometimes arise. He had sometimes
himself yielded to them, and had always thereafter suffered re¬
grets. New circumstances present ever new provocations; but
he hoped every American geologist would be mentally prepared
to pursue a course of justice, and if need be, of forbearance and
conciliation, in order that peace and harmony may reign
throughout our ranks. The President’s remarks were exceed¬
ingly well received, and produced an excellent impression.

In the evening a reunion was held at the private residence of
Prof. H. S. Williams, where a brilliant and accomplished hostess,
with her aids, rounded off delightfully the graver occupations
of the day.

The Greulogical Society of America begins its existence strong
in numbers, ability and finances. It has enlisted the adhesion
of almost every working geologist of the United States; and
none have found entrance who are unworthy. This body will
hereafter speak for American geology ; and it will speak with-

146

Review of Recent Geological Literature .

out asking the assent of a heterogeneous organization which
cannot know what is best for geological interests. It is ear¬
nestly to be hoped, however, that in arriving at its official
utterances, the counsels of its first president will be studiously
heeded. This result will be attained if each fellow forbears to
push, against the will of a majority, ends in which he feels a
special, or perhaps a personal interest; and if the minority find¬
ing itself such, will yield gracefully to the sentiment of the
superior number. Pax nobiscnm !

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

Useful Minerals of the United States. By Albert Williams, Jr. This
paper, embracing pages 688 to 812, is an abstract from “ Mineral Resources
of the United States, Calendar Tear 1887”

Under the head of useful minerals, etc., is a partial list Of ores, minerals,
and mineral substances of industrial importance, arranged alphabetically by
states and territories.

Of the facts presented in this report, among the most encouraging in
connection with the settlement and development of our Northwestern
States and Territories, is the occurrence of the extensive coal deposits of
Colorado, Dakota, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Wash¬
ington and Wyoming. The coal is chiefly of Cretaceous or post- Creta¬
ceous (Laramie Group) age, and appears as lignite, bituminous coal, semi-
bituminous coal, or anthracite. The bituminous and anthracite coals of the
west are, in many cases, equal in grade to the corresponding varieties from
the Carboniferous series of Pennsylvania. Few who have not seen them
can have any conception of the extent and value of these magnificent
coal deposits.

The Structure and Development of the Visual Area in the Trilohite ,
Phacops rana Green. By John M. Clarke. [Reprinted from the Journal
of Morphology, vol. ii., No. 2, November, 1888.] Barrande, Walcott, Pack¬
ard and a number of others whose names are familiar to geologists, have
devoted attention to t ;e elucidation of certain peculiarities of structure or
development among tribolites. The efforts of these observers have been
attended with remarkable, and often with unexpected success. The author
of the paper here reviewed devotes his attention chiefly to one species, and
to one feature— namely : the development of the visual area. Mr. Clarke
divides tribolites into two groups, according to the character of the visual
area. The first includes those having the visual area covered by a smooth,
continuous, epithebial film or cornea through which the lenses of the om-
matidia are visible by translucence ; the second, those in which the cornea
is transected by the protrusion of the sclera. The author had at command
some thousands of specimens for study. For convenience he regards the

Review of Recent Geological Literature.

147

lenses of the eye as arranged in oblique rows, and points out that the num¬
ber of these rows is variable, the number of lenses in the visual surface of
each eye is variable, the number of lenses in successive rows is variable,
a definite relation exists between the number of lenses of the eyes and the
size (i. e. age) of the animal, the number of lenses increases from youth to
maturity and decreases from maturity to senility.

The unexpected fact of decrease in the number of lenses in old age is
explained “ either by the gradual envelopment of the lenses of the upper
margin by the sclera and palpebrum, and their entire concealment in the
substance of the latter, unless it is possible that atrophy of the ommatidial
nerve branches and concomitant reabsorption takes place with advanc¬
ing old age.”

We quote the author’s conclusion :

“ The study of the eye of Phacops rana, as here presented, allows the
statement of the following points :

1. The schizocroal eyes (such as occur in Phacops and its allies) of the
trilobites are aggregated and not compound eyes. The visual organs of
Harpes may prove to be of similar character.

2. The scleral portion of the visual surface is of the same structure as
the test, and is a direct continuation of it.

3. No evidence appears of any continuous corneal layer covering the
entire surface.

4. The corneal lenses are wholly discrete from the epidermis, but are
of epidermal origin. In the addition of new lenses to the visual surface,
they appear to arise from a thinning of both surfaces of the integument.

5. The corneal lenses were hollow or filled with some matter not hom¬
ogeneous with the cornea itself.

6. The corneal lenses, and, therefore, the ommatidia, are added to the
visual surface with advancing age until the mature growth of the indi¬
vidual is attained; thereafter they diminish in number, with increasing
senility.

7. The addition of corneal lenses occurs regularly at the extremities of
the diagonal rows .

8. No evidence is preserved of crystalline cones in the ommatidial
cavities, though they may have been removed in the decomposition of the
soft parts of the eye-”

Geological Survey of the State of New York , Paleontology. Vol. vii. By
James Hall, assisted by John M. Clarke. This volume worthily main¬
tains the reputation of the splendid series of which it forms a part. It is de¬
voted to the description and illustration of the trilobites and other Crustacea
of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage, Chemung and Catskill groups.
There are 222 pages of descriptive text, preceded by lxiv pages devoted
chiefly to a synopsis of genera. A carefully compiled synonymy of each
genus is also a valuable feature. There are 127 Devonian species distrib¬
uted among 28 genera described in the volume, and in addition we have
given descriptions of 17 species of Crustacea not Devonian.

Geological Survey of the State of New York , Paleontology. Yol. v., Part
ii. Supplement. By James Hall, This supplement is bound in with

148 Review of Recent Geological Literature.

vol. vii., noticed above. It contains descriptions and illustrations of Ptero-
poda, Cephalopoda and Annellida. The Annellida were not embraced in
the original plan of voluma v. They are here introduced for the sake of
comparing typical forms of Tentaculites with certain species, chiefly from
the Hudson River group, that have from time to time been referred to the
genus Tentaculites and with other more or less closely related forms. The
large amount of material in the hands of the author afforded unusual facil¬
ities for making such comparisons.

The result of the comparison has been to lead Professor Hall to the con¬
clusion that the Lower Silurian Tentaculites are not Tentaculites at all.
Moreover, many of the genera and species that palaeontologists have been
laboring industriously to establish, emerge from the investigation with
scant claim for further recognition. For example, the author claims that
the material in his possession demonstrates that the following forms are
simply different stages of development of what appears to be a single
species of the genus Cornulites! Spirorbis cincinnatiensis , Ortonia minor ,
0. conica, Gonchicolites corrugatus , Tentaculites sterlingensis, T. richmonden-
sis, Cornulites fiexuosus, G.immaturus, C. incurvus, C. distant, C. clintoni, ,
G. arcuatus, O.proprius , G. bellistriatus , C. crysalis, C. cingulatus and G.
tribulus.

The larger part of the supplement is devoted to Cephalopoda. Twenty
species, not illustrated in vol. v., part ii., are here described, together with
a number previously described, but here described and figured from new
material illustrating features additional to those before illustrated.

On the attachment of Platyceras to Palwocrinoids, and its Effects in Modi¬
fying the Form of the Shell. By Charles R. Keyes. This paper, embrac¬
ing fifteen pages of descriptive matter, illustrated by one plate, was read
before the American Phosophical Society October 19, 1888. The fact that
Platycerata occur attached to the bodies of crinoids has long been known.
The fact that they always occur in a particular way, with the anterior part
of the aperture covering the ventral opening of the crinoid, is one of com¬
paratively recent recognition. The situation of the anal opening in cri¬
noids is such that the attached shell is often embraced by the arms, and
this led the earlier observers to conclude that the crinoids fed on the gas-
teropods, and that death sometimes overtook the predaceous echinoderms
while they were in the very act of devouring their victims. Moreover, the
earlier palaeontologists regarded the ventral opening as the mouth of the
crinoid, and so far as the position of Platyceras with reference to this
opening was noted at all, it only tended to confirm the belief in the car¬
nivorous habits of crinoids. A history of recorded observations on the re¬
lations of Platycerata to crinoids is given, and this is followed by an ac¬
count of the author’s observations, made on an extensive series of illustra¬
tive examples in the magnificent crinoid collection of Wachsmuth and
Springer.

The observations of Keyes support the views entertained by a number
of modern paleontologists, to the effect: 1. That Platyceras, like Capu
Ins, was sedentary, attaching itself to foreign bodies and remaining fixed
during life, 2. That the association of Platyceras to the crinoid to which

Review of Recent Geological Literature.

149

it is found attached was permanent, not temporary. 6. That the Platy-
ceras attached to the body of a crinoid fed upon excrementitious matter.

One of the new facts, and one of great interest, developed by the obser¬
vations of Keyes, is that the anterior border of the aperture of an attached
Platyceras retained constantly the same portion, and that as the aperture
enlarged in the process of growth the posterior border was successively
moved further and further back. Lines drawn on the vault of the crinoid
indicating the outlines of the aperture of the commensal Platyceras at
different stages of growth, are eccentric and all passthrough the point
which makes the anterior border. This anal aperture of the crinoid lines
within the eccentric outlines and near the point is common to all. By
carefully removing the Platyceras it is found in some instances that the
size and position of the aperture of the mollusk at different stages of
growth are indicated by more or less perfectly defined grooves on the
ventral plates of the crinoid. The significance of the facts here stated is
manifest, the mouth of the mollusk at all periods of growth was placed
directly over the anal aperture of the host. There are no indications that
the presence of Platyceras interfered in any way with the convenience or
success iff the crinoid.

The American Anthropologist, published at Washington, born the same
year and moDth as the Geologist, begins its second year vigorously. It
includes, but is not confined to, the transactions of the Anthropological
Society of Washington, and aims lobe a medium of communication be¬
tween students in all branches of anthropologic science. The managing
editor is Mr. H. W. Henshaw, Washington.

In the J anuary number of the London Geological Magazine , Dr. Traquair
discusses the two species Homosteus Asmuss, and Goccosteus Agassiz.
The utter confusion in which the nomenclature of some of our fossil fishes
is now placed is well shown in his introductory remarks. He states that
in 1840 Eichwald founded the genus Aster olepis for some Russian De¬
vonian fossils. Soon afterwards Agassiz named these same specimens
Ghelonichthys. This name he withdrew and adopted Asterolepis, erro¬
neously placing in this genus certain bones and plates from Dorpat of
which he had received only casts. Hugh Miller following Agassiz con¬
sequently applied the name Asterolepis to the massive plates which he
received from Robert Dick of Thurso, though these plates had no affinity
to Eichwald’s Asterolepis. The name Asterolepis has therefore two
meanings, that of its author and that of Agassiz.

In 1856 Asmuss described the Dorpat fossils and founded the two gen¬
era Homosteus and Heterosteus. “In the former of these is clearly to be
recognized Hugh Miller’s so-called ‘ Asterolepis ’ of Stromness ” Pander
subsequently changed Hugh Miller’s name to Homosteus. This change
has been adopted on the continent of Europe but not in Britain.

Dr. Traquair goes on to show how Agassiz’ work led Hugh Miller into
other mistakes so that he attributed to his Asterolepis “the teeth of Den-
drodus and the scales of Glyptolepis.

Pander classified Homosteus next to Coccosteus and right] y considered as
its medio-dorsal plate the “hyoid” of Miller. A specimen found shortly

150

Review of Recent Geological Literature.

afterwards and now in the Museum of Science and Art at Edinburgh con¬
clusively proved that he was right.

Dr. Traquair then discusses at great length the structure of Coccosteus
and Homosteus demonstrating their close relationship and concludes by
naming the species of which he gives a figure, H. milleri.

Prof. T. McK. Hughes, of Cambridge, records the discovery of other
fossils in the Lower Cambrian rocks of North Wales, in the great slate
quarries at Penrhyn. They are very imperfect but appear to be the casts
of the carapace of a trilobite of nearly the same size and outline as Cono-
coryphe viola , the species recorded in 1888 from these slates.

Prof. Hughes enters into a consideration of the possible causes which
led to the preservation of fossils in a single spot or in a few isolated spots
in so vast a mass of unfossiliferous slate. For it should be mentioned
that although these quarries have been worked for many years and are
among the most extensive in the British Isles yet no fossils had been pre¬
viously repotted from any part of them.

He thinks that the slates before metamorphism may have been affected
by a “fault and fold” disturbance whereby certain parts may have been
caught and preserved from the intense pressure to which the rest of the
rock was exposed and which has produced its perfect slaty cleavage and
in so uniform a mass has totally effaced all pre-existing structure .

Mr. Harker calls attention to the importance of pressure considered by
itself as an important factor in metamorphism. “Many geologists” he
says “require of mechanical force nothing except the liberation of heat by
the crushing of the rock -masses.” But he insists that pressure alone is
of great importance by its direct effects on chemical action even unaided
by induced heat. He divides metamorphism accordingly into thermo¬
metamorphism and dynamo-metamorphism, and points out four sets of
conditions which may be expected to govern the process in different
places. These are

1. Low temperature and low pressure.

2. High temperature and low pressure.

3. Low temperature and high pressure.

4. High temperature and high pressure.

He points out that a distinction between these different conditions may
explain the frequent occurrence of certain minerals such as andalusite,
garnet and idocrase with stratified rocks that have been altered at high
temperatures, while other changes accompany the metamorphism of
similar rocks at low temperatures unless the conversion of pyroxene into
amphibole, of plagioclase into saussurite, of potash-feldspar into white
mica and quartz, and of titaniferous iron ore into sphene.

As to the action of water in the process he regards the water as itself one
of the minerals involved, and remarks that its increased solvent power
under increased pressure must lead to solution where the pressure is
greater and deposition where it is less.

Mittheilungen aus dem miner alogishen Institut der Univerisitdt Kiel.
Band 1, Heft 1 . Dr. J. Lehmann issues the first of a proposed series of
publications by the Mineralogical Institute of the University. Among the

Review pf Recent Geological Literature . 151

articles included in the first issue is one entitled “Ueber die eruptive
Hatur gewisser Gneissesowie des Granulitsim sachsischen Mitteigebirge/’
by E. Danzig, of Rochiitz, Saxony. After referring to the different opin¬
ions which have been held by geologists concerning the nature of the
Saxony Mittelgebirge (Naumann, Steizner, Credner, Bathe and Lehmann)
he gives his own observations on the granite dykes of different kinds in
the granulyte, and on the gneiss-granite in the granulyte and gneiss-mica
schist. Many of these observations* as well as the figures to illustrate
them, are strikingly similar to observations made by Mr. A. C. Lawson in
the region of the Lake of the Woods and by the Minnesota geological
survey, illustrated in the fifteenth report of that survey. Following is a
brief statement of his conclusions :

1. The granites of our mountains belong, as was first proved by J» Leh¬
mann, to a single geological formation, though perhaps they originated
periodically. The separation of bedded granite (granite gneiss) and se¬
cretion granite (believed to have been formed by lateral secretion) from
the granites in the granulyte, which former had already been recognized
as indubitably eruptive, is not justified by the knowledge obtained.

2. As far as the observations extend the gne'ssoid rocks of the granu¬
lyte mountains of Saxony, wherever they cannot be designated simply as
gneiss, must be considered in the main as mixtures of granite material
with that which was originally sedimentary; but also partly as schistose
beds produced through metamorphism due to dislocations in the granu¬
lyte.

3. In spite of the bedded structure displayed in members of the granu¬
lyte formation, and notwithstanding its differentiation into beds which are
variously composed, chemically and mineralogically, which are appar¬
ently stratigraphically equivalent, it cannot be considered as a sedimentary
formation, nor one which has resulted from metamorphism of such a
formation. The light colored granulyte seems much more eruptive since
it contains the characteristic inclusions, and sends out branches into the
surrounding rock. The pyroxene granites are not genetically similar to
the other kinds of granulyte, but probably represent altered inclusions in
the granulyte magma.

The author did not undertake the consideration of all the rocks of the
granulyte mountains. The garnet-serpentines, whose close relation to the
pyroxene granite has been recognized, will be the subject of a later paper.
On the other hand the facts concerning the gabbros and the bronzite ser¬
pentine do not appear to furnish sufficient data to answer the question of
the origin of this rock if we set aside the description by Dr. Lehmann of the
metamorphism of the gabbros brought about by mechanical forces. The
hornblende schists in the mica schists and phyllytes, as well as the green
schists around Hainch, may perhaps, from the results obtained elsewhere,
be considered properly to be -diabase or dioryte metamorphosed, which
were erupted before the granitic rocks (including the granulytes) — espec¬
ially since in the Hartz mountains a diabase belongs with the pre-granitic
eruption.

It is very remarkable that Naumann’s hypothesis of the origin of the

152 Personal and Scientific News,

granulyte mountains lias been confirmed to a far greater extent- than was at
first expected, notwithstanding -some necessary corrections and additions.
-The same hypothesis approached very near the truth in regard to the
gneisses in the granulyte, inasmuch as this must lie at the base of a sup¬
posed schist broken through by granulyte. Such schist, or gneiss, may
have been penetrated by granitic masses either before or after its enclos-
ure in the granulyte.

It would be of great value to prosecute an examination into the origin
of certain crystalline schists in other Archsean regions, especially in the
neighboring Erz mountains. Perhaps many will be found to be eruptive
which are now taken to be portions of the oldest sedimentary rocks.
Especially would it be well to investigate the “red gneisses,” with a view
to ascertaining whether they do not also present features which may
prove them to be eruptive in the same manner as those from Bohrigen
and Rosswein. Their transition into granite appears to give some found¬
ation for such a prediction.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Prof. J. W. Spencer was recently appointed state geolo¬
gist of Georgia.

Dr. J. S. Kingsley, editor of the American Naturalist,
and too well known in scientific circles to need farther introduc¬
tion, has been elected to the chair of Agriculture and Biology
in the University of Nebraska.

Dr. Charles A. Schaeffer, Presidents the State Uni¬
versity of Iowa, is now at work on analyses of some clays and
chalky beds that occur in the Cretaceous deposits of Woodbury
county, with a view to ascertaining their availability as ma¬
terials for the manufacture of Portland cement. The indica¬
tions are that with proper handling a superior quality of cement
could be made from them, and the cost would be such as to
yield a fair profit.

Prof. W. H. Benedict, of Port Henry, N. Y., has made an
important discovery in the Potsdam sandstone near that place.
He has found a layer marked by tracks and trails of a crusta¬
cean inhabiting the ocean of the Potsdam era. They are in
connection with fine ripple-marking, making a most excellent
appearance. A quantity of the stone has been quarried and
will be displayed in the state museum.

Mr. Otto L. Syrski, who was mentioned in some of the
early numbers of the Geologist , now confined in the Ohio peni¬
tentiary for theft of scientific books- and apparatus, - was re¬
cently visited by Prof. E. T. Nelson, of Delaware, 0. This
gentleman, who was formerly “deaf and dumb,” has recovered
his voice, and has made a fine record in the penitentiary, where
he. teaches the night-school.

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NGLOMERATES enclosed in gneissic
terranes .—Alexander Winchell . 158

.TURAL SCIENCE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF

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I LIATION AND SEDIMENTATION. Andrew C.

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|E ORIGINAL LOCALITY OF GRYPH^EA

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ITORIAL Comment.

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Another old Channel of the Niagara
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VIEW OF RECENT LITERATURE.

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Personal and Scientific News _ _ 215

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AMERICAN GEOLOGIST

Vol. III. MARCH, 1889. No. 3

CONGLOMERATES ENCLOSED IN GNEISSIC TERRANES.

By Alexander Winchell.

The region which is the special subject of the present article
lies on and near the International boundary, northwest of Lake
Superior. It is embraced within the great Archaean area of the
North, between the parallels of 47°30' and 48°80’ north latitude,
and the meridians of 90° and 91^30' west longitude. The sur¬
face is occupied by gneisses, crystalline schists and earthy
schists, all standing quite conformably, in an attitude nearly
vertical, and trending east-northeast. Occasionally, over limited
areas, the gneisses appear destitute of bedding or foliation, and
for this reason, and also the unimportance, for geological
purposes, of the distinction between gneisses and ordinary
massive granites and syenites, I have frequently recorded as
“granite,” the crystalline masses underlying the crystalline
schists. For similar reasons, usage has affixed the name
“granite” to rocks in which the dark mineral constituent
is hornblendic, as well as to those in which it is micacic. With
this understanding, it may be stated that the region here con¬
sidered extends into and embraces portions of three granitic
regions which superficially appear to be wholly separated from
each other by earthy schists. The most easterly I have else¬
where described as the “Saganaga granite;” the most westerly,

154 Conglomerates in Gneissic Terranes — A.Winchell.

as the “Basswood granite,” and the more southerly, as the
“White Iron granite” — these taking their names from the
lakes whose shores they occupy.*

Of the lithological characters of these granites it is not pro¬
posed to speak particularly at present, nor of their structural and
mineralogical relations to the crystalline and the earthy schists
which lie along their borders. It may have a bearing however,
on the object of the present article, to state that the Saganaga
gneiss holds hornblende for its dominant dark mineral. The
same is true of the White Iron gneiss, though augite sometimes
usurps the place. The Basswood gneiss is chiefly micaceous,
and the mica ranges from muscovite to biotite and hydromica.
Not unfrequently however, a hornblendic constituent inter¬
venes, and this is sometimes replaced by a viriditic mineral. A
chloritic constituent often appears in all these gneisses, more or
less blended . with the feldspars. As usual the feldspar is
chiefly orthoelase; but generally, a small proportion of plagio-
clase can be seen. In the Saganaga gneiss the quartz individ¬
uals are generally of very large size.

It will have a bearing also, on the interpretation of the
phenomena which I propose to describe to state that between
the gneisses and crystalline schists no structural discontinuity
anywhere appears— a gradual transition in mineralogical and
stratigraphical characters being everywhere apparent. f Nor is
there any abrupt break between the crystalline schists and the
earthy or semi-crystalline schists; and consequently, no such
phenomenon as a contact between crystalline and uncrystalline
terranes is known to occur. Nor do I find any unconforma-
bility between the proper and very distinct bedding of the earthy
schists and the foliation of the crystalline schists and gneisses.
It could not be expected under these circumstances, that any of
the phenomena of local metamorphism should occur along the
zone of gradual transition from the crystalline rocks to the un-
crystalline.

* Sixteenth Annual Report Minn . Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv.y pp. 330-334.
These three gneissic or granitic areas appear to be discriminated by Irving
in his “Preliminary Geological Map of the Northwest,” in the Fifth An¬
nual Report, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 181.

t These facts have been fully set forth in the XVth and XVTth Annual
Reports of the Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sun), of Minn., , to which reference may
be made.

Conglomerates in Gneissic Ter nines — A . WiuchelL 155

Throughout the whole extent of these three granitic masses,
as far as explored, rounded pebbles are found disseminated.
They are bv no means uniformly distributed; and in the Bass¬
wood and White Iron granites they are infrequent. They are
however, mentioned in my reports.* The Saganaga granite
{syenite, gneiss) is more numerously supplied with them. In
-coasting along the shores of West Seagull, Seagull, Bed-rock,
Granite and Saganaga lakes, one or more pebbles may generally
be seen at intervals of one or two rods. On the north shore of
Seagull lake they become rather abundant.f The pebbles here,
as elsewhere, are distinctly limited and fully rounded, presenting
the ordinary appearance of shore pebbles, and generally of a
dark color. In size they range mostly from two to six inches
in diameter. They are sometimes so firmly imbedded in the
gneiss as not to be separable from it; at other times, they may
be removed. In mineral character, many of the pebbles appear
diabasie, chloritie and augitic. Some of them are syenitic, and
even approach the Saganaga syenite in character. I found peb¬
bles of this which themselves embraced fine granulite, chlorite
rock, chlorite schist and copper carbonate. Other syenitic peb¬
bles were fine-grained and unlike the Saganaga variety; and
these in other cases, were stratified. Besides worn fragments,
the outlines of large angular masses may be traced in the midst
of the usual gneiss. Some of them are a fine-grained granulite
with a very little hornblende. They attain a length in some
cases of several feet, with a width of a foot or less. In other
cases the}r appear like sheets three or four inches thick. They
are all firmly united to the common mass of gneiss.

At another locality on the shore of a large island in the same
lake, a real conglomerate occurs. This is ehlorito-graywacke-
nitic, and somewhat resembles the remarkable Ogishke-conglom-
erate, but it is not the same. The groundmass holding the
pebbles is not of a syenitic character, but rather graywacke-like,
though the whole is surrounded by the prevailing syenite of the
region.

A conglomerate is also reported to me from an inland position
on the northwest of West Seagull lake.

* XVth Ann. Rep. Geol. Minn., pp. 79, 85, 88, 105, 113. In other lakes,
XVItk Ann. Rep. Geol. Minn., pp. 227, 229, 241.

t See details of facts in XVftli Ann. Hep. Minn., p. 298.

156 Conglomerates in Gneissic Terranes — A.WinchelL

The most extraordinary occurrence of all is found on a small
island which I named Wonder island, near the south-east shore
of Saganaga lake, and supposed to be located a short distance
beyond the international boundary.* This island lies far within
the gneissic region. The contiguous main shores are charac¬
teristically gneissic. On the south I have traced the gneissic
terrane eight miles, to its culmination in the Giant’s range and
its southern limit near Gunflint lake; on the southwest, nearly
to Frog-rock lake, twelve miles; on the west, to Oak laker
twelve miles; on the north, to the north shore of Saganaga lake,
six miles. The point is therefore several miles from any bound¬
ary of the great mass of the Saganaga gneiss.

At this place rounded pebbles are accumulated in sueh abund¬
ance as to constitute a real conglomerate. Two patches are ex¬
posed to view and disappear beneath the level of the water.
One of the patches as far as exposed, is four feet wide, and the-
other three. The breadth of the intervening gneiss is about ten
feet. In neither are the pebbles generally in contact. In one
area, the conglomeritic condition disappears gradually around
the margin; in the other, somewhat abruptly — except that a
single pebble is quite separate. The intervals between the peb¬
bles are filled with the common gneissic material in full posses¬
sion of its usual characters. The pebbles are of all sizes up to
four or five inches in diameter; and they are generally dark
green in color. Mineralogically, as far as I could judge in the
field, they consist principally of the following species and varie¬
ties: Lamellar augite in coarse agglomerations; lamellar augite
in fine agglomerations, with a minute quantity of light feldspar
disseminated in strings and grains; lamellar augite with con¬
spicuous grains of feldspar; a mixture of augite, feldspar and
epidote; a lamellar mineral soft as talc or chlorite; a pale green
augite, inclosing lamellar augite; augite hyposyenite or perhaps
diorite; greenish transparent augite in slender prisms; lamellar
augite in coarse agglomerations, but of a pale green color.
There were no pebbles of syenite, none of quartzite, none of
jasper, none of any sedimentary rock. In one instance, I saw
two or three large grains of quartz imbedded in a large pebble

* Th 8 location is mapped on page 218 of the XVIth Ann. Hep. Minn .
Geol. Sum., and the facts are given in detail on the succeeding pages.

Conglomerates in Gneissic Terranes — A. Winchell. 157

composed of lamellar augite and feldspar. This conglomerate
therefore, differs from the Ogishke conglomerate of north-east¬
ern Minnesota both in the mineral character of the pebbles and
in the nature of the ground mass.

Though the list of pebbles differs somewhat from that cited
from Seagull lake, the general resemblance is noteworthy.
The dark pebbles elsewhere scattered through the gneiss of
Saganaga lake are also very similar in character; and the evi¬
dence is quite clear that the pebble-supply of all parts of the
region has had a common origin.

The presence of pebbles so widely disseminated through the
gneiss reveals this great Laurentian terrane in quite a new
aspect. This character seems especially adapted to awaken re¬
flections in the minds of those who hold to the theory of a
purely igneous history for the crystalline rock-masses. No
other origin for rounded pebbles possesses any plausibility in
comparison with shore action. Such pebbles are everywhere
regarded as evidence of fragmental accumulation. The great
Ogishke conglomerate, whose borders are not over fifteen miles
distant, is stocked with similar pebbles; and no one could enter¬
tain other theory respecting them than that of slow fashioning
along an ancient shore. The prima facie evidence in reference
to the Saganaga pebbles is entirely in favor of a similar origin.
I shall hold it as incontestable that these pebbles are due to
attrition along a shore.

I do not forget the dictum of Von Buck in reference to the
-eruptive origin of certain conglomerates,* nor the application
made of the principle by the founders of the “Azoic System,”
to the well known conglomerates of the cupriferous region of
Kewenaw Point.t But the pebbles in the latter case are asso¬
ciated with amygdaloids of unquestionably eruptive origin; and
moreover, they are alleged to consist chiefly of rocky material
of the same nature. In both respects the Saganaga pebbles
differ. They are not pebbles of the contiguous rock, and it is
inconceivable that they have become rounded by friction during
projection through it while in a molten state, or by contact

*Yon Buch, Geognostische Briefe, pp. 75-82.

‘[Foster and Whitney, Report on the Lake Superior Land District , 1850,
pp. 69-200; and Amer. Jour. Sci.t II, xvii, 1854, pp. 11-38, 181-194. The
same view was advanced by Houghton in 1841.

158 Conglomerates in Gneissic Terranes — ■A.Winchell.

with fissure walls existing in it after solidification. The late
Prof. Irving however, may be regarded as dissipating finally*
any such allusions in reference to the cupriferous conglomer¬
ates^ since, as geologists generally have discovered, “the
pebbles are only in very subordinate quantity of ‘trap1 or
amygdaloid, being almost wholly of some sort of acid eruptive
rock, i. e . felsite, quartziferous porphyry, quartzless porphyry,
granitic porphyry, augite syenite or granite. The fundamental
difference between such pebbles and the associated basic, mass¬
ive rocks is alone enough to overthrow the theory, even were
there not other sufficient arguments against it. Further, the
pebbles are just as plainly water-worn as those of any other
conglomerates, though they may have, in some cases, had the
polish removed by surface alteration/1

The evidence for the igneous origin of the Saganaga pebbles
is incomparably less than that for the Kewenaw pebbles. An
attentive consideration of the case confirms this conclusion.
The conglomerate described on Wonder island is not one con¬
sisting originally of a mass of pebbles over which a fluid mag¬
ma has been poured at some date perhaps long subsequent to*
the formation of the pebble deposits. I have seen a pile of
angular fragments over which fluid gabbro had been poured,,
which fioTved into the interstises and filled them. But the pre¬
existing fragments were self-supported — they lay in direct con¬
tact with each other. On Wonder island the pebbles are not in
contact; they could not have lain where they are before the
gneissic magma existed. The gneissic magma was present, and
it was this which supported the pebbles and prevented their
contact. The gneissic magma was contemporaneous with the
pebbles. But its condition was not that of molten fluidity, for
so vast a molten mass would have fused the comparatively few
pebbles immersed in it — still more the single pebbles which we
find so widely distributed. It must however, have been
sufficiently fluid or plastic for extraneous bodies to be moved in
it . But a molten sea would have destroyed the pebbles and
obliterated all traces of them. The plasticity therefore, was
low-temperature plasticity — igneo-aqueous plasticity.

We cannot, to avoid such a conclusion, seek to propound the

tlrving. The Copper-bearing Bocks of Lake Superior , 1883, U. S. GeoL
Surv., Mon. v. pp. 9, 31-2.

Conglomerates in Gneissic Terrams — A . Winch ell. 159

theory that the conglomerate of Wonder island is one having
origin long subsequent to the gneiss, and embraced in it by a
process of folding and squeezing together. For, (1) the con¬
glomerate has never been a conglomerate by itself; it never
rested on another terrane, and could never have been caught
in any sharp fold of the Saganaga gneiss; (2) If it were a for¬
mation so caught, we should find it revealing a greater extent
along the line if strike; (3) The supposition of a close fold for
the Wonder island conglomerate is not applicable to the isolated
pebbles scattered through the gneiss across the whole breadth
of the belt. These were in some way introduced from without
into the plastic mass in all positions along lines transverse to
the bedding.

If the pebbles were neither older than the gneiss nor newer
than the gneiss, they were of course simultaneous with it, No
other view would be conceived unless there were some precon¬
ceived theory of the non-sedimentary origin of gneiss to be
cared for.

In connection with the interpretation of the Wonder island
conglomerate, other facts must be considered. I have already
stated that large angular beams of schistic and gneissic charac¬
ter have floated as bodies of extraneous origin in the gneissic
magma which once existed. In connection with the Basswood
gneiss I have elsewhere described* many occurrences of this
nature, and many others in which the schistic fragments attain
such length, and with so little displacement, as to constitute a
complicated interbedding of gneissic and schistic strata. I
have also maintained on such evidence, the original sedimentary
condition of the gneissic terranes, as against the extravagant
hypothesis of a succession of almost countless “dikes” perfectly
parallel with each other and with the beds of the intersected
formation, and separated from each other by only a few inches
or even a fraction of an inch of the formation thus wonderfully
perforated by “dikes.”* I have more recently, in a newly dis¬
covered region, estimated as many as five hundred alternations
of uralitic schist and uralitic gneiss in the breadth of about
fifty feet,f and I feel confirmed in opinion that the gneisses and
crystalline schists were originally sedimentary. Thus the facts

* Fifteenth Ann. Rep. Geol . Minn., pp. 40, 41, 43, 46, 54, 63, 78, 83, 84, 88,
89,96,97,113,116.

160 Conglomerates in Gneissic Ter rams — A. Winchell.

cited in reference to the Saganaga pebbles are simply corrob¬
orative of views supported by other classes of evidence on which
I do not here enlarge. Though merely touching the general
problem of the origin of gneisses and granites, I wish to avoid
all misapprehension by stating that I recognize the important
agency of heat in connection with water, in the transformation
of the original sediments; I do not conceive that the charac¬
teristic features of these terranes are any legacy of sedimentary
conditions; but I hold, with Scrope, de Beaumont, Scheerer,
Hunt and others, that the primitive materials, through the
agency of heat, water and chemism, have entered into combina¬
tions not existing in the original sediments. I hold that the
transformation attained different degrees of completeness in
different localities and different horizons; and I hold that pres¬
sure — especially shearing pressure — has emphasized the bedded
arrangement. Thus, as I believe, the sediments were brought
to a state of incipient crystallization in one place, and completer
crystallization in another; while in others, the thermal action
•was intense enough to reduce the magma to a state of such com¬
plete fluidity or plasticity as to obliterate all traces of bedding,
or allow squeezing into fissures, or even surface overflows of any
such extent as observation may establish. I wish to add the
important suggestion that the agencies which would transform
the common magma would also transform the included pebbles.
By softening and pressure, their forms have been changed; and
by metamorphic action they have ceased to present, in some
cases, their original mineral constitution.

Such views on the history of crystalline masses though not
widely entertained, will be found supported by considerable
evidence of the same nature as that afforded by the pebbles and
conglomerate of the Saganaga gneiss. In 1833, Professor
Edward Hitchcock called attention to certain features of a con¬
glomerate occurring near Newport, Rhode Island. J The pebbles
showed evidences of a former softened state, and of a partial
transformation, in certain cases, to “a mica schist with a cement
of talcose slate.” Similar conglomerates were described by Dr.

* Fif teenth Ann. Hep. Minn., 1880, p. 264.

+ Sixteenth Ann . Rep. Minn., 1887, p . 264.

% E. Hitchcock, Report on the Geology of Massachusetts, 1838. See also,
the Reports of 1833 and 1841. The same was more particularly described
by Professor C. H. Hitchcock in Proceedings Amer. Assoc., I860, pp. 112-118.

Conglomerates in Gneissic Terranes — A. Winchell. 101

E. Hitchcock “along nearly the whole western side of the Green
Mountains in Vermont.”! President Hitchcock states that the
Vermont conglomerate occurs on both sides of the Green Mount¬
ains. He found it “in connection with quartz rock, mica and
talc schists and gneiss; sometimes merely in juxtaposition,
sometimes interstratified;” and he gives a diagram showing that
gneiss is sometimes superposed on the conglomerate. The peb¬
bles are generally elongated and flattened, and give other evi¬
dence of former plasticity. At Plymouth, on the east face of
the mountains, conglomeritic phenomena of a similar kind, are
still more strikingly shown. Here, as in Wallingford, and in
the Saganaga gneiss, the pebbles do not lie in contact with each
other. Mineralogically, they are here mostly of quartz, but
sometimes of granite or gneiss. Dr. Hitchcock found that the
pebbles were sometimes so elongated and flattened as to reduce
the conglomerate to a schistic state; and he says: “We doubted
for a time, whether we could justly include gneiss among the
rocks that may be originated from conglomerate; for we had
not found, as yet, decided examples of pebbles in this rock.”
“We do not despair however, of finding pebbles in gneiss, now
that we have learned how to look for them.” Dr. Hitchcock
nrgues that by metamorphic action, many of the pebbles have
been mineralogically changed without destroying their character
as pebbles .

In support of the doctrine of the metamorphism of pebbles,
Dr. Hitchcock cites a conglomerate found along the eastern
border of Vermont and southward into Massachusetts. “We
define this rock,” he says, “as a conglomerate with a cement of
syenite or granite, or as a syenite or granite with pebbles in
it, sometimes thickly and sometimes sparsely disseminated.”
Speaking of an outcrop of this conglomerate on the southwest
point of Little Aseutney, he says, “on one side it passes without
any intervening seam into a porphyry, and this into a granite,
all forming one undivided ledge, so that the conclusion is forced
upon us that the granite and porphyry have been formed out of
the conglomerate. Most of the rock on Aseutney takes horn¬
blende into its composition, and thus becomes syenite, and this
abounds in black rounded masses which are for the most part

t Geology of Vermont , 1861, pp. 29-44. One of the localities is in the
northeast part of Wallingford. This passage was first published by Dr.
Hitchcock in Amer. Jour. Sci., IT, xxxi, 372-‘d92, Mar., 1861.

162 Conglomerates in Gmissic Terranes — A.Winchell.

crystalline hornblende with some feldspar, and which are proba¬
bly pebbles transmuted.”* * * §

At Granby, in Vermont, “the pebbles, manifestly rounded,
are either mica schist or white, almost hyaline, quartz * * *

and the base is a fine-grained syenite, passing sometimes almost
into mica schist.” “When the pebbles are highly crystallized,
they become so incorporated with the matrix that it is difficult
to separate them with a smooth surface; and, if we are not mis¬
taken, they pass insensibly into those rounded nodules chiefly
hornblendic (augitic?) so common in syenite, especially that of
Ascutney. We think those are produced from the metamor¬
phosis of pebbles which have become crystalline since they were
formed into conglomerate. * * * These facts certainly give

great plausibility to the view which supposes granite and syenite
to be often the results of the metamorphosis of stratified rocks.”f

At the meeting of the American Association at Springfield,
in 1859, Professor Hubbard, of Dartmouth College, exhibited a
specimen of pure white granite from Warren, New Hampshire,,
in which there lay imbedded a rounded bowlder of hornblende
rock more than a foot in diameter, and easily separable from the
granite. J

Dr. G. A. Hawes, in 1 878, § recorded some mica sheets at East
Hanover, New Hampshire, which are “mottled by what are ap¬
parently pebbles of various sorts and sizes, that have been
flattened out between the layers.” He recognizes the evidences
of their former plasticity and of their metamorphism, even
when not carried to such a degree as to entirely obliterate all
signs of the original constitution of the sedimentary mass.

None of the examples cited from America possess evidence of
such strength as that afforded by the Saganaga gneiss in refer¬
ence to the former fragmental condition of the oldest crystalline
rocks. The Saganaga gneiss is massive, insomuch that it is gen-

* Compare the black pebbles in the Saganaga syenite before mentioned
and set down as apparently augitic ; and my independent suggestion that
they are the products of metamorphic action.

t The views of Dr. Charles T. Jackson on this question ma}r be found in
Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat. His ., 1860. Professor W. B. Rogers’ views are found
in same, 1861, cited in Am. Jour. Set., II, xxxi, 440-2, May, 1861.

X Geology of Vermont, p. 44. Dr. Hitchcock enumerates other localities
of occurrence of conglomerates with flattened pebbles, in Bernardston,.
Mass., where the matrix is a mica schist. The same is true at Bellingham,
Mass. These features are still more decided in bowlders near Northampton.,

§ Hawes in Geology of New Hampshire , vol. iii, pt. iv, p. 220.

Conglomerates in Gneissic Terranes — A.Winchell. 168

erally recognized as a syenite. It has indeed passed almost
beyond the stage of alteration in which traces of sedimentary
bedding remain. Nor is there any considerable mass of crystal¬
line schists within less than five miles of Wonder island. The
evidence for fragmental origins is thus carried fully into the
midst of those crystalline masses so commonly regarded as
centres of molten eruption.

The earliest mention which I find recorded of any analogous
phenomena in the old world is by Dr. Sauer of Leipzig.* In the
valley of the Mittweida near Annaberg, and about twenty-five
miles south of Chemnitz, occurs a section of crushed conglomer¬
ate intercalated among the gneisses and mica-schists distributed
over that part of Saxony . This appears, from the accounts,
quite analogous to the pebble-bearing beds of the Green Moun¬
tains. I avail myself of a description of this occurrence recently
published by Professor Hughes.f The complete sequence was
not observed, but the vicinity is generally underlaid by musco¬
vite schists and gneissic rocks. At 0 bermittweida, a grey
feldspathic granular rock occurs, with apparently superinduced
schistosity. In this were seen scattered pebbles of felsitic and
quartzose rock which soon became so numerous that the rock
was obviously a coarse conglomerate. “In the conglomerate
were fissile sandy beds which, even when crushed, were quite
unlike the mica-schists which cropped out above and below.’*
According to a diagram given, the series of beds dip about 40Q.

In theorizing on the occurrence, professor Hughes remarks
that “there was plenty of room for, and strong probability of,
a fault along the valley below the section.” “On the whole, I
was inclined to believe,” he says, “from an examination of the
rock in the field, that the conglomerate might belong to quite
newer beds caught in a sharp synclinal fold.” In support of
this conclusion, he says: “The character of the two rocks, that
is, of the gneissic series and the two beds associated with the

*“Ueber Conglomerate in der GlimmerscMefer-formation des S&ch-
sischen Erzgebirge s’ 1 — Zeitschrift Fur die gesammten NaturwissenscJiaften ,
Band lii, S. 706, 1879. The occurrence is noted on the Geologische Special-
karte von Sachen , Massstab 1-25,000, Section Elterlein, nebsit zugehdrigea
Erlaiiterungen. Prof. Justus Roth of Berlin, published a paper on these
conglomerates in 1 888, in Sitzungsberichte der Kgl. Freuss. Akad. der Wis-
sensch. zu Berlin, 1883, (Physikal-mathemat. Klasse,) xxviii, 14 Mai; and
he later mentioned* them in Allgemeine u. Ghemische Geol ,, ii, Bd., S. 427-
428, Berim, 1887. Roth gives a full account, copied from Sauer.

t Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lond. xliv, Feb. 1, 1888, pp. 20-24.

164 Conglomerates in Gneissic Terranes — A. Winchell.

conglomerate, is so different that I am unwilling to admit that
they can both belong to one series and have been subjected to
similar conditions/’ He mentions also, the absence of any
passage from one to the other; the identification of both series
with others known to be discordant to one another, and the
analogy of other similar foldings in, of newer rocks, so as to
produce on the surface the effect of a true sequence. The ex¬
planation was admitted however, to be purely hypothetical. In
the discussion of professor Hughes’ speculation before the Geo¬
logical Society, every one admitted the possibility of an infold¬
ing, and could cite cases in illustration. Mr. Bauerman thought
the explanation offered of the Obermittweida occurrence was
probably the true one. Dr. Geikie mentioned a case of Cam¬
brian conglomerates in Scotland, of which he was reminded,
where there is ua passage from crushed conglomerates and sand¬
stones into mica-schist.”

The Obermittweida conglomerate has been discussed also
microscopically by professor T. S. Bonney.* The matrix of the
conglomerate, though clearly fragmental in origin, suggests
that “a certain amount of metamorphism in situ has taken
place. * * * The gneiss has a superficial resemblance

to this matrix, but is rather more distinctly micaceous.” The
gneiss is quite characteristic and resembles one of the older
Alpine gneisses. The matrix does not give evidence of much
squeezing. It has essentially the constitution of gneiss, but at
the same time, “the fragmental character of the rock is indubi¬
table.” He does not incline to regard it as post-Archaean, but
it is probably long subsequent to the gneiss, and its appearance
of consecutiveness is probably illusory.

Such an explanation, 1 repeat, will not apply to the case of
the Saganaga conglomerate, where the matrix is absolutely of
the same character as the gneiss of the contiguous region.

The German geologists, as would be expected, endeavor gen¬
erally to explain the Obermittweida conglomerate without
recognizing its real fragmental character. Yon Hauer referred
to it as only something like a conglomerate. J. Lehmann says
the pebbles cannot be regarded as rolled stones, notwithstanding
the complete rounding and smoothness of some of them.'* Roth
does not admit the pebbles were included rolled fragments, but

* Quar. Jour. Geol.Soc ., xliv, Feb. 1, 1888, pp. 25-31.

Nat. Science at the Univ. Minn. — N. II. Winchell. 165

refers them to concretionary action. Dr. Sauer, while admitting
the pebbles to be genuine “Gerolle,” holds that the conglom¬
erate is altogether newer than the gneiss, and that it has been
“folded and faulted in.11 Dr Credner suggests however, that
such an explanation should not be advanced as a mere hypothe¬
sis, but ought to have some facts of observation to sustain it.
He gives the occurrence a common sense interpretation when
he says: “Especially significant for the sedimentary origin of
the fundamental gneiss formation is the presence of conglom¬
erates embraced within it.”f In this conception he includes
not only cases where a conglomerate is distinctly embraced in
a gneissic mass, but those where conglomerate terranes alter¬
nate with recognized crystalline masses. “In Canada” he re¬
marks, “we find a complex of beds over 300 meters thick in
which rounded fragments of syenite and diorite, of greater and
less magnitude, are held together by a quartzose binding
medium rich in mica.” uIn Michigan,” he says, “several con¬
glomerates formed of rolled fragments of gneiss, granite and
quartzite are imbedded in an arenaceous talcose groundmass.
In Vermont, is a similar zone of conglomerates; while near
Konigsberg is a conglomeritic sandstone which alternates with
gneisses and fundamental schists.”

The foregoing information has been assembled for the pur¬
pose of placing before geologists a body of little known and less
considered facts which must be brought into account in every
attempt to reproduce the history of the oldest known crystalline
rocks. The facts appear to the writer most intelligible on the
hypothesis of a sedimentary origin of such rocks; but it has not
been his purpose to argue that view except so far as evidence is
supplied by the presence of such conglomerates as have here
been passed in review.

NATURAL SCIENCE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF
MINNESOTA.

By N. H. Winchell.

The universities and colleges of higher grade in the United
States have in many instances begun as classical academies or

* Lehmann Untersuchungen uber die Entstehung dev altkrystallinen
Schiefergesteine , 1884, S. 128.

f Credner, Elemente der Geologic , S. 373.

166 Nat Science at the IJniv. Minn. — N. H. WinchelL

theological training schools for the novitiate of the Christian
ministry. In these schools the natural sciences have had a hard
struggle to reach that recognition which their work and their
disciplinary qualities justly demand. It is not so with those so-
called “western institutions1' that have sprung up spontaneously
under the behest and guidance of the people in their corporate
capacity.

Historical . — When the University of Minnesota was estab¬
lished it was first a territorial institution which had an existence
on paper, and a Board of Regents that soon involved it in debt
for buildings for which it had no use. On the adoption of the
state constitution and the revival of the endowment it was re-
sucitated and opened under better auspices. After a few years
given to “preparatory11 instruction the higher departments were
-organized. The report of the Regents for that year, (1869)
shows that eighty students were then in the “agricultural and
scientific11 course of study, twenty-one in the “German scientific11
course, and fifty-six in the “Latin scientific11 course. There
were at the same time twenty-one in the “classical11 course, and
thirty-three in the “Latin and German11 course. This shows
that even in the preparatory years scientific instruction had be¬
come firmly established, and that in the zeal with which it was
entered upon by the students it had a large preponderance of
their voluntary choice.

The same year Col. W. W. Folwell, a professor in Kenyon
college, Ohio, was elected president. A classical scholar, Mr.
Folwell still had imbibed enough of the spirit of the age from
his practical engineering experience in the army to appreciate
the value of science in a college curriculum. The newly elect¬
ed faculty embraced E. H. Twining, professor of Chemistry and
Natural Science, and Arthur Beardsley, a recent graduate of
the Troy Polytechnic School. Gen. A. D. Robertson was pro¬
fessor of Agriculture. In these earty days a “geological
museum11 was planned for, and a local Minnesota Natural His¬
tory Society was organized, as one of the voluntary institutions
of the University, an agent for conserving and extending the
scientific interests of the institution and of the city, if not of
the state. When, the following year, the plan of organization
of the University, as outlined by president Folwell, was adopted
by the Regents, it was found that scientific work in the Uni-

Nat. Science at the Univ. Minn. — N. H. W incite!! . 167

versitv was not only fully recognized, but its place was made
first in tlie scheme. The main department of the University
instruction was entitled ‘‘Science, Literature and the Arts.11
President Fol well’s plan, while providing for the professional
and literal classes the old college discipline in its best form,
also was calculated to furnish to the industrial classes that
“liberal and practical education” contemplated in the laws
which had conferred upon her a large part of her endowments.
A great number of prominent American educators testified their
approval of this plan. With slight modifications it has re¬
mained to this day, and all the developments which the institu¬
tion has witnessed in its undergraduate course and in its pro¬
fessional schools, have been in general accord with the early
forecasts and recommendations of the first president.

In president Folwell’s second report, dated Dec. 1, 1870, may
be found the first suggestion for a geological survey of the
state under the auspices of the University. “I would respect¬
fully submit the question whether steps might not soon be
taken towards the employment by the state of our scientific in¬
structors in making a complete survey, geological, mineralogical
and topographical, of the state. A prime object on our part
would be the opening of a grand field of practical instruction
for the young men taking scientific courses.” In accordance
with this suggestion the Legislature of 1872 enacted the organic
law of the survey, as drafted by Pres. Folwell. This survey
was begun in the fall of that year and has continued to the
present without interruption.

With the commencement of this survey began the rapid
growth of the museum, and the equipment of the departments
of geology and zoology in the University. The work of the
survey itself was continually expanding. Soon it became neces¬
sary first to separate chemistry from the natural sciences, and
then to divide the department of natural sciences into separate
professorships, requiring the appointment of new men. Where¬
as when the appointment of the state geologist was first made
he was expected to do a certain amount of teaching in the under¬
graduate course in the University, in about six years he was re¬
lieved of this and directed to devote himself entirely to the
supervision of the survey and the museum. At the present
time, in addition to some temporary and one constant assist-

168 Nat. Science at the TJniv. Minn. — N. II. Winckell.

ant on the survey proper, the work which at first was embraced
in the professorship held by the state geologist, has been fur¬
ther divided so that two professors and one instructor are occu¬
pied the greater part of the time on the work that the state
geologist was relieved of. This expansion has been accom¬
panied by a corresponding extension of all the usual and neces¬
sary appliances that are needed for the equipment of scientific
departments. Latterly, however, the lack of room and proper
facilities in the main University building where these depart¬
ments have been accommodated became so pressing that a gen¬
eral demand was made on the Regents, and by the Regents on
the Legislature for a special building adapted to the accommo¬
dation of all the museum and survey collections aud the labori-
tories and lecture rooms of natural science. This building has
been erected at a cost, at present, of about $100,000. It will
require still about $100,000 to finish and furnish it. It prob¬
ably will be occupied in about six months.

The new Science Hall. The aceompauing plate represents
the front of this building. It is constructed of two sorts and
colors of sandstone native to the state. The darker one is used
where in the figure the shaded portions appear. It is the brown
Lake Superior sandstone. The lighter one was obtained from
the gorge of the Kettle river a short distance north and east of
Hinckley. It was examined carefully by the writer and reported
under the name Hinckley sandstone, as a building stone of very
high grade, in the chapter devoted to the building stones of the
state, in Yol. 1 of the final report of the survey in 1882. It
was this first examination of this rock that proved its excellence
and called attention to it. Since then it has been introduced
extensively into the markets of Minneapolis and St. Paul, and
perhaps supplies more material for construction than comes
from any other single point in the state. This result may be
cited as one of the immediate benefits of the survey. Being in
an inhospitable and then inaccessible region it probably would
have remained to this day unnoticed.

The building is 214-J feet long and 77 feet wide, and of fine
architectural appearance. The left end, the more distant from
the reader, is intended for use as a museum with library and
reading room for the use of the professors on the basement
floor. The central portion is divided among the instructional

Foliation and Sedimentation — Lawson.

169

departments of Geology, Biology, Botany, with their lecture
rooms and offices, and the office and laboratory of the geologi¬
cal survey. The mineralogical and biological laboratories of
the respective departments, fitted with tables and apparatus, are
in the end of the building nearer the reader. There is to be,
according to the plan, a school of mines with the necessary con¬
veniences in the same part of the building, the general assay
room being in the basement, and the office and drafting rooms
on the first floor in front.

In the accomplishment of the progress of the University in
these departments daring the past twenty years, briefly rehearsed
above, the chief agent has been, manifestly, that enlightened
public spirit and appreciation t of science which characterizes
generally the communities of the western states. It is evident,
however, that this alone would not effect the result so quickly
unless it be directed by enlightened and judicious administrative
application. The Board of Regents of the University during
this double decade have not been a fluctuating and uncertain
body. Some of the present members have served uninter¬
ruptedly through the whole period, and they have uniformly
been friendly to the development of the scientific aspects of the
institution.

FOLIATION AND SEDIMENTATION.

A Reply to Prof. Alexander Winchell.

By Andrew C. Lawson Ph. D., op the Geol. Survey of Canada.

In the fifteenth annual report of the state geologist of Min¬
nesota, Prof. Alexander Winchell discusses* some considerations
bearing upon the origin and history of the Laurentian gneisses
which were advanced by me in a reportf on the Geology of the
Lake of the Woods.

The criticism came to my notice last spring and as the argu¬
ments put forward in it to show how he “would propose to
overcome Mr. Lawson’s difficulties,” seemed very inadequate to
enable me to overcome the only difficulty which I experienced,
namely, the insuperable one of swallowing the currently ac¬
cepted metamorphic theory, in its application to the Laurentian

* P. 199, et seq.

t Annual report of the Geol. Survey of Canada, 1885, part CC.

170

Foliation and Sedimentation — Lawson.

gneisses of the region in question, I promised a reply. I was
called away to other duties, however, immediately after, and
have not till the present had an opportunity of fulfilling my
promise. Now that the time is at my disposal I shall endeavor,
while gratefully acknowledging the fair and sincere spirit in
which Prof. Winchell has examined and reviewed my work, to
show that many of the contentions advanced by him in opposi¬
tion to my own views are untenable, and that others argue
strongly for and not against the position I have taken. The
question at issue is not merely one of controversial interest, but
is as Prof. W. states of fundamental importance in Archaean
geology.

To state the question fairly I must quote the proposition
which Prof. W. combats in the words in which I first stated it:

“It is highly improbable that the foliation of the gneiss has anything
to do with an original sedimentation. Numerous instances have been cited
in the preceding pages of the brecciated condition of the contact of the
gneiss and schist. Gneissic foliation is seen to have been developed in a
rock, which was once in so liquid or viscid a condition as to permit the
passage through it of angular blocks of schist, to considerable distances
from the source from which they were detached. A rock, to have been in
a state so yielding, must necessarily have had all traces of an original sed¬
imentation, if any such existed, obliterated. Furthermore, the existence
of a well marked foliated structure in dykes which have been injected
within the schist, both parallel and transverse to its lamination, and
which are sometimes traceable in unbroken continuity with the main area
of the gneiss, proves conclusively that such foliation was induced in the
rock subsequent to its having been soft enough to have undergone injec¬
tion, and therefore to have had any traces of sedimentation destroyed. In
other words, the foliation of the granitoid gneisses is developed in rocks
once viscid or plastic, quite independently of any arrangement due to
sedimentation they may or may not Have possessed. This conclusion does
not necessarily imply that the gneiss and schist may not have been origi¬
nally sedimentary and conformable. As a matter of opinion* I incline to
the belief that the granitoid gneisses of the Laurentian were never aqueous
sediments, but the conclusion, which the facts adduced lead to, is independ¬
ent of either the origin of the rocks or their original stratigraphical rela¬
tions. It simply proves that foliation is no indication of sedimentation and
so far as the question of conformity depends upon it there is nothing to
go by.”

This being my position on the question, Prof. W. proceeds to
assail it, and in a categorical series of fourteen propositions to

* I have now abandoned this opinion which was based on the absence of evidence
to the contrary and I have always left myself quite free to recognize that the Lauren¬
tian rocks were once sediments or volcanic rocks or surface rocks of any kind.

Foliation and Sedimentation — Lawson. 171

“summarize briefly the facts which have led him to believe the
foliation of the gneisses sustains a relation of dependence on an
antecedent sedimentary structure.”

I shall deal with these propositions, or the more important
parts of them, seriatim, referring to them by the same numbers
as are given in Prof. W’s. report.*

1. Prof. W. says: 44 The gneissic foliation follows very ex¬
actly the planes of schistic sedimentation. * * . * The fact

is admitted by Mr. Lawson.”

I admit that it is generally true, but in my report I cite ex¬
ceptions where the foliation is transverse or oblique to the
schistosity, and figure cases on pp. 32, and 73. It is one of
those questions where the exceptions are of much more import¬
ance than the rule.

2. Prof.W. says: “No reason can be given for supposing
subsequent foliation would so closely follow the schistic sedi¬
mentation unless a sedimentation had originally existed in the
gneisses strictly conformable with that of the schists.”

There are very excellent reasons. I conceive the foliation of
both the Laurentian gneiss and the Keewatin schist to be due to
the same cause acting on rock matter in two different physical
states. Given a magma crystallizing into a solid with extreme
slowness, and passing through a thickly viscid stage prior to
final solidification; and given in contact with this, a solid rock
either of sedimentary or volcanic origin, and the whole sub¬
jected, while confined at great depths, to enormous pressures, so
that the solid rock was not only folded on the large scale but
^sheared in its minute structure, and the crystallizing magma
caused to flow in response to the same pressures, we would have
eventually, as the result, the very conditions which we find to¬
day at the contact of the Laurentian and Keewatin.

In the same paragraph, speaking of the schists Prof. W.

* In the preliminary portion of his criticism Prof. W. makes two mis¬
statements which, although apart from the main question at issue, it may
be as well for me to correct. He states that the Keewatin series of the
Lake of the Woods “is completely isolated from other schists.” I state in
my report (p. 61, CC) that “it occupies an area which presents the appear¬
ance of an almost isolated patch;” and show both elsewhere in my report
and in my map that the area is continuous with similar rocks to the S. E.
Prof. W. also states that with me “the sheets interbedded with the horn¬
blende schists are dykes and belong to a later age and a different mode of
geological action.” This is a misunderstanding. I have never entertained
any such opinion nor in any way given expression to it.

172

Foliation and Sedimentation — Lawson .

states that “the foliated structure as everyone knows follows
closely the planes of the original bedding.”

This again is a rule to which there are very numerous and
important exceptions, and many dykes and other masses of un¬
bedded rocks have been shown to possess an eminently schistose
structure. Both in bedded rocks and in dykes the planes of
schistosity may make any angle with the strike although they
are commonly parallel to it.

3. Prof. W. says: “The gneisses and crystalline schists are
cognate in composition as well as in structure.”

This is true of some gneisses, so-called in the indiscriminate
application of this word, but not true of the granite gneiss of
the Lake of the Woods, or of most of the Lauren tian gneiss of
Central Canada which I have seen, except in some cases, in
which, as any rock may be, they appear to have been sheared
and rendered schistose over and above any foliation they may
have had originally. Then their structure may be said to be
“cognate” with that of some schists. I cannot regard the horn¬
blende schists which prevail at the base of the Keewatin as
“cognate” in composition with the granite gneiss of theLauren-
tian except in the very wide sense that all rocks are cognate
in composition.

4. Prof. W. says: “If the gneisses possessed a very different
mineralogical constitution, that would not forbid the reference
of their parallel planes of metamorphism to similar causes.”

This proposition as it stands is quite incomprehensible and I
cannot therefore discuss it.

5. Prof. W. says: “It seems eminently improbable that the
gneissic beds intercalated in the schists should be of the nature
of dykes.”

I am sorry for this eminently improbable aspect of things,
but it is an aspect which many truths have when they are first
considered, and one for which in this particular case I cannot
hold myself responsible.

The intrusive or injected character of the gneiss at the con¬
tact with the schists is proved conclusively by the field evidence
stated and figured on p. 76. Figs. 10 and 11 are not weakened
by an exclamation mark, or by a page of them. Preconceived
notions of improbability are but poor arguments to array against
explicit facts. All the evidence whereby an igneous rock of any

Foliation and Sedimentation — Lawson.

173

age is known to be intrusive is available here, and to the un¬
prejudiced mind its validity is at once apparent.

The number of the gneissic sheets, their parallelism due to
their penetrating along the lines of fission of the schists, and
the sometimes slender partitions of schist between them, all of
which are cited as arguments against the injected character of
the gneissic sheets, have absolutely no weight in disproving
their injected character. There is nothing in the conditions
cited which is at all incompatible with a process of injection of
a viscid magma within a shattered schistose rock under the
great pressure which existed at such depths.

6. Prof. W. says: “Fragments of gneiss very frequently
occur in the schists. Hence the gneiss is older than the schists
and could not have been injected into them.” This statement
is of considerable importance, and I reserve any extended com¬
ment upon it till more fully informed as to the precise nature
of the conditions alluded to. The identity of the fragments of
the gneiss in the schist with the ordinary gneiss of the country
should be established in order to make the argument effective;
and then the question should be investigated as to whether the
schists in question are really of Archaean age, or, as Irving con¬
ceived the Vermilion schists to be, of a later age, such as the
equivalent of the Animikie, which is clearly post- Archaean. In
the Huronian of lake Huron there are boulders of gneiss in the
conglomerates but according to Irving the Huronian is post-
Archaean. I have seen boulders of granite in the conglomerates
of the schists of the region with which I am familiar, but none
of gneiss; and have regarded them as probably derived from the
floor upon which the upper Archaean rocks of the region were
first laid down, but which by subsequent fusion and recrystal¬
lization gave rise to the Laurentian, which is so clearly newer
than the upper Archaean though underlying it. Included
boulders or pebbles of gneiss might have a similar origin, and
if proved to exist in the upper Archaean, through which the
Laurentian is intrusive, we would be forced to assign some such
origin to them.

7. Prof. W. says : “ The gneissic fragments in the overlying
schist have their planes of foliation in all positions regardless
of the bedding of the schist. If the schistic bedding controlled
the foliation of the gneiss immediately below it would be able
to control that of the gneiss bodily enclosed.”

174 Foliation and Sedimentation — Lawson.

This is by no means a logical inference, even if the premise
were altogether sound, as it is not. It very commonly happens
in conglomerates which have been subjected to pressure, that
the enclosed pebbles or boulders, being much harder or more
resistant than the matrix, do not yield while the matrix be¬
comes intensely sheared and schistose, and even flows around
the pebbles leaving a triangular space, often filled with infil¬
trated quartz, in the lee or wake of the pebble. Thus pebbles
are arranged with their long axes approximately parallel to the
planes of schistosity, without reference to any foliated structure
that may exist in them; except in so far that the foliated struct¬
ure is usually a factor in determining the position of the long
axes. The pebbles (none of them gneiss to my own knowledge)
existed as such in the conglomerates of the Keewatin, at a time
when the Lauren tian granite gneiss below was in a magmatic
condition. The “schistic bedding” did not altogether control
the foliation of the gneiss. The confines of the areas of schists
are usually parallel to the cleavage of the schists; and it is only
where such cleavage confines ha\e determined a plane of flow in
the crystallizing magma that the foliation of the gneiss is
parallel to the cleavage of the schists. This is the common
case. But frequently the schists have been shattered and then
the foliation of the gneiss is as often as not transverse to the
cleavage of the schists.

8. Prof. W. says : “ The foliation of the gneisses diminishes
as the distance from the schists increases.” I find the reverse
to be very distinctly the case in the northern portion of the
Rainy Lake region, where abroad zone of rudely foliated syenitic
gneiss very constantly intervenes between the base of the Kee¬
watin series and the more evenly foliated biotite gneisses; so that
no such general rule as the above can be laid down; and Prof.
W’s. inference as to the foliation being inversely as the amount
of alteration, together with the various corallaries in the same
paragraph, have again only an imaginary not a logical con¬
nection with the facts.

9. Prof. W. says : “The adj ustment of planes of foliation to
foreign fragments as seen in the wrappings of their folia about
masses of schist reveals the tendency of the foliation to assume
relations to external material conditions.”

This is a very good answer to the objection in paragraph two

Foliation and Sedimentation — Lawson. 175

which I have quoted above. For, the great belts of schistose
rocks, like that of the Lake of the Woods, are just as truly
foreign fragments in the gneiss, only on a grand scale, as are
the smaller inclusions along the shattered confines of those
belts. The limits of these schist belts are, as I have stated,
usually schist planes and because of “the tendency of the folia¬
tion to assume relations to external material conditions'’1 due to
differential pressure and consequent flow against these limiting
schist planes, it cannot be urged as Prof. W. urges that “no
reason can be given for supposing subsequent foliation would
so closely follow the schistic sedimentation etc.”

By the way, Prof. W. is strangely silent as to how these
“foreign fragments” became imersed in the gneiss.”

10. Prof. W. says : “ Injected veins do not prove the igneous
origin of the whole gneissic mass.” Taken in connection
with the inclusion of • the innumerable more or less angular
fragments of the overlaying schist in the gneiss, near the con¬
tact, and often at considerable distances from it, and also in
connection with the excessive metamorphism of the schists at
the contact, such ‘veins’ certainly do prove the igneous origin
of the whole igneous mass. “Nor” he continues, “do they prove
a completely igneous condition of any part of it — but only a
softened state, which, as we know, might be produced at a tem¬
perature far below that of igneous fluidity.”

We know nothing of the kind. We have yet to learn that
rock forming crystals, or an aggregate of such crystals, may be
softened by any temperature so that they will flow without
losing their crystallinity. Rocks or rock forming crystals may
be crushed to any grade of fineness and made to flow in a solid
condition by intense shearing or friction of the constituent
parts one upon another, and so become very schistose, and have
new minerals developed from the decomposition of the original
constituents; but it is a fallacious notion that rocks may be
softened in any other sense, so as to flow and still retain the
individuality of their constituent crystals. When that indi¬
viduality is lost at high temperatures, whether the result be a
state of “igneous fluidity” or a thickly viscid, or even colloidal
state by reason of the pressure, the only term we have for the
change is fusion, or hydro-thermal fusion; and we have a mag¬
ma, which, on recrystallizing, gives rise to a new rock devoid of

176 Foliation and Sedimentation — Lawson.

the evidence of shearing which is so common in the schists.

11. Prof. W. says: “The foliation often seen in veins * *
may in many cases sustain a relation to the earlier sedimenta¬
tion planes of the closely contiguous rock with which the vein
is in continuity.”

There is precisely the same proof that the granite gneiss has
passed through a magmatic condition in which every trace of
sedimentation must necessarily have been obliterated, as holds
in the case of ordinary granite of Devonian or any other post-
Archaean age. Any injection that could take place with the
retention of traces of sedimentation would necessarily shew the
evidence of the shearing and deformation, and not possess the
structure of granites as the veins in question do.

“If vein foliation were quite independent of a previous bedded
condition of the matter — as is doubtless the case in foliated
veins of igneous origin, etc.”

How does Prof. W. distinguish between foliated veins of
igneous origin and veins of foliated granite which penetrate and
cut the schists? Precisely those characters which determined
a vein to be of igneous origin, loudly asserted the origin of the
veins of Laurentian gneiss.

12. “ It is admitted that the gneiss during the period of its
metamorphosia was probably in a pasty condition though we
have no proof that the blocks of schist were very far trans¬
ported in it. Some limited, deeper seated portions may have
approached a state of igneous fluidity.”

This admission practically allows my whole contention if the
word “pasty” be properly defined. The meanings it may have
are limited in number. It may mean (1) a mechanical mixture
of rock matter, as such, and water, in which any crystalline con-
stituents of the rock still retain their crystalline individuality
however much comminuted. (2) A thickly viscid solution of
rock matter in a small portion of water which could only take
place at very high temperatures, and in which the constituents
of the rock have lost their individuality and have merged into a
common magma, which process is termed hydro-thermal fusion
or aqueo-igneoqs fusion, or (3) absolutely dry fusion, which
many facts warrant us in believing, is very rare in nature.
There is no evidence whatever that granites or granite gneisses
ever crystallized from such a mechanical paste as (1), and its

Foliation and Sedimentation — Lawson.

177-

existence at great depths, under high pressure and temperatures
is directly at variance with our knowledge or deductions as te
the probable behavior of matter under- such conditions. These
rocks must therefore on Prof. W’s. admission have crystal¬
lized from a magma; and as we have abundant evidence of
small quantities of water in the rocks themselves, we are forced
to recognize some sort of hydro-thermal fusion. The sooner
the well defined line which exists in nature between rock meta¬
morphism and fusion is recognized by geologists, and the for¬
mer understood to stop where the latter begins, the better for
the progress of investigation in Arcligean geology.

Another admission whereby Prof. W. places himself at one
with myself is his statement that “we are at liberty to assume
for portions of the gneisses any degree of fluidity which observed
phenomena seem to indicate; and yet, for the great body of the
gneisses recognize such a history as is indicated most plainly
by the general tenor of the most accessible facts.”

The facts -which prove the fluidity thus admitted are for the
most part observed at the top of the Lauren tian, and it is ad¬
mitted that the conditions inducing fusion were more intense in
still deeper portions, although with increasing pressure the
fluidity was perhaps less. At great depths the absence of
brecciated fragments of the overlying schists, and of injected
sheets and dikes renders the intrusive character of the gneiss
less apparent; but the absolute identity of the rock with rocks
known to be irruptive, and the unbroken continuity of the deep
portions with the intrusive portions at the contact with the
overlying schists, is sufficient proof that the admission which
Prof. W. makes for portions of the mass. is applicable to the
whole.

13. Prof. W. says : “ Some of the difficulties experienced by
geologists, especially German geologists and their followers, in
admitting a former sedimentary condition of most gneisses and
granites arises, probably, from too narrow a conception of geo¬
logical history.”

As to the difficulties alluded to I have, I think, made it suf¬
ficiently clear that I experience none in admitting the possibility
of a former sedimentary condition for the Laurentian gneiss,
and in one of my later papers I have advanced considerations
in favor of probability of such a view. The only difficulty I

178

The Newark System — Russell.

experience is, as l have stated, in accepting the metam orphic
theory in its application to rocks which are plainly irruptive,
whatever may have been their condition prior to the fusion
which enabled them to become irruptive. As to the class of
geologists who are alleged to experience such difficulties, and to
the narrowness of conception with which they are alleged to be
afflicted, I may say for myself, that while I admire greatly the
truly scientific spirit of German research and find it, so far as I
know it suggestive of the broadest principles, I am neither a
German geologist, nor a follower of German geologists, nor one
of those who believe that wisdom will die with German
geologists. If I must be placed with any school of geology, I
stand as a humble disciple of the glorious school of British
geology, whose founder was the immortal Hutton, the teacher
of the broadest conception of geological history ever penned:
uIn the economy of the world I can find no traces of a begin¬
ning, no prospect of an end.” With this conception, modified
only by cosmical considerations, the discovary of the younger
age of the Laurentian granite gneisses, relatively to the overly¬
ing schists ©f the upper Archaean, is in entire harmony; and
completes the proof of those great cycles in the evolution of the
earth’s crust which the genius of Hutton first descried.

THE NEWARK SYSTEM.

By Israel C. Russell.

While writing a review of the Triassic and Jurassic systems
of North America I have recently had occasion to re-examine
the literature relating to the red sandstone and associated shale
and conglomerate along the Atlantic coast which are common¬
ly referred to as New Red Sandstone, Triassic, Jura-Trias, etc.

The distribution of these rocks is well known; they occur
about the bay of Fundy, in the Connecticut valley, and in de¬
tached areas from southern New York to South Carolina, and
include the Richmond coal-field and the coal bearing strata on
Deep river and Dan river in North Carolina.

The terranes here designated have been referred to many
horizons in the geological column varying from the Silurian to
the Jurassic, as is indicated in the following table in which the

The Newark System — Russell. 179

opinions of various geologists respecting their European equiva¬
lents* are briefly designated:

The rocks referred to in the table are a unit in American
geology and form a well defined system which is limited above
and below by great unconformities. Fossils occur in abundance
at certain localities but as yet have not been found at enough
horizons in the various areas to establish subordinate divisions.
This has been attempted, however, and not only have numerous
subdivisions been proposed but various fossiliferous layers have
been correlated on the strength, in some instances, of a very
few fossils, with various terranes in Europe. At other times

Names and correlations applied to the whole or portions of the
Newark System.

1820

1832

1833

1 835

1836
1839

1839

1842

1842

1843
1843

1843

1844
1847
1847
1847

1849

1850

1851
1851
1853

1856

1856

1856

1856

185

1856

1857
1857

1857

1858
1858

NAME USED.

Nutt all, F .

Hitchcock, E...

Olmsted, D .

Hitchcock, E....

Taylor, R. C .

Redfleld, J.H...

Old Red Sandstone _ Maclure, W..

Old Red Sandstone. . . .
Old Red Sandstone and

Coal formation .

Freestone and Coal
formation of Orange
and Chatham [N.C.]
New Red Sandstone....

Carboniferous .

Lias [?] .

Middle Secondary

Strata . .

Middle Secondary

Strata .

Secondary Formation

Keuper .

New Red Sandstone....
Old Red Sandstone and

Coal Measures . .

Oolite .

New Red Sandstone..
Triassic or Jurassic ....
Permian or Triassic....
Inferior Oolite?

Keuper or Lias.

Silurian .

New Red Sandstone....
Post Permian .

New Red Sandstone or

Keuper _

Jurassic _

Near the Lias of Eu

rope .

Trias or New Red

Sandstone . .

Oolitic .

Newark Group ......

Triassic and J urassic...
Trias and Permian

Jurassic .

Keuper .

Chatham Series .

Keuper . .

lias .

Mesozoic Red Sand-

Rogers; H.D....

Rogers, W. B. ..
Peicival,T.G...
Rogers, W. B....
Mather, W. W.

Cozzens, I .

Rogers, W. B
Silliman, B...
Bunsbury C.J,F

Lyell, C .

Lyell, C .

Marcou, J. .
Jackson, C.T...
Agassiz, L...
Redfleld, W.C...

Marcou, J .

Rogers, W.B..

. . Jackson, C.T..

Hitchcock, E..
Hitchcock, E..
Redfleld, W. C.

Dana,J.D .

Emmons, E....
Rogers, H. D..

Heer, O .

Emmons, E....

Lyell, C .

Agassiz, L .

PLACE OF PUBLICATION.

Am. Philo. Soc. Phila., Trans. Vol. 1, n.
s,p.20, and map.

Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., Jour. Vol. 2, p. 37
Am. Jour. Sci. [1] Vol. 6, pi. op. 86.

Rep. Geol. North Carolina, p. 12.

Rep. Geol. Massachusetts, p. 206.

Geol. Soc. Pa. Trans., Vol. 1, p, 294.
Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y., Ann. Vol. 41.

Third Annual Rep. Geol. Pa., p. 12.

Geol. of Virginia, p. 74.

R. p. Geol. Connecticut.

Amer. Jour. Sci. [11 Vol. 43. p. 175.
Rep. Geol. of New York, part iv, p 293 .

Geol. Hist, of Manhattan, p.43.

Amer. Assoc. Geol. Nal., Trans., p. 298.

“ “ “ Proc., pp. 14, 15.

Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Lond. , v.3, p.288.

275.

‘ “ “ “ “ “ 278-280

Geol. Soc. France, Bull., Vo1. 6. p. 575.
Am. Jour. Sci. [1] Vol. 3, p. 335.

Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Proc., Vol. 5, p.46.
“ “ “ “ “ “ p. 45.

Geol. Map of North America.

Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc., v. 5, p. 14.

Am. Jour. Sci [1] Vol. 5, p. 186.

Outlines of Geol. of the Globe, p. 96.

“ “ “ “ Map.

Am. Jour. Sci. [1] Vol. 22, p. 357.

“ “ “ “ “ p. 357,

Geol. Rep. North Carolina, p. 273.

Geol. Map of U. S., Johnson’s Phys. Atlas.
Geol. of North Am. by J. Marcou, p. 16.
Am. Geol., Pt. vi. p. 19.

Cited by J. Marcou .n Geol. of N. Am. p. 16
,. « <• “ *• p. 15

180

The Newark System — Bussell

Date.

NAME USED.

AUTHOR.

PLACE OF PUBLICATION.

1859

1860
1861
1866
1866

stone
[ Refers various por- ]

| tion of the system !
1 to Trias, Keuper [

[and Jurassic . J

Between the New >
Red Sandstone and V

the Oolite . }

Mesozoic or New Red
Sandstone.

Trias

1868

186E
1871
1 87 p
1878
1878

1878

1878

1879
1 S79
1879

1879

1882

1883

1884

Jurassic

Triassic formation )
also Triassic or bed >

Sandstone Age . }

Triassic Period.

Trias

Triassic .

Mesozoic Formation..
Trias or New Red sand¬
stone . .

Triassic .

Jura-Trias .

Triassieo-Jurassic .

Jurasso-Trassic .

Amer. New Red sand¬
stone .

Rhaetic or Younger .

Triassic . .

Older Mesozoic .

1883 Rhaetic .

1883 Triassic .

1884 Jurasso-Triassic .

1 f Lower Jurassic ]

] passing downward J-
l into Triassic . J

1885 Triassic or Mesozoic. ...

1886 Tria-Jurassic

Tyson, P. T .

Hall, J. and W.

E. Logan .

Daddow, S. H.
and Bannon.B
Lyell.C .

Cook, G. H..

1886

iTriassic..

Lesley, J. P . .

Chapin, J. II .

Hitchcock C H

1887 Trias . Emeson.B. K...

1888jTriassic . Newberry, J. S.

Rogers, H.D..
Marcou, J .

Agassiz, L..

Dana, J. D .

Lyell, C . .

Kerr, W.C .

Heinrich, O. J..

Dawson, J.W...

Russel, I. C .

LeConte, J .

Dana. J. D .

Rogers, W. B....

Frazer, P .

Fontaine, W.M,

Geikie, A. . .

Fontaine, W.M,
Fontaine, W.M.

Davis, W. M .

McGee, W. J .

Hotchkis,Jed...

Geol. of Pennsylvania, 4 to Vol. 2, p.667.
Geol. of North Am. pp. 10-13 and Map.

Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc., Vol. 4,p. 276.

First Rep. on Agr. Chem., Maryland, map

Geol. Map of Canada, [etc.]

Coal, Iron and Oil, p. 895.

Elem. of Geol., 6 ed., p. 451.

Geol. of New Jersey, p. 173.

Manual of Geol., p. 411.
students’ Elem. of Geol,, p. 361.

Rep. Geol. of North Carolina, p. 116.
Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., Tran. v. 6, p.227.

Acadian Geol., 3d ed. p. 86.

N. Y. Acad. Sci., Ann , Vol. 1, p. 220.
Elem. of Geol., p. 439.

Amer. Jour. Sci., [3] v. 17, p. 330.
Macfarlane’s Railway Guide, p. 180.

Amer. Nat., v. , p. 284.

Amer. Jour. Sci., [3] Vol. 17, p. 39.
Text Book of Geol., p. 770.

Monograph, No. vi, U. S. Geol. Survey.

Mus., Comp. Zool., Bull., Vol. 7, No. 9.
5th Ann. Rep. , U. S. Geol. Surv. , pi. 2.

[Reprint of Roger’s Ann. Rep., etc. of Vir¬
ginia.] Map.

Geol. Atlas of Pennsylvania, v. x. p. vii.
Meriden Sci. Assoc., Proc., Vol. 2, p. 23.
Am. Ins. Min. Eng., Trans., Vol. 15, pi. op.
p. 486.

Gazetteer of Hampshire E. Mass., p. 18.
Monograph, No. xiv, U. S. Geol. Survey.

mere lithological resemblances to rocks in distant countries
have been used as a basis for correlation. The futility of these
attempts is indicated by the confusion of names and of opinions
that has arisen. Judging from the relations of this system to
associated terranes as well as from the most recent investigations
of its fossils, it seems evident that as a whole it may reasonably
be correlated in a general way, with the Jurassic and Triassic
systems of Europe. To attempt a more minute correlation at
the present time does not seem warranted.

The desirability of a commonly acceptable name for this sys¬
tem is sufficiently obvious, if for no other reason than conven¬
ience in discussing its relation to other terranes. The question
is, what name shall be used? The diversity of opinion regard¬
ing its relation to European rocks renders it evident that a name

The Newark System— Russell.

181

implying correlation will not meet with general acceptance.
More than this, to express my own opinion, it does not seem
desirable that widely separated terranes should be considered as
strictly synchronous on the strength of palaeontological evidence
simply.

The first consideration that should guide a geologist in select¬
ing a name for a series of rocks should evidently be to avoid all
terms which imply a greater knowledge of the relations of the
rocks or of their constancy in lithological or other characters,
than is warranted by the facts in hand . A name which simply
indicates the object referred to has great advantages in a rapidly
advancing science like geology. The length of a name, its
euphony, etc., also claim consideration.

On examining the table given above it will be seen that with
the exception of names used to designate special areas as the
“Richmond coalfield11 or the “Freestone and coal formation of
Orange and Chatham,11 for example, only one name has been
advanced which does not imply correlation. The name referred
to is the “Newark Group11 proposed by W. C. Redfield in 1856.

In giving this name the following language was used:* — “I
propose the latter designation [Newark group] as a convenient
name for these rocks [the red sandstones extending from New
Jersey to Virginia] and to those of the Connecticut valley, with
which they are thoroughly identified by footprints and other
fossils, and 1 would include also, the contemporaneous sandstones
of Virginia and North Carolina.11

The term “group” having been used by the International
Congress of Geologists to denote a larger division than Redfield
included under it, the word “ system 11 may be substituted for
it with propriety. I propose, therefore, that the name Newark
system be used to designate the rocks of the Atlantic slope re¬
ferred to above.

Rv adopting a name which does not imply correlation it is
not intended to throw doubt on any of the classifications that
have been made, but the scarcity of fossils, particularly of in¬
vertebrates, in the Newark system as well as the great diversity
of opinions regarding its position in geological history, demands
the adoption of a name which does not imply more than is defi¬
nitely known concerning it.

* Amer. J^nr. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 22, 1856, p. 357 ; and also in Proc. Amer.
Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. 10. Albany meeting, 1856, p. 181.

182 Mr. Forster on Earthquakes-— Salisbury.

In giving the Newark system a specific name all expression
of relationships with other terranes in this country implied in
the names heretofore in common use, is avoided. Certain por¬
tions of this system may be more or less definitely correlated
with portions of the Red Beds of the Rocky Mountain region,
but to say that the Newark system as a whole is synchronous
with the Red Beds, or with the Red Beds and the intimately as¬
sociated Jurassic rocks, is to carry inference far in advance of
observation.

I also claim an absolute divorce of the rocks of the Newark
system from the copper-bearing rocks of Lake Superior, and
from the red sandstone of Maine and New Brunswick with
which they have sometimes been correlated. Whether the rocks
just referred to are closely related in age to the Newark system
or not is immaterial at present, as they are mentioned simply
as examples of what is not included under the name here pro¬
posed.

MR. FORSTER ON EARTHQUAKES*

By R. D. Salisbury.

Somewhat more than a year ago Mr. W. G. Forster, manager
and electrician to the Eastern Telegraph Company, Zante, is¬
sued a somewhat lengthy paper (68 pp.) on Seismology, which
seems not to have attracted that attention to which it is entitled.
Some of the foreign periodicals spoke slightingly of the paper,
though failing, at the same time, to give an adequate idea of its
contents. This was perhaps not to be wondered at, since that
portion of the paper which is of especial interest — the record of
Mr. Forsters own observations — is prefaced by a lengthy dis¬
cussion concerning the theory of earthquakes, which seems not
to have found much favor, and which has perhaps deterred re¬
viewers from a complete perusal of the paper. The facts which
Mr. Forster records, are however, of so much importance, that
it seems fitting to give them wide circulation through the
columns of an American journal.

Located in the midst of a region where seismic disturbances
are frequent and often severe, and holding an official position

* Seismology. A paper on earthquakes in general, together with a new
theory of their origin, developed by the introduction of submarine teleg¬
raphy. London, 1887.

Mr. Forster on Earthquakes — Salisbury. 188:.

which gives him exceptional opportunities for observation, it is
not strange that Mr. Forster is able to contribute some facts of
great importance to the theory of earthquakes. Some of these
facts, so far as possible in the words of the author, are here re¬
produced. That the language in which they are recorded may
be the better understood, the hypothesis which they are thought
by the author to support, may be briefly indicated by a few
citations.

The irregularities of the bed of the Mediterranean are, as is
well known, very considerable. “In many parts a difference of
depth equal to 2,000 feet has been found between the bow and
stern soundings.” * * “We know of mushroom-shaped

mountain ranges, abrupt and precipitous table-lands, immense
marginal shelves and overhanging cliffs, many of which do not
form part and parcel of the earth’s upper crust, but are divided
from it by beds of firm ooze or clay. Now, all these idiosyn¬
crasies of the surface must become eventually levelled down.
We know, by soundings, that many of these tottering masses
are hanging over precipices from 3,000 to 5,000 feet in depth,
and that the erosion of the water at the base of the inverted
cone-shaped rocks, eventually, causes them to slip over in this
very natural course of levelling down.” After referring to like
irregularities of bottom in other seas, Mr. Forster further says
“We know that the form of these (submarine elevations) is pre¬
cisely inverse to our terrestrial mountain peaks and sharply
pointed ranges, and we also know that both mechanical and
chemical action erode them at their base, then loosen them, and
finally hurl them over to the abysses below.” The same idea is
still further emphasized by the following: “From the few in¬
stances which have been obtained by soundings, we have actual
proof afforded us that the sinuosities of this (sub-marine) sur¬
face are most remarkable and erratic, and that they receive
vast deposits, produced by the various existing currnets, and
that their bases (that is, the bases of the sub-marine elevations
and ledges,) suffer erosion, or become honey-combed, as it were,,,
in the lapse of geological time; that also they eventually fall
over, are levelled down and become homogeneous masses. All
this is exhaustively proven by the known condition of the cen¬
tral beds of our ocean.” In these unstable elevations the author
thinks we have “the true and only reason for seismic disturb-.

184 Mr. Forster on Earthquakes — Salisbury.

ances. * * * The steeper the angle of these irregular¬

ities of the oceans’ beds, the more frequent are the earthquake
shocks.”

It is not the purpose of this notice to discuss the hypothesis
advanced, but from these citations it is clear that Mr. Forster
believes earthquakes to be due to the toppling over of unstable
sub-marine mountains, or to landslides from their precipitous
slopes. Landslides from the steep slopes of islands or the main¬
land, would of course produce the same result.

In support of this hypothesis the following facts are given;
and it is these which give especial importance to the paper un¬
der review:

1. On the 26th day of October, 1873, a very violent shock
of earthquake took place in Zante . “At the moment the shock
occurred the cable between Zante and Trepito, the landing place
opposite, broke, and the distance of the break was found to be
seven miles from the Zante office.

“When this cable was repaired some time afterwards, it was
discovered that the break had occurred in a depth of about 2,-
000 feet of water, where about 1,400 feet originally existed, and
it was impossible to haul in the broken end, firmly jammed
down by the mass which had fallen over and upon it; in fact,
nearly a mile of the cable had to be abandoned for this reason,
and a fresh piece of that length laid instead.

2. “In. the year 1878” a violent shock of earthquake was felt

in Messina, extending from the Grulf of Calamata to Navarino,
and slightly felt in Crete and in Zante. At the same time that
the shock occurred the cable between Zante and Canea broke at
a distance of 137 miles from the former island and 101 from
Canea. It was a peculiar break and all my tests taken to local¬
ize the fault failed to alter the distance; yet when the repairing
ship tested from the Cretan end the distance appeared to be 139
and 99 knots respectively. * * * In the end it turned

out that the cable had been broken in two different places, *
* * at the moment the ground fell away, and for a distance

of about two miles; and so irregular and uneven was the bottom
then found to be, (between the two breaks) that a detour was
made and the cabledengthened by five or six miles, to avoid any
further chances of breakage.”

3. On the 28th of March, 1885, “a prolonged shock came

Mr. Forster on Earthquakes — Salisbury. 185

roiling up to Zante from the south, lasting nearly forty seconds.
It began with a very slight force, gradually increasing to a
fairly smart shock, and then died away. # * * Soon

after this we observed that the hitherto perfect cable between
Zante and the island of Crete appeared to be faulty, thus inter¬
fering with the work, and when the next morning a clerk pro¬
ceeded to the Canea cable-house to arrange for my tests, I found
that, although not entirely broken, it had been very seriously
damaged.” The sea bottom where this injury to the cable oe-
cum d is exceedingly irregular. Outside Sapienza, to the north r
the sea has an average depth of only 700 feet, hut a little to the
westward uit suddenly falls into 4,000, and even into 10,000
feet.” * * # “For a space of about 150 square miles;

there appears to he a vast depression, averaging 9,000 feet in
depth, rising abruptly and precipitously towards the coast line.
It was in the center of this depression that our repairing ship
found the extraordinary difference of 1,500 feet between the
bow and stem soundings.” In this instance Mr. Forster thinks
that “a considerable mass of matter had fallen directly upon it,
(the cable) as the subsidence came shelving down from some
2,000 feet into a depth of 8,000, and had crushed it without
actually fracturing it.”

4. “On December 7th, 1885, a long undulating shock, of
slight intensity, was felt in Zante and its direction was decidedly
from the west northwest, dust after the shock our Zante-
Corfu cable, which passes along the channel dividing Zante
from Cephalonia and thence out to the westward of the latter
island, was found to be faulty, the fault being within one mile
of the Zante shore, off Cape Krionaro, in a depth of only about
800 feet of water. The cable was not entirely broken, but either
badly crushed or strained by an uprising, or more probably by
a subsidence of the bottom in our old earthquake ground, in
the channel between the northwest of Zante and the southeast
of Cephalonia. It eventually, however, gave out, as in the pre¬
vious cases, and it was found advisable, on repairing it, to lay
in a new shore end of one knot, up to and beyond the fracture.
Whilst waiting for the arrival of onr repairing ship I ex¬
amined the cable from a boat with the aid of a sea telescope, as
it lay on the bottom of the sea, the water being very clear, and
I followed it for a distance of about 400 or 500 yards from the

186 Mr. Forster on Earthquakes — Salisbury.

shore, ere the depth of water prevented my further examination .

I was very surprised to see that a short way out the cable had
been lifted clear away from its original bed, which, owing to
the bottom being of smooth limestone and for some distance
out quite as level as a street pavement, showed the impress of
its own weight, which had been made during the fifteen years
it had lain there undisturbed, and quite two feet west of its new
position, about 300 yards from the coast, in thirty-six feet of
water; the cable looked as if it had been bent downwards, but
it was not possible to verify this; however, it was most interest¬
ing to observe the extraordinary condition of the level limestone
rock at this point. Everybody knows the peculiar appearance
a large pane of glass has when fractured. In the center there
is a hole of varying size, whilst the cracks radiate from that
center in all directions. So it was here with the rocky bottom,
and exactly in the place where the cable originally lay , a large
hole of some two feet in diameter, in which no bottom at sixty
feet dould be found, now existed, and the rock all round was
fractured as just described.”

5. On the 15th day of August, 1886, there was a severe
earthquake shock, the exact centrum of which “was in the sea,
twenty-three miles from the port of Zante, between the island
of Strophades and the Gulf of Arcadia. The concussion caused
by the vast subsidence seemed to be felt the most severely be¬
tween Trepito Point, opposite Zante, and the island of Sapienza,
to the south. It reached Zante with a long, swaying motion,
increasing to a maximum after fifteen seconds, and dying away
at the end of forty seconds from its first commencement. Zante
divided the waves of vibration, part of them travelling along
the sea by the northern channel and reproducing a correspond¬
ing echo in Patras, Missolongi and that neighborhood, whilst
other waves passed to the west of Zante, in the direction of
Corfu. * * * To the south the shock seemed to have

been somewhat arrested by the rocky island of Sapienza, and
the line of mountains behind Filiatra also reduced its intensity
before reaching Calamata. The flat island of Strophades, only
a few feet above the level of the sea, felt the shock with terrific
force. *' * * At the moment the shock occurred one

of the employes in the Zante telegraph office was in the act of
receiving a message from Candia by the Zante-Oretaa cable, and

Mr. Forster on Earthquakes — Salisbury. 187

of course, the fright made him rush out of the office with the
others, for safety ; seeing, however, that the house was totally
undamaged, the staff soon returned, and on examining the band
still running from the Morse instrument, it was seen that the
signals went wrong and ceased entirely at the moment of the
shock. I was immediately advised of this by telephone, and
before almost the lamps and other suspended articles had ceased
swaying I had the cable end on my testing apparatus and local¬
ized a dead break at the distance already named, which was
•equal to 25.5 cable knots, or twenty-three miles from this, the
port of Zante. All this was absolutely defined within a few
moments of the shock’s commencement. * * *

“On proceeding to grapple for the broken ends, the repairing
ship found that to the south of the break the bottom suddenly
increased in depth from 4,500 to 5,800 feet, and slightly to the
westward nearly 7,000 feet were found. The fault (break in
the cable) came in from a depth of 5,800 feet.” Concerning
this break it is further stated “that for a length of six miles
north and south, and directly along the cable’s course, the whole
of this level bottom (on which the cable had lain)had either slid
over into a greater depth or had sunk by its weight over some
cavernous spaces. I am more inclined to favor the opinion, that
towards the westward this bank, 4,500 feet in depth had origi¬
nally almost as precipitous a slope into deep water as it has to
the south, off Proti, (where the depth suddenly increased from
4,500 to 10,000 feet) and that the cable was lying within a few
inches of the actual margin of this bank, which fell over to¬
ward the west into very deep water.” Mr. Forster further
reasons that “not a shadow of doubt exists that this landslip
broke the cable, because it was firmly jam pied down for a con¬
siderable length and could not possibly be extracted, whilst the
broken end to the south came in freely, as it lay hanging over
the precipice at the point of subsidence; and that this landslip
was the cause of the earthquake is also absolutely irrefutable ,
because the cable broke exactly when the shock took place, being
dragged down by the mass of matter, or crushed by the weight
in falling.”

Whatever may be thought of the hypothesis which is invoked
to explain the above phenomena, the phenomena themselves are
striking enough. Since the publication of bis paper Mr. Forster

188

G ryph mu Pitch eri — Ma rco u .

lias received appropriations from at least one of the scientific
bodies in England, which will enable him to carry on still more
accurate and extended observations hereafter. UA new era in
seismic history began with the introduction of sub-marine teleg¬
raphy.’7 Mr. Forster has taken advantage of the possibilities of
this new era, and it is to be hoped that those similarly situated
will follow his commendable example.

THE ORIGINAL LOCALITY OF THE GRYPHiEA PITCHER!,
MORTON.

By Jules Maucou.

Professor Robert T. Hill, of the University of Texas, in
Bulletin U. S. Geol. Survey , No. 45, “The present condition of
Knowledge of the Geology of Texas/’ Washington, 1887r
(issued only in November, 1888,) says, at p. 46, “Dr. Samuel
George Morton was the first to make allusion to the Cretaceous
strata of Texas. He describes, from lthe Calcareous platform
of Red river,’ the fossil Gryphma Pitch eri, now accepted as the-
most characteristic fossil of the typical Texas Cretaceous.
This locality, we can only surmise, was the same as that now
ca!led the Staked Plains (Llano Estacado) region of Texas.
The specimens were collected by army officers.”

In his celebrated “Synopsis of the organic remains of the
Cretaceous group of the United States,” Philadelphia, 1834, Dr.
Morton says, at p. 55: “I received this fossil ( Gryphma pitcheri ,)•
together with some others of great interest, from my friend, Z.
Pitcher, M. D., of the United States army, who obtained it from
the plain of the Kiamesllia, in Arkansas. I have seen others from
the fall of the Yerdigris river, in the same territory.”

As far back as 1860 I published a letter from Dr. Pitcher, in
my “Lettres sur les Roches du Jura et leur distribution geo¬
graph ique dans les deux hemispheres,” p. 291, Paris, which
seems to have escaped professor Hill’s notice, and which is so
little known among American geologists, that it is best to have
it reprinted. I shall give it without the suppression of the
beginning, for it is the only document we possess, from the
first geological explorer of that part of the Indian Territory

Gryphcea Pitcheri— Mar co.u . 189

mailed territory of the Choctaw nation, directly west of the state
of Arkansas.

Having learned through my friend Capt. A. W. Whipple,
(since Major-General) that Dr. Pitcher was living at Detroit,
where Whipple was then detailed on the Great Lakes surveys, I
sent him a copy of my “Geology of North America, v contain¬
ing excellent figures and descriptions of the Gryphcea pitcheri,
found by me on an affluent of the False Washita river, during
our explorations and surveys, under command of Lieutenant A.
W. Whipple, for a Pacific railroad by the 35th parallel, asking
his opinion, and also to tell me the exact locality where he
first found his Gryphcea pitcheri. Here is the correspondence:

Detroit, Mich. Oct. 14, 1859.

Professor Jules Marcou, University of Zurich, Switzerland.

My Dear Marcou: * * * The enclosed letter from our friend Dr.
Pitcher will give you truly the chief cause of my delay in writing ; for
often and often I have thought-well in a day or two I shall get an answer
to your queries of April 5th and then I shall have something interesting
to communicate. The Dr. has promised often and to-day I get his letter.
* *

I remain, my dear Marcou, sincerely your friend

A. W. W HirPLE,

U. S. Topographical Engineer.

Detroit, October 12th, 1859.
Uapt. A. W. Whipple, U. S. Topographical Engineer.

Bear Sir: Your note of the 2nd of May was left at my residence during
my absence in the South, and with it a letter from your friend professor
Marcou.' My return, though not long delayed, brought with it so many
professional engagements, that I was obliged temporarily to lay it aside,
•where it was forgotten. I hope this negligence of mine will not have
-effected you in the estimation of that distinguished savant.

‘’The Kiamechia” is a small stream which empties into the Red riyer a
few miles above Fort Towson. My little fossil which has acquired so much
consequence from the discussions into which it has been drawn by scien¬
tific names, was picked up on the plains drained by this 1 ttle rivulet,
through which our troops were marking out a road from Fort Smith to
Fort Towson, in 1883.

Having a few years before this, in company with a detachment of troops,
•descended the Alabama and ascended the Red river to Nachitoches, I was
observant of the geology of their banks, and on my return to Philadelphia,
gave notice to my valued friend Morton, that the formations related to the
Mauvaises Terres, were traceable from Mount Vernon by the route I had
just passed over and from the Red river to Nebraska, What little knowl¬
edge I then had of Nebraska had been obtained from officers of the 6th

190 Gryphcea Pitcher i — Marcou.

IT. 8. Infantry, who many years before had been on detached service from)
Council Bluffs.

I write this history to show that I have been a geological observer for a
long series of years and to furnish a reason for my sending the fossils ob¬
tained on the march from Port Gibson, via, Fort Smith to Port Towson, to
my particular friend Dr. Morton.

During the time I was a student of Natural History, more attention was
given to the lithological character of rocks than at present or since their
fossil contents have been so carefully studied. For that reason I could
sooner trust myself in giving an opinion of the character of a given for¬
mation from its mineral constituents, than to express one based upon such
a critical knowledge of paleontology as is requisite to enable one to dis¬
tinguish the species of a genus, as nearly related as those of the genus
Gryphoea. For this reason also I should feel strongly inclined to adopt the
opinions of a geologist who formed his judgments in the field, rather than
to accept the opinion of a cabinet student, however profound he may be.

Trusting in the ability of professor Marcou to defend his own opinions,
I think it is only necessary for me, who have never assumed the responsi¬
bilities of authorship in geology, to express my concurrence in them as
regards the existence of the Jurassic formation described in the Geology of
North America.

With respectful consideration, I am very truly yours,

Z. Pitcher.

P. 8. — The only map in my possession which shows the course of the
Kiameehia, is the one contained in Maj )r Emory’s Report on the United
States and Mexican boundary , voL i, where it is spelled Kimichi .

From this important letter of Dr. Pitcher, it results that not
only the locality where the Gryphcea pitcheri Morton, came
from, was not the Llano Estacado, but also, that it is not even
comprised in the state of Texas; being in the Indian Territory,,
in the district attributed to the Choctaw nation; very near the
western boundary of the state of Arkansas. In the maps pub¬
lished lately by the office of the Engineer Corps, war depart¬
ment, that small stream is called Kiamishi , Kiamashi and even
Kianashi.

In 1858, I came upon that Gryphcea pitcheri , not far west
from its original area, at Fort Washita; and farther west up the
Washita river, at Comet creek of Lieutenant Whipple’s topo¬
graphical map (Pacific railroad explorations) by 99° longitude
and 85°, 50' of latitude. I saw it also, a few miles north on the
banks of the Canadian river, at the great bend of that river.
Those two last localities are the most northern and western
points where, until now, the Gryphcea pitcheri is known to exist
with certainty.

Grypheea Pitcheri — Marcou .

191

Dr. J. S. Newberry, geologist to the Colorado exploring expe¬
dition, under command of Lieut. J. C. Ives, 1857-58, gave in his
“Geological Report,” Washington, 1861, at p. 85, the Grypheea
pitcheri , as found by him in his section of the cliffs called “mesa
wall, Moquis village;” in his No. 12 of the group of strata and
in the succeeding number 18, he mentions another variety of
that species under the name Grypheea pitcheri var. navia. At
p. 94, Dr. Newberry gives the Grypheea pitcheri not the variety,
as found by him near Fort Defiance, in the “Canonita Bonita.”
At p. 97, at Cov^ro, he says: “The greenish shales, enclosed in
the yellow sandstones, contain a large number of Grypheea
pitcheri ” and finally, at p. 154, he mentions the Grypheea pitcheri
var. navia found by him on the banks of Pecos river.

In the chapter XI, Paleontology p. 120, Dr. Newberry refers
to Morton’s synopsis for the Grypheea , found by him a few
miles east of Fort Defiance, near Covero, banks of the Pecos east
of Albuquerque; and he adds: “This is the typical form of the
species as given by Morton.” Farther on, he refers the Grypheea
found by him at the Moqui villages, east of Fort Defiance and
on the Pecos, to the Grypheea pitcheri var. navia Hall, Pacific
R. R. Repts., vol. hi ; Geol. Rept. p. 500. PI. i, figs. 7-10. “This
shell should perhaps be considered specifically distinct from the
preceding (G. pitcheri) * * * these shells should be

carefully scrutinized when used as palaeontological evidence,
and deductions made from them should be given their proper
subordinate value ;” thus depreciating as much as he could the
value of the genus Grypheea ; but taking care not to give a
single figure or a single word of description of what he calls
Grypheea pitcheri and Grypheea pitcheri var. navia .

Sixteen years later, in 1876, Dr. Newberry published his “Re¬
port on the exploring expedition from Santa Fe to junction of
Grand and Green rivers in 1859” under the command of Capt.
J. N. Macomb. At p. 33, he mentions twice the Grypheea
pitcheri, as found by him in the valley of the Red fork of the
Canadian river. He repeats at p. 52 that he found the Grypheea
pitcheri near Galisteo at Capt. Pope’s artesian well. At p. 104
he indicates in his section of the valley of the Rito del Sierra
Abajo, of the San Juan river, the Grpyhcea pitcheri as the only
fossil found there. Dr. Newberry, farther on at p. 115, de¬
clares that in the Naciniento mountains he found the Grypheea

192

Gryphcea Pitch eri — Murcou •

pitcheri filling up the rocks in association with Oslrea congesta
and Inoceramas problematicus ; an association absolutely im¬
possible. In this second book, as well as in the first, there is
neither a single figure of Gryphcea pitcheri, nor a word of de¬
scription; and it is difficult to make out what he means by
Gryphcea pitcheri.

Dr. Newberry has failed completely to sustain in any way Ms
determination of the Gryphcea found by him from the upper
Canalian river country, to the Moquis pueblos and the Rio San
Juan country, as belonging truly to the Gryphcea pitcheri of
the Kiamisha river, of the Fort W ashita and Comet creek, four
and eight hundred miles away from the region explored by him.

Since his two explorations, several geologists have gone over
the same roads that he did, and no one has found the Gryphcea
pitcheri — which according to his phraseology is there in ‘large
numbers,” filling up the rocks — in any of the localities indicated
by Dr. Newberry. But even more, one of these explorers, ap¬
pointed by Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler, on the special and very
strong recommendation of Dr. Newberry, did all he could to
sustain Newberry’s singularly incorrect classification, and did
go so far as to color the geological map of a “Part of North
Central New Mexico” between Santa Fe, Galisteo and Las Vegas,
according to Dr. Newberry’s recommendation, making the
Jurassic and the Trias “a linear outcrop,” unique in geological
maps all the world over. And even such an uncompromising
sustainer as professor J. J. Stevenson is, in his report (Geograph¬
ical Surv. west of 100th meridian, vol. hi, Supplement, Geol¬
ogy, 1881, Washington) does not once mention having met
with a single specimen of Gryphcea pitcheri anywhere on the
Upper Canadian river or round Galisteo.

Having explored New Mexico five and six years before Dr.
Newberry, and being the first to have recognized that the
Gryphcea pitcheri characterizes the Neocomian in Texas, I ean
say that I did not find that fossil anywhere in New Mexico.
The Neocomian does not exist in Central New Mexico, and cer¬
tainly not between Galisteo and Pecos; the Upper Cretaceous or
Chalk formation lies there in discordance of stratification over
Jurassic rocks of Canon Blanco and Cuesta, equivalent and the
continuation of the Jurassic formation of the Tucumcari area
of Texas.

.. Editorial Comment .

193

It is plain that Dr. Newberry took the Gryphcea dilatata var.
tucumcarii or more exactly the Gryphcea tucumcarii Marcou —
for it is truly a species of the group of the Gryphcea dil data type
of the European Oxfordian — for a Gryphcea pitcheri , at least in
several instances; for he may have referred other species also to
G. pitcheri , vrhich are neither G. pitcheri , nor G. tucumcarii.
Without seeing his specimens it is impossible to know what his
Gryphcea of New Mexico are.

The object of Dr. Newberry in quoting so often the Gryphcea
pitcheri in New Mexico, was perhaps to sustain his conclusion
that the “Jurassic rocks do not occur on any part of the route
followed by Mr. Marcou, and where he claims to have discovered
them.’1 ( Explor . Exped. Sante Fe to Green river, p. 142.)

Lately, November 18, 1888, the University of Texas School
of Geology, has issued a “Circular No. 1,” in which we read:
“The reaffirmation of the age of the Tucumcarii section along
the northwest corner of Texas to be uppermost Jurassic, as
originally described by Marcou.11 It seems that professor Robert
T. Hill is the first geologist, since my exploration of the Tu-
oumcarii area, more than thirty-five years ago, who has gone
over the ground where I first discovered and described the Ju¬
rassic system in North America; and I shall wait until he has
published his observations there, before writing another paper
■on the Gryphcea tucumcarii , as a suite and complement to the
present paper on the Gryphcea pitcheri.

Cambridge , 6 December , 1888.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

Rejoindek to De. Lawson.

Attention is directed to an interesting communication in the
present number of the Geologist from the able pen of Dr.
Lawson. It is written in reply to some condensed criticisms of
the theory of the eruptive nature and origin of the great
Archman masses of granitic and gneissie rocks occurring north¬
west of lake Superior. The criticisms were embodied in the in¬
ferences based by the writer on three months1 field-study of
Archaean rocks in that region, and were directed specifically to

194

Editorial Comment .

Dr. Lawson's lately published conclusions, because these apper¬
tained, as it seemed, to a region possessing very similar charac¬
ters. Dr. Lawson’s reply to these criticisms will probably con¬
tribute something to a convergence of general opinion toward
the views which he opposes. He has brought no new evidence
to sustain his inferences; and it is therefore unnecessary to re¬
state my disagreements. Having presented nothing but itera¬
tions of former utterances, involving a number of personal con¬
tradictions of my statements, joined to a few principles which
approach the character of paradoxes, the candid reader, if suffici¬
ently interested may re-examine the original publication of each
of us; while those less interested must conclude that the igneous
theory of gneisses has been completely exhausted of arguments
by Dr. Lawson’s first essay.

My former and only contention, it will be noted, was for the
original sedimentary condition of the great granitic and gneissic
masses — and I cited foliation, among other evidences, as an in¬
dication of this. The metamorphism of the original sediments
I contemplated in a large way, and suggested, as others have
done, that it seems to have reached, many times a state of plas¬
ticity, or even semifluidity—reminding the reader that such
state would be reached, as geologists now well understand, at a
temperature comparatively low — from 700° to 1000° Fah.
Yet Dr. Lawson has the originality to declare that ‘;we know
nothing of the kind;” and to make this appear, proceeds to dis¬
prove something not asserted. In the end, Dr. Lawson makes-
it appear that he has come almost to my position; for he ex¬
presses himself thus: “I experience no difficulty in admitting
the possibility of a former sedimentary condition of the gneiss.”
Then wrapping himself in the uglory” and “immortality” of
the “British school of geologists,” he disappears from the scene.
It is to be hoped Dr. Lawson will interview some other adher¬
ents of the “British school.” Among these, Sir Andrew Ram¬
say will tell him that it is impossible to work among the old
rocks of Anglesea without being impressed with the idea that the
granite and its veins “are merely the result of a more thorough
metamorphosis than was attained in the production of the asso¬
ciated gneiss; that is to say, that absolute fusion of portions of
the strata occurred under such conditions of depth beneath the
surface, that a reconsolidation of the fused portions produced

Editorial Com ment.

195>

granite.’1* Jukes will tell him of the Leinster sections which
show mica schist on a ridge of granite “which seems to have
eaten its way upwards through whatever lay above it,” in which
case, and others similar, “there could be little doubt of the granite
being a inetam orphic rock.f ” Dr. James Geikie will tell him
respecting the gray granites of the southern uplands of Scot¬
land, that “ they have resulted from the alteration in situ of
certain bedded deposites.”J It is hoped the volume of testi¬
mony offered by the “British school” will complete Dr. Law-
son’s conversion to the sedimentary theory, so that when he
reappears on the scene, he will feel justified in substituting
“probability” for “possibility.” When he reaches that point, no
difference, will separate us, except as to the meaning which
should be attached to “metamorphism.” Dr. Lawson says, it is
very important for geologists to arrest its action before the
softened state of the original sediments is reached. This is a
question which he will have to settle with the authorities, and
not with me. Dr. T. S. Hunt says, that granite is only the
result of an extreme stage of metamorphism; the process which
at certain stages only gave rise to gneiss, when carried a step
further, went to the length of fusing the rocks it affected. §
Professor Prestwich of the “British school,” thinks that “gran¬
ite is only an extreme phase of metamorphism , and has been
formed by the refusion of the older sedimentary strata.” “Gran¬
ite may be considered as the same rock, but in a stage of meta¬
morphism more advanced than gneiss and

The question of the sedimentary origin of the granitic and
gneissic masses must be argued on broad and various grounds,
among which the existence of conglomeritic gneisses, brought
to notice in the present number of the Geologist, is one of the
more novel and convincing. On a different occasion the present
writer may undertake a more complete discussion. A. W.

Another Old Channel of the Niagara River.

Dr. J. T . Scovell of Terre Haute, Indiana, writes us that he
has established the existence of an old and gravel-filled channel

* Memoirs, Geological Survey , vol. iii, 2d. ed. p. 243, 1881 .

t Jukes’ Student’’ s Manual, 3d ed, 1872, pp. 146, 242, 366.

X Geol. Mag., vol. viii, p. 629, 1866.

% Survey of Canada for 1863, p. 267.

|| Geology , Chemical , Physical and Stratigraphical , vol. i, pp. 433, 435.
See also, p. 415.

198 Review of Recent Geological Literature .

stretching from tlie Falls to St. David’s. This must be dis¬
tinguished from the old channel from the Whirlpool to St.
David’s. Dr. Scovell’s observations were made in 1886. He
was led to the study as a sequel to extended investigations in
the old channels of the Wabash and other streams which pre¬
ceded it, in Yigo county, Indiana. The old Niagara channel
here referred to was ua little more than a mile wide” and its
presence is indicated by wells sunk in the sand which now fiils it.
The village of Clifton, on the Canadian side, lies on the east of it.
uThe rock, which at Clifton Station rises 150 feet above the
brink of the falls, represents the east bank of the old river.”
This account is accompanied by a carefully drawn map of the
entire region.

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

RecKerches sur Vs Poissons Paleozoiqu.es de Belgique — Poissons du Famen-
nieu par M. Lohest. Analyse par J. Fraipont.

Until recently the Devonian strata of Belgium have been supposed al¬
most entirely destitute of ichthyic remains. During the last five years,
however, M. Max Lohest, assistant professor of geology in the University
of Liege, has managed to obtain from these same strata a very liberal col¬
lection of fossil ganoid fishes. The descriptions of tnese fossils and the
conclusions to be drawn from their discovery and character form the sub¬
ject of an interesting memoir recently issued by the Geological Society of
Belgium.

M. Lohest describes ten new species of ganoid fishes, one species repre¬
senting at the same time a new genus. In the memoir ten carefully pre¬
pared plates illustrate the new species and the richness of M. Lohest’s
discoveries is apparent when we note that all the (Belgic) species
previously known are figured upon a single plate accompanying— the
eleventh. Many years ago, Agassiz, in his famous study of the fossil fishes
of central Europe, happened upon a few imperfect, large, thin scales.
Upon this imperfect and scant material he nevertheless ventured to base
the genus Phyllolepis. M. Lohest has discovered material by which he is
able not only to confirm the insight of his great predecessor, but also to
enlarge the genus by the addition of two new species.

A new genus of Lepidosteids is also described — Pentagonolepis — which
offers a new type of ganoid scales. The scales are pentagonal and
may be c nsidered as showing a transitional phase between purely cy¬
cloidal and purely ganoidal forms.

As a result of his investigations and a comparative study of the Devon¬
ian of western Europe, M. Lohest concludes that the Belgic beds belong

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 197

to the same horizon as certain parts of the Old Red (Devonian) sandstone
of Scotland. It is well known that the Old Red of Scotland aud the Devon¬
shire formations of England present such different characteristics alike
petrographic and paleontologic, that in Great Britain no synchronism
whatever between these deposits can be affirmed. Bud, M. Lohest assures
us, this synchronism is now rendered possible by the discovery in Belgium
of an ichthyic fauna comparable to that of the Old Red mingled with a
molliiscan fauna analogous to that 1 ound in Devonshire.

Our author also discusses the mooted question whether the Old Red
sandstones were deposited in salt water or in fresh. “With good reason he
affirms that the presence in fresh water of our modern ganoids whose
affinities with their paleozoic predecessors are so close, does hot neces¬
sarily imply for the former an identical habitat. All our fresh-water
fauna had probably, more or less remotely, an origin marine.” But M.
Lohest argues that the correlation of the different strata mentioned above
by which correlation mollusca, certainly marine, are associated with those
ancient ganoids makes a fresh water habitat for the latter extremely im¬
probable.

By his comparative study of the British and Belgic Devonian, M. Lohest
is led to propose an explanation of the want of concordance in certain types
of fishes occupying successive deposits in the Belgian formation.

He suggests that to assume an alternation of deposits as between Scot¬
land and Belgium explains the difficulty. The Scotch formations bio¬
logically fill the hiatus between the older and later deposits on the conti¬
nent; as if by successive changes in level the ganoid and dipnoid fauna
had migrated first from Belgium to Scotland and then back again to
Belgium.

A second brochure by the same author, (M. Lohest,) issued at the same
time and place as the memoir just considered, announces the discovery of
what is esteemed “the most ancient amphibian known” to science. A
fragmentary skeleton from the upper Devonian is figured and briefly
described.

The Iron Ores of the Penokee-Oogebic Series of Michigan and Wisconsin
— With Plate. By C. R. Van Hise. (From the American Journal of
Science for January, 1889.) The author treats first of the series of rocks
in which the iron ores occur — a series running across the country in a-
direction approximately east and west, from the vicinity of Numakagon
lake, Wis., to Gogebic lake, Mich., a distance of more than 80 miles. The
series lia3 been tilted to the north at an angle of 603 to 80=, rests on a com¬
plex of granites, gneiss and green schists, and is overlain by eruptives of
the Keweenaw series. There are four members to the Penokee-Gogebic
series,— first, cherty limestone, — second , feldspathic quartz-slate, — third,
non-fragmental sediments 800 feet thick and known as the iron-bearing
member,— fourth, a series of greywackes, grey wack e-slates, and mica-
schists and slates, in the aggregate several times thicker than the other
three members combined.

The iron-bearing formation is traversed by dykes of greenstones or other

198

Review of Recent Geological Literature .

more or less altered phases of the original basic eruptives. The original
rock series, as has been said, dips to the north ; the dykes dip to the south,
and the angle between the dykes and the original beds of stratification is
such that if the stratified rocks were placed again in a horizontal position the
dykes would be vertical. The ore-bodies rest upon a foot-wall of tilted
quartzite and lie in the apices of the Y-shaped troughs formed by the
quartzite and the intersecting dykes. The iron ore is a soft, red, often
porous, somewhat hydrated hematite, more or less manganiferous. The
position and shape of the ore deposits preclude the possibility of original
sedimentation in place, as well as the possibility of their having been de¬
rived by oxidation from iron carbonate in place. There is an abunbance
of iron carbonate in the iron-bearing formation but it is for the most part a
lean ore containing a large amount of silica. Iron carbonate wras doubtless
the source from which the hematite was derived, and the author shows
how concentration from the siliceous carbonate may have occurred.

Indeed in some parts of the series the process of concentration may be
observed in all its various phases and stages. Narrow seams and crevices
in the cherty carbonate are often found filled with a rich hematite.

“Along the seams waters bearing iron in solution have passed. These
waters have particle by particle dissolved out the chert and replaced it
with iron oxide, and where once was lean sideritic chert is rich ore. A
part of the iron oxide is due to the oxidation in place of iron carbonate,
but the larger part has come from a greater or less distance there to be de¬
posited. The seams of iron oxide at this point are but a few in thickness,
but it is probable that the series of changes which have here taken place
•on a small scale, will upon a larger scale explain the concentration of
workable ore-deposits.*’

The possible mode of concentration of hematite in the apices of the
troughs already referred to is given at some length, with a very full and
clear statement of the physical and chemical processes involved.

The Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence , pp. 247-287. By A. T. Drum¬
mond. (From the “Canadian Itecord of Science,” January, 1889.) With a
sketch map of the lake region. This paper is a careful examination of the
hypsometric and geological features of the basius of the great lakes with
si view to reaching inferences touching their origin, age and vicissitudes.
The topography of the lake bottoms is studied from the maps of the United
States and Canadian surveys and soundings; and this, joined to the exist¬
ing topography of the land and the geological structure, points out certain
conclusions here set forth. The substance of these is as follows : Gla¬
ciers had little effect in the creation of the lake-basins or even in shaping
their present general outlines. The superficial deposits as others have
maintained are less the product of glacier erosion than of secular disinte¬
gration since Carboniferous times. Lake Superior dates from Cambrian,
Kewenian and Huronian times and as was first shown by Dr. Houghton, is
in part at least, a synclinal trough ; though volcanic action has had much,
to do with its origin and the shaping of its coasts. Its early outlet was
through Whitefish Bay, as long ago indicated by A. Winchell. Lakes

Review of Recent Geological Literature.

199

Michigan, Huron and Ontario were originally the bed of a preglacial river
which first crossed the Ontario peninsula along the Niagara escarpment,
and was afterward diverted to a course by way of Long Point on lake Erie
and the Dundas valley (as already shown by Spencer.) Each of the basins
— Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario — began as two or three smaller lakes.
Lakes Erie and St. Clair are the most recent, and were, not long since,
united. While the author minifies the action of glaciers he magnifies that
of fractures, faults and changes of relative levels.

Northwest Kansas : Its Topography , Geology , Climate and Resources, by
Robert Hay, F.G.S.A. This memoir appears to be extracted from the
4 Sixth Biennial Report of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture,” pp. 91-
116. It is a well digested and valuable exhibit of the features of the state
in the particulars and within the limits mentioned. It is noteworthy that
this, like so mauy similar memoirs in various parts of the country, is the
outcome of intelligence and enterprise controlled by the agricultural in¬
terest. Every survey of natural resources ought to be conducted with due
regard to that interest; but on the other hand, that interest is recreant to
itself when it prescribes narrow, unenlightened and miscalled “practical”
limits to the researches of the geologist. This memoir is illustrated by
profiles and a geologic section, and by numerous scenic photo-engravings.
The usual blemishes of public documents printed under contract are seen
in the absence of the proof-reader’s finishing touches. It may be to the
same cause that we are to ascribe the disregard of established usage in the
printing, capitalizing and italicizing of the few technical names employed.
We are aware that the stock compositors use their own sweet will in dis¬
pensing with typographic discriminations and emphasis ; but all evidences
of either ignorance or neglect present a bad appearance in a western pub¬
lication.

Les mineraux dcs todies: By Levy and Lacroix. 334, pp. 8vo; 12, fr 50.
Paris, Baudry and Co., This new and advanced work on microscopic
petrography is primarily devoted to the determination of minerals of very
small demensions by means of mineralogical and chemical tests in con¬
nection with the microscope, and secondarily to a summary description of
the different minerals by the application of the new methods. In their
researches in optical mineralogy the authors have carried to a gi eater
degree of exact application the laws of polarized light and its modifications
by minute crystals when placed on the stage between crossed Nicols, than
has been done in any similar work. The different crystal systems are
illustrated in great fulness, as they exhibit their characters and extinctions
in parallel light, and to these actual observations are applied the theories
of mathematical determinations. A similar exemplification is made of the
use of convergent light, of refraction, and of polychroism. Another
chapter presents a r6sum6 of the more recent methods of micro-chemistry
to the qualitative analysis of minerals. Here are summarized, and some¬
times modified and improved, the processes of Boricky, FouquS, Behren s,
Ilaushofer, Streng, Kliment and Renard; closing with a table of the prin¬
cipal micro-chemical reactions.

200 Review of Recent Geological Literature .

If one gives this work no more than a casual glance he is impressed
with the exactness of the science of microscopic petrography, and with
the patient and long labor that the authors have expended on the study of
minerals in thin sections. No young man can enter upon and prosecute
this study as a pastime. He who carries it to completion receives one of
the most severe of mental trainings, and he gets an insight into some of
the exact methods of nature as inspiring to the devout worker as those of
astronomy. This work will contribute, as remarked by M. F. Fouqud,
very largely to the extension of the science of the rocks. It is by works
of this kind that micrographic methods will finally win the place that is
due them in the University programs and in the instruction given in th©
higher schools. It is a companion, although later to appear, and a natural
complement, of Mineralogie Micrographic , by Fouqu6 and L6vy published
in 1879.

Discovery of the Ventral Structure of Taxocrinus and Haplocrinus, and
Consequent Modifications in the classification of the Crinoidea. By Charles
Wachsmuth and Frank Springer. From the Proc. Acad. Nat. 8ci.,
Philadelphia, November 27, 1888. This contribution to crinoid morph¬
ology may justly be regarded as one of the most important ever chronicled;
and its effect upon the present systematic arrangement of the crinoids w ill
be to demand a complete reclassification of the order. The memoir is th©
ultimatum of a long and heated controversy between the authors and Dr.
P. Herbert Carpenter, the eminent English authority on Crinoids. Both
found themselves partly in the right; partly in error. But it is indeed
gratifyingto learn that the views of each are now practically in harmony;
and that the final result of the discussion, extending over a long period of
years, has been to place the classification of the Crinoidea upon a firmer
and more rational basis than even the most sanguine could anticipate a
decade ago.

The immediate occasion for the present publication was the discovery
of the non-existence of a central plate in the ventral side of Haplocrinus;
and of the presence of an open mouth in Taxocrinus. The so-called
central plate in Haplocrinus is now proved satisfactorily to be a lingui-
form extension of the posterior interradial — or as it must now be denomi¬
nated the posterior oral — instead of being completely separated suturally,
as suggested in the Revision of the Paleeocrinoidea, part iii. Another
structural feature in the calyx of Haplocrinus , as disclosed by th8 present
investigation, is the location of the anal opening.

The presence, in Taxocrinus , and probably in the Ichthyocrinidac gen¬
erally, of an open mouth, surrounded by irregular plates, in number
and arrangement similaf to the hitherto known “central” and four “proxi¬
mal” plates, presents suggestions of much significance as effecting the
entire classification of the crinoids. The import of the recent discovery
is : (1) that structurally the older and later crinoids are not separated as
widely as heretofore regard d; (2) that there is no substantiation, as Messrs.
Wachsmuth and Springer supposed, for considering the universal presence
of interradials in the older crinoids; nor for regarding the mouth in all

Review of Recent Geological Literature .

201

paleozoic crinoids as closed; (3) that the distinction which Dr. Carpenter
considered of the utmost importance as a classificatory criterion — the
asymmetry imparted by anal structures — is far from being a constant
character, numerous exceptions occurring among the older as well as the
recent crinoids; (4) that the various structural features upon which were
based the great divisions of the crinoids, as presented in part iii of the
Revision, form good distinctive characters; and Messrs. Wachsmuth and
Springer propose four great groups into which the Grinoidea may be
divided, irrespective of age. These well defined primary divisions of the
Grinoidea are Camarata ; Inadunata , including Larviformia and Fistulata;
Articulate comprising also the Ichthyocrinidce; and Ganaliculata , which
includes most of the mesozoic and recent forms. The paper is illustrated
by a plate of 21 figures.

Grotalocrinus: Its Structure and Zoological Position . By Charles
Wachsmuth and Frank Springer. From Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila ,
November 27, 1888. Another problematic question has been solved in the
elucidation of the real structure of a form which has until now been an
enigma to paleontologists. In the Revision of the Palaeocrinoidea Grota¬
locrinus , together with Ichthyocrinidce , was placed among the Articulata ;
but it appears that the basis for such reference was the figures and de¬
scriptions of Angelin, now known to be for the most part erroneous.
Recently the authors had the opportunity for a critical examination of
some excellent material from Sweden and England. It was immediately
noticed that in the construction of the calyx this form resembled closely
some of the Platycrinidce , and particularly Marsupiocrinus. This fact
together with various other considerations now places Grotalocrinus , and
also Enallocrinus , among the Camarata. One of the most remarkable
characters of this genus is the peculiar net-like arms. But it is now under¬
stood that the retiary radial appendages are only highly differentiated
arms, which dichotomize frequently, the branches being connected later¬
ally by small processes projecting from each joint, the whole forming an
expansion not unlike the fronds of certain Bryozoa. In Enallocrinus
which is referred also to the same family, the lateral projections of the
arm joints are not united, and the arm branches remain free. The
presence of hydrospires in the Crotalocrinidse has not met with the approba¬
tion of Dr. Carpenter, who has denied their existence in this family.
Messrs. Wachsmuth and Springer, however, have found in the Swedish
specimens organs apparently of identical structure and similar position as
the hydrospires in the blastoid genus Orophocrinus. These structures are
entirely covered by the vault, affording conclusive evidence that they
could not have been muscle plates, which necessarily should be exposed
externally. This paper is accompanied by two heliotype plates. Without
question this method is by far the most satisfactory for the reproduction of
structural details, but it is quite manifest, that with the plates in question
sufficient care was not taken with the negatives and consequently some
of the figures are not quite as distinct as others.

202

Review of Recent Geological Literature.

Preliminary report of the Dakota School of Mines upon the Geology,
Mineral Resources and Mills of the Black Hills of Dakota. Rapid City,
Dakota. Transmitted to the Board of Trustees by Franklin R. Carpenter,
Dean of the school, November 5, 1888. 8vo. 171 pp. This is a valuable
document; indeed one whose scope and scientific as well as practical value
do great credit to the enterprising Territory and reflects honor on the
authors. It consists of three parts:

(1) Notes on the geology of the Black Hills, by Prof. Carpenter;

(2) Notes on gold mining in the Black Hills, by H. O. Hof man, and

(8) Upon the mineral resources of the Black Hills, by Prof. Carpenter.
Each part deserves more extended notice than we can give at this time.
Th9 report itself which claims only to be a preliminary one, lacks the
maps which were planned to illustrate it. But it is to be hoped that
means will be provided by the Legislature to carry on and to finish a
work which has been so well begun.

(1) The Archsean rocks are said to embrace two groups, a western one
of schists and an eastern one of slates, both containing quartzytes and
“great beds of conglomerates.” Although the author does not mention it,
this agrees with observations made in Manitoba and Minnesota where the
Kewatin, a formation . essentially of schists, is unconformable below the
Animike, a great group of slates and iron-bearing quartzytes. In the same
manner the Black Hills’ slates carry siliceous iron ore in the northeastern
portion of the Hills. In discussing possible equivalents of these series
with formations in other parts of the United States, wiiile not accepting
unqualifiedly the opinions of Prof. W. O. Crosby, that they are the repre¬
sentatives of the Montalban and the Taconian, he quotes favorably from
Mr. Crosby’s paper, but with the cautionary remark that the Taconian may
have to be removed from the Archaean owing to the recent discovery by
Mr. Walcott, of primordial fossils in what has been supposed to be its
lowest member.

Prof. Carpenter includes under the term Potsdam both the remarkable
quartzytes of the southern portion of the Hills and the nearly horizontal
sandstones and conglomerates, and separates it, i.e., both these, from
what he has grouped as Archaean, by a general and conspicuous uncon¬
formity. He does not however make it plain that there is a conformity
of stratification between the quartzyte and the sandstone. There are “inter-
bedded quartzytes” in the upper member, and s© there are, to a limited
extent, in what may be supposed to be its equivalent along the bluffs of
the Mississippi. But there is, besides, throughout Wisconsin and Minne¬
sota, a great unconformable lower quartzyte, and these have in like man¬
ner both been styled Potsdam. This great quartzyte exists in southeastern
Dakota and it is very reasonable to suppose that its equivalent is also
found in the red quartzyte of the southern part of the Hills. Again this
lower quartzyte in its manner of occurrence in northern Minnesota lies
with apparent concordance of stratification on the slates and gray quartzytes
of the Animike in some places, and in others it lies unconformably on the
older rocks. Its positions in Minnesota accord with the hypothesis that is
advanced by Prof. Carpenter that it was deposited during a time of gradual

Review of Recent Geological Literature.

203

^submergence of the pre-existing land. This great quartzyte, which is un¬
doubtedly a part of the primordial, is apparently the equivalent of the
“Red Sandrock” and the Granular Quartz of Vermont. It remains to be
seen not only whether the lower quartzyte of the Black Hills may not be
the equivalent of the top layers of the tilted quartzytes that carry the
siliceous hematites there, as mentioned by Prof. Carpenter, and so be a
part of his “slate series,” but whether they may not show as in southwest¬
ern Minnesota and in Vermont, a true primoidal fauna. This would
further confirm their supposed equivalence with the primordial Taconian
and would also indicate the propriety, even the necessity, of removing the
whole “slate series” from the Archaean.

Prof. Carpenter discards the idea that the granites of the Black Hills
are of eruptive origin. “They seem to be true veins of the t}7pe known as
-segregated veins — different from the true fissure veins in that they are
parallel to the apparent bedding. Usually they are distinctly lens¬
shaped,” but some of them extend for thousands of feet. Their width
varies from a few inches to over 100 feet.

(2) Prof. Hofman’s report gives the details of the processes of treatment
employed in the Black Hills with low-grade auriferous rock. All the
mills, except the Caledonia, are constructed and operated practically on
the same model — the Homestake— and are also under the management of
the same superintendent. Including the Caledonia there are seven mills
in operation, and they “drop 640 stamps.” After crushing, the ore is sub¬
jected, in the Homestake mills, to the battery amalgamation process. This
begins in the mortar where mercury is added at intervals and continues
till the amalgam reaches the apron plates w'here it is collected daily. A
compromise is made between the two extreme methods of milling gold
ore, that which mills large amounts and extracts carelessly as much gold
as can be got in the hasty process, and that which extracts as much as
possible at the expense of capacity. The amalgamation in these mills is
carried on both outside and inside the battery. Within the small area of
about 6,000 by 1,600 feet $2,271,341.14 were produced in 1887 from rock
averaging $4.00 per ton in free gold. The report enters into the details
of construction and operation of each of the mills, and describes the
complement of men, accessories and products.

In conclusion Prof. Hof man calls attention to the simplicity and effec¬
tiveness of the methods for extracting the free gold, and the waste that
ensues in not extracting that which is involved with the sulphurets. This
is allowed to disappear with the tailings, without any effort to secure it.
He considers these tailings quite rich enough to repay working, as 3 per
cent assays $24.00 per ton. In the not very distant future, as the free,
gold becomes less and less in proportion to the sulphurets as the mines are
worked deeper, the question of extracting the gold from the sulphurets will
become one of practical and imperative importance.

(3) Prof. Carpenter closes the report with a chapter on the character,
occurrence and extent of the mineral resources of the Black Hills, treat¬
ing of gold, copper, nickel, tin, phosphates, and the various materials use¬
ful for construction. We believe this chapter contains the first systematic

204

Recent Publications.

presentation of stanniferous mining in America, excepting perhaps some
preliminary announcements of the same by Prof. Carpenter before the
Am. Inst, of Mining Engineers.

The metalliferous deposits of the Black Hills belong to many different
classes, none of which he regards true fissure veins. The gold deposits
are primarily of the Archaean age and yield mainly an auriferous pyrite.
Sometimes the lodes are of lenticular shape, forming independent mem¬
bers of the slate and schist series, and share in all their folds and contor¬
tions, having a columnar cleavage like them coincident with the bedding.
From these have been produced placer deposits both of tin and gold. Some
of thesefare of the age of the Potsdam and some are Quaternary. The
latter yield yet some gold, but their richer parts, like the Deadwood gulch,
are practically exhausted. The existence of gold in the Potsdam placer
proves that the Archaean was auriferous when it was submerged by the
encroaching Potsdam sea. The subsequent laccolitic intrusion of felsite*
below the Potsdam in some places and above it in others, corresponding to
the laccolites of trachyte and other acid eruptives such as those described
by Mr. Gilbert in the Henry mountains, is another instance in which the
acid eruptive was not able for some reason to reach the surface, and is
perfectly comparable, both in age and lithology to some of the felsytes
found on the north shore of lake Superior.* The rock was gold-bearing
before the advent of the porphyry. Its effect seems to have been to con¬
centrate the gold and to render it more free-milling.

The tin deposits were discovered in 1877 by professor Richard Pearce*
from samples of black sand sent to him from the Black Hills. He found
it to be cassiterite. Since then the known area of tin ore has been constantly
expanding, but principally since 1888 under the instigation of major A. J.
Simmons who employed Prof. W. P. Blake to investigate the find.f Tin
is now found throughout the area surrounding Harney’s peak, and in the
granite areas extending south and west of Custer City, as well as in the
small Archeean area west of Deadwood, a part of which extends into Wyom¬
ing. Gold and tin associated in pyrite, are here found in veins of coarse
granite. These are not intrusive but segregated veins lens-shaped and
parallel with the bedding of the schists.

REGENT PUBLICATIONS.

1. State and Government reports.

Royal society of Canada , Proceedings and Transactionsr vol. v, contains,
with other papers, the following: On a specimen of Canada native
platinum from British Columbia, by Hoffmann ; Microscopic petrography
of the drift of central Ontario, by Coleman; The faults and foldings of
the Pictou coal field; Note on fossil woods and other plant remains, from
the Cretaceous and Laramie formations of the western territories of

♦Compare: Some thoughts on eruptive rocks, with special reference to those of
Minnesota, N. H. Winchell, Proc.^A. A. A. S. Cleveland. 1888.
fAm. Jour. Sci. Sep. 1883.

Recent Publications.

205

Canada, by Sir William Dawson (noticed In the Geologist vol. i, p. 195);
Notes on the Physiography and Geology of Aroostook county, Maine, by
Bailey; The correlation of the Animikie and Huronian rocks of Lake
Superior, by McKellar ; The geography and geology of Baffin land, by
Boas; Glacial erosion in Norway and high latitudes, by Spencer; (review¬
ed in the Geologist, vol. ii, p. 432 ;) On the theory of glacial motion, by
Spencer; the petroleum field of Ontario, by Bell; Illustrations of the
fauna of the St. John group, by Matthew, Quarto volume. Two plates
of fossils.

Kentucky geological survey. Report on Geological and economic
features of the Jackson purchase region, embracing the counties of Bal¬
lard, Calloway, Fulton, Graves, Hickman, McCracken and Marshall. By
R. H. Loughridge, Roy. 8vo. 357 pp.

Some New York minerals and their localities. By F. L. Nason. Bul¬
letin No. 4 of the New York State Museum. Aug. 1888.

Contributions to Canadian palaeontology, Vol. 1. By J. F. Whiteaves,
pp. 91 to 149. Canadian Geological Survey.

Ores of North Carolina, being Chap. 11, 2nd vol. Geological Survey of
North Carolina.

Production of gold and silver in the United States. Report of the Direc¬
tor of the Mint, for 1887. Jas. P. Kimball, 8vo. 375 pp.

The Proceedings of the JJ. S. Nat. Museum , 1888, contain the following
papers by F. H. Knowlton, Asst. Curator. (1) New species of fossil wood
(Araucarioxylon arizonicum) from Arizona and New Mexico. (2) Descrip¬
tion of two species of Palmoxylon — one new — from Louisana. The fol¬
lowing are by Leo Lesquereux. (1) List of fossil plants collected by Mr.
I. C. Russell at Black creek, near Gadsden, Ala. with descriptions of
several new species. (2) Recent determination of fossil plants from
Kentucky, Louisiana, Oregon, California, Alaska, Greenland, etc., with
descriptions of new species; also the following by Lester F. Ward. The
paleontologic history of the genus Platanus.

Pennsylvania geological survey, Annual report, 1886, J. P. Lesley.
Part iv; Paint, iron ore, limestone, serpentine; with an atlas volume; pp.
1331—1618, 8vo.

Coal. By Chas. A. Ashburner. Abstracted from the “Mineral resources
of the United States,” calendar year 1887. JJ. S. Geol. Sur.

Forty-first annual report of the Trustees of the State Museum of Natural
History, for 1887, 8 vo. 390 pp. xv. plates, Albany, N. Y.

Chemical report of the coals, soils, clays, petroleum, mineral waters etc.,
•etc. of Kentucky. By Robert Peter, M. D. vol. A. Part iii, of the geolo¬
gical survey of Kentucky. Royal 8vo. 171, pp.

Report of the State of Illinois Historical Library and Natural History
Museum. By Josua Lindahl, Curator. An administrative report of seven
octavo pages.

Reports on the geology of Henry, Shelby, Oldham and Mason counties,
Kentucky. By W. M. Linney. With colored county maps. Roy. 8vo. each
county report paged independently. Ken. Geol. Sur.

Final Report of the State Geologist, vol. 1. Topography, Magnetism,

206

Recent Publications.

Climate. By Geo. H. Cook. 439 pp. Roy. 8vo. One general state map
and one relief map of the state showing elevations above the sea by differ¬
ent shades of color. Geol. Sur. of New Jersey.

2. Proceedings of scientific societies.

The Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society of North Carolina
contains: Of the three Crystallographic Axes, W. B. Phillips; Chlorina¬
tion of Auriferous Sulphides, E.A. Thies; Mica Mining in North Car¬
olina. W. B. Phillips; The change in Superphosphates when they are
applied to the soil, H. B. Battle.

Twenty-second report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of Harvard
University. Report of the Curator, F. W. Putnam. 60 pp. 8vo.

3. Papers in scientific journals.

American Naturalist Nov. No. Cretaceous Floras of the northwest
Territories of Canada. William Dawson. On the Glacial Drift and
Loess of a portion of the Northern-Central Basin of Iowa. Clement S.
Webster. Dec. No. Surface Geology of Burlington, Iowa. Charles
R. Keyes. The Evolution of Mammallian Molars to and from the Tri-
tubercular Type. Henry F. Osborn. The Artiodaetyla. E. D. Cope.

Amer. Jour. Sci. Jan. No. Description of a new mineral beryilonite.
Dana and Wells. The iron ores of the Penokee-Gogebic series of Mich¬
igan and Wisconsin. C. R. Van Hise. A quartz keratophyre from Pigeon
point, and Irving’s augite-syenites. W. S. Bayley. On the occurrence
of hanksite in California. Henry G. Hanks. Sperrylite, a new mineral .
H. L. Wells. On the crystalline form of sperrylite. S. L. Penfield.

Canadian Record of Science, vol. iii, No. 5. The Great Lake basins of
the St. Lawrence. A. T. Drummond. Note on Balanus hameri in the
Pleistocene at Riviere Beaudette. Sir Wm. Dawson. Modern concretions
from the Ste. Lawrence. Rev. Prof. Kavanagh; with remarks on cylin¬
ders found in the Potsdam sandstone. On the classification of the Cam¬
brian rocks in Acadia. G. F. Matthew, Montreal. Published by the
Natural History Society.

4. Excerpts and individual publications.

Date of the publication of the report upon the geology of Vermont.
By C. H. Hitchcock. Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist.. (Replies to the strict¬
ures of Mr. Marcou.)

Inorganic coal and limestone, in an electro-chemical world. By T. S.
Emery. 8vo. 139 pp. seven plates. Philadelphia.

The Ivorydale well in Mill creek valley and an ancient channel of the
Ohio river at Cincinnati. By Prof. Jos. F. James. Jour . Cin. Soc. Nat..
Hist.

The Structure and Development of the Visual Area in the Trilobite,.
Phacops rana, Green. By J. M. Clarke . Journal of Morphology, vol.ii.-
No. 2.

The life history of Niagara. By Dr. Julius Pohlman. Tram. Am. Inst .
Min. Eng.

Eecent Publications .

207

Cement rock and gypsum deposits in Buffalo, By Julius Pohlman.
Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng.

Fossil plants collected at Golden, Colo. Dr. Leo Lesquereux. Bui.
Mus. Comp. Zool. Geol. Ser. vol. ii.

On three geological excursions made during the months of October and
November, 1887, into the Southern Counties of Maryland. Discovery of
Fossil-bearing Cretaceous Strata in Ann Arundel and Prince George
counties, Maryland. Last two by W. B. Clark. Johns Hopkins University
Circulars , 1888.

A new Ammonite which throws additional light upon the geological
position of the Alpine Rhsetic. By W. B. Clark. Am. Jour. Sci. Feb,
1888.

Some recent aspects of scientific education especially as influenced by
the study of the natural sciences . Inaugural address by Prof. Robt. T,
Hill, Austin, Texas, 1888.

Bulletin of the Museum of comparative Zoology at Harvard College. Geol.
Ser. Vol. ii. With map and 2 plates, pp. 41. On the geology of the Cam¬
brian district of Bristol county, Mass. By N. S. Shaler.

On the geology of Great Barrington, Mass. By Dr. Alexis A. Julien.
Trans. N. 7. Acad.fici., V., 1887.

On the Eozoic and Paleozoic rocks of the Atlantic coast of Canada, in
comparison with those of western Europe and of the interior of America,
By Sir J. Wm. Dawson. Quart. Jour . Geol. Soc. November, 1888.

On Cretaceous plants from Fort McNeill, Vancouver Island. Sir W.
Dawson. Trans. Roy . Soc. Canada. 1888.

5. Foreign publications.

Foldtani Kozlony,for August to October , 1888, contains, Spuren einstiger
Gletscher auf der nordseite der hohen Tatra. By Dr. Samuel Roth. Die
Action der Eiszeit in IJngarn. By Dr. J. von Szabo. Krystallographische
Untersuchungen. By Karl Zimanyi. Budapest, 1888.

Annual Report of the Department of Mines, New South Wales, 1887.
Sydney, pp. 216.

The invertebrate fauna of the Hawkesbury-Wianamatta series of New
South Wales. By Robert Etheridge, Jr., pp. 21, 2 plates. Mem. Geol.
Bur. of New South Wales. Sydney, 1883.

Uber die geologischer Verhaltnisse der Gegend nordwestlich vom
Achen-see mit besonderer Riicksichtigung der Bivalven und Gastero-
poden des unteren Lias. By W. B. Clark.

Department of Mines, Sydney. Report (1837) contains the following: —
Mineral Products of New South Wales. By Harrie Wood. Notes on the
Geology of New South Wales. By C. S. Wilkinson. Description of the
seams of coal worked in New South Wales. By John MacKenzie.

Congres gdologique international, London 1888. R6sum6s des rapports
des sous-comit£s Americains. R3dig6 par le Prof. Persifor Frazer; traduit
de l’Anglais par le Prof. G. Dewalque.

208

Correspondence.

CORRESPONDENCE.

On Glacial Erosion : by Prof. J. W. Spencer , M. A., Pli.D.y F.G.S. —
This paper is a reply to the courteous review of “Glacial Erosion in Nor¬
way and High Latitudes,” which appeared in the American Geologist of
Dec. 1888. A reply to the questions there asked may remove some doubts
from the minds of those who do not repose in complaisance with one or
the other of the schools of surface geology. In this paper, I shall fortify
myself with the observations of early glacialists, who made their studies
in the Alps, when the glaciers were advancing down the valleys, a condi¬
tion which only a very few of our oldest men have seen — phenomena
not commonly known to the working glacialists of America, a3 their
papers are difficult of access.

My reviewer says that Dr. A. Geikie* visited one of the regions des¬
cribed by me and came to “contrary results.” My paper was first published
as “Notes on the Erosive Power of Glaciers, etc,” in the Geological
Magazine of London, and was not an attempt at a monograph. I shall
here show how Dr. Geikie’s and my own conclusions do not reflect on
either of us as observers. I had his paper with me in the field. Here is
what Dr. Geikie says upon the glacier in question — that at head of
Holands fjord, just inside of the Arctic circle. “But the feature which
most interested us was the relation of this large glacier of Fondalen to the
moraine deposits of the locality. The high terrace so marked along the
sides of the Holands fjord enters this valley, and extends on the moun¬
tain sides, as far, at least, as the foot of the glacier. Hence the gravelly
plain and the moraine mounds that separate the glacier from the fjord are
overlooked on either side by a raised sea-beach . In examining atten¬
tively the nature of the material of which the mounds nearest the glacier
were composed, we were struck with the difference between it and the
loose, coarse character of the ordinary moraine rubbish, and its resem¬
blance to the upper boulder clay of Scotland. The glacier is pushing a
great nose of ice into and over these mounds, so that freshly exposed sec¬
tions are abundant. The deposit is a loose sandy clay or earth full of
stones, among which the percentage of striated specimens is not large'.
The larger blocks of gneiss and schist appeared to us not to occur in the
clay, but to be tumbled down upon it from the surface of the glacier. We
had hardly begun to look over the surface of the clay ere we found frag¬
ments of shells, and in the course of a few minutes we picked up several
handfuls, chiefly of broken pieces of Gyprina islandica , but including also
single valves of Astarte compressa, etc. We even took out two or three
fragments which were sticking in the end of the glacier. * * * We
were looking not merely upon ordinary moraine heaps— the detritus car¬
ried down on the surface of the ice and discharged upon the bottom of
the valley. The glacier was engaged in ploughing up the marine sedi¬
ments which had been formerly deposited upon the submerged floor of
the valley, and on heaps of earth and clay now torn up were thrown the
gravel and blocks brought down by the present glacier.”

♦Geological Sketches, by A. Geikie.

Correspondence.

209

Having been brought up in America under the constant assertions,
plausibly maintained, that the glaciers were great diggers, the proof of
which I failed to see in the Alps, where I saw no glaciers pushing against
their moraines, and with the above quoted description by Dr. Geikie before
me, I was dazed by what I saw in Norway. At first I fully concurred
with Dr. Geikie, and had the glacier shrunken back 200 feet before my
arrival, I could have added nothing to the knowledge of the dynamics of
this glacier. I will repeat what I saw, and have figured: **“Svartisen
glacier, at the head of Holands fjord, descends to within sixty feet of the
sea, where it ends in a morainic lake of considerable size, the northern
side of which is filled with the glacier. The water of the lake rises, in
part, to the level of the ice, or over it, where the waves of the lake are
depositing sand upon its surface. The glacier being unable to advance,
the lateral pressure, has forced up an anticlinal ridge, or rather dome in
the ice, to a hight of fifteen feet, along whose axis there has been a frac¬
ture and fault. Upon this uplifted dome rests the undisturbed sand
stratified in perfect conformity to the surface, which was formerly just
below the surface of the lake. As the ice about the line of fracture melts,
the sand falls over and leaves a sand cone, of which there were examples
—one at the end of the lake, and two in the centre— but the nuclei of the
mounds were of solid ice. By this lifting process, pockets of loose clayey
sand were thrown on top of the morainic matter, producing thus the ap¬
pearance of having been ploughed up by the glacier to even several yards
beyond its termination, which has not been the case.”

Had these evanescent domes not been there I should have reported the
ploughing action of the glacier, and Dr. Geikie does not report having
seen them. The shells had been brought into the disturbed boulderless
part of the moraine by the action of the waves of the lake upon the marine
deposits described by Dr. Geikie.

In many places in Norway I have seen glaciers advancing against both
rock and morainic barriers, and when the ice is high enough it simply
flows over upon itself. It is a question of physics which will yield— the
huge mass of earth and rock or the semiplastic ice of the tongue which
ought to form the plough-share of the glacier. The surprise at finding
the above and previously undescribed results made me careful not to
underrate the amount of ploughing that might have occured here.

If the Norwegian snow-fields, which are the largest in Europe, are too
insignificant to build up by inductive reasoning the theory of glacial
geology, how much more so are the snow-fields of the Alps. Still I will
be rash enough to appeal to the Alps of forty-five years ago or more, when
the glaciers were yet advancing against their moraines, and to the names
of Forbes, Collomb and Charles Martins, and even to that of Charpentier,
to show the harmony of my conclusions with those of other observers who
have had my own favorable opportunities for investigation, and not to
speculation of what glaciers can do, or ought to do, unless supported by
observed facts.

**Giacial Erosion in Norway and High Latitudesby J. W. Spencer, Am* Nat. 1888.

210

Correspondence .

Forbes j describes the glacier of Brenva and others as flowing over their
moraines. Certainly none knew better the movement of glaciers than
Forbes, for although combatted, there has been no advance in the knowl¬
edge of the causes of their flow beyond his own plastic theory, except to
support his views.

ColiombJ “i who was with Agassiz) said that the Aar glacier(the basis of
Agassiz’s work) pushed against its moraines, scarcely deranging, and slid
over without excavating them. He also says that the glaciers of the Rhone,
All£e Blanche, and those about Zermatt and Chamouni did not penetrate
the soil, although affecting the surface of a meadow very slightly. Char.
pentier made similar observations, and generalizes thus : “When a glacier
reaches the bottom of a large valley, so that it can expand freely on all
sides, it ceases to dig and to raise the flat earth which it meets, especially
if it be deprived of vegetable soil, and gravelly enough not to retain the
water which it absorbes.’"§

Dr. Charles Martins speaking with equal authority, says: “Un glacier
ne p£n£tre pas dans terrain meuble a la manfere d’un soc de churrue qui
entame le soc et 1’ affouille. II agit comme grande polissoir qui le nivelle-
dans surfaces n^glees.”

In the region of lake Geneva and in Yal d’ Aosta, where the ancient
glaciers were at least from 2200 to 2700 feet thick the older subjacent
gravels were not disturbed as has often been shown by the Swiss school of
glacialists. This shows that the action of the great ancient glaciers upon
subjacent gravels was one in kind with that of the modern living glaciers.
If we ignore those phenomena, we must pass into the field of speculation
which admits of no proof. The ploughshare of the glacier cannot be the-
bottom but the snout, as the pressure of the mass is a great leveller.

We know but little of the action of glaciers under partial flotation
when they are projecting into the sea, (but here I am willing provisionally
to allow, if necessary, a different action from that of land glaciers,) which
are the only ones that are known to have the phenomenal velocity ; and
these are gathered from great basins, whose aggregate discharge through
a single channel must produce an accelerated velocity greatly in excess of
that of the parts.

My reviewer asks if the boulders, which I have described as causing the
subjacent parts of the glacier to be channelled, when these come in con¬
tact with the bed-rocks, owing to the adhesion of the stones to the rock
from friction, may not have melted through the ice? Go and see; for I
have seen them in so many stages of contact and enclosure in the ice as
to preclude the idea that the channellings were due to the melting of the
ice owing to the greater conductivity of heat by the stone, for the enclosed,
stones have the same temperature as the enclosing ice ; and any increase
of heat in the caverns, visited, under the ice affected the body of the

-{Travels in the Alps, by J. D. Forbes, 1843.

JCit. by Sir R. I. Murchison, Add. Roy. Geog. Soc., 1864.
gEssai sur Les Glaciers etc., by J. de Charpentier, 1841
Jtkevue de Deux Mondes, March, 1864, p. 87.

Correspondence. 211

glacier, through the mass of bed rock as quickly as through the more re¬
cently and only partly exposed stone.

Whatever bias of an anti-glacial character I may show it is the result of
the evidence of field observations against the widely disseminated specu¬
lations and dogmatic teachings of glacialists, whose theories have in the
language of my reviewer, become “tyrannical.”

My conclusions as to the power of glaciers to erode are in harmony
with those of the majority of European geologists, who have had the best
opportunities of studying living glaciers. Despite the“tyrannical theories”,
modern research is constantly showing that the patent rights of the
glaciers have been and are being infringed by other agents. Thus Mr.
Hugh Miller, a glacialist, states that “in mere indiscriminateness of com¬
position (which is the character most emphasized) the till is not to be dis¬
tinguished from the boulder-clay formed under berg or raft-ice, such as
the highest marine clays of the Norwegian coasts.” The same is true for
the marine boulder-clay of the St. Lawrence valley. Mr. E. Whymper,
and Prof. T. Bonney,^[f and others regard glaciers and snow-fields as hav¬
ing, comparatively a protecting influence. All of these observations and
conclusions show that glacial geology is still a debatable field, and not
settled as our glacial friends would wish.

Advices from the village of Kerschkaranza, in the Kola peninsula, on
the White Sea, state that on January 5 a curious and destructive pheno¬
menon occurred there. At 4 a. m. the inhabitants were awakened by a
peculiar, dull, heavy detonation, like that of distant artillery.

Piled up to a hight of several hundred feet, the ice in consequence, no
doubt of the enormous ocean pressure without was seen to begin mov¬
ing from the north-west towards the shore. The gigantic ice-wall moved
irresistibly forward, and soon reached the shore and the village, which it
completely buried, the ice extending a mile inland. The forward move¬
ment of the ice lasted four hours *

Dr. Percy Mathews, for several years medical officer of the Hudson’s
Bay Company, at York Factory has furnished me with the following
facts relating to the action of the ice at the mouth of Hayes river as it
empties into Hudson’s bay. The mouth of the river is about twenty feet
deep. In it the ground-ice charged with mud, forms to a Thickness of
four feet. After the surface ice, which is sometimes seven feet thick in
the channel of the river, is broken up, the ground-ice rises and is carried
out, bearing its load, by a considerable current. Owing to ice-jams in the
river, the ice is forced vover the low shores, polishing stones, frozen in the
soil and is itself sometimes grooved. It also digs and scours out the
channel. The stones, brought down by the river-ice, have often a weight
of twenty or thirty, and occasionally of over a hundred tons. In one case
a six-ton anchor, frozen in the soil, had its shaft, nine inches in diameter,
planed off as if it had been so much wood. As the spring tides rise
here to 27 feet, they aid largely in piling up the ice ; and when the packs
of ice meet, much of their mass is crushed into fragments.

HGeol. Mag. 1888, p. 273,

UHGeol. Mag. 1888, p. 548.

♦“Nature”, June 28, 1888, p. 205.

212 Correspondence .

These observations on the joint action of river-ice and coast ice, on a
very gently shelving shore, are worthy of record, as we have so few ob¬
servations, compared with the vast area of high latitudes, wherein the
coast-ice is playing a most important part as a geological agent.

The observations in Lapland, first cited, are of extraordinary interest;
as herein is an agent, capable of effecting a greater amount of surface
erosion, than ice in any other form; and the catastrophe at Kerschkaranza,
seems to be more phenomenal than even those recorded by Sir George
N ares, off the Grinnell coast; but this is probably owing to our igno¬
rance of the uninhabited ice-bound coasts of arctic lands.

University of Georgia , Athens , Ga., Dec. 26, 1888. j. Spencer.

Two Systems Confounded in the IIuronian. In the Quarterly Jour¬
nal of the Geological Society for February 1, 1888, -appears an important
'Communication from professor T. G. Bonney which I have only recently
found time to read with due attention. I wish now to make a note upon
it The communication is entitled, “Notes on a part of the Huronian
series in the neighborhood of Sudbury, (Canada).” Professor Bonney,
passing off the gneisses of recognized Laurentian age, begins his investiga¬
tions on rocks supposed to be Huronian, and extends his studies westward
more than fifty-nine miles beyond Sudbury— though most of his studies
lie within two miles of Sudbury. The first rock encountered “is mainly
composed of quartz and feldspar, with but little mica, though occasional
thinnish bands of a fissile mica-schist occur. It is much jointed, and ap¬
pears to have a flaggy bedding, reminding me,” he says, “in its general
aspect, of parts of the Highland ‘eastern gneiss’ in Glen Docherty, (that is
where the crushing is less conspicuous) or of the schistose series on the
south side of Perth Nobla, Anglesey”. This zone is less than a mile wide*
when “outcrops of a rock distinctly fragmental are exposed”. A dark
quartzose rock is observed west of Sudbury, and this grows more coarsely
fragmental— the “fragments now showing very distinctly on a weathered
surface, by a slight bleaching, some looking rather like a felsite, others
like a holocrystalline (?gneissose) rock.” Next comes a coarse breccia,
looking rather like an agglomerate — the matrix a more or less fine-grained
quartzite. Then follows a quartzite without fragments, and then another
group of fragmental rocks, slightly reddish-gray, resembling a micro-
granulite with dark green spots, and these include “gneissose and schistose
rocks, and a greenstone, or possibly chlorite schist.” Professor Bonney
erroneously, I suspect, suggests that these may be Logan’s “slate con¬
glomerate,” though he leaves the matter undecided. This belt of eastern
(or lower) “Huronian” rocks is obviously distinct, he says, from the
Laurentian ; by which I understand that the mica-schists mentioned are
sufficiently distinct from the older gneisses. These older Huronian “rocks
are seen under the microscope to consist chiefly of quartz, feldspar and a
brownish mica.” “The rock certainly exhibits a fragmental structure
with secondary reconstruction.”

After this, but still within two miles of Sudbury, the character of the
geology plainly changes. The rocks are grouped as A. Quartzites — ordi-

Correspondence. 213

nary, conspicuously fragmental, and fine-grained- schistose; B. Agglomer¬
ate or conglomeratic rocks. These are carefully described, but there is
no occasion here for reproducing the descriptions. The quartzites possess
few peculiarities. The breccias are various, but predominantly quartzose,
and generally with a matrix containing quartz ayd feldspar. Some of these
are suspected to be igneous in origin, and on© seems to possess the charac¬
ters of a volcanic ash. Among all the rocks described, I find no descrip¬
tion answering the characters of the great “Plummer argillites” or “slate
conglomerates” of Logan, and I am uncertain whether this member of the
Huronian passed under professor Bonney’s observation.

The author naturally conceived the view common to the Canadian geol¬
ogist (but erroneous as I think) that the Huronian embraces the entire
complex of beds to the “Laurentian gneiss.” Evidently, in passing off the
gneisses, he arrived at the usual belt of crystalline schists— the “Vermilion
group” of the Minnesota Survey. In proceeding from these, a transition
was observed toward less crystalline rocks, and in the midst of these was.
the condition which I have designated “nascent mica schist” in which the
mica folia are exceedingly minute. Still beyond, the mica is still less con¬
spicuous, the quartz and feldspar more soiled and much mingled with
particles of “dust.” This is my graywackenitic rock — though not well
constituted graywaeke . It escapes clearly from the group of crystalline
schists. In northeastern Minnesota, this is succeeded by sundry conditions
of earthy schists — argillitic, sericitic, chloritic, jaspilitic and hsematitim
All these are wanting in the vicinity of the Thessalon, Missasagui and
Blind rivers, as also the greywackenftic and crystalline-schistic rocks. It
may be they are wanting in the vicinity of Sudbury. In the valley of the
Thessalon, some twenty miles from its mouth, the dark, siliceous argillites
appear, which lie near the bottom of the proper Huronian series. I take
the liberty to say “proper” Huronian, because I find these recognized Hu¬
ronian rocks, northwest of lake Superior, succeeded downwards by a break
which makes them necessarily the lower limit of a system.* I do not re¬
gard therefore, as Huronian, the series of rocks succeeding the Plummer
argillites (Animike slates) downward, though the Canadian geologists may
so regard them. I entertain a suspicion that most of the rocks investigated
by professor Bonney belong to the lower series. Even among these, as I
have just stated, are two groups, before we reach the “Laurentian gneiss.”
Of these two, the upper sub-Huronian group, is embraced under Dr. Law¬
son’s term “Kewatin,” but is not co- extensive with it. The lower is the
“Vermilion group” of the Minnesota Survey, to which Dr. Lawson applied
also the designation “Couchiching group.”

Now professor Bonney notes the evidence of rocks of widely different
age within the compass of the series pointed out by the Canadian geologists
as “Huronian.” His conclusions are in part as follows :

“Among the rocks in this region at present referred to the Huronian,
two groups may be distinguished, depending on the degree of alteration
observed.” “This distinction must indicate either (a) that selective meta-

* This is a stratigraphic unconfoimity which I have described in American Geologist
Jan., 1888, and more in detail in the XVItli Annual Report Minnesota Geological {Sur¬
vey , pp. 256-259, 264, 323.

214

Correspondence.

morphism has produced marked effects * * * (b) that we are dealing
with a series of great thickness, the deposition of which occupied a very-
long time, so that the lower beds are more altered than the higher, or (c)
that under the name of Huronian two different series are included.” He
concludes: “I incline to the latter opinion, viz, that the two distinct
groups, of which, one at any rate, is pre-Cambrian, are included under the
name Huronian.”

This conclusion accords with my own convictions. Even if professor
Bonney’s studies did not extend to the “slate conglomerate” (Animike), he
encountered two systems of rocks — the crystalline schists below, and proba¬
bly the earthy schists above— the iron-bearing schists of Marquette and of
Vermilion lake. If his studies embraced the Animike slates, they ex¬
tended to a system stratigraphically discordant with the iron-bearing
schists, and therefore, beyond question, a system of much more recent
origin. Geologists who embrace under the single designation “Huronian,”
the entire complex of rocks from the top of the Animike slates to the
“Laurentian gneiss,” confound three separate systems under a single term.
There “is a Huronian System,” but not so large a one as this.

Ann Arbor , Feb. 1 , 1SS9. Alexander Winchell.

Artesian Well, Woodhaven , L. I., JST. Y. In the August, 1888, number of
the American Geologist the writer gave an unfinished report of the bor¬
ing at the Woodhaven weli on the south side of Long Island, promising to
furnish fuller data when the work was completed. The boring went on
until the rock in situ was reached at a depth of 556 feet. The gneiss rock
was also penetrated to the depth of 15 feet when the work of boring was
abandoned owing to the filling in of the bore by the fine micaceous sand
overlying the rock. The well was not a success, as water is not found in
any great quantity below the level of the ocean. The boring is valuable,
however, in a scientific point of view, as showing the nature and depth of
the superficial deposits on the south side of Long Island, as this is the
only place, we believe, where the rock in situ has been reached south of
the terminal moraine.

Woodhaven is situated about a mile from Jamaica Bay and not long ago
the tides would wash up, through the old river channels, as far as the
village, yet strange to say, not a single shell, or other marine matter has
been found as far as we can detect in the borings which have taken place.
Even on Barnum’s Island, only two miles from the ocean, down to the
depth of over 400 feet, nothing marine was found except a small fragment
of a crinoidal stem, probably washed in from some older paleozoic for¬
mation. Mr. E. Lewis, in his “ Ups and Downs of the Long Island Coast”
thinks that the surface beds to a depth of 180 feet are post-glaciai, while
all below them are pre-glacial, but really there is nothing in the specimens
before us by which their age can be determined, unless some of the lower
clays should prove to be, when properly analyzed, Cretaceous.

Down to 298 feet the material is very much like the glacial detritus
spread out over the island in general. The lower beds of clay show fine
rootlets and other vegetable matter, but it would not be safe to infer from

Personal and Scientific News.

215

'this that they grew where found, for the pieces of carbonized wood found
in the same deposits were evidently drifted in, as this drift wood is found
at various depths all over the south side of the island.

This little isle by the sea still remains a geological puzzle. Stratified
beds are found 260 feet above the level of the ocean as well as 500 feet be¬
low it. At Calvary Cemetery the rock was struck at a depth of 182 feet in
the glaciated part of the island. In the unglaciated part, as at Woodhaven
not more than three miles south of the former place, the rock is eroded to
the extent of over five hundred feet.

The following gives the results of the boring at Woodhaven:

1 to

113 feet.

Reddish sand and gravel.

118

120

“

Sand and coarse gravel.

120

132

Pepper and salt sand.

182

144

Reddish sand.

144

213

“

Reddish sand and gravel.

213

218

Tough whitish clay.

218

246

Reddish sand.

246

298

Clay containing pebbles.

298

315

u

Light bluish clay.

315

358

Clay with rootlets.

4158

875

Fine sand and clay.

375

385

Clay, wood and vegetable matter.

-385

417

a

Grayish sand.

417

419

ti

Light bluish clay.

419

430

«

Sandy clay.

430

433

Bluish clay.

433

436

White clay.

436

443

Light gray sand.

443

456

Dark gray sand.

456

460

tt

Coarse white beach sand.

460

475

Clay, pebbles and fine beach sand intercalated.

475

480

Clean gravel.

480

500

Sand and gravel.

500

510

u

Quartz gravel and sand.

510

515

Grayish sand.

515

518

<(

Clay or marl ?

518

540

“

Dark clay.

540

556 to rock. Gray, micaceous sand probably ground out

underlying gneiss rock . John Bryson.

1309 Baxter Ave., Louisville , Kentucky.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

At the “Drake Colliery,” Clearfield Couhty, Pehksyl-
vania, electric motors are in use for operating coal-cutters.
Electricity seems to possess many advantages over compressed
air as a means of applying power in coal mines. The machinery

216

Personal and Scientific News .

is more readily handled, and the cost o£ equipment and main¬
tenance is very greatly reduced.

The McAuley process of burning pulverized fuel, a pro¬
cess invented by J. GL McAuley of Lansing, Michigan, is likely
to work something of a revolution in the consumption of fuel.
A very good description of the process is given in u Science1 ’ for
December 28th, 1888. A test trial of the process was made at
the works of the Warren Iron and Steel Co., at Warren, Ohio,
some time ago and was attended with the most satisfactory re¬
sults. Two puddling-furnaces were charged with iron, and
pulverized coal to the amount of 12,260 pounds was used in
putting it through the puddling process. The fuel cost $5.43.
By the old method the process would have required an amount
of coal worth $16.50, or about three times what is needed by
the McAuley method. Moreover there is a saving in iron by
the McAuley method that more than pays for the fuel.

Professor Meek, of Coe College, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, a
former pupil of President Jordan, is at work on the native fishes
of Iowa, and has already made considerable progress.

Prof. F. H. Snow, of the Kansas State University re¬
cently made careful examination of the rocks now being
mined for nickel in Logan county, Kansas. According to his
report there is an entire absence of crystalline rocks. The so-
called “nickel ore” is the prevailing fragmental rock of the
Tertiary age, the characteristic conglomerate or pudding-stone
which overlies the eroded surface of the Niobrara limestones
and shales. The color of this rock at the “mines” is darker
than that of the ordinary conglomerate, but it is unmistakably
the same kind of rock. A chemical analysis of specimens of
these rocks by Prof. E. H. S. Bailey reveals the presence of
nickel and cobalt in very small quantities. A special examina¬
tion of one specimen said to be among the richest, showed not
more than one third of one per cent of cobalt and one- tenth of
one per cent of nickel. The specimens examined were of his
own selection.

Prof. Snow explains the presence of nickel in this rock by re¬
ferring it to meteoric origin, from dust that fell into . the old
Tertiary ocean, in the same manner as it now falls into the
Atlantic ocean, as revealed by the dredgings of the Challenger
expedition.

Dr. Halstead has resigned the professorship of Botany, in
the Iowa Agricultural College to take a position in connection
with the Agricultural Experiment Station at Rutger’s College,
New Brunswick, N. J.

Mr. Chas. A. HELViEof the State University at Bloomington,
Indiana, will spend a portion of the summer of 1889 in collect¬
ing marine invertebrates at Wood’s Holl, Mass., and offers to
supply zoological laboratories throughout the country at very
reasonable rates. Mr. Helvie will work in connection with Dr.
J. S. Kingsley.

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THE &MBE1C&N GEOtOGIST,
MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.

X3E SEIlXBEK, 28, 1888.

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RI12, 1559. Y0L. HI, No. 4.

THE

AMERICAN

A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF

GEOLOGY AND ALLIED SCIENCES.

EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS:

Prof. Samuel Calvin, University of lorva , Iowa City , Iowa.

Prof. Edward W. Claypole, Buchtel College , Akron, O.

Dr. Persifor Frazer, Franklin Institute, Philadelphia , Penn.

Dr Tew is E. Hicks, University of Nebraska , Lincoln , Neb.

Mr. Edward O. Ulrich,- Geol., Survey of Illinois, Newport, Ky.

Dr. Alexander Winchell, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Prof. Newton H. Winchell, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.

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PAGE

moir of Mr. G. Featherstonhaugh.
[Portrait.] J. W. Featherstonhaugh. . . 217

ERICAN PETROGRAPHIC AL MICROSCOPES.

! [Illustrated.] N. H. Winchell . 225

THE RELATION OF THE DEVONIAN FAUN¬
AS of Iowa. H. S. Williams . 230

ELIMINARY DESCRIPTION OF N*EW LOWER

Silurian sponges. [Illustrated.] E.

0. Ulrich.. . 233

CENT OBSERVATIONS ON THE GLACIATION

'of British Columbia and adjacent

regions. Geo. M. Dawson . 249

nglomerates in New England gneis-

i ses. C. H. Hitchcock . 253

nglomerates enclosed in gneissic
terranes. [Supplement.] Alexan¬
der Winchell... . 256

utorial Comment.

The building of the British Isles _ 262

Review of Recent Geological Litera¬
ture.

Brachiospongidae : A memoir on a
group of Silurian Sponges, Beecher,

268. — On the ophiolite of Thurman,
Warren Co., N. Y., Merrill, 268. — A
deadly gas-spring in the Yellowstone
National Park, Weed, 269.— Geological
survey of Arkansas ; second annual
report, Branner, 269. — Texas geologi¬
cal and mineralogical survey; first
report of progress, Dumble, 270. — Les
modifications et les transformations
des granulites du Morbihan ; par
Charles Barrois, 271.

Recent publications . . . . 272

Correspondence.

Observations on three Kinderhook
fossils, R. R. Rowley, 274. — Foliation
and sedimentation, A. C. Lawson, 276.

Personal and Scientific News. . . 278

THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, MINNEAPOLIS.

sneral European Agent, W. P. Collins, 157 Great Portland St., London W. Eng.

Entered at the Minneapolis post-office as second-class matter.

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G. W. FEATHERSTONHAUGH,

THE

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST

Vol. III. APRIL, 1889. No. 4

MEMOIR OF MR. G. W. FEATHERSTONHAUGH.

BY J. D. FEATHERSTONHAUGH.

The subject of this brief memoir was born in the city of
London, England, in the year 1780 a short time after the
sudden death of his father, at the early age of twenty-three.
He was descended from that branch of the family then repre¬
sented by Sir Matthew of Featherstonhaugh Castle, North¬
umberland.

The young and widowed mother fled from the violence and
danger of the Lord George Gordon riots, to her property in
Yorkshire, with her nervous system impaired, and her eye¬
sight so seriously affected, that she gradually became totally
blind, and remained so until her death at the ripe age of
eighty-seven.

At an early age he was placed at Stepney Hall, where he
remained until fitted for one of the universities. Attaining
his majority, the love of travel seized upon him, and despite
the difficulties and dangers of almost constant warfare, he
went abroad, residing in different countries for several years,
with occasional visits home, laying the foundation of those
extensive philological attainments which distinguished him
in after life.

The American Union was then a new country and nation,
paving the way to political eminence, and offering the ob-

218 Memoir of Mr. G. W. Featherstonhaugh. — By J. D. F.

server a wide contrast to the governments of the old con¬
tinent. Arriving here with letters to the most eminent
citizens, the young traveler, a classical scholar, and fluently
speaking several languages, soon acquired the friendship of
the cultured men of the day, and being of striking personal
appearance, measuring more than six feet in hight, with
courteous manner and an accomplished musician, gained a
ready admission to the somewhat exclusive society of that
period.

As the time approached for his return home, /in paying
some farewell visits to his hospitable friends in the neighbor¬
hood of Philadelphia, by a providential mistake in his road
he became instrumental in saving the life, perhaps, of a young
lady, endangered by a vicious horse. This lady was the grand¬
daughter of Robert, third proprietor of the Livingstone manor
and daughter of Mr. James Duane, first mayor of New York
appointed by governor Clinton, and an intimate friend of
general Washington. The lady was beautiful and accom¬
plished ; the intimacy thus established led on to mutual
affection and marriage.

A large residence was erected, almost in the then wilderness
on the patent known as Duanesburgh in the neighborhood of
their kinsman, general North, of revolutionary distinction
where the subject of our memoir devoted himself to the
interests of agriculture, importing largety from the best
blooded stock abroad. He served for some time as corre¬
sponding secretary of the board of agriculture of the state of
New York, the patroon, Stephen Van Rensselaer being presi¬
dent, and was the active spirit of that useful institution, and
the one upon whom the compilation of its memoirs and the
other literary work chiefly fell.1

When the construction of the Erie canal, which had over¬
shadowed all their schemes of internal improvement, was
completed, reviving his old idea,2 he vigorously agitated in

luMr. Featherstonhaugh from the committee appointed to propose
the most important measures necessary to be adopted at the present
session of this board, and to whom was likewise referred the subject
of rules or orders for the government of this board, in the transaction
of business, reported as follows : ” — Memoirs of the board of agriculture
of the State of New Yorlc, Vol. 1st. page 11.

“ George W. Featherstonhaugh, corresponding secretary for the
United States and foreign nations,” Ibid page 40.

Memoir of Mr. G- W- Featherstonhaugh. — I) F. 219

the public journals a system of railways in the Mohawk
valley. It was accordingly announced in November, 1825,
that an application would be made to the next legislature for
an act to incorporate a company to construct a rail-road from
Schenectady to the Hudson river at Albany or Troy as should
be deemed most advisable.

After untold difficulties from prejudices, want of compre¬
hension on the part of rural legislators, and vested interests
in horse-flesh and stages, a charter was procured on the 27th
of March, 1826,2 3 for the proposed road between the cities of
Albany and Schenectady, a distance of sixteen miles, present¬
ing gradients more difficult for the experience of that day to
overcome, than are elsewhere to be found in the 500 miles
from New York to lake Erie. In the interest of the rail-road
he visited England to inspect the roads that were beginning to
be operated there, and to consult with engineers who had some
experience as to the most feasible plans.

The rail-road being at length an established fact, and public
opinion having been drawn to its support by his indefatigable
pen, he returned with zest to his agricultural labors. But the
death of his two daughters within a few days of each other,
from diphtheria, and the loss of his sorrowing wife, made his
home desolate. He was ordered to seek a milder climate, and
closing his house, which was shortly afterwards destroyed by
fire, ’never revisited the place, or resumed the agricultural
pursuits to which he had given so many years of his life, and
sacrificed a large part of his fortune.

2 “ We find that in 1812 a pamphlet was published for the purpose of
explaining the superior advantage of rail-ways and steam carriages
over canal navigation. * * * * Mr. Stevens of New Jersey en¬
deavored to persuade all who were engaged in public improvement,
that railroads were cheaper and more effective, as well as far more
rapid in transit, than was possible to be obtained by water. Mr. Feather¬
stonhaugh. of Schenectady (county) also about the same time put in a
plea for rail-roads.” Origin and progress of the Mohawk and Hudson
rail-road. Munson, Albany, page 4. G. W. Featherstonhaugh in a
letter to the mayor, said that transportation of property from Albany
to Schenectady was seldom effected in less than two and sometimes
three days. By rail-road the communication between the same would
be safely made, in winter and summer, in three hours, at no greater
cost than by canal, paying for sixteen instead of twenty-eight miles.
He regarded this experiment as a test whether this economical mode
of transportation would succeed in this country.” Ibid. p. 7.

3 “ Stephen Van Rensselaer, known as the old Patroon, and G. W.
Featherstonhaugh were the only persons named as directors in the
charter. This seems therefore to have been the first charter of what
became a successful passenger rail-road in this country.” Ibid. p. 7.

220 Memoir of Mr. J. W. Feather stonhaugh. — By J I). F-

As it was impossible for one of his active temperament to
exist without some congenial work, on regaining his health,
he established a monthly journal of geology in the city of
Philadelphia, delivering lectures in the meanwhile to excite
public interest, and at various intervals publishing classical
translations, books of travel and much of Italian literature.

Geological knowledge was gradually extending itself, and
the government at Washington was becoming alive to its im¬
portance. The federal senate, composed of men of culture
and liberality, passed a bill authorizing geological surveys in
the territories, and confirmed the appointment of Mr. Feather-
stonhaugh as United States geologist. In this capacity he
made several journeys in the wilderness beyond the limits of
civilization, exposed to difficulties, dangers and hardship
always.

At length the longing for the home of his youth, his duty to
his old blind mother, the desire for rest and the society of his
old geological friends, Dr. Buckland and Sir Roderick Murchi¬
son, determined him to return to his native land, and he took
leave, as he thought, for the last time of a country where so
much hard work had been done for its agriculture, geology
and means of internal communication.

Although more than sixty years old, rest was not yet to
come. Lord Palmerston was then in power, with his hands so
full of European difficulties that he dreaded any complication
of American affairs. The question of the boundary line be¬
tween Canada and the United States was then hotly and dan¬
gerously agitated. An indiscretion on either side might lead on
to deplorable results. Armed parties of citizens were taking pos¬
session of strategic points and building defences. Peace could
notbe long preserved under these circumstances. Indeed it was
not a disavowed plan of belligerent politicians to drive their re¬
spective governments into hostilities.

Mr. Featherstonhaugh, whose acquaintance with the public
men and the geography of America was exceeded hy none, and
always having cherished his allegiance to his native country,
was called upon for advice and information by the English
foreign office. The first essential point was to withdraw the
subject entirely from the mere politician, and place it in the
hands of the wiser and more responsible statesmen of the re¬
spective governments. The conference resulted in a commis-

Memoir of Mr. J. W. Featherstonhaugh. — By J. D. F. 221

sion, whose duty it should be to review the controversy of
more than fifty years, to make a minute personal examination
of the territory in dispute, to establish barometrical altitudes,
and fix the latitude and longitude of prominent points. A
similar commission was appointed by the United States.

Accordingly Colonel Z. Mudge, of high astronomical reputa¬
tion, and Mr. Featherstonhaugh were appointed her Majesty’s
commissioners for the disputed boundary in North America.
These gentlemen entered upon their duties at once, and after
a thorough examination, traversing the wilderness on foot and
in canoes, presented to the houses of parliament a substan¬
tially accurate map with an accompanying report, embracing
the subject in all its historical and existent details. Not long
after this Commissioner Featherstonhaugh, when called upon
to speak of the subject at a numerously attended public din¬
ner, outlined an equitable compromise, which was eventually
agreed upon by Mr. Webster and Lord Ashburton, and finally
ratified by the United States senate.

Subsequently to this happy and rational termination of the
irritating controversy, Mr. Featherstonhaugh was appointed
by the English government to the responsible office of consul
for the Department of the Seine, France, where he resided
with his family until the time of his decease, having married
Charlotte, youngest daughter of Bernard Carter, a well-known
Virginia gentleman.

It was during his residence at Havre that he was called
upon to be the effective agent in accomplishing the escape of
Louis Philippe and the queen from the imminent dangers of
the revolution of 1848. The plan was arranged that an Eng¬
lish gentleman should escort the Duchess of Orleans to the
frontiers of Belgium, with a passport made out as if for his
own wife and children. Or failing that, assist the others in the
king’s flight, as he was cautiously making for the sea-coast,
near Havre. The Duchess and her children happily escaped
by other means, and all efforts were concentrated on the safety
of the king. At length reaching the coast in a sorry plight
from the tempestuous weather, the royal party crossed in a
ferry-boat to H4vre, in a drenching rain, and Mr. Smith in a
dreadnaught coat and a south wester hat assumed to be on a
visit to his nephew, the English consul.

Arriving at Havre the travellers were received by the consul,

222 Memoir of Mr. J. W. Feather stonhaugh. — By J. D. F.

who, locking arms with his new-found uncle, marched the
party off into the darkness followed by a curious and some¬
what suspicious crowd. There were several English steamers
along the wharves, blowing off their steam furiously and mak¬
ing a noisy demonstration of immediate departure. In a re¬
mote and obscure corner was a small but swift boat moored
by a single hawser, with fires banked and no lights or men
visible. This steamer was commanded by a captain Paul of the
Royal navy, a man short of stature but fearless and deter¬
mined as a giant, with the least possible respect for a six-footer
of the gens d’ armes,on the deck of his own vessel in a heavy
sea.

As the king was being led away from the steamers that
were noisily preparing to depart, and which were closely
watched by the police, Madame Mousse, an attache of the
custom-house, and an amateur detective, planted herself di¬
rectly before the party, and suspiciously peering into the
king’s face, forced an introduction from the consul. “ Mon
oncle Monsieur Smith , Madame Mousse! ” uAh! ” replied
the wide-awake woman, in the most significant manner, <l II
meparait, Monsieur le Consul , que votre oncle n]est plus age
que vous.v

This was a declaration of war and quick action was neces¬
sary. Madame Mousse was ruthlessly brushed aside, and be¬
fore her cries could bring assistance, the king and his party
were rushed into the cabin of the silent steamer moored in the
dark, and the captain brandishing an axe, was shouting to
the mob to keep off his gangway, in the most energetic nauti¬
cal style, not a word of which did his listeners understand.

As the consul reappeared from the cabin and stepped on the
quai, a rush was made for the boat, in the midst of which the
steam shrieked at its best, the wind blew a hurricane, the
waves thundered on the pier, the axe fell on the hawser, and
under cover of the fearful din and darkness, the tight little
steamer stole out into the tempestuous sea.

Subsequently the consul wTas presented b j the king, as a
memorial of the event, with a massive gold box, superbly
chased, with his monogram and date of escape set in dia¬
monds of great value, and he was specially invited by the fam¬
ily to attend the obsequies of the deceased monarch.

In the performance of his duties and in the exercise of hos-

Oriskany Drift — Cooper Curtice.

223

pitality, preserving his physical and mental powers to the last
his years lengthened out to the venerable age of eighty-six.
Speaking the French language perfectly, and familiar with its
literature from his youth up, he was the friend and corre¬
spondent of the eminent men of France,, and his funeral was
attended by many of them. A French journal in an obituary
notice, uses the following language : “ He was borne to his

grave by six consuls of the English department, preceded by
the clergy of the church of England. The principal authori¬
ties, civil and military, followed, together with the officers of
the English vessels in the port. An eloquent eulogy was de¬
livered at the grave, commemorating the eminent qualities
and high character which had distinguished the honorable
dead.”

Sir Roderick Murchison soon afterwards published in the
London Times a worthy tribute to his life and memory.

It is impossible at the present time to give a complete list of the
geological papers and volumes of Mr. Featherstonhaugh. There may
be some of his unpublished maps and manuscripts in the archives of
the government at Washington. His principal published works relat¬
ing to the Northwest are the well known “ Report of a geological recon-
noissancemade in 1835 from the seat of government by the way of Green
bay and the Wisconsin territory to the Coteau des Prairies, an ele¬
vated ridge dividing the Missouri from the St. Peter’s river,” printed
by order of the Senate in 1836. Another work of two volumes, based
on the same journey, was published in London in 1847, entitled “A
canoe voyage up the Minnay Sotar.” The work of the preceding year
(1834) was published by the Government under the title “ Geological
report of an examination made in 1834 of the elevated country between
the Missouri and Red rivers.” [i. e. the region of the Ozark moun¬
tains, N. H. W.] In the transactions of the Geological Society of Penn¬
sylvania, 1835, vol. 1, is a paper by Mr. Featherstonhaugh entitled:
“Account of the travertine deposited by the waters of the sweet
springs in Alleghany county, in the State of Virginia, and of an ancient
travertine discovered in the adjacent hills.” It is not known whether
there is extant a single copy of the geological journal which he estab¬
lished at Philadelphia. Mr. Featherstonhaugh’s son, Mr. J. D. Feather¬
stonhaugh resides at Duanesburgh, near Schenectady, New York, and
his grandson, Dr. Thomas Featherstonhaugh is a prominent physician
of Albany, New York. [Ed.]

ORISKANY DRIFT NEAR WASHINGTON, D. C.

By Cooper Curtice.

The Potomac formation near Washington is made up in
part of rounded, apparently water worn cobbles and boulders
which are sandstones of various degrees of induration and fine¬
ness. These sandstones range in size from mere pebbles to
boulders a foot or two in diameter. From their rounded contours

224 Orishany Drift. — Cooper Curtice .

they are supposed to have been transported by water or ice for
some distance. As the nearest known rock like them is in
the Shenandoah valley on the western side of the Blue Ridge
some seventy miles to the westward, it is also supposed that
they have been transported thence along the valley of the
Potomac either by the currents or by floating ice.

On a visit with friends to the Mecca of all loyal Americans,
Mount Vernon, Virginia, during the spring of 1886, it was my
good fortune to find within a rod or two of the tomb an
angular fragment of rock which bore an unmistakable Oris-
kany fauna. The guard was near and the rock is probably
there yet as he seemed to think I wanted it for a souvenir ; a
search through the stone heaps in the ravines yielded other
fossiliferous pieces, however, and partially appeased me for the
loss of the coveted fragment. A few days later I went to a
point about a mile below Alexandria and was rewarded by find¬
ing quite an addition to those species already found. Since
then I occasionally find fragments of fossils in the cobbles
used in paving many of the gutters and car tracks throughout
this city.

Mr. R. R. Gurley, of the National Museum, has lately iden¬
tified the fossils found and kindly furnished me with a list.
They are as follows :

Mount Vernon. Alexandria.

TJnd’t coral . “

Ortkis hipparionyx Vanuxem, . “

Spirifera arenosa Conrad, . . “ . “

Cyrtina rostrata Hall, . “

Leptsena flabellites Conrad, . “

Rensslaeria marylandica Hall, . “ . “

“ suessana Hall, . “

Megambonia lamellosa Hall . . “ . “

Avicula textilis var. arenaria Hall, . “ .

Und’t lamellibranch (2sp) . “ . “

Platyceras ? (1 sp) . \. “ . .

Homalonotus . “ . “

7 10

The interest of this discovery lies in the determination of
the horizon to which these loose drift stones of the Potomac
formation once belonged. The only statement that I have
seen regarding their supposed age is that by Rogers in the
Geology of Virginia in which it is asserted that they are of
Potsdam age. This determination must have been made from
the resemblance of these stones to the strata of a formation in

American Geologist , Vol. III.

Plate VI.

First Lithological MicroscopE of American Manufacture,
W, H, BULLOCH,

Chicago,

American Petrographical Microscopes . — Winchell. 225

the Shenandoah valley which Prof. Rogers supposed to be
Potsdam.

AMERICAN PETROGRAPHICAL MICROSCOPES.

By N. H. Winchell.

Three American firms now advertise petrographical micro¬
scopes made in this country.1 That wrhich gave microscopical
petrography its first important impulse in America wras the
publication in 1876 by the U. S. government of the work of
Zirkel on the eruptive rocks collected under Mr. Clarence
King by the survey of the fortieth parallel. This was written
and engraved if not printed in Europe. On the distribution
of this beautiful quarto volume (Vol. VI of Mr. King’s report),
a comparatively new geological domain was revealed to the
American student. He was not backward in entering upon its
exploration. Soon afterward the pioneer of American publi"
cations in microscopic petrography appeared as a chapter in
one of the final volumes of the New Hampshire geological sur¬
vey prepared by Dr. Geo. W. Hawes under the direction of
Prof. C. H. Hitchcock. There began with this to be a demand
for American-made petrographical microscopes. Several foreign
instruments were in use in the laboratories of American stu¬
dents. The cheaper grades wrere found to be defective and the
higher class instruments were too expensive. Several styles
were announced in England before any attempt was made in
America. The first English work designed for student’s use
was that of Mr. Frank Rutley ( The Study of Rocks, published
in London in 1879) and it called attention by special descrip¬
tion to an English-made microscope, manufactured by Watson,
Pall Mall, London.

When the examination of the crystalline rocks was begun by
the Minnesota geological survey in 1878, it was essential that
this method of research should be resorted to. The first in¬
strument owned by the survey was a Tolies Studenfs Stand,
Temodeled for petrography in New York under the special di¬
rection of Prof. A. A. Julien of the Columbia College School
of Mines. As this lacked some of the appliances needed, re¬
sort was had to American makers, but none wrould undertake
to construct a microscope adapted for petrographical research

' W. H. Bulloch. 99 W. Monroe St., Chicago, Ill.; Jas W. Queen & Co., 924Chestnut
St., Philadelphia, Pa. ; and the Bausch-Lomb Optical Company, Rochester, N. Y.

226 American Petrographical Microscopes. — Winchell-

except Mr. W. H. Bulloch, of Chicago. With a true American
pride Mr. Bulloch responded with promptness, and in August
1880 he sent to the University of Minnesota the first made
American petrographical microscope. This instrument
was furnished with the apparatus arranged in the manner then
prevalent, and it is illustrated by the preceding plate which was
made from a photograph taken when it was first finished.
This instrument is accompanied by the following appliances,
the numbers corresponding to the parts so designated in the
plate, and described by Mr. Bulloch.

No. 1, nose-piece containing Klein’s quartz plate and Nicol prism.
No. 2, Nicol prism. No. 3, centering nose-piece. No. 4, lower part of
substage, containing prism which swings to one side. No. 6, centering
substage. No. 8, lower part of goniometer. No. 9, upper Nicol prism.
No. 10, plate of calc-spar cut perpendicular to the axis. No. 12, Hemi¬
sphere for use with convergent polarized light for showing crosses.
No. 13, scale inside of tube. No. 15, extra nose piece. No. 16, supple¬
mentary substage.

This microscope was exhibited at the Detroit meeting of the
American Society of Microscopists, August 17, 1880, 2 and is
now owned by Dr. Edson Basten, of the Chicago College of
Pharmacy, 3330 S. Park Ave., Chicago. Mr. Bulloch there¬
after illustrated and announced in his circular this litholog¬
ical microscope. Its price was $125. He subsequently made
a more elaborate instrument for Mr. J. H. Caswell, of New
York, author of the chapter on the microscopic petrography
of the Black Hills of Dakota, published in Newton and Jan-
ney’s report on the geology of the Black Hills in 1881. The
most elaborate and costly lithological microscope yet made
by Mr. Bulloch was for Mr. F. E. Tyler, of Kansas City, Mo.,
at a cost of $300. This is shown in the cut on the following
page. In the summer of 1880 Mr. Bulloch also altered two in¬
struments made before by him, so as to adapt them for litho¬
logical work, for Prof. R. D. Irving, of Madison, Wisconsin.

Shortly after the enterprise of Mr. Bulloch, in the spring of
1881, the “Acme lithological microscope” was made and ad¬
vertised by Mr. John W. Sidle, at Lancaster, Pa. The
agency of the Acme microscopes passed to James W.
Queen & Co., of Philadelphia, in November, 1881, and
that firm has since continued their manufacture and sale,
hut without much effort to extend the lithological model.

This microscope is of the usual style in its rotating stage

2See their proceedings, Aug. 19, 1880, p. 12.

American Petrographical Microscopes . Winch ell 227

MR. F. E. TYLER,

228 American Petrographwal Microscopes . — Winchelb

and revolving
swinging polari¬
zer. It is furnish¬
ed with two analy¬
zers, one to be used
at the upper end
of the tube with
a graduated rim
and indicator, and
the other placed in
a sliding brass box
which enters the
body of the tube
just above the ob¬
jective. A Klein
quartz plate is
mounted in a sim¬
ilar way and slides
in another slot just
below in the nose-
piece. The eye¬
piece is furnished
with crossed spi¬
der-lines, and re¬
ceives at the upper
end a circular calc •
spar plate for stau-
roscopic examina¬
tion. This instru¬
ment is illustrated
by the figure 5. Its
cost with two ob¬
jectives is $125.

The Bausch-
LombOpticalCom-
pany, Rochester, N.
Y., introduced the
third lithological
model in Decem¬
ber, 1887. This was
designed and con-

Fig. 5. Acme.

American Petrographical Microscopes. — Winchell. 229

strueted under the direction of Prof. Geo. H. Williams, of
Johns Hopkins University, and was described by him in the
Am. Jour. Sci.} February, 1888. It is illustrated by the ad¬
joining figure, one-third its actual size. It was first exhibited
and described by him at the winter meeting (Dec. 1887) of the
Society of Naturalists , at New Haven, Ct. Following is
his description.3

Coming now to the peculiarly petrographical features, we have the
lower Nicol-prism or polarizer enclosed in a cylindrical metal box, both
ends of which are protected by glass. This box is capable of a complete
revolution, and is provided wTith a graduated silvered circle and

index. It is held by a
cylindrical frame in
which it may be raised
or depressed at will by a
rack and pinion move¬
ment. This frame is
attached to the under
side of the stage by a
swinging arm, so that
the whole polarizing ap¬
paratus may be thrown
to one side, if desired.
A strong compound lens
may be screwed upon
the upper end of the
polarizer whenever
strong illumination or
converged pol a r i z e d
light is needed.

The circular stage (9.5
cm. in diameter) is pro¬
vided with a beveled
silvered edge, graduated
to degrees. Upon this
is mounted for smooth
and concentric revolu¬
tion the admirable
mechanical stage known
to the manufacturer’s
catalogue as No. 1052.
This carries an index for
reading the graduated
circle, and is also provi¬
ded with silvered grad¬
uations for its two rec¬
tangular movements,
whereby any point in a
1 S!J1| section can be readily
' located. The upper
HR sliding bar which carries
the object lias been
Fig. 6. Bausch-Lomb Lithological Stand, shortened so as to be
only flush with the revolving stage when pushed to its extreme limit
on either side. With this, square or short rectangular glasses must be

Am. Journal of Science. February, 1888. p. 116

‘^30 Relation of Devonian Faunas of Iowa. — Williams.

used for mounting which will avoid any interference with the revolu¬
tion of the stage.

Into the nose-piece, just above the objective, is an opening intended
to receive the four following accessories, each mounted in a separate
brass frame: (1) a Bertrand lens for magnifying the interference
figures ; (2) a quarter-undulation mica-plate ; (3) a quartz wedge ;
(4) a Klein quartz-plate or a gypsum plate with red of the first order.

The centering of the various objectives is secured by two screws hav¬
ing motions at right angles to each other.

The upper Nicol-prism or analyzer is inserted in the tube in order to
avoid the diminishing of the size of the field which is unavoidable
when the prism is placed over the ocular as a cap. To accomplish
this and at the same time to keep the tube dust-tight the Nicol is
enclosed in one side of a double chambered box. The other side is
left vacant and the box may be slid to and fro according as ordinary or
polarized light is desired. A metal sheath protects this box from
above.

The microscope, as here described, in a case with a single eye-piece
but without objectives, may be obtained for $108.00. With two eye¬
pieces (one with cross hairs and the other with micrometer) and two
objectives (% and 1-5 inch) its cost is $135.00. The cost of a solid brass
stand is about $25 00 more.

The demand in the United States for microscopes adapted
for the examination of minerals in thin sections is rapidly
extending. This is due to the, hitherto, small amount of
attention that has been given to this science in America and
the awakening that has marked the past ten years. It is also
due, in a large measure, to the prevalence of the Archaean
rocks in those regions of the country where the advanced
schools of science are found. This brings the science of micro¬
scopic petrography prominently before both the student and
the teaching geologist, and they find material ready at hand
with which to work. It remains yet to see a first-class petro¬
graphic microscope of American manufacture. Those above
described are adapted to ordinary use and the necessities of
the instructional laboratory. They do not embrace the ex¬
tended apparatus for nice distinctions, and for elaborate re¬
search, seen in some of those of European make, like that of
the Grand Modele of Nachet.

ON THE RELATION OF THE DEVONIAN FAUNAS OF IOWA.

By H. S. Williams.

The two papers of professor Calvin, which were published in
the Bulletin from the Laboratories of Natural History of
the /State University of Iowa, November, 1888, Vol. 1, No. I,1

1 Some geological problems in Muscatine County, Iowa. With
special reference to the rectification of the supposed Kinderhook near

Relation of Devonian Faunas of Iowa. — Williams . 231

are striking illustrations of tlie value of palseontologic evi¬
dence in determining equivalency of strata.

In the first paper the author has succeeded in distinguish¬
ing the “yellow sandstone” at Pine creek, which lies above the
Hamilton limestone, from the “yellow sandstone” of Burling¬
ton, which lies at the base of the Burlington group of the lower
Carboniferous. These two sandstones were called equivalents
of the “Chemung” by Hall in 1858 and when, in 1861, the
“Kinderhook group” was defined by Meek and Worthen to in¬
clude the “Goniatite beds” of Rockford, Indiana, and the
“yellow sandstones” of Burlington, with their equivalents,
which had been previously referred to the “Chemung,” it was
not strange that a student of the fossils, recognizing the Devon¬
ian relations of the fauna of Pine creek, should conclude that
the term “Kinderhook,” as used by Meek and Worthen, and
White, should include all of the rocks of the Mississippi val¬
ley that had previously been called “Chemung.”

This mistake I made in an article“On a remarkable fauna at
the base of the Chemung group in New York.” 2

It is gratifying to learn that professor Calvin has since ob¬
tained palseontologic evidence to convince him that the “yel¬
low sandstone” at Pine creek, Muscatine Co., Iowa, which was
called “Chemung” and “Kinderhook,” is really below the Bur¬
lington “yellow sandstone,” which he had regarded as equiv¬
alent, and, therefore, that it is not equivalent to Meek and
Worthen’s “Kinderhook group.”

Without visiting Iowa, and purely from a study of the fos¬
sils and structure of the “Rockford shales” of the northern
counties of Iowa, I was led to identify their fauna with one
occuring above the typical Hamilton fauna of the East, as is
shown in the paper above referred to ; and, although I have
not yet had an opportunity to examine the stratigraphy, my
knowledge of the fossils leads me to believe that the fauna of
the “Rockford shales” follows that of the “yellow sandstone”
of Muscatine county, described by professor Calvin.

The fauna of this “yellow sandstone” is probably closely
related to that of the “calcareo-siliceous sandstone” under-

the month of Pine creek, pp. 7-18.

Notes on the synonymy, characters, and distribution of Spirifera
parry ana Hall, pp. 19-28.

* Amer. Jour. Sci., Yol. XXV, pp. 97-104, 1883.

232 Relation of Devonian Faunas of Iowa . — Williams.

lying the Rockford shales at Rockford, Iowa, and recognized
in Beaver Creek and Nora Springs, by Clement L. Webster.
( See, “A description of Rockford Shales of Iowa,” Proc. Dav¬
enport Acad. Nat. Sci., Yol. V, p. 103, and note at bottom of
pp. 103 and 104). Specimens of the fossil called Spirifera
disjuncta Sow. by Mr. Webster, have been kindly sent for ex¬
amination by him, and I find them, not Spirifera disjuncta ,
but presenting the characters of the Spirifera mesostrialis
Hall, of the Ithaca sandstone at the base of the Chemung
group of New York, and also answering so closely to the de¬
scriptions of the Spirifera parry ana Hall, of the “yellow sand¬
stone” of Muscatine county, as to make it probable that S.
parryana is but a western variety of S- mesostrialis of New
York, in the same way that Orthis iowensis is but a western
variety of the Orthis impressa of the New York faunas, both
of which are but varieties of the European Orthis Striatula
Schlotheim. #

The zone in which Spirifera mesostrialis and Cryptonella
eudora are characteristic in New York sections, is followed by
the zone holding the fauna with Orthis impressa , Produclella
dissimilis Hall, and Rhynchonella pugnus Martin, of the
geological reports of Illinois, (or= Rhynchonella alta , of Cal¬
vin).

Judging, therefore, from the order of succession of the
faunas, which is beyond dispute in the Devonian of New York
state and the Appalachians, it appears probable that the De¬
vonian fauna of Rockford, Iowa, and the northern counties of
Iowa, represents a large stage of the middle Devonian, or an
early stage of the upper Devonian of the New York sections.
If the fauna of the “yellow sandstones” of Muscatine county,
Iowa, were in the rocks of the Appalachian Devonian, we should
unmistakably place it at the base of the “Chemung Period,”
in what is locally called the “Ithaca group,” and using the
same standards, the Rockford shale fauna of Iowa would be
placed a little higher up, in the Ithaca group. Both would
be decidedly in the lower part of the upper Devonian, entirely
below the first appearance of the lowest representative of typ¬
ical Chemung faunas.

The discovery of the clue to the order of sequence of the
Iowa faunas was first announced in my paper above cited, and
had I then known the stratigraphy of the Iowa Devonian as

Description of new Lower Silurian Sponges . — TJlrich. 233

well as professor Calvin appeared to know it when he wrote
his article of June, 1883, 1 could have added, that the place in
the series for Spirifer parry ana fauna to appear, is between
the Spirifera pennata fauna of the typical Hamilton lime¬
stones, and the fauna with Spirifera whitney i and Spirifera
hungerfordi.

But the confusion as to which rocks really belong to the
uKinderhook group” of Meek and Worthen, a confusion
which, it now appears, professor Calvin shared with some of
us who lived outside of Iowa, made it impossible to place con¬
fidence in the strictness of reference for the fossils reported.
The representatives of “S- whitneyi ” and US. hungerfordi ,”
wherever they are recognizable, from the Ural mountains, from
Russia, from Germany, from Northern France, from Spain,
from Belgium, from England, and from New York and along
the Appalachian, are always associated with species found at
the close of the middle or base of the upper Devonian. The
Russian, German, and French geologists more generally re¬
gard this fauna as the first fauna of the upper Devonian, to
which the name u Frasnienv is quite commonly applied. The
English, on account of the great disturbance of the rocks dur¬
ing and after the Devonian, have no satisfactory means of de¬
termining the precise sequence of faunas, and it is also prob¬
able that the South Devonshire limestones were continuous,
without change, till after the stage represented in other re¬
gions by the earlier part of the upper Devonian deposits.

The homotaxial relation of the Rockford shale fauna, and
that of the “yellow sandstones” of Muscatine Co., Iowa, if the
species have been correctly reported, is with the faunas of the
“Ithaca group” of New York and the East, and of the “Fras-
nien Etage” of the northern part of Europe and Asia, and not
with strictly middle Devonian faunas in any region where con¬
tinuous sections have enabled the geologists to determine ac¬
curately their sequence. March 9, 1889.

PRELIMINARY DESCRIPTION OF NEW LOWER SILURIAN
SPONGES.

By E. O. Ulrich.

This paper may well begin with an apology for the scanti¬
ness of the descriptions and the lack of sufficient illustrations.
It is hoped, however, that the critic will be lenient and bear in

234 Description of new Lower Silurian Sponges. — Ulrich.

mind that so little is known of pala30zoic sponges (Lower Sil¬
urian ones in particular) that almost any contribution to our
knowledge of them is welcome. The imperfections will prove
the most serious to the systematise but for the needs of the
collector and of those who desire to use these fossils as pal¬
eontological evidence in the determination of strata, it is be¬
lieved these descriptions will suffice, temporarily. The sys-
tematist also should not forget that among Silurian sponges
the minute characters upon which his classification is founded
are so seldom preserved in a recognizable condition that often
the heart grows weary waiting for the resurrection of the spec¬
imens which, if placed in the proper hands, might be made
to throw light into the dark recesses of our classifications. It
is almost needless for me to say that had such specimens been
at my command I would most surely have fulfilled all the re¬
quirements of scientific publication by describing and figuring
their minute characters in detail. To offer illustrations now,
when the structure is only conjectured , might serve but to
mislead.

The amateur and mere collector rarely searches for unnamed
fossils, especially if they belong to so unprepossessing a class
as the sponges. He must have a name for his specimens or
they go into his unclassified drawer which too frequently
merges into his trash box. And how often does not that
“trash box” contain the very specimen for which we have
searched so diligently.

It is, therefore, partly to satisfy and incite him, partly to
make these fossils available for stratigraphical determination,
and partly my desire to add a little to the literature of a sub¬
ject so generally shunned by American paleontologists that in¬
duces me to present the following.

A few remarks upon the systematic position of the proposed
new genera may prove of value.

The new genus Rauffella , named in honor of Dr. H. Rauff,
the distinguished collaborator of Dr. Karl Zittel on fossil
sponges, is proposed for the reception of two remarkable
sponges. At first I believed their spicules to be of only the
uniaxial type and the genus probably a member of the
Monactinellidoe. A later study, however, proved the results of
the first to be erroneous, and that, instead of being of the uni¬
axial type, the spicules of the outer layer at any rate are really

Description of new Lower Silurian Sponges. — Ulrich. 235

peculiarly modified hexacts, as shown in figures 2 and 4 of the
accompanying cut. In figure 2 we have an arrangement some¬
what like that usual among the Dictyospongidce , and it is as
an abnormal type of that hexactinellid family that I regard
Rauf fella. I am not certain that R. palmipes ought to be
considered as congeneric with R. flosa , the form of the sponge
being very different in the two species . That they belong to
the same family is scarcely to be questioned.

The position of Leptopoterion, in the absence of a definite
knowledge of the spicular structure, is somewhat doubtful.
The general aspect, however, is suggestive of the Hexactinel-
lidce , and indicates a relationship to the Dictyospongidce on
the one hand and, perhaps less strongly, the Receptaculitidce
on the other. The peculiar bodies which in one of my earlier
papers were named Lepidolites and are now classed provis¬
ionally in the latter family, may be more closely related than
would at first appear.

Ileterospongia and Saccospongia , together with Dystacto-
spongia S. A. Miller, and Strotospongia , a new genus described
in my report on fossil sponges for vol. viii Ill. Geol. Survey
reports, (now in press) constitute a natural group of sponges,
having, I believe, rather close relations to Calcispongice of the
type of Corynella Zittel. Streptospongia and Cylindroccelia
are difficult to place. If I should hazard an opinion it would
be that both belong to the Calcispongice , the former near
Dystactospongia , the latter, perhaps, near Myrmecium
Goldf. (Zittel).

RAUFFELiLA n. gen.

Sponges free (?), forming hollow cylindrical stems, or ra¬
dially arranged leaves. Wall exceedingly thin, composed of two
distinct layers of spicule-tissue. Inner layer minutely por¬
ous, the pores irregularly distributed, of unequal size, the
larger ones rounded, the smaller ones much more numerous
and mostly of irregularly angular outline ; spicular tissue sep¬
arating pores thin, the nature of its elements undetermined.
Outer layer consisting of a network of large spicules, appar¬
ently of a curiously modified hexactinellid type. Usually
they appear as irregularly coalescing thread-like strise lining
the surface in a longitudinal direction, with more slender con¬
necting filaments traversing the narrow intervening spaces at
more or less acute angles leaving acutely elliptical depressed

236 Description of new Lower Silurian Sponges . — Ulrich.

spaces. At other times the striae cross eaeh other diagonally,
producing appearance not much unlike that of the ordinary
arrangement of the spicules in the Dictyospongidce.

Type, R. Mosa , n. sp.

EXPLANATION.

Fig. 1. Upper extremity of specimen of Rauffella jilosa Ulrich, of
the natural size.

Figs. 2 and 4. Small portions of fig. 1, x 9, showing the irregular
character of the superficial network.

Fig. 3. Thin section of Rauffella palmipes Ul., x 35, showing the
porous character of the inner layer of the sponge. The spicules were
not determined and no attempt was made to represent them in this
hasty sketch.

Fig. 5. Portion of an example of Heterospongia Jcnotti Ul. ; of the
natural size.

Fig. 6. Transverse section of a calcareous specimen referred with
doubt to Heterospongia subramosa Ul. nat. size.

Fig. 7. Example of Saccospongia rudis, Ul. ; of the natural size.
This figure was inverted by the engraver, its upper extremity, where a

Description of new Lower Silurian Sponges. — Ulrich. 237

small portion of the dermal layer is represented, being really the basal
part of the sponge.

Fig. 8 represents a small portion of a transverse fracture of the
specimen of Streptospongia labyrinthica described ; nat. size.

Fig. 9, portion of the fractured smaller end of the type specimen of
Oylindrocoslia elongataVl., showing thickness of sponge wall and ra¬
diating canals.

Fig. 10. Outer surface of same, showing distribution of canal aper¬
tures when the dermal layer is removed. Both of the natural size.

RATJFFELLA FILOSA, n. sp.

Sponge forming a straight or slightly curved hollow cylin¬
drical stem, 10 to 15 mm. in diameter. The largest fragment
seen is 90 mm. in length. One of the ends (whether the
upper or lower one has not been determined) is rounded off
somewhat like the tip of a finger. The other, probably, was
open. Sponge wall less than 0.5 mm. in thickness. Outer
surface generally appearing to the naked eye as strongly
striated longitudinally. Under a good pocket lens numerous
connecting filaments are noticeable forming with the stronger
threads an irregular, narrow-meshed network. Nearly every
specimen, however, exhibits on limited portions of the surface
a comparatively regular arrangement of the spicular tissue in
diagonally intersecting lines. Here the hexactinellid charac¬
ter of the spicules is determined, there being, apparently, four
rays spread horizontally and one extending downward into the
inner tissue, while the sixth is not developed. The spicules
are joined together by a union of the horizontal rays of each
with those of four other spicules in such a manner that a net¬
work with rhomboidal meshes is formed. Similar but smaller
spicules are developed in the interspaces. This regular ar¬
rangement of the spicules is but rarely met with, the surface
appearing, as already stated, usually to be striated in a longi¬
tudinal direction mainly. On an average eleven of the striae
occur in 5mm. transversely.

Inner layer of sponge tissue exceedingly thin and minutely
porous. Its structure has not been determined, the finer de¬
tails having been obliterated during the process of fossiliza-
tion.

This sponge cannot be confounded with any other fossil
known to me from Cambrian or Silurian rocks, its finger-like
form and the strong thread-like striations of the surface giving
it a very characteristic and easily recognized aspect.

Formation and locality : Fragments are not uncommon in

238 Description of new Lower Silurian Sponges — TJlrich.

the Trenton shales at Minneapolis, St. Paul, Fountain and
other localities in Minnesota.

RATJFFELLA PALMIPES, n. sp.

Sponges rather large, originally probably of inverted pear-
shaped outline, consisting of five bi- or tri-furcating com¬
pressed lobes springing from a short stem, united at the cen¬
ter and arranged in a radial manner. In the fossil state they
present varied forms corresponding with the degree and direc¬
tion of the compression they have suffered. This is much less
than might be expected of so frail an organism, and I can ac¬
count for the comparatively good preservation of the shape
only by supposing the lower extremity of the stem to have
been open, thus permitting the material that made up the
strata (mud, fragments of shells, bryozoa, etc.) to enter freely
into the internal cavity. Generally, the cavity is entirely
filled with material of the same nature as the surrounding
matrix. In a few cases free communication must have been
interrupted causing a lobe to remain empty and now to appear
much more compressed than usual. On account of the friable
nature of the shales in which they are found, most of the spec¬
imens are mere fragments. Still after a careful search the
author succeeded in securing three nearly complete examples.
Two of these are compressed obliquely with the stem on one
side, and look very much like the webbed foot of a bird. The
specific name was suggested by this fancied resemblance. The
third is compressed vertically and shows the radial arrange¬
ment and bifurcation of the compressed lobes very satisfactor¬
ily. As near as can be determined the original dimensions of
a specimen of medium size were about as follows : hight, 90
mm. ; greatest width, 80 mm. ; diameter of stem, 15 mm. ;
thickness of lobe, 8 mm. ; thickness of walls of sponge, 0.5
mm. or less.

The spicules of the inner layer, owing to alteration and re¬
placement by calcite, have not been determined. A thin sec¬
tion, however, shows that it was minutely porous, the tissue
separating the pores thin, and the pores of variable size, the
larger ones of rounded form, the smaller ones more or less
angular. The surface, as in B. Mosa, is striated, only the
striae are much finer and more irregular. The appearance of
the surface is to be described as hirsute rather than filose.

Description of new Lower Silurian Sponges . — Ulrich. 239

Formation and locality : Trenton shales, near Minneapo¬
lis, Minn.

EEPTOPOTERIQN MAMMIFEEUM, n. g-en. et. sp.

Sponge free, obconical, about 70 mm. high and 40 mm.
wide at the top. At intervals of about 9 mm. the sides are
marked with shallow transverse constrictions, giving the
sponge, particularly the lower half, an annulated appearance.
The basal portion, which is 14 mm. in diameter at the first con¬
striction and 8 mm. high, seems to have formed a nearly hem¬
ispherical termination. The second annulation shows seven
very faintly defined broad elevations ; the third, eight a little
more distinct; the fourth, nine, each about 9 mm.
in diameter and 15 mm. high; the fifth ten, and the sixth
eleven ; the seventh is incomplete. The mammillations of
each row alternate in position with those of the preceding and
succeeding series. Those of the rows above the fourth annu¬
lation become narrower gradually, those of the seventh being
elliptical in outline, averaging 5.5 mm. in width by 9.5 mm. in
length, with a hight varying between 1.5 and 2.0 mm.

Sponge-wall exceeding thin, the thickness being less than
0.5 mm. In the only example seen the minute details of its
structure have been almost obliterated by replacement with
iron pyrites. The outer surface, where best preserved, is finely
reticulated, being traversed by lines and series of points
ranged in very regular diagonally intersecting, tran verse and
longitudinal directions. Measuring diagonally, 14 lines were
counted in 5 mm. When a little worn the diagonal lines be¬
come fainter but the longitudinal ones proportionately more
conspicuous. There is some evidence to show that this net¬
work was formed of overlapping hexactinellid spicules having
the six rays spread in one plane.

Formation and locality : Middle beds of the Cincinnati
group. The type and only specimen seen was collected some
years ago in the quarries on Roh’s hill, Cincinnati, 0., by Mr.
Charles Schuchert, now of Albany, N. Y. It is now in the
author’s cabinet.

HETEROSPONGIA, n. gen.

Sponges consisting of sublobate or irregularly divided, com¬
pressed branches. Entire surface exhibiting the mouths of
branching and more or less tortuous canals, which begin near
the center, where they are nearly vertical, and proceed toward all

240 Description of new Lower Silurian Sponges — TJlrich.

portions of the surface in a curved direction. A limited num¬
ber of “ oscula ” distinguished from the® ordinary canals by
being larger and surrounded by radiating channels, occasion¬
ally present.

Sponge skeleton between the canals of variable thickness,
sometimes appearing nearly solid, at other times composed of
loosely interwoven spicule libers. None of the specimens show
the spicules in a satisfactory manner. From the traces seen
it would appear that they are mostly very small and of the
three-rayed type. Type : II. subramosa, n. sp.

1 This genus is related to the Dystactospongia S. A. Miller,
differing from species of that genus chiefly in the erect and
subramose habit of growth. The four or five species of Mil¬
ler’s genus known to me are all parasitic or form amorphous
masses.

HETEROSPONGIA SUBRAMOSA. n. sp,

Sponge subramose, occasionally palmate ; branches more or
less flattened, from 9 to 13 mm. thick, and 11 to 30 mm.
wide. The largest specimen seen is 65 mm. high and 45 mm.
wide. Surface generally even, exhibiting the rather irregu¬
larly distributed canal apertures. These are generally of very
unequal sizes, though on limited portions of the surface, both
their distribution and size may be fairly regular. The aver¬
age diameter of an aperture is nearly 0.7 mm., with about 5 in
5 mm. The width of the interspaces between the canal mouths
is equally variable, the extremes being 0.2 and 1.2 mm. The
sponge skeleton is composed of more or less loosely interwov¬
en spicule-fibres, but in the usual state of preservation the
inter-canal spaces appear quite solid and structureless. In
none of the specimens are the spicules sufficiently well pre¬
served to make their determination a matter beyond dispute.

Formation and locality : Upper and perhaps middle beds
of the Cincinnati group. The best specimens come from

1 This generic and four specific names ( subramosa , knotti, aspera
and nodulosa), were proposed in my Catalogue of Cincinnati group
fossils, published in 1880. Being unaccompanied by either descrip¬
tions or figures, these species cannot be considered as established.
The publication of mere ms. names is no more binding to the author
of such names than to other authors who may have no means of learn¬
ing what the names apply to. This being the first adequate publication
of the genus and species, their date of publication is necessarily the
same as that of this issue of the “ Geologist.” The same is to be
said of Streptospongia and its species labyrinthica.

Description of new Lo wer Silurian Sponges. — • Ulrich. 24 1

Marion and Lincoln counties in Kentucky. At those local¬
ities the original material of the sponges, in common with that
of the associated fossils, has been replaced by silica. In two
fragments, one from the tops of the Cincinnati hills, the other
from Spring Valley, Minn., both doubtfully referred to the
species, the skeleton consists of crystalline calcite. These
preserve the canals very well but the minute characters of the
spicule-fiber are entirely obliterated.

HETEROSPONGIA KNOTTI, n. sp.

Sponges subramose ; branches strong, more or less flattened,
8 to 20 mm. thick, and 18 to 30 mm. wide. Surface even or
with irregular swellings. Canal apertures small, sub-equal,
mostly round, averaging 0.35 mm. in diameter ; arranged in
rather irregular rows with 6 to 8 in 5 mm. Partitions be¬
tween canal mouths of variable thickness, composed of rather
compactly interwoven spicule-fibers. Where best preserved
the angles of junction are prominent. The most distinctive
feature of the species is found in the oscula which are scat¬
tered over the surface at intervals of from 8 to 20 mm. These
are nearly circular, about 1.5 mm. in diameter and generally
surrounded by a variable number of radiating channels.

Compared with II. subramosa this species will be found to
differ in having smaller and more closely arranged canals and
“ oscula.” The latter are absent in that species.

The specific name is given in honor of Mr. W. T. Knott, of
Lebanon, Kentucky, who found the specimens in the upper
beds of the Cincinnati group near Lebanon and kindly pre¬
sented them to the author for description. I am also indebted
to this gentleman for hospitable entertainment.

HETEROSPONGIA ASPERA, n. sp.

Sponges of very irregular growth, forming thick, shapeless
fronds, or strongly nodulated, lobate or subramose, elongate
masses, several inches in length. When in a good state of
preservation the surface is remarkably rough, the inter-canal
spaces being comparatively thin and set at close intervals
with sharp prominences. The canal apertures are of irregu¬
lar form, often sub-quadrate, and average about 0.5 mm. in
diameter, with 7 or 8 in 5 mm. They are more regularly ar¬
ranged and of more nearly equal size than usual. The nodu¬
lated examples frequently present areas over which their
mouths are disposed in a radial manner, but there is no

242 Description of new Lower Silurian Sponges. — TJlrich.

“ osculum ” at the center of these areas. Again, over limited
spaces canal apertures may be wanting.

In the number of canals in a given space this species agrees
very nearly with H. Jcnotti. Still, the more irregular growth,
remarkably rough surface, and absence of oscula serve very
well in distinguishing them.

Formation and locality : Upper beds of the Cincinnati
group, in Marion and Lincoln counties, Kentucky.

SACCOSPONGIA, n g-en.

Sponges simple, of sub-cylindrical or oval form, with a cen¬
tral cloaca! cavity extending through the sponge from its sum¬
mit to the base. Walls moderately thick, very porous, being
traversed by large, tortuous, branching canals, intercommuni¬
cating freely with each other. Minute characters of skeleton,

robably similar to that of Heterospongia and Dystacto-
spongia. A dermal layer of compact structure is developed
over at least the basal portion.

Type : S. rudis , n. sp.

This genus is believed to differ from Heterospongia and
Dystactospongia mainly in its mode of growth and in pos¬
sessing a cloacal cavity.

SACCOSPONGIA RUDIS, n. sp.

Sponge of sub-ovate form, or with the sides parallel and the
two extremities rounded, the upper, however, slightly truncate.
A rather small but nearly complete example is 65 mm.long by 30
mm. wide. The cloaca, about 18 mm. in diameter, extends down¬
ward apparently to the base. Outer surface roughly and very
irregularly pitted, or lined with tortuous ridges. The latter
occur on the lower portion of the sponge mainly. Channels
between the ridges porous, the openings small, sub-circular or
transversely elongated, and often ranged in series. Canal
openings oblique, very unequal, their width varying between
the extremes of 1 and 3 mm. Walls separating canals porous,,
usually 0.5 or 0.6 mm. thick. A thin dermal layer, seemingly
composed of very minute and closely interwoven spicules,
covers a portion of the base of one of the examples.

All the specimens have been distorted through compression,
and much of the variation of form noticed is obviously due to
that cause.

Formation and locality : In the siliceous beds at the top of
the Trenton, near Lexington and Frankfort, Kentucky. The

Description of new Lower Silurian Sponges. — JJlrich. 243

remarkable Brachiospongia is from the same horizon. I am
indebted to Mr. Moritz Fischer, of the geological survey of
Kentucky, for specimens of this species.

SACCOSPONGIA DANVILLENSIS, n. sp.

Sponge small, sub-cylindrical, 7 to 12 mm. in diameter ;
occasionally exhibiting a tendency to bifurcate. Wall vary¬
ing in thickness from 1 to 4 mm. Cloacal cavity variable,
sometimes small, at other times comparatively large. Outer
surface rough, in the worn or greatly compressed condition
appearing as though traversed by small interrupted longitu¬
dinal ridges. Canal-apertures more or less oblique, small,
averaging about 0.6 mm. in diameter, and from 3 to 5 in the
space of 3 mm.

This species resembles Heterospongia but an examination
of the fractured ends of the examples revealed the presence of
a cloacal cavity. It is a smaller sponge than S. rudis , from
which it is distinguished further by its smaller canals.

Formation and locality : From the siliceous beds at the
top of the Trenton, at localities in Boyle, Mercer, Franklin
and Fayette counties, Kentucky.

DYSTACTOSPONGIA MINIMA, n. sp.

This name is proposed for a small parasitic sponge appar¬
ently congeneric with D. insolens S. A. Miller. It forms thin
crusts or small irregular masses upon bryozoa and other
foreign bodies. The largest seen is about 15 mm. wide and
5 mm. high at the center. The canals are much smaller than
in any of the other species and the partitions exceedingly
thin. About 5 canals occur in 2 mm. The whole skeleton is
usually replaced by a brown oxide of iron.

It is doubtful whether the specimens catalogued by me under
the name Streptospongia confusa Ulrich (Catal. foss. Cin. gr.
1880) are specifically distinct from Miller’s D. insolens. (Jour.
Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. v, 1882). The typical examples of his
species are large amorphous masses, while the specimens
named by me as above are small and generally attached to ra¬
mose or frondescent bryozoa. Mr. Miller believes them to be
distinct but I am very much inclined to doubt the propriety
of separating them as I have failed to note any difference in
the size and arrangement of the canals between those of the
large and small examples. On the other hand, the specimens
now named D. minima differ decidedly from that species in

244 Description of new Lower Silurian Sponges. — TJlrich .

those respects, the canals being scarcely more than one third
as large.

Formation and locality : The best specimens of D. mini¬
ma seen were found at a fine locality for bryozoa near Hano¬
ver, a small village in Butler county, Ohio. D. insolens , so far
as known, is restricted to the middle beds of the group.

STREPTOSPONGIA LABYRINTHICA, n. gen. et. sp.

The specimen upon which this genus and species are found¬
ed is a fragment of a massive sponge. It is siliceous, over
50 mm. long, 30 mm. high, and 25 mm. wide, and broken so as
to show longitudinal and transverse sections. In the latter
the sponge appears composed of labyrinthically intertwining
vertical laminse, nearly constantly 0.3 mm. thick, separated by
tortuous and almost linear interspaces, with here and there an
irregular angular open space not noticed to exceed 1 mm.
in length. The vertical fracture shows that this remarkable
intertwining is largely produced by connecting processes on
the sides of the laminse. These are usually rounded in cross-
section and occur at frequent but irregular intervals, while they
are also of very unequal size, some being very small and others
more than 1 mm. in diameter. Numerous small punctures
also may be detected scattered among the connecting projec¬
tions.

Spicular structure entirely destroyed.

The systematic position of this genus is very uncertain, but
the fossil is so remarkable that the propriety of naming it is
believed to be beyond question. The sponge is not likely to
be confounded with any other known to me and it is to be
hoped that collectors will search for other specimens. The
only one seen was found in the bed of a creek near Lebanon,
Kentucky, in the banks of which the upper beds of the Cincin¬
nati group were exposed.

HINDIA PARVA.n. sp.

Sponges free, globular in form, with an even rounded sur¬
face. Specimens vary between 5 and 10 mm. in diameter, but
in a large proportion of the specimens seen the diameter varies
but little from 7 or 8 mm.

The radiating canals are a little smaller than in the common
H. spheroidalis Duncan, of the Niagara, being, as a rule, not
over 0.27 mm. in diameter. H. incequalis Ulrich, from the
lower or sponge beds of the Trenton limestone at Dixon, Illi-

Description of new Lower Silurian Sponges. — Ulrich. 245

nois, is larger and has, as its name may indicate, radiating
canals of very unequal size.

This species {H.parva) has been known to me for nearly ten
years as one of the most persistent fossils of the upper or Galena
beds of the Trenton group in the western states. I met with
it first at several localities in central Kentucky, and since have
found it holding about the same horizon in Tennessee, Minne¬
sota and Wisconsin. Though a common fossil, good speci¬
mens are rare.

Occasionally we meet with specimens of this or a closely re¬
lated species in the middle beds of the Cincinnati group.
These are a little larger than the Trenton form, the specimens
averaging about 10 mm. in diameter. This supposed variety
of H.parva has been found on the hills about Cincinnati
Ohio, at Colby and McKinney’s in central Kentucky, and at
Savannah, Ill. Formerly I supposed it might be identical
with Miller and Dyer’s Microspongia gr eg aria (Jour. Cin-
Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. i, p. 37, 1878) but its internal structure is
clearly the same as that of Hindia. Those authors say of
their species that its structure is “ fibrous or minutely porous,
and very compact,” and that sections reveal “ needle-shaped
bodies ” supposed by them to be the spicules. From this it is
evident that either they are mistaken in their diagnosis or
they had a very different sponge before them.

Seven specimens of another supposed variety of H.parva
were collected from the upper beds of the Cincinnati group
near Middleton, Ohio. These have the same internal struc¬
ture but are unusually small, the diameters of the smallest
and largest specimens being respectively 3 and 5 mm.

CYLiINDROCCEliIA, n. gen.

Sponges free, cylindrical or nearly so, with the lower end
tapering rapidly to a pdint, or truncate. A central cloaca ex¬
tends throughout at least the sub-cylindrical portion. It is of
tubular or very elongate conical form, widening gradually up¬
wards. Walls thick, traversed by irregularly disposed radiat¬
ing canals. Very few of these penetrate the thin and compact
dermal layer which covers both the inner and outer surfaces.
When the dermal layer is worn away their sub-circular
mouths appear. Skeleton, apparently very finely porous.
The specimens are too much altered to admit of determining
its elemental components.

246 Description of new Lower Silurian Sponges . — Ulrich.

Type : C. endoceroidea , n. sp.

Sponges of this genus are liable to confusion with slightly
tapering forms of Orthoceras and Endoceras. The absence of
septa and presence of canals should, of course, distinguish
them at once.

The specimens of two of the species are now siliceous, that
being the usual conditions of the fossils associated with them
in their respective beds. In these the canal system is pre¬
served in a satisfactory manner, but it is very difficult, if not
impossible, to make out the minute details of structure.
Those of the other two species now consist of rather coarsely
crystalline calcite in which even the canals are not readily de¬
terminable, much less the spicule fibers. Under these adverse
circumstances the systematic position of Gylindroccelia can¬
not be established with any degree of certainty, and my refer¬
ence of the genus to the Calcispongice is, therefore, only
provisional.

CYDINDROCCELIA ENDOCEROIDEA. n. sp.

Of this species my collection affords but a single partly silic-
ified example which I found at High Bridge, Ky., in the Birds¬
eye limestone which at that locality forms the top of the Ken¬
tucky river gorge. It is incomplete at the lower end, tapers
slowly, 170 mm. long, 45 mm. in diameter at the upper end,
and 32 mm. at the lower extremity. At the lower end the
cloaca is about 10 mm. in diameter and the sponge wall varies
in thickness between 9 and 13 mm. The specimen is broken
across at a point about 80 mm. from the top. Here the cloaca
is 17 mm. in diameter and the wall about 12 mm. thick. At
the upper extremity the wall is much thinner and is now nar¬
rowly rounded. Originally it may have formed a sharp edge.
On one side the outer surface exhibits obscure transverse un¬
dulations.

Where the outer surface appears best preserved but few
canal apertures are shown, but where the surface is ground or
a fragment chipped away and moisture applied, a much larger
number are disclosed. From this it is evident that a thin dermal
layer was stretched over the surface through which but few of
the canals penetrated. A similar layer was developed on the
inner or cloacal surface.

Canals numerous, sub-circular in cross-section, of var¬
iable size, the largest about 1.5 mm. the smallest less than

Description of new Lower Silurian Sponges. — Ulrich. 247

0.5 mm. in diameter; averaging about thirty in a space
10 mm. square. Their course is nearly always straight but
the angle at which they pass through the sponge wa
greatly. Occasionally they may divide.

A careless observer might mistake this sponge for the shell
of an Endoceras or perhaps Orthoceras , to which the form and
obscure annulations give it some resemblance. However, un¬
usually acute powers of discrimination are not required to see
that it is a very different organism.

CYliINDROCCELIA COVINGTONENSIS, n. sp.

To this species I refer six examples, two of them doubtfully,
all derived from the middle beds of the Cincinnati group at
Covington, Ky. The skeleton in all of them has been changed
to crystalline calcite without, however, destroying the canals.
Three of them are sub-cylindrical fragments of which the
largest affords the following measurements : length 45 mm. ;
diameter of lower extremity 25 mm. ; diameter of upper end
32 mm. ; diameter of cloaca at lower end 6 mm. ; diameter of
same at upper end 22 mm. ; thickness of sponge wall at lower
extremity from 9 to 10 mm. ; thickness of same at upper end
from 3 to 6 mm. ; canals mostly 1.5 mm. in diameter, but
varying from 0.5 to 2.5 mm., with an average of eight in 10
mm. square.

In all but the two doubtful specimens, the canals penetrate
the sponge wall in a remarkably irregular manner, all direc¬
tions being pursued by them. When the dermal layer is pre¬
served the surface appears smooth with here and there a canal
aperture.

Two of the cylindrical fragments are smaller, taper less rap¬
idly, and have a narrower cloaca than the third specimen from
which the above measurements were taken and which is con¬
sidered the type. These specimens approach the Minnesota
species next described. Another I believe to be the basal por¬
tion of the sponge. This is of conical shape, about 50 mm. in
length, tapering from a diameter of 24 mm. to a point. The
upper end, which I have ground and polished, exhibits num¬
erous irregular canals but no evidence of the cloaca. The two
doubtful specimens are also of conical shape, but both have a
deep cup and are smaller. It is possible that these may repre¬
sent a different species but, provisionally, I prefer to regard
them as young examples of C. coving tonensis.

248 Description of new Lower Silurian Sponges. — Ulrich.

The canals are larger, more irregular, and less numerous
than in C. endoceroidea.

OYliINDROCCELIA MINNESOTENSIS, n. sp,

This species differs from the preceding ones in being almost
perfectly cylindrical (i. e. allowing for a slight amount of com¬
pression apparent in all the specimens) the average taper in a
length of 40 mm. being rarely more than 1 mm. Most of the
fragments vary in diameter between 10 and 15 mm., but it is
sometimes a mm. more or less. Basal extremity not satis¬
factorily shown in any of the specimens ; apparently truncate.
The cloaca must have been narrow since it, like the internal
portion of the canal system, has in every case been entirely
obliterated by the crystallization of the calcite of which the
specimens are composed. The surface is smooth and may, ac¬
cording as the dermal layer remained or had been removed at
the time of fossilization, exhibit very few or comparatively
abundant canal apertures — more irregularly distributed, how¬
ever, and not nearly so numerous as in the other species. The
canals are rounded and vary in diameter from less than 1 to
2.5 mm.

Formation and locality : Trenton shales. Specimens of
this species, though not common, have been noticed at Minne¬
apolis, St. Paul and Fountain in Minnesota.

CYLINDROCCELIA MINOR, n. sp.

Of this species I have two small specimens. They were
found in the upper siliceous beds of the Trenton group at a
long cut for the Cin. South. R. R., just south of the Harrods-
burg Junction. On one of them the lower end is truncate,
about 7 mm. in diameter, and shows at the centre a round
opening. The specimen is 18 mm. long and 12.5 mm. in diam¬
eter at its upper end. The other is 22 mm. long, between 10
and 11 mm. in diameter above and tapered downward appar¬
ently to a point the lower extremity being imperfect. The
surface of both examples is smooth and exhibits a moderate
number of irregularly distributed, small, subequal, canal
mouths, averaging 0.6 to 0.7 mm. in diameter. In both speci¬
mens the canals seem to have extended from the outer surface
to the center of the sponge. If a cloaca was present in the
species it must have been either very narrow or unusually
shallow.

Glaciation of British Columbia . — Dawson . 249

RECENT OBSERVATIONS ON THE GLACIATION OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA AND ADJACENT REGIONS.1

By Geo. M. Dawson, D. Sc., F. G. S.

Assistant Director, Geological Survey of Canada.

Previous observations in British Columbia2 have shown
that at one stage in the Glacial period — that of maximum
glaciation — a great confluent ice-mass has occupied the re¬
gion which may be named the Interior Plateau, between the
Coast Mountains and Gold and Rocky Mountain Ranges.
From the 55th to the 49th parallel this great glacier has left
traces of its general southward or south-eastward movement,
which are distinct from those of subsequent local glaciers. The
southern extensions or terminations of this confluent glacier,
in Washington and Idaho Territories, have quite recently been
examined by Mr. Bailley Willis and Prof. T. C. Chamberlin,
of the U. S. Geological survey.3 There is, further, evidence
to show that this inland-ice flowed also, by transverse valleys
and gaps, across the Coast Range, and that the fiords of the
coast were thus deeply filled with glacier-ice which, supple¬
mented b}^ that originating on the Coast Range itself, buried
the entire great valley which separates Vancouver Island
from the mainland and discharged seaward round both ends
of the island. Further north, the glacier extending from the
mainland coast touched the northern shores of the Queen
Charlotte Islands. The observed facts on which these gen¬
eral statements are based have been fully detailed in the pub¬
lications already referred to, and it is not the object of this
note to review former work in the region further than to enu¬
merate the main features developed by it, and to add to these
a summary of observations made during the summer of 1887
in the extreme north of British Columbia, and in the Yukon
basin beyond the 60th parallel, which forms ths northern
boundary of that province.

The littoral of the south-eastern part or “ coast-strip ” of
Alaska presents features identical with those of the previously
examined coast of British Columbia, at least as far north as
lat. 59°, beyond which I have not seen it. The coast archi¬
pelago has evidently been involved in the border of a con-

1 From the Geological Magazine, London, August, 1888.

2Quart, Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxi. p. 89. Ibid, vol. xxxiv, Can¬
adian Naturalist, p. 272, vol. viii.

3 Bulletin U.' S. Geol. Survey, No. 40, 1887.

250 Glaciation of British Columbia.^ Dawson.

fluent glacier which spread from the mainland and was sub¬
ject to minor variations in direction of flow dependent on sur¬
face irregularities, in the manner described in my report on the
northern part of Vancouver Island.4 No conclusive evidence
was here found, however, either in the valley of the Stikine
river or in the pass leading inland from the head of Lynn
Canal, to show that the ice moved seaward across the Coast
Range, though analogy with the coast to the south favors the
belief that it may have done so. The front of the glacier must
have passed the outer border of the Archipelago, as at Sitka,
well-marked glaciation is found pointing toward the open
Pacific5 (average direction about S. 81° W. astr.). It is, how¬
ever, in the interior region, between the Coast Range and the
Rocky Mountains proper and extending northward to latitude
63°, explored and examined by us in 1887, that the most in¬
teresting facts have come to light respecting the direction of
movement of the Cordilleran glacier. Here, in the valleys of
the Pelly and Lewes branches of the Yukon, traces were found
of the movement of heavy glacier-ice in a northerly direction.
Rock-surfaces thus glaciated were observed down the Pelly to
the point at which it crosses the 136th meridian and on the
Lewes as far north as lat. 61° 40 ', the main direction in the first-
named valley being north-west, in the second north-north¬
west. The points referred to are not, however, spoken of as
limiting ones, for rock exposures suitable for the preservation
of glaciation are rather infrequent on the lower portions of
both rivers and more extended examination may result in
carrying evidence of the same kind much further toward the
less elevated plains of the lower Yukon. Neither the Pelly
valley nor that of the Lewes is hemmed in by high mountain¬
ous country except toward the sources, and while local varia¬
tions in direction of the kind previously referred to are met
with, the glaciation is not susceptible of explanation by mere¬
ly local agents, but rather implies the passage of a confluent
or more or less connected glacier over the region.

In the Lewes valley, both the sides and summits of rocky
hills 300 feet above the water were found to be heavily glaciat-

4 Annual Report Geol. Surv. Canada, 1885, p. 100 B.

. 5 Mr. G. F. Wright has already given similar general statements
with regard to this part of the Coast of Alaska, American Naturalist,
March, 1887.

Glaciation of British Columbia. — Dawson. 251

ed, the direction on the summit being that of the main (north-
north-west) orographic valleys, while that at lower levels in
the same vicinity followed more nearly the immediate valley
of the river, which here turns locally to the east of north.

Glaciation was also noted in several places in the more moun¬
tainous country to the south of the Yukon basin, in the Dease
and Liard valleys, but the direction of movement of the ice
could not he determined satisfactorily, and the influence of
local action is there less certainly eliminated.

Of the glacial deposits with which the greater part of the
area of the inland region is mantled, it is not intended here to
give any details, though it may be mentioned that true Boulder-
clay is frequently seen in the river-sections, and that this gener¬
ally passes upward into, and is covered by, important silty beds,
analogous to the silts of the Nechacco basin, further south in
British Columbia, and to those of the Peace River Country to
the east of the Rocky Mountains. It may be stated also that
the country is generally terraced to a height of 4,000 feet or
more, while, on an isolated mountain-top near the height of
land between the Liard and Pelly rivers (Pacific-Arctic water¬
shed) rolled gravel of varied origin was found at a height of
4,300 feet, a height exceeding that of the actual watershed by
over 1,000 feet.

Reverting to the statements made as to the direction of the
general glaciation, the examination of this northern region
may now be considered to have established that the main
gathering-ground or neve of the great Cordilleran glacier of
the west coast, was included between the 55th and 59th paral¬
lels of latitude in a region which, so far as explored, has
proved to be of an exceptionally mountainous character. It
would further appear that this great glacier extended, between
the Coast Range and the Rocky Mountains, south-eastward
nearly to latitude 48°, and north-westward to lat. 63°, or be¬
yond, while sending also smaller streams to the Pacific Coast.

In connection with the northerly direction of ice-flow here
mentioned, it is interesting to recall the observations which I
have collected in a recently published report of the Geological
Survey, relating to the northern portion of the continent east

of the Mackenzie River.6 It is there stated that for the
J - * - : - ^ - : -

e Notes to accompany a Map of the Northern Portion of the Dominion
of Canada, East of the Rocky Mountains, p.57 R. Annual Report, 1886.

252 Glaciation of British Columbia. — Dawson.

Arctic coast of the Continent, and the Islands of the Archi¬
pelago off it, there is a considerable volume of evidence to
show that the main direction of the movement of erratics was
northward. The most striking facts are those derived from
Prof. S. Haughton’s Appendix to M’Clintock’s Voyage, where
the occurrence is described of boulders and pebbles from
North Somerset, at localities of 100 and 135 miles north-east¬
ward and north-westward from their supposed points of
origin. Prof. Plaughton also states that the east side of King-
William’s Land is strewn with boulders of gneiss like that of
Montreal Island, to the southward, and points out the general
northward ice-movement thus indicated, referring the carriage
of the boulders to floating ice of the Glacial Period.

The copper said to be picked up in large masses by the
Eskimo, near Princess-Royal Island, in Prince-of-Wales
Strait, as well as on Prince-of-Wales Island, 7 has likewise, in
all probability been derived from the copper-bearing-rocks of
the Coppermine River region to the south, as this metal can
scarcely be supposed to occur in place in the region of hori¬
zontal limestone where it is found.

Dr. A. Armstrong, Surgeon and Naturalist to the “ Investi¬
gator,” notes the occurrence of granitic and other crystalline
rocks not only on the south shore of Baring Land, but also on
the hills at some distance from the shore. These, from what
is now known of the region, must be supposed tb have come
from the continental land to the southward.

Dr. Bessels, again, remarks on the abundance of boulders
on the shore of Smith’s Sound in lat. 81° 30 \ which are mani¬
festly derived from known localities on the Greenland coast
much further southward, and adds: “Drawing a conclusion
from such observations, it becomes evident that the main line-
of the drift, indicating the direction of its motion, runs from
south to north.”8

It may further be mentioned that Dr. R. Bell, of the Cana¬
dian Geological Survey, has found evidence of a northward or
north-eastward movement of glacier-ice in the northern part
of Hudson Bay, with distinct indications of eastward glacia¬
tion in Hudson Strait.9 For the Northern part of the Great

7De Ranee, in Nature, vol. xi. p. 492.

8 Nature, vol. ix.

9 Annual Report, Geol. Surv, Canada, 1885, p. 14 D. D. ; and Report
of Progress, 1882-84, p. 36 D. D.

Conglomerates in New England Gneisses ■ — Hitchcock. 253

Mackenzie Valley we are as yet without any very definite in¬
formation, but Sir J. Richardson notes that Laurentian boul¬
ders are scattered westward over the nearly horizontal lime¬
stones of the district.

Taken in conjunction with the facts for the more southern
portion of the Continent, already pretty well known, the ob¬
servations here outlined would appear to indicate a general
movement of ice outward, in all directions, from the great
Laurentian axis or plateau which extends from Labrador
round the southern extremity of Hudson Bay to the Arctic
Sea ; while a second, smaller, though still very important
region of dispersion — the Cordilleran glacier-mass — occupied
the Rocky Mountain region on the west, with the northern
and southern limits before approximately stated.

I have refrained from entering into any detail at this time
in respect to the glaciation of the northern part of the Cordil¬
lera belt, as it is probable that within the year we shall be
more fully informed on the subject, as the result of observations
to be expected from Mr. R. G. M’Connell of this SurvejL Mr-
M’Connell is now on the Mackenzie River, which, as well
as the Porcupine branch of the Yukon, within the Arctic
circle, it is intended that he shall examine during the summer.

CONGLOMERATES IN NEW ENGLAND GNEISSES.

|"A letter addressed to Alexander Winchell.]

By Professor Charles IT. Hitchcock.

Your paper upon Conglomerates enclosed in Gneissic Ter-
ranes , in the March number of the American Geologist , brings
out very important facts in reference to the origin of gneiss,
particularly that in the older Archaean. My observations and
studies have inclined me to doubt the presence of water-worn
pebbles in the Laurentian or in granite, and I have been wait¬
ing to hear from those who have discovered them. The ob¬
servations of such a veteran in geological service as yourself
should certainly be conclusive.

You have made several references to localities in the east
with which I am familiar, and I desire to say that I am inti¬
mately acquainted with them all and find nothing in favor of
your proposition in them. To begin with, none of them are
in the true Laurentian, so that, granting the presence of

254 Conglomerates in New England Gneisses. — Hitchcock.

pebbles, they do not prove a sedimentary origin of the older
gneisses. The first case you allude to at Newport, R. I., where
my father noticed pebbles which had been distorted by pres¬
sure belongs to the Carboniferous. The conglomerates on
both flanks of the Green mountains described by my father
are really at the base of the fundamental quartzite of the
Taconie system. Or if they are older, they are a part of the
Green Mountain gneiss which is supposed to overlie the true
Laurentian. Being on or near the line of junction of the
schist and quartzite I have always regarded them as belong¬
ing to the later or derived series. The next illustration is
cited from Mt. Ascutney in eastern Vermont. The statement
about the derivation of the porphyry and granite from a con¬
glomerate is certainly in favor of the origin of granite from the
melting of pebbles. This case was brought to my father’s
notice in 1859 by myself. He accepted my explanation of
the appearances and wrote the account of them in the report.
After twenty years of experience in studying crystalline rocks
I returned to Ascutney and could not accept the earlier view.
We had been led astray partly by the unusual position of the
apparent beds, which have a direction almost at right' angles
to the prevalent strike of the neighborhood, consequently, if
they are stratified they belong to three different horizons. The
view of my father presumed the three rocks to be part of the
same bed, altered by thermal influences in proportion to their
intensity. The whole mountain is full of fragments of rocks
evidently torn from inferior ledges when the syenite came up
from below. I have found this syenite to be a truly eruptive
mass, coming up through a vent and spread out over Silurian
upturned strata. It is a cone 2,000 feet high, having strati¬
fied rocks underneath which have been altered by contact
with a molten igneous mass forced over them. It must be
true, however, that some of the fragments have been forced
into the syenite, but there is no appearance of rounding
through aqueous attrition in any of the fragments. The illus¬
tration from Granby is of the same nature.

It would be possible to add from my New Hampshire re¬
port illustrations where the melting up of fragments has been
more complete, but there is no evidence of a deposition from
water. Take the case of Mt. Pequawkefc (or Kiarsarge) near
North Conway, the cone of granite 2,500 feet high has at its

Conglomerates in New England Gneisses . — Hitchcock. 255

base two masses of slate, each a half mile or more in length,
but completely imbedded in granite. Adjacent to them is a
breccia whose paste is hardly discernible, but gradually be¬
coming evident at the distance of several rods from the un¬
broken slate. The fragments gradually diminish in number
though they are visible to the very top of the mountain.
Upon Mt. Moat, across the valley, the slate fragments also
abound. These examples belong to the class of ejections
described by Dr. Hawes upon Mt. Willard, ( Amer. Jour. Sci. Jan.
1881.) where it is claimed evidences of igneous eruption are to
be discerned in the formation of microscopic crystals of tour¬
maline, the increased amount of silica and other contact phe¬
nomena. The slate described is the same with that observed
upon Mts. Pequawket and Moat.

The specimen described by Prof. 0. P. Hubbard from War¬
ner [not Warren] in 1859 is now in the Dartmouth College
museum. The so-called boulder seems to be of concretionary
origin. Its mass is essentially the same with that of the en¬
veloping granite, but is separated from it by a thin coating of
biotite which covers the oval interior just as the skin covers
an apple. Had the inclusion ever been subjected to attrition
the biotite would have disappeared. Being in the neighbor¬
hood of the curious mica nodules of Vermont its concretion¬
ary origin is still more apparent. The last case cited is that
of pebbles in mica schist in E. Hanover described by Dr.
Hawes. These are paleozoic, and if they have any bearing
upon the Laurentian conglomerates lead to an entirely differ¬
ent conclusion from that which you have advocated.

In your note in connection with the Errata of the “ separ¬
ates,’5 you refer to the conglomerate in the Black Hills, as
described by W. 0. Crosby and F. R. Carpenter. Both these
gentlemen present facts showing the probable absence of the
Laurentian from the Black Hills ; and the particular conglom-
ate cited is correlated with the fossiliferous Taconic of western
New England, also with the conglomerate of Bellingham, Mass.,
which may also be Cambrian, certainly post Laurentian. The
point which I desire to emphasize is, that while your view
of the Laurentian inclusions may be correct, there is no sup¬
port to your position to be derived from any of the cases
cited from the East and the Black Hills.

In my writings upon the granite of New England I have

256 Conglomerates in Gneissie Terranes — A. Winehell.

■cited many instances- of fragments of schists and other pre¬
existing rocks included in it, many of them showing signs of
alteration. There is nothing about any of these fragments to
suggest attrition. Furthermore, all our true eruptive granites
are post-Laurentian, if not of paleozoic age. This is certainly
true of the majority of examples, and those the ones most
typical. At all events, granting the rounding of fragments,
the work of remodelling was effected in paleozoic times, and
hence is not Laurentian.

Furthermore, as to the cases you cite from Minnesota, the
pebbles are of rocks recognizable as Laurentian. Hence one
of two conclusions should follow. Either the pebbles came
from a pre-Laurentian terrane, or the conglomerate being
made of Laurentian materials is post-Laurentian. Both con¬
clusions ^re opposed to the sentiment of your paper. If there
is any metamorphism of a conglomerate in the Saganaga-
pebbles, I should judge from your description, it is the Ogishke
Conglomerate that has been affected, which is only 15 miles
distant and “stocked with similar pebbles.”

CONGLOMERATES ENCLOSED IN GNEISSIC TERRANES.

[Supplement;] ,

By Alexander Winch ell.

My article on the subject above named has elicited many
comments, some of which render it desirable to supplement
the article with explanations and new evidences. One es¬
teemed correspondent whose familiarity with New England
geology is everywhere recognized, reminds us that the ter¬
ranes from which boulders and conglomerates have been cited
in Vermont, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, are post-Lau¬
rentian.1 This was well understood in making the citations..
They were not made for the purpose of proving directly the
fragmental origin of Laurentian gneisses. Some of them
were intended to remind geologists that certain terranes gen¬
erally recognized as real crystalline gneisses — however dis¬
tinguishable from Laurentian gneisses in position or petrog¬
raphy — inclose features incompatible with an eruptive origin.
If, however, an obviously fragmental origin of any gneisses

1 See the communication from Professor C. H. Hitchcock in the
present number of the Geologist.

Conglomerates in Gneissie Terranes. — A. Winchell . 257

must be admitted, the reader may rationally infer that per¬
haps even Laurentian gneisses are also fragmental in origin.
The evidence is that they may be fragmental. When there¬
fore, in addition to this presumption, I cite similar conglom¬
erates from the recognized Laurentian of Canada and Minne¬
sota, we have the same evidence for a fragmental origin of
Laurentian terranes as in New England, for post-Laurentian
terranes.

If the gneisses of the Black Hills2 are also post-Laurentian
the fact of the association of pebbles and conglomerates has
the same significance as the facts cited from New England —
neither more nor less.

As to the case of included fragments which evidently are
not water-worn, mention is made of them only to prove the
contemporaneousness of the gneiss mentioned with processes
of sedimentary rock-making. If such contemporaneity exist¬
ed in New England gneisses, it may presumably have existed
with Laurentian gneisses; and when I cite hundreds of simi¬
lar fragments in Laurentian gneisses, the evidence rises from
analogy to demonstration. Gneiss-making and sediment¬
forming could not be coincident in time and place, if gneiss
originated from igneous fusion and sediments accumulated
from watery immersion. But no one doubts that sediments so
originated ; gneisses associated with them, therefore, must
have had an aqueous history.

As to New England granites of such character or collocation
with schists as to show, as at Mount Pequawket, that they
have been in a state of fusion, there is neither reason to doubt
the evidence nor to be misled by it. If granites generally
have resulted from metamorphism of sediments, it is ex¬
tremely probable that, exceptionally, the metamorphism
reached the stage of fusion, accompanied as it almost neces¬
sarily would be, by eruption and vein-filling. Many granite
veins, nevertheless-, may have originated from heated solu¬
tions, and others from in-squeezed plastic material in which
the planes of sedimentation had not become completely oblit¬
erated.

I have cited the occurrence of pebbles in non-gneissic ter¬
ranes, as in Rhode Island, regardless of their age, because the

2The allusion to the Black Hills was made only in the slip of
“ Errata ” attached to the “ Extras ” of my article.

258 Conglomerates in Gneissic Terranes. — A. Winchell.

pebbles were reported as furnishing evidence of softening and
distortion ; and the inference would be that if metamorphic
agencies had effected such changes in times as late as the
Coal-Measures, it was probable that in earlier times, they had,
in many situations, more completely softened once-consoli¬
dated sediments, and even reduced them to such state of
molecular intermobility that crystallizing rearrangements of
the molecules would have taken place.

Professor Hitchcock affirms : “ There is no support to your
position to be derived from any of the cases cited from the
East and the Black Hills.” My “position” was simply that
conglomerates sometimes occur in gneissic terranes. I think
when professor Hitchcock attempts to show that the gneissic
terranes of New England which enclose conglomerates are not
Laurentian, he yields a clear implication in his own words, to
serve as support to my “ position.” If he Conceives my posi¬
tion to have been that Laurentian gneisses are all sedimentary
in origin, I admit that the cases cited from New England and
the Black Hills do not complete the proof of it, but the infer¬
ence lies so close to the facts cited that it is a mere matter of
form to enunciate it.

I desire also, to notice briefly a comment communicated by
the honored Director of the Canadian Survey.3 He says, “ I
entirely concur in your remarks. The facts you mention, how¬
ever, have been so long and so well known to us in Canada as
to be considered scarcely worth discussing ; and I am a little
surprised that among the authorities you cite you have not
referred to Logan and the “Geology of Canada.” * * *

That the whole complex of the Archaean or pre-Cambrian
rocks is a great series of mixed igneous, clastic and pyro-clas-
tic rocks greatly altered, physically and mineralogically, by
various metamorphic agencies there can be no doubt.”

To this I beg to subjoin an expression of surprise that the
obvious use of facts “so well known” has been so quietly
overlooked, especially in Canada, where at least one of the
officials of the survey is insisting that the gneisses are erup¬
tive, and not of sedimentary origin. If those facts are so old
and familiar as to have passed the stage of appropriate com-

;!This comes in a personal communication, but I assume no objection can be
made to public reference to it, since it concerns a geological question of gen¬
eral interest.

Conglomerates in Gneissie lerranes. — A. Winchell. 259

ment, beyond the Canadian border, I feel sure that the case is
different in cis-Canadian territory. It may be well, however,
to ascertain from the documents precisely what has been “so
well and so long known.” In his description of the Lauren-
tian system,4 Sir|William Logan says : “ Notwithstanding the
general crystalline condition of the Laurentian rocks, beds of
an unmistakably conglomeratic character are occasionally met
with among them. * * * On the twenty-fourth lot of the

tenth range of Bastard (in the valley of the Ottawa) a bed of
conglomerate is interstratified between two of the beds of
limestone.” The following is an abstract of the more detailed
succession given changed here to descending order.

Limestone, coarse-grained, white . 6 ft.

Limestone, fine-grained, arenaceous . 4 in.

Sandstone, fine-grained, calcareous . . 2 in.

Conglomerate, coarse, of which the matrix is a fine-grained,
quartzose sandstone. Contains among others, pebbles
of sandstone. These are flat, and lie on their flat sides

in the general plane of the stratification . . 1 ft. 6 in.

Quartzite, somewhat fine and calcareous . 2 in.

Quartzite, coarse, granular . 4 in.

Limestone, white, crystalline, coarse-grained . 5 ft.

Again, he speaks of a locality north of the village of Madoc,
at which, in a higher geological position, a somewhat mica¬
ceous schist occurs, which holds “numerous fragments of
rock different in character from the matrix, all being without
calcareous matter, and some of them resembling syenite or
greenstone. North from this ridge another succeeds, consist¬
ing of micaceous schists, beyond which for 300 yards, ridges
of a decided conglomerate , with distinctly rounded pebbles,
enveloped in a matrix of micaceous schist, alternate with
ridges of schist containing few or no pebbles. * * *

Still further north, another band of conglomerate occurs,
associated with fine-grained, soft, micaceous, feldspathic schist.

The matrix of the conglomerate weathers white, and ap¬
pears to be a dolomite. The pebbles, of which the largest may
be six inches in diameter, are chiefly quartz, but there are also,
pebbles or masses of feldspar, and a few of calc-spar. The
quartz pebbles are for the most part, distinctly rounded.”

It will be noticed that while these occurrences are em¬
braced, in a wide sense, in the Laurentian system, we learn of
no pebbles or conglomerates embraced directly in Laurentian
gneiss. They are contained in beds whose aqueous origin

4 Geology of Canada, 1863, pp. 22-49

'260 Conglomerates in Gneissic Terranes . — A. Winchell.

would generally be admitted. It is surprising, as may be re¬
marked in passing, that the nature of the associated beds has
not been claimed as evidence of a general aqueous history of
the whole Laurentian. But as long as the gneisses were free
from pebbles and conglomerates the evidence of their aqueous
origin was rather presumptive than direct. On the contrary,
the cases which it was the main purpose of my paper to de¬
scribe, presented pebbles in the midst of gneissic masses , and
a conglomerate imbedded completely in a gneiss so massive
as to have been commonly denominated a syenite.. The mat¬
rix itself is a characteristic gneiss. I am not aware that such
occurrences are “well known.”

The conglomerates cited by Logan have , lithologic associ¬
ations quite analogous with those of the so-called Huronian
conglomerates. The associations are directly with sediment¬
ary rocks, more remotely with crystalline rocks. It was not
my purpose to refer to conglomerates so situated — any fur¬
ther than to quote the passage from Credner in which the ag¬
gregate mass of conglomerates in the Archaean is mentioned.

In the general discussion of conglomeritic occurrences in
terranes more or less crystalline, references should be made
to the observations of professor W. 0. Crosb}^ 4

The nucleus of the Black Hills has been again and again re¬
ported granitic. But Crosby states that granites occur only as
lenticular masses conformable with the stratification of the
schistose rocks. This, in fact, was previously reported by N.
H. Winchell and by Newton. In the eastern or newer series
of Archaean rocks, occurs an important quartzite which, in
places, “passes into" coarse grits and conglomerate,” the peb¬
bles of which have suffered extensive deformation. Professor
Crosby regards the conglomerate and associated schists as
“strikingly similar to the metamorphic sediments occurring at
Bellingham, Massachusetts.” - “It is perfectly plain,” he
says, “that the metamorphic series consisted originally of in-
terstratified beds of ordinary mechanical sediments — slate,
sandstone and conglomerate ; and the metamorphic agents
have not only accomplished the chemical change implied in
the fact that these rocks are now in the main, distinctly hydro-

4 Geology of the Black Hills of Dakota. From the Proceedings of the
Boston Society of Natural History, Yol. XXIII, pp. 488-517.

Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., XX, 373-8.

Conglomerates in Gneissie Terranes . — A. Winchell. 261

micaceous, but also a very marked mechanical change, which
is most apparent in the deformation of the pebbles of the con¬
glomerate.” “The fragmental nature of the conglomerate and
the deformation of the pebbles are, in both regions, indisput¬
able facts.”

Even the great lenticular masses of the granite are not rec¬
ognized by Crosby as eruptive. Though they sometimes
branch and enclose masses of schist, the concomitant conditions
are such as to furnish “a complete refutation of the view that
these masses are eruptive.” “True eruptive granite is proba¬
bly entirely wanting in the Black Hills.” .

The geological conditions appear to be similar to those along
the international boundary in Minnesota and Canada ; and pro¬
fessor Crosby’s conclusions appear to be entirely accordant
with the facts.

Quite recently an important memoir has been issued by
Dean F. R. Carpenter.0 The conditions as found in Minne¬
sota are accurately described in the account of the Black
Hills, quoted from the report of N. H. Winchell : “The mica
schists become more and more granitic by interstratification,
yet the schist maintains its distinctive character, and pre¬
vails up to the very base of the granite ; and appears in thin,
contorted laminae in the granite itself.” 6 7 To these and simi¬
lar views he assents. In the further details he is quite in ac¬
cord with professor Crosby, and reaches the same conclusion
in reference to the probable metamorphic history of the crys¬
talline terranes.

Now that attention is particularly directed to the existence
of water-worn pebbles and fully formed conglomerates in
gneissie terranes, both of post-Laurentian and of Laurentian
age, it is quite probable that many additional occurrences
will be pointed out, and that the evidences of an early sedi¬
mentary history for most of the granitoid and gneissoid rocks
will rapidly accumulate.

6 Preliminary Report of the Dakota School of Mines upon Geology ,
Mineral Resources and Mills of the Black Hills of Dakota. Rapid City,
1888. This was reviewed in the March number of the Geologist.

7 Ludlow’s Report of a Reconnaissance of the Black Hills of Dakota ,
1874, p. 42.

262

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

The building of the British Isles. — A. J. Jukes- Browne .

This little work is an attempt to restore the extinct geogra¬
phy of the British Isles from the best attainable evidence. The
author who a few years ago brought out a smaller volume on
the same subject but with a less comprehensive scope gives in
the present work a much more elaborate account of the var¬
ious stages of geological evolution which have resulted in the
existing geographical outlines. That the book must be of very
great interest to the student of geology either in England or
in America “goes without saying” (to quote a French idiom)
and it is scarcely necessary to add that there is abundant evi¬
dence to show that the author has spent great pains and much
time on its production. He sketches the various geologic eras
in succession and shows what part of the country was formed
during each of them, so far as it is at present possible to do
so. He also shows 'how the building of one age was often de¬
stroyed by the next or by some other that followed : how Brit¬
ain has been over and over again a part of a large continental
mass, whether that mass could properly be called Europe or
not ; how it has been repeatedly submerged and re-elevated
and how it has been the seat of volcanic action at various
epochs, and has been cut into by the waves and the tides ; how
its materials have been deposited and eroded and again depos¬
ited and again eroded, until after the lapse of ages the existing
geography was evolved, making it a group of islands, many of
them very small and sundered from their continental neighbor
by a “streak of silver sea,”

Mr. Jukes’ book is one of a kind which will multiply as our
geological knowledge becomes definite. Such works are the
natural outcome of clearer ideas of the past history of the
Earth. Similar treatises may be looked for concerning every
region and country as its geologists gradually succeed in re¬
storing its former outlines. The day may come when we shall
possess atlases of the past geography of our globe stretching
back through all the eras of geologic time.

This is one of the vast labors before the geologist. We
may fairly call it the sum of all his toil. Not till this is done
will the Earth’s past be understood or the Earth’s history
written. It is perhaps beyond hope to look for full details

Editorial Comment.

263

this work. The historian comes at times in his researches to
the edge of a gap where the connection is lost, the records are
missing, the chain is broken. Fire, or some one of the num¬
erous accidents to which his materials are exposed, has de¬
stroyed them and left a chasm that can never be altogether
filled. A few scattered extracts from the lost volumes, a few
detached references to unrecorded events, a few isolated and
disconnected letters and papers are all that he can obtain and
from these he must to the best of his ability reconstruct so
much of his missing fabric as will make the story which he is
putting together intelligible.

And the geologist is in a similar condition in essaying to
reconstruct the past geography of the globe. His materials
like those of the historian are hidden in places that are diffi¬
cult of access. They are being slowly brought to light by a
multitude of isolated and independent workers from the
stony records of the Earth . But in spite of all their labor for
so many years past the gaps are still far more extensive than
the chapters and many a link must be established before any
connected story can be compiled out of the disjointed mater¬
ials.

Few parts of the world have been more thoroughly exam¬
ined than the British Isles. The labors of the Geological Sur¬
vey aided, backed and sometimes corrected by those of a host
of equally able and zealous working geologists without official
recognition have put on record a mass of facts the mastery
and use of which require endless patience and persevering
industry. The outcome of these is shown in the work before us
— the latest and perhaps the most pretentious (using the
word in no uncomplimentary sense) that has yet appeared.
Previous and excellent attempts were made by professors
Geikie and Hull and by the author, but none of these ven¬
tured so far in the direction of mapping the past continents
and island, oceans and lakes as Mr. Jukes-Browne has done in
the work before us.

Yet he is fully conscious of the difficulty of his task and
claims a due consideration from his reader for the errors and
imperfections that are inevitable to a somewhat daring at¬
tempt especially in the earlier and more obscure chapters. He
says :

“The imperfection of our knowledge is one great difficulty

264

Editorial Comment.

and the imperfection of the geological record is another. The
latter will never be entirely overcome. * * * I

must therefore ask the reader to remember that some of the
restorations attempted in the following chapters, especially
those of the earlier periods of geologic history, are built on
slight foundations and may be modified by the results of new
discoveries.”

We do not propose to follow in full detail our author through
the wffiole field over which he has traveled. Few American
readers are sufficiently familiar with European geology to be
interested in them and those to whom the topic is attractive
will want to accompany him personally without the interven¬
tion of a guide. We shall therefore give only a brief summary
of his views sufficient to indicate the scope of the book.

In the present state of our ignorance regarding the Archaean
era Mr. Jukes-Browne has done well in giving the merest out¬
line sketch. His representation abounds in shadowy forms
and vague description as the maps of the old geographers who
supplied their want of knowledge with suppositions such as,
u Hie habitare dicuntur leones ” u Hie sunt Lance monies ”
etc., etc. No attempt is made to give an map of Archaean Brit¬
ain but we are simply told that a few spots in the north of
Scotland, the western islands, the northwest of Ireland and
certain districts in England consist of Archaean rocks. Heevi-
ently inclines to the belief that many of them are of igneous
origin.

In the next or Cambrian era the author agrees with Mr.
Callaway that there then existed a mass of land in the North
Atlantic of which a part of Norway, the Hebrides, Donegal and
the highlands of Connemara are the worn and inconspicuous
remains. From this passed continent were derived the sedi¬
ment that built the Cambrian rocks of Europe, then for the
most part a sea area to the southeast.

In the Ordovician or Lower Silurian era which followed we
are |or the first time presented with a map. It represents a
mass of land stretching in from the west and reaching the site
of Edinburgh with two small islands, one in central England
and the other between England and Ireland. All the rest of
the area is occupied by sea.

The Silurian (Upper Silurian) which follows shows us the
island in central England still persisting but changed in form,..

Editorial Comment .

265

being divided into two while the other between England and
Ireland is larger but in the same region. The northwest of
Scotland and of Ireland is part of a great continental mass
whose farther limits are unrepresented and all the British area
and the adjoining continent are lying under the waters of the
early Silurian sea.

The transition to the Lower Devonian geography is almost
kaleidoscopic. Everything is changed. Sea occupies the
south of Ireland and the south of England while the area to
the north is dry. But the Scottish district shows five lakes,
two of them rivaling in size those of North America. Lake
Caledonia covers the sites of Edinburgh and Glasgow and
stretches to the northeast into the sea and to the southwest as
far as Ireland and resembles lake Michigan in form and size.
Lake Orcadie lies on the site of the Orkneys and the north¬
east of Scotland stretching far over the sea towards Norway.
This restoration is in accordance with the view that while the
limestones of Devon and Belgium are undoubtedly of marine
origin the Old Red Sandstone was most likely laid down in
the bottoms of lakes. Evidence of this is afforded by its fos¬
sils which are for the most part plant-remains and ganoid fish.

It is not improbable that when the Devonian geography of
North America is restored similar conditions will be found to
have prevailed on this side of the Atlantic. The Red Sand¬
stone of the Catskill group gives evidence of a similar origin
and was probably deposited in a great lake covering part of
New York and Pennsylvania.

In the Lower Carboniferous era the map represents a large
island in central England as in some preceding ages. This is¬
land lies in an arm of the sea covering nearly all of the British
Isles except the northern part of Scotland which is shown as a
portion of a great northern continent whose farther limits are
unknown. Northwestern France also is part of another or per¬
haps of the same continental mass.

The Carboniferous era in Britain seems as in this country to
have been for the most part a time of repose. The land con¬
sisted of vast and swampy flats on which grew the vegetation
of the Coal-Measures and some explanation of the existence of
the identical species on both sides of the Atlantic may be found
in the following statement : “At this period a large continent
occupied the whole area of the North Atlantic and extended

266

Editorial Comment.

from Finland on the east to the Rocky mountains on the
west.”

But in Europe as in America the calm of the Carbon¬
iferous was succeeded by a storm in the following age
which Mr. Browne calls the Dyassic. Then were elevated sev¬
eral of the great mountain ranges which still form prominent
features in the geography of both continents. The Alleghe¬
nies in the west and the Pennines in the east form, one of them
the backbone of the eastern states and the other the backbone
of England. Never since that epoch have these mountain
masses ceased to be conspicuous in the geography of the two
countries. The Dyassic map of the British Isles shows us a
large lake occupying central England and extending north¬
west into Scotland and Ireland while an arm of the European
sea stretches from the east into Yorkshire. All the rest of the
area in question is dry land. The proportion is greater than
at any previous epoch.

But we must hasten. The Triassic era (Keuper) shows an
increase of the size of the Dyassic lake which now extends
from the south of England to the north of Scotland. The lower
Jurassic sea is larger still and reaches into France while the
later Jurassic shows us an almost complete drying of the area,
the sea remaining only over a small space in the south of the
country. A slight increase of sea marks the lower Cretaceous.
Here too we see an inroad on the long existing continental area
in the northwest. The Atlantic continent at last shows signs of
passing away. A patch of blue sea appears off the northwest¬
ern coast of Ireland which in the later or upper Cretaceous has
expanded into a considerable area while the eastern half of
England is beneath the water of a European ocean.

No change is discernible in the lower Eocene except the fur¬
ther enlargement of these two bodies of water but in the
OligoCene a new water area appears in the north and the well
known ridge, which in the present day is so conspicuous a fea¬
ture in the submarine geography of the Atlantic, was elevated
above the surface. Norway, the North sea and the British is¬
lands with the intervening seas were then dry and a long
isthmus reached past the Faroe islands to Iceland.

But at the end of the Pliocene age subsidence had broken
through this ridge and only the Faroe area was above water
constituting a large island half way between Scotland and Ice-

Editorial Comment

267

land. The sea had penetrated between the British Isles and
Norway so that the North sea had come into existence, but
England was still a part of continental Europe though nearly
of its present form and outline.

An era of upheaval followed in pleistocene time when the
coast coincided with the contour-line of 80 fathoms. Exten¬
sive alterations of the geography followed even this compara¬
tively slight change of level. This was the time when the
Rhine flowed off the line of the present coast along the bed of
the North sea, received the Thames, the Trent, the Forth and
other rivers of England and Scotland as tributaries and itself
reached the ocean between the Shetland isles and Norway.
Near-by was the mouth of another great river which never had
a name but which drained the present Denmark and the east¬
ern Baltic. The Seine then followed down the English Chan¬
nel and with another great river coming from the Irish Chan¬
nel entered the Atlantic one hundred miles off the Land’s End.
The Atlantic was then well developed and extended over near¬
ly its present area. Yet if we disregard the contour-lines there
is on the map little to suggest the British Isles of the present
day.

But with a change to the 40 fathom-line in later pleistocene
times the outlines become familiar. England is nearly sepa¬
rated from France and the only connection of Ireland with the
larger isle is by a roundabout passage through the west of
Scotland. This was after the glacial era when the islands
were receiving their population from the neighboring conti¬
nent and owing to the short length of this condition arid to the
circuitous direction of the path the number has always been
less than on the larger land mass. Indeed the paucity of rep¬
tiles in the Green Isle which is usually attributed to the kind
intervention of St. Patrick is with more reason by geologists
ascribed to the destruction of the natural bridge before they
had had time to pass over it.

We make no apology for presenting to our reader this sum¬
mary of the “Building of the British Isles.” It is the only
part of the world whose geological atlas has yet been at¬
tempted, perhaps the only part for which any similar attempt
is yet possible with reasonable prospect of success. We can¬
not now stop to point out the bearings of the facts and infer¬
ences brought forward by the author on several geological

268 Review of Recent Geological Literature.

problems of general interest and importance, such as the mi¬
gration of animals and plants and the permanency of the ocean-
basins but at some future time we may return to these topics
and consider them as their importance deserves.

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

Brachiospongidx: A memoir on a group of Silurian sponges; with six
plates. By Ohas. Emerson Beecher. (From the memoirs of the Peabody
Museum, of Yale University, vol. n, part 1, New Haven). Into this
valuable paper are gathered and grouped systematically all important
information concerning the rare class of fossils which, while first dis¬
covered by Dr. G. Troost, in 1838, and partially elaborated by Yon
Zittel and Dr. G. J. Hinde, and classified by Dr. F. E. Schulze, have
now been first referred to their stratigraphic place. Troost described
and figured the fossil without*1 giving it any name, stating that it was
obtained in Davidson county, Tenn. After some changes of owner¬
ship, and with some doubt thrown on its identity with the original
specimen, it was placed in the hands of Prof. 0. C. Marsh who de¬
scribed and named it Brachiospongia vcemerana, in 1867. Another
species was named by him B. lyoni.

In 1858 Dr. D. D. Owen had referred them to Scyphia Oken, and in 1862
Prof. R. Owen inadvertently altered this to Syphonia. To Prof. Marsh
therefore is due the credit of separating it from other genera and the
erection of the new genus Brachiospongia. This genus has since been
recognized by Le Conte, Miller (S. A.), Zittel, Roemer and Hinde.

Recent careful examinations in Kentucky have led to the discovery
of the exact stratigraphic position of this curious and rare fossil. Hav¬
ing been found only as isolated fossils in loose fragments of limestone
they could only be referred in general to about the middle of the Si¬
lurian. Mr. E. C. Went, of Frankfort, Ky., has, however, found it in
place in a “ fine cherty, nodular limestone, above the horizon of
Orthis borealis, which has been considered as the upper member of the
Trenton.” This horizon has been traced over a considerable extent of
territory. But a single specimen (of B. digitata ) has been found from
any other horizon, viz., the middle Hudson, at a somewhat higher
horizon.

On the ophiolite of Thurman, Warren County, N. Y., with remarks on
the Eozoon canadense. By Geo. P. Merrill. (From the Am. Jour. Sci.
Mar., 1889). In this paper Mr. Merrill agrees with most, if not all,
lithologists who have examined microscopically the rock contain¬
ing the form that has the name of Eozoon canadense, and refers it,
though with due caution owing to the lack of material and of sufficient
field-examination, to a metasomatic alteration of pyroxenic granules
to serpentinous matter. ‘‘Irregular canals of serpentinous matter cut
through these aggregates, following cleavage and fracture lines.” He

Review of Recent Geological Literature.

269

suggests that the ‘ ‘mineral pyroxene of the white or colorless variety,
occuring often in the lower layers and filling some of the canals’ ’ of
the Eozoon, as described by Dr. Dawson, is but the residual mineral
that has escaped alteration.

A deadly gas-spring in the Yellowstone National Park. Mr. Walter H.
Weed describes in Science , Feb. 15, 1889, a remarkable place to which
the appropriate name of Death gulch is given. It was discovered by Mr.
Weed in the summer of 1888, while making geological examination of
the region. It is in the extreme N. E. portion of the reservation. It is on
Cache creek, two miles above its confluence with Lamar river. A ra¬
vine here is so charged with gaseous emanations that bears, elk, squir¬
rels and other animals, as well as butterflies and insects are asphyxiat¬
ed before they can escape. It is a Y-shaped trench, not over seventy-
five feet deep, cut in a mountain slope, and not a hollow, or cave. The
gas which constantly escapes results from the prevalence of volcanic
agents in the region. “Death gulch is without a peer as a natural
bear-trap, and may well be added to the list of wonders of the Yel¬
lowstone Park.”

Geological Survey of Arkansas : Second Annual Report of the State Ge¬
ologist ; in 4 volumes, Vol I. Dr. Branner is conducting a work in the
state of Arkansas for which American men of science should feel grate¬
ful, and the first volume of his report shows that he has done his work
in a fearless, honest straight-forward manner, under the impression
that the object of a state geological survey, is to make a geological sur¬
vey of the state, and not to provide political dependents with office or
to boom speculative enterprises. As a result of rigid adherence to this
line of policy after two years of labor upon the small appropriation of
$10,000 a year, in a region most difficult to investigate and against hy¬
gienic and prejudical obstacles not ordinarily encountered, he presents
for publication four volumes of results which throw the first intelligible
light we have yet had upon that region. Since Dr. Branner’s constit¬
uency was impregnated with the idea that geology is merely the study
of metallic minerals, and since the state was flooded with fraudulent
mineralogists and assayists who were finding gold and riches in mar¬
velous plenitude, the first step of the geologist was to have the mineral
resources thoroughly investigated, the result of which is embraced in
Vol. 1, which lies before us.

This report, written by Prof. Theo. B. Comstock, although mostly
negative in its opinions of value, sets forth thoroughly and exhaustive¬
ly the exact geologic and economic conditions of the region studied,
and will save prospectors far more than its cost, and relieve true geo¬
logic investigation of the future of the “mineral” incubus. From a
scientific standpoint, while presenting some defects, it is an excellent
contribution, and contains much new and interesting geologic data,
especially concerning the heretofore little known mountain region of
southwest Arkansas. The chemical and petrographic work, by Dr. R.
N. Brackett is also up to the standard of to-day.

270

Review of Recent Geological Literature.

Having relieved Arkansas and the survey of the ‘ ‘mineral” incubus
Dr. Branner proceeds to bring the attention of the people from the ex¬
traordinary features of geology to the ordinary; and the second, third
and fourth volumes now in press will contain exhaustive reports upon
certain well defined geologic areas, and their economic capabilities.
These reports will include several accurate topographic and geologic
sheets. Vol. II, about ready, will consist of a report upon the neozoic
geology of southwestern Arkansas, by R. T. Hill, in which the Cre¬
taceous, Tertiary and Quaternary areas are mapped and discussed and
attention called to the rich marls, chalk and gypsum beds of the re¬
gion. The exhaustive study of the Cretaceous — especially the upper
formation, in this volume, will be of interest. The third volume, will
be devoted to the coal regions. Mr. Arthur Winslow, late of the Penn¬
sylvania survey, has done this work, and in a most excellent manner.
The fourth volume will be made up of several papers upon geology
by Dr. Branner, Prof. R. Ellsworth Call and others ; and upon botany
and zoology, by various writers. It is gratifying to know that the
Legislature of the State have appreciated Dr. Branner’ s wmrk and is
preparing to endorse it by increased appropriations for the coming two
years.

Texas Geological and Mineralogical Survey: First report of progress.
E. T. Dumble, State Geologist, 1888. Austin, State Printing Office,
1889. 8vo.,78pp.

This little volume is creditably printed and contains along with
much rubbish some things which are good. The peculiar political
conditions of the State of Texas, notwithstanding its illiberality to
scientific institutions, have always been productive of an army of sci¬
entific experts (self imagined) to fill its scientific offices, and Mr.
Dumble has secured his share of these for assistants, judging from the
number of new names in the work and the recklessness with which
they handle that most dangerous tool known as mere assertion. For
instance, it is refreshing to learn that rainfall can without doubt be in¬
creased in the arid regions of Texas, and that the hitherto supposed
worthless Tertiary woody lignites may prove of great value. The num¬
ber of new terranes, Jurassic, Tertiary, Cretaceous, etc., discovered
by professor Jermy, is bewildering. The lengthy report upon that
most interesting terra incognita of American geology, the mountain¬
ous trans-Pecos region, about which we know almost nothing, would be
of interest, but one necessarily feels disappointed when he finds it
void of original observations, and filled with such interesting state¬
ments as the following: “I reached old Camp Rice a few minutes
before the outbreak of a storm, followed by a severe thunderstorm
with rain and hail, but was compelled to take shelter in an empty
adobe home with a leaky roof that kept us moving round the room
all night to keep dry.’ ’ This and similar statements deserve a place
in geologic annals along side that of a former state geologist who re¬
cords that a certain plant is “a good remedy for rheumatism; the

Review of Recent Geological Literature.

271

virtue to be extracted by placing in pure whiskey or brandy after
which it is to be drank. Mr. G - says he has seen it tried repeat¬

edly and never knew it fail making a cure.” [First annual report of
the Geological and Agricultural survey of Texas by S. B. Buckley, p.
122.] The report upon the Carboniferous area is also unworthy of
the price paid for it.

Two papers in the volume however deserve a better place of publi¬
cation. The first of these is an excellent statement of the upper Creta¬
ceous coal field of the lower Rio Grande by Mr. J. Owen, a practical
and successful miner who has made considerable study of structural
geology. The other is upon the iron ores of eastern Texas by R. A.
F. Penrose Jr., and throws much light upon their extent and origin.

An idea of the report as a whole may be gleaned from the plan of
operations of the survey, as published on page 4, where it reads that :
“The work will be particularly directed first to a search for ores, min¬
erals, oils, coals, clays, and other materials possessing a commercial
value. * * * The collection of fossils and study of geologic strata *

* * will be made subordinate and subsidiary to the economic
features of the survey.”

The work gives no credit whatever to the investigations of previous
geologists in Texas, although their results are frequently restated; nor
does it acknowledge the extensive services of those who have at its
request, given it gratis much time and labor. As a whole however,
the work is a decided advance over any previous attempt, and its de¬
fects may be excused on the grounds of haste, and the inexperience of
the state geologist. That its object is more to secure an appropriation
than to disseminate geologic information is apparent throughout. By
a state geologist, unless he be independent of the problematic ways of
state Legislatures, this object must always be kept in mind, but it
should not be allowed to dominate the scope and direction of the
work. These two ideas, the study of the actual geology, and the prev¬
alent partiality for the “mineral incubus,” have sometimes come into
collision, to the detriment of both. No survey can run solely on one
of these ideas, but like the militia in time of peace, the “incubus” has
its place if kept subordinate to law. In Arkansas the incubus had run
wild without law, until subordinated by Prof. Branner. In Texas it is
in a fair way to take the law into its own hands.

Les modifications et les transformations des granulites du fttorbihan ; par
Charles Barrois. (From the annals of the SociSte geologique duNord;
Lille, vol. xv.) After giving in detail his observations in the field and
illustrating the stratigraphy by several sections and the distribution of
the massive rocks by geological maps of the areas considered, M. Bar¬
rois concludes the study with the following general results :

The preceding observations show that the great masses of granulyte,
having an area of several hundred square kilometers, present modifica¬
tions, according as they are studied at the center or on their borders,
modifications at once of composition and structure. The small, gran-

272

Review of Recent Geological Literature .

ulitic masses do not exhibit such modifications ; it fails to be seen only-
in some apophyses of the more important deep-seated masses :

The modification of granulyte at contacts is not due, in the Morbihan,
to molecular changes between the eruptive magma and the enclosing
rock, but simply to the cooling, which acts upon the orientation of the
elements of granite, upon their manner of grouping and the order of
their crystallization.

Two principal cases result from our study ; according as the contact
observed is parallel or perpendicular to the direction of the enclosing
rocks : in the cases of parallel contact the prevailing modification is
the passage from a granular granulyte to a porphyroidal granulyte,
the leading elements being arranged in fluidal lines ; in the cases of
perpendicular contact there can be seen generally the development of
aplytes, fine, granular, massive rocks of which the crystalline ele¬
ments present regular geometric outlines.

The consideration of these two cases shows that the endomorphous
changes of granulyte depend on the surroundings, such as a chemi¬
cally inactive agent, acting differently in the presence of heat and
pressure. We should note that this conclusion should be applied
simply to the granulytes of Morbihan ; it would be incorrect and even
entirely false to generalize from it : we shall show this in describing
the granitites of the region.

Notwithstanding the difference, quite considerable at first sight, be¬
tween the porphyroidal granulytes and the aplytes, it is easy to recog¬
nize in them homologous formations, equally characterized by their
idiomorphic structure.

The structure of these contact rocks, compared to that of massive
granular rocks from the center of the masses studied, shows that the
crystallization of the elements of granite is carried on progressively,
and that, beginning in the vicinity of the walls, (salbandes) , in a mass
still in movement, it advances toward the interior of the mass across a
magma in repose, without showing any more trace of fiowage.

The schistose granulytes of the Morbihan, rocks having a gneissic struc¬
ture, fine or coarse, are confined, like the preceding, to the periphery
of the granulitic masses, and are nothing but the preceding rock them¬
selves, aplitic, granular or porphyroidal, mechanically metamorphosed.
The micaceous lamellae, torn and stretched, the feldspar crystals
broken and blunted, attest powerful mechanical forces experienced by
the rock. These minerals were afterward recemented by sheets and
fibers of sericitic white mica, sometimes of black mica, and by films of
secondary granular quartz formed from the broken debris of the origin¬
al constituents.

Finally the gradual passage from the schistose granulytes to the
granular granulytes, when they are followed from south to north,
brings out, as elsewhere, the general fact, recognized by us, of the
localization of the schistose granulytes on the southern flanks of all
the masses of granular granulyte in the Morbihan, and allows the ref-

Recent Publications.

273

erence of the lamination which has marked their formation to a power¬
ful lateral pressure acting from the south toward the north.

RECENT PUBLICATIONS.

1. State and Government reports.

Eighth annual report of the state mineralogist of California , for the
year ending Oct. 1, 1888. William Irelan, Jr., 8vo, 948, pp. California
state Mining Bureau.

First report of the State Forestry Commission of Michigan , 1887 and
1888. 8vo. 90 pp. with plates and text illustrations. W. J. Beal and
Chas. W. Garfield, Agrl. College, Lansing.

Bulletin from the Laboratories of Natural History of the State University
of Iowa. Yol. 1, No. 1, 96 pp. 8vo; contains, Some geological problems
in Muscatine county, Iowa, by Prof. S. Calvin (published in the Feb.
Geologist) ; Notes on the synonymy, characters and distribution of
Spirif era parry ana Hall, by the same ; and Description of a new species
of Spirifer from the Hamilton group, near Iowa City, also by Prof.
Calvin. It also contains botanical and zoological papers by McBride,
Hitchcock, Shimek and Wickham.

Bull. No. 46, U. S. Geol. Sur. Nature and origin of deposits of
phosphate of lime. R. A. F. Penrose. 143 pp. maps and text illustra¬
tions.

Sixteenth annual report of the Director of the mint. J. P. Kimball.
1888.

Sixteenth annual report of the Geological and Natural History Sur¬
vey of Minnesota, for the year 1887. N. H. Winchell, state geologist.

2. Proceedings of scientific societies.

The Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, vol. xi, No.
4, contains an acccount of a human skull (the Riverside skull) found
in connection with remains of an elephantine tusk two or three miles
below the city in the terrace gravel of the river. By Dr. A. J. Howe.

The proceedings of the Acad. Nat. Sci., Phil. Part iii, 1888, contains
among other papers, Megalonvx Jeffersonii, by Joseph Leidy; Addi¬
tional observations on the structure and classification of mesozoic
mammalia, by H. F. Osborn; Discovery of the ventral structure of
Taxocrinus and Haplocrinus, and consequent modifications in the
classification of the crinoidea, and Crotalocrinus, its structure and
zoological affinities, by Wachsmuth and Springer. (Reviewed in the
Geologist, Mar. 1889.) Theories of the formation of coral islands/by
Charles Morris.

3. Papers in Scientific journals.

Am. Jour. Sci., Feb. No. Points in the geological history of the
islands Maui and Oahu. Two plates. J. D. Dana. Occurrence of
Monazite as an accessory element in rocks. Orville A. Derby.
Geology of Fernando de Noronha. Part i. John C. Branner ; with a

274

Recent Publications.

map. Restoration of Brontops robustus from the Miocene of America.
0. C. Marsh. One plate. March No. Geology of Fernando de
Noronha, Part ii, Petrography; George H. Williams. Ophiolite of
Thurman, Warren Co., N. Y., with remarks on Eozoon canadense.
Geo. P. Merrill. Origin of the deep troughs of the oceanic depres¬
sion; are any of volcanic origin? James D. Dana, with a bathymetric
map. Description of a problematic organism from the Devonian at the
Falls of the Ohio. F. H. Knowlton. Some curiously developed
pyrite crystals from French creek, Delaware Co., Pa. S. L. Penfield.
Crystallized Bertrandite from Stoneham, Me. and Mount Antero, Col¬
orado. S. L. Penfield. Mineralogical notes. J. S. Diller.

Am. Naturalist, Jan. No. Among the ancient glaciers of North
Wales. F. Johnson Evans.

4. Excerpts and individual publications.

On the classification of the Cambrian rocks in Acadia, No. 2. By G.
F. Matthew, M. A., F. R. S. C. Can. Record of Sci. Jan. 1889.

Climatology of New Jersey, by John C. Smock. From vol. i of the
Final report of the State Geologist of New Jersey.

On the serpentine of Montville, New Jersey. Geo. P. Merrill. One
plate. From the Proceedings of the U. S. Nat. Museum. 1888.

Preliminary list of the foraminifera from the Post Pliocene sand at
Santa Barbara, Cal. Anthony Woodward. From the Journal of the
N. Y. Microscopical Society. Jan. 1889.

A geological and topographical map of the New Boston and Morea
coal lands, in Schuylkill Co. Pa., scale 400 feet to an inch. By Benj.
Smith Lyman.

The probable cause of the displacement of beach-lines. An attempt
to compute geological epochs. By A. Blytt. From Christiana
Videnskabs-Selskabs Forhandlinger . 1889, No. 1.

The oil-field of Colorado. By J. S. Newberry. From the School of
Mines Quarterly. Jan. 1889.

The construction of topographic maps by reconnoissance methods.
Arthur WinslowT. Ark. Soc. of Engineers , Architects and Surveyors.

Evidence that lake Cheyenne continued till the ice-age. Prof. J. E.
Todd (Abstract, from Proc. A. A. A. S. vol. xxxvii.)

The terraces of the Missouri. Prof. J. E. Todd. (Abstract, from the
same).

On some dates of the report on the geology of Vermont. Jules
Marcou. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. xxiii. 1888.

Canadian geological classification for the Province of Quebec. Jules
Marcou. Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. xxiv.

5. Foreign publications.

Trans. Geol. Society, Glasgow, vol. viii, part 2, contains papers by
Robt. Craig on Post-pliocene beds of the Irvine valley and organisms
beneath the boulder-clay; by John Young on Erect stems of fossil
trees in the lower Carboniferous, on Quartz as a rock-forming mineral,
and on Carboniferous Anatinidse ; by Dugald Bell on the Glacial phe-

Correspondence.

275

nomena of Scotland ; by R. Kidston, Thomas Scott, J. S. McLennan,
James Bennie, G. G. Henderson, and John R. S. Hunter on the fossils
and some other geology of the Carboniferous of Scotland ; A notice of
the late professor de Koninck by James Thompson ; by Robt. Dunlop
on a fossiliferous peat in a boulder-clay ; on Glaciation and raised
beaches by James Anderson, and by Sir Wm, Thompson on Polar ice¬
caps and their influence in changing sea-levels, with illustrations.

On the Eozoic and Paleozoic rocks of the Atlantic coast of Canada,
in comparison with those of western Europe and of the interior of
America. Sir J. William Dawson. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Nov. 1888.

Annales de la Societe geologique de Belgique. Tome xv, liv. 3.

The mineral wealth of Queensland. By Robt. L. Jack, Government
Geologist. 71 pp. 8vo, with a map showing the position of the mineral
fields. Published by the Queensland Centennial Commission, Interna¬
tional Exhibition, Melbourne, 1888.

CORRESPONDENCE.

Observations on Three Kinderhook Fossils. Among the fossils
described as Kinderhook species, none are prettier or more instructive
than Dr. White’s coral, Zaphrentis calceola. More correctly, this is
White and Whitfield’s species. The authors of this species obtained
the type specimens at Burlington, la., from the base of the Burlington
limestone and the underlying Kinderhook beds. Afterward Prof.
Broadhead found this fossil in the Chouteau limestone at Sedalia, Mo.,
and sent specimens of it to the National Museum, where they were ex¬
amined by Dr. White and one of them figured in Hayden’s 12th annual
report of the survey of the territories.

We have found this beautiful little polyp ranging through three
quite distinct formations and undergoing in its ascent some noticeable
changes. The first examples we collected were from the lower Bur¬
lington limestone at Louisiana, Mo., about ten feet from the base of
this division. The specimens from the soft white cherts are small and
flattened while those from the limestone are somewhat more robust and
less compressed.

About eight years after our first acquaintance with this cyathophyl-
loid we discovered a very much weathered outcrop of about three feet
of the very base of the lower Burlington group ; and, among other
peculiar fossils, we picked up two grotesque looking examples of Zaph¬
rentis calceola, somewhat larger than the limestone specimens above,
strongly wrinkled, very much flattened and the point (base) in one,
directed backward* contrary to the outline of the typical specimens.

Four miles east of Curry ville, Mo., in an outcrop of the upper Chou¬
teau limestone associated with Michelinia placenta, is a very small,
wrinkled and flattened variety of this interesting little Zaphrentis. In
the same formation at other localities in the western part of this

276

Correspondence.

county and at one outcrop in Audrain county, we have also noticed this
coral.

Occurring as natural casts in cherts of the upper Burlington beds,
two miles north of Curryville, we have found excellent examples of
Zaphrentis calceola associated with Granatocrinus norwoodi and Bat-
ocrinus pyriformis.

The examples of this variety are very much larger and less com¬
pressed than any of the lower forms, but easily recognizable from their
peculiar rugose appearance.

From the shales beneath the “Lithographic limestone” at Louis¬
iana, among other cyathophylloids collected, is one very much flat¬
tened example but with the basal point twisted to the side ; and, though
it is somewhat wrinkled, yet it bears but a faint resemblance to the
Burlington form.

There is little doubt in our mind that Zaphrentis calceola has de¬
scended in a direct line from the Corniferous species, Z. ungula and
that it struggled upward through the Kinderhook, lower Burlington
and “was gathered to its fathers” in the upper Burlington.

A companion to Zaphrentis calceola in the lower Burlington at
Louisiana, is Porcellia nodosa, a gasteropod described by Hall and
recognized by Meek and Worthen as a Kinderhook species.

The only (?) specimen of this species in the Illinois State Museum
(found at Kinderhook, Pike Co., Illinois) was misplaced, some years
ago, as we were informed by Prof. Worthen. If this was the type speci¬
men, the species now exists without a type.

We have found but two examples of this fossil and both are natural
casts in white chert, and both found some tenor fifteen feet from the
base of the lower Burlington limestone.

The third and last form under consideration is Batocrinus pistili-
formis M. and W., described from a fragment and referred to the Kin¬
derhook group.

As a natural cast in the upper Burlington chert, we have found ex¬
amples of this fossil not uncommon at Louisiana and even as abund¬
ant as B. pyriformis at Curryville.

As casts the collector is perplexed to place this form, the calyx be¬
ing that of B. pyriformis while the dome is that of B. christyi. A cast
in the mold settles the question and the fossil becomes B. pistiliformis
with the arm openings directed outward instead of upward as in B.
pyriformis.

In an outcrop of upper Burlington limestone on Spencer creek, we
found one body and a number of fragments of this crinoid, associated
with Granatocrinus norwoodi var. cornutus, G. sayi and Batocrinus
sequibrachiatus, well known upper Burlington forms.

Curryville , Mo., March 1, 1889. R. R. Rowley.

Foliation and sedimentation. The tone of portions of Prof. A.
Winchell’s rejoinder published in the March number of the “ Geolo¬
gist ” is such that I would much rather drop the discussion of the

Correspondence .

277

points of difference between us than continue it. The dramatic role
which I seem to play in his imagination of appearing and disappear¬
ing in some lurid scene which he does not more fully describe, affords
him, I trust, some amusement in the lonely moments of his occasion¬
al jaunts through the lakes of northern Minnesota. That it should
form part of an argumentative discussion, however, on an impor¬
tant and utterly impersonal scientific question is something for
which I was not prepared, and indicates a state of irritability on the
professor’s part which I am loath once more to excite. But there are
some misunderstandings and misrepresentations of my views and ar¬
guments which I feel constrained, even at the risk of appearing on the
“ scene ” more suddenly than may be good for his nerves, to endeavor
in a few words to clear up.

1. Prof. W. says : “My former and only contention, it will be noted,
was for the original sedimentary condition of the great granite and
gneissic masses. ” This was not the issue between us. I laid down,
and, I think, substantiated, the following proposition: “It is highly
improbable that the foliation of the gneiss has anything to do with an
original sedimentation. * * * “ This conclusion does not necessa¬
rily imply that the gneiss and schist may not have been originally sedi¬
mentary and conformable.” This is the proposition Prof. W. com¬
batted, for to use his own words he proceeded “ to summarize briefly
the facts which have led him to believe the foliation of the gneisses
sustains a relation of dependence on an antecedent sedimentary
structure.”

It is just as well in discussions of this sort to have a clear under¬
standing of the question at issue. I certainly never advanced an argu¬
ment to combat “the original sedimentary condition of the great
granite and gneissic masses.” I have never discussed the question
pro or con. I have adduced evidence in abundance to show that they
have passed through a magmatic and irruptive (not eruptive ) stage. I
have shown that these gneisses and granites - were in this magmatic
condition at a time wThen the overlying schists of the upper Archaean
were in a hard and brittle state ; that in this condition they penetrated
the schists and now hold inclosed in them angular and lenticular frag¬
ments of those schists in great profusion, and therefore as rocks they
are of later age than the schists and truly irruptive.

2. Prof. W. misrepresents me when he quotes my statement, “ We
know nothing of the kind ’ ’ and makes it appear that I deny that
rocks may be reduced to a state of plasticity or semi-fluidity at suffi¬
ciently high temperature. I beg to refer to the paragraph (10) of my
“Reply ” in proof of the misrepresentation.

3. Prof. W. says: “In the end Dr. L. makes it appear that he has
come almost to my position.” Prof. W. has evidently misunderstood
my position from the first, and fails to understand that without enter¬
ing into the question of the former sedimentary condition of the gneiss,
the evidence adduced proves it to have been in a fused or magmatic
condition, and to have been irrupted through the upper and confused

278

Correspondence .

portions of the Archaean. I have not receded in any way from the
position which I took and which is defined, so far as this discussion is
concerned, in the proposition I have quoted ; and if Prof. W. finds we
tend toward agreement I am very glad of it.

4. Prof. W. again misrepresents me when he asserts that I say “it
is very important for geologists to arrest its action before the softened
state of the original sediments is reached.” I simply stated that
“The sooner the well defined line which exists in nature between
rock metamorphism and fusion is recognized by geologists, and the
former understood to stop where the latter begins, the better for the
progress of investigation in Archsean geology.”

5. I find myself for the most part quite in accord with those British
investigators whom Prof. W. so gratuitously advised me to consult,
particularly with those who regard the granites and gneisses as the
result of fusion of overlying rocks. I do not, however, agree with
them in regarding the gneisses as an intermediate state. It seems to
me from what I have seen that the granite is the first stage, gneiss
the second ; that the gneiss of our Laurentian areas is a differentiated
granite, the differentiation being due to motion in the cooling and
crystallizing magma. It is to be borne in mind of course that there
are many feldspathic mica schists in the upper Archasan commonly
called gneisses, which are truly metamorphic, but for which, owing to
the poverty of our nomenclature, we have no good name. Nor can I
of course agree with some of them in regarding “ fusion ” and “meta¬
morphism ” as synonymous terms.

6. With regard to “conglomerates in gneissic terranes ” referred
to by Prof. W. in the last paragraph of his rejoinder I would only say,
that pebble and boulder conglomerates are no novelty in the upper,
schistose or metamorphic division of the Archgean ; and the numerous
inclusions in the granites and granitoid gneiss such as the ‘ ‘ Basswood
granite ” and the “Saganaga granite ” with both of which I am some¬
what familiar, are, in my opinion, certainly not conglomerates in any
accepted sense of the word. It seems to me to be introducing confusion
of the most lamentable sort into the science to call such appearances
conglomerates. I have studied the phenomenon for some years over a
wide extent of Archaean country and find the inclusions most abund¬
ant near the shattered edges of bel1& of upper Archaean rocks, where
there is the most conclusive evidence that they are simply detached
fragments from the brittle, unfused rocks in contact with the granite
magma. Evidence of this will be advanced in a forthcoming report on
the geology of the Bainy Lake region. Frequently these inclusions
are much altered by the conditions to which they have been subjected
and are rounded. For the most part, however, they are more or less
angular or lenticular in shape. Some few of these inclusions appear
not to be foreign to the granite or gneiss, but to be more basic earlier
secretions of the magma from which the granite crystallized. I
hasten to give expression to these views that Prof. W. may perhaps

Personal and Scientific News.

279

examine more carefully into these matters before further confounding
the conglomerates of the upper Archaean metamorphic schists with the
granite breccias of the Laurentian or lower Archaean. Having done
so I may be permitted to make my bow and, wrapping myself in
“ glory” and ‘‘immortality,” as the professor hath it, disappear from
the “ scene.”

ANDREW C. LAWSON.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Mr. U. P. James, the well-known paleontologist of Cin¬
cinnati, died at his residence near Loveland, Ohio, on Mon¬
day morning, Feb. 25, in his 78th year. In a future number
the Geologist will give a more extended notice of his life and
scientific work.

Burning-gas was encountered at San Antonio, Texas, in
sinking a well, at the depth of 373 feet. Water and gas burst
up together with great force, through an eight-inch pipe, ris¬
ing ten feet. The gas burns steadily. The strata passed
through were gravel and clay. J. L. Tait.

The geological survey of Arkansas has now completed
two years of work and Prof. Branner has submitted a volumin¬
ous report of four volumes, only one of which has yet come
from the press.

The General Assembly of the State now in session appointed
a committee to examine into the work done and advise as to
its continuance. This committee has made an investigation
and in their report state that six typical areas of the state
have been carefully examined and mapped. These include a
part of the coal region — the formation in which gold was sup¬
posed to exist — a preliminary examination of the silver de¬
posits and paitial studies of the lead, zinc, antimony, man¬
ganese and iron ores, In the making of maps the State was
assisted by the United States Survey.

The Committee say that “the report on the gold mines of the
state is of very great negative value, for much of the area
examined contains no mineral of any commercial importance
and this information saves the expense of seeking what does
not exist.” “ Of positive value, however, are the discovery of
fertilizing marls, chalk and gypsum and calling attention to
our undeveloped manganese fields and to our silver ores ; and
the analyses made of our mineral waters.”

Among the resources of the State enumerated at some
length by the Committee’s report is an area of 2,080 square
miles examined for coal, 1,027 square miles of which are
found to have workable beds of coal. The State of Arkansas
owns about 5,100 acres of this land estimated to contain

280

Personal and Scientific News.

15,300,000 tons of marketable coal, and this refers only
to lands owned by the state, being but l-126th part of the
total area thus far found to contain coal of commercial value.

Four-fifths of the state remain to be examined and mapped.
The Committee recommend that the geological work be con¬
tinued by Prof. Branner, that work on botany and zoology be
carried on, and that he be allowed four assistants with salaries
not to exceed $2,000 each and that an appropriation of $10,000
be made to meet the contingent expenses of the survey for the
next two years.

At a recent meeting of the San Francisco Microscopical
Society, Prof. Hanks submitted a newly discovered specimen
of diatomaceous earth which attracted much attention and
was considered of great scientific value. The scrapings of the
earth examined were unwashed and the powers used were not
sufficient to determine whether the specimen was a “Santa
Monica” or not.

Dr. M; E. Wadsworth of the Michigan Mining School, has
been appointed State Geologist of Michigan for two years from
May 1st. He is now holding the position by appointment to
fill out the vacancy caused by the death of Mr. Charles E.
Wright. It is reported that the Board has decided to pub¬
lish another volume of the report of the survey, covering the
works of Rominger, Wright and Wadsworth. — Mining and
Scientific Review.

Mr. B. W. Thomas read a paper recently before the Chi¬
cago Academy of Sciences announcing the discovery of three
new forms of the spore-cases of Protosalvinia, a marine plant
of the Devonian. These and other forms named at first Spor-
angites by Dr. J. W. Dawson in 1871, are found in great
abundance in the drift materials excavated in the construc¬
tion of the subterranean aqueduct that supplies Chicago with
the water of lake Michigan. In one case a large best of them
was pumped out along with a deposit of quicksand and thrown
into the lake. They floated off in the form of a thick black
scum and on examination their nature was ascertained. Mr.
Thomas suggests that in the light of the researches of Prof.
Orton in Ohio as to the origin of natural gas from these spores
in the Devonian, these drift-contained nests which in this
instance supplied tons which were pumped into the lake, may
be the source of the small quantities of natural gas that from
time to time have been observed by those who have made
excavations in the drift in the vicinity of Chicago.

The average of cassiterite in the tin ores of the Black
Hills is estimated by Prof. Carpenter at two per cent, on a
basis of treating all rock carrying ten pounds as recommended
by Prof. W. P. Blake.

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Ah Pierson James. [Portrait.] . 281

DRTION OF THE GEOLOGICAL STORY OF

IE Colorado river of Texas. [Illus-

ated.] Robert T. Hill. . 287

jBONIFEROUS GLACIATION IN THE SOUTH -
IN AND EASTERN HEMISPHERES, — WITH
>ME NOTES ON THE GlOSSOPTERIS FLORA.

I). White . .:..... 299

tIATION EXHIBITED BY A CARBONIC
iSTEROPOD. [Illustrated.] Charles R.

eyes . 330

roRiAL Comment.

Unconformity at the falls of the

Montmorenci. . . . . . 333

pa<mb

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Examination of water for Sanitary and
Technical Purposes, Leffman and Beam,

334. — Bommeloen og Karmoen med om-
givelser geologisk beskrevne, af dr.

Hans Reusch, 335. — Shall wre teach Geo¬

logy? A. Winchell , 336.

Recent Publications . 337

Correspondence.

Two systems confounded in the Huron-
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Personal and Scientific News. . . . 340

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THE

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST

Vol. III. MAY, 1889. No. 5

URIAH PIERSON JAMES.

Mr. U. P. James, palaeontologist and geologist of Cincinnati,
died at his residence near Loveland, Ohio, on the 25th of Feb¬
ruary, in the 78th year of his age.

He was born in the town of Goshen, Orange Co., N. Y., on
December 30th, 1811. His father, Thomas James, was a car¬
penter, who followed his trade until his death in 1824, the re¬
sult of an accident. His mother, Rhoda Pierson James, was
a direct descendant of Thomas Pierson, a brother of Rev.
Abraham Pierson, the first president of Yale College. He
had two brothers and three sisters, all of whom he survived,
so that he was in reality the last of his immediate family.

In 1831, long before any railroad had crossed the Alle-
ghanies, he and his brother Joseph traveled by stage and
canal, west to Cincinnati, arriving in August and witnessing
the great flood of February, 1832. Having learned the trades
of printer and stereotyper, he began to work at these soon
after his arrival in Cincinnati, and followed them successfully
for a number of years. In a short time he began publishing
books, and his first venture, the “ Eolian Songster,” was
printed in 1832, the copyright being dated June 15. This
book was followed at intervals by others, until the complete
list would number hundreds. In 1847 he entered into partner¬
ship with his brother Joseph as publishers, printers, stereo-

282

Uriah Pierson James.

typers and type-founders, the firm name being J. A. & U. P.
James. The business increased rapidly, book publishing be¬
came a prominent part of it, and the firm became widely
known throughout the Mississippi valley as the “ Harpers of
the West.” Many of the books published by the firm and
later by Mr. James himself have had a very wide circulation.
The “ James’s River Guide,” and the “ Western Pilot,” were
standard works among river men on the Ohio and Mississ¬
ippi rivers. These books contained charts of the river chan¬
nels, and accounts of the cities and towns along their banks,
and they were considered so accurate that in several in¬
stances they were used to settle disputed points in the courts.

He published an edition of “Vestiges of Creation” soon
after that celebrated book first appeared. He was a patron of
many of the early authors of the west, and was the means of
bringing many of them before a very wide circle of readers.
For many }^ears he edited and published the “ Farmer’s and
Mechanic’s Almanac,” long considered a standard among
the farmers, wrho looked upon its predictions of the
weather, with the greatest respect and confidence. The flood
of patent medicine almanacs and calendars finally made this
unprofitable and its publication was discontinued in 1869.

As a business man his reputation was of the highest. He
never failed to meet an obligation ; he always preferred to pay
cash rather than ask for credit ; he never entered into a law¬
suit if it were possible to avoid it, and he would rather have
been defrauded a hundred times than defraud any man once.

Turning to his scientific life we find that soon after going to
Cincinnati his attention was attracted to the wonderful pro¬
fusion of fossils on the hills around the city. He has fre¬
quently stated that in his walks he often picked up pockets-
ful of the fragments of coral that lay upon the ground, and at
first wondered if they were twigs of trees turned to stone. His
early love for geology never left him, and up to within a few
months of his death he was adding to his collection of fossils.

He was thus among the very first of all the fossil collectors
of Cincinnati and was also almost the last of that early gener¬
ation of students and collectors. He was a companion of
John Locke, John G. Anthony, George Graham, Robert
Buchanan, Dr. John A. Warder, Edw’d. P. Cranch, S. T. Carley,
Joseph Clark and many others, all but two of these having

Uriah Pierson James.

283

preceded him to the grave. He was an active member, at one
time president, and for a long time treasurer of the old West¬
ern Academy of Natural Sciences, the predecessor of the pres¬
ent Cincinnati Society of Natural Hisfouy, and one of the
very earliest scientific societies established in the Mississippi
valley.

In those early days conchology was very prominent among
the sciences, and the unrivaled facilities of the neighborhood
enabled the early collectors of Cincinnati to gather collections
which their successors have not been able to rival. Before
the growth of the city many streams swarmed with mollusks
which are now entirely deserted by them. Certain species
were abundant which are now extinct in the neighborhood.
Mr. James was not slow to avail himself of this opportunity,
and he amassed a collection of the Unios and univalve shells
of the Ohio,, the two Miamis and the White rivers, which is
probably the largest and best local collection now in the
neighborhood of Cincinnati. One result of this early study
of concholog}r, was a catalogue of the shells of Cincinnati,
compiled by a committee appointed by the Western Acad¬
emy of Natural Sciences, and published by Mr. James. He
was also the publisher of the catalogue of plants of Cincin¬
nati, compiled by Joseph Clarke and Robert Buchanan.

There were no facilities in the days of the ?40’s as there
are now, for the study of palaeontology. The difficulties un¬
der which the collectors labored were enormous. There were
no books upon the subject until the “ Palaeontology of New
York” appeared, and this only partty covered the ground of
the Cincinnati horizon. Still the collectors, Mr. James
among them, persevered. They read papers now and then
before the Academy, or sent drawings or specimens to the
east for identification or description. One of these was drawn
by Mr. James and sent to Prof. Dana, who figured and des¬
cribed it under the name of Paloeaster Jamesi , by which it is
still known.

The visit of Lyell to Cincinnati in 1845 gave renewed
impulse to the study. Mr. James was among those who re¬
ceived this eminent authority, and piloted him over the fa¬
miliar hunting ground, even making diagrams of some of the
more interesting sections seen in the neighborhood. Agassiz

284

Uriah Pierson James .

visited Cincinnati and saw Mr. James’s collection, pronounc¬
ing it among the finest he had ever seen.

The first catalogue of fossils of the vicinity of Cincinnati
was compiled and published by Mr. James in 1871. In this
were embodied the results of his studies for thirty years, and
in it a number of names were proposed for new species, many
of which were subsequently adopted by Meek, Hall and Whit¬
field. A supplement to this was published in 1873, and a
second edition with many additions and corrections in 1875.
In this there were also included descriptions of a number of
new species from the vicinity of Cincinnati. A few years
later, 1879, a supplement was published, which contained the
names of new species described by various authors up to that
time. He contributed various articles to the Cincinnati Quar¬
terly Journal of Science, and in 1878 issued the first number of a
small periodical which he called “ The Paleontologist.” This
contained descriptions of many new species from the Cincinnati
and Clinton groups, and was continued for seven numbers, the
last one containing two etched plates. This periodical was
distributed to his correspondents and to many libraries and
societies, and was also sold. Later on he contributed various
papers to the Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural
History, some of which were illustrated. A full list of his
writings is appended to this notice.

He was the first collector and student of the fossil corals
found so abundantly in the rocks of the Cincinnati group ;
and it was he who first called the attention of Prof. Nichol¬
son to them. All the workers among the fossils in the vicin¬
ity had been afraid to attempt the study of these organisms,
and it was only after he had begun his work that others took
it up. He furnished many specimens to the paleontologists
of the geological survey of Ohio for description and illustra¬
tion, and his cabinet contains many of these type specimens.
It also contains many new or peculia^ forms, which we hope
may yet be brought before the public. His labors in this field
are commemorated by having many species called by his
name. It was in the reports of this survey that many names
proposed by him in his catalogue of 1871 were adopted and
rightly credited to him.

One of the results of his intimate knowledge of the*corals of
Cincinnati was the publication of a monograph of the Monti-

Uriah Pierson James.

285

culiporoids of the vicinity. In this he was assisted by his
son, Prof. Joseph F. James. This paper was published in
three successive numbers of the Journal of the Cincinnati
Society of Natural History (October 1887, January and April
1888). The sheets were afterward collected and issued in a
separate pamphlet. This monograph contains descriptions of
sixty-four species, with a number of varieties, and remarks
upon each one and upon synonymy. Only one new variety
was described, as both authors considered that too many
species and genera had already been made.

Mr. James was essentially a self-educated and a self-made
man. His early schooling was such as could be had at a
country school, attended at intervals and for a few years only.
He was neither a rapid nor a prolific writer, but his descrip¬
tions bear the marks of care and pains-taking and are gener¬
ally acknowledged to be full and accurate. He was a life
member of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, and at
one time a member of the American Association for the Ad¬
vancement of Science. His membership in the latter was dur¬
ing the early days of that association.

Of the man it may be said that he was simple-hearted and
kind to all with whom he came in contact, ever ready to
oblige, and ever reluctant to ask the granting of a favor. His
domestic life was a happy one. He married, in 1847, Miss
Olivia Harriet Wood, a daughter of an English lady of Cin¬
cinnati. His widow, two sons and three daughters survive
him, a third son having died in infancy. All who knew him,
knew him to be an honest man, and “ To be honest, as this
world goes, is to be one man picked out of ten thousand.”

One of his sons carries on the father’s book business in Cin¬
cinnati, while the younger one hopes to carry on his geological
work.

Mr. James was buried in Spring Grove Cemetery, and a
granite boulder, brought by the glaciers from the Canadian
highlands and lodged on a hill-side of his place at Loveland,
will mark his last resting place.

J. F. J.

List of the Writing's of U. P. James.

1871 — Catalogue of the Lower Silurian Fossils, Cincinnati Group,
found at Cincinnati and vicinity — within a range of forty or fifty
miles — pp. 14. 32 new species proposed.

286

Uriah Pierson James-

1873 — Additions to Catalogue of Lower Silurian Fossils, Cincinnati
Group, pp. 4. Many alterations and corrections. One new species
proposed.

1874 — Descriptions of new species of Brachiopoda, from the Lower
Silurian rocks — Cincinnati group. — Cincinnati Quarterly Journal
of Science, vol. 1, pp. 19-22. 4 new species described.

1874 — Description of one new species of Leptxna and two species of
Cyclonema from the Lower Silurian rocks. — Cincinnati Group. —
Cin. Quar. Jour, of Sci., vol. 1, pp. 151, 153. 3 new species des¬

cribed .

1874 — Remarks upon Nullipores. — Cin. Quart. Jour, of Sci., vol. 1,
pp. 153, 154.

1874 — Description of new species of fossils from the Lower Silurian
Formation, Cincinnati Group. — Cin. Quar. Jour, of Sci., vol. 1,
pp. 239-242. Five new species described.

1874 — Description of new species of Brachiopods from the Lower Silur¬
ian Formation, Cincinnati Group. Cin. Quar. Jour, of Sci., vol. 1,
pp. 333-335. Two new species described.

1875 — Catalogue of Lower Silurian Fossils of the Cincinnati Group.
Found at Cincinnati and vicinity, within a circuit of 40 or 50 miles.
New edition, much enlarged. With descriptions of some new
species of Corals and Polyzoa. pp. 8. Eight new species des-
scribed.

1878 — The Paleontologist. No. 1., July 2nd, 1878, pp. 8. Contains
“ Descriptions of newly discovered species of fossils from the
Lower Silurian Formation. Cincinnati Group;” with 20 new
species. Also, two species from the upper Silurian rocks.

1878 — The Paleontologist, No. 2, Sept. 14, 1878, pp. 9-16. Contains
“Descriptions of newly discovered species of fossils and remarks
on others, from the Lower and Upper Silurian rocks of Ohio,”
with ten new species. Also, “Remarks on Constellaria anthe-
loidea, Hall ;” “ A Strange Fossil;” “ Remarks on Helopora den-
drina, James;” “ 4. Classified List of Lower Silurian Fossils, Cin¬
cinnati Group. By John Mickleborough and A. G.Wetherby,”
A review, and a notice to Correspondents.

1879 — The Paleontologist, No. 3, Januaiy 15, 1879, pp. 17-24. Con¬
tains “ Description of new species of fossils and remarks on some
others, from the Lower and Upper Silurian Rocks of Ohio,” with
two new genera and eighteen new species. “Bibliography;”
“ Book Notice ” (Andrew’s Elementary Geology.)

1879 — The Paleontologist, No. 4. July 10, 1879, pp. 25-32. Contains,
“Descriptions of newly discovered fossils” with three species.
“ Geological Nomenclature ( The Cincinnati Group — The “Hudson
River Group”) ; “ Supplement to Catalogue of Lower Silurian Fos¬
sils of the Cincinnati Group ” with remarks.

1881 — The Paleontologist, No. 5, June 10, 1881, pp. 33-44. Contains
“Contributions to Paleontology: Fossils of the Lower Silurian
Formation; Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky,” with descriptions of 16
new species, and remarks on others.

1882 — The Paleontologist, No. 6, Sept. 12, 1882, pp. 45-56. Contains
“Descriptions of ten new species of Monticulipora, from the Cin¬
cinnati Group, Ohio; ” “ Corrections,” “ Index.”

1883 — The Paleontologist, 'No. 7, April 16, 1883 ; pp. 57-60, with two
plates. Contains “Descriptions of new species of Fossils from
the Cincinnati Group, Ohio and Kentucky,” with three new
species, and remarks on another, “ Tracks of a Crustacean ( ?) ”

Geologic Story of the Colorado River. — Hill. 287

1883 — Descriptions of Fossils from the Cincinnati Group — Journal of
the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, vol. 6, pp. 235, 236.
Two new species described, with one plate.

1884 — Description of three species of Fossils, — Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat.
Hist., vol. 7, pp. 20-24. With illustrations of species described.

1884 — On Conodonts and Fossil Annelid Jaws, — Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat.
Hist., vol. 7, pp. 143-150. Four new species described; one plate.

1884 — Descriptions of four new species of Fossils from the Cincinnati
Group, — Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 7, pp. 137-140. With a
plate.

1885 — Glyptocrinus Baeri, Meek, — Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. , vol . 8,
p. 71. Note on fine specimen.

1887 — Genus Agelacrinus, Vanuxem (mis-printed Agelacinus ), — Jour.
Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 10, p. 25. One species described and
figured.

1887-1888— On the Monticuliporoid Corals of the Cincinnati Group,
with a critical revision of the species, by U. P. James and Joseph
F. James,— Jour, of the Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., part 1, vol. 10, pp. 118-
141; part ii, same Journal (1888) vol. 10, pp. 158-184, with one
plate; part in, same Journal (1888) vol. 2, pp. 15-44; one plate.
Descriptions of 64 species and six varieties ; one new one.

A PORTION OF THE GEOLOGIC STORY OF THE
COLORADO RIVER OF TEXAS.

By Robert T. Hill.

Often have I scanned the topographic maps of this little
known south-western region, pondered over the peculiar bends
and meanderings of its rivers and endeavored to create hypothe¬
ses for their vagaries. The past year has afforded opportunities
to study most of these from the Mississippi to the Rio Grande.
All were interesting in their relation to topography and form¬
ation, hut the Colorado of Texas presented the most interest¬
ing features, rivaling in some respects those of its world-
famed name-sake, the Colorado of the West.

The Colorado begins in the dry arroyas which border the
eastern scarp of that great plateau, the Staked Plains of Texas.
These canons, cut nearly a thousand feet perpendicularly in
the soft Quaternary, Cretaceous,. Triassic (?) and Permian
strata, which record in their precipitousness both the aridity
and the gradual elevation of the region. Flowing eastward
through the Red beds, Permian and Triassic, across the strike
of the formations, the middle third of the river is reached be¬
tween the 97th and 98th meridian. Here the Colorado cuts
through the area of paleozoic rocks which has been the land
barrier between the Atlantic ocean and the inland sea during
numerous oscillations which have marked the neozoic history

288 Geologic Story of the Colorado River. — Hill.

of interior North America. The story of the sediments upon
each side of this axis — east and west — although a harmonious
history, records events of entirely different characteristics.
This paper deals only with the eastern or Atlantic slope leav¬
ing for a future time the interior basin. While this section does
not record the sediments of the Permian, Triassic, Jurassic
and enclosed Laramie of the interior United States, it furnishes
equally interesting data for a study of other formations.

Topographically, the area is very diversified by erosion, but
primarily consisted of a great eastwardly sloping plain separ¬
ated into two steppes by a gentle monoclinal scarp, and extend¬
ing north-east across the state to the ancient mountain axis that
runs east and west across southern Indian Territory and south¬
western Arkansas. The uniformity of these open plains has
been broken by a few igneous disturbances and degraded by the
extensive erosion of the drainage systems, which, cross their
strike at right angles and cut valleys from 300 to 750 feet in
depth. Of all these streams the Colorado river has cut the
deepest channel and in it can be read the whole sequence of
geologic events.

Within this short distance the river has worn through the
crust of Cretaceous sediments that formed the floor of the
plains and now traverses nearly every terrane from the late
Quaternary to the earliest Cambrian. Perhaps no where else
in the world can be seen a more comprehensive geologic sec¬
tion, a better illustration of sedimentary and igneous rocks,
and their relation to topographic form and economic conditions
or other geologic features dependent upon structure than
in that portion of the Colorado which traverses the counties
of Burnet and Travis, as illustrated upon the accom¬
panying sketch map. Here the erosion of the river basin has ex¬
posed nearly 10,000 feet of structure that would otherwise not be
exposed, and every bend and curve seems to reveal some inter¬
esting topographic or geologic fact. Since these are so inti¬
mately dependent upon structure it is necessary that a brief
enumeration of the formations of the section should first be
made. This section is illustrated upon the accompanying
figures.

THE SECTION.

Along this portion of the Colorado as shown in figures the
following formations are revealed :

Geologic Story of the Colorado River. — Hill. 289

1. Quaternary. Thickness.

1 . Older Terrace deposits of Colorado river at Austin, superficial.
1 a. Upland gravel as seen at McDade, superficial.

2. Tertiary.

Eo-Lignitic (“Laramie”) or basal Eocene, Bastrop
county probably . . 1,000

3. Upper Cretaceous.

a. Upper arenaceous beds, eastern edge Travis

county . . . . 300

b. Middle (Exogyra ponderosa) marls, east half of

Travis county . 1,000

c. Austin or Niobrara chalk, city of Austin . . 600

d. Eagle Ford or Benton shales, city of Austin . 300

The Lower Cross-Timber or Dakota sands are missing

here; present in North Texas . 200

4. Lower Cretaceous.

a. Yola limestone, or Shoal Creek horizon, Austin . 50

b. Exogyra arietina clays, west of Austin . 100

c. Washita limestone (metamorphosed chalk) west

of Austin . 160

d. Medial or Hippurites limestone (metamorphosed

chalk) West of Austin . 900

e. Basal or Fredrickburg limestone, (metamorphosed

chalk) Burnet . 300

f. Trinity, basal littoral beds, Burnet . 300

5. Carboniferous.

a. Bituminous shales and sandstones, Marble Falls

and Smith wick . 300

b. Encrinital, or Marble Falls limestone. . . 500

6. Silurian

Barren white limestone beds, Lower Marble Falls.

7. Cambrian.

(Indeterminate limestone flags . 1,150

a. Upper ■< Potsdam sandstones ; western Burnet

( county . 625

b. Lower. — The Llano group of Walcott, Sand mountain. .2,000

Total 9,520

It is impossible to give the details of each of these forma¬
tions. The general character of the paleozoic section has
been defined by Walcott,* except the Carboniferous. The
writer has previously defined the Cretaceous with the excep¬
tion of the horizon here mentioned as the Yola limestone,
which is new. The basal Tertiary or Eo-lignitic beds have
been studied by the writer and others during the past year
from the Rio Grande to the Alabama. The Quaternary beds
will be more fully defined later.

UNCONFORMITIES AND DISTURBANCE.

This section presents an extensive perspective of the strati¬
graphic history of the region from earliest Cambrian to the
present. As previously shown by Walcott, the Llano beds are

Notes on the Paleozoic rocks of Central Texas. Am. Jour., Sci. Dec, 1884.

290 Geologic Story of the Colorado River. — Hill.

almost vertical, while the Potsdam sandstones and limestones
are deposited almost horizontally upon their upturned edges,
showing remarkable disturbance and erosion in middle Cam¬
brian time. Mr. Walcott, probably, saw the Potsdam in
its regions of least disturbance, for, as shown in our section,
between Sand Mountain, Llano county, and Marble Falls,
Burnet county, there was a remarkable crumpling and flexing
of those strata in common with the Silurian and Carbonifer¬
ous, which accompanied the great igneous intrusions at the
close of paleozoic times.

The Silurian history is more obscure ; careful study may
yet reveal more details of the 1,000 feet of limestone.

THE DEVONIAN.

The absence of the Devonian is probable. Dr. B. F. Shu-
mard intimated the presence of its strata. I made a section at
Marble Falls to conclusively settle the question and, as final
authority, sent the faunas to Prof. H. S. Williams for de¬
termination. In my opinion the alleged Devonian is identical¬
ly the Carboniferous limestone of North Texas, which has here
been intensely metamorphosed by igneous contact.

The Marble Falls of the Colorado are among its most inter¬
esting and scenic features. Here the river has cut a broad
valley through the Carboniferous shales ; it is dammed back
by the dip of the underlying limestone formations over whose
imbricated edges through an extensive canon the water tumbles
for a mile or more. In this canon the metamorphism and
disturbance of the limestone beds by the adjacent granitic area
are clearly shown. This section of Marble Falls shows that the
Devonian sediments were probably not laid down in this
southwestern region, but if so, they were not later than
the Corniferous and were eroded by later Carboniferous events.

The Carboniferous rocks throw much light upon the region
by showing (a) a complete difference of seclimental se¬
quence from those of the Appalachians, and (b) the prob¬
able absence of the Sub-carboniferous of the Tennessee and
Missouri sections, or at least their characteristic facies and
fossils. The presence of Spirophyton, as recorded by Lesquer-
eux in supposed lower Carboniferous rocks of Arkansas, and of
Chonetes and other forms, indicates a lower Carboniferous
position for these limestones, however, while there is a com-

Geologic Story of the Colorado River. — Hill. 291

plete unconformity between them and the overlying shales,
sandstones and conglomerates of the Coal Measures.

DISTURBANCES CLOSING THE PALEOZOIC.

Perhaps the two most remarkable features of this sec¬
tion are the great igneous disturbances at the close of the pal-
eozic and Cretaceous respectively. The one at the close of the
Carboniferous is most beautifully recorded in the southwest
corner of Burnet county.

A few miles east of Marble Falls the uppermost paleo¬
zoic strata, the Carboniferous shales begin to show much dis¬
turbance in the shape of faults, joints and excessive dip. The
underlying limestones also show this by extensive metamor¬
phism as well as by folding until finally a peculiar topographic
feature known as Shinbone ridge is reached two miles north¬
west of the village. This is caused by the lowest or encrini-
tal limestone strata of the Carboniferous having been thrust up
almost vertically by the great granite mass which is exposed
here, and extends nearly ten miles due west to Sand mountain,
where its western edge is seen to similarly protrude from the
almost vertical Llano beds, as described by Walcott. This
great granite outcrop, from which the material was secured
for the State Capitol, occupies a circular area ten miles in
diameter, and is of late Carboniferous or post Carboniferous
age.1

This outcrop shows in an unequaled manner the contacts
of granite and stratified rocks — the beds of the whole paleo¬
zoic section showing this in turn — and will prove an admir¬
able field for future study. Near the village of Lacy, Burnet
county, the contact between the granite and the Potsdam
sandstones can* be followed for miles in a north-east and
south-west direction, forming waving undulations in the face
of the steep scarp that marks the western border of the granite
field. The u Backbone,” another conspicuous topographic
feature, is an anticline which forms the north-east border of
the circular area ; it is composed of hardest metamorphosed
limestone of the Carboniferous, and is underlaid by granite.
This granite core has been uncovered by the erosion of theColor-

1 The writer believes that Mr. Walcott was justifiable from his obser¬
vations to the westward in concluding that all the granite of Burnet
county was Cambrian, but the evidence here described, which I think he
did not see, shows it to be of later age. »

292 Geologic Story of the Colorado River. — Hill.

ado basin and forms the resistance causing the great bend of the
river in the south-west corner of Burnet county, the river
flowing around its western and southern borders. The
Cretaceous sediments once covered all this paleozoic area.
At many points, as in the town of Burnet, where the stratified
rocks have not been removed, the presence of the granite is
apparent from the undulatory folds accompanied by intense
metamorphism and crystallization of the limestone. It is
from these contacts that the rare mineral crystals of the region
are collected.

THE EARLY MESOZOIC HIATUS.

The extent of this post paleozoic disturbance seen in the
excavation of the Colorado river is obscured in most parts of
Texas, as will be shown later, by the sediments of the great
subsidence in early Cretaceous times, but there is no doubt
that it was connected with the extensive orographic move¬
ment (as illustrated by somewhat different phenomena) of
the Ouachita system of Arkansas and Indian Territory. It is
also apparent from evidence which cannot be quoted here,
that this disturbance outlined the axis which at intervals
separated during Permian, Triassic and Jurassic times the
interior basins of the west from the Atlantic shore line.

The record shows, as far as such evidence is reliable, that
the eastern slope of this disturbed area remained above water
during early mesozoic time until the beginning of the
great lower Cretaceous subsidence. Whether it was a part of
the post-paleozoic continent whose southern border is so
sharply defined through south-western Arkansas and southern
Indian Territory which has not been submerged since, is an¬
other question. There is evidence that this Texas paleozoic
area, if not an island entirely cut off from the Arkansas-Indian
Territory system, was a very long and narrow peninsula.

THE CRETACEOUS HISTORY.1*

The section shows between 3,000 and 4,000 feet of Cretaceous
sediments, including the oldest and the latest known horizons
in this country.

These sediments belong to two entirely distinct formations
of about equal thickness, separated by complete sedimentary
and faunal unconformity. In fact the differentation is so

*See Am. Jour, of Science, April 1889, pp. 282-297.

Quaternary Terraces of Colorado below its emergence from the plateau and canon area (4) ; la Quaternary littoral
deposits ; 2, Marine Tertiary; 3, Upper Cretaceous of undulating Black Prairie area; 4, Lower Cretaceous of “Hard
Lime Rock,” “Mountain” or plateau area ; 5, Carboniferous shales and limestones; 6, Silurian; 7a Potsdam; 7b,
Llano ; 8, Granite. Basalt at Pilot Knob.

294 Geologic Story of the Colorado River. — Hill.

t clear that it is safe to predict that after the knowledge of this
region recovers from the misinterpretation and speculation of
theorists, it will be the hight of impropriety to speak of the
American Cretaceous as a single formation.

The two formations, the upper or Meek and Hayden’s section,
and the lower (the author’s Comanche series) respectively, were
separated by a land epoch probably as long as either of them.
Each records every phase of a profound marine subsidence ;
each records the transition from littoral sands to shales and
deeper chalk, making long periods.

The lower Cretaceous rests directly upon the metamor¬
phosed limestones of the Carboniferous at Burnet. Their
stratigraphic characteristics are well exposed in the slope and
canons of the Colorado valley from Burnet to Austin. From
the summit of Post mountain at Burnet its scarp can be
traced northwest and southeast for 60 miles, while the river
upon leaving the Carboniferous east of Smithwick enters this
formation and follows it for 50 miles to Austin through ver¬
tical canons often cutting to a depth of 750 feet.

In ascending sequence the basal, littoral, Trinity beds of this
formation are soon followed by deeper limestones which were
once pure chalks ; and these in turn are succeeded by the Exo_
gyra arietina clays and these by a uniform lime stratum, here¬
tofore unmentioned, 100 feet thick, with an undescribed fauna
to which I have given the name Yola limestone from the char¬
acteristic and beautiful fossil resembling the Vola quinque-
costata Lamarck, or Janira deuriansiana d’ Orb.

The base of this formation — the Trinity beds — has a, fauna
predominately Wealden, and the top, some 1,200 feet above,
contains fossils distinctly Turonian or middle Cretaceous.
That this lower Cretaceous marine epoch was closed by eleva¬
tion is shown by a series of vertical faulting near its eastern
edge (which must not be confused with disturbances of a later
date) and by the unequally eroded surface of the deep sea
limestone upon which the littoral beds of the unconformable
and entirely different basal beds of the upper Cretaceous form¬
ation are deposited. This unconformity has been traced across
Texas north-east and south-west for 600 miles. The lower
Cretaceous sediments represent a profound subsidence until
lately not considered as a factor in American Cretaceous his¬
tory. This subsidence deposited its deep sea sediments over

Geologic Story of the Colorado River —Hill. 295

all Texas including the post paleozoic axis and the Jurassic
and Triassic basins of the west. It was one of the grandest but
heretofore least appreciated events of American geologic
history.

The close of this epoch was marked b}^ the elevation of the
great monoclinal plain extending in an extensive level plain
over the central portion of the state. At its eastern edge, how¬
ever, its eastwarclly dipping strata suddenly bend beneath the
upper Cretaceous. This plain is transected by the rivers but
the divides are always mesas, and the isolated hills always of
the. butte type of structure. Where the Colorado flows parallel
with the strike the western scarp of the formation consists of
benches resembling the Quaternary lake terraces of Utah, but
really the result of unequal resistance of the layers. Where
the river transects the formation deep canons and mountains
mark its course. These mountains, as beautifully seen to the
west from Austin, are the result of faulting and erosion, and
often assume large proportions. Thej^ form the eastern border
of the monocline and extend south-westward to the Rio
Grande. Some of the canons are in fault lines. Their walls
are usually of a rich cream-colored chalky limestone resemb¬
ling the Caen stone of France. Just west of the city of Austin
they are of metamorphosed chalk, in which can be seen at in¬
tervals bands of flint nodules. It is from this interesting ho¬
rizon that the beautiful calcite fossils recently described b}^ Dr.
Roemer, were found, and not in the Austin chalk, as he in his
far-away home supposed them to be.1 The soil and cultural
aspects of the region are entirely different from those of the
upper Cretaceous, agriculture being possible only in alluvial
valleys, and uplands poorly adapted for drouth.

THE UPPER CRETACEOUS FORMATION.

At the city of Austin the Colorado emerges from the rugged
canons and mountains and enters a beautiful undulating re-

1 See Paleontologische Abhandlungen, Herausgegeben von W. Dames
und E. Ivayser. Vierter Band. Heft 4. Berlin 1888. pp. 281-296. Dr.
Ferd. Roemer describes and figures in his usual excellent manner an
interesting fauna of beautiful calcite fossils from this lower
Cretaceous formation but includes with it several forms from entirely
different horizons, and assigns the whole to the Austin chalk, which
is 500 feet above it and separated by a half dozen distinct horizons.
‘Such has been the nature of most paleontologic deductions by non¬
residents when based upon collections of others.

296 Geologic Story of the Colorado River . — Hill.

gion with wide valleys, comparable to the chalk downs of
England.

Here the parting between the upper and the lower Creta¬
ceous formations is clearly shown and may be traced north or
south across the state. Although the Dakota or lower Cross
Timber sands are not represented here the succeeding finely
laminated basal shales of the Benton or Niobrara epoch are
found resting unconformablv directly upon the Vola limestone
above described. The center of the city is built upon the Nio¬
brara chalk ( Austin limestone of Shumard). Succeeding the lat¬
ter and forming the eastern half of the county is 1,000 feet of
Ponderosa marls or laminate calcareous clays from which the
great body of residual soils known as the black lands are de¬
rived. These phases, basal clays, chalk and marls are widely
distributed and uniform, and if we add to them the Hilgard
section above the basal Tombigbee sands, they will represent
what has until my previous announcement1 been considered
all of the American Cretaceous or the Meek and Hayden
section.

The uppermost or arenaceous beds as represented in
New Jersey, Alabama and Arkansas were mostly eroded dur¬
ing the post-Cretaceous land epoch and the early Tertiary sub¬
sidence. The. total thickness of the upper Cretaceous forma¬
tion in the Arkansas Texas region — sands, chalk marls, chalk
clays and basal sand — I estimate to be from 1,500 to 2,000
feet.

Like the lower Cretaceous epoch the upper was closed by
an upward movement and a succeeding continental epoch but
of slighter elevation and shorter duration than the mid-Creta¬
ceous land. This is attested by the unconformity between
Cretaceous and Tertiary, as my studies in Arkansas and Texas
during the past year showed. The movement preceding this
uplift was slow and long continued as proved b}^ the great
thickness of more shallow marls and sands succeeding the
chalk.

THE TERTIARY.

Near the eastern edge of Travis county the Cretaceous is
succeeded by the basal Tertiary formation or Lignitic beds of
Hilgard. These sediments are composed of debris of the

1 Am. Journal Science, April, 1887. Am. Naturalist, Feb., 1887.

Geologic Story of the Colorado River. — Hill . 297

upper Cretaceous sands and marls. With the exception of the
beginning of the great Atlantic timber belt there is no sharply
defined topographic line of demarcation between them. After the
first hundred feet there are great beds of lignite derived from
the post-Cretaceous continent. They continue northward to
Alabama and south to the Rio Grande.

THE QUATERNARY.

Reaching half way across the Lignitic and uppermost Creta¬
ceous areas, are great beds of gravel composed of quartzites
entirely foreign to Texas and smilar to those of the Hatcha-
tigbee gravel of Alabama and the drift of south-western
Arkansas and connected with them by probable continuity.
This is probably an accompanying phenomenon of the
great glacial depressions at the north.

ANCIENT RIVER TERRACES.

• From an altitude of 150 feet above the Colorado at Austin to
within 50 feet of its present level there is a series of ancient ter¬
races composed of quartz and flint, accompanied in the young¬
er terraces by red clays which have been removed by lixiviation
in the older benches. This gravel quartz and flint is the
remnant of the granite and chalk of the Burnet and lower
Cretaceous region, the feldspar and chalk having long since
decomposed. In the terraces we have the record of three im¬
portant events, to-wit : The change of level of the land in
late Quaternary time ; the amount of degradation the Burnet
granite has undergone, which can be also shown by studies
of the granite area proper, and finally an idea of the immense
amount of the chalk removed as recorded by the flints. These
terraces do not extend westward of the scarp at Austin, but
are well marked to the east.

DISTURBANCES IN THE CRETACEOUS FORMATIONS.

Throughout the two Cretaceous formations and possibly
the Tertiary there are numerous disturbances which throw
much light upon the history of the region. These disturb¬
ances belong to two classes, the first of which occurred during
or at the close of the early Cretaceous and the other at the
close or later than the later Cretaceous.

The first class of the disturbances is shown in the excessive
dip, faulting, and folding of the strata in a manner different
from anything found in the later Cretaceous. The structure

298 Geologic Story of the Colorado River . — Hill.

is that of a great monoclinal fold faulted at the axis of the
great curvature. The faulting occurs in and immediately west
of Austin, Mt. Bonnell being in the line of upthrust, and the
numerous north and south turns of the river (see figure) being
in the line of the faults. This fault line extends south-west to
the Rio Grande and explains several peculiar phenomena.
Among these is a remarkable line of springs whose outburst
causes the beautiful streams at San Marcos, New Braunfels,
San Antonio and other places. The volume of the Colorado
at Austin is augmented greatly from these sources. The
springs are natural artesian wells whose outlets to the surface
are furnished by the fault lines. The occurence of gold in
these deep marine Caen-like limestones is also explained by the
faults ; the gold in aqueous solution has been infiltered from be¬
low but, owing to the porosity of the country rock, is dissemi¬
nated in “blanket leads” instead of concentrated as it would be
if the containing walls were impervious.

There is also evidence of extinct warm water springs. Some
of the disturbances in the lower Cretaceous are of the same
age as those in the upper, but many of them are much older
as seen in the differential elevation.

The upper Cretaceous shows a disturbance of so decided a
nature that its interpretation is not difficult — This is a great
basaltic outburst seven miles south-east of Austin. This
igneous area, as seen from the windows of the Texas univers¬
ity is a double dome resembling the two humps of a camel ;
on closer examination it is found to consist of a circular body
of black columnar basalt about one mile in diameter, protrud¬
ing through the chalk, the contacting edges of which are con¬
verted into crystalline marble. Although this is the chief out¬
crop of this igneous rock in Travis county (a score or more
have been reported along a line westward to the Rio Grande
and eastward in Bastrop county in the vicinity of Yegua
Knobs) the rocks in many places show its near approach to
the surface and, I am inclined to believe, the whole region is
underlaid by a system of laccolites like those in the Henry
mountains of Utah described by Gilbert.

From the serious displacement of the Tertiary strata at
Yegua Knobs and elsewhere it is probable that the igneous
protrusions are of early Tertiary age.

It is impossible here to dwell upon the numerous economic

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White. 299

features of the region. In the Potsdam there are superb beds
of iron ore which, according to Prof. Everhart2 of the univers¬
ity of Texas are equal in quality to the best Swedish. In the
Cretaceous there are inexhaustible beds of the best Caen lime¬
stone, chalk and flints. In localities the conditions for
hydraulic and Portland cements are exactly similar to those
of the best European localities and unequaled in America.
The black soils of the upper Cretaceous support one half the
present population of Texas and produce two thirds the wealth.
When proper country roads are built across it from the abun¬
dant road-making materials of the basaltic cones and lower
Cretaceous limestones, it will be trebled in value.

Such is a brief summary of the phenomena exposed by the
erosion of the Colorado valley within forty miles of Austin.
When it is added that there is no evidence that man has ever
explored the deep canons, that the paleontology is almost
untouched, that hardly any details of all these grand features
have been recorded, one can but feel that the student of
geology has here an inexhaustible field before him and the
University of Texas a laboratory whose resources are not lim¬
ited by the generous hand of Nature.

In future papers I shall describe the upper and lower thirds
of the Colorado, and endeavor to show the surface geology
and evolution of the present topographic feature of Texas.
University of Texas, March, 1889.

CARBONIFEROUS GLACIATION IN THE SOUTHERN AND
EASTERN HEMISPHERES,— WITH SOME NOTES
ON THE GLOSS OPTERIS- FLORA.

By C. D. White.

I.

An apology is perhaps required for bringing before
American geologists a subject the scene of which is laid, for
the most part, in the opposite quarter of the globe ; and I
should hardly venture to discuss such a question here, were it
not for the certain and more or less direct effects on the cli¬
mate and life changes of America which must necessarily have
attended a period of glacial cold in paleozoic time extending
over a considerable part of the earth’s surface. Should it
once be proved that a glacial climate prevailed in extensive

2 See Bulletin 4, University of Texas.

300

Carboniferous Glaciation, Etc . — White.

areas of India, Africa and Australia at some time during the
Carboniferotis epoch, a key to many of the stratigraphical and
biological problems in other parts of the world will have been
obtained.

The object of the present paper is threefold: first, to set
briefly before American geologists a summary of the prevail¬
ing opinions respecting the so-called palseozoic glacial epoch
of the southern and eastern hemispheres, with outlines of its
evidence, extent and probable age as based on paleontological
or stratigraphical relations ; secondly, to bring together and
correlate some recently published data, while suggesting some
conclusions, which may be drawn therefrom, as to the devel¬
opment of the mesozoic plant life of the western hemisphere;
and, finally, to further interest our geologists and paleontolo¬
gists in observing the later evidence and results in this hemi¬
sphere of such an important climatic change in the south and .
east. ^

The general geological features, so far as they are known,
of all the countries with which we are concerned have been so
often repeated in the large number of recent contributions to
the subject in hand, that I shall confine myself chiefly to the
glacial indications themselves, assuming that my readers are
either already more or less familiar with the grand geological
divisions of those parts, or will be able to refresh their mem¬
ories from the enumerations and accompanying charts.

In 1856, the brothers W. T. and H. F. Blanford, while mak¬
ing the first exploration of the coal region in the district of
Cuttack, India, found an extensive formation which they
named the Talchir group, and whose composition was such as
to cause them to regard it as glacial ; and in their report 1
Mr. W. T. Blanford suggested that certain phenomena, there
observed, must be due to the movement of ground ice, and he
ventured to predict that further investigation would reveal
satisfactory evidence of ice-action.

In 1861, Dr. Thomas Oldham, while examining some litho¬
logical specimens from the formations at Wollongong, in New
South Wales, sent him by Mr. W. B. Clarke, was surprised at

1W. T. Blanford, H. F. Blanford and Win. Theobald. Geological
structure and relations of the Talchir coal field in the District of Cut¬
tack. Mem. Geol. Surv., India, vol. i, 1859, pp. 33-88. See p. 40.

Carboniferous Glaciation. Etc. — White. 301

the remarkable identity between one of the Australian forma¬
tions and the Talchir boulder bed1 of India.

In 1869, 2 Dr. Sutherland described certain beds (“Ecca”) in
Natal, South Africa, whose characters were such that he con¬
sidered them due to glaciation, and suggested a contempor¬
aneity with the Permian breccias of England whose glacial
origin had lately been proposed1 by Sir A. Ramsay.

It is remarkable indeed that in three widely separated con¬
tinents observers, working independently, and in two cases, at
least, without the knowledge of each other, should within so
short a time make known to the world the discovery of
glacial formations in those continents, and still more remark¬
able that, as we shall see later, all these great formations
should prove to belong to one great system of paleozoic, and
probably contemporaneous age. Without waiting to follow the
history of the theory through the period of its struggle for
existence,3 I will attempt to present, as briefly as possible, a
summary of those peculiar features and characteristics of
formation which have caused certain extensive terranes, bor¬
dering on the Indian ocean, to be satisfactorily accounted for
only by considering them due to glacial action. For the sake
of convenience I shall at the same time introduce some of the
paleontological data which will afterwards be of use in dis¬
cussing the geological epoch in which the glaciation occurred.

INDIA.

Although the first evidence of ancient glaciation
in India was discovered in 1856, well-founded proofs were not
obtained until 1872, 4 when Thomas Oldham and Mr. F. Fed-

1 Thomas Oldham. Additional remarks on the geological relations
and probable geological age of the several systems of rocks in central
India and Bengal. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, hi, 1863, pp. 197-213.
Jour. As Soc., Bengal, May, 1861.

2 Sutherland. Notes on an ancient Boulder Clay of Natal. Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc. London, xxvi, 1870, pp. 514-516.

3 Though the evidence of glaciarion is in some way treated in nearly
all the volumes published by the Geological Survey of India, the list
appended includes approximately all the literature that discusses the
question of the glaciation itself ; and from it the history of the matter
may easily be reviewed.

4 Oldham’s note in W. T. Blanford : Description of the geology of Nag¬
pur and its neighborhood. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, ix, art 2, pp. 1-36.
See pp. 10, 28-31

F. Fedden. On the Evidence of “ Ground-ice ” in tropical India,
during the Talchir period. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, vn, 1875, pp. 16-18.

302 Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White.

den succeeded in removing numerous scratched and grooved
blocks from the Talchir terrane in the valley of the Godaveri,
and found the underlying hard Vindhyan limestone scored
with innumerable deep parallel scratches and furrows. It
must be remembered that the Talchir terrane is the basal
member of the great sequence of fresh water or lacustrine forma¬
tions forming the great plateau of central India, and extending
into Bengal on the east and reaching over into the Trans-Indus
region on the west. It is a typical system, based on biological
and stratigraphical relations and sequence. The lower Gond-
wanas consist of the Talchir, Karharbari, Damuda and Pan-
chet; the upper division of the system includes the Rajmahal,
Kota-Maleri, Cutch and Jabalpur, respectively, passing up¬
wards. The boulder beds characterize and constitute a large
part of the Talchir terrane which blends upwards into the
Karharbari. They underlie the coal-bearing strata in deposits
of varying depth, often from 500 to 800 feet in thickness, and
consist of clays, fine silts, boulders, sandy shales, conglomer¬
ates, and soft sandstones. The Talchirs are remarkable every¬
where, and are to be at once distinguished by the presence of
semi-angular and somewhat rounded pebbles, boulders and
rock masses of quartzite, Vindhyan rocks, granite, gneiss and
other metamorphic rocks. The boulders, which consist of
rocks usually foreign to the localities in which they are found,
are generally but slightly rounded, and are smoothed, fur¬
rowed, and striated in parallel straight lines. Frequently the
fine silty matrix contains boulders, facetted and perfectly
polished as by a lapidary, the surface scored, often in two or
more directions, in sets of parallel striations precisely similar
to the scoring, furrowing and polishing which rocks carried
down by glaciers are so well known to exhibit.1 These boul¬
ders are not at angles of repose incident to current action, but
often lie at all angles, and, further, they lie imbedded in silt
too fine to admit of any explanation other than that they
must have been dropped there in quiet water from floating ice
above. In the neighborhood of Madras Mr. R. B. Foote found
at numerous places, quartzite boulders of 800 to 1,000 cubic

1 Descriptions are given in nearly all the papers referred to and
illustrations of the boulders may be found in those by Grisebach, Old¬
ham, Warth, Wynne, Waagen and W. T. Blanford.

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc . — IFA^e. 303

feet in a matrix of friable clay.1 In many regions where the
older rocks, on which the Talchirs rest generally unconform-
ably are newly exposed, they are foundto be worn with striations
and grooves ; and in the great Indian Desert which stretches
from the Arvali Range to the Indus river, Mr. R. D. Oldham has
fonnd, about Pokran (N.lat. 26° 55'.), a country of porphyry
and syenite completely covered with scratches and striations.
The same was observed by W. T. Blanford in 1875.2 On the
surface of this lies a tenacious mass of glacial origin, consist¬
ing of gravels of porphyry and syenite, which Oldham con¬
siders to be till or “ moraine profonde.” In the near neigh¬
borhood and in unmistakable connection with these de¬
posits are the Talchir boulder beds themselves, in which he
found one mass measuring 10 by 7-J- by 3 feet, of a rock simi¬
lar to none nearer than the Arvali mountains, 150 miles away
to the southward, from which he believes it to have been
transported. Of the further extension of the Talchirs I shall
treat when considering their probable age. It may be noted
here that they contain few fossils, and these in the upper
stage.

AFRICA.

Concerning the geological details of South Africa
much less is known than of any other region with which we
have to do. A vast sandstone region occupies the entire
center, and is fringed by older formations, old slates, crystal¬
line and Devonian rocks. This so-called “ Karoo” formation
extends over the north part of Cape Colony, the Orange Free
State, Transvaal, and the deserts lying westward, and presents
a series of sandstones and shales, interrupted in places by
eruptive rock, which reaches a maximum thickness, as shown
by T. R. Jones, of nearly 10,000 feet. The Karoo formation
rests, for the most part, or in some regions, at least,
conformably, on the Table Mountain sandstone, containing re¬
mains of Lepidodenron and Calamites, and generally regard¬
ed as Devonian, though considered recently by Cohen3 as be-

1R. B. Foote. Notes on the geology of the neighborhood of Madras.
Rec. Geol. Surv. India, hi, 1870, pp. 11-17.

2 W. T. Blanford. Additional evidence of the occurrence of glacial
conditions in the palaeozoic era, etc., Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London,
xlii, 1880, pp. 249-260.

3E. Cohen. Geognostisch-petrogranhisclie S kizzen aus Siid-
Afrika. N. Jahrb. f. Min., Beil. Bd. v. Heft. 1, 1887, pp. 195-247. p.vm,

2 ix.

304 Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White.

longing to the Carboniferous system; and this rests uncon-
formably on the Silurian slates, and partly conformably on
richly fossiliferous Devonian beds.

The series of these freshwater formations in South Africa is
as follows: The Ecca beds, at the base, consist of three
members of which the lowest, the Ecca shales, which
appear only in a few places, are strongly contorted. All
the other horizons are nearly absolutely horizontal.

Between the upper and the lower Ecca beds lies the
Ecca conglomerate, or “ Dwyka conglomerate ” of T. R.
Jones, which contains the glacial indications first dis¬
covered by Sutherland and afterwards described by Dunn 1
and others. These conglomerates, regarded at first as vol¬
canic, consist of a blue clayey material in which fragments of
granite, gneiss, greenstone and clay slate are imbedded.
These vary in size from grains of sand to boulders six feet in
diameter and weighing 6 to 10 tons. “ They are often
smoothed as if ground down in a clayey sediment, but they
are not rounded like blocks which have been exposed to sur¬
face action.” The fracture of the clayey matrix is not con-
choidal. A tendency to obscure, wavy bedding has been ob¬
served, and traces of ripple marks show distinctly. As a rule
the contacts of the Ecca boulder-beds and the Table Moun¬
tain sandstone are unconformable, the contact surfaces being
marked generally with scratchings and deep grooves “ as if
some heavy semi-plastic substance with included hard angu¬
lar fragments had moved across it.” These features have
been noted in many localities. The upper Ecca shales and
sandstones show a gradual transition from the boulder beds
and conglomerates. Coal seams occur here in places, with
fossil wood, saurian, and plant remains ; but of the last
named only the genus Glossopteris has been described.
Ascending from the Ecca beds, the Karoo beds (proper) are
met, beginning with the Kimberly conglomerate, and includ¬
ing the Koonap, Beaufort and Stormberg beds, and resting un-
conformably on the Ecca beds. In his paper on the Geology
of South Africa,2 T. R. Jones pronounces the Kimberly beds

1 E. J. Dunn. Report on the Camdeboo and Nieuweldt coal, Cape of
Good Hope. Cape Town, 1878, 24 pp., 4to. Reviewed by T. R.
Jones, Geol. Mag., [2] vi, 1879, No 12.

2 Rept. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Montreal meeting, 1884.

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White. 305

to be glacial ; but the reasons therefor are not given in full,
and so far as I know, the opinion has never been corroborated
by any other author.

Undescribed plants have been obtained from the Koonap
terrane. The Beaufort terrane is not well known. Verte¬
brate remains, described by Owen and pronounced by him to
be Carboniferous, and plants consisting of four species of
Glossopteris and one of Phyllotheca have been found. The
plants are most nearly allied to those of the Damuda series of
India, and many of them are also found in Australia. The
Stormberg beds, consisting of thick, light sandstones, with shales
and coal seams, contain vertebrate remains and plants, among
which Dunn,1 has identified Sphenopteris elongata Pecopteris
odontopteroides , Cyclopteris cuneata, and Tceniopteris Dain-
treei , all of which occur in the uppermost plant beds, which
we shall later review in eastern Australia. Near the coast and
above the Karoo system lies the Uitenhage group, consisting
of marine beds alternating with plant beds. The plants be¬
long to what is generally accepted as the mesozoic flora.
The fauna has been studied by Neumayr, 2 who in a recent
work has assigned the whole group to the Neocomian.
Though glaciation was thought impossible when proposed as
a hypothesis to account for the Ecca boulder-beds by Suther¬
land in 1869, it was pretty well established by Dunn in 1872,
by the discovery of striated, grooved, and otherwise glaciated
stones in the strata near the Orange river. The distribution
was worked out, so far as geological knowledge extends in
that part of the continent, and published by him in the Cape
Colony Government report for 1886.

Before leaving Africa it may be well, perhaps, to summarize
the results obtained so far in a table compiled from Jones,
Wyley, Dunn and others.

S Uitenhage-Neocomian fauna. —Rajmahal.

.2 fc . ( Stormberg, 1,800 ft., vertebrates, =Panchet & Rajmahal.

J* J J Beaufort, 1,700 ft., plants =Damuda.

0 |K®f§ J Koonap, 1.500 ft., “ not described.

2 ^ [ Kimberly, (glacial?)

— Uncomformity —

1 E. J. Dunn, Notes on the occurrence of Glaciated Pebbles and
Boulders in the so-called mesozoic conglomerate of Victoria. Trans,
and Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, xxiv, 1888, pp. 44-46.

2E. Holu band M. Neumayr. N. Jahrb. f. Min., 1884, vol. i, p. 279
et seq.

306

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc . — White .

£ f e • f Upper Ecca shale, 1,200 ft. -2, 700 ft.

1/3 I I Ecca conglomerate, 500 ft. -800 ft.
oj&ian (Uwyka). (glacial).

£ i. t Lower Ecca shale, 0 ft. -800 ft..
w Table Mountain and older formations.

AUSTRALIA.

New South Wales . — We now pass to the remaining
one of the three continents lying about the Indian ocean.
So far as known, we have here to do with three provinces, viz.
New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland; and we shall
consider them in the order named. From the time of the first
description of the boulder beds of New South Wales by Dr.
Thomas Oldham in 1861,° to the present, the knowledge of
these interesting formations has steadily increased, and in no
region are palaeontogical or stratigraphical data more abund¬
ant. Dr. Oldham, in describing the carboniferous marine
beds at Wollongong, remarks : “And still further, many of the
lower beds of the Australian group, there so abundantly rich
in fossils, are very similar to many of the beds in the Talchir
series. There is the same mixture of pebbles and large rolled
masses in a matrix of fine silt; and much of this silt is
of exactly the same peculiar bluish-green tint so characteristic
of these beds in this country, and which when once seen can
never be mistaken.” Similar beds were observed in the upper
marine coal measures (of W. B. Clarke) in the neighborhood
of Branxton, by Mr. C. S. Wilkinson who reported finding a
very coarse conglomerate containing large sub-angular boul¬
ders of rock foreign to the district, which he considered as
erratic, though no ice-scratches were found. However, when
in 1885, Mr. R. D. Oldham,* 1 Deputy Superintendent of the
geological survey of India, made a visit to Australia for the
purpose of comparing its strata with those of India, he made
the important discovery of the presence of boulders and
pebbles unmistakably striated and polished by ice, not far
from where the erratics were noticed by Wilkinson. “ Blocks
of slate, quartzite, and crystalline rocks, for the most part
sub-angular, are, “ he says,2 “scattered through a matrix of
fine sand or shale and these latter beds contain delicate Fen-

°Memoirs Geol. Surv. India, Vol. m, p. 209.

1 R. D. Oldham. Memorandum on the correlation of the Indian and
Australian coal bearing beds. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, xix, 1886,.
pp. 39-47.

2Loc. cit., p. 44.

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White. 307

estellse and bivalve shells with the valves still united, show¬
ing that they had lived, died, and been tranquilly preserved
where they are now found, and proving, as conclusively as
the matrix in which they are preserved, that they could never
have been exposed to any currents of sufficient force and ra¬
pidity to transport the blocks now found lying side by side with
them. These included fragments of rock are of all sizes from
a few inches to several feet in diameter.” It is stated on the
authority of Wilkinson’ that some of these boulders might be
measured in yards. Mr. Oldham describes similar deposits
as far north as Wollongong, in the Blue mountains on the
west, and extending northward into Queensland. A minute
description of a section of the Stony Creek terranes (Lower
Coal Measures), together with a chart recently given by Mr.
T. W. Edgeworth David before the Geological Society of Lon¬
don,1 fully corroborates the evidence and the conclusions of
Mr. Oldham. In roughly sketching the series of formations
in New South Wales, much time will be saved by introducing
paleontological data with the stratigraphical, trusting that
the reader will carry them in mind until we reach the considera¬
tion of ,|;he age of the various terranes especially that contain¬
ing the glacial indications.2

The Muree beds of New South Wales rest generally on
older rocks of granite, etc., and in places in uncertain relations
on the Silurian and the fossiliferous Devonian. In the in¬
terior they rest, conformably as stated by several writers, on a
great deposit of yellow sandstone, from which only Lepido-
dendron and a species of Cyclostigma have so far been ob~
tained, and which are supposed to be Devonian. Near Stroud
Arowa and Port Stephens an older flora, regarded by Feist-
mantel as Sub-Carboniferous, occurs, containing, among*
others, Catamites radiatus Brongt., Lepidodendron veltheim-
ianum ., L. Volkmannianum , and representing the genera
Cyclostigma, and Archceopteris. It is not definitely known
whether these plants came from the lower part (glacial) or
the Muree beds, or below them. The chief point, however, is

Evidence of glacial action in the Carboniferous and Hawksbury
series, New South Wales, vol. xliii, No. 170, 1887, pp. 190-195.

2 The important bearing of Australian geology in the establishment
of the age of the Gondwana system is my apology for introducing a
more detailed description of its terranes.

308 Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White.

to record the presence of a Sub-Carboniferous flora in a ter-
rane which is described by W. B. Clarke 1 as the lower part of
the Muree beds, and as, passing down into the Lepidodendron
beds. The Muree beds include three terranes ; the Lower
Marine beds, the Stony Creek beds, containing the older coal
seams, and the Upper Marine beds. As described above, these
marine beds are considered glacial in their origin. It is im¬
portant to note that nearly all of these terranes are fossi'lifer-
ous, and occasionally marine plants and animals are found in
the same beds. According to Dr. Ottokar Feistmantel’s list,2
the flora includes one species of Phyllotheca , four of Glossop-
teris , one of Nceggerathiopsis, and one of Annularia, and pre¬
sents on the whole a mesozoic aspect, though the marine stra¬
ta, both above and below, contain a fauna that is unquestion¬
ably Carboniferous, including such genera as Spirifer, Conul-
aria, Orthoceras, Fenestella, etc. These were fully described by
De Koninck,3 and of the 176 species identified, 74 are found in
the Carboniferous limestone of Europe. There is hardly an ex¬
ception to the opinion that the boulder beds of the Muree ter-
rane were deposited at some time in the Carboniferous period,
and it is generally believed that it was during the lattpr part
of the Carboniferous, proper.

The Newcastle terranes, nearly 1,000 feet in thickness, and
consisting of sandstones, shales and coal-seams, overlie the
Muree terranes. The only animal remains from the New¬
castle were those of Urosthenes australis described by Dana,4
who considered the coals as of paleozoic age. Twenty-three
species of plants have been found, many of which are identi¬
cal with those of the Damudas of India.' It was this circum¬
stance, as well as the similarity of the beds, together with
their underlying terranes, which first led to a comparison of
the Australian formation with the Indian, and helped to con¬
firm the paleozoic age of the lower members of the latter.

Above the Newcastle is a formation of coarse-grained sand-

*W. B. Clarke. Remarks on the sedimentary formations of New
South Wales, etc. 4th Ed., Sydney, 1878, 8vo.

2 Trans. Roy. Soc., N. S. W., 1860.

Palseozoische und mesozoische flora des ostlichen Australiens.

Palseontographica, Suppl. Ill, Lief. 3, Cassel, 1878-’79, 195pp.,30pl.

3Recherches sur les fossiles pal6ozoiques de la Nouvelle Galles du
Sud. Bruxelles, 1876-77. 8vo.

4U. S. Exploring Expedition, Geology, 1849, p. 495.

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White. 309

stones and conglomerates, said by Clarke to be from 800 to
1,000 feet thick, and known as the Hawksbury beds. Here,
again, we have evidence of glacial action, though not so ex¬
tensive, nor indicative of the violent changes of the period in
which the Muree terranes were formed. These were first
published by Wilkinson,1 in 1879, who described*4 angular boul¬
ders of shale of all sizes up to twenty feet in diameter, em¬
bedded in the sandstone in a most confused manner, some of
them standing on end as regards their stratification and others
inclined at all angles.” These nearly always occurred above
shales, and were mixed with rounded pebbles of quartz. He
says, u they are sometimes slightly curved as though they -had
been bent whilst in a semi-plastic condition, and the shale
beds occasionally terminate abruptly as though broken off.’’
It was the fact of the occurrence of boulder beds in the
Hawksbury terrane that first made Feistmantel correlate
these with the Talchirs of India, a conclusion which he has
long since abandoned. 2T he evidence of glaciation in the
Hawksbury formation has since been supported by the testi¬
mony of Haast, and more recently by David.3

The Hawksbury terrane was somewhat denuded, according
to Clarke, before the Wianamatta terrane, next overlying, was
deposited. The latter consists of soft shales and fine sand¬
stones. The Hawksburys have furnished two fishes and four
plants, one of which, Thinnfeldia odoritopteroides Feist., is
also found in the Panchets of India. One of the fishes is a Per¬
mian species, the other mesozoic ; and on the whole the plants
present what is commonly considered as a Jurassic phase,
though Feistmantel now regards them as Triassic. A still
higher series of beds has been found at several points, and
this has taken its name from the Clarence river where it was
described by Wilkinson. Two species of plants, Tceniopteris
Daintreei McCoy, and Alethopteris australis McCoy, have
been identified by Feistmantel as coming from this series.

The following scheme will serve to illustrate the order of
the beds and the general evidence of the organic remains, con¬
sidered according to the European standard :

Clarence river Jurassic Fauna — Jurassic Flora.

Wianamatta, 700 ft. — Permian-Trias “ — “ “

Hrans Roy. Soc. N. S. W., xm, 1880, p. 106; and ibid., 1884, p. 105*

2 Records Geol. Surv. India, xm, 1880, pp. 251, 252.

Palaeontologia Indica, Snr. xii, in pt. 3, 1881, p. 131.

3 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., London, xliii, 1887, pp, 190-195.

310

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc . — White.

Hawksbury, 800 ft.-l5000 ft. Permian fish Jurassic Flora,
(glacial)

Newcastle, Carboniferous fauna, 11 “

( Upper Marine

© I (glacial,)

® ! Old Coal Seams *

£ I '(Stony Creek of Blanford) Carb. fauna., Trias, and Carb. Flora.

^ I Lower Marine “ “ Lower Carb. “

[ (glacial) _ (Mountain Lime-)

— 1 stone of Eng. (

After observing the great variance between paleozoologica^
and paleobotanical evidence, which extends from the first
occurrence of glaciation upwards, it is interesting to note the
recurrence of harmony in the mesozoic beds of the Clarence
river series.

Victoria . — Glacial evidence was first reported in Victoria,
as observed in the Baccus Marsh formation, by Sir R. Dain-
tree in 1866.1 This discovery, which was corroborated in the
following year by Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn,2 at that time director
of 'the geological survey of Victoria, and verified by him at
Baccus Marsh, Darley creek, Wild Duck creek, and many
other localities, has since received well nigh indisputable con¬
firmation from Mr. E. J. Dunn,3 the same to whom we owe
much of our knowledge of the geology of South Africa. At the
base of the observed terranes of Victoria is a sandstone which is
well exposed at Iguana creek, and which has yielded, according
to McCoy, one species from each of the genera, Sphenopteris ?
Aneimites , Archceopteris , and Cordaites. Over this terrane
lies the Avon River sandstone, with Lepidodendron australe
McCoy. These two terranes are generally regarded as De¬
vonian, though Feistmantel considers the latter as Carbonif¬
erous. Above this lies the Baccus Marsh sandstone alluded
to above. This terrane contains deposits over 100 feet in
thickness of conglomerates and boulders, often striated and
facetted, and was the earliest of the terranes, which we are con¬
sidering, to be generally accepted as glacial. From the Baccus
Marsh terrane have come only three species of plants, belong¬
ing to the genus Gangamopteris , whose affinities are not yet
understood. Above the Baccus Marsh terrane, and complet-

1 Report on the geology of the District of Ballan, Melbourne, folio.

2 Notes on the physical geographv, geologv, etc. of Victoria. Mel¬
bourne, 1866-1867. (See p. 16.)

3 Notes on the occurrence of glaciated pebbles and ‘boulders, etc.
Trans. & Proc. R. Soc. Victoria, xxiv, 1888, pp. 44-46.

Carboniferous Glaciation, Etc. — White. 311

ing the series of Victorian mesozoic strata, are found the Bel-
larine beds. These are of great thickness and contain unim¬
portant coal seams. Six species of plants of mesozoic age
have been described by McCoy, and on these, the only pale¬
ontological evidence furnished, Feistmantel has based his
conclusions, in correlating them with the Clarence River series
of New South Wales, as upper Trias or lowest Jurassic.

QUEENSLAND.

The discovery of traces of glacial action northward
into Queensland, first made known by R. L. Jack in 1879, 1
has since been corroborated by several other geologists.
The evidences of glacial phenomena were found in the
older of the Queensland coals, and chiefly as exposed in the
Bowen River coal-field. Here, again, we have Carboniferous
types of marine fossils along with remains of Glossopteris ,
Schizopteris, and Pecopteris. A younger flora is found in
the upper coals which Feistmantel correlates with the Clar¬
ence river series.

GENERAL.

From the foregoing roughly-outlined data, which I have
sought to condense as much as possible, it appears that an
area extending from 40° south lat. to 35° north, and from 20°
east of Greenwich to 155° east, and including more than one
fourth of the earth’s surface, is characterized by great table
lands of enormous thickness, resting, usually nearly horizon¬
tally, on folded Devonian and older rocks, or in places con¬
formably on rocks of lower Carboniferous age, and that these
immense terranes, which present the strongest resemblance to
one another both paleontologically and lithologically are in
turn characterized in their basal members by abundant evi¬
dence of glacial action. Indeed, notwithstanding the reluc¬
tance of the scientific world to accept the startling theory of
a glacial epoch in later paleozoic or earliest mesozoic time,
the idea has gained steadily in credence since 1872, until at
last it is supported, not only officially but individually, by
nearly every geologist who has specially examined the evi¬
dence or studied in the field in India, Australia, or Africa. As
the knowledge of the geology of these great fields has in¬
creased, the evidence has not only grown so strong as to force

1 Report on the Bowen River coal-field, Brisbane, 1879, folio, 44 pp.,
map.

312 Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White.

the consideration of the possibility of glaciation, hut it has
become so characteristic in its nature and so important in its
extent as to make it impossible to satisfactorily account for
its origin according to any other known law of action. Not
only is such an explanation supported by the conclusions of
the many competent observers in the field, but it is quite gen¬
erally accepted by European geologists, among whom may be
quoted such ' conservative authors as Prestwich,1 or Neu-
mayr,2 who, in his “ Erdgeschichte,” after reviewing the
causes for such a deduction, adds, “ there can no longer be
any doubt that during the latter half of the Carboniferous
period strata were deposited in southern Australia, Farther
India and the Cape region of South Africa, whose material
shows all the characteristic features of transportation by
means of glaciers.”

PERIOD OF GLACIATION.

To give a satisfactory representation of the paleontological
evidence of the different classes of contained organic remains
as to the age of the terranes with which we are concerned
would be impossible within the limits of the present paper ;
and, indeed, the work has already been so thoroughly and
accessibly done by W. T. Blanford, Feistmantel, Waagen,
Lydekker and others, that I shall content myself with giving
but little more than a synopsis of the general results obtained
by the workers in the different domains of paleontology, at the
same time putting those, who may wish to carry the matter
more into detail, in the way of finding the desired informa¬
tion by means of the references and appended list of papers.

The paleontological anomalies which are everywhere charac¬
teristic of the great formations with which we have to deal are
the best known as well as the most remarkable that have yet
been met with in the progress of geological discovery. Per¬
haps no better or more striking presentation of the contra¬
dictory evidence of organic remains has ever been offered than
that of W. T. Blanford in his address on “ Homotaxis as
illustrated in India,” delivered before the geological section of
the British Association at its Montreal meeting in 1884.

1 Joseph Prestwitch. Geology, Chemical, Physical and Strati-
graphical. Oxford, 1886, 2 vols.

2 Melchior Neumayr. Erdgeschichte. Leipzig, 1887, 2 vols. (See
vol.'ll, pp. 181-198, with figures.)

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White. 313

While many new data, of such a nature as to decide certain
points as to age, have since been obtained and worked out by
the same author, Waagen, Feistmantel, Oldham, Dunn, and
others, the paleontological facts remain none the less notable
or significant.

Each of these great terranes of India, Africa, and Australia,
contains coal seams with floras which are mostly identical
among themselves, embracing many peculiar and more or less
problematic types, and which, when they are brought before
the tribunal for comparison with the fossil floras of Europe,
find their nearest European allies in the mesozoic, and for the
most part in the Jurassic. Likewise they all contain in their
lower members faunas which are distinctly characteristic of
the Carboniferous period, and are largely identical with those
of that age in Europe and America. In Australia and Africa
the glacial formations rest, in part at least, on lower Carbon¬
iferous terranes, and in the latter continent we have marine
fossiliferous formations intercalated with plant beds. Typi¬
cally Carboniferous species of Orthoceras , Spirifer , Conularia
and Fenestella) are found both above and below the Stony Creek
beds which contain four species of Glossopteris , and one each
of JVoeggerathiopsis, Annularia , and Phyllotheca. These,
with the exception of the Annularia, are all found again in the
Newcastle beds above, while their genera are included in the
flora of the Damuda series of India. Though in Australia and
Africa the proofs of paleozoic age are most apparent and con¬
clusive, the correlation of the glacial horizons could not be
secured beyond all controversy while the age of the glacial
formations of India was supposed to belong to the early
mesozoic.

The history of the correlation of the terranes of the Gond-
wana system of India is noted for an incessant struggle be¬
tween the most of the supporters of the paleobotanical evi¬
dence on the one hand and the students of the animal remains
on the other. As representing the adherents among paleobo-
tanists to the mesozoic side of the question I shall mention
only Dr. Ottokar Feistmantel, who spent eight years in India,
and whose masterly work on the Gondwana flora comprises,
besides numerous minor publications, four large volumes of
the “ Palseontologia Indica.” While holding with unflinching
tenacity to the European paleobotanical standard, he has

314 Carboniferous Glaciation, Etc. — White.

been forced step by step to yield to the overwhelming pressure
of other evidence, as well as in part to the evidence furnished
by a better knowledge of the plants themselves, until in 1883,
he assigned the Talchirs to the uppermost paleozoic, though
this admission, it should be stated, was largely due to the fact
of their presumable contemporaneity with the Australian
glaciation. In order apparently to maintain his earlier con¬
clusions as to the greater part of the terranes of the Gond-
wana system, he proposes, in the fourth and last volume of
his “ Fossil Flora,”* 1 to divide the system into three parts, in¬
stead of two by cutting off the greater part of the “ Lower
Gondwanas ” to form a “ middle ” division. So unwarranted
seems such a division that the late director of the Indian
survey deemed it expedient to criticise it officially ; and in a
notice which was published with the last part of the
same volume, Dr. Medlicott says (p. 5) : “ Having let down his
lower Gondwana division into the paleozoic era, the chief
effort of Dr. Feistmantel’s present contention clearly is to ex¬
tend that division so as to force up the Damuda (as defined
by him) ; and forced it accordingly is. His main divisional
boundary, which on page xxiii is said to be sufficiently
marked, is placed where no one has yet been able to draw a
boundary in the field, within the Barakar measures, one of
the most homogeneous of the hitherto accepted stages of the
Damuda Group.” However, Dr. Feistmantel still adheres to his
late divisions of the system, though in his two contributions 1
to the general subject, published since then, his correlations
of the various horizons are, in the main, much more har¬
monious with those of the other paleontologists and geolo¬
gists of India.

Primarily, for the sake of giving what may fairly represent
the most recent conclusions on the paleobotanical side of the
matter, as reached while considering also the animal remains,
and, secondarily, to present compactly and graphically some of

Memoirs Geol.Surv. India, Palseontologia Indica. Series xn, vol.
iv, Calcutta, 1886, (See preface with last part).

1 Ueber die Pflanzen-und Kohlenfuhrenden Schichten in Indien (be-
ziehungsw. Asien), Afrika und Australien und darin vorkommende
glaciale Erscheinungen. Sitz. K. bohm. Gesell. Wise., math.-nat.
Cl., 1887, (Prag., 1888), pp. 1-102. Nachtrag, ibid, pp., 570-576.

Geologische und palseontologische Yerhaltnisse der Kohlen-und
Pflanzenfiihrenden Schichten im ostlichen Australien. Ibid., pp. 717-
734.

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White. 315

the palaeontological data, especially the low origin of the
mesozoic flora, I give the correlation chart published in his
last paper,1 with which, however, I have combined the column
for Africa, along with other materials taken from the two pre¬
ceding papers, in the same volume, with palaeontological
data compiled from all. The range of the genera, Glossopteris,
Gangamopteris , Vertebraria , and Phyllotheca , is both inter¬
esting and important.

The contemporaneity of the Talchirs, Eccas and Baccus
Marsh terranes with the marine formations of New South
Wales was first demonstrated by R. D. Oldham2 during his ex¬
plorations and researches in the latter province in 1886.
Still another link in the evidence as to the age of the glacial
formations of India has during the last two years been dis¬
covered and confirmed in the “ Olive group ” of the Salt
Range of the Punjab. . This was the discovery at Nilawan,
and many other localities in the eastern portion of the Salt
Range, of incontestable evidence of glacial action in a boulder
bed which, though underlying strata of Cretaceous age, and
formerly supposed to belong to that period, has lately been
proved to belong to the horizon of the speckled sandstone
(upper Coal Measures) of the western portion of the range.
This knowledge originated in the discovery by Dr. H. Warth,
in 1886, 3 of fossiliferous concretions in a gravelly layer over-
lying the boulder beds of the Olive group. These concretions
contained eleven species of invertebrate remains, among which
were the genera Conularia (3 species), Aviculopecten, Nucula,
and Spirifer. Of these eleven species four are found in the
Australian Coal Measures and several in the Productus lime¬
stone of the western Salt Range. The spirited discussions
called forth by this announcement presented a vigorous and
brief struggle, the reports of which are still fresh in the lead¬
ing geological journals of Europe. Subsequent researches in
the field, by various members of the Survey, have shown that
the concretions are not only in place, and lithologically iden¬
tical with the surrounding matrix, but also that, while they

1 Ibid. p. 732.

2 Memorandum on the correlation of the Indian and Australian coal¬
bearing beds. Records Geol. Surv. India, xix, 1886, pp. 89-47.

3W. Waagen. Notes on some palaeozoic fossils recently collected
by Dr. H. Warth in the Olive group of the Salt Range. Ibid., pp. 22-38,

pi. i.

SOUTH AFRICA.

INDIA.

AUSTRALIA. (N.S.W.)

Neo-

3omian.

Uitenhage.

Jurassic pi.
Neocomian Invert.

Plant Beds.
Lower Oolite pi.

Cutch.

GD

o3

Marine Beds.
Tithonian.

? Marine beds,

Queensland.

c3

Upper Jurassic fauna.

3

o

£

73

rfi

EH

s

3

<V

(H

a

Jabalpur.

Bellarine beds.

H>

6

o

J3

P3

(N-

S tor mb erg.

Rhetic pi.

Permian Vert.

■P

Low Oolitic pi.
Kota-Maleri.
Intermediate pi. Lias fish,
Triassic reptiles.
Rajmahal.

Rhetic pi.

Clarence River.
Jurassic fauna.

1 Coals of South Queens¬
land.

Jurassic pi.

Wianamatta.

Beaufort.

Panchet.

Jurassic pi.

Permian fauna.

Triassic pi.

Rhetic pi.

Lower Trias. Vert.

GO

C$

Unconformity.

3

oS

Koonap.

(3

o3

£

Damuda.

Hawksbury.

1

Undescribed pi.

G

O

Mid. or Upp. Jurassic pi.
Permian Vert.

Jurassic pi.

Permian Vert.

o

Ph

['Kimberly Glacial?]

0

Jh

D

(Glacial ?)

£

O

P

Newcastle.

Unconformity.

Karharbari.

Jurassic PI.

Carbonif. invert.

m

H

O

Lower Trias, pi.

Carb.-Perm Vert.

>-

'3

o

Upper Ecca Shale.
Only Glossopteris described

Talchir —

Upper marine.
(Glacial)

Old Coal (Stony Creek).
Low. Carb. and Mesozoic pi.

rO

u

o3

o

Ecca (Dwyka) Con¬
glomerate.

Speckled Sandstone.
(Glacial).

(Glacial).

Upper Carbonif. invert.

Lower marine.

Lower Ecca Shale.

Carboniferous Vert.

(Glacial.)

Lepidodendron.

Sandstone.

Unconformable

on

Lepidodendron.

Sandstone.

HP oj

O

Yindhyan rocks — of
doubtful age, but gen¬

erally regarded as Si-

lunan.

1

O

t>

Marine.

Marine. !

P

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White. 317

were abundant, none with fossils indicative of higher forma¬
tions, as Jurassic, Cretaceous, etc., were found, as would very
probably have been the case, had fossils or concretions been
transported. It was while investigating these that the pebbles
and boulders showing facets, grooves, striae, etc., were found
which proved the glacial origin of the boulder beds, and which
have been so frequently described and illustrated in the works
above referred to.1 Later and special study in the field has
resulted in ascertaining a wide distribution for the boulders,
their stratigraphical as well as palaeontological identity with
the speckled sandstone of the western part of the range, and
the discovery of glacial indications at the base of the Speckled
sandstone itself. In his last annual report,2 3 William King,
the new director of the survey of India, after reviewing briefly
the case, and summarizing the later results, announces that
the horizon of the Olive group boulder-bed is co-ordinate with
and will hereafter be known as the “ Speckled sandstone.” For
the sake of brevity I have omitted particulars and geological
descriptions. The Speckled sandstone lies above the Neobo¬
lus beds (Lower Carboniferous) and below the Fusulina beds
and the Productus limestone (Permian) of Waagen.

Correlation : — Meanwhile the data for the correlation of
the various horizons of the great Africo-Indo-Australian ter-
rane, to which Feistmantel has proposed to apply the term
“ Gondwana system,” have been summed up and reported upon
in several important contributions by Feistmantel,* Waagen,4
W. T. Blanford,5 and Oldham.6 The tabulated results of the
first named of these have already been given. Those of the
others, which agree so remarkably as to be substantially iden¬
tical, will be presented in a table to which are added the gen¬
eral indications of the different kinds of paleontological evi-

1 The boulders, which consist chiefly of red porphyry, a rock foreign
to the region, are frequently facetted, showing grinding and scratch¬
ing on each face, and occasionally in two or more directions on the
same face showing their fixture at different times at different positions
in the ice. At Mount Chel the bed was found to be several feet in
thickness and was accompanied by about 25 feet of thick greenish mud
through which boulders were scattered.

2 Records Geol. Surv. India, xxi, Pt. i, 1888, pp. 1-6.

3 Sitzb. K. bohm. Gesell. Wiss., 1887, (1888) p. 1.

4 Jahrb. K.-K. Geol. Reichsanst., xxxvii, 1887, (Wien, 1888) p. 143.

5 Rept. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Scei., Montreal meeting, 1884; Quart. Jour.
Geol. Soc. London, xlii, 1886, p. 249.

6 Records Geol. Surv. India, xix, 1886, p. 39.

318 Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White .

dence contained in the different terranes, that of the verte¬
brates of India being given on the authority of Lydekker.1
It should be mentioned that Blanford is inclined to correlate
the Newcastle terrane with the Damuda and Koonap terranes,
the Hawksbury being considered by him as equivalent in part
to the Panchet, while, in common with Medlicott and Lydekker,
he seems disposed to put the glacial horizon slightly lower
than the position given it by Waagen. None of the authors
named, except, perhaps, Feistmantel, adopt T. R. Jones’ con¬
clusions as to glaciation in the Kimberly formation in South
Africa. Such a horizon, should the evidence prove conclu¬
sive, would suggest for itself a correlation with the probable
glaciation of the Hawksbury terrane in New South Wales,
being regarded as contemporaneous with the change of climate
in the northern hemisphere at the close of the Permian.

Possible further Geographical Extension. — While consider¬
ing the extent of the paleozoic glacial epoch, it remains to add
the reports of the advance guard of geological exploration, in
two widely distant territories.

The first is that of the results of Oldham and Griesbach, in
the Simla-Himalaya, and in Afghanistan and Turkistan. The
former, in his work in the Simla-IIimalaya,2 was able to indi¬
cate the highly probably identity of the already known Ma-
handi, Bawar, and Blaini boulder-beds with the Panjal con¬
glomerates, showing that all of them upderlie carbonaceous
beds containing 46 species of invertebrates, of which 17 are in
the Carboniferous of Europe, 12 in the marine Carboniferous
of Australia, and 16 in the Productus limestone of the Salt
Range. The evidence is therefore prima facie in favor of a
correlation of these boulder-beds with those of the Salt Range
and the Talchirs. Of still more importance are the discoveries
made by Mr. Griesbach,3 during the last three years, in the
more northwestern field, in the course of which he has made
known the existence, near Herat, and on the border of Turkes-

Hbid., xx, 1887, p. 51.

Each author reviews the palaeontological data and from their papers
the references to all the orignal palaeontological authorities may be
obtained. I omit the queries sometimes put after the word “glacial.”

2 Sequence and correlation of the pre-Tertiary sedimentary forma¬
tions of the Simla-Himalaya. Records Geol. Surv. India, xxi, August,
1888, p. 130, etc.

3 Afghan Field-notes. Ibid., xvn, 1885, pp. 57, etc. ; xix, 1886, pp. 48,
etc. ; pp. 235, etc. ; xx, 1887, pp. 17, etc. ; pp. 93, etc.

Devon.

Carboniferous — Permian

Triassic

Jurassic

Europe.

Devonian

Carboniferous flora

in upper part.

Alethopteris j

Lepidodendron

Sigillaria

Upper Ecca

Glossopteris

Lower Ecca

(Dwyka)

(Glacial)

Upper Karoo
Dicynodont, etc.
Paleoniscus
Glossopteris
Phyllotheca, etc.
Kimberly
(Glacial conglom)

Uitenhage.

Stormberg.

AFRICA.

Vindhyan

Series

Lower Gondwanas

Middle Gond.

Upp.Gond

INDIA.

-

Karharbari

Vertebraria

Glossopteris!

Gangamopteris!

Talchir

Shales

Talchir

Conglom.

(Glacial)

Transition
Vertebraria
Glossopteris, etc.
Panchet and
Damuda
Dicynodon.
Pacbygonia, etc.
Phyllotheca
Vertebraria
Noeggerattiopsis
Glossopteris, etc.

S Jabalphur.
o Kotomaleri.

| Rajmahal.

3

(jroonoo-tjoonoo

Lepidodendron

nothum

Sub-
j carb.

Newcastle

Upper coals
Phyllotheca
Vertebraria
Glossopteris !
Gangamopteris, etc.

Wianamatta

Hawksbury
Palsoniscus
Labyrinthodont
Glacial? conglom.

Clarence River

Carbonaceous.

New South Wales.

1 AUSTRALIA. |

Smith’s creek
Lepidodendron
Rhachiopteris
[ Glossopteris

(Glacial)

Jpper Marine
(Glacial)

Lower coal
Glossopteris !
jower Marine

Iguana creek

Avon river
Lepidodendron

Gippsland

Baccus Marsh
conglomerate
(Glacial)

Baccus

Marsh sandstone
Gangamopteris !

Wanting

Upper Mesozoic

Carbonaceous

<

o

O

w

p

Mt. Wyatt

Bobuntungen

Lepidodendron

$ Upper beds

£ mostly

£j> fresh water

p

g Glossopteris !

Marine

1 Terranes

o

g Glossopteris !

%

3 Unfossiliferous

Wanting

Upper coal-bearing

Carbonaceous

I Queensland.

320 0 avboniferous Glaciation , Ete. — White .

tan, of extensive boulder beds and conglomerates, lithologically
resembling the Talchirs, underlying a great plant-bearing system
with Vertebraria , a typical lower Gondw:ana plant, and resting
conformably on richly fossiliferous marine terranes of Carbonif¬
erous age. The study of the paleontology of these beds may be
looked to with great interest as affording a possible means for
tracing the correlation and connection of the Gondwana sys¬
tem and the terranes of the Elburz and Armenia, and conse¬
quently with Europe and the north through the Herat beds
and the plant-bearing beds of Turkestan.

The second report, above referred to, is a short communica¬
tion by letter from Orville A. Derby in South America to Dr.
Waagen.1 In it Dr. Derby says that a great paleozoic area
exists in southern Brazil, which includes a great part of the
Parana plain, and concerning which nothing, so to speak, has
been published. This is co vered to a great extent by a broad
band of rock of Carboniferous or Permian age, or both, which
contains few fossils. In the province of Parana he saw
rounded fragments, ranging in size from a fist to four times
the size of a man’s head, buried in an extremely fine clay
shale. Also in the province of Itu, on the river Jutl, in Itap-
etininga, and many other localities, in an extraordinarily fine¬
grained sandy shale, he found isolated rounded blocks, a foot
and a half or more in diameter, of granite, gneiss, etc. On the
Capavary river, boulders over a meter in diameter were dis¬
covered, resting in a matrix of Carboniferous clay shale.
Although no striations were observed, Dr. Derby believes that
an examination of the terranes by an experienced eye will, no
doubt, disclose all the characteristic indications of glaciation.
Certainly, in the absence of striations and other more deci¬
sively glacial characteristics, the evidence is far too unsatisfac¬
tory, when taken by itself, to warrant for a glacial agency any
higher consideration than as a possibility, even when taken in
connection with the established glaciation in the other con¬
tinents of the southern hemisphere ; and while glaciation in
the Africo-Indo-Australian terrane is an accepted fact, and
that of Afghanistan and Turkestan a possibility, that of
South America can only be regarded as an hypothesis. Never-

1 Mittheilung eines Brief vonHerrnA. Derby, fiber Spiiren einer Car-
bonen Eiszeitin Siidamerika. Neues Jahrb. f. Min., 1888, vol. ii, Hft.
2, pp. 172-176.

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc . — White.

321

theless, the lessons of the past have taught geologists not to
be too dogmatic in their creeds, nor too zealous in forcing
each new and half-discovered increment to knowledge to con¬
form wholly within the bounds of creeds suited to the
limitations of what was known before.

Concerning paleozoic glaciation in Europe, much has been
said by many authors. Among the leading contributions
might be named that of James Geike,1 in which he attempted
to show the proofs of glaciation in the conglomerates at the
base of the Carboniferous in Scotland ; Ramsay’s 2 arguments
for glaciation in the Permian breccias of the midland counties
of England ; Godwin-Austen’s for the conglomerates underly¬
ing the Coal-Measures of France ;3 Stur’s discussion of the
rock masses in the Silurian coal-seams ; 4 5 and the studies of
the coal-seam boulders in Europe by Mark Stirrup,* who has
found some of those in the Lancashire coal to be “similar and
almost identical in mineralogical composition” to some found
by professor Orton in the Coal-Measures of Ohio. Bain has
described a Permian moraine in Prince Edward’s Island6 and
James Croll professes to find evidence of assured glaciation in
nearly all the geological epochs.7

It is unadvisable to discuss here the merits of the arguments
presented in the boulders, conglomerates, and rock masses,
often of immense weight, found in coal seams, or sometimes
in silty deposits, of the Carboniferous of the northern hemi¬
sphere. Though some of the problems appear inexplicable
(see Stur), the evidence lacks some characteristic features of
glaciation, and the question must be regarded as far from

1 James Geike. The Great Ice Age. London, 1874, 8vo, maps, etc.

2 A. C. Ramsay. On the occurrence of angular, sub-angular, pol¬
ished, and striated fragments and boulders in the Permian breccia of
Shropshire, Worcestershire, etc., and on the probable existence of
glaciers and icebergs in the Permian epoch. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.
London, xi, 1855, pp. 185-205.

3 R. God win- Austen. On the possible extension of the Coal-Meas¬
ures beneath the south-eastern part of England. Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc. London, xii. 1856. pp. 38-73.

4 D. Stur. Ueber die in Flotzen reiner Steinkohle enthaltenen Stein-
Rundmassen und Torf-Spharosiderite. Jahrb. K.-K. geol. Reichsanst.,
xxxv, Wein, 1885, pp. 613-648, pi. x, xi. (One mass weighed 55 kilo¬
grammes.)

5 Mark Stirrup. On foreign boulders in coal seams. Rept. Brit.
Assoc., Montreal meeting, 1884, pp. 686, 688.

6F. Bain. On a Permian moraine in Prince Edward’s Island. Can¬
adian Rec. Sci, ii, 1887, pp. 341-343.

7 James Croll. Climate and Time, etc., London, 1875, 8°, 577 pp.

322 G arboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White.

being proved. Undoubtedly the arguments set forth by Ram¬
say and Godwin- Austen in favor of a glacial epoch in the Per¬
mian of Europe, together with the known change of climate at
that time have exercised a powerful influence on the subse¬
quent opinions of Sutherland, Feistmantel, and others, as to
the age of the Indo-Capricornian glaciation, causing them at
first to place it rather later in geologic time than subsequent
knowledge of the circumstances has justified.

Glossopter is- Flora. — From the time that the resemblance
of the great lower mesozoic sequences of terranes in Africa,
India, and Australia was understood, the theory of an Africo-
Indo-Australian continent has prevailed ; and the probability
of its existence is as generally accepted as the existence of the
paleontologic anomalies which it contains. The consensus of
opinion, based on both palaeontological and stratigraphical
grounds, is almost unanimous in the conclusion that all the
evidence not only proves unquestionably the former connec¬
tion of the continents, but that it also indicates the strongest
probability of the union having comprised, at one time, one
great continent, over a part of which now lies the Indian
ocean. This continent, nearly as large, at least, as Europe and
Asia together, was covered with an enormous thickness of
nearly horizontal and mostly freshwater beds, and populated
in the history of its formation with a fauna comparatively
widely distributed, and with its own peculiar and isolated
flora. It is probable that, as the Europeo-Asiatic continent
arose, this ancient continent was gradually overflowed, with
occasional subsidences, until finally only fragments remained
with newer terranes of later mesozoic or Tertiary age along
their margins.

The causes of the glacial cold which visited this continent
at that time are still a subject of discussion;1 but it is well-
nigh certain that glaciers existed then within the tropics, and
that they descended to the sea-level at points that are now within
27° of the equator.2 With the increasing severity of the climate
the plant life, which is always the most sensitive to climatic
effects, took on new forms, capable of resisting the changes, and

1 The majority of the writers on the subject seem to favor change of
latitude, though many support the theory of change in ocean currents.
Should the presence of Carboniferous glaciation be proved in South
America, then the question will undoubtedly be given to those who
support the theory of the earth’s changes in perihelion.

2 See Oldham R. D. in Geol. Mag. [3], m, 1886, p. 303.

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White. 323

the disappearance of the more delicate Lepidodendra, Sigil-
larise, Stigmarise, and other paleozoic genera and species was
accompanied by the development of hardier types, such as
Gloss opteris, Gangamopteris, Vertebraria, etc.,2 which afterward
became distributed over the world and formed the basis, of a
great part at least, of the mesozoic flora of the globe. This
early flora is known by reason of its principal and character¬
istic genus, as the Glossopteris-R ora. The elements and dis¬
tribution of the fauna of this ancient continent have been
worked out in a most thorough manner by Waagen.3 Thus
the prototypes of the European Jurassic and Cretaceous floras
found the conditions necessary to their development in the
southern hemisphere during the change of climate which
accompanied the Carboniferous glacial epoch.

It has always been the argument of the paleobotanists, in
support of their view of the later age of the terranes, that the
Carboniferous faunas “ lasted on ” into mesozoic time, citing
for illustration the archaic facies of the present fauna and
flora of Australia. Against this, however, stands the evidence^
that the fauna and flora of the upper mesozoic and Tertiary
were similar and related to those of the rest of the world.
Moreover* the certain mutations of the organic life due
to continental subsidence and elevations during the de¬
position of the vast terranes of the long section of geo¬
logical time from the Carboniferous to the close of the Ter¬
tiary, make such an explanation highly improbable, if not
totally unreasonable. The study of the Tertiary flora of Aus¬
tralia by Ettingshausen,4 and Johnston,5 shows that flora to
be modern in its aspect, resembling that of the other conti¬
nents, with relations in all. The characteristic mesozoic gen¬
era of ferns, Thinnfeldia, Alethopteris, Pecopteris, Neurop-
teris, Sphenopteris, Tseniopteris, and Cyclopteris are wanting,
and all the cycads, horsetails and conifers, Podozamites, Phyl-

2 See Feistmantel chart, supra, p. —

3 Die Carbone Eiszeit. Jahrb. K.-K. geol. Reichsanst., xxxvii,
Wien, 1888, p. 143, etc.

4 C. Von Ettingshausen. Beitrage zur Tertiarflora der Vorwelt, Die
Tertiarflora Australiens. Denkschr. d. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien., math.-
nat. Cl., Vol, xlvii, Abth. I, 1886; vol. liii, Abth. I.

5 R. M. Johnston. Observations with respect to the nature and
classification of the Tertiary rocks of Australia. Pap. & Proc. R. Soc.
Tasmania, for 1887. Hobart, 1888, pp. 135-207.

324 Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White.

lotheca, Ginkgophyllum, etc., have entirely disappeared at the
beginning of the Tertiary. Considering the great terrestrial
changes which must have occurred, even in Australia since
the paleozoic era, and the contradictory evidence intervening,
the fact that the present life of Australia contains many types
that have “ lasted on ” cannot with any degree of rationality
be adduced to prove a consequent “lasting on ” of the Palseo-
zoic fauna. Hardly less rational would it be to suppose that
the Carboniferous flora of Europe extended into mesozoic
time, than to presume that the Carboniferous fauna of a con¬
tinent as large as Europe and Asia together prevailed in lower
mesozoic time, because the recent life of Australia presents an
archaic aspect.

In what part of the Africo-Indo-Australian continent the
Glossopteris flora originated, it is impossible to know ; but, so
far as the scattered remains of that continent have been ex¬
plored, the earliest appearance of mesozoic plants was in Aus¬
tralia, and perhaps in the lower Carboniferous of New South
Wales. It is probable that during the latter half of the Car¬
boniferous epoch, this flora spread over the whole of the an¬
cient continent, replacing the more delicate palseozoic forms.
Meanwhile there occurred changes of the land masses, caus¬
ing changes of the ocean currents, with consequent climatic
effects, and changes in organic life, though to what extent the
currents maybe regarded as a cause is still a subject for spec¬
ulation. Paleontology shows pretty clearly that that part
now in Australia was separated from the rest of the continent
at the close of the palaeozoic, and that arms of the sea cut
off all connection with Africa in the Jurassic. In the Trias or
possibly at the close of the Permian, a connection existed be¬
tween Europe, Asia and that part now represented in India,
through southeastern China, and in Tonkin we have a flora of
22 species, as identified by Zeiller, of which ten are in the Lias
and Rhetic of Europe, five in the Damudas of India, one in
the Newcastle beds, with two allied species in the same ter-
rane, while five others are common to the Rajmabal terrane
The Tonkin flora, considered by Feistmantel and Zeiller as
Rhetic contains, then, a mingling of European mesozoic types
with plants represented in several stages in the midst of the
Gondwana system. Through this region the southern flora
probably found its way northward to be distributed, during

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White. 325

the Triassic and Jurassic, over the rest of the world.

To show the further development and remarkable distribu¬
tion of this flora, I will only add two illustrations, which I
take from the flora of the western hemisphere. The first case
is that of the flora of the Richmond coal-field, whose relation¬
ship with the upper Gondwana flora was pointed 'out1 in pro¬
fessor Fontaine’s able monograph on the Older Mesozoic
Flora of Virginia. Indeed Dr. Stur, the eminent phytopaleon¬
tologist of Vienna, to whom a collection was sent, has lately
announced that by far the greater part of the flora of that
field, (which he considers the equivalent of the upper Trias,
“ Lunzer,” of Europe), is identical with the flora of the older
mesozoic of Germany, France, and Scandinavia, and forms a
branch of the phyllogeny, escaped from the Indian continent
through the south of China. The second instance to be
noted is the general Glossopteris-flora aspect of the mesozoic
of South America, especially that of the Argentine Republic,
regarded by Geinitz as Rhetic, though the species were largely
new. But a most suggestive, and perhaps significent flora is
the strange company which was found by Dr. Rudolph Zuber
at Cacheuta, in the province of Mendoza, and which was sub¬
mitted by him to Prof. Szajnocha for study.2 The importance
of its bearing on the possiblity of paleozoic glaciation in
South America is my apology for the details introduced,
though it is perhaps still too early to attempt to draw any
conclusions, or to go farther than to make the suggestions
which present themselves naturally. Of the twelve species
found there, Sphenopteris elongata Carr, has also been re¬
ported from the coals of Queensland; Pecopteris Schdnleini-
ana Brgt.,from the Newcastle mines of New South Wales and
the “ Lettenkohl ” of Wurzburg ; Thinnfeldia odontopteroides
Morr., from the Queensland coal, Jerusalem basin, Van Die-
mensland, and the Stormberg in South Africa ; T. lancifolia
Morr., from Jerusalem basin; IV europteris aff. remota Presl.,
from the Keuper of Europe ; Schizoneura hoerensis ? Hising,

1U. S. Geol. Surv., Monogr. vi, 1883.

2Ueber die von R. Zuber in Slid- Argentina und Patagonien gesam-
melten Fossilen, L. Szajnocha. Verhandl. K.-K. geol. Reichsanst.,
Wien, 1888, No. 6, pp. 146-151.

Ueber fossile Pflanzenreste aus Cacheuta in der Argentinischen
Republik. Sitzb. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien., math.-nat. Cl., Vol. xcvii,
1888, Abth. 27 pp. 2pl.

•326 Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White .

from the Rhetic of Scandinavia, Baden, and Portugal ; Podoz-
amites aff. ensis Nath., from Sweden; P. schenkii Heer, from
the Jurassic of Prance and Sweden; Pterophyllnmf sp.
ined. ; and a new species of Cardiopteris , a genus hitherto
represented only in the sub-Carboniferous. The only animal
remains were those of Estheria manjalensis, a phyllopod
described by Jones from Mangali in central India.

Whether the glacial period of the Carboniferous epoch was
brought about by ocean currents resulting from the contem¬
poraneous relations of the land masses, or by the high phase
of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit in combination with
winter in aphelion, or by changes of latitude, I shall not pre¬
sume to discuss. Each cause has good supporters, with
strong arguments. It is sufficient to remark that the estab¬
lishment of Carboniferous glaciation in South America would
relieve the followers of the theory of changes of latitude from
putting one pole in the Indian ocean, while giving at the same
time, stronger grounds for the astronomical hypothesis. In
the meantime the problem involved in the occurrence of
glacial cold within the tropics, together with the subsequent
northward advance of the lower temperature, seems to find
the best solution in a combination of both, the geographical
and astronomical causes.

Literature in which the Glaciation of the Carboniferous in Africa, India
and Australia is discussed.

Ig59 — Blanford, H. F. and W. T., and Wm. Theobald. Geological
Structure and Relations of the Talcheer Coal-Field in the District
of Cuttack. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, i. pp. 33-88.
qg03 — Oldham , T. — Additional remarks on the Geological Relations, and
probable Geological Age of the Several Systems of rocks in Cen¬
tral India and Bengal. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, hi. pp. 197-213.
1350 — Daintree, B. Report on the Geology of the District of Ballan,
Melbourne, folio.

1307 — Selwyn , A. B. C. Notes on the Physical Geography, Geology
and Mineralogy of Victoria. Melbourne 1866-1867. See p. 16.

1370 — Sutherland. Notes on an Ancient Boulder-clay of Natal.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, xxvi. 1870. pp. 514-517.

1371 — Griesbach, C. L. On the Geology of the Natal, in South Africa.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, xxvii. 1871. pp. 53-72. pi. i-iii.
(illustr.) col. map and sections.

— Stow, G. W. On Some Points in South African Geology. Parts
n and in. On the Dicynodon or Karoo Formation — its Forest
zones, as shown by sections in the Winterberg and the Storm-
berg . . . , and its Denudation by Ice-action, with Remarks on the
Climatal Changes in South Africa. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
London, xxvii. pp. 523-548. Part m, The Climatal Changes of

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White.

327

South Africa (Eastern Province and the vicinity), as indicated by
its Geology and Fossils, and Especially the Glacial Denudation of
the Karoo Strata, pp. 534-548. Numerous sketches, sections,

1872 — Blanford, W. T. Description of the Geology of Nagpur and its
neighborhood. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, ix. Art. ii. pp. 1-36.
col. map. See pp. 10, 28-31, note by T. Oldham, p. 30.

— Wynne, A. B. Memoir on the Geology of Kutch, to accompany
the map compiled by A. B. Wynne and E. Fedden, during the sea¬
sons of 1867-68 and 1868 69. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, ix.
Art. i, pp. 1-293.

1873 — Blanford, W. T. On some Evidence of Glacial Action in Trop¬
ical India in Palaeozoic (or the oldest mesozoic) Time. Rept.
Brit. Assoc, p. 76.

1875 — Fedden , F. On the Evidences of “ Ground-ice” in tropical In¬
dia, during the Talchir period. Records Geol. Surv. India, vm.

pp. 16-18.

— Blanford, H. F. On the Age and Correlation of the Plant-bear¬
ing series of India, and the former Existence of an Indo-oceanic
Continent. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, xxxi. pp. 519-542.
Map (plate xxv).

— Croll, James. Climate and Time in their Geological Relations.
A Theory of Secular changes of the Earth’s Climate. London.
677 pp. plates, charts, etc. 8 vo. (See p. 295).

1877 — Ball, V. On the Geology of the Mahanadi Basin and its Vicinity.
Rec. Geol. Surv. India, x. Pt. 4. pp. 167-186. (map).

1878 — Blanford, W. T. The Paleontological Relations of the Gond-
wana System ; a Reply to Dr. Feistmantel. Rec. Geol. Surv. India,
vi. pp. 104-150.

— Clarke, W. B. Remarks on the Sedimentary Formations of New
South Wales, Illustrated by Reference to other Provinces of Aus¬
tralasia. 4th Ed. Sydney. 165 pp., sections, etc. 8 vo.

1879 — Dunn, E. J. Report on the Camdeboo and Nieuweldt coal, Cape
of Good Hope. Cape Town. 24 pp. 4to. Reviewed in Geol.
Mag. [2] vi. 1879. no. 12.

— Wilkinson, C. S. Notes on the occurrence of remarkable boulders
in the Hawksbury Rocks. Journ. R. Soc. N. S. W. xiii. pp.
105-107.

— Jack, R. L. Report on the Bowen River Coal-Field. Brisbane,
folio, 44 pp. map.

— Campbell, J. F. Glacial Periods. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
London, xxxv. pp. 98-137.

—Medlicott, H. B. and Blanford, W. T. Manual of the Geology of
India. Calcutta. 2 vols. 817 pp., maps, plates, etc.

1880 — Griesbach, C. L. Geology of the Ramkola and Tatapani coal¬
fields. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, xv. Art. 2 pp. 1-64., numerous
plates and sections. See boulders pi. iv.

— Feistmantel, 0. Notes on the Fossil Flora of Eastern Australia
and Tasmania. [Read before R. Soc. N. S. W. Aug. 1880.] Syd¬
ney. 16 pp. 8 vo.

— Feistmantel, 0. Further Notes on the Correlation of the Gond-
wana Flora with that of the Australian Coal-bearing System.
Rec. Geol. Surv. India, xiii. pp. 250-253.

— Griesbach, C. L. Geological Notes. Record Geol. Surv. India.
xiii. pp. 83-94.

2881 — Wynne, A. B. Travelled Blocks of the Punjab. Rec. Geol.
Surv. India, xiv. pp. 153-154.

— Feismantel, O. The Fossil Flora of the Gondwana system, vol.
hi, no. 3, Palseontologia Indica, Ser. xn, (see pp. 128-132).

328

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White.

1882 — Tenison- Woods, J. E. The Hawksbury Sandstone. Journ. and
Proc. Royal Soc. N. S. W. xvi. pp. 53 et seq.

1883 — Lydekker, R. The Geology of the Kashmir and Chamba Terri¬
tories and the British District of Khagan. Mem. Geol. Surv. In¬
dia. xxii. 344 pp., several plates, sections, maps. (See p. 246 et
seq.)

1884 — Blanford, W. T. Presidential Address, Sect. C, Geology. [Hom¬
otaxis as illustrated in India.] Rept. Brit. Assoc., Montreal meet¬
ing. pp. 691-711. Also in Rec. Geol. Surv. India, xvm. pt. i.

— Jones, T. R. On the Geology of South Africa. Rept. Brit. Assoc.
Montreal, pp. 736-738. Abstract in Geol. Mag. (3) i. pp. 476-478.
— Murray, R. A. F. The Carbonaceous Rocks of Victoria. Rept.
Prog. Geol. Surv. Victoria, vn. pp. 78etseq.

— Oldham, R. D. Some Rough Notes for the Construction of a
Chapter of the History of the Earth. Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal.
Ft. 2. liii. no. 3. pp. 187-198.

1885 — Hutton, F. W. On the Supposed Glacial Epoch in Australia.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. W. x. pt. m. pp. 334-341.

— Lindenfeld , R. von. The Glacial Period in Australia. Proc.
Linn. Soc. N. S. W. x. pt. i. pp. 43-53. pi. vii-vm.

1886 — Feistmantel, 0. The Fossil Flora of the Gondwana System.
Vol. iv. Palseontologia Indica. Ser. xn. [See Introduction,
pp. i-xxv.]

— Waa.gen, W. Notes on some Palaeozoic Fossils recently collected
by Dr. H. Warth in the Olive group of the Salt Range. Rec.
Geol. Surv. India, xix. pt. 2. pp. 22-38. pi. 1.

— Wynne, A. B. On a striated and Facetted Fragment from Chel
Hill Olive Conglomerate, Salt Range, Punjab, [abstract]. Rept.
Brit. Assoc. Birmingham, pp. 631-632. Published in full with
illustrations in Geol. Mag. [3] hi. pp. 492-494.

— Wynne, A. B. On a certain Fossiliferous Pebble-Band in the
Olive Group of the Eastern Salt Range, Punjab. Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc. London, xlii. pp. 341-350.

— Wynne, A. B. Discoveries in the Punjab Salt Range. Geol.
Mag. [3] in. pp. 236-237.

— Blanford, W. T. Notes on a Smoothed and Striated Boulder
from a Pre-tertiary Deposit in the Punjab Salt Range (abstract).
Rept. Brit. Assoc. Birmingham, pp. 630-632. Also publ. in Geol.
Mag. [3] in. pp. 494-495.

— Oldham, R. D. Note on the Olive Group of the Salt-Range.
Rec. Geol. Surv. India, xix. pp. 127-131.

— Medlicott, H. B. Memorandum on the discussion regarding the
boulder-beds of the Salt-range. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, xix.
pt. 2. pp. 131-133.

— Medlicott, H. B. Notice to vol. iv of the Fossil Flora of the
Gondwana System. Palseontologia Indica. Ser. xn.

— Hinde, G. J. — Notice of Rec. Geol. Surv. India, vol. xix. pt. 2.
Geol. Mag. [3] hi. pp. 462-463.

— Lydekker, R. Note on the Gondwana Homotaxis. Rec. Geol.
Surv. India, xix. pt. 2. pp. 133-134.

— Oldham, R. D. Essays on Speculative Geology, i, on Homotaxis
and Contemporaneity. Geol. Mag. [3] m. pp. 293-300. ii, Prob¬
able Changes of Latitude. Ibid. 300-308.

— Dunn, E. J. A Series of Geological and Mineralogical speci¬
mens collected for the Commission. In Catalogue of Exhibits,
(Cape of Good Hope). London 8vo.

— Oldham, R. D. Memorandum on the Correlation of the Indian
and Australian coal-bearing beds. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, xix.
pp. 39-47.

Carboniferous Glaciation , Etc. — White.

329

— Blanford, W. T. On additional evidence of the Occurrence of
Glacial Conditions in the Palaeozoic Era, and on the Geological
Age of the Beds containing Plants of mesozoic type in India and
Australia. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, xlii. pp. 249-260.
—Griesbach, C.L. Field Notes from Afghanistan. No. 3. Turk¬
estan. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, xix. pt. iv. pp. 235-267.
—Prestwick, J. Geology, Chemical, Physical, and Stratigraphical.
Oxford. 2 vol. 8vo.

1887 — Blanford. W. T. Note on a character of the Talchir boulder
beds. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, xx. pt. i. p. 49.

— Warth, H. On the identity of the Olive Series in the east, with
the Speckled Sandstone in the west, of the Salt Range in the Pun¬
jab. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, xx. pt. 2. May, pp. 117-119.

— Lydekker, R. The Fossil Vertebrates of India. Rec. Geol.
Surv. India, xx. pt. 2. May. pp. 51-80-

— Oldham , R. D. Preliminary Sketch of the Geology of Simla and
Jutagh. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, xx. pt. 3. pp. 143-153, map.

— Feistmantel, 0. Ueber die Pflanzen-und Kohlenfuhrenden
Schichten in Indien (beziehungsw. Asien) Afrika und Australien
und darin vorkommende glaciale Erscheinungen. (Read Jan. 14,
1887.) Sitzb. K. bohm. Gesell. Wiss. math. -nat. Cl., 1887. (Prag,
1888) pp. 1-102. Nachtrag. (Read Oct. 14, 1887. ) pp. 570-576.

— Oldham, R. D. Note on some points in Himalayan Geology.
Rec. Geol. Surv. India, xx. pt. 4. November, pp. 155-161.

— David, T. W. Edgeworth. Evidence of Glacial Action in the
Carboniferous and Hawksbury Series, New South Wales. Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. XLiu.no. 170. pp. 190-195. (illustr.)
Read Feb. 9, 1887. Reviewed in Geol. Mag. vol. iv. 1887. p. 135.
— Wynne. A. B. Notes on some Recent Discoveries of Interest in
the Geology of the Punjab Salt Range. Journ. Roy. Geol. Soc.
Ireland, [n. s.] vii. pt. n. pp. 89-97.

— Cohen, E. Geognostisch-petrographische Skizzen aus Stid-Afrika.
N. Jahrb. f. Min. Beil. Bd. v. Hft. i. pp. 195-274, pi. vm. ix.

— Neumay. M. Erdgeschichte. Leipzig, 1886-1877. vol. n,
pp. 191-198, with figures.

1888 — Feistmantel, O. Geologische und palaeontologische Verhaltnisse,
der Kohlen-und Pflanzenfuhrenden Schichten im ostlichen Aus¬
tralien. Read Nov. 25, 1887. Sitzb. K. bohm. Gesell. Wiss.
math-nat. cl. 1887. (Prag. 1888). pp. 717-734.

— Spencer, John. Evidence of Ice Action in Carboniferous Times.
Quart. Jour. Geol. $oc. London, vol. xliv. No. 176. Proceedings
June 20th, 1888. pp. 93-94.

— Stur, D. Die Lunzer- (Lettenkohlen) Flora in den “older meso-
zoics beds of the Coal-Fields of Eastern Virginia; Verhandl.
K.-K. geol. Reichsanst. no. 10. July. pp. 203-217.

— Toula, Franz. Die Steinkohlen, ihre Eigenschaften, Vorkom-
men, Entstehung, etc. Wien. 208 pp. 6 pi. 8vo. See pp. 115
et seq.

— King, W. Annual Report of the Geological Survey of India, and
of the Geological Museum, Calcutta, for the year 1887. Rec.
Geol. Surv. India, xxi. pt. i. February, pp. 1-6.

— Warth, H. A Facetted Pebble from the Boulder Bed ( ‘ * Speckled
Sandstone”) of Mount Chel in the Salt Range in the Punjab.
Rec. Geol. Surv. India, xxi. pt. i. February, pp. 34-35. pi. i-ir.
— Waagen, W. Die Carbone Eiszeit. Jahrb. K.-K. geol. Reich¬
sanst. Jahrg. 1887. vol. xxxvn. Heft. 2. Wien. 1888. pp. 143-192.
Transl. by R. B. Foote in Records Geol. Surv. India, xxi. pt. 3.
Aug. pp. 89-130. 1 pi.

— Oldham, R. D. The Sequence and Correlation of the Pre-Ter-

330 Variation Exhibited by a Carbonic Gasterojood.

tiary Sedimentary formations of the Simla Region of the Lower
Himalayas. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, xxi. pt.3. Aug. pp. 130-143..

— Dunn, E. J. Notes on the Occurrence of Glaciated Pebbles and
Boulders in the so-called mesozoic Conglomerate of Victoria.
Trans. andProc. R. Soc. Victoria, xxiv. pp. 44-46.

— Derby, Orville, A . Mittheilung eines Brief von Herrn A. Derby
iiber Spiiren einer Carbonen Eiszeit in Siidamerika. [Communi¬
cated by Waagen]. N. Jahrb. f. Min. etc. 1888. vol n. Hft. 2.
pp. 172-176.

IT. S. Geological Survey, March, 1889.

VARIATION EXHIBITED BY A CARBONIC GASTEROPOD.

By Charles R. Keyes.

It has recently 1 been intimated that among certain species
of Platyceras there often exists considerable diversity in the
form of the shell and in the configuration of its aperatural
margin. Both of these variant features have been attributed
in great part to certain habits peculiar to the mollusca of this
and allied groups. Specifically it is the attachment, during a
greater part of life, of these gasteropods to foreign bodies, and
especially to the ventral surfaces of paleozoic crinoids. In
summarizing2 the observations elsewhere more fully discussed
it was shown that invariably the lip of the calyptrsean shell
adapted itself exactly to all the inequalities of the surface
with which it came in contact, and that not unfrequently the
entire form of the gasteropod shell was more or less deter¬
mined by its accidental station. In a group so closely allied
to the modern Capulus and having a habitat like many Pla-
tycerata manifestly possessed, these phenomena might natur¬
ally be expected ; but the direct evidence as to the extent of
variability in a single species, and the actual variant range of
the different characters has never been more than merely sug¬
gestive. Definite results from comparative studies of this
kind have always been attended by more or less difficulty
arising from divers sources. When extreme forms are pre¬
sented there is always a slight suspicion that in reality they
may not be specifically related ; and when the comparison is
extended to specimens from localities widely separated geo¬
graphically, and perhaps also geologically, the problem of
specific identity becomes even more highly complicated. A
large series of Platyceras equilaterum Hall from the blue

1 Keyes. Proc. Am. Philosophical Soc., vol. xxv, p. 240, 1888.

2 Keyes. Am. Jour. Sci,, vol. xxxvi, pp. 269-272. Also, Am. Nat¬
uralist, vol. xxii, pp. 924, 925.

Variation Exhibited by a Carbonic Gasteropod. 331

clayey shales at Crawfordsville, Indiana, has eliminated many
of the inherent difficulties just mentioned. On account of its
extensive numerical representation, and also for reason of the
occurrence of many examples still adhering, as during life, to
the vaults of crinoids, this species is especially well adapted
for elucidating certain hitherto obscure points in the import¬
ant problem of specific variation. Platyceras equilaterum as
it occurs at Crawfordsville is here graphically represented by
the projection of ten specimens (figure 1) ; eight of which, pro¬
jected from above, are also shown in figure 2. In both figures
the numbers refer to the same individuals respectively ; and in
all the anterior margins coincide.

332 Variation Exhibited by a Carbonic Gasteropod.

The suggestion as here presented, though affecting but a
single one of many similar cases in this and other zoological
groups is of much significance in its bearing upon the real
basis of species. The vast synonymy existing in nearly all
departments of paleontology has arisen chiefly from inatten¬
tion to variation as the result of individual environment $ and
the invalidity of a large number of now recognized species is
clearly evidenced by a comparison of specimens having appar¬
ently the same genetic origin, either from identical or from
widely separated localities and from different horizons. Else¬
where 1 it has been shown that, in general, shells of Platyceras
attached to flat vaults of crinoids have a tendency to become
very much depressed; while those adhering to convex surfaces
are relatively much higher. On the other hand several of the
specimens examined illustrate another phase of variation
which has not until quite recently been thoroughly under¬
stood ; a phenomenon which suggests that accidental station
is not the only factor in modifying the form of the shell, but
that gravitation also exerts a potent influence. In nearly all
of the numerous examples noticed in which Platyceras equi-
laterum is intimately associated with crinoids, the echino-
derms have been of the type of Strotocrinus and OUacrinus ,
genera in which the vault is comparatively very large, nearly
flat, and having the anal opening eccentric in position. In
several instances, however, P. equilaterum has been found
attached to the calyx of Platycrinus hemisphericus M. & W.
from the same blue shales at Crawfordsville, Indiana, in which
occurs Ollacrinus tuberosus Lyon and Casseday. The Pla¬
tycrinus presents some marked structural differences to Olla¬
crinus. The vault is very much elevated, nearly hemispheri¬
cal, with the anal aperture situated laterally between, and
slightly above, the bases of two arms. The Platyceras usually
attached to this crinoid is P. infundibulum M. & W. a, more
or less elongate conic species . P. equilaterum when occupy¬
ing the same position is pendant, the apex of the shell being
directed downward instead of in the opposite direction as
when resting on the ventral surface of Ollacrinus. The shell
thus pendant exhibits a decided tendency to straighten out, or
uncoil, consequently becoming longer, and the apex freeing
itself entirely from the body whorl. P. infundibulum M. & W.

1 Proc. Am. Philosophical Soc., vol. xxv., p. 240.

Editorial Comment.

333

appears when young as a straight, conical shell, but after its
attachment to Platycrinus assumes a very different aspect.
As growth proceeds the posterior side becomes relatively
shorter, the apex slightly curved backward, and the entire
shell has frequently a tendency toward a strongly arcuate
form.

In comparison therefore with a representative example of
Platyceras equilaterum those shells resting on flat crinoidal
vaults are very much depressed, the aperture proportionally
broader, and the spire more closely coiled ; those shells at¬
tached laterally to crinoids have a tendency to become more
conical, the aperture relatively smaller, the spire entirely free
from body whorl, and the apex extended often to a consider¬
able distance beyond the posterior margin of the aperture.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

UNCONFORMITY AT THE FALLS OF THE MONTMORENCI.

There seems to be a question of fact at issue respecting the
stratigraphic relations of the different rocks at the falls of the
Montmorenci, a few miles below Quebec. In the August
(1888) No. of the Geologist, is reprinted an article from the
American Magazine of Nov. 1847 by Dr. E. Emmons, giving
a description of these falls and the geology of the immediate
vicinity. The illustration there alluded to was not repro¬
duced. In order to throw some light on this description by
Emmons the following illustration of the falls is reproduced
from his ‘‘Manual of Geology,” published in 1860, which corres¬
ponds closely with the description referred to.

■Unconformity of the Lower Silurian with the Gneiss at Moutmoroncy, Canada East.
e,d,c,b. Lower Siluriani a. Gneiss. /. Black Slate.

It is very evident, from a careful reading of this paper, that
Dr. Emmons, at the time it was written, which must have been

334 Review of Recent Geological Literature.

sometime before its publication (1847 ? ), was not yet satisfied
of the existence of two separate formations of slates in this
area. He speaks of the “ Hudson slates 57 as lying nearly hor¬
izontal sometimes, above the Trenton limestone, and being
but a thin and unimportant formation ; at other places he
says they stand nearly on edge and are several thousand feet in
thickness, instancing their extent through Rensselaer and
Washington counties, in Vermont, and through the entire
length of Lower Canada. The “ Black Slates,” at the falls of
Montmorenci, he plainly intimates he considers as belonging
above the Trenton, although his figure represents them as
lying below it. He supposes their lower position here to be
due to a “ down-heave,” by which the slates were thrown at
the same time into an inclined position, and placed uncon-
formably on the underlying “gneiss,” their absence above
the Trenton at the same place being due to erosion in
the lapse of time. In this interpretation he is supported by
the later observations of Mr. Selwyn, but not by those of Mr.
Marcou who maintains that the slates that lie adjacent to the
gneiss (?) in an inclined position really are no part of the
Trenton, but belong to the primordial zone. Mr. Lapworth,
who has examined some graptolites from these inclined slates,
seems inclined to the same view.

There is nothing unreasonable in the supposition that the
Trenton overlies unconformably some tilted primordial beds
at this place, and if the evidence of other observations on the
position of the Trenton be appealed to even within the St.
Lawrence valley, it is necessary to admit that the Trenton
epoch was one of such subsidence that the rocks of that age
were laid down unconformably on strata still older than the
primordial. Such a position could not be attained by these
beds had they not been brought, by the same overlap, uncon¬
formably also over the primordial.

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

Examination of water for Sanitary and Technical Purposes. By Dr.
H. Leffmann and Wm. Beam. 106 pp. 12mo. 1889. Philadelphia.
(Blakiston, Son & Co.)

The editors give clear and concise statements of the most approved
methods for the analysis of water for the purpose of determining its
fitness for domestic, boiler and other industrial purposes.

Review of Recent Geological Literature .

335

They omit the well known process for determining the hardness of
water by means of a standard soap solution, as it has been found to be
unreliable in certain cases, and they give Hener’s method instead,
which has been found to be of more general application.

The book is not overloaded with processes, but on the contrary con¬
tains but a limited number, well chosen, and rearranged in a very
comprehensive manner.

Bommelden og Karmoen med omgivelser geologist beskrevne, af dr.
Hans Reusch, Kristiania, 1888; 442 pp. 8vo, with three colored maps
and 205 text illustrations, and accompanied by an English summary of
the contents. In this work special interest is attached to the dis¬
cussion of compression and stretching of the rocks. These phenomena
are seen most distinctly in the fossiliferous strata and in the conglom¬
erates. The fossils and pebbles are pressed flat, or sometimes they
are stretched in length in one distinct direction. The arrangement of
the folia of mica in gneiss in parallel bands is attributed to stretching.
This band structure is said to be often independent of the dip
of the gneiss. Instances are given of gneiss with a conglomerate
bedded in it, both being stretched in the same direction, making it
evident that the gneiss is really stretched. Compression of granitic
rocks is said to have given rise to gneiss-granite and porphyritic gneiss.
The former is a foliated rock having the mica laminae in parallel position.
A very coarse-crystalline pegmatite vein is illustrated showing folia¬
tion caused by pressure. The stretching structure in the granitic rocks
is seen either combined with foliation or without it. The rocks in the
latter case show a certain parallellism in the arrangement of the com¬
ponent minerals on faces running in the stretching direction. Faces
running across it have a much more granitoid appearance.

Many instances of conglomeritic structure in granitic masses are
mentioned. The following is one of the descriptions of such a struc¬
ture (p. 411.)

“ On the farm Orevik, on the eastern coast of the Bommels is ob¬
served a peculiar rock We see a granular crystalline, gray, granitic
rock, stained with dark spots where the biotite occurs rather abund¬
antly. In the same mass also occur distinct rounded fragments of fine¬
grained gray gneiss, feldspar-bearing quartzyte and white quartz. The
fragments are often as big as a man’s, head, sometimes still bigger.
The fragments of quartz have very sharp contours ; the contours of the
feldspar-bearing are not quite so distinct quartzyte. Still more welded
in the surrounding rock are the gneiss-fragments, especially a granular-
crystalline variety rich in biotite. The larger fragments of the latter
appear like dark patches ; as to the smaller ones we are in doubt
whether we have before us true fragments or only occasional spots rich
in black mica in the usual granite. In the northern part the ground
mass assumes a parallel structure, and there the doubtful fragments
show curved forms clearly due to motion in the mass. The rock des¬
cribed gradually merges, by loss of fragments, into common granite.

336

Review of Recent Geological Literature.

The author supposes that the rock was originally puddingstone, in
which the fragments have mostly consisted of gneiss and granite ; those
only have been left that contained most quartz ; the rest have changed
into a granitic mass.”

He regards the Scandinavian mountains as constituting with those
in the northern part of the British islands, a single system, and to have
originated, or to have participated in, a great post-Silurian folding
process, the folding axes running S. W. and N. E. “ The forces acting
during the folding process have changed the form of great rock-masses?
as well as of single mineral grains. The changes are not explained
merely by assuming the whole to have been made ‘ molecular plastic ;’
on the other hand all superinduced structures are not cataclastic,
neither is it possible to account for the changes by chemical processes
only. If for instance we observe bending of the twin-lamels in plagio-
clase we must needs regard the mineral as having been plastic to a
certain degree. If a plagioclase individual is divided into small parts,
we have a cataclastic phenomenon. If the mineral is seen to be filled
with epidote microliths, we must suppose chemical processes.”

The author adheres to the origination of granite masses in situ by
metamorphism from sedimentary beds, and also “ that in some cases
originally sedimentary rocks may be, regionally metamorphosed, and
at last protruded as true eruptives.”

Shall we teach Geology f . By Alexander Winchell. [S. C. Griggs
& Co., Chicago, 218 pp. 12mo 1889.1

The author first states what position geology really occupies in the
schools and colleges of the country and all countries. He claims that
it should be taught in both schools and colleges for many reasons, among
which are : that it has a high educational value, considerably higher
than such studies as geography, history, and literature, that childhood
is the period of observation and that geology is pre-eminently an ob¬
servational study ; that it promotes ethical culture from its broad scope
and character and constantly recurring evidences of one guiding influ¬
ence, that it is of v^lue in everyday life and that the course of govern¬
ments in respect to it proves that they think it very valuable, that it
has a very good moral effect in that it produces a strong love for truth
and avoidance of error, which, brought into life, prevents misunderstand¬
ings. He severely criticizes Chancellor Payne’s positions in regard to
education, not without cause, and compares geology to the latter’s
“culture trivium.” Coming to the practical side of the question as to
how to get geology into the schools he seems to think it is going there,
though this is a change, and as such will be opposed for some time.
His examples for teachers are very good and, although his position
will be considered radical, he answers his topic very decidedly, yes.

337

RECENT PUBLICATIONS.

1. State and Government Reports.

Seventh Annual Report of the U. S.Geol. Surv. for 1885-6. By J. W.
Powell, Director, Washington, 1888, 4to, 656 pp. numerous illustra¬
tions. Besides the official and administrative reports this contains the
following papers : The Rock Scorings of the great ice invasions. T.
C. Chamberlin. Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone National Park. Joseph
P. Iddings. Report on the Geology of Martha’s Vineyard. Nathan¬
iel S. Shaler. On the classification of the early Cambrian and pre-
Cambrian formations. R. D. Irving. The structure of the Triassic
formation of the Connecticut valley. William Morris Davis. Salt¬
making processes in the United States. Thomas M. Chatard. The
Geology of the Head of Chesapeake Bay. W. J. McGee.

The Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota. Vol. ii. of
the final report. 4to, 695pp, 42 plates and 32 figures. By N. H. Win-
chell, assisted by Warren Upham.

2. Proceedings of scientific societies.

Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences; Arts and Letters.
vol. vii, 1883-87, Madison, 1889. Contains articles on the Raised beaches
of lake Michigan, by Frank Leverett, and a report by S. D. Peet on
The so-called Elephant mound in Grant County , and effigies in the region
surrounding it.11 Mr. Peet concludes “that there are no elephant
effigies in the state, and that the so-called elephant mound was design¬
ed to represent either the bear, the wild-cat the buffalo, or the moose,
every one of which contains the same elements of a heavy body, a
large head, and a protruding snout.”

Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences, vol. v,
part 1, 1884-1889. Davenport. Contains, Defense of our local Geology, by
W. H. Barris ; Volcanoes of the Sandwich Islands, by C. S. Watkins;
An Ancient mine in Arkansas, by Wm. A. Chapman; A description of
the Rockford shales of Iowa, by Clement L. Webster ; and Mound explor¬
ation in northwestern Iowa, by Frederick Starr, with a variety of zoolog¬
ical papers.

3. Papers in scientific journals.

Am. Journ. Sci. April No. The Denver Tertiary formation. W.
Cross. Events in North American Cretaceous history, illustrated in
the Arkansas-Texas division of the southwest region of the United
States. Robt. T. Hill. The distribution of Phosphorus in the Lud-
ington Mine, Iron Mountain, Michigan. D. H. Browne, with two plates.
Palseohatteria Credner, and Proganosauria. G. Baur. New American
Dinosauria. 0. C. Marsh.

American Antiquarian. May No. The animals known to the effigy-
builders. Stephen D. Peet. Ancient mining in North America. J.
S. Newberry.

j. Excerpts and individual publications.

Events in North American Cretaceous history, illustrated in the Ar-

338

Recent Publications .

kansas-Texas division of the southwestern region of the United
States. Robt. T. Hill. Am. Jour. Sci., April 1889.

A summary of progress in mineralogy and petrography in 1888. W.
S. Bayley ; from monthly notes in the American Naturalist.

Notes of Microscopical examinations of rocks from the Thunder Bay
silver district, By Dr. W. S. Bayley. From Rep. Geol. Sur. Canada,
1887.

The Denver Tertiary formation. Whitman Cross. Am. Jour. Sci.;
April 1889.

Shall we teach Geology? Alexander Winchell, 12mo. 218 pp. S. C.
Griggs & Co., Chicago.

Glaciation of Eastern Canada. Robert Chalmers. Canadian Rec¬
ord of Science. April 1889.

On nephrite and jadeite. F. W. Clarke, and G. P. Merrill. Proc. TJ .
S. Nat. Mus. vol. xi. 1888.

Some definitions in dynamical geology. W. J. McGee. Geol. Mag .
Nov. 1888.

Paleolithic man in America; his antiquity and environment. W. J.
McGee, Popular Science Monthly. Nov. 1888.

Notes on the geology of Macon county, Missouri. W. J. McGee.
Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci. Aug. 24, 1888.

The classification of geographic forms by genesis. W. J. McGee.
Nat. Geog. Mag. vol. i.

Some thoughts on eruptive rocks, with special reference to those of
Minnesota. N. H. Winchell. Proc. A. A. A. S. 1888.

Geology of Baja California, Mexico. By W. Lingren. Map., geolo¬
gical map and plate of sections. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., vol. i. part 2,
Sept. 1888.

5. Foreign Publications.

Mount Morgan gold deposits ; second report of Robert L. Jack, Gov¬
ernment geologist for Queensland. Folio, 6 pp. with map. Towns¬
ville.

Coal Discoveries on the Flinders; report of R. L. Jack, Government
geologist. 2pp. folio. Townsville.

The annual report of the department of the interior for the year 1888,
Ottawa, contains the Summary report of the Canadian geological survey
for the year, by director Alfred R. C. Selwyn,

On fulgurites from Monte Yiso. By Frank Rutley, F.G.S. From
the Quar. Jour, of the Geol. Soc. February, 1889.

Etudes sur les schistes crystallins ; (presents par leurs auteurs sur
l’invitation du Comite d’ organization). Congres g6ologique internation¬
al, 4me session, London, 1888. Contains the following papers: Les
schistes crystallins, T. Sterry Hunt ; Zur classification der krystal-
linischen schiefer, Albert Heim ; Sur la constitution et la structure des
massifs de schistes crystallins des Alpes occidentales, Ch. Lory ; Be-
merkungen zu einigen neueren Arbeiten fiber kristallinisch-schriefrige
Gesteine, J. Lehmann ; Sur Porigine des terrains crystallins primitifs,

Correspondence.

339

Michael L4vy ; The Archsean geology of the region northwest of lake
Superior, A. C. Lawson; On the crystalline schists of the United
States and their relations, Powell, Irving, Chamberlin, Van Hise,
Becker, Dutton ; Einige Fragen zur Losung des Problems der krystal-
linischen Schiefer, nebst Beitragen zur deren Beantwortung aus den
Palaozoicum,' K. A. Lossen.

CORRESPONDENCE.

“Two Systems Confounded in the Huronian,” is the title of aletter
by professor Alexander Winchell in the American Geologist, vol. hi,
No 3. — Yes : but then arises the question, by whom? and my reply to
this is : by those who would attempt to include the Animikie silver-
bearing formation of Thunder bay in the Huronian, with which it has,
as I have pointed out since I first examined it in 1883, no similarity or
correspondence whatever.

The relations of the Huronian, Archaean, and the Animikie Cam¬
brian are so plain and unmistakable, that it seems to me most extra¬
ordinary that any one who has examined them in the field could pos¬
sibly confound these silver-bearing Animikie rocks with any part of the
copper-bearing Huronian as known in Canada.

Prof. Winchell refers, page 213 to “ the great Plummer Argillites” —
a name by the way I have no recollection of having met with before in
Canadian geology — “or slate conglomerates of Logan,” and a few lines
further he says “ I do not regard, therefore, as Huronian the series of
rocks succeeding the Plummer argillites (Animikie slates) down¬
wards, though the Canadian geologists may so regard them.” I must
confess I do not understand what the foregoing paragraph means.
Are the Plummer argillites the same as Logan’s slate conglomerates,
or are they the same as the Animikie slates ? and if so what are the
rocks succeeding the “ Plummer argillites downwards ,” that are not re¬
garded as Huronian ?

If not Huronian, what does professor Winchell consider them to be?
This we are not told, neither is there any reason given why they are
not Huronian. The only reason seems to be personal conviction.

Professor Winchell is certainly not very complimentary to the intel¬
ligence of Canadian geologists. But, evidently we are not wise, and
are unable to recognize our own children though we have lived with
them all our lives, as well as the stranger who has only recently be¬
come acquainted with them.

Professor Bonney’s conclusions a. b. and c., referred to by Professor
Winchell, may be all perfectly correct, but do not therefore in any
way affect the validity of the Huronian system, as such. a. is a very
natural result of metamorphic action on a mixed series of clastic, pyro¬
clastic and igneous rocks, as varied in composition as they are in
origin, b. Great thickness has always been recognized, and conse¬
quently long time. The alternative c, to which professor Bonney is

340

Personal and Scientific News.

most inclined is certainly correct, but this is a feature common to all
the geological systems, and I fail to see why there should be any ob¬
jection to two or even more groups or series being included in the
Huronian system. There are several in the Cambrian and in the
Silurian, why not in the Huronian or in the Laurentian.

That a break or local unconformity necessarily limits a system, is
also, I think, a somewhat novel doctrine, and if difference in the litho¬
logical character of strata or local accidents of unconformity are to be
so accepted, then a vast number of new systems will have to be intro¬
duced into the existing, recognized geological sequence, and a magnif¬
icent field will be opened up for the inventors of new names for old
things ; but what advantage will thereby accrue to geology or to science
is a problem not easy to answer.

Ottawa, March 18th, 1889. Alfred R. C. Selwyn,

Director of the Geol. & Nat. History Survey of Canada.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Very striking examples of glacier action may be seen at
a number of points on the eastern flanks of the higher ranges
of the Sierra Nevada mountains.

Near the Young America mine on the opposite side of the
“ Buttes ” from Sierra City, and nestling in a valley between
lateral spurs of the mountain range, are two small bodies of
water that are known respectively as Upper and Lower Sardine
lakes. Between the two lakes there is a difference of level of
213 feet. The upper lake has a depth of 175 feet. Its lower
margin is formed by hard, diabasic rocks that are cleft and
seamed in various directions, but with a general tendency to
dip toward the lake. Here are examples of glacier-planing on
a grand scale. The strise come up out of the lake as if the
lake bed had been scoured out by the glacier, pass over the
rocks forming the eastern rim of the lake basin, conform to
all sorts of inequalities of level in the surface, arch over nu¬
merous rocfies moutonees , descend in a series of precipitous
ledges and pass on into the basin of the lower lake. The sides
of the gorge-like valley are scored to a hight of a hundred
or a hundred and fifty feet above the bottom.

In the lateral valley next north of that occupied by the Sar¬
dine lakes, occur the beautiful, blue transparent sheets of
water known as Salmon lakes. Here the same phenomena
occur and on a scale even grander than in the preceding case.
This valley like the preceding terminates to the west in the
high rocky buttes that constitute the crest of the main range,
and from which the glacier descended to scoop out the basin
of the upper Salmon lake. The same diabasic rocks, as in
the case of Upper Sardine lake, and dipping in the same di¬
rection, formed a rim over which the glacier plunged to exca-

INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE BUILDING.

( Nebraska Hall.)

PLAN DF SECOND FLOOR.

( Nebraska Hall.)

Personal and Scientific News .

341

vate a small basin now known as “ the pond hole.” Another
ledge of hard rock, another descent and the old glacier tra¬
versed the basin of the lower Salmon.

A lateral spur of considerable hight separates the Salmon
lakes from Gold lake. Gold lake is a larger sheet of water
than any of the others mentioned. Like the others, however,
it occupies the bed of a glacier, the former presence of which
is attested by magnificent examples of glacier-planing on the
crystalline rock masses about its outlet.

A generous gift of $150,000 was made recently to the Uni¬
versity of Minnesota by ex-governor and regent John S.
Pillsbury, of Minneapolis. It was conditioned only on the
pledge by the Legislature that the university should not be
weakened by the division of the funds that now constitute its,
endowment, but that the so-called agricultural land grant
(under the law of congress of 1861) should remain inseparably
connected with the university proper. This pledge the Legis¬
lature gave. The gift will be used, as intended, to complete
and furnish the new Science Hall. At the university of Cali¬
fornia the Lick astronomical observatory was the result of a
large private donation. At Madison, Wisconsin, the Wash¬
burn observatory was largely the gift of the citizen whose name
it bears, and citizens of Michigan erected and furnished the
Detroit observatory at the university of Michigan. The dona¬
tion of Gov. Pillsbury, however, seems to be the first of impor¬
tance to a state university in behalf of what are generally
known as natural sciences.

The committee appointed to arrange the meeting of the
International Congress of Geologists for 1891 met in Washing¬
ton April 20 and elected the following officers : Permanent
chairman, professor J. S. Newberry, vice-chairman, G. K. Gil¬
bert, secretary, H. S. Williams. The committee also added to
its number the following gentlemen: Dr. T. Sterry Hunt,
Prof. E. D. Cope and Dr. Persifor Frazer. Provision was
made for three sub-committees, (1) on the scientific pro¬
gramme of the congress, (2) on excursions and (3) on arrange¬
ments in Philadelphia. The committee adjourned to meet at
Philadelphia in November at the time of meeting of the
National Academy. A majority of the committee were present
at the Washington meeting.

Department of Geology in the University of Nebraska.

For some years subsequent to the organization of the Uni¬
versity of Nebraska in 1871 instruction in geology was included
in the duties appertaining to the chair of natural sciences
which was filled by Prof. Samuel Aughey. Notwithstanding
his multifarious duties he made a creditable beginning both in
geological field work and instruction. Chemistry, botany and
physics were successively constituted separate and indepen¬
dent departments. Zoology is still nominally attached to the
chair of geology but is practically a distinct department.

342

Personal and Scientific News .

In 1884 Dr. Lewis E. Hicks was appointed to the chair of
geology and allied sciences. Under his administration the
work of instruction has been systematized, the collections
largely increased, a preliminary geological map of Nebraska
made and published, and the regents have been induced to
provide more commodious rooms for lectures, laboratories
and cabinets for the storage and display of the collections of
this department. These rooms are situated on the second
floor of Nebraska Hall, floor plan and elevation of which are
presented herewith. An inspection of the floor plan will give
a better notion of these rooms than verbal description. The
museum has a gallery floor which nearly doubles its capacity.
All the rooms are well lighted. They will be ready for occu¬
pation in a few weeks. The geological laboratory is supplied
with a machine for cutting and grinding thin sections of min¬
erals and rocks, a Bausch and Lomb petrographical microscope,
tourmaline tongs, Queen’s polariscope with stauroscopic
attachment, and to these will be immediately added one of the
best petrographical microscopes of German or French manu¬
facture.

The Stillwater, Minn., deep well. At a late meeting of
the Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences Mr. A. D. Meads,
of the Minnesota geological survey, read a description of this
well. It was begun in June, 1888, and the work has continued
with little interruption, up to the present time, when the
depth has reached about 3,400 feet. Gas, probably local accu¬
mulations of marsh gas along the shore of lake St. Croix, led
to the drilling, but a spirit of laudable curiosity to know what
is below the city, on the part of several of the citizens who
pay the costs, has taken the place largely of all expectations
of finding gas, and is now the principal motive for continuing
the work.

The well starts at about 740 feet above the sea, and after
passing through 701 feet of drift, white, friable sandstone and
green shales, belonging to the St. Croix and so-called Potsdam
of the Northwest, enters a series of dark-red and brown shales
and brown feldspathic sandstones, which exhibited a thickness
of more than 1500 feet. These gradually assume the characters
of a volcanic detrital tuff — “amygdaloidal,” calcitic, kaolinic,
still brown, slightly siliceous — and finally at the depth of
about 3300 feet unmistakable beds of trap rock were encount¬
ered, alternating with sandstone beds. At this depth some
grains of native copper were seen in the drillings.

Water was found in the sandstones near the top of the drill,
and down to the depth of about 740 feet. Small quantities of
salt water were obtained at about 1950 feet, and at the depth
of 2250 feet a small amount of gas was said to have been
noted in connection with another stratum giving brine.

Mr. Meads’ main conclusions were as follows. (1) The

Personal and Scientific News.

343

Stillwater well is wholly below the Trenton limestone. (2)
From 717 feet to the bottom of the well is Keweenawan. This
thins out or runs deeper, toward the south, not appearing at
the depth of 1160 feet at Hastings. (3) The Keweenawan
rocks at Stillwater are almost identical with those at Kewee¬
naw Point. (4) The well may be of some value as a source of
water-supply ; but as a source of gas the prospects are poor — or
we might say there are no prospects whatever. (5) The well is of
great value to geologists, as it fixes the place of the Keweenaw¬
an below the light-colored sandstones of the Northwest, and
hence effectually removes them from the mesozoic age. In
several places the brown shales and sandstones that here are
shown to overlie the traps, have been pierced by wells in
Minnesota but not penetrated, and hence the question was left
open as to the age of the traps. This question is, therefore,
no longer a debatable one.

The Geological Survey of Sweden has presented to the State
of Illinois a complete set of its publications, comprising 121
lithographed maps, each accompanied with a descriptive
octavo pamphlet, and ninety-nine .monograhps, seventy-three
in octavo and twenty-six in quarto. These publications are
not gratuitously distributed at home, but sold at the cost of
paper and printing, the aggregate price of the set being 390
kronor, or about $106. The postage on the whole lot (prepaid)
amounted to nearly $12. But very few institutions outside of
the kingdom have been honored with a similar courtesy.

This survey was organized in 1855 under the direction of
professor A. Erdmann, who at his death in 1870 was succeeded
by the present director, professor Otto M. Torell, of Arctic
fame. The officers permanently employed on his staff number
twelve, all professional scientists, besides janitors, etc., and in
the summer seasons extra forces are added for special work.
The annual appropriations have gradually increased from
60,000 kronor, or about $16,000 in 1885, to 88,500 kronor, or
about $24,000 in 1889. Still this survey only comprises the
purely geognostical branch of the science, with its bearings on
economy, while the paleontology is cared for in another insti¬
tution, viz, the (two) paleontological departments of the Royal
Academy of Sciences.

The population of Sweden is not much larger than that of
Illinois, while its area covers 171,749 English square miles or
more than three times the area of that state. The national
wealth of the kingdom is undoubtedly far below that of Illi¬
nois (I have no statistical figures to offer), and the natural
resources of the soil and rocks of Sweden are still smaller, as
compared with those of Illinois. But the intelligent rulers of
Sweden realize that the people can not afford to neglect scien¬
tific investigations which will enable them to take the full
advantage of all that there is to be obtained from the soils and
rocks, and they invest in those investigations every year about

344

Personal and Scientific News.

as much as the rich State of Illinois has done in half a cen¬
tury.

The yearly expense of the Roy. Acad, of Sciences is 100,000
kroner, or $27,000. The said Academy has the following
departments, each headed by an eminent scientist, viz : Lower
Evertebrates (Sven Loven), Insects (Aurivillius), Vertebrates
(F. A. Smith), Fossil animals (G. Lindstrom), Recent plants
(V. B. Wittrock), Fossil plants (A. G. Nathorst), Minerals
(A. E. Nordenskjold) — these seven departments constituting
the Roy. Museum of Natural History — Physics (A. Edlund,
died recently), Meteorology (Rubenson), Astronomy (H. A.,
Gyllden), Mathematics (A. G. Lindhayen, secretary of the
Academy). The above $27,000 are the proceeds from funds
and estates, the property of the Academy. Special appropria¬
tions are often granted by the parliament for special purposes.

The Council of the Geological Society of America recently
held a meeting at Washington. Nominations for fellowship
were made to the society of about fifty candidates, all of whom
had expressed a desire for election. Prof. C. H. Hitchcock
was designated to make arrangements for an excursion from
Toronto, and another attempt is likely to be made in favor of
the Huronian region. He was instructed to correspond with
the Local Committee at Toronto, and with the officers of the
Canadian survey. The program of the meetings of the society
at Toronto was ordered to be independent of that of the asso¬
ciation. The committee on revising the constitution held a
meeting and decided on several important matters relating to
the constitution. The committee on plan of publication,
through Mr. W. J. McGee, secretary, made a voluminous report
embodying facts concerning the manner and success of publi¬
cations by various leading scientific societies in Europe and
America. This committee will render a final report, making
recommendations of its conclusions to the Council at its next
session, probably at Toronto.

The discovery of the electrolysis method of producing
aluminum alloys is not only patented in the United States
but in France and Germany, although under different titles
and claims. The Heroult process is about to be put to an
extensive and practical test in Switzerland, where, near Zurich,
at the falls of the Rhine, a large establishment is set on foot
for the production of aluminum by this method.

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We have just issued a new edition of our
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following Lists and Catalogues of Newspapers:—

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by leading College Pres’ts of the U. S. and Canada.

Sold by all Booksellers. Pamphlet free.

G. & C. MERRIAM & CO., Pub’rs, Springfield, Mass.

THE ACADEMY.

A Journal of Secondary Education.

HE ACADEMY is endeavoring to fill a place hitherto unoccupied

A in educational journalism. It appeals to teachers above the
grammar grade, and though specially directed to the work of those in
charge of schools, it will be found to be of high value and interest to
all engaged in department work.

IT HAS ALREADY ACHIEVED SUCCESS,

Having subscribers in every state of the Union. It aims tobe practical
rather than literary, and to present the views of none but successful
teachers actually engaged in the work. It is entirely co-operative, no
one of the teachers connected with it receiving either salary or pecu¬
niary compensation for his time or labor.

ITS SOLE OBJECT IS TO ASSIST TEACHERS,

And bring them closer to one another and to their work.

It looks directly to teachers for its support, depends upon them for
its efficiency, and asks the help of their subscriptions, their influence,
and a free interchange of ideas.

BEGINNING with the third volume (February, 1888), The Acad¬
emy was enlarged for the third time, and its price increased to
one dollar and fifty cents a year.

These three successive enlargements may be accepted as an indi¬
cation that there is a field for just such a journal as The Academy. It
is devoted solely to the interests of secondary teachers and their work.
It points with pride to the articles and contributors which have ap¬
peared on its pages the past year.

A special feature of Volume III, just completed, is the series of
essays upon Science in Secondary Schools, papers by successful
science teachers all over the country, written expressly for a prize of
$50 offered last year by The Academy.

A subscriber writes : “The science essays alone are worth double
the price of a year’s subscription to The Academy.”

For specimen copies or further information, address.

TZECIED ACADEMY,

Syracuse, N. Y.

Important to Q^olo^ists.

To the student of the crystalline rocks the line of the

St. Paul & Duluth Railroad,

“DULUTH SHORT LINE,”

Affords very fine opportunities for observation and collection. A series
of hills of Huronian schists and slates begins at Moose lake and
continues to Thompson, where may be seen, from the car windows,
some of their characteristic outcrops, with frequent cuts along the grade.
A few miles east of Thompson it gives place to the rock known as
gabbro, one of the most remarkable of the Archean outbursts and
lateral overflows of eruptive rock in the United States. This continues,
with frequent fine cuts by the grade, and a rapid descent, to Duluth,
where it forms the prevalent rock in the hills back of the city. At
Duluth the characteristic rocks of the copper-bearing series are found
resting on the gabbro, while at Fond du Lac the associated brown sand¬
stones and conglomerates present perpendicular cliffs along the St.
Louis river. No geologist or mining engineer who visits the North¬
west should fail to improve the opportunity of seeing this interesting
region.

The attention of

TOURISTS, SPORTSMEN AND HAY FEVER SUFFERERS

is especially called to the healthful pleasure resorts situated along the
line of above railroad : White Bear Lake, Forest Lake, Centre City
(Chisago lakes), Taylor’s Falls, Hinckley, Sturgeon and Moose lakes
are beautiful points, where hay fever is unknown, and which afford
excellent opportunities for the lovers of the gun and rod to exercise
their skill. The excellent train service of the St. Paul & Duluth R. R.
renders easy access to all these points from either the north or south.
For rates, tickets and further information apply to ticket agents.

A. B. PLOUGH, G. C. GILFILLAN,

Genl. Pass. Agent. 6 Special Agt. Pass. Dept.

ST. PAUL, MINN.

4NE, 1559.

V0L. Ill, Ho. 6

THE

AMERICAN

A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF

GEOLOGY AND ALLIED SCIENCES,

EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS:

Prof. Samuel Calvin, University of Iowa, Iovja City, Iowa.

Prof. Edward W. Claypole, Buchiel College, Akron, O.

Dr. Persifor Frazer, Franklin Institute , Philadelphia , Penn.

Dr Lewis E. Hicks, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.

Mr. Edward O. Ulrich, Geol. Survey of Illinois, Newport, Ky.

Dr. Alex ander Winchell, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor , Mick.
Prof. Newton H. Winchell, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.

^timbers, 35 Qeijts.

Yearly Subseriptiop, $3.50.

QO J*l 5 E jt 55 :

JATERNARY DEPOSITS AND QUATERNARY
OR RECENT ELEVATION OF REGIONS AND
MOUNTAINS IN BRAZIL, WITH DEDUCTIONS
AS TO THE ORIGIN OF LOESS FfeOM ITS OB¬
SERVED conditions there. James E.
Mills . . .

345

IE STORY OF THE MlSSISSIPPI'MlSSOURI..

, W. Claypole . - .. . 361

' LINGUL ASM A , A NEW GENUS, AND EIGHT
fEW SPECIES OF LINGULA AND TREMATIS.

E. 0. Ulrich. [Illustrated.].

377.

IE MESOZOIC ROCKS OF SOUTHERN COLO¬
RADO AND NORTHERN NEW' MEXICO. J.

J. Stevenson . . 391

397

Editorial Comment.

A sandy simoon in the Northwest. ....

Review Of Recent Literature.

Marine shells in the till near Boston.
Warren Upham, 399. — Seventh annual
report of the U. S. Geol. Survey, Pow-
ell, 399.— Elemente der Paleontologie,
Steinmann, 401.

List of recent publications . . ........ . . . 402

Correspondence.

Solubility of phosphates in iron ore.
Taft..... . . . . . 402

Personal and Scientific News . 403

THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, MINNEAPOLIS.

meral European Agent, W. P. Collins, 157 Great Portland St., London W. Eng.

Entered at the Minneapolis post-office as second-class matter.

FRANKLIN R. CARPENTER, Ph. D.

MINING ENGINEER.

Dean and Professor of Mining in the Dakota Sohooi of Mines.
Will report upon mining property in the interest of investors only.

RAPID CITY, DAKOTA.

" E. E. BURLINGAME,

Assay Office and General Laboratory,

[Established 1866.1

Samples by mail or express will receive prompt and careful attention. Gold
and silver bullion refined, melted and assayed or purchased. Write for terms, 1736
and 1738, Lawrence street, Denver, Colorado.

THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN

AND ORIENTAL JOURNAL.

A Magazine Devoted to the Archaeology of All Lands.

REV. STEPHEN D. PEET, Editor and Proprietor.

Published at 175 Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill. Bi-monthly, $4 per year.

This magazine has reached the close of its tenth volume. It is regarded as
authority on American archaeology. It numbers among the associate editors many
of the chief archaeologists of this country. The following are the departments rep¬
resented and the editors who have charge of each:

American Archaeology— Editor-in- C hief .

European Archaeology— Henry Phillips, jr.

American Mythology and Aboriginal Literature— Dr. D . G. Brinton.

Indian Linguistics — A. S. Gatschet.

Classical Art and Archaeology— Dr. J. D. Butler.

The contents of the magazine are aranged as follows:

Contributions, Correspondence, Editorial, including notes by the associates,
Recent Intelligence and New Discoveries, General Review, Book Reviews.

The magazine is strictly scientific and yet has a popular style. It is taken by all
the first-class libraries, and is read by all classes.

As the Publishers of the Geologist do not furnish extras to the
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2 Pages 4 Pages 6 Pages 8 Pages 10 Pages 12 Pages 14 Page 16 Pages

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THE

AMERICAN GEOLOGIST

Vol. III. JUNE, 1889. No. 6

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS AND QUATERNARY OR RECENT

ELEVATION OF REGIONS AND MOUNTAINS IN BRAZIL
WITH DEDUCTIONS AS TO THE ORIGIN OF
LOESS FROM ITS OBSERVED CONDITIONS
THERE.

By James E. Mills.

The greater part of the large gold product of Brazil has been
obtained from Quaternary loose materials. In the years 1875,
1878 and 1879 I had occasion while examining gold mines
there for economic purposes to study these Quaternary de¬
posits in the provinces of Rio Grande do Sul and Minas
Gerses, and the subject proved to he of deep interest not only
on account of its bearing upon the geological history of a large
continental area but also because loess occurs there under con¬
ditions that throw light upon the origin of loess deposits
generally.

In Rio Grande do Sul (the most southerly of the provinces
of Brazil) I went from the city of the same name via Pelotas
and Bage to “the little village of Lavras in long. 10° 49' west of
Rio de Janeiro, and lat. 30° 44 7 south,1 and to Cacapava. My
more detailed studies of the loose materials of the province
were made at the so-called Lagoa da Nacao near Lavras.

At the city of Rio Grande do Sul the coast is low and sandy,
and the city is built on a sand spit. Pelotas is built on strati-

1 Determined by Mr. A. A. Stnkey.

346

Quaternary Deposits, Etc . — Mills.

tied sands and clays which have been terraced as they rose
from the sea. The road from Pelotas continues on these de¬
posits from 3 to 4 leagues inland, then leaves the terraces and
passes into a hilly country ; and thence all the way to Bage
and Lavras the rocks are very generally hidden by a deposit
which is allied in character and I think in method of forma¬
tion to the loess of the Mississippi valley and elsewhere. It is
of fine grain and of even fineness, and shows either no signs or
very obscure signs of stratification or sorting by water, except
near the bottom where it sometimes contains streaks of sand,
or passes downward into sand by gradation. It is generally of
yellow or drab color except near the surface where it becomes
colored with organic matter and passes upward into a dark
colored soil. It is not readily eroded, that is, readily in com¬
parison with other kinds of loose materials, and it makes a
smooth road, not quickly worn into ruts by wagon wheels.
The loess is not exclusively derived from rocks in the imme¬
diate neighborhood in which it occurs, for it preserves iden¬
tity or great similarity of character over considerable areas
within which the rocks vary widely.

Underlying the loess where both occur, hut also uncovered
in places along streams and elsewhere is the “ cascalho,”
which is the gold-bearing loose material of the region. It
rests directly upon the surface of the rock. It consists of
gravel and sand or fragments of quartz or other resisting ma¬
terial, and is found in two conditions ; in one it lies along
the beds and banks of streams, and has been moved forward a
greater or less distance by the streams ; in the other it rests at
the outcrop of the quartz vein or other deposit from which it
is derived. This latter is the debris of the vein or stratum of
hard, resisting material which, having been left unsupported
by the wearing away of the more easily decomposed imbed¬
ding rock, has become reduced to fragments and fallen along
where it had existed in place. It is covered for the most part
by loess, but judging from exposures at streams and elsewhere,
it occurs in patches over the surface of the rocks generally
wherever there are veins or strata or other masses of material
harder than the rocks in which they are imbedded.

The so-called Lagoa da Nacao is simply a deepened and
widened portion of the Camaquam river, about 3,280 feet
long, with an average width of about 84 feet, occupying a por-

Quaternary Deposits . Etc. — Mills. 347

tion of a basin eroded from hard feldspathic porphyry. The
bottom of the pool, at the lowest point, is seven and a half
feet lower than the rocky lip at the outlet. To test the loose
materials on the bottom of the pool for gold, the water of the
stream was carried around the pool in a canal, and the water
in the basin lowered by cutting down at the outlet and by
pumping until a large portion of the floor of the pool was laid
bare.

Over a part of the floor the rock is bare, and over a part of
it the surface of the rock is covered with sand and gravel and
large fragments of porphyry. At the head of the pool there is
gravel or cascalho which has evidently been brought down and
deposited there by the stream ; but other patches of cascalho
were evidently formed from quartz veins in place there, and
these pass with the outcrop of the veins under the loess on
the banks. The pool bends at nearly a right angle. One
strip of cascalho crosses the pool near its outlet, continues on
the left bank to the pool above the bend, and crosses it there
again. On the bank this cascalho was naturally overlaid with
loess, but the loess has been excavated, and the cascalho has
been washed for its gold. It is also gold-bearing on the bed of
the pool, or rather so much of it as is left, for a considerable
part of it was excavated and washed while I was on the ground.
The cascalho of this sheet or strip is evidently from some
small, irregular quartz veins which exist there in the porphyry,
and the outcrop of which extend along with the strip of cas¬
calho. Other patches of cascalho accompanying quartz veins
occur on the bed of the pool, and pass with the outcrop of the
veins under the loess on the banks. Near the quartz veins the
rock on the bed of the pool is softened, and in the canal the
softened rock was exposed to a depth of 12 or 15 feet, while
over the greater part of the floor of the pool the rock where
exposed was hard. The softened rock near the quartz veins
was colored with iron oxides, and the softening was undoubt¬
edly due to the decomposition of pyrites which accompanied
the quartz and gold.

The cascalho is gathered in places around large fragments of
porphyry evidently not far removed from where they were in
place. The sheets of cascalho are generally but a few inches
thick, rarely more than eight inches, except in furrows of the
rock where the gravel is at times eighteen inches thick, and in

348 Quaternary Deposits , Etc. — Mills.

one deep furrow I saw it three feet thick. The pebbles are
partly angular but generally more or less water-worn and
rounded. The yield of gold of 134 cubic yards taken from the
cascalho near the outlet was at the rate of 35.3 grains to the
cubic yard. It was in flattened scales, and evidently had not
travelled far. Associated with it was black iron-sand, mostly
titaniferous, but a part of it feebly magnetic.

A larger part of the surface of the pool was of sand than of
gravel, and a still larger part was surface of rock.

There is no loess on the bed of the pool, but it comes down
to or nearly to the edge of the water on either side, and is
spread out far and wide over the region generally, thinning
out and disappearing in places. At one place the excavation
of the canal near the pool exposed a thickness of 13.6 feet of
loess. Along the canal the loess in places shows streaks of
sand near the bottom or passes down by gradation into sand.

The pool does not occupy the whole of its rocky basin ; but
the latter extends some distance above the head of the pool,
and is filled there with sand and gravel brought down, in part
at least, by the stream. On either side of this portion of the
basin there are deposits of sand at a higher level than any
which the water ever reaches now. These sands I did not find
overlying loess, but they seemed to be continuous with the
loess, and to have been deposited along the stream at the same
time that the loess proper was being deposited on either hand
over the surface of the region generally.

Evidently the basin was eroded before the loess was deposit¬
ed because sheets of cascalho resting upon the floor of the
basin pass under the loess ; but above and below the basin the
Camaquam has considerably lowered its rocky bed by erosion
since the time of the deposition of the loess, and is still eroding
it, and this is true of other streams which I saw in Rio Grande
do Sul. The erosion of so much of the region as I saw, ex¬
cepting in the neighborhood of Cacapava has, however, been
comparatively slight since the loess was deposited, for the loess,
although forming but a thin sheet, covers the face of the
country generally, and the region is one of loess-covered, roll¬
ing or nearly level plains and gentle slopes as a whole with
small areas of rock exposures. Near Cacapava there seems to
have been Quaternary or recent local uplifting which has in¬
creased erosion but I had not opportunity to verify this. The

Quaternary Deposits , Etc. — Mills .

349

deepening of the channels of drainage though comparatively
slight goes to show, though it may not prove conclusively,
that the region has been raised since the time when the loess
was deposited, and detailed investigations might show that the
Quaternary or recent elevation is the same that caused the
terracing along the coast, though the deposits from which the
terraces were carried may be of Tertiary age.

The elevation above the sea level at the Lagoa da Nacao
was barometrically determined by Mr. A. A. Stukey to be
about 675 feet, and according to a railroad survey the bed of a
little stream near Bage is about the same.

My opportunities of observation in Minas Gerses were limit¬
ed to a belt of country traversed by the routes from Parahyba
river to the city of Diamantina. One of these routes leaves the
Parahyba at Entre Rios and the other at Porto Novo daCunha,
and the two meet between the villages of Sao Sebastiao and
Inficionado. The route from Entre Rios leaves the Parahyba
at an elevation above sea-level of 883 feet (R. R.);1 passes
along the Parahybuna, up the south-easterly slope of the
Mantiqueira range to its crest, where the saddle in which the
railroad now passes has an elevation of 3,665 feet (R. R.), and
thence continues on or near the divide of the head-waters of
the Doce and Gequitinhona on the east ; ' and those of the
Parana and Sao Francisco on the west. The country is, com¬
pared with the portion of Rio Grande do Sul above described,
a high and mountainous one. Barbacena, a short distance east
of the crest of the Mantiqueira range is at an elevation of 3,786
feet (R. R.) ; the railroad crosses the Carandahy at 3,494 feet
(R. R.) : the common road crosses the divide between the
waters of the Parana and Sao Francisco at 3,700 feet, crosses
the stream at foot of the Serro de Oaro Branco near the vil¬
lage of Oaro Branco at 3,126 feet, the crest of the Serro
de Oaro Branco which is the divide between the waters of the
Sao Francisco and of the Doce at 3,946 feet, the Falcao at
3,113 feet, the crest of a spur of Itacolumi at 4,064 feet, and
the Rio do Carmo at Oaro Preto at 3,319 feet, and the same

1 Elevations marked B. R. are from reports of railroad surveys ; those
given without this mark or other reference to authority are from my
own determinations with aneroid barometer. These are checked only
by repetition, and I give them reluctantly ; but they are approximately
correct and will serve for present purposes.

350 Quaternary Deposits, Etc. — Mills.

stream at Marianna at 2,332 feet. From Marianna to Serro
the road crosses streams flowing to the Doce at elevations be¬
tween 2,300 and 2,000 feet. The crest between Mono Grande
hamlet and Cocaes village is 2,837 feet. Going off the main
route, the Rio das Velhas at the little hamlet of Raposas is at
the same elevation as the hamlet of Mono Grande on waters
of the Doce, namely 2,302 feet, while the crest between the two
is 3,956 feet at the saddle where the road crosses it. To re¬
turn to the direct route : the village of Serro is 2,707 feet ; the
hamlet of Itaipaba on a stream flowing to the Gequitouhana,
2,465 feet and the city of Diamantina 3,714 feet. This last
elevation agrees with that given for Diamantina by Geber ; it
is but 72 feet lower than that of Barbacena.

The route from Porto Novo da Canho leaves the Parahyba
at that place at an elevation of 509 feet (R. R.), crosses the di¬
vide between the wraters of the Parahyba and Doce (the Mont-
iqueira range) at 2,402 feet (R. R.), and at the village of San¬
ta Rita do Turvo on waters of the Doce is at an elevation of
2,257 feet (R. R.).

The elevation of some of the principal peaks of the region
are given by Val Delden Laerne in his work on Brazil and
Java without reference to authorities as follows: Itacolumi
5,748 feet, Caraca 6,414 feet, Itambe 5,981 feet, Piedade 5,850
feet.

These elevations are given because the elevation ■ and con¬
tour of the surface have a very important bearing on the char¬
acter and history of the Quaternary deposits, and because
they are the result principally of Quaternary upliftings. The
region is a mountainous one with steep slopes both of uplift
and erosion. The, streams flow in deep, V shaped channels
except where the material is such as to strongly resist erosion,
and I did not see between Barbacena and Diamantina any
plains of considerable size except two which will be below de¬
scribed, both preserved from erosion by a hard, thick pave¬
ment of oxides of iron.

The rocks consist of gneiss, slates, and micaceous sandstones
(itacolumites, etc.) with a few exposures of limestone and
trap, and extraordinarily large masses of oxides of iron. The
rocks as a whole contain an unusually large proportion of ox¬
ides of iron, and in the sandstone and slate series there are
many and very massive deposits of specular hematite which

Quaternary Deposits, Etc. — Mills. 351

generally has a flaky, felted structure, and which is called in
the country “Jacutinga.”

The gneiss and slates are softened to great depths from the
surface. I have seen sections showing a thickness of over 100
feet (estimated with the eye) of this softened rock, and yet not
reaching to the bottom of it. The softened mass retains to a
great degree the lamination and other structure of the rock.
The quartz veins imbedded in it remain comparatively in¬
tact.

The softening may be accounted for in part by the abund¬
ance of animal life in the soil overlying these rocks. Ants es¬
pecially occupy the soil everywhere. They are continually
pouring carbonic acid gas into the upper layer of loose mater¬
ial, which the abundant rain-water washes down into the
rocks, and carbonic acid is the great decomposing agent in
rocks, taking out lime, the alkalies, and iron oxides and start¬
ing a whole train of alterations. But even with the added
agency of abundance of animal life these rocks must have
been very long, geologically speaking, under the decomposing
action of carbonic acid brought to them from the atmosphere
by percolating waters. They must then have been for a long
time not covered by the sea or other sheet of water but exposed
to the atmosphere. As the softened rock is overlaid by the
Quaternary cascalho and loess which have not been visibly
softened since deposition, it is plain that the softening was
mostly produced before the time of the deposition of the loess
at least. The cascalho being mostly of resisting material
would not show effects of decomposition. The rocks them¬
selves are of Archaean or of Archaean and early Paleozoic age,
consequently the softening has certainly taken place between
Archaean and Quaternary time. Prof. 0. A. Derby 1 gives an
account of borings, through great thicknesses of this softened
material in the coal basin of the Arroio dos Ratos in the prov¬
ince of Rio Grande do Sul. One boring passed through first,
4 metres of clayey soil, then through 120 metres of softened
strata, and then went 17 metres farther in material sufficiently
hard to be called stone. A part if not all of the softened strata
are certainly of Carboniferous age. Another boring went
through 20 metres of clay and sands with a gravel bed, then
through decomposed shales 60 metres, then 18 metres in

1 American Journal of Science; third series, vol. 27, p. 130.

352

Quaternary Deposits , Etc. — Mills .

softened gneissoid rock without striking sound rock. I sup¬
pose the upper 4 metres in the one case, and the upper 20
metres in the other to be in Quaternary loose materials.

From this it is plain that the softening in the Rio Grande
do Sul has been produced on a very large scale since the Car¬
boniferous strata were deposited and raised above the sea lev¬
el. The region of the coal basin of the Arroio dos Ratos is
comparatively low and level, with gentle slopes, though as be¬
fore said this part of Rio Grande do Sul has probably been
somewhat elevated in Quaternary or recent time.

In Minas Geraes the softened layer occurs over a region of
much greater elevation, of steep slopes and of V shaped drain¬
age channels, and this too while it is a region of abundant
rainfall. Frequently and over considerable area the steep-
sloped surface of the softened rock bears a meagre vegetation
although in a tropical climate of abundant moisture. The
vegetation is of feeble growth there because the soil proper,
that is, the soil enriched by organic matter, is washed off.

In a country of abundant rainfall the V shape of the drain¬
age channels is proof of comparatively recent elevation, but it
seems impossible that the softened layer could have been
formed or could long have existed at the present elevations
with the present steep slopes and rapid erosion. The water
runs off quickly and under a tropical sun the ‘evaporation is
great ; the drainage from the upper portions of the rocks also
must be comparatively free where deep ravines abound. The
conditions are therefore not favorable for deep penetration
and saturation of the rocks by water carrying the carbonic
acid necessary for rapid decomposition, while the conditions
are very favorable for rapid erosion, and the softened rock is
very easily eroded, and in fact has been eroded away leaving
the solid rock bare in many places. For these reasons I con¬
clude that the region was raised above sea-level and worn down
to a “base level of erosion55 at an early period, and remained a
low-lying region for a very long time, and has been within
Quaternary or recent time raised to its present elevation. This
conclusion is confirmed by other reasons to be hereafter
given.

On the surface of the rocks, — softened where consisting of
gneisses and slates, and hard where consisting of sandstones
and other resisting materials, — rest the Quaternary deposits.

Quaternary Deposits, Etc. — Mills. 353

They consist, as in the Rio Grande do Sul, of two groups,
namely, of cascalho and loess. The cascalho of Minas Geraes
has been the source of the larger part of the great gold prod¬
uct of Brazil.

The cascalho began to be deposited before the loess, but a
part of it is contemporary with the loess, and erosion since the
time of the deposition of loess has added gravel as in Rio
Grande do Sul, and to a larger extent than there. Recent
erosion has also shifted and carried forward a part of the
gravels that had been deposited before the loess. In fact the
cascalho and loess have been removed from considerable areas
by recent erosion which has cut down through these superficial
deposits into and sometimes through the underlying layer of
softened rock; still much the larger part of the surface is cov¬
ered with these loose materials. They extend through a wide
range of elevation. Going from the Parahyba up the south¬
easterly slope of the Mantiqueira range one sees exposures of
gravels with overlying loess in places from the foot of the slope
to the saddle through which the railroad passes over the crest,
and such exposures continued west of the crest down to the
streams and over the divides onward to Diamantina, or as far
north as I had opportunity to observe. I ascended but one of
the highest peaks — Itacolumi — and I recall that on the upper
portions of the mountain from elevation of about 4,000 feet to
the summit the rocks were nearly or quite bare of Quaternary
deposits ; but I did not make a definite note of the fact at the
time.

On the southeasterly slope of the Mantiqueira, and between
the crest of that range and Itacolumi mountain there are fre¬
quent exposures of cascalho containing or associated with
clays in places, and these clays are commonly more or less
Carbonaceous. In places the cascalho consists entirely of clay.
Between where the road crosses the spur of Itacolumi south
of Oaro Preto, and Diamantina the road passes for a large part
of the way over a series of sandstones (itacolumites, etc.) and
shales which contain great masses of specular iron ore as
above mentioned, and also large proportions of oxides of iron
disseminated through the sandstones (itabyrites) and rocks
generally. And here oxides of iron chemically precipitated
form a considerable part of the lower group of Quaternary
loose materials, — the cascalho, between the villages of Infic-

354

Quaternary Deposits, Etc. — Mills.

ionado and Agua Quente the road passes continuously for about
a league over a plain paved with a superficial sheet of oxides
of iron, and Burton speaks of riding over the same plain be¬
tween Agua Quente and Fonseca. 3 It is one of the two plains
before mentioned. The oxides consist of hematite and limo-
nite, and are more or less mingled with gravels. They are
evidently altered bog-ore deposited by waters which obtained
their iron from the great masses of specular ore (more than
300 feet thick across the stratification at one place near Catas
Altas where I measured it) which lie uptilted on the easterly
flank of Caraca mountain.

No such sheet of bog-ore could be formed with present
drainage ; for streams flow by the plain from 187 to 320 feet
lower than its surface, and the streams have rapid currents^
and there are no bogs or pools of still water of considerable
size throughout the region. The plain at the highest point
on the road is about 2,785 feet above sea-level. There can be
no doubt therefore that the region has been elevated since this
sheet of oxides of iron was deposited, and that the bog-ore-
was formed when the region was in a low-lying condition,
with streams flowing nearly at the general elevation of the
surface, which was the condition as already shown when the
softened layer of rock on which the sheet of bog-ore now
rests was formed.

The other of the two above mentioned plains is much
smaller than the one just now described, but still a remark¬
able plain for that region. It also is in part at least underlaid
with iron oxides, and has undoubtedly been preserved from
erosion by them. The extent of this sheet of oxides is not
evident because it is overlaid by sandy loess, but it is exposed
where the road passes down off the loess. The plain is high
up near the divide between the waters of the Doce and the
Gequitinhona, on the slope drained toward the Doce by the Rio
de Peixe, extending to within about a mile of the divide, at an
elevation of about 3,416 feet which is somewhat less than 300
feet lower than that of the divide. The Rio de Peixe falls at
an average rate of 120 feet to the mile for fifteen miles below
the plain, and the cascalho and loess fall at nearly the same
rate ; for at a point 15 miles below, the loess overlies cascalho
which rests but a few feet below the level of the present stream.
A bog could not have existed in such a position, on a steep

3Highlands of Brazil. Yol. i. p. 315.

Quaternary Deposits, Etc . — Mills. 355

slope, near the divide, at the head of a rapidly falling stream.
It follows that the region has been upraised since the deposit
of iron ore was laid down.

One of the areas most productive of gold when the gold
product of Brazil was largest was the one comprising the
slope of Oaro Preto mountain facing southwesterly, south¬
erly, and southeasterly. The gold here was found principally
in the cascalho at the bottom of a layer of iron oxides similar
to the one which paves the plain between Inficionado and
Agua Quente. These superficial iron ores are called in the
country “ Canga.” The surface on that slope of Oaro Preto
mountain is dotted over with pits sunk through the Canga
for gold. The Canga is reported to be from 3-J- to 9 feet thick
there. The surface on which it rests is a steep mountain slope,
too steep to allow bog ore to be deposited in a broad sheet
upon it.

The gravels underlying and mingled with the Canga, as well
as the gold found in them are the remains of a stratum or
group of strata of thinly laminated, greenish talcose slates
containing irregular masses of quartz and quartzite with
arsenical pyrites, tourmaline and gold. It is overlaid by ita-
byrite^which consists of laminae of pure, flaky specular iron-ore
alternating with laminae of quartz and mica and iron oxides
of rusty colors. On the slope this and other strata were de¬
composed, leaving quartz and gold and iron ores at the sur¬
face. At the foot of the slope the gold-bearing stratum or
group of strata is found in place, at first softened, but grad¬
ually becoming firm and hard going down the dip which is in
the same general direction (from southwesterly to south¬
easterly) as the slope. The softened portions of the gold-
bearing slates have been excavated for gold, and at the Passa-
gem mine the excavations have been carried down into the
solid rock where it is overlaid by other strata. On the moun¬
tain slope the gravels would have been washed away if they
were not protected by the Canga, and during the long process
of decomposition of the rock from which the gravel and gold
originated, before the Canga was deposited upon them, the
slope must have been much less steep than now. Moreover,
the Canga, whether deposited in a bog or by springs on a
slope, was soft when first precipitated, and could not have re¬
mained widespread over so steep a slope.

356

Quaternary Deposits, Etc. — Mills.

It follows from the foregoing considerations that not only
does the region generally owe its present elevation to Qua¬
ternary or recent uplifting, hut that mountains rising above
the general level of the region have been uplifted in Quater¬
nary or recent time.

Canga is by no means limited to the areas above mentioned ;
but is commonly associated with the other materials of the
cascalho along the road through the the region of massive
hematite deposits from Oaro Preto to Diamantina. I did not
see it in process of formation anywhere, and with present
slopes soft, precipitated oxides of iron could hardly find rest¬
ing place in considerable quantities. It is possible that when
the faulting and uplifting were taking place hot springs added
to the deposits of iron oxides.

The cascalho consists of the harder and more resisting
portions of the rocks (from which the finer disintegrated por¬
tions have been removed by wind or water or both) and the
chemically deposited oxides of iron. A part of the quartzose
gravels of the cascalho rests on the surface of the rock near
where its materials had existed in place, while another por¬
tion lies along the streams, having been moved forward by
them a greater or less distance. These stream-moved gravels
are always in comparatively thin sheets. I nowhere saw
them accumulated in thick masses as in California. It fol¬
lows that the uplifting which has taken place in Quaternary
or recent time has not obstructed the drainage by lessening
the slopes or raising mountain masses across the pathway of
the streams faster than the streams could cut down through
them. The general increase of elevation has increased the
slope of the streams and increased their power of erosion, and
caused them to cut their channels down deeper below the gen¬
eral surface, making the region one of steep slopes. The local
uplifting has also increased the slopes of the streams in places,
and as it nowhere, within the field of my observation, obstruct¬
ed the drainage so as to cause massing of the gravels, I infer
that it took place quite generally at least along the same axis
as the older uplifting which caused the divides and determined
the position and direction of the streams.

Near Itambe do Matto-dentro the streams flow over itacol-
umite and I noticed that they have not eroded channels of
considerable depth, but flow near the general elevation of the

Quaternary Deposits , Etc. — Mills . 357

surface. The itacolumite is comparatively hard and resists
erosion far more than the softened slates, still the streams flow
over it with rapid currents, and in places fall over precipices
of it, and would erode deep into it in comparatively short
geological time ; and the fact that the erosion has been so
slight since the uplifting took place which gave to the streams
their present fall and rapid currents, goes to confirm the con¬
clusion that the uplifting is of Quaternary or recent time.

The loess of the region has the principal characteristics of
loess generally; it is of fine material and of even fineness
throughout, showing very little if any sorting of material or
distinguishable stratification except near the bottom where it
sometimes mingles with sand or passes into it by gradation.
It is not traceable to the rocks immediately underlying it as is
the cascalho when not transported by streams ; but neverthe¬
less its character is modified by that of the rocks prevailing
in the vicinity. Where sandstone outcrops over a wide area
the loess is sandy, and where shales outcrop over a wide area
the loess is clayey, and where iron oxides abound the loess is
of a red color ; and as iron oxides do abound in the shales
generally, the loess is a kind of red clay over the large portion
of the region where shales outcrop. Where gneiss is the pre¬
vailing rock the loess is sometimes red and sometimes of a
drab color.

The loess is more wide-spread than the cascalho. It gen¬
erally overlies the latter where it occurs except along the
streams, and also rests upon the rock where the gravel is ab¬
sent. Before the erosion caused by the Quaternary or recent
uplifting, it must have spread out far and wide over the sur¬
face of the region except where streams were flowing, and ex¬
cept isolated areas of bare rock at and near peaks and crests.
Its vertical range is great ; it passes up mountain slopes and
down into valleys, and in this respect it differs from loess over
large areas in other parts of the world where it occurs on level
or gently rolling plains or valleys rather than on mountain
slopes. But as already shown when the softening of the rock
took place and when the greater part of the cascalho was de¬
posited the region was a low-lying one, and for reasons to be
hereafter given I conclude that it was still a low-lying region
as a whole when the loess was being deposited, although the
uplifting had begun.

358

Quaternary Deposits, Etc. — Mills.

A section of the loose materials on the left bank of the Rio
de Peixe near the Hamlet of San Antonio do Rio de Peixe
shows from 30 to 40 feet of loess consisting of red clayey ma¬
terial with grains of qnartz scattered through it, resting on
about 10 feet of white and yellow sand, and this on a thin, ir¬
regular sheet of rounded quartz pebbles in which gold and
diamonds occur. This cascalho is not continuous, but occu¬
pies furrows in the rock, and is no where more than a few
inches thick. The loess passes by gradation into the underly¬
ing sands. The occurrence of quartz grains in the loess is
unusual.

About two miles up-stream from this section, artificial ex¬
cavations afford exposures higher above the level of the
stream, showing 20 feet in thickness of loess, and under it on
the rock, thin, irregular patches of gravel in places.

I did not observe stems of plants or shells or other fossils
in the loess of Brazil ; but I did not make careful search for
them. My geological studies there were pursued to determine
the character and extent and value of the gold deposits of the
region, and I had not time to pursue investigations that did
not bear on the work in hand.

Although the region was a low-lying one when the cas¬
calho was deposited, and was probably such when the loess
was deposited, there is no evidence that the region has been
covered by the water of either sea or lake during the Quatern¬
ary or recent time. There are no terraces or other effects of
erosion by waves or currents of a broad sheet of water ; no
sand ridges or shingle or pebbly beaches or other deposits such
as are found on shores of seas and lakes, and which are re¬
peated at greater or less intervals on areas over which such
sheets of water have advanced and retreated. This together
with the absence of stratification and sorting other than might
be produced by the streams now flowing precludes the possi¬
bility of submergence of this region during the time of the
deposition of the loess. The same arguments are valid against
the theory of the lacustrine or marine origin of loess else¬
where ; but one other condition prevailing here adds great
weight to the argument; it is the great depth of the softened
rock underlying the loess. It seems impossible that this thick
sheet of soft, easily eroded material could be submerged and
rise again from a sheet of water without being to a large ex-

Quaternary Deposits, Etc. — Mills.

359

tent washed away and terraced and otherwise carried by waves
and currents, and having its quartz and other hard materials
strewn along the shores in beaches and sand ridges.

Richtofen’s theory of the deposition of loess by wind fails
also to meet the conditions here. The region is near the sea,
and is in the pathway of the tradewind blowing from the sea,
which now comes laden with moisture, and there is no reason
to think that there has been within Quaternary or recent time
a dry region to the windward where the wind could be
charged with dust to be dropped here.

I think that facts from the Quaternary history of the region
already stated afford a full explanation of the origin of the
loess. The region had been above sea-level for long periods,
and had been worn down to a “ base level of erosion ” so long
that a very thick layer of decomposed rock had been formed at
the outcrop of all but the most resisting rocks. It was there¬
fore a low-lying region, and its streams were sluggish
and deep, and their waters nearly up to the level of
the general surface of the land, and with water clear except
as colored and rendered turbid by organic matter ; for
the slopes of the region had become so low that erosion
was reduced to a minimum and furnished very little
sediment to the streams. Then began the Quaternary up¬
lifting. The uprise was greatest along axes of former
uplifting that is, along the divides at the heads of the
streams. As soon as portions of the region began to rise
erosion there was increased and on account of the softened
condition of all but the most resisting rocks, was very rapid.
The streams became charged with sediment then, and as they
were flowing away from the lines of greatest uplift, and their
slope and velocity decreased as they flowed on, their power of
transportation decreased relatively to their load of sediment,
and when they reached the still undisturbed low-lying por¬
tions of the region they dropped the coarser materials of their
load — the sands and gravels — upon their beds. An overloaded
stream cuts away its banks, because it drops its load unevenly
on its bed, and so obstructs and deflects its current, and each
deflection starts a series of undulations from side to side, and
the stream cuts into its bank right and left, and so takes up
more sediment to be deposited near by. This is the origin of
the more locally derived sediment. In time the beds of the

360

Quaternary Deposits , Etc. — Mills.

streams in the low lying portions of the region rose to near
the level of the general surface, and the sediment-charged
waters spread out in their varying pools of water with little
or no current, so shallow that vegetation continued to flourish
and rise through the water. The streams flowed along by or
through these swampy lands in shallow, shifting channels,
and along these channels there was current enough to hold
the finest sediment in suspension, and only sand and gravel
was deposited there, while the finer sediment was carried by
the overflowing waters to the right and left and quietly de¬
posited, with only slight variation in coarseness or fineness,
and obscure, if any, demarcation of laminae or strata,
short, with the characteristics of loess.

At first the loess was deposited but a short distance from
the water-sheds where the uprise began, but as the uplifting
went on and its effects extended farther and farther from the
water-shed, the area of erosive action of the streams was car
ried forward, and the area over which the streams were depos¬
iting loess moved forward also down stream until the whole
region had received the sediment, except the highest portions
near water-sheds.

The loess of the region is therefore a deposit made when it
was a low-lying region by the overflow of its streams charged
with sediment by erosion of portions of their drainage-area
nearer the water sheds than the place of deposit, which had
been or were being uplifted.

The same explanation of the origin of loess meets the re¬
quirements of all its observed conditions in Rio Grande do
Sul.

I have compared the loess of Rio Grande do Sul to that of the
Mississippi valley. The foregoing explanation of the origin
of loess meets, I think, all the requirements of the conditions
and characteristics of the deposit in the Mississippi valley 5
including the occurrence of stems of plants and shells of fresh¬
water and moist-land and dry-land mollusks. But there the
sediment which obstructed the streams and furnished the ma¬
terial of the loess was in part, at least, derived from glacial
drift.

The mass of loose material on the bank of the Rio de Peixe
of which a section is given above is a remnant of the masses
of sands and gravels partially overlaid by loess that filled or

Story of the Mississippi- Missouri. — Claypole. 361

nearly filled the channels of the streams. The greater part of
the sands so deposited were carried away by the erosion which
followed the general uplifting of the region ; but this mass is
in a sheltered position on the down-stream side of projecting
rocks, and so withstood erosion. It is the counterpart of
remnants in similarly sheltered places of much thicker masses
of gravels and sands, some of which are overlaid by loess, in
the canon of the Mississippi river ; but the greater part of the
pebbles and sands of these deposits can be traced to their
origin in glacial drift, and were evidently carried forward,
from where the glacier left them, by the river or its tribut¬
aries and dropped upon its bed. Moreover it has been shown,1
that the deposition of loess in the Mississippi Valley was in
part, at least, contemporaneous with that of glacial drift, and
the material of the loess itself has been shown2 to be in part
at least made up of the finer portions of glacial debris sorted
and moved forward by water.

In those portions of Brazil which came within my field of
observation there is no glacial drift and there are no glaciated
rock surfaces or glacial topography or other signs of the ex¬
istence of glaciers, and the material of the loess there is wholly
a 'product of erosion by water. But in both Brazil and the
Mississippi Valley loess is a deposit made upon a low-lying
region by the overflow of overloaded streams , that is , by the
overflow of streams bearing to the region more sediment than
they could carry through it with the descent and consequent
velocity of their current due to its elevation.

THE STORY OF THE MISSISSIPPI-MISSOURI.

Dr. E. W. Claypole, Akron, O.

For the purposes of this paper the geological history of the
North American continent may be divided into four ages, the
Archaean, the Palaeozoic, the Mesozoic and the Tertiary. The
telescope of geology has revealed to us more or less of the
details of all these four great eras but, as might be expected,
with very different degrees of clearness. Concerning the first
it is not too much to say that we are only just beginning to
make out through the vast distance which separates it from

1 By N. H. Winchell in the sixth annual report on the geology of
Minnesota.

2 By T. C. Chamberlin & R. C. Salisbury in the sixth annual report
of the U. S. Geol. Survey.

362 Story of the Mississippi- Missouri. — Clay pole.

our day the dim outlines of what then existed. We are be¬
ginning to suspect the action of causes of which we see few
traces in recent times, the occurrence of changes on a scale
and of a nature that can no longer be matched, and the lapse
of aeons whose length must be measured with a different unit
from any of those in use for later eras. The Archaean age in
fact is a simple expression for a complex reality which we
have not yet begun to comprehend, a single word to denote
almost an eternity. For even when we have made all pos¬
sible allowance for greater intensity of causation and there¬
fore for vaster results in equal times the conviction grows
with investigation that the Archaean age was far the longest
of the four and perhaps as long as all the other three together.

The view of that distant field, even with the aid of the
powerful telescope of geology and with the strong light which
is now thrown on it is however so dim that for the purposes
of the present review it will be disregarded and no further
reference will be made to it. Our sketch will begin at or about
the commencement of the next or palaeozoic age.

In attempting to bring into one view what is thus far known
or has been rendered highly probable concerning the geologi¬
cal history of the Mississippi-Missouri river-system the writer
claims no merit for originality. His aim is solely to unite
into a whole what is well known to every American geologist
whose attention has been turned to this department of his
favorite science. It is moreover quite possible that in some
of the details there may not be perfect agreement. This is,
however, a matter of secondary moment and if further con¬
sideration and discussion should modify the story in particu¬
lar parts and reduce it into closer accord with nature one
purpose of the writer will be served.

The commencement of the palaeozoic era shows us the ear¬
liest condition of North America that is at present attainable.
It was then lying for the most part below the waters of an
immense ocean. Where now we see the busy midland, eastern
and southern states, rolled its waters tenanted by strange
forms of life long since extinct. Since that ocean existed
millions of years have elapsed and save for the researches of
geologists its very existence would never have been known.
Variations doubtless occurred from time to time in the outline

Story of the Mississippi- Missouri. — Claypole.

363

of its shores and in its depth but speaking of the region as a
whole it was occupied by sea from a very early date in the
palaeozoic history to its end.

The annexed table will render the sequence of geologic time clear to
the reader. The increasing spaces downward may be taken to rudely
represent the greater length of the eras.

Post-Tertiary.

j Pliocene.

Tertiary.

Mesozoic.

Palaeozoic

Miocene.

Eocene.

Cretaceous.

Jurassic.

Triassic.

Carboniferons.
Devonian .

Silurian.

Ordovician.

Cambrian.

Archaean.

Huronian.

Laurentian, upper.

Laurentian, lower.

The Cambrian age had already passed away and we have
little or no knowledge of the condition of the continent dur-

364 Story of the Mississippi- Missouri. — Claypole.

ing its continuance. Our first view of the palaeozoic ocean of
North America is at the beginning of the following, the Ordo¬
vician, or as it is still called by many geologists, the Lower
Silurian. The northern shore of this body of water was then
the Laurentide mountains of Canada, ranging from the Atlan¬
tic coast in Labrador along the northern side of the great lakes
to the southwest and there turning sharply northwestward to
the shore of the Arctic ocean near the mouth of the Mackenzie
river. Its eastern limit lay, so far as can at present be deter¬
mined, along the line of the Blue Ridge in Pennsylvania and
Virginia; thence northeastward through New England and
Lower Canada to Newfoundland; and southwestward through
Tennessee to Alabama. Between the northern part of this
coast-line and the Laurentides along the present St. Lawrence
valley there lay a long depression occupied during a part at
least of the era by the sea. Southward from Alabama all
traces ai;e lost, the old coast-line being deeply covered by
later deposits.

Regarding the southern shore of this paleozoic ocean noth¬
ing is yet known. Its waters may have extended over the
present gulf of Mexico into Central and South America. But
in the total absence of evidence all attempt at delineating it
would be mere guessing. Nor are we in much better position
in attempting to define its western shore. Where now stand
the various ranges of the western states it is certain that large
areas were covered with water. But a few ranges of highlands
raised their heads above the ocean, forming an imperfect bar¬
rier on that side.

These are all the relics that we have yet succeeded in dis¬
covering of the boundaries of this great palseozoic ocean. But
that others existed and that these were then more extensive
may be readily inferred by the student of geology. The great
masses of strata that lie in the west must have come from the
destruction of pre-existing land and they indicate the past exist¬
ence of much more than the scanty fragments outlined above.
Probably it was not continuous but consisted of separate and
perhaps scattered reefs and islands.1

In the ocean basin thus formed the post-Camhrian deposits of

1 Kegarding the probable past existence of greater land surfaces as
quarries from which the massive palaeozoic sediments of the east were
derived see a paper by the writer in the American Naturalist for De¬
cember, 1887, entitled “ Materials of the Appalachians.”

Story of the Mississippi- Missouri. — Claypole. 365

the palaeozoic era were laid down in succession. Avoiding details
these were the Ordovician, the Silurian, the Devonian and the
Carboniferous. Some of these, especially the earlier ones, ex¬
tended over the whole region, while owing to local conditions
others were confined to much smaller areas. The vast masses
of sediment stretching from the Appalachians to the Rocky
mountains and from the Laurentides to the gulf of Mexico are
composed of the wash and waste of their contemporary lands.
Rivers that have long ago disappeared bore down their tribute
of sand and mud and strewed it over the floor of the ocean, to
to be further distributed by its waves and tides. The greater
part by far of this sediment was scattered along the Atlantic
border where a continuous depression of the ocean bed was in
progress. This is amply proved by the fact that in some
places forty thousand feet of strata have been accumulated
bearing through their whole mass the marks of shallow water.
Whether this depression was the cause or the consequence of
the deposit is still, after years of investigation, a moot point
in geology. But certain it is that the two proceeded contem¬
poraneously and that the ultimate extent of the depression
was not less than seven or eight miles, over an area at least
three hundred miles in width and running along the whole
length of the coast line traced above.

This trough is filled with the shales, sandstones and con¬
glomerates that resulted from the weathering and wasting of
a passed-away continent. It contains but few limestones.
Limestones are the result for the most part of deep sea condi¬
tions and accordingly as soon as we recede from the coast we
observe a change in the nature of the strata. The same bed
which in Pennsylvania is a shale or even a sandstone becomes
a limestone when it is traced into Indiana and Illinois. Thus
the Utica and Hudson-River shales of the East become lime¬
stones in the interior basin. Even the sandstones of the Coal-
Measures are in like manner represented by limestones in the
midland states. Their thickness also diminished at the same
time. Instead of the six, seven or eight miles that measure
them in New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Tennessee and
Alabama we find the whole series so reduced as not to exceed
five thousand feet in depth. So great is the difference both in
mass and in material that in many cases it has proved impos¬
sible to identify the strata in the west with their counterparts

366 Story of the Mississippi-Missouri. — Claypole.

in the east save by means of their organic remains. The
study of the fossils has been the only means of binding the
two together where it was not possible to trace the beds con¬
tinuously from one place to the other.

Although taken as a whole the palaeozoic era was, in the
midland states, a quiet and undisturbed time yet there were
not lacking signs of coming trouble. In the later portion of
the Ordovician age, or perhaps in the early part of the
Silurian, a thrust occurred which had the effect of bending
the strata already deposited and of forming a long, low arch
extending from the southwestern portion of Ontario near the
southern end of the Georgian bay through Ohio and Kentucky
into and beyond Tennessee. The flexure was slight but its re¬
sults were great on the geology of those states.

At about the same time and owing probably to the same
cause, whatever that may have been, a similar thrust elevated
the Green Mountain region which has ever since remained
above water. This change probably cut off the previously
existing connection between the interior basin and the sea to
its northeast.

Again at the close of the Devonian age were heard the mut-
terings of the restrained earth-forces. The strata laid down
during all this period in Maine and in some other parts of the
northeastern states and adjoining regions of Canada suffered
compression and were folded, crushed and elevated above the
sea-level.

But the great catastrophe did not come till the end of the
palaeozoic era. Then the long period of rest was broken by
violent thrusts from the southeast before which the massive
sediments gave way and were flexed and crushed as so many
sheets of paper. The long arches of the Appalachians arose
fold behind fold just where the strata were thickest. From
these arches have since been carved by erosion the Allegheny
mountains which despite their hight and extent are but the
fragments of the thicker and heavier masses of strata out of
which they were made.

The “ Appalachian revolution ” as this great catastrophe in
the geological history of North America has been aptly named,
not only raised the vast rampart of the Allegheny mountains
between the interior basin and the Atlantic ocean but it also ^
produced or at least was synchronous with the permanent dry-

Story of the Mississippi- Missouri. — Claypole. 367

ing of the greater part of that basin. At the close of the palae¬
ozoic era midland North America raised its head above the
water and has never as a whole been since washed by the sea.
The long continued subsidence to which I have already alluded,
and which, though most profound on the Atlantic sea-board
yet, doubtless, extended over the whole Mississippi valley,
ceased in the east at that date. The consequent accumulation
of sediment was arrested and the opposite process of erosion
immediately set in.

Whether this important geological change was caused by
elevation of the land or by depression of the bed of the ocean
somewhere else it is not at present possible to determine. Not
a little significant evidence points in the latter direction. But
for our purposes here the question is not very important and we
will not enter on any further consideration of it. It will be
sufficient to point out that the palaeozoic sediments thin regu¬
larly away from the eastern highlands to the west and that on
approaching the site of the present Rocky mountains they
again grow thicker often to a considerable extent.

On the emergence of the wide, low flats on which for so
many ages had been growing the humble but gigantic vegeta¬
tion of the Coal-Measures, lines of drainage were of course at
once established. These followed the original slope of the
ground and the great trunk stream took its channel at the
lowest line of flow. Here is the physical cause of the position
of the Mississippi river. It lies where the strata were thin if
not thinnest and collected its waters from both sides of the
interior basin.

As the land slowly rose above the waters the great river
developed. But it was not the great river as we know it at the
present day. At first an insignificant stream showing little
promise of what it was destined one day to become it drained the
high lands and plateaus of Minnesota and the adjoining regions
not perhaps in the exact channel which it at present occupies
but probably not very far from it. As the water retreated the
young giant grew and was strengthened by the accession of
numerous other streams that previously reached the sea by
independent mouths. The retreat of the sea continued south¬
ward until the new continent was plainly outlined, its mount¬
ain-ranges defined and its shores determined. The North
America that existed after the Appalachian revolution was

368 Story of the Mississippi- Missouri. — Claypole.

not the North America of to-day and its great draining stream
was not the mighty Mississippi as we know it. With its
sources somewhere up in the northern states its mouth was
near the site of the city of St. Louis. A deep gulf then
extended northward from the present gulf of Mexico to that
point, along the line of lowest ground, and it is quite possible
that the Ohio reached this gulf by a mouth of its own without
entering the Mississippi at all. Eastern North America con¬
sisted of the range of the Appalachians as a backbone with a
large extent of lower land lying on both sides of it where are
now the states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Vir¬
ginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, Tennessee
and Kentucky (the last then only in part) ; and farther north
and west those of Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin,
Minnesota, Missouri, with parts of Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas
and the Indian Territory. It also included the whole of Can¬
ada to the foot of the Laurentide mountains. This was the
area the greater portion of which passed its drainage into the
sea by the young Mississippi and Ohio.

Of these two rivers it is not certain that at that date the
Mississippi was the longer. The question is not easy of de¬
cision. The difference certainly was not great and there lurks
in the mind a suspicion that at all events during parts of this
long age the advantage may have been on the side of the now
smaller river. The Ohio, however, had a limited field for
growth and has remained ever since its creation very much
what it then was while the Mississippi has followed the ad¬
vice “ Go West.” It has gone west and grown up with the
western country so that it has far outstripped its eastern
rival and competitor. This will become clear as we proceed.

As yet there was no Missouri. The second river of the mid¬
land region, the tributary without whose aid the “ Father of
Waters” would sink to a very low position among the rivers
of the earth, had not yet come into being. While the Mississ¬
ippi is one of the oldest rivers of America the Missouri
is one of the youngest. The Mississippi came into ex¬
istence at the end of the palaeozoic age and was one
of the results of the Appalachian revolution. Geological
evidence warrants us in believing that it has been flowing
from that day to this with very slight and temporary
interruptions and changes. There is, however, one fact which

Story of the Mississippi- Missouri. — Claypole. 369

may somewhat modify the statement above made. It is not
impossible that during some time or at some epochs in the
mesozoic era the waters of the Mississippi may have found
their way into the wide channel to be presently mentioned
extending from the gulf of Mexico to the Arctic ocean. The
■course of the river was not separated from this body of water
by more than about three hundred miles of land and this land
possessed no very high ground to act as a watershed between
them. There are some facts relating to the Mississippi delta
which insinuate that the permanent outlet of the Mississippi
into the gulf was not established until the western land had
been elevated and in that case its former mouth must have
been on the shores of the mesozoic channel or ocean to the
westward. But on the other hand the Missouri is one of the
last productions of the development of the continent. Its
birth is a thing of yesterday when compared with that of its
aged companion. Indeed it is scarcely out of its cradle. The
Mississippi has long since worked its channel into shape and
it now flows clear and steady. The Missouri is still employed
in excavating a course for itself and its waters are laden with
the clay and sand which it is removing from its bed. The
Mississippi-Missouri — the greatest river-system on the globe —
is made up of an old and a young stream but during all its
■earlier history the older stream worked alone and only in
days comparatively recent has it been joined and reinforced
by its young and vigorous companion.

The deposit brought down from the upper country by the
•elder stream began to fill the head of the great gulf at its
mouth and in this way to lengthen the course of the river.
Before long the Ohio joined it and the two formed one delta
reaching below the site of St. Louis. How far this process
was carried on during mesozoic time we have no means of
determining. But through all this time the Mississippi basin
was washed by the waters of the great river and was contrib¬
uting of its substance to the formation of the delta.

The long palaeozoic depression which came to an end in the
•east at the close of the Carboniferous age seems to have con¬
tinued or to have set in again immediately afterwards in the
west. For we there find that a wide arm of the sea extended
up from near the mouth of the gulf already described that is
from the site of the Texas of our day through the western

370 Story of the Mississijojpi-Missouri. — Claypole.

states into Canada and to the Polar sea, near the mouth of
the Mackenzie river. This area includes the whole of the
basin of the Missouri which river therefore we have already
said had then no existence. In this sea the beds of the Trias-
sic, Jurassic and Cretaceous ages were laid down, and it must
therefore have continued perhaps with minor changes during
the entire mesozoic era. All this time it is nearly certain that
the older river continued the even tenor of its way through
ages that witnessed great and striking events in geologi¬
cal history. In this interval occurred the outbreak of the vol¬
canoes of Pennsylvania which have covered with their ashes
large areas in the southeast part of that state and have inter¬
sected with dykes of dolerite the Triassic strata of that and of
the adjoining region. The Atlantic seaboard has probably
never experienced so violent and extensive an outburst. The
outflows of lava reached from Nova Scotia to Carolina, a dis¬
tance of more than a thousand miles, and the products of the
eruption — the traps — are of the same nature over all this
great length of country. Then it wTas that some of the most
striking features of the scenery of the eastern states were
rendered possible. Then flowed out the masses of igenous rock
of which Mt. Tom and Mt. Holyoke in Massachusetts are
composed. Then came from the interior of the earth the basalt
of the Hanging Hills near Meriden, Bergen Hill in New Jersey
and last though by no means least in this region the famed
and beautiful columnar palisades of the Hudson. All these are
bosses of hard trap-rock capable of resisting the action of the
weather and exposed by the erosion of the softer material un¬
der which they formerly lay buried.

The volcanic action and the outflow of trap were not con¬
fined to the spots already indicated. Further to the north
there were vast eruptions in New England and in Nova Scotia.
All along the valley of the Connecticut the edges of the lava
beds can be seen and on the shores of the bay of Fundy lies a
massive sheet of basalt well seen in the red and commanding
bluffs of cape Blomidon on the bay of Mines.

Southward again extended the region of volcanic action and
the Triassic strata of Pennsylvania and of Virginia are cut in
all directions by basaltic walls and sheets of igneous rock.
The now sadly memorable features of the desperate and de¬
cisive battle-field of Gettysburg are consequences of those dis-

Story of the Mississippi- Missouri. — Claypole. 371

tant outbreaks. Seminary Ridge, where the Confederate army
was stationed, and the Little and Gray Round Tops are merely
bosses of dolerite whose hardness has enabled them to sur¬
vive the softer beds that formerly overlay them, while the
famed Devil’s Den is a valley of erosion lying between them
and heavily strewn with their wreckage.

During this long lapse of time mutterings of coming dis¬
turbance were not unheard in the west. The regions of the
Rocky mountains, so long at peace, began to feel the thrusts of
a mighty earth-force. And though the geology of the western
district is yet far from being worked out we know that during
the age in question the range of the Sierra Nevada was ele¬
vated and that about the same date the Wahsatch and the
Uinta ranges came into being. These were but forecasts of
what was about to occur and heralded the second great revolu¬
tion in the geological history of the continent.

But the Cretaceous age passed away without, so far as we are at
present aware, any very great disturbances in the North Ameri¬
can area. Yet we are certain that there must have been changes
of no small extent in other parts of the globe for at the end
of this era there occurred the widest extinction of species that
geology has yet revealed. So far as North America and Europe
are concerned very few animals or plants passed up from the
Cretaceous into the Tertiary deposits. Into the cause of this
significant fact we need not enquire here. It was probably the
result of great changes in the distribution of land and sea.
We have ample indications of this in the disappearance of the
waters from the long channel already described running from
the gulf of Mexico to the Arctic ocean. In this had been suc¬
cessively laid down the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous
strata. But at the end of the latter age the channel became dry
land and never since that day has the ocean invaded the
heart of the continent.

The geological history of the western states was in fact a
repetition of that of the east. Through all the secondary or
mesozoic era the greater part of that area was in a condition
of slow and intermittent subsidence like that of the eastern
border during the eras of palaeozoic time. But soon after the
close of the Cretaceous age this subsidence was arrested and
a counter movement set in. Before the Tertiary era had far
advanced vast areas of the western country began to emerge

372 Story of the Mississippi- Missouri. — Claypole.

from the sea and a process of crumpling and crushing set in
corresponding to that which the Atlantic states had under¬
gone. The massive Cretaceous and early Eocene beds be¬
tween ten and twenty thousand feet in thickness were up-
heaved by an earth-thrust from the Pacific to form the back¬
bone of the Rocky mountains, which, buttressed and rein¬
forced by other ranges of somewhat later date, elevated at the
end of the Eocene arid during the Miocene, have raised the
high western rampart of the continent from Mt. St. Elias to
Mexico.

During the same period also occurred that elevation of the
Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks of the Atlantic border which
has placed some of them six and eight hundred feet above the
sea and not improbably the peninsula of Florida dates its
origin to about the same epoch.

The reader can now realize the progress made by the con¬
tinent during the secondary and Tertiary eras. The whole
western area was then added and the land out of which the
wide western states are made was for the first time laid dry.

Not until this had occurred was the Missouri river possible-
But when the Pacific revolution had exposed the large western
region and raised the Rocky mountains to a hight far exceed¬
ing that of the Appalachians and had added to North America
a tract of land as great as its whole previous area a new sys¬
tem of drainage ensued and the magnificent rivers of the
Northwest were developed. Prom the slopes of newly risen
mountains, from the wide, flat prairies lying between them
and from the plateaus and isolated groups of hills scattered
over the land came the new streams all making their way into
the great central valley. During the elevation and for a long
series of years this western country was a lake region. Broad
sheets of fresh water lay here and there over its surface
dammed in by the unequal rising of the land. One of the most
striking features of the geology of these western states is this
great development of lakes. They held the waters brought
down by the rivers from the upper lands and were swelled by
the melting snows on the mountains. These torrents brought
in vast masses of sand and mud which filled the beds of the
lakes while the outflowing streams cut down their outlets so
that in process of time this “ lake-age ” of the west passed
away. It did not pass however without leaving an ample

Story of the Mississippi- Missouri. — Glaypole. 373

monument of its existence in those wonderful bone-fields in
the “ bad lands ” and other places from which palaeontologists
are now extracting material for filling our museums and for
reconstructing the mammalian history of the American Ter¬
tiary era.

The longest of the new streams born on the eastern slopes of
the western mountains was the Missouri. From its source it
now flows at first eastward and then southward gathering on
its right bank all the others that descend from the same
range, the Yellowstone, the White, the Niobrara, the Platte,
the Loup and the Kansas, and many of smaller size. Its
rapid fall and headlong, impetuous course are to the geologist
clear indications of a young river that has not yet worn down
its channel. The sand and clay that are constantly borne
down by its waters confirm the indication and fully bear out
the belief that the Missouri river is still in the days of its
youth. As we have seen, it only dates back to the middle or
perhaps even to the latter part of the Tertiary era.

The same changes that called the Missouri into being also
contributed to increase the Mississippi. The elevation of the
southern land and the increased mass of sediment brought
down by the united waters carried the mouth farther and
farther out to sea adding acre after acre to the great delta until
now it extends more than five hundred miles to the south from
the original mouth of the river near St. Louis. It is probable
that nearly all this vast mass has been brought from the
mountain region since the Missouri began to flow. The chief
work of this river therefore has been to undo to a certain
extent the elevation which produced the Rocky mountains and
the dry land of the west as far as the Pacific watershed.

By this immense extension of its length its volume was pro¬
portionately enlarged. The creation of the great delta inter¬
cepted the other streams coming from the mountains further
south and rendered them tributary to the Mississippi. The
St. Francis, the White, the Arkansas, the Washita and the Red
rivers are all in this condition. They have lost their individ¬
uality and instead of reaching the sea on the west of the great
southern gulf they joined with the trunk stream and are lost in
it before they enter the gulf of Mexico. Each of them con¬
tributed huge masses of material to the delta which therefore
increases rapidly. Each no doubt had its own separate and

374 Story of the Mississippi- Missouri. — Clay pole.

independent delta but these are now buried and lost in the
greater one formed by their union.

Hundreds of thousands, perhaps millions of years have
passed away since the Mississippi-Missouri river was finally de¬
veloped and complete. All the later Tertiary ages saw it in per¬
fect running order, mainly as it exists in our own time, except
near its mouth where the annexation of the great southwestern
streams has been in process. The Pliocene age in North Amer¬
ica seems to have passed quietly without any of those special
changes which were witnessed by the ages that immediately
preceded it. But our river-system did not pursue the even
tenor of its way without disturbance and interruption even
after its development was complete. Once at least, probably
twice, and possibly several times has its domain been invaded
by the icy hosts of the frost-king. Creeping slowly down from
the high lands of Canada they have overrun the northern
states carrying ruin and destruction before them. Slowly
they marched forward sweeping the very soil clean beneath
them and burying all under one white deluge of ice and snow.
Dispute as we may about the causes of the ice-age there is no
ground for doubting its reality. The invasion from the north
spread farther and farther southward until all New England
was covered. It gained allies from the then snow-clad Adir-
ondacks and the two crept on, crossed the great lakes, landed
on their nearer shores and slowly overwhelmed the adjacent
country. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Min¬
nesota, Dakota, Nebraska, Iowa and Missouri disappeared
under the ice-sheet. The slopes of the western mountains
sent down their reinforcements and the states along their east¬
ern flank were buried beneath the glacier. More than half the
continent disappeared and the entire basin of the Mississippi-
Missouri was blotted out, except possibly its mouth. The
Ohio then for a time resumed its rank as the great river of the
continent, but even this was probably subject to more or less
interruption.

Such was the condition of North America during the ice-age.
In all probability this inroad occurred twice for there is very
strong ground for believing that the glacial-era consisted of
two extreme periods separated by an interval when the cold
was less severe. It is also probable that the extent of the
.glacier was less in the second onset than in the first. The

Story of the Mississippi- Missouri. — Claypole .

375

marks which it has left show that in the first period the ice ex¬
tended nearly to the mouth of the Ohio but in the second its
range was probably limited to the northern line of states and
reached litttle south of the lakes. Even then, however, it
buried in ice the northern part of the Mississippi and the head
waters of the Missouri so that these rivers were considerably
reduced in size and extent. But in both cases as the ice
melted away and the land was again uncovered their main
channels of drainage resumed almost exactly their previous
lines of flow and the preglacial hydrography of the country
was restored. It is true that in some cases the deposits left by
the ice blocked up the old courses and the returning rivers
were in consequence compelled to find new ones. But such
instances, though considerable in number, were chiefly con¬
fined to the smaller streams and did not affect the great trunk
lines so that they need not be further considered here. The
present drainage of the valley of the Mississippi is an almost
exact reproduction of that which existed in pre-glacial times.

If, however, as some geologists believe, there has been a
series of glacial invasions following one another from at least
the beginning of the Tertiary era then we must intercalate into
the life of this great river-system as many interruptions of the
kind just described. For every such period must have caused
a stoppage of the drainage as complete as that produced by
the one ice-age of whose recent occurrence the geologist has no
doubt. Such intercalations will not affect in any degree the
truth of the story as here given but will render it more com¬
plex in proportion to their frequency. As however we have
thus far no certain proof of this recurrence of cold conditions
it will be unnecessary further to consider the subject.

We have traced this great river-system from its tiny begin¬
nings on the wide flats and gently sloping beaches of a conti¬
nent emerging from the waters of the palaeozoic ocean through
the long Secondary and Tertiary eras of geologic history. We
have seen it, small at first and draining a comparatively lim¬
ited basin, grow with the growth of the country as the Ameri¬
can Mediterranean sea of the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous
ages became less and less and ultimately passed away. We
have seen it reinforced by the addition of the waters of all the
new region to the west as the elevation of the Rocky moun-

376 Story of the Mississippi- Missouri— Clay pole.

tains slowly progressed. We have watched the development of
its great tributary, the Missouri, as it brought down the waters
of the large western lakes and the melting snows of the moun¬
tains until the lakes passed away, drained by the cutting down
of their outlets and filled by the mud and sand of their tribu¬
taries. We have seen the domain of the united rivers over¬
flowed by the northern ice and well nigh buried beneath the
snowy mantle which the age of cold spread over the face of the
country. We have noted the probable, the almost certain re¬
currence of this disaster a second and possibly more than a
second time. And finally we have seen the two great rivers
reassert their supremacy as the ice sheet disappeared and re¬
sume their ancient channels almost without change. The
Missouri still carries down to the gulf loads of sand and mud
such as it carried in its early days and the Mississippi still
flows, clear and generally placid, as becomes the older stream.

Shall we in conclusion look forward and try to see what the
future has in store for this mighty river-system? The geolo¬
gist sees in every lake only a transient phase of the earth’s
geography. The existence of a lake is only a question of time.
If it has a feeder that feeder will ultimately fill it up. If it has
an outlet that outlet will ultimately drain it dry. If it has
neither the one nor the other the growth of vegetation in its
waters and the wash from its banks must in the end bring
about the same result. Thus the Missouri has drained the
great Tertiary lakes that once occupied a large area in the
western states, in Dakota and Nebraska, and they have
passed away. And it is now engaged in the work which may
be called the special function of all rivers — it is carrying down
the continent to the gulf. In this it is aided by the other
rivers of the system, the Mississippi, and the Ohio and their
tributaries in the south. All are slowly washing North Amer¬
ica into the sea, and give them only time enough and they will
accomplish their task unless the counter forces that in days
gone by elevated it above the waves again come into play
bringing up new mountains and new plateaus or raising to a
higher level some of those already existing. Such changes
are to be looked for in the distant future but it is beyond the
ken of the prophet to foresee their date. If, as experiment
and observation seem to show, the result of the action of the
Missouri is now lowering the level at the rate of a foot in

On Lingulasma , Etc. — Ulrich.

377

about four thousand years it is easy to calculate the date
when it should be at a sea-level. But the process becomes
less and less rapid as the land becomes low and the data
necessary for the solution of the problem are not yet within
our reach. All these geological changes are inconceivably
slow. Generations have come and gone and generations more
will come and go ere any difference in our geography will be
observable. The life of man as an individual is but a speck
beside the aeons through which nature acts and the existence
of man as a species scarcely more than an infinitesimal quan¬
tity beside the eras through which we have been tracing the
existence of the great Mississippi-Missouri water-system.
Long before these rivers have accomplished what has been
aptly called “ their contract of filling the gulf of Mexico ” all
our existing state of things will have passed away ; the face of
the earth will become unrecognizable to those who now dwell
on it, and possibly man, “ the lord of- creation ” as he proudly
styles himself, will be numbered among the extinct species of
the globe ; his remains may be treasured in the strata of the
future as samples of a creature that once lived, when he him¬
self has given place to some higher or possibly to some lower
but fitter survivor in the struggle for existence.

In the above brief sketch of a very long story many of the less im¬
portant points have been entirely omitted to secure greater clearness
and avoid undue length. An earlier palaeozoic river on a small scale
may have existed among the Archaean highlands of Minnesota and Wis¬
consin, and great changes of level probably occurred during the Ter¬
tiary era in the southern states. But these and many other details
would not affect the main story. [E. W. C.]

ON LINGULASMA, A NEW GENUS, AND EIGHT NEW
SPECIES OF LINGULA AND TREMATIS.

By E. O. Ulrich. .

LINGULA PROCTERI, n. sp.

Figs. 1 a, lb, 1 c.

Shell acutely elongate-ovate, the width and length respect¬
ively as three is to five; widest in front, narrowing gradually
to the beaks. Front margin generally a little straightened,
but sometimes the whole anterior third is rounded uniformly.
Sides gently convex, converging posteriorly from the point
of greatest width which is about two-thirds of the length from
the beaks. Apex of the dorsal valve narrowly rounded, that
of the ventral acute and projecting considerably beyond the

378

On Lingulas'! na, Etc . — Ulrich.

other. Both valves moderately but unequally convex the
depth of the ventral being less than that of the dorsal and
greatest about the middle of the shell. Surface With rather
fine concentric strise and more distant undulations marking
stages of growth.

Fig. 1 a. An average specimen of Lingula procteri Ulrich, showing
the ventral side. The shell is largely exfoliated. Collection of Mr.
C. Schnchert.

On Lingulasma , Etc. — TJlrich.

379

Fig. 1 6. Dorsal side of same, showing, where the shell is removed,
the median septum and traces of the scars of the muscular system.

Fig. 1 c. Longitudinal section of same to show convexity of valves.

Fig. 2. Lingula bisulcata Ulrich. Collection of Mr. C. Schuchert.

Fig. 3 and 3a. A large ventral or pedicle valve of Lingula whitfieldi
Ulrich, preserving only a small portion of the exterior layer of the
shell. Collection of Mr. Charles Schuchert.

Fig. 3 b. Interior of a small dorsal (?) valve of same showing indis¬
tinct muscular impressions and the pitted surface. Collection of Mr.
C. Schuchert.

Fig. 4, 4 a, 4 b. Three specimens of Lingula modesta Ulrich, showing
extremes of size and slight variations in the former.

Fig. 5. Gutta percha impression taken from the dorsal or brachial
side of a nearly perfect cast of the interior of Lingulasma schucherti
Ulrich, collected at Wilmington, Ill., and now belonging to Mr. C.
Schuchert’s collection, a, posterior transverse ridge ( ? crescent) ; b,
subcardinal scars ; n, umbolateral scars ; p, post-median scars ; l, later¬
al scars ; m, median scars ; n, anterior scars; t, transverse scars; s,
median plate or septum.

Fig. 5 a. Gutta percha impressions of the pedicle valve of same.
The figure is restored at the beak, the portion above the line being
broken away in the specimen.

5 c. Longitudinal section of same showing elevation of platforms
and median plate.

5 d. Surface of the shell of same x 8. The upper half represents the
appearance on the lateral slopes, while the lower half does the same
for the striae near the front.

Fig. 6. Dorsal and profile views of a medium size specimen of Trem¬
atis fragilis Ulrich. Collection of Mr. C. Schuchert.

Fig. 7. Dorsal valve of Trematis crassipuncta Ulrich. The reticula¬
tion at the front and sides is represented too fine in the figure.

Fig. 7 a. Surface of same x 8. The shell is gone save in the de¬
pressed spaces, where it is marked with fine transverse lines.

Fig. 8. View of a dorsal valve of an elongated example of Trematis
umbonata Ulrich.

Fig. 8a. Profile view of same.

“ 8 6. View of the ventral side of a shorter shell of this species,

and a longitudinal section of same.

Fig. 8 c. Surface of same, x 8, showing the minute character and
Arrangement of the punctures.

Fig. 9. Gutta percha mould of a dorsal valve of Trematis oblata
Ulrich ; whole external form had been preserved by being grown over
by a bryozoan.

Fig. 9 a. Profile view of same.

“ 9 6. Ventral valve of same. A little more circular than usual.

A specimen of medium size is 18 mm. long, 10.5 mm. wide
and nearly 5 mm. in thickness (i. e. both valves).

When the shell is exfoliated, the ventral valve exhibits a
semi-circular band, situated a short distance in front of the
centre, from which short lines radiate outward and forward.
Just behind the middle a similar band, but without the radial
fringe, is traceable. In the dorsal valve a median septum ex¬
tends nearly" to the front margin. Some of the muscular im¬
pressions as shown in fig. 1 b can be made out, but the ap-

380

On lingulasma , Etc. — TJlrich.

pearance of the central region varies considerably, depending
largely upon the degree of exfoliation.

This species resembles L. vanhorni S. A. Millar, but has
the front proportionally wider and less narrowly rounded.
In that species the valves are also equally convex. L. obtusa
Hall has the sides more convex and the beaks more obtuse .

Formation and locality : This species ranges from the
middle beds of the Trenton in central Kentucky to about
fifty feet above low water mark in the Ohio river at Covington,
Ky. The best specimens were collected at Bank Lick, several
miles south of Covington. Specimens of this species are rare.
The types are in Mr. Charles Schuchert’s collection, and in
the author’s.

LINGULA BISULCATA, n. sp.

Fig-. 2.

Compare Lingula huronensis Billings; Geology of Canada, p. 114, fig. 48, 1863.

Of this species I have seen only a single valve, whether
the dorsal or the ventral has not been determined. It is of
sub-pentagonal form, 13 mm. long, and 10 mm. wide. The
front margin is gently convex with the median portion pro¬
truding very slightly. The anterior angles are narrowly
rounded into the nearly parallel and faintly convex sides.
For a short distance on each side of the obtusely pointed
beak the margin is nearly straight and then rounds with a
rather narrowT curve into the sides. Surface with two faint
diverging sulci extending from near the beak to points on the
front margin a little within the angles ; gradually widening
and deepening, and leaving a faintly convex fold between
them. The slope to the lateral margins is flat and for a short
distance- from the beak, even a little concave. Concentric
striae, regular, very fine and crowded on the sides. Over the
front half very fine radiating lines are obscurely visible. On
the inner side a thin median septum extends from the beak to
a point just in front of the middle of the valve where it ter¬
minates abruptly.

As intimated above this species resembles L. huronensis ,
described by Billings from the Chazy group of Canada, very
closely, and the doubt that the differences are of specific im¬
portance is not unreasonable. The figures of that species
show the beaks to be more acuminate, the posterior angles
♦ more distinct and the median fold narrower than in the Cin-

On Lingulasma , Etc. — Ulrich.

381

cinnati specimen. The two snlci distinguish it from all the
other specimens known to me. |

Formation and locality : Lower beds of the Cin. gr. about
75 ft. above low water mark in the Ohio river at a cut of the
C. S. R. R. just opposite Cincinnati, Ohio. The specimen was
found by Mr. Harold Wilson and now belongs to the cabinet
of Mr. Charles Schuchert.

LINGULA WHITFIELD I, n. sp.

Fig. 3, 3 a, 3 b.

Shell rather large, broadly oval, the rostral margin nar¬
rowly rounded, with the beak small and scarcely, if at all, pro¬
truding. Sides for about the third of the length next the beak
nearly straight. Anterior two-thirds uniformly curved, this
portion of the outline being very nearly circular. Beak of
ventral valve a little more produced than that of the dorsal,
the length and breadth of the latter being respectively as
eight is to seven, while these measurements in the ventral
valve relate to each other as twelve is to ten. Outer surface
with rather irregular concentric striae, some of them often
thread-like and stronger than the average. They are, however,
rarely continuous and never so regularly disposed as in the
associated L. coburgensis Billings (Z. covingtonensis Hall
and Whitfield). Both valves moderately convex, with the
most elevated point near the middle. Color white to yellow¬
ish brown. A large valve supposed to be the ventral, is 24.3
mm, long, 20 mm. wide and 3.0 mm. deep.

Interior of dorsal valve roughly pitted, the pits numerous,
small, unequal and generally irregularly arranged but some¬
times exhibiting a tendency to an arrangement in concentric
rows. The muscular impressions which are faintly indicated?
form a figure something like an 8. The two halves of the
figure are drawn out anteriorly, and the posterior half smaller
than the anterior.

This species is related to Z. coburgensis Billings, but differs
from it in being comparatively shorter and wider in front.
Z. obtusa Hall, is smaller and narrower ; Z. curta Conrad, has
a more acute beak ; Z. perryi Billings, differs in its form
being sub-triangular in outline. The pitting of the interior
surfaces of the valves distinguishes this species from all
others known to me, save one, which occurs in the same beds
with it and begins already in the middle Trenton beds of cen-

382

On Lingulasma , Etc. — Ulrich.

tral Ky. The form of that species agrees very nearly with
Z. coburgensis Billings. The surface characters, however, are
slightly different and it may he a distinct species. The spe¬
cific name is given in honor of Prof. R. P. Whitfield, the ac¬
complished paleontologist of the American Museum in New
York city.

Formation and locality: Lower beds (Utica Slate horizon)
of the Cincinnati group, a few feet about low water mark in the
Ohio river at Covington, Ky. The figured specimens are from
the cabinet of Mr. Charles Schuchert. Others belong to the
author’s collection.

LINGULA MODESTA, n. sp.

Fig. 4, 4 a, and 4 b.

Shell small, subovate, widest in the anterior half, the width
and length, respectively, in four representative cases, 3.5 to
5.2, 5.5 to 8, 7 to 10 and 7 to 11, the figures representing the
dimensions in millimetres. Both valves with exceedingly
little convexity, appearing in most cases perfectly flat. In¬
terior third or half usually uniformly rounded. Front mar¬
gin occasionally somewhat straightened. Sides gently con¬
vex to near the beak which in none of the numerous speci¬
mens examined seems ever to have formed an acute termina¬
tion. Surface with only very faint concentric undulations ;
even these are quite obsolete, when the shell is preserved in a
shaly or impure limestone matrix. Color white or pearly.

The unusual flatness and nearly smooth surface of the
valves are the characters relied upon in distinguishing this
species. It may be argued that the flatness is due to compres¬
sion, but this is evidently not the case, since numerous ex¬
amples have been collected from limestones containing other
species of Lingula none of which presented any evidence
whatever, of having lost any considerable amount of their con¬
vexity through that cause. In its outline the species re¬
sembles several others, notably L. progne and kingstonensis
Billings. Both those species have the front margin less
rounded, the sides straighter and less converging, and the
beaks, particularly that of the ventral valve, more pointed.
The outline of Z. obtusa Hall, though a larger shell, agrees
very nearly with our species. It is, however, a much more
convex form and generally wider in front.

Formation and locality : Specimens of this species are

On Lingulasma , Etc. — Ulrich.

383

abundant in the hydraulic limestones near the middle of the
Trenton group, at Frankfort, and other localities in central
Ky. The strata which hold them are locally known as the
“ Modiolopsis bed ” from the large number of shells of a new
species of that genus (provisionally named M. oviformis)
contained in them. These beds have yielded fine examples
of Trematis ottawaensis Billings, and a number of species of
Lingula. L. modesta is next met with in the transition beds
of bluish crystalline limestone near Paris, Ky. The “ river
quarry ” beds about Cincinnati also contain it, but individuals
are not of common occurrence. I have also met with ex¬
amples in the blue shales near the tops of the Cincinnati
hills.

LINGULASMA, n. gen.

Shell oblong, subquadrate or sub-pentagonal ; substance of
valves moderately thin, apparently of the same composition
as in Lingula.

Pedicle valve with a slightly projecting obtusely pointed
beak ; under it a large faintly arched deltidium, most of which
seems to have been internal (i.e. extended within the poster¬
ior margin of the brachial valve.) Area apparently absent.
A small socket on each side of the posterior ends of the con¬
verging deltidial borders, and, just opposite their anterior ends
(on each side) a rather large sub-triangular scar. A large
triangular platform extends from the base of the deltidium to
about the middle of the valve. The platform is elevated, tri-
lobed, with its antero-lateral extremities recurved, and the an¬
terior end bisinuate, the central portion being a little prom¬
inent and, below, produced into a low median ridge. On the
inner slopes of the anterior halves of the lateral lobes two
large muscle-scars, apparently the lateral pair, are faintly
traceable. The median and anterior pairs were probably at¬
tached to the anterior half of the central lobe.

Brachial valve with the posterior end narrowly rounded ;
beak very small. On the inner side, just within the narrow
flattened posterior border, there is a small transverse ridge
(a) sinuate centrally on its anterior side and slightly thick¬
ened at the ends. This ridge forms the truncate apex of the
arch-like border of the platform and its swollen ends may
have fit into the small sockets situated just within the apex of
the opposite valve. The platform is concave both transverse-

384

On Lingulasma , Etc. — Ulrich.

ly and longitudinally, greatly elevated in front and prolonged
anteriorly into a remarkably developed median plate. Just in
front of the small transverse ridge already described, there is
a deep excavation and at its bottom a triangular, arched, del-
tidium-like space ( b ). From the abruptly terminating an¬
terior side of this triangle, which is supposed to represent the
sub-cardinal scars, a small and gradually diminishing ridge
extends anteriorly. This divides, at its posterior end, a well
marked subpentagonal scar (p) supposed to be the post
median , and, further on, the scarcely impressed median scars
(m). The position of the anterior scars is faintly indicated at
the point of junction between the median septum and anterior
end of the platform ; likewise the scars of the transverse pair
at the antero-lateral angles of the platform. The umbo-lateral
scars are well defined and situated on the posteriorly converg¬
ing sloping sides of the cavity at whose bottom is placed the
post-median scar. The sub-cardinal, umbo-lateral, and post¬
median scars together cover a somewhat transversely elonga¬
ted space rudely rhomboidal in outline. Of all the scars the
lateral pair is the strongest. These are of oval form, oblique,
and placed one on each side of the medians.

Type : Lingulasma schucherti , n. sp.

There are two English species, Lingula granulata Phillips,
and L. tenuigranulata McCoy, and one Canadian form, L .
canadensis Billings, which I expect confidently will prove to
possess the internal characters of Lingulasma. These three
species agree with L. schucherti not only in the general form
of their shells, but also in possessing so-called “ granulations ”
on the concentric striae, which, being arranged in radial series,
impart a reticulate ornamentation to the surface. These
granulations , I suspect very strongly, are not simply solid
elevations of the surface but, rather, of the nature of short
tubes, or, possibly, the broken bases of tubular spines similar
to those of S iphonotreta. Should my suspicions concerning
the interior of these species and the tubular character of the
“ granulations ” prove well founded, then an additional dis¬
tinguishing peculiarity may be added to the diagnosis of
Lingulasma.

In entering upon a discussion of the relations of this re¬
markable genus, I may at once express my conviction that we
have before us a widely diverging but transient type or spur

On Lingulasma , Etc. — Ulrich . 385

of the Lingulidoe , with a strongly marked tendency to assume
and, perhaps in part foreshadowing, the internal peculiarities
of the Trimerellidce , a family of paleozoic shells whose charac¬
ters have been so conscientiously and admirably worked out by
the late Mr. Thomas Davidson and Prof. Wm. King. (Quart.
Jour. Geol. Soc. vol. xxx; 1874.) It should be remarked
further that their memoir has formed the ground plan upon
which I based my investigations of Lingulasma , and that
their provisional designations of the various scars, where the
equivalence of these could be determined with reasonable cer¬
tainty, have been adopted by me in describing the internal
features of the genus.

The family Trimerellidce , as defined by Davidson and King,
includes more or less calcareous, transversely or longitudin¬
ally elongated, and both thick and thin shells. We have here
three features in which Lingulasma does not correspond with
the family. Of these, the first is, in my estimation, by far the
most important and, fearing that my intentions may be mis¬
understood, I will state at once that I regard the unequivo¬
cally corneo-phosphatic shell of Lingulasma as an insurmount¬
able obstacle to an arrangement of the genus with the Trimer¬
ellidce ; and I may add that in none of its external characters
does the new genus correspond with the trimerellids being in
those respects indistinguishable from the lingulids.

After the above preliminary declarations we may pass di¬
rectly to a consideration of the parts belonging strictly to the
interior. Here, I believe myself capable of showing, what may
be already obvious to the reader, that, while the internal char¬
acters taken as a whole deviate widely from true Lingula ,
they correspond in a great degree with those of the Trimer¬
ellidce.

The most striking feature of the interior of . both valves is
the elongated region of the posterior halves which has been
called the platform. With regard to this feature I may safely
say that in no trimerellid is it better developed than in Lingu¬
lasma. On the contrary only in a very few is it nearly as
large or so much elevated. As usual among them the plat¬
form and median plate of the brachial valve of Lingulasma is
higher than that of the pedicle one. The platform in the lat¬
ter also greatly resembles that of the typical species of Trim-
erella in consisting of two convex divisions. In Lingulasma ,

386

On Lingulasma , Etc. — Ulrich.

it is true, these are separated by a third convex longitudinal
space, causing the platform to appear tri-lobed. But little im¬
portance, however, can be attached to this difference, since tri-
lobed platforms pertain to unquestioned trimerellids, the
median lobe evidently representing only a greater develop¬
ment of the median plate which, in Trimerella , supports the
platform and divides the space beneath it into two tunnel-like
vaults. Even these vaults, which are not always present in
Trimerella and not at all in Mohomerella and Dinobolus , are
represented in Lingulasma.

The cast of the interior which furnished the guttapercha
squeezes represented by fig. 5 and 5 a, originally preserved
much of the shell and all of that pertaining to the platform.
This was carefully removed and during the process it was
noticed that the platform consisted of numerous cup¬
shaped laminae placed within one another and so that an open
space was left between each and the preceding and succeeding
ones. From this it is evident that the vaults, of which in this
specimen the last are only deeply concave spaces beneath the
front of the platform, were closed at intervals. The develop¬
ment of these plates I can explain only by supposing them to
have been intended to act as supports to the platform. That
they were not complete is evidenced by the fact that some of
the surrounding matrix had entered into the cavities men¬
tioned. Indeed, in two casts of the interior from Savanah,
Ill., the matrix completely fills the spaces under the platforms
to the beaks.

The resemblances between the Trimerellidce and Lingulas¬
ma already pointed out are fully sustained when we compare
the muscular scars and certain other internal features of, per¬
haps, minor importance. In the first place we find that in
both the platforms are marked by four sets of scars. These
Davidson and King distinguished by the names, medians , an¬
terior s, laterals , and post-medians. The last set those authors
believed to have no relation to the others. They were in¬
clined to refer them to the ovaries.

In comparing the relative positions of these and other sets
of scars we find that the correspondence with Dinobolus is
greater than with either Trimerella or Monomerella. This is
to be expected, since Dinobolus includes species whose shells

On Lingulasma , Etc. — Ulrich.

387

were thinner and contained a smaller percentage of calcareous
matter than the shells of those other genera.

In the brachial valve of Dinobolus we have a rather strong¬
ly marked sub-cardinal scar situated in the umbonal cavity.
This scar is represented by the convex triangular space
marked b in figure 5. In most species of Dinobolus this part
is impressed, but in D. transversus Salter, it is elevated and
of triangular form as in Lingulasma . In front of this Dino¬
bolus has a large sub-rhomboidal post-median scar, with a
longitudinal median keel in at least two species (D. trans¬
versus and davidsoni Salter.) This scar is represented in
fig. 5, at p. Directly in front of it is the faintly traceable
median pair, the same again as in Lingulasma (fig. 5, atm),
and, on each side of these, one of the well-marked laterals.
The last scars seem to diverge posteriorly in Dinobolus while
they converge in the same direction in Lingulasma. If, how¬
ever, the parallel lines marking the surface of the scars be com¬
pared it will be seen that they, at any rate, run in the same di¬
rection in both. The anteriors are not readily determined in
Lingulasma , yet it is scarcely to be questioned that they were
placed, as in the trimerellids generally, at the center of the
anterior extremity of the platform.

Lingulasma has two other sets of scars which appear to be
homologues of two pairs found in the trimerellids : viz., the
umbo-laterals and transverse scars of Davidson and King.
In Trimerella and Monomerella the umbo-laterals are situ¬
ated very near the “ crescent,” but in Dinobolus they are
placed close to the sub-cardinals and post-medians. Thus,
that genus again agrees with Lingulasma (fig. 5, n). The
transverse scars (at any rate the impressions which I have
identified with them) occupy positions in the valves of Lingu¬
lasma much nearer their sides than is the case in any of the
trimerellids. This difference, however, is largely accounted
for by the comparatively greater width of the platform and
the elongate form of the valves.

Concerning the crescent , which seems to be one of the most
persistent characters of the Trimerellidce , I cannot say that it
is unequivocally represented in Lingulasma. In the pedicle
valve, at least, I have not found anything that might be re¬
ferred to it ; but the small transverse ridge just within the

388

On Lingulasma , Etc. — Ulrich.

posterior border of the brachial valve (fig. 5, a), will probably
prove an homologous feature.

Another point of agreement with the trimerellids is fur¬
nished by the archlet. This is represented, in the brachial
valve, by a faintly impressed semi-circular line in front of the
platform. (See fig. 5.)

In the specimen from which the gutta-percha moulds were
taken, the posterior extremity of the pedicle valve is, unfor¬
tunately, broken away, so that we cannot say positively
whether an area was present or not. One thing, however,
seems certain, namely, that only a small portion of deltidium
projected beyond the border of the opposite valve, and, conse¬
quently, that the larger part of it was internal. This, very
likely, would be a unique condition, and, as I am not prepared
to explain the anomaly, the safest policy, manifestly, is to let
it rest with the bare statement of the apparent fact.

There yet remain several points in the internal structure of
the genus which might be discussed, but as they are either not
understood or deemed of only trivial importance, it would
not, perhaps be wise to do so. It may be well, however, to
recommend a careful study of figs. 5, 5 a and 5 c as they repre¬
sent every feature seen on the fossil.

The remarkable agreement in the character of the platforms
and in the disposition of the muscular scars above shown to
exist between the Trimerellidce and Lingulasma , naturally
suggests placing the genus in that family. But, as is stated
at the beginning of this discussion, that could not be done
without violating what appear to be closer ties. The grounds
upon which I base my objections to such an allocation are
(1; that, though the interior of Lingulasma may be said to be
practically identical with that of the trimerellids, it is still true
that the muscular systems of both are not materially different
from that of the Lingulidoe'. and, coupling this fact with (2)
the linguloid form of the shell of Lingulasma , and (3) the
corneo-phosphatic instead of calcareous composition of its
substance, we have an array of evidence strongly in favor of
the Lingulidoe. Moreover, I am inclined to believe that the
platforms of Lingulasma schucherti are exceptionally devel¬
oped and that its trimerellid characters, if the expression be
allowed, will not prove so marked in other species.

The position of Lingulasma appears therefore to be dis-

On Lingulasma , Etc. — Ulrich.

389

tinctly intermediate between the two families, with the compo¬
sition and general outer aspect of the shell favoring an alliance
with the Lingulidce and probably outweighing the internal
points of resemblance to the trimerellids. The course which
would, perhaps, be the least objectionable, and that may be
adopted ultimately, would be to establish a new family for the
reception of Lingulasma and, possibly, Lingitlops Hall.
However, considering the present limited extent of our know¬
ledge concerning the internal characters of the large majority
of paleozoic linguloid shells, the adoption of such a course
now would be, to say the least, premature. Still, I must con¬
fess, the word premature embraces all my objections, since
I am thoroughly convinced that Lingula , as now constituted,
includes several widely divergent t}rpes, and that, when the
species are once studied with a view to their internal peculiar¬
ities, the genus will have to undergo great restriction and sub¬
division.

The Obolidoe might be considered in this connection, but, as
they are doubtlessly removed a step further than either the
trimerellids or lingulids, it is scarcely necessary. Their posi¬
tion seems to be about intermediate between Dinobolus on the
one hand and Discina on the other.

Lastly, it may be remarked, that in Lingulasma we have not
yet the u generalized form ” which Davidson and King thought
might yet be discovered, “ bringing Discina and Lingula , also
OboluSj into close myotic relationship inter se and with Dino¬
bolus. ” No, Lingulasma is only another descendant of that
as yet undiscovered type. Still, the new genus affords at
least a partial verification of their expectations, since its posi¬
tion is unquestionably between Lingula and Dinobolus.

LINGULASMA SCHUCHERTI, n. sp.

Figs. 5, 5a, 5 c, and 5d.

Shell large, oblong, subpentagonal. Front margin nearly
straight or very gently convex, faintly bisinuate, the middle
portion produced very slightly. Anterior angles narrowly
rounded. Sides almost straight, parallel for nearly three
fourths of the whole length, then rounding rather abruptly
into the very slightly convex postero-lateral margins. Pos¬
terior extremity of brachial valve narrowly rounded, that of
the pedicle one sub-acutely terminated by the beak which pro¬
jects somewhat beyond the beak of the brachial valve. Valves

390

On Lingulasma , Etc.- — Ulrich.

rather strongly convex, the brachial more than the other, and
both with the point of greatest convexity a little behind the
middle. The central space on each valve contained within
two lines drawn from the beaks to the anterior angles, is
flattened. Midway between these lines there is a more or less
faintly elevated broad fold which produces the slight central
protrusion of the anterior margin already noticed. The lateral
slopes are also flattened and, on each side of the umbones,
even somewhat concave. Surface with fine but rather irregu¬
lar concentric lines, just visible to the naked eye, and, at var¬
iable intervals, with stronger undulations. The concentric
lines bear hollow granule-like elevations arranged so as to
form series radiating from the beaks. On the lateral slopes
these u granulations ” are elongated and impart a frequently
interrupted or imbricating appearance to the concentric lines
(fig. 5 d, upper half). On the anterior slope this appearance
is not apparent. Here they look more like the broken bases
of short tubular spines. Here, also, the radial series formed
by them are separated by wider interspaces, there being only
about eight in 5 mm. at the front margin to eleven or twelve
in the same space at the posterior angles. Casts of the in¬
terior exhibit concentric furrows near the margins and obscure
radial lines over the anterior half.

Length of best specimen, 40 mm. ; width, 27 mm. ; depth of
both valves, 19 mm. ; depth of brachial valve, 10.5 mm. Some
specimens appear to have been comparatively shorter, but, as
they have clearly suffered through compression, we may reas¬
onably doubt that they were so originally.

This species must be closely related to Lingula canadensis
Billings, from a similar position at the Island of Anticosti.
Also to L. tenuigranulata McCoy, and L granulata Phillips,
described from Lower Silurian deposits of England. The last
is a smaller shell, and the others are proportionally shorter
and wider anteriorly. All have fine surface markings.

It affords me much pleasure to connect the name of Mr.
Charles Schuchert, now of Albany, N. Y., with this highly in¬
teresting species. This gentleman has selected the brachio-
poda as a specialty and owns one of the finest collections of
American paleozoic forms of that class known to me. It is to
be hoped that he will make good use of this advantage and
that we may soon be favored with some of the results of his

Mesozoic Rocks of Colorado. — Stevenson.

391

careful and extended researches in this branch of paleontology.
The fine cast of the interior, which made a diagnosis of the
genus possible, belongs to his collection. Other specimens
are in the author’s cabinet.

Formation and locality : This species is associated with
fossils marking the upper beds of the Cincinnati group, at
Wilmington and Savannah, Ill.

( To be Continued.)

THE MESOZOIC ROCKS OF SOUTHERN COLORADO AND
NORTHERN NEW MEXICO.

By John J. Stevenson.

The mesozoic section along the easterly foot of the Rocky
mountains from central Colorado southward has been studied
more or less, by numerous geologists. In 1869, Dr. Hayden
made a reconnaissance of the whole line from Denver to Galis-
teo creek, making connection with the work of professor
Marcou and the later work of Dr. Newberry. The writer fol¬
lowed the same line, studying somewhat closely in 1878 the
area between Cucharas creek in Colorado and Las Vegas in
New Mexico, and making reconnaissance examinations of the
region between. Denver and Cucharas in 1873 and of that from
Las Vegas to Galisteo creek in 1879. The portion of the line
within Colorado was studied by members of Dr. Hayden’s
corps. Mr. St. John has given an admirable description of
the upper Canadian area in New Mexico ; Dr. Newberry fol¬
lowed the southern portion from Leavenworth crossing of the
Canadian to Santa Fe along the Santa Fe road ; and Prof.
Marcou touched it during an excursion northward to Galisteo
and Pecos.

The mesozoic section in central Colorado shows the follow¬
ing succession :

Cretaceous. *

Laramie.

Fox Hills.

Fort Pierre.

Niobrara.

Fort Benton.

Dakota.

Jurassic;

Trias sic.

The top of the Laramie is not reached near the foot of the

392

Mesozoic Rocks of Colorado . — Stevenson.

mountains southward from Denver. The group is shown in
isolated areas only, having been removed by erosion from the
greater part of the region. The rocks are gray to bluish-gray
and yellow sandstones with shales and numerous coal beds,
which are of great value. The areas best known are the small
coal field near Canon City, Col., the extensive coal field tribu¬
tary to Trinidad, Col., and tying on both sides of the line be¬
tween Col. and N. Mex. ; and the Galisteo area, very small, at
say 25 miles south from Santa Fe, N. Mex. Leaf-beds are not
rare and at many localities they yield abundance of excellent
specimens. The extreme thickness is not far from 2,000 feet.

The Fox Hills is composed mostly of sandstones, blue to
gray to yellowish, with irregular harder layers which resist
weathering. Coal beds of some importance are found in the
section. Northward from Denver on the Platte, where the thick¬
ness is more than 1,000 feet many of the subordinate beds are
rich in characteristic marine -fossils, while others are crowded
Avith the curious nodose fucoid, Halymenites major Lesq.
Southward, the thickness decreases until at Canon City the
vertical range of the Halymenites is about 350 feet; there im¬
portant coal beds occur in this interval. The thickness di¬
minishes until in the Trinidad field the vertical range of
the Halymenites is but 80 feet. No traces of the fucoid Avere
observed in the Galisteo area and there the Fox Hills is sup¬
posed to be absent.1

The Fort Pierre is a great mass of shales forming the slopes
of many mesas on the plains of the Arkansas Canadian and
Purgatory rivers and Avell shown for long distances in the im¬
mediate foothills as well as around the Laramie plateau of the
Trinidad coal field. Beyond the Mora river in New Mexico
they can be followed Avithout difficulty to the Pecos river at
the south ; they are distinct at Galisteo, N. M., Avhere they
underlie the Laramie and rest on the Niobrara. The shales
are black, gray and yellow, both sandy and argillaceous. The
upper portions carry layers of calcareous and ferruginous con-

1 Dr. C. A. White, in a letter, advises against placing much reliance on
this Halymenites , as he has found it in the Fort Pierre of Colorado, and
in the Laramie of the same state, as well as in the marine Eocene near
Laredo, Texas, where it is associated with Cardita planicosta, &c. The
writer, however, uses it only as marking within this region along the
mountain front, the disappearance of the Fox Hills conditions and not
for positive identification of horizons.

Mesozoic Rocks of Colorado . — Stevenson. 393

eretions, which very often are rich in fossils. The extremes of
thickness observed are 900 and 1,700 feet.

The Niobrara consists of limestones, gray to blue, more or
less magnesian, separated by black to grayish blue shales.
The lithological features are very striking, even more so than
are those of the overlying Fort Pierre. These rocks are well
shown below Canon City, Col., and at many other localities
along the immediate foot-hills until the Spanish peaks over¬
flow is reached. Thence exposures are few though character¬
istic until the synclinal runs out in the Moreno valley 35 miles
south from the Colorado line ; but along Cimarron creek,
around Ocate mesa, the Canadian hills, the plains south from
the Mora river, and at Galisteo the exposures are excellent.
The interruptions in continuity are due only to erosion by
the Canadian, Mora and Pecos rivers and their tributaries.
The greatest thickness observed is approximately 700 feet.

The Fort Benton is made up of dark shales and some
irregular sandstones ; it is thin, seldom more than 150 feet
thick, and its material is yielding, so that one rarely finds
any but very fragmentary exposures. These, such as they are,
are numerous enough along the foot of the mountains as well
as near the Canadian hills in New Mexico and near Galisteo.

The Dakota everywhere underlies the Fort Benton but
the contact between the two is frequently shown only on the
waters of Mora river. The Dakota can be traced almost un¬
interruptedly from central Colorado southward to Galisteo
creek in New Mexico. In the writer’s opinion, its variations
southward are more notable than those of the Fox Hills
northward. But before any detailed statement can be made
respecting these changes it is necessary to say something
about the underlying rocks.

The Jurassic south from Denver, Colorado, is repre¬
sented by shales with thin limestones ; near Canon City it is
composed of shales. The Triassic is represented in the same
region by variegated sandstones, more or less conglomerate
in many places, with beds of gypsum, the whole making a
mass of great thickness. But southward from Canon City,
these groups decrease in importance, so that before the waters
of the Purgatory river are reached, they are so thin as not to
be recognized or they are altogether wanting. They are cer¬
tainly wanting in the Moreno valley of New Mexico, 35 miles

£>94 Mesozoic Rocks of Colorado. — Stevenson.

south of the Colorado line, where the Dakota overlaps the
Carboniferous rocks there exposed, and rests on Archaeap.
Red rocks re-appear under the Dakota at about 30 miles
further south, not far above the village of Coyote on Coyote
creek. Thence these rocks were followed southwardly for
nearly 40 miles to Bernal hill and thence westwardly to Gal-
isteo creek. They have a narrow outcrop at the base of the
Dakota bluffs, owing to the rate of dip, the width of the ex¬
posure being so small that it can be represented only by a
line on a map with scale of one inch to four miles. These red
rocks of the Dakota bluff, so distinct along the old stage road
from Pecos river to Galisteo creek, are those which the writer
referred to the Trias sic and they are the Triassic of Mr. Marcou.
The great mass of Trias and Jurassic more than 2,500 feet thick
near Canon City, Colorado, is unrepresented along the line
examined from not less than 20 miles north of the New Mexi¬
can boundary to fully 60 miles south of that line ; thence
southward and around the southern extremity of the Spanish
Ranges, the thickness does not exceed 700 feet. No fossils
were seen in these beds by the writer, but near Las Vegas,
New Mexico, Dr. Hayden found a Modiola of Jurassic type.

Now let us return to the Dakota. The sandstone, which in
central Colorado lies between the Fort Benton beds above,
and the Jurassic beds below is known as the Dakota. The
thickness is not far from 250 feet near the New Mexico line,
where the mass appears to consist of two plates of sandstone
separated by softer material not well exposed; the “ Stone¬
wall ” of Dakota usually shows a notch along the crest, but
the character of this middle material is nowhere shown in de¬
tail, though at one locality there is evidence that a limestone
is present. This is the condition certainly as far as to 15
miles south of the New Mexico line, ’where the overflow of
eruptive rocks puts an end to the exposure and the Dakota is
not shown again for 15 miles or until the Moreno valley is
reached near Elizabethtown, where it rests on the Archaean
and the Niobrara is shown above it. There the triple division
is well exhibited ; and this feature becomes more and more
marked from this locality southward. The thickness increases
rapidly so that the section, which showed less than 300 feet on
the Purgatory river in Colorado, shows on the waters of the
Mora river.

Mesozoic Rocks of Colorado. — Stevenson. 395

Upper Dakota . 750 ft.

Middle Dakota . 600 “

Lower Dakota . 350 “

Total 1,700 ft.

The increase in thickness southward from southern Color¬
ado is as remarkable as the increase in thickness of the Fox
Hills northward from southern Colorado.

The Upper Dakota consists of little aside from sandstones
in the Canadian river region ; it forms bold hills on the trib¬
utaries of Mora river and its upper beds are the surface rocks
of much of the plain on both sides of the Mora and Canadian
canons. It forms the upper part of the walls in those canons,
where the thickness is not far from 800 feet. The rock is hard,
gray to yellowish gray and usually fine grained, so that it re¬
sists erosion admirably. This upper division of the Dakota
shows some shales and limestone southward from Mora
canon in several of the gaps cut through it by streams trib¬
utary to the Pecos river.

The Middle Dakota is shown on the tributaries to the Mora
river as well as in the deep canons of the Mora and Canadian
rivers, on Galisteo creek near the old stage-road and at three
miles east from Galisteo. If consists of shales and irregular
limestones with, in the Galisteo region, occasional beds of
gypsum. Films of gypsum are not rare north from the Pecos
river, but the quantity appears to be more important on the
waters of the Galisteo. Some fairly good exposures on Mora
creek show this group to be made up of dull-gray, flaggy and
soft incoherent sandstones, with variegated shales and some
excessively hard limestone. The section of this division
shows a good deal of variation.

The Lower Dakota is represented everywhere by gray to
yellowish, gray sandstones, with occasional bands of white.
In the many gaps in which these rocks are exposed, one can
find hardly any marked characteristic by which to distinguish
them from those of the Upper Dakota. The Lower Dakota is
distinct first in Moreno valley at somewhat more than 35 miles
north of the locality at which the Triassic rocks re-appear ;
but continuous exposures begin only on the waters of the
Mora river, whence the rock can be followed to Galisteo
creek, without break other than those made by streams cutting
across it. It forms the top of the bluff at whose foot the Atchi-

396 Mesozoic Rocks of Colorado. — Stevenson.

son, Topeka & Santa Fe railroad passes from the Pecos river
near San Miguel almost to Lamy or Santa Fe junction.
Should one rise upon the bluff, taking the old road from San
Miguel to Galisteo, he would cross the whole of the Dakota ,
the Fort Benton and the Niobrara before reaching the latter
village.

In the report on the geology of this region,1 the writer re¬
ferred this whole succession to the Dakota , because it is evi¬
dently the Dakota of Colorado northward greatly expanded ;
but while so doing, made the remark that the whole series
may be Triassic or may be Cretaceous , the grouping having
been made simply for convenience. This remark was too
narrow, as it left the Jurassic out of consideration. As the
Dakota in Colorado rests on rocks clearly Jurassic , there is a
possibility that some portion of this may belong to the Jur¬
assic. But the writer is inclined rather to look upon it all as
belonging to the Cretaceous. Mr. Marcou would place it all in
the Jurassic while others would place much of it in the Triassic.
This question must be settled by some geologist sent in with
time at his disposal, whose studies will not be in reconnais¬
sance but be detailed. Every one, who thus far has touched
the region, has studied the geology only in haste or as inci¬
dental to other work. The differences of opinion during late
years, doubtless, owe their origin largely to this. There may
be much of right in all or much of wrong in one. The wise
man is he who possesses his soul in patience, for fierce invec¬
tive and personal abuse have not yet become accepted or con¬
vincing arguments in stratigraphy.

But be all that as it may. The section at Galisteo can be
duplicated, below the Laramie , at more than sixty miles
northeast along the 36th parallel from Coyote to the Canadian
hills ; and this again by following the same parallel from the
Canadian hills to the bottom of the Canadian canon, though
the very lowest beds of the Lower Dakota are not reached in
the canon at that point. Ascend the canon to the old Leav¬
enworth crossing, 21 miles further north ; there, near the
mouth of Cimarron creek, one is again on the Fort Benton.
The rest of the section to the top of the Laramie is exposed on
this stream. The Galisteo section can be duplicated at any lo-

1 U. S. Geographical Surveys West of 100th meridian, vol. in,
Supplement, chap. vn.

Editorial Comment.

397

calities noth ward, with the simple difference, that the Fox Hills
makes its appearance between the Fort Pierre and the
Laramie , while the Dakota loses much of its thickness. The
lithological features of the Dakota , the Fort Benton , the
Niobrara and the Laramie are strangely persistent along this
line of nearly 300 miles, from Denver to Galisteo.

University of the city of New York.

April 9th, 1889.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

A SANDY SIMOON IN THE NORTHWEST.—

May sixth and seventh, 1889, will long be remembered by
the residents of the Northwest. On those days culminated the
violence of the dry, southeasterly wind which had prevailed in
some portions of the Northwest, particularly in central and
eastern Dakota, for several days previous. The wind itself,
while not specially violent, varying from twenty to forty miles
an hour, and perhaps in some places fifty miles an hour, wras
remarkable for carrying with it clouds of dust and sand which
filled the air and penetrated into houses, and blinded the trav¬
eler who happened to be caught in the roads, and compelled
the cessation of nearlv all outside labor. The wind prevailed
over a large area. It seems to have reached furthest east, and
been most violent, on the sixth and seventh of the month.
The newspapers gave telegraphic accounts of it in Nebraska,
South and North Dakota, Iowa and Minnesota. It probably
also affected western Wisconsin, and considerable portions of
Missouri.

A strong southeasterly parching wind, prevailing for several
days, about that time in the Spring, is a familiar fact to old
residents who have taken note of the peculiarities of the north¬
western climate. It more frequently comes after Spring vege¬
tation is more advanced than it was this season on the days
mentioned, and its effect on small, tender twigs is disastrous.
It is enervating to all animals and merciless on the wilting
vegetation. But prior to this wind, which was followed every¬
where by copious rains, the Spring of 1889 in the Northwest
had been dry ; and this was intensified in its effect on young
vegetation by the preceding dry and open winter. All springs
and streams were unwontedly low. Hence the soil was loose

398

Editorial Comment.

and exposed to the attack of this wind. Grass was not so
large as usual, and did not shield the soil. Extensive prairie
and forest fires had recently denuded large tracts of much
of the protection which vegetation otherwise would have fur¬
nished. Circumstances were favorable therefore for the air to
become filled with flying particles, caught up from the plowed
fields, from the blackened prairies, from the public roads and
from all sandy plains. These particles formed dense clouds
and rendered it as impossible to withstand the blast as it is to
resist the “ blizzard ” which carries snow in the winter over the
same region. The soil to the depth of four or five inches in
some places was torn up and scattered in all directions.
Drifts of sand were formed, in favorable places, several feet
deep, packed precisely as snow drifts are under a blizzard. It
seemed as if there were great sheets of dust and dirt blown
recklessly in mid air, and when the wind died down for a few
moments, the dirt, fine and white, almost seemed to lie in
layers in the atmosphere, clouding the sun and hiding it en¬
tirely from sight for an hour or more at a time. It was so
fine, and penetrated the clothing so that life was burdensome
to those who must face the storm. Mr. C. W. Fink, of Woois-
ley, near Huron, Dakota, stated that it was almost impossible
to live out of doors at some periods of the storm, and that he
would u much rather take his chances in the big blizzard of
two years ago.” While on his way to St. Paul over the St.
Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba raiload, Mr. Fink said the
train passed through what was apparently a storm of fine dust
which seemed to be almost white. It looked much like a
snow storm, and the sun was hid. It was impossible to dis¬
tinguish obstacles at a distance of more than a few feet away.
These phenomena in their intensity did not appear at Minne¬
apolis, but they were witnessed in the more open or originally
prairie tracts, and are given on the authority of others. Dur¬
ing a residence of seventeen years at Minneapolis the writer
has not before witnessed anything that would compare with
this simoon-like storm.

The occurrence of this storm has a bearing on theories of
the origin of the loess. Its area is that over which the loess is
abundant. It would not take long for any beholder to be con¬
vinced that there was enough material being transported in
the wind to constitute, when deposited in water, or even piled

Review of Recent Geological Literature. 399

up as dunes and spread as surface sheets, after a few years, a
stratum as thick as, and constituted like, that of the Missouri-
Mississippi valley. Given such a wind over the same region,
periodically, under the same parched condition of the surface,
it would only require an expanse of water in which this dust
could settle, to form a loess clay, or loam. With the accom¬
panying and following rains other particles would be washed
down from the lands, mingling with some strata of sand, or of
gravel, and a transition from loess to drift sand would be
built up such as has been described in several places.

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

Marine shells and fragments of shells in the till near Boston. By War+
ren Upham. (From the proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural
History, yol. xxiv ; also in Am. Jour. Sci., May, 1889.) The remark¬
able oval accumulations of till called lenticular hills or drumlins are
found to contain in Winthrop, the islands of Boston harbor, and on
the peninsula of Nantasket, many fragments of marine shells, of which
about twenty species are identified, all of which are now living in
Massachusetts bay. These shell fragments occur in the unstratified
glacial drift or till, in the same manner as its boulders and rock frag¬
ments; and Mr. Upham concludes that they were derived from the
glacial erosion of marine deposits of interglacial age within a few miles
northwest, from which direction the drift has been brought. None
have been found fartherjnland, and it is thence inferred that the rela¬
tive heights of land and sea there during the principal interglacial
epoch were nearly the same as now. Venus mercenaries L., the round
clam or quohog, is the most abundant species ; and it is regarded as
evidence that the sea on that part of the coast became warmer in the
interglacial epoch than at the present time, for this species is now
scarce in Massachusetts bay, but it is plentiful south of Cape Cod,
with southward range to Florida.

Seventh Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to the
Secretary of the Interior, 1885-’86. By J. W. Powell, Director. Wash¬
ington, Government Printing Office, 1888. pp. xx and 656; plates
lxxi : figures 114.

This valuable report, bearing date Oct. 1, 1886, has only been re¬
cently issued from the press and bindery, and was distributed to the
working geologists of the county about a month ago.

The progress of the topographic surveys and engraving for a con-
tour map of the United States, in charge of Mr. Henry Gannett, is very
encouraging; though so vast a work must of course occupy many
years. The scale for the greater part of the maps is 1 :125,000, or very
nearly two miles to an inch, with contour lines for each 100 feet ; but
considerable areas of the territories are mapped on the scale of 1 : 250,-
000, about four miles to an inch, with contours for each 200 or 250 feet.

40() Review of Recent Geological Literature.

Professor Raphael Pumpelly, in charge of the division of Archaean
geology, has studied the structure of the Green mountains and of the
Hoosac range and Graylock in northwestern Massachusetts. Prof. N.
S. Shaler, of the Atlantic Coast division, was occupied in field-work on
Martha’s Vineyard, Nantucket, and Mount Desert islands, and in the
region of the Dismal Swamp in Virginia ; and he contributes in this
volume a memoir on the geology of Martha’s Vineyard. The work of
Mr. G. K. Gilbert, of the Appalachian division, with his assistants,
has been chiefty devoted to an investigation of the structure of the
Appalachian mountain system in the states southwest of Pennsyl¬
vania.

Professor R. D. Irving, of the Lake Superior division, reported field¬
work by himself and assistants in northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and
Minnesota ; and he presents in this volume a discussion of the classifi¬
cation of the early Cambrian and pre-Cambrian formations, which are
so fully developed in that region.

The work of the division of glacial geology, under Prof. T. C. Cham¬
berlin, has included various investigations across the entire northern
belt of the United States, from Maine to Idaho and Washington. Pro¬
fessor Chamberlin has supplied to this report a very elaborate mono¬
graph on glacial striae, with a map showing their courses and the ex¬
tent of the glacial drift.

Dr. F. V. Hayden, of the Montana division, reported work in the
Gallatin valley and the Bridger range, including the coal beds which
are profitably worked near the Boseman tunnel of the Northern
Pacific railroad. Mr. Arnold Plague, of the Yellowstone Park division,
has given special attention to the later of the more massive lava flows
in that district, and to their relation to the so-called fossil forests and
plant remains interbedded in the 2,000 feet of volcanic ashes, muds, and
breccias found there. He concludes that volcanic activity in the Park
probably continued, writh varying intensity and occasional periods of
rest, throughout the greater part of the Tertiary and into Quaternary
time.

The Colorado division, under Mr. S. F. Emmons, worked in the
Gunnison or Crested Butte region and in the Denver basin region, an
area around Denver supposed to be underlaid by coah The structure
has proved exceedingly complicated, even beyond expectation. Mr.
George F. Becker, of the California division, reports the completion of
his field studies of the quicksilver deposits of Steamboat springs, Ne¬
vada, and the beginning of work on the Gold Belt, which will form
the next subject of investigation by that division.

Capt. C. E. Dutton, assisted by Mr. J. S. Diller, has studied the
Cascade mountains and the coast ranges of the Pacific states. He
finds that volcanic action probably prevailed there during nearly the
whole of the Tertiary era.

Mr. Lawrence C. Johnson, of the Louisiana division, reports an ex¬
amination of the iron deposits of that state. Mr. W. J. McGee, of the

Revieio of Recent Geological Literature.

401

Potomac division, has given his attention to the Potomac and later
formations in the District of Columbia and in the states of the Atlantic
slope ; and he contributes a paper to this volume on the geology of
the head of Chesapeake bay.

Brief reports of the work of the Survey in paleontology are given by
Prof. 0. C. Marsh, Mr. C. D. Walcott, Dr. C. A. White, and Mr. W. H-
Dali; in paleobotany, by Mr. L. T. Ward; on fossil insects, by Mr.
S. H. Scudder; in chemistry and physics, by Prof. F. W. Clarke; on
mining statistics and technology, by Mr. Albert Williams, jr. ; on
forestry, by Mr. George W. Shutt; on the illustrations of the Survey
publications, by Mr. W. H. Holmes; and on the library, and ex¬
change, sale, and distribution of the publications of the Survey, by Mr.
Gharles C. Darwin.

Besides the special papers which have been already mentioned, Mr.
Joseph P. Iddings has one on the obsidian cliff in the Yellowstone
National Park; Prof. William M. Davis treats of the structure of the
Triassic formation of the Connecticut valley ; and Mr. Thomas M.
Chatard writes of salt-making processes in the United States. These
and the other papers accompanying this report will be more fully
noticed later.

Elemente der Paleontologie , von Dr. Gustave Steinmann unter mit-
wirkung von Dr. Ludwig Doderlein. I Halfte : Protozoa-Gastero-
poda. 8 vo. pp. 336. 1888.

This rather extended course in palaeontology is intended as a com¬
panion to Credner’s Elemente der Geologie ; and while primarily de¬
signed for European beginners in the study of ancient life, it is of con¬
siderable interest to students of this country on account of its recog¬
nition of American labor. Specifically, it is the adoption of a classifi¬
cation of the Crinoids proposed by Wachsmuth and Springer. With¬
out change the systematic arrangement of the Crinoidea as set forth
by the American writers is selected in preference to that of Zittel and
other European systematists. It is indeed gratifying to all American
paleontologists to see this worthy estimate placed upon the morph olog“
ical studies and generalizations of two of their number. Inasmuch
aSvthe Elemente are adapted especially for use on the continent, and
the material which is to illustrate the text is almost exclusively Euro¬
pean, the work is not very well suited to the needs of those in this
country wishing to acquire a fair acquaintance with the subject. The
arrangement of the book, however, is very convenient and it would be
well if some of our science text-books were constructed on a somewhat
similar plan. The treatment of each class, or order, in the more im¬
portant geological groups, is prefaced by a brief bibliography of the
principal works discussing the general morphological features of that
particular group. Thus the pupil is immediately referred to the best
literature on the group he is considering; and his collateral reading
and study is only limited by his time and inclination. Keys to the
chief families and genera are given under each class; also synoptic

402

Recent Publications.

tables of the geological distribution of genera. The present part is il¬
lustrated by nearly 400 excellent wood cuts. The second half of the
work, comprising the remainder of the invertebrates, the vertebrates
and the plants is promised during the year, and is probably now reMy
for distribution. _ C. R. K.

RECENT PUBLICATIONS.

1. State and Government reports.

Eighth annual report of the state mineralogist of California, Wm. Ire-
lan ; for the year ending Oct. 1, 1888, pp. 948, plates and sections.

2. Proceedings of scientific societies.

The coral reefs of the Hawaiian islands. By Alexander Agassiz.
Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative zoology, vol. xvii, No. 3. April,
1889.

3. Papers in Scientific Journals.

The Canadian record of Science, vol. hi, No. 6. Glaciation of eastern
Canada. Robert Chalmers. Gypsum deposits in northern Manitoba.
J. B. Tyrrell. Classification of Cambrian rocks in Arcadia; Supple¬
mentary note, G. F. Matthew. Archseocyathus, Billings, and other
genera allied thereto. G. J. Hinde.

Amer. Jour. Sci., May No. Marine shells and fragments of shells in
the till near Boston, Warren Upham. Stratigraphic position of the
Olenellus fauna of North America. Chas. D. Walcott. Earthquakes
of California, Edward S. Holden,

4. Excerpts and individual publications .

The Cretaceous and Tertiary geology of the Sergipe-Alagoas basin of
Brazil, J. C. Branner.. From Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., vol. xvi.

The probable cause of the displacement of beach-lines, with two
supplementary notes. A. Blytt.

The physical features of New England ; two chapters on the physi¬
cal geography and the climate of New England. By William Morris
Davis. With two colored maps. Reprinted from The butterflies
of New England by Samuel H. Scudder. 1888;

Marine shells and the fragments of shells in the till near Boston.
By Warren Upham'. Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. xxiv, 1888.

Meteoric iron from Arkansas, 1886. By George F. Kunz. Proc
U. S. Nat. Museum, vol. x. 1887.

Precious stones, abstract from Mineral resources of the United States,
1887. By George F. Kunz, 1888.

Ventura county, Cal. By Dr. Stephen Bowers; from the Eighth
Annual report of the State Mineralogist, 1888.

Some American contributions to meteorology. William Morris
Davis. Journal of the Franklin Institute. Feb. — March, 1889..

Geographic methods in geologic investigation. Wm. M. Davis.
National geographic magazine, vol. i, No. i.

The ash bed at Meriden and its structural relations. Wm. M. Davis.
Proc. Meriden Scientific Association, Dec. 1888.

CORRESPONDENCE.

Solubility of Phosphates in Iron Ores. In studying to find a
more rapid method for the determination of the insoluble phosphor¬
us, I found by referring to several works on mineralogy that all the

Personal and Scientific News .

403

phosphates were soluble in muriatic acid except those of alumina,
which were soluble in sulphuric acid ; now our soft ores which con¬
tain the most of this insoluble phosphorus contain some aluminum —
working upon this hint I came to the conclusion that the so-called
insoluble phosphorus (phosphorus insoluble in HC1.) was a phos¬
phate of alumina.

Below are some results upon Pittsburg and Lake Angeline ores.

SAMPLE ONE.

Ph. sol. in HC1. .011 %. Soluble in HC1. .009 %.

Residue of above fused .013 “ Residue of above -f H2SC>4 .017 “

.024 .026

Dissolved in HC1 . fil- Sol. in HC1. rb HaSO*

ter paper and residue . Average of two .025

treated with H2SCP .015

SAMPLE TWO.

Ph. sol. in HC1. .0126 %

Residue of above fused. 0135 ‘ ‘ Treated with H2SO4 alone .0135 %

.0261 “ “ H2SO4 and

HC1. .0224 “

The results with muriatic acid vary somewhat. Longer digesting
with hot acid, particularly under pressure, will give more phosphorus
in the solution and correspondingly less in the residue, which ac¬
counts for some irregularities in the results.

H. H. Taft.

Republic Mich., May 2, 1889.

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Memoir of Dr. Douglas Houghton, first state geologist of
Michigan. This biography, now soon to be given to the pub¬
lic, has been prepared by his brother-in-law Prof. Alvah Bra-
dish of Minneapolis, Minn. This volume will be read with in¬
terest not only by his personal friends but by geologists every¬
where, and by all others interested in the early history of
Michigan.

The author knew Dr. Houghton intimately and was closely
associated with him from boyhood. Houghton was very early
in life a close student of nature. He made discoveries at ten
years ; a passion for natural science seemed inwrought in his
very being. Careful observation, intelligence, enthusiasm,
energy and industry were striking features of his character.

Before he was 20 he won honors in the scientific school at
Troy, N. Y. He was invited to Detroit to give lectures on the
natural sciences, and was appointed state geologist of Mich¬
igan in 1837 by the first governor of the State, Gov. Mason.

He organized the first geological survey of that state. He
first examined and determined the presence and character
of the valuable minerals of the Lake Superior region, and by
his enthusiasm and personal magnetism be awakened a love
for science among all classes of citizens.

Prof. Bradish has, we understand, interspersed many pleas¬
ant anecdotes and incidents that will serve to illustrate his

404

Personal and Scientific News.

character. Several interesting letters, will also be given for
the first time to the public. Pen sketches of some of the dis¬
tinguished persons who were closely associated with the
geologist will add to the interest of the volume.

Dr. Houghton’s career was a brief one. While prosecuting
his chosen work, at the early age of 36, he was drowned in a
storm at night in lake Superior ; his death was deemed a pub¬
lic calamity.

Besides the narrative of his life and labors, the volume will
contain some of his geological reports to the Legislature of
Michigan now out of print. The Hon. Bela Hubbard long as¬
sociated with Dr. Houghton as assistant geologist has ar¬
ranged these reports and has given summaries of others that
could not well be inserted in full.

An excellent portrait of Dr. Houghton will add interest to
the volume. It is taken from the full length portrait, (by
Prof. Bradish), now at Lansing. It represents him in the
costume of a geologist with hammer in hand, standing on the
rocky shore of lake Superior, his favorite dog at his feet and
the famous “pictured rocks” of the lake forming the back¬
ground. The volume is from the firm of Raynor & Taylor,
Detroit, Mich.

In the American Meteorologist for April Prof. Richard
Owen describes some magnetic phenomena, both theoretical
and actual, in the southern hemisphere. One of the import¬
ant facts is the observation made by Prof. F. M. Webster, who
lias recently returned from Australia. At the instigation of
Prof. Owen he applied the magnetic needle to the ends of a
vertical iron bar, and found that the upper end rejects the
marked end of the needle, and the lower portion attracts it.
This is the reverse in the northern hemisphere. On the return
passage Prof. Webster, by noting the latitude at which this
attraction was reversed, ascertained that the neutral zone, or
equator of magnetic dip and intensity, runs perhaps 50 miles
north of the terrestrial equator at the longitude of his cross¬
ing it. Thus the magnetic equator can be located by any
traveler, on land or sea, by the use of a pocket compass and
short iron rod.

The Texas legislature has made a most liberal appropria¬
tion for the continuance of the survey of that state. Mr.
Durable, the young state geologist, proposes to make good use
of the funds and deserves the assistance and encouragement of
the scientific world. Considering the obstacles he has had to
combat and the delicacy of his political surroundings he has
done well to secure this appropriation, and it is earnestly
hoped that with two years of unobstructed opportunity he will
give substantial scientific results to the world. Measured by
the good appropriation secured, even the popular report
reviewed in the last number may have been a wise measure.

405

INDEX TO VOL. III.

A

Acme lithological microscope, 226.

Africa, Carboniferous glaciation in, 303.

Aluminum, production of by electroly¬
sis, 344.

American Geological society, 62, 140, 344.

American Anthropologist, 149.

American petrographical microscopes,
225.

An unjust attack, Frazer, 65. .

Arkansas, resources of, 279.

Artesian, or deep, wells, at Woodhaven,
L. I., 214. at Davenport, 117, at Still¬
water, 343.

Association of Western Naturalists, 63.

Attachment of Platyceras to crinoids,
Keyes, 148.

B

Barrande and the Taconic system,
Marcou, 118.

Barrois, Charles, 271.

Bayley, W. S., Synopsis of Rosenbusch’s
classification, 48.

Bausch-Lomb petrographical micro¬
scope, 229.

Becker, Geo. F., 400.

Benedict, W. H., Tracks in the Potsdam
sandstone, 152.

Black Hills, Geology and mines of, Car¬
penter, 202.

Bommeloen og Karmoen med omgwel-
ser geol. beskrevne Reusch, 335.

British Columbia, glaciation of, G. M.
Dawson, 249; coal mines of, 62.

Brachiospongidse. C. E. Beecher. 268.

Bradish, Alvah, 403.

Branner, Prof J. C. 269, 279.

Broadhead, Prof. G. C., geological his¬
tory of the Ozark uplift, 6.

Bryson, John, artesian well at Wood-
haven, 214.

Building of the British Isles, 262.

Bulletin of the laboratory Nat. Hist.,
Iowa university, 62.

Bulloch, W. H., petrographical micro¬
scopes, 225.

Burning gas at San Antonio, Texas, 279.

c

Calvin, Prof. S., Some geological prob¬
lems in Iowa, 25.

Carboniferous glaciation in the south¬
ern and eastern hemispheres, White,
299; literature of, 326.

Carbonic gasteropod, variation in,
Keyes, 330.

Carpenter, F. R. 138,202.

Chamberlin, Pres. T. C., sketch of R. D.
Irving, 1; 398.

Chouteau group of Missouri, Rowley,
111.

Claypole, Dr. E. W., Glaciers and glacial
radiants in the ice age, 73; Vascular
nature of the trees of the Coal Meas¬
ures, 55; the story of the Mississippi-
Missouri, 361.

Coal mines in China and in British Col¬
umbia, 62.

Coal oil in Canon City, Colo., 62.

Clarke, John M., Visual area of the tril-
obite, 146.

Colorado river of Texas, geological story
of, Hill, 287.

Comstock, Prof. Theo. B., 269.
Conglomerates in gneissic terranes, A,
Wincliell, 153, 256.

Conglomerates in New England gneisses,
C. H. Hitchcock, 253.

Curtice, Cooper, Oriskany drift near
Washington, 223, 401.

D

Danzig, E., 151.

Davis, W. M., The glacial origin of cliffs,
14.

Dawson, Sir J. W., Specimens of Eozoon
canadense, 48.

Dawson, Geo. M., Glaciation of British
Columbia, 81, 249.

Devonian faunas of Iowa, Calvin, 25;
Williams, 230.

Department of geology, Univ. of Nebras¬
ka, 341.

Diabasic schists of northeastern Minne¬
sota, H. V. Winchell, 18.

Drane colliery, Pa., 215.

Drummond, A. T., Great lake basins,
198.

Dumble, E. T., Geol. survey of Texas,
270,404

Dutton, C. E., 400.

E

Earthquakes, causes of, Forster 182.
Editorial Comment.

Exhaustion of anthracite coal, 45.

A new glacial theory, 138.

Geological society of America, 140.
Rejoinder to Dr. Lawson, 193.

Another old channel of the Niagara
river, 195.

The Building of the British Isles, 262.
Unconformity at the falls of the Mont-
morenci, 333.

Sandy Simoon in the Northwest, 397.
Elemente der Paleontologie,Steinmann,
401.

Emmons, E., on the unconformity at
the falls of the Montmorenci, 333.
Emmons, S. F., 400.

Eozoon canadense, Dawson, 48; Merrill,
268.

Examination of water for sanitary pur¬
poses, 334.

Exhaustion of anthracite coal, 45.

406

Index.

F

Featherstonhaugh, G. W., memoir of,
217.

Featherstonhaugh, J. D., 217.

Foerste, Aug., on palseozic fossils, 50.
Foliation and sedimentation, Lawson,
169, 193, 276.

Forster, W. G., on earthquakes, 182.
Fossil fishes, purchased by Dr. Newber¬
ry, 64.

Fossil wood and lignites of the Potomac
formation, F. H. Knowlton, 99.
Fossils.

New lower Silurian sponges, 233.
Brachiospongidse, 268.

Kinderhook fossils, 275.

Gryphsea pitcheri, 188.

Taxocrinus and Haplocrinus, 200.
Crofalocrinus, 201.

In the Bedford shale, Ohio, 97.

Wood and lignites of Potomac forma¬
tion, 99.

Homosteus and Coccosteus, 149.

In the lower Cambrian of North
Wales, 150.

Lingulasma, etc., 377.

Frazer, Dr. P.An unjust attack, 65.

G

Gannett, Henry, 399.

Geological history of the Ozark uplift, 6.
Geology of Mt. Stephen British Colum¬
bia; R. G. McConnell, 22.

Geological problems in Muscatine Co.,
Iowa, Calvin, 25.

Geology of western Texas, notes on, R.
T. Hill, 51.

Geological Survey of Texas, organized,
62, report of, 270.

Geological Survey of Sweden, 343.
Geological Society of America, 62, 344.
Geological Survey of Arkansas, Branner,
269, 279.

Geology and mining of the Black Hills,
Carpenter & Hof man, 202.

Geological Survey of New York, 147;

Palaeontology, Vol. 5, 147.

Glacial origin of cliffs, W. M. Davis, 14.
Glacial erosion, Spencer, 208.

Glaciation in Norway and Sweden, 85.
Gaciation of British Columbia, recent
observations, G. M. Dawson, 249.
Glaciers and glacial radiants in the ice-
age, Claypole, 73.

Glossopteris flora, White, 299.

Gold fields of Victoria, 99.

Great lake basins of the St. Lawrence,
Drummond, 198.

Gryphaea pitcheri, original locality of,
Marcou, 188.

H

Hague, Arnold, 400.

Hall, James, Geology and paleontology
of New York, 147.

Hanks, Prof. H. G. Diatomaceous earth,
280.

Hay. Rob’t, Report on northwest Kan-
Hayden, F. V., 400.
sas, 199.

Helvie, Chas. A. 216.

Herault process of producing aluminum
alloys, 344.

Herrick, Prof. C. L. Notes on the Wav-
erly group in Ohio, 50, 94.

Hicks, Dr. L.E Soils of Nebraska as re¬
lated to geological formations, 36.

Hill, Prof. R. T. Notes on the geology of
western Texas, 51.

Geologic story of the Colorado river,
287.

History of the Ozark uplift, Broadhead,6.

Hitchcock, Prof. C. H. Conglomerates
in New England gneis'ses, 253;

Hofman, H. O. 202.

Homosteus and Coccosteus, Traquair,
149.

Honeyman Rev. D. 48.

Houghton, Douglas, Memoir of, 403.

Hubbard, Bela, 404.

I

Iddings, Joseph P., Origin of quartz in
basalt, 52.

Translation of Rosenbusch’s aid to the
microscopic study of rocks, 53.

India, Carboniferous glaciation in, 301,

International Congress of Geologists
1888, 65; 1891, 341.

Iron oresofthePenokee-Gogebic region.
Van Hise, 197.

Irving, Roland D., Biographical sketch
of, 1. contributions to science, 4, 400.

J

James, Uriah Pierson, Biographical
sketch of, 281, writings of, 285.

Jaspilyte beds of north-eastern Minne¬
sota, H. V. Winchell, 18.

Johnson, L. C., 400.

Jukes-Browne, A. J., 262.

K

Keyes, Chas. R., Attachment of Platyc-
eras to crinoids, 148, variation of a
Carbonic Gasteropod, 330.

Kingsley, Dr. J. S., 152.

Knowlton, F. H. Fossil wood and lignites
of the Potomac formation, 99.

L

Langtree, C. W., The gold fields of Vic¬
toria, 49.

Lawson, A. C. .Foliation and Sedimen-
tion 169, 276.

Leffman and Beam, 334.

Lehmann. Dr. J., 150.

Les modifications et les transformations
des granulites du Morbihan, Barrois,
271.

Les mineraux des roches, Levy and
Lacroix 199.

Levy and Lacroix, 199.

Lignite, systematic description of, 103.

Lingulasma, etc., 377.

Loess in Brazil, Mills, 345; in the north¬
west, 398.

Lohest, M., 196.

M

Marcou, Prof. Jules, Nomenclature of the
Devonic, 60; original locality of
Gryphae pitcheri, 188; Barrande and
the Taconic system, 118.

Marine shells in the till, Upham, 389.

McConnell, R. G., Note on geology of
Mt. Stephen, 22.

McAuley process of burning pulverized
fuel, 216.

McGee, W. J., 400.

Meeds, A. D., Deep well at Stillwater,
Minn., 342.

Index.

407

Merrill, Geo. P. , Opliiolite and Eozoon
canadense, 268.

Mesozoic rocks in Colorado and New
Mexico, Dr. J, J. Stevenson, 391.
Metamorphism as effected hy pres¬
sure, 150.

Microscopical physiography of rock
making minerals, Rosenbusch, 53.
Microscopic petrography, A. Winchell,
57.

Mills, James E., Quaternary in Brazil,
345.

Mines and mineral resources of the
Black Hills, Carpenter and Hofman,
202.

Minerals.

Ophiolite of Thurman, N. Y., 268.

Iron ores of the Penokee-Gogebic
region, 197.

Nickel ore in Kansas, 216.

Useful minerals of the U. S., 146.
Cassiterite, Black Hills, 280.
Rock-making, 53.

Mississippi-Missouri, the story of, Clay
pole, 361.

Mittheilungen aus dem mineralogischen
Institut des Universitat Kiel, Leh¬
mann, 150.

Montmorenci, falls of, unconformity at,
333.

N

Natural Science at the University of
Minnesota, 165.

Nebraska soil, Hicks, 36.

Newark system, I. C. Russell, 178.
Newberry, J. S., 64.

Niagara river, Another old channel of,
195.

Northwest Kansas, Robt. Hay, 199.

Note on the geology of Mt. Stephen,
McConnell, 22.

o

Observations on three Kinderhook fos¬
sils, Rowley, 275.

Ophiolite of Thurman, N . Y.. Merrill,
268.

Origin of cliffs, W. M. Davis, 14.

Origin of primary quartz in basalt,
Iddings, 52.

Oriskany drift near Washington,,
Curtice, 223.

Owen, Richard, 404.

Ozark uplift, history of, Broadhead. 6.

P

Petrography' microscopical, xY. Win¬
chell, 57.

Physical theories of the earth, T, M.
Reade, 106.

Pillsbury, Gov. J. S., Gift to the Univer¬
sity of Minnesota, 341.

Placer mines about Downieville, Cal.,
63.

Powell, J. W. Seventh Am. Rep. U. S.
Geol. Sur., 399.

Problems, some geological, in Iowa,
Calvin, 25; H. S. Williams, 230.
Protosalvinia, B. W. Thomas, 280
Pumpelly Raphael, 400.

Q

Quartz, primary, origin of in basalt,
Iddings, 52.

Quartzyte, green, of Nebraska, J. E
Todd, 59.

Quaternary and recent elevation of
mountains in Brazil, Mills, 345.

R

Reade, T. Mellard, Theories of the earth
and mountain making, 106.
I^echerches sur les poissons paleozoiq-
ues de Belgique, Lohest, 196.

Relation of the Devonian faunas of
Iowa, H. S. Williams, 230.

Rejoinder to Dr. Lawson, on foliation
and sedimentation, 193.

Reusch, Dr. H.BommeloenogKarmoen,

335.

Rocks.

Green quartzyte of Nebraska, 59.
Schists of northeastern Minnesota, 18.
Classification of crystalline rocks, 48.
Rominger, Dr. C., 62.

Rosenbusch, Classification of massive
rocks, 48.

Rock making minerals, Rutley, 53.
Rowley, R. R., Kinderhook fossils, 275;

Chouteau group, 111.

Russell, I. C., The Newark system, 178.

s

Salisbury, R. D. on earthquakes, 182.
Sandy Simoon in the Northwest, 397
Schaeffer, Dr. C. A., 152.

Schists of northeastern Minnesota, H.

V. Winchell, 18.

Scovell, Dr. J. T., 195.

Shall we teach geology? A. Winchell,

336.

Shimek, B., 61.

Sierra Nevada Mts., glacier erosion in,
340.

Snow, Prof. W. H. 216.

Solubility of Phosphates in iron ores,
Taft, 402.

Soils of Nebraska, Hicks, 36.

Spencer, Prof. J. W., 152, glacial erosion,
208.

Steinmann, Gustave, 401,

Sponges, new lower Silurian, Ulrich,
233.

Steinkohlen, ihre eigenschaften, etc.,
Yon Toula, 50.

Sevenson, Dr. J J., Mesozoic rocks of
Colorado and New Mexico, 391.
Stillwater, Minn., deep well, Meads, 343.
Syrski, Otto L., 152.

T

Taconic system, the, and Barrande,
Marcou, 118.

Taft, H. H., 402.

Thomas, B. W., Spore-cases of Proto¬
salvinia, 280.

Tiffany, A. S. Artesian well at Daven¬
port, 177.

Todd, J. E., Green quartzyte in Nebras¬
ka, 59.

Treub, Dr, Recent vegetation at Kra-
katoa, 63.

Trilobite, visual area of, Clarke, 146.
Two systems confounded in the Hur-
onian, A. Winchell 212; Selwyn, 339.

u

Ulrich, E. O., New Lower Silurian spon¬
ges, 233. Lingulasma, etc., 377.
Unconformity at the Falls of the Mont¬
morenci, 333.

United States geological survey seventh
An. Rep., 399. .

University of Nebraska, Dept, of geol¬
ogy, 341.

408

Index .

Unjust attack, Dr. P. Frazer, 65.

Upham, Warren, Marine shells in the
till near Boston, 399.

Useful minerals of the United States,
146.

V.

Van Hise, C. R.Iron ores of thePenokee-
Gogebic region, 197.

Variation exhibited by a Carbonic gas-
teropod, Keyes, 320.

Ventral structure of Taxocrinus, etc,
Wachsmuth & Springer, 200.

Visual area of the trilobite, Clarke, 146.

w

Wachsmuth and Springer, 200, .201.

Wadsworth. Dr. M. E., 280.

Waverly group in Ohio, C. L. Herrick,
50, 94.

Weed, W. H. Deadly gas spring, 269.

Webster, F. M. 404.

White, C. D., Carboniferous glaciation
in southern and eastern hemispheres,
299.

Williams, Albert, 146.

Williams, Prof. Geo. H., Description of
the Bausch-Lomb petrographical mic¬
roscope, 229.

Williams, Prof. H. S. Devonian faunas-
in Iowa, 230.

Winchell, Alexander, Need of an ele¬
mentary work on petrography, 57;
Conglomerates in gneissic terranes,
153, 256; Foliation and sedimentation,
193; Two systems confounded in the
Huronian, 212; Shall we teach geol¬
ogy? 336.

Winchell, H. V., Diabasic schists in
Northeast Minnesota, 18.

Winchell, N. H. Natural Science at the
University of Minnesota, 165; Ameri¬
can petrographical microscopes, 225.

Woodhaven, L. I Artesian well at ; John
Bryson, 214.

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