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AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCLENCE.

Epirorn: EDWARD S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

PROFESSORS GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, oF CAMBRIDGE,

Proressors A. E. VERRILL, HENRY S. WILLIAMS anp
L. V. PIRSSON, or New Haven,

PROFESSOR GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHILADELPHIA,
Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Battimore,
Mr. J. S. DILLER, or WaAsHINGTON.

FOURTH SERIES.

VOL. XVI-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXVI.]

WITH SEVENTEEN PLATES.

NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.
POO S

'B7@2¢

THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR COMPA
NEW HAVEN, CONN.

CONTENTS TO VOLUME XVI.

Number 91.

: Page
Arr. I.—Observations on the Genus Romingeria; by C. E.
Pneemmr.. (With Plates I-W) foi. boyfie 1
II.—Comparative Study of Some [somorphous ae Thio-
ees Vitel ©. OIA KE. eae a ie
fil-—Studies in the Cyperacese ; by T. Houm --..-.-.-- ---- 17
IV.—Chrysocolla: A Remarkable Case of Hydration ; by
CO), JL, TUTE ee ne eV Np 45
V.— Inquiry into the Cause of the Nebulosity around Nova
eae yea WV NERY 2. ae 49
ViI.—Heat of a Change in Connection with Changes in Die-
lectric Constants and in Volumes; by C. L. Spryvers.. 61
VII.—Notes on the Genus Baptanodon, with a Description
Oia New Species; by. W.'C: Knienr _.2: 2. .2-2.22-- 76
VIIL.—Characters of Pteranodon; by G. F. Haron. (With
memesmrmeamor VEN) 2 ee galas bh se LL kk eh poe 83
IX.—Codonotheca, a New Type of Spore-Bearing Organ
from the Coal Measures; by EH. H. Szennarps. (With
erm ELON pep at cM SR 87
X.—Note on the Dates of Publication of Certain Genera of .
Mossi Vertebrates; by L. P. Busm.2.--.....--.------ 96

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Spinthariscope, W. CRooKEes: Properties of Sodium
Sulphate Solations, Martz and Marquis: Radio-active Lead, Hormann
and Wo6uFL, 99.—Colloidal Silver, Hanrior: Iodides of Caesium, H. W.
Foote: Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis, A. CLAssEn, 100.
—Chemisches Praktikum, A. WotFrrvum, 101.

Geology and Natural History—United States Geological Survey, 101.—New
York State Museum, F. J. H. Merrizy, 102.—Geological Survey of New
Jersey, 103.—Maryland Geological Survey: Geography and Geology of
Minnesota, C. W. Hau, 104.—Plumasite, an oligoclase-corundum rock
near Spanish Peak, Cal., A. C. Lawson: Experimental Garden in Cuba,
EH. F. Arxins, 105.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—United States Coast and Geodetie Sur-
vey, O. H. Tirrman: National Bureau of Standards, S. W. SrrarrTon:
Scientific Writings of George Francis Fitzgerald, J. LARmor, 106,

Obituary—J. PeTeR LESLEY, 106.

1V CONTENTS.

Number. 92.
Page

Arr. XI._—Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion. (Second Paper) ;

XII.—Stellar Revolutions within the Galaxy: by F. W. Very 127

XITI.—Little Cottonwood Granite Body of the Wasatch
Mountains; by 8. F. Exons -._....- ..-) eee

~ XIV.—Contribution to a List of the Fauna of the Stafford
Limestone of New York; by M. Tareorl] 222) eeeee

XV.—Formula of Bornite; by B. J. Harrineron __.-_..- 151

XVI.—Iodometric Determination of Gold in Dilute Solu- |
tion ; by R. N. Maxson ...._2_.-.-' 2 2 155

XVII.—Radioactivity of Thorium Minerals; by G. F.
Ty ANIC eee region ce pee veeae tes 161

XVIII.—Significance of Silicic Acid in Mountain Streams ;
W. P. HeADDpEN.. 0. 202.25. 2. sac 169

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Geology and Mineralogy—U. 8S. Geological Survey: Batrachian and other
footprints from the Coal Measures of Joggins, N. S., G. F. Matraew :
Ueber Artinit, ein Neues Mineral der Asbestgruben, von Val Lanterna,
L. BruGNaTtELLI, 185.—Minerals from Leona Heights, Alameda Co., Cali-

fornia, W. T. SCHALLER; Palacheite, a new mineral, A, S. EAKLE, 186.

CONTENTS. Vv

Number 98.

Page

Jostan Wittarp Grisps (with a Portrait, Plate IX)._..... 187
Arr, XIX.-— Origin of Coral Reefs as shown by the Maldives ;

Pi Mele S es CONSID UN HIB 82/80). /2!. eh Rees ces 203

X X.—Heat of Combustion of Hydrogen ; by W. G. Mixrrer 214

X XI.—Determination of Uranium and Uranyl Phosphate by
| nrewmmerreductor.;by O. S..BULMAN...20020.52.252. 229

XXII.—Certain River Terraces of the Klamath Region,
Calmormias by O. EH. Dursuey. 2202.0. 25202822 940

X XIII.—Occurrence of the Texas Mercury Minerals ; by B.
i, alt ee aoa ee CEG Bang Menrcars rd couae gn 8 alge a Deere SPN 251

~XXIV.—Eeglestonite, Terlinguaite and Montroydite, New
Mercury Minerals from Terlingua, Texas; by A. J.
BAO TOS 5 oo Ss Oe URI ee te DaRRccs A Sr ag ps eaa g 253

XXV.—New Lilac-Colored Transparent Spodumene ; by G.
emilee (NV ith Plate X) oot oo 264

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Geology and Mineralogy—Geology of Ascutney Mountain, Vermont, R. A.
Daty: Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, U. S. Grant,
267.—Preliminary Note upon the*Rare Metals in the Ore from the Rambler
Mine, Wyoming, T. T. READ, 268. |

Obituary—W. C. Kniaur: Hamitton LANPHERE SmitH: M. Renarp, 268.

al CONTENTS.

Number 94.
Page
Arr. XX VI.—New Cone of Mont Pelé and the Gorge of the
Riviere Blanche, Martinique ; by E. O. Hovey. (With
Plates XI-XTV) 2. 2022... 1. 2) ee

XX VII.—Colors of Allotropic Silver ; by J. C. Buaxkg._-_-- 282

XXVIIT.—Notes on the Development of the Biserial Arm in
Certain Crinoids ; by A. W. GRaBAU _.) 52230 eeeeee 289

XXIX.—Notes on the Geology of the Hawaiian Islands ;
by J.C. Branner. (With Plate XV) 22223 301

XXX.—Recent Tuffs of the Soufriére, St. Vincent; by E.
How ......2.-2--2.-. .. <2: 23) Se

XXXI.—Discovery of Fossil Insects in the Permian of
Kansas ; by E. H. SerLarps .:.._ _(- ee 625

XXXII.—Note on the Constants of Coronas ; by C. Barus 325

XX XIIL.—Note on a Radio-active Gas in Surface Water ;
by H. A. Bumsreap and L. P.. Wanntnee (oe 328

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Radium and Helium, W. Ramsay: Action of Salts
of Radium upon Globulins, W. B. Harpy, 329.—Chlorine Smelting with
Electrolysis, J. SWINBURNE: Mazza Separator for Gases, SIGNOR Mazza,
330.—Double Salt of Potassium and Barium Nitrates, W. K. WALLBRIDGE :
Light Waves and their Uses, A. A. MicHEtson: Sub-Mechanics of the
Universe, O. Reynoups, 381.

Geology and Mineralogy—U. 8S. Geological Survey, 332.—Correlation of
Geological Faunas; Shifting of Faunas as a Problem of Stratigraphic
Geology, H. S. Witxrams, 334.—Pseudoceratites of the Cretaceous, A.
Hyatt: Publications of the Earthquake Investigation Committee: The
Lilac-colored Spodumene from California, C. BASKERVILLE: Tabellen zur
Bestimmung der Mineralien mittels tiusserer Kennzeichen von Albin Weis-
bach, F. Kotpeck: Purchase of the Siemaschko Collection of Meteorites,
335.—Meteoritenkunde, E. Conzen: Meteorites from New South Wales,

306.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wis-

senschaften, 336.

CONTENTS. Vil

Number 95.
Page

ART. XX XIV.—Mineralogical Notes; by C. H. WARREN __ 337

XXXV.—Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the Marsh Collec-
tion, Peabody Museum; by J. L. Wortman. (With
feet eV and OV ET) 2 Se ee ee 345

XXXVI.—Triadenum Virginicum (L.) Rafin. A morpho-
logical and anatomical study; by T. Horm. (With

QUES TDG “TSS ae aa) cea 369
XXXVII.—Ephemeral Lakes in Arid Regions; by C. R.
USTETS 2 oie ARS eee co eee ae iat aed eee
~XXXVIITI.—Note on the Identity of Palacheite and Botryo-
PERE MOVE Ae Oo ALE) 802 ee i oe 379
XXXIX.—Colloidal Gold: Adsorption Phenomena and
Plesionsnct Oy Ji. OC. BLAKE. 2 fe old ule lee. 388)

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

- Chemistry and Physics— Utilization of Atmospheric Nitrogen for Agricul-
tural and Industrial Purposes, Dr. Frank: Use of Calcium Cyanamide for
Producing Alkaline Cyanides, G. ERLWEIN, 388.—Separation of Gaseous
Mixtures by Centrifugal Force, CLaupDE and Drmoussy : Investigations on
Double Salts by Physical Means, H. W. Foor, 889. — Ausgewihlte
Methoden der Analytischen Chemie, A. CLAssEN: Physical Chemistry in
the Service of the Sciences, J. H. van’r Horr and A. SmirH: Penetrative
Solar Radiations, R. BLonpuLot, 390.—Spectra of the Cathode light in
Gaseous Compounds of Nitrogen and Carbon, H. DEsLanprRES: Dark
Cathode Space, G. C. ScumIpT: Observations of Slow Cathode Radiations
with the help of Phosphorescence, P. LENARD, 391.—Discharge of Hlec-
tricity from Hot Platmum, H. A. Witson: Penetrating Radiation from
the Earth’s Surface, H. L. Cook: Mathematical Papers of the late George
Green, 692.— Electric and Magnetic Circuits, E. H. CRapprrr, 393.

Geology and Mineralogy— United States Geological Survey, 894.—Geological
Survey of Canada, 395.—Elements of Geology, J. LeConte: Chemical
Analyses of Igneous Rocks; Published from 1884-1900, with a Critical
Discussion of the Character and Use of Analyses, H. S. Wasuineton, 396.
—Californite (Vesuvianite), G. F. Kunz, 397.—Native Bismuth and Bis-
mite from Pala, California, G. F. Kunz, 398. — Production of Precious
Stones in 1902, GF. Kunz, 399.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Report of the U. S. National Museum
under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending
June 30, 1901, 399.—Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive
Archipelagoes, J. S. GaRpInER: Catalogue of the Collection of Birds’
Eggs in the British Museum (Natural History), E. W. Oates and S. G.
Rem: Hand-list of the Genera and Species of Birds, R. B. SHARPE:
Cold Spring Monographs, Nos. I and IT, 400.

Vill CONTENTS.

Number 96.

Page
Arr. XL.—Polar Climate in Time the Major Factor in the
Evolution of Plants and Animals; by G. R. Wre.anp. 401

XLI.—Note on the Composition of Bredig’s Silver Hydro-
sols; by J.C. Buakm /.-...-. 2.8202 3 431

X LII.—Behavior of Red Colloidal Gold Solutions toward the
Electric Current and toward Electrolytes; by J.C. BhakE. 433

XLIII.—Is the Peak of Fernando de Noronha a voleanic ping
like that-of Mont Pelé; by J. C. BRANNEE) 32 a2 eames 442

_XLIV.—Studies in the Cyperacer, XX; by T. Horm ___--- 445

XLV.—Action of Ultra- Violet Light upon Rare Earth
Oxides; by C. BaskKERVILLE .._.-. ) 252733 465

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Cheinistry and Physics—New Method for the Determination of the Faintest
Traces of Arsenic, A. GAUTIER: Jnfluence of Small Quantities of Water in
bringing about Chemical Reactions between Salts, PErmAN, 467.—Deter-
mination of Argon in the Atmosphere, Morissan, 468.—New Method for
Detecting Chlorides, Bromides and Iodides, BENEDICT and SNELL: Quartz
Glass, H. Herarus, 469:—Absorption of Ultra-Violet Rays by Ozone, E.
Meyer: Induced Thorium Activity, F. v. Lercu, 470.—Effect of Pressure
on Are Spectra, J. E. PeTaveL and R. S. Hurton, 471.

Geology and Mineralogy—United States Geological Survey, 471.—Nebraska
Geological Survey: Geological Structure of Monzoni and Fassa, M. M.
O. Gorpon : North American Plesiosaurs, S. W. WILLIsToN, 473.—Spodu-
mene from Pala, California, W. T. SCHALLER, 474.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—National Academy of Sciences: Ameri-
can Association: Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution, showing the operations, expenditures and conditions of
the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1902: Physico-Chemical
Review, M. Rupoupat, 479.

Obituary—RoBert Henry Tuurston: Henry Carrineton Bouton, 470.

InpDEX TO VoL. XVI, 476

THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[FOURTH SERIES. ]

wee OS

Art. 1—Observations on the Genus Romingeria; by
Cuartes E. Beecnrer. (With Plates I-V.)

Introduction.

Tue type species of the genus Romingeria (RL. umbellifera
Billings) has been known since 1859, but on account of its
rarity and fragmentary occurrence it has failed to attract more
than casual attention. In many ways the genus should be con-
sidered as one of the most interesting and remarkable of fossil
corals. Several large and well-preserved colonies, recently
found by the writer in the Corniferous limestone near Leroy,
New York, emphasize the importance of reviewing the. char-
acters of the type, especially since it has been confused with
other species and also because some details not hitherto observed
are now to be noted.

Hight species have at various times been referred to Romin-
geria, mostly upon very insufficient grounds; hence the original
conception of the genus has become obscured and is without
much present significance. If the original description and
figure of Billings be taken as a starting point, the subsequent
vicissitudes of this genotype will be appreciated.

In 1859, Billings’ described three species of Awlopora,—A.
cornuta, A. filiformis, and A. umbellifera. The original
diagnosis of the latter is reproduced herewith :

“ AULOPORA UMBELLIFERA (Billings).

“The mode of growth of this remarkable species is sufficient
to distinguish it at once from all other described forms of: the
genus. The parent stems are about one line in diameter, and
remain single and straight for the distance of one fourth, or
half an inch, when they give off branches in all: directions,
sometimes ten or twelve at once. These are at first oblique or
somewhat parallel with the main tube, and are connected
laterally ; they then radiate like the spokes of a wheel, at right

Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtTs Series, Vou. XVI, No. 91.—Juzy, 1903.
1

2 Beecher— Observations on the Genus Romingeria.

angles to the parent corallites, each soon giving birth to a simi-
lar circlet of new tubes.

“Tt may be that this species should constitute a new genus; but
as [ have not been able to ascertain wherein its internal structure
differs from Avwlopora, I have disposed of it as above, provis-
ionally.

“ Locality and formation.—Lot 6, con. 1, Wainfleet. Cor-
niferous.”’

Rominger,’ in 1876, was the first to adopt the suggestion of

Billings as to the generic import of A. umbellifera. He
showed its distinct value, and proposed the genus Qwenstedtia,
with this species as the type. Under it he considered A. cor-
nuta Billings, as consisting of fragments of A. wmbellifera
Billings, in which only from one to three branches or buds are
given off. The species Y. niagarensis was also defined by
Rominger at the same time.

Three years later (1879) Nicholson published his general
work on the “Tabulate Corals,”’* and substituted the name
Romingeria for Quenstedtia, which proved to be preoccupied.
No change was made by Nicholson in the specific synonymy,
and the identity of A. wmbellifera and A. cornuta was
accepted by him, though in his description of L?. wmbellifera
he includes characters never present in what the writer
believes to be Billings’s species sensu strictu. His illustration
especially resembles that given by Billings for his A. cornuta,
though the statement is made that there were specimens in his
hands apparently belonging to A. cornuta and agreeing with
Aulopora proper rather than with Zeomingeria. However, as
Nicholson’s redescription of 2. wmbellifera seems to be based
largely on his own material, as represented in his figures, it
appears highly probable that the generic reference to /2omén-
geria was correct. The discrepancies between his description
and what is now believed to clearly represent the original
species, can be best explained on the supposition that Nichol-
son did not have true /?. wmbellifera, but did have representa-
tives of what is apparently a distinct, though allied, species of
Romingeria, which is not uncommon in the Upper Helderberg
limestones at the Falls of the Ohio and elsewhere, and is the
form commonly, though erroneously, identified with Z?. wmbelli-

erd. |
Z Davis,‘ in the volume of plates illustrating Kentucky fossil
corals, dated 1885* (though apparently not published before

* This volume bears the title of ‘‘ Kentucky Fossil Corals. A Monograph
of the Fossil Corals of the Silurian and Devonian Rocks of Kentucky. By
William J. Davis. [In Two Parts. Part II.] Frankfort, Kentucky, 1885.
Copyrighted 1887.” This ‘‘monograph,” or more properly an illustrated
catalogue, as it has proved to be, consists of a letter of transmittal and thir-
teen pages of index to the plates. The plates and explanations number one

Beecher— Observations on the Genus Romingeria. 3

1887), figures a species of omengerza which he identifies with
f. umbellifera. Through the kindness of Professor R. T.
Jackson, the writer has been enabled to study the original
specimens in the Davis collection now in the Museum of Com-
parative Zoology, and they prove not to be typical of that
species but of the form previously mentioned as generally
referred to it. Davis also applies four new specific names in
connection with Romingeria. The original examples of three
of the species appear not to be congeneric, while the fourth is
a Romingeria.

In a revision of the Canadian paleozoic corals, published by
Lambe in 1899,° there is included under Ltomingeria the sin-
gle species 2. umbellifera Billings, sp. A reéxamination of
the type showed the presence of mural pores, together with
the convex tabule. No septal spines were observed.

To review briefly the history and synonymy of the genotype
of Romingeria, it may be stated that in 1859 Billings described
the species Aulopora umbellifera. This was made the type
of Quenstedtia by Rominger in 1876, who also considered A.
cornuta Billings as synonymous. On account of this generic
name having been used previously, Nicholson, in 1879, sub-
stituted Lomingerza. His description was apparently founded
upon two species, /?. wmbellifera and L. sp., the latter being
the one illustrated by him. Davis (1887) figures a species of
Romingeria which he identifies with the type. It is here con-
sidered as distinct. Two other very clearly defined forms are
also added in the present paper,—/?. Jacksoni, sp. nov., and
RL. minor, sp. nov.

Observations on Romingeria umbellifera.
Puates I-V.

The specific characters of this type have been pretty fully
and accurately stated in the description by Billings and
Rominger, but as yet the illustrations published simply give
one or two umbels without much suggestion as to the appear-
ance of a large colony and without any details of internal
structure.

The number of buds given off by the parent corallite at each
period of proliferation is stated by Nicholson and Rominger
to be from five to twelve, and one would be led to believe that
twelve was the maximum attained by few, while the common
number was somewhere between five and twelve.

' hundred and thirty-nine, illustrating about a thousand different specimens.
One hundred and seventy species are given names and marked as new species.
They are without description of any sort. Seven new generic terms are pro-
posed without definition. They are supposed to be corals, though some of
them certainly are not (e. g., Nicholsonia= Hederella, a Bryozoan), and all of

them are probably synonyms of well-known genera (e. g., Antholites and
Procteria=Pleurodictyum).

+ Beecher —Observations on the Genus Romingeria.

In a careful count of one hundred discrete whorls, the

ik
4L

L2 ALI LOS 8 7

Figure 1.—Frequency polygon
of Romingeria umbellifera; show-
ing the number of buds in a hun-
dred umbels; the abscissa shows
the variation in the number of
buds per umbel (seven to twelve),
and the ordinate the number of
individuals representing each. 41
per cent of the umbels have
twelve buds, 28 per cent eleven,
16 per cent ten, 6 percent nine,
) per cent eight, and 4 per cent
seven.

writer has found that 41 per cent
contain twelve buds, 28 per cent
contain eleven, 16 per cent ten, 6
per cent nine, 5 per cent eight, and
4 per cent seven buds. In no
instance has any number greater
than twelve or less than seven been
observed in separate umbels. The
very unusual condition represented
in the specimen, figures 8, 9, Plate
I, shows two verticels crowded
together so as to unite, and eleven
corallites are suppressed in conse-
quence. Of the fifteen remaining |
corallites, two (a, 6,) are the parents,
while six pertain to one umbel and
seven to the other.

The frequency polygon is shown
in text, figure 1. This indicates,that
what Billings meant by “sometimes
ten or twelve” buds really means
that 85 per cent of all the umbels
have from ten to twelve buds
springing from the parent coral-
hte, and that twelve is the most
common and therefore the charac-
teristic number. There is a rapid
falling off in the numbers below
ten, and specimens with less than
that must be considered as abnor-
mal or pathologie.

The length of the internodes or the distance between the

whorls measured along the corallites varies from 8 to 23™™.
Since the budding period is simultaneous for the whole corallum,
and takes place on the same horizontal plane, it is evident that
the internodes measured along one of the older parent corallites
are shorter than along one of its daughter corallites, which rise
obliquely from their origin to the next budding zone.

The corallites measure from 2 to 2°25™™ in diameter through-
out most of their length. Just before starting to bud the tube
enlarges to a diameter of 2°50 to 38™™, and within the whorl of
buds the parent corallite abruptly contracts to about 1°5™" in
diameter. The buds all spring from the beveled periphery of
the parent corallite, with which they communicate by means
of a large initial pore, figures 2, 3, Plate I. Both buds and

Beecher— Observations on the Genus Romingeria. 5

parent corallites develop tabula, usually convex, and most
numerous within the region of the verticel. In other portions
of the corallum they seem to be quite infrequent. Immediately
above the row of initial pores there is a tabula in the parent
corallite, sometimes showing a number of septal ridges which
may correspond to the number of buds and are sometimes
continued upward for a short distance as rows of septal spines,
figures 3, 4, Plate I. No evidence of septa has been observed
in any other portions of the corallites in the present collection.
The buds before separating usually communicate with each
other by one or two mural pores, as shown in figure 6, Plate I,
but in no instance except in the initial pore previously men-
tioned has a bud within the umbel been seen to bear pores
leading into the parent corallite. Also, whenever the corallites
of the same or different verticels come in contact away from
the whorls, the walls may be perforated by a pore, figure 7,
late I: :

The examination of a large mass of this coral, measuring
nine inches or more in diameter (230™™), shows its almost geo-
metrical regularity in a striking degree. It is seen to be com-
posed of a number of distinct superimposed horizontal zones
or stories, separated by a distance of from 15 to 20". The
division planes consist of closely arranged rosettes formed by
the whorls of buds given off at regular intervals in the upward
growth of the corallum. Between the division planes or from
the floor to the ceiling of each story are to be seen the simple
columns of the individual corallites with their Corinthian-like
capitals, which are to develop into a verticel of daughter coral-
lites at the division plane above, Plate IV.

In a large corallum, each umbel of thirteen corallites (one
parent and twelve buds) generally occupies a space of about
170 square millimeters. The size of this area was determined
by enumerating the umbels occurring in several areas measur-
ing 50 x50". The average showed fifteen umbels for this
space, containing in the aggregate one hundred and ninety-five
corallites.

One specimen measuring 100 x 200™" on the horizontal sur-
face has approximately 1500 corallites on each zone. Three
zones are complete for the same area and together contain
about 4500 corallites. Now if each of the 1500 corallites of
the bottom zone gave origin to twelve buds the next zone
would contain 19,500 corallites, and the same process would
demand 253,500 corallites for the third zone. This shows a
suppression of 243,000 corallites on two zones.

The suppression of corallites seems to be due principally to
two causes: (@) The crowding of the umbels together in the

6 Beecher— Observations on the Genus Romingeria.

same plane and thus aborting many of the buds, which only
grow to be a few millimeters in length or are entirely sup-
pressed; and (6) the inability of many of the corallites to
reach the next zone of budding before all the available space
is taken up by verticels from other rapid growing and more
favored corallites. Whenever the growth and budding are not
seriously restricted as to space, it is found that from ten to
twelve buds are almost invariably given off.

Altogether, the probabilities against the successful attainment
of maturity with the growth of a single cycle of buds are
seldom equaled among corals. In ordinary proliferation in a
compound coral, a bud is developed when by a divergence of
the corallites through growth a space is made to receive it, but
in Llomingerva the buds are thrown off without any reference
to their future possibilities. If the pores of Mavosites are
considered as potential buds, then the amount of suppression
in that genus is infinitely greater than in Romingeria. It
should be noted, however, that in /a@vosites whenever a coral-
lite once appeared it usually continued to grow until the death
of the whole colony.

A diagram of two successive periods of proliferation for a
single corallite of L. wmbellifera is shown in Plate V, figure
1. The third zone of buds would number 2,197 corallites, the
fourth 28,561, and so on, according to the permutation of the
number 13.

Corallites subjected to pressure in the matrix often exhibit
a tendency to split into longitudinal plates corresponding to
the twelve mesenteries or primary septal divisions, figure 5,
Plate I. .The twelvefold nature of the walls may be devel-
oped in this way without any evidence of septa being pre-
served.

Romingeria commutata, sp. nov.
PuaTE V, Ficurses 4, 5.

Romingeria umbellifera Davis, Kentucky Fossil Corals, pl. 76, fig. 1, 1887.

The specimens identified by Davis with the type of the
genus have already been referred to as probably distinct. The
growth of the corallum is lax and the budding of the cor-
allites is irregular, not producing the storied appearance
typical of R. umbellifera. No regularly developed 10-12
rowed umbels are present in the Kentucky specimens, which
seem to give off bundles of buds rather than to form perfect
rosettes. There is also a much stronger development of the
8-10 rows of trabecule, which are not confined wholly to the
budding region, but may extend for considerable distances
along the corallites and also appear at the accidental points of
contact of two corallites where adventitious mural pores are

Beecher— Observations on the Genus Romingeria. if

usually found, Plate V, figures 4, 5. The corallites are a
little larger than in 2. umbellifera from Leroy, New York,
and the length of the internodes is often much greater, some-
times measuring 30™” or more.

Formation und locality.—The type specimen is in the col-
lections of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Catalogue
Number 8849, Kentucky Fossil Corals, Plate 76, figure 1, and
is from the Corniferous limestone (Devonian) at the Falls of
the Ohio, Louisville, Kentucky.

Romingeria Jacksoni, sp. nov.
PuaTE V, Ficurss 2, 10-15.

Corallum consisting of slender, cylindrical, discrete corallites,
measuring from ‘7 to °8™" in diameter. At intervals of from
5 to 10™™ a whorl of seven buds is given off from each coral-
lite. The buds are closely appressed to the parent for a dis-.
tance of 1 or 2"™™ and then turn outward often nearly at right
angles for 2 or 4™™, thence extending upward to the next
budding zone. The walls of the parent corallite are expanded
just before the buds appear, and abruptly contract within the
verticel to a little less than their normal diameter. On the
exterior the corallites are marked by fine concentric striz.
Tabule infrequent, most common in the region of the umbels.
Septa or septal spines not observed. A large apical initial
pore connects each daughter corallite with the parent, and
adjacent corallites often show communicating pores, as in
R. umbellifera.

Occasionally the corallites become agglomerated into a mass
resembling a /avosites, though around the periphery the
branches are discrete and give off the usual umbels of seven
buds each. A section of the closely grouped corallites is rep-
resented in figure 10, Plate V, showing their prismatic form.

This very distinct and normal species of Romingeria can
be readily recognized from f?. wmbellifera by the smaller
diameter of the corallites, the relative greater length of the
internodes, and especially by the number of buds in each verticel.
In f. umbellifera, out of a hundred umbels only four contained
seven buds, while 85 per cent had from ten to twelve, with
twelve as the characteristic number. The present collections
contain eighteen umbels of 2. Jacksoni, and each one of these
is composed of seven buds besides the parent corallite. From
£. minor, this species is distinguished by its larger size and by
the number of buds in a single verticel, which in that form
number five.

The specific name is given in honor of Professor R. T.
Jackson of Harvard University.

8 Beecher— Observations on the Genus Romingeria.

Formation and locality.—In the cherty layers of the Cor-
niferous limestone (Devonian), near Leroy, Genesee County,
New York.

Romingeria minor, sp. nov.
PuaTE V, Ficures 3, 6-9.

Besides the species already noted, there is another form in
the present collection, which, though minute, seems to agree
in all essential external generic features with the genotype.
Only a few umbels of this species have been observed, but
they are so constant in their characters and so distinct from the
other species, that there is little hesitancy in describing them
as new. es

The corallites are cylindrical, measuring but °3 to -4™™ in
diameter. The umbels contain five buds each. The buds are
contiguous to the parent for a distance of -5™™", and then turn
out abruptly at right angles. The specimens are mostly filled
with silica, and evidences of tabule and trabecule are obscured.

The diminutive size and the small number of buds in each
umbel distinguish this species from the known members of the
genus Lomingeria.

Formation and locality.—In the Corniferous limestone
(Devonian), near Leroy, New York.

Any discussion of the aftinities of Ltomingeria with other
genera of paleozoic tabulate corals must include the considera-
tion of a number of genera, some of whose taxonomic positions
are almost equally uncertain. On the one hand we are led
to compare it with Awlopora and related forms, and on the
other it appears that we are dealing with a type which in many
ways is connected with /avosites. At the same time, certain
genera often classed with the Bryozoa, as Clonopora and
Vermipora, have close resemblances with it in some essential
features, and should be treated in the same connection.

The main purpose of the present article is to make some
contribution to the knowledge of the structure and habit of
what are believed to be characteristic species of the genus
Romingeria, and not to enter into a critical comparison with
other genera. Some few remarks can not well be avoided,
however, and the writer would again cite Awlopora as express-
ing avery simple type from which by progressive modifications
a considerable number of more highly developed genera could
be easily derived.

In a study of the ontogeny of Plewrodict) yum, it was shown
by the writer,’ and also by Girty in Favosites,’ that the initial
corallite soon gave origin to a single bud which was connected
with the par ent by a lar ge initial pore, and in this condition it
was homologous with a young colony of Awlopora consisting of

-'

A ad V0
Te phe
a) .

Conk

I
_ > _
7 « 7
d ca
ner

Plate |I.

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XVI, 1903.

‘VINAONINOY

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XVI, 1903.

Plate Ill.

ROMINGERIA.

Plate IV.

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XVI, 1903.

“WIUHONINOVY

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XVI, 1903. Plate V.

1

3
8

— Beecher—Observations on the Genus Romingeria. 9

but two corallites. In Pleurodictywm lenticulare as in Avulo-
pora no tabule are present, and the only structures within the
tubes are rows of trabecule. It was also shown”” that the
pores in the Favositidee may be likened to aborted buds which
attained no further development than the formation of a pore.
The corallites in Aulopora generally give off one or two buds and
then soon reach their limit of growth, while in Peomingeria
the corallites may grow to indefinite lengths and repeatedly
send off whorls of buds.

It is well known that many species of Havosites develop
faint septal longitudinal ridges or rows of spines. Typically
these number twelve, thus agreeing with the characteristic
number of buds and septa in 2. umbellifera. The corre-
spondence in the number of septa and mesenteries indicates
that from each interseptal space buds may arise, so that
Favosites has twelve proliferation potentialities at each com-
plete cycle of budding.

Girty’ has fully discussed these features in /avosites, and
has shown that what should be considered as the archetypal
form consists of an initial corallite with six primary radially
arranged buds. Six interstitial cells constitute the next gen-
eration, and complete the cycle of twelve radii of gemmation.

These points of similarity in the budding habit of Havosites
and Romingeria, together with the identity of most of their
_ Internal structures, clearly indicate their genetic affinities and
point to their common origin.

Paleontological Laboratory, Yale University Museum, June 6, 1903.

References.

Billings, E.— On the Fossil Corals of the Devonian Rocks of Canada
West. Canadian Journal, new series, vol. iv, 1859.

Rominger, C.— Fossil Corals. Geological Survey of Michigan, Lower
Peninsula, 1873-1876, vol. iii, pt. ii, 1876.

Nicholson, H. A.—On the Structure and Affinities of the ‘‘ Tabulate
Corals” of the Paleeozoic Period, 1879.

Davis, W. J.— Kentucky Fossil Corals, pt. ii (1885), 1887.

Beecher, C. E.— The Development of a Paleozoic Poriferous Coral.
Transactions of the Connecticut Academy, vol. viii, 1891.

——.,, —. — Symmetrical Cell Development in the Favositide. Ibid.,
vol. viii, 1891.

Girty, G. H.— Development of the Corallum in Favosites forbesi var.
occidentalis. American Geologist, vol. xv, 1895.

Lambe, L. M.— A Revision of the Genera and Species of Canadian
Palzozoic Corals. Contributions to Canadian Palzontology,
vol. iv, pt, i,. 1899.

OOo ES Sb eet Wes Oo are a,

10 Beecher—Observations on the Genus Romingeria.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Puate I. |
Romingeria umbellifera Billings, sp.

Figure 1.—Side view of portion of a normal corallite, with a circle of
twelve buds at the summit. x 4.

FIGURE 2.—Side view of a corallite, with the buds removed; showing the
large initial pores connecting the parent with the daughter corallites, and
the abrupt constriction of the parent at the budding zone. The serrations
of the summit are produced by the proximal ends of the septal ridges, and
correspond in number with the buds. x4.

Figure 3.—Top view of the preceding; showing the twelve initial pores
connecting the buds with the parent corallite, and the twelve septal lines
extending over the tabula of the parent corallite. x4,

Ficure 4.—A section of a corallite just above the budding zone ; showing
eight distinct septal spines. The center is filled with silica and the full
extent of the septa obliterated. x 4.

FIGURE 5.—A specimen similar to figure 1, in which, from compression,
the walls of the parent corallite have been split into vertical plates, corre-
sponding tothe septal divisions. x 4.

FIGURE 6.—Side view of an umbel from which all but two of the buds
have been stripped, leaving their inner walls attached to the central or
parent corallite. Two pores are shown on the left side of the figure, com-
municating between adjacent buds, and two of the initial pores are repre-
sented at the base. x4.

Figure 7.—Showing point of contact of two corallites and the formation
of amural pore. x4.

Figure 8.—Side view of two closely appressed umbels, causing a suppres-
sion of some of the buds. x4.

Figure 9.—Top view of the preceding ; showing fifteen corallites. a and
b are the two parent corallites. Eleven buds have been suppressed. x 4.

Ficure 10.—Basal view of two adjacent normal umbels of twelve buds
each, in close contact, so that there are no interstices between the coral-
lites. x4.

Figure 11.—Showing the loose interlocking of the corallites from two
adjacent umbels. x 4.

Figure 12.—Side view of an umbel containing eleven buds. x 4.

FIGURE 13.—Basal view of the same. x 4.

Corniferous limestone, near Leroy, New York.
Collection, Yale University Museum.

PuaTE II.
Romingeria umbellifera Billings, sp.

FicurE 1.—Basal view of a colony ; showing the characteristic appearance
of normal growth. Two-thirds natural size.
Corniferous limestone, near Leroy, New York.
Collection, Yale University Museum.

PuatTE III.
Romingeria umbellifera Billings, sp.

Figure 1.—An oblique basal view of the specimen on the preceding plate ;
showing more distinctly the umbellate habit of growth. Above three-fourths
natural size.

Corniferous limestone, near Leroy, New York.
Collection, Yale University Museum.

Beecher— Observations on the Genus omingeria. 11

PLATE IV,
Romingeria umbellifera Billings, sp.

Figure 1.—Side view of a portion of a colony ; showing the storied effect,
with supporting columns, produced by the regular proliferation periods in
this species. x 3.

PLATE V.

Ficure 1.—Proliferation diagram of Romingeria umbellifera Billings, sp. ;
showing two generations of normal budding. The parent corallite is in the
center.

Figure 2.—Proliferation diagram of -Romingeria Jacksoni Beecher.

Figure 3.—Proliferation diagram of Romingeria minor Beecher.

Romingeria commutata Beecher.

Fieure 4.—A portion of two branches in contact, with the walls of one
broken away ; showing the connecting mural pore and the rows of spinules.
x 4,
Taken from specimen No. 8849, Collection of Museum of Comparative
Zoology.
Type of figure 1, Plate 76, Kentucky Fossil Corals, W. J. Davis.
Corniferous limestone, Falls of the Ohio.
FiguRE 0.—The broken ends of four corallites from the same specimen ;
showing the strong lines of trabeculze on the interior. x 4.

Romingeria minor Beecher.

Figure 6,—Side view of an umbel of this species. x 4.
WIGURE 7.—Side view of an umbel; showing the buds extending out‘at
right angles to the parent corallite. Type. x4.
Figure 8.—Top view of the preceding ; showing the normal number of
_ five buds in the verticel. x4.
FiGuRE 9.—Side view of an umbel similar to the preceding. x4.
Corniferous limestone, near Leroy, New York.
Collection, Yale University Museum.

Romingeria Jacksoni Beecher.

FicureE 10.--A longitudinal section of a corallum in which the corallites
are prismatic, except on the exterior. The peripheral corallites turn out-
ward on some parts of the specimen (not shown) and develop normal umbels.

x 4,

Ficure 11.—Side view of a corallite, with a broken circlet of buds at the
top. One of the buds shows the initial pore, and the adjacent bud preserves
a portion of atabula, x4...

FiGurE 12.—Two umbels taken from the specimen figure 14; showing
characteristics of this species. x 4.

Figure 13.—Base of an umbel; showing the normal number of seven
buds. x4.

FIGURE 14.—Side view of the preceding. x 4.

FiGuRE 15.—Top view of a portion of a colony ; showing the general habit
of growth. Type. x4.

Corniferous limestone, near Leroy, New York.
Collection, Yale University Museum.

Romingeria umbellifera Billings.

FIGURE 16.—Basal view of a portion of the specimen shown on Plate IV;
showing the disposition of the umbels. Natural size.
Corniferous limestone, near Leroy, New York.
Collection, Yale University Museum.

12 .Blake—Some lsomorphous Triple Thiocyanates.

Art. Il.— A Comparative Study of Some Isomorphous
Triple Thiocyanates ; by J. C. BLAKE.

Four triple thiocyanates, recently prepared by Wells and
others,* have been studied crystallographically. These salts
have compositions represented by the following formulas:

Cs,Ag,Ba(SCN),
Cs,Cu,Ba(SON),
Cs,Ag,Sr(SCN).
Cs,Cu,Sr(SCN),

The crystals are well suited for optical investigation, and are
especially interesting because the sphenoidal group of the
tetrahedral system, to which they belong, has few representa-
tives, either natural or artificial, and because the salts are iso-
morphous and hence offer a new field for the comparative
study of the physical and chemical properties involved. Unfor-
tunately the number of salts belonging to the series which
have been prepared is as yet too small to throw much light on
the relative variations which change of composition induces, or
to lend much weight to the conclusions reached.

The following forms have been observed :

ce (001) m (110) qy (201)
a (100) oraiala)

The general habit of the crystals is indicated by the illustra-
tions, figures 2 and 3 showing the sphenoid p (111). The

* Am. Chem. Jour., xxviii, 245.

Blake—Some Isomorphous Triple Thiocyanates. ie fs

sphenoidal character of the crystals was more fully established
for all of the salts of the series by the binary character of the
etchings on basal cleavage surfaces. The basal cleavage ‘is
a pronounced feature of all the salts, hence basal sections for
etching and for optical examination could readily be obtained.
The etched figures, in no case very distinct, were best obtained
by using dilute ammonium hydroxide as the solvent. The
characters obtained are sketched in figure 4, and exhibit plainly
the binary symmetry of the vertical axis. Moreover, on oppo-
site faces of the same basal section the figures were orientated
at right angles to one another, as indicated by full and dotted
lines in the figure. In this way the sphenoidal character of
the silver-barium salt was established, although the sphenoidal

faces, p (111) were not present on any of the crystals observed.

Indeed, the sphenoidal character of this salt, the first one of
the series which was prepared and studied, was unsuspected
until after the other salts had. been examined.

The crystals studied were from one millimeter to one centi-
meter in thickness, with the proportionate lengths represented
in the figures, and exhibited some tendency to arrange them-
selves in parallel groups. One large individual of the silver-
strontium salt in particular seemed to be made up of a collection
of smaller ones in parallel position, the separate pyramidal faces,
qg(201), being readily discernible. The crystals are clear and
colorless when not tinged with impurities, and, with the excep-
tion of the silver-strontium salt, give good reflections with the
goniometer. |

Basal sections of all of the salts, when examined with the
polariscope, exhibit the normal interference figure of uniaxial
erystals, and, when tested with the mica plate, the salts were
proved to be optically negative. The well developed pyra-
midal faces, g, 201, and g”, 201, of the several salts served as
prisms whereby the indices of refraction were determined for
sodium light.

14 Blake—Some Lsomorphous Triple Thiocyanates.

Cs, Ag,Ba(SClV)..

‘The crystals of this salt have the habit shown in figure 1,
consisting of the prism, m (110), and the pyramid of opposite
order, g(201), although the basal plane, ¢ (001), only slightly
developed, is sometimes present. Its external form gives no
indication of its sphenoidal character. The following angles
were measured, the asterisk marking the fundamental meas-
urement:

Measured. Calculated.
Gad, 20LA 201 YO De ae
Gag, 201A 021 76° 30’ TGo ao.
MAQ, 110A201 51° 45’ 51 45°

Vertical axis ¢ = 0°9063.
Indices of refraction for sodium light :

w= 17761; €=1°6788. Difference = 0:0973.

Os, Cu, Ba(SCN)..

The crystals of this salt sometimes have the same habit as
that of the silver-barium compound, figure 1, but usually they
are moditied by the sphenoidal faces, (111), and the base,
c (001), as shown in figure 2. In one crop of crystals more
than twenty individuals were examined, and no variation was
observed in the distribution of the p faces, truncating the
alternate edges of the pyramid of the second order, g (201),
thus clearly establishing the sphenoidal character of the erys-
tallization. Another lot of crystals presented a very different,
almost cubical appearance, owing to the large development of
the basal plane, ¢, figure 3, with the pyramid of the second
order g, and the sphenoid, 7, only slightly developed. Here,
again, there was no variation in the distribution of the faces of
the sphenoid, p, replacing the alternate edges between ¢ and m.
On one crystal a single but well-developed face of the prism of
the second order, @(100), was observed, this being the only
observation of this form on any of the salts of the series. The
following angles were measured :

Measured. Calculated.
GAG, 201A 201 1292-5 2°
PAG; 201 A021 76° 44’ 16.47
MAQ, 110A 201 Zoi Teo k 51° 37
CAP, IOLAIII By 3 52° 94!

Vertical axis ¢c = 0:9183.
Indices of refraction for sodium light:

w = 1°8013; «= 1°6882. Difference = O0°1is1-

Blake —Some Isomorphous Triple Throcyanates. fa

Cs, Ag, Sr(SCN)..

The habit of this salt is the same as that of the silver-barium
compound, except that the sphenoidal faces, p (111), were
observed on two crystals out of twenty, as in figure 2. The
reflections were only fair at the best, although fifty or sixty
individual crystals, obtained from four or five different crops,
were examined. Hence the optical data obtained are value-
less for comparison with those of the other salts studied,
although they are sufficiently characteristic to bring this salt
clearly within the series. The following angles were measured :

Measured. Calculated.
GAq'; 201, 201 129° 46'*
oo. 201 2021 Ge Beh 76° 444
MAW, 110A 201 Ao Phe 38"
CAp, OO1A111 52° 29! 52° 21"
Vertical axis c = 0°9165.
Cs, Cu,Sr(SCLV )..

The habit of these crystals is much like that of the copper-
barium salt, but the sphenoidal faces, »(111), and the base,
e(001), are generally more largely developed than in figure 2,
the p faces being often as large as the faces of the pyramid of
the second order, ¢ (201). Indeed, the sphenoidal faces are
-more pronounced and more generally present on this than on
any other salt of the series. The following angles were meas-
ured :

Measured. Calculated.
GAQ > 201A 201 122° 44’*
Gag, 201,021 76> 41’ 76° 434’
mAQ, 110A201 Siar 51° 38'
CAP, OOLAIII HOSS: O20!

Vertical axis ¢ = 0°9158.
Indices of refraction for sodium light :

w = 1°8535 5; e= 1°6982. Difference = 0°1553.

Comparative Study.

It will be observed that the indices of refraction are high,
and that the birefringence is likewise high. Further, the rela-
tive values of the indices of refraction for the ordinary and
extraordinary rays confirm the evidence obtained by use of the
mica plate that the material is optically negative. The regu-
larity of the physical and chemical variations is made evident
in the following table of collected results :

16 Llake—Some Lsomorphous Triple Thiocyanates.

Develop-
Molec. ment of Bire-
Salt. weight. p (111). c 8) € fringence.

Cs—Ag-Ba 1042°5 Absent 0°9063 1:7761 1°6788 0°:0973
Cs—Cu-Ba 998°2 Slight .0°9188 1:8018 1:6882.) sO:ivat
Cs-Ag-Sr |. .°993°3 Slight .. O:91G 50.7.2 2) te oe nee
Cs—Cu-Sr 949°0 Large 0'9158 1°8535 1°6982 0°1553

The salts have been arranged in order of decreasing molecu-
lar weight. It will be noticed that as the heavier metals are
replaced by lighter ones, both indices of refraction, as well as
the birefringence, grow successively greater, although the oppo-
site behavior might have been expected. The development
of the sphenoidal form, (111), shows a similar regularity ;
whereas the lengths of the vertical axis show the inverse rela-
tion, except for that of the silver-barium salt. Hence one
might conclude that: (1) Similarity of the atomic weights of
the basic elements, as in the case of the cesium-silver-barium
compound, tend to decrease both the indices of refraction and
the birefringence, and also to suppress the sphenoidal form ;
(2) Neither the chemical composition nor the optical proper-
ties bear a simple relation to the length of the vertical axis.

Attempts to obtain other members of the series for further
comparison, as by substituting rubidium for cesium, have so
far been unsuccessful.

The kind advice and supervision of Prof. 8. L. Penfield is
gratefully acknowledged; also the kindness of Prof. H. L.
Wells and his assistants in supplying the crystals examined.

Mineralogical Laboratory of Sheffield Scientific School,
Yale University.

* Repeated attempts to obtain the indices of refraction were unsuccessful,
apparently on account of the great solubility of the material and the conse-
quent difficulty of separating the crystals from the concentrated mother
liquor in good condition for crystallographic study. The crystal faces were
always somewhat uneven, and the reflections consequently blurred ; hence
the length of the vertical axis, also, is less reliable than the values given for
the other salts.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 17

Arr. Il].—Studies in the Cyperacee; by Tueo. Horm.
XIX. The genus Carex in Colorado. (With figures in the
text, drawn by the author.)

Havine given an account of some critical species of Carex
from this State in previously published papers, we now present
a more general sketch of the genus, as represented in the
Rocky Mountains of Colorado, including a synopsis of the
species, some notes on those which are new or little known
together with their geographical distribution. We have not, .
however, succeeded in getting together all the vast material
that exists from this State, collected by various explorers dur-
ing nearly half a century, but we have brought together as
much as possible, including our own collections made during
two summer excursions in these mountains, which may, per-
haps, give an adequate idea of the representation of the genus
in Colorado.

In cases where species have been described only prelimi-
narily and rather incompletely we have inserted a diagnosis;
besides that certain corrections have been made in regard to
the structure of the flower, rhizome, ete.

The flora of Colorado is comparatively little known, and it
is really surprising to see from the map how many and wide
areas are still unexplored. Nevertheless many and large col-
lections have been gathered from these mountains, and the
results published in the shape of ‘ lists” in various publica-
tions. We have thought, therefore, that any contribution to
the knowledge of this most interesting flora might be of some
use for future studies; besides that the notes upon the geo-
graphical distribution might be of interest from this point of
view, demonstrating the existence of arctic and even circum-
polar species on the higher peaks of these mountains. And
the genus Carex, when compared with the other large genera
which we have studied in Colorado, gives really an excellent
idea of the character of the vegetation in these regions with
representatives of northern and ~ southern types, boreal and.
alpine, endemic and such as are common to the mountains of
both worlds. We should not, however, have been in the posi-
tion to offer such data in regard to the distribution or in
regard to the habit of many species, if it were not for the
exquisite collections presented to the writer through the kind-
ness of Mr. James M. Macoun of Ottawa. No species can
be properly understood unless studied from several stations,
and as remote as possible. The Canadian Carices exhibit
many characteristics, which are less pronounced in their
southern representatives or, at least, their homologues, a fact

Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourts Series, Vor. XVI, No. 91.—Juty, 1903.
2

18 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

that becomes only too evident when we remember the pre-
dominance of the genus in northern and colder regions. The
study of Carex atrata L., for instance, offers an excellent
example of the danger in ’ considering specimens from a few
stations: the species in Colorado embraces two types and the
Canadian three, of which only the one, the typical atrata, is
common to both regions; of these, C. ovata Rudge seems
restricted to the northeastern corner of this continent. Never-
theless all four types have at various times been considered
identical. Several instances of a similar nature might easily
be enumerated, and it is, altogether, a most difficult task to
segregate or combine species in a genus as large as Carex. The
proposition of a few new species is the result of a careful study
of allies and homologues, yet the species themselves are only
of some interest as far as concerns their characteristics modi-
fied, but nevertheless referable to some allied type or types
with which they may have developed.

It seems altogether as if the Rocky Mountains have been
the center of development of a number of types, many of which
are endemic, while others participated in the migration along
with the arctic plants towards the North where they became
distributed ; some of these have even become circumpolar.*
But besides these two elements of vegetation, that may be
considered as having originated in the Rocky Mountains them-
selves, a third one and perhaps the most interesting is com-
posed. of arctic plants which having been forced southward
during the glacial epoch, remained there, making their homes
on the lofty mountain summits, where they are yet in exist-
ence. These northern and southern types are especially alpine
or subalpine and may, at least to some. extent, throw some
light upon the great problem of the origin and distribution of
the arctic flora.

A. Synopsis of the Species.

VIGNE

Brachystachye Holm.

Carex canescens L. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, ©. C. Parry) ;
Trapper’s Lake (C. 8. Crandall) ; common in bogs near Bob
Creek, La Plata Mts., alt. 10,500 ft. (Baker, Earle and Tracy);
Marshall Pass, alt. 10,000 ft. (C. F. Baker).

C. tenella Schk. 39°-41° ‘(Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry); Bob
Creek, La Plata Mts., alt. 10,500 ft. (Baker, Karle and Tracy);
moist, shaded places in Spruce- woods on mts. near Pagosa
Peak, alt. 9000 ft. (C. F. Baker) ; in swamp, Graymont (C.
S. Crandall) ; common in swamps on Mt. Elbert, alt. 10,000
ft. and along Quail Creek near Steven’s Mine, alt. 10,500 ft.
(the author).

*Compare: A. G. Nathorst: Polarforskningens Bidrag til Forntidens |
Viaxtgeoegrafi (in Nordenskidlds Studier och Forskningar. Stockholm, 1883.)
See also: Same author in Engler’s bot. Jahrb., 1891, p. 218, ete.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacec. 19

Neurochlence Holm.

C. nardina Fr. Mt. Elbert, alt. 12,000 ft. (the author),

@.

QS

C.

C:

Argyranthe Holm.

Deweyana Schw. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry).
Astrostachye Holm.

gynocrates Wormskj. South Park (I. Wolfe).

. stellulata Good. var. Wet Mountain Valley (T. 8. Brandegee).

Acanthophore Holm.

. occidentalis Bail. La Plata River, alt. 9,000 ft., and Mt. Hes-

perus, alt. 10,000 ft. (Baker, Earle and Tracy).

. Hookeriana Dew. Hills about Trinidad (C. 5. Crandall); dry

meadows at Dix (Baker, Earle and Tracy); moist places,
Los Pinos (C. F. Baker).

Hoodii Boott. Four mile Hill, Routt County (C. 8. Crandall).

Xerochlence Holm.
marcida Boott. Moist meadow, College farm and river-flats
at Ft. Collins (C. 8. Crandall) ; Durango, alt. 6,500 ft. (Baker,

Earle and Tracy) ; abundant in moist meadows near Pagosa.
spring (C. F. Baker).

C. Sartwellii Dew. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry);

South Park (T. C. Porter).

C. Douglasti Boott. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry) ;

near Long’s Peak (J. M. Coulter) ; river-flats at Ft. Collins
and in swamps on the plains near Ft. Collins (C. 8. Crandall) ;
La Plata River, alt. 9,000 ft. (Baker, Earle and Tracy) ;
‘Gunnison, common in meadows (C. F. Baker) ; in the Spruce-
zone, headwaters of Clear Creek, alt. 10,000 ft. (the author).

Phenocarpe Holm.

. teretiuscula Good. Hamor’s Lake (Baker, Earle and Tracy).

Cephalostachye Holm.

C. fetida All. Little Kate Mine, alt. 11,500 ft. (Baker, Earle

C.

C.

and Tracy).
stenophylla Wahl. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry).

Athrostachye Holm.
athrostachya Olney. Mt. Massive, alt. 11,000 ft. (the author).

C. festiva Dew. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C72 rarry)) +) Ute

Pass (T. OC. Porter); White House Mt. and Mt. Lincoln, alt.
12,000 ft. (J. M. Coulter) : Pike’s Peak (W. M. Canby); La
Plata River, alt. 9,000 ft. (Baker, Karle and Tracy) ; Gunni-
son (C. F. Baker) ; ; Georgetown and Silver plume (RAS
Rydberg) ; not uncommon in the Aspen- and Spruce-zones
from Silverplume to Steven’s Mine, alt. 9,500—-10,300 ft., and
on Gray’s Peak, alt. 13,000 ft. (the author).

20 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

C. festiva Dew. var. Haydeniana (Olney) W. Boott. Cameron
Pass (C. 8. Crandall); Marshall Pass, Gunnison Watershed,
alt. 10,000 ft. (C. F. Baker) ; common on hillsides, mts. at
Pagosa Peak, alt. 12,000 ft. (C. F. Baker); Silverplume (P. A.
Rydberg) ; Mt. Kelso, alt. 12,000 ft., Thompson’s Canyon on
Long’s Peak, alt. 10,500 ft., Mt. Massive, alt. 12,000 ft., Mt.
Elbert, abundant in damp places, alt. 11,500 ft. (the author).

C. festiva Dew. var. pachystachya Bail. Bob Creek (Baker,
Earle and Tracy) ; banks of streams, mts. near Pagosa Peak,
alt. 9,500 ft. (C. F’. Baker).

C. festiva Dew. var. stricta Bail. Walton Creek flats, Routt
County (C. 8. Crandall) ; common in meadows and along
brooks, Georgetown and Silverplume (P. A. Rydberg).

C. festiva Dew. var. decumbens Holm. Mts. near Pagosa Peak,
alt. 12,000 ft. (C. F. Baker); abundant on grassy slopes of
Mt. Kelso near Steven’s Mine, alt. 12,000 ft. (the author).

C. petasata Dew. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry);
Cameron Pass, at timber line (C. 8. Crandall) ; La Plata
River, alt. 10,000 ft. (Baker, Earle and Tracy) ; James Peak,
alt. 13,000 ft., Mt. Massive, alt. 12,000 ft. and Mt. Kelso, alt.
12,000 ft. (the author).

C. pratensis Drej. Stove Basin, Laramie Co. (G. E. Osterhout) ;
Howe’s Gulch (C. 8. Crandall) ; not uncommon on dry,
grassy slopes near Long’s Peak, alt. 8,600 ft. (the author).

C. stccata Dew. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, ©. C. Parry) ;
River-bank, Ft. Collins (C. 8. Crandall); La Plata River,
alt. 10,000 ft. (Baker, Earle and Tracy); Mt. Massive, alt.
11,000 ft., Mt. Kelso, alt. 12,000 ft. and on Lamb’s Ranch
near Long’s Peak, alt. 8,600 ft. (the author).

C. Liddonii Boott. Campton’s Ranch (C. 8. Crandall).

C. Bonplandit Kunth var. minor Olney. 39°-41° (Hall and Har-
bour, C. C. Parry) ; near the snowbanks, headwaters of Clear
Creek, alt. 12,000 ft. (the author).

Pterocarpe Holm.

C. straminiformis Bail. West Mancos Canyon, alt. 9,500 ft.
(Baker, Earle and Tracy).

Spherostachye Holm.

C. incurva Lightf. Alpine ridge near Middle Park (C. C. Parry);
Gray’s Peak (Patterson) ; Silverplume (P. A. Rydberg).
CaRICES GENUIN&
Melananthe Dre}.
C. alpina Sw. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry) ; Head-
waters of Beaver Creek, 50 miles south of Ft. Collins, alt.
10,000 ft. (C. S. Crandall) ; South Park (J. Wolfe) ; Upper

La .Plata River, alt. 10,000 ft. (Baker, Earle and Tracy) ;
Idaho Springs (P. A. Rydberg) ; Georgetown (Patterson).

C.

~

C.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 21

alpina Sw. var. Stevenit Holm. Not uncommon in the Aspen

zone: Middle Park (Beardslee); Georgetown (P. A. Ryd-
berg); Silverplume, alt. 9,500 ft.; swamps on Lamb’s Ranch
near Long’s Peak, alt. 8,600 ft.; abundant in the Spruce
zone: between Graymont and Steven’s. Mine, very seldom
alpine: Gray’s Peak, alt. 12,000 ft, associated with Juncus
triglumis and Carex misandra (the "author).

. melanocephala Turez. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C.

Parry); Upper La Plata, alt. 10,000 ft. (Baker, Earle and
Tracy); Chamber’s Lake (C. 8. Crandall) ; Silverplume (P.
A. Rydberg); mts. about Ouray (C. 8. Crandall); very
abundant in thickets of Salix on Mt. Elbert, alt. 11,500 ft.;
on Mt. Kelso at 11,500 ft. and headwaters of Clear Creek, alt.
11,000 ft. (the author).

atrata L. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry) ; Long’s
Peak, alt. 12,500 ft. and Gray’s Peak, alt. 12,500 ft. (the
author).

chalciolepis Holm. Little Kate Mine, La Plata Mts., alt.
11,000 ft. and Mt. Hesperus, alt. 11,500 ft. (Baker, Earle and
Tracy) ; along brooks at Silverplume (P. A. Rydberg) ;
Cameron Pass, timber line (C.S. Crandall) ; mts. near Pagosa
Peak, on hillsides, alt. 12,000 ft. (C. F. Baker) ; James’ Peak,
alt. 13,000 ft., Mt. Massive, alt. 12,000 ft., Mt. Elbert, alt.
12,000 ft., Mt. Kelso, alt. 12,000 ft., Long’s Peak, alt. 12,000
ft., Thompson’s Canyon on Long’s Peak, alt. 10,500 ft. and
Gray’ s Peak, alt. 12,000 ft. (the author).

bella Bail. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry) ; Mt. Hes-
perus, near Bob Creek and Upper La Plata, alt. 10,000 ft.
(Baker, Earle and Tracy)

C. Parryana Dew. 39°-41° ‘(Hall and Harbour, C. ©. Parry) ;

swamps at Twin Lakes, alt. 9,265 ft. (the author).

C. Buxbaumit Wahl. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry).

~

~

C.

C.

Microrhynche Dre}.

vulgaris Fr.; in moist ground, associated with Platanthera and —
Pyrolu in the Aspen zone near Silverplume, alt. 9,500 ft.
(the author).

rigida Good. near the snowbanks, Neder of Clear Creek,
alt. 11,500 ft. (the author).

; scopulor um Holm. Marshall Pass, alt. 12,000 ft., abundant in
_ wet places, covering extensive areas (C. ify. Baker) ; ; mts. of

Kstes Park (G. E. Osterhout). Silverplume (P. A. Ryd-
berg) ; abundant in swamps in the Spruce zone, Mt. Massive,
alt. 11,000 ft., headwaters of Clear Creek, alt. 11 000 ft.,

common in swamps from Steven’s Mine to Mt. Kelso and
Gray’s Peak, alt. 12,000 ft. (the author).

chimaphila Holm. Along brooks, associated with Juncus
biglumis, J. triglumis and J. castaneus on Long’s Peak, alt.
12,000 ft. (the author).

‘

22° T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

C. variabilis Bail. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry) ;
Twin Lakes (J. Wolfe) ; Leadville, Ute Pass (W. Trelease) ;
wet places near Empire and along Clear Creek (Patterson) ;
Cameron Pass (C. 8. Crandall) ; Georgetown, (P. A. Rydberg);
swamps on Mt. Massive, alt. 11,000 ft., and Mt. Kelso (the
author).

C. variabilis Bail. var. sciaphila Holm. Shaded places in the
Spruce zone, Mt. Massive, alt. 11,000 ft. (the author).

C. acutina Bail. Silverplume and Geor getown (P. A. Rydberg) ;
Graymont, in swamps on Lamb’s Ranch, alt. 8,600 ft., and
James’ Peak, alt. 10,000 ft. (the author).

C. acutina Bail. var. petrophila Holm. On dry rocks near Gray-
mont, alt. 9,500 ft. (the author).

C. Nebrascensis Dew. 39°—41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry);
Oak Creek (T. 8. Brandegee) ; Weston Pass and Twin Lakes
(J. M. Coulter); Monument Park (T. C. Porter); swamp
on the Plains near Ft. Collins and in ditch College Farm (C.
S. Crandall).

C. rhomboidea Holm. Common in swamps on Lamb’s Ranch
near Long’s Peak, alt. 8,600 ft., and Twin Lakes, alt. 9,265 ft.
(the author).

Cenchrocarpe Holm.

C. aurea Nutt. Mancos, alt. 7,000 ft. and West Mancos Canyon,
alt. 9,000 ft. (Baker, Earle and Tracy) ; Los Pinos, in moist
places, Piedra, along streamlets and near Gunnison (C. F.
Baker) ; Mt. La Plata, alt. 11,000 ft. (J. M. Coulter) ; bank
of Elk River, Routt County (C. 8. Crandall) ; Clear Creek
Canyon near Graymont, alt. 9,500 ft. (the author).

C. Torreyi Tuckm. On grassy slopes, in openings among Pinus
ponderosa near Golden City (K. L. Greene).

Lejochlence Holm.

C. polytrichoides Muehl. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C.
Parry).

- C. Geyertt Boott. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry) ;

Chamber’s Lake (C. 8. Crandall); Bob Creek, on dry ridges

and meadows, alt. 10,500 ft. (Baker, Earle and Tracy).

Elynanthee Holm.

C. filifolia Nutt. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry); Ute
Pass (T. C. Porter); Table Rock (G. F. Benninger) ; ; Silver-
plume (P. A: Ry dberg).

C. elynoides Holm. On bare mountain tops near Pagosa Peak,
alt. 12,000 ft. (C. F. Baker); Mt. Massive, alt. 12,000 ft., and
Mt. Kelso, alt. 12,000 ft. (the author).

Lamprochlene Dre}.

C. rupestris All. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry) ;
Gray’s Peak (Patterson) ; Cumberland Mine, alt. 12,300 ft.
(Baker, Earle and Tracy); very scarce on dry slopes of James’
Peak, alt. 13,000 ft., Mt. Elbert, alt. 12,000 ft., Long’s Peak,
alt. 12,000 ft., and Gray’ S Peak, alt. 12 500 ft. (the author).

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 23

C. obtusata Liljebl. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry);
Georgetown (Patterson); South Park (J. Wolfe); Chicken
Creek, alt. 9,500 ft. (Baker, Earle and Tracy) ; common in
dry, sandy soil near Long’s Peak, alt. 8,600 ft. (the author).

Athrochlence Holm.

C. nigricans C. A. Mey. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry);
Black Lake in Thompson’s Canyon on Long’s Peak, alt.
10,300 ft. and common along brooks, headwaters of Clear
Creek, alt. 11,000 ft. (the author).

C. pyrenaica Wahl. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry) ;
mountains west of Cameron Pass (C.S8. Crandall); mountains
near Pagosa Peak, alt. 12,000 ft. (C. F. Baker); Long’s Peak,
alt. 12,000 ft., on dry rocks, and Gray’s Peak, alt. 13,000 ft.
(the author).

Stenocarpe Holm.

C.. misandra R. Br. Along brooks on Gray’s Peak, alt. 12,000.
ft. (Patterson and the author).

Spheridiophore Dre}.

C. scirpoidea Michx. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. eee
South Park (T. C. Porter).

C. oreocharis Holm. Common near Golden City (E. L. Greene) ;
on dry rocks in the Aspen zone at Lamb’s Ranch near Long’s
Peak, alt. 8,600 ft. (the author).

c Pennsylwanien Lam. Trail Creek and Riot Canyon (C. S.
Crandall) ; Ute Pass (T. C. Porter) ; mountains near Central
City, alt. 8,500 ft. (the author).

C. Rossii Boott. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry) ;
headwaters of Beaver Creek, 50 miles W. of Ft. Collins and
Chamber’s Lake(©.S. Crandall); common on moist mountain
slopes, Silverplume (P. A. Rydberg and C. L. Shear) ; Little
Kate Mine, alt. 11,500 ft. (Baker, Earle and Tracy) ; in the
Spruce zone on mountains near Pagosa Peak, alt. 11,500 ft.
(C. F. Baker); under Spruce on Mt. Massive, alt. 11,000 ft.
and headwaters of Clear Creek, alt. 11,000 ft. (the author).

C. umbellata Schk. var. brevirostris Boott. Near Golden City
(EK. L. Greene). :

Spirostachye Dre}.
C. viridula Michx. Hamor’s Lake (Baker, Earle and Tracy).

Trichocarpe Holm.

C. lanuginosa Michx. South Park (W. M. Canby); Ute Pass
(T. C. Porter) ; Canyon City (T. 8. Brandegee) ; ‘Campton’ S
Ranch (C. 8. Crandall) ; : Durango, alt. 6,500 ft. (Baker, Earle
and Tracy); Pagosa spring and wet places, Gunnison (C. F.
Baker) ; along creeks in Estes Park (the author).

C. aristata R. Br. River-bank near Ft. Collins, alt. 5,000 ft. (C.
S. Crandall).

24 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

Hymenochlence Dre}.

C. capillaris L. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry);
Devil’s Causeway (C. 8. Crandall) ; West Mancos Canyon —
(Baker, Earle and Tracy) ; ; Bear Lake in Thompson’s Canyon
on Long’s Peak, alt. 10,700 ft., in swamps at Twin Lakes, alt.
9,265 ft., and at a spring in the Aspen zone near Silverplume,
alt. 10 000 ft. (the author).

. Buckii Boott. 39°—41° (Hall and Harbour, C. C. Parry).

. longirostris Torr. var. minor Boott. 39°-41° (Hall and Har-
bour, C. C. Parry). 2

Echinostachyce Dre}.
C. microglochin Wahl. 39°-41° (Hall and Harbour).

QX2

Physocarpe Dre}.

Engelmanniit Bail. Upper Clear Creek region, alt. 12,000 ft.
(G. Engelmann) ; high mountains near Silverplume (P.°A.
Rydberg).

C. utriculata Boott var. minor Boott. 39°-41° (Hall and Har-
bour, C. C. Parry) ; Middle Park and Trapper’s Lake (C. 8.
Crandall) ; Bob Creek, alt. 10,000 ft. (Baker, Earle and
Tracy) ; mountains near Pagosa Peak, alt. 10,000 ft. and
common in wet bottom, Gunnison (C. F. Baker).

C. pulla Good. Deep Creek Lake (C. S. Crandall).

C. monile Tuckm. Hamor’s Lake, alt. 9,000 ft. (Baker, Earle
and Tracy).

C. rostrata Stokes. Hamor’s Lake, alt. 9,000 ft. (Baker, Earle

and Tracy).

~

C.

Lthynchophore Holm.

C. lupulina Muehl. Durango, alt. 6,500 ft. (Baker, Earle and
Tracy).

. Notes on new or little known species from Colorado.

Carex nardina Fr.

The plant which we collected upon Mt. Elbert shows a pecu-
liar deviation from the type by being tristigmatic, besides that
the utricle is very prominently slit on the outer or convex
face. We have not, however, felt justified in regarding this
as a distinct species, inasmuch as the number of stigmas is not
a constant character within the genus Carex, even if the species
in question be one of the Vizgnew. It is, also, to be pointed
out that we were unable to detect any divergence whatsoever
in the anatomical structure of the vegetative organs which we.
compared with those of typical individuals from Greenland,
Norway, Alaska and British Columbia. Similar specimens
with three stigmata were also observed in the copious material

T. Holm—WStudies in the Cuperacee. 25

presented to the writer through the kindness of Mr. James M.
Macoun, which was collected “on mountain summits, alt.
7,400 ft., at the headwaters of Fraser River in British
Columbia.”

Carex occidentalis Bailey.

Rhizome short, creeping, forming dense mats, with persist-
ing, dark-brown sheaths; leaves glaucous, shorter than the
culm, narrow, but flat, scabrous along the margins; culms
numerous, from 20 to 60 in height, slender, triangular, sca-
brous, phyllopodic ; spikes 3 to 8, androgynous, small and few-
flowered, roundish, sessile, contiguous or the lower ones remote,
the bracts seale-like or filiform, but much shorter than the
inflorescence; scales ovate, acuminate and often mucronate,
reddish-brown with green midrib and broad, hyaline margins,
about as long as the utricles; utricle shortly stipitate, spread-
ing at maturity, elliptical, plano-convex, wingless, spongious at
the base, two-ribbed (the marginal), light brown, scabrous
along the upper margins and along the short, but distinct,
bidentate beak ; stigmata 2.

Carex festiva Dew.

Certain points regarding the supposed identity of our plant
with C. Macloviana V@Urv. make it necessary to reproduce
some of the diagnoses already published. Dewey, the author
of the species, described the utricle as follows: “fructibus
ovatis oblongis rostratis in apice serrulatis bifidis convexo-
planis, squama ovata acutiuscula longioribus,” and his speci-
mens came from Bear Lake and the Rocky Mountains. This
description was by Boott,* somewhat modified, “ perigyniis
ovato-ellipticis attenuato-rostratis, ore albo-hyalino oblique antice
secto demum bidentato, utrinque leviter nervatis”; thus the
beak of the utricle at first described as bifid, became by Boott
corrected to “ obliquely slit on the dorsal face, finally bidentate.’
The Scandinavian plant is, in accordance with Hartman,t
described as possessing a membranaceous, bidentate beak, and
the figure given by Andersson{ shows a similar, bidentate apex
of the utricle. Blytt§ attributes a “ membranaceously-lobed;
truneate beak” to the utricle; thus it seems as if the North
American and Scandinavian plants exhibit the same structure
in this particular respect, i.e. the beak of the utricle. The
Greenland plant of C. festcva is by Drejer || described as fol-
lows: ‘‘ perigyniis ovato-ellipticis plano-convexis nervosis mar-

*TIl.-genus Carex, vol. i, p. 26.

+ Skandinaviens Flora 1879, p. 475.
¢{Skandinaviens Cyperaceer 1849, fig. 27.
S$ Norges Flora, vol. i, p. 197, 1861.

|| Revisio crit. Caric. bor., p. 23, 1841.

26 TL. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacec.

gine serrulatis rostratis ore hyalino-lobato abscisso.” However,
in a subsequent paragraph (I. c., p. 24) Drejer calls attention
to the fact, that “‘in OC. festcva et affinibus os rostri quidem
bidentatum est, sed dentes membrana hyalina diaphana con-
junguntur, que stylo adhue restante obscuratur ita ut os
integrum videatur; stylo autem remoto membrana diaphana
facile preetervidetur, quo fit, ut dentes, qui liberi vere non sunt,
mere distineti et acutati videantur.”’ Hence that the beak is
really not bidentate, but entire on the ventral face by the
presence ofa transparent membrane. This very structure of the
beak being only ‘apparently bidentate” we have noticed in all
the specimens we have examined from Greenland, Scandinavia,
Alaska, Vancouver Island and Rocky Mountains from Colorado
northward through Canada, and we see no reason for separ-
ating these plants from one another. Nevertheless, a recent
author, Rev. G. Kiikenthal, has reached the conclusion that
the Greenland and Scandinavian plants are distinct from the
North-American C. festiva Dew, but identical with the South-
American C. Macloviana VUrv. We have seen no specimen
of the latter, which the author, Rev. G. Kikenthal, has
described as possessing a ‘‘ rostrum profunde bidentatum,” but
this character surely does not apply to the European or Green-
land specimens. Mr. C. B. Clarke of Kew has, however,
informed us that he prefers to place them all, the South
and North-American and European representatives, under C.
Macloviana, which is an older name than C. festia.

Olney described Carex Haydeniana* as distinet from C.
Jestiwa by the long beak of the utricle, a character which is
very striking, but hardly sufficient for separating the plant as
a species, unless additional characters be observed.

We have proposed a new variety “decumbens” which is
especially characteristic by the decumbent habit of the plant,
somewhat suggestive of Carex incurva, besides that the utricle
is much larger than in typical specimens of C. festeva. This
variety decumbens has only been observed in the alpine region.

Carex siraminiformis Bailey.

Rhizome loosely ceespitose with lght brown, persisting
sheaths; leaves relatively broad, flat, scabrous along the mar-
gins, shorter than the culm; culm erect, from 25 to 37™ in
height, quite stout, trigonous, nearly glabrous, leafy at the base,
phyllopodic; spikes 3 to 4, gyneecandrous, dense flowered,
ovoid, sessile, contiguous, forming a compact head about 2° in
length and 1°5°" in width; scales oblong, acute, light brown
with green midrib (of 3 veins) and broad, hyaline margins,

* Clarence King: Report Geol. Explor. 40th Paral. 1871, p. 366.

T. Holm—-Studies in the Cyperacec. 27

much narrower and shorter than the utricle; utricle almost
sessile, erect, compressed, broadly ovate with very conspicuous,
denticulate wings and 4 nerves, of which the marginal ones are
very prominent on the ventral face, light green, tapering into
a rather long, bidentate, scabrous beak; stigmata 2.

Carex alpina Sw. var. Stevenii Holm.

This differs from the type especially by its narrower spikes,
which are less contiguous and often somewhat remote and
peduneled ; the utricle is at maturity dark, reddish brown with
an emarginate beak, scabrous along the margins and early
deciduous; the scales are brownish to almost black, with narrow,
hyaline margins; in specimens from dry rocks the culms are
seldom more than from 6-12" in height, but in specimens from
swamps the culms attain a height of 55° and are much
more slender than in the type.

Carex melanocephala Turez.

C. nigra Olney Exsicc., fase. 5, 24, 1871.
C. atrata L. var. nigra Am, auth.
C. nova Bailey.*

Turezaninow described this species in his work Flora
Baicalensi-Dahurica with the following diagnosis: “Spicis 3
dense congestis sessilibus, adjecta rarius quarta subremota
breviterque pedunculata, terminali androgyna_ basi mascula,
reliquis fcemineis, utriculis glabris ellipticis dorso convexis
subtrigonis, rostro longiusculo bidentato terminatis; radice
stolonifera. In alpibus Baicalensibus Urgudei, Schibet, ad fl.
Tessa et cet. Floret Junio, Julio.” Boott has, also, described
C. melanocephala, but as a variety “ parviflora” of C. alpina:
“yerigyniis. majoribus ellipticis, bifidis, enerviis, fusco-pur-
pureis, basi pallidis, squama ovata fusco-purpurea nervo con-
colori rarius extra apicem producto longioribus.” The species
has for many years been collected in this country, but has been
confounded with C. nigra All. and with C. alpina Sw., while
Professor Bailey segregated it as an independent species C.
nova. The diagnosis of C. nova is, however, very incomplete,
and since we have had the opportunity of studying an abund-
ance of specimens at various elevations, we have thought it
worth while to append a diagnosis of this interesting species,
which Mr. C. B. Clarke has kindly identified for us as iden-
tical with Turezaninow’s C. melanocephala: Rhizome loosely
ceespitose with ascending shoots, the leaf-sheaths persisting,
reddish brown; leaves shortér than the culm, relatively narrow,
but flat, scabrous along the margins and lower face, the ligule

* Jour. Botany London, 1888, vol. 26, p. 822 and Mem. Torr. Bot. Club,
olmewnssos op, 10.

28 T.. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

very distinct; culm erect, stout, triangular, scabrous especially
above, from 9 to 68™ in height (the smallest specimens having
been collected on Long’s Peak, Mt. Elbert and Gray’s Peak at
12,000 ft. alt.), leafy at the base, phyllopodic; spikes 2 to 4,
but mostly 3, roundish and sessile, forming a dense, oval or
roundish head, very seldom the lowest remote; the bracts very
short, scale-lke or the lowest one extended into a short bristle,
much shorter than the spike; the terminal spike gyneecandrous,
the lateral purely pistillate ; scales ovate, acute to acuminate,
dark purple with pale midrib, shorter than the utricle; utricle
sessile, plano-convex, varying from broadly elliptical to round-
ish, granulated, glabrous or minutely denticulate along the
upper margins, two-nerved (the marginal), spreading at maturity,
yellowish and purplish spotted to almost black when mature,
terminated by a beak of variable length, emarginate to biden-
tate; stigmata 3, seldom 2.

In high alpine specimens the utricle becomes wholly glabrous
and the beak longer, and it was in such plants that the number
of stigmata was observed to be, sometimes, only two.

Carex chalciolepis sp. n. (figs. 1-5).

Rhizome cespitose, the leaf-sheaths persisting, purplish or
brown; leaves shorter than the culm, relatively narrow, but
flat, erect, scabrous along the margins; culm slender and weak,
often reclining, triangular, scabrous or nearly glabrous, leafy
at the base, from 17 to 75™ in height, (the tallest being those
from Pagosa Peak), phyllopodic; spikes 3 to 4, dense-flowered
and thick, from 1 to 1:5 im length and 1™ im thiekmess.
shining brown, “ copper-colored,” contiguous, sessile or the
lowest ver y shortly peduneled and subtended by a short, fili-
form bract, the other bracts merely scale-like; an empty,
sheathing and foliaceous bract is nearly always observable in
some distance, varying from 2 to 6™ below the inflorescence ;
scales of staminate flowers varying from lanceolate and acute
(fig. 1) to elliptical; scales of pistillate flowers ovate and acu-
minate (fig. 2) or elliptical oblong to lanceolate (fig. 4), narrower,
but longer than the utricle, dark purplish or reddish brown
with the apex and margins more or less hyaline, but with the
midrib seldom visible; utricle sessile, erect, ovoid (fig. 3) or
almost orbicular (fig. 5), slightly plano-convex, granulated, two-
nerved (the marginal), minutely scabrous along the upper
margins, yellowish green with purplish spots: or uniformly
dark-colored, terminated by a short, emarginate to bidentate
beak; stigmata 3.

The accompanying figures illustrate the scales and utricles
of C. chaleiolepis from Pagosa Peak (figs. 1-3), and Mt. Kelso
(figs. 4-5), while fig. 6 represents the nied with the scale of

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 29

) 10
Fig. 1. Carex chalciolepis from Pagosa Peak, scale of staminate spike ;
fig. 2, scale of pistillate spike; fig. 3, utricle; fig. 4, scale of pistillate spike,
and fig. 5, utricle of the same species from Mt. Kelso. Figs. 6 and 7, utricle
and scale of C. atrata from Long’s Peak and Norway. Fig. 8, C. rhomboidea
natural size ; figs. 9 and 10, scale and utricle of same.

30 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

C. atrata L. from Long’s Peak, and fig. 7 the utricle and
scale of C. atrata from Norwa

Having proposed C. chalciolepis as a species distinct from
Carex atrata L., and having studied a large collection of
representatives of the latter and its nearest allies in North ~
America, we feel induced to present some data concerning their
characteristics.

As indicated in the synopsis of the species, C. atrata, the
typical plant, occurs on some of the high mountains of Colorado,
but seems, however, to be rare. In speaking of the “typical
plant” we might state at once, that this is very seldom recognized
in this country, and is excluded altogether in Professor Macoun’s
Catalogue of Canadian plants, where the variety “ovata”
(Rudge) Boott is the only one that is enumerated as occurring
between the Atlantic coast and the Rocky Mountains. A like
disposal is suggested in Gray’s Manual (1890), where the variety
ovata is credited to the White Mountains, New Hampshire, Ver-
mont and northward, with no mention of the typical plant. It
is very likely that Rudge’s C. ovata is the predominant form in
the northeastern parts of this continent, but it is not the only
one in the north, since the type has been collected in southern
Greenland, on mountains at “ Kicking Horse Lake” and on
“Sheep Mountain” in the British provinces, besides in W yo-
ming, Montana and Utah.—Linneeus is the author of C. atrata,
and he described it from Lapland specimens, the diagnosis, brief
as it may seem, being nevertheless sufficient for distnguishing
the species from the others in his Flora Lapponica: “ Carex
spicis ad apicem culmi pendulis androgynis”’; by “ androgynis”
is naturally meant *‘ gyneecandrous,” since the spikes bear the
pistillate flowers at the apex, the staminate ones at the base.
But, strange to say, very few authors have since described the
species in the same way “spicis androgynis,” while they have
referred the androgynous character only to the terminal spike,
and this deviation from the original diagnosis is noticeable in
the works of Wahlenberg, Andersson, Blytt, Hartman, Tre-
viranus and Koch; on the other hand, Lightfoot, Schkuhr,
Kunth, Gaudin and Boott have described the species in accord-
ance with Linneeus as possessing “several gyneecandrous
spikes.” Otherwise the European authors seem to agree in
respect to the general characterization of the species, the shape
of the spikes, the scales, utricle, etc., and we might point out
some of these characteristics for further comparison with its
European and American allies. The spikes are mostly all
geynecandrous, and the terminal is oval, the lateral more or
less oblong ; they are borne on rather stout peduncles, which are
almost glabrous ; the scales are ovate, acute to obtuse, blackish-
brown with very narrow, hyaline margins, and a little shorter

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 31

than the utricle; this organ is ovate, compressed trigonous,
granulated, two-nerved (the marginal), and abruptly terminated
by a short, emarginate to bidentate beak; the color of the
utricle is light green, but changes often to brownish and purple-
spotted at maturity. A variety “spadicea,” with the scales
and utricles grayish-brown, is described by Beurling from the
mountains of Norway.*

Among the nearest allies of @. atrata in Europe may be
mentioned C. nigra All. and C. aterrima Hppe., both of which
seem contined to the Pyrenees, the “ Alps” of Switzerland and
Austria. In the former of these the spikes are nearly sessile
and ovate, the utricle is reddish-brown, when young, becoming
dark purplish at maturity, and is prominently scabrous along
the upper margins ; while in C. atrata the granulation is only
represented by roundish projections; C. aterrzma, which looks
more like (. atrata, is quite robust, with the spikes oblong—
cylindrical, peduncled, and the utricle is merely granulated,
but purplish-black with greenish base and margins. Of these
the former is by most authors considered distinct from C.
atrata, while C. aterrime is frequently enumerated as a mere
variety of this from higher elevations and with a later time of
flowering. But even if C. aterrima be a good species, C.
atrata does, nevertheless, occur in Europe, with narrow,
cylindrical spikes of variable color, from almost black to red-
dish-brown. This variation in color and shape of spikes may
sometimes be so pronounced that the European wérata seems
to pass over into the American C. ovata Rudge.

As already stated, typical C. atrata occurs in this country,
but. judging from the’ collections which we have studied, it
does not seem to be as frequent as the so-called C. ovata
Rudge. The principal characteristics of this plant are in accord-
ance with Rudge, the gynecandrous spikes being ovate and
pendulous, the ovate, acute scales of a fuscous color. A num-
ber of Canadian specimens demonstrate a habit somewhat
different from that of C. atrata vera, not only by the larger
and narrower spikes of a dark, reddish color, but also by the long
peduneles, which are very slender and prominently scabrous.
C. ovata is altogether a much more graceful plant than @.
atrata, and may, perhaps, represent a species distinct from C.
atrata. But CO. ovata, C. nigra and C. aterrima were with
Boott only varieties of C. atrata L.

In comparing these plants with our O. chalciolepis it is
readily seen that this is at once distinguished by its dense,
ceespitose growth, the very slender, elabrous culms, which are
more or less reclining, and by its usually sessile, contiguous,

* Caricum Scandinavie conspectus. (Bot. Notiser 1853, p. 36.)

32 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

Fig. 11, Carex chimaphila, natural size ; figs. 12 and 138, utricle and scale
of same. Fig. 14, CO. acutina var. petrophila, natural size.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 33

dense-flowered spikes with shining, copper-colored scales and
utricles. The larger size of the scales in proportion to the
utricles is very characteristic. It is a plant not easily con-
founded with typical C. atrata or ovata, and we do not feel
inclined to merge it with the others as a mere form or variety
of C. atrata.

Besides C. ovata and chalciolepis there is still a third plant
in the Rocky Mountains, which also exhibits a close affinity to
C. atrata, the so-called C. bella Bailey. This plant possesses
much narrower spikes than any of the preceding; the peduncles,
especially of the lower spikes, are very long and _ slender,
prominently scabrous, and the scales are dark purplish with
broad, ight green midrib and very broad, hyaline margins, and
are a little shorter than the membranaceous, somewhat inflated,
pale green utricle, of which the two marginal nerves are quite
thick and conspicuous. In this species the utricle exhibits only
a minute granulation and lacks the scabrous margins, a struc-
ture which in many respects is suggestive of that of C. M/er-
tensii Prescott. We have, thus, before us another type of the
Carex atrata alliance which shows transition to one of the
most evolute forms of the Melananthe: C. Mertensii, and it
appears as if the typical (. wtrata may be considered as con-
stituting the fundamental species of a series of types, some
characteristic of Europe alone: C. nigra and aterrima, and
others of this continent: C. ovata, chalciolepis, bella and
Mertensit.

Carex Parryana Dew.

The distribution of the sexes seems very variable in this
species and we have observed dicecism in several individuals.
The terminal spike is very often gyneecandrous, while the
lateral, when such are developed, are purely pistillate ; in
monostachyous specimens the spike is mostly gyneecandrous or
in a few cases pistillate only. Mono- and di-stachyous culms
frequently occur on the same individual.

Curex chimaphila sp. n. (figs. 11-13).

Rhizome loosely ceespitose with short, ascending stolons, the
leaf-sheaths persisting, purplish or dark brown; leaves rela-
tively broad, flat, a little scabrous along the margins, shorter
than the culm ; culm erect, slender, triangular, scabrous, from
12 to 80™ in height, phyllopodic; spikes 8 to 4, mostly 3, con-
tiguous or the lowest one remote, subtended by black, scale-like
bracts without sheaths, the lowest sometimes with a blade,
shorter than the inflorescence ; terminal spike staminate, short
and clavate, peduncled, the scales spatulate, brown to almost
black with pale midrib; lateral spikes pistillate, from 1 to 1:5

Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtH Series, Vou. XVI, No. 91.—JuLy, 1903.
3

34° T. Holm—Studies in the Oyperacee.

in length, dense-flowered, all, especially the lowest, peduncled,
erect ; scales (fig. 12) lanceolate, acuminate, spreading, blackish
purple with hyaline apex and very short and inconspicuous
midrib, the scale narrower, but longer than the utricle; utricle
(fir. 13) sessile or minutely stipitate, spreading, roundish, com-
pressed, granulated, two-nerved, sparingly scabrous along the
upper margins, dark green with purplish spots especially above,
terminated by a short, entire or subemarginate beak ; stigmata
2; style exserted, but short. :

This species, to a certain extent, has the aspect of some mem-
bers of the Aeorastachye, C. cryptocarpa for instance, but
seems, nevertheless, to be more naturally allied to the JLero-
rhynche, and its place may be defined as near C. hyperborea
Dre}j., but diverging from this by the long and spreading scales.

Carex variabilis Bailey.

Rhizome stoloniferous with persisting, light-brown to pur-
plish sheaths; leaves flat, relatively broad; scabrous along the
margins, as long as the culm or longer; culm erect, stiff, tri-
angular, scabrous especially below the inflorescence, from 10
to 45° in height, phyllopodic ; spikes from 3 to 6, contiguous
or the lowest one remote, the terminal and uppermost lateral
ones staminate, the others pistillate or, sometimes, androgy-
nous, erect, sessile or the lowest peduncled ; a pistillate spike is
often developed from the axil of one of the basal leaves, borne
on a very slender peduncle to the length of 12° in length;
bracts of the inflorescence leaf-like about as long as the inflor-
escence or the uppermost ones shorter, but without sheaths ;
staminate spike broadly linear ; the pistillate, cylindrical,
obtuse, dense-flowered except towards the base (from 2 to 5°5™
in length); scale of staminate flower spatulate oblong and
obtuse, light purplish with hyaline apex and midrib; scale of
pistillate flower ovate to elliptical, acute, dark purplish to
almost black with green, not excurrent midrib, shorter and
narrower than the utricle; utricle sessile, ight green, granu-
lated, two-nerved (the marginal), obovate to broadly elliptical,
compressed, terminated by a short, entire, purplish or green
beak ; stigmata 2.

var. sciaphila nob.

Culms from 25 to 42° in height, very slender and reclining ;
spikes very short and mostly remote, otherwise as the type.

Carex acutina Bailey.

Rhizome czspitose with persisting, purplish or brownish
sheaths; leaves quite broad and flat, scabrous along the mar-
gins, as long as the culms or longer; culm erect, stiff, triangu-

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 35

lar, scabrous, from 50 to 75™ in height, phyllopodic; spikes
: 4 to 6, contiguous or the lowest one remote, erect or sometimes
spreading, the upper ones sessile, the lower ones short-peduncled ;
the terminal and uppermost lateral spikes staminate, the others
pistillate or androgynous, subtended by sheathless foliaceous
bracts, of which the lowest exceeds the inflorescence, the
others being shorter ; staminate spike linear, the scales oblong-
lanceolate, reddish-brown with pale, not excurrent midrib;
pistillate spike from 3 to 4°™ in length, quite thick, cylindrical,
obtuse, the scales ovate-lanceolate and acuminate, dark brown
to almost black with the midrib obsolete, longer, but narrower
than the utricle; utricle stipitate, oval to elliptical, compressed,
granulated light green, two-nerved, the beak short, entire,
purplish around the orifice ; stigmata 2.

var. petrophila nob. (fig. 14).

Culms very low, from 7 to 15°" in height ; spikes until 6°" in
length, very narrow, but dense-flowered, attenuated at the base,
contiguous, the lower ones often very long-peduncled ; utricle |
stipitate, almost roundish in outline with a short, entire beak.

Carex rhomboidea sp. n. (fig. 8-10).

Rhizome loosely ceespitose, the sheaths persisting, light pur-
plish ; leaves rather narrow, but flat, scabrous along the mar-
gins, a little shorter that the culm; culm 80 to 40™ in height,
erect, slender, triangular, scabrous, phyllopodic; spikes 3 to 5,
the terminal and, sometimes, the uppermost lateral staminate,
the others pistillate, or the uppermost lateral androgynous,
erect, sessile or the lowest one short-peduncled, mostly contig-
uous, subtended by foliaceous, sheathless bracts with blades as
long as the inflorescence or shorter ; staminate spike linear, the
scales spatulate oblong, obtuse, light reddish-brown with pale
midrib and hyaline margins; pistillate spikes very dense-
flowered, cylindrical, attenuated at the base, from 1°5 to 4™
in length, the seales (fig. 9) dark purplish with white, broad
midrib, oblong, obtuse, narrower, but longer than the utricle ;
utricle sessile, elliptical, rhomboid (fig. 10) granulated, light
green, two-nerved, compressed, entirely beakless ; stigmata 2.

Carex variabilis, C. acutina and CU. rhomboidea constitute
a small group of Microrhynche of which the two first show
some approach to the old world types of the aguatilis group,
though very distinct from this; C. rhomboidea stands some-
what isolated among the other Microrhynche, but belongs
undoubtedly to this section, and perhaps to the group, the
center of which is Boott’s C. angustata.

36 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

Carex Rossii Boott.

It is strange to see how often vegetative characters are
overlooked by systematic writers. The structure of the
rhizome for instance is very seldom studied, and by looking at
the plant descriptions in the last edition of Gray’s manual, in
the Synoptical Flora and other more recently published works,
it is too evident that this part of the plant might have been
considered and studied much more carefully. Even in such
inconspicuous and uniform looking plants as our Carices does
the structure of the rhizome, of the leaves and the culms afford
good characters for distinguishing closely allied species, and
sometimes easier than the structure of the utricle. or the scales.
And the fact that the vegetative characters have been left out
altogether in descriptive works upon Carex has resulted in
mistakes, that could easily have been avoided.

One writer* has for instance stated that the European
Carex pilulifera is identical with the North American C.
communis (C. varia of many authors), by presenting an
elaborate table of measurements of spikes, of the distance
between these, of the length of the utricle, of the beak, ete., etc.,
but overlooking the fact that C. pilulifera is phyllo-, C. com-
munis aphyllo-podic, not speaking of the extremely different
habit possessed by these species, when studied ‘‘in the field.”
A similar disposal has been madet of Horneman’s C. deflexa
and Boott’s C. Rossiz, in this way that C. deflera is enumerated
as the type of a species with four varieties, Deanez, media,
Lossia and Bootti. Of these C. Lossiz is the only one which
occurs in Colorado, and a study of this plant has led us to the
belief that it is specifically distinct from the Greenland C.
defleca, as Boott himself considered it to be. The latter species
we have had the opportunity to observe in a living state in
Greenland, and it never appeared to us. when we found the
former, C. Rossiz, in Colorado, that they should represent the
same species. There is, among otlier characters, exactly the
same and very conspicuous distinction noticeable in C. Rossi,
when compared with C. deflewa, as we have described above
between C. pilulifera and C. communis: C. Lossia is aphyllo-,
C. deflera phyllo-podie.

To fully emphasize the importance of this character, it is, of
course, necessary to study a number of specimens collected at
different seasons, and to compare the different shoots, floral
and vegetative, and their leaves. But besides this distinction
derived from the shoots, the structure of the rhizome itself
deserves, also, some attention. Thus is the rhizome of C.

*M. L. Fernald in Contrib. Gray Herb., vol. xxii, p. 508, 1902.
+L. H. Bailey in Mem. Torrey Bot. Club., vol. i, p. 48, 1889.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 37

defleca very slender, horizontally creeping and stoloniferous,
but producing a number of shoots every year as if it were really
ceespitose ; each shoot develops only leaves during the first
year, succeeded by a terminal, flower-bearing culm the year
following. In C. fossiw there is, also, a number of shoots
from each rhizome, but the shoots are either purely floral or
vegetative ; moreover the rhizome is much more robust, rela-
tively shorter and ascending, not horizontal, and not stolonif-
erous in the stricter sense of the word. In considering the
other parts of the plants, we might mention that the utricle in
C. defleca is very shortly beaked, and the beak bifid, while
this organ in C. /rossiz is extended into a very prominent,
bidentate beak ; the diagnosis as reproduced (I. c.) is, altogether,
not very correct.

C. The Geographical Distribution of the Carices of Colorado.

In the accompanying table the species which are marked by
an asterisk prefixed are exclusively confined to the bare
exposures above the timber-line and are, thus, truly alpine;
they number fifteen, and to these may be added the variety
decumbens of OC. festa. Several of the others are, also, to
some extent alpine, but have occasionally been observed below
the timber-line on some of the mountains; among these, are,
for instance: C. melanocephala, C. scopulorum and C. capi-
laris. Of these the two former are most abundant just at
timber-line, while C. capillaris is more frequent at lower ele-
vations, where it reaches a more luxuriant growth than higher
upward.

Besides this distribution shown in the table given below, the
following species have been reported from

China: C. stellulata, stenophylla, incurva, atrata, vulgaris, rigida,
rupestris and microglochin.

Japan: C. canescens, siccata, Buxbaumii, vulgaris and pyrendaica.

South America: C. canescens (Argentina—Tierra del Fuego), mar-
cida (Patagonia), festiva (Argent.-T. del. Fuego), incurva
(Peru-T. del. Fuego) and vulgaris (Chile).

Sandwich Islands: C. festiva.

New Zealand : (C. stellulata, teretiuscula, vulgaris and pyrenaica.

Spitzbergen: C.incurva, nardina, misandra, rupestris and pulla.

And if we examine the highest altitude reached by some of
these arctic-alpine species in the Himalayan Mountains, the fol-
lowing may be recorded: C. microglochin from 11,000 to
15,000 ft., canescens until 12,000 ft., regida 13,000 ft., alpona
15,000 ft., ercurva 15,500 ft. and atrata 17,000 ft.

38 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

North America.

Species of Carex in Colorado.

Europe. Asia.

————— Ss ———, |

Alps and
Pyrenees.
Ural.

Altai Mts,
| Bajkal Mts.

+} Arctic region.

CONESCENS= 2 Seale ea a
CCRC. LE a RE es ee ai
nO ROURLO) Be see eee
DEWOYONG Se STR eas + =
GQUNOCTULESY Es = Seema ae +
SCL ee See ee he ee +
OCCLOLENtAS 2 eee Ea |e

4+ +| Atlantic slope.

oF
aP
He

++
++

IOORCTIGNG se eee 4 Stay Ne ee
TELOG QI ee eee ete Pan PS | er

DI OUWOLOS gree ok oe Oe tee a oo bee te
terevvuscula ss. 022. Ses? 5 ee +
ORM AD SSE 5 (AS Re eA ae =5

Stgnopiylloa eae. anaes aan ee hl ee
GEL OSIOCHYUO A eee Sn eee
PC SUUUCLRE = exe, oh oe eee oe eS ser tl| deanna sil
SICCISCLUG: ae eee eke ere te + | + ae
PUGECNSIS 23 ao oe oe Seval were tet et
SUCCOLO A ets ten ee este Eig (ert | eee hy
TAOQOTU wa tee one, 2a eee Seb Be
“BONDIONGW Sane see eee Soe ee
SOV OMIUNTOTINIS (oo = eee Yih ee ps
PU WCUTUG, He Mee ee ak ean +} + [+
CPI en alee Pe eae + |} + [+
melanocephala 222222222 -= eer el ie
EXOT RROH (0 Relat wigs Aaah ts A at +o) eal.

CHOICIOle DTS eae ee oa |e © el ie
DOUG, a een SES Ne me Fey poe AS ieee

POTTY ONO ee ee os aes ee She ea be
UOC =o ref oe tern +] + =
UUIGATIS 55 Reels Seek es Se tts ie eal t=
PIGUUEs = ooo. eee oes ear 25
SCOPULOTAULT See eae re Se Renesas
RCH UNC PUG ae tee fae SI
UUMAOUISS.. - SSe coc eae + | --
BDOWOUNONS 2 2% wee le 2 ae Se ees lellye ee
INEDROSCENSTS 22 Se. i Coes He 4) ey
TUAGTINOOL CO sa a te oie Ws A
GUIRY Apes A, RMT Ae eS shat Seti +
ENO RAY Oe 33 ee a Ser eseeerh| 2 el iegets
MOlYETICNOUES == =k Se fe + | + +
EAA RUE 31s, Se a Eee ewer tes
beh PAM OYIOo Bhs 2 peta en Pp eeseea ke el Ae
ClNOUleShsee tee ee ye af eet og
“TY UDOSULIS nee meee ee sari ick alle ot
OUtUSALG Eee eet ete ei (eS os
TUOTICONS eo Soe, Vane oe eee + | +
DYTCNOLCH = 22 Sees ee + | +
*MASONOTO wee 4 -ee e ee + | +
SCITPOIUeEd 2 oa eee ee =P) ar

+| Greenland.
.o! + + +4 | North Europe.

+

+ | Caucasus,
+} Arctic Siberia.

le

J

mtschatka and
Sachalin.

est ++|Ke

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 39

TABLE (continued).

North America, Europe. Asia.
= SSS Sy) SS SS | >
= | & E
wn :;| oO o ‘ a) Ss
#4|/2/5|5 | |5\ 38 Bl oats ee
=. Solara rs he So -|2| jl | ¢| &a
Species of Carex in Colorado.) 5.4) % | 2) 9 | Ela] ae 3 51 w S = = ses
S0| 2 |&) a lelalae|2|e| 2! i ei e| 2s
S |4) < |s\z S| 4) <4) B) zis
ORIG OCS Bey gs ean 1) pe econ Wee me eee Neos sella tg a
PeAWSULUGNICH ~~. .-3--- Sea) Meee a enn ar LSS ly ke Gl lle dle eo ea
lSSit 32 a ct Ia pees lh eel Neko 30a a ed
Mei Oen wal ULECLrOStnes | 14> \| 2. [ao] 22) Se SelP ea Seis les eed sah [oah ee
SPD OLCh De eg a ieee ee (me et cemented NS a Pee | ca A a bios ed (eae eae
IOHWOLNOSO oie. oo Se em Pc rt Tat kd ee pV ay FF
PUUSUOUOM 2 ce i SO a a Mics || aul ik SMF aS ah) al Nea
JRO RUG 2! ee ee er ois fap eating (eae Eee egal ac (Ns, 's fie a eb = OM I at | Fee
BEY UC DSS ees See) ep ese ee | ete etic [22 eel [se
(OHMUBLOSERUS es oe EEN meee (AS tg he oem mae |e yen UU (oe
TMCTOWOCRUMUD jn o5 ssa -- 5) +.) fl 2. PE) Pert ect leet
PHNGUMONNW =... 52-- Be Hin acin etl ae Saale tA) BU e ol tel eee as tao DM ee
DROTICUUOEM eee soe kk -- Os Silt oe FEF diocese (ie
SSEAE TAT LS ee rrr 2 ted - Be acy (A ere eo] ena ie al) ee fee Pe
LMCI: SO ee eS Sei eet HERE ev pay (ESI yg (A ie (lie
POSULOLOR Se sk + Dts liege ia UE Sg oe A heal ae (Ba eA 8
UA MUENO et ro ok Peat eee mR Brie oy OE am Dee Fy a er al ete ad

The Carices of Colorado may, from a geographical view-
point, be classified in two sections: Northern and Southern.

I. Northern Species.

a. Circumpolar types.

C. canescens, incurva, rigida, rupestris, misandra and pulla.

6. Arctic, but not cireumpolar.

C. nardina, gynocrates, festiva, alpina, atrata, Buxbaumii, scir-
poidea, capillaris and microglochin.

c. Northern but not arctic types.

C. tenella, stellulata, teretiuscula, pratensis, siccata, Hoodii, vul-
garis, obtusata, utriculata and rostrata.

d. Northern types, endemic to North America.

C. Deweyana, Hookeriana, marcida, Sartwellit, Douglasii, athro-
stachya, petasata, Liddonii, Bonplandii, Parryana, varia-
bilis, acutina, Nebrascensis, aurea, Torreyi, polytrichoides,
Geyerii, filifolia, nigricans, Pennsylvanica, Rossii, Backii,
umbellata, longirostris and lanuginosa.

40 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

Il. Southern Species.

é. Species common to both worlds.
C. foetida, stenophylla, pyrenaica and melanocephala.

J. Species endemic to North America.

C. occidentalis, straminiformis, chalciolepis, bella, scopulorum,
chimaphila, rhomboidea, elynoides, oreocharis, Engelmannii,
monile and lupulina.

When comparing the geographical distribution of these
Carices, the arctic-alpine are of a special interest, because they
prove that there are species common to these mountain-peaks
and to the polar regions, a fact that may point towards the place
where these species originated, or let us say “ developed.”

And the most natural explanation seems to be, that they are
remnants of a glacial flora which were left on these mountains,
while the others migrated back to their northern homes, when
the ice receded. Their center of distribution would, thus, be
the arctic region. This explanation might be plausible in
respect to the cireumpolar species, but less so concerning the
others. For in regard to the latter there is some, and indeed
no small, possibility for supposing that these had originally
developed in the South, but that they accompanied their arctic
brethren on their return to the North. The latter explanation
might be applicable especially to such species which are not
strictly alpine, but which, nevertheless, are known to occur in
the arctic region.

When, thus, the geographical distribution fails to give us
any exact information about the center of development of such
species which are arctic, but not alpine, some other data may
be taken into consideration. We suggest the association with
allied species as perhaps giving some clue to the solution of
this problem.* Would it not be natural to suppose that where
some species is found associated with a group of types which
appear to be closely allied to this, that “ there” may be sought
the center of its distribution, if not of its development? We
might illustrate this suggestion by an example, taken from
Carex festiva. This species is arctic, but neither circumpolar
or strictly alpine; it is relatively rare in the polar-regions and
oceurs there only as what may be termed the “typical” plant.
But much farther South and especially in the subalpine zone
of the Rocky Mountains is a herd of this same species, accom-
panied by several aberrant forms, besides by species that are
apparently distinct, but among its closest allies: C. athrostachya,
petasata, pratensis, ete. Judging from our present knowledge

*Compare R. v. Wettstein: Grundziige d. geogr.-morphol. Methode d.
Pflanzensystematik, 1898, p. 30, etc.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 4]

of the distribution of this species, C. festiva, its geographical
center and, also, its center of development seems to have been
in the South, in the Rocky Mountains, where it is, thus, typi-
cally developed, accompanied by allies and most abundant.
And its occurrence in the arctic region may be explained in
this way, that individuals of this species were among those that
migrated northward with the arctic plants. This instance of
an arctic plant having evidently originated in the South may
easily be supplemented with others, and there is even among
the cireumpolar Carices from Colorado a species which seems
to illustrate the same case: C. canescens. This species is also
rather rare in the extreme North, while. it abounds farther
South, associated with more or less deviating forms, besides by
close allies. Moreover this species is especially frequent in the
lowlands of North and Middle Europe, Central Asia and of the
temperate zones of this continent, extending throughout the
southern portions of South America to Tierra del Fuego. But
it is, of course, impossible to define the original center of a
species with such wide distribution as C. canescens, with any
closer proximity than that the center was evidently in the tem-
perate zone. The remarkable predominance of varieties of C.
canescens on this continent in contrast to Europe and Asia,
might point towards its center as being looked for here, inas-
much as it is here surrounded by such species which we, for
morphological reasons, consider as close allies, e. g., C. vetelis,
trisperma, tenuifiora, loliacea and tenella, of which only the
first, C. vitelis, has reached beyond the arctic circle.

These examples might be sufficient for illustrating the prob-
able southern origin of certain plants that are, also, known as
“arctic.” But in regard to the other cireumpolar Carices
from Colorado, we are unable to locate the original center of
these but in the polar regions. C. rigida, misandra and pulla
appear as a matter of fact not only to have their greatest distri-
bution within these regions, but they exhibit, besides, a much
more pronounced tendency to develop varieties than they do
farther south, where they are relatively very rare. The mono-
and homo-stachyous C. rupestris and encurva lack the plasticity
of the hetero-stachyous species and occur only as typically
developed, wherever they are found; but their prevalence in
the North make us suppose that they originated there. We
may for similar reasons attribute a northern and arctic center
of distribution to C. nardima and C. microglochin. But in
regard to the other members of the category, ‘‘ Arctic, but
not cireumpolar types,” we believe that all of these came from
stations south of the arctic region. Let us, for instance, con-
sider C. atrata and alpina. The former is only known as
arctic in a few stations of the European continent, while the
other has been collected in arctic Russia, Finmark, Greenland

49 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

and North America, but is much more frequent farther South.
We have called attention to the occurrence of C. melanocephala
in the mountains of Colorado, where C. alpina also oceurs,
and we have mentioned the presence of two types, which we
consider as allies of C. atrata: C. bella and C. chalciolepis, as
inhabiting these same mountains together with C. atrata.
Furthermore that a third ally of C. atrata, C. ovata, abounds
in the northeastern parts of this continent, thus illustrating
the occurrence of allied types associated with each other,
which we believe might indicate the location of the center of
distribution as being in the Rocky Mountains, as far as con-
cerns the American representatives of C. atrata and alpina.
We have stated, moreover, that C. atrata is in Europe, to some
extent, accompanied by two plants C. nigra and aterrima,
both of which may be looked upon as immediate allies of this
species. And if we extend our comparison of these species -
with those that occur in the Himalayas, we find there not only
typical C. atrata and alpina, but also some aberrant forms,
and some distinct species, among which C. Lehmann, obscura,
Duthier, nivalis, and psychrophila, which appear to represent
immediate allies of these two species. If thus the association
with allies in connection with frequent occurrence and tendency
to vary may throw any light upon the question as to their
center of distribution or even of development, we believe we
are justified in supposing that as far as we know C. atrata and
C. alpina in this particular respect, these species had probably
more than one center, and very likely one in the Rocky
Mountains, another in the European Alps and a third one in
the Himalayas.

The third and fourth category of Northern types emphasize
such species as are not arctic; only a very few of these are
alpine; C. petasata, Bonplandi and filifolia, and these are, fur-
thermore, endemic to the Rocky Mountains.. The remaining
species of these same categories are either common to both
worlds or endemic to North America and some to the Rocky
Mountainsalone. Carex stellulata is widely distributed through-
out the northern hemisphere in the lowlands of the temperate
zone ; besides that, it occurs in New Zealand. It reaches its
highest development on this continent, where it exhibits a vast
number of forms, some of which have been segregated as dis-
tinct species and is, in the northern provinces, frequently
associated with an ally, C. gynocrates, which we consider as
representing a forma hebetata of the section Astrostachye.
C. gynocrates does not seem to occur in Siberia, but its hom-
ologue, C. Redowskyana, has been reported from several stations
of that country, where, however, C. stel/ulata is absent, at
least in the northern parts. The European C. stellulata shows
no tendency to vary, but the fact that it is associated with such

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 43

species as C. diwca and Davalliana, both of which appear to
represent lower types of the section ( Astrostachyw ), makes us
believe that there is both an American and an European center
_of its distribution and development. Carex tenella shows
a similar wide distribution on this continent from the
Atlantie slope to Alaska, associated with such near allies as C.
canescens, loliacea, tenuiflora, ete., all of which are, also, known
from Scandinavia; hence we might conclude that they originated
from two centers, one in Scandinavia and another one in the
northern Rocky Mountains.

Among the species of this category, which we suppose were
developed in the Rocky Mountains, but which took part in the
migration northward with the arctic plants on their return, may
be mentioned C. pratensis, of which the very isolated occurrence
in South Greenland does not seem explainable in any other way.
The almost cosmopolitan C. vulgaris is difficult to locate, inas-
much as it is generally accompanied by several: allied types,
wherever it occurs in the mountains or lowlands. We can only
say that it does not belong to the arctic region, and that the
diversity of types into which it has developed, for instance in the
Himalayan Mountains, in Scandinavia and in the northwestern

parts of this continent, indicates several local centers.
' Im regard to the other types, the majority of these are
endemic to North America and several to the Rocky Moun-
tains, where they have, naturally, developed.

The second category, “‘Southern types,’ contains a few.
species common to both worlds, among which C. pyrenaica
_ shows a remarkable wide distribution : from Colorado to the .
British provinces, Alaska, the Pyrenees and Alps of Swit-
zerland, Caucasus, Japan and New Zealand, while its nearest
ally C. nigricans is confined to the Rocky Mountains and Alaska
and C. macrostyla to Spain and the Azores. C. fetida is only
known from Colorado, California and the Alps of Switzerland.
C. stenophylla follows the Rocky Mountains throughout
Canada, and is known also from Southern Europe, Caucasus,
Altai, Bajkal, Himalayas and China. The geographical center of
C. nigricans may, beyond doubt, be sought in the Rocky
Mountains, while it seems impossible to locate that of C.
pyrenaica, unless there may have been at least two centers,
one in the Rocky Mountains and another in the old world,
Europe or Asia; its occurrence in New Zealand can not be
accounted for with any satisfaction. In regard to C. fetida
we feel unable to explain its distribution in any other way
than by admitting two centers, the Rocky Mountains and Switzer-
land Alps. -And if we consider ©. stenophyila, there seems no
possibility of defining its center with any proximity neither in
this country or in the old world.

Among the southern types that are endemic to this con-

aa: T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

tinent are some alpine species: C. elynoides, Engelmann,
chalciolepis, chimaphila, scopulorum and bella. We have
already discussed the distribution of C. chalciolepis and bella,
both of which show affinities to C. atrata. In regard to C.
scopulorum this is undoubtedly a southern type, but has, how-
ever, spread farther North to Wyoming and Montana, but is not
reported as being frequent. C. elynozdes is hardly to be con-
sidered as a rare species, since its great resemblance to Elyna
spicata may have caused it to be confounded with this, besides
that relatively few species of Carex are represented in the
herbaria from the higher alpine regions of these mountains.

There is thus quite a number of Carices in Colorado endemic
to this country, and although these are not of so much interest
from a geographical viewpoint as the northern, common to
both worlds, they will, no doubt, prove valuable to the study of
homologues, such as many of these actually are, of old world
species.

Considering the aretic species, which are, also, occurring in
Colorado, we have demonstrated the possibility of some of these
having originated in the arctic region: C. incurva, rigida,
rupestris, misandra, pulla, nardina and microglochin. Not
less than five of these are, also, cireumpolar and it seems as if
the existence of these, together with C. nardina and micro-
glochin, indicate that the Rocky Mountains harbor a certain ele-
ment of that flora, which we call the arctic, which was reared
in the polar-regions, but forced south during one of the greatest
revolutions in the history of the earth, known as the glacial
epoch. Some of the other Carices which we have enume-
rated from Colorado are, also, arctic, but neither circumpolar or
having originated in the extreme North, as far as we know,
for instance C. atrata, alpina, festiva, scirpoidea and gyno-
crates, and these illustrate a flora partly of American, partly also
of old world origin. Most of the others are truly American
types. and evidently young types.

If it had been within the scope of the present paper to con-
sider other genera than Carex, as represented in Colorado and in
the arctic region, we would have been able to offer further evi-
dence of the existence of a glacial flora in the Rocky Mountains,
easily illustrated by a number of other types, such as Dryas
octopetala, Silene acaulis, Campanula uniflora, Sauifraga
nivalis, cernua and flagellaris, Lloydia serotina and many
others. But when we undertook the task of discussing the geo-
graphical distribution of the genus Carex in Colorado and quite
especially that of the alpine types, it was simply the writer’s
intention to make an attempt to show, that even a single genus
of plants might offer some tangible proof of the foundation of the
theory relating to the history of arctic plants, as demonstrated
in the writings of the Swedish naturalist A. G. Nathorst.

Brookland, D. C., December, 1902.

C. H. Palmer—Remarkable Case of Hydration. 45

Art. IV.—Chrysocolla: A Remarkable Case of Hydration ;
by CHARLES M. PALMEr.

SOMEWHAT over a year ago a quantity of medium grade
oxidized copper ore from Pinal County, Arizona, came into the
writer’s hands, with the information that it was representative
of the class of ore that was being shipped to the smelters, and
that as the latter were claiming the presence of surprisingly
large quantities of moisture, sometimes as high as 16 or 17 per
cent, it seemed to be a matter for investigation. The ore con-
sisted mostly of bluish or greenish chrysocolla impregnating
or filling seams in a siliceous matrix, and occasionally as an
incrustation ; sometimes, however, being associated with a black
variety containing considerable manganese.

Water determinations were made on several lots which gave
results varying from about 17 to 20 per cent, which, for an air-
dried ore carrying but 12 or 14 per cent of copper, was some-
what unexpected and remarkable. Then several large pieces
of enamel-like turquoise blue chrysocolla were picked out, which
seemed to be comparatively pure, and these were powdered pre-
paratory to analysis (sample No. 1) with the view of getting
more light on the character of the mineral. One gram was
weighed out on a watch glass one evening and placed in a dessi-
cator over concentrated sulphuric acid. The next day upon
weighing for determining the loss under these conditions and
finding it, according to my weights, to be over 12 per cent, I
thought I had simply made one of those unaccountable mis-
takes in my weights that will sometimes happen, and there-
fore promptly weighed out another portion, which gave prac-
tically the same result. The material gave the following upon
analysis :

Siliear(insoluble) 2° 22.2 5. - Se ee 38°64%
SO MOMMC NORIO Crna ene hes D2
2 sIMQUUTG OTHE Tp ig ak 9 ae a ei em le 176
erie nOnatdle Can! eee ek oe) oe yes Oe trace
WViater(over EESO: yo. .-8 oe .2 0. le + (19°86
Water (additional loss at red heat)_.--. 12°22
100°20

An effort was made to obtain a purer specimen, and from a
lot of ore from another locality in Arizona, another sample
(sample No. 2) of deep blue chrysocolla, apparently pure and
perfectly homogenous in appearance, was carefully picked out.
It lost 18°24 per cent after 22 hours in a dessicator over sulphuric
acid, which loss was increased only to 18°96 per cent after 33 days

46 0. H. Palmer—Remarkable Case of Hydration.

more, and to 19°60 per cent after 24 hours at 100° C. After
this, the platinum dish containing the substance was allowed to
sit in the balance case for 48 hours, during which time it not
only regained all its previous loss but 0°68 per cent in addition,
and all this, too, without a perceptible change in color or
general appearance.

The total loss by heating at a low red heat to constant weight
was 27°28 per cent. Analysis of the sample gave the following
results :

Silica, 2 tes 225. De 35'84%
Cupric oxide 1-21 2.12 31°50
Alumina 22-2603 4 2. 3) See 2 reer
Nernic'oxide, \ 0) 202 trace
Maneanese oxide = >. 2 2222. z
Calcium (oxide @ hoe ee 1°76
Macnesium:oxide.¢ 2) = 2) 2). == a 0°16
W ater'(over ELSO)\2.. ai sa 18°96
Water (at low red heat).:/. 22222255
100°28

Another sample (No. 3) of dark green material from the
Pinal ore was found, which occurred as an incrustation about
one-eighth of an inch thick, and which appeared no less pure and
even richer in copper than the last. It lost 15°60 per cent over sul-
phuric acid in 24 hours, this being increased after 11 days to 20°54
per cent. The dish containing the substance was then placed
in a dessicator over water. In 21 hours it had made up all its
former loss and 2°64 per cent besides, and after four and one-half
days more under the same conditions, this increase amounted to
5:14 per cent, making a variation of 25°68 per cent in the amount
of water at ordinary temperature with no change whatever in
appearance. The loss at 100° C. was 20°72 per cent, being but
very little higher than the loss over sulphuric acid, and the total
loss at a red heat was 29°14 per cent. The analysis of this
material, of which only about 1°5 grams were obtainable, is as
follows (calcium and magnesium being present but not deter-
mined quantitatively ):

Silica. J. Mee Cee ears eee Ce eee 33°28%
Cupricoxidens4.\529 ie seek Sees eee 30°76
AlOMINa «2... Jase ee 22s oe rr
Bernice oxide feces. Seer aes ee ae trace
Mancanese oxide.) 22405) 22233) eee
Calewm ‘oxide 22! Paha se ease eee not det.
Maonesium ‘oxide "520 elo aes BPA not det.
Waterr(over HUSO) (eas eee 20°54
Water (av low! red heat) 22.2 tee ae 8°60

C. H. Palmer— Remarkable Case of Hydration. 47

These samples began to change color at the temperature of
the sand bath and at red heat turned black. Treatment of this
black residue with acids, and even prolonged and repeated
fusion with potassium bisulphate, failed to bring all the copper
in solution. Sodium carbonate fusion was not tried.

The most remarkable feature of the whole affair is that a
mineral or chemical compound should occur in nature with such
a large amount of water so loosely attached to its molecular
structure. Chrysocolla not being a crystalline mineral, the loss
of water of crystallization is not indicated by the loss of crys-
talline form, and neither is there a change of color upon the
loss of the very portion that would ordinarily be regarded as
water of crystallization. Diligent search of the literature of
hydrous minerals in general, and chrysocolla in particular,
accessible to the writer, failed to indicate that any such unusual
behavior has been previously noticed. Heretofore, a loss of 2
or 3 per cent over sulphuric acid has been regarded as probably
the limit to be expected, even in special cases, from the minerals
containing water most loosely combined, as in the zeolites and
others.

It seems almost superfluous to mention, in this connection,
the importance of including in the results the so-called hygro-
scopic moisture in the analysis of minerals. Indeed, upon com-
paring the results given above (only the last two analyses are
referred to for comparison, as the first is too obviously a mixture )
with the published analyses of chrysocolla given in the table
below (from Rammelberg’s ‘ Mineralchemie,” 1860, page 551 ),
one is inclined to suspect that possibly considerable ‘ hygro-
scopic”’ water was overlooked in some of the latter, or else
there is something inherently different in the two classes. It
will be noticed that while the amounts of silica are similar, the
cupric oxide in No.2 and No. 3 is about one-fourth less
and the amount of water is about one-half as much more than
the other analyses show. The loss of No.2 and No. 3 over sul-
phurie acid closely approximates two-thirds of the total water
- present.

3
|
1 2 a OL 4 9)

BLOM sss 37°25 40°00 35-00 36°54 35°14 32°55
Cue ts A517 42°60 39°90 40:00 43 07 42°32
PC. O02 Reine 1°40 3°00 1:00 1-:09* 1°63
CAO. 2. - eee ites eee ue aoe 1:76
Rio @ =... - zie. eae oust mised aye 1°06
PIO Ss 17°00 LG500n 2 221-00 20:20 20°36 20°68
Gamene 2... . - Wo. Pa 2°10 Bia a ae

99-42 100:00 100-00 99°84 99°66 100-00
* With Al,Os, CaO, K,0.

48 CO. H. Palmer—femarkable Case of Hydration.

As to any formula being deduced from the analyses given,
the case seems hopeless without resorting to assumptions that
are, to say the least, questionable.

The duties of a commercial laboratory afford scant opportu-
nity for purely scientific investigation, however interesting, and
it was only after many interruptions that the above work
was accomplished, but it is offered as food for speculation and
a stimulus for future investigation with the hope that some one
with more time and ability may be able to grasp the significance
of this remarkable behavior.

Laboratory of the St. Louis Sampling and Testing Works,
St. Louis, Missouri.

EF. W. Very—Nebulosity around Nova Perse. 49

Art. V.i—An Inquiry into the Cause o the Nebulosity
around Nova Persei; by FRANK W. VERY.

THE processes by which the nebular illumination around
the great nova of 1901 has been produced may conceivably be
explained under some one of the following heads :
First hypothesis: The nebular radiation is emitted from
myriads of small gaseous masses, either heated or electrified,
which have been evolved in the collision of meteorites, belong-
ing to antagonistic and mutually interpenetrating meteor
swarms whose motions through space, under the action of
gravitation, has brought them together.
Second: hypothesis: Radiation from the nova, perhaps of
Hertzian waves, perhaps of ordinary luminous vibrations, or
possibly of some especially potent ultra-violet rays, but at any
rate proceeding in radial lines from the source, has been
received upon quiescent matter already existing in the sur-
rounding space, and has generated in this matter some chem-
ical or physical process attended by radiation affecting a
photographic plate, or else the material of space, by simple
diffuse reflection, has turned the path of the original rays
earthwards without altering their quality.
_ Third hypothesis: Powerful explosions from the nova, and
the emission of great volumes of excessively hot gases, have
been accompanied by violent electric disturbances which have
produced extensive discharges of ions under magnetic control,
moving with velocities possibly as great as those of electro-
magnetic waves, but along magnetic lines of force, instead of
radially. The luminous phenomena of the nebula may be
conceived either as due to phosphorescence of quiescent mat-
ter under impact of the flying ions, or as emanating from the
ions themselves.

Hither of these three heads may be subdivided into subordi-
nate modes of origin, only a few of which are indicated.*
Since any one of these processes may conceivably produce a
luminous effect analogous to the nebula, we must decide
between the proposed explanations by considering the objec-

* Dr. Max Wolf (Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 8752, Bd. 157, 144, Dec.,
1901) suggests for the origin of the nebula the progression of an explosive
wave in detonating gas (‘‘ Knallgas’”’), a term which is used to denote an
explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, such as is produced in our labo-
ratories by the electrolysis of water. Mr. H. B. Dixon, however, has meas-
ured the velocity of the propagation of an explosion in a mixture of these
gases, obtaining 2819 meters per second, or a quantity which bears no com-
parison to the nebular velocity (see Rep. British Assoc. for Ady. Sci., 1885,
p. 905). The supposition of an explosion of a mixture of hydrogen and

chlorine, which might be started by light from the nova, is open to the
same objections as the other radiant hypotheses.

Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH SERIES, Vou. XVI, No. 91.—Juty, 1903,
4

50 EF. W. Very—Nebulosity around Nova Perset.

tions which can be urged against them, either from rational
considerations, or on the ground of observational data, espe-
cially availing ourselves of every scrap of observation which
can support either of the hypotheses.

(1) The first explanation, attributing the phenomenon to
colliding meteor swarms, has been chiefly advocated by Sir
Norman Lockyer. The certain existence of meteor swarms in
free space, and the partial agreement between the spectra of
some meteorites and nebulee, are strong points in favor of the
general theory. The fatal objections to the explanation in the
present case are: (a) That the expansion of the nebula has
proceeded at too rapid a rate. Let us suppose that two spher-
ical swarms of equal diameter and equal velocities of 100
kilometers per second, are traveling in opposite directions
along a common diameter, and that the circle of the intersect-
ing surfaces moves outward with the velocity of light, which
it must do if the nebular expansion has been produced in
this way. In one year each body will have moved through
3156 10° km., and the line of intersection will have expanded
through nine and one-half billion kilometers (English numera-
tion). Allowing that the nova is in the center of its sphere,
and measuring from this center, the angular aperture of the
lenticular volume bounded by the intersecting swarm-surfaces,
after one year, is less than 3°, and if the nova’s parallax is
0”:05, the swarm will stretch two-thirds of the way to the sun!
Even the broad celestial spaces are not wide enough to con-
tain such monsters. (6) The fading of the nebula has been
too rapid, for there is no reason to suppose that the meteoric
particles are confined to a thin superficial shell and that the
space within is relatively vacant. (c) As it would take over
100,000 years for the motion to pass from the cireumference to-
the center of the sphere, any connection between the actual
nova and the nebula would be impossible on this hypothesis. I
showed in a previous paper®* that the outburst of the nova
itself cannot be due to colliding meteor swarms. It is, if any-
thing, more completely demonstrable that the nebula has no
such origin. 3

Sir Norman Lockyer explains the nebula around WVova
Perse as “a nebula [previously too faint to be detected]
invaded, not by one, but by many swarms [of meteors], under
such conditions that the collision effects vary very greatly in
intensity. . . . The most violent one . . . constitutes ova
Persei. The least violent ones occurring in other parts of the
disturbed nebula, almost immeasurably removed, i. e., more
than 700 solar distances away, we only learn of from the recent
photographs.”+ The distances are here greatly underesti-

* This Journal (4), xiii, 114. + Nature, lxv, 184, Dec. 12, 1901.

F. W. Very—Nebulosity around Nova Perse. oil

mated, in fact the nebular velocities seem to be confounded
with those spectroscopicaliy observed. I have shown else-
where* that the gaseous envelopes about the nova, whose
existence we must infer from the spectroscopic observations,
belong to an entirely different order of magnitude from the
nebulous forms which have been discovered by photography.
The latter probably extend to 100,000 solar distances. The
general combination of the nebular details into nearly circular
rings which have expanded in a continuous manner, requires
that the aggregate of the swarms postulated shall be spherical.
(2) There are various hypotheses assigning the nebular phe-
nomenon to the action of radiation from the nova on diffused
quiescent matter already existing in surrounding space, for
example: (a) The hypothesis of electro-magnetic waves, emit-
ted by the nova at its maximum development, exciting lumi-
nosity in masses of rarified gas, after the manner of Tesla’s
disconnected tubes. (6) The hypothesis of dissociation of a
compound gas by ultra-violet radiation proceeding from the
nova at its maximum intensity, and the subsequent production
of light by the recombination of the atoms. (¢) The hypothe-
sis that luminous radiation from the nova has been reflected by
finely divided matter.
_ The following objections apply to all three of these hypothe-
ses: 1. The duplicity, or possible triplicity of the nebulous
- ying, and the double ratio of the radii of the two principal
rings, are not explained. 2. The expansion of the concentric
rings should be uniform, since any supposition of eylindroid or
conoidal nebulosities, directed earthwards, is improbable. But
instead of uniform expansion in a radial direction, there has
been retardation in the movement after a certain time. The
deviation from radial direction of movement in special forms
does not enter into the argument, which concerns rather the
tigure produced by the combination of details into an annulus
whose outer boundary may be taken to limit the region through
which a special process has progressed. 3. The deviation of
both rings from the circular to an elliptical shape, and to the
same extent, is not easy to explain by radiant hypotheses. Mr.
Arthur R. Hinks, of Cambridge Observatory, England,t sug-
gests reflection of light from inelined circular rings of nebu-
lous material, concentric with the star; but this requires
several years for the completion of each ellipse, whereas the
ellipses are already very nearly complete through ares far in
advance of the arrow heads which are supposed to be describ-
ing these figures. 4. Finally, the reflection hypothesis in any

* Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3771, clviii, 33, Feb., 1902.
+ Astrophysical Journal, xvi, 198, 1902.

52 FF. W. Very—Nebulosity around Nova Perse.

of its forms, whether as developed by Kapteyn* or by Seeligert
or by Hinks, presupposesan albedo which is quite impossible
in nebulous material as it actually exists in extreme rarefac-
faction. Professor H. H. Turnert has given the following
rough but simple calculation in regard to Kapteyn’s hypoth-
esis: “ Light takes 8 min. to reach the moon from the sun, 8
months to reach the nebula from Wova Perset. Taking the
original flare-up to be 5000 times the brightness of our sun,
the illumination of the nebula should be to that of the moon
as 5000 to (80.x 2460). The moon could be photographed
with Mr. Ritchey’s instrument in (say) 0°:008. Hence the
nebula, if of the same albedo as the moon [could be photo-
graphed] in 0*0038 x (80 x 24 x 60)’+ 5000 = 20 min. say. The
actual exposures required,” says Professor Turner, “ thus seem
reasonable on Kapteyn’s hypothesis.” Let us see what this
“reasonable” conclusion implies. It will be noted that in
forming his equation, Professor Turner has introduced the
proviso of equal albedo in nebula and moon. The assumption
remains in the final conclusion, and how far it is from the
truth may be seen from the following considerations: In 1895,
I measured the light from a small area of the moon in total
eclipse,$ photometrically, and found it to be four one-thou-
sand-millionths of the light from a corresponding fraction of
the full moon. My range of vision embraces lights which are
in the ratio of 1 to 1,000,000,000,000,000. Hence I could cer-
tainly see a small luminous surface considerably fainter than
the fraction (less than 1 per cent) of the eclipsed moon, and as
no one has been able to see the nebula, I conclude that its
light must be less than one one-thousand-millionth of that from
an equal area of the full moon. Professor Turner’s caleula-
tion demands equal albedo, that is, equal intrinsic brightness
from the same angular area in the two cases. Weare not con-
cerned with the albedo of the individual reflecting particles in -
the nebula. This may be exactly the same as the moon’s
albedo, but that is not the question. The albedo of the nebula
is the effective albedo of a surface, apparently continuous, but
in reality undoubtedly composed of excessively minute parti-
cles separated by large vacant spaces. With the actual effec-
tive nebulous albedo of 10-° (moon = unity), we see from
Professor Turner’s own figures that the conclusion which he
draws is not warranted, and that no reflection from nebulous
material at the vast distance of these nebulous forms from the
central illuminating body can affect the photographic plate,

* Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3756, clvii, 201, Dec., 1901.

+ Astrophysical Journal, xvi, 187, 1902.

+t The Observatory, Feb., 1902.

S$ ‘‘ Photometry of a Lunar Eclipse,” Astrophysical Journal, ii, 293, 1899.

FF. W. Very—WNebulosity around Nova Perse. 53

even though the exposure were to be prolonged many thou-
~sand fold.

(3) The supposition that the observed motions are actually
those of some form of matter, either itself luminous, or pro-
ducing luminosity in widely distributed material with which
the moving substances react, demands so large an expenditure
of force in sustaining the prolonged movement to enormous
distances, that some hesitation in adopting it is pardonable.
Yet, considering the stupendous scale of operations in the
nova, the objections on this score do not seem insuperable.
- Comet’s tails have been seen to develop through millious of
miles in a few hours,* perhaps by electric repulsion, perhaps
by the pressure of light on small masses, but at any rate with-
out demanding greater force than the sun is competent to pro-
duce. High velocities have been measured in vacuum tubes
for the cathode rays, and yet higher ones for the luminous
column from the positive pole, even approaching, if not equal-
ing that of light. These facts at once suggest a movement of
Thomsonian corpuscles, or negative ions, under a magneto-
electric impulse, as a solution of the problem.

Professor C. D. Perrine, however, has urged what appear to
him to be further objections to the hypothesis of a real trans-
lation of matter. He says:+ ‘The motions observed are not
radial. Nearly all of them have large tangential components.
It is difficult to account for these tangential components. A
consideration of the conditions probably existing in the nebula,
upon the assumption of an actual translation of matter, would
lead us to expect a very rapid loss of ight. The inner ring
has decreased in brightness, and some of its features have
become too faint to record themselves on the photographs.
Several masses, all in the outer ring, have been recorded only
on the later photographs, and have grown both in brightness
and size, a condition difficult to explain on the above hypoth-
esis. It is perhaps not inconceivable that the two rings repre-
sent different phenomena.” If these difficulties urged by
Professor Perrine can be removed, nay more, if the facts con-

* Miss Agnes M. Clerke, in her ‘‘ History of Astronomy during the Nine-
teenth Century” (4th ed., p. 100), says of the comet of 1811, that Olbers
‘*caleulated that the particles expelled from the head traveled to the remote
extremity of the tail in eleven minutes, indicating by this enormous rapidity
of movement (comparable to that of the transmission of light) the action of
a force much more powerful than the opposing one of gravity.” By refer-
ence to Olbers’ original communication in Zach’s Monatliche Correspondenz
(xxv, pp. 8-22, 1812) it will be seen that the extreme length of the tail of this
comet, on October 13, 1811, was taken at 0°6391 astronomical units, or about
96, 000, 000 kilometers ; and the time consumed by the vapors in attaining
this distance, computed according to Newton’s method, was stated to be

eleven days, instead of eleven minutes.
+ Astrophysical Journal, xvi, 260, 1902.

54 EF. W. Very—WNebulosity around Nova Persei.

sidered to be objections to a theory of real motion can be
shown to be demanded by a special form of the theory, they
constitute a strong argument in favor of this explanation. I
believe that such a modified explanation is indicated.

The difficulties urged by Perrine in regard to the sudden
appearance and brightening of local spots on the outer ring,
and the tangential motion which prevails in many features,
appear to him contrary to what should be expected if the phe-
nomenon is due to actual motion. Evidently the only actual
motion considered is a radial one. These difficulties which
form the most serious objection to such theories of actual -
motion as have been hitherto published, become, on the con-
trary, a strong argument in favor of a different theory of real
movement.

(4) The theory which I would propose is that of the actual
movement of diamagnetic ions under the control of magneto-
electric impulses emanating from the star and following the
lines of magnetic force. We may compare such a stream of
moving ions to the beam of light from a parabolic mirror. The
rays are directed and do not at once expand to fill the entire
sphere. Diamagnetic ions may be expected to follow lines of
magnetic force to regions of least potential in the magnetic
equatorial plane, and with only slight expansion of the tubes
of force through a limited range of the magnetic sphere.
Hence the luminosity, as in the distinct phenomenon of a.
comet’s tail, may extend to a great distance before becoming
too faint for observation, although of course the light must
eventually fade, unless perpetually renewed. This seems to
answer the objection on account of the long continuance of
the phenomenon.

In the next place, if the structure observed in the nebula is
to be compared with that of a magnetic phantom, a strong
tangential component must enter into Jines emanating from
the nova after these have extended to a certain distance. The
magnetic phantom, whether exhibited by iron filings or by
dust of bismuth, extends in sweeping curves from pole to pole
of the magnet—the only difference being that magnetic parti-
cles move towards the poles, and diamagnetic away from them,
but that both follow the lines of force. The observed trajec-
tories of nebulous material around the novaare in fair, per-
haps I should say in nearly perfect, agreement with the
projection of a system of lines of magnetic force.

If the brightening or sudden appearance of new bright spots
on the outer ring can also be explained on this hypothesis, I
think it must be admitted that the facts decidedly favor, if
they do not demonstrate, the proposed explanation.

Two cases may be distinguished: (a) The light is produced

FW. Very—Nebulosity around Nova Persei. 55

by phosphorescence of dark matter, previously existing in the
surrounding spage, and made luminous by colliding ions. (6)
The moving ions are themselves luminous.

On either hypothesis, the luminous shape is a species of
magnetic phantom, where only those portions of the general
magnetic figure are visible which happen to be infilled with
matter capable of becoming luminous under the given condi-
tions.

Two distinct processes can be inferred from the succession
of phenomena exhibited by Wova Persez. First, there were
violent eruptions of hydrogen, helium, etc., with velocities up
to 2000 km. per sec., and the formation of concentric shells of
glowing gas, reaching distances comparable with those of the
planetary orbits; and, second, there was a profound electrical
disturbance accompanying this turmoil of the elements, pro-
ducing a complex and excessively attenuated appendage, thrown
off with velocities possibly 150 times as great as those of the
gaseous eruptions, and reaching far out into stellar space. It
is this second appendage with which we are now concerned.
We see this object on the photographic plate in projection,
and must infer its shape from such details as are visible. A
strong condensation on the 8.8.W. side reminds one of the
jets from a cometary nucleus on the side towards the sun, and
to this extent favors some such theory as that of Professor T.
C. Chamberlin, who has suggested* the tidal disruption of a
star upon the near approach of a massive dark body. The con-
densation in question, called m by Ritchey and D by Perrine,
bears an even stronger resemblance to the polar coronal fila-
ments of the eclipsed sun, which curve away on either side of
the coronal axis, but with the difference that it appears at
only one pole.

Let us assume that there has been an ionic discharge follow-
ing the lines of magnetic force around a highly magnetized
sphere. The general form of an envelope, consisting of a series
of such discharges, will be that of an oblate spheroid with polar
depressions (i. e., a species of lemniscoid); and if the nebula
about Vova Persez is to be thus interpreted, its southern pole
is directed towards us, the axis forming an angle of 40° with
the line of sight. |

Consider a magnetic line of force lying in a plane including
the line of sight from the star to the earth (whose direction is
indicated by the arrow from the nova o in fig. 1). Particles
emitted from o and passing to m will be moving almost end-on,
and the line of sight will encounter many such particles. The
prominence m is therefore brilliant and changes its position
slowly. Particles moving along the curve to p reach a part of

* Astrophysical Journal, xiv, 17, 1901.

56 LF. W. Very—Nebulosity around Nova Perse.

their trajectory where they begin to recede from us with
increasing velocity. If the actual velocity is that of light, the
component of motion in the line of sight will soon reach a high
value—let us say 100,000 km. per sec.—when, even if the
original ionic radiation were rich in violet and ultra-violet
light, the waves of ether must be so lengthened by the motion
of recession that they no longer impress the photographic
plate. Consequently, at this radial distance from the star, and
in like manner on the opposite side at ¢, the nebula fades out;
but at nearly the same radial distance, particles which have
passed undetected on account of their recession along lines
from the star’s north pole, reach, at ¢’ and p’, positions where
the motion of recession changes to one of approach. Violet
light begins to emanate from these regions. Soon the motion

of approach becomes so vigorous that even red or infra-red
rays, if they exist, will have their wave-lengths so shortened
that they can be photographed. On the supposition that the
nebula is a gigantic corona with symmetrical sheaves of fila-
ments around both poles, diverging under angles of something
over 60°—one capable of being photographed, the other not—
the puzzling phenomena of appearance and disappearance at
the outer ring are explained. They are demanded by the
theory, instead of being anomalies. The spectroscope alone
can decide whether these hypothetical changes of wave-length
are real; and as yet this evidence is wanting. If the spectro-
scope should decide against the change, the supposition of
direct ionic luminosity would have to be given up, but not
necessarily the ionic theory, since there remains the hypothesis
of phosphorescence of quiescent matter under ionic impact.
Perrine’s observation of March 29, 1901, indicates the exist-
ence, at that date, of two nebulous rings, with radii in the
ratio of 1:2, and an arc on the N.E. side, which perhaps is
the sole record of a third and wider ring. The three radii hav-
ing approximately the ratio 1:2:4, may correspond to ions

FF. W. Very—WNebulosity around Nova Persei. 57

having masses in the ratio of 4: 2:1, and, if so, bear witness to
the existence of at least three sorts of ions out of which, in
varying proportions, we may conceive the atoms to be made.

An alternative hypothesis assumes that there are as many
kinds of ions as of atoms, and that the difference between a
corpuscle and an atom of the same substance is principally one
of size. If so, since the atomic weights of hydrogen and helium
are as 1 to 4, if the masses of their corpuscles have the same
ratio, the outer are might be composed of hydrogen corpuscles,
the inner ring of helium corpuscles, and the central member of
the series, that is, what we call the “ outer ring,” would consist
of corpuscles belonging to an unknown substance with atomic
weight of two. A single good spectroscopic observation, such
as might possibly be obtained with an objective prism of large
size, would be of inestimable value in deciding this and other
questions raised by this extraordinary object, whose like may
not be seen again for many years.*

A selection between these hypotheses will be a matter of
opinion. Seeing that the chemical elements exhibit many
properties analogous to those of homologous series in hydroear-
bons, I am inclined to favor the supposition that the atoms are
formed by various arrangements of numerous ions of perhaps
only three species. Even when their motions are coniined and
limited in the ionic aggregate (the atom), three fundamental
sorts of ionic motions are distinguishable in principal, first
subordinate, and second subordinate series of spectral lines,
whose pressure shifts, according to Dr. W. J. Humphreys,t

are in the ratio 1:2:4. The same sequence appears again in
- * Note added April, 1903.—Since this paper was read at the annual meet-
ing of the Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of America, in Washing-
ton, December, 1902, Professor Perrine has published the following measure-
ment, made with a slit-spectrograph of special construction, provided with a
quartz prism and quartz lenses: ‘‘ The slit of the spectrograph was placed
across the brightest portion of condensation D. The resulting negative
showed a very faint spectrum, which, after careful consideration and some
experiments was deemed to be that of the nebulosity. So far as can be told

from such small dispersion and intensity, the spectrum is continuous, with
the greater portion of the light condensed in a band between Hg and Hy.

This band is strongest just above Hg and from this point fades gradually

until it is entirely lost in the H and K calcium region. Beyond this point,
up to the ultra-violet region, there is a very slight increase of strength again.
It is suspected that in one or two cases there may be traces of bright lines,
but the whole spectrum is so faint as to preclude any definite deduction on
this point. The above observation shows that the spectrum of this mass of
nebulosity is not the ordinary bright-line spectrum of the nebule.”. (Publi-
cations of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, XV, No. 88, p. 26, 1903.)
This observation is not inconsistent with the supposition that a spectrum,
normally composed of bright lines, has been extended and diffused by
excessive motion of the radiating particles through a considerable range of
velocities, according to Doppler’s principle, until the resulting spectrum is
one of ill-defined, superposed, hazy bands.
+ Astrophysical Journal, vi, 219, 1897.

58 Et. W. Very

Nebulosity around Nova Persei:

the differences between the vibration-numbers of the compo-
nents of the triplets in the spectra of many of the elements, for
example, ratio of intervals: zinc 2-07, magnesium (b line) 2°08,
oxygen 1°78 to 2-0, calcium 2°02, ete.

An examination of the rate of expansion of the nebula shows
that, since the hundredth day from the outburst of the nova,
there has been a retardation, and probably an increasing retar-
dation, in the motion of the nebulous rings. I assume that the
nebula consists, in a general way, of two or more lemniscoidal

shells involving minor details of structure which find their
limit in the elliptical projection of equatorial circles of the
lemniscoids. Since the minor details are of vague shape and
difficult to locate with precision, I prefer to estimate the posi-
tions of the elliptical rings, and taking the mean of major and
minor semi-axes as varying with the successive loci of the
motion which traces the lemniscoidal figure, | obtain for the
rate of nebular expansion the values contained in the following
table :

Time Mean Expansion—
interval. radius. Mean daily rate.
0-36 days es 0':0514
Outer 36-100) St wy | 0 0602
shell 100-200 “ LEG 0 °0590
200-300 * 14 °9 0 °0330
0-36 ‘“ 0°88 0 0244
Inner 36-100 “ 2°8 0 °0300
shell 100-200 ‘“ Do 0 -0280
200-300 ‘* 7 °4 0 0170

The curves of the rates of expansion (fig. 2) differ totally from
that of matter moving outward under the retardation of the
attraction of a central mass (namely, velocity diminishing with
the inverse square root of the distance); but the motion is in

FW. Very—Nebulosity around Nova Persei. 59

agreement with that to be expected under the influence of
gravity and magnetic repulsion combined, and is thus a strong
argument in favor of the theory.

Assuming the radius of the nova to be 10,000,000 km., I find
the magnetic repulsion upon the ions at the surface of the star
must be about 100,000 times as great as the attraction exerted
upon them by the star’s mass. At a distance (for the outer
ring) of about a billion kilometers, however, gravitation
becomes the more powerful, and the velocity of recession
begins to diminish. The distance of course depends upon the
dimensions of the excessively minute corpuscles.

In order to discover whether the forces required to commn-
nicate the observed motion are within the limits of possibility,
and are able not only to separate and expel but also to guide
the ions, I have taken the dimensions given for the corpuscles
by Professor J. J. Thomson, and have combined them with
my computation of the mass of the nova.* I find that the com-
puted magnetic repulsion (in excess of gravity) could generate
a velocity of nearly 100,000 km. per sec. in the first second, if
it were able to exert its full power. Hence it does not seem
improbable that velocities as great as this, or even three times
as great (i. e., having the velocity of light) could be started by
electric oscillatory discharges in the huge masses of intensely
heated gases erupted from the nova, ionizing them, and prepar-
ing material for dissipation and control by the powerful
magneto-electric impulses started at the same time.

I suppose the corpuscles or negative ions to be ethereal
vortices, and consequently must make the further assumption
that they are diamagnetic, in order to account for their being
repelled magnetically.

At this point it is possible to descend from the sky to the
earth. <A laboratory experiment by Goldstein,+ which has never
been fully explained, furnishes a connecting link in favor of
my last assumption. This experimenter subjected a vacuum-
tube in which diamagnetic sodium and magnetic nitrogen
glowed together under the electric discharge, to the action of
a powerful magnetic field, with the result that only the nitro-
gen glowed, the diamagnetic substance having been entirely
cleared away by repulsion. Free diamagnetic substances must
tend to accumulate in regions of least magnetic potential,
and the diamagnetic hydrogen of the gaseous nebulae possibly
maps out such regions.

I will now allude very briefly to the difficulties encountered
by the hypothesis. The attraction or repulsion on a magnetic
body is a differential one, and in a uniform field increases with

* Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3771, clviii, 33, 1902.
+ Wied. Ann., xii, 261, 1881.

60 Lf. W. Very—Nebulosity around Nova Persei. |

the distance between the poles of the body. The ions are so
minute that the differential repulsion on opposite poles of a
corpuscle is very small. Morever, if an ion consists of a cir-
culation of electricity, everywhere at right angles to a circular
axis, the corpuscle has no free magnetic poles. It is conceiv-
able that an instantaneous variation in the magnetic field may
produce within a limited space a gradient of magnetic force
which is steep relatively to the dimensioas of an ion, and that
the corpuscle is carried along at the rate of motion of the mag-
netic impulse. Unless there is some such process, it is difficult
to find a sufficient cause for the deviation of the motion from
a radial direction by a magnetic field as feeble as that at the
extreme nebular distances. Something remains to be dis-
covered in regard to the way in which magnetic forces of con-
siderable strength are exhibited far from their sources. The
volcanic explosion of Mt. Pelée produced an instantaneous mag-
netic impulse recognizable all over the earth. Rapid changes in
large sun-spots are often accompanied by magnetic storms upon
the earth, especially if the earth is near a solar radius through
the spot, or the tangent plane at the spot’s position. A continuous
outpouring of magnetic energy in these cases, and to the
immensely greater distances of the Vova Perse nebula, would
dissipate energy at astartling rate; but a series of instantaneous
impulses, separated by relatively large intervals of time, while
entirely competent to guide the ionic movements, would also
economize energy. Besides this, there is a further economy in
the magneto-electric impulse which is not shared by the electro-
magnetic wave, for the former travels along the magnetic lines
of force from pole to pole, and is part of a regenerative system,
while the electromagnetic waves pass away In ever expanding
spheres and are dissipated. The ionic hypothesis of the origin
of the nebula is attended by difficulties, but at least it offers
the possibility of a complete explanation.

In conclusion, I think that we may summarize the evidence
in regard to the cause of the nebulosity around Wova Perses
as follows :

Lockyer’s hypothesis does not fit the facts. The first two
radiation hypotheses are ruled out by the continued visibility
of the rings in spite of the gradual cessation of motion. The
reflection hypothesis of Kapteyn and Seeliger and its modifica-
tion by Hinks are further discredited by the impossibility of
an adequate albedo in a widely dispersed or nebulous material.
Of the two ionic hypotheses, that of luminous diamagnetic
corpuscles under magnetic control, and moving with velocities
of the same order as that of light, is favored by the appearances
and disappearances at the outer ring, but only spectroscopic
observation can decide between them authoritatively.

Arcturus, Virginia.

Speyers—HHeat of a Change. 61

Art. VI. — The Heat of a Change in Connection with
Changes in Dielectric Constants and in Volumes; by
C. L. SPEYERS.

Wuen carbon and oxygen react to form carbon dioxide
many of us say that chemical energy brings this about; that
carbon and oxygen containing more chemical energy than the
quantity of carbon dioxide produced, the difference escapes as
heat and light. But when asked to define chemical energy we
become extremely perplexed. We can measure heat energy as
such in water units but we cannot measure chemical energy as
such in any units. Wecan measure heat energy as such by
the increase in volume produced by it, but we do not know of
any effect by which we can measure chemical energy as such.
Invariably do these attempts result in producing heat energy,
or light energy, or electric energy, or mechanical energy, or
some other energy. But because we do not find these energies
previously in the reacting system, we say they come from the
chemical energy, which must have been previously in the sys-
tem. How account otherwise for the energy evolved ?

That is, many of us say this, not allof us. Yet all of us
agree that water does not contain chemical energy although it
gives out heat and changes into ice when placed in an atmos-
phere below 0°. We all of us agree to this because we agree
to call this change into ice a physical change and not a chemical

one. No other real reason. On careful investigation and
thought we come to the conclusion that the term “chemical”
is one for convenience only, that we cannot distinguish chem-
ical changes from physical ones by any definition that can be
experimentally sustained at all points. So if we wish to
express things as they are, all we can say is that the term
chemical energy is an abbreviation for the statement that some
energy is involved in chemical change, but not that there is
such an energy as chemical energy. Abbreviations are very
good and necessary, but unless extremely simple and clear,
their proper meaning is likely to be forgotten, and this is what
has happened with the term chemical energy. It has come to
mean a real thing in the minds of writers. A real thing in an
elementary text-book* as well as in the last work by Ostwald,
a philosophic work too.+ Still Ostwald writes in another
placet ‘“‘ Jeder, der die Beseitigung einer unhaltbar gewordenen
alleemeinen Auffassung und ihren Ersatz durch eine neue sich
* Remsen; Inorganic Chemistry, p. 38 (1889).

+ Vorlesungen u. Naturphilosophie, p. 232 (1901).
£Tb.,-p. 166.

62 Speyers—Leat of a Change in Connection with
zur Lebensaufgabe gemacht hat, muss an irgend einer Stelle
seiner Vergangenheit den Tribut zahien.”

The barrenness of the notion of chemical energy shows how
useless to seek an explanation of chemical action inside the
reacting system. How very productive was Faraday’s treat-
ment of electricity and magnetism! Outside the charged

sphere, the wire, and the magnet, are the energies.

Just so in chemical reactions, let us say, for example, those
involving heat, outside the material part of the system is where
we are to find the source of the heat.

Consider an infinite uniform electric field whose dielectric
constant is K,, whose electric intensity is E,, and whose dielec-
tric displacement is D,. Then the energy W,in a volume 2, is

Wis BaD

or, since in a uniform field

D, 2 re "
we have
1 a a
WW = oe Uo. (1)

Now introduce into the infinite field a sphere of radius }
and of volume w, and whose dielectric constant is K,. Since
the field is infinite, we consider that no change is made in the
total energy of the field outside the sphere, for there is nothing
to maintain a change in the intensity of the field if it is not
directed, and if it is directed any change produced on one side
of the sphere is balanced by an equal opposite change on the
other side. Inside the sphere, the electric force is changed to
E,* such that

38K E
PD ee (2)

the moment M of the imaginary doublet representing the
sphere being
E,(K,—K,) >.

is K +2K,

Sule tiinianee in 1, we have for the electric energy W, in the
sphere
OK Th
Pes lex(K ia, (3)

* Elements of Elect. and Mag., J. J. Thomson, chap. v. (1895).

Changes in Dielectric Constants and in Volumes. 68

We shall call the quantities represented by 1 and 38, the
dielectric energies.

The change in dielectric energy when the sphere is placed
in the field is

K,E, 9K,” |
NN We. ae (oe

For a second sphere of dielectric constant K, and volume »,

we have
KE7/ 9K;
emg (ay)

Consequently the dielectric energy involved in changing the
first sphere ito the second, if we put K, = 1, is

mew = sl (aa) (aa) v, | (4)

Now imagine that we are living in surroundings correspond-
ing to an electric field and that the energy in the space occu-
pied by a particular body is measured by 3. Then as we
produce one set of bodies from another set we can expect such
change in the energy of the system as is represented by 4, in
which the indices reter to the two sets of bodies respectively.
This change should be measured by a corresponding quantity
of some other form of energy rejected by the changing system
or absorbed by it; for instance, measured by the heat of the
change. Whether the change from state 1 into state 2 causes
a rejection or absorption of heat is not predicted; the only
assumption made is that the dielectric constant measures the
effect the body has upon the energy of the field according to
the laws of electric action, when placed in that field. |

Equation 4 was deduced for spheres, but since such very
slight changes are produced in the properties of a system by
moderate subdivision, we claim the same relation for all shapes.

Let us apply 4 to vaporization, for there are enough data in
Landolt and Bornstein’s Tabellen and elsewhere for three
liquids, sulphur dioxide, ammonia, and water. In this case
W,—W, = Q and if 87/E,’ = A, we have

Cage) (aap) Ae

where v, is the volume in ¢.c. of saturated vapor produced from
v, in e@e. of liquid and K, and K, are the respective dielectric
constants of vapor and liquid.

64 Speyers—LHeat of a Change in Connection with

It will be convenient to put v, = 1°, in which ease Q is the
heat of vaporization of 1° of liquid.

The data for carbon dioxide cannot be used without extreme
extrapolation.

In the following table, ¢' is the temperature of vaporization,
p is the pressure in atmospheres, d, is the weight in grams ot
1° of liquid at ¢@ and under p pressure, d, is the weight in
grams of 1° of saturated vapor at ¢’, v, is the volume of satu-
rated vapor at ¢, produced from 1° of liquid at 7, K, is the
dielectric constant of the saturated vapor and K, that of the
liquid, both at ¢’ and under p pressure.

to p dy dl» Vo Ke Ks Q A104
so, 23° ' 3°60° | 1°37°: 001077 » 128 1°08 127 eee
INTE: 18°), 7°89? 076125, 0:005 55" Al lip lc0S58 aeons 1914) a
H,O 1402 33557 0:95") On0020 Ge 4758 alc 02 iemean AS” diet

*'Tabellen; L. and B.

° 'Tabellen ; by interpolation and computing for 1°.

* Linde; Wied. Ann. lvi, 563 (1895).

* Badeker ; Zeitsch. phys. Chem. xxxvi, 305 (1901). By interpo-
lation and calculating to p by Boltzmann’s rule.

° Calculated by Boyle-Avogadro law.

° Franklin and Kraus; Am. Chem. Journ. xxi, 14 (1899).

"From. Tabellen dp/dT between 135°°to 145" "== 77-2 aes
Taking 0°95 as the density of liquid water at 140°, we have
v, = 475 and

Q = 113(475-1)7.72 + 13.6
a 42750

= 481 eals.

Substituting these valnes in 5, we get for A the values given
in the last column. They were considered close enough to
warrant further research, particularly as the uncertainties in
the tabulated data are unknown and a slight change in K
makes a large difference in A. For instance, putting 1-030
instead of 1°027 for the dielectric constant of water vapor gives
0:0173 for A instead of 0:0154.

In continuation of this line of work, a simple investigation
seemed to be one into the heats of solution. Carbon com-
pounds in carbon solvents were chosen to avoid complications
which might arise from the presence of a metallic component
and because a considerable quantity of necessary data had
already been accumulated.

The dielectric constants were measured by the method of
Drude.* It seemed advantageous to put a layer of sheet
rubber on the secondary coil of the Tesla transformer and to
wind the three turns of the primary on that instead of on a

* Wied. Ann., lxi, 466 (1897). Drude’s Ann., viii, 336 (1902).

Changes in Dielectric Constants and in Volumes. 65

wood cylinder. Perhaps in view of the recent research by
Drude* that was not a good plan, but these determinations
were finished before this last work of Drude came to my
notice. The use of mercury for the inside coating of the
Leyden jar was a great convenience, for then the capacity could
be adjusted with great nicety. The vacuum tube for the
detector was on the Nernst? plan.

The length of the induced wave im air was 71°5™ and this
was the second wave from the exciter, not the one taking in
the brass tubes. The stationary bridge was always grounded.

The acetone for standardizing came from Eimer and Amend.
No mark. It was changed into the acid sodium sulphite
compound and this decomposed by chemically pure normal
sodium carbonate. The liquid was dried over calcium chloride
_for twenty-four hours and distilled from fresh calcium chloride.
Its boiling point was 56°8° to 57°8° cor., barometer = 763™™
at 22°. |

The benzene for standardizing came from Kahlbaum. Marked
“COrystall.” Tested for thiophene but-none found. Not
otherwise examined or purified since an accuracy greater than
5 per cent. could not be obtained when the dielectric constants
were so low as that of benzene.

The average room temperature was 22°, ranging from 19°
to 25°.

Two sets of three double observations each of the wave
lengths were measured, the two sets being made at different
times, though with the same solutions. The mean of these
two sets was subtracted from the zero point, that is, from the
position of the slide when the condenser was replaced by a
metallic bridge, and the dielectric constant read off from the
calibration curve. The zero point was determined every day
and was the average of three observations. Two independent
series of observations were made for the calibration curve,
one at the commencement of the measurements of the dielec-
tric constant and one at the end of all the measurements.
These two series were plotted and form the calibration curve.
Each series consisted of two sets of three double observations,
the two sets being made at different times but with the same
solutions. So the curve is the result of 12 observations at
each point of plotting. Notwithstanding much care, the curve
was not all that could be desired, for at. times an observation or
a number of them would slip far away from neighboring ones.

The solvents and solutes have already been described in
preceding papers. The solutions were made by placing the
solutions, saturated at a higher temperature, in running city

* Drude’s Ann., ix, 298, 590 (1902). + Wied. Ann., lx, 303 (1897).

Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH SEries, Vou. XVI, No. 91.—Juty, 1903.
5

66 Speyers— Heat of a Change in Connection with

water and letting them stand over night. That gave plenty
of time for proper separation and the temperature of the run-
ning city water was very constant, ranging from 22°0° to 228°
cor. An ordinary thermostat could not have been used below
30° on account of the hot summer weather, and then would have
come the trouble with crystallization when the solutions were
cooled to the room temperature to go into the condenser.

The dielectric constants for the solid solutes were obtained
by melting and letting them solidify in the condenser. When
the series of measurements with the solid solutes was finished,
the condenser was filled with pure acetone and the dielectric
constant measured again. No change in value could be detected,
showing no change in the position of the condenser plates.

The conductivity of the solutions was found to be so low
that there was no danger of interference from that source.
The highest conductivity was that of acetamid in water =
0°0018 coulombs per sec. through 1° at 1 volt p. d., while the
lowest was <0°0,2 coulombs per sec. through 1° at 1 volt p. d.
and this was a solution in toluene. :

The dielectric constants are given in the large table
together with their estimated uncertainties. Also the func-
tion 1—9/(K +2)’ with its “ mean uncertainty.” This “mean
uncertainty” is found by computing the function when the
estimated uncertainty is added to K and when it is subtracted
from K, which two values will be quite unequally distant from
1—9(K+2)’ when K is small, and taking the mean of these
differences from the function when the experimentally observed
value of K is used. When K is greater than 16, the value of
the function is about the same whether the uncertainty in K is
added to K or subtracted from it.

The densities of the solutes, solvents, and solutions are
needed to find their volumes. The densities of the last two
have already been determined,* but not the densities of all
the solutes. Landolt and Bornstein quote some data from
Schroeder and others, but the trouble which Schroeder had
with air bubbles made his results a little questionable and a
redetermination of them. seemed desirable, while at the same
time the necessary new data could be obtained.

The densities were found by weighing in saturated solutions
of kerosene or of amyl alcohol, according to the nature of the
solid. Kerosene was excellent; only naphthalene, acenaph-
thene, and phenanthrene were too soluble in it; for these,
amyl alcohol was used. The air bubbles with kerosene were
insignificant, but with amyl alcohol they were sometimes quite
annoying and could not be altogether removed, but those left
are not believed to have influenced the second decimal place at

* This Journal, xiv, 293 (1902).

Changes in Dielectric Constants and in Volumes. 67

all; the data are to be considered correct im all cases to and
including the second decimal place. Boiling the amyl alcohol
under reduced pressure diminished the air bubbles somewhat.
The best way to remove them seemed to be to roll the specific
gravity flame round and round after displacing some of the
liquid with the proper quantity of solid. In this way a large
number of air bubbles were loosened:and rose to the surface,
but not all; for after the weighings were completed, another
rolling would show a few more air bubbles. In the worst
ease, those remaining had a volume of perhaps (2™™)’, hardly
more, so in this worst case the error due to ‘air bubbles fell
within the uncertainty due to variation in the temperature of
the thermostat.

_ The solutes were purified carefully as in the earlier investi-
gations.

The process consisted in saturating the kerosene or amyl-
alcohol with the solid whose density was to be determined,
finding the density of this saturated liquid in a specitic flask
holding 25°, and displacing some of the liquid by a known
weight of the solid as powder or small crystals. From 4 to 11
grams of solid were used.

The weighings were not reduced to vacuo because the tem-
perature of the thermostat varied through a range of 0°2°.

Two altogether independent determinations were made. |
The temperature of the thermostat was 22°2°+0-1 uncor.
The experiments were simple and need no detailed description.

The data are given in the table below, the mean values
being used in the large table further on. L. and B. signify
Landolt and Bérnstein’s Tabellen.

WEIGHT IN GRAMS OF 1°,

ieee ee e399) 1-305) Mean=1-318 Land B, 1:33
Wiretnanme oe hse Tals OPS 1°136
Chloral hydrate __-_-_.- IF9OOR 7 1894 7° IOS Oana i 1:86
Succinimid(C,H.O,.N) - 1408 1-406 « 1°407
JA CCEN TONG URE pee es 1°129+ Se LS ee 1°159
kvesoremoal 222522 : Weel SOD Oe 1G 1278 ss 1°283
iammittole 44 Ss AS Grewle o Onis. 1°483 ee 1°488
Mipemzamids =.) = = oe DG rime les was’ Dali OG 1°34]
p-Toluidin Ei 2 RR CN HA OB a 154) 2333 ae 1°046
PeccinimMiild eee to 204. 207 1°205 cs One
mepmpngtene.. =. 22...1:169 1176. * DMO eo eS ‘1°145
meenaphthene ~~... ---- 20 >be 2 Oiler a 1°2038f :
henanthrene _...-..- eos ait Silber: 28 17180

* Some crystals contained large bubbles.
+ Fused and powdered.
¢ Bubbles = (2™™)3, ~

68 Speyers-— Heat of a Change in Connection with

The benzamid used came from Kahlbaum and had a melting
point of 126°5° cor. which did not change on one recrystalliza-
tion from ethyl alcohol, so the large difference between these
values and the one quoted by L. and B. is unexplained. In
the case of p-toluidin, the difference may be due air bubbles
with Schroeder. :

The next thing to be determined was the heat of formation
of the saturated solution from solute and solvent.

- The calorimeter used is figured

here. The large glass beaker held

500° water comfortably. The

spherical portion of ¢ held 25°.

In this was the solute, small erys-

d tals or coarse powder. From 7

to 22 grams of it, The vessel 0

held about 4° and contained the

solvent in such quantity that when
run into ¢, a fairly thick paste was

_ formed and there was no reason-
able doubt that the solvent became
saturated before the end of the
experiment. It was run in at the
proper time by raising the long
ground glass stopper d. From 0°7
to 6°7 grams of solvent. The ves-
sel b was securely fastened by a

| cork into the cover of the ealori-
| meter and supported ¢ by a water-
Ne -| tight rubber stopper. The vessel
\ C ec was weighed with solute in it

| before submersion in the calori- .

meter and afterwards when the
observation of the thermometer
was finished. The imerease in
weight gave the quantity run in
from b. The solubilities being
known,* the composition of the solution formed could be cal-
culated. The thermometer and platinum stirrer were those
used in an earlier investigation into the heat of formation of
highly dilute solutions.+ The calorimeter stood in a bright
tin vessel which in turn stood in another bright tin vessel sub-
merged to the rim in a thermostat at 22°3°+0:1, the space
between being packed with cotton.
An experiment was made to see if the large excess of solute
* This Journal, xiv, 293 (1902).
+Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. xviii, 146 (1896).

Changes in Dielectric Constants and in Volumes. 69

would absorb enough saturated solution on its surface to affect
the temperature. Propyl! alcohol saturated with acenaphthene,
which dissolves very slightly in it, as liquid was used and
acenaphthene as solid. The quantities were 3°1 grms. of satu-
rated solution and 5°6 grms. of acenaphthene. After 5 mins.
the mercury had risen 0:001° while the regular rise per minute
before running in the liquid was 0°0001°. This lay within the
uncertainty of reading and the conclusion was drawn that the
surface action was too slight to be noticed.

The thermometer was read by a telescope and under favor-
able circumstances 0:001° could be estimated, but in general
this was not possible and so the thermometer CSR gs are to
be considered uncertain to +0°001°.

The correction for radiation was deduced on tie. assumption
that the change in temperature of a body is proportional to
the difference between its temperature and that of its surround-
ings. Let T be the total change in temperature of the calori-
meter from the time of running in the solvent to the time it
is saturated, ¢, be the change in temperature at the end of the
first minute after running the solvent in, AZ, be the average
change per minute of the ‘calorimeter for 10 mins. before run-
ning in the solvent, and AZ, be the average change per minute
for 10 mins. after the solvent is saturated. The change T is
always a drop, always —. So for the first minute the corree-

tion is
_ [ SL £7 NG |

and for the BL minute

—_— pak ayy ip bs pas, |

and for the n** minute

nTAt,+(¢,+0,+... . t,)(At,— Adz)
eS enya arp en

m being the number of minutes needed for the solvent to get
saturated, beginning from the time the solvent was run into ¢.
This was shown by the mercury beginning to rise after its fall
or by A?, being less than Az, if At, was negative. Sometimes
the external temperature would change during an experiment
in such way that AZ, and AZ, got opposite signs, and sometimes
when T was small A¢ =A, and it became very dificult to fix
on a proper value for n. In general, 7 was less than 40 mins.,

but once it rose to 102 mins. and once fell to $ mins.

70 Speyers— Heat of a Change in Connection with

The water equivalent of the calorimeter and fittings con-
tained an uncertainty of less than 0-2 per cent. In calculating
the water equivalent of the solution, 0°5 was taken as the
specitic heat of the solute and that value given in L. and B.’s
Tabellen as the specitic heat of the solvent, and the sum of
these as the specific heat of the solution. The quantity of
solution was small in comparison with the 500° of water and
so this introduces an uncertainty of likewise less the 0-2 per
cent. of the total water equivalent.

Let ¢ be the total water equivalent, then the heat of solution
is (T0001) (g0°0019). Let m be the number of grammole-
cules of solute in 100 grammolecules of saturated solution, m
the molecular weight of the solute and M that of the solvent,
w be the weight of solvent run into ¢ and d the weight of 1°
of solute, that is, its density. Then letting Q refer to 1° of
solute we have

100—(n£An)M d_oi ng

(T+0°001) (¢g40°001¢@) REGIE mee
The expressions An and AQ represent the uncertainties in the
respective quantities; An, the uncertainty in reading 2 from
curve; AQ, the uncertainty due to the uncertainties on the
left. These uncertainties on the left were combined to make
a maximum effect and a minimum effect and the mean of these
two values was taken as Q, the variation of this mean value
from either of the extreme values giving AQ.

The quantities M, m, wand d were taken without any uncer-
tainty ; the molecular weight, because M and m contain about
the same elements, and being in the form of a quotient the
uncertainties have a smail effect upon Q; w and d, because
their uncertainties lie in the third decimal place. The atomic
weights used are C=12, H =1,O =16, N =14, Cl=35-4. The
uncertainty in reading from the solubility curve was never
more than 0-4 grammolecules and usually not more than 0:2
grammolecules; that is (An was never >0°2 and usually
An = 0-1).

The heats of solution are given in the large table following.

The densities of solvents and solutions were taken from
plots of published data and will be found in the large table
with their uncertainties.

In applying equation 5 to the present system, we must
remember that the initial state involves two bodies, solvent
and solute, while the final state involves only one, the solution.
Putting the volume of the solute for convenience equal to 1°,
we have from 4 or from 5

Changes in Dielectric Constants and in Volumes. 71

(aeraap)"- [cere 3)" tary] A 6)
: =A.

Here K,” is the dielectric constant of the saturated solution
and v,’’ is the volume of the saturated solution produced from
1° of the solute, K,’’ is the dielectric constant of the solvent
and w,’’ the volume of the solvent needed to make a saturated
solution with 1° of the solute, K,’” is the dielectric constant
of the solute, Q is the heat of solution in small calories of 1°
of solute in the necessary quantity of solvent to make a satu-
rated solution at t’, the temperature of solution.

These quantities, together with those needed to get them, are
given in the following table, in which the additional sy mbols
abe used of ./”” for pure solute, Of for pure solvent, of ,” for
solution :—

d,'"" = density of solute
C= es solvent
d, ‘-— i. solution
nm = per cent. grammolecules of solute
N= = 100—n”

w, = weight of solvent = (NM /nm)d,""
os = volume of solvent =w,"/d,”
‘= = “6 solution = (wo. +d, ONO
fi =1-9/(K," +2)"

no 1—9/(K,"+2)?

fl =1—9/(Ky" +2)"
€= the numerator of 6.

An absence of a + quantity implies a corresponding absence
of uncertainty.

™ a _——_" re

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73

Changes in Dielectric Constants and in Volumes.

Oar lecs I soorerso| 9 \e00r evo? | lar | oral declare | lore \tee0| » (sl-1|-t-tol| eusmmoenoud
mit top |OP. (2h \ez0.07 609-0] » |eo.0rrg0/G>* | 4, |O* |SP OF | S008 | BROe te (at6-0| » joz-1|.0.¢2 | eueqaqdencoy
Cisco eee E600 C0010) ye = e100 G90 Cy ee ee ee ee ioe (616-0 | = (uit [9.00 | eusuqndeny
Teracre |Pts |e" lezo0r0r0| 5 coords, | y [oe (POO | CO ke | ee ree [6t60| » 06-0 |.612 | ~~ Pau tesera9
operate [ROF /8FO* leco.0For9.0/ 700 |c0-0F aL-0/00 oe re eee e is a ea 168-0 [698-0 PT-1 oteI@ “"""~ ourmpoan
"19
opere [20F Fr) letoorecso| » jeoorsaolfe* | 4, JOT) are] WOOF | BOF TOF | et) » lozt|.F-18 | euoysydensoy
mires |Poe |2) 0" |roooren90| » leooresoae | » (227 | gen) 9-1] 1097 EOF | oe) 4 lott |.g-te | ~onopemqden
ada ae ae Caper. = TOUS OT ne ee atl on Usmbans = ameenny
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IV | 0 a it wt Fe seca OSU peas aI ce OA ee 2 Qe ay Qe

HO‘H*‘O

74 Speyers —Heat of a Change in Connection with

Collecting fer discussion, including the vaporization data, we
have

A A’
140 + 44 1936 140—72=> 68
1 by 5) + 79 6240 175 —72==165
154 + 58 3364 154—72= 82
44 + 4 — ee 2704 44+ 72—116
50 + 4 — 46 2116 50+ 72—122
125 + 8 + 29 84] 125—72= 53
48 + 28 — 48 2304 48+ 72—120
36 + 0O — 60 3600 36 +72—108 —
82 + 6 — 14 196 824+ 72—154
76 +190 — 20 400 76+72—148
28 + 48 — 68 4624 - 28 +72—100
60 + 4 — 36 1296 60+ 72=132
114 + 22 + 18 o24 114—72— 42
145 +559 + 49 2401 145 —72="9a
64 +211 — 32 1024 64+ 72=136
52 + 4 — 44 1936 52+72—124
67 + 2 — 29 841 67 + 72139
67 +299 — 29 841 67 + 72=139
36 + 1 — 60 3600 36 + 72=—108
96 + 9 + 0O O 96 = 96
100 oe) + 4 16 100—72= 28
105 + 37 4+ 9 §l 105—72= 33
Syl +156 — 45 2025 514-729-1238
67 + 3 — 29 841 67 +-72=139
98 +1638 + 2 4 98—72= 26
97 + 9 = ee 1 97—(2= 25
98 ‘+ 8 1 2 4 98—72— 26
202 + 49 +106 11204 202 —72=130
22 + 17 — 74 5AT5: 92+72=— 94
34 + 46 — 62 3844 34+ 72—106
ala + 240 +9219 47950 315—72=243
312 +1381 +216 46660 812 —72=240
83 + 78 — 13 169 83 + 72=155
141 +147 + 45 2025 141+72= 69
—24 +150 —120 14400 —94-- 72= 48
96 = Mean 174287 SA

The mean error of a single determination is therefore

174287 Re he
VA 34 = 4/5126 — ie

and the mean error of the mean, 96, is
‘72

/35

wee

Changes in Dielectric Constants and in Volumes. 5

The probable errors for single determinations and for the
mean determination are respectively

279 = 48 and 212 = 8.

At first inspection these figures are discouraging, but when
we find the mean error of a single determination to be 72
and then find that this mean error will more than bring
29 out of the 35 determinations into the mean of the whole,
namely 96, and that 5 of the 6 exceptions have experimental
errors of their own more than sufficient to bring them also
into the mean, and that the other one has an unknown experi-
mental error, the final result is not so bad and there is nothing
to disprove the correctness of equation 4 and the constancy of
the quotient ¢/Q. In other words, that the heat of a change
comes from a change in the field surrounding us and that this
change is measured by the dielectric constants of the compo-
nents of the system, is an assumption in agreement with the
foregoing experiments.

Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J.
February, 1908.

76 W. 0. Knight—WNotes on the Genus Baptanodon.

Art. VII.—Some Notes on the Genus Baptanodon, with a
Description of a New Species; by WiLBuR C. KNIGHT.

It was many years ago that Marsh described Baptanodon
(Sauranodon*),. and with the exception of a very short papert
by the same author in which he describes a new species, noth-
ing has been written to give us a better understanding of the
peculiar American Ichthyosaur until Charles Gilmore pub-
lished some additional and valuable information very recently
in Science.

Yet we do not know very much about this peculiar swim-
mer, and a great deal of information is desirable before it will
be possible to say with any certainty, whether there is any
great difference between Baptanodon and Opthalmosaurus or
not. Several paleontologists have already expressed them-
selves in the belief that these genera are identical. For a
number of years specimens have been accumulating in the col-
lection of the University of Wyoming, and from these some
valuable points have been secured. From what I know of
Baptanodon I am in favor of retaining the name. In the fol- -
lowing notes will be found some argument favoring this generic
name and showing how that Baptanodon differs from Opthal-
mosaurus.

Hront Limb of Baptanodon.—Humerus about one-third
the length of the limb, with a stout twisted shaft that is greatly
compressed near the distal end. Planes passed through the
articulate ends of the humerus stand at an angle of 50°. The
head is slightly rounded and is almost identical with Ichthyo-
saurus. There are three distal facets; but they are not of
equal size. The facet. for the ulna is the largest, the one for
the radius next in size, and the one opposite the pisiform is
rudimentary, for that bone was held in cartilage and did not
articulate with the humerus. These facets are elliptical in
form, and those opposite the ulna and radius elongated in the
plane of articulation in place of being vertical to it, as they are
in Opthalmosaurus. The radius is a subangular bone, with the
exterior margin reduced to a thin edge that is nearly straight.
It is also larger than the ulna, which is slightly hexagonal in
shape. The pisiform is subcireular in form and is the smallest
bone of the second segment of the limb. The next segment is
composed of four subcircular bones as noted by Marsh, but
the succeeding row is composed of only three bones. The
largest appears to have been formed by the consolidation of
three elements. This might have been considered as an indi-

* This Journal, xvii, 85. 1 Ibid., xix, 169, 491.

W. C. Knight—Notes on the Genus Baptanodon. (ar

vidual characteristic had I not found it in at least three ani-
mals. The limb that I have been studying and have figured
differs from the one published by Marsh, inasmuch as the
abnormal number of digits do not appear until the phalanges
are reached, and then by a division of the third digit. This
information has been secured from a specimen in the matrix
and is absolutely reliable. The carpals, metacarpals and pha-
langes are compressed grooved cylinders, the most of which
have slightly concave surfaces. The grooves are ornamented
with tuberosities for muscular attachment. Along the margins
of the limb the cylinders have their exterior borders reduced
to quite thin edges. Any one finding the limb of a Baptan-
odon for the first time scattered about in the field would surely

a
8
“7

FicuRE 1. o.—Transverse section of an interior carpal; D.—Terminal car-
pal; =.—Marginal carpal. All reduced one-half.

‘try to fit the ventral and dorsal surfaces of the metacarpals
together in trying to construct a digit.

In comparing the limbs of Opthalmosaurus and Baptanodon
one should consider the following points: In Baptanodon the
humerus is about one-third the length of the arm; it has a
twisted shaft which is greatly compressed. The distal facets
are all unequal in size and one of them is merely rudimentary,
besides they are elliptical in the plane of articulation. There
is also an abnormal number of digits, and the arm is much
more powerful and larger than found in Opthalmosaurus of
equal size. The indications are that Baptanodon was a remark-
able swimmer.

Hind Limb.—The hind limbs in the collection are too frag-
mentary to admit of accurate determinations. The femora
examined all have two facets only. I was not satisfied with

78 W. C. Knight—LNotes on the Genus Baptanodon.

wo

pilin Bo 1h. alo LY UY .

: 7h ° t. TM, Sy, hy”, ,
UZ, ! CHG! a 1} il 47

. 7 F ¥ 7 o

Be

? ry?
)
ts M, ‘fz
‘hy ys

Sadie

Paha
fit

i ae a ie

pot

Caan

f Hi ay.
iu

il H eesea \

a)

; ; i 5 “ BY
ap leat,
oll

‘pt

eee
H \\ )

i) if

FIGURE 2.—Right pectoral limb, dorsal aspect, reduced about 25 times.

W. C. Knight—Notes on the Genus Baptanodon. 79

the material in hand and wrote Dr. Beecher concerning the
material at Yale University, and he informed me that the ones
examined by him in the Yale collection had but two facets,
and that the humerii had three but one was very small. The
fact that Baptanodon so far as known has but two elements
articulating with the femora is worthy of special consideration.

Vertebral Column.—The specimen S in the Wyoming col-
lection contains 41 precaudal vertebree. These are consecutive
and represent the series from the head backwards. The atlas
and axis are so completely fused that there is not the slightest
trace of their union. Anteriorly the first vertebra (atlas and
axis) 1s only slightly excavated ; but upon this elongated verte-
bra there are two normal or almost normal processes. The
first vertebra (atlas and axis) is 41™™ in length, and the second
is only 31™™ long. There is no intercentra between these (the
second and third) vertebree. It is also questionable whether there
is any between the atlas and axis and the axis and the basioci-
pital. If they are present they are so perfectly anchylosed to
the centra as to make it impossible to distinguish them. |
have only examined a single specimen, and while I think it
possible that all of the intercentra have disappeared, it will be
desirable to make further examinations before this point can
be passed upon. In specimen S the vertebre gradually increase
in length and width from the atlas and axis to No. 19; the
third vertebra being 31™ long and 80™™" wide and the nine-
teenth 41™™ long and 90™™ wide. These are separated by
intercentra measuring from 10 to15™. From No. 19 back-
wards to the end of the series the vertebree decrease slightly
in length and width. In specimen T in the same collection
there are 46 consecutive caudal vertebra. ‘These are of the
usual ichthyosaurian type, and represent an animal that had
an extremely long and slender tail. The reduction in the size
of the vertebree occurs very near the body and within a dis-
tance of a few inches the vertebree decrease in diameter over
one-half. The vertebrze in the area of reduction have reduced
margins, in fact in two of them the articulations nearly meet
upon the side of the centrum. This signifies that the tail was
extremely flexible near the body, which would make it of
great value in swimming, and without question this animal
could lash its sides with its tail. I have not noted anything of
this kind in the genus Ichthyosaurus. Although caudal verte-
bre from at least a half dozen different animals have been
examined, no trace of chevrons has been observed, and the
vertebre lack chevron facets.

Pectoral Girdle.—The coracoids are broadly elliptical bones,
anteriorly deeply and broadly notched; posteriorly circular.
They thicken rapidly from the center tothe interior margin

80 W. C. Knight—WNotes on the Genus Baptanodon.

of the anterior half into a large elliptical facet with a rugose
surface. A facet measured 81 by 123™". These facets unite
on the median symphysis, which must have made the girdle
very ridged during life. There was no evidence of an inter-

3

A

FIGURE 3. A.—Pectoral girdle incomplete, about + natural size ; B.—Outline

- of the interior margin of coracoid, about + natural size.
clavicle, and the peculiar union of the coracoids precludes an
interclavicle of the regular Ichthyosaurian type. In conse-
quence the interclavicle in Baptanodon must be* considered
rudimentary or wanting. The scapule are rather heavy bones,
with broad notched proximal ends, that fit the projection of
the coracoids between the anterior notch and the glenoid cav-
ity. Clavicles are unknown to me.

W. ©, Knight—Notes on the Genus Baptanodon. 81

The most of the above information has been taken from
the S skeleton of the Wyoming collection, and I have found
it impossible to include this in the species already described
and for that reason propose the name of Laptanodon Marshi,
in honor of Prof. O. C. Marsh, who originated the generic name
Baptanodon. The accompanying figure of a front limb can be
considered as typical for this species.

Some Measurements for Baptanodon Marshi.

Humerus. Wk
emo GihyeyAas hi ee aa 2190
Tenoxerwldit nyse So Ge ee D7
HetOxe tT NIGKNERS 245 o02\., ee ee aE ee 080
Wisealle patch 2 ws Ie | Re RAI es 130+
Distal thickness 2222.2 422.02 45h 2 see e050
Race for mlnaplenoth: . .2,.422 2 eee 080
Hacetuornradms. lenoth | 25) Ses en 050
iacet fon pisitorm, length: 422-4225 52 AOTO

Ulna,

“RTGS 8 2 i Ec ae UR MEO,
etic ers ee ae UR ice amue ss 054

Radius,

TINY TAG IG) OC ashe (sates i ae ops A ele ee 065
iteneith? 4222 2 Mie io ae ON eh aa 046

Pisiform,
elaine raenel spins) ee OTE ee 036
"LOUIE, A nO eek easel a fos oes Mem 054

Coracoid, - .

1 (STENERG] BY) Ps STE ee es i cee mes ee
“IGUES] 8 ONS See Og eg mare ea
Median facet,
ene thie eee pa eR Nd ites oretplang an 3 "123
WNpldiilngae oe AU Seas ee aly OBL

In comparing Baptanodon with Opthalmosaurus it will be
well to consider that in Baptanodon the interclavicle is either
rudimentary or wanting, the absence of the intercentra between
the second and third vertebree, the development of the large
facets upon the interior margins of the coracoids, the striking ~
differences in the development of the limbs, causing Baptano-
don to have been a much more powerful swimmer than its
European ally.

Geological Laboratory, University of Wyoming.

AM. JouR. SCI.—FourTH SERIES, VoL. XVI, No. 91,—JULy, 1903.
as

82 G. F. Katon— Characters of Pteranodon.

Art. VIII.— The Characters of Pteranodon; by G. F.
Eaton. (With Plates VI and VII.) ,

A CAREFUL preparation of Pterodactyl material from the
Niobrara Cretaceous of western Kansas has been.commenced
at the Yale University Museum, for the purpose of adding an
example of one of the gigantic species of the genus Pterano-
don Marsh, to the series of restorations of fossil vertebrates
recently attempted with success. Preparatory to this work, a
critical examination both of the fossils themselves and of the
literature based upon them has been made, and an excellent
opportunity has been thus afforded to extend our knowledge
of the skeleton of Pteranodon, in regard to several important
points of structure. This, in turn, may be of great value in
determining the true position of the genus among the
Pterodactyls.

The large collection of these reptiles made by Prof. Marsh
and his assistants in the field, during a period including the
years 1870 to 1894, and representing, according to Prof.
Marsh, the fossil remains of more than six hundred individ-
uals, was never completely examined and described by him.
His series of papers upon this unique order, which appeared
in this Journal, 1871 to 1882, were, at the time of publication,
considered by him as little more than preliminary notices.
No detailed work on the American Pterodactyls ever issued
from his hands, as his attention was constantly diverted by the
acquisition of other and not less valuable vertebrate fossils.

His researches both in field and in laboratory having
awakened the interest of the scientific world in the Kansas
Pterodactyls, it is not surprising to find other collectors and
authors engaged in similar investigations. While part of
Prof. Marsh’s earlier work on this group was performed in a
somewhat hurried manner, the accuracy with which he seized
upon important osteological characters is amazing. In one
instance, at least, his opinion, after having been disputed
almost to the point of ridicule, proves to be much more
correct than that advanced by his eritic. Considering his
great talent and the abundance of material at his command, it
is to be regretted that Prof. Marsh did not pursue the study
further before laying it aside. Had he done so, he would
have prevented the misconceptions which have lately gained
credence.

The Sagittal Crest.

The most important correction to the prevailing idea of
Pteranodon is to be made in regard to the sagittal crest.
Prof. Marsh in deseribing the skull makes use of the follow-

G. Ff. Haton—Characters of Pteranodon. 83

ing words (this Journal, vol. xxvii, May, 1884): “an enor-
mous sagittal crest extends far backward, and somewhat
upward.” The accuracy of this statement is denied by Prof.
S. W. Williston (Kansas Univ. Quarterly, vol. 1, No.1, July,
1892), whose views have been accepted largely because of the
fact that he collected the head of Marsh’s type of Pteranodon.
Material in the Yale Museum now shows that, contrary to
Williston’s opinion, the elongation of the crest, as figured by
Marsh, was too conservative. Reference to Plate VI, figure 1,
will show its true form, taken from an actual specimen, which
is indicated by the continuous line. Marsh’s incomplete
restoration is shown by the dotted line, while Williston’s
figure of the skull, shorn of its crest, is reproduced carefully
in figure 2. Prof. Marsh laid emphasis on this character, and
it is of great importance that this error be corrected at once.
Following Williston’s lead, Dr. S. P. Langley and Mr. F. A.
Lueas, both of the Smithsonian Institution, have perpetuated
the error in their respective papers in the Annual Report of
that Institution for 1901.

In justice to Williston, it is perhaps only fair to quote him
verbatim (loc. cit.): “As stated by me in the American
Naturalist, the type specimen of Pteranodon, also collected by
myself, was incomplete, and the figures of it, as given by
Marsh, are faulty.” This statement can not be gainsaid. The
type suffered through the rough methods of collecting
employed in those days; but the following clause has been
shown above to be incorrect: ‘‘ The sagittal crest is large, but
not nearly so large as it is figured by Marsh, the outline of
whose figure is undoubtedly wrong.”

To assign the cause of mistake on the part of another
writer may be considered a work of supererogation, yet [ am
tempted to offer here a possible explanation of Williston’s
misinterpretation of the sagittal crest of this reptile. At the
present time of writing, an incomplete Pterodactyl skull is
being worked out at the Yale Museum, which will in all
probability prove to be that of MWyctodactylus Marsh. The
erest, which is apparently entire, is of small size compared
with that of Pteranodon, the measurement from occipital
condyle to tip of crest being only 49™™, while the length from
occipital condyle to tip of beak was approximately 47. In

eneral, the skull compares favorably with that shown in

illiston’s restoration of Vyctodactylus given in the Ameri-
can Journal of Anatomy, vol. i, No. 3, May 26, 1902, where
he states that the outline is taken in part from a specimen of
Pteranodon Marsh, or Ornithostoma Seeley, as the genus was
then called. It is therefore fair to infer that the apparent
similarity of the two genera led Williston to draw uninten-

84 G, L. Katon— Characters of Pteranodon.

tionally upon the characters of Vyctodactylus when making
his restoration of Pteranodon.

The Suspensorium.

Another remarkable character of the skull of Pteranodon,
which belongs apparently to Wyctodactylus also, is the articu-
lation of the mandibles with the quadrates. The distal end of
each quadrate has the form of a spiral groove, left-handed in
the right quadrate and right-handed in the left. The articular
elements of the mandibles have a reciprocal form. So perfect
is the mutual adjustment of these parts that, unless actual dis-
location took place, the act of opening the mouth must have
resulted either in a considerable widening of the lower
jaws posteriorly or in the forcing together of the quadrates.
Apparently the pterygoids and palatines serve as a rigid and
immovable support to the quadrates, a condition which would
render movement of the latter impossible.. In such case an
expansion of the lower jaws is, in my judgment, the only way
by which the lateral motion caused by the spiral articula-
tion could be taken up mechanically; and this in the face of
the seemingly inflexible mandibular symphysis and the thor-
ough union of the mandibular elements.

The existing vertebrate offering the closest parallel in this
respect to Pteranodon is the Pelican. <A careful inspection of
the suspensorium of this peculiar bird reveals a similar spiral
articulation between quadrates and mandibles, and it is recorded
that in the Pelican the act of opening the mouth results also
in the widening of the jaws posteriorly. There has been some
speculation in regard to the habits of the American Ptero-
dactyls, but no definite conclusions have yet been reached.
Possibly the mechanical similarity between the mandibular
suspensorium of the Pelican and that of Pteranodon is to be
received as evidence of the possession of a gular pouch by this
Pterdactyl as well as by the bird.

Mr. Lucas has apparently arrived at the same conclusion
along another line of evidence. He says (loc. cit.): “In the
peculiar shape of the lower, back portion of the beak there is
a suggestion of the former presence of a small pouch, like
that found in cormorants, and this would be in accord with
the supposed fish-eating habits of Ornzthostoma” (Pteranodon
Marsh). :

The Pelvis.

A nearly perfect pelvis, recently worked out at the Yale
Museum, throws much light on the discussion of the charac-
ters of this important part of the skeleton of Pteranodon,
which has not been thoroughly understood and described by

G. F. Eaton—Oharacters of Pteranodon. 85

paleontologists. Three diagrams of this specimen are here
given, showing the side, top, and bottom views (Plate VII, fig-
ures 1, 2, and 3, respectively). It is not my intention at this
time to enter into a detailed description of the pelvic charac-
ters. Indeed, at present, it is necessary to publish little more
than the diagrams, which may prevent any further serious
misinterpretation of the pelvis.

Ten vertebree firmly anchylosed together form the sacral
series, using this term in its broader sense. The upper ends
of the neural spines of all these vertebreze are united in a con-
tinuous ridge about 9™™ wide and about 6™™ in vertical depth
(Plate VII, figure 1). The general form of the transverse pro-
cesses of the three anterior vertebree in this series, and their
union with the ilia, are sufficiently well shown in the accom-
panying diagrams (Plate VII, figures 2 and 3). The first verte-
bra bears anterior zygapophyses for articulation with the last
free dorsal; and the transverse processes of the first three
vertebre have on their lower surfaces small facets for the sup-
port of ribs. One of these posterior ribs still les upon
the third vertebra, with little displacement from its original
position. The transverse processes of vertebree 4, 5, 6, and 7,
depart widely from the foregoing simple arrangement. They
are likewise separated by large foramina, but they unite again
laterally and form a continuous support for the ilia. The
lower ends of the transverse processes of vertebra 4 extend
downward and backward, as stout buttresses, finally becoming
confluent with the inferior margins of the ilia. The three
remaining vertebree, numbers 8, 9, and 10 of this series, bear
short transverse processes, separate at their distal ends, upon
which the ilia rest posteriorly.

The ilia extend forward as broad, thin blades, supported, at
their inner margins, by the transverse processes of the anterior
sacral vertebre. Posteriorly they unite over the neural spines
of the last three sacrals, and are anchylosed to them as well as
to the transverse processes. The united pubes and ischia are
directed downward and backward, and meet below in a long
median symphysis. The obturator foramina lie just beneath
the imperforate acetabula. They are circular in form, of about
half the diameter of the acetabula, and may be considered as
marking the theoretical line of fusion between the true pubic
and ischial elements. On the anterior border of these ischio-
pubic expansions are small facets, which undoubtedly served
for the attachment of prepubes. Inno specimen in the Yale
Collection has a prepubis yet been found in place.

Paleontologists will perhaps disagree on the number and
position of true sacrals in Pteranodon. It will be remem-
bered that Huxley, when confronted with a similar problem in

86 G. F. Haton— Characters of Pteranodon.

the avian sacrum, chose the intervertebral foramina as the
best criteria for distinguishing true sacrals from sacro-dorsals
and uro-sacrals. In the present fossil specimen there are, of
course, no nerves to serve as guides, but I hope to show ina
subsequent paper that vertebree 5, 6, and 7, which clearly form
a natural division, are the true sacrals. Vertebra 4 may prove
to be the homologue of the last lumbar vertebra in the sacrum
of recent birds. In closing I should like to state, with due
apologies to Prof. Lydekker, that the “ parallel” between the
sacrum of Pteranodon aud that of recent birds is striking,
though I have no desire to postulate “ couverging lines” of
structure and descent.

Paleontological Laboratory, Yale University Museum,
June 8, 1903.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
PLATE VI.

Figure 1.—Restoration of skull of Pteranodon.
True outline of sagittal crest is shown by continuous line.
Marsh’s restoration of sagittal crest is shown by dotted line.
One-sixth natural size.

FIGURE 2.—Enlargement of Williston’s diagram of skull of Pteranodon.
Approximately one-quarter natural size.

PuatTE VII.
FicuRE 1.—Pelvis of Pteranodon; side view.
FIGURE 2.— se a ; top view.
FIGURE 3.— = ae ; bottom view.

All three figures are one-half natural size.

Plate VI.

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XVI, 1903.

--
~-o-
ss0°r 7
——

SKULL OF PTERANODON.

ear ee.

a

,

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XVI, 1903.

Plate VII.

Ly
7
7

Za

PELVIS OF PTERANODON.

=

Plate VIII.

Am, Jour. Sci., Vol. XVI, 1903.

O2

13

Ve Vl a

ING

il

ORGAN.

4
x

SPORE-BEA RING

OF

TYPE

CopONOTHECA, A NEW

E.. H.. Sellards— Codonotheca. 87

Arr. IX. — Codonotheca, a New Type of Spore-Bearing
Organ from the Coal Measures ;* by EK. H. SEtuarps.
(With Plate VIII.)

Tue iron-stone nodules of Mazon Oreek, Illinois, which have
preserved so many interesting fossils, contain not infrequently
an isolated, but unique, and as yet undescribed type of fructi-
fication. The conditions of preservation in these nodules are
such that by careful developing it is possible to make out
many of the details of structure of the fossils contained in
them. In the present case, the abundance of material at hand,.
and the unusual organization of the reproductive organ give
an especial interest to the study. It is the purpose of the
present paper to describe the structure of this peculiar type, in
so far as the material at hand will permit, in the hope that a
description of the fructification will lead to its recognition in
collections from other localities in this and foreign countries,
and to the determination of the plant to which it belongs.
The collections from the Mazon Creek locality in museums,
especially of this country, are generally quite extensive and
some of these may be found to contain specimens throwing
new light on the relation of this fructification.

The spore-bearing organ is a symmetrical cup- or bell-shaped
_ body, made up of a circle of six equidistant, lamina-like, spore-
bearing divisions, arising at a common level, united laterally at
the base, free at the tips, thus surrounding a central cavity ;
each division is traversed on the inner or spore-bearing side
by two strong bundles supplied by the dichotomy of six main
strands; the union of the laminz and bundles below forms a
cylindrical base, while the whole organ is borne on a slender
petiole. The base, which seems to have consisted for the most
part of an external envelope of non-resistant fleshy tissue, is
usually more or less completely flattened in the fossil condi-
tion. It is traversed by lines, often wavy and irregular, lying
near the surface and extending along the dorsal side of the spore-
bearing divisions, probably representing subepidermal bands
of strengthening tissue. The fusion of the six main vascular
strands forms a cone-shaped area of resistant tissue at the
center of the base, large at the top where it breaks up into
strands, pointed below where it is replaced by less resistant
tissue. This area occasionally retains its cylindrical shape (figs.
Jd and 11, Pl. VII). The six strands originating at a common
level from this central area diverge and dichotomize also at
approximately the same level. The twelve bundles formed by
this dichotomy pass into the six spore-bearing divisions, which

* Abstracted from a thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Yale
University, May, 1903, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

88 E. H. Sellards—Oodonotheca.

for convenience will be spoken of in this paper as spore-bear-

ing segments, or simple segments. The distribution of the

bundles to the segments is characteristic. Each individual

segment is supplied not by the two bundles resulting from the

dichotomy of a single main strand, but receives one bundle

from each of two adjacent strands (compare figs. 1, 4, 11, 15,

and the plan of structure, fig. 5, Pl. VIII)... This peculiarity in

the arrangement of the bundle system can be verified from ~

numerous specimens, and is one of the prominent structural

features of the organ of fructification. The free tips of the seg-

ments occasionally stand open, thus retaining in part their

original shape, owing probably to their having been quickly

buried in sediment. By carefully removing the matrix which

fills the cone-shaped cavity enclosed by the segments, it is pos-

sible to examine the six parts in place. The two figures, 14

and 15, illustrate a specimen worked out in this way, as seen

from the two sides. The matrix filling the cavity formed by

the expanded segments was removed intact and has the shape

of a cone flattened laterally, on which is preserved the impres-

sions of the six spore-bearing segments. On refitting the two

parts of the nodule together, there results an elliptical cavity,

, large at one end corresponding to the

top of the organ, and becoming smaller

and disappearing toward the crushed

base. The shape of the organ is thus

partly preserved in this nodule, being

simply compressed laterally. On looking

into the cavity a very satisfactory idea

of the shape and arrangement of the ~

parts, and of the whole organ as it

appeared in life is obtained. The outline

restoration of this fructification given in

the accompanying text figure is based on

this and similar specimens. The plan

of structure of the organ (fig.5, Pl. V IIT)

represents the hollow top as unrolled and

the solid base as cut through the center

and laid open. The section is made to

pass between segments I and VI, henee

Codonotheca ; restoration directly through strand number I. The

pais Spe pees letter c marks the bottom of the cavity
cle ‘enclosed by the segments.

Considerable variation in size is evident in the series of
specimens. Those of an average size measure 3 to 5” from
the base to the tips. The width at the top is about 14™. The
segments above the point where they become free are 13 to 2™
long and 24 to 8™™ wide. The petiole is incomplete, the longest

EF. A. Sellards—Codonotheca. 89

observed being a little over 1°. When well preserved the
petiole shows a netlike structure made by strong longitudinal
strie and weaker cross lines, suggesting the structure occa-
sionally seen on the leaves of some Cordavtes (fig. 16, Pl. VIIT).

Spores.—Much interest is attached to the presence of the
spores and the position in which they lie. In the best-pre-
served specimens the spores lie over the segments from the
tip to the base, and seem to be confined to a more or less well-
marked depression occupying one-half or two-thirds the width
of thesegment. In such spore-bearing segments as are crushed
laterally, at the side of the fossil, the spores are pushed to the
inner side, indicating that they were contained in sporangia or
chambers near the inner surface, and apparently were not, as
might otherwise have been thought possible, held loosely in a
central cavity of the segment after the manner of moss sporo-
gonia; in the latter case the spores would appear along the
eenter line of the segment, however crushed. There is no
grouping of the spores or other indications of the location of
sporangia, which were doubtless more or less completely
immersed in the tissue. In order to contain even a few of
these large spores the sporangia would necessarily be of large
size and if external in position would probably have left defi-
nite impressions in the stone, as do the sporangia of most
other plants in these nodules. The spores seem to have been
_ seattered somewhat, owing probably to the disappearance of
the walls of the sporangia at maturity, so that in the fossil
_ they run together and entirely fill the depression in which they
he.

From the position of the spores, the sporangia appear to
_ have been located along the vascular bundles. Inasmuch as
they have not been seen, no attempt is made to represent them
in the restoration. The spores are large, elongate-elliptical, 0°29
to 0°31™" long and 0°18 to 0°20™" wide. They are brown in
color, somewhat flexible, and section readily on the microtome.*
The spore wall consists of an inner, compact layer, and an
outer inuch thicker layer which appears granular in microtome
sections seen under a high power. A slit is usually present in
the side of the spore, apparently indicating bilateral division
from the spore mother-cell. The spores occasionally contain
small round grains with dark centers, doubtless representing a
part of the original food supply. In size and shape, the spores
rather closely resemble those of Dolerophyllum, except that
there is buta single slit in the side, instead of two furrows as
deseribed for that genus. The spores (pollen grains) of Dol-

* The spores may be imbedded by the ordinary methods ; less time, how-

ever, is necessary for dehydrating, and the paraffin bath may be brought to
any desired temperature.

90 Lt. H. Sellards—Codonotheca.

erophylium are contained in a boxlike excavation in the fleshy
tissue of the reduced leaf.* There is apparently nothing in
the structure of the spore itself, as preserved, to determine
whether the plant was homosporous or heterosporous. From
their large size the spores might be taken for megaspores.
Bilateral megaspores, however, although seemingly occurring
rarely, are exceptional among vascular cryptogams. A care-
ful search has been made through all the available material,
amounting to about seventy-five specimens (with in most cases
their counterparts), many of which have the spores preserved,
but no evidence of two kinds of spores has been found. This
negative evidence, although hardly conclusive, is entitled to
considerable weight. In view of the abundance of material,
the chances are very great that if two kinds of spores existed
both would be present. The conclusion that the plant was
homosporous is, therefore, reasonably certain, unless the second
kind of spore proves to have been borne by a differently con-
structed organ. .

The generic name Codonotheca is proposed for this type of
spore-bearing organ. The type species here described may be
known as Codonotheca caduca.

Botanical Relations.—The botanical relations of this unusual
fructification are as yet very uncertain. The spore-bearing
organ seems to have been readily deciduous, and thus far has
not been found in connection with the vegetative part of the
plant. Two of the fossils he side by side on one of the nodules
in such a way as to indicate that both were probably attached
by long petioles to a common stem. At one side and ata
slightly lower level is seen a slender striated stem; but the
actual connection is not preserved. ‘Three other specimens lie
near each other on the same nodule. It has been assumed in
the above description that the six parts of the organ are spo-
rangia-bearing divisions. A second hypothesis may perhaps
suggest itself, namely, that the parts are themselves enormous
sporangia united at the base somewhat after the manner of
such genera as Lotryopteris, Zygopteris, and some of the small
species referred to Calymmatotheca. Their great size and
especially the presence of well-developed vascular strands run-
ning through them is, however, much against, if not fatal to,
such a supposition. Even aslight development of vascular tis-
sue within the walls of a sporangium is unusual, although such
may occasionally oecur, as shown in a recent paper by Prof.
F. W. Oliver.t It seems hardly possible, therefore, that the
spore-bearing segments can be individual sporangia, because of
their large size and especially the prominence of the vascular

* Renault, Bassin houiller et Permien d’Autun et d’Epinac, p. 266, 1890.

+On a Vascular Sporangium from the Stephanian of Grand Croix, The
New Phytologist, vol. i, p. 60, March, 1902.

E. H.. Sellards—Codonotheca. 91

strands running through them. On the contrary, the organ
appears to be made up of six lamina-like fertile divisions, united
in a circle at the base so as to enclose a central cavity, the
sporangia being borne on the inner side and probably partly or
entirely immersed in the fleshy tissue.

It seems wholly improbable that Codonotheca can have any
direct or close connection with the mosses or other plants lower
in the scale of development than the vascular cryptogams. It
is true that a water-conducting tissue is rather well developed
in the stem of some mosses, and to some extent in the sporo-
gonia of a few genera, but a well-developed vascular system,
such as this organ possesses, is at present entirely unknown in
any plant below the Pteridophytes. On the other hand, the
unusual structure of the reproductive organ makes it difficult
to determine the systematic position of the genus among the
vascular plants. The spore-bearing region of the known Paleo-
zoic and recent Equisetales is typically a cone formed by the
shortening of the internodes of the main axis, or of the axis of
a branch. The cone is made up of several to many nodes and
internodes. Each node may bear a whorl of fertile sporophylls,
or fertile and sterile whorls may alternate or be variously modi-
fied according to the genus. In the extinct Sphenophyllales,
the cone is also formed by a shortening of the internodes of the
axis, and the fertile sporophyls are borne in whorls at the
nodes. The sporangia of the Lycopodiales are borne.at the
base of the sporophylls, which usually form a cone. The ferns,
although a more varied class, seem to include no type whose
fundamental structure is comparable to that of Codonotheca.
Some species of Schizwa, as S. pennula, have a cluster of simi-
larly shaped sporangia-bearing divisions, but these have exter-
nal dorsal sporangia with aring of thick-walled cells at the top,
and lack entirely the unusual cyclic arrangement and the
fleshy petiolate base characteristic of Codonotheca. It is also
evident that this new type can have no connection with such
ferns as the Hymenophyllaceex, in which the elongated recep-
tacle, bearing the sporangia, is surrounded by an indusium-like
outgrowth of the lamina. The extinct fernlike genera Gotry-
opteris and Zygopteris, which have sporangia clustered at the
ends of slender peduncles, do not seem to admit of comparison
with Codonotheca except on the hypothesis, which appears to
me untenable, that the six divisions of the organ are so many
large sporangia.

For many years numerous plants have been known from the
Paleozoic, having a stem structure resembling that of the ferns
on the one hand, and the cyeads on the other, but so different
in many ways from both as to be with dittculty included in
either. Since 1899* these plants have been united to form an

* Potonié, Lehrbuch der PAanzenpalaeontologie, p. 160.

92 EF. H. Sellards— Codonotheca.

intermediate group, the Cycadofilices, the more generalized
divisions of which are believed to form, to some extent at least,
a connecting series between the ferns ‘and eycads. The stem
structure indicates considerable diversity among the several
divisions of the group. Unfortunately har dly” anything is
known of the fructification. Certain sporangia of the Calym-
matotheca type have been found so closely associated with one
genus of the Cycadofilices, Lyginodendron, as to make their
connection probable.* Lyginodendron has finely divided
foliage, and is one of the more fernlike of its class. The small
species of Calymmatotheca found in association with Lyginoden-
dron have large sporangia grouped in a cluster at the end of a
petiole, free at their tips, free or united at their bases, and
borne on dimorphic fronds. A number of other plants of vari-
ous structure have been referred to Calymmatotheca. The
largest of these and also the first described species of the genus,
C. Schimperi Stur, is an imper fectly known fossil. According
to Sturt the plant consists of six parts, 18™™ long, united at
the base by threes, and is apparently entirely different from
many of the smaller species which have been referred to the
genus.

Aphlebtocarpus Stur is another imper tectly “understood
genus of unknown aftinity.t This remarkable fructification
consists of about five foliar parts, more or less deeply lobed or
fringed, arranged in an involucre-like whorl. According to
Stur, the sporangia are small, solitary, and deep set, and are
placed thickly over the upper or inner surface of the “ involu-
cre.” The spores are not described, and the vegetative part of
the plant, except for the branching axis, is unknown.

Codonotheca suggests at first sight a possible resemblance
to the male flowers of some gymnosperms. Zumboa ( Wel-
witschia) has microsporophy lls united in a circle at the base.
The microsporophylls of the Mesozoic Bennettitaceee, also, as
Wieland has shown, are fused in a circle at the base. But the
relation to these genera is probably not close, since the Ben-
nettitaceee, as well as 7’ ieee seem to have an abortive, seed-
bearing cone at the center.§

While the genus may fa its place as an aberrant type among
one of the well-known classes of Pteridophytes or even gym-
nosperms of Cordaitalean affinity, it may on the other hand

* Scott, Studies in Fossil Botany, pp. 384-336; Benson, Ann. Bot., vol.
xvi, pp. 975-576, 1902.

+ Die Culm- Flora der Ostrauer und Waldenburger Schichten, Abhandl. der ~
k. k. geol. Reichsanst. zu Wien, vol. viii, p. 149, “1877.

+ Ibid., p. 304, pl. 37, 1877 ; ‘Die Carbon-Flora der Schatzlaren Schichten,
ibid., vol. xi, Abth. i, D. 15, 1885.

S$ Wieland, A Study ‘of Some American Fossil Cycads, pt. iv, This Journal,
vol. > LO 424, 1901.

SE. H. Sellards— Codonotheca. 93

prove to fall within the comparatively varied but less well-
known Cyeadofilices, as representative of a specialized division
at present included in that group and which has suffered extinc-
tion. The plants to which the Codonotheca type of fructitication
belongs, as far as the arrangement of their spore-bearing organs
is concerned, seem to have reached a comparatively specialized
condition as early as the Upper Carboniferous. There are
present in the Coal Measures and at the Mazon Creek locality
several genera or groups of plants, the fructification of which is
either unknown or but imperfectly understood. Conspicuous
among these, both from its large size and great abundance, is
Neuropteris, especially the large species, WV. decipiens Lesqx.
Renault* and others have shown that the petiole of Mewrop-
teris as well as that of Alethopteris, possesses the MWyeloxylon
type of stem structure. The Medulosez to which J/yeloxylon
belongs are regarded as a divergent branch of the Cycadofilices.t
The only information regarding the fructification is that
obtained by Kidston from a specimen of JV. heterophylla, a
species of the small-pinnuled division of the group.{ Kaidston’s
material was unfortunately poorly preserved, but served to
indicate that the fronds were dimorphic, and that the spore-
bearing organs were grouped in clusters at the ends of the
slender petioles. There is reason for believing that the entire
Neuropterid group was dimorphic. <As a rule, those plants
_ having the sporangia on the under side of the fronds, after the
manner of ordinary ferns, not infrequently preserve impressions
of the sporangia and sori. Weuwropteris is abundant through-
out the Coal Measures, and very large collections of Neurop-
terid fronds have been examined by various paleontologists
without finding evidence of sporangia. The large fronds of
Neuropteris would doubtless supply a considerable number of
detached pinnules as compared with the number of fertile
spore-bearing parts, however these may have been arranged.
In the Yale University Museum collection, the proportion
between Codonotheca caduca and Neuropteris decipiens is
approximately one of the former to ten of the latter. Never-
theless, the fact should not be lost sight of that there are a
number of other plants in the Coal Measures to any one of

*Renault, Affinités botaniques du genre Neuropteris, Comptes rendus,
vol. lxxxiii, pp. 399-401, 1876.

+ Scott, Studies in Fossil Botany, pp. 394-396. Compare also Solms-Lau-

page Uber Medulosa Leuckarti, Bot. Zeitung, Bd. lv, Heft x, pp. 175-202,
Ge

ee Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xxxiii, pt. i, p. 150, pl. viii, fig. 7,

$ The relative proportion, as here given, is based on the Yale collection
from Mazon Creek, which contains 75 specimens of Codonotheca to some 1,200
of Newropteris, 750-800 of which are Neuropteris decipiens.

94 E. H. Sellards—Codonotheca.

which the fructification here described may belong, or that it
may represent an entirely new plant.

My thanks are due Dr. Alexander W. Evans for references to
recent botanical literature, and to Dr. David White and Dr.
G. R. Wieland, as well as to Dr. Evans, for suggestions on the
text and illustrations. Dr. E. R. Cumings has very kindly
made most of the drawings. The material on which the study
is based is contained in the fossil plant collection of Yale Uni-
versity Museum, made accessible to me through’ the kindness
of Professor OC. E. Beecher.

Paleontological Laboratory, Yale University Museum,
New Haven, Conn., April 2, 1902.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
PLATE Witl,

Codonotheca caduca gen, et sp. Nov.

FicurE 1.—The fleshy covering has disappeared from this specimen by
maceration, allowing the resistant area at the center, which still retains its
cylindrical shape, to stand out prominently. Strands I to II] and VI are
visibie, IV and V being hidden on the opposite side. Figure 11 is a photo-
graphic reproduction of a part of the same specimen with the covering
removed, exposing strands IV and V. x 2.

FIGURES 2-3.—Obverse and reverse sides of a small specimen. The very
numerous large spores lie in a depressed channel along the segments from
the tip to the base. The cavity formed by the united bases of the segments
ends atc. A part of the upper side of the covering is broken away near the
bottom, allowing the spores to be seen within. The base of this specimen, as
preserved, is comparatively slender and is traversed by wavy lines. <A con-
siderable part of the long slender petiole is preserved. Natural size.

Figure 4.—The two bundles supplying the segment, and their origin from
two adjacent main strands below, are very well shown in this specimen.

Natural size.

Ficure 5.—Plan of structure of the spore-bearing organ. The top is
represented as cut open and unrolled, the base as split down the center and
laid open. The cut is represented as passing between segments I and VI,
hence directly through strand number I. The end of the cavity is marked
atc. The cylindrical area at the base first breaks up into six main strands
(1 to VI) which dichotomize and supply the twelve bundles to the spore-
bearing divisions. Natural size.

Figure 6.—A group of spores imbedded in sphalerite, and having the sur-
face ornamentation well preserved. x 28.

FIGURE 7.—Spores taken from the surface of the specimen illustrated in
figure 2. x 28,

FicurE 8.—A single spore ; showing the slit in the side, indicating prob-
ably the bilateral division of the spore mother-cell. Several dark bodies,
apparently representing stored food supply, are contained within the spore.

x 85.
Figure 9.—Section through the spore wall; showing a thick granular
outer, and a thin compact inner layer. x 200.

Ficure 10.—The specimen illustrated by this figure has suffered lateral
crushing, and the bundles are partly displaced. A few spores are still cling-
ing to the surface. Natural size.

FIGURE 11.—Same specimen as figure 1. x 2.

EF. H. Sellards— Codonotheca. 95

Figure 12.—Photograph of asmall specimen. The first segment on the
right is seen from the dorsal surface, showing the parallel strie. The next
segment is seen from the ventral (inner) side. The two strong bundles
traversing this segment can be traced in the photograph. The origin of these
two strands from alternate strands below, which can be distinguished only
by close scrutiny in the photograph, is very evident in the specimen. The
outline of the resistant area formed by the union of the bundles below can
be followed by its white micaceous coating such as often covers the fossils
in these nodules. Natural size.

FiGcuReE 13.—The large base is here flattened. The striz of the base are
more or less disarranged and have a wavy course. Some of them seem to
divide, and all converge to the point of attachment. The photograph also
shows the cone-shaped resistant area at the center, which is large above where
it breaks up into strands; pointed below. The first spore-bearing segment
on the left is crushed, giving it an unnatural width. At the top of the next
one is seen the dorsal surface marked by fine strie. Farther down the seg-
ment is removed, leaving the impression of the ventral (inner) surface on
which the two bundles supplying the segment are seen. At one point about
half-way down, the break extends through to the opposite side of the organ
and a few spores are seen in place on the opposite surface. Natural size.

Ficures 14-15.—A specimen worked out so as to expose both sides of the
organ. The base of this specimen is not entirely flattened, having partly
retained its shape. The side illustrated in the pen drawing, figure 15, shows
for the most part the impression (mold) of the outside surface. In places,
however, the substance of the plant has clung to the mold. This is true of
a part of the vascular system, and the tips of segments VI and I, giving an
instructive view of the ventral (inner) surface. The two bundles are distinct,
lie near the surface, and are rather widely separated. The segments have
considerable thickness as seen in the break, being perhaps half as thick as
wide. The impression made by the dorsal surface is longitudinally striate,
as seen in the other segments of this and other specimens. The dorsal sur-
. face of the segment itself is represented in figure 17, showing the parallel
strie, and the minutely roughened or pitted surface. The photograph
of the opposite side as it lies in the nodule, figure 14, gives a partial dorsal
view of segments I and IV, which are crushed laterally and distorted. Seg-
ments IT and III have retained their shape and are seen from the ventral
(inner) view. The cone-shaped portion of matrix which originally filled the
center of the organ is preserved in the Yale collection, and shows on one side,
corresponding to the side from which the photograph was made, the impres-
sions of the ventral side of the segments; while on the other side, that from
which the mold serving as the basis of figure 15 came, the dorsal surface of
the segments (except the tips of VI and I) are seen. Natural size.

Figure 16.—Enlarged detail of the petiole ; showing the strong strize and
weaker cross lines. KO.

Figure 17.—Enlarged detail of dorsal surface of the segment. x 3.

FiGuRE 18.—An average specimen. Natural size.

96 Bush—Dates of Publication of Fossil Vertebrates.

Art. X.— Note on the Dates of Publication of Certain
Genera of Fossil Vertebrates ; by Lucy P. Busu.

SEVERAL years ago while carrying on bibliographic work
under the direction of the late Professor Marsh, personal search
resulted in the acquisition of exact data relating to the generic
names of certain vertebrates, the use of which by various
authors is not uniform. In the interest of science, it seems
wise to give these facts publicity. The object of the present
. note, however, is not to decide whether the vertebrate fossils
in question should be classed under a given genus; it is merely
to show which term has priority, leaving the subject of syn-
onymy to others more competent to judge in such matters..

Cardiodon and Cetiosaurus.

Cardiodon Owen, April, 1841, Odontography, vol. i, pt. ii, p. 291.
Cetiosaurus Owen, 1841, Proc. Geol. Soc. London, for June 30, vol. iii, pt.
ii, No. 80, p. 460.

The dinosaurian genus Cardiodon was founded by Owen in
1841, on “an almost heart-shaped form of tooth”? (Odontog-
raphy, vol. i, pt. u, p. 291). The work in which the name
first occurs was published in three sections, and the second
part, containing the paragraph relating to Cardzodon, appeared
between April 15 and May 1, 1841.* As the paper in which

*The Publishers’ Circular, London, notes the date of publication of each -
part of Owen’s Odontography, as follows :—

Part I (Dental System of Fishes, pp. 1-178), between March 16 and April
1, 1840 (see Circular for April 1, 1840, vol. iii, p. 96).

Part II (Dental System of Reptiles, pp. 179-295), between April 15 and
May 1, 1841 (ibid. for May 1, 1841, vol. iv, p. 116).

Part III (Dental System of Mammals, pp. 296-655), before March 2, 1846
(ibid. for March 2, 1846, vol. ix, p. 80; and The English Catalogue of Books
published from January, 1835, to January, 1863, p. 577, 1864).

The foregoing work was issued in two editions—a quarto edition in two
volumes and a royal octavo edition in two volumes. Copies of both these
editions are in the library of Yale University Museum, and the pagination,
numbering of plates, etc., are identical in the two. The dedication is dated
June 18, 1845 ; the title page, preface, and table of contents were undoubt-
edly printed when the work was completed, while the introduction may have
been in part published at the same time as the third and last section (Cireular,
vol, ix, p. 80), although some of it appeared earlier, as shown by the follow-
ing statement taken from The Life of Richard Owen (vol. i. p. 181, 1895) :—
‘On April 27 [1841], as the diary shows, the Introduction was printed.”

Each of the 168 plates constituting vol. ii of Odontography is dated at the
bottom. Those accompanying Part I (Plates 1-61, 62B) bear the date 1840.
The plates in Part II (Plates 62-75a, exclusive of 62B) are dated as follows:
Plates 62, 62A, 68, 64-66, 68, 70-75, 1840; Plates 634, 63B, 67, 69, 1841, and
Plate 75a, 1844. In Part III (Plates 76-150), Plates 77-79, 81-84, 87, 91-93
are dated 1840; Plates 76, 80, 85, 86, 89, 89.4, 94, 1841 ; Plates 87a, 101, 106,
129, 130, and 148, 1844, while Plates 90, 95-100, 102-105, 107-128, 131-142,

Bush—Dates of Publication of Fossil Vertebrates. 97

the genus Cetiosaurus was proposed was not read until June
30, 1841 (Proc. Geol. Soc. London, vol. in, pt. ii, No. 80, pp.
457-462), it is evident that Cardiodon may be justly given
precedence in time.

Figures of the tooth representing the latter genus are shown
in-Odontography, Vol. I, Plate 75a, figure 7, a-d. The legend
at the bottom of this plate states that the latter was ‘‘ published
by H. Bailliere, 1844.” In the explanation to the plate (loc.
eit., p. 20), the specific name Cardiodon rugulosus is proposed.
Four species of Cetiosaurus were named and described in the
Report of the British Association for 1841, pp. 94-102, London,
1842. In the case of neither genus, however, were any species
noted in the original description.

Entelodon and Hlotherium.

Entelodon Aymard, 1846, Ann. Soc. d’Agric., Sci., Arts et Commerce du
Puy, tome xii, for 1842-1846, p. 227, 1 planche. Reprint, p. 1, 1 planche,
1848.

Elotherium Pomel, 1847, Bull. Soc. Géol. France (2), vol. iv, p. 1083.

In April, 1894, Professor Marsh prepared a paper on the
Restoration of Hlotheriwm, and in looking up the literature
previous to publication it was found that much confusion
existed in regard to the early nomenclature of the group. Few,
if any, authors have recognized the fact that the suilline genus
Eintelodon (Ann. Soc. d Agric., Sci., ete., du Puy, vol. xii, 1846)
is prior in date to Hlotherium (Bull. Soc. Géol. France (2),
vol. iv, 1847), Aymard’s paper on the former being almost
invariably quoted as 1848. Before Professor Marsh’s article
was printed no data were obtained of sufficient accuracy to
warrant the adoption of Hntelodon, yet facts were subsequently
acquired proving that Alothercum should be assigned a second

lace.

Through the courtesy of Baron de Vinols, President of the.
Society of Agriculture, Science, etc., at Puy, and recently of M.
Leopold Delisle, General Administrator of the National Library
of Paris, it has been learned that Vol. XII of the Annals of
the Puy Society, containmg Aymard’s paper, was printed by
Gaudelet at Puy, in 1846. In his letter on this subject,
Baron de Vinols states: “Ce quia pu faire confondre la date
de 1846 avec celle de 1848 c’est que cette derniere date est sur
144-150 were printed in 1845. Plates 1 and II published with Part III are
general and are dated 1845.

The facts given in a note by W. H. Brown (Woodward and Sherborn’s

Catalogue of British Fossil Vertebrata, London, 1890, p. xxix) do not coin-
cide with those here stated.

Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourts Series, Vou. XVI, No. 91.—Juty, 1903.
7

98 LBush—Dates of Publication of Fossil Vertebrates.

la couverture extérieure du livre et la date de 1846 est dans
Pintérieur.”

In the library of the Yale University Museum, there is a
pertect reprint of Aymard’s original article (pp. 1-45), also
printed by Gaudelet at Puy. On the title page of this extract
the year 1848 appears, indicating that separate copies were not
published until two years later than the volume of Annals con-
taining the original description of Antelodon.

Two species, Antelodon magnus and EF. Ronzonii, are
defined by Aymard in his original paper; the former is
regarded as the type, and is figured in the plate (figures 1-4)
accompanying the article.

Bothriodon, Ancodus, and Hyopotamus.

Bothriodon Aymard, 1846, Ann. Soc. d’Agric., Sci., Arts et Commerce du
Puy, tome xii, pp. 239, 246 (note). Reprint, pp. 15, 22 (footnote), 1848.

Ancodus Pomel, 1847, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat,, Genéve, tome v, p. 207.

Hyopotamus Owen, 1848, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. iv, p.
104, pls. vii, viii.

The argument relating to the genus /ntelodon likewise
applies to the name Lothriodon, the latter having been pro-
posed by Aymard in Vol. XII of the Annals of the Society at
Puy, in 1846. In regard to the genera Ancodus and [Hyopot-
amus Dr. O. P. Hay in his recent Bibliography and Cata-
logue of the Fossil Vertebrata of North America (Bull. U.S.
Geol. Sury., No. 179, p. 652, 1902) states that Ancodus ante-
dates [Tyopotamus. It will be seen, however, that Lothrio-
don has claim to priority over both the other genera.

In his original paper, Aymard proposes two species of Both-
riodon, which he regarded as a subgenus: “Tune, d@ museau
tres lurge {botriodon platorynchus|; Pautre, a museau étrott
[bot. leptorynchus|.’ He further states: “Il y en a une troi-
sieme beaucoup plus petite, qui pourra conserver le nom de
velaunus, imposé par Cuvier a l’espece type.”

The data here presented led Professor Marsh to adopt the
use of the generic names Cardiodon (Cetiosaurus),* ntelo-
don (Elotherium),+ and Bothriodon (Ancodus, Hyopotamus),
although the last term has not his sanction through publication.

Paleontological Laboratory, Yale University Museum, June 1, 1903.

* This Journal (3), vol, i, p. 496, December, 1895 ; The Dinosaurs of North
America, 16th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 242, 1896.

+ Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia, vol. viii, p. 498, fig. 47, 1895 ; Verte-
brate Fossils of the Denver Basin, Mon. U. 8S. Geol. Surv., vol. xxvii, pp.
522, 528 (fig. 97), p. 548, and pl. xxx, 1897.

Chemistry and Physics. 99

SORE NErh1 Cc INTHELTG ENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

1. The Spinthariscope.—In connection with a discussion of

certain properties of radium emanations, Sir WILLIAM CROOKES
describes a striking phenomenon produced upon the zine sulphide
screen by the heavier, non-deflectable, positive atoms emitted by
radium. He says: “If a solid piece of radium nitrate is brought
near the screen, and the surface examined with a pocket lens
magnifying about 20 diameters, scintillating spots are seen to be
sparsely scattered over the surface. On bringing the radium
nearer the screen the scintillations become more numerous and
brighter, until when close together the flashes follow each other
so quickly that the surface looks like a turbulent, luminous sea.
It seems probable that in these phenomena we are actually wit-
nessing the bombardment of the screen by the positive atoms
hurled off by radium with a velocity of the order of that of light :
each scintillation rendering visible an impact on the screen, and
becoming apparent only by the enormous extent of lateral dis-
turbance produced by its impact. Just as individual drops of
rain falling on a still pool are not seen as such, but by reason of
the splash they make on impact and the waves they produce in
ever widening circles.”
_ The spinthariscope, devised for observing this phenomenon,
consists of a brass tube with a blende screen at one end of it
which has a speck of radium salt in front of it and about a milli-
meter off, and a lens at the other end which can be accurately
focussed upon the screen.— Chem. News, |xxxvli, 241. H.-L. w.

2. Properties of Sodium Sulphate Solutions.—It is well known
that sodium sulphate with ten molecules of water of erystalliza-
tion is deposited from solutions below 32°38°, while the anhydrous
compound is formed at higher temperatures. No evidence has
beén obtained heretofore that water combines with sodium sul-
phate while the latter is in solution. Maris and Maratis have,
therefore, undertaken the investigation of this question by a new
method. They determined the solubility of sodium chloride in a
given solution of sodium sulphate at temperatures varying from
14°8° to 34:28°. It was expected that a sudden change in the
solubility would occur if at some point the sodium sulphate mole-
cules formed a combination with water. No such sudden change
was observed, for the results when plotted gave a perfectly regu-
lar curve. Consequently, there is no reason for supposing that
the salt with ten molecules of water exists in solution.— Comptes
Rendus, cxxxvi, 684. Hi hs We

3. Radio-active Lead.—About two years ago Hofmann and
Strauss announced the preparation of radio-active salts from the
lead obtained by the usual chemical methods from various min-
erals containing uranium and thorium. Hormann and WOLFL

100 Scientific sbi ae.

have recently described further investigations in regard to fin
matter. ‘They are convinced that this substance is an independ-
ent radio-active principle, and that it is distinct and separable
from ordinary lead, although standing close to that metal in its
chemical properties. The interesting fact was observed that
solutions of radio-active lead are capable of inducing very great
activity in metals which are placed for a long time in contact
with them, but upon which they exert no chemical action, for
instance platinum, gold and silver palladium, and particularly
iridium. The metals remain perfectly bright under these cireum-
stances ; the activity, which is often greater than that of the
original substances, is not removed by washing with water or by
rubbing with paper, but it is quickly lost by ignition in most
cases. The theory is advanced that the a radiation (the less pen-
etrating kind, following Rutherford’s designation) is a finely-
divided kind of matter the particles of which, like hydrogen, are
occluded by metals.— Berichte, xxxvi, 1040. H. L. W.

4. Colloidal Silver.—Some observations upon Carey Lea’s col-
loidal silver have been made recently by Hanriot. The work
was done with a commercial form of the substance which is sold
in France as a therapeutic agent under the name of collargol, and
which corresponds to Lea’s first modification of colloidal silver.
It was found that solutions of this substance, upon being sub-
mitted to electrolysis, deposit silver upon the positive electrode,
whereas metals are deposited from solutions of their salts upon
the opposite pole. This and other properties of the solutions
have led this investigator to the conclusion that colloidal silver
is the salt of an acid to which he gives the name “collargolic
acid.” This acid is evidently composed largely of silver, and it
is energetic enough to displace carbonic acid. The black deposit
upon the positive electrode which has been taken for silver is not
ordinary silver but collargolic acid, for, while it is insoluble in
water, it dissolves in alkalies and alkaline carbonates, forming red
solutions. The author believes that this acid is combined with
ammonia in the original substance, and he proposes to make a
further study of the matter.— Comptes Rendus, cxxxvi, 690.

H. L, W.

5. The LIodides of Caesiwm.—The iodides CsI, and CsI, were
described by Wells and Wheeler in this Journal in 1892. H. W.
Foor of the Sheffield Scientific School, using theoretical consid-
erations which are mainly based upon the phase- -rule of Gibbs,
and employing chiefly solubility determinations, has found that
the periodides mentioned are the only ones existing between
—4° and 73°. The method employed appears to be novel in its
application, and it will doubtless be very useful when applied to
the study of other complex compounds, particularly of double-
salts.— Amer. Chem. Jour., xxix, 203. H, i. W.

6. Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis; by
ALEXANDER CuaAssEN. ‘Translated, revised, and enlarged by
Bertram B. Botrwoop. 8vo, pp. 315. New York 1903

Geology and Natural History. 101

(John Wiley & Sons).—In preparing the fourth English edition of
this well-known and valuable book, the translator has made
important additions to the last German edition by making use of
Classen’s “ Ausgewihlte Methoden der Analytischen Chemie”
and other recent publications. The book, containing, as it does,
the most recent methods, improved illustrations, and full refer-
ences to the literature of the subject, is to be highly recommended
to those who are interested in this branch of analytical chemistry.
H. L. W.

7. Chemisches Praktikum ; von Dr. A. WotFrRum. II Theil,
Praparative und Fabrikatorische Uebungen, 12mo, pp. 580; mit
einem Atlas (4to, pp. 156 and 11 plates). Leipsic 1903 (Wilhelm
Engelmann).—The first volume of this excellent work was noticed
in vol. xiv of this Journal. The present part deals with a large
variety of chemical preparations, and the plan of giving the
student a knowledge of factory operations is well carried out.
The atlas contains a large number of interesting cuts, chiefly of
apparatus used in chemical manufacturing. HC raWe

II. Grotoey anp Naturau HiIsrory.

1. United States Geological Survey.—The following publica-
tions have recently been received :

Buitetrixs No. 213.— Contributions to Economic Geology,
1902. _ 8. EF. Emmons, C. W. Hayes, Geologist in Charge.
This bulletin was prepared in order to secure a prompt publi-
cation of the economic results of recent investigations by the
United States Geological Survey. The volume is divided into
two main divisions, one under the editorship of Mr. Emmons
treating of metalliferous mineral deposits and the other under the
editorship of Mr. Hayes of the occurrence of nonmetalliferous
economic minerals. It includes some 61 different contributions
from 33 members of the Survey. The papers represent three
classes: (1) Preliminary discussions of the results of extended
economic investigations which will later be published in more
detailed form ; (2) Comparatively detailed descriptions of occur-
rences of economic interest but not of sufficient importance to
necessitate a later and more extended description; (3) Abstracts
of certain economic papers of a general nature which have
appeared in Survey publications during the year. W. E. F.

Ox Ricus Foxio, South Dakota, Nebraska; by N. H. Darron.— -
The Oelrichs quadrangle covers an area on the eastern edge of the
Black Hills and contains features of the Black Hills proper, of
the hogback rim and of the great plains. The sedimentary
record deals with strata from late Carboniferous to recent. The
simplicity of geologic structure exhibited in this region makes
the folio of great educational value. |

Water Suppty anp IrRicaTion Papers: No. 73.:—Water
parse on Salt River, Arizona; by A. P. Davis. 52 pp., 25 pls.,
4 igs. é

102 Scientific Intelligence.

No, 75.—Report of Progress of Stream Measurements, 1901 ;
by &. H. NewExu. 231 pp., 13 pls... 7 figs.

No. 76.—Observations on the Flow of Rivers in the Vicinity of
New York City; by H. A. Presszy. 104 pp., 13 pls., 8 figs.

2. New York State Museum. Butwuerin No. 56 (Geology 5).—
Description of the State Geologic Map of 1901; by F. J. H.
Merritt. 34 pp. An account of geologic mapping in New
York State from 1820 to 1900 and the authorities for the map of
1901 are given. In the map itself a distinct advance is made
over the Preliminary Geological Map of New York published
in 1894, by the addition of topographical facts furnished by the
folio sheets of the United States Geological Survey, and by the
discrimination of boundaries, developed since that date. A list of
thirty-three contributing geologists is given whose detailed work
in the several counties of the State has been incorporated in the
revised map.

The chief areas in which changes appear are the Pleistocene
geology of Long Island, the igneous and pre-Cambrian geology
east of the Hudson and about the Adirondacks, the Lower Paleo-
zoics of the latter region and the Devonian of the central and
southern portion of the State. The map is drawn on the same
scale as the 1894 map, viz: 23 miles to the inch.

Some confusion still exists in the mapping of the Devonian
formations. The Catskill-Chemung boundary of the eastern part
of the State is evidently drawn on the theory that its lower base
is at a relatively higher stratigraphic position on passing west-
ward, while the corresponding upper limits of the underlying
rocks are at relatively higher horizons passing in the same direc-
tion. This is not a case of unconformity, but of change in the
character of the sediments similar to the changes occurring in the
Niagara, which is more calcareous to the westward, and the
Lower Helderberg limestone, which as a limestone is confined
mainly to the eastern half of the State. In other cases (viz: the
Genesee shale, the Tuliy limestone, the Onondaga limestone, etc.)
a similar fact 1s expressed by narrowing out the line of outcrop
to nothing or nearly nothing. These are strictly expressive of
distribution of formations, the definition of formation being
based on uniformity of lithologic characters. In the case of the
Portage, Ithaca and Oneonta formations, an attempt is made to
express differences in the fossil contents of formations occupying
the same stratigraphic interval. The confusion in this case arises
from the attempt to express two kinds of facts (distribution of
faunas and distribution of formations) with a single set of sym-
bols. Thus when the Portage and Ithaca formations are repre-
sented by an abrupt change in the color scheme, between Cayuga
and Seneca Lakes, the fact that the boundaries of the formations
are continuous shows that the change is not in the formations but
in the fossils.

Although the writer is well aware of the important facts here
indicated, he continues to believe that no advantage will be

Geology and Natural History. 103

gained by confusing on a geological map the distribution of fossil
faunas with the distribution of geological formations which the
map purports to represent.

In the text accompanying the map the State eeologist has con-
tributed an interesting and valuable detailed exhibit of the his-
torical development of the nomenclature of the New York State
geology. Among other things suggested by its examination is
the real significance and natur alness of the subdivisions proposed
by Mather in his report of 1840. The Catskill, Helderberg,
Ontario, and Champlain series express natural divisions of the
New York system, which is in great measure lost sight of in the
later attempts to adjust the classification to the European scheme.
As the details of our geology are developed, the grander episodes
in the sedimentation of each geological basin should be empha-
sized rather than warped to fit any universal scheme of classifica-
tion. A correct representation of the facts is far more important
than uniformity of classification or nomenclature. H. Ss. W.

3. Geological Survey of New Jersey, Henry B. KtuMet,
State Geologist ; Report on Paleontology, vol. 111. The Paleo-
zoic Faunas ; by StuaRT WELLER, 462 pp., 53 pls.—Professor
Weller has presented a clear and concise account of a section of
the Paleozoic in the State next adjoining New York which pre-
sents many features quite distinct from that long-time standard.

The sections fall into three quite distinct groupings in the three
areas of the Delaware Valley, Kittatinny Valley and Green Pond
Mountain region. in the first the Cambrian and Ordovician are
-wanting—the Silurian and Devonian having full complement of
formations. ‘The reverse is the case in the second area, and the
Ordovician and much of the Silurian and Devonian are. missing
in the third.

The Hardyston quartzite holds the Olenellus fauna. The Kit-
tatinny limestone, 2700 to 3000 feet in thickness, has a fauna
resembling the Upper Cambrian fauna of Minnesota and Wiscon-
sin and in its upper part carries Ordovician species. The Trenton
limestone carries a Black River fauna below and pure Trenton
fauna above ; but not the highest fauna of the New York sec-
tion: it is 135 to 300 feet thick and runs up gradually into a
typical Hudson River slate. The Norman’s Kill shale fauna
appears near the base of the Hudson River. The Shawangunk
conglomerate lies unconformably upon the latter, and reaches a
thickness of 1500 to 1600 feet. Above this is the Medina.(Long-
wood) sandstone, over 2300 feet thick. These are supposed to
represent the Oneida and Medina of New York, though no fossils
have beenseen. Then follow, in the Delaware V alley, the Poxino
Island shale, the Bossardville ‘limestone, Decker Ferry formation,
Rondout formation, and the Manlius limestone. ‘The Decker
Ferry formation is “correlated directly with the Coralline lime-
stone of New York. The Rondout contains almost exclusively
Leperditia, and Leperditia alta is in both it and the following
Manlius, which is the Spirifer vanuxemi zone.

104 Scientific Intelligence.

The Coeman’s limestone contains the Gypidula galeata fauna
and is placed as the first of the Devonian formations. It is fol-
lowed by the New Scotland, Stormville, Becraft, Kingston, Oris-
kany, Esopus and Onondaga limestone. We note that the author
concludes that “‘a careful study of the Helderberg and Oriskany
faunas of New Jersey has brought out conspicuously the absence
of any sharp dividing line between these two horizons either of a
stratigraphic or of a faunal nature ” (p. 96).

The Newfoundland grit, which follows in the Green Pond
Mountain region, contains a fauna essentially that of the Onon-
daga limestone, without the mixture of Oriskany species, which
was stated erroneously to be the case in the preliminary report.
The Monroe shales (700 to 1000 feet thick), as well as the follow-
ing Bellevale flags (1800 feet), contain the Tropidoleptus carinatus
fauna with no admixture of Chemung species.

The Skunnemunk conglomerate alternating with red sandstone
follows without observed fossils and terminates the Paleozoic
series of the State. A considerable number of new species are
described. Il. S. W.

4, Maryland Geological Survey: Wm. Buttock CiarK, State
Geologist: VotumeE IV, 1902, 524 pp., 34 figs., 49 pls., including
Part I, Paleozoic Appalachia, or the history of Maryland during
Paleozoic time, by BaitEy WILLIs (pp. 238-91). Part II, Second
Report of the Highways of Maryland, by Harry Fretpine ReErp
and A. N. JoHNSON (pp. 95-179). Part III, Report on the Clays
of Maryland, by Henprick Rigs (pp. 203-503).

Ceci, Country, 322 pp., 24 figs., 30 pls., and Atlas including
chapters on the physical features, the physiography, the geology,
the mineral resources, the soils, the climate, the hydrography, the
magnetic declination and the forests: of Cecil county, each one
prepared by scientific experts.

GARRETT County, 340 pp., 13 figs., 26 pls., and Atlas. This
Report gives full details regarding the special physical and geo-
logical features as is the case of Cecil county.

In the first volumes there are combined an interesting discus-
sion of the changes the underground basis of the State has sup-
posedly undergone in past geological time which must stand ona
highly theoretical basis, with the thoroughly practical and eco-
nomic problems connected with modern roads and the brick indus-
try. The county reports are made as attractive and interesting as
scientific reports can be made by applying the skill of experts to
the interpretation of each section of the physical phenomena
examined, treating each subject so as both to bring out the new
scientific facts and to artistically explain them ; and, throughout,
the State geologist has succeeded in weaving into his reports
those practical qualities which are so highly appreciated by the
general public for whom they are primarily prepared. 4H. Ss. W.

5. Geography and Geology of Minnesota. Volume I. Geog-
raphy of Minnesota; by C. W. Harz. 287 pp., 5 pls., 163 figs.
Minneapolis (The H. W. Wilson Company).—The natural fea-
tures of Minnesota are so varied as to illustrate nearly every

Geology and Natural History. 105

elementary principle of Physiography, and Professor Hall has
done his state a service in calling attention to its wealth of
natural scenery. Explanations of the peculiar drainage systems
and numerous lakes are particularly interesting.

6. Plumasite, an oligoclase-corundum rock near Spanish Peak,
Cal.; by A.C. Lawson. Bull. Geol. Dept. Univ. Cal., vol. 3,
No. 8, 1903, pp. 219-229.—The author comments on discoveries
made during recent years, which show that corundum is a not
uncommon constituent of igneous rocks, and then describes an
occurrence in which it is an essential constituent of the rock of a
dike cutting a belt of peridotite on the lower east flank of Spanish
Peak in the Sierra Nevada. The dike is about 15 feet wide com-
posed of a white rock made up of feldspar, which varies from
coarse to fine and which was determined to be oligoclase. In
places this is found to carry considerable corundum in imperfectly
formed violet-blue crystals. In the specimens examined the
corundum made up 16 per cent of the rock, the remainder being
oligoclase. For this type the name of plumasite is proposed
from Plumas Co., Cal., in which it occurs.

An investigation of the peridotite was made and the results of
this are also given. lbp Wo IB!

7. An Experimental Garden in Cuba.—Three years ago, Mr.
E. F. Arxins, of Boston, who has extensive interests in Cuba,
placed at the disposal of the Botanic Garden of Harvard Uni-
versity such land, labor, materials, and money, as might be
required for a smail experimental station for the study of certain
tropical plants in their economic relations, especially with the
view to improvement in their yield and quality. Arrangements
were completed by which the more important tropical ‘plants
adapted to the climate of southern Cuba, were obtained in abund-
ance both as regards number and variety. <A large collection of
Sugar-canes was secured from a very wide geographical range,
and these were placed at once under conditions favorable for
attempts at crossing. It is well known that almost all varieties
of sugar-cane, now in cultivation, bear only very imperfect flowers
which are practically incapable of impregnation without artificial
aid. ‘The interesting experiments in Java and elsewhere have
shown that by intervention at the right time, it is possible in
some cases to secure good seed sparingly, and from these few
seeds to obtain varieties which are decidedly promising as regards
content of sugar, vigor of growth, and resistance to hurtful influ-
ences. The aid of Mr. R. M. Grey, the well known hybridizer,
was secured for this work upon cane, and he had access to all the
varieties in stock. One very successful result was the production
of a strong variety which encourages to further effort. Some
doubt was felt at first whether the climatic conditions in Cuba
were favorable for the early stages of crossing, but these doubts
have been largely dissipated by even the moderate success which
Mr. Grey obtained. A good many of his seedlings were not
properly cared for by one of the station hands, and were lost
shortly after Mr. Grey returned north.

106 Scientific Intelligence.

Last year it was decided to obtain from Mexico a good supply
of the economic plants most favorably known in that country,
and to cultivate them in the grounds of the station. The man-
agement was so fortunate as to obtain the services of Mr. C. G.
Pringle, the botanical collector, who is thoroughly conversant
with the most desirable sources of Mexican supply. His work
was exhaustive and thoroughly satisfactory im every respect.
The plants were shipped directly across the Gulf, and were
received in good condition. The collection now at the Station is
ample for a wide series of crosses and selections.

Among the plants which had appeared to be desirable for
extensive experiments was cotton in its different varieties. It
soon became apparent, however, that this plant is confronted in
Cuba by its most implacable enemy, the cotton-ball worm. From
all the experiments upon this plant at the Station, it is plain that
large plantings in the island are sure to be attended with the
most complete failure until means can be devised to check the
mischief done by this insect. G. L. G.

Ill. MiscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. O.H. Tirrman,
Superintendent, Annual Report 1902. 787 pp., 68 plates and
maps.—The details of the Coast Survey work from July 1, 1901,
to June 30, 1902, show gratifying progress in all its branches.
The progress of the work in the Philippine Islands is especially
noticeable. In addition to reports on the regular work of the
Survey, there are two appendices of timely value: one by W. D.
Alexander on Hawaiian Geographic Names (pp. 373-424), the
other by J. Howard Gore on a Bibliography of Geodesy (second
edition).

2. National Bureau of Standards.—In Circular of Informa-
tion, No. 3, 8S. W. Srratron, Director, explains the present facili-
ties for comparison of standards. Comparison may now be made
of length and capacity measures, weights, polariscopic apparatus,
hydrometers, thermometers, photometric standards, and electrical
instruments.

3. Lhe Scientific Writings of George Francis Fitzgerald.
Edited by JoserH Larmor, xlv+569 pp. London (Longmans,
Green & Co.).—In making a collection of Professor Fitzgerald’s
writings “an endeavor has been made to include everything sub-
stantial of a scientific character that he wrote.” One hundred
and eight essays are here reproduced and the editor has added a
biographical and historical introduction.

OBITUARY.

ProFessor J, PETER LESLEY, the eminent geologist, whose life-
long labors contributed so much to our knowledge of the Penn-
sylvania Coal-measures and of the structure of the Appalachians
in general, died at Milton, Mass., on June 1, aged eighty-three
years.

THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[FOURTH SERIES.]

Art. XI.—The Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion. (Second
Paper); by Reetnatp A. Daty.

(By permission of the Director of the Geological Survey of Canada.)

CONTENTS :

LESBOS <a 8 SE BE a ga a ee ee pe ane aay Seepera A een 107

Origin and Suspension of Basic Segregations—Bearing on Doctrine of
Liquidity of Plutonic Magmas..-.-.- -- pat SURE enh) 3a ee 108
wie umandimeliutonic Contacts. <i 09-4. och eelk doo sceicie eee eei oc as 110
DreeZone Ora pOPMN SES, o24s26 ook ete 2. ees ccc hlk. ee eec. ala)
Meroe Or melusions 5 its Origim .2 2 Us 7 sse0 5 422. s 2. ee 2t atsiit
Shattering by differential thermal expansion -_-.---.....------ 112
Hxfoliation at plutonic molar contacts .....--------+------ 114
Illustration from the Madoc-Marmora District of Ontario....-..------ 17,
Illustration from the Geological Structure near Trail, British Columbia. 119
Sunouiyio; the hoofs of Magma Chambers-..-..2-.0---2...-. +--+ -- 125

LIntroduction.—In a recent number of this Journal* the
writer has presented some of the facts upon which has been
based a hypothesis on the development of the larger magma-
chambers now occupied by plutonic rocks. There was entailed
in the working out of that hypothesis a brief treatment of a
necessary corollary—abyssal assimilation of the formation
invaded by stock or batholith. The hypothesis was stated in
general terms, without a full discussion of some of the funda-
mental pestulates and conclusions and without detailed refer-
ence to individual areas. In Bulletin 209 of the United States
Geological Survey the application of the hypothesis to a rather
complex group of stocks occurring in and about Mt. Ascutney,
Vermont, has been made, and some degree of assurance
attained that this view of intrusion is there of greater value in
explanation than are the older theories of intrusion mechanism.

_ * This Journal, vol. xv, p. 269, April, 1903.
Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH SERIES, VoL. XVI, No. 92.—Aveust, 1903.
8

108 Rk. A. Daly—Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion.

In the present communication certain other concrete illustra-
tions will be offered along with additional discussion of some
of the main premises on which the newer hypothesis is based.
Among these premises are: (1) the generally high fluidity of
igneous magmas during the time of active intrusion; (2) the
normally extensive shattermg of the invaded formations at
their contacts with plutonic magmas; and (8) the reality of
“overhead stoping” of the blocks so shattered and rifted off
from wall or roof of the chamber. Concerning the first and
last of these premises certain difficulties were hinted at or par-
tially discussed in the former paper, but their importance
demands that further attention be paid to them. A note ona
particular point referring to the first-mentioned premise may
well anticipate the larger division of this paper, which will
have to do primarily with contact-shattermg in general and
with the testimony of several Canadian intrusive bodies as to
the validity of the rifting and stoping hypothesis.

The origin and suspension of basic segregations : bearing
on the doctrine of the liquidity of plutonic magmas.—At first
sight, the common occurrence of basic segregations freely sus-
pended in their rock-matrix always less dense than themselves
seems in one way to militate against the idea of high fluidity
in igneous magmas. It is true that the mere fact of that par-
ticular kind of differentiation calls for the assumption of no
inconsiderable degree of mobility in the igneous mass; but the
question arises as to how that substance now represented by
heavy minerals could be segregated and held up in a less dense
matrix possessing such liquidity. That segregations have been
so suspended seems clear in the average field occurrence. The
question raises a second one as to the relative densities of
molten segregation and molten matrix. If it can be shown
that in the fwd state, matrix and segregation are nearly of the
same density, the difficulty disappears and therewith the objec-
tion to the theory of high liquidity.

While the variations in thermal expansion of the common
plutonic rocks are confined to narrow limits, the experiments
so far made on the volumetric increase observed in the passage
of single crystalline minerals to the glassy condition (at room
temperature) appear to show that the law of even approxi-
mately constant ratio of expansion in rock-forming minerals
does not hold. The following table taken from Zirkel’s Lehr-
buch der Petrographie (1893, vol. i, p. 681) synopsizes the
results of Deville, Thoulet and others. The percentage
decrease in density suffered by the minerals investigated when
these pass from the crystalline state to that of cold glass is as
follows:

R. A. Daly—Mechanies of Igneous Intrusion. 109

yarn yet ee eee st LES o:g
Bbiiaine et Sel) eye eh ra et, 16°30
sAueite_. 22... avicy ae es iL 14°18
Flormolende 2 sae 5sn) a ee 12513
Minoroclase: sh <./2.4 2. sl eee oe oe, BB
Wnenoclase) 3.2 2 ee 10°21
WMierocline 222. Soe Be eae 9°15
Pulaieeeeee fee yo. | Oa ee 7°96
SHERRI LGV e) A IS a ao 7°63
MabragOrte, sae 2 2 Yes 6°28

Barus has shown that, for silicates, the solidification contrac-
tion decreases in proportion as the thermal expansion decreases. *
Since the thermal expansion is in direct proportion to the
- decrease of density affecting a crystalline silicate passing to the
cold glassy state, it follows that the percentages of the table
are in nearly constant ratio to the percentage decreases of
density affecting the respective glasses when fused to a thor-
oughly molten condition. According to Barus, diabase loses 10
per cent in density in passing from rock at 20° C. to glass at 20° C.
and its glass loses 7-2 per cent in density in passing from 20° C.
to 1400° C., at which temperature it is very fluid. It is highly
probable, therefore, that olivine glass would lose in density

something like 7:2 x on = 11-7 per cent in assuming the
same temperature of 1406° C. The net result on that assump-
tion would be to give Fogo olivine, for example (spec. grav.,
3°381) a specific gravity of about 2°50 at 1400° C. The spe-
cific gravity of gabbro at 20° C. becomes, when molten at
1400° C., changed to the following values :+

Spec. grav. at 20° C. Spec. grav. at 1400° C.
Holocrystalline gabbro. Molten glass.
2°90 2°42
3°00 2°51
3°10 2°59

Assuming the approximate correctness of these figures, it is
possible to credit the flotation of molten globules of the oli-
vine substance in a highly fluid gabbro or basalt. The rock-
matrix would crystallize before the segregation or, at least,
would have attained an antecedent viscosity great enough to
support the more dense, because crystallizing, olivine. The
foregoing reasoning leads to the suggestion for actual experi-
mentation with olivine similar to that so successfully carried
out for diabase by Barus. Without such fusion tests it is not

* Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 103, p. 48, 1898.
+ This Journal, April, 1903, p. 277.

110) Rk. A. Daly— Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion.

possible to tread on sure theoretical ground in dealing with the
origin of olivine nodules in basalt, much less in accounting for
the more important basic segregations of granites, syenites,
etc. It is noteworthy that, besides olivine, augite, hornblende
and oligoclase appear to have unusually high coefficients of
cubical expansion, and that these minerals are among the com-
moner constituents of segregations in granites and syenites.
The highly important constituent, biotite, has not been, per-
haps cannot be, directly investigated in this regard. In the
absence of experimental data, the further discussion of basic
nodules in the present connection cannot afford very fruitful
conclusions. All that seems certain is that the existence of
basic segregations does not disprove a high degree of fluidity
for plutonic magmas.

Shattering at plutonic contacts.

Among the commonest phenomena associated with the con-
tact-zones of plutonic, igneous rock-bodies (bosses, stocks and
batholiths) is that of extensive shattering and disruption of the
invaded formations along the contacts. A host of memoirs on
exotic granite, syenite, diorite, gabbro and other deep-seated
rock-masses contain references to this particular phenomenon.
It consists, in its ideal development, of the appearance of two
concentric zones of mixed rock occurring between the homo-
genous main body of igneous material and the encircling
country-rock unaffected by any serious mechanical disturbance
due to the intrusion. Both zones lie parallel to the average
line of contact between the intrusive and the country-rock.

The Lone of Apophyses.—The belt more remote from the
intrusive body is generally much the broader of the two and
consists of country-rock intersected by more or less numerous
apophyses from the main igneous mass. These dikes and
sheets are often seen to radiate outward in directions roughly
normal to the average line of contact ; but others running at all
angles to the contact are usually associated. The whole group
of apophyses has often thus a reticulate ground-plan and a
reticulate vertical section. The portions of the invaded for-
mation bounded by the apophyses are not essentially disturbed
from the relative positions they occupied before the intrusion
took place. This belt may be called ‘‘the zone of apophyses.”
According to the prevailing views among geologists, the zone
owes its origin to a mechanical process of relative simplicity,
namely, the injection of the molten magma forced by great
pressure into all accessible planes of weakness within the invaded
formation. The force may be hydrostatic, due to the weight
of the chamber-roof or of part of that roof; or, among other

R. A. Daly—Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion. 111

causes, the energy may be derived from the necessary expan-
sion of volume suffered by the digestion of solid country-rock
by the magma.* The development of the fissures now filled
with apophysal material may, however, be powerfully aided
by a third cause that controls as well the formation of the
other of the two zones noted above. It may be believed that
a common disrupting force has affected both zones; a brief
description of the second zone may anticipate the analysis of
the conditions which demand the energetic working of that
force.

The Zone of Inclusions ; its origin.—The second zone is
composed of igneous rock enclosing blocks of the country-rock.
As the apophyses, breaking the continuity of the invaded for-
mation, vary enormously in number within the outer zone, so
the blocks, breaking the continuity of the igneous body, show
the greatest variation in the degree of their abundance. ‘This
“zone of inclusions” varies in width from a few meters to
three kilometers or more. The blocks, unless very close
together and possessing thoroughly massive structure them-
selves, usually show clear evidence of having been shifted out
of their former relative positions in the invaded formation, so
that their original orientation is completely lost. There are
transitions to the outer zone through the gradual increase in
the number of blocks left undisturbed from their original
_ orientation ; and there is, of course, no easily fixed boundary
between the zone of inclusions and the main intrusive body in
which country-rock inclusions are normally absent or very rare.
The inner boundary of the zone of inclusions is often difficult
to determine in the case of stock or batholith so exposed to
view by denudation as to furnish a land-surface close to the
former roof of the magma-chamber.

Whatever be the causes of the disruption of blocks now
found in the zone of inclusions, those causes are directly con-
nected with the intrusive body itself and are thus not external.
The zone is, for example, not due in the normal case to the
injection of magma into rock coarsely brecciated by regional
dynamic movements in the earth’s crust. Movements of that
sort tend generally to brecciate rock along straight or open-
eurve lines and would not necessarily follow the complex,
sinuous, closed-curve line of contact such as belongs to a plu-
tonic body. There is certainly, on the other hand, a genetic
relation between the zone of inclusions and the replacement of
the country-rock by great bodies of intruded magma almost or
quite free of foreign fragments. Many authors speak of the
ielusions as having been “torn off” or “carried up” by the

* This Journal, April, 1903, p. 289.

112 «Rk. A. Daly—Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion.

ascending magma, without, however, showing the possibility of
such a process when correlated with the apparently demon-
strated fact of the high liquidity of plutonic magmas. On the
assumption of high lquidity at the moment of the immersion
of the blocks, they would, in the average case, not remain near
the molar contact,* but would sink into the depths of the
magma-chamber. It is further impossible to believe that any
kind of current action in the magma could carry on a sort of
erosion on the chamber-walls, a hypothesis which likewise
would fail to explain the constant relation of the zone of
inclusions to the molar contact.

Some of the blocks within the zone of inclusions have
unquestionably been floated out or sunk from the molar contact
after those portions of the country-rock have been completely
surrounded by magma of the main body and of anastomosing
apophyses. But there are reasons for concluding that apoph-
yses of an abundance, matching the countless inclusions of
many internal contact-belts, were not formed simply by reason
of hydrostatic pressure forcing magma into original cracks or
fissures in the country-rock. The conditions reigning at the
contact imply the exhibition of a different source of energy—
one which many geologists have incidentally credited with the
shattering effect. A clear, positive statement of the case has
been given by Crosby in his monograph on the Blue Hills
Complex.t The subject is of importance and merits much
more discussion than can be brought into the few pages.of this
paper ; it is, moreover, a difficult subject, largely on account of
the existing lack of experimental data, and the following treat-
ment of it can lay claim to doing little more than open up the
problem and make the attack upon it in a qualitative manner.

Shattering by differential thermal expansion im the invaded
Jormation.—lIt is manifestly impossible to determine the exact
rise of temperature which will occur in a formation at the con-
tact with an invading magma. Both elements, the pre-eruption
temperature of the country-rock and the temperature of the
magma itself, are partly indeterminate. If the former be regu-
lated by the normal law of the vertical distribution of the
isogeotherms, that temperature will be about 200° C at a depth
_ of four miles below the earth’s surface—possibly a rather
liberally estimated average depth for the upper limit of a
granitic magina-chamber. If we assume that the temperature
of an intruding magma is approximately that at which the rock
resulting from its crystallization becomes thinly molten under
plutonic pressures (an assumption apparently justifiable from

*The main contact, that of igneous body mass against country-rock mass,

as distinguished from the minor contact of inclusion and intrusive rock.
+ Occasional Papers, Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., iv, 1900, p. 315.

R. A. Daly—Mechanies of Igneous Intrusion. 118

the known properties of lavas and notwithstanding the presence
of mineralizing agents), there should occur by conduction «at
the molar contact, a rise of temperature in the invaded forma-
tion, of something like 1000° C. That would mean a cubic
expansion in the solid rock of between 2°5 per cent and 3:0 per
cent, corresponding to a linear expansion of about 0-9 per cent.*
The force required to prevent that degree of expansion is equal
to the amount of pressure required to compress the rock by the
same amount. The coefficient of compressibility for ordinary
crystalline and well-cemented sedimentary rock is not far from
that of glass, viz.: about 00000025 per atmosphere of pressure.
Assuming that the thermal expansion should so occur that the
volumetric change would be exactly in the reverse sense of the
volumetric change observed during compression tests for solids,
and assuming that the just mentioned coefficient of compressi-
bility should apply at very high pressures, it follows that the
inconceivable pressure of more than one million atmospheres,
or about 8000 tons to the square inch, would be required to
prevent the expansion of rock raised 1000° C. in temperature.
However great the expansion transverse to the plane of the
molar contact may be, a large proportion of the force of
expansion must pass into the form of compressive strain, devel-
oping lines of force in the plane of the contact. If only one
per cent of the total force of expansion were applied in that
plane, the integrity of the rock must be destroyed, for the
crushing strength of rock is im no ease as much as fifteen tons
to the square inch.

Jt is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to imagine the
enormous and complicated stresses set up in this way.
Although the heat of the intrusion would be conducted out-
wards in all directions from the igneous body, the supposition
is reasonable that the temperature reigning only a few hundreds
of meters from the intrusive would be very much lower than
that at the contact. Differential expansion and consequent
intense shearing stresses far above the breaking strain of rock-
material might thus be produced. That action would be com-
plicated and intensified by the variable values of heat-conduc-
tion in the invaded formation which is always more or less
heterogeneous. The following table of relative values calcu-
lated from Everett’s “ Units and Physical Constants” (1879,
pp. 101 and 103) shows the importance of differential conduc-
tion in different rocks. For ease of comparison all the other
values are referred to the conductibility (taken as unity) of
calcareous sandstone.

* This Journal, April, 1903, p. 274.

1144. Rk. A. Daly—Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion.

Rock. Conductibility.
Caleareous sandstone’ 14-2 Sos be ee s) 108
Clay'slate ..! /cs Sou tye bie See 1°24
Slate, across cleavage... 2) S24 te a. ase 1°60
ALTAD . 60 oct BS, det eee ae ee 1:97
Micaceous flagstone, across cleavage _.-_.----. 2°09
Limestones, (mean) we. 526 35.225 e 2 a2 2 ee
Granites (mean) 22.5450 t. 2°51
Sandstones and hard grit (dry) .---------.---- 2°58
Sandstones and hard grit (wet) ----.---..--- 2°80
Slate, along cleavage 2) |. eee ee 2°84
Micaceous flagstone, along cleavage _._____-- 3°00
Sandstone of Craigleith quarry ..----------- 5°06

The table illustrates the well known fact that, in a rock-mass
possessing the plane-parallel structure, the rate of conduction
is widely different according as the heat passes along or across
the planes of schistosity or cleavage. Such differential conduc-
tion and consequent differential expansion may be held respon-
sible for the opening of fissures for the entrance of apophysal
igneous matter in spite of the general tendency of the expansion
to close preéxisting cavities in the country-rock. The apoph-
yses themselves by virtue of their own high temperature
must hasten the destructive action.

Part of the stress-energy set free might be added to that of
injection and expended in the minute crumpling of relatively
plastic bedded country-rock. Another portion is conceivably
expended in irregular and perhaps very complete shattering of
the rock, which by that action is relieved from the strains by
sudden rending and fracturing rather than by any form of
rock-flowage. Stilla third portion of the energy might become
potentialized as in Rupert’s drops, Bologna glasses or certain
slickensided rock surfaces,* and only finally expressed as a
shatter-force after sudden faulting or other shock in the coun-
try-rock had precipitated the destruction, repeating on a large
scale, the destruction of a Rupert’s drop.

Lixfolvation at plutonic molar contacts—The complexity of
these mighty interacting forces is such that the shattering pro-
duced by them cannot be referred to simple strain-categories.
Experiments and certain observations made in rock-quarries
seem to throw light on one of the more important and simpler
methods by which disruption of the country-rock may take
place. A short statement of the facts derived from each kind
of study will serve to place the question of the efficiency of
this process in a clearer light.

Reade has given so concise an account of his experiments on
the differential expansion of stone that his descriptions of cer-

* A. A. Julien, Jour. Franklin Inst., cxlvii, 1899, p. 382.

PR. A. Daly—Mechanies of Igneous Intrusion. 115

tain typical trials may be given in full. “A bar of fine hard
light brown sandstone, square-dressed to a smooth surface,
measuring between two fixed points 7°346 inches long at 61°
F., and roughly speaking 12 inch by 1 inch scantling, was -
placed with its ends resting flatways on two supports. The
flame of the blowpipe was brought to bear upon the upper sur-
face until it expanded to 7°385 inches. The stone was hot
enough to melt solder but not lead—perhaps 500° F. on the top
surface. As the blowpipe played upon the stone it became, in
places immediately under the flame, momentarily heated on
the surface to a bright red heat, and the sharp edges were
burnt off ; the stone became when cool of a darker brown, but
apparently was not otherwise altered by heat. The stone
arched upwards against gravity in a most remarkable manner
to the extent of 4 of an inch. A second heating brought it
up to not less than = inch, at which it took a permanent set.’’*
Bars of Sicilian white marble and of oolitic marble, about 14°5
inches in length, were similarly arched ;4 inch and permanently
distorted. A square slab of Sicilian marble 12 inches on the
side and # inch thick was placed upon two bars of slate. “It
was heated with a blowpipe on the upper surface. The flame
was rather small, and was kept mostly near the centre within
the circle of dotted lines (shown in Reade’s figure), but was
also moved about. The slab became very slightly convex.
Eventually it cracked..... The crack was the result of the
circumferential and radial expansion of the centre part of the
slab, within the dotted lines, and shows that a considerable
bursting strain was developed.” +

The conditions of differential heating in these experiments
are analogous to those found at intrusive contacts. The warp-
ing of the shell of country-rock immediately adjacent to the
molar contact must be of a higher order than in the case of the
stone slabs because of the fact that the shell is nowhere free to
expand in the plane of the heated surface. The warping would
not be interfered with by the pressure of the magma if the lat-
ter had access through opening fissures to the outer, cooler
surface of the shell. Such fissures would be formed along
original planes of fission roughly parallel to the contact, or
along shearing planes produced in the same _ position by
virtue of the differential expansion itself. With the intrusion
of this apophysal material and the more thorough heating of
the warped shell, expansion would be intensified, and, as has
been seen, a force would be developed vastly greater than the
strength of the rock could withstand. The bending or shear-
ing shell must finally collapse and become shattered into separ-

* Origin of Mountain Ranges, London, 1886, p. 22.
+ Ibid, p. 23.

116 Rh. A. Daly— Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion.

ate masses of solid rock now wholly or partially immersed in
the magma.

The process is thus one of exfoliation on a large scale. It is
comparable to the rifting action of heat on masonry and on
granitic masses “said to have been made a matter of quarr
utility in India. It is stated (Nature, January 17, 1895) that
a wood fire built upon the surface of the granite ledge and
pushed slowly forward causes the stone to rift out in sheets
six inches or so in thickness, and of almost any desired super-
ficial area. Slabs 60x40 feet in area, varying. not more than
half an inch from a uniform thickness throughout, have been
thus obtained. In one instance mentioned, the surface passed
over by the line of fire was 460 feet, setting free an area of
stone of 740 square feet of an average thickness of five inches.”*
Merrill gives a striking illustration of the exfoliation of granite
consequent on thermal expansion and general weathering of
the rock composing Stone Mt., Georgia.t. Again, the observa-
tions made by Niles in connection with operations in several
New England quarries corroborate the belief that the exfolia-
tion at plutonic igneous contacts must be well qualified to
shatter the invaded formations. Atagneiss quarry of Monson,
Mass., the rock is under notable stress due to local crustal com-
pression. A rough measure of the amount of that pressure is
found in the sudden visible expansion affecting great slabs of .
the gneiss which, in the quarrying process, are freed from their
beds. ‘In one mass of rock, 354 feet long, 11 feet wide and
3 feet thick, the amount of expansion after dislodgment was 14
inches up the slope of the hill. When the fracture by wedging
is suddenly and thoroughly made, the expansion takes place
immediately, and sometimes the expansive force itself completes
the desired work, the stone suddenly springing into the elon-
gated state. Spontaneous fractures also occur, of which one
was fully 4 inches wide. On removal of overlying beds, spon-
taneous upward bendings and swellings of the lower beds also
occur, most frequently in the thinner sheets, up to 4 feet in
thickness, with formation of miniature anticlinals. The amount
of elevation varies from + inch to 38 or 4 inches, even in a
single afternoon. Thespan of the arch thus formed is some-
times 50 feet, while some are only 3 feet broad; the crests
always trend in easterly and westerly directions, are sometimes
ruptured, and are evidently caused by expansive thrust in
northerly and southerly directions, since the edge of the sheet at
each base of the anticlinal arch remains so closely attached to the
underlying bed that no lateral slipping of this edge of the rock
could possibly have taken place.”{ Similar exfoliation and
arching of limestone is reported by Niles from Lemont, Ill.

*G. P. Merrill, Rocks, Rock-weathering and Soils. p. 182, New York, 1897.
+ Ibid, p. 245. t Julien, op. cit., p. 386.

R.A. Daly—Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion. 117

“ Tn one quarry, also, there was an elevation of a part of the
bed forming the floor. It was an anticlinal axis of more than
800 feet in length, and its trend was nearly east and west. In
its most conspicuous part the elevation was from 6 to 8 inches,
and the arch measured from 16 to 18 feet from base to base
over the crest.”*

Notwithstanding the spectacular nature of these sample
phenomena observed in different quarries, the forces engaged
in their production are almost insignificant compared with
those which must be produced in the shell of country-rock
concentric with the molar contact of a still molten stock or
batholith. The latter forces may be compared with the force
of compression which has so often developed peripheral cleav-
age and schistosity concentric with molar contacts of stocks and
batholiths ; but fracture is the necessary product of the one
kind of energy applied suddenly, as rock-flowage is the product
of the other applied slowly and for a much greater period of
time. 7

Differential heating of the invaded formation will, then,
through exfoliation and still more irregular shattering, cause
the mechanical destruction of the chamber-vault. If the
magma be thoroughly molten, the rock-fragments so immersed
in it, will, by the balance of probabilities for the average case,
sink in the magma. The new surface of the country-rock so
exposed to the hot magma must undergo a similar process.
The magma chamber may in this way be gradually enlarged
so long as the magma preserves sufficient heat for the purpose.
Near the time of final solidification the high viscosity must
prevent the sinking of the blocks which are last isolated in the
magma. The “zone of inclusions” and its organic relation to
the molar contact actually to be observed in plutonic rock-
bodies seem to find adequate explanation by this hypothesis.

Illustration from the Madoc-Marmora District of Ontario.

The best published example of a granite stock mapped with
the distinct purpose of illustrating a shatter-zone is doubtless
that due to the labors of Coste and White in the Madoc-Mar-
mora Mining District of Ontario.t A reduced copy of the
map is represented in fig. 1. The legend expresses practically
all the information yet printed in connection with the region
since the survey was made. Mr. Coste has kindly given the
writer certain additional statements on this interesting group
of granite bosses; the following quotations are taken from his
letter dealing with the matter. “ You are quite right in your

* Julien, op. cit., p. 391.

+ Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. of Canada, Special sheet; 1g mile to 1 inch,
published without text, 1886.

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eon Bird’s Eye and Black River Limestone ; Ordovician.

i epiatin n Intrusive granite.

(Gr. A.B.”) Granite enclosing fragments of Archean—Zone of
Inclusions.

(A.B. Gr.”) Archean altered by the granitic intrusion and cut
by many dikes—Zone of Apophyses.

HAT Archean ; chiefly crystalline limestone and cale schists.

Scale: 1: 126,720.

R. A. Daly—Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion. 119

understanding of the Madoc and Marmora District as a fine
example of contact-shattering by an eruptive. The zone on
¢

a: is preéminently a zone of apoph
ee Gy P y POR MYeess
these being very numerous, running in every direction, more

; “Gur
numerous than elsewhere (except in the zone A.B)

and being mostly fine-grained granite with little or no mica .
Both zones form decidedly a zone of strong shattering about
the intrusive, extending, to a less degree, beyond, all around it,
as shown by the separate granite masses and dikes marked
(and many not marked) on the map. ..... The typical
granite of that intrusion is a rock of medium-size grains of
reddish orthoclase and of round, blue quartz with a little mica,
but this passes into a great variety of other rocks.”

Mr. Coste holds that there has been some chemical modifica-
tion of the magma in the zone of inclusions by the ineorpora-
tion of the limestone and calcareous schists, but has given no
details on the evidence.

Owing to the overlap of the Ordovician limestone lying
uneonformably on both the Archean schists and the granite,
the whole story of the shattering cannot be made out at the
present land surface; yet the exposure of the shatter-zone is
nevertheless remarkably instructive. The general aspect of
the map, the breadth of the zones, the existence of patches of
the invaded formation lying isolated in the largest stock, and
the numerous smaller bosses which occur like satellites about
the main granite body—all lead to the conviction that the
present erosion-surface is close to the position occupied by the
roof of the chamber when the magma of the largest stock was
solidifying.

Illustration from the geological structure near Trail, British
Columbia.

The second illustration of extensive shattering at granite
contacts is selected from the many that might be described
from southern British Columbia. The selection has been made
not because the phenomena are qualitatively different from
those to be seen about other molar contacts in the region, but
for the twofold reason that the shatter-zone has here been act-
ually mapped and that the zone is wide enough to be sketched
on a map of small scale. The area concerned is shown in fig.
2. It is seen to lie between the town of Trail and the 49th
Parallel Boundary with the United States. It is only a few
miles east of Rossland and for the most part on the right bank of
the Columbia River. This little sketch-map is based on the
“Trail Sheet” issued by the Geological Survey of Canada

120 &. A. Daly—Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion.

Fig. 2.
Alkaline granite.

Tonalite-granite of Nelson Batholith.
Shatter-zone of Nelson Batholith.
Rossland Basic Stock.

Rossland Volcanic Series.

Older Volcanic Series.

Scale : 1: 95,000.

R. A. Daly— Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion. 121

(topography by J. McEvoy; geology by R. G. McConnell,
1896 ) and on the writer’s observations made in the same area,
1902. The heavy terrace-deposits of the Columbia Valley
average nearly a mile in breadth and consequently the bound-
aries of the different formations are there not to be fixed with
absolute precision. On account of the thick cover of drift and
a dense forest, the same remark applies to the formation-limits
indicated in the remainder of the area. The errors are, how-
ever, known to be of an order that cannot affect the usefulness
of the map for present purposes. :

The great complexity of the structure and the high degree of
alteration characteristic of the rocks have put still greater dif-
ficulties in the way of defining the formations. This is par-
ticularly true of the attempt to subdivide the old volcanic
rocks which form a large part of the area. There appear to
be at least two volcanic rock-groups. The older is the oldest
formation exposed in the area, consisting of hard, dark-colored,
slaty ash beds interstratified with thick bands of squeezed and
much altered basic, amygdaloidal lava-flows, and agglomerates,
and cut by irregular dikes and boss-like dioritic, gabbroitic and
peridotitic masses, which are probably genetically related to the
lavas. As yet the required palaeontological and structural
evidences as to the age and thicknesses of these rocks are
lacking. In this paper the whole group may be called simply
the Older Volcanic Series ; the probabilities are, as suggested
by McConnell, that it belongs to the Carboniferous or at least
to the upper Paleozoie.

Overlying these rocks isa much younger (probably early
Tertiary ) formation, which, within the limits of the map, is
purely voleanic—a group of greatly dislocated breccias, tufts
and flows derived from basaltic and essexitic magmas. Since
this formation chiefly composes the mountains northwest, west
and south of Rossland, it may be called the “ Rossland Volcanic
Series.” There also appears on the map the eastern extremity
of the coarse-grained basic rock-mass marked “ gabbro”’ on the
Trail sheet, and referred by McOonnell to an origin contempo-
raneous with that of the Rossland effusives, probably represent-
ing the deep-seated portion of the main conduit through which
these eruptions took place. This mass is highly variable and
has gabbroitic, monzonitic and essexitic facies.

Both of these older series of rocks had been intensely folded,
crumpled, and, in places, crushed by mountain-building forces
before the intrusion of the great “Nelson batholith” took
place. That huge granitic body covers an area of ‘more than
3000 square miles. Its extreme southern end enters the area
mapped in the form of a curved tongue narrowing to the south-
ward and terminating in that direction at Violin Lake (see fig. 2 ).

122) Rk. A. Daly— Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion.

Fic. 38. Two views of the Shatter-zone, Columbia River near Trail, B. C.

Even in this small part of the batholith there is to be seen a
noteworthy variability in mineralogical composition. East, west
and south of Trail the rock is a gray, coarse-grained tonalite
with essential andesine, biotite, hornblende, orthoclase, and

Rf. A. Daly—Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion. 128

accessory augite. Here and there, with apparently gradual
transition, the dominant tonalite passes into a true basic to
medium-acidic hornblende-biotite granite. The triclinic feld-
spar (again basic andesine, near Ab, An, ) here becomes quite
subordinate and orthoclase assumes its position as the chief
light-colored essential. Notwithstanding these and other vari-
ations in the character of the igneous body, it is to be regarded
-as the erystallized product of a single intrusive magma.

The shattered contact-zone which is the matter of interest
in the present connection, has been crossed in three places on
the line of contact running from the Columbia River to Violin
Lake, and has been mapped on the basis of the information
thus gained. The shatter-zone has not been mapped on the
western side of the batholith since the lack of exposures made
search for its limits unprofitable. It is highly probable, how-
ever, that the zone exists on that side, though it seems to be nar-
rower than on the southeastern boundary of the granitic tongue.

An unusually fine exposure of the zone outcrops three miles
below Trail on the left bank of the Columbia. The local rocks
invaded by the magma are a coarse peridotite ( hornblendite )
and an associated gabbro, both of which apparently belong to
the oldest series of rock in the area. For a distance of about
600 meters down the river and thus transverse to the molar
contact, the well-washed ledges are composed of a giant breccia.
-Innumerable, sharply cut, angular masses of peridotite and
gabbro are enclosed in the granite and are transected by many
veins of the younger rock (fig. 3). The inclusions are of allsizes
up to blocks ten meters or more in diameter. Three kilometers
to the southwestward the shatter-zone is more than a kilometer
in width; the invaded formation is diorite which is markedly
schistose in many of the inclusions, becoming at times a true
amphibolite. It has proved impossible to separate a zone of
inclusions from the zone of apophyses because of their intimate
association and because of the massive character of the rocks
invaded ; hence the two have been combined in the map as a
zone of shattering. It is of rather extraordinary breadth in
this instance but there is illustrated the same kind of dynamic
action as that found along normal granitic contacts.

At the granite-peridotite contact on the river bank, many of
the larger apophyses display an interesting case of differentia-
tion. At both walls of each apophysis the essential and
normally abundant bisilicates of the granite are absent or are
represented by rare shreds or plates of chloritized biotite.
The feldspars are here orthoclase, and microperthite with
accessory Oligoclase-albite. Quartz is the remaining essential.
Other veins seemingly contemporaneous with these just de-
scribed, are composed entirely of the sameaplite. The discovery

AM. peer tah OUNTE SERIES, VoL. XVI, No. 92.—Aveust, 1903.

124 Fk. A. Daly— Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion.

of the patent differentiation throws light on the origin of the
small plutonic bodies of alkaline granite indicated on the map.
The edge of one of these appears in its SW corner. That
stock covers an area of about 6 square kilometers north of the
international boundary and extends over perhaps as many
more south of the lme. The mineralogical composition,
structure and specific gravity are identical with those of the
aplite in veins at the river. The alkaline granite is younger’
than the tonalite since angular inclusions of the latter are to be
found in the more acid rock, which sends strong apophyses
into the tonalite-granite at various points. Many wide dikes
of the alkaline granite also cut the older basic formations
south and west of the batholith tongue. The two granitic
types seem to have been differentiated in the deeper levels of
a common magma-basin after the upper portion of the magma
had consolidated. |

The application of the above mentioned facts to the general
problem of intrusion must be made in the light of the deter-
minations of specific gravities. These are noted in the follow-
ing table, which gives the results acquired from the use of 30
specimens taken from the granites and from fair representa-
tives of their respective country-rocks.

Average

Rock. Spec. grav.
Tonalite (22... fa ee ee oe ee
Hornblende-biotite granite .-...--.----.----i-- 2°76
Average’ of batholith 202 2-553 93) 62 ca 2°75
Lavas of older volcamic series /----5> 2 5229 2°85
Dioritic rocks associated with the last __--__-_-- 2°82
Banded ash-rocks of older volcanic series _-_---- 2°79
Peridotite at contact, Columbia River ___------- 3°22
Rock of Basic Stock at Rossland. _-_5_22_ 22a seas

Rossland volcanic series ( aver. of 8 specimens of

agglomerates, tuffs and flows) -.-...--- 2°85
Younger, alkaline, granite stocks. _...--. -2.2 222 2°61

It appears from the table that the rock of the main intrusive
body, the batholith, is in every case of lower density than any
type among the country-rocks exposed in the area. When molten
the tonalite-granite would have at ordinary atmospheric pressure
a specific gravity of about 2°30*. Under plutonic pressures the
same strong contrast of densities between intrusive rock and
invaded rocks would persist with but little change. If, then,
the magma were thinly molten or even but approximating the
condition of perfect fluidity, blocks rifted off from the shat-
tered wall must sink in the magma. The presence of the
existing zone of inclusions is only explicable on the supposition

* This Journal, April, 1903, p. 277.

R. A. Daly—Mechanies of Igneous Tntrusion. 198

of high viscosity in the magma in its latest phase of intrusion.
By reason of the enormous pressures in depth, this strong
viscosity would not prevent the injection of the magma into
the shattered zone. On the other hand, the long, narrow
apophyses running out to great distances from the tonalite-
- granite mass must have been formed in the longer period of
high fluidity. To that period of maximum shattering, rifting
and stoping, the opening of the magma-chamber is to be referred.

Since the specific gravity of the younger granite averages
but 2°61, and since the stocks of that intrusive have invaded
formations practically identical with those displaced by the
tonalite-granite, the foregoing argument applies with equal or
greater force to the later intrusions. The shattering is again
found about these stocks, but it is much less impressive than it
is along the 8.E. contact of the batholith tongue—perhaps
because of the smaller size and more effective stoping power
of the alkaline granite bodies.

Stability of the Roofs of Magma Chambers.

The problem remains as to how far in a vertical direction
such stoping has gone in the case, for example, of such an
immense batholith as that represented in the Nelson. granite.
Did the destructive action go on until the magma had worked
its way to the earth’s surface? Was there at any time an
extensive foundering of the thinned crust overlying the bath-
olith? Is plutonic energy so nicely balanced with, or con-
trolled in its exhibition by, the enormous amount of work to
be performed in opening a batholith chamber that the stability
of its vault is never endangered by prolonged stoping? There
seems to be no evidence of such foundering and world-shaking
catastrophe in the later geological ages or even in Paleozoic
times. According to Kelvin’s classic speculation there has
occurred a great break in the history of the earth. That break
was coincident with the final encrustation of the planet as it
cooled from a molten state—“‘the date of the first establish-
ment of that consistentior status, which, according to Leibnitz,
is the initial date of all geological history.”* Kelvin has con-
cluded that previous to final, complete encrustation, the earth
attained its present high rigidity by the submergence of the
partial crusts produced by the freezing of a less dense fluid
mass. The close knitting together of these foundered crust-
blocks thus afforded a pre-Paleozoiec earth so far cooled down,
so strongly bound in its continuous crust, as not to suffer fur-
ther from the catastrophic violence of wholesale crustal found-
ering. The speculation leads directly to the further query
whether the peculiar structural complexity of the Archean

* Lord Kelvin, Math. and Phys. Papers, London, 1890, vol. iii, p. 297.

126 R.A. Daly—Mechanics of Igneous Intruston.

areas of the globe may not be related to that process of found-
ering in its latest, local phase. The refrigeration of the planet
must have progressed so far even in the Cambrian period
as to prevent a recurrence of life-destroying, world-circling
catastrophe. In others words, the possibility of foundering
depends, according to Kelvin’s view, among other things,
upon the amount of residual heat within the earth. By the
same view the Nelson batholith takes its place among the post-
Archean batholiths which may be believed to have penetrated
a crust already sufficiently buttressed through secular cooling
so as to withstand the strain due to the differential density of
vault and molten batholith. Other general considerations rela-
tive to the problem have already been presented in the writer’s
first paper. All of them are offered rather to emphasize once
more the difficulty and importance of the problem than to sug-
gest that a complete solution has been found.
Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Canada.

Very—Stellar Revolutions within the Galaxy. 127

Art. XII.—Stellar Revolutions within the Galaxy; by
FRANK W. VERY.

ATTEMPTS have been made to determine roughly the dimen-

sions of the system of stars constituting the Galaxy. By assum-
ing various values for the total mass of the stars and various
laws of stellar distribution, approximate mean velocities of
bodies moving under the combined attractions of the masses
may be deduced and compared with observation. In this way
a preliminary conception of the size of the galactic system may
be obtained, subject to the uncertainties of the assumptions
made.
_ If we can measure the parallax of a body in one of the galac-
tic streams, a further check on these estimates is given. Such
an object we probably have in Vova Persec of 1901. All of
the novae have been galactic objects. We may safely assume
that Nova Persez lies either in the main galactic stream, or on
a side branch of no great length relatively to the thickness of
the stream.

Consistent measures make it certain that the parallax of the
star is less than 0”"1. This gives a velocity of expansion for
the surrounding nebula which can not be much less than that
_of light. We have no experimental evidence of any motion of
matter that is swifter than light, while cathode rays are known
to move with over half the velocity of light and to increase
their speed as the vacuum improves. Theory appears to
indicate that 300,000 km. per sec. is the limit of velocity which
ean be produced by the transmission of electromagnetic strains
in the ether. Consequently, I shall assume that the nebulous
material has been moving, at least in the first part of its course,
with this speed. Applying this assumption to individual forms
in turn, on the supposition that the initial motion was nearly
radial, the maximum radii of the inner and outer nebulous
rings (89” and 149”), and of an are on the northeast side (321”),
observed by Perrine on March 29, 1901, 36 days from the out-
burst of the nova,* give:

km.

Inner ring, 1’ = (9°33 X10") + 89 = 10°44x10°, r= 07014.

Outer ring, 1” = (9°33 x 10")=+149 = 6-26 10°, r = 0"-024.

epee ace, l= (9:33 X 1077)--321 — 2°91 <x 10°, z= 07-052.

If the largest motion is definitely assumed to have taken place
with the velocity of light, the speed of the material forming
the outer ring was presumably one-half as great, or 150,000 km.

* Astrophysical Journal, xvi, 252, 1902.

128 - Very—Stellar evolutions within the Galaxy.

per sec., and that of the inner ring one-fourth as great, or
75,000 km. per sec.

On September 20, 1901, Mr. G. W. Ritchey obtained a
photograph* which shows nebulous material on the south
southeast side at a distance of 20’, after an interval of 211 days
from the appearance of the nova. Subsequent photographs
demonstrate that this material had almost ceased to move by
the end of September. We may assume, therefore, that the
tangential component of motion has carried the material of this
projection along a magnetic line of force nearly to the limiting
radial distance; and as the path along such a line is 50 per
cent. greater than the direct one, the radial distance on Sep-
tember 20th was:

2 300,000 x 211 x 86,400 = 3°65 X10” km.,
and 1”= (3°65 X10")+ 1,200 = 3:04X10° km.

This gives a parallax of 0”-049, agreeing well with the deter-
mination from the outer are of March 29th.

The parallax 0”:05 may therefore be definitely adopted as
that of the nova,t and inferentially of that of the Milky Way
in its vicinity.

We must next form some idea of the structure of the galac-
tic system, and of the nature of the motions within it.

The investigations of Kapteynt{ show that when the total
proper motion (which forms the best criterion of stellar
distance available at the present time) falls between u = 0:04
and 4 =0”:05, the stars having spectra of type II exhibit
no tendency to aggregate in the neighborhood of the
Milky Way, but those of type I already have a marked
preponderance in the lower galactic latitudes. For # = 07-00
to » = 0:08, the solar stars also begin to be condensed in
low galactic latitudes, while the stars of the first type
have nearly seven times as great a density in the Milky Way
through a zone 20° wide, as in the galactic zones +60° to
+90°. Consequently, at a mean distance corresponding to
p = 0”-04, the confines of the galactic stream have been entered. —
If this distance also corresponds to the parallax 7 = 0-05, the
annual motion of these galactic stars is 1°210° km., and the
mean linear velocity is 120/1504°75 = 3°80 km. per sec,
The mean galactic distance must be five times as great as this,
or 7 = 0”:01, if the mean linear velocities are equal to that of
the sun.

* Astrophysical Journal, xv, 129, pl. vi, 1902.

+ The most reliable parallax of Nova Persei by the direct method is that of
Dr. O. Bergstrand of Upsala, in which the effect of the dispersion of the air
on the photographic measures is taken into account, giving absolute paral-

lax = 0":033 (Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3834).
t ‘On the Distribution of the Stars in Space,” Knowledge, xvi, 114, 1893.

Very—Stellar Revolutions within the Galaxy. 129

Now if the outer and more thinly distributed stars are revolv-
ing around great galactic aggregations of sufficient mass to
control the general motion, the orbital velocities must increase
in the vicinity of the controlling mass. Nevertheless, the
dense aggregation of stars itself, having been accumulated
during an immense time by gravity, ought to be relatively at
rest, because of frequent collisions in the crowded centers.
We have seen that stars of the first type are more abundant in
the Milky Way. Kapteyn has shown that, between magni-
tudes 0 and 6°5, there are 19-3 times as many stars of type II
as of type I having annual proper motions greater than 0°50,
but only 0°6 as many with proper motions less than 0”-03.
This, taken in conjunction with the galactic condensation of
the first-type stars, doubtless means, primarily, that there are
comparatively few stars of the first type outside the Galaxy;
but the small proper motions of stars of the first type may, in
eo be due to the smallness of their linear motions. Professor

rost announced at the meeting of the Astronomical and Astro-
physical Society of America, held in Washington, December,
1902, that the members of a group of Orion stars (all pre-
sumably galactic) have exceptionally small velocities in the
line of sight (about 6°5 kilometers: per second).* As far as it
goes, this observation favors a value for the galactic parallax
not far from 0”-03, with the consequences which have been
noted. It is desirable that a large number of galactic first-type
stars shall have their velocities in the line of sight and their
proper motions measured, in order that this important point
may be definitely settled. |
_ Starting from these general principles, let’us take up the
mechanism of the Galaxy more in detail.

(1) Considering the form and structure of the Galaxy: (a)
From analogy with nebular forms, we may say that the Milky
Way is either spiral or annular in its major stream, but in any
case it is substantially uniplanar in its leading features. (0)
The Galaxy, however, taken as a complete system, is divisible
into these directed or segregated stellar streams, and subordinate
or satellite hosts whose interlacing movements weave a common
envelope to the more condensed portions, which is presumably
of spheroidal form, and which, judging from analogy with the
outer shell of a spheroidal cluster, may extend to possibly ten
times the radius of the condensed nucleus.

(2) I assume that, in the stellar universe, there are both

*“ Radial Velocities of Twenty Stars having Spectra of the Orion Type”:
Edwin B. Frost and Walter S. Adams, Science, xvii, 324, 1903. I have
applied corrections for the solar motion. ‘‘ The angular proper motions of
these stars are also small.” In the Publications of the Washburn Observa-

tory, vol. xi, p. 34, Mr. Albert S. Flint shows that the proper motions of
the stars diminish more rapidly than their parallaxes.

130 Very—Stellar Levolutions within the Cue

movements of approach, produced by the He of gravity,
and movements away from the attractive centers, probably
due in the first instance to explosive agencies; also that the
limits of agglomerative and dispersive movements are condi-
tioned by the dimensions of the component bodies taking part
in the systematic motion, as follows: (a) Agglomeration is
characteristic of matter in the condition of collections or
swarms of meteors, condensing into stars. Proof follows from
the law of gravitation and the admitted existence of meteors.
(6) Dispersal prevails after a certain limiting magnitude of
mass has been attained as a result of agglomeration, presum-
ably owing to instability under great pressure and high tem-
perature, and the increase of explosive or repulsive forces.
Proof follows from the structure of stellar clusters, which
contain no single star of surpassing magnitude as in the solar
system, and from the development of clusters as inferred from
the spectra of the stars composing them, the less condensed
clusters having more advanced spectra, indicating that the pro-
gression of a group of stars is towards more complete separa-
tion.

(83) The following are a few of the consequences of a theory
of combined stellar concentration and dispersal:

(a) Comparative permanence of the potent, controlling; stel-
lar streams, which are the loci of galactic agglomeration, is
indicated by theory, since the attractive force increases as the
mass enlarges, while dispersal sets a limit to the growth of
aggregations, but does not obliterate them. Hence the orig-
inal centers of condensation survive. In the surrounding
regions there is presumably motion controlled from the loci of
condensation, and with velocities increasing as the agglomera-
tions are approached; but within the valactic agglomerations
relative rest prevails, because in these dense regions opposing
motions have been largely destroyed by collisions.

(6) Hence dispersal of satellite hosts from centers of dis-
persal in the galactic belts must produce outlying shells of
sparsely distributed stars, and an excessively slow circulation
of individual members of the accompanying starry hosts around
definite galactic streams, which thus become the axes of a revo-
lution remotely resembling that of a vortex ring, somewhat as
a basaltic column resembles a erystal—not that there is con-

sistent direction or parallelism in the orbits, any more than —

there is in the erystallization, but, on the contrary, a great
variety of positions and paths, conditioned only by general
agreement in a tendency to helical motion.
”(e) Although the form of the condensed part of the Galaxy —
may be either a ring, or some kind of spiral branching from a

Very—Stellar Revolutions within the Galaxy. 181

center, as suggested by Easton,* the limiting volume which
includes the sparsely distributed, but controlled, outlying mem-
bers of the host, may be approximately a sphere. <A. different
history, or mode of formation, is indicated for the central forms
and their surroundings.

(d) If velocities occasionally generated exceed the control-
ling power of the combined mass, such portions escape. Hence
instances of this sort can not accumulate, and must be rare.

vr cn
7 .
= nN
A K ~
24
es * =

Figure 1 shows the paths of stars thrown off from a central
condensation in various directions with velocities insufficient
to produce separation from the system. If the direction is
such that another branch or condensation has mass enough to
draw the return path to one side, the circulation may be
around this, rather than around the original member. Owing
to the complex form of the Galaxy, perturbations are of a mag-
nitude equaling or excelling the attraction of a parent center.

The revolutions shown are of excessive slowness, and of
sufficient duration to allow a majority of the encompassing
host to have passed through the stages of development charac-
terized by first-type spectra, and to have attained the solar
type.
(4) In order to reach some conception of the dimensions and
periods of stellar revolutions around the Galaxy, I propose to
take the galactic parallax = 51, of a second of are, correspond-
ing to a distance D = 60010" km. in round numbers, as that
of the sun from a galactic center of attraction, and to trace
some of the consequences. Let D, be Neptune’s distance from
the sun. For a constant mass, the parabolic velocity is pro-

portional to /1/D; hence the parabolic velocity from solar
attraction at the sun’s assumed galactic distance is

* Astrophysical Journal, xii, 136, 1900.

132 Very—Stellar Revolutions within the Galaxy.

4
= (=) xX 7°624 = 0:02079 km.

The velocity of the sun’s motion among the stars is about
20 km. (Campbell’s value is —19°89 km. per sec. +1°52 km.),*
and the ratio of the squares of these numbers gives a value for
the galactic attracting mass, on the supposition that the solar
motion is due to such attraction. If the present solar velocity
were that of a circular orbit around a galactic cluster, undis-
turbed by the attraction of outlying masses, the solar parabolic

velocity would be U = 20x +/2; the central cluster must then
have a mass 1,850,000 times that of the sun; and the period
of one complete revolution would be nearly 6,000,000 years.
But if the orbit is a very eccentric ellipse, reaching to the
outer boundary of the galactic enclosing sphere, let us say
6x10" km., the period must be lengthened. The circular
orbit presupposes a center of attraction nearer than the main
galactic stream, and not in its plane, since otherwise the present
position of the sun, which is not far from the galactic plane,
ought to be accompanied by a motion in the direction of the
galactic pole.

Still considering the attraction of a mass M=1,850,000 x M,,
situated entirely within the solar orbit (M, being the sun’s
mass), let

perigalacteum j.2.< <.4222, =) {60x lemme
present solar distance.--- = 600 x 10” “
apocalaet eri ste. ja saa = 6000. >< Aes

The corresponding velocities are 20 10 = 634, 20, and
63 x 4/;1, = 6:3 kilometers per second. The period is nearly
70,000,000 years. With such a recession, however, we can no
longer neglect the immense mass of surrounding stars, no
matter how symmetrically they may be disposed.

A conveniently simple hypothesis for a first approximation
is that the mass is uniformly distributed throughout the stellar
sphere, of which we need only consider that part within the
sun’s actual radius at each moment of its revolution. With
such a disposition of material, an individual sun might vibrate,
pendulum-wise, on either side of the center, between extreme
positions. The acceleration of gravity in such a cluster
increases in proportion to the radius, and the velocities fluctu-
ate between narrower limits.

If there are 1,000,000,000 stars, uniformly distributed within
a sphere of radius 6,000 10" km., each star has to itself a
volume 9:05 10° cubic km. The mean distance of the stars

* Astrophysical Journal, xiii, 83, 1901.

Very—Stellar Revolutions within the Galaxy. 133

is then ten billion kilometers (English numeration). As the
distance of the nearest star, a Centauri, is forty billion kilo-
meters, the adopted radius of the sphere is too small for the
assumed uniform distribution ; but for the actual stellar distri-
bution it is not an unreasonable value, because of the concen-
tration of stars in the galactic centers, and provided the number
10° is acceptable for the total number of stars. Photographs
of long exposure with telescopes having a large ratio of aper-
ture to focal length, increase the number of stars to such an
extent that 10°, or possibly even 10°, will not be an unreason-
able estimate. The following considerations, however, prove
that, if there be as many as 10” stars concerned in the control
of the solar motion, their average individual masses must be
considerably less than that of the sun (I assume that the ether
is devoid of mass, and that matter outside the Galaxy is on the
whole symmetrically disposed, and is separated from our stel-
lar system by such wide vacant intervals that the galactic
motions may be treated independently): The solar acceleration
of gravity at Neptune’s orbit being 0:000,651™ per sec., the
galactic acceleration at the distance D = 600010” km. is:

toy ME i 4461 X 10° \?
J = yy, X 0°000,651 x (= 2 a)

= OOy KATO M. -
M

Assume ie 10”, and f to be uniform for 200,000 years. The
velocity v = 227 km. per sec. at the end of this time, attained
before one-sixth of the distance to the center of attraction has
been traversed, is already larger than the maximum velocity
permissible. Hence the attractive mass must be less than
10°x M..

Let us next try the ratio = 10°, with the same radial

M,
dimensions. I have shown that the motion of the sun can be
accounted for, if the central portion of the sphere within the
sun’s present radius vector contains less than 2,000,000 stars of
the same mass as itself. Since the spherical volume of this
space is ;j45, of the total volume of the assumed stellar sphere,
the supposition of uniform distribution gives 210° stars for
the larger volume; but with central condensation the outer
portions of the sphere have not only a more open distribution
of stars, but a smaller mass to the unit of volume, and both
the number of stars and their mass must be less than 210°.
If nm =1,000,000,000, and the stars are uniformly distributed,
it will take 6,000,000 years for the sun to traverse the distance

134 Very—Stellar Revolutions within the Galaxy.

from the boundary of its assumed sphere of motion to its
present position, and the velocity acquired will be approxi-
mately 47 km., or more than twice that assigned from investi-
gations of the solar apical motion.

With a galactic mass of 10’, and the same dimensions as
before, the sun will travel over the path from apogalacteum to
its present position in about 19,000,000 years, but the final
velocity is less than 15 km. per sec., or probably a little less
than the actual one, still not so much smaller but that the
increased acceleration produced by central condensation may
bring the velocity up to the required amount.

Twenty million stars of the same mass as the sun, after 134
million years, will give a velocity of 21 km. per sec. with uni-
form distribution, and more with central condensation.

Extreme condensation is improbable. Professor Newcomb
has shown* that, for equal areas of sky, the brightness of the
sky in the Milky Way is more than twice as great, but not as
much as three times as great, as that near the galactic pole. If
the general light of the nocturnal sky is due to small stars, this
observation seems to indicate that the stellar distribution is
more nearly uniform than is commonly supposed.

Some 20 years ago Professor Newcombt calculated that
500,000,000 stars with masses equal to the sun’s mags, and uni-
formly spread out in a thin circular layer or disk, 284,000 x 10”
km. in diameter, will produce a velocity of 40 km. per sec. in
a body falling from infinite distance to the center of the sys-
tem. Such a disposition of attracting masses can hardly be
considered a probable scheme of present stellar distribution,
and I presume its proposer will prefer to modify it in the light
of his own more recent photometric observations. The same
mass distributed through a sphere of equal diameter has 50
per cent greater attraction, and central condensation would
still farther increase the mean velocity.

Lord Kelvint assumes a uniform stellar sphere with a radius
five times as great as mine. This may be a better value than
mine for an outer boundary of the galactic system, but com-
paratively few stars attain it, and the velocity possessed by our
sun does not point to so large arecession. Vogel and Scheiner
obtained an average velocity in the line of sight of 16°5 km.
from fifty-one stars. Professor W. W. Campbell, after separa-
ting the solar motion, obtained for the numerical average of the
velocities of 280 stars in the line of sight +17:05 km. per sec.,

* Astrophysical Journal, xiv, 297, Dec. 1901.

+ ‘*‘ Popular Astronomy,” 2d ed., p. 501.

+Phil. Mag. (6), ii, 161, 1901 ; also iii, 1, 1902.

S$ Scheiner’s ‘‘ Treatise on Astronomical Spectroscopy,” Frost’s translation,
p. 350, 1894.

Very—Stellar Revolutions within the Galaxy. 135

whence “the average velocity a space of a star in the sys-
tem is 217-05 = 34:10 km. per second.”* With this may ‘be
compared Lord Kelvin’s calculation that if 1,000,000,000 stars,
each of the sun’s mass, started from a state ‘of rest thousands
of millions of years ago (a considerably larger time allowance,
it will be noted, than has hitherto been admitted), and are now
uniformly distributed in a sphere whose radius is 30,900 x 10”
km., the present mean velocity should be about 50 km. per
second.

If we assume that the individual stellar motions at_ peri-
galacteum are controlled both in direction and speed by some
cluster, branch, or portion of a galactic ring, and that the gen-
eral stellar sphere has then but little influence, it must, never-
theless, be conceded that at the larger distances ‘and throughout
_the greater part of the stellar revolutions, if these are eccentric,
the general sphere exercises control, and that the subordinate
condensations or branches act only by the perturbations which
they produce. It seems probable that much greater stellar
velocities than those which have been measured, remain to be
discovered on the borders of the denser galactic aggregations.
Campbell finds that the velocity in the line of sight for stars
fainter than the 4:0 magnitude, is about 50 per cent greater
than for stars equal to, or brighter than, 3°0 magnitude. These
stars, however, were not classified galactically.

Speaking only of observed stellar motions and_the effective
attractive mass which they indicate, it appears that a galactic
mass equivalent to 20,000,000 suns like ours, with a moderate
central condensation sufficient to quicken the stellar motions
in our vicinity by one third of their amount with homogeneous
distribution, is a probable value. Stars, presumably belonging
to the galactic system, exist in numbers approaching or exceed-
ing hundreds of millions; hence there are either a great many
stars of small mass, our sun being larger that the average, or
else much the larger number of stars is so situated that the
attractions are mutually annulled.

The radius of the stellar sphere surrounding the main streams
of the Galaxy and under the control of their attraction, is
possibly 30,000 billion kilometers, as predicated by Lord Kel-
vin; but the solar apogalactic recession does not seem to be
so great. The motion in a homogeneous swarm is of the nature
of a simple oscillation ; and between limits of +6 X10" km.
with the total efficient mass just given, the movement from one
extreme to the other will consume a little less than 30,000,000
years. Such an arrangement, however, can not endure, “because
the intersecting paths entail numerous collisions near the cen-

* Astrophysical Journal, xiii, 84, 1901.

136 Very—Stellar Revolutions within the Galaay.

ter, with destruction of linear motion and the formation of a
condensed nucleus. With such anucleus, assuming a perigalac-
tic approach to 0:01 of the apogalactic distance, or a short-
radius swing around some dominant galactic agglomeration,
the galactic period of revolution of a star, under the attraction
of a mass M = 20,000,000 x M,, may approximate 25,000,000
years. Mr. Maxwell Hall, by combining the positions, proper
motions, and parallaxes of a small number of stars for which
these quantities have been satisfactorily determined, and
assuming circular orbits around a general center of motion,
obtained for the length of the “Annus Magnus” 20,000,000
years.* A revision with improved:data gave for the period of
general revolution 13,150,000 years,t the center of motion
being in Andromeda. Kapteyn considers the center of the
Galaxy to lie in the direction of Lacerta; and Easton has
given reasons for placing this center in Cygnus. The presump-
tion that the orbits are ellipses rather than circles, and ellipses
of large eccentricity, which require longer periods, follows
from the principles adopted in the present paper, while the
solar motion favors Easton’s position ; and as it is not necessary
to suppose that the nearer stars are moving around the same
center, arguments from the structure of the Galaxy itself
deserve the most weight.

(5) When the proper motions of the stars are charted, the
divergence from the apex and convergence to the anti-apex of
the sun’s way immediately attract attention ; but after allowing
for this, there is no very obvious preponderance in the residual
directions of the true proper motions, either with or across the
galactic plane. Upon the hypothesis that the stellar move-
ments have originated in dispersals produced by explosions, this
result indicates that the explosive forces have acted indiscrimi-
- nately in all directions. The primary forces which have given
the condensed part of the Milky Way its structure have acted
in a plane; but the motions of the outlying stars have probably
had a different and secondary origin, and this is further indi-
cated by the advanced types of their spectra.

(6) According to the assumption that the stars have been
thrown off from centers of dispersal distributed along the
galactic axes of condensation, and that explosive division of
stellar masses in the galactic zone is still in progress, the Milky
Way must inclade both stars of great mass, as yet undivided,
and large numbers of small stars, together with star clusters
resulting from recent division, as well as dark meteor swarms
not yet ready for stellar existence. The concentration of mass
in a narrowly limited central region may be great, but we are

*<<On the Sidereal System,” Mem. Roy. Astr. Soc., xliii, 196, 1876.
+ Monthly Notices, Roy. Astr. Soc., xlvii, 539, 1887.

Very—Stellar Revolutions within the Galaxy. 137

unable to distinguish between the relative numbers of large
and small stars, and can give no numerical estimate of the
degree of (mass) condensation. Scheiner derives a relative
numerical condensation of 1:16 for the periphery and center of
the great cluster in Hercules,* but Newcomb’s ratio of galactic
brightness does not favor so marked a variation in the distri-
bution of galactic density, at least not unless there are many
dark bodies—incipient novae, not yet ready to shine—situated
within the galactic streams. The possibility of such dark
bodies must of course be admitted, but no estimate can be made
of the amount of matter thus concealed.

(7) If we may assume that the life of a sun surpasses in
duration that of a single revolution about the galactic axis, our
solar system has endured much longer than is commonly sup-
posed by astronomers, and its age is more nearly in agreement
with the time estimates deduced from geological reasoning.
The suggestion of a galactic year, embracing many millions
of solar years, and perhaps attended by changes in meteoric
accessions received in different parts of the orbit, which modify
the planetary atmospheres and alter their absorptive power for
the solar rays, or change conditions affecting the life of plants
and animals, is worth considering. Thus, as Sterry Hunt has
shown, the amount of carbon stored up by our earth in the Car-
boniferous age exceeds that which can have existed at any one
_time in an atmosphere suitable for supporting life, many times
over. Accordingly, during this age, there were probably con-
tinual or successive additions of carbon, or its compounds, to
the atmosphere; and the carbon came from regions of space
richer in this material than any traversed before or since.

The Ice age, which has never been satisfactorily explained,
may have been produced in the same way either by changes in
the sun itself and its radiant power, or by variations in the con-
stitution of the earth’s atmosphere affecting the atmospheric
absorption of solar and terrestrial radiation, and thus controlling
surface temperatures.

(8) The hypothesis of stellar revolutions around controlling
galactic centers may be illustrated by the case of our own sun
which is assumed to be well on its way toward perigalacteum.

Since the projection of the Milky Way upon the celestial
sphere divides the sphere into nearly equal parts, our sun at
present must be near the plane of the ring or spiral of con-
densation. Also, since the apex of the sun’s way is not over
20° from the central line of the galactic stream in Cygnus, the
sun is probably moving obliquely at a small angle with the
plane of the ring, around some dominant mass. A right line

*Abhand. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin, p. 36, 1892.

138 Very—Stellar Revolutions within the Galaxy.

through this mass, parallel with the sun’s motion, will inter-
sect a plane through the sun at right angles to the direction of
motion and meeting the celestial sphere in a great circle 90°
from the apex, in a point whose projection may lie anywhere on
this great circle; but if the motion is actuated by the predom-
inating attraction of a part of the galactic stream, the plane of ©
motion is probably nearly perpendicular to the general direc-
tion of the Galaxy on either side of the chief. attractive center,
because the attraction of the adjacent portions of the galactic
stream, if at all symmetrical, will bring the plane of motion |
into approximate coincidence with a radial plane through the
rectilinear axis of curvature of the stream. It is also probable
that the dominant region of attraction for our sun lies in the
Milky Way not far from the apex of the sun’s way.

The projection of a line through the center of attraction,
parallel to the sun’s path, will be a portion of a great circle
through the apex, cutting the Milky Way in Cygnus, and
intersecting the trace of the plane through the sun at right
angles to the line of motion, somewhere in the constellation
Aquarius. The projected line is nearly parallel to the direc-
tion of proper motion of our near neighbor, 61 Cygni, which
very likely forms one system with the sun.

The axis of orbital revolution can not be placed at present ;
but as our sun approaches perigalacteum, the apex of motion
will recede to a point on the celestial sphere 90° from the
Milky Way, and the direction of motion of the apex will then
determine the axis of the orbit. Long before that time, how-
ever, the present constellations will have been entirely broken
up, and only the more general shapes of portions of the Milky
Way will preserve a kind of fixity. All that can be said at this
time is that the sun has advanced toward the Galaxy from its
northern side, passing through its plane to its southern side, and
that the sun is now within the stellar coil and nearly in the
galactic plane.

Arcturus, Va.

S. F. Emmons—Little Cottonwood Granite. 139

Art. XIII.—Zhe Little Oottonwood Granite Body of the
Wasatch Mountains ; by 8. ¥. Emmons.

Tue Wasatch Range, from a geological standpoint, is the
most important of the many more or less parallel mountain
uplifts that go to make up the Cordilleran Mountain System
in its widest part—that is, between the latitudes of 39° and
41° N. It has, from the earliest geological time of which we
have any record, formed the dividing line between the geology
of the west or Pacific slope and of the eastern Rocky Moun-
tains, there being an essential difference on either side of this
line, not only in the lithological constitution of the respective
geological formations but in their faunal characteristics.

From a Tectonic point of view it is equally important, pre-
senting as it does examples of most of the varied phenomena
involved in mountain building, the latest phase having been a
great meridional fault which has cleft it in twain, so that its
western half is now buried beneath the floor of the Great Salt
Lake Valley; it is thus well worthy of the characterization
given it by the elder Dana, as “the grandest exhibition of
facts pertaining to an individual case of mountain building in
geological literature.”*

It was in the summer of 1869 that the geologists of the 40th
Parallel undertook the geological examination of this range.
The two previous seasons had been devoted to geological map-
pingt of the Desert Ranges of Nevada and western Utah. In
these isolated ridges, standing like islands in a great ocean of
recently deposited sediments, the rocks were found to: be mainly
eruptives and members of a great Paleozoic series whose
extent, position, and faunal characteristics in the vast region
west of the Mississippi Valley were as yet completely unknown,
and the facts gathered so far had afforded no clue whatever as
to the extent or order of superposition of the different mem-
bers of this portion of the sedimentary column.

As our weary march across the desert in the season of 1869
had finally, in the month of November, led us along the
western foot of this magnificent range through the smiling

* This Journal (3), xlv, 181.

+Itis perhaps questionable whether the word ‘‘mapping” is the correct
term in this place, for at the time no maps of the region were extant and
topographer and geologist did their field work side by side. It was not until
1875 that the paleontologists had furnished their final determinations of the
age of the various groups of fossils collected and the topographers had com-

pleted their maps so that the geological outlines might be laid down upon
them,

Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtTH SERIES, Vou. XVI, No. 92.—Aveust, 1908.
10

140 S. F. Emmons—Little Cottonwood Granite.

fields and orchards of the Mormon farmers, we looked with
delight at the deep clefts of the many canyons that scored its
flanks, foreseeing that here at last might be found a key to the
problem that so long had troubled us, in the actual superposi-
tion of the complete Paleozoic series.

As originally planned, the season of 1869 was intended to
complete the field work of the 40th Parallel Survey. There
remained of the Desert Region all the ranges from the Wasatch
westward to the western edge of the Great Desert, and east of
the Wasatch the western end of the Umta Range and a por-
tion of the Tertiary Basin of Green River were included
within our field of work, an extent of country 125 miles long
in an east and west direction and with a normal width of 102
miles north and south or 12,750 square miles. To cover this
area required the utmost diligence and careful allotment of the
time from May to November, in which alone field work was
possible at that latitude and elevation. Three weeks were all
that could be allotted for the topographic and geological recon-
naissance of the whole Wasatch range south of the latitude of
Salt Lake City, which fell to the lot of my party. It can
readily be conceived that under such relations of time to area
many phenomena would necessarily be but imperfectly observed.
As regards the completeness of the geological column,
expectations were more than realized. It was found that not
only was the entire Paleozoic section completely developed but
representatives of two series of pre-Cambrian formations and
of a remarkably full suite of Mesozoic and Tertiary formations
were exposed in this range. In the field, therefore, attention
was mainly devoted to the working out of the columnar sec-
tion, and it was not until many years afterwards, when, by the
completion of the topographic maps, it was made possible to
represent their relations graphically, that the true import of
some of the great structural problems involved could be fully
appreciated.

I have gone somewhat at length into these preliminary obser-
vations because the purpose of this paper being to acknowl-
edge that an important mistake was made in the course of the
work, it seems no more than justice to those that carried it on
—more particularly to our deceased ‘chief, Clarence King, to
whose genius and energy was due the conception and carrying
out of this great work and who personally drew all its most
important conclusions—that geologists of the present day
should have a realizing sense of the conditions under which it
was carried on. During the nearly thirty years that have
elapsed since its conception, I have had opportunities of verify-
- ing the work in many parts of the field in the light of the
more complete knowledge of later times, and it has always

S. Ff. Emmons—TLittle Cottonwood Granite. 141

been a matter of wonder to me that so few mistakes were
made.

The problem which had the most important bearing upon
the earlier history of the Wasatch Range proved to be that with
regard to the age of the Little Cottonwood granite. This is a
huge, homogeneous body, somewhat in the shape of a half dome,
which forms the mass of Lone Peak and the lower two-thirds
of Twin Peak, and is well exposed in the deep glacial trough
of Little Cottonwood Canyon that runs in a nearly straight
west line between the two. Around tiis mass and in general
dipping away from it on the north, east, and south wrap the
series of Paleozoic sediments, which curve in strike from north-
west on the north through north-south to northeast on the
south. The lowest member of this series consists of 12,000
feet of Cambrian beds, mainly quartzites, which alone come in
contact with the Cottonwood granite body. On the west face
of the granite rest a series of westerly dipping crystalline
schists of assumed Archean age. These beds are uncon-
formably overlaid by the Cambrian beds, which differ from
them nearly 90° both in strike and dip. That the granite was
‘intruded into and hence later than these Archean beds is
readily evident, the contacts lymg along the valley slope of
the range, where they can easily be seen. The contacts of the
granite with the Cambrian beds, on the other hand, are less
easy of access, being mostly high up on the steep mountain
slopes and covered by brush and talus, so that in the time
allotted for exploring this region few were actually observed.
Two alternative solutions of the problem presented themselves,
which are indicated by Mr. King® as follows:

“Ttis very evident that the granite is either an intrusive
mass or else an original boss on which the sedimentary material
was deposited.” The close lithological resemblance of this
granite to the Jurassic granites of the Sierra Nevada had at
first suggested its later intrusion, but after careful weighing of
all the evidence it was concluded that the preponderance was
in favor of its pre-Cambrian origin. The Clayton Peak mass
farther eastward, at the head of Big Cottonwood Canyon,
though separated at the surface by several thousand feet of
easterly dipping quartzites and limestones, and of somewhat
different structure, was assumed to be part of the same boss.
This assumption necessitated in Mr. King’s reconstruction of
the Archean surface, on which the Paleozoic sediments were
deposited, the existence in this part of the original range of a
steep cliff of about 30,000 feet elevation.

While there is abundant evidence in other parts of the 40th
Parallel region to support Mr. King’s statement that the pre-.

*40th Parallel Reports, vol. i, ‘ Systematic Geology,” p. 48.

142 S. fF. Emmons—Little Cottonwood Granite.

Cambrian topography must have been of far bolder type than
that of the present day, the existence of this 30,000 foot cliff
has been regarded by geologists with some incredulity.

As the result of a brief personal visit to the region, Professor
(now Sir) Archibald Geikie published a criticism* of Mr. King’s
views, based largely upon improbability. of the existence of a
eliff of such enormous dimensions, and concludes that the
intrusion must be of post-Carboniferous age. Later in his
text-book of geology he quotes this occurrence as “shown to
be of post-Carboniterous age.”’+

A reply to Professor Geikie’s criticism, on the part of Mr.
King and myself, has awaited the opportunity of making a
further study of the region which should be conducted with
sufficiently greater thoroughness than either of the previous
examinations to settle the question once for all. In conse-
quence, however, of the extreme ruggedness of the region and
the difficulty of access by most of the contact lines, lying as
they do along the edges of precipitous mountain summits, such
an examination would require several weeks’ work with a
camping party and the opportunity of making it has hitherto
not presented itself. In Chapter VI of my report on the.
“Geology of Leadville,’ however, in discussing the extent of
the absorbability of sedimentary rocks by eruptive masses, I took
occasion to refer to one of the arguments that had influenced
us in arriving at the conclusion that the Little Cottonwood
granite was pre-Cambrian. This was, briefly, that the other
assumption, namely, that it was later than the Cambrian quartz-
ites that rested upon it, involved the absorption of some 500
cubic miles of these quartzites by the intrusive magma which
ought to have resulted in making the magma unusually acid,
whereas in point of fact, the Cottonwood granite has only
71°78 per cent of silica, which is but normal and not a specially
acid type. I also referred to the fact that no included frag-
ments of Cambrian quartzites had thus far been found in
granite, although along the Archean contact, near the mouth
of the canyon, such included fragments are of frequent oceur-
rence. On the other hand, I did not mention the fact that
occasional pebbles of granite had been found in the quartzite,
for the reason that we had not yet observed marginal zones of
basal conglomerates, such as Professor Geikie very justly
observed ought to be found at the base of such slopes of land.

Van Hiset examined the canyon in 1889 and found granite
pebbles in the Cambrian quartzite which he, however, regarded
as lithologically unlike the Cottonwood granite. He con-
sidered the Cottonwood and Clayton Peak granites as identical

* This Journal (8) xi, p. 363. + Edition of 1882, p. 646.
tU. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 86, p. 294, 297.

S. F. Emmons—Little Cottonwood Granite. 1438

in character and found the limestones in contact with the
latter exceedingly metamorphosed. He does not, however,
appear to have found any evidence of intrusive nature at the
actual contact of the Cottonwood granite body with the Cam-
brian quartzite. In reviewing the published evidence on the
subject, he is more inclined to favor the view favored by
Geikie than that of the 40th Parallel geologists, though he
admits that he does not regard the objections to the latter view
of so insuperable a nature as did Geikie. |

In the past few seasons several pieces of Survey work have
been carried on under my supervision in this portion of Utah,
and I have taken advantage of the opportunity of having
younger legs than my own at my disposal to have the more
inaccessible portions of the granite contact along Littlewood
Canyon more closely investigated.

Already in the summer of 1900, at the close of his field
work in Bingham Canyon, Mr. J. M. Boutwell at my request
examined the contact of granite and quartzite on the south
face of the Twin Peak ridge, a few miles below Alta, and
found several apophyses of granite cutting into the quartzite
beds above the contact. Mr. Boutwell courteously refrained
from publishing the results of his examination until I should
have an opportunity of personally examining the contact.
This oceurred during the past summer, when Mr. Boutwell’s
party was making a survey of the Park City district, within a
few days’ ride of this locality, and the object of this paper is
to state the result of this examination.

That the Cottonwood granite body is intrusive in the Cam-
brian quartzite is proved by the existence of apophyses of the
former running across the bedding of the latter for some
distance and in one observed instance spreading out again
between the beds in a considerable body. :

On the other hand, no metamorphism of the contact could
be distinguished megascopically, and in the canyon bottom the
upper surface of the granite is smooth and even, conforming
with the bedding planes of quartzite, while small, rounded peb-
bles of a granitoid rock are found in the bed of quartzite
immediately above the contact. At the mouth of the canyon
the western contact of the granite body with the Archean
schists is much more distinctly intrusive, being very ragged
and uneven, while fragments of the former, both large and
small, are included within the granite.

For a distance of over a inile above the eastern contact of
the granite, quartzites and limestones, dipping steeply east-
ward, occupy the bed and sweep up on either wali of the
canyon, thus separating the Cottonwood from the Clayton
Peak eruptive body by an estimated thickness of two to three
thousand feet of sedimentary beds.

144. S. F. Emmons—Little Cottonwood Granite.

The outcrop of the Clayton Peak body occupies the divide
between the heads of Little and Big Cottonwood canyons, the
basin at the head of the latter canyon, and the mass of Clayton
Peak which forms its eastern rim; it also extends for some
distance east of the latter peak in the plateau-like basin at the
head of Little Snake River, where its outcrops are obscured by
surface accumulation.

In my original visit to the head of Big Cottonwood Canyon,
in 1869, I collected a specimen of crystalline garnet rock
which presented something of a schistose structure and was
thought to belong to the Archean complex. At that time the
results of the studies of contact metamorphism by Doelter and
others in the Predazzo-Thal and other classic localities in
Europe had not been published, and even to Prof. Zirkel, who
examined the specimen microscopically, the suggestion did not
present itself that this was probably a phase of contact altera-
tion of limestone. At the present day, however, when the
original dense forest-covering has been cleared away and pros-
pectors have sunk holes wherever the contact of limestone and
granite is exposed, these contacts are readily observed and
show conclusive evidence of the later intrusion of the granite
into lmestone in the abundant development of contact min-
erals, such as vesuvianite, garnet, etc., and of contact deposits
of ores of the metals, in which the association of magnetite
with pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, etc., is most common. Mar-
morization of the limestone is abundant im the region and by
no means confined to the contact belt, but, as Mr. King
observes, spreads out over large areas in the limestone beds
that have no definite relation to any known outcrop of erup-
tive rock. .

The prevailing rock of the Clayton Peak rock is a granular
diorite of the same general mineralogical composition as the
Cottonwood granite, but of finer grain and apparently carrying
less quartz and a greater proportion of basic silicates. The
western portion of this body on the divide between Big and
Little Cottonwood canyons, however, is of somewhat coarser
grain and resembles the granodiorites of the Sierra Nevada.
A small body exposed in Big Cottonwood Canyon, about two
miles below the bend and in the same general geological
horizon as the Clayton Peak mass, but some four miles north
of the outcrop of the Cottonwood granite, is of the fine-grained
dioritic type characteristic of the Clayton Peak mass.

Each of the diorite body of the Clayton Peak, the eastern
spurs of the Wasatch Mountains, are made up of Paleozoic
beds cut through quite irregularly by stocks and dikes of erup-
tive rocks of distinctly porphyritic structure, though of the

S. F. Emmons—Little Cottonwood Granite. 145

same general mineralogical composition as the diorite. These
general relations are shown in the accompanying profile of the
range on a general east and west line running through Twin
Peak, the head of Little Cottonwood Canyon, and Clayton
Peak.

1

Tron Pea. Syne tene
4

Fro Valley eae
+ é Tar

A broad depression between the eastern foothills of the
Wasatch Mountains and the western flanks of the Uinta Moun-
tains 1s largely covered by andesitic lavas, overlying bedded
tuffs of an undoubted extrusive nature, which are of Tertiary
(probably post-Eocene) age. These rocks have a striking
resemblance in their mineralogical composition to the diorites
and porphyries of the Clayton Peak mass.

While, therefore, it must be admitted that the geological
history of the region, as traced by the geologists of the 40th
Parallel, is not entirely correct, it is yet too early to state
exactly how far and in what way it should be modified. This
must await a thorough resurvey of the region based on large
scale maps, a work which has already been inaugurated by the
geologists of the Survey; inasmuch, however, as it will pro-
bably be several years before this work will be sufficiently far
advanced to afford final solutions of some of the most critical
problems, it may be permitted to state what these problems are
and to present some alternative hypothesis as to their probable
solution. It is certainly a most striking fact that these several
eruptive bodies, which apparently are of sufficiently similar
mineralogical and chemical composition to have originated in
the same general magma, occur along the line running a little
north of east, which, if extended westward, would pass thr ough
the mining district of Bingham Canyon where occur the most
important intrusions of porphyritic eruptive rocks in the
Oquirrh Mountains, and where there have also been outpour-
ings of later extrusives of consanguineous character along the
flanks of the range. The same line, extended still farther west-
ward to the parallel range of the Aqui Mountains, passes
through a small body of extrusive, andesitic lavas and tuffs on
the east flanks of that range, which, so far as known, is the only
point where eruptive rocks are found in it. Attention was
called to this fact in my original description of the geology of
this region,* and also to the fact that along this line in the

*40th Parallel Report, vol. ii, Descriptive Geology, p. 459.

146 S. F. Hmmons—Little Cottonwood Granite.

Oquirrh and Wasatch Mountains there has been the greatest
concentration of ore deposits. This generalization holds good
at the present day, but modern developments show that there
is an evident genetic connection with the older eruptives, while
none is apparent with the extrusive flows.

The further statement in my original report,* that in the
Wasatch range the mineral deposits are mostly concentrated
within a radius of 6 or 7 miles around Clayton Peak, also holds
good in the light of present developments, which, moreover,
point to a more intimate genetic relation of ore deposition to
the Clayton Peak than to the Cottonwood body, for as far as
known no ore deposits have been found on the contact of the
latter with the surrounding rocks, whereas they are most com-
mon around the Clayton Peak mass. It must be noted, how-
_ ever, that these deposits occur for the most part in calcareous
rocks, and no calcareous rocks are known to occur in contact
with the Cottonwood granite. It may be assumed that the
Cottonwood granite, if regarded as a distinct body, did not reach
a higher horizon than a thousand feet or more below the top
of the Cambrian quartzite. That the Cottonwood and Clayton
Peak granite beds were part of the same mass and hence of
contemporaneous origin, was a plausible assumption as made by
the 40th Parallel geologists but one which has not yet been
supported by the finding of any connection between the two
on the surface. In the absence of such connection a possible
alternative hypothesis is that there have been successive erup-
tions in this region from the same general magma, each of
which reached a higher geological horizon than the preceding
one. On this hypothesis it may be assumed that the Cottonwood
batholith was intruded while the Cambrian beds were still rest-
ing undisturbed upon the upturned edges of the Archean, and
that it did not reach the top of the Cambrian; that this erup-
tion was followed later by the mountain-building movement
which threw the Paleozoic beds into anticlinal and synclinal
folds, and that after they were thus upturned, the Clayton
Peak mass intruded into the Carboniferous limestone and pro-
duced the well recognized contact phenomena now seen. The
stocks or dikes of porphyry in the somewhat higher geological
horizons to the eastward might have been contemporaneous or
slightly later eruptions from the same general magma, and have
owed their less completely crystalline structure to the differing
conditions under which they consolidated. The abundant
mineralization in the region has evidently been in part a direct’
and in part an indirect result of this phase of activity.

As regards the extrusive flows in the depression between the
Wasatch and Uinta Mountains, they rest on a surface from

*Tbid, p. 364.

S. F. Emmons—Little Cottonwood Granite. 147

which not only Mesozoic but a great thickness of Eocene
Tertiary beds must have been denuded, hence a long period
must have elapsed between the older eruptions and this one,
which, by analogy with the regions to the westward, may be
assumed to have occurred during the Miocene period.

It has been assumed as a result of the 40th Parallel work—
an assumption that has not yet been seriously modified by later
investigations—that while there was in the Cordilleran region
toward the close of the Carboniferous a general elevation of
the Great Basin region accompanied by greater or less erosion,
the main mountain-building movement occurred at the close of
the Jurassic. [In the Wasatch some evidence of a transgression
at this period was found by the 40th Parallel geologists, but it
was not insisted on in their reports because without a reéxamina-
tion of the field it could not be considered absolutely conclusive.
It would now appear probable that the eruption of the Clayton
Peak mass must have been contemporaneous with or closely
followed this Jurassic movement. If future investigations
prove that the Cottonwood body is of the same age as the
Clayton Peak mass, there will be found exposed here in unusual
detail the contact phenomena of an enormous granitic batholith,
extending in horizon from the Archean across a vertical column
of 25 to 30,000 feet of sedimentary beds of varying composi-
tion, and an opportunity will be afforded to study what influence,
if any, has been exerted on the intrusive magma by the rocks
through which it passed and which, presumably, must have been
absorbed by it. |

U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.

148 Talbot—Fauna of the Stafford Limestone of New York.

Art. XIV.—A Contribution to a List of the Fauna of the
Stafford Limestone of New York ; by Mtanon Tarszor.

Tue Stafford limestone, as stated by Dr. J. M. Clarke,* is
the western of the two comparatively persistent limestones of
the Marcellus shale of New York, and extends from a point
near Phelps, Ontario County, to Lake Erie. Several outerops
have been recorded and studied. These may be found along
Flint Creek and near Baggerly Corners in Ontario County ; at
Littleville and at another spot near Avon, in Livingston County ;
at Stafford, Leroy, and. Batavia, in Genesee County ; and at
Wende, at Lancaster, and near Buffalo,t in Erie County.
Borings from various salt shafts show its presence at York,
Livonia, and the outlet of Conesus Lake, in Livingston County,
and Miss Elvira Woodt reports it from a sewer excavation in
Buffalo.

Three small collections of this limestone, one from Batavia
and two from Leroy, N. Y., have been worked out in the pale-
ontological laboratory of the Yale University Museum, and
a number of species not previously reported from this horizon
has been found, sufficient to warrant the publication of a list -
supplemental to those given by Dr. Clarke and Miss Wood.

In Miss Wood’s account of the section at Lancaster, the low-
est bed of the limestone is described as made up largely of
Strophalosia truncata and Ambocelia nana. This same rock,
together with typical Stafford material, is in the collection
from Batavia, about forty miles to the east of Lancaster. .
Without visiting the section, it would be unwise to attempt to
interpret the occurrence of this bed at Batavia, as, unfortunately,
its exact horizon was not reported. Of the two collections from
Leroy, only ten miles farther east, neither contains this rock.

In studying the Batavia and Leroy material in the Yale
University Museum, comparison with the lists as given from
the typical Stafford limestone and including the lower beds of
the Lancaster section resulted in the following :—

Species from Batavia

Number of species and Leroy not here-
previously reported. tofore recorded.
Authozoneer =. a: 5. 22 if 4
Cringideaeeeee. Ua: Hal
Bryozda ee ee = + 2
Brachiopodaraee. 2. = 38 5

* Bull. 49, N. Y. St. Mus., pp. 115-138, 1901.
415th Ann. Rept. N. Y. St. Geol., 1895, pt. i, p. 316.
t Bull. 49, N. Y. St. Mus., pp. 189-181, 1901.

Talbot—Fauna of the Stafford Limestone of New York. 149

Species from Batavia

Number of species and Leroy not here-
previously reported. tofore recorded.
ielvueypoda* 226 SOE EO 9
Gastropoda 22222 oo 14 8
Perehopod@ 9. 222 202 3. 3
Sephalopeda’. 2.252 - 11 5
WRUstaces 4-02 eS. i 1
PRPPMCNT OY St i!
Gale Fe 96 34

From this comparison it will be seen that an addition of
thirty-five per cent has been made to the known fauna of the
Stafford limestone. All of the additional species in the
appended list, except the Anthozoa, one of the Cephalopoda,
and four of the Gastropoda, are typical Hamilton species.

Supplemental Kaunal List from the Stafford Limestone.

Batavia. Leroy.
Anthozoa. _

Eueperus Sp: UNGEt.. Loos Solo . Se
eysiprylun., sp: undet, —2.2 22-2225. 222%
Rar-wigopora, sp. undet. 2... 2... 2... 5-
Papirentis, spAundet..2. 222.5202. 522602.

xX XX

Bryozoa.

eyecropora stnuosa: Hall. 2. 2.22.42. 2--- x
irematopora immersa Hall .....2_. 2... s

x X

Brachiopoda.

wronena lomimgert Hall -.-. .-2-..---- XK
Miguiaiged Wall. =.) ele ee. te <
Mrarvynenus, sp. Undet, 2... 2-2-2. 222 x <
pen pcrmmoacronoius Hall)... 22.252... xX
So, LAG TACIG 18 2 Nea Sea a RS

Pelecypoda.

Aviculopecten insignis Hall..-....----.- ~<
Gromnysea Lrvopia Hall’ sl. 6222 2- 2...
Wacrodon Hamilionie Hall __.....-.---
Modiomorpha subalata Hall ..-._....--- <
mucuia corbulijormis Halee* 2 2.8.
Palwonetilo consiricta Hall _.....--.--..-
JP SLO TITS UE) ae 2 x
muncHotUs arcmforms Hall... --
ME CHOLYS ASD) UNGetss 22S fers oe 2

xx KXXXX xX

150 Lalbot—Hauna of the Stafford Limestone of New York.

Batavia. Leroy.
Gastropoda.

Bellerophon, cf. brevilineatus Conrad -_-.-
i curvwmeatus Conrad 2 pe 2.
dee. ueda Hall. 2 22 Aa is eee
Huomphalus planodiscus Hall ...-..------
iatyceras carananim Talla: 20 eee x
BP erectum Wall. oss. 22s. eee ee x
Platyostoma lineatum Conrad. .-.----- --
Plemotomarta Hila Wallies 2 x

XXXXXKXX KX

Cephalopoda.

Gomphoceras lunatum Hall.-.---------- *
Goniatites discoideus Hall ._...._____---- S
Nautalussacr aus Wall 22 ee eee

Ss
x

~~)

jo)

&

xs

R

~D

=

S

S

>.

es

2

x
xxx xX

Orihoceras, .sp.cundet: 2.3622 4. ee ee

Crustacea.

Cyphaspis ornata, var. baccata Hall ihe

|
© | X

Paleontological Laboratory, Yale University Museum,
April, 1908.

* Bellerophon curvilineatus Conrad has not been reported above the Upper
Helderberg limestone, and at that horizon has been found only in the eastern
part of the State, at Schoharie and in the Helderbergs.

B. J. Harrington—Formula of Bornite. iil

Art. XV.—On the Formula of Bornite; by B. J.

HARRINGTON.

Tue subject of the formula of bornite is one which has long
required investigation. If we refer to the standard works on
mineralogy we generally find that the formula of the crystal-
lized mineral is given as Ou,FeS, (or 3Cu,S‘Fe,8, as originally
written by Plattner) and that numerous analyses of the massive
_mineral from various parts of the world show little agreement
with this formula and often differ widely from one another.
The difference in the composition of the massive specimens
has been explained by saying that they were mixtures of bor-
nite with chalcopyrite and chalcocite, and no doubt in the case
of some analyses these or other mixtures have been called
upon to do duty for bornite.

So far as the writer is aware, crystallized’ bornite has not
been met with in Canada. The massive mineral of evident
purity, however, occurs at many localities, and it was thought
that an examination of carefully selected specimens might
throw some light on the question under consideration. Those
chosen were from widely separated points in the Provinces of
Quebec, Ontario, and British Columbia, and the results of
their analysis are as follows :

ile ile: III. ve V.
Copper Sis Ul ie 63°55 62°78 6257.3 63°34 63°18
ligne 10°92 taAs3s8 11°05 10°82 1) ees
Sulphur eae DASA G33 25°39 95°79 25°54 24°88
Insoluble__..- De ty coh 0°30 oats 0°38 0°24
100°10 99°75 99°57 100:09 99°58
Sp. gr. at Rane @ 5°085 DIO 5°090 5:029* hee

I. Harvey Hill, P. Q.
II. Bruce Mines, Ontario.
Ill. Dean Channel, How Sound, B. C.
IV. Copper Mountain, South Fork of Similkameen River, B. C.
V. Texada Island, B. C. The two last analyses were made
by Mr. J. E. A. Egleson.

It will be observed that the results agree well with one
another and also with the formula Cu,FeS,, which gives :

Cu;FeS,
Coppers s 22 Aegon ey ees bs 63°27
Tone ee ee Grn 11°18
SIUC OO SR a A a 25D
100°00

* The fragment used for this determination contained a little malachite,
the effect of which would be to lower the specific gravity slightly.

152 B. J. Harrington—Fformula of Bornite.

Nor are such concordant results likely to have been obtained
from mere mixtures of different sulphides. Furthermore,
they are in close accord with a number of previously published
analyses of massive bornites. Out of fifty analyses cited by
Hintze* about one-fifth agree well with the formula Cu,FeS,
and the average of eight of these gives:

Cop pene oes Bane ot aes 62°85
Tronic satipas Se ee D157
Sip hium edd ese ee eee 25°34

99°76

We pass now to the consideration of crystallized bornite.
Through the kindness of Professors Dana and Pentield of
Yale University, the writer has been able to obtain a speci-
men of the erystallized mineral from Bristol, Connecticut,
which, though long known, had apparently never been anal-
yzed.t It came from the Brush collection (specimen No. 805)
and though partly massive showed at one end a group of fairly
distinct rhombic dodecahedrons, which, so far as could be ascer-
tained microscopically, were entirely free from other minerals
and were found to have a specific gravity of 5-072 at 15° C.
Their analysis gave : :

: Cu;FeS.,
Coppers: Sees 63°24 63°27
frome koh Sow 8 80: 11-20 11°18
Sulphar 2 seeeee sees 25°54 25°55
99°98 100°00

Here then we have a crystallized bornite which does not
agree in composition with the commonly accepted formula
Cu,FeS,. As to this formula, which has so long been assigned
to the crystallized mineral, we find that it was based upon the
analysis of a Cornish specimen published by Plattner in 1839.f
This was followed in the same year by an analysis of another
Cornish specimen by Varrentrapp,§ while a third analysis by
Chodney appeared in the same journal in 1844.|| These three
analyses, together with two others, also of Cornish specimens,
are given below :

* Handbuch der Mineralogie, 1901, p. 915.

+ For an analysis of the massive mineral from Bristol see Dana, ‘* System
of Mineralogy,” 1892, p. 77.

t Pogg. Ann. xlvii, p. 351, 1889.

§ Ibid., p. 372.

|| Ibid., lxi, p. 395, 1844.

B. J. Harvrington—formula of Bornite. 153

I. ii UI. IV. V. CusFeSs
Copper -_-- -- 56,760) 1 82 OMe DAreOMMBa Tl sn 57°68 9 55°58
ROH 2 sk 14642) 14585 lode 1389. 7 15-11 > 16°36
emiphion 52) 98:04 26°98 26°84, 27:17. 26°46 28-06

ee

99°84 100°08 SOT! O87 7 99°25 100-00
I. Condorra Mine, Cornwall. Analysis by Plattner.

II. No locality is given, but the description makes it practi-
cally certain that the specimen was from Cornwall.
Analysis by Varrentrapp.

II. Redruth, Cornwall. Analysis by Chodney.

IV. and V. Cornwall. Exact locality not known. Analyses

by the writer.

It is obvious that none of these analyses agrees well with
the formula Cu,FeS,, nor could it be expected that satisfactory
results would be obtained from the analysis of the Cornish
erystals, all of which, so far as the writer has had an oppor-
tunity of observing, are very impure.* Not only have they
generally been altered by oxidation, but they almost always
contain a yellow sulphide with the characters of chalcopyrite.
In some specimens nearly every crystal when broken shows a
yellow nucleus of chalcopyrite and the writer found it impos-
sible to obtain material which could be regarded as pure. The
early analysts, too, evidently found difficulty, if we are to judge
from their descriptions. Plattner, for example, tells how he
broke up the erystals and picked out the pieces which he con-
sidered to be free from copper pyrites. He further trusted to
washing with distilled water in order “as far as possible” to
remove the superficial portion of the crystals which appeared
to be somewhat oxidized. Varrentrapp, again, states that the
small cubical crystals examined by him all contained a nucleus
(kern) of chalcopyrite and had their surfaces covered with a
layer of copper oxide. He admits also that his results do not
agree well with those of Plattner.

There is then good reason for believing that the formula
Cu,FeS, was deduced from analyses of impure material, and,
as we have seen, it does not apply to the crystallized mineral as
found at Bristol, Connecticut. If a mineral having this for-
mula really exists, then we have two distinct species—bornite
and something else. Artificial products agreeing well with
the formula Cu,FeS, are said to have been prepared, and there

* Professor Penfield has kindly sent me a number of crystals broken from
specimens of Cornish bornite in the Brush collection and these are also very
impure.

i See Hintze, ‘‘ Handbuch der Mineralogie,” 1901, p. 914.

Doelter states that by heating a mixture of CuO,Cu.,O and Fe.O; in a
eurrent of H.S ata temperature not above 200° he obtained the ‘‘ normal

bornite Cu,.S+CuS+FeS” in aggregates of little cubes. He, however, gives
no analysis of these (Zeitschr. f. Kryst., xi, 1886, 36).

154 B. J. Harrington—formula of Bornite.

is no evident reason why such a mineral should not occur in
nature.

Many of the published analyses of so-called bornite show a
composition which could be easily explained by the presence
_ of chalcopyrite, which would reduce the proportion of copper
and increase the proportions of iron and sulphur. In other
cases chalcocite would appear to be present. In this connec-
tion it is interesting to note that a mixture of one molecule of
bornite with one of chalcopyrite would give the old formula,
thus :

Bornite Cu,FeS,
Chalcopyrite CuFeS,

Cu,Fe,S, = 2Cu,Fes..

Such a mixture would contain 73°20 per cent of bornite and
26°8 per cent of chalcopyrite.

The range for the specific gravity of bornite is sometimes
stated to be 4°9 to 5°4; but a substance with as definite a com-
position as pure bornite evidently possesses should not show
so great variation, and it will probably be found that when
the material is carefully selected the range will be more like
5°05 to 5°10. As we have seen, the crystallized mineral from
Bristol gave 5-072.

Department of Chemistry and Mineralogy,
McGill University, May, 1903.

R. N. Maxson—Iodometric Determination of Gold. 155

Arr. XVIL—The Lodometric Determination of Gold wm
Dilute Solution ; by RatpH N. Maxson.

[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale University —CXVII.]

In a former paper from this laboratory* it was shown that
under suitable conditions potassium iodide acts normally upon
auric chloride according to the equation

38K1I+ AuCl,= 3KCl+ Aul+I,

and it appeared that this reaction may serve as the basis of a
trustworthy method for the determination of small quantities
of gold,—the freed iodine being estimated by careful bleach-
ing with sodium thiosulphate and the final addition of standard
iodine to the incipient coloration of the starch indicator, rose
in most cases, or only blue at the outset when the starch has
not undergone hydrolytic change.t Three series of experi-
ments were made upon solutions of auric chloride standardized
by the ferrous sulphate method and by the method of Vanino,t
and one series upon auric chloride made from pure gold foil.
In the first series the solutions of auric chloride (0°8710 grm.

e e e N . .
to the liter) sodium thiosulphate nearly (0), and iodine
N .
nearly taco) were of such strength that an inaccuracy of

0-01°™* in measurement would correspond to about 0:000009
orm. for the gold solution and to a little more than 0-00001
germ. in terms of gold for each of the other solutions. It is
hardly to be supposed that individual readings can uniformly
approximate the truth within 0-01, and as there are six
readings to be made in every complete determination, the
chances for inaccuracy amounting to several hundredths of a
milligram of gold, dependent to a great extent as to direction
and amount upon the personal equation of the operator, are
considerable. Should all these reasonable errors chance to lie
in the same direction, the cumulative errors are likely to reach
at least + 0°00005 grm., and may be even more.

The actual error, due to all causes, found in the first series of
twelve determinations, excepting a single determination mani-
festly not in line with the others, and tending to make the
average error smaller, amounted in the mean to —0:00005 grm.
of gold between extremes of +0°00003 and —0:00010 grin.

In the second series of twenty experiments, in which the
solution of gold was ten times as dilute as in the experiments
* Gooch and Morley, this Journal, viii, 261 (1899).

+ Hale, this Journal, xiii, 379 (1902).
¢{ Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges., xxxi, 1763.

Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH Series, Vou. XVI, No. 92.—Aveust, 1903.
ial .

156 &. NV. Maxson—Todometric Determination of Gold.

of the first series, the other solutions being of the original
strength, the total average error actually observed was consid-
erably lower, as would be expected, and amounted to +0°00002
erm. of gold between extremes of +0:00006 grm. and —0-00002
erm. |

In a third series of ten experiments, in which the dilute gold
Ti

solution (0°0871 to 1 liter) was used, nearly iodine and

1000
N :
nearly Gn thiosulphate were employed. The average error

amounted to less than 0:000004 grm. between extremes of
+0:000020 grm. and —0°000029 grm., but in these determina-
tions the sensitiveness of the starch indicator to iodine becomes
an important factor, and it was necessary to introduce a cor-

Nees
rection of 0°1°™ for the amount of the ann iodine necessary

to bring out the starch reaction in the volume of liquid used,
when tested in blank. .

In still another series of fourteen experiments, made upon
a gold solution (0°0104 to 200°) prepared by dissolving pure
gold foil in chlorine water and destroying the free chlorine by
ammonia, the average error amounted to +0°000002 grm.
between extremes of +0-00001 grm. and —0-000008 grm.

The results of these experiments may be summarized as fol-
lows:

|Number)
| deter- | Gold taken. Strength of solutions. Error.
_ | mina- | Average. Extremes.
| tions.
| Todine| Thiosul-| Gold
| | phate
SeriesI | 11 [8-7imsto4-35™2 | N | N_ (0871 |_0-05me se
| 100 100 - |
Series IZ | 20 087s to0-087™=| N | N_ |0-0871/+0-02m iague
| | 100 100
Series TIT} 10 0-871™<to0-087m N_ | N_ 0-0871/.0-004me { +O-nenne
| | 1000 | 1000 | 5
SeriesIV| 14 |0°520™sto0-052™2] N | N_ (0°052 | 40-002 1 a
| | 1000 | 1000

It is plain that the average experimental errors, due to all
causes, do not very much exceed the errors which might natu-
rally be expected to arise from errors of reading. In repeat-
ing the work of Gooch and Morley I have obtained results of
a reasonably similar order of accuracy. The process has, how-
ever, been recently criticized unfavorably by Rupp* on the

* Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges., xxxv, 2011.

Lf. N. Maxson—lodometrie Determination of Gold. 157

ground that the percentage errors are found to be large. It is
to be noted, however, that large percentage errors are inevita-
ble, in the application of volumetric methods to the determina-
tion of total weights measured in hundredths of a milligram, or
tenths of a milligram, or even in a few milligrams, inasmuch as
the reasonable errors to be expected in the measuring of solu-
tions strong enough to be visibly reactive are of themselves
large when reckoned as percentages of small absolute amounts.
These errors, small as they are, Rupp attributes to the second-
ary reactions of potassium iodide on aurous iodide, in which
gold is reduced and iodine set free. I have been unable, how-
ever, to find evidence of such action under the conditions
of experimentation during periods much longer than those
required for the completion of the analytical process. Thus
aurous iodide, obtained by treating a solution of auric chloride
containing 0°0125 grm. of gold, with potassium iodide accord-
ing to the directions of Gooch and Morley, adding starch and
bleaching the starch with sodium thiosulphate, gave no color of
starch blue after the interval of an hour. A segond similar
experiment gave the same result. Inasmuch as an interval of
ten minutes is enough for the complete manipulation of a
single determination, it is plain that the stability of the aurous
iodide does not figure in the accuracy of the determination of
the small amounts of gold for which the process was designed.
As a substitute for the method described by Gooch and
Morley and sustained by the fifty-five analytical determinations
mentioned, Rupp announces a process for the estimation of
gold depending upon the precipitation of that element from
auric chloride by means of standard arsenious acid in excess,
according to the equation :

3As,0O,+4AuCl,+6H,0 = 3As,0,+12HCl+4Au,

and the titration of the excess of arsenious acid by iodine.
To show the reliability of the process Rupp cites six determi-
nations, in one of which the titrations were made in two por-
tions. Four of these six deal with 61:28 of goid each, while
in two the gold amounted to 6:1™*. These figures, which cover
the entire range of the amounts used in Rupp’s analytical
determinations, do not represent the order of magnitude or range
of the amounts of gold handled by Gooch and Morley, which
varied from 8°7™= to 0:052™%. Only two determinations upon
amounts comparable with those used by Gooch and Morle
were made, and in only these two were suitably dilute solu-
; £ jodi N
tions Of 1odine =
The gold solution employed in all the determinations was of
such strength that a single error of 0-01°™ in reading would

7 N
) and of arsenious acid (ar) employed.

158 L. V. Maxson—Lodometric Determination of Gold.

amount to an error of 0:00006 grm. of gold: while the argeni-
ous acid employed in three determinations was so strong (5)

that an inaccuracy in reading to the extent of 0°01°™* would
introduce an error of 0°0003 grm., actually greater than the
whole amount of gold involved in each of the individual deter-
minations of the greater part of the entire series of Gooch and
Morley, and nearly six times greater than their minimum
amounts. it is plain, therefore, that Rupp’s experiments do
not relate to the small amounts of gold handled by Gooch and
Morley, and that experiments made with such solutions as
Rupp employed cannot form a basis upon which to found a
method for the determination of the very small amounts of
gold determined by Gooch and Morley.

It has seemed to be desirable, therefore, to submit the pro-
cess of Rupp to further investigation. In these experiments
the procedure of Rupp was followed in general, but the
reagents were all used in solutions reasonably dilute, as must
be the case if accuracy is to be attained. The gold solution
used was prepared from pure gold chloride, and was carefully
standardized by means of metallic magnesium, and electroly-
tically with the revolving cathode, according to the method of
Gooch and Medway.* The solution contained 0:05808 of
metal in 1 liter, and was free from nitric acid. The arsenic

N Pasa
solution was ri and was made by properly diluting a standard
solution of a arsenious oxide. The iodine solution used was
approximately aa? and was made by properly diluting an
iodine solution, which had been carefully standardized against

the a6 arsenie solution mentioned above.

In reducing and determining the gold the procedure was as
follows:—A measured quantity of the slightly acid solution of
standard aurie chloride was drawn from a burette into a 100™
graduated flask and to this was added a measured excess of a
standard solution of arsenious acid dissolved, as usual, in acid
potassium carbonate. In every case the excess of the arsenious
acid was considerable and the acid carbonate introduced simul-
taneously was enough to more than neutralize the slight
acidity of the auric chloride. Rupp states that the reduction
takes place in acid solution, but I have been unable to effect
the precipitation of the gold when free acid is present, but from
a solution made so acid that the carbonate present in the

* This Journal, xv, 320 (1903).

Exp.

i

If

Iil

IV

Vi

Wet

VIll

XI

, ORRORRRE TBR OP OR RORI AE PRR RR OT aR BE

1 BIR RIE rsa

BR A

BHR

IR BIE

1)
i)

BABE BIH

Fraction
titrated.

Ly

Gold
found in

each frac-

tion.

erm.
0°00010
0°00011
0°00013

0°00010
0°00013
0°00010

0°00017
0°00016
0'00014

0:00060
0°00060
0.00062

0.00056
000058
000058

0°00043

. 0°00048

0°00075
000074
0°00074
0-00061
0°00058

0°00082
0°00081
0°00080

0°00072
0°000738

0°00066
0:00071
0°00075

Gold com-
puted for
the whole
solution.
erm.

0.00045

000044

0-00063

0°00242

0°00229

0:00297

0°00238

0°00824

0°00290

0°00283

0-00087

0°00087

0°00087

0°00232

0-00232

0°00232

0°002382

0.00290

0°00290

0:00290

0°00290

R. N. Maxson—TIodometric Determination of Gold. 159

— 0.00042

— 0°000438

— 0.00024

+ 0°00010

m+

—0°00003

—0°00060

+ 0°00065

+ °000384

0°00000

— 0°00007

160 &. WV. Maxson—Todometric Determination of Gold.

standard arsenic is insufficient to neutralize the free acid the
gold may be precipitated upon the further addition of a suit-
able amount of acid potassium carbonate. The flask contain-
ing the gold, the arsenite and the acid carbonate was heated
thirty minutes upon a steam bath, then cooled and filled to the
100°? mark. Measured portions of the solution, 25°™° each,
were titrated with the standard iodine in presence of acid
potassinm carbonate and potassium iodide. The details of
these experiments are shown in the accompanying table.

A comparison of the figures obtained in the individual titra-
tions of portions of a single reduction show that the difference
due to the errors of analysis are reasonably small, rarely exceed-
ing afew units in the fifth decimal place—or a few hundredths
of amilligram. ‘The errors of the process, however, computed
by comparing the average of these single determinations with
amount of gold actually taken, range from —0°6™! to +0°65™5,
are wholly irregular, and are approximately ten times as large,
reckoned absolutely or-in percentages, as the errors obtained
by Gooch and Morley when handling similar amounts of gold.
So far as the evidence of these experiments goes, it is plain
that the process of Rupp is wholly untrustworthy for the deter-
mination of the very small amounts of gold concerned.

I take this opportunity to thank Professor F. A. Gooch for
much kindly aid and advice in the preparation of this paper.

G. F. Barker—Radioactivity of Thorium Minerals. 161

Art. XVII.—Radioactivity of Thorium Minerals ;* by

GrorcE F. BARKER.

Tue discovery of the spontaneous radioactivity of uranium
and its compounds, by Becquerel in 1896+ has affected most
profoundly our views not only of the constitution of matter,
but also of the relations existing between matter and energy.
The extraordinarily delicate means which he proposed for the
detection of this radioactivity, first the photographic method,
and second the electric, made possible the remarkable dis-
covery by the Curies and Bemont in 1898} of the new element
radium, whose quantity in uraninite is so infinitesimal as to be
far beyond our power of detection by the balance, or even by
the spectroscope. Indeed, only the enormous ratio of the
energy of radiuin to the radioactive matter concerned in emit-
‘ting it, enabled it to be recognized even by the electrometer.

In February, 1898, G. C. Schmidt presented to the Physical
Society of Bberlin§ a preliminary paper on the rays emitted by
the element thorium and its compounds. This paper was
printed in extenso in Weedemann’s Annalen in the following
April.| On the 12th of the same month, a communication
from Mme. Sklodowska Curie was presented by Lippmann to
the Academie des Sciences of Paris# giving an account of her
examination of the radioactivity of a number of substances,
including the compounds of thorium. Like Schmidt, she used
both the photographic and the electric methods in her investi-
gations, making the latter quantitative. Two condenser piates
were employed, 8 centimeters in diameter, separated 3 centi-
meters from each other, and having a potential difference of
100 volts maintained between them. A uniform layer of the
substance to be examined, finely pulverized, was placed on the
lower plate ; and since the emitted rays ionized the air between
the plates and rendered it conducting, a current traversed the
condenser and charged the electrometer to which the upper
plate was connected. Knowing the capacity of the electro-
meter, inasmuch as the speed of deviation of the needle is
proportional to the current-strength, it is possible to determine
the current in absolute measure. It was found preferable,
however, to measure the counter potential difference required
to maintain the electrometer at zero. As its charge was feeble,
this compensation was accomplished by means of a piezoelec-

* Read before the National Academy of Sciences, April 22, 1903.
+ Comptes Rendus, exxii, 420, 501, 689, 1896.

¢ Comptes Rendus, exxvii, 1215, December, 1898.

S Verh. Phys. Ges. Berlin, xvii, 14, February, 1898.

| Ann. Phys. Chem., II, lxv, 141-151, April 15, 1898.
§| Comptes Rendus, exxvi, 1101, April 12, 1898.

162 G. EF. Barker—Radioactivity of Thorium Minerals.

tric quartz, one armature of which was connected to the upper
plate. By placing weights in a scale-pan attached to the
quartz plate, the difference of potential produced was so regu-
lated as to secure compensation between the quantity of elec-
tricity traversing the condenser and that of opposite sign
yielded by the quartz. With a given condenser, and a given
substance, it was observed that the current increased with the
difference of potential between the plates, and with the gas
pressure. It also increased as the plates were separated.
With high potential difference, the current tends toward a
constant limit, the saturation-current. ‘This saturation-current
was taken as the measure of the radioactivity, the number of
ions produced per second being greater in proportion as the
radiation absorbed is greater.

With this apparatus, the radioactivity of uranium is measur-
able with considerable precision; the current having an order
of magnitude of 10-" ampere. - It varied but little with tem-°
perature, was not affected by light, and did not seem to vary
sensibly with time. The value of the current obtained with
Moissan’s metallic uranium (probably containing a trace of
carbon) was 2°4.10-" amperes. Tested in this way it was
found that thorium compounds were very active, theria sur-
passing even metallic uranium. It was observed that the eur-
rent increased with the thickness of the material, a layer 0°25
millimeter thick giving a current of 2°2.10-" ampere, and one
of 6 millimeters one of 5:3.10-" ampere. Thorium sulphate
gave acurrent of only 0°8.10-" ampere. The phenomenon
was most regular with a layer only 0°25 millimeter thick, vary-
ing between wide limits when the thickness was 6 millimeters,
especially with the oxide. Thorium rays were found to be
more penetrating than those of uranium, those emitted by
thoria from thick layers being more penetrating than those
from thin ones.* Subsequently Owens studied the radiations
from thorium compounds, determining the conditions affecting
its constancy, the form of the saturation curve, the character
of the radiations from different salts, the types of radiation,
selective absorption, the effect on the rays of suspended par-
ticles, the variation of conductivity with air pressure and the
absorption of the radiations by air.

Inasmuch as uranium and thorium were the only elements
then known possessing radioactive properties, it was natural
to examine the minerals in which these substances occur,
with a view to determine their properties in this regard.
Accordingly Mme Curie, using the electric method and the
apparatus above described, tested thirteen well-known minerals,

* Rapports au Congrés International de Physique, iii, 79, Paris, 1900.
+ Phil. Mag., V, xlviii, 359, 1899.

G. F. Barker—Radioactivity of Thoriwm Minerals. 163

containing both uranium and thorium. They all were found
to be radioactive, though in very different degrees. Measured,
as above, in terms of current, xenotime gave 0:03.10-" ampere,
niobite 0°3, fergusonite 0-4, monazite 0°5, aeschynite 0-7,
ssamarskite 171, thorite 1-4, cleveite 1:4, orangeite 2°0, autunite
2-7, chaleolite 5:2, carnotite 6:2 and pitchblende (uraninite)
from 6°5 to 8°3.10-" ampere. The remarkable fact that four
of these minerals were more active than metallic uranium and.
especially that the uraninite from Johanngeorgenstadt was
nearly four times as active, led, as is well known, to the dis-
covery in it of the three new radioactive substances, polonium,
radium and actinium.

In February, 1902, Hofmann and Zerban published a paper
on Radioactive Thorium* obtained from certain minerals allied
to uraninite. In connection with Strauss, the former of these
chemists had previously prepared thoria from broggerite,
cleveite and samarskite, and had found it to be radioactive.
Hofmann and Zerban now observe that the activity of these
thoria preparations may be materially increased by fractional
precipitation with potassium sulphate or chromate, with hydro-
gen peroxide or with sodium thiosulphate, the most active
fractions beg those most readily precipitated. By using
ammonium carbonate as the precipitant, on the other hand,
the most active material is found in the most soluble fraction.
_ To their surprise, however, they found that the thoria thus
obtained, on keeping it for five months, even in closed vessels, —
lost a large part of its radioactivity. Thus the most active
thoria, which in June blackened the photographic plate very
strongly even through glass, acted very feebly in the following
November. LElectroscopic tests also confirmed this diminution
in radioactivity. A specimen of thoria from broggerite which
in November discharged the electroscope in 1 minute required
3m. 45s. to do the same thing in January. A specimen from
cleveite, which in November took 1m. 10s. to discharge the
electroscope, required in January 2m. 5s. And a preparation —
from samarskite, which took 1m. 30s. in November to effect
this discharge, did the same thing in January only after 1m.
DOs.

These results lead the authors to assume (1) that the thoria
prepared from bréggerite, cleveite and samarskite possesses,
not a primary but a secondary induced activity, and (2) that
this induced activity is due to the uranium always present in
the minerals referred to. In proof of this assumption, the
authors prepared thoria from Brazilian monazite sand, which
they assert contained no trace of uranium, and found it to be
absolutely inactive, whether tested by the photographic plate

* Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., xxxv, 531, 1902.

164. G. £. Barker— Radioactivity of Thorium Minerals.

or by the electroscope. They then rubbed one gram of this
thoria with five grams of a specially purified uranoso-uranic
oxide, heated the mass to 400° for four hours and allowed the
mixture to stand for fourteen days. It was then dissolved in
nitric acid, the thoria precipitated as oxalate, washed and
ignited. On testing it, it was found to be strongly active, dis-
charging the electroscope in 1m. 5s., even after four weeks.

In the course of some experiments on the photographie
action of radioactive substances made in December, 1899, I
obtained an intense darkening of the plate atter an exposure
of 8 hours, with uranyl chloride, uranium chloride, metallic
uranium and uraninite, the darkening being in the order
named, A few weeks later, using uraninite as the radioactive
source, with an exposure of 16 hours, I observed that the
penetrating power of the rays it emitted, through metal plates
‘0025 inch in thickness, were in the order aluminum, tin, cop-
per, silver, lead, platinum. Similar experiments with de Haen’s
radium salts, brought from Europe in September of that year,
showed much more powerful action, an exposure of fifteen
minutes giving a distinct effect upon the plate.

During the past winter these experiments have been resumed,
with especial reference to the compounds of thorium and the
minerals containing it. To compare the intensity of these
radioactive minerals, an exposure of 48 hours was made with
uraninite (from Bohemia and from Saxony), gummite (North

Carolina), autunite (Limoges), euxenite (Norway), thorite (Nor-
way), samarskite (North Carolina), and orangite (Norway).
While the intensity of the darkening was in ceneral in the
order above given, the effect of the first three minerals far

exceeded any of the others. Moreover the penetrating power
of the emitted rays was examined at the same time by placing
each of the minerals upon a thin brass stencil plate, having its
initial cut through it. The rays from gummite seemed to
penetrate the brass the most readily ; then followed the uranin-
ite, the autunite, the euxenite, the samarskite and the thorite.

The investigations were then continued with especial refer-
ence to the mineral monazite, the chief source of the thoria
now so largely used in this country and Europe, for the manu-
facture of the Welsbach gas mantles. By the courtesy of Mr.
M. OC. Whitaker, of the Chemical Department of the Welsbach
Company, I was furnished with authentic samples of Brazilian
monazite sand, of monazite sand from North Carolina and of
pure thoria from each of these; this thoria having been
obtained in the course of analysis. I also obtained a sample
of pure ammonium-thorium nitrate and one of thorium oxalate.
On exposing these six substances on a sensitive photographie

plate thoroughly protected from the light, for 48 hours, satis-

G. F. Barker—Radioactivity of Thorium Minerals. 165

factory impressions were obtained from all of them. Of the
two monazites, that from Brazil gave perhaps a trifle the
darker stain; that specimen containing 90 per cent of monazite
and about 6-per cent of thoria, while the North Carolina sand
contained about 66 per cent of monazite and 4 per cent
of thoria. For purposes of comparison a piece -of metallic
uranium was exposed under the same conditions upon the same
plate.* The darkening effect was very considerably greater
than that produced by the thoria.

In view of the assertions of Hofmann and Zerban already
stated, to the effect, first, that Brazilian monazite sand con-
tains no uranium, and second, that in consequence of this, the
thoria obtained from this source is not radioactive, the above
described experiments were carefully repeated. The results
obtained were practically the same. The plate was darkened,
during an exposure of 48 hours, by all the six substances placed
upon it; by the two monazite sands from Brazil and from
North Carolina, by the two thorium oxides obtained from
these, by the ammonium-thorium nitrate and by the thorium
oxalate. The oxalate stain was perhaps a little darker than
the nitrate and the Brazilian stain a trifle darker than the
North Carolina one. Apparently, therefore, the second of
Hofmann and Zerban’s conclusions, to wit: that thoria pre-
pared from brazilian monazite sand is ‘‘ absolutely inactive,”
can hardly be accepted as final.

The claim, however, that the radioactivity of thorium com-
pounds is not a primary but a secondary induced activity due
to the presence of uranium in the minerals in which it occurs,
needs to be considered here. The monazite sands are complex
and variable in composition, and may in isolated cases con-
tain even uranium. ‘The specimens used in the experiments
above described therefore were submitted to several competent
chemists, all of whom reported that they were entirely free
from this element. The main conclusion would therefore
seem legitimate, that radioactive thorium compounds may be
prepared from minerals which do not contain uranium. If so,
the conclusion can hardly be evaded that thorium is a primary
radioactive substance.

The composite character of the rays emitted by radioactive
substances appears to have been observed about the same time
by Becquerel,t by the Curiest and by Giesel.§ According
to Becquerel| these rays are of three sorts: (1) those deviable

* Given me in 1899 in Moissan’s Laboratory, by the courtesy of Professor
Lebeau.

+ Comptes Rendus, cxxix, 1205; cxxx, 206, 372; cxxxii, 371.

{ Comptes Rendus, exxix, 996; cxxx, 73, 76, 647; cxxxii, 183.

§ Ann. Phys. Chem., II, lxix, 834, 1899.

|| Proc. Roy. Inst., xvii, 1, March 1902.

166 G. F. Barker— Radioactivity of Thorium Minerals.

by a magnetic field, which are apparently identical with
cathode rays; (2) those not so deviable, but very readily ab-
sorbed ; and (3) non-deviable rays, which like Roéntgen rays
have creat penetrating power. He states that the rays emitted
by uranium are substantially of the first kind, those from
‘polonium are of the second kind, and those sent out by radium.
and thorium consist of all three kinds. In subsequent investi-
gations, Rutherford,* in connection first with Griert and
afterward with Soddy,t made this classification more rigid.
Radium rays were divided into three distinet types; a@ rays,
easily absorbed by thin layers of matter, and producing the
ereater part of the ionizing effect; 6 rays, consisting of nega-
tively charged particles moving with high velocity and similar
in all respects to cathode rays; and y rays, non-deviable in a
magnetic field and of a very penetrating character. The
energy radiated in the form of a rays is about 1000 times
greater than that emitted as 8 rays. During the present year
Rutherford$ has succeeded in obtaining the deviation of the
a rays both in the magnetic and the electric fields, and has
thereby proved these rays to consist of positively charged
material particles having a much greater mass and a lower
velocity than those constituting the 8 rays. In fact the mass
of those particles is of the same order as that of the hydrogen
atom and they travel with a speed only about one-tenth that of
light. Moreover, it has been shown| that the a rays con-
tribute by far the greater part of the electrical effect, while
the 8 rays produce practically all of the photographic effect.
Thus uranium when freed from UrX, though inactive to the
photographic plate, possesses a nearly normal activity when
examined by the electric method.

In his investigations upon thorium, Baskerville says: ‘“ The
oxide (sp. gr. 9°25) obtained from the insoluble citrate affects
the sensitive plate in the dark after an exposure of seventy-
two hours but shghtly, while the oxides of higher specific
gravity are quite active. A number of plates have been
exposed using oxides obtained through the research, monazite
sand from which the thorium salts were prepared, uranium
nitrate, acetate, uraninite and blanks for comparison. The
radioactivity increased with increase in specific gravity.”
Hearing that he had finally obtained a thoria so pure that it
did not affect the photographic plate, I wrote him asking
for the loan of a small sample to compare with my own speci-
mens. In the letter accompanying the specimen which he
was good enough to send me, he says: “I have secured pre-

* Phil. Mag. VI, v, 177, 1903. + Phil. Mag. VI, iv, 315, 1902.

+t Phil. Mag. VI, v, 445, 1903. § Rutherford, 1. ¢.

| Phil. Mag. VI, v, 441, 1903. 4] J. Am, Chem. Soc., xxiii, 761, 1901.

G. FE. Barker—Radioactivity of Thorium Minerals. 167

parations which.did not affect a sensitive photographie plate
noticeably after an exposure of seventy hours.” He prefers,
however, the clectric method, and says: “I have prepared a
large number of thorium preparations, several hundred, and
have not yet succeeded in securing a thorium compound or
derivative which did not possess some radioactivity by the latter .
method.” Upon testing the “very pure” specimen received,
by an exposure of 96 hours, a satisfactory darkening of the pho-
tographic film resulted ; though much less intense than the stain
given by the thoria previously employed. Were it possible to
separate by fractionation or otherwise a sample of thoria into
two portions, one of which had only a photographic and the
other only an electric action, it might suggest that the con-
stituent of the thoria which emits the 6 rays may be separable
from the one emitting the a rays. Inasmuch as all the thoria
preparations examined by Baskerville were obtained from mon-
azite sand, coming either from North Carolina or Brazil, and
inasmuch as none of these preparations failed to show a radio-
activity either photographic or electric, the conviction is
strengthened that thorium does not owe its activity to an
induction from uranium existing In the minerals from which it
was obtained.

The fact that inactive substances acquire under the influence
of radium a temporary activity was first observed by the
Curies,* who called the effect “la radioactivite induite.” On
exposing a dise of zine for example, 8™ in diameter, opposite —
a surface of radium 4° in diameter and 3™ distant, an activ-
ity 2000 times that of uranium was obtained; practically the
same results being obtained with nickel, brass, bismuth,
aluminum and lead. Solutions of radium salts appear to pro-
duce the phenomenon with more intensity than the solid salts.
Gases even may in this way be made radioactive. Water dis-
tilled from radium solutions is radioactive. When barium
sulphate is precipitated from a solution of barium chloride by
sulphuric acid in presence of a salt of uranium, it is found to
be radioactive. Debierne,t proceeding in this way and using
actinium in place of uranium, obtained a barium salt of oreat
activity, which could be concentrated by fractionation, the
most active fractions being 1000 times as active as uranium.
The result was a radioactive barium, carrying its properties
into all its salts and distinguished from radium mainly by its
spectrum and by the oradual loss of its properties.

The discovery in 1899, almost simultaneously by the Curies{
and by Rutherford,s of the emission by both radium and

* Comptes Rendus, exxix, 714, 1899 ; CXXX, 1018, 1900.

+ Comptes Rendus, exxxi, 333, 1900.

¢ Rapports au Congres Intern. de Physique, iii, 79, 1900.
§ Phil. Mag., V, xlix, 2, 1900; VI, v, 95, 1908.

168 G@. F. Barker—Radioactivity of Thorium Minerals.

thorium, of a gas or vapor itself temporarily radioactive and
capable of emitting rays, has thrown much light upon this
so-called induced radioactivity. This “ emanation,” as Ruth-
erford calls it, diffuses without change through gases and
liquids, and even porous substances, but not through glass or
mica. It is chemically inert, and may be passed through
ignited platinum black and lead chromate without change. It
appears to be a new member of the argon family, with an
atomic mass between forty and one hundred. The emanations
from thorium and radium differ somewhat in properties, that
from the former liquefying at —120° and that from radium at
—150°. Moreover, the radioactivity of the thorium emanation
rapidly decays, falling to half its value in one minute; while
that of the radium emanation retains its active properties for
several weeks. On the other hand, the “excited” radioactiv-
ity, as Rutherford prefers to call it, produced by the former
emanation, is much more permanent than that produced by the
latter. Since excited radioactivity can be produced on bodies
if the emanation be present, even in the absence of a radioac-
tive substance, and since the amount of effect is directly pro-
portional to the amount of the emanation, it follows, first, that
the production of excited radioactivity is a property of the
emanation and therefore is always produced on bodies when
the radioactive emanations from thorium and radium are pres-
ent; and second, that uranium and polonium which do not
give off any emanation, do not possess the power of exciting
radioactivity. In the present view of science, therefore, it
would not seem probable that the radioactivity of thorium is
a secondary or excited radioactivity due to the uranium asso-
ciated with it in the minerals above mentioned.

TTeadden—NSilicic Acid in Mountain Streams. 169

Arr. XVIII.—Significance of Silicie Acid in Waters of
Mountain Streams; by W. P. HEADDEN.

WHILE etd in some work on the waters of the San
Luis Valley I was struck by the unusually high percentage of
silicic acid, from 25 to upwards of 40 per cent, in the residues
obtained on evaporation. I was, at the time, inclined to
attribute this to some accident, or perhaps error. The water
had been shipped in jugs, and ‘this may have had some influ-
ence, but several conditions lead me to believe that this influence,
if any at all, was wholly negligible. The water was evapo-
rated as soon as possible after it was received at the laboratory,
so that the water was in these jugs but a few days—from seven
to ten at the longest. The quality and-character of the resi-
due did not support this view, and the action of the water on
the jugs may be left out of consideration.

The waters to which reference is here made were of excel-
lent quality and were either artesian or spring waters, but I
also observed that the water of the Rio Grande del Norte, at
Del Norte, was richer in silicic acid than is usual for river
waters, and richer here than further down the stream. There
was nothing in the composition of the dissolved mineral matter
apparently worthy of special attention except it be the high
percentage of silicic acid, and while this was common to sev-
eral waters from different sources, I did not feel that this
characteristic was sufficiently well established to entitle it to
acceptance. We gained but little that at the time would
bear any interpretation, beyond the fact that the spring and
artesian waters of this large basin are of exceptionally good
quality. This statement does not apply to a subordinate basin
in which the towns of Mosca and Garrison, formerly called
Hooper, are situated. The wells of this basin at a depth of
500 to 880 feet yield a brown water rich in alkalies, but rela-
tively and as a rule absolutely poorer in silicic acid than the
artesian waters.

There are a number of springs along the eastern margin of
the valley and some larger ones in the southern part of it, the
waters of which are of good quality and carry from 5:3 grains
to 17-6 grains of mineral matter to the imperial gallon, of
which silicic acid constitutes as much as 30 per cent.

This line of work was laid aside in order to take up others
which seemed more urgent and perhaps more important also,
but recently, while studying the changes suffered by river
waters used for the purposes of irrigation, my attention has
again been called to the presence of silicic acid as a character-
istic mineral constituent of the waters of mountain streams

170 Headden—Silicic Acid in Mountain Streams.

whose collecting grounds are granitic areas and whose courses
have not yet traversed a long enough reach of open country, or
the plains, to have received either water from collecting areas
of a different character or drain waters from lands adjacent to
their courses.

I shall now set forth such facts as have fallen under my
observation which seem to me to amount to reasonable proof
that this high percentage of silicic acid, varying greatly within
the limits of 15 and 46 per cent, is, in the instances which I
have studied, specifically due to the action of water and carbon
dioxid, and, perhaps, also of the acid products arising from the
decomposition of vegetable matter on the felspars of the gran-
ite of the region. The action of the organic matter on the
felspars is, in the first phase of their decomposition, at the very
utmost insignificant if not nil, such, at least, is the result
obtained by an experiment made to ascertain how great a part
is played by such agents. In passing I will mention, apropos
to the presence of organic matter, the fact, that on evaporating
a large quantity of water from our mountain streams, from the
Cache a la Poudre for instance, one obtains at last a solution
which is strongly colored by humus-like substances and pos-
sesses an extremely disagreeable odor. In the case of the
Cache a la Poudre water used there was no question of pollu-
tion by sewage, for in all the distance traversed by its waters
from their several sources to the point where the sample was
taken, a distance of about sixty miles, the total population does
not exceed 150 souls, and the number of cattle grazing in this
district is so small that the question of pollution arising from.
either of these sources is absent, and would be even if the flow
of the river were very small, but this seldom falls as low as
200 second feet and is usually much greater—still this water,
when larger quantities of it are evaporated down, shows the
presence of a significant amount of organic matter which,
despite its odor suggestive of an animal origin, I feel justified
in assuming to come from decaying vegetable matter. I shall
subsequently set forth the facts on which I base the statement
that this organic matter plays no important role in determin-
ing the amount and character of the mineral matter dissolved
out of the rock and carried in solution in such river waters.

The amount of silicic acid usually carried by river waters is
small, the maximum shown in the analyses of forty-five Euro-
pean river waters being 21 per cent of the total solids, the Rhine
at Strassburg, which carried in the sample analyzed 16-1 grains
mineral matter per gallon—but this sample seems to have been
an exception even for the Rhine, for other samples of its water
show much smaller quantities of substances in solution and
materially lower percentages of silicicacid ; at Basle for instance,

Headden—Silicie Acid in Mountain Streams. iy@:

the water carried 11°8 grains of mineral matter in each imperial
gallon, 1 per cent of which was silicic acid; at Bonn it carried
11°9 grains, 5 per cent of which was silicic acid; at Arnheim,
11-1 grains, of. which 6 per cent was silicic acid. The Rhone,
sample taken near Geneva, yielded 18 grains total solids to the
imperial gallon, of which 8:2 per cent was silicic acid ; this,
8-2 per cent, is, with the exception of the 21 per cent for the
sample of Rhine water taken at Strassburg, the maximum
shown by the forty-five European rivers.

Spring waters as a rule carry still smaller amounts of silicic
acid than the river waters. Thirty-two analyses given in Watts
Chem. Dict., Art. Water, show 17 and 22 as maximum per-
centages, the total solids being 73 and 4°3 grains respectively.
Analyses of twenty-nine artesian waters show 3 per cent as the
maximum quantity of silicic acid present in their mineral
matter, which in this sample equalled 36-7 grains per gallon.

Mineral springs sometimes show larger percentages of silicic
acid in their mineral constituents, but even these, the springs
of the Yellowstone National Park and one or two others, gey-
sers, excepted, show maxima of 18 and 28 for the percentages
of silicic acid in their total solids. This statement is based on
the analyses of 179 American and 66 foreign mineral springs.

I deem these data sufficient to justify the assertion that sil- -
ici¢ acid usually constitutes a comparatively small percentage
of the total solids contained in the waters of fresh and mineral
“springs as well as of those contained in river waters.

The lake and oceanic waters, particularly the latter, have
suffered such varied and deep changes in regard to the compo-
sition of their mineral content that the silicic acid has either
been entirely removed or its quantity has been reduced to a
mere trace; the maximum that I can find given is 0°05 per
cent of the total solids present. It is usually absent.

The water of the springs of the Yellowstone National Park,
and of a few others, contains silicic acid in very notable quanti-
ties. Such springs frequently, if not always, have an elevated
temperature. This, however, is not the case with the springs and
wells referred to; and the rivers, as is well known, have a low
temperature, their waters being cooled by the melting of snow
accumulated within the areas of their drainage. The presence
of silicic acid in the waters of the former class of springs is
attributed to the action of heated water aided by pressure and
the presence of alkalies. The heat in these cases is of volcanic
origin, a residual volcanic effect, while the alkalies are supposed
to be obtained from the alteration of the various kinds of fel-
spars, one or more of which is present in most kinds of rocks,
especially in volcanic rocks. Such theories are in no manner

Am. Jour. Sct.—FourtH Series, Vou. XVI, No. 92.—Aveust, 1903.
12

£2 Headden—Silicic Acid in Mountain Streams.

applicable to the river waters of our mountains and it'is very
doubtful whether they would apply at all to any of the springs
occurring in the San Luis Valley. It is true that eruptive
rocks occur in the southern part of the valley; it is also true
that some of the springs mentioned later are located on the
northern edge of this belt of lava occurrences. I do not, how-
ever, believe that the presence of silicic acid in the waters is
influenced by the lava which occurs here as remnants of a
sheet which formerly covered the country, especially tc the
southward, but whose point of eruption was probably quite
remote. If these waters do come in contact with eruptives of
any sort in their course to the surface, they are cold and the
waters would act upon them as they would if they were on the
surface plus whatever effect the pressure, molecular or other,
under which the water exists in the recks may produce. These
springs are bringing no subterranean heat to the surface, the
temperatures observed being 59° F. and 70° F. There are
warm and hot springs south and southwest of this, but they are
many miles away and the water is relatively poor in silicic
acid ; that of Ojo Caliente, temperature 122° I. contains about
75 grains total solids per imperial gallon, of which less than
one per cent is silicic acid. The range of the temperature of
‘the artesian wells throughout the valley is from 53° F. to 71°
F. It seems then that the part played by heat in taking the
silicic acid into solution in these cases is as good as nothing,
while in the case of the rivers receiving their supply directly
from fields of melting snow it is patently out of the question.
All the statements that I recall relative to the source of silicic
acid occurring in waters derive it principally from the felspars,
to which I think no serious objection can properly be taken.
The contexts as well as the examples given lead one to infer
that it is derived from the felspars of eruptive rocks. Such a
supposition would. not be admissible in this instanee. The
waters, especially of the rivers, are surface waters, the volume
of which in the summer season varies regularly with the periods
of sunshine and darkness, twelve hours of greater and twelve
hours of lesser flow, corresponding to day and night. Their
flow in autumn and winter is greatly diminished owing to the
retention of the surface waters in the form of snow and ice.
There are no large springs nor any considerable number of
small ones except such as are supplied by the soil-covered val-
leys of the mountains and whose waters are likewise surface
waters. There is comparatively a very small amount of igne-
ous rock occurring in their various drainage areas.

In the case of the Cache a la Poudre there are a few por-
phyry dikes and one inconsiderable body of lava within its
drainage area. These observations are not applicable to the

Headden—WNilicie Acid in Mountain Streams. its

Rio Grande del Norte in the same measure as to the Poudre
and other streams mentioned in this paper. In these cases we
cannot assign the presence of the silicic acid in the waters to
the causes usually cited as explaining it, and I do not believe
that it is necessary that we should even in other cases.

In regard to the San Luis Valley it should be explained that
there is a bed of volcanic ash, bombs and even a sheet of lava
at or near Antonito, of no great northward extension, this
place being apparently at its northern limit, and it is doubtful
whether the silicic acid in the artesian well waters is derived
from felspars of volcanic origin, either in the form of ash or
lava, as the wells are driven through the clays, shales, and sands
deposited in the bed of the lake formerly filling the valley. If
any doubt were entertained of the origin of these strata, the
fish vertebrae, shells and fragments of wood found in them
would dispel it. The most striking character of the sands is
the presence of kidney-shaped concretions of calcic carbonate,
having a smooth exterior coating. Some of them are filled
with a cellular mass, others are composed of concentric layers
of calcic carbonate which, like the exterior one when scaled off
from the interior mass, is, owing to its extreme thinness and
smoothness, somewhat translucent. The other grains making
up these sands are fragments of granite,some of them even
showing particles of pyrites, quartz both light and dark, and
grains of felspar. There may be some grains of eruptive rocks,
but I am not fully enough convinced of this to assert their
presence.

The granites of the respective areas are the metamorphic
granites of this region, many of them closely resembling the
Pike’s Peak type, others identical with them.

The residue obtained by evaporating the water of the Rio
Grande del Norte, sample taken near the town of Del Norte,
contained 27°15 per cent of silicic acid; that from an artesian
well in the town of Alamosa, Spriesterbach’s Well, 27-0 per
cent; from a large spring in the southern or rather southeastern
portion of the valley, McIntyre’s Spring, 29°64 per cent; from
the MecNieland Well 36 per cent; and that fromthe Bucher
Well 46-9 per cent of silicic acid.

The conditions under which these waters occur preclude the
application of the theory advanced to explain the presence of
silicic acid in the waters of geysers and hot springs in general.
The maximum temperature observed in any of the springs or
wellsin the San Luis Valley was 71° F. and the minimum 53° F’.
These waters do not issue from, and probably do not, in any
portion of their course, pass through eruptive rocks of any sort,
except it be as surface waters in the lava cappings prevalent to
the west of this valley. The river and artesian waters probably

174 Headden—WSilicic Acid in Mountain Streams.

have a common source, the melting snows on the peaks of the
Sangre de Cristo range on the east and on those of the San Juan
country on the west. The percentage of silicic acid in the
total solids, however, is as great as that in the residues obtained
from any of the geysers or other hot springs in the world.
The highest percentages that I have found for the -latter are:
for the Great Geyser of Iceland 42 per cent, calculated of
course on the total mineral matter held in solution; for the
Coral Springs in the Yellowstone Nationa] Park 32 per cent;
for the Hot Spring, Garland, Arkansas, 23 per cent; for the
White Terrace Geyser, New Zealand, 22 per cent; and for the
Calistoga Spring in California; 18 per cent. These examples
suffice to show the relative! richness of the Rio Grande del
Norte water and that of the springs and artesian wells of the
San Luis Valley in silicic acid.

It is perfectly plain that the absolute amount of silica carried
by the waters is not given by the statement of the percentage
of this substance in the total solids, but will depend upon this
latter, or the total amount of mineral matter held in solution.
In this respect, too, some of the spring and well waters carry
more significant quantities than one would expect.*

The Great Geyser of Iceland carries 86:1; the Coral Spring,
Yellowstone National Park, 133:7; White Terrace Geyser,
New Zealand, 185°5; and the Hot Spring, Arkansas, 5-0 grains
in each imperial gallon. The Rio Grande del Norte at Del
Norte carried 6-2; Dexter’s Spring 13-7; McIntyre’s Spring
12°8; McNieland’s Well 17-4; the Bucher Well 15°8; and
Spriesterbach’s Well 28 grains. |

I considered the high percentages of silica in the total solids
of these waters as anomalous until a study of the waters of the
Cache a la Poudre and some neighboring streams led me to
change my view and to consider it as normal in the case of such
waters, and to attribute the absence of silicic acid from ordinary
waters to the character of the drainage area, the character of
the rocks through which the waters pass before they rise as
springs or artesian waters, and to changes suffered during the
course of their flow.

The following analyses were made of residues obtained by
evaporating the samples to dryness; both copper and porcelain
vessels were used without appreciable difference in the results.
The residues were dried at temperatures varying from 180° to
200° C. The ignition is put in brackets to designate that it is

*T have reduced my data to the common basis of grains to the imperial
gallon because my own results have been calculated on this basis, and fur-

ther because grains per imperial gallon are easily converted into parts per
thousand or million according as one may prefer.

Headden—NSiliciec Acid in Mountain Streams. 175

by difference, but an ignition was made in each instance to
assure myself that the ignition given is correct within reason-
ably close limits.

The first analysis of Cache a la Poudre water given is of a
sample taken above the mouth of the North Fork, on Oct. 3,
1902. This point was chosen because there are no tributaries
entering above this point whose waters are not wholly gathered
within and run for their whole course over an area whose sur-
face rocks are the metamorphic granites and schists of the
region. The sample was taken at a time when the water
was perfectly representative of the drainage water of this area.

The analysis resulted as follows:

Analysis of Cache a la Poudre Water, Sample taken above the Mouth of the
North Fork.

Analytical Per Grs. Per Grs.

results. cent. Imp. Gal. Combined. cent. Imp. Gal.
SiO, Lo 20°871 0°6053 Case 2 ae 11°782 0°3417
Sheena G92 01946) CxO 2: 24°781 0°7186
CO en. J0- 7901 06020") “Me@O. . =: 9063 0:2628
Clee 3°59 75 0°1037 K,CO, og a 22 4°325 0°1254
INE Ole fh 12°931 0°3750 Na,CO ee Seta 0°2652
K,O i Ans eee 2°949 0°0855 NaC Led ss a°899 One At
Oe Re leat 205958" | Na sil: 8772 02544
SEO eo trace trace Heo Al_O == 0388) £0 0L3
i 0 eee faaG soln | Min. @. 22 0:063 0:0018
Hewes @ © 0388 0:0113 . Ignition ___-- (9°238) 0°2678
BhiO.5.... 0-063 00018
iemition == *.(9°233) 0:2678 Sum, (...- 83°452

Excess of Si0, 16°546 0°4798

pun. 22 (100-805
O equiv. to Cl "805 otal == 520995908. 2:8999

Rotal: 100-000 . 2:8974

Total solids 2-9 ers. per imp. gal.

‘The second sample of which I shall give an analysis was
taken July 30, 1902, on which date the river was carrying
about double its usual flow for this season. The flow had been
300 second feet for the preceding fortnight, to which it fell
again within a few days, but at the time the sample was taken
the flow was 600 second feet. In this analysis I did not test
for either strontia or lithia.

176

Headden—Silicic Acid in Mountain Streams.

Analysis of Cache a la Poudre Water, Sample taken 150 feet above Headgate
of Larimer Co. Ditch.

Analytical Per
results. cent.
ohiC gy Chit Sipe 20°542
vo) U4) ps ee 4-951
O04: Buy Sa 21°626
Cle eae 7619
INezO a. 20 /(p8IBT4
TROD) Foe a «os 3°286
G2 CREM 23°884
VO) cic aoe 5147
Fe,O,, Al,O,- 0°894
MnO) eto 0°093
Ignition ---- (4°802)
Som Hee Ot a8
Oequiv.toCl 1°718

Total... 100:000

Grs.

Imp. Gal.

0°5341
0°1287
0°5622
0'1980
0°2307
0°0854
0°6209
0°1338
0°0232
0°0024
0°1248

2°6443
0°0446

275997

Per
Combined. cent.
CaSOle Eire 8420
CACO sane 36°431
MeCO.N ee 10°758
NaCle 2% ae 2 12°573
KSi10 see 5°391
NaSiOy ee 4°342
Fe,Q,., Al.O 0°894
Mi, peewee 0-093
Dominonty =.=" (4°802)
Sum -.... 83-704
Excess of SiO, 16°296
Total ...> 108:060

Total solids 2°6 grs. per imp. gal.

Grs.
Imp. Gal.
0°2198
0°9471
02797
0°3276
0°1402
0°1129
0°0232
0°0024
0°1248

0°4237

2°6005

The sample of water from Boulder Creek was taken from a
tap in the town of Boulder which is supplied with water taken
from the creek at a point where the water is perfectly repre-

sentative, being gathered wholly within a granitic area.

analysis follows :

The

Analysis of Water from Boulder Creek, Sample taken from a tap in the town

Analytical Per
results. cent.
eres 23) 6) (21985
SOieeric uy 8°305
OLC ih ae 17°037
(6) heen NS 7425
Nar) eee. 6°870
K Oe 2 ope: 2°720
LaO eee trace
CaOuy eee 23°373
SEO wee eee 0-165
MoOpet sors 4-760
Fe,O,, Al,O,. —-1:098
Mil: 0°340
FUOVEte AE trace
Ionition 2.5.) (760n}
Sums 101-66
Oequiv.toCl 1°676

Total_._ 100:°000

of Boulder.

Grs. Per

Imp. Gal. Combined. cent.
0'6156 CasOieet se 14-194
O:2325 CaCO a eesae 31°317
JOO SECO 2 ee 0:235
0°:2079 MnC@>-22255 6°143
0°1924 MoGh (22 u 4°305
0°0762 KCl 2 eae 4°304
trace ING) Sri. nea 3°586
0765447 Na SiO Gee ees 9°818
0°0046 Fe0., ALO 1°098
OnSite Min@ 7s! see 0°341
O0s07 FOO tae trace
00095 “Tenition ~ 22-2 etioee

trace

0°2130 Sum 225. 7hssssve
Excess of SiO, 17°144

2°8451 7
0°0469 Total ..- 100:022

2°7982

Total solids 2°8 grs. per imp. gal.

Grs.

Imp. Gal.

0°3955
0°8769
0°0066
0°1720
0°1205
0°1205
0°1004
0°2749
0°0307
0°0095

0°2130

2°3205
"4789

2°7994

Headden—Silicie Acid in Mountain Streams. iLv OT

The waters of Clear Creek are less representative than the
others, not because their gathering grounds are different or that
they have their courses through territories of different geologi-
cal formations, for such is not the case, but there is a very much
larger population within its area of drainage, the towns of Cen-
tral City, Black Hawk, Idaho Springs, Georgetown, and some
smaller towns being within it and above the point where the
sample was taken, which was from the Welch Ditch a mile
above the town of Golden. Further, mining and particularly
milling is actively carried on within its drainage area and on
its branches. The tailings of twenty odd mills are discharged
into its waters, to say nothing of the mine water which daily
mingles with that of the creek. The effect of these conditions
is plainly shown in the analysis but does not obscure the true
character of the water to any extent. I will not abridge the
analysis, though parts of it are superfluous for the present
purpose.

Analysis of Water from Clear Creek, Sample taken from Welch Ditch, one
mile above Golden.

Analytical Per Grs. Per Grs.
results. cent. Imp. Gal. Combined. cent. Imp. Gal.

SIO ae es < 17°953 1°3644 CASO) Ae a. 42°252 pada all
SIO eh eka aaa Pacera V ireeee CaCO. 2! | 6-483 0°4927
COR Ee =. 6870. 0°5221 Mmn@O a2 T 101s 05836
CHOI MOO eed 1) MoGl ie) 0-764 0:0581
Nanas oe 7073 = -0°5 375 TEC ares 4017 =0°3053
TO tit | 3°506 0°2665 KsiO wes) 17578 0°1196
We Onin ges. . trace trace NassiOl a 2220 a95 2) 10604
a) GANS 3 PitOndaps TOO wt Al Os ale 2477 0°1883
er@uge atl 2. trace trace He Ons et ae 1°916 0:1450
MeO PLY 3 4°01] 0°3048 LENO Nese 2 0°207 0°0157
DWE > 2 RO 20 ry OF01 5.7 CaQr iret eee trace trace
Pee) sieht A. 2-477 0:1883 Ea ORs a eae none none
Pete ea ik 1°916 0°1456 Ming OF oa ee 0°691 0°0525
Min OY... - O69 211.0:0525 Jenitiony, 4.022 (7°-491) 0°5693
WO. trace trace
Oy... none none Sum eS oca8o" 3) 680386
Ignition ..-. (7'491) 0°5693 Excess of S10, 10°464 "7953

Baume... 100°559 7°6423 Motals 222 99:999 >) 7:5989
O equiv. to Cl samo) «a O425

Total__. 100:000 75998

Total solids 7°6 grs. imp. gal.

178 Hegdden “Silicte Acid in Mountain Streams.

It will be observed that the lowest percentage of silicic acid
in these residues is 17-9 and the highest 22, while the inter-
mediate ones are about 21 per cent. In an analysis made of
Poudre water in 1897, I obtained upwards of 36 per cent of
silica. My attention was attracted by the general agreement
of these analyses, especially by the fact that three of them
agree in showing almost the same excess of silica after having
combined all of the bases. This is in strong contrast to the
residues obtained by the evaporation of ground waters, drain-
age waters, or river waters taken in the lower portion of their
courses which, especially in the case of the Cache a la Poudre,
consist very largely, and at times wholly, of return waters, i. e.
such as have been taken from the river, have been used for
irrigating purposes, and have found their way back again.
The residues from such waters frequently show an excess of
bases over the quantity necessary to saturate the inorganic
acids. The excess of acids in these analyses is so pronounced
that there is no question about its being actually the case. The
same is.shown by the analyses of the geyser waters and those
of the hot springs previously alluded to. There can be no
question raised about the silicic acid having been in solution
for the waters were perfectly clear, but as a matter of precanu-
tion were filtered before being evaporated to dryness, and
there is no difference in the results whether the evaporation
was conducted in copper or porcelain vessels.

The difference between these waters as mountain streams
and when they have become plains streams suggests that the
difference observed may be a characteristic of mountain streams,
whose waters have not come in contact with any other rocks
than granites, gneisses or schists. This suggested that an
examination of water from a greater depth might add interest-
ing information. I accordingly obtained a sample of water
from the Running Lode mine at a depth of 825 feet. The
water is clear and of good quality. The vein at this point is
tight and there are no ore bodies immediately above this point
along which the water has to move. The country rock is that
characteristic of Gilpin County, varying from a schist to a com-
pact granite. The hanging wall in this instance is frequently
composed of a white orthoclase. The vein matter is highly
silicified but there is not much kaolin, though there is a little
scattered through the ore. The residue from this water gave
the following results :

Headden—Silicic Acid in Mountain Streams. 179

Analysis of Water from the Running Lode Mine.

Analytical
results. Per cent. Combined. Per cent,
SOR aes ts. 11-298 CaSO gesint.. 39°835
Sa en. 23-493 CACO in ee 13°610
OC ie 16-099 Mo@Oiy 4.55% 13°724
Oe eee. 1986 K, CO.) ieee 9-433
INO ee 8°262 Nar CO. meee 5276
EO ec 2. coo Na@l, cots 3°195
Aree) trace Na SiO wee sa: 6861
C0 ee ee . 24:039 HerO- ALO 0-102
DEO es ue es trace Nin Or eee eee O20
Nua i eda Sieeranaes 6°563 Lonition) 222 =~ (6°935)
Hee AT Ole: 102
Ji (0) eee ge 2E20 SUT ee ae 92-091
iention 22s py (6°935) Excess of SiO, 7°915
Sums h-. 2 100-436 Motalws2 ty 100°006
OR Cly ks es "436
Motel os. =. 100°000

Total solids 23:0 grs. per imp. gal.

On combining the results of this analysis we find here as in
the other cases a decided excess of acids which can scarcely be
supposed to be due to other than free silicic acid.

The uniformity of these results indicate that these waters are
entirely normal for the conditions under which they occur, i. e.
within or in contact with granite or rocks rich in felspar. In
this case the rocks do not belong to the eruptives, but I cannot
see why the class of rock in which the felspar might occur
_ should make any material difference in the general result. The
composition of the residues might be considered as suggesting
a lime mineral other than felspar as having furnished the min-
eral matter to the waters, but local conditions make it very
probable, and direct experiment will, I think, establish it, that
the felspars do in these cases furnish the mineral matter to
these waters. I do not by any means intend to claim that the
felspars are the only minerals acted on by water and carbon
dioxid, but simply that our waters represent the products of
such action and it is evident that neither high temperature nor
great pressure have played any part in producing the solutions.
These two factors have been appealed to to account for the
excessive silicic acid in the geysers and hot springs, but my
results indicate that these are not necessary to account for the
presence of the silicic acid. These points seem to me to have
been well tested in some experiments which I have made with

180 Headden—Silicie Acid in Mountain Streams.

finely powdered felspar. The object of the experiment was to
discover the line of decomposition suffered by this mineral -
under ordinary conditions and at or near the surface of the
rock masses. In passing I will state that my observation upon
the effect of the presence of sodic carbonate, in so far as the
conditions of observation are applicable, is that it does not
increase the amount of silicic acid present. This fact may be
due to the removal of the silicic acid by precipitation; be this
as it may, the alkaline waters of our foot hills are always poor
in silicic acid even though they percolate through a sand rich
in felspar. I notice too that the geysers in the Yellowstone
National Park richest in silicic acid have an acid reaction.

The experiments with felspar were conducted as follows: In
the first experiment felspar was placed in a gallon aspirator,
and treated with distilled water in separate portions, each por-
tion remaining in contact with the felspar 48 hours. In
order to keep the powdered felspar agitated a current of air
was caused to pass through it continuously, and to still further
imitate the actual conditions, a small amount of carbonic acid
(CO,) was mixed with the air. This was continued until
nearly 35 gallons of water were collected, which was evapo-
rated to dryness in platinum dishes. I feared to heat-the resi-
due above the temperature of boiling water before analyzing
it. I would have evaporated it at a lower temperature had it
been feasible for me to do so, for it can scarcely be doubted
but that some of the CO, besides that which was probably
present as bicarbonates, was expelled during the continued
boiling. The residue, as I analyzed it, was as nearly repre-
sentative of the solution as I could make it.

The amount that went into solution in this experiment was
equal to 1°6 grains per gallon. The maximum quantity that I
succeeded in getting into solution was 4536 grains per impe-
rial gallon, in which case I treated the pulverized felspar with
a saturated solution of CO, for 164 days. The solution of CO,
was put on the felspar and the bottle sealed. The whole was
shaken very frequently, on an average three times hourly dur-
ing the day. This sample of felspar was pulverized in an agate
mortar to avoid bringing any iron into the solution, as water
charged with CO, dissolves finely powdered iron quite readily.
The distilled water used in all of the experiments had been
freshly distilled and left no residue on evaporation. The action
of the water upon the glass of the containing vessels has been
assumed to have been so small as to be negligible.

The felspar used was a flesh-colored orthoclase from a point
of the mountains locally known as the Horsetooth. It was
such as is characteristic of the granites of this range. The
sample analyzed was perfectly fresh and resulted as follows :

Headden—Silicic Acid in Mountain Streams. 181

Analysis of Felspar used in Experiments.

roll, Oy Wed pve eay Ee para. t ord) 8 tev ae tes 65°760
SO fee hs a i ee: 0-003
LP LOUNGE ep segue ere ee 0:040
(OUP SENS OS I ea I aoe tie dy
POs Se ites 2) an vetoes 19-291
LN) AG OR anes a a a trace
CH)? La eet rE Regi secre We Ole 0°314
Sr Gah Beit a = Sa AE li AES AD SOS fg trace
1555 Q) AUS teh eS Te meh shee A RM ema none
INGE G1 AIR ah ARATE Mee ag Pps 0°029
VETO pe) AD Ee Tien: RAPE 0-061
ROO LE. Sew GIS La 11°592
INGO) EELS a a bane a 2°728
Bre Oy ATT We a Pe trace
99°818

The residue obtained from the first experiment with this
felspar showed the following composition :

Analysis of Residue—First Experiment with Felspar.

Analytical
results. Per cent. Combined. Per cent.
o10) (ie 40°724 Cas Ok ahs sae 16°801
Pesaro: 9°879 CACO re aa ne 5921
CO Ee emma ae Ys) MoCo yee Le iw ARRON
Ch: an 3-170 RECO Gane) on 6°380
O08 Sean a 2°704 CC levee see ee 6700.4
Tis Gaia 0-311 KESiOn eer: 3-950
UE pn a a 10°241 INO ee 10°354
Ieee. eee eS) trace ea AO) Peaches Ren shies 2°704
Oa Seren ss O71 elOer ye eee eee 0°311
LN Eo eet gpg 10972 SrO wee aire eee trace
arf s2 ee Sst 5°249 LPnOl aes a trace
i AO) si a a trace lonitione 3-822 >=-> 167366
fenition =222 225) 1 16°366
Sue Mee eat hes 71°065
SSI peak ea 105-860 . Excess of SiO, .- 34-075
Less CO,+O0=Cl 6:187 ———
105°140
Mota less se 99°673 Less CO, expelled 5°473
Motil s aces Pe 99°667

* The chlorin was not tested for in the felspar, but the aqueous extract
shows it abundantiy, and as the P.O; probably exists as apatite the presence
of some chlorin would be accounted for if it were achloro-apatite. Fluorin
was not tested for.

+ The SO; and Cl were not determined in this residue. These determina-
tions are taken from the other residues. .

182 Headden—Silicic Acid in Mountain Streams.

Without discussing the probable combinations which actually
existed in solution, it is evident that an unduly large amount
of silica had been taken up. -The result presented by this
analysis represents the action of rain or snow water under
ordinary conditions. The carbonic acid introduced was mod-
erate in quantity and was thoroughly mixed with the air before
being drawn through the water. Both the carbon dioxid and
air were well washed ; this was done to prevent the introduction
of organic matter, chlorin or other impurity with the air.

The second experiment was conducted differently. A quan-
tity of felspar was powdered, passed through a 100 mesh sieve
and treated with water saturated with OO,, without any attempt
to remove the iron derived from the buckboard by means of
the magnet or otherwise. The containing vessels were sealed
and allowed to stand for twenty-two days with frequent shaking.
When the vessels were unsealed some of them showed a little
pressure. As the iron derived from the buckboard had very
largely gone into solution, I passed a current of air through the
vessels before I filtered off the felspar—this was a mistake.
The iron was easily oxidized and precipitated. It required
only about forty-five minutes for the oxidation to become appar-
ent to the eye, but the air current was continued for forty hours
when the whole was filtered and evaporated in platinum vessels,
the same precautions being taken as in the previous case. The
analysis of this residue resulted as follows :

Analysis of Residue—Second Experiment with Felspar.

Analytical
results. Per cent. Combined. Per cent.
ID ee eee. eee 14°353 Cas0. 2 See 16°806
SOMA Se eet 2 9°879 CaCO 2: ees 29°432
C10 a ee see 19°874 MeOOl* ee 4°013
AO) eel eee a 0°381 KChcen ee 6°668
GOlayngy ok ete! 3°170 K CO: 2. ae 10°367
UN Oe te ae 1°119 NaC, ae 3°736
ENO) de oie a 07136 Na. PO, 2. 1°257
CaOy sy aaean 23-412 Na SiO: oe 6°765
EO Se eemers heavy trace Al ©... eee 1°119
A Ko Je ne Oe 1°919 Be 0, 222.2. sa ee 0°136
KEG. Fee eee 7 9 Ignition 22-2) eee 5°464
NANO eee 6°491 Excess of Si0, --- 11°018
PaO ie ee trace
Tenition 222222 DOT Total 2.2 Seeee 96°783
SUT abi ee ale es O

Less CO,+O0=Cl 20°588

Poiddien-“Salicis Acid in Mountain Streams. 183

I stated above that it was a mistake not to have filtered off
the felspar before precipitating the iron oxid, for had I done so
I could have determined how much silica, if any, was carried
down with the oxid, but as it is we have an imitation of what
takes place in all river and spring waters where ferrous salts
occur, i. e. oxidation and precipitation of the ferric hydrate.
The analysis is too low when we subtract the whole of the car-
bonic acid and oxygen equivalent to the chlorin found. ‘There
is no doubt but that the most if not all of the CO, was expelled
uponignition. I have found it to be almost completely expelled
even when there was not enough silicic acid to account for it,
and there is no means of judging how much was left in this
residue, if any, so 1 have subtracted the whole of it. If the
analysis were really badly made and the missing 3°3 per cent
were all sodic oxid, which is by no means the case, there would
still be a very considerable excess of acids.

The general resemblance of these results except in the relative
quantities of potassic and sodic oxids is striking, the more so as
they agree with one another and are unlike ordinary river waters. |

The experiments with the felspar and the character of the
mine water show that they are such as are normally produced
by the action of water and carbonic acid upon this mineral
without the aid of higher temperatures or pressures.

These experiments further indicate the course and character
of the action of water upon felspar—i. e. it attacks those mole-
cules containing calcium and sodium, possibly existing as mole-
cules of labradorite and albite, more readily than those contain-
ing potassium—further that the silicic acid is dissolved as such
by a process of hydration and exists in the solution as free silicic
acid or as a very complex or condensed acid: the former seems
much more probable.

These facts, if they be accepted as such, account for the
character of the Rio Grande water, it being just such a water
as the local conditions would account for. Thespring and well
waters are simply the same water—i. e. water running into the
valley from the mountain streams and sinking into the lower
strata, which are composed of sands derived from the breaking
down of the rocks composing the adjacent mountains contain-
ing an abundance of felspar, and are not mixed with other
water or subjected to conditions which cause radical changes
in their dissolved mineral matter.

These facts easily account for the silicification of vein matter
and the deposition of chalcedonic quartz, etc. in veins and else-
where. The possible influence of organic acids, especially at
the surface, has been suggested because it is so often mentioned.
I had an aqueous solution of humic acids and some pre-
cipitated and washed humus; a quantity of felspar was treated

184 Headden—Silicic Acid in Mountain Streams.

with distilled water just as in the experiments described with
the addition of a liberal quantity of these; the results agreed
well with those obtained with water and CO, alone after
deducting the fixed residue contained in the humus; the dura-
tion of this experiment was twenty-two days. Iam not pre-
pared to state that such acids play no part in the decomposition
of rocks, but the result of this experiment indicates that they
play a less important part than the statements frequently met
with would indicate, and which, furthermore, the composition
of the ash obtained by incinerating them would also suggest.

A remarkable feature in the result of these experiments is
the fact that while the felspar contains only a small percentage
of lime, less than two-tenths of one per cent, the residue
obtained on evaporating the water to dryness shows a large
percentage of it, 10 to 23 per cent. The strontia was detected
only when as much as five grams of felspar were used; the
lithia, however, was detected in one gram, but both were easily
detected in the residue. ‘This accounts for a characteristic of
our waters, i. e. the presence of strontia and lithia, and I inter-
pret this as strong corroborative proof that, however changed
the waters may be, they originally obtain the greater part of
their mineral constituents from the decomposition of the fel-
spars. The uniform presence of strontia and lithia in our
waters puzzled me greatly until the results of these experi-
ments revealed the source from which they might be derived,
as I knew of no lithia or strontia-bearing mineral in the
mountains which would account for their presence. Apropos
to the occurrence of these elements in felspar I may add that
of 271 analyses of felspars of all varieties which I have found
given, only three show lithia even in traces, and only two show
strontia. But being present in our case they serve to confirm
the view that the felspars principally furnish the mineral con-
stituents of the waters. The amounts of sulphates and chlorids
have their own particular interest, but the same importance
does not attach to them as to the silicic acid already more fully
discussed.

State Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colo.

Geology and Mineralogy. 185

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

1. U. S. Geological Survey ; Cuas. D. Waxcortt, Director.—
The following publications of the Survey have been recently
issued :

Monograph XLII. The Carboniferous Ammonoids of America,
by James PERRIN Situ, pp 1-211, plates i-xxix, 1903.

Monograph XLIII. The Mesabi Iron-Bearing district of Min-
nesota, by CuaRLtes Krenneta Leira ; Cuartes Richarp VAN
Hisr, Geologist in charge, pp. 1-316, plates i—xxxiii, figs. 1-12,
1908.

Monograph XLIV. Pseudoceratites of the Cretaceous, by
ALpHEUs JosEpH Hyatt, edited by T. W. Stanton, pp. 1-351,
plates i-xlvu, 1903.

Bulletin No. 205. The Mollusca of the Buda limestone, by
GEORGE BurRBANK SHATTUCK, with an appendix on the Corals of
the Buda limestone by THomas Waytanp VauGHAN, pp. 1-94,
plates i-xxvu, fig. 1, 1903. |

Bulletin No. 206. Astudy of the Hamilton Formation of the
Cayuga Lake Section in Central New York, by Herpman Firz-
' GERALD CLELAND, pp. 1-112, plates i—v, figs. 1-3, 1903.

Bulletin No. 207. The action of Ammonium Chloride upon
silicates by FRanK WiGGLESWORTH CLARKE and GEORGE STEIGER,
pp. 1-57, 1902.

Bulletin No. 209. The Geology of Ascutney Mountain, Ver-
mont, by Reeinatp ALpwortH Daty, pp. 122, fig. 1, pls. 1-vii,
1903.

Bulletin No.210. The correlation of Geological Faunas, a con-
tribution to Devonian Paleontology by Henry SuaLeR WILLIAMS,
ppat—147, pl. 1, 1903.

2. On Batrachian and other footprints from the Coal Meas-
ures of Joggins, N. S.; by G. F. Martuew. Bull. Nat. Hist.
Soc. of New Brunswick, vol. v, No. 21 (1903).—Dr. Matthew
has described certain footprints in the collections of the Natural
History Society of New Brunswick. ‘They pertain to three
different types of Batrachian footprints which have received
generic names from King and Marsh. ‘The first is of a type com-
mon in the Coal Measure sandstones and the other two have
been referred to the genera Baropus and Dromopus, respectively.
The following are the names of these species: Thenaropus (?)
McNaughton, Baropus imguifer, Dromopus agilis, Myriapo-
dites, sp.

3. Ueber Artinit, ein Neues Mineral der Asbestgruben von
Val Lanterna ; Luict BruenateLi1.—Under the name artinite is
described a new hydrous magnesium carbonate. It is white in
color and occurs in spherical aggregates made up of radiating
fibers. Its formula was determined to be MgCO,.Mg(OH),.3H,0.

186 Scientific Intelligence.

Sp.G. = 2:028.H =2. Named after Dr. Ettore Artini, director of
the mineralogical collection of the State Museum of Milan.—
Cent. f. Min., Geol. u. Palaeon. 1903. No. 5.

4. Minerals from Leona Heights, Alameda Co., California.—
The Leona Heights locality has been mined for some years for
sulphuric acid ; the ore body consisting of pyrite with some chal-
copyrite and their oxidation products. The latter include the
new species Booruirs, also crystallized melanterite, pisanite
and chalcanthite, and further copiopite, epsomite and alunogen.
Boothite occurs massive with crystalline structure, also fibrous
and rarely in incomplete crystals. The crystallization is mono-
clinic and the form related to that of melanterite and of pisanite,
with which it may be regarded as forming an isomorphous series.
Analyses of the fibrous and massive mineral, after deduction of
the insoluble portion, gave concordant results and led to the
formula CuSO,.7H,O or, since six-sevenths of the water goes off
above 105°, H,O.CuSO,+6H,O. This species is named by W.
T. ScHaLLerR after Edward Booth, Department of Chemistry,
Univ. of California.— Univ. California, Bull. Geol., 111, 191, 1903.

5. Palacherite, a new mineral.—A. 8, Eax ue has named, after
Dr. Charles Palache, a new hydrous basic sulphate of iron and
magnesia from the Redington mercury mine, Knoxville, Cali-
fornia. It occurs in loosely coherent aggregates of minute mono-
clinic crystals of a deep brick-red color. The hardness is 1°5-2, |
specific gravity 2°075, luster vitreous, streak pale yellow. The
formula given is Fe,O,.2Mg0.4S0,+15H,O, deduced from the
following average of several analyses :

SO; 38°37, Fes0s 19°51, MgO 9:35, H.O (above 100°) 12°75, H.0 (100°) 19°53=

— Univ. California, Bull. Geol., 111, 231, 1903.

Adel 1a

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[FOURTH SERIES.]

JOSIAH WILLARD GIBBS. |

Jostanq WiLLARD Grsps was born in New Haven, Connecti-
eut, February 11, 1839, and died in the same city, April 48,
1903. He was descended from Robert Gibbs, the fourth son
of Sir Henry Gibbs of Honington, Warwickshire, who came
to Boston about 1658. One of Robert Gibbs’s grandsons,
-Henry Gibbs, in 1747 married Katherine, daughter of the Hon.
Josiah Willard, Secretary of the Province of Massachusetts,
and of the descendants of this couple, in various parts of the
country, no fewer than six have borne the name Josiah Willard
Gibbs.

The subject of this memorial was the fourth child and only
son of Josiah Willard Gibbs, Professor of Sacred Literature in
the Yale Divinity School from 1824 to 1861, and of his wife,
Mary Anna, daughter of Dr. Van Cleve of Princeton, N. J.
The elder Professor Gibbs was remarkable among his contem-
poraries for profound scholarship, for unusual modesty, and for
the conscientious and painstaking accuracy which characterized
all of his published work. The following brief extracts from
a discourse commemorative of his life, by Professor George P.
Fisher, can hardly fail to be of interest to those who are familiar
with the work of his distinguished son: “One who should look
. simply at the writings of Mr. Gibbs, where we meet only with
naked, laboriously classified, skeleton-like statements of scien-
tific truth, might judge him to be devoid of zeal even in his
favorite pursuit. But there was a deep fountain of feeling
that did not appear in these curiously elaborated essays... . .
Of the science of comparative grammar, as I am informed by
those most competent to judge, he is to be considered in rela-
tion to the scholars of this country as the leader.” Again, in

AM, JouR. Sci1.—FourtH Series, Vou. XVI, No. 93.—SEPTEMBER, 1903.

188 Josiah Willard Gibbs.

speaking of his unfinished translation of Gesenius’s Hebrew
Lexicon: “ But with his wonted thoroughness, he could not
leave a word until he had made the article upon it perfect,
sifting what the author had written by independent investiga-
tions of his own.”

His son entered Yale College in 1854 and was graduated in
1858, receiving during his college course several prizes for
excellence in Latin and Mathematics; during the next five
years he continued his studies in New Haven, and in 1863
received the degree of doctor of philosophy and was appointed
a tutor in the college for a term of three years. During the
first two years of his tutorship he taught Latin and in the third
year Natural Philosophy, in both of which subjects he had
gained marked distinction as an undergraduate. At the end
of his term as tutor he went abroad with his sisters, spending
the winter of 1866-67 in Paris and the following year in Ber-
lin, where he heard the lectures of Magnus and other teachers
of physics and of mathematics. In 1868 he went to Heidel-
berg, where Kirchhoff and Helmholtz were then stationed,
returning to New Haven in June, 1869. Two years later he
was appointed Professor of Mathematical Physics in Yale Col-
lege, a position which he held until the time of his death.

It was not until 1873, when he was thirty-four years old,
that-he gave to the world, by publication, evidence of his
extraordinary powers as an investigator in mathematical physics.
In that year two papers appeared in the Transactions of the
Connecticut Academy, the first being entitled ‘“ Graphical
Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids,’ and the second
“A Method of Geometrical Representation of the Thermody-
namic Properties of Substances by Means of Surfaces.” These
were followed in 1876 and 1878 by the two parts of the great
paper “On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances,”
which is generally, and probably rightly, considered his most
important contribution to physical science, and which is unques-
tionably among the greatest and most enduring monuments
of the wonderful scientific activity of the nineteenth century.
The first two papers of this series, although somewhat over-
shadowed by the third, are themselves very remarkable and
valuable contributions to the theory of thermodynamies ; they
have proved useful and fertile in many direct ways and, in
addition, it is difficult to see how, without them, the third could
have been written. In logical development the three are very
closely connected, and methods first brought forward in the
earlier papers are used continually in the third.

Professor Gibbs was much inclined to the use of geometri-
cal illustrations, which he employed as symbols and aids to the
imagination, rather than the mechanical models which have

Sosa Wallard Gabbe iso

served so many great investigators; such models are seldom in
complete correspondence with the phenomena they represent,
and Professor Gibbs’s tendency toward rigorous logic was such
that the discrepancies apparently destroyed for him the useful-
ness of the model. Accordingly he usually bad recourse to the
geometrical representation of his equations, and this method
he used with great ease and power. With this inclination, it
is probable that he made much use, in his study of thermo-
dynamics, of the volume-pressure diagram, the only one which,
up to that time, had been used extensively. To those who are
acquainted with the completeness of his investigation of any
subject which interested him, it is not surprising that his first
published paper should have been a careful study of all the
different diagrams which seemed to have any chance of being
useful. Of the new diagrams which he first described in this
paper, the simplest, in some respects, is that in which entropy and
temperative are taken as coordinates ; in this, as in the familiar
volume-pressure diagram, the work or heat of any cycle is
proportional to its area in any part of the plane; for many
purposes it is far more perspicuous than the older diagram, and
it has found most important practical applications in the study
of the steam engine. The diagram, however, to which Pro-
fessor Gibbs gave most attention was the volume-entropy dia-
gram, which presents many advantages when the properties of
bodies are to be studied, rather than the work they do or the
heat they give out. The chief reason for this superiority is
that volume and entropy are both proportional to the quantity
of substance, while pressure and temperature are not; the repre-
sentation of coexistent states is thus especially clear, and for
many purposes the gain in this direction more than counter- .
balanees the loss due to the variability of the scale of work and
heat. No diagram of constant scale can, for example, ade-
quately represent the triple state where solid, liquid and vapor
are all present; nor, without confusion, can it represent the
states of a substance which, like water, has a maximum density ;
in these and in many other cases the volume-entropy diagram
is superior in distinctness and convenience.

In the second paper the consideration of graphical methods
in thermodynamics was extended to diagrams in three dimen-
sions. James Thomson had already made this extension to the
volume-pressure diagram by erecting the temperature as the
third coordinate, these three immediately cognizable quantities
giving a surface whose interpretation is most simple from ele-
mentary considerations, but which, for several reasons, is far
less convenient and fertile of results than one in which the
coordinates are thermodynamic quantities less directly known.
In fact, if the general relation between the volume, entropy

190 Josiah Willard Gibbs.

and energy of any body is known, the relation between the
volume, pressure and temperature may be immediately deduced
by differentiation; but the converse is not true, and thus a
knowledge of the former relation gives more complete infor-
mation of the properties of a substance than a knowledge of
the latter. Accordingly Gibbs chooses as the three codrdinates
the volume, entropy and energy and, in a masterly manner,
proceeds to develop the properties of the resulting surface, the
geometrical conditions for equilibrium, the criteria for its sta-
bility or instability, the conditions for coexistent states and for
the critical state; and he points out, in several examples, the
great power of this method for the solution of thermodynamic
problems. The exceptional importance and beauty of this
work by a hitherto unknown writer was immediately recognized
by Maxwell, who, in the last years of his life, spent considerable
time in carefully constructing, with his own hands, a model of
this surface, a cast of which, very shortly before his death, he
sent to Professor Gibbs.

One property of this three dimensional diagram (analogous
to that mentioned in the case of the plane volume-entropy
diagram) proved to be of capital importance in the develop-
ment of Gibbs’s future work in thermodynamics; the volume,
entropy and energy of a mixture of portions of a substance
in different states (whether in equilibrium or not), are the sums
of the volumes, entropies and energies of the separate parts,
and, in the diagram, the mixture is represented by a single
point which may be found from the separate points, represent-
ing the different portions, by a process like that of finding
centers of gravity. In general this point is not in the surface
. representing the stable states of the substance, but within the
solid bounded by this surface, and its distance from the surface,
taken parallel to the axis of energy, represents the available
energy of the mixture. This possibility of representing the
properties of mixtures of different states of the same substance
immediately suggested that mixtures of substances differing in
chemical composition, as well as in physical state, might be
treated in a similar manner; in a note at the end of the second
paper the author clearly indicates the possibility of doing so,
and there can be little doubt that this was the path by which
he approached the task of investigating the conditions of
chemical equilibrium, a task which he was destined to achieve
in such a magnificent manner and with such advantage to
physical science.

In the discussion of chemically homogeneous substances in
the first two papers, frequent use had been made of the prin-
ciple that such a substance will be in equilibrium if, when its
energy is kept eonstant, its entropy cannot increase; at the

Josiah Willard Gibbs. 191

head of the third paper the author puts the famous statement
of Clausius: “Die Energie der Welt ist constant. Die Entropie
der Welt strebt emem Maximum zu.” He proceeds to, show
that the above condition for equilibrium, derived from the two
laws of thermodynamics, is of universal application, carefully
removing one restriction after another, the first to go being
that the substance shall be chemically homogeneous. The
important analytical step is taken of introducing, as variables
in the fundamental differential equation, the masses of the ~
constituents of the heterogeneous body; the differential coef-
ficients of the energy with respect to these masses are shown
to enter the conditions of equilibrium -in a manner entirely
analogous to the “ intensities,’ pressure and temperature, and
these coefficients are called potentials. Constant use is made
of the analogies with the equations for homogeneous sub-
stances, and the analytical processes are like those which a
geometer would use in extending to n-dimensions the geome-
try of three.

It is quite out of the question to give, in brief compass,
anything approaching an adequate outline of this remarkable
work. it is universally recognized that its publication was an
event of the first importance in the history of chemistr y, that
in fact it founded a new department of chemical science
which, in the words of M. Le Chatelier, is becoming compar-
able in importance with that created by Lavoisier. Neverthe-
less it was a number of years before its value was generally
known; this delay was due largely to the fact that its
mathematical form and rigorous deductive processes make it
difficult reading for any one, and especially so for students of
experimental chemistry whom it most concerns; twenty-five
years ago there was relatively only a small number of chemists
who possessed sufficient mathematical knowledge to read easily
even the simpler portions of the paper. Thus it came about
that a number of natural laws of great importance which were,
for the first time, clearly stated in this paper were subse-
quently, during its period of neglect, discovered by others,
sometimes from theoretical considerations, but more often by
experiment. At the present time, however, the great value
of its methods and results are fully recognized by all students
of physical chemistry. It was translated into German in 1891
by Professor Ostwald and into French in 1899 by Professor
Le Chatelier; and, although so many years had passed since
its original publication, in both cases the distinguished trans-
lators give, as their principal reason for undertaking the task,
not the historical interest of the memoir, but the many
important questions which it discusses and which have not
even yet been worked out experimentally. Many of its

192 Josiah Willard Gibbs.

theorems have already served as starting points or guides for
experimental researches of fundamental consequence ; others,
such as that which goes under the name of the “ Phase Rule,”
have served to classify and explain, in a simple and logical
manner, experimental facts of much apparent complexity ;
while still others, such as the theories of catalysis, of solid
solutions, and of the action of semi-permeable diaphragms
and osmotic pressure, showed that many facts, which had
previously seemed mysterious and scarcely capable of explana-
tion, are in fact simple, direct and necessary consequences of
the fundamental laws of thermodynamics. In the discussion
of mixtures in which some of the components are present only
in very small quantity (of which the most interesting cases at
present are dilute solutions) the theory is carried as far as is
possible from @ priorz considerations; at the time the paper
was written the lack of experimental facts did not permit the
statement, in all its generality, of the celebrated law which
was afterward discovered by van’t Hoff; but the law is dis-
tinetly stated for solutions of gases as a direct consequence of
Henry’s law and, while the facts at the author’s disposal did
not permit a further extension, he remarks that there are
many indications “that the law expressed by these equations
has a very general application.”

It is not surprising that a work containing results of such
consequence should have excited the profoundest admiration
among students of the physical sciences; but even more
remarkable than the results, and perhaps of even greater
service to science, are the methods by which they were
attained; these do not depend upon special hypotheses as to
the constitution of matter or any similar assumption, but the
whole system rests directly upon the truth of certain experi-
ential laws which possess a very high degree of probability.
To have obtained the results embodied in these papers in any
manner would have been a great achievement; that they were
reached by a method of such logical austerity is a still greater
cause for wonder and admiration. And it gives to the work
a degree of certainty and an assurance of permanence, in form
and matter, which is not often found in investigations so orig-
inal in character.

In lecturing to students upon mathematical physics, especi-
ally in the theory of electricity and magnetism, Professor
Gibbs felt, as so many other physicists in recent years have
done, the desirability of a vector algebra by which the more or
less complicated space relations, dealt with in many depart-
ments of physics, could be conveniently and perspicuously
expressed; and this desire was especially active in him on

Josiah Willard Gibbs. 193

account of his natural tendency toward elegance and concise-
ness of mathematical method. He did not, however, find in
Hamilton’s system of quaternions an instrument altogether
suited to his needs, in this respect sharing the experience of
other investigators who have, of late years, seemed more and
more inclined, tor practical purposes, to reject the quater-
nionic analysis, notwithstanding its beauty and logical com-
pleteness, in favor of a simpler and more direct treatment of
the subject. For the use of his students, Professor Gibbs
privately printed in 1881 and 1884 a very concise account of
the vector analysis which he had developed, and this pamphlet
was to some extent circulated among those especially imter-
ested in the subject. In the development of this system the
author had been led to study deeply the Ausdehnungslehre of
Grassmann, and the subject of multiple algebra in general;
these investigations interested him greatly up to the time of
his death, and he has often remarked that he had more plea-
sure in the study of multiple algebra than in any other of his
intellectual activities. His rejection of quaternions, and his
championship of Grassmann’s claim to be considered the
founder of modern algebra, led to some papers of a somewhat
controversial character, most of which appeared in the columns
of “ Nature.” When the utility of his system as an instru-
ment for physical research had been proved by twenty years
experience of himself and of his pupils, Professor Gibbs con-
sented, though somewhat reluctantly, to its formal publication in
much more extended form than in the original pamphlet. As
he was at that time wholly occupied with another work, the
task of preparing this treatise for publication was entrusted to
one of his students, Dr. E. B. Wilson, whose very successful
accomplishment of the work entitles him to the gratitude of
all who are interested in the subject.

The reluctance of Professor Gibbs to publish his system of
vector analysis certainly did not arise from any doubt in his
own mind as to its utility, or the desirability of its being more
widely employed ; it seemed rather to be due to the feeling
that it was not an original contribution to mathematics, but
was rather an adaptation for special purposes of the work of
others. Of many portions of the work this is of course
necessarily true, and it is rather by the selection of methods
and by systematization of the presentation that the author has
served the cause of vector analysis. But in the treatment of
the linear vector function and the theory of dyadics to which
this leads, a distinct advance was made which was of conse-
quence not only in the more restricted field of vector analysis,
but also in the broader theory of multiple algebra in general.

194 .- , Josiah Willard Gibbs.

The theory of dyadics* as developed in the vector analysis
of 1884 must be regarded as the most important published
contribution of Professor Gibbs to pure mathematics. For
the vector analysis as an algebra does not fulfill the definition
of the linear associative algebras of Benjamin Peirce, since
the scalar product of vectors lies outside the vector domain ;
nor is it a geometrical analysis in the sense of Grassmann, the
vector product satisfying the combinatorial law, but yielding
a vector instead of a magnitude of the second order. While
these departures from the systems mentioned testify to the
great ingenuity and originality of the author, and do not
impair the utility of the system as a tool for the use of
students of physics, they nevertheless expose the discipline to
the criticism of the pure algebraist. Such objection falls to
the ground, however, in the case of the theory mentioned, for
dyadies yield, for = 3, a linear associative algebra of nine
units, namely nonions, the general nonion satisfying an identi-
cal equation of the third degree, the Hamilton-Cayley equation.

It is easy to make clear the precise point of view adopted
by Professor Gibbs in this matter. This is well expounded
in his vice-presidential address on multiple algebra, before the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, in
1886, and also in his warm defense of Grassmann’s priority
rights, as against Hamilton’s, in his article in Nature,
“Quarternions and the Ausdehnungslehre.” He points out
that the key to matricular algebras is to be found in the open
(or indeterminate) product (i. e. a product in which no equa-
tions subsist between the factors) and, after calling attention
to the brief development of this product in Grassmann’s work
of 1844, atirms that Sylvester’s assignment of the date 1858
to the “second birth of Algebra” (this bemg the year of Cay-
ley’s Memoir on Matrices) must be changed to 1844. Grass-
mann, however, ascribes very little importance to the open
product, regarding it as offering no useful applications. On
the contrary, Professor Gibbs assigns to it the first place in the
three kinds of multiplication considered in the Ausdehnungs-
lehre, since from it may be derived the algebraic and the
combinatorial products, and shows in fact that both of them
may be expressed in terms of indeterminate products. Thus
the multiplication rejected by Grassmann becomes, from the
standpoint of Professor Gibbs, the key to all others. The.
originality of the latter’s treatment of the algebra of dyadics,
as contrasted with the methods of other authors in the allied
theory of matrices, consists exactly in this, that Professor
Gibbs regards a matrix of order 7 as a multiple quantity in n’*

* For the following account of the mathematical relations of this theory the
writer is indebted to Professor Percey F. Smith.

Josiah Willard Gibbs. 195

units, each of which is an indeterminate product of two
factors. On the other hand, C. 8. Peirce, who was the first to
recognize (1870) the quadrate linear associative algebras identi-
cal with matrices, uses for the units a letter pazr, but does not
regard this combination as a product. In addition, Professor
Gibbs, following the spirit of Grassmann’s system, does not
confine himself to one kind of multiplication of dyadics, as do
Hamilton and Peirce, but considers two sorts, both originating
with Grassmann. Thus it may be said that quadrate, or
matricular algebras, are brought entirely within the wonderful
system expounded by Grassmann in 1844.

As already remarked, the exposition of the theory of
dyadics given in the vector analysis is not in accord with
Grassmann’s system. In a footnote to the address referred
to above, Professor Gibbs shows the slight modification neces-
sary for this purpose, while the subject has been treated in detail
and in all generality in his lectures on multiple algebra deliv-
ered for some years past at Yale University.

Professor Gibbs was much interested in the applications of
vector analysis to some of the problems of astronomy, and
more than once he ealled attention to the great saving of labor
which the use of this method would cause in such subjects as
the determination of an orbit from three observations, the
differential equations which are used in determining the best
orbit from an indefinite number of observations by the method
of least squares, or those which give the perturbations when
the elements are treated as variable.

Between the years 1882 and 1889, five papers appeared in
this Journal upon certain points in the electromagnetic theory
of light and its relations to the various elastic theories. These
are remarkable for the entire absence of special hypotheses as
to the connection between ether and matter, the only supposi-
tion made as to the constitution of matter being that it is fine-
grained with reference to the wave-length of light, but not infin-
itely fine-grained, and that it does disturb in some manner the
electrical fluxes in the ether. By methods whose simplicity and
directness recall his thermodynamic investigations, the author
shows in the first of these articles that, in the case of perfectly
transparent media, the theory not only accounts for the disper-
sion of colors (including the “dispersion of the optic axes” in
doubly refracting media), but also leads to Fresnel’s laws of
double refraction for any particular wave-length without
neglect of the small quantities which determine the dispersion
of colors. He proceeds in the second paper to show that circu-
lar and elliptical polarization are explained by taking into
account quantities of a still higher order, and that these in turn

196 Josiah Willard Gibbs.

do not disturb the explanation of any of the other known
phenomena; and in the third paper he deduces, in a very rigor-
ous manner, the general equations of monochromatic light in
media of every degree of transparency, arriving at equations
somewhat different from those of Maxwell in that they do not
contain explicitly the dielectric constant and conductivity as
measured electrically, thus avoiding certain difficulties (espe-
cially in regard to metallic reflection) which the theory as
originally stated had encountered ; and it is made clear that “a
point of view more in accordance with what we know of the
molecular constitution of bodies will give that part of the ordi-
nary theory which is verified by experiment, without including
that part which is in opposition to observed facts.” Some
experiments of Professor C. 8. Hastings in 1888 (which showed
that the double refraction in Iceland: spar conformed to Huy-
ghens’s law to a degree of precision far exceeding that of any
previous verification) again led Professor Gibbs to take up the
subject of optical theories in a paper which shows, in a remark-
ably simple manner, from elementary considerations, that this
result and also the general character of the facts of dispersion
are in strict accord with the electrical theory, while no one of
the elastic theories which had, at that time, been proposed
could be reconciled with these experimental results. A few
months later upon the publication of Sir William Thomson’s
theory of an infinitely compressible ether, it became necessary
to supplement the comparison by taking account of this theory
also. It is not subject to the insuperable difficulties which
beset the other elastic theories, since its equations and surface
conditions for perfectly homogeneous and transparent media
are identical in form with those of the electrical theory, and
lead in an equally direct manner to Fresnel’s construction for
doubly-refracting media, and to the proper values for the
intensities of the reflected and refracted light. But Gibbs
shows that, in the case of a fine-grained medium, Thomson’s
theory does not lead to the known facts of dispersion without
unnatural and forced hypotheses, and that in the case of
metallic reflection it is subject to similar difficulties ; while, on
the other hand, “it may be said for the electrical theory that
it is not obliged to invent hypotheses, but only to apply the
laws furnished by the science of electricity, and that it is diffi-
cult to account for the coincidences between the electrical and
optical properties of media unless we regard the motions of
light as electrical.” Of all the arguments (from theoretical
grounds alone) for excluding all other theories of light except
the electrical, these papers furnish the simplest, most philo-
sophical, and most conclusive with which the present writer is
acquainted ; and it seems likely that the considerations advanced

Josiah Willard Gibbs. 197

in them would have sufficed to firmly establish this theory even
if the experimental discoveries of Hertz had not rendered such
discussions forever unnecessary.

In his last work, “Elementary Principles in Statistical
Mechanics,” Professor Gibbs returned to a theme closely con-
nected with the subjects of his earliest publications. In these
he had been concerned with the development of the conse-
quences of the laws of thermodynamics which are accepted as
given by experience; in this empirical form of the science,
heat and mechanical energy are regarded as two distinct entities,
mutually convertible of course with certain limitations, but
essentially different in many important ways. In accordance
with the strong tendency toward unification of causes, there
have been many attempts to bring these two things under
the same category; to show, in fact, that heat is nothing
more than the purely mechanical energy of the minute parti-
cles of which all sensible matter is supposed to be made up,
and that the extra-dynamical laws of heat are consequences of
the immense number of independent mechanical systems in any
body,—a number so great that, to human observation, only
certain averages and most probable effects are perceptible.
Yet in spite of dogmatic assertions, in many elementary books
and popular expositions, that “heat is a mode of molecular
motion,” these attempts have not been entirely successful, and
the failure has been signalized by Lord Kelvin as one of the
clouds upon the history of science in the nineteenth century.
Such investigations must deal with the mechanics of systems
of an immense number of degrees of freedom and (since we
are quite unable in our experiments to identify or follow indi-
vidual particles), in order to compare the results of the dynami-
eal reasoning with observation, the processes must be statistical
in character. The difficulties of such processes have been
pointed out more than once by Maxwell, who, in a passage
which Professor Gibbs often quoted, says that serious errors
have been made in such inquiries by men whose competency
in other branches of mathematics was unquestioned.

On account, then, of the difficulties of the subject and of the
profound importance of results which can be reached by no
other known method, it is of the utmost consequence that the
principles and processes of statistical mechanics should be put
upon a firm and certain foundation. That this has now been
accomplished there can be no doubt, and there will be little
excuse in the future for a repetition of the errors of which
Maxwell speaks; moreover, theorems have been discovered
and processes devised which will render easier the task of every

198 Josiah Willard Gibbs.

future student of this subject, as the work of Lagrange did in
the case of ordinary mechanics.

The greater part of the book is taken up with this general
development of the subject without special reference to the
problems of rational thermodynamics. At the end of the twelfth
chapter the author has in his hands a far more perfect weapon
for attacking such problems than any previous investigator
has possessed, and its triumphant use in the last three chapters
shows that such purely mechanical systems as he has been con-
sidering will exhibit, to human perception, properties in all
respects analogous to those which we actually meet with in
thermodynamics. No one can understandingly read the thir-
teenth chapter without the keenest delight, as one after
another of the familiar formule of thermodynamics appear
almost spontaneously, as it seems, from the consideration of
purely mechanical systems. But it is characteristic of the
author that he should be more impressed with the limitations
and imperfections of his work than with its successes; and he
is careful to say (p. 166): ‘ But it should be distinctly stated
that, if the results obtained when the numbers of degrees of
freedom are enormous coincide sensibly with the general laws of
thermodynamics, however interesting and significant this coin-
cidence may be, we are still far from having explained the phe-
nomena of nature with respect to these laws. Tor, as compared
with the case of nature, the systems which we have considered
are of an ideal simplicity. Although our only assumption is
that we are considering conservative systems of a finite num-
ber of degrees of freedom, it would seem that this is assuming
far too much, so far as the bodies of nature are concerned.
The phenomena of radiant heat, which certainly should not be
neglected in any complete system of thermodynamics, and the
electrical phenomena associated with the combination of atoms,
seem to show that the hypothesis of a finite number of degrees
of freedom is inadequate for the explanation of the properties
of bodies.” While this is undoubtedly true, it should also
be remembered that, in no department of physics, have the
phenomena of nature been explained with the completeness
that is here indicated as desirable. In the theories of electric-
ity, of hight, even in mechanies itself, only certain phenomena
are considered which really never occur alone. In the present
state of knowledge, such partial explanations are the best that
can be got, and, in addition, the problem of rational thermody-
namics has, historically, always been regarded in this way. In
a matter of such difficulty no positive statement should be made,
but it is the firm belief of the present writer that the prob-
lem, as it has always been understood, has been successfully
solved in this work; and if this belief is correct, one of the

Josiah Willard Gibbs. 199

great deficiencies in the scientific record of the nineteenth
century has been supplied in the first year of the twentieth.

In method and results, this part of the work is more general
than any preceding treatment of the subject; it is in no sense
a treatise on the kinetic theory of gases, and the results
obtained are not the properties of any one form of matter,
but the general equations of thermodynamics which belong to
all forms alike. This corresponds to the generality of the
hypotheses in which nothing is assumed as to the mechanical
nature of the systems considered, except that they are mechani-
eal and obey Lagrange’s or Hamilton’s equations. In this
respect it may be considered to have done for thermodynamics
what Maxwell’s treatise did for electromagnetism, and we may
say (as Poincaré has said of Maxwell) that Gibbs has not
sought to give a mechanical explanation of heat, but has
limited his task to demonstrating that such an explanation is
possible. And this achievement forms a fitting culmination of
his life’s work.

The value to science of Professor Gibbs’s work has been
formally recognized by many learned societies and universities.
both in this country and abroad. The list of societies and
academies of which he was a member or correspondent
includes the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, the
National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, the Dutch Society of Sciences, Haarlem,
the Royal Society of Sciences, GOttingen, the Royal Institution
of Great Britain, the Cambridge Philosophical Society, the Lon-
don Mathematical Society, the Manchester Literary and Philo-
sophieal Society, the Royal Academy of Amsterdam, the Royal
Society of London, the Royal Prussian Academy of Berlin, the
French Institute, the Physical Society of London, the Bavarian
Academy of Sciences and the American Mathematical Society.
He was the recipient of honorary degrees from Williams Col-
lege, and from the universities of Erlangen, Princeton, and
Christiania. In 1881 he received the Rumford Medal from
the American Academy of Boston, and in 1901 the Copley
Medal from the Royal Society of London.

Outside of his scientific activities, Professor Gibbs’s life was
uneventful; he made but one visit. to Europe and with the
exception of those three years, and of summer vacations in the
mountains, his whole life was spent in New Haven, and all
but his earlier years in the same house, which his father had
built only a few rods from the school where he prepared for
college and from the university in the service of which his
life was spent. He never married, but made his home with
his sister and her family. Of a retiring disposition, he went

200 Josiah Willard Gibbs.

little into general society and was known to few outside the
university ; but by those who were honored by his friendship,
and by his students, he was greatly beloved. His modesty
with regard to his work was proverbial among all who knew
him, and it was entirely real and unaffected. There was never
any doubt in his mind, however, as to the accuracy of anything
which he published, nor indeed did he underestimate its
importance; but he seemed to regard it in an entirely imper-
sonal way and never doubted, apparently, that what he had
accomplished could have been done equally well by almost any
one who might have happened to give his attention to the
same problems. Those nearest him for many years are con-
strained to believe that he never realized that he was endowed
with most unusual powers of mind; there was never any
tendency to make the importance of his work an excuse for
neglecting even the most trivial of his duties as an officer of
the college, and he was never too busy to devote, at once, as
much time and energy as might be necessary to any of his
students who privately sought his assistance.

Although long intervals sometimes elapsed between his
publications, his habits of work were steady and systematic ;
but he worked alone and, apparently, without need of the
stimulus of personal conversation upon the subject, or of eriti-
cism from others, which is often helpful even when the critic
is intellectually an inferior. So far from publishing partial
results, he seldom, if ever, spoke of what he was doing until it
was practically in its final and complete form. This was his
chief limitation as a teacher of advanced students ; he did not
take them into his confidence with regard to his current work,
and even when he lectured upon a subject in advance of its
publication (as was the case for a number of years before the
appearance of the Statistical Mechanics) the work was really
complete except for a few finishing touches. Thus his students
were deprived of the advantage of seeing his great structures
in process of building, of helping him in the details, and of
being in such ways encouraged to make for themselves attempts
similar in character, however small their scale. But on the
other hand, they owe to him a debt of gratitude for an intro-
duction into the profounder regions of natural philosophy such
as they could have obtained from few other living teachers.
Always carefully prepared, his lectures were marked by the
same great qualities as his published papers and were, in addi-
tion, enriched by many apt and simple illustrations which can
never be forgotten by those who heard them. No necessary
qualification to a statement was ever omitted and, on the other
hand, it seldom failed to receive the most general application
of which it was capable; his students had ample opportunity

Josiah Willard Gibbs. 201

to learn what may be regarded as known, what is guessed at,
what a proof is, and how far it goes. Although he disregarded
many of the shibboleths of the mathematical rigorists, his logi-
cal processes were really of the most severe type; in power of
deduction, of generalization, in insight into hidden relations,
in critical acumen, utter lack of prejudice, and in the philo-
sophical breadth of his view of the object and aim of physics,
he has probably had no superiors in the history of the science ;
and no student could come in contact with this serene and
impartial mind without feeling profoundly its influence in all
his future studies of nature.

In his personal character the same great qualities were appar-
ent. Unassuming in manner, genial and kindly in his inter-
course with his fellow-men, never showing impatience or
irritation, devoid of personal ambition of the baser sort or of
the slightest desire to exalt himself, he went far toward realiz-
ing the ideal of the unselfish, Christian gentleman. In the
minds of those who knew him, the greatness of his intellectual
achievements will never overshadow the beauty and dignity of
his life.

Henry A. BUMSTEAD.

Bibliography.

[Taken, with additions, from ‘‘ Bibliographies of the present officers of Yale
University, 1893.”’]

1873. Graphical methods in the thermodynamics of fluids. Trans. Conn.
Acad., vol. ii, pp. 809-342.
A method of geometrical representation of the thermodynamic proper-
ties of substances by means of surfaces. Ibid., pp. 382-404.

1875-1878. On the equilibrium of heterogeneous substances. Ibid., vol. iii,
pp. 108-248 ; pp. 348-524. Abstract, this Journal (3), vol. xvi, pp.
444-458.
(A German translation of the three preceding papers by W. Ostwald
has been published under the title, ‘‘ Thermodynamische Studien,”
Leipzig, 1892; also a French translation of the first part of the Equi-
librium of Heterogeneous Substances by H. Le Chatelier under the
title, ‘‘ Equilibre des Systemes Chimiques,” Paris, 1899.)

1879. On the fundamental formule of dynamics. Amer. Jour. Math., vol.
ii, pp. 49-64.
On the vapor-densities of peroxide of nitrogen, formic acid, acetic
acid, and perchloride of phosphorus. This Journal (8), vol. xviii, pp.
277-293 ; pp. 371-387.

1881 and 1884. Elements of vector analysis arranged for the use of students
in physics. New Haven, 8°, pp. 1-86 in 1881, and pp. 37-83 in 1884.
(Not published.)

1882-1885. Notes on the electromagnetic theory of light. I. On double
refraction and the dispersion of colors in perfectly transparent media.
This Journal (3), vol. xxiii, pp. 262-275. IL. On double refraction in
perfectly transparent media which exhibit the phenomena of circular
polarization. Ibid., pp. 460-476. III. On the general equations of
mono-chromatic light in media of every degree of transparency. Ibid.,
vol. xxv, pp. 107-118.

202

1886.

Josiah Willard Gibbs.

On multiple algebra (vice-president’s address before the section of

mathematics and astronomy of the American Association for the

Seen ea of Science). Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. xxxiii,
. 37-66.

pp
1887 and 1889. Electro-chemical thermodynamics. (Letters to the secretary

1888.

1889.

1891.

1893.
1896.
1897.

1898.
1901.

1902.

of the electrolysis committee of the British Association.) Rep. Brit.
Assoc. Ady. Sci. for 1886, pp. 388-389, and for 1888, pp. 343-346.

A comparison of the elastic and electrical theories of light, with
respect to the law of double refraction and the dispersion of colors.
This Journal (3), vol. xxxv, pp. 467-475.

A comparison of the electrical theory of light with Sir William Thom-
son’s theory of a quasi-labile ether. Ibid., vol. xxxvii, pp. 129-144.
Reprint, Phil. Mag. (5), vol. xxvii, pp. 238-253.

On the determination of elliptic orbits from three complete observa-
tions. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. iv, pp. 79-104.

Rudolph Julius Emanuel Clausius. Proc. Amer. Acad., new series,
vol. xvi, pp. 458-465.

On the role of quaternions in the algebra of vectors, Nature, vol. xliii,
pp. 511-514.

Quaternions and the Ausdehnungslehre. Ibid., vol. xliv, pp. 79-82.
Quaternions and vector analysis. Nature, vol. xlviii, pp. 364-367.
Velocity of propagation of electrostatic force. Nature, vol. liii, p. 209.
Semi-permeable films and osmotic pressure. Nature, vol. lv, pp.
461-462.

Hubert Anson Newton. This Journal (4), vol. iii, pp. 359-378.
Fourier’s series. Nature, vol. lix, p. 200.

Vector analysis, founded on Professor Gibbs’s lectures, by HE. B.
Wilson. Pp. xviii + 486. Yale Bicentennial Publications. C. Scrib-
ner’s Sons.

Elementary principles in statistical mechanics. Pp. xviii+207. Yale
Bicentennial Publications. C. Scribner’s Sons.

J. S. Gardiner— Origin of Coral Reefs. 203

Art. XIX.— The Origin of Coral Reefs as shown by the
Maldives ;* by J. Stantey Garpiner, M.A.

Ir was with very mixed feelings that I received some months
ago a request from the editor of this Journal, for some account
of my work on the formation of Coral Reefs, more particularly
as exemplified by the Maldive Group of islands. The ques-
tion involved is an extremely complicated one, especially since
the conditions in the various parts of the world where coral
reefs are found appear, superficially at least, to be widely differ-
ent. We have evidence in the fact of reefs, built by the same
lime-secreting organisms, actually occurring over broad areas
of the oceans, that the same animals and plants can adapt
themselves to the different conditions such as they are. At
the same time the reefs in widely separated areas of the
Pacific and Indian oceans, at any rate bear to one another a
remarkable family, even generic likeness, so that there would
seem to be certain factors of general occurrence. Indeed, it
would appear that we should look to such conditions as are
constant for an adequate explanation of the main features of
the topography of the existing reefs as well as for an account
of their original formation. Premising the fact that it is
only profound knowledge and vast experience that can tell
how much of the present appearance of any set of reefs is
due to factors of universal distribution and how much is due
to purely local conditions, I pass to my more immediate sub-
ject, the origin of coral reefs.

The question under consideration divides itself into two
chief heads, (1) the nature of the foundations on which the
hme-secreting organisms have built up their superstructure,
and (2) the mode of building and later history of their eree-
tions. My work of the past ‘eight years in the Pacific Ocean
(Funafuti, Rotuma and the Fiji Islands) and in the Maldive
and Laccadive Groups, has dealt principally with the second of
these two heads, and in the latter islands can do no more than
throw an indirect light on the first question. Yet, a knowl-
edge of the physical conditions of the’sea, and of their effects,
is not without importance in indicating the possible and even
probable methods of formation of these foundations.

* For a full account of the Maldives see ‘‘ The Maldive and Laccadive
Groups with Notes on other Coral Formations in the Indian Ocean,” Fauna
and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes, vol. i, pp. 12-50,
146-183, 313-346, 376-423 (1901-3).

The Maldive and Laccadive Groups lie to the southwest of India, extend-
ing in a broad belt almost from Bombay to Jat. 1° S. Sufficiently good

charts for the purposes of this article will be found in Dana and Darwin’s
well-known works on coral islands.

Am. Jour. Scl.—FourtH Series, Vou. XVI, No. 93.—SEPTEMBER, 1903.
14

204 J. S. Gardiner—Origin of Coral Reefs.

It is not my intention to discuss the formation of coral reefs
at any length, or to give precise references to the great pioneer
work of Charles Darwin and James D. Dana, so greatly in
advance of its time, to the fresh considerations and opinions
ably put forward by Murray, to the views of Semper, Louis
Agassiz and Wharton, and finally to the determined work of
Alexander Agassiz during the last twenty years. Such refer-
ences will be found in that beautiful series of publications,
which the latter authority has given to the world, from the
Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard College. It
suffices to remark that, while it may be that some reefs really
owe their existence to the subsidence of the land round which
they originally formed only a fringe, the great mass of facts,
that has been collected in the last twenty years, points out
clearly and decidedly that such a method of formation can
never have been anything else but rare and altogether excep-
tional. Elevated reefs, which have proved to be extremely
numerous in coral reef regions, give no evidence of the very
considerable thickness which such a view postulates, and the
examination of the existing atolls and reefs has shown that
such a conception is unnecessary to explain any of their condi-
tions and is absolutely opposed to many. In some places,
notably some reefs of Fiji, the formations in progress are as
yet mere skins on the surfaces of older elevated limestone and
voleanic rocks, which have been cut down by denudation and
erosion to the level of the sea. Elsewhere, no doubt, and this
more particularly in the less open seas, reef foundations have
been built up to the requisite depths by the accretion of the
remains of organisms, both pelagic and other, on submarine
mountains and elevations, or where the currents are such as to
especially bring about a deposition of material. Again, sub-
marine eruptions have thrown up mounds on the ocean floor,
perhaps to be built up further by organisms, perhaps of the
requisite depth, or perhaps to form islands, the latter of loose
cinders and ash, themselves to be cut down and form wide
plateaus on which reefs have subsequently arisen. A przma
facie example of this method is seen in that line of coral atolls,
the Gilbert and Ellice Groups, which seems to indicate a line
of weakness of the earth’s crust.

It is improbable, considering the diversified conditions of
the earth along the coral reef belt, that any one explanation
will be found to be of general applicability. Certainly no one,
nor indeed all of the above views, taken together, can serve to
explain the method by which the foundations of the Maldive
reefs were formed. The greater part of the Maldive Group
arises on an immense plateau lying at a depth of about 200
fathoms in a sea’ of over 2000 fathoms. At the same time this

J. S. Gardiner—Origin of Coral Reefs. 205

plateau itself, together with the atolls and reefs of the Lacca-
dive Group, all spring from a second wider table at a depth of
about 1100 fathoms, which connects with that on which the
continent of India arises, and which may further extend down
to and include the Chagos Archipelago to the south. Of what
material and by what means these plateaus were formed is a
question to which we can as yet give no adequate answer. As
evidence has accumulated, it has become more and more cer-
tain that India was formerly connected with Madagascar. This
connection continued up to the commencement, at least, of the
Tertiary period, when a great depression must have extended
over the whole of the belt. Probably the contour of the
deeper plateau, which should be much larger than the charts
indicate, represents nearly the outline of the original land
before this subsidence occurred. If this be so, the deepest
foundations not only of the Maldives and Laccadives but also
of the Chagos and many reef areas near the Seychelles, owe
their origin to this source. This depression is not the same
as the slow and long continued subsidence, postulated by
the upholders of the Darwinian theory, for it is quite obvious
that the reefs of the present day are so placed that they can
have little or no close relation to such a depression.

The problem now passes to the question of the formation of
the shallower plateau, which in the Maldives is roughly 300
miles in length by 65 milesin breadth. This plateau is peculiar
in that its area is remarkably sharply defined, sloping off evenly
in two to four miles outside the lines of reefs to over a thousand
fathoms. It is scarcely possible considering its position, swept
by the monsoon currents, that it owes its origin to an upgrowth
of organisms and deposition of sediment on the original line of
sinking. Consequently one is driven to the conclusion that it
represents an island or line of peaks left after the great depres-
sion took place. Again its topography equally precludes the ~
idea of a slowly progressing, long continued subsidence to form
the existing reefs. How and by what means could this plateau
be- formed from the isolated series of mounds or mountains
that were left after the great depression took place? The
answer is supplied by the Fiji Group in which the erosive and
denuding action js well seen on hard volcanic as well as on-
raised limestone rocks. Additional evidence is afforded by the
East Indies in which Professor Max Weber has constant occa-
sion to refer to former land connections and the very remarkable
effects of tides and currents down to several hundreds of fathoms
in depth. Indeed, it is not too much to say that Professor
Max Weber’s Introduction to the Siboga Expedition Results,
taken altogether and in its entirety, points to a levelling of
the East Indian area down to a depth of over two hundred

206 J. S. Gardiner— Origin of Coral Reefs.

fathoms. The study of the charts and of the survey work of
the last thirty years gives much additional evidence, and the
Maldives themselves give clear indications. Lastly, a "depth of
about 150 fathoms is that at which the steep slope of most coral
reefs passes into a more gradual slope, and would seem to be
the critical depth to which the main oceanic and tidal currents
act, this depth decreasing off the smaller reefs and increasing
off the larger. At'the same time it is scarcely necessary to
suppose that the whole area was cut down to 200 fathoms
before reefs commenced to build up, though such a depth would
seem to be critical for a bank of about this size, so situated in
a fully exposed area. Seeing the absolute impossibility of sub-
sidence affording any explanation, examining all considerations
and taking the indications that the area itself gives, I conclude
that an almost flat plateau at a depth of 140 to 170 fathoms
was at one time formed by the erosion and denudation of an
original land mass or more probably series of masses.

We have now to examine the means by which the existing
reefs have been built up on this plateau to the surface. Here
I am on firmer ground. Of course, as already mentioned, cer-
tain parts may from the first have been higher and have served
as foundations for lime-secreting organisms, but such elevations
are not necessary for the foundations of our reefs. In the first
place the observations of my expedition from upwards of 300
dredgings, largely made to settle this point, prove that the regu-
lar reet- building ‘corals do not live below 30 fathoms in any
such luxuriance as would be requisite if a reef were to be built
up. Reef corals feed mainly or almost entirely by their com-
mensal algae. Hence their limit in depth depends on the.
penetrability of sunlight through sea water, and this, judging
from marine algae, must be about 150 fathoms in the tropics.
Inall probability, however, the light is not of sufficient intensity
for any of these organisms to actually live below 75 fathoms,
to upwards of which depth flourishing banks of Lithothamnion
have been found in the East Indies.

The question in reality is not one presenting any real diffi-
culty. Given an upstanding bank, on which the movement of
mud and sand be not too great to choke the animal larvee, we
know from the examination of many such that it would soon
be covered by animal life. Every part even of our immense
bank at 150 fathoms would be thus overgrown, since a rela-
tively strong current would be passing over it and thoroughly
churning up and mixing the pelagic life on which the sedentary
organisms so largely feed. This state could not, however, con-
tinue as the bank grew up towards the surface. The current
over it would inerease in proportion to its upward growth.
Less and less food would tend to reach the organisms on its

J. S. Gardiner—Origin of Coral Reefs. 207

center, and channels due in the first place to lesser growth
would.tend to be formed, along which the currents would more
particularly rush off, doubtless carrying with them a certain
amount of material in suspension. The result at about 75
fathoms would be that we would have a great broad rim cut
by channels of 100 or 120 fathoms, in other words a series of
banks all round a plateau, reaching a depth of 75 fathoms from
the surface of the ocean.

Up to 75 fathoms the chief organisms that formed our bank
were those which approximate to the deep sea type in being
essentially holozoic forms. Now, however, we are approach-
ing the minimum depth to-which experience shows us that these
forms can survive, perhaps owing to physical causes, perhaps
owing to competition. At any rate a fresh series of organisms
comes into account, and gradually becomes more and more
dominant, reaching its maximum at about 45 fathoms but con-
tinuing to exist on to 25 or 30 fathoms, at which depth in the
tropics reef corals obtain full sway over all other sedentary
forms of life. This medium depth group of organisms is a
most varied one. It includes in the first place many corals
such as Goniopora, Alveopora, Dendrophyllia, Heliopora,
Millepora and many solitary Madreporaria. Polytrema is
not unimportant from its consolidating (binding) growth.
Sponges are few but molluses of all sorts are very abundant.
Lithothamnion is known to completely cover banks at 66
fathoms, and not improbably has had a considerable share in
building them up to this height; various forms of //alimeda
and similar algae no doubt also exist.

There is no upward limit to the growth of these medium
depth forms. Most enter into competition with the actual
organisms of the reef, but apparently few are able to compete
with the reef corals. The larvae of the latter settle in some
numbers at about 40 fathoms, and commence a struggle with
the possessors of the ground for supremacy. The reef corals
feed almost entirely by means of their commensal algae, and,
as the depth decreases, the light becomes more powerful so that
at about 25 fathoms they finally obtain the upper hand and
only a few of the deeper organisms (notably J/illepora and
Heliopora) manage to maintain their position. Our bank, in
effect, soon becomes crowned with a surface reef.

It is scarcely necessary to point out that the smaller a bank
the greater the relative cireumference it presents, and the more
the water over it will be mixed together; and that the shallower
the bank, irrespective of its size, the less will such admixture be.
The smaller the bank the more will the current be divaricated
on either side of it, and the less will! its rate be increased. The
larger the bank the more will the rate of the current around it

208 J. S. Gardiner—Origin of Coral Reefs.

be enhanced, and more water will consequently have to pass
over it. .The Maldive plateau is an extreme case both from its
size, particularly its length, and from the fact of its being sit-
uated practically at right angles to the main currents of the
Indian Ocean, viz., those of the monsoons. Even at 75 to 150
fathoms there, would have been, I believe, a considerably lesser
supply of food to its edges than to its center so that on the
former more growth would have been seen, and gutters, having
been formed as shown above, the foundations would have been
laid for the present banks. Still more definitely would these
conditions have become established as the banks grew up, and
in the second phase of growth the separation of the banks would
have been still more marked.

It follows from the above considerations that, as the banks
approached the surface, there would naturally have tended to
be a rim formed to each. Each again would have tended to
split up into separate reefs in the same manner as the whole
plateau had previously itself been severed into separate banks.
The depth at which this cleavage took place is of some import-
ance as bearing on the depths of the lagoons of the various
banks as well as on the depths of the passages into these lagoons.
It is not until the rim becomes moderately perfect that the
atoll lagoon begins to be hollowed out by solution, and its depth
in the first place would to a large extent depend on that of the
original shoal before the rim became definitely determined.
Now, as the depth at which the growth of the rim commenced
would necessarily vary by decreasing with the reduction in size
of the original bank, the lagoons of larger banks would from
the start have had a greater depth than those of smaller.
Tiladumati-Miladumadulu and Mahlos give the depth of 25-30
fathoms for large, linearly extended banks, but in Suvadiva,
Kolumadulu and Haddumati, large, rounded and somewhat
isolated banks, the depth would naturally be expected to be
greater. Our present knowledge allows only a guess at the
original depth and the amount which it has imereased owing
to various causes. In any case the Maldives clearly give a series
from an immense atoll 50 fathoms deep on the one hand ‘to
open banks studded with isolated reefs; and on the other through
atolls of various sizes to separate reefs of a mile or two across,
not as yet of atoll form and rising directly from the common
plateau. Lastly, even on an open bank it is obvious from the
foregoing considerations that some parts of the rim might again
be still further broken up and form atolls of a secondary order,
a condition which seems to be clearly shown in Mahlos and
the other northern banks.

Having shown how the banks may have, and, considering our
evidence, probably have grown up, I pass to the consideration

J. 8. Gardiner—Origin of Coral Reefs. 209

of the changes in progress and here I have a firmer basis of
fact. First, it is obvious that change depends largely on the
rate of growth of reef-corals. Estimates of all sorts had been
made previous to my expedition, but none were founded on
other than isolated growths. I was, however, fortunate enough
to obtain forty coral colonies weighing 21,961 grams and measur-
ing 13,026 cubic ems. from an area of four square yards, which
had been absolutely cleared less than three years before. The
area being considerably enclosed was by no means a rich one,
and the corals had each to become affixed and to start from a
larva, but against this the position was in shallow water where
the full effect of sunlight would have been felt. According
to one method of estimating I conclude that the growth of a
reef would be upwards of 15 fathoms in 1,000 years, whilst
according to another method, which assumes all conditions to
be good, such as on the seaward side of a reef or on an open
bank, it would be upwards of 25 fathoms. Whatever estimate
may be correct, the facts show that the rate of growth of a
reef is relatively rapid, and that, unless checked in some way,
any coral-covered bank at a suitable depth would soon reach
the surface.

The facts relating to the solution of carbonate of lime in
sea water are well known and require no recapitulation. Gen-
erally, the bottom within the lagoons of the larger ato]ls and
banks was covered between the surface and 10 fathoms with
corals, between 10 and 20 fathoms with rubble, and between
20 and 25 fathoms with coarse sand passing to fine sand and
finally mud at about 40 fathoms. Most of the lagoons are
amply provided with passages through their rim reefs, the
depths in which seem to bear some relation to the depths within
the lagoons, and there is in all an ample circulation of water.
Coral sand from the island shores or such as collects on the
surface reefs in hollows, contains about ‘03 per cent of silica,
rock on the land which has suffered rain water denudation °06
~ per cent, whilst mud from Suvadiva lagoon 40 to 50 fathoms
has 2-4 per cent. The difference is remarkable. Fourteen
thoroughly representative surface sands and rocks gave an
average of -047 per cent of silica, and muds from three differ-
ent parts of Suvadiva lagoon all over 40 fathoms gave 2°441
per cent, or fifty times as much. Some of this enormous dif-
ference no doubt may be due to Radiolaria and sponge spicules
collecting rather in the lagoon, but no explanation seems to me
to r thoroughly adequate that does not consider solution as
well.

Other important factors enter into and undoubtedly assist in
the formation of the lagoons, or at the least prevent them from
being filled up. Even within their areas an enormous bulk of

210 J. S. Gardiner— Origin of Coral Reefs.

carbonate of lime is laid down by the corals and other marine
animals, but this at once, except in particularly favorable, i. e.
quite open situations, is very rapidly acted upon by various
organisms and reduced to the finest mud. In the first place
boring algae of the genus Achyla penetrate the lime skeletons
in every direction, extending almost up to touch their living
tissues. They are soon followed by boring sponges, the rami-
fications of some of which are as fine as those of Achyla
while the growths of others hollow out cavities of a square
cm. or so in the skeletons. A way is paved by these for vari-
ous Polychaeta, of which worms of the family Eunicidae are
by far the most numerous both innumbers and species. Again,
these are succeeded by sipunculids such as Aspidosiphon,
Phascolosoma, etc., while numerous Crustacea and Polychaeta
take up their abode in any holes. Lathodomus, Lithotrya and

other forms complete the destruction, and the largest coral
skeleton crumbles down into small fragments, But then a
fresh class of organisms, which feed on such organic matter as
coarse sand or small rubble may retain, comes into play and,
while often keeping the coarser fragments in their guts for
long periods of time, finally pass the whole out in the form of
fine mud. Of this class of animal, by far the most important
on account of their great abundance in every position, are the
Holothurians. Sipunculds, various Echinids and 7halassema
are often very numerous, while Ptychodera is abundant every-
where but only dwells where there is a considerable thickness
of sand.

As already remarked, there is an ample circulation of water
within the lagoons of most of the Maldive atolls and banks.
The encircling reefs are seldom crowned for more than the
half of their length by land, and the passages into the lagoons
are generally deep. It is only in a few protected situations,
where the depth is as great as 40 fathoms or more, that the
lagoon bottom appears not to be churned up by the currents
and waves. In heavy weather the lagoon water is almost
milky, and floating sur "face nets are almost useless on account
of the enormous amount of mud in suspension. The total
amount of mud that passes out of the lagoon in the water is
enormous, and must be of wide reaching importance. On the
other hand the destructive effects outside the atolls within the
same limits, 1. e. down to 40 fathoms, are relatively small, and
the vast quantity of coral mud, that covers 400,000 square
miles of the Indian Ocean as compared with the 25,000 square
miles occupied by the reefs and banks, is almost entirely
formed by the fine material which is in this way carried out of
the lagoons and off the coral banks. Solution is probably
more constant than this action, but the two combined undonubt-

J. S. Gardiner—Origin of Coral Reefs. 211

edly serve not only to prevent the lagoons from being filled
up but also to enlarge them. Both to some degree increase
as the atoll-form, i. e. the ring of reef round a bank, becomes
more perfect. Neither action can proceed through the bodies
of living organisms, and on an open bank the whole slope of
any reef is often practically completely covered by fixed and
living animal and plant life, so that both this action and solu-
tion are impossible. The movement of fine mud tends to
choke and kill the organisms on the lower slope of any reef
on a bank or within a lagoon. Since more mud is deposited
as a bank becomes enclosed, sedentary hfe in this position
must be seriously affected, and then the boring animals enter,
weakening the coral masses so that they topple’ over, giving
fresh openings for the entrance of a new series of boring
forms. The effect is well seen in the practically perpendicular
lagoon slopes of the reefs, that fringe or lie within the lagoons
of the Maldive atolls, from three fathoms or so to within a
few fathoms of the bottom.*

With this gradual but sure increase in the size of any
lagoon it is necessary for the life of any atoll that its rim reefs
should be growing outwards at least as rapidly as destruction
1s taking place inside. All conditions point clearly to this
being the case. From the outer:edge of an encircling reef-flat
there is generally to seaward a gradual slope to 30- 50 fathoms
in 200-400 yards, succeeded by the steep already referred to.
This slope is essentially the growing area, being covered almost
completely by living organisms, great spr eading and branching
colonies of all kinds of corals, which are being bound together
and fixed by Lithothamnion, ‘Polytr ema and many other kinds
of encrusting organisms. At the edge great masses are con-
stantly reaching the surface, and at the same time being bound
by the same organisms on to the reef flat behind. Fissures
remain for some time in the edge of the reef for the escape of
the water, but these subsequently become bridged across, and
finally built into the solid reef. At the same time the outwash
of detritus, largely due to the under-currents, causes a raining
down of coral masses and sand over the edge of the steep,

carrying it out and allowing the extension of the whole out-
wards as a fairy ring.

The whole mode of growth sounds most simple, while in
reality it is produced by a series of nicely correlated action§,
which result in the atoll shape, undoubtedly the dominant and
characteristic form of oceanic reefs. Should the encircling
reef become too narrow, the conditions within it will become
‘more open, and more of its lagoon will be covered by coral

* This perpendicular slope is not consistent with the possibility of the
lagoons haying been filled in by detritus washed over their encircling reefs.

212 J. S. Gardiner— Origin of Coral Reefs.

growth. The effect will be absolutely opposite, if the outward
growth of the atoll causes a considerable broadening of the
rim. Much land on the encircling reef, by preventing the
rush of tidal water mto the lagoon, by protecting the lagoon
from wind, ete., may prevent a free circulation of the water
for solution and erosion, and so produce a stillness and calm-
ness in its waters, eminently favorable for a vigorous growth
of corals which may to a greater or less extent fill it up, a
condition perhaps found in the lagoon of Addu atoll.

Lastly, land in the Maldives appears to have been formed
by three means, (1) a small elevation, (2) the washing back and
piling up of loose coral masses on a reef flat, and (3) the wash-
ing and blowing up of sand on a flat from the lagoon. Most
of the islands on the rim reefs, which show any definite signs
of their origin appear to have been formed in their earliest stage
by the first means, but they have frequently been very greatly
added to and increased in size by the last. At the present
time the islands show in one place increase and in another loss,
the latter on the whole predominating.

The various changes and modes of growth, as sketched above,
may be seen in the different banks and atolls of the Maldive
Group. The open banks show numerous small flat reefs, aris-
ing from 25-380 fathoms, and even complete little atolls stud-
ding their surfaces. A flat reef may become completely
covered with land, or a small depression may appear in its
center due to the impossibility of organisms growing in that
position, to solution and the outwash of sand and mud. This
may deepen, and, the whole meantime spreading, our bank
may turn into a small atoll (atollon or favo), while other neigh-
boring jaro may perhaps have grown up as such. Our atollons
will'still go on broadening, and this will especially be the case
with those towards the edges of the bank, since they will be
bathed by the freshest water. As growth proceeds, the reefs
of these atollons will meet and fuse with one another, forming
a double rim to our bank, which, by this means, will be turned
into an atoll (wzde Suvadiva Atoll). Finally the mner parts of
the same little atolls will be removed by solution and the
action of the currents, so that their little lagoons will be
thrown into the big central lagoon, and thus will be brought
about the formation of our typical atoll. The distribution, the
slopes and topography of these small faro and banks of the
Maldives, and the distribution of sedentary and other life in
the group are explicable on such a view alone, though there is
not wanting evidence also from the comparison of the present
condition of the banks with that shown in Moresby’s charts of
1836. The latter evidence is in any case quite subsidiary and
much of it of doubtful value on account of the small scale of

J. 8. Gardiner—Origin of Coral Reefs. 213

_the original charts and my lack of time, means and experience
for a thorough survey. Yet, the fact that the great bulk of
the evidence points in precisely the same direction lends con-
siderable support to the views put forward above, which I
have attempted to graphically represent in the annexed figure.

O 20 40 6080 !00 200
==

“

al Ma. MMT

Fic. 1.—Diagram showing some points in the formation of the Maldives.
The figure represents a supposed section through the rim of one of the atolls
(scale in fathoms).

A. Basis of primitive rock, cut down by the action of the currents, etc.

B. Upgrowth of a shoal by means of deep-sea corals assisted by other
organisms. The more densely shaded area between B and D shows the depth
at which the deep corals cease to grow and the reef forms commence. The
reef, however, in this part is mainly formed by the medium depth corals
and other organisms.

C. Outward extension of the reef by means of detritus, swept off the reef
above by the currents.

D. Surface reef, formed by corals, etc.

EK. Land, formed by elevation or a piling up of sand and rubble on the
reef.

F. Lagoon, formed partially by the more rapid growth of the organisms
on the edge of the original bank, building up an encircling reef, and
partially by the solution and erosion of the central parts.

In conclusion, it may be observed that the above remarks
apply mainly to the Maldive Group, but it is not unlikely that
many of the dominant conditions there will be found to be
dominant all over the coral reef area of the Indo-Pacific region.
I have done no more above than touch on a few of the newest,
most important and general points relating to the subject. For
a full and detailed account of the coral formations and biologi-
cal conditions of the Maldives, I must refer to “The Fauna
and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive Groups” already
cited. .

Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge, England.

214 W. G. Mixter—Heat of Combustion of Hydrogen.

ArT. XX.—On the Heat o Combustion of Hydrogen; by
W. G. MIxTER.

[Contributions from the Sheffield Chemical Laboratory of Yale University. ]

THE constant for the heat of combustion of hydrogen is
fundamental in thermal chemistry and its values found in the
more recent investigations differ by nearly two per cent.
While the results of Thomsen, Schiiller and Wartha, and Than,
agreeing closely, may be regarded as quite accurate, it appeared
desirable to obtain additional data, and also to make a critical
investigation of the bomb method of calorimetry now in gen-
eral use. Andrews made good determinations of the heats of
combustion of hydrogen and carbonic oxide with a copper
bomb in 1848 but his method does not appear to have been
used again until Berthellot perfected it.

The calorimeter, fig. 1, consists of the bomb B, the calori-
meter vessel OC, supported by the wooden ring W in the tin
vessel A which is surrounded by the double-walled copper
tank containing 20 liters of water. The water in the calori-
meter is stirred by two small propellers. The bomb is fine
silver except the stem of sterling silver. Its capacity was
found by filling it with boiling water, allowing to cool, best in
a tank of water in aroom of constant temperature, and weigh-
ing with the usual precautions. Determinations were made at
4° and common temperature and the difference in volume
observed accorded well with that calculated with the coefficient
of expansion of silver. The internal volume of the bomb was
found to diminish 0°15° when the internal pressure was made
737°" less than the external, and to recover its original volume
when the internal pressure was restored. No correction was
made for this change in volume in the exhausted bomb. After
several explosions the capacity of the bomb was found to have
increased 0:25° by each explosion. An internal pressure of 16
atmospheres for 18 hours expanded it 0°3° and the internal
volume was then 1110°56% at 18°. After lying unused eight
months it was found to be 1110°58°. The capacity of the
stem of the bomb is 0°3°. E is an insulated platinum electrode
for sparking the gas. The calorimeter vessel C is german sil-
ver and is nickel plated on the outside. The water equivalent
of it and the bomb was derived from the specific heats given
in Landolt and Bernstein’s Physikalish-Chemische Tabellen,
using Naccari’s numbers for copper at 17°, zine at 18°, silver
at 23°, and Regnault’s for nickel between 14° and 97°.

W. G. Mixter— Heat of Combustion of Hydrogen. 215

Water
Specific equivalent.

grams. heat. grams,
Copper 2 pte pcr leeee Ce SaeS 0°09245 29°5
Wessely© 2 Nickell. 22. 95°7 0°1092 10°4
OST Cae ea aes 116°9 0°0915 10°7
Hai iva 50°6
Silver bomb 2222-22202 2 1342: 0°05498 8
124°4

~

t

NU

(Sc HS a

Aang

OUR CA

|

i

Two differential thermometers graduated to hundredths and
numbered 1 and 172,683 respectively were used in the work.
They were calibrated and compared with a standard ther-

216 W. G. Mixter—Heat of Combustion of Hydrogen.

mometer graduated to tenths. This was also calibrated and its
0° and 100° points determined and the results agreed well with
the certificate of the Reichsanstalt. The correction for No. 1
is +0:003° and for No. 172,683+0-:038° for an interval of 5°
on the scale of each.

By way of control comparisons were made with an air ther-
mometer consisting of the silver bomb connected with a con-
stant volume pressure gauge. As the air thermometer was in
fact the calorimeter the differences in temperature observed
with the mercurial thermometers were subject to the same
source of error as the temperature observations of the calori-
metric work. The following are the results :

Interval. Standard. Air thermometer.
INO, eee ee Aerio & 5:0038° 5:004°
ee 172,683 Bigs es a0 5:088° 5'036°

The error in the value of 1°8°, the interval in the ealori-
metric work, probably does not exceed 0:001°. Thermometer
No. 3, used for finding the temperature of the gas measured, is
graduated to tenths. It was calibrated, and compared with
the standard, and the 0° point was from time to time taken in
Hee:
The temperature interval of the calorimetric work was deter-
‘mined as follows: The temperature observed at the instant of
an explosion was taken as the initial temperature. It was
assumed during the first minute after an explosion that the
gain and loss of heat from external causes were equal. To the
maximum temperature observed was added the average fall
noted subsequently for the number of minutes less one inter-
vening between the explosion and the highest temperature.
The errors due to the time required for the thermometers to
come to an equilibrium with the water are small, since No. 1
changed the last 001° in 20 seconds and No. 172,683 in 30.

The barometer used was one made by Green. The scale is
0-7™™ Jess than 760™™ on the standard meter of the Physical
Laboratory, and the correction for the meniscus is 0°72™™.
Three sets of weights used in the investigation were tested and
found to be sufficiently in accord for the purpose. The bal-
ance is an old 5* one in an ordinary glass case. It indicates a
difference of one milligram with a load of 2* on each arm.
During the third series of experiments it was enclosed ina large
hood. The weighing of gas required much time, and proved
to be sufficiently accurate for the purpose. The weight of the
water used in the calorimeter was reduced to weight in vacuo.

The mass of one liter of hydrogen in the latitude of New
Haven, 41°3°, is taken as 0°089844 gram and is derived from
Morley’s figure 0:089873 gram for latitude 45°. The mass of

W. G. Mixter— Heat of Combustion of Hydrogen. 217

Tas
velo

y)

218 W. G. Mixter—Heat of Combustion of Hydrogen.

one liter of air is 1°293 gram in latitude 45° and in New Haven
it is 1:2926 gram. No correction was made for the small ele-
vation of the laboratory above the sea level. The coefficient
of expansion of both hydrogen and air used in the caleulations
is 0°00366.

The apparatus employed in filling the bomb with hydrogen is
shown in fig. 2, page 217. The generator K was charged with 250
grams of sheet aluminium and a solution of sodium hydroxide
of density 1-1. Owing to the alkali held by the bulky sedi-
ment which formed on the metal the gas was evolved for
hours and often for days after the stop cock was closed, thus
expelling the air from K and L. The latter vessel contained
water to keep air from contact with the solution in K. Each
series of experiments was made with one charging of the gene-
rator. For the last series zinc was substituted for aluminium.
The hydrogen was tested for arsenic by the Marsh method,
though if present none was likely to escape the alkali; for
carbon compounds by passing it over glowing copper oxide and
then into lime water; and for ammonia by the Nessler test.
None of these impurities was detected. The jar P contained ©
24 kilos of potassium hydroxide, in sticks. Hydrogen or air
after passing through this drying jar yielded to phosphorus
pentoxide only 0-2 milligram of water per liter, an amount
too small to affect the results. The method is well suited to
drying rapidly large volumes of gas. The manometer M is a
barometer and tube as shown. The apparatus was exhausted
by means of large water-aspirator pump connected at b. To
prevent moisture or air passing into the apparatus.mercury was
placed in S so that the end of T dipped into it. The bottle A
with its tubes is for removing the mercury from § when neces-
sary. The small brass tubing of the connections was tinned
and varnished. The bomb was protected from changes of
temperature by a glass jar packed in cotton wool in a wooden
box, which stood in the hood with the balance.

The relative mass of the bomb was obtained as follows: It
was repeatedly filled with air dried by potassium hydroxide
and finally closed after noting the temperature and pressure.
It was then counterpoised on the balance by a silver plated
copper bomb of like shape and size. Next the air was exhausted
to 15 or 20™™ pressure and the loss in weight noted. The
bomb was next filled with hydrogen at a known temperature
and low pressure and weighed again. The relative mass of the
bomb in the first case is the mass of the counterpoise less the
calculated mass of contained air. In the second and third
instances it is less the weight required to counterpoise it again
plus the calculated weights of the contained gases. The mean
of the three results was taken as the mass of the bomb.

W. G. Mixter— Heat of Combustion of Hydrogen. 219

The bomb was then filled with hydrogen and exhausted to
a pressure of 15 to 20™™ and the process was repeated a num-
ber of times. This method of filling the bomb was adopted
with the idea that there was less danger of air leaking into the
bomb than if the exhaustion was made more nearly complete
by long pumping with a mercury pump. The close agreement
between the calculated and observed weight of the hydrogen
shows that the errors from impurity of the gas were negligible
except in four experiments of the first series. The apparatus
used in filling the bomb in this series was similar to the one
described with the exception that some rubber tubing was used
in the connections. After the final filling of the bomb with
hydrogen the mercury was removed from 8S so that the gas in
the bomb which was under more than atmospheric pressure
might escape through the long small tubing until it attained
the pressure of the atmosphere and without danger of air dif-
fusing into the bomb. The temperature, pressure and weight
of the gas were noted. The hydrogen was weighed in order
to have evidence of its purity but the mass calculated from the
volume was used in the ealculation of a calorimetric result.
The oxygen required was made from potassium chlorate, and
was passed through a cylinder filled with sticks of potassium
hydroxide and condensed in an iron flask containing solid
potassium hydroxide. It was free from compounds of carbon
and contained 2°7 per cent of nitrogen. With this amount of
nitrogen present the quantity of nitric acid which was formed
by an explosion was too small to be taken into account. The
bomb was rinsed after an explosion with about 100° of water.
The wash water was neutral to ordinary litmus paper, gave a
slight turbidity on addition of hydrochloric acid, and contained
only a milligram of silver. The oxygen was passed by means
of a tube 2™" in diameter into the bomb and the valve of the
latter was closed when the gauge indicated rather more than
half an atmosphere. There was, therefore, no danger of loss
of hydrogen by diffusion. The quantity of oxygen in the
bomb was also found by weighing.

To Dr. H. A. Bumstead of the Physical Laboratory the
writer is indebted for the following method of reducing the
results. |

The general formula for reducing the heat of combination,
found under the condition of constant volume, and between
the temperatures ¢7, and ¢, to that found at 0° and under con-
stant pressure, is easily obtained by imagining the mixed gases
to be carried through two different processes from the same
initial state to the same final state, and equating the losses of
energy in the two processes.

Am. Jour. Sci1.—FourtH SERIES, Vot. XVI, No. 93.—SEPTEMBER, 1903.

220 W. G. Mixter—Heat of Combustion of Hydrogen.

(1) Suppose m grams of the mixed gases, originally in the
state p, v, t,, 1s first cooled and expanded or compressed until
its state is P, v,, 0°; by Joule’s law, the total loss of energy
will be mC,¢, calories, where O, is the specific heat at constant
volume of the combined gases. Let the gases now combine at
constant pressure, giving out Q calories, in the form of heat,
v,

and receiving calories, in the form of work done by the

outside pressure (the final volume of the water being negligible
In comparison with v,). The total loss of energy by this
process is thus

et

Q— J + mC,t..

(2) In the second process, starting with the same conditions,
let the mixture be burned at constant volume, vw, the final tem-
perature of the calorimeter being 7; let the observed heat be
Q’. If o,1is the density of steam at ¢ and p, its pressure, the
mass of uncondensed vapor will be o,v (again neglecting the
volume of the water); let this be compressed, at constant tem-
perature, z, until all is condensed. ‘The energy given to it in
Pv

J
be ool, where L, is the latent heat of steam at the tempera-
ture ¢ Let the resulting water be then cooled from ¢ to 0°,
giving out mé calories. We now have water in the same final
state as by the first process, so that the losses of energy in the
two cases are equal.

the form of work will be calories, and the energy lost will

Thus
Q- 3 + mC,t, = Q’+ov0L,— i + mt
or Q = Q’+ovL,+ +mt—mC,t, — i ‘

The product o,L, may be got most conveniently from the
formula of Clapeyron which, when we neglect the volume of
water in comparison with the volume of steam, becomes

1 d,
ps DR om og (278 +9) >

y “as
a being obtained from a table giving the pressure of steam at

different temperatures.
If one gram of hydrogen is burned, and P is the standard

pressure, 760™™ of mercury, at latitude 45°
Po, __ 716°X13°6 X 980°6 X 16680"

0

= = 404: calories.
J 4181 X10’ =

WG Me ‘ater — Heat of Combustion of Hydrogen. 221

mO, = 3:6, m = 9 grams and a is a small correction amount-
ing to about 6: calories when ¢ is 18°. Thus

Q = Q' +ovL,+ 40449 t — 3°6t,— io (1)
If Q” is the heat given out when m grams of the mixed
gases are burned to liquid water between ¢, and ¢, at the con-
stant pressure P, precisely similar reasoning shows that we
have

Q = Q’+mt — mC, (2)
where ©, is the specific heat, at constant pressure, of the
mixed gases.

First Series.

Experiment 1.—Hydrogen, 1107-6 at 17°6° and T6T-4m™ ;
calculated weight 0:0944, observed 0:0945 gram. Water and
water equivalent of calorimeter 1761°2 grams.

Minutes. Temperature. Temperature interval.
0 15°73 17°498—15°73 +0:005=1-773°
1 15°73
2 1S%73 Observed heat, 1761:2 x 1°7738=3122°6°
3 7750 Correction to calorie at 20° Brg
4. 17°498
5 17°495 3124°8°
6 17°488
7 17°485
8 17°477
Substituting numerical values in equation 1 we have
a Bieeke
Q aoe 33102
owl, = 102
ey, = 404
J
9¢ = 157
—3°6t, = — 57
pw
J = — 6
Q = 33702°

Experiment 2.—Gas, 1108° at 18°3° and 756°8™", weighing
00965 gram; weight of like volume of hydrogen 0:09289
gram. Calculated amount of hydrogen present 0:09266 gram.
Water and water equivalent of calorimeter 1720-4 grams.

222 W. G. Mixter— Heat of Combustion of Hydrogen.

Minutes, Temperature. Temperature interval.

0 15°074 17°903—15'082 + 0:002=1°823°
i 15'078

2 15°082 Observed heat, 1720°4 x 1°823=3136°3°¢
5 17°883 Correction to calorie at 20° a3
4 17°9038

5 17°901 3138°6°
6 17°899 From these data we have for the value
7 17°3897. of Q=34483°,

Experiment 3.—Gas, 1108°3° at 17:9° and 773:2™, weigh-
ing 0°1004 gram ; weight of like volume of hydrogen 0:09507
gram. Calculated amount of hydrogen present 0:09469 gram.
Water and water equivalent of calorimeter 1765°4 grams.

Minutes. Temperature. Temperature interval.

0 16°631 18°454— 16643=1°811°
1 16°637

2 16°643 Observed heat, 1765°4 x 1°811=3197°3°
3 18°454 Correction to calorie at 20° i-6°
4 18°454

5 18°454 3198°9°
6 18°456 Q=34395°

Experiment 4.—Gas, 1108°6% at 18°5° and 751:3™", weigh-—
ing 0:095 gram; weight of like volume of hydrogen 0:09221
gram. Calculated amount of hydrogen present 0:09202 gram.
Water and water equivalent of calorimeter 1733°3 grams.

Minutes. Temperature. Temperature interval.

tig O9 18°896 —17°115 +0:004=1°785°
7 2

Ve (faa) 55

18°896 Observed heat, 17333 x 1°785=3093°9°
18°896 Correction to calorie at 20° 172°
18°892
18°889 3095°1°
18°884 QO s4954e

Eaperiment 5.—Hydrogen, 1108°8° at 19°3° and 767-8™™ ;
calculated weight 0°09399, observed 0:095 gram. Water and
water equivalent of calorimeter 1716 grams.

TI DOP WH KH ©

Minutes. ‘Temperature. Temperature interval.

16°427 18:244—16°429 +0°005=1°820°
16°428

16°429

18°244 Observed heat, 1716 x 1'82=3123°1°
18°244 Correction to calorie at 20° 5S
18°234
18°234 3124°6°
18°225 O=—338854°

18'225

18°217

ODOT HOO PWN KH ©

W. G. Miater— Heat of Combustion of Hydrogen. 223

Experiment 6.—Gas, 1109° at 162° and 768:-4™™, weighing
0098 gram; weight of like volume of hydrogen 0°09511 gram.
Calculated amount of hydrogen present 0:09489 gram. Water
and water equivalent of calorimeter 1706°2 gram.

Minutes. Temperature.
15°330
15°331
15°332
17°166
17°180
17°174
Ferey@
17°168
le altona

aTourrwWNeH ©

Temperature interval.

17°180—15°332 + 0:°005=1°853°

Observed heat, 1706°2 x 1°853=3161°6°
Correction to calorie at 20° 25°

3164°1°
=33942°

Haxperiment 7.—Hydrogen, 1109°3° at 21°5° and 761:1™;
calculated weight 0-09251, observed 0:089 gram. (There was
evidently an error in weighing the hydrogen.) Water and
water equivalent of calorimeter 1728°8 grams.

Minutes. Temperature.
IO
17°202
7-203
18°967
18°967
18°959
18°952
18°945
18°937

AIP wndeH >

Temperature interval,

18°967 —17:203+0:007= 1°771°

- Observed heat, 1728°8 x 1:°771=8061°'8°

Correction for calorie at 20° Toye

3063°0°
Oe=san2ic

Second Series.

Hauperiment §.— Hydrogen, 1109°3° at 17:05 and 752:9™ ;
calculated weight 0:09294, observed 0:0933 gram. Water and
water equivalent of calorimeter 1688°8 grams.

Minutes. Temperature.
5 z9 1
15°296
15°301 :
17°1138
eral 7
17°129
ee V26
7s}
geen
17°119

Om wTowvprPprwndre ©

Temperature interval.
17°129—15°301 +0°005=1°833°

Observed heat, 1688°8 X 1°838=3095°5°
Correction to calorie at 20° 9°5°

3098-0°
Q = 33932

224 W. G. Mixter—Heat of Combustion of Hydrogen.

Eaperiment 9.—VWydrogen 1109°5° at 15°9° and 770™™; eal-
culated weight 0-09544, observed 0:0953 gram. Water and
water equivalent of calorimeter 1710-4 grams.

Minutes. Temperature.

oo)

15°071
15°076
15°081
16°903
16°939
16°940
16°938
16°936
16°935
16°9338

Hm CO Dt

co OC ~T & Or

Temperature interval.
16°940—15:081+0:004=1° 863°

Heat observed, 1710°4 X 1'863=3186°5°
Correction to calorie at 20° 2°5¢

3189°0°
Q=34008°

Experiment 10.—Hydrogen, 1109°8° at 15°6° and 755:4™™ ;
calculated weight 0:09376, observed 0:0933 gram. Water and
water equivalent of calorimeter 1765-7 grams.

Minutes. Temperature.

15°044
15°046
15°048
16°813
16°814
16°812
16°808
16°805
16°802

aTnooarrwWNnH S&S

Temperature interval.
16°814—15°048 + 0:003=1- 765"

Heat observed, 1765°7 X 1°769=3123°6°
Correction to calorie at 20° B°5e

3126°1°
Q=33934°

Experiment 11.—Hydrogen 1110:2° at 18°4° and 767-17" ;
calculated weight 0:09432, observed 0°0947 gram. Water and
water equivalent of calorimeter, 1711°9 grams.

Minutes. Temperature. ~

16°049
16°054
16°062
16°067
17°874
17°904
17°904
17-902
17°900
17°898

OD IW]ES98*RWNWHO

Temperature interval.

17°904—16:067 +0:004=1°841°

Heat observed, 1711°9 1-841 3136"
Correction to calorie at 20° 179¢

3153°5°
QO=34039°

Third Series.

Experiment 12.—Hydrogen, 1110°6° at 17-3° | (oS
calculated weight 0:09395, observed 0:0934 gram. Water and
water equivalent of calorimeter, 1633°3 grams.

W. G. Mixter—Teat of Combustion of Hydrogen. 225

Minutes, Temperature.
0 16°140
i 16°141
2 16°142
+ 18049
9) - 18°050
6 18°043
7 18°036
8 18°029

Temperature interval.

18°050—16'142 + 0°014=1°922°

Heat observed, 1633°3 x 1:922=3139°2°
Correction to calorie at 20° oc

(QJ=34041° 3141°1°

Fixperiment 13.—Hydrogen, 1110°7° at 15°9° and 767:25™™ ;
calculated weight 0:09519, observed 0:0953 gram. Water and
water equivalent of calorimeter, 1683-3 grams.

Minutes. Temperature.
0 15°771
1 15°776
2 15°780
+ 17°616
5 17°656
6 17°656
ii 17°653
8 17-651
9 17°648

10 17°645

Temperature interval.
17°656—15°78 + 0-°008=1°884°

Heat observed, 1683°3 x 1°884=3171°3°
Correction to calorie at 20° W-(RE

3173°9°
O33 945-

Lixperiment 14.—Hydrogen, 1111:1° at 201° and 754:15™ ;
calculated weight 0°09227, observed 0:0924 gram. Water and
water equivalent of calorimeter, 1731-2 grams.

Minutes. Temperature.
0 16°410
| 16°416
2 16°423
4 18°204
5 18°209
26 18°209
a 18°209

Temperature interval.

18°209—16°423=1°786°

Heat observed, 1731°2 x 1°786=3091°9°
Correction to calorie at 20° 1°5°¢

3093°4°
@O= 34 136°

The following table contains the result of every thermal
experiment made with hydrogen :

First series. Second series. Third series.
Thermometer No. 1. Thermometer No. 1. Thermometer No. 172,868.

No. of exp. Calories. No. of exp. Calories. No. of exp. Calories.

it 33702 8

+79 34483 9
3 34395 10
4 34954 it
5 33854
6 33942
7 Bey FAT

Meant. 3.5 ae 34051

Probable-error __ + 80

33932 2 34041
34008 13 33945
33934 15 34136
34039

33978 3404]

zeae ie) + 38

226 W. G. Mixter—Heat of Combustion of Hydrogen.

Weighting these means inversely as the squares of their prob-
able errors, we have for the mean of the three series 38993416
calories tor the heat of combustion of one gram of hydrogen at
constant pressure and formation of liquid water at 0°, and in
terms of the calorie at 20°.

It may be stated that the aim has been to present an outline
of the work sufficient to show the character of it, omitting a
vast amount of detail. Every precaution was taken to ensure
accuracy and much time was spent in testing the thermometers
and in finding the most favorable room temperature for the
work. The investigation was the more laborious because a
room of fairly constant temperature was not available, and it
was often necessary to wait for hours or a day for the condi-
tions requisite for thermometric and barometric observations.

RESULTS OF OTHER INVESTIGATORS.

In the following table the results of different investigators
are given in chronological order and for constant pressure.
Andrew’s published result of 33808° at constant volume is
increased 438° for constant pressure. Likewise Than’s observed
heat of 33822° at constant volume is 404° greater for constant
pressure.

Calories. , Temperature.

34473 Dulong. Be of for mation of 9 grams of water.

34792 Hess. + o

34666 Grassi. rs i sy

34246 Andrews.* ‘* combustion 1 “« hydrogen 20°—22°

34462 a ae “ formation of 9 é: water 6°—12°

ibermaun.t

34178 Thomsen.{ eS 4 9 7 “« -16°—20°
a. schtiller and js & e oe = °

SU) Rr a ie 8:98 0

34226 Than.| “ “ g98 « ‘s 0°

34495 Berthellot.4 ‘“¢ combustion of 1 “ hydrogen 9°—10°

Calculating the heat of combustion of one gram of hydrogen
from the heat of formation of the stated amounts of water on
the basis of the accepted ratios of 2°016 to 16 of hydrogen to
oxygen in water, we have

* Phil. Mag. [3], xxxii, 321, 1848.

+ Ann. Chem. et Phys. [3], xxxiv, 349, 1852.
{ Thermochemischen Untersuchungen, li, 02.
§ Ann. Phys. u. Chem. N. F., ii, 371, 1877.
i Ann. Phys. u. Chem. N. F., ’ xiv, 393, 1881.
*| Ann. Chem. et Phys. [6], XXX, DB, 1893.

W. G. Mixter—Heat of Combustion of Hydrogen. 227

Calories. Calories.

34498 D. 33937 Thom. 16° to 20°
34547 H. 33961 S. & W. 0°
34414 G.

34246 A. DO meGOne 24 34061 Than OF
34219 F. & S. 65 to, 12° 34495 B. 9° to 10°

The most recent investigation of the specific heat of water
is that of Callendar and Barnes.* They regard the specific
heat at 20° as unity, and 1:0010 at 15°, 1:0022 at 10° and 100387
at 5° and the mean between 0° and 100° as 1:0014. These
data are used in reducing the calorimetric results to the water
calorie at 20°. Adding 14 to Thomsen’s figures for reduction
to the calorie at 20° gives 33951. Allowing for the correction
he made for the interval between 18° and 20° and reducing by
formula 2, p. 221, Q = Q’+mt — mCpt, in which Q’ is 33951
and #, is 16° and ¢ 18° we have Q = 34031. Schiller and
Wartha calibrated their ice calorimeter in terms of the mean
specific heat of water between 0° and 100°. Their figures are,
therefore, multiplied by 1:0014. Than ealibrated his ice calori-
meter with silver and lead, using Regnault’s specific heats of
these metals and also with water. His calibration is possibly
high. Omitting the figures of Dulong, Hess, Grassi and Ber-
thellot, which are obviously high, the results in the preceding
table reduced give the figures in the next table for the heat ot
‘combustion of one gram of hydrogen at constant pressure and
formation of liquid water at 0° and in terms of the calorie at
20°. The writer’s result, p. 226, is included. ,

PAINE Wi iiee tee Sew woe A ee a 34336 calories.
Havre and Silbermanm _.-_.......- 34378

VV COEDS STN wh et eg a a eae ea eae ne 34031 oO
Seuuller and: Wartha _ 2222 2225.52. 34009 of
airings eee een Se BAG I UG
Wihixche rere tet re tee adc tart! eS 33993 ee

The first two are evidently high and should not be included
in the final value. Thomsen’s value is the result of seven
experiments in which a total of 18 grams of water were formed
by burning hydrogen at constant pressure. Schiiller and
Wartha’s value is the mean of five closely accordant experi-
ments and in each one about 1°3 gram of water was produced.
They burned electrolytic gases in a Bunsen ice calorimeter,
weighed the water formed and measured the heat, not with
the aid of a thermometer, but by the specific heat ‘of water,
Than’s value is the mean of the result of four experiments in

* The Electrician, xliii, 775, 1899.

228 W. G. Miater—Heat of Combustion of Hydrogen.

which he exploded electrolytic gases in a Bunsen calorimeter.
His method is good but perhaps more liable to error because of
the small volume of gas taken, than the methods of Thomsen
and S.and W. The writer used the bomb method.

The mean of the last four results in the table is 34023". If
Thomsen’s and 8. and W.’s be weighted twice the last two, the
result is essentially the same, namely 34022°. It is highly
probable that this value is accurate in the third figure and that
the total error is not more than one-tenth of one per cent. It
is the mean of closely agreeing results of different investigators
who used four different methods not subject to the same con-
stant error, excepting that of the specific heat of water at dif-
ferent temperatures, and this erroris small. This value, 34020
calories, is the heat of combustion of one gram of hydrogen at
constant pressure with formation of liquid water at 0° and in
terms of the calorie at 20°. For a gram-molecule it is

ri—ae H=1:008.
At, 0° 68040° 68580°
cer er 67900° 68440°

In conclusion the writer desires to express his indebtedness
to Professors Hastings and Bumstead for their valuable sugges-.
tions and assistance.

0. S. Pulman—Determination of Uranium. 229

Art. XXI.— The Determination of Uranium and Uranyl
Phosphate by the Zine Reductor ; by O. S. PuULMAN, JR.

[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale University —CX VIII. ]

E. F. KERN* has recently proposed a method for determining
uranium in which the uranyl! salt is reduced to the uranous
condition by allowing a warm solution of uranyl sulphate to
pass through a long Jones reductor, made by putting in the
bottom of a 50°* burette, a layer of broken glass an inch thick,
and then placing on this an 18-inch column of 20-mesh amal-
gamated zinc. The sulphate solution, in volume from 100 to
150°™, and containing free sulphuric acid (1°84) between the
ratios of 1 to 6 and 1 to 5 to the total solution, was poured
through the reductor and caught in a large Erlenmeyer flask,
the titration flask, which was closed by a small funnel and con-
tained about a gram of dry sodium carbonate. According to
Kern, the solution, which was quite acid, upon coming in con-
tact with the dry sodium carbonate liberated carbon dioxide,
which filled the flask and prevented the oxidation of the ura-
nous solutions. After all the solution had been emptied into
the reductor it was followed by about 250° of distilled water.
The solution was then diluted to 500™* and titrated with a
“0-01 normal potassium permanganate solution,” containing
3°16 grams of the salt per liter, to a faint red end-reaction.

The time required for 100° of uranyl solution and 250°™
of water to pass through the reductor was about ten minutes ;
for 150° of uranyl solution and 250™ of water, about twenty
minutes. | |

From his experiments Kern concluded that the reduction
went exactly to the uranous stage of oxidation, the reduction
being in all cases complete and proceeding no further when the
solutions were twice passed through the column of zine than
when passed through once. The results obtained were concor-
dant with those obtained gravimetrically. In making some
tests of this process my experience has been somewhat differ-
ent from that of Kern. :

For carrying out the tests an uranium solution containing
about six grams of uranic oxide per liter was made from uranyl
nitrate which had been purified according to the directions of
Richards and Merigold.+ Twenty-five cubic centimeters of nitric
acid were added per liter to keep basic salts from separating
out. It was standardized in the usual gravimetric way by pre-
cipitating the uranium by ammonia and weighing it as U,O,,.

* Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., xxiii, 716.
+ Proc. Am. Acad., vol. xxxvii, No. 14, p. 385.

230 =O. 8. Pulman—Determination of Uranium and

The potassium permanganate solution, approximately -
(containing about 3°16 grams of the crystals to the liter), was
standardized against an exactly arsenite solution by allow-

ing a measured amount of the permanganate to act upon an
acidified solution of potassium iodide (containing enough of the
salt to hold the iodine set free in solution), the iodine thus set
free being taken up by adding an excess of the arsenite and
neutralizing with acid potassium carbonate, the excess of the
arsenite then being titrated by standard iodine, with starch as
an indicator. The total amount of arsenite employed, less the
excess which is indicated by the iodine, corresponds to the
amount of permanganate taken.

For each experiment a measured amount of the standard
uranyl nitrate solution was converted into the sulphate by
evaporating it with 10° of sulphuric acid (1°84) in a 300™
flask, placed in a slanting position on an iron radiator to pre-
vent any loss by spattering, until dense white fumes were
formed. The liquid was then cooled, and water and more sul-
phurice acid were added in sufficient amount to make the
volume of the solution up to that desired (generally from 100
to 150°™*), and the proportion of the free sulphuric acid to the
total volume to between the ratios of 1 to5and 1to7. Before
passing the solution through the reductor, a small amount of
warm acid was sent through, and, in order that the proportion
of the acid in the uranium solution might not be changed by
the liquid thus left in the reductor, care was taken to have the
dilute acid of the same strength of acidity as in the uranium
solution. The warm acid was followed by the uranium solu-
tion, and this was washed through by a little of the acid and
by 250°° of hot water. The solution was collected in the
flask, diluted, and titrated with potassium permanganate. This
was the general procedure in preparing and treating the ura-
nium solution.

It was found that it required about an hour, instead of ten
minutes, as Kern said, for 100°™ of a solution, containing sul-
phurie acid even in the ratio of 1 to 7, and 250° of water to
pass through a reductor prepared exactly according to Kern’s
directions. The apparatus, therefore, was arranged so that
suction could be applied, but with suction the carbon dioxide
generated by a gram of sodium carbonate would be very quickly
exhausted. In view of this fact, it was thought best to con-
nect the apparatus with a carbon dioxide generator, to pass a
current of gas through the apparatus before starting the oper-
ation, and then after the operation to fill up the partial vacuum
formed by the suction with carbon dioxide before disconnec-

Uranyl Phosphate by the Zine Reductor. 231

ting the receiving flask and titrating the solution with perman-
anate. For this purpose there was joined to the stopcock of
_the burette by a rubber connector a straight glass tube running
down through a three-hole stopper into a receiving flask of
about a liter capacity. Through the other two holes of the
stopper passed pieces of glass tubing bent at right angles, of
which one served for introducing the carbon dioxide and the
other for applying the suction.* A layer of glass wool about
5™" in thickness was placed between the broken glass in the
bottom of the burette and the column of zine so that any
particles of zinc might not be drawn into the receiving flask
by the suction. The results were constantly very high when
operating in this manner.

Zimmermannt found that uranous salts are fairly stable in
the air, an exposure of the dilute solution in a porcelain dish
for two hours making a difference of only two milligrams and
a half on 071568 grams UO,, and also that the same results were
obtained whether he poured his reduced solution into a por-
celain dish, diluted it with water, and titrated it with perman-
ganate, or poured the reduced solution into a porcelain dish
containing an excess of permanganate diluted and acidified
with sulphuric acid, then destroyed the excess of permanganate
by a slight excess of ferrous sulphate, and finally took the end-
point with permanganate.

Since Zimmermann did not find it necessary to keep his
reduced solution of uranium from exposure to the air, the idea
occurred that possibly the presence of carbon dioxide, as sug-
gested by Kern, might be unnecessary. Some experiments
were therefore tried in which the solution was passed through
the reductor, caught in a flask in which no carbon dioxide was
present, and after dilution was titrated directly in the receiving
flask with the permanganate. Even this procedure gave posi-
tive errors, although not so great as when the carbon dioxide
was present, thus seeming, together with the experiments with
the carbon dioxide, to point to the fact that the uranyl salts
were actually reduced below the uranous state by zine and sul-
phurie acid, and that they tended to oxidize back again when
exposed to the air.

It was thought that if the contents of the flask after passing
the reductor were poured through the air into a porcelain dish,
any over-reduction might be corrected, and the uranium thus
brought exactly to the uranous stage. In each of a set of
experiments performed in this manner it was found that the
results were sharp and concordant, and the presumption that
the uranium salt is actually reduced below the uranous stage by

* Compare figure p. 284.
+ Ann. Chem. (Liebig), cexiii, 303.

232 O. 8. Pulman— Determination of Uranium and

the action of the reductor, and reoxidized on exposure to the
air seems to be justified.

The details of the procedure were as follows: The uranium
sulphate solution, obtained from the standard solution of ura-_
nium nitrate by evaporating with 10™* of strong sulphuric
acid, as previously described, ranging in volume from 100 to
150°", and containing a proportion of free sulphuric acid vary-
ing between the limits of 1 to 7 and 1 to 5, was heated nearly
to the boiling point, and, preceded by a few cubic centimeters
of the same strength of acid, was passed slowly through the
reductor, using gentle suction. The flask which had contained
the solution was washed thoroughly with sulphuric acid of the
same strength as was in the solution. This was added to the
reductor after the uranium and was followed by 250™* of hot
water. The contents of the receiving flask were poured into
a porcelain dish, diluted with about 200° of hot water, and

n : ; :
titrated with a a potassium permanganate solution to a faint

pink end-reaction.

In most of the determinations the proportion of the free
sulphuric acid in the solution was kept nearly at 1 to 6, since
this was found to be the most satisfactory, although the deter-
minations in which the ratio was between the limits of 1 to 5
and 1 to 7 gave accurate results. When the ratio was at 1 to 5
or greater, however, the acid attacked the zinc so rapidly that
there was too great an evolution of hydrogen for convenience,
so much so that if for any reason the operation had to be inter-
rupted the rapidity of the evolution caused the solution to rise
in the tube and to be in danger of flowing over the top of the
reductor. The ratio of 1 to 7 required more time than that of
1 to 6. With acid in the ratio of 1 to 6, it was found that
amounts of uranium sulphate equivalent to 0.2 gram of uranic
oxide were not reduced completely in eight to ten minutes, so
that for this amount about fifteen minutes or more should be
taken for passing the uranium solution and water through the
reductor. For 0.3 gram of uranic oxide it was found that eighteen
to twenty minutes were not sufficient for complete reduction,
so that half an hour or more was allowed for reducing and
washing with this amount. With the stronger acid, in the
ratio of 1 to 5, it was found that the uranium could be reduced
in about two-thirds of the time required by the acid in the
ratio of 1 to 6, but the use of the weaker. acid. was preferred
on account of the rapid evolution of hydrogen and the conse-
quent danger of loss connected with using the stronger acid,
as above mentioned.

In using the reductor for estimating the molybdie acid in

Uranyl Phosphate by the Zine Reductor. 233

ammonium phospho-molybdate, Blair states that the solution
should always be kept above the level of the zinc, so that no
air will pass into the reductor. This precaution was carefully
observed, for, by the action of nascent hydrogen, hydrogen
peroxide might be formed, and this would cause high results
in the process.

The contents of the receiving flask after the operation were
of an olive-green color, but upon exposure to the air by pour-
ing into a porcelain dish the color changed immediately to the
sea-oreen color always possessed by uranous salts, aud this
change of color is of itself evidence of oxidation. In the
titration of the hot solution of uranous sulphate with perman-
ganate the solution gradually became more and more of a
yellowish green color as it approached the highest condition of
oxidation. With small amounts of uranium the addition of a
single drop of permanganate in excess caused the whole solu-
tion to change to a very faint pink color, but with larger
amounts the solution became a yellowish pink upon adding the
excess of permanganate, and the end-point was harder to read.

The results obtained are shown in the table:

Uranyl
sulphate Dilution
taken, in at time Hrror in
terms of *H.SO, of reduc- terms
UOs. (1°84). tion. Time, KMn0Ox,. of UOs.
erm. em3, CImea) | MMMUteSy) acme, neonm: UO., grm.,
0°1336 18 oe cle 15 9°32 0°13384 —0:°0002
0°1337 20 120 15 9°37 0:°1341 + 0°0004
0°1336 25 LD 5ye: ay 9°40 0°1345 + 0°0009
0°2005 18 Tita 2.0 14°02 0°2006 +0°0001
0°2003 25 125 Lei 14°01 0°2005 + 0°0002
0°2671 23 150 20 US26.0:26,71 +0°0000
0°2673 20 140 18 18°65 0°2669 —0°0004
0'1001 25 126 22 OS™ O2LOUG + 0°:0009
0°1002 20 140 i 4 7°02 0:1004 + 0:0002
_0°1002 20 140 14 7-01 0°1003 +0:0001
0°0668 18 AUG A 4°70 0:0673 -+ 0°0005
0:0994 20 100 16 6:96 0:0995 +0°0001
0°1988 20 120 18 13°90 0°1988 + 0°0000
0°1988 25 150 18 13°88 0°1985 — 0°0003
0°3314 25 150 27 23°14 0°3309 — —0°0005
0°3314 30 150 36 23°19 0°3316 +0°0002
0°3314 25 145 33 23°17 0°3318 —0°0001

Since the uranium, by contact with the air, is oxidized
exactly to the stage of oxidation represented by UO,, and since
in a few preliminary experiments carried out in the presence of
carbon dioxide it apparently remained reduced below that
stage, it appeared that it might be interesting to investigate

234 O. 8. Pulman— Determination of Uranium and

that point a little more fully. The apparatus that was used is
shown in the accompanying figure.

The same form of apparatus was
used in the preliminary experiments
just mentioned, except that in the
place of the stoppered funnel there
was a piece of glass tubing bent at
right angles. In the process finally
worked out for the determination of
the uranium a two-hole stopper was
used, instead of the one having three
holes, of which one served for carry-
ing the inlet tube connected with the
stopcock of the burette and the other
for carrying a bent glass tube, by
which the suction was applied.

In the experiments carried out with
this form of the apparatus carbon
4ij Lioxide was passed through the receiv-
| ing flask until, by testing the escaping
current with a solution of sodium hy-

= droxide, it was proved .that only ear-

bon dioxide was present. The ura-

nium sulphate solution was then passed through the reductor
with gentle suction, just as when no carbon dioxide was used,
and was followed by the dilute sulphuric acid used to wash out
the flask, 250°"° of hot water, and finally by 200° of water at
the ordinary temperature of the room, to cool down the solu-
tion somewhat and to bring up the volume to the dilution at
which it was ordinarily titrated. A strong current of carbon
dioxide was then turned on until the partial vacuum caused by
the suction had been entirely filled, and, by testing again, it
was found that carbon dioxide entirely filled the flask. An

Ni

excess of a io Potassium permanganate solution was next intro- .

duced into the receiving flask by means of the stoppered
funnel without admitting any air. After the flask had been
gently shaken so that the permanganate was diffused through
the liquid, the apparatus was disconnected from the reductor
and the excess of permanganate destroyed by a small excess of

L, A 5 - bs
a =f solution of ammonium oxalate. The solution was still

so warm that it was possible to tell fairly well when an excess
of the ammonium oxalate had been added. The mixture was
then heated to about 60° and the final end-point taken with a

i) . e
0 potassium permanganate solution.

Uranyl Phosphate by the Zine Reductor. 23008

The following results were obtained :

Uranyl Amount
sulphate Dilution KMnO, used of UO;
taken, at time after deduct- more

in terms H.S0O,. of reduc- ing cm?®. of than

of UOs. (1°84). tion. Time, oxalate. theory.

grm. em:. em?, minutes. ecm*. grm. UOQO3;. germ.

0°1336 20 120 13 10°41 0°1490 +0°0154
0°1337 20 120 17 10°54 =0'1508 +0:°0171
0°2004 20 120 15 ole O22 Avi +0°0243
0°2003 25 125 19 15°68 0°2242 + 0°0239
0°1002 20 120 18 (56 07108 + 0°0079
0°0668 18 90 18 SOD" OW sw + 0°0064
0°2658 25 125 16 20°60 0°2946 +0°0288
0:2672 20 120 15 ZA O02 3019 +0°0347
0°1002 18 90 15 8°01 0°1145 + 0°0148

In order to be certain that the cause for this apparent over-
reduction was not partially due to the setting free of oxygen
during the interaction of the permanganate and the oxalic acid
in the strongly acid solution of sulphuric acid, it was decided
to investigate the point. In an article from this laboratory,*
it is shown that in the presence of 20 per cent of sulphuric
acid (1:1) there is no appreciable loss of the permanganate at
the ordinary temperature under an exposure of a few hours
only. The results, however, were obtained with small volumes
and at the ordinary room temperature, while in the uranium
process there was a much larger volume at a temperature of
from 30° to 40° when the permanganate and oxalic acid were
added. Some blanks, therefore, were carried out as follows:
Approximately 550°™° of distilled water were placed in a flask,
25°" of strong sulphuric acid added, the mixture heated to

about 40°, and 19°™’ of a me solution of permanganate run

, n ;
in. A slight excess of a [po 2mmonium oxalate solution was

then added, the mixture warmed to about 60°, and the final
end-point taken with permanganate. It was found that there
was no loss of the permanganate, the same results being given
in this way as when the ammonium oxalate was diluted to
600°™* and after adding 25° of sulphuric acid was heated to
60° and titrated directly with permanganate.

Since there was no loss between the permanganate and the
oxalic acid (and.there is no other apparent cause for error), the

* Danner and Gooch, this Journal, vol. xliv (1892), 304.

Am, Jour. Sci.—Fourtu Series, Vout. XVI, No. 93.—SePreMBER, 1903.
16

236 =O. 8S. Pulman—Determination of Uranium and

natural inference to be drawn is, that when an uraninm sul-
phate solution is reduced with zine and sulphuric acid ont of
contact with the air, a compound of uranium lower than that
corresponding to the uranous condition may be formed. Zim-
mermann* opposed this view, but his mode of operation would
give this very unstable body the chance to be oxidized back to
the uranonus condition before coming in contact with the per-
manganate. His method was to pour through the air his
reduced solution into an excess of permanganate previously
diluted and acidulated, then to destroy this excess by a slight
excess of ferrous sulphate, and to titrate the excess of ferrous
sulphate with more permanganate. Zimmermann, further-
more, in reducing his solution in a small flask, with a compara-
tively small amount of zinc, did not give the uranyl salt as
great a chance to be reduced below the uranous stage as is given
by the greater exposure of zine surface when the solution
passes through the reductor. As has been shown in the table,
the results do not run together constantly for the same amounts
of uranium used, and it appears that the amount of lower oxide
formed depends upon the manner of action upon the zine, and
that it is so unstable that the least trace of oxygen may change
it very materially. In fact, when the olive-green solution is
poured through the air, the change to the sea-green color of
the uranous salt is immediate.

The results establish pretty conclusively that it is not advis-
able to pass the solution through the reductor into a flask full
of carbon dioxide. This would appear to be what Kern tried
to do by dropping his solution into a funnel, and so into his
“titration flask,” but during this operation the solution must
have been exposed to the air enough to oxidize the lower oxide
to the uranous state (Kern thought that the uranyl sulphate
was not reduced below uranous sulphate by passing through
the reductor), and the protection offered afterward by the car-
bon dioxide generated from a gram of sodium carbonate would
hardly be significant. The conditions under which Kern oper-
ated could not be repeated exactly, since the uranium sulphate
would not, without suction, pass through a reductor consisting
of an 18-inch column of 20-mesh amalgamated zine set up
according to directions, in less than five times as long a period
as Kern’s table called for. When operating, however, as nearly
as possible according to Kern’s prescription, that is, by gentle.
suction into a flask, no carbon dioxide was needed. In fact, as
previously stated, high results were obtained. In thinking it
necessary to have carbon dioxide present because Zimmermann
poured his reduced uranium solution directly into permanga-

* Ann, Chem. (Liebig), ccxili, 802-304.

Uranyl Phosphate by the Zine Reductor. 237

nate in a few experiments, to avoid exposure to the air, Kern
undoubtedly misunderstood Zimmermann, since the latter ordi-
narily emptied his reduced solution into a porcelain dish,
diluted it with water, and then titrated it with permanganate.
Zimmermann did try some experiments, as previously described,
by pouring the reduced solution directly into an excess of per-
manganate, but that was only in the few cases when he was
trying to prove that the uranyl salt was not reduced below the
uranous condition by zine and sulphuric acid. Ordinarily,
however, Zimmermann’s operation was not conducted in that
way.

it would appear, therefore, that Kern labored under a mis-
apprehension in regard to the use of carbon dioxide in his
“titration flask,” that the zine employed in his own work must
have been larger than that which is called for in his directions
for setting up the reductor, and that his statement is wrong
that uranyl sulphate is not reduced below the uranous condition
of oxidation by passing through a long Jones reductor made
as above described.

After completing these experiments with carbon dioxide, a
few trials were made to see whether, by running air through
the solutions reduced in the ordinary way as worked out for
the determination of uranium, the solutions would be oxidized
above the stage represented by UO,. It was found that by
bubbling air rapidly through the solution for ten minutes it
was oxidized to an amount equal to about 0°0020 gram of UO,
for 0:13836 gram UO, used.

The process, then, for the determination of uranium by the
reductor depends upon the fact that any reduction of uranium
lower than uranous oxide—and such reduction undoubtedly
takes place in the reductor—is corrected by exposure to the
air, the lower oxide being rapidly oxidized to exactly the ura-
nous state, while the uranous salts are stable enough to permit
of being estimated before they are oxidized.

Kern also stated, in the same article, that the filtering of a
precipitate of ammonium uranyl phosphate through a Gooch
crucible could not be accomplished on account of the fineness
of the precipitate. In trying to work out a method for deter-
mining phosphoric acid by precipitating the phosphoric acid in
the presence of ammonium salts by uranium, filtering off the
ammonium uranyl phosphate thus obtained, determining the
uranium in the precipitate according to the method just
described, and then, from the amount of uranium so found,
estimating the phosphoric present, much experience was
obtained in filtering off the precipitate, which, as Kern said, is
very finely divided and tends to pass through the filter very
easily. It was found that the precipitate went through two

238 =O. 8. Pulman— Determination of Uranium and

ashless filter papers (Schleicher & Schill, No. 589), and: also
that an asbestos felt of ordinary tightness in a Gooch crucible
would not entirely retain the precipitate. By shaking up the
flask containing the asbestos, however, allowing it to settle a
minute and then pouring off the particles still in suspension,
a very finely-divided asbestos was obtained, which, when poured
upon the felt made in the ordinary way, was found to give a
pad of such tightness that the filtrate obtained from the ammo-
nium uranyl phosphate was perfectly clear. The tightness of
the.felt, however, together with the gelatinous character of the
precipitate, caused the process of filtering and washing to be
rather slow.

The process as worked out for the determination of the phos-
phoric acid was as follows: A measured amount of a standard
phosphate solution (containing about 4°7 grams of microcosmic
salt per liter) was drawn into a beaker, and a mixture of about
twelve grams of ammonium acetate, formed by neutralizing
about 10° of ammonium hydroxide (0°90 sp. gr.) with acetic
acid (50 per cent), and from 2 to 4°%™* of free acetic acid was
added. The total volume was made up to about 150° and
the solution heated nearly to boiling. The ammonium uranyl
phosphate was then precipitated by slowly adding an excess of
uranium nitrate, with stirring, and the precipitate was boiled
gently for about twenty minutes, allowed to settle, and filtered
on a tight felt of asbestos. The precipitating beaker and the
precipitate were washed thoroughly with a dilute solution of
ammonium acetate containing a little free acetic acid (to over-
come the tendency of the precipitate to pass through the filter)
and the crucible containing the precipitate was placed in a
glass funnel. Enough dilute sulphuric acid, in the ratio of
1 to 6, was then added to dissolve the precipitate and thor-
oughly wash out all the soluble uranium salt from the asbestos,
the solution being caught below as it passed through the eru-
cible and funnel in the same beaker that was used for the pre-
cipitation. The solution was then made up to a volume of
from 100 to 150%* with dilute sulphuric acid, in the ratio of
1 to 6, heated to boiling, and treated just as has been described
for a solution of uranyl sulphate—that is, a few cubic centi-
meters of warm dilute sulphuric acid, in the ratio of 1 to 6,
were passed through the reductor and were followed by the
uranium solution, a few cubic centimeters more of the dilute
sulphuric acid, and 250°" of hot water. The contents of the
flask were then poured into a porcelain dish, diluted with

200° of hot water, and titrated with a 7 solution of potas-

sium permanganate to a faint pink end-reaction.

Uranyl Phosphate by the Zine Reductor.

239

The results obtained are shown in the following table:

P.O;
taken.
erm.
0°0404
0:0404
0°0226
0°0226
0°0719

0-0719

U0s
corre-
spond-
ing to

P.O;
taken.

erm.
0°1630
0°1630

0°0912 -

0°0912
0°2902
0°2902

H.SO,
(1°84).
em,
25
25
20
20
25
25

Dilu-
tion
at re-
duc-
tion.
em?®,
a0)
150
120
120
150
10)

KMn0O,.

em?
11°06
P03

6°14

Gry
LGIG2
19°61

UO;
found.
germ.
0°1632
0°1628
0:0906
0-091L1
0.2896
0°2894

Error on
UOs.
grm.

+0:°0002

—(0°0002

—0°0006

—0Q-0001

—0-°0006

—0°'0008

Error on
EOS.
germ,

+ 0°00005
—0°00005
—0°00015
—0:00002
—0:°00015
— 000020

- The results are all that can be desired as far as accuracy is
concerned. The only objection to the process is that the filter-
ing and washing of the precipitate are apt to be slow, espe-
cially when large amounts of the material are being treated.

In conclusion the author wishes to thank Professor F. A.
Gooch for many helpful suggestions given during the course

of this work.

240 O. Hl. Hershey—fiver Terraces of California.

Art. XXII.— Certain River Terraces of the Klamath Region,
California ; By Oscar H. Hersury.

Remnants of terraces occur in all the principal valleys of
the Klamath Mountains. Heretofore, the writer has not con-
sidered them of any particular significance as they appeared
not to constitute a definite system. In the down-cutting of
the deep Pleistocene valleys, remnants of the old valley floor
were left at various levels above the present streams and do
not necessarily indicate an uplift of the region by stages. -On
a recent trip between the coast at Humboldt Bay and the high
mountains near the head of the South Fork of Salmon River,
the writer had the opportunity of observing a more definite
system of river terraces than are developed farther east in the
Klamath region and they seem to tell a story worthy of con-
sideration, especially through its bearing on the problem of the
cause of glaciation of the high mountains.

These terraces are situated on the: Trinity River below the
mouth of New River, on the Klamath River below the mouth
of Salmon River, and on the Salmon River and its South
Fork as far up as Summerville. These streams in this region
flow in Pleistocene. cations which have an average depth of
3,000 feet. They are trenched into comparatively resistant
metamorphic rocks such as schists and slates, intruded by
batholites and dikes of gabbro, diabase, diorite and allied
igneous rocks. There is considerable diversity in the resistant
properties of the different formations and in consequence the
cafions vary greatly in width. Throughout the greater portion
of their courses they are extremely narrow at the bottom,
usually no wider than the streams, and for miles in places are
practically impassable except high up on the slopes. The
rivers are superimposed on the structure and traverse indiffer-
ently hard and soft belts. The downward progression of the
valley floor is controlled by the rate of erosion of the hard
rock barriers in the gorges. In the soft belts, the streams
exert their energies on the walls of the valley rather than its
floor and excavate small basin-like valleys with flat floors from
ten to twenty-five times as wide as the gorges in the hard rocks.

Through the gorges the streams flow straight and swift and
hurry along the gravel and boulders. In the basins, the streams
until recently wound about in meanders, here and there touch-
ing and undermining the valley walls. The gravel carried
out of the gorges was spread over the flat floors of the basins
in sheets from 5 to 20 feet in depth, constituting ordinary
gravelly alluvial plains. As the rock barriers in the gorges

O. H. Hershey—fRiver Terraces of California. 241

were eroded, the basin floors were cut down, remnants of the
alluvial plains left as terraces, and a new gravel plain formed.
That is the explanation of the terraces but it is not by any
means the whole of the story.

The terraces are confined almost exclusively to the basins.
The system is chiefly developed below a height of three or four
hundred feet above the streams. Occasional alluvial remnants
occur higher but there is nothing definite about them. Three
fairly persistent levels may be traced out in the different basins,
although intermediate terraces are occasionally detected. The
lower is the most prominent, stands from 20 to 75 feet above
the present streams at low water, and in reality forms the flat
floor of the basins. After a terrace level is abandoned by the
streams, the rock debris from the neighboring steep mountain
slopes works down and builds up talus deposits, giving the
older terraces a sloping surface. Hydraulic mining demon-
strates that the river deposits extend to the inner edge of the
terraces under the talus debris. The lower terrace level has
been abandoned so recently that talus deposits and alluvial fans
on it are not conspicuous, so that its evenness of surface is a
marked feature.

Above Hawkin’s Bar, the Trinity River issues from a gorge
cut largely in gabbro, and enters upon a belt of Bragdon slate,
the least resistant of all the pre-Cretaceous formations of the
Klamath region, and has eroded in ita valley from one-fourth to
over one-half mile in width. The stream now flows in a nar-
row canon trenched from 50 to 75 feet below the flat valley
floor. The walls of the cafion consist of highly inclined slates
capped by gravel.

From the mouth of Willow Creek to Waterman, three miles,
the valley is wide and the terrace system well developed.
Several hills of rock rise like islands, centrally on the valley
floor. The stream flows in its usual very narrow cafion trenched
30 to 40 feet below the lower terrace which forms the flat
valley floor.

The river passes out of the Bragdon slate belt, for several
miles traverses a narrow gorge and then returns to the slate
belt and enters Hoopa valley. This is about seven miles in
length and one mile in average width. Its altitude is about
350 feet above sea level.* The floor is even enough to consti-
tute a fine body of agriculturai land. The river traverses it
in a meandering course, touching each side alternately, but the
meanders are trenched 20 to 30 feet below the flat valley floor.

* Altitudes given in this paper are derived largely from aneroid deter-
minations by J. S. Diller. The figures of the height of terraces are mainly

estimates drawn from memory, but are sufficiently accurate not to vitiate the
arguments.

242 O. H. Hershey—fRiver Terraces of California.

The tiny cafion is no wider than the stream and is cut into the
rock below the gravel. The valley also preserves splendid
remnants of the higher terraces up to several hundred feet,
especially at the upper end where there is a beautiful display
of three sharp terraces, each a rock bench capped with gravel.
Opposite the village of Hoopa, each side of the valley has a
well marked remnant of the principal upper terrace, several
hundred feet above the stream and other remnants indicate
strongly that at that level the valley once had a flat floor of
similar shape and size as the present.

At the lower end of Hoopa valley, the river leaves the
Bragdon slate belt and to its mouth traverses a gorge in Paleo-
zoic schists. In ascending the Klamath River from Weitchpec,
traces of the terrace system are observed in the cafion at .
various places, particularly at the mouths of Bluff and Red
Cap Creeks, but there is no prominent development of them
until Orleans is reached. Here for several miles the river is
traversing a comparatively soft belt of schist and has eroded a
basin over one-fourth mile in average width, the slopes of
which are finely terraced. The broad lower terrace, on which
is built the village of Orleans, is the valley floor proper and
has a level about 30 feet above the ordinary stage of the river.
The stream flows through the basin in a rock cafion no wider
than the river. Gravel-capped rock benches rise behind each
other to a level of 400 or 500 feet above the river and are
extensively mined. The main one at several hundred feet
seems to correspond in degree of preservation with the main
upper terrace on the Trinity River. The altitude of Orleans
is nearly 800 feet.

Continuing up the Klamath River and then up the Salmon
River traces of the terrace system are encountered at many
places in the eafion, particularly at the mouths of tributary
streams, but there is no pronounced development of them _
until Nordheimer is reached. From here to the Forks of
Salmon, the valley is wide enough to have a well-marked flat
bottom, which is traversed by the river in a narrow rock cation
cut down from 30 to 60 feet. Discontinuous remnants of the
higher terraces up to several hundred feet are present all along
the river for many miles. The altitude of the river at the
Forks of Salmon is about 1700 feet.

Up the South Fork of Salmon River, traces of the lower
terrace are hardly anywhere absent, except in a few of the
narrowest gorges. Wherever the rocks are soft this lower
terrace spreads out to a broad, flat gravel bar, always elevated
above the present river level. It is well developed at Cecil-
ville, altitude about 2650 feet, where the village is built on it.
The present cafion has a depth of about 25 feet and its usual

O. H. Hershey—fiver Terraces of California. 248

extreme narrowness. At several points from here upstream
there are in the small cafion, where the rock is excessively
soft, traces of a lower terrace whose rock floor is usually 5 to
10 feet above the stream. They are indefinite, are due to a
shifting of the stream meanders and do not necessarily indicate
renewed uplift. From Cecilville downstream they are weakly
developed at a number of points, but nowhere are conspicuous
and wiil be ignored in the following discussion.

In the vicinity of the old town-site of Petersburg, several
miles above Cecilville, the river was able to excavate a basin
in the area of the Salmon hornblende schist because of its local
shearing and partial alteration into chlorite schist. Here the
terrace system is typically developed with three main levels,
the lower trenched by the river to a depth of 30 to 40 feet.
The lower terrace nay be traced through the next gorge
upstream. At its level there is a slight bench with gravel
deposits along both sides of the gorge, and the present cafion,
with nearly perpendicular rock walls, has a depth below them
of 30 to 50 feet. This leads us into the Summerville basin,
excavated largely into an area of non-resistant granite.

The altitude of the river at Summerville is about 3100 feet
above the sea. It flows in a rather wide cafion (because the
rock is unusually soft), and 30 to 40 feet deep. From its
edges, before mining operations were begun, a gravel terrace
extended back several hundred feet and then the basin floor
rose in successive benches to a level of 300 feet above the
stream. Indeed, the entire terrace system was developed here
in unmistakable form. This is the farthest point up the
river at which it reaches a prominent development, as above
here the rocks are nearly uniformly hard, the cafion narrow,
and the stream very high grade. Glacial deposits occur
within five miles upstream. Within the cafion at many points
there are benches, by which the terrace system may be traced
into connection with the glacial series. This has been done.
However, it deserves treatment as a separate subject, but some
of the conclusions will be used in this paper.

The most important features described in the preceding
paragraphs are, that each basin throughout the area discussed
contains a broad, flat, gravel floor, and that the streams no
longer flow at this level, but in a tiny cafion trenched mostly
from 30 to 50 feet beneath it into the hard rock below. The
contrast between the broad valley floor and the narrow cafion
winding about in it is extremely prominent and certainly
“indicates a change of conditions. The size of the cafions
relative to that of the streams is everywhere so nearly alike as
to point indubitably to a like age for the flat valley floor in
each basin. Now, the development of the flat valley floor

244 O. Hl. Hershey—River Terraces of California.

required a long period of comparative stability during which
down-cutting in the basins was practically nothing and the
streams devoted their attention to widening their valleys.
The streams were low grade, at least in the basins, and had
meandering courses. Suddenly conditions changed and the
streams universally in this area began to trench the valley
floor, in many cases retaining the meandering courses. Several
hypotheses as to the nature of this change in conditions will
be examined briefly:

1. That the down-cutting of the barriers in the gorges was
intermittent because of some peculiarity in their structure.
This position is untenable. The hypothesis would be worthy
of serious consideration if the strata were at a low angle and
hard and soft layers alternated. The strata throughout the
region are practically vertical and the igneous rocks rise
vertically through them. ach barrier belt is essentially
uniform in structure and resistant properties in any given 500
‘feet of depth. All other conditions remaining equal, the
down-cutting in the gorges will be practically uniform and the
lowering of the basin floors equally as regular. The tiny
cafions in the basins are rarely any wider than the streams.
Down-cutting in the gorges must proceed as rapidly as in
these cafions in the basins. There is not nearly the contrast
in the size of the cafions in the basins and the equivalent
portion of the gorges, as between the broad valleys and their
equivalent portion of the gorges. In this I see evidence that
the broad valley floors are not due solely to the barriers, but
to the barriers in combination with a past general low-grade
condition of the main streams of the entire area. Further it
appears evident that the down-cutting from the level of each
main terrace, and especially from the last, was due to causes
independent of the structure of the barriers.

2. In some regions, particularly those of semi-arid climatic
conditions, an increased and better distributed rainfall some-
times causes a dissection of alluvial plains. In this region
precipitation is now, and apparently always has been abundant.
The streams have been able to remove the rock debris to the
sea about as fast as weathering produced it, so that it nowhere
accumulated to great depth. Therefore, widening of the
valleys occurred only under low-grade conditions of the main
streams. Suddenly increased rainfall would hardly result
in dissection, but rather, for a time at least, in aggradation. I
am going to connect the lower terrace with the later stages of
glaciation in the high mountains, and on the generally
accepted principle that the Glacial Period was one of excessive
precipitation, we must presume that the rainfall is now less
than when the broad valley floors were formed.

O. H. Hershey—Riwer Terraces of California. 245

3. That decreased rainfall caused the erosion of the tiny
eafions has in its favor the probability as derived from other
sources of such a lessening in the precipitation during their
development, but hardly explains the sudden trenching with-
out even destroying the meanders. Further, a lessened preci-
pitation would yield smaller streams which would be less able
to carry away the products of weathering and would reach a
stable grade with a higher angle of slope and aggradation
would result.

4, That the tiny cafions are the result of a general uplift,
without tilting, of the entire region is vitally defective for the
reason that dissection should begin at the coast line and
advance inland. ‘The cafions would be older and consequently
larger near the sea than far up on the streams. Now, it is a
‘characteristic of these cafions that they are equally developed
proportionate to the streams far up on Salmon River as low
down on the Trinity and Klamath Rivers. The recency of the
beginning of the cafion erosion low down on the streams as
clearly shown by their small size, implies that with uplift
without tilting, in order to abrade the stream-bed at all, there
should be such an increase of grade near the coast that the
cafions would soon run out and the middle and upper courses
of the streams retain their low-grade condition.

5. The hypothesis which I can unreservedly accept, is that
along with general uplift there has been a tilting of the region
toward the coast. The main rivers have been converted from
low-grade to high-grade streams. They began to erode their
beds at the same time throughout the area and the cafions
resulting are everywhere approximately equal. The present
high-grade character of the streams is evident. They flow
swiftly in the cafions within the basins as well as in the gorges.
They move considerable bowlders with ease and there is little
more tendency for the debris to lodge in the cafions in the
basins than in the gorges. The bottoms of these cafions will
be reduced far below their present level before the energy of
the streams will be largely devoted to widening of the basins
as it once was. Indeed, I am of the impression that this uplift
and tilting of the region was one of the most pronounced
which has effected it in Quaternary time, but has been so recent
that its products are yet insignificant and likely to be over-
looked. |

In the absence of accurate surveys, distances on these rivers
may be roughly determined by the trails. The Klamath River
at Weitchpec, about 45 miles from the sea, has an altitude of
scarcely 300 feet. Taking this point asa base, the Salmon
and Klamath Rivers fall from Summerville to Weitchpee (a
distance of about 80 miles), 2,800 feet or 35 feet per mile.

246 O. H. Hershey—Rwer Terraces of California.

The upper Trinity River between Trinity Center and Bragdon
falls about 10 feet per mile. This is so nearly astable grade for
that stream that it has not in recent times materially trenched
the floor of its comparatively broad valley, but, on the contrary,
it is able to build alluvial plains of coarse gravel which it floods
nearly every year. This portion of the Trinity River is a
larger stream than the Salmon River above Forks of Salmon,
and a smaller stream than the Klamath River from the mouth
of the Salmon River to Weitchpec, but it is about the equiva-
lent of the average of those two streams. It is encumbered
with gravel of similar coarseness to that on the Salmon and
Klamath Rivers. I wish to derive from this comparison the
suggestion that while the streams were forming the flat valley
floor in the basins, the fall from Summerville to Weitchpec
was probably no greater than 10 feet per mile. Indeed, on the -
lower Trinity where the tiny cafion is well developed, the fall
now scarcely exceeds that amount and at the time of the
development of the broad valley floor must have been consider-
ably less.

The difference between the theoretical 10 feet per mile and
the present fall of 35 feet per mile or 25 feet per mile, may be
the differential amount of the uplift, which would mean an
absolute elevation of the Summerville basin exceeding 2,000
feet (which, in reality, is probably a minimum). This implhes
that the central portion of the Klamath region, particularly
that area which is occupied by the high mountains which were
once extensively glaciated, has suffered an elevation relative to
the present coast-line, late in the Quaternary Era, of several
thousand feet.

The higher terraces seem also to indicate uplift, but not of
such a pronounced differential character, as a stable grade was
resumed without great depth of cutting. This series of dis-
turbanees occurred within the last one-fifth and probably the
last one-tenth of the Quaternary Era. Similar uplifts may
have occurred earlier in the era, but their effects inland have
been mostly destroyed.

The terrace system is developed on Redwood Creek and on
the lower Mad River, where it connects with the lower marine
terraces along the coast. Opposite Korbel the flat-topped hills
mark the floor of an ancient valley a number of miles wide, as
described by Mr. J. S. Diller.* It is traceable as the principal
upper terrace to the mouth of the valley where the latter
enters on the lowland of the Humboldt Bay region. The river
has trenched it to the depth of several hundred feet, excavat-
ing a broad valley in soft Tertiary strata but a narrow gorge

* Topographic Development of the Klamath Mountains.” U.S. Geol.
Sur. Bull., No. 196, p. 54.

O. H. Hershey—fiver Terraces of California. 247

in the hard Franciscan sandstone just below Korbel. The
degree of preservation of this terrace, and its relation to lower
terraces in the same valley, constrain me to consider it practi-
eally the equivalent of the main upper terrace (that occurring
so persistently at several hundred feet above the streams) on
the Trinity, Klamath and Salmon Rivers. The Mad River
terrace seems to slope toward the sea at a rate which was
certainly not original. It may connect with a marine terrace
back of Eureka. .

Near Bay View station, on the railway between Eureka and
Arcata, there is a much eroded terrace rising probably 75 or
100 feet above the bay. An extensive railway cutting exposes
false-bedded brown sand and silt, evidently marine. This
terrace I consider the equivalent of one of the upper river
terraces inland. It is developed in the town of Arcata where
it consists largely of a yellowish, non-pebbly silt resembling
weathered loess. North of Arcata there is developed a lower
terrace which consists of a bed of irregularly stratified gravel
overlaid by silt. Its outer edge rises probably 15 to 20 feet
above the Humboldt Bay lowland or alluvial plain. This
terrace I correlate with the lower terrace (the broad valley
floors) of the Trinity, Klamath and Salmon Rivers. The town
of Eureka is largely built on a low, flat terrace of brown sand,
whose outer edge rises probably 15 to 20 feet above the bay
and may be of the same age as the lower river terrace inland.

The main upper terrace, occurring so persistently at several
hundred feet above the Trinity, Klamath and Salmon Rivers
in the area herein discussed, seems to be approximately of the
age of the Red Bluff for mation. The cafions excavated by the
Sacramento River and Clear Creek since the uplift of the Red
Bluff formation, are fairly comparable with those eroded on
the western slope of the Klamath Mountains since the streams
began to cut below the main upper terrace. I should say that
throughout the Klamath region the post-Red bluff erosion
nowhere exceeded a depth of 500 feet, unless in a few limited
areas which were exceptionally tilted, areas which have not
yet come to light. It has been prevailingly from 200 to 300 feet
in depth, reaching 400 feet locally. The post-Red Bluff
erosion constitutes at least the last one-fifth and probably the
last one-tenth of the erosion of the Sierran or Pleistocene
canons.

The low terrace at Eureka and the low gravel terrace at
Areata I attribute to the San Pedran subsidence which seems
to have been quite persistent along the coast of California.
The development of the broad valley floor, constituting the
lower terrace on the Trinity, Klamath and Salmon Ktivers, I

248 8 O. HL. Hershey—River Terraces of California.

also consider to have been approximately San Pedran in age.
At the close of the San Pedran epoch there seems to have
been a land disturbance practically co-extensive with the State.
The coast line and Great Valley were slightly uplifted and
some of the main mountain masses, as the Klamath, were dis-
tinctly bowed. In the incoherent strata of the Great Valley,
broad, shallow cafion-shaped valleys were excavated, but in the
hard rocks of the Klamath region tiny cafions were eroded.
With the exception of a more recent local subsidence on the
coast and west of the center of the Great Valley, this first
post-San Pedran orogenic activity is the last of which we have
any record in California.

After studying the small present cafion of the lower Trinity,
Klamath and Salmon Rivers as far up as Summerville, one is
able to arrive at a fairly definite conclusion as to what would
be the character and amount of the erosion of the same period
in the glaciated valleys had not glaciation intervened to com-
plicate matters. Recently the writer has recognized evidence
of glacial deposits earlier in age than those usually described
from the California mountains. Part of the evidence of age
consists of certain rock gorges on Coffee Creek and the South
Fork of Salmon River. Higher in the glaciated valleys are
much smaller rock gorges (tiny cafions) which have been eroded
practically since the complete disappearance of the Quaternary
glaciers. It is not possible at the present time to accurately
fix upon the time relation of the erosion of the cafion from
Summerville downstream and the different stages of the gla-
elation. but comparison, and the connection by direct tracing
of one of the upper terraces in the Summerville basin with
the product of one of the earlier stages of the glaciation,
make it fairly certain that the meeption of the cafion cutting
from Summerville downstream considerably antedated the ©
close of the glaciation, but certainly did not oceur earlier than
‘its beginning. If there were no inter-glacial stages, the uplift
which inaugurated the last cafion cutting from Summerville
downstream, was contemporary with some stage of the glacia-
tion, probably a later one. At any rate, it 1s safe to assert
that the uplift did not occur before the beginning of glaciation
and apparently has not occurred since its close.

The axis of deformation or line of greatest elevation, is
somewhere centrally situated between Summerville in the
Salmon River valley and Trinity Center in the upper Trinity
valley. Between these points is the group of high mountains
which were most extensively glaciated. These mountains
apparently rose to the extent of between 2,000 and 3,000 feet
at some time between the beginning and close of the glacia-

O. H. Hershey—River Terraces of California. 249

tion. The elevation may have contributed to the glaciation,
but to accepting it as the sole cause of the glaciation there is
one serious objection. That is that the glaciated areas in these
mountains are now probably as high above sea-level as they
ever have been, yet the existing glaciers, three in number, are
insignificant.

The supposed submerged river valleys in the border of the
continental plateau off the coast of California have been
accepted by certain writers as evidence of a former much
higher elevation of the California mountains, a probable cause
of Quaternary glaciation. For some time, the writer has
doubted the pertinence of the argument. In the first place,
it is not certain, as pointed out by Lawson,* that all or any of
these long, narrow depressions are submerged valleys of erosion.
But, accepting the general opinion that they are such, it is not
certain that they were eroded as late as any part of the Glacial
Period. Further, it is not certain that they dicate an uplift
of the mountains of Calitornia above their present altitudes.

The sub-marine border of the continental plateau west of
the Klamath region was depressed, not by a general epeirogenic
subsidence but by a sea-ward tilting of the land. Such differ-
ential movements of this region have characterized it through-
out the late Tertiary and Quaternary times, an opinion fully
accepted and enlarged on by Mr. Diller in the paper before
cited. The land has been swinging on an axis approximately
corresponding to the present shore-line. By its not exactly
coinciding with the present shore-line have been produced the
various elevations and subsidences along the coast. But west
of this axis the dominating movements were depressions, sink-
ing the platean border deeper and deeper beneath the sea.
Kast of the axis we have evidence chiefly of a succession of
differential uplifts. The supposed submerged river valleys off
shore are probably an extension of the upper portion of the deep
Pleistocene cafions. They were first submerged by a sea-ward
tilting of the country long before the earliest glaciation of
which we have any record in the California mountains. This
statement I base on the fact that, since the submergence, the
sea near the present shore-line has cut away so much of the
land as that it must have been at work long before the earliest
glaciation in the California mountains. The larger topo-
graphic features of the present coast line had been developed
before the close of the Red Bluff epoch. The present coast
line yields no evidence whatever of a marked elevation above
the present at any time as late as the Red Bluff epoch.

In short, it is in the submergence and not the erosion of the

* Bull. Dept. Geol., Univ. Calif., vol. i, pp. 57-59.

250 O. H. Hershey—River Terraces of California.

supposed sub-marine river channels that I see corroborate
evidence of elevation inland. Each tilting to which is due
the river terraces described in this paper, served only the more
effectually to depress the drowned valleys. Even the recent
drowning of the mouths of the modern rivers west of the
Klamath region tells the story of tilting, as the tide runs up
them only a “few miles.

The writer long accepted elevation as the direct cause of the
great Quaternary glaciations, but that theory of late has seemed
very questionable. The uplifts and the glaciations should
connect more closely than they do. Further, the disappear-
ance of the glaciers should have been brought about by depres-
sion of the land. In the Klamath region, the glaciated val-
leys, as already mentioned, appear to be at present as high
above sea-level as they were at any time during the Glacial
Period ; therefore, the theory of elevation as the sole cause of
glaciation seems inadequate.

Berkeley, California.

— Hill— Oceurrence of the T Pa Mercury Minerals. 251

Arr. XXIU1.—The Occurrence of the Texas Mercury Min-
erals; by Buns. F. Hi.

Tue mereury deposits of Terlingua, Brewster County,
Texas,* are found in both the Upper and Lower Cretaceous
rocks, which in this locality are exposed in a section of more
than two thousand feet. In general the Lower Cretaceous is
made up of heavy thick-bedded limestones that are practically
free from foreign material. The Upper Series, however, is
composed largely of thin-bedded marls, shales and impure lime-
stone with extensive clay beds. Both series are cut in many
places by old rocks, plugs and dikes of volcanic material,
the most common type of which are phonolite, andesite, and
basalt. The ore deposits are invariably within a short dis-
tance of these igneous manifestations.

The deposits of the Lower Cretaceous, which in the present
stage of development are the most important, occur in a variety
of forms in the Edwards and Washita limestones. The most
common method of occurrence is in decomposed and brecciated
zones in the limestone. These zones are in many instances
contiguous to fissure veins, and it is probable that the ore-bear-
ing solutions were let into the broken and therefore receptive
zones through these channels.

The fissures themselves often carry ore. They are invariably
calcite-filled. In no case in the whole Terlingua district have
quartz crystals in association with the ore been observed.
Besides the calcite are gypsum, iron oxides, manganese, and in
some localities inuch aragonite.

The principal mercury-yielding mineral is cinnabar, which
occurs in a number of forms. beautiful crystals of a ruby
red color, often three-quarters of an inch long, have been
found, intimately associated with calcite and native mercury.
The crystals are usually acicular prismatic, but at times have a
tabular habit, the prismatic condition being found only in
association with the calcite. Large quantities of cinnabar that
is crystalline occurs in granular masses, often of a large size.
These masses show distinct grains and under the microscope
exhibit crystal faces. The color of these granular aggregates
varies from bright vermilion to dark reddish-brown. The cin-
nabar occurs also in large amorphous masses which present the
same variation in color as do the granular masses.

The native quicksilver is present in a number of openings
in the field, sometimes in considerable quantities. It is

* Bulletin 4 of University of Texas Mineral Survey, Terlingua Quicksilver
Deposits of Brewster Co., by B. F. Hill.

Am. Jour. Scl.—FourtTs SERIES, Vout. XVI, No. 93.—SEPTEMBER, 1903.
17

252 Hill—Occurrence of the Texas Mercury Minerals.

generally intimately mixed with crystalline masses of calcite,
occurring in the interstices between them in the form of
globules. Some of these cavities have yielded over twenty
pounds of the native metal. This metal is also present in
the clay fillings of seams and in one instance in a close-grained
cream-colored limestone.

Calomel, which is present in small quantities, is found in
erystalline masses with practically the same association as the
native mereury. The calomel has generally a few erystals of
“ terlinguaite ” associated with it.

The new minerals eglestonite and montroydite, described by
Prof. Moses from material sent to him by the writer, have
been found in only one locality, which was a vugg in a calcite
vein. The material was associated with considerable native
mercury and what is locally known as amalgam, a mixture of
cinnabar and native mercury. Here also was found the
crystallized terlinguaite described in the following paper.

The deposits in the Upper Cretaceous are found in veins in
the Eagle Ford shales. The ore is not associated with calcite
to such an extent as is that of the Lower Cretaceous. The
veins are of the fissure type and are filled with clay and
gypsum, with subordinate quantities of iron oxides and calcite.
A considerable quantity of iron pyrites occurs with the ore, in
this respect furnishing a contrast to the deposits of the Lower
Cretaceous.

The only mercury minerals found in the Upper Cretaceous
are cinnabar and native mercury.

A. J. Moses—New Mercury Minerals from Texas. 258

Art. X XIV.—Holestonite, Terlinguaite and Montroydite, New
Mercury Minerals from Terlingua, Texas; by AuFrep J.
Moses.

1. Lglestonite, an Isometric Oxychloride of Mercury.

THE most abundant material in the specimens received from
Mr. B. F. Hill so resembled minute erystals of sphalerite that
the first test made was for a zinc coating. The material
occurs, so far as observed, only as crystals which rarely exceed
one millimeter in diameter and are sometimes isolated and at
other times united loosely in a crust which readily crumbles
under pressure into separate well developed crystals, evidently
isometric and with the dodecahedron the predominating form.
The associated minerals are the later described terlinguaite
and montroydite, calomel, native mercury and calcite.

Crystalline Form of Loglestonite.—
The crystals are usually sharply and
beautifully developed, but in some speci-
mens are pitted and the cavities filled
with metallic mercury. The system is
isometric and the class hexoctahedral.
With the two-circle goniometer the forms
identified were a {100}; @ {110} m {112}
and s {123} as shown in fig. 1. The
dodecahedral planes are the largest.

The following table gives the angles
obtained from twenty-nine faces on one-half of a crystal, one
mm. in diameter. The calculated angles are also given.

Faces @ p
Reflect- — —A~A— cam oe SSS =~
Horm. “ing: Measured. Calculated. Measured. Calculated.
a} 001 l 5
010 4 0° 90°
a} 110 4 45° 04 BS ae 90°
O11 4 Oe 0° 44~ 587 45%
n| ales + 45° 02’ 45° ga PT 85° 16!
121 7 26ma0. Gg oA: 65.50" Gao4e
h23 2 OG e 32! Bie Ar 836° 454’ 36 49
S< 132 2 18° 263’ 18> 26" (pane a0 ae
231 1 Sea ee Soe AN. TALI, TAO

Chemical Analysis of Eglestonite.—The analyses here
recorded were made by Mr. J. S. McCord, Assistant in Miner-
alogy at Columbia University. The method used was chosen
after an attempt to obtain an electrolytic determination of the
mercury by dissolving -2465 gms. of very carefully picked mate-
rial in nitro-hydrochloric acid, precipitating as sulphide and
dissolving in hot solution of sodium sulphide. This solution

254 A. J. Moses—New Mercury Minerals from Texas.

in a dish of platinum was subjected for five hours to a current
of about two volts. Two separate weighings of the dish and
mercury showed a loss between the times of weighing corre-
sponding to over two per cent. (0055 gms.). It was therefore
decided that with the large dish surface and the small amount
of available material the method was not safe.

By trial Mr. McCord found that in a narrow cldsel tube of
hard glass 75™" by 6™™ external. diameter and with low red
heat, mercuric chloride volatilized and was redeposited with a
loss of less than two-tenths of one per cent. Mercurie oxide
yielded metallic mercury with a loss almost exactly that of the
oxygen.

Analyses I and II were therefore made by heating carefully
picked crystals in such a weighed tube and determining the
loss, which in the proved absence of water and carbonic acid
was assumed to be oxygen. The sublimates of mercury and
chloride of mercury were then dissolved from the tube by
nitric acid, the chlorine determined as silver chloride and the
difference between the weight of the chlorine and the weight
of the sublimates was taken as mercury.

In analyses III, IV and V the method was varied. The
weighed powdered crystals were mixed with dried soda free
from chlorine and heated in one of the closed tubes described
until the mass was bright red and all sublimate had been driven
clear of the fused mass. When cool the tube was cut just
above the fused mass and the piece containing the sublimate
carefully weighed. The sublimate was then dissolved in nitric
acid and the dried tube again weighed. The difference was
mercury. For safety the solution was tested for chlorine and
in one analysis a small amount was found and added _ to the
rest.

From the other piece of the cut tube the soda fusion was
dissolved in hot water acidified with nitric acid and the chlo-
rine determined as silver chloride. Each sample was sepa-
rately picked.

af II. inge LV, Vi:
Grams taken'4../.-_ ‘0768 -0618 ‘2048 1404 +1097
Per cent oxygen _-. 2°60. 2°26 2285) 5 eee
ob ehlorme... 8°72 T24. tl 768 826

cr mercury -- 88°67 90°45 90°72 88°25 89°70
The average of these determinations corresponds closely to
the empirical formula Hg,Cl,O,.

Percentages Percentages Sane Group
‘in Hg,ClsO2. by analysis. proportion.
6 ies Seite 2°391 2°43 —- 15°88 "1530 or 2°036

Olver 7°946 7°93 + 35°18
js Fp aot 89°666 89°56 + 198°49

"2254 ** 3:000
"4512 “ 6 005

100°0038 99°92

A. J. Moses—New Mercury Minerals from Texas. 255

Other Characters of Hglestonite—Luster, brilliant adaman-
tine to resinous. Color, varying between brownish yellow
and yellowish brown but darkening quickly on exposure to
sunlight and Pecoumns nearly black but retaining a high
luster. In powder, greenish yellow to canary yellow, becom- _
ing quickly green and finally black on exposure to light.
Transparent if smootb-faced. Brittle and without observed
cleavage. Hardness between 2 and 3. Specific gravity by
direct weight of two carefully picked samples 8°327, as follows:

: 18 i912
rams: taken ooo o3 2576 -4548
Bess-in.witer.... 2. =... ‘0310 "0545
Specific gravity ------ 8°309 8°345

Heated on charcoal, volatilizes completely without fusion
and forms a slight grayish sublimate.

Heated in the closed tube, decrepitates, becomes orange-red,
evolves dense white fumes and deposits a white non-cry stalline
sublimate which is slightly yellow hot, drives without fusing,
is soluble in nitric acid and gives the chlorine tests with cop-
per oxide. Later the orange-red residue volatilizes completely,
forming a mercury mirror beyond the ring of chloride.

In dilute nitric acid the crystals become opaque and pinkish
white but retain their shape and there is a visible formation of
metallic mereury. On heating, the mercury dissolves with
effervescence and the pinkish white residue is also slowly but
completely dissolved.

- In cold hydrochloric acid the crystals do not whiten but in
hot acid the surface becomes gray from metallic mercury,
which dissolves with a very slight effervescence. The greater
portion of the erystal is insoluble even in concentrated cold
acid.

If hydrochloric acid is added during the dissolving in nitric
acid there is a heavy precipitate for med, but on heating this and
the opaque white residue dissolve quickly and completely.

Name of Eglestonite.—For this substance, an isometric and
hexoctahedral oxychloride of mercury, the name Eglestonite is
proposed in honor of the late Prof. Thomas Egleston, founder
of the Columbia School of Mines and for many years professor
of mineralogy and metallurgy in Columbia University.

2. Terlinguaite, a Monoclinic Oxychloride of Mercury.

On the specimens which show the eglestonite there is gen-
erally found a bright sulphur-yellow material usually as an
agglomeration of imperfect striated crystals and less fr equently
as doubly terminated crystals of not over one millimeter in

°

256 A. SJ. Moses—New Mercury Minerals from Texas.

length. This material on examination is found to be quite
distinct from the eglestonite with which it is associated. In
one of the specimens the central portion was a mass of this
yellow substance and outside of this was a thick crust of
eglestonite crystals, while scattered through the crust were
globular masses of native mercury coated with the oxide mon-
troydite.

Crystalline Forms of Terlinguarte.—Few crystals were satis-
factory for measurement. Four were measured which may be
briefly described as follows:

2 3

Crystal 1.--Very minute and complex, yielding reflections
from about twenty definite polygonal faces. No figure was
drawn because of the difficulty of judging relative develop-
ment of forms. 4a, ¢, m, y, h, g, a, \ were the most prominent
forms.

Crystal 2.—Larger and simpler than crystal 1, and elongated

parallel to the axis 6. The principal forms are shown in fig 2 in
approximately the relative size.

Crystal 3.—Short and relatively thick and complex crystal.
The principal forms are shown in fig. 3.

Crystal 4.—Tabular parallel a {100!. Showing prominently
also e, y and 7 and less prominently 6, d, t, w, x, 2, 5,g, %. No
drawing was made of this crystal.

The crystals were mounted with their most prominent zone ~
normal to the vertical circle. The axis of this zone proved to

be the only axis of symmetry and therefore was the axis of 5
of the monoclinic system. Dy trial in the stereographic pro-
jection the forms denoted by ¢ and a were found to be the
most prominent zone centers and were chosen as {001{ and
$100}.

The angles obtained by measuring with the axis 6 normal to
the vertical circle were transformed to the conventional ¢@ and
p angles referred to a pole plane at right angles to the ¢ axis
and to a meridian through {010}. These angles are here tabu-
lated and with them the calculated angles for the particular
indices and calculated axial elements.

A. J. Moses—New Mercury Minerals from Texas. 257

Measured Calculated
Coordinate Coordinate
Forms. Angles. Angles. Remarks.
? p ? p
c WOO GO! O00 1D: 440 we eo. Well developed on 1, 2 and 3.
b {010} CEVOF VO NOOR ne eae aioe e Minute face on 3.
a (100; 90 00 SE ar al ese ge [ara De Large on 4, small on 1 and 3.
6 130) aauOz.| >.< S308) .\2u wee Microscopic on 38.
6 2305 = =|52 21 ef O2 Op geek Microscopie on 4.
d| i011; | 7 48 64 13 || 7 53 (64° 02’ Well developed on 8, poorly on 4.
if {013} |22 28 |86 20 ||22 34 |86 17 ||Fair on 8, minute on 1 and 2.
h (015; 34 50 (26 12 |/84 48 /26 19 | Minute face on 1.
t 1106} 90 00 43 14 ||90 00 42 56 On all four crystals, prominent
| on 3.
y {103} SAD HOt & 57 39) Prominent on 2, small on 1.
w ee _“ (76 25 || “ 1/76 31 ||Striated face on 3.
n (106; 90 00 20 304/90 00 |20 09 |Minute faces on 3.
Dela, 145-40 ‘© 145 26 Indistinct on 8 and 4.
m| {508} ee GO a0 “¢ |65 387 ||\Large dull face on 1.
Pee AO 6 167-40 “167 43 | Striations on 100 of No. 4, large
: face on 3.
Zz 1101} “¢ |74 (08 ‘< \74 30 Fine edge on 3.
v 1105; = 27 31 |66 19 |/27 55 |66 31 ||\Narrow minute face on 3.
p 1133} [88 11 |68 42 |/88 21 68 54 || <“« ae of
r \{11,25,25}/45 08 70 58 | 45 00 |70 50 | Minute triangular face on 3,
i | {7,11,113|53 59 |74 30 |/54 10 |78 56 ||\Minute faces on 3 and 4.
s {111} |64 22 |78 04 |/64 30 |78 03 | os 2 and 4.
A | {1,3,15} 153 16 [84 15 53 23 [84 17! ec 1 and 4.
ng aa 42 26 |538 59 | 42 55 54 13 | Distinct on 4.
k 134; (89 17 (63 20 | 39 57 |63 12 | Distinct triangular on 3.
e | 1188} [26 54 66 14 |27 13 (66 22 ||\Prominent on 8 and 4.
1 |{11, 25, 25}|36 12 68 22 ||35 52 |68 16 |\Large striated face on 3.
g 11380. 20; 48 37 \72 02 | 48 36 |71 59 || Very prominent on3, visible on 4.
0 {111} {61 02 |76 32 |\61 12 |76 40 || Very prominent on 2, visible on
1 and 3.
y | A977} 67 42 |79 28 |\67 16 |79 15 |\Prominent on 4.
B | {1. 8,15} | 2 40 /22 034)|| 2 18 (22 08 ||Minute face on 1.
q {| {115} [51 21 |82 51 |/51 41 |33 16 ||\Small but distinct on 1.
a {113} (56 34 |51 00 |/57 02 51 14 ||Minute faces on 1 and 2.

The value of 8 was determined to be 74° 16’, the average
of determinations from the angles of ¢, f and A.

The ratio between the axes was determined to be

G0 = 6 —0 9306.- 1): 20335

the average of eleven determinations for each axis from the
angles of p, s, m, k, ¢, 1, 9, 0, y, g and a, two for @ from the ¢
and « angles and two for ¢ from the f and A angles. The
maximum deviations from the average were for @ ‘0139, for
¢ = 0°0214. Much more complex indices could be chosen for
some of the forms which would check more accurately the
measured angles, but as a certain error is undoubtedly due to
a blurring of the images from the microscopic faces, it is
believed the simpler indices chosen are generally correct.

258 A.J. Moses—New Mercury Minerals from Texas.

Chemical Analyses of Terlinguaite.—Analyses I, II and III
were made by Mr. McCord by fusion with soda in a closed
tube as described under eglestonite. Analysis IV was made
to determine the loss by heating. All samples were separately
picked. The results tabulate as follows:

I II III IV
Grams taken $2. Sue "1960 1078 ‘0874 06635
Per cent oxygen- -- 3°47
Cy Shilonie Sy eo 8°00
mercury -- 88°67 87°38 88°64

These determinations lead to the simple empirical as

of Hg,ClO as follows :

Percentages Percentages ae
in Hg.Clo. by analysis. proportions.
0 Mabe se ctiata Agha ave aa 3544 3°47 + 15°88 2 18b or O74

Gears Ue achat 7-852 780" bus
ee 0 eesti eens 88604 88:24 + 198-49

"2242 ‘* 1°000
"4445 “ 1°983

ll Ul Tl

100°000 99°60

Other characters of Terlinguacte—Luster, brilliant adaman-
tine. Color, sulphur-yellow with a shghtly greenish tinge,
very slowly darkening on exposure to an olive green. Color
of powder lemon-yellow, also slowly becoming olive-green.
Transparent or nearly so. Hardness between 2 and 3. Brittle:
or sub-sectile. .

Specific gravity on very carefully picked samples 8-725,
higher than eglestonite by 0°316.

i IT
Quantity ‘taken 22 Suh. 2): 44.43 "4545
Weichtin waters 2 228: 223 S3084 "4024
SPecliCnahayiby es sone ose 8°728 8°723

Between crossed nicols there is distinct double refraction.

The crystals can be viewed only normal to the 6 axis and show
extinction parallel to this.

Heated on charcoal and in the closed tube, behaves lke
eglestonite except that a little oxide appears to be formed, giv-
ing a pinkish tinge to the white sublimate.

In nitric acid behaves like eglestonite but dissolves more
rapidly. In hydrochloric acid becomes white but does not
appear to dissolve.

Distinctions from Lglestonite.—The most convenient dis-
tinctions are the yellow color and the very slow change of color
to olive-green as compared to the brownish color and rapid
change to black with eglestonite. The eglestonite crystals are
usually easily recognized. In testing, the double refraction
and the more rapid solution of the terlinguaite are characteristic.

A. J. Moses—New Mercury Minerals from Texas. 259

The name Terlinguaite-—This name should be limited to
the yellow monoclinic oxychloride of mercury here described
in order to remove the confusion at present existing. | Mr.
W. H. Turner* first used the name terlinguaite in the follow-
ing words: ‘“‘In addition to cinnabar, mercury occurs in the
native form and as a white coating and as yellow-green crystals.
Prof. S. L. Penfield has identified the. . . greenish crystals as
an oxychloride of mercury forming a new mineral species for
which { have suggested the name terlinguaite.”

To the miners in the Terlingua district terlinguaite is “a
heavy softt cadmium yellow substance in masses or powder
with a distinct green shade. It blackens on’ exposure and
gives by rough retort tests 60 to 70 per cent of mercury.”
Some of this material has been recently sent to me and will be
examined; the description, however, suggests a mixture of
eglestonite and terlinguaite. |

Prof. Penfield sent me by request the best two of the speci-
‘mens received from Mr. Turner and at the same time wrote
that *‘ I have never given these minerals more than superticial
examination and they may not be oxychlorides; I simply sug-
gested that they might be.” One of these specimens received
from Prof. Penfield was undoubtedly the material here
described as terlinguaite, crystal 4 having been taken from
the specimen and the color change to olive-green on exposure
being very pronounced. The other specimen, although appar-
ently an oxychloride, was evidently the undetermined mineral
spoken of in No. 5 of this article. |

Of the three possibly different substances to which the
name terlinguaite has hitherto been applied we have therefore

1st. The mineral here described.
oe The undetermined rough yellow crystals mentioned in

O; 5.

3d. The pulverulent yellow masses.

It is therefore proposed that the name terlinguaite be defin-
itely limited to the mineral here described.

3. Montroydite, Mercurie Oxide in Orthorhombic Crystals.

Associated sparingly with the eglestonite and terlinguaite
and in one or two instances occurring as masses of an inch or
more on a side there was found a third new mineral. The
most frequent ocenrrence was as a velvety incrustation of
orange-red needles projecting from the surface of little hollow
spheres and hollow pipe-like stems. The supporting material
forming the sphere or pipe was metallic in luster, white to

* The Terlingua Quicksilver Mining District, Brewster Co., Texas, by W.

H. Turner, Mining and Scientific Press, San Francisco, July 21, 1900.
+ From a letter by W. P. Jenney.

260 A. J. Moses—New Mercury Minerals from Teaas.

gray in color, and although possessing very much the solidity
of a soft amalgam and spoken of by Mr. Hill as a mixture of
cinnabar and mercury, was nevertheless entirely volatile and so
far as qualitative tests went was simply metallic mercury.

In addition to the minute needles forming the velvety crusts
there were numerous larger transparent needles of darker red
color and of a length often exceeding one mm. These were
in most instances poorly terminated, striated and composite, but
occasional crystals showed terminations and the best of these
crystals was carefully measured in the two-circle goniometer.

Crystalline Form of Montroydite.—A very perfect doubly
terminated and highly modified crystal exceeding slightly one
mm. in length by one-third mm. in breadth, and suggesting
under the hand glass a general resemblance
in habit to some crystals of topaz, was
mounted with its longest direction normal
to the vertical circle and the orthorhom-
bie symmetry being soon made evident, this
direction was retained as that of the ver-
tical axis. The most prominent pyramidal
form a, fig. 4, being very acute, the pyra-
mid o in the same vertical zone was chosen
as the unit form. The more prominent
forms shown in fig. 4 are a@ {100{; 5 $010};
mA110t; d {101} ; # {331}; o {Ties aia
yr {211% and e{182;. In addition to these,
faint reflections were obtained from faces.
of microscopic dimensions corresponding to
w i311} and ¢ 3122}. 3

The faces s are less prominent in the real
erystal than in the drawing from the presence
of indeterminate truncating faces.

In the caleulation of the elements ¢ and @ most of the occur-
ring forms were considered and in proportion to the sharpness
of the signals yielded by their faces. The results were as
follows :

Form. Factor. Value of a. Value of ¢.

mM a "63625

O 2 63707 1:1918
x 8 "63748 1°1894
WwW ye "64406 1°1960
t il 63729 1°1985
y 2 "63956 1°2037
é 3 ‘63670 11941
Average b= “63797 é = 1°1981

The form s {112} was not used in this calculation because

A. J. Moses—New Mereury Minerals from Texas. 261

although two evident faces were found their signals were very
faint and their angles not sure. ;

The comparison between the measured angles and the angles
calculated to the determined indices and axial elements is as
follows:

Faces ¢ p
Refleet- —————_—_ +~—_——_ ~~ —— 2)
Form. ing. Measured. Calculated. Measured. Calculated.
a{100} 2 90° 90°
b{010} 2 OF 90°
m{110} 4 Bea! 57° 28° 90° 90°
d}101} 1 oe Ba. 90° 61° 58 61° 52’
o{111} 3 DL oO. I OY 65° 44! 65° 44’
v\331} 4 Dn» 29) 57 28) Siler 26! Slay
s{112} 2 S80) Bila 28; AS aoe BTS By aul
Ng ae | 12°: V6" (es 75° 43' Ta Ay
€4132} 3 Dion Die Do G3 oly Ga ous
Also,
Me sAdb 2 W538: ibe 80° 62’ 80° 06’
71122} 2 S607 38 Oa: 56° 43’ 56 30.

Chemical Analysis of Montroydite.—With great difficulty,
picking erystal by erystal, 0506 grams of pure material was
obtained and very carefully heated alone in one of the small
closed tubes described under eglestonite. The sublimate
formed appeared to be entirely metallic. The dissolved sub-
limate gave no test for chlorine. It was therefore assumed,
for want of further material, that the sublimate was mercury
and the loss oxygen. The percentages are very close to those
of mercuric oxide HgO.

Percentages Percentages
Analysis. HgO.
Loss on heating.-:-_--- 7°18 O 7408
Suglimate: - 0 4... 2. 92°87 Hg 92°592

Other Characters of Montroydite.—Luster, adamantine to
vitreous. Transparent. Color of larger crystals, a red darker
than crocoite and nearer realgar; minute crystals orange-
red. Color of the powder a little lighter than color of
crystals. Not noticeably affected by sunlight. Brittle.
Hardness less than 2. Specific gravity not determined.

Under the microscope there are indications of cleavage
oblique to the length and with crossed nicols there is extine-
tion parallel to the length.

Heated in the closed tube volatilizes completely and forms
a sublimate of metallic mercury. |

tas easily and quietly in cold nitric or cold hydrochloric
acid.

262 A. J. Moses—New Mercury Minerals from Tecas.

The name Montroydite.—The name Montroydite is sug-
gested in honor of Mr. Montroyd Sharpe, one of the owners of
the mines at Terlingua.

4. Crystallized Calomel.

One of the specimens from the cavity which yielded the
minerals just described consisted of tabular crystals of calomel
not suitable for measurement. Some specimens obtained by
Mr. W. P. Jenney, from the district but not from the cavity
however, yielded measurable crystals of two types:

1. Square prismatic crystals, fig. 5, sometimes 4 to 5™™ in
length by 1 to 14 in breadth.

2. Tabular crystals flattened parallel to one of the faces of
a {010}. Fig. 6 shows, in orthographic projection, two such
individual crystals in parallel position with the a {113} planes
relatively large.

The forms are the same in both types and consist of :

c {001} somewhat rough; a {010} slightly curved; 7 {111}
dull; a $113 bright and z {013} minute.

Between the two individuals, as shown in fig. 6, and in the pris-

matic zone a single reflection was obtained corresponding very
closely to a face of anew form {120}.
The essential measured and calculated angles were

Measured. Caleulated.
cr Gian O: G7 Alte
Ca. 38 45 39 05

Cz 30° 14 ZO a2

A. J. Moses-—New Mercury Minerals from Texas. 263

5. An undetermined yellow mercury mineral.

The second specimen received from Prof. Penfield and one
received from Mr. W. P. Jenney show small yellow needles
and short prismatic crystals which suggest hexagonal prisms
and a basal cleavage. There was not sufficient material for
analysis but the closed tube test showed mercury and apparent
mercurous chloride suggesting an oxychloride, and the fact that
the color did not noticeably change on long exposure indicated
a different species from those described. An optical test made
by carefully rubbing a basal cleavage down to transparency
showed an indistinct biaxial brush in convergent light and
double refraction in parallel light. The symmetry is there-
fore not higher than that of an orthorhombic class.

Two crystals were measured but the results were entirely
unsatisfactory, the apparent faces being irregular and frequently
yielding two reflections several degrees apart. The only sug-
gestion resulting from the measurements was a very acute
orthorhombic or monoclinic form, the faces making an angle
with the apparent basal cleavage of about 853 degrees. Pend-
ing the obtaining of more material the substance can not be
described definitely.

264 Kunze—New Lilac- Colored Transparent Spodumene.

Art. XXV.—On a New Lilac-Colored Transparent Spodu-
mene; by Grorce Freperick Kunz. (With Plate X.)

A most remarkable discovery of unaltered lilac-colored
spodumene has lately been made in California. The erystals
were obtained fifty feet from a deposit of éolored tourmaline,
itself of notable interest, a mile and a half northeast from
Pala, in San Diego County. This new discovery is but half a
mile northeast from-the celebrated rubellite and lepidolite
locality at that place, where recent developments have brought
to light immense quantities of amblygonite,—this latter species
occurring by the ton, while the lepidolite is estimated by the
thousand tons. The locality is thus 1nequalled in the world
for its abundance of lithia minerals. The rubellite crystals
found here are entirely embedded in lepidolite, and until
recently it was found impossible to remove them to show their
complete form. They were, however, often polished with the
lepidolite,—the rubellite appearing as pink radiations in a
darker gangue of lilac-colored lepidolite. Recently, however,
the crystals of rubellite have been rubbed out, as it were,—
made to stand out by removing the lepidolite matrix by means
of brushes and cleaning-tools,— forming most beautiful groups
of erystals.

At the new locality, colored tourmaline crystals have been
found that are remarkable in size and beauty, although they
are much broken in taking them out. Some are a foot long
‘and three inches in diameter, with a red central core (rubel-
lite) and a blue exterior (indicolite) separated by a pale inter-
vening zone. Other pink crystals have a blue cap or termina-
tion; the blue color in these specimens is a deep shade, inelin-
ing toward purple. One very remarkable large crystal is like
a hollow cylinder, apparently composed of a group of prisms
surrounding an open central space at the axis of the cluster ;
this is entirely of a rather dull blue, verging toward reddish in
the interior.

The spodumene erystals are beautiful in their color tones,
varying from deep rosy lilac at some depth to pale or almost
colorless, doubtless due to weathering or to the action of sun-
light,—in striking contrast to the rich deep pink-purple found
at a greater depth.

These spodumene crystals are of extraordinary size, trans-
parency and beauty. The following are the weights and dimen-
sions of seven of the principal crystals :

Kunz—New Lilac-Colored Transparent Spodumene. 265

Weight Weight Dimensions
grams. oz. troy. Centimeters.

ING ae 528°7 Lia ical eit
SaSNPe 528°7 iat Zoe Ou, Keo
eo 297° 9°55 ON) <a Nis
Beta 256°6 8°25 Pa Gi ee aes Oe
fay SOS 340°5 10°95 WS <b (OG HS)
Ray 30. 239°5 aie 10) 18 on 4x2
co ale 1000: 31° Legis odes

These crystals are extraordinary objects to the eye of the
mineralogist ; to see flat spodumenes of characteristic form, as
large as a man’s hand, but with bright luster and perfect trans-
pareney, and of this rich delicate pink-amethystine tint, is a
novel and unlooked for experience.

The localities of these remarkable tourmalines and spodu-
menes are near the tcp ot a ridge lying from a mile to a mile
and a half from the lepidolite ledge of the old Pala locality,
and separated from it by a valley some 900 feet deep. The
ledge in which these new minerals occur is on the west side of
this ridge, and has been traced for 1,200 feet in a N.W.—S.E.
direction, The description given of it suggests a large dike.
The rock is a coarse decomposed granite (pegmatite ?), the
feldspar much kaolinized and reduced to a “red dirt,” and with
many large quartz crystals, some of them reaching 150 pounds
in weight, but not clear.

Similarly colored crystals of spodumene purporting to come
from Hermosillo, Mexico, were shown the author during the
month of December, 1902. These specimens were found at
what is known as the White Queen Mine, section 24, township
9, South Range 2, West San Bernardino, Meridan, California.
They are identical in habit with those from Pala, but much
smaller. The crystals from Pala belong to the locality ascribed
to them. No such spodumene crystals have ever before been
found anywhere. ‘They are entirely distinct both from the
green variety (hiddenite} from Stony Point, Alexander County,

C., described by Dr. J. Lawrence ‘Smith,* and from
the transparent yellow found in Brazil, described by Pisani,t
and more resemble some of the rare remnants of unaltered
spodumene from Branchville, Conn.t

~The Meridan (?) crystals were found in a deserted and
abandoned gold mine. The rock is an iron-stained granite,
and the crystals occur in a vein of quartz veal gold, eMaes
black oxide of manganese, epidote, orthoclase, ‘ mica,” lepi-
dolite, cookeite and “black tourmaline. The Pelee was not
* This Journal, xxi, 128, 1881.
+ Comptes Rendus, Ixxxiv, 1509, 1877.

ees and. Dana, this Journal, xx, 207, 1880; and by Penfield, ibid.,
p. 20

266 Kunz—New Lilac-Colored Transparent Spodumene.

recognized until sent to the writer in New York, having been
pronounced tourmaline by parties to whom it was shown;
and many crystals were ruined by lapidaries in the unsue-
cessful attempts to cut them, as the very highly facile cleavage
of spodumene causes it to flake.

The crystals obtained were quite numerous, and vary from
half an inch or less to two inches in length, by an inch in
breadth. Some are elegant specimens and some could be cut
into gems. The hardness is about 7. ‘They are perfectly trans-
parent and remarkably free from flaws, and possess the spodu-
mene pleochroism very markedly. Looked at transversely,
they are nearly colorless, or faintly pink; but longitudinally
they present a rich pale lavender color, almost amethystine.
The characteristic etching is also well developed, especially on
the pyramidal faces; but all of the crystals are dull upon the
surface and are etched all over as if with a solvent.

Two crystals, the largest and another one, give the follow-

ing measurements:
a, 538™™- (2% in.) and: 35™™(i2iim}
b, 377" (14 1n,), and 27™™> (eh im)
ec; 11e™ Gi in.) and 157 (41m)
The specific gravity determined on three crystals was found

to beso."

Grams. Specific

Color. Weight. Gravity.
Spodumenc.:) Wavender 7 secs 20°398 3°179
Yellow-white ....._:- 8°359 3°185
Lavender? scsi eos ing 10°872 3°187

The erystals are so etched and corroded that the terminals
are entirely gone, therefore it is not possible to do very much
with them in the crystallographic lne. The rounded pro-
tuberances and crystallographic points left by the etching are
interesting, but it would be exceedingly difficult to make much
out of them or to illustrate them. Professor 8. L. Penfield
kindly measured the prismatic angle on two crystals and
reported as follows: ‘The prism faces were well developed
and gave good reflections. The prismatic angle m a m’,
110, 110, on two crystals was found to be 86° 45’, from which
Mini, 5 ALO AMI — 3 15".

“For comparison, measurements were made of the cleavage
angle of spodumene from Branchville,t m A m‘’’=93° 13’; also
of the prismatic faces of hiddenite from North Carolina,t

* As this is an entirely new gem of peculiar beauty, a name will be given -
to it shortly.

+ Brush and Dana: This Journal (8), xx, 257, 1880.
t{E. S. Dana: This Journal (8), xxi, 179, 1881.

Kunz—New Lalac-Colored Transparent Spodumene. 267

mam=93° 14’. The angle mam given by Dana in his System
of Mineralogy is 98° 0’, and is based on measurements made
with a contact goniometer by Prof. J. D. Dana on a crystal
from Norwich, Mass.”

A prominent feature of these specimens, and also of hiddenite,
is the twinning about the a (100) face, and is beautifully shown
on the etched crystals where the etching proceeds to the twin-
ning plane and there makes a halt. Aside from differences in
color, the fragments of the mineral are remarkably like the
etched crystals of hiddenite from North Carolina.

The locality brings to mind the famous locality ef Branch-
ville, Conn., described by Brush and Dana, but there the gigantic
crystals were almost entirely altered to an opaque mineral. In
habit these crystals resemble the spodumene from North
Carolina, and for beauty, transparency and great size of perfect
material are not equalled by any known locality. ,

If sufficient differences are found to exist between this
spodumene and the other known varieties a new name will be
given to it.

40) BE. 25th St., New York City.

PCTENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
1. The Geology of Ascutney Mountain, Vermont; by R. A.

3

Daty, U.S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 209, 120 pp., 7 pls.—Mount
Ascutney is a small eruptive mass having an unusually wide range
of composition including gabbros, diorites, essexites, ‘ Wind-
sorite”—a new rock type—nordmarkite, porphyry, pulaskite,
paisanite, syenite with granitic and mouzonitic phases, biotite
granite, aplite, diabase, and camptonites. The intrusion resulted
in the feldspathization of phyllitic country rock. The discussion
regarding the method of intrusion is of especial interest because
Ascutney is given as a concrete example of Dr. Daly’s theory of
overhead stoping assimilation and differentiation recently explained
in this Journal (xv, 269; xvi, 107).

2. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey.—Two
volumes have recently been issued: Butuetin No. 9. Pre-
liminary Report on the Lead and Zine Deposits of Southwestern
Wisconsin ; by U. 8S. Granr. 97 pp., 4 pls., 8 figs. A description
of the general geology of the zinc region is given, followed by a

Am. Se Oente SERIES, VoL. XVI, No. 93.—SEPTEMBER, 1908,

268 Scientific Intelligence.

discussion of the methods by which the metals have become con-
centrated in the Galena limestone. Individual mines are described
and the belief expressed that an important mining industry is yet
to be developed in southwestern Wisconsin. Buturtrn No. 10.
Highway Construction in Wisconsin; by K. R. Buckiey. 313 pp.,
106 pls. The character of road-making materials and the methods
of road construction are discussed by Dr. Buckley in great detail.
/ 3. Preliminary Note upon the Rare Metals in the Ore from

the Rambler Mine, Wyoming ; by Tuomas T. Reap. (Communi-
cated.)—In the February issue of this Journal (p. 137), C. W.
Dickson has pointed out that in the ores of the Sudbury district,
consisting of pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite, the platinum is asso-
ciated with the chalcopyrite. Whereas the ore of the Rambler
mine, about forty miles west of Laramie, Wyoming, consists of
covellite and chalcopyrite in nearly equal proportions and carries
both platinum and palladium, it occurred to the writer that
they might possibly be confined to only one of the sulphides.
Experiments were accordingly begun to prove this. The crushed
ore was roasted, whereupon the chalcopyrite became magnetic
and could be picked out with a magnet from the roasted covellite.
Upon assaying the two separately it appeared that the palladium
was, apparently, associated with the covellite and thé platinum
with the chalcopyrite. The best assays, both upon the untreated
ore and upon the slimes resulting from the electrolysis of the
anode copper from Rambler ore, indicated that palladium is
present, usually, in the proportion of four or five parts of palla-
dium to one of platinum. It does not seem likely that this palla-
dium is present as native metal and careful panning tests go to
prove that it is not. On the other hand, if in fact associated with
the covellite, it may occur as a sulphide and perhaps as Pd,S, a
salt described by Schneider.* The fact that palladium resembles
silver in some of its physical and chemical properties lends sup-
port to this view. Further work is needed to confirm the sugges-
tions here made.

OBITUARY.

Dr. W. C. Knieut, professor of geology and mining in the
University of Wyoming, and author of many papers on Geology
and Paleontology, died on July 8 at the age of forty-one.

Dr. Hamrtton LAanpuerE Smita, formerly professor of physics
and astronomy in Hobart College, died on August 1 at the age of
eighty-one. |

M. Renarp, professor of mineralogy in the University of
Ghent, has died at the age of sixty years.

* Ann. Phys. Chem., exli, 419.

Plate XI.

XVI, 1903.

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol.

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AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[FOURTH SERIES§.]

Art. XXVI.—The New Cone of Mont Pelé and the Gorge
of the Liwiere Blanche, Martinique ;* by Epmunp Oris
Hovey. (With Plates XI-XIV.)

THE world-wide interest which was aroused in the eruptions
of Mont Pelé on the island of Martinique and La Soufriére
on the island of St. Vincent, which devastated large portions
of those islands in May, 1902, and succeeding months, has led
to a large amount of study being devoted to these voleanoes
by geological commissions and independent geologists from
the United States, England, Francet and Germany. ‘The
purpose of the present article is to record some of the changes
which have occurred in and on Mont Pelé since the obser-
vations made directly after the eruptions began were published.

Undoubtedly the most striking change which has taken
place in either volcano, after the first devastation had been
accomplished, is the complete alteration of the sky-line of

* In May, 1902, the author was sent by the American Museum of Natural
History to study the eruptions on Martinique and St. Vincent (see Bull.
Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., xvi, pp. 333--372, October, 1902, this Journal, IV, xiv,
pp. 319-358, November, 1902, and the Nat. Geogr. Mag., xiii, pp. 444
499, December, 1902). In February, 1903, the same institution sent the
author on a second expedition to the region to note what changes had taken
place in the volcanoes since the previous visit, make additional observations
under the more favorable conditions incident to the dry season, and extend
his studies to the other recent volcanoes of the Caribbean chain.

+ In the fall of 1902 the French government established two observing
stations on Martinique, one of which (Morne des Cadets) was provided with
seismographs and all other needful apparatus, and systematic and continuous
observations have been maintained ever since. The commission has con-
sisted of Professors A. Lacroix, J. Giraud and Rollet de l’Isle with the
assistance of Captain L. Perney at Morne des Cadets on the west side, and
Adjutant L. Guinoiseau at Assier on the east side of the island. Some of
the results obtained by the commission have been utilized in preparing the
‘ historical part of this communication.

Am. Jour. Scr.—FourtH SERIES, VOL. XVL No. 94.—OctToBEer, 1903.
19

270 LE. O. Hovey— New Cone of Mont Pelé.

Mont Pele. Morne Lacroix, the ancient summit of the
mountain, has lost most of its former prominence above the
rim of the cr ater, but within the old caldera a cone has risen
which overtops the surrounding walls and terminates in a spine
rising hundreds of feet above the main mass of the new cone.

Prior to the beginning of the present sertes of eruptions,*
the mountain was characterized by a great crater about a half
a mile across and one thousand to two thousand feet deep
below the level of the crater-rim. On the southwest side the
crater-rim was breached to the base by a great gash which was
continued into the gorge of the Riviere Blanche. Nevis and
Montserrat to-day stand as close analogues, on a smaller scale,
of Mont Pelé before the eruptions. Within the great crater
of Mont Pelé lay the small crater-lake known as L’Etang Sec,
and from three or more openings around this lake began the
uprush of ejecta which has proved of such moment in the his-
tory of the island. A cone or series of cones began forming
at once, as is shown by the accounts+ of several persons who
visited the crater late in April and found cones of “ cinders”
built up about two vents west of ’Etang Sec and one to the
eastward thereof.

The photographs and sketches, taken and made by the
author and other observers on May 21, 1902, from the U. S.
tug “‘ Potomac,” show the existence of a comparatively small
cone in the crater at the head of the gorge of the Blanche.
This cone was variously estimated at from 200 to 300 feet,
certainly not more than 500 feet, in height, but nothing was

* Although the eruptions frequently are spoken of as having begun in
May, 1902, the increasing activity of the volcano had been noted long
betore, and in March the sulphur gases pouring out of the voleano were
causing inconvenience to the inhabitants of the coast region between Pré-
cheur and Ste. Philomene. The St, Pierre daily, Les Colonies, in its issue for
April 25, 1902, says:

‘‘Depuis quelques semaines, les habitants du quartier du Précheur sont
constamment incommodés par une forte et désagréable odeur de soufre qui
se dégage du cratére du volcan éteint. L’odeur est si forte, parfois, que les
chevaux, passant sur le grand chemin du littoral, hésitent.

43 Depuis cette nuit, une fumée blanche tres épaisse se degage du cratére.
Elle attire de tous cotés des groups des curieux.

‘*Dans les hauteurs de la Pointe-Lamarre le sol est couvert d’une cendre
épaisse.

‘‘De temps en temps la fumée s’arréte pour étre vomie ensuite par masses
énormes. C’est sans doute alors que sont lancées les matiéres solides que Y
on apergoit, parait il, avec la lunette de la chambre de commerce. .... .

The first outthrow of cinders seems to have occurred April 23, 1902. In con-
versation with the author, Mr. Fernand Clerc, a prominent citizen of Marti-
nique, stated that he (Mr. Clerc) had visited the summit of the mountain on
May 8, 1901, and had observed that a new fumarole had come into vigorous
action in the southeastern part of the crater, while the two well-known
vents in the western part of the crater, west of the lake known as l’Etang
Sec, were more active than before.

+See Les Colonies for May 7, 1902, as quoted in the Century Magazine for
August, 1902.

E. O. Hovey—New Cone of Mont Pele. 271

observed then to indicate that it was anything other than an
ordinary fragmental cone built up by the pericentric deposition
of ejecta from the vent or vents. This was after the first-class
eruptions of May 8, 19 and 20. :

The new cone must have grown with great rapidity, for Pro-
fessor Heilprin’s account and Mr. Varian’s sketches* describ-
ing and illustrating what was seen on an ascent made May 31,
indicate that it must then have attained at least the altitude of
the eastern crater rim, or about 3,950 feet above the sea. The
surface of ’Ktang Sec according to common report was about
700 meters (2,296 feet) above tide. If this determination can
be relied upon,t+ the new cone had an altitude of about 1,455
feet above its base on May 31, 1902. Mr. Varian’s sketches
and Professor Heilprin’s description indicate the existence of
great walls or dikes of solid rock in the new cone and Mr.
George Kennan’s account{ corroborates this evidence. None
of these observers reported the existence of a spine or tooth
projecting above the cone.

On June 20, 1902, Mr. George Carroll Ourtis and the author
got occasional glimpses of the new cone during two or three
hours spent on the summit of the voleano. The vertical walls
reported by Heilprin, Varian and Kennan were not to be seen
—perhaps they had been partly destroyed by the heavy erup-
tion of June 6. The sides of the cone were steep and showed
- great masses of rock, but in the constantly shifting, momentary
views obtained through the steam June 20, these were held to
be enormous loose masses in a fragmental cone. The top of
the cone was very jagged and the points seemed to surround
a shallow crater which was the most active vent.§ No point
projected far above its fellows. On June 29, from the sea,
Lacroix saw a point emerge from the clouds for a moment.|
Its altitude was determined by Ensign Deville on board the
“ Joufiroy”’ at 13853 meters (4,439 feet), which was so nearly
the altitude given for old Morne Lacroix, the former summit
of the mountain, that the point was not recognized as being
new.

Photographs taken early in July, 1902, show a prominent
elevation rising like a shark’s fin above the southwestern por-
tion of the new cone. The reports of the gendarmes of Morne

* McOlure’s Magazine, August, 1902.

+ Le Prieur, Peyraud and Rufz however in their official report, ‘‘ Eruption
du Volcan de la Montagne Pelé (1851),” p. 17, published by Ruelle and
Arnand, government printers, Fort de France, 1852 (?), give the altitude of
the lake at 921 meters (5,021 feet) by aneroid measurement, but their deter-
mination does not seem to be accepted.

{ The Tragedy of Pelée, p. 157. The Outlook Co., 1902..

SSee Bul. A. M. N. H., xvi, pl. 44, fig. 2and this Journal, IV, xiv, p. 3956,

fig. 14, for an illustration of the cone as it was on June 20, 1902.
| Journal Officiel de la Martinique, October 24, 1902.

272 E. O. Hovey—New Cone of Mont Pelé.

Rouge first mention seeing the new cone above the erater rim
on August 11 (Lacroix), but no note is made of the existence
of a terminal tooth. Heilprin states* that on August 24 he
saw horns projecting obliquely from the southwestern part of
the new cone, but he does not mention any spine projecting
vertically from the top, nor does one of his photographs indi-
cate the existence of any such feature. He considered the
cone to be built up of débris.t From the occurrence of the
great eruption of August 30, Mont Pelé remained covered
almost continuously with clouds and steam until early in
October.

On October 10, Lacroix saw from the observatory at Assier
the top of the new cone projecting like a cap above the erater
rim, and havimg approximately the same altitude as the
remains of Morne Lacroix close by. During the immediately
succeeding days the cone grew rapidly, stretching in a north-
south direction, and attaining an altitude of about 90 meters
(295 feet) above the rim of the crater. Examination through
a telescope convinced Lacroix that this top was composed of
“solid” rock, not débris, and led him§ to advance the idea
that Pelé now was to be classed as a cumzulo-volcano, a theory
which his subsequent observations and those of his colleague
Giraud, and of Sapper,| Heilprin§[ and the author have fully
confirmed.

October 15, 1902, the same observer** stood on the edge of
the great crater, and noted that the new dentate ridge rose
then but 50 meters (164 feet) above his view-point, and that it
had one tooth notably higher than others. Since this date the
prominent spine or tooth has grown wonderfully and varied
greatly in size and form from time to time. Occasionally
there has been a loss of several or even many meters from the
top, but the loss has always been recovered within a short
time. On November 8, the 100-meter high tooth with its
almost vertical walls, the northeastern side of which looked

* Mont Pelée and the Tragedy of Martinique, p. 181. J. B. Lippincott
Co., 1903.

+ Ibid., plate facing p. 288. t Ibid., p. 281 and elsewhere.

$ Comptes Rendus, October 27, 1902. Author’s separate p. 2. Jdem,
December 1, 1902. Author’s separate p. 9.

| Centralblatt fiir Min., Geol: u. Pal., 1903, p. 348.

*| Communicated in a letter to the author under date of July 10, 1903.

** Comptes Rendus, December 1, 1902. Author’s separate, p. 4. In this
account Lacroix speaks of the tooth as being but 100 meters from the eastern
edge of the great crater (Morne Lacroix). When one stands on the top of
Morne Lacroix, the great spine or tooth seems overpoweringly near at hand;
the true relations, however, can be seen best from the south or the north,
whence the base of the rock spine is judged by the present writer to be not
less than 150 meters from Morne Lacroix. Sapper(Centralblatt fiir Min., etc.,
pp. 350, 351) has mistaken the position of Morne Lacroix, making it part of
the old Somma ring of the volcano, whereas, what there is left of it stands
directly on the great crater rim and forms an integral part thereof.

E.. O. Hovey—New Cone of Mont Pele. 273

8-1-03-3 pm, little cone gone

fissure,8-1 03

Scale of Feet

Fic. 2.—The cone of Mont Pelé, as seen from Morne Fortuné, St. Lucia.
First phase, from November 26, 1902, to January 9, 1903.
After sketch by Major W. M. Hodder, R.E.

Scale of feet

(20 Oa ee ie tos ay ieee a 5%. 6 Ch STO AN ip ks OG
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weit =
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Ly fo)
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ere |

Fic. 3.—The cone of Mont Pelé, as seen from Morne Fortuné, St. Lucia.
Second phase, from March 4 to April 4, 1903.
After sketch made by Major W. M. Hodder, R.E.

274 Ly. O. Hovey—New Cone of Mont Pele.

“polished,” was the absorbing feature in the view of the new
cone from the crater rim beside Morne Lacroix ;* this tooth
was only beginning to be noticeable three.weeks before. At
the end of March, 1903, the French Commission} deter-
mined the apex of the spine to be 1,568 meters (5,143 feet)
above the sea, or 338 meters (1,109 feet) higher than the
remains of Morne Lacroix, but in the meantime there had
been a period when the cone had reached nearly this maximum
and had fallen again. After each considerable explosion the
cone is seen to have changed more or less. Portions have
fallen off and the altitude has usually diminished. One of the
heaviest eruptions which have occurred since August, 1902,
took place at 6:12 p. m., March 26, 1903. The next morning
Captain Perney, at Morne des Cadets, found that the apex of
the spine was 25 meters (82 feet) lower than before the out-
burst. In April the official bulletins of the commission record
a further loss of six or seven meters. In the early part of
May, there was a recovery of a portion of the lost altitude, but
during the night of the 30th, fifty meters of height disappeared
from the spine. The feeble activity of June, however, restored
twenty-five meters of the loss.

The profiles reproduced herewith as figures 2 and 3 show
the appearance of Mont Pelé as seen from Morne Fortuné, the
barracks of the British regiment stationed at Castries, St.
Lucia. The observations were made by Major W. M. Hodder
of the Royal Engineer Corps at favorable times from Novem-
ber, 1902, to April, 1903, and supplement so well the history
of the cone as given above that they are published here, with.
Major Hodder’s permission. Morne Fortuné, at St. Lucia, is
fifty nautical miles from the cone of Mont Pele, but the clear
atmosphere which prevails occasionally enables the taking of
satisfactory observations.

Quoting substantially from Major Hodder’s letter of April
18, 1903, regarding these sections: ‘“‘ Morne Fortuné [the point
from which the observations were made] is 835 feet above sea
level. We first saw the cone [spine] clearly on 26 Novem-
ber, 1902 [see fig. 2], when I fancy it had attained its maxi-
mum. We saw it again just before Christmas, but I could
not measure it. It had become obviously lower, and wider at
base. I got excellent observations during the first nine days
in January, during which time the cone was visibly altering.
After that we did not see it again until 4 March, 1903. [See
fig. 3.] We had heard that during February the cone had
been almost destroyed. You will observe that in the second

* A. Lacroix in Journal Officiel de la Martinique, November 22 (2), 1902.

Quoted from a reprint.
+ Lacroix, La Depéche Coloniale (Paris), April 30, 1908, p. 98.

EL. O. Hovey—New Cone of Mont Pelé. 275

phase the axis of the cone is about 100 feet east of where it
was in November, also the ridge of rock to the left appears
new. The actual cone is also quite different in shape. The
first looked like a huge lighthouse, the second like a church
steeple. You will observe how rapidly it grew upwards from
4 March to 9 March. My observations were excellent then,
so that, there can be no doubt about the growth. 3

“ Piton Carbet was my test for altitude, so that refraction,
ete., could not produce much proportional effect. Of course
since my theodolite reads only to minutes I can count on
accuracy at such a distance only within about 20 feet one way
or the other, or a maximum error of about 40 feet, but as I
took a series of observations I think the error must be much
less. On 4 April the cone had reached the same altitude as on
26 November, 1902 [5,032 feet above the sea].” *

These profiles show very clearly the course of events in the
history of the new cone during a little more than four months.
Morne Fortuné is about 8. 12° E. of Mont Pelé, or practically
in line with Morne des Cadets, so that figures 2 and 3 give
essentially the same outline as that obtained from the French
observatory. The altitude for the cone, 5,032 feet, obtained by
Major Hodder on November 26 indicates an increase of not
less than 735 feet iu 18 days, or about 41 feet per day on an
average. Probably the rate was much more rapid than this at
times, for the growth according to the bulletins of the French
Commission was not uniform, and there were days when the
cone had lost some of the height shown on the preceding day.
Judging from the determination of the more favorably located
French observers, Major Hodder’s values are somewhat low
(see page 272). :

Between November 26, 1902, and January 3, 1903, accord-
ing to figure 2, the spine lost about 340 feet of altitude, but
became wider at base. About January 8 began the series of
ruptures which spht off great slabs from the southwestern side
of the spine and changed its shape from that of a “ lighthouse ”
to that of a “church steeple.” The shifting of the axis to the
eastward seems to have been due, in part at least, to this loss of
material from the west side of the spine and in part to the
elevation to the eastern side of the spine in a more nearly ver-
tical line from the base.

From January 9 to March 3 no observations could be made
from St. Lucia on account of the clouds hanging about the
cone. On March 3, according to figure 3, the apex of the

* Major Hodder’s letter gives the details of the triangulation by which he
determined this altitude. His observations gave the altitude of Piton du
Carbet as 3,936 feet, 24 feet less than the height given on the chart. In

calculating the height of Mont Pelé, however, he assumed the chart to be
correct.

276 LE. O. Hovey—New Cone of Mont Pele.

cone was about the same elevation as on January 9; during the
next six or eight days it had risen 275 feet, and in another
month (April. 4, 1903) it had gained another 132 feet, or more.

The author’s observations of the mountain and its surround-
ings in 1903 extended from February 17 to March 1 inclusive,
and trom March 19 to April 3 inclusive, together with a per-
fect view of the cone from a sloop becalmed off St. Lucia on
March 15. The new cone itself was seen at sufficiently close
quarters for productive study on February 17, 19, 20 and 21
from St. Pierre and elsewhere on the southwest side and as far
up the mountain as Morne St. Martin at an altitude of 500
meters (1,640. feet), directly in front of the V-shaped gash in
the crater walls; on March 21, 25 and 26 from the crater rim,
when fully three-quarters of the circuit of the crater was
made; on March 28 from the Grand Réduit on the Morne
Rouge—St. Pierre road; on March 29 from Morne des Cadets
and from St. Pierre; on “March 30 from the heights north of
the Précheur river and then all along the coast back to Carbet ;
on March 31 and April 2 from the obser vatory at Morne des
Cadets, and from the steamer ‘“ Rubis” off St. Pierre on the
later date; and on April 3 from the steamer “ Yare” en route
to Dominieca.*

The rim of the crater is irregular in height, rising from 1,070
meters (3,510 feet) beside the head of the Riviere Blanche
gorget to 1,210 meters (3,969 feet) beside the basin of the Lac
des Palmistes, and it culminates in the remains of the rock-
mass of Morne Lacroix, which the author determined at 1230 ,
meters (4,034 feet) as the average of two readings of his aneroid
barometer taken five hours apart on March 21, 1903.¢ North

* The author also spent twenty-four hours on or near the summit plateau
(i. e., the Lac des Palmistes basin) February 27 and 28, but the dense fog
and rain which caused his guide to lose the way, prevented the making of
any observations of the cone. Almost the only note made during that
unwilling night’s sojourn on the mountain was a negative one—no sound of
detonation or grumbling came through the ground to the author’s ear during
the twelve hours of darkness when he was lying in a gully for shelter from
the fierce gale. It does not follow, however, that no explosions took place
during this period ; the tremendous wind would have prevented almost any
sound from traversing the atmosphere contrary to it.

+ In June, 1902, Mr. Curtis and the author assumed the crater (see Bull.
A. M. .N. H., xvi, p. 352; this Journal, IV, xiv, p. 337) as beginning at
a rock mass jutting from the south side of the gorge at 3,550 feet (1,021
meters). March 26, 1903, this rock-mass was not observed, and the slight
turn in the rim marking the beginning of the crater was at the altitude
given here (1,070 meters). The rock-mass seen June 24 and 26, 1902, may
have been partly undermined and removed by the intervening blasts and
the remainder so covered with mud as not to be noticeable from fifty yards
above.

t June 20, 1902, Mr. Curtis and the author made Morne Lacroix to be 4.200
feet (1,280 meters) above the sea. (Bull. A. M. N. H., xvi, p. 352. This

Journal, IV, xiv, p. 337.) Much of the mass of what was seen then has dis-
appeared and the height lowered 166 feet.

Am. Jour. Sci,, Vol. XVI, 1903. Plate XI\l.

pee

Fic. 4.—Mont Pelé. The new spine from beside the head of the gorge of the
Riviere Blanche, looking about N. 30° E. The apex is about 500 meters (1,640
feet) above the point of observation.

Fic. 5.—Mont Pelé. The top of the new spine from the crater-rim, looking
about N. 30° W. :
Photographs taken March 26, 1903, for the American Museum, by E. O. Hovey.

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"eg Yoreyy
UO UVY} TOMOT (FOF GQ) SLoJOM CZ ynoqe ueeq oAvT 07 Su9eS oUTds
eT, “UMOYS [JOM OV S9AOOLS [LOTZIOA PUL SeINSsy oy, ‘“YJoueTy op
a}ULOZ oy} AQ “LOGI “GT Youvyy poydvasojyoyg ‘sutpesard oy} sv Mora
jo yutod ourvs 043 ATTvou woaz ourds Mou oy, ‘yfed yuOP[_—"9 “MIT

ap > ;

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XVI, 1903. Plate XIV.

Fie. 8.—Southwestern part of Mont Pelé, showing the ash-filled gorge of the Riviére
Blanche, February 17, 1903.

=
i
*
5
iF

Se thn?

“gph ey oe 5 i 2 a

Een intone Bele:

aed

A portion of the ash-filled gorge of the Riviere Blanche, February
20, 1903.

From American Museum Journal for July, 1903.

kd 5 3

Photos. by E. O. Hovey.

E.. O. Hovey—New Cone of Mont Pele. 277

of Morne Lacroix the altitude of the rim decreases gradually
till the middle point of the northern rim is reached, where
the author got a reading of 1,130 meters (8,706 feet) beside a
precipice which prevented further progress westward. The
rim here dropped 10 meters, perhaps, but soon rose again, and
the western edge of the crater is essentially horizontal at an
elevation (judging from the heights above Précheur) of about
1,150 meters (8,772 feet) till the remains of Petit Bonhomme
are reached. This rock-mass, the only one besides Morne
Lacroix on the edge of the crater, overhangs the northern side
of the gorge of the Blanche (i. e., the great gash). It seems
to have lost some of its altitude and mass since June, 1902;
then its altitude was judged by Curtis and the author to be
about 4,000 feet (1,220 meters), while in March, 1903, it could
hardly have exceeded 1,180 meters (3,870 feet).

The crater is wider than it was in June, 1902, the increase
bemg toward the east, south and southwest. On the east and
south the tuff walls are almost if not quite vertical. Numer-
ous landslides have occurred here, and in March, 1903, it was
necessary to exercise great caution in traversing the rim on
account of the cracked condition of the agglomerate.* The
V-shaped gash in the southwestern rim is wider, or rather the
southern side of it has been cut away, but the débris from the
new cone nearly fills it.

The new cone with the great spine is not central within the
old crater. The most important of the openings concerned in
the present series of eruptions were on the west side of the
old erater-lake, L’Ktang Sec, so that the new cone has been
built up northwest of the center of the old crater. . The spine
rises from the northeastern quarter of the new cone. This has
resulted in the complete filling of the northwestern quarter of ”
the crater, making the slope of the new cone on the west and
northwest sides continuous or nearly continuous with the ex-
terior of the old crater-rim. On the northern, eastern and
southern sides, between the new cone and the crater-rim, there
is a shallow spiral valley which debouches into the gorge of
the Riviere Blanche on the southwest. The deepest part of
this valley seems to be beneath the ruins of Morne Lacroix,
and is estimated to be about two hundred feet deep below the
old crater-rim. It seemed much deeper (500 to 800 feet)
during last June. On the southwest the new cone slopes
continuously into the débris filling the gorge of the Blanche.

The new cone is a composite affair made up of fragmental
ejecta from the vents, lava which has welled up or been pushed

* The edge shown in Bull. A. M. N. H., xvi, p. 44. fig. 1, and this Jour-
nal, IV, xiv, p. 356, fig. 13, has been pushed back an indeterminable number

of feet and the inner slope is practically vertical instead of having an angle
of 65° from the horizontal. ;

278 E. O. Hovey— New Cone of Mont Pelé.

up from below, and masses which have fallen or been blown
off from the latter. The spine or tooth consists of “solid” rock
which seems to have been pushed up bodily into its present po-
sition, and to be maintained there, somewhat like the stopper
in a bottle, by friction against the sides of the neck and by the
expansive forces underneath. The shape of the spine, with its
sides forming angles of 75°, 87° and even 90° with the horizon-
tal, is a strong argument against the theory that it has been
formed by ejected blocks or bombs which were sufficiently —
pasty to stick together on falling, and in favor of the “ stop-
per” theory. Furthermore, the northeast side of the spine
presents a fairly smooth, vertically grooved surface, as if it
had been slickensided by friction against the side of the con-
duit during its ascent (see figs. 5,6and 7, Pl. XII, XIII). The
great and sudden changes in the altitude of the spine with
reference to the rest of the cone point in the same direction.

Great ribs or dikes of lava extend to the sides of the new
cone from the base of the spine on the northeast, southeast,
south and west. Those of the southern and southeastern por-
tions of the cone appear in fig. 4, Pl. XII. The lofty tooth or
spine is rifted and fissured in every direction, and portions of
it are constantly falling from its sides. Some of the vertical
fissures are very prominent on the east side and evidently
connect with fluid lava beneath, for they have been observed*
to become luminous at night from below upward, and the light
has died out gradually from above downward. The author
was not fortunate enough to witness this phenomenon, which
substantiates the cumulo-volcano theory so well; he only saw
the cone luminous at the base of the spine on the southwest
side, which is the source from which have originated most of
the recent heavy dust-flows and minor eruptions.

The northeast side of the spine is strikingly different in
appearance from the southwest side thereof. The former shows
a nearly smooth surface which is almost polished in its effect.
In the light of the rising sun the spine looks like an enormous’
_ white monument rising above the mountain. The true color
of the northeast side of the spine, however, is more a reddish
brown with a whitish incrustation over a part of it. The south-
west side of the spine constantly shows fresh surfaces on account
of the portions falling off, and this side is gray or reddish gray
in color.

No one can say yet exactly what the nature of the spine is,
but the probabilities are that it is largely pumiceous in tex-
ture, judging from its being so rifted, from the readiness with
which the masses break off from it and especially from the
abundance of pumice in the new material filling the gorge of

* Lacroix, Comptes Rendus, Dec. 1, 1902. Author’s separate p. 9.

££. O. Hovey—New Cone of Mont Pele. 28

the Riviere Blanche. The surface presented by the northeast
side is probably solid and glassy through different conditions
of cooling. The bombs, which lhe in profusion over the basin
of the Lae des Palmistes and other parts of the crater rim, are
of all kinds from wholly pumiceous with a thin, densely vitreous
erust to those which are mostly lithoidal in texture. The
author found one true bomb on the edge of this basin which
was fresh pumice in the interior with the usual fresh, densely
vitreous crust about an inch in thickness, but a part of the
exterior portion of the mass was formed by a lump of oxidized
agglomerate. Evidently this mass had been in contact with the
walls of the conduit through the old tuff beds of the volcano.
Usually one can readily distinguish between bombs which are
true bread-crust bombs in the sense that they are portions of
the fresh magma which have been blown into the air, where
they consolidated, and those which consist of fragments of
ancient lava beds which have been broken off and recently
reheated to a molten or plastic condition and then ejected.
The latter often show characteristic surfaces of conchoidal
fracture which are not observed on the former, and they are
more lithoidal in texture than the former. Angular fragments
of lithoidal lava, one-fourth to one-half inch (1 em.) across, coat
parts of the crater rim near the Lac des Palmistes basin,
apparently blown there from the new cone.

There is now no central opening or pit-like depression in the
top of the new cone corresponding to the general idea of a crater.
The incompiete glimpses of the active cone obtained in June,
1902, seemed to the author* to indicate the existence at that
time of a true crater in its top, as has been mentioned on page
271. The growth of the spine has destroyed this crater, if it
ever had any long-continued existence. Steam issues with
vigor from all parts of the cone, but especially from the top
and from the southeastern portion, but not from the spine.
Minor explosions occur from the southwestern side at an eleva-
tion of apparently about four thousand feet (1,220 meters) above
the sea, and from the northwestern side at a somewhat greater
elevation. Heavy outbursts have taken place on December
16, 1902, January 25, 1903, and March 26, 1903, with less
important ones on other dates, from the southwest side of the
cone near the base of the spine or from 4,400 to 4,500 feet
(about 1,375 meters) above the sea. There is no one definite
conduit through the cone or spine itself, to the exclusion of
others.

Next to the new cone and spine, the most striking change in
Pelé, to one who was familiar with the appearance of the

Bulk AY MON» H.; xvi, p. abo and pl: 44, fic, 2; This Journal; TV, xiv;
p. 340 and fig. 14.

280 LY. O. Hovey—New Cone of Mont Pelé.

mountain before the eruptions began, is the filling of the gorge
of the Riviére Blanche with calcined rocks and dust and ashes
(lapilli) which have been poured out of the crater by the numer-
ous eruptions (see Pl. XIV). This was the gorge extending sea-
ward from the great gash in the southwest side of the old crater
which determined the direction of the explosive voleanic blasts
which swept over St. Pierre on May 8 and succeeding days.
Now the lower portion of the gorge has been entirely obliter-
ated and the adjoining plateau elevated, while the upper and
deeper portion near the crater has been almost filled by the
ejecta. The line of this gorge is still the favorite direction
of discharge of the volcano, and the great bowlders scattered
thickly over the surface attest the violence of the explosions
(see fie. 9, PL XIV).

The material has been carried into the gorge by the dry dust-
flows which have swept down from the crater and from the
new cone with great velocity and terrible force. These dust-
flows consist of steam saturated with dust to such an extent
that the mixture acts like a highly mobile fluid. Great masses
of rock are transported by it as easily as corks are carried along
by water. As the flows proceed on their way they drop their
load of stones and liberate vast volumes of steam which carry
into the atmosphere the finest dust from the flow. The clouds
of dust always are incandescent when they leave the cone, but
they lose their high temperature during the latter part of their
course to the sea.* The beds of ash may retain heat enough for
several months to furnish occasional dust-flows. This has been
observed in the re-excavated gorge of the Wallibou River, St.
Vincent. On March 6, 1903, a cauliflower column of dust was
seen to rise from one of the ash beds left in an angle of the
gorge, and the next day the author found that a dry dust-flow
had taken place, covering an acre or two of the bottom of the
gorge with a hot dust- and pebble-flow from one or two feet to
eight or ten feet in thickness.

Unquestionably a portion of the filling of the gorge of the
Blanche has been done by flows of mud. The mud-flow which
overwhelmed the Usine Guérin seems to have been caused by
the waters of the Etang Sec breaking through a temporary
dam formed by new ash from the western vents within the era-
ter, but succeeding mud-flows have been caused by the rain-
soaked dust and ash on the slopes of the great crater and the
remainder of the drainage-basin of the Blanche descending in

* Lacroix (Comptes Rendus, 26 Jan., 1903, author’s separate p. 2) deter-
mined by means of metal wires put in the path of the dust clouds about 6
km. (334 mi.) from the center that the temperature at that locality was less
than 230°C. for the heavy cloud of December 16, 1902, while his thermometer

showed the dust to retain a temperature of 125° C. two days after the erup-
tion.

EF. O. Hovey—New Cone of Mont Pele. 281

terrible avalanches. It is not difficult, however, to distinguish:
the mud-flows from the dust-flows, at least when both are fresh.

The mud-flows when dry are hard and compact, and are
black or nearly so; the dust-flows are very light gray in color
and have a calcined appearance, and are so soft and loose that
one sinks in them nearly to the knees. Water, however, will
cement together the surface of a dust-flow, forming a crust
over it. Mud-tlows, especially where their motion is compara-
tively slow, show a surface wrinkled transversely to the direc-
tion of the flow, while dust-flows do not present such a phe-
nomenon.

Enormous masses of rock, some of them forty feet across, lie
scattered about along the middle altitudes of the Séche-Blanche
plateau, some of which were thrown there probably by the
eruption of August 30, 1902, while others were ejected by the
earlier outbursts. These he out of the line of and considerably
higher than the path of the dust-flows down the Blanche,
hence the suggestion that they were hurled through the air
during a part at least of the journey to their resting places.
Some of the blocks were broken into many fragments through
striking on other rocks, while others landed in ash and were
not even cracked. On the summit and eastern side of the
mountain, especially, “ bread-crust bombs” are more numerous
than they were in June.

In spite of the fresn lava forming the spine, the dikes in the
new cone, and the numberless bombs, no stream of molten lava
has issued from Pelé during the present series of eruptions.
This phenomenon is probably due to the great excess of water-
vapor (steam) connected with the eruptions, as compared with
the amount of liquid lava rismg in the conduit or series of
conduits. The excess of water vapor combined with the vis-
cidity of the lava has caused the outbursts to be violently
explosive without permitting the quiet exudation of liquid rock
_in sufficient quantities to form streams.

The author’s subsequent studies of the Grande Soufriere of
Guadeloupe and the peak of Saba on the same expedition
lead him to the conclusion that they have passed through the
phases through which Mont Pelé is now passing, and that they
belong to the same class of volcanoes. This is especially clear
in the case of the Grande Soufriére, the cone of which rises
above an old crater-rim which it has buried in the same way
that Mont Pelé is now striving to bury its surrounding
erater-walls; and great dikes intersect and spines surmount
the cone. Bombs closely similar in appearance to those of
Mont Pelé occur on the Grand Soufriere of Guadeloupe
and on Saba.

American Museum of Natural History,
July 15, 1903.

282 J. C. Blake— Colors of Allotropic Silver.

Art. XX VII.—The Colors of Allotropic Silwer; by J. C.

BLAKE.
[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale University—CXIX.]

A @reat deal has been written concerning the allotropy of
silver, perhaps the most remarkable phenomena described being
the beautiful color effects obtained by Carey Lea.* No satis-
factory explanation of such effects has ever been published,
however. I have repeated most of the work described in the
literature relating to ‘“allotropic” silver, ‘ colloidal” silver,
and, to some extent, the so-called “sub-salts” of silver, and
have arrived at the conclusion that all of the color effects
observed may be explained by assuming the existence of three
or possibly four allotropic forms of silver. Before describing
these forms it will be necessary to point out specifically that
each of them has a characteristic color in reflected light, and
another, very nearly complementary color in transmitted light.
In the case of mirrors transparent to certain wave-lengths of
light, the colors of the reflected and transmitted light are com-
mingled when such mirrors are viewed in ordinary light, to
mutual obliteration. The confusion of colors resulting from
the commingling of the various allotropic forms of silver among
themselves, as well as the blending of colors due to the inter-
mixture of allotropic silver and foreign colored substances,
especially when such intermixtures are present in solution
together, must be constantly borne in mind.

These four assumed allotropic forms of silver, together with
their most pronounced characteristics and convenient modes of
preparation, are as follows:

Form of silver, named

after the color most Color in transmitted
readily observed. Color in reflected light. oe light
fen Leb ear aque, even
*¢ White silver ” Nearly white ae he eee elagn
“ Blue silver ” Golden yellow Blue
“ Red silver ” Indigo-blue Red
“Yellow silver ” Indigo-blue Yellow

The transmitted colors are easily observable. They are the
colors seen when the substances are in pseudo-solution—per-
manent suspension or colloidal solution,—and in mass, provided
no mirror surface has been- formed. The colors in reflected
light, on the other hand, are observable only when a mirror
surface has been formed, either by deposition on glass, by

*This Journal, xxxvii, 476, and many articles closely following. Phil.
Mag., xxxi, 238, 320; xxxii, 337.

J. CU. Blake—Colors of Allotropic Silver. 283

spreading on glass or other material, by undisturbed sedimenta-
tion from water, by burnishing, or by erystallization. In pro-
portion as the mirror surface becomes more and more imper-
fect, the reflected light of “white silver” changes toward
gray, the reflected light of “blue silver” changes to copper-
colored, the substance finally appearing black. The light
reflected by “yellow silver” has been observed only in the case
of mirrors on glass, backed by bone-black. Indeed, “ yellow
silver” has been obtained satisfactorily in no other form. All
four forms of silver have been obtained suspended in water,
but suspensions of ‘“ blue silver” and “red silver” alone are
permanent—the so-called colloidal solutions.

“White silver” is formed by treating “blue silver” and
“red silver” with strong acids in considerable amount, and,
consequently, whenever silver is thrown out by reduction
in strongly acid solution. Roughly speaking, the greater the
concentration of the acid present the more nearly white the
silver will be. It is ordinarily gray, as noted by Lea in the ©
transformation of his allotropic forms of silver to the “ ordi-
nary” form by treatment with acids. Silver nitrate reduced
by ferrous sulphate in solutions sufficiently dilute gives a
colloidal solution of “blue silver.” In stronger solutions a
gray, opaque precipitate is formed (“white silver”). If, how-
ever, a little sulphuric acid be first added to the ferrous sul-
phate solution, the product is plainly crystalline silver consist-
ing of perfect and distorted microscopic octahedra; and the
greater the dilution and the stronger the acid, within the
limits tested, the more distinctly crystalline the silver will
be and the more its color will approach to white. Such
erystals are usually intermixed with grape-like clusters which,
if crystalline, show no evidence of it in their external form.

“ Blue silver” may readily be obtained in a great variety of
ways, as indicated in Table I. It is, in fact, formed whenever
silver is reduced in neutral or alkaline solution in the presence
of small amounts of electrolytes and without the presence of
too much organic matter. When electrolytes in sufticient
amount are added to colloidal solutions of “blue silver” agere-
gation and subsequent sedimentation take place, the coagulum
appearing blue or black when settled in mass according to its
compactness and volume, the addition of salts and alkalis in
sufficiently large amount tending to produce the black effect.

When such a blue or black precipitate of ‘blue silver” is
spread upon glass while moist, the particles arrange themselves
in mirror surfaces. If ‘the preparation is made and handled
in the dark, these mirrors reflect a very deep and rich golden
color, transmitting blue light. No preparation was found
which gave these mirrors in better form than those obtained

284 J. C. Blake—Colors of Allotropic Silver.

by following Lea’s directions for the preparation of his “ gold
silver” ; that is by the action of Rochelle salt and ferrous sul-
phate on a solution of silver nitrate. Drained and dried
quietly in masses, these preparations give Lea’s golden lumps.

Heat converts this blue silver to “ white silver.” Pressure
does the same, and with great ease in the case of mirrors on
glass. Exposure to light gradually brings about the same
effect, the golden reflection slowly paling. If such mirrors of
“blue silver” are originally prepared in the daylight, the sur-
face reflection at first is pale yellow, which likewise fades into
white by lapse of time. This partially converted yellow reflect-
ing silver is Lea’s “intermediate”? form, scarcely sensitive to
pressure. Its pale yellow color may reasonably be attributed
to the dilution of the golden yellow surface-reflection of “ blue
silver” by the white light reflected by intermingled “ white -
silver” formed by the exposure to daylight.

Mirrors of “red silver” and of “yellow silver” on glass
may be conveniently prepared by the action of silver nitrate
upon an ammoniacal solution of tannic acid, and mirrors of “red
silver” may likewise be readily obtained by spreading on glass
portions of the red-brown precipitate formed in the mixture.
The mirrors of “ yellow silver” thus formed tend to change
into ‘red silver” spontaneously, and both, when gently heated,
are transformed into “blue silver.” These mirrors of both
forms of silver are slowly soluble in water, but mirrors of
“red silver” are stable for some weeks under atmospheric
conditions, ultimately becoming dull gray and Iusterless.

Colloidal solutions of ‘red silver” of approximate purity
can be readily obtained by reducing a solution of silver nitrate
with ferrous citrate (ferrous sulphate and sodium citrate) in the
presence of a little free alkali, according to Lea’s method of
obtaining his “A” form of silver. The mother liquor should
be withdrawn by suction through a porous cell, as recommended
by Schneider, and the red precipitate suspended in water. If
no free alkali is added the solution will be blue (experiment
(19) of the table), a trace of free alkali in excess rendering
most collodial solutions more stable. On adding an electrolyte
in sufficient amount to such a red solution, the silver is changed
to “blue silver” and usually settles out. If the yellowish
brown mother liquor has not been removed, the addition of an
electrolyte will cause the solution to look green instead of blue,
owing to the commingling of colors. To the intermixture of
yellow sulphur is due the blue-green effect observed in experi-
ments (39) and (48) of the table. ‘ Red silver” may be looked
for whenever silver is thrown out by reduction in the absence
of electrolytes, or in the presence of electrolytes in small
amount, accompanied by considerable amounts of organic

)

J. C. Blake— Colors of Allotropie Silver. 285

matter or typical colloids. This effect of typical colloids in
rendering colloidal solutions of the metals more stable, dis-
covered by Faraday, has been investigated at length by Zsig-
mondy* and others.

Mirrors formed by spreading on glass portions of a precipi-
tate of “red silver ” containing electrolytes, like that obtained
by the action of ferrous citrate, transmit red light and reflect
indigo-blue light only while moist. At the moment of drying,
the substance suddenly changes over to “blue silver ”—a
change which undoubtedly served to prevent Lea from recog-
nizing clearly the distinction between “red silver” and “blue
silver,” especially as he was accustomed to observe the “sur-
face”? and the “body” colors of these substances, instead of
differentiating the colors of the reflected and. transmitted
hght. When mirrors which show the color change are viewed
in ordinary light after drying, the reflected (golden) and trans-
mitted (blue) lights are commingled and the mirrors have a
beautiful bright finorescent green appearance. ‘This effect was
seen by Lea, who determined that the blue and the yellow
colors were oppositely polarized.

Another variety of green effect, noted by Gutbier}+ in the
action of hydrazine hydrate on a solution of silver nitrate, is
still more deceptive. The green in this case is due to an inter-
mixture of ‘blue silver” with “ yellow silver” formed simul-
taneously. In order to see this it is only necessary to act with
hydrazine hydrate on a solution of silver nitrate at considerable
dilution. No action takes place for some minutes; then an
orange-yellow color appears in the liquid and a yeilow mirror,
forms on the sides of the containing vessel. Such yellow
mirrors may even form in the more concentrated green solutions.
In solutions still more concentrated pure blue effects may be
readily obtained. The same sequence of colors was observed
less clearly in other cases. 7

The detailed observations are collected in the following
table. It is to be understood that the solutions used, both of
the silver compounds and of the reducing mixtures, were in
no case very strong, those marked “ concentrated” containing
about five or ten grams of the material per liter, those marked
“dilute” containing from a tenth to a hundredth part as much.
Care was taken to avoid a local excess of any electrolytic
reagents employed, and the reducing mixture was always finally
added in excess of the silver compound. Except for the pur-
pose of avoiding known precipitates, the order in which the

* Zeitschr. anal. Chem. xl, 697. Schulz and Zsigmondy, Hofmeister’s Bei-

triage, iii, 187. Lettermorer and Meyer, Jour. prakt. Chem. lvi, 248.
+ Zeitschr. anorg. Chem. xxxi, 448; xxxvii, 347.

Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH Series, Vou. XVI, No. 94.—OcToBER, 1903,
20

wo

rrr ow

286 J. C. Blake—Colors of Allotropic Silver.

TABLE I.

' cess, gray moderate ing

Hydrazine hydrate + ether __|
Hydrazine hydrate + alcohol

. Jbydroxylamine: . 2). 22.

Hydroxylamine sulphate + _
INCICOED eae? eta See

. Phenylhydrazine __-_----.=- |
. Ether + FeSO, (trace)_-----.

. Chloroform +NH,OH -.-.-_-
. Chloroform + FeSO, _---._- |

. Carbon bisulphide + FeSO, -
. Hypophosphorus acid_-----
_ a HOSphorus acide 3.22

Phosphorus trichloride +
Vo Eteg ©) Ee es fee |

Phosphorus in ether __-____-
. Phosphorus in ether +

INET ODS biter shen Oo neta

. Sodium citrate + FeSO, ____
. Rochelle salt + FeSQ, ____--

_. Rochelle salt+ NaOH =..._- |

2. Sodium citrate + NaOH +

FeSO, pS BO ee

. Rochelle salt + NaOH +

FeSO, eS Sage a eee

. Tannie acid + NH,OH or

NSOR 25) Sie sree

5. Tannic acid+ NaOH + FeSO,

“Sulphur dicxide co s2> a5 oe

A. Water Solution of Silver Nitrate.

Opaque Solutions, color in transmitted light.
precipitate, ;__—___ EMS SOE ISS.
color in re- | Red, | Red, con- |

flected light. Blue. — dilute. centrated. Yellow.

}
—_—_—— |

If large ex- Hot or Onstand-

i
excess, |
Mirror | If little
ammonia ;
| _ mirror
+ :
+ | If dilute,
| mirror
+ ce
ar iad
Ei | /
Hydroxyl- | | If little
amin sulph. - | ‘ammonia ;
in excess, | | mirror
gray |
| = } i
Add ether | |
| first, mir- |
ror
=
| Soon | |
changes to!
AgCl | |
— /
ae Unstable | Unstable
~ + | |
| +
Sie
+
— |
If little
F eSO, Ww.
_ ~prec.,
| ' turns red |
+ Turbid, | |
stable | |
| — Stable if |
| | little
| F eSO,
| ce
Mirror, Mirror,
stable unstable
Solution,
stable,
mirror,
unstable
White
| prec.

turns pink

J. CU. Blake—Colors of Allotropie Silver. 287

TABLE I (continued).

B. Ammoniacal Solution of Silver Nitrate.

Opaque Solutions, color in transmitted light.
Reagents precipitate, ee
; color in re- [” ied, Red, con-
flected light. Blue. dilute. jcentrated. Yellow.
Te QOS OS ae re If large ex- +
cess, gray ©
28. Phenylhydrazine ------.--. +
Peierororm —- __ 2... -2-- =
30. Chloroform+Na0OH _------ +
31. Methyl alcohol+NaOH ..-- +
32. Ethyl aleohol+NaOH------ +
aaa AMmmdealconol ._. _.2._.- | -
34, Amyl alcohol+ NaOH.-___-- | +
30. Hypophosphorus acid------ +
ae. Ebosphorus acid __-__-.---_- -
37. Phosphorus trichloride in —
Ls (012 er nr rs
oo. sulphur dioxide-_-__-_-----_- | | Slowly,
| faint pink |
39. Acid sodium sulphite ___--- | | Blue- | Unstable Unstable
green, un- |
| stable, |
_contains |
| sulphur | |
C. Ammoniacal Solution of Silver Oxide.
40. Formalin ___-_. pe edt tse | If large ex- | aE Stable |
cess, yellow- | |
> a ish-gray |
41. Formalin poured into silver Yellowish Purple, |
solution ; dilute --..---- gray changes stable |
to purple |
solution
42. Hydrazine hydrate__-..___. | | + Stable |
43. Hydroxylamine sulphate ___| PAN + Stable
44. Hypophosphorus acid_-_-__- | + Stable
D. Water Suspension of Silver Oxide, filtered after treatment.
45. Hydrazine hydrate__._____- +
4G: Hydroxylamine _..-_...... Turbid, |

. i __ stable i
E. Water Solution of Silver Nitrate, slightly acid, with Sulphuric or Nitric Acid.

47. Phenylhydrazine ______---. -
48. Acid sodium sulphite, solid Blue- | Coagu- | Coagu-
or in concentrated solution green, lated by | lated by
contains | shaking | shaking

sulphur,

turns black

288 J. C. Blake—Colors of Allotropic Silver.

reagents are added is usually immaterial, although if a non-
electrolyte which alone does not cause reduction of the silver
compound is to be added, it is best to mix it with the silver
solution before adding the final reducer in order to take advan-
tage of the power which non-electrolytes possess of inhibita-
ting the action of electrolytes toward colloidal solutions, as
already pointed out. The resulting colloidal solutions. were
generally clear in ordinary light, but all gave the Tyndall
effect when the light was concentrated with a-lens. Except
when otherwise stated the colors refer to transmitted light.
A + sign indicates that the phenomenon takes place without
special characteristics or conditions,

In the light of the foregoing discussion most of these results
will be readily understood. It will be noticed that the gray
effects (‘‘ white silver”) were obtained only in acid solutions.
In solutions sufficiently acid such effects are always obtained.
The tinge of yellow noted in experiments (40) and (41) was
doubtless due to the golden reflection of intermixed “blue sil-
ver,” formed while the solution was still alkaline, as in experi-
ment (2). The blue solutions obtained in experiments (3) and
(10) were especially stable. In most cases the blue color was
preceded by a red, brown, green, or purple color.. It was
found impossible to prepare red silver solutions which were
stable except in the presence of organic matter or typical inor-
ganic colloids, as stannic acid. “ Yellow silver” was never
obtained in stable solution. Except for the fact that glass is
colored yellow by silver and not red, this “yellow silver”
might be regarded as a variety of “red silver.” The other
forms of silver—“ white,” ‘blue,’ “red”—seem sufficiently
distinct to be regarded as allotropic forms until their exact pro-
perties can be investigated. So far as that work has progressed
it fully bears out the idea that silver does exist in allotropic
forms.* Grimm worked with silver mirrors which trans-
mitted blue-gray light, and found that the increase in electrical
conductivity induced in them by lapse of time, by heat, light,
burnishing, and other agencies, all indicated a gradual change
from “molecular” to “normal” silver, corresponding, in the
terminology here used, to the change from “blue silver” to
“ white silver.” |

The kind advice and helpful assistance of Prof. F. A. Gooch,
who suggested this subject for investigation, is gratefully
acknowledged.

* Grimm, Drude’s Ann. [4] v, 448.

Grabau—Biserial Arm in Certain Crinoids. 289

ART. XXVIII otes on the Development of the biserval Arm

in Certain Crinoids* ; by Amapuus W. GRaBAv.

Iy 1898, while working in Professor R. T. Jackson’s labora-
tory at Harvard, I noticed that in a perfect arm of Encrv-
nus liliiformis the apical portion was uniserial. This feature
had never been stated to be the case in any text-books or works
on erinoids that were available, and figures of this species of
Encrinus always show the condition of imperfect specimens,
with the apices of the arms broken away and the biserial
arrangement unchanged to the end. It is, of course, well
recognized that crinoids the adults of which have biserial
arms are uniserial when young, the change from uniserial to
biserial beginning at the tip of the arm and passing gradually
proximal-wards. But that, after the animal has reached the
biserial condition, the new plates added at the top begin uni-
serially and only later on become biserial, has never been explic-
itly stated, so far as I am aware, though it may have been
recognized. Wachsmuth and Springer, indeed, after speaking
of the arms of the young Platycrinus as strictly uniserial, go
on to say: “In somewhat older specimens, the plates at the
tips gradually interlock, and new ones still forming at the dis-
tal end are strictly biserval.t+ With advancing maturity the
interlocking gradually extends to the proximal ends, until
finally in the adult Platycrinus the whole arm becomes biserial,t
except perhaps as to a few plates near the calyx, which perma-
nently retain their larval condition.”{ This, as shown beyond,
is not the case in any perfect specimen of Platycrinus which I
have examined, not even in P. huntsville, which is used as an
illustration of their statement by Wachsmuth and Springer.

The facts here discussed have apparently been recognized
by Bather, for he writes: ““The change from uniserial to
(DISC Saas ee begins in both ontogeny and phylogeny at
the growing tip of the arm, and proceeds gradually proximal-
wards.’’§

*This paper was originally read before the Boston Society of Natural
History, Nov. 7, 1900. It was again read at the Albany meeting of the Geo-
logical Society of America, January, 1901. Its publication has been deferred
in the hope of finding more illustrative material, but this has been only ‘par-
tially realized. A summary was published by Jackson in his memoir on
localized stages in development. I am under great obligation to Professor
Jackson for loan of specimens from his laboratory, to Mr. Schuchert for loan
of material from the National Museum, and to Mr. Edwin Kirk, student in
Coiumbia University, for access to his collection of crinoids.

+ Italics are mine. '

{Wachsmuth and Springer, North American Crinoidea Camerata, vol. 1,
pio
$ Bather, F. A., The HEchinoderma, Part III, of Lankaster’s Treatise on
Zoology, p. 116, 1900.

290 Grabau— Biserial Arm in Certain Crinoids.

The arguments which this paper attempts to support may be
briefly stated as follows: 1. So far as observations have been
made on perfect material, new arm plates introduced at the
tip of the growing arm are uniserial. 2. The apical plates, at
least in the less “specialized biserial species, are rectangular,
and change with further growth to wedge-shaped and later to
biseriality. 3. This is not primarily an old age character, since
this condition is found in the apical arm plates of young eri-
noids. (See fig. 4.)

The following theses are suggested, but not proved. They
may be borne in mind in further study. a. In specialized or
accelerated genera the newly added plate may be wedge-
shaped instead of rectangular. 6. In highly specialized genera
the newly added plates may be biserial. c¢. In old age indi-
viduals the last added plates may never pass beyond uniserial-
ity, the animal losing the power to further modify the plates.
d. In extremely phylogerontic types the biserial condition of
the plates may be dropped out, and a uniserial type thus
derived from a line which at its acme was supplied with biserial
arms.

The Case of Encrinus liliiformis.

In this species the uniserial condition of the terminal plates
was first noted in a perfect specimen belonging to Professor
R. T. Jackson of Harvard. Other perfect specimens showing
the uniserial terminal plates were studied in the collection of
the Boston Society of Natural History and in that of the Uni-
versity of Rochester. The first brachial of Hnerinus liliz-
formis is nearly rectangular, while the second is axillary.
Above this the 1st plate of the divided arm (No. 1 in fig. 1)
is roughly an oblique parallelogram, followed by a somewhat
wedging plate, the thinner edges of ‘the wedges being directed
towards each other in the two arms of a series. This much
may be considered as incident upon the division of the arm.
Above this, however, are three plates of the primitive rec-
tangular type, after which (the 6th plate of the separate arm)
the plates begin to wedge out, quickly becoming shorter (the
7th plate only rarely extends all the way across the arm),
and by the 9th or 10th plate normal biserial conditions are
established. It is not until the 16th or 17th plate, how-
ever, that the characteristic tubercles appear on the inner
side of the plates. At first these tubercles are faint, but they
quickly become of normal strength.

In figure 1, the right member of each of two arm groups is
represented. In a, normal biserial conditions continue up to
the 79th plate, after which the plates become more wedging.
Not, however, until the 85th plate is reached are uniserial con-

Grabau— Biserial Arm in Certain Crinoids. 991

ditions found. This plate is completely wedge-shaped or
cuneate and extends entirely across from side to side. This
cuneate condition continues to the 87th plate, after which the
wedge becomes more and more truncated, and the upper and
lower sides more and more parallel, until in the 96th plate the
rectangular ontline of the primitive plate is all but retained.
Thus there are at least twelve uniserial plates at the tip of this

Fie. 1, a—b. Encrinus liliiformis. Diagram of arms showing uniserial
apical plates. (Harv. Univ. Pal. Lab. Coll.)

arm. The faint development of a tubercle on the 96th plate
suggests that this is not the terminal one, and that the arm is
therefore not quite perfect. (Compare fig. 2.)

In an adjoining arm of the same individual (fig. 1b) biserial
conditions continue to about the 80th plate, but there is a
slight inequality of development in plates 77 and 78, the former
of which is developed at the expense of the latter. Plate 81 is

299 Grabau— Biserial Arm in Certain Crinoids.

the only perfect wedge-shaped plate, the succeeding ones
approaching a rectangular outline, which is nearly, if not quite,
reached in plate 85 by a rather abrupt transition. It will be
seen that this arm is retarded with reference to the adjoining
one (fig. la). Thus in arm 6 plate 81 is still wedge-shaped,
while in arm @ the corresponding plate has already become
biserial. Again, plate 85 in arm 6 is rectangular, or nearly so,
while in arm @ this plate has already become perfectly cuneate.

kq-4

Fic. 2. Encrinus liliiformis. Diagram of arm showing uniserial apical
plates. (Coll. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.)

Fic. 8. Platycrinus huntsvillae. Diagram of arm of young individual,
showing uniserial character of plates. Length of arm, 9™™. (Kirk Coll.)

Fic. 4. Platyerinus huntsvillae. Diagram of arm of youthful individual,
showing uniserial apical plates. (Kirk Coll.) .

Since we cannot postulate a difference in age between the two
arms of the same crinoid, we must consider that one is retarded
in development with reference to the other.

Grabau— Biserial Arm in Certain Crinoids. 2938

An arm of a somewhat younger individual in the collection
of the Boston Society of Natural History is illustrated in fig.
2. Here, normal biserial conditions continue only to plate 49,
after which the plates are wedged out, extending all the way
across in plate 53. Plate 60, the last one preserved, approaches
closely to pr imitive rectan oular outline. Here there are at
least ten uniserial plates, the upper five of which are without
median tubercles. Compared with fig. la this arm is much
less developed, having nearly thirty-five fewer biserial plates.
This is readily accounted for if we consider specimen fig. 2 as
a younger individual, which appears to be indeed the case |
from the size of the two specimens. A number of specimens
of this species in the collection of Rochester University show
uniserial conditions at the apex.

In an immature individual, in the left arm of a pair, the
76th arm plate is wedge- shaped and extends entirely across the
arm. Rectangular plates are not preserved. In the adjoining
right arm, which is less accelerated, the 73d and 74th plates
are wedge-shaped, extending entirely across the arm, while the
75th plate is a truncated wedge.

In an older specimen (left arm) the 89th plate is wedge-
shaped but does not extend entirely across. The 90th, how-
ever, does extend all the way across the arm and is the lowest
uniserial plate at the apex of the arm. The 92d plate is still
truncated, while the 94th is broadly truncated.

In the youngest individual yet seen (left arm) the 7th is the
first biserial plate, as in adults generally. The 48d plate, how-
ever, is still wedge-shaped and uniserial. The 44th plate is
slightly truncate, the 45th more so, while the terminal plate is
rectangular.

A somewhat abnormal individual (left arm) has five normal
rectangular plates above the two oblique ones at the base. -
The 8th plate still extends across but is wedge-like. The 9th
hardly extends across, being still more wedge-shaped. From
the 67th plate upw ards the plates are wedge-shaped and uni-
serial, extending entirely across.

In the various species of Enerinus liliiformis examined we
have thus found the lowest apical plate in which uniseriality is
retained to be the following:

Specimen No. ist arm. 2d arm.
4. (Univ. of Rochester) 89
1. (Harvard Univ.) 85 81
3. (Univ. of Rochester) 76 73
6. (5 c¢ 67
2. (Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.) 52
5. (Univ. of Rochester) 43

294 Grabau— Biserial Arm in Certain Crinoids.

In this series, specimen 4 is the oldest, all the plates up to
the 89th having matured or nearly so, while specimen 5 is the
youngest, only forty-two plates having matured.

Quenstedt (Petrefactenkunde Deutschlands, iv, p. 461, pl.
106) figures what he considers the apex of a perfect arm. His
figure (164) shows biseriality to the end, but with the plates
more wedge-shaped. He figures a yery young individual of
tnecrinus liliiformis (fig. 178, p. 406) in which the arms are

110

105

Fic. 5. Platycrinus huntsvillae. Diagram of basal plates of adult arm.
(Kirk Coll.)

Fic. 6. Platycrinus hemisphericus. Diagram of arm showing terminal
uniserial plates. (Harv. Univ. Pal. Lab. Coll.)

uniserial throughout, the plates of the middle arm, however,
showing a wedge character. The terminal ones are perfectly
quadrangular. The same thing is true, according to Beyrich,
of the young of Hnerinus gracilis.

Quenstedt also figures several cases of abnormal develop-
ment of the arm tips, in which the suddenly constricted apices
are uniserial. (Loe. cit., figs. 175 and 181.)

Grabau— Biserial Arm in Certain Crinoids. 295

Platycrinus.

Wachsmuth and Springer figure a young Platycrinus ameri-
canus (N. A. Camer. Crinoidea, pl. 75. fig. 11) in which the
arm joints are long and slender, with a uniserial arrangement
throughout and wavy in outline. In adults of the same species
the arms are biserial, except for a few joints near the calyx,
the lowest of which are rectangular. Upward, these pass into
wedge-shaped plates by a gradual transition. But the transi-
tion from uniserial cuneate to interlocking biserial plates is
quite abrupt.

Young specimens of Platycrinus huntsville (Troost) from
the St. Louis group of Huntsville, Alabama, show uniseriality
throughout. The arm represented in fig. 3 is almost 9™™
long. There are thirteen joints including the basal one, 1. e.,
the first brachial; and all are more or less rectangular and
much longer than wide. The cuneate stage, through which
most of these joints will pass, is suggested by the manner in
which the plates bulge on the pinnulate side. The pinnules at
this stage are relatively large, having more the aspect of
branches.

A somewhat older specimen is shown in fig. 4, the length of
the arm beimg 12™™. The Sth plate has become more wedge-
like than the preceding ones, and the 9th, 10th, and 11th are
regularly cuneate. Plates 12 to 21 represent the biserial stage,
the first and last of these being transitional. Plate 22, how-
ever, is a uniserial cuneate plate, and so are plates 23 and 24.
Plate 25 is truncated, while 27 is rectangular. It is thus seen
that the biserial plates do not appear as such after that stage
in development has been reached, as held by Wachsmuth and
Springer; but that the newly formed plates at the apex are
uniserial and rectangular, and gradually change through cuneate
to a biserial interlocking condition.

‘In the adult of this species (fig. 5) the biserial condition has
been pushed down to the 8th plate, while plates 7 and 8 have
become cuneate. But somewhat more retarded individuals
have been observed which, though of adult size, had eight and
even nine uniserial plates at the base of the arm. A single
specimen was found in which eleven uniserial plates occurred
at the base of the arm, though the upper two or three were
strongly cuneate and of a transitional character.

Two specimens of Platycrinus hemisphericus from the
Keokuk of Crawfordsville have the arms shown in figures
6 and 7. In this species there are five groups of arms, each
consisting of six or eight arms. Fig. 6 represents the second
arm from the right, of a group of six, this arm becoming free
above the fifth brachial. There are about thirteen brachials

296 Grabau— Biserial Arm wn Certain Crinoids.

of this arm uniserial; i. e., up to and including the 18th arm
plate. After this, biserial conditions prevail to the 108d plate,
which is cuneate and uniserial. Then the plates become more
and more truncated, until the 110th plate is nearly rectangular.
In this species, according to Wachsmuth and Springer, biseri-
ality appears late in life. They cite a specimen in which the
crown measures 22™" while the arms are still uniserial to the
tips.*

a
Fic. 7. Platycrinus hemisphericus. Diagram of part of group showing
character of plates. (Harv. Univ. Pal. Lab. Coll.)
Fic. 8. Platycrinus hemisphericus. Diagram of two arms showing great
irregularity in plates, and a bifurcation. (U.S. Nat.-Mus. Coll.)

Fig. 7 represents the outer arm of a group of six in another
specimen. The transition plates from uniserial to biserial at
the base are broken away, but there are at least eight or nine
of the uniserial ones. After that (from about the thirteenth
plate from the base of the group) biserial conditions obtain
through the 117th plate, after which the plates are again
uniserial. An irregularity occurs in plate 119, which is

* Loc. cit., p. 704.

Grabau— Biserial Arm in. Certain OCrinoids. 297

enlarged so as to occupy the place of two plates. The last
three plates of the arm are rectangular.

A specimen of P. hemisphericus in the collection of the
National Museum (cat. 24,183) shows some very interesting
abnormal features. Fig. 8 represents two out of a group of six
arms. In the right hand member represented, uniserial con-
ditions obtain to the 18th plate. While most of these plates
are more or less cuneate, some rectangular ones are inter-
spersed. These apparently retain their primitive condition.
Biseriality begins abruptly with the 19th plate. The 22d
plate is a double one, or, at least, occupies the place of two.
It has either retained its primitive character or developed at
the expense of another plate, which became abortive. The
same thing holds true of plates 28 and 29. These seem to be
primitive plates. Plate 35 is developed at the expense of
plate 36. Number 47 is again a uniserial plate. The terminal
plates are not well enough preserved to determine their char-
acter. The next adjoining arm has seven uniserial plates ;
i. e., to the 12th plate of the arm. This and the two preced-
ing ones are regularly cuneate. Above this, biseriality com-
mences abruptly and continues uniformly through plate 57.
Plates 58 and 60 appear abruptly as uniserial plates with plate
59 wedged in between them. Above plate 61 the arm divides
into two branches, the left branch continuing normally biserial,
- the right one beginning with a uniserial plate. The terminal
portions of these branches are not preserved. ‘The same speci-
men shows another bifurcating arm, and several more arms
with uniserial plates interspersed. Perfect specimens of this
species always show the uniserial terminal plates, so far as I
know; this species being, next to Enerinus liliiformis, one otf
the best to show this feature.

Dichocrinus inornatus W. and 8.

This species from the Kinderhook of Marshall Co., Iowa
(National Museum collection), has three uniserial plates at the
base of the arm above the first division. After that the plates
become biserial. In the arm represented in fig. 9 the 84th
plate from the base has become biserial, while from the 85th
upwards uniserial conditions still persist. In this arm, the
apex of which is broken away, nine uniserial plates persist, the
topmost one having passed but little beyond rectangular form.
In a more perfect arm of the same specimen (fig. 10) twenty uni-
serial plates occur at the apex, the lower of which are cuneate,
while the upper closely approach rectangularity.

In Wachsmuth and Springer’s figure of the type specimen
of Dichocrinus hamiltonensis Worthen* the apical plates of

* Loc, cit.; pl %6, fig.10.

298 Grabau— Biserial Arm in Certain Crinoids.

the arm are represented as uniserial. As nearly as can be
determined from the figure, there are fourteen uniserial plates
above the biserial ones. The lower are cuneate, the uppermost
quadrangular. In the text the arms are stated to be “ composed
of long, cuneate plates, which slightly interlock.” I have not
seen this specimen, but it is highly probable that Mr. Wester-
gren’s figure of it represents the true characters.

Acrocrinus amphora W. and 8.

A specimen of this rare species from the St. Louis of Hunts-
ville, Alabama, in the collection of Mr. E. G. Kirk, has an
unusually well preserved arm. Eighteen or nineteen of the
terminal plates of this arm are uniserial; the apical one is

OF bx

Fie. 9. Dichocrinus inornatus. Diagram of arm showing terminal uni-
serial plates. (U.S. Nat. Mus. Coll.)

Fie. 10. Dichocrinus inornatus. Diagram of apex of arm showing numer-
ous uniserial plates. (U.S. Nat. Mus. Coll.)

Fie. 11. Hydreionocrinus depressus. Diagram of part of an arm group,
showing mode of branching, and terminal uniserial plates. (Kirk Coll.)

quadrangular, the one next below nearly so. The third and
fourth from the tip are slightly truncate, the fifth to eighth
cuneate, and the ninth to eighteenth cuneate with the point of
the wedge extremely thin and slender, but extending entirely
across. The nineteenth to twenty-first from the tip mark the
transition from the uniserial to the biserial.

Zeacrinus commaticus Miller.

This species is normally uniserial throughout. Specimens
from the Warsaw limestone of Boonville, Mo., show an approach
to biseriality in a few of the adult plates, which do not extend
entirely across, so that the two cuneate plates of the same side

Grabau— Biserial Arm in Certain Crinoids. 299

are in contact fora short distance. Normally, in the adult,
the plates of the arm above the middle are cuneate, but above
this they are again rectangular to the tip. This cuneate char-
acter of plates is much less marked and often wanting entirely
on young individuals.

Eucalyptocrinus ovaiis Hall.

In a young specimen of this species from the Niagara of
Waldron, Ind., the terminal plates, though not quite clearly
defined, appear to extend entirely across. They furthermore
seem to be cuneate to the tip. It thus seems that this species
has its terminal arm plates introduced in cuneate form.

Hydreionocrinus depressus (Troost).

This species from the Chester of Sloans Valley, Ky. (Kirk

Coll.), is remarkable for the curious development of its arm
plates. (Fig.11.) The first brachial is large, spine-bearing and
axillary. non this follows on each side a simple, nearly
rectangular plate, each followed in turn by one or two sets of
interlocking or biserial plates. This is again followed by a
single spinous axillary plate, which is in its turn succeeded on
each upper face by a single large plate. On the inner branches
a large number of biserial plates follow immediately upon this
plate, continuing to near the apices of the arms, where they
become uniserial, with rectangular terminal plates. The outer
arms branch again, only a few biserial plates intervening
between the first plate and the simple spinous axillary of the
new division. The inner one of the branches is again simple,
with biserial plates, uniserial at the apex; while the outer arm,
after a few biserial plates, branches again, making the fourth
division. Again the inner arm continues simple, with biserial
plates changing above into uniserial, with quadrangular ter-
minal plates. A final division, the fifth, occurs in the outer
arm after a biserial interval. Each of the final divisions is
biserial at first, but uniserial at the apex. It may be noted
that as we proceed upwards an increasing number of biserial
plates intervenes between the base of a branch and its division.

We have now seen that in the representatives of the three
most important orders of crinoids, the Articulata, the Camerata,
and the Fistulata, the terminal arm plates are introduced as
uniserial quadrangular ossicles, which later change to cuneate
and finally to a biserial interlocking condition. It may there-
fore be considered as highly probable that all arm plates are
normally introduced as quadrangular plates in a uniserial con-
dition. In primitive forms they never pass beyond that con-
dition. In more specialized types the earliest arm plates alone

300 GrabautBiserial Arm in Certain Crinoids.

remain in that state, the later added ones passing beyond this
stage into a cuneate condition. In still more specialized types
the later added plates are endowed with potential biseriality,
which appears in the development after the youthful condition
is passed. In accelerated types earlier and earlier plates are
thus endowed, the biserial condition appearing in them in the
inverse order of their age, until only the oldest one or two
remain uniserial. It is to be expected that in old age indivi-
duals this endowment with potential biseriality is weakened,
or perhaps absent altogether, in which case gerontic individuals
would permanently remain uniserial. From this we might
argue that phylogerontic types would have permanently uni-
serial plates in the normal adult; and thus, carrying the argument
to its logical conclusion, we may have in extreme phylogerontic
. types uniserial plates in the greater part or the whole of the
arm, even though biserial conditions obtained in ancestral
types. Phylogerontic types may have biserial conditions
begin very early in the adult individual, while at the same
time a large number of uniserial plates are found at the sum-
mit of the arm. Dichocrinus inornatus (figs. 9 and 10) may
possibly serve as an illustration of this. On the other hand, we
may expect primitive types to have a large number of uniserial
plates at the base of the arm in the adult, while at the tip of
the arm only a few uniserial plates would exist at any time.

In adults of acmic types only a few uniserial plates, or none
at all, should exist at the base of the arm, while at the summit,
likewise, very few uniserial plates are to be looked for. In
fact, it is not difficult to conceive that in highly accelerated
types the newly introduced plate may be cuneate if not biserial
from the beginning. For examples of this we must look
among the highly accelerated Actinocrinide and Batocrinidee.

While a uniserial apex in a biserial arm may represent old
age conditions in the individual or the race, as well as a patho-
logic state, it does not always represent this. For uniserial
apical conditions have been found in individuals of all ages,
even young ones, so that it is perfectly clear that normally a
uniserial character of an apical plate indicates the youth of
that plate, and only secondarily the old age conditions of the
individual.

Paleontological Laboratory,

Columbia University.

Branner— Geology of the Hawaiian Islands. 301

Arr. XXIX.—Wotes on the Geology of the Hawaiian Islands ;
by J. C. Branner. (With Plate XV.)

Introduction.—The few notes I was able to make during a
recent visit to Hawaii are necessarily fragmentary, but our
knowledge of the geology of these islands is so strictly confined
to volcanic phenomena that I venture to publish these facts
for what they are worth.

It is much to be hoped that the territory will make early
provision for a geological study of the group. A modest terri-
torial survey could be readily and cheaply carried on in con-
nection with either the government survey or with the Bishop
Museum at Honolulu. Such a survey could bring together
illustrative material of the greatest scientific importance and
educational value, and it would reflect great credit upon the
intelligence of the people of the islands.

The canyons on the north side of Hawaii.—One of the
most striking features of the island of Hawaii is the series of
canyons on the northern coast of the island. These gorges are
mentioned by Dutton,* but he says nothing further of them
than that they are valleys of erosion.

One of the most striking things about them is that as one
sails round the extreme north end of the island the coast bluffs
are low—averaging less than a hundred feet—and the land but
httle broken and under cultivation. Suddenly there is an
abrupt change in the coast topography: the bluffs facing the
area have an elevation of a thousand feet, and enormous gorges
extend inland with almost perpendicular Walls, some of which
it is said are as much as 2,000 feet in height. These gorges,
great and small, continue for twelve miles along the coast,
where they end as suddenly as they began, against compara-
tively smooth arable lands. The region of gorges is covered
with forests, and, save in the flat valleys, is not cultivated.
The gorges extend back inland for five’ or six miles, in the
direction of the cluster of highlands near Waimea Village.
The summit of this cluster is reported to be 5,505 feet high.
One of the remarkable features of these valleys is the fact that
they are nearly or quite as deep at or near their upper ends as
they are at their lower ends. Another striking feature is that
the largest of them have flat bottoms.

This deeply eroded part receives no more rain than the
adjacent areas north and south of it, and the difference in
topography is due, I believe, to the difference in age between

* Hawaiian Volcanoes. By C. E. Dutton. Fourth Ann. Report U. S.
Geological Survey, 1882-83, pp. 75-219. Washington, 1884.

Am. JOUR. ScI.—FourtTH SERIES, Vou. XVI, No. 94.—OcroBErR, 1903.
21

302 Branner—Geology of the Hawatian Islands.

the different portions of the island. Lava flows from Mouna
Kea have encroached upon this eroded region from the south,

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burying the lower and more eroded land surfaces, while on
the north similar flows have likewise encroached upon that
side.

Branner

Geology of the Hawaiian Islands. 303

The great height of the sea bluffs is due to the long encroach-
ment of the sea upon this old land margin. The flat bottoms
of the largest of these canyons are due to the fact that the
canyons were formed as V-shaped gorges on the land and have
sunk until their lower ends were filled by the sea, forming deep
fjords which were soon filled by the material cut by the waves
from the headlands and thrown back into them, and by the
debris brought down from the land by the streams. An
approximate idea of the depression might be obtained by bor-
ings in the lower ends of these valleys. J am unable to learn
of any deep wells having been put down in them. The accom-
panying photograph (fig. 2) gives some idea of the striking
topography of the Waipio Valley, the largest of the group.

Professor W. T. Brigham, the able director of the Bishop
Museum at Honolulu, tells me that there are precisely similar
valleys on the north side of the island of Kauai. An assistant
in the office of the government surveyor at Honolulu, who has
lately visited the region, also states that the bluffs on that part
of Kauai are from 1,000 to 1,500 feet high, and that some of
these valleys are flat-bottomed while others are V-shaped and
truncated above tide level.

The origin of Peart Harbor (Plate XV).*—The topography
of Pearl Harbor is so different from that of most harbors that
it is sometimes spoken of as being unusual and difficult of
explanation.

Briefly, this harbor has been formed by the depression
beneath the sea of a small group of dendritic valleys previously
earved by subaerial erosion in horizontal beds of rocks. If this
explanation is not at once suggested by a glance at the map, it is
made quite plain by a brief study of the rocks exposed about the
harbor. The rocks are horizontal and consist of alternate beds
of volcanic tuff and coral rocks. The so-called coral rocks,
however, are not necessarily all of coral but are often mixtures
of shells and other fragmental calcareous materials commonly
found in and about coral reefs.

The low bluffs that surround the harbor are nearly all hori-
zontal beds of tuff. Coral rocks are shown on the government
map of the harbor at a few places. Those particular points I
did not examine, but there is no reason for doubting this
identification of the rock, for a few miles east of the harbor
the coral rocks are exposed ten or more feet above tide level.
In the wells put down in the vicinity of the harbor the coral
rock is also found a very short distance below tide level.

The harbor is now quite shallow over most of its area, but
this shallowness is due to the silts having been washed down

*The explanation here given was presented before the Social Science
Association of Honolulu in March, 1908.

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Branner—Geology of the Hawavian Islands. 305

from the surrounding land and deposited in the harbor’s quiet
waters. In the first edition of his work upon voleanoes Dana
says (p. 282) that it would be necessary to cut a channel
through the outer reef in order to make a harbor of this place.
Later it has been found that there is a natural opening quite
through the reef, and dredging is now going on to remove the
bar of sand just outside of the narrow entrance. The shallow-
ness of the water outside and its greater depth in the neck of
the harbor is caused by tidal scour.

The depth of the silts im the harbor has probably been deter-
mined, but I have not been able thus far to get any informa-
tion on this subject. The topography and geology offer no
suggestion further than that the depth is likely to be approxi-
mately the same as that of the harbor at Honolulu, that is,
about thirty feet. The depth of the silts can be readily deter-
mined by driving steel rods down into them.

We shall readily understand the process by which this
topography was made if we imagine the whole island elevated
fifty or seventy-five feet and the original rock-beds restored
right across the present channels. We should then have the
streams that now enter the upper parts of Pearl Harbor flow-
ing across a table land of horizontal rocks, uniting at or near
the pot marked A on the map and entering the sea below
the boat landing through a single channel. In the course of
time these streams would all cut steep-sided gorges, and where
the gorges, by bends of the streams, approached each other the
watershed between the two streams would be lowered below
the general land surface. Such a place would eventually be
an isolated bit of high land and after depression would form
an island, such as we have in Mokuumeume. A depression of
the island would back the sea into the valleys; the cutting of
the streams would then cease, and the land silts would settle
in the quiet water of the submerged channels, forming shallows,
later mud-flats, and then the swampy lands.

The map of the island (see Plate XV) shows that the
entrance to Pearl Harbor through the coral reef is very like
that opening into the harbor of Honolulu and like another
similar one known as the Kalihi entrance about two miles east
of the Honolulu harbor. It seems probable, therefore, that all
three of these harbors and their passages through the coral
reef have been formed in the same way.

Aside from the form of Pearl Harbor there is evidence of
depression of Oahu and the other islands of this group. The
evidence of depression on Oahu consists partly of the great
depth at which coral rock has been found in deep wells; some
of the evidence on the island of Hawaii is mentioned in the
preceding note upon the Waipio and other canyons.

306 Branner—Geology of the Hawaiian Islands.

The east base of Diamond Head.—In an article published
in vol. xi of the Bulletin of the Geological Society of Amer-
ica, pp. 57-60, Dr. Dall speaks of certain beds at the base of
Diamond Head on the island of Oahu. It is possible that my
own observations about the eastern base of that mountain were
not made upon the same beds as those spoken of by Dr. Dall,
but as nearly as I can make out from the text of his article,
the beds are the same. If so I do not agree with some of his
conclusions in regard to geologic structure. He says: “It
(Diamond Head) is composed of horizontal layers of tuff, inter-
stratified with thin layers of calcareous sand, the lime from
which, leached out by the rain, is redeposited in a thin super-
ficial crust of a brilliant white, giving the effect, among the

=I

wee Dtamand Head Lex
Lt co

The section exposed beside the road at the southwest base of Diamond Head.

sparse arid vegetation, of a thin layer of snow. ‘The strata of
the head have not the ‘onion peel’ aspect of layers of succes-
sive subaerial eruptions, but are strictly horizontal and have
every aspect of having been deposited in water. . . . . My
observation was not carried to a point more than 100 feet above
the sea-level, but it is evident that the sand layers occur, inter-
stratified in the mass, clear to the top (700 feet). The upper
limy layers appear, so far as observed, to be composed almost
entirely of calcareous sand, and no shells or corals were observed
in them in a recognizable state. At about 50 feet above the
sea the heavy tuffs overlie the uppermost heavy layers of calear-
eous rock. The latter is nearly or quite horizontal, and consists
of coral-sand grains more or less compactly consolidated, with
occasional patches where marine fossil shells were abundant.
There are hardly traces of coral larger than fine gravel and no
coral masses.”

Branner— Geology of the Hawaiian Islands. 307

Caleareous beds like those mentioned by Dr. Dall are exposed
along the road leading from Waikiki beach past the lighthouse,
and these beds appear to be horizontal. This appearance of
horizontality, however, is deceptive and is due to the direction
of the sections cut along the road. The beds are mostly calcar-
eous sands dipping seaward an angle of from thirty to thirty-
two degrees. (The highest angle of dry sand is thirty-five
degrees.) The accompanying photograph shows the bedding
fairly well. These beds are about fifteen feet thick at this
place, and it is my opinion that they are old sand dunes that
were blown up from the beach against the eastern flank of
Diamond Head after the crater ceased to be active. In any
case, these sands rest directly upon the Diamond Head tuffs,
and are overlain by an old soil containing fossil plants, and by
talus derived from the breaking up of the tuffs of the upper
part of Diamond Head. The beach was farther north when
these sands were blown up than it is now, for the waves have
long been cutting away and encroaching upon the land.

The talus along this same road and near the lighthouse at
the base of Diamond Head deservesa word. This talus for the
most part has the same dip as the tuffs beneath them, but here
and there they are horizontal for a short distance. Nearly all
of them, however, appear to be horizontal owing to an angle at
which they are cut by the road. This appearance of horizon-
tality, therefore, is deceptive. The talus deposits are probably
as nuch as thirty feet thick at and near the quarry south of the
lighthouse. It is evident, however, that if they were really
horizontal, as they were regarded by Dr. Dall, they would ©
have a much greater thickness than they really have. The
talus beds contain scattered throughout them a great many
fossil shells. These shells are sometimes found in old soil layers,
but they are found in almost every part of the materials, even
among the loose, open angular rock fragments. These fossils are
land shells. Whether they are living forms I did not ascertain.
The animals have died, have fallen on the surface, and have
eventually been buried by talus sliding down the steep slopes
of Diamond Head. It is to these that Dr. Dall seems to refer
when he says the tufts, i.e. the talus beds, overlie the calcareous
rock.

Since the above was written I have seen an article published
(American Geologist, Jan., 1901) by Mr. 8S. E. Bishop of
Honolulu in which he also disagrees with Dr. Dall in regard
to the origin of the calcareous sand. He says that it is
aeolian, and he accounts for the shells in the same way as the
writer. I do not agree with either Mr. Dall or Mr. Bishop
about the tuffs of Diamond Head having been deposited in
shallow water. I think they are all land deposits; at least I

308 Branner— Geology of the Hawaiian Islands.

4

z

Aeolian sandstone at the east base of Diamond Head, Honolulu.

Branner— Geology of the Hawaiian Islands. 309

see no reason why they may not have been deposited on land,
for in structure and contents they are similar to the other
cinder cones on this and other islands of the Hawaiian group.
Cirques.—On the sides of Diamond Head near the top are
many small cirques that throw light upon the origin of these
topographic forms. The beds of tuff at the rim of the crater
dipping outward, erosion has cut deep funnel-shaped pits—
small cirques—in the outside of the crater. The back walls of
these pits are very steep, even vertical or overhanging in the
middle. In the development of these cirques or barriers
separating two of them disappear and the cirques unite at the
top but are separated below by symmetrical cones that form
the spurs or ridges that radiate from the main mountain.
Such cones are beautifully developed on the east face of
Diamond Head. I have tried in vain to represent the cirques
of Diamond Head by a diagram. The figure accompanying
shows their relation to the edge of the crater on the right.

5)

Section through a cirque.on the outer rim of a crater.

On the island of Hawaii are several cirques of enormous
size. The one shown on the next page and made from
a photograph has walls said to be more than a thousand
feet high. The upper ends of several of the deep valleys of
northern Hawaii appear to have been cirques originally. It
should be noted that the rocks both of Hawaii and of Diamond
Head on Oahu in which the cirques are cut are of even texture
throughout, and that they spall off rapidly in small angular
lumps. Those who believe in the glacial origin of cirques find
here good evidence that cirques both large and small may be
and are formed without the aid of ice.

The craters near the Pali.—Dana mentions (Volcanoes,
2d ed.) the small crater at Pali as probably the last expiring
effort of the voleanic phenomena of the island of Oahu. Mr.
S. E. Bishop in his interesting paper upon the geology of Oahu,
published in the Hawaiian Annual for 1901, also speaks of this
erater. It occupies a striking position in relation to the topog-
raphy of theisland. The structural relation of its tuffs are shown
by the accompanying sketch (fig. 7). It is clear that this crater

310

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A cirque at the side of Waipio Valley, Island of Hawaii.

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Lranner—GCeology of the Hawaiian Islands.
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From a photograph.

Section above the road at the Pali looking east. The horizontal beds are
lavas; the sloping ones are tuffs deposited after the cutting of the steep

north face of the Pali.

S11

Branner—Geology of the Hawaiian Islands.

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312 Branner— Geology of the Hawaiian Islands.

became active after the excavation of the Nuuanu Valley that
leads down to the city of Honolulu, and also after the removal
of the northern half of the volcanic cone of which these moun-
tains are the remnant, the cinders having fallen upon the steep
—almost vertical—face of the bluffs on both sides of the Pali.
The road down the north face of the mountain cuts these tuff
beds at many places.

The eminence in the Nuuanu Valley on the west side of the
road and less than half way from the Pali to Honolulu is also a
crater. This crater, also mentioned by Mr. Bishop, is likewise
necessarily newer than the Nuuanu Valley in which it is situ-
ated. J should add here that I quite agree with Mr. Bishop
and with Major Dutton that subaerial erosion is quite compe-
tent to explain the more rapid wearing away of the north side
of the Pali.

A small crater next to Kokohead.—The most interesting of
the small craters examined on Oahu is one at the east base of

10

Sections exposed on the east side of Kokohead showing old gullies filled
with tuff.

the great Kokohead crater at the east end of the island. Its
chief interest is in the great quantity of coral blown out and
now mingled with its tufts, and in its age relation to the Koko-
head crater. The Kokohead crater is newer than the basalt of
the great mountain ranges, for its tuffs overlap the basalt at the
west base of Kokohead. The small crater at the east base of
Kokohead did not come into existence until Kokohead had
ceased to be active and its sides had been deeply scored by
erosion. This is shown by the fact that gulches on the east
face of Kokohead were filled by the coral-laden materials blown
from the smaller crater. These later materials extend half way
up to the summit of Kokohead. The accompanying section is
made from a photograph of one of these refilled gulches. This
line of separation between the two series of tuffs is clearly
visible at many places. Aside from the structural relations the
two series are readily distinguishable by the great amount of
coral and other caleareous materials in the newer while none is
recognizable in the older series.

Branner—Geology of the Hawaiian Islands. 313

11

=

An old gully on the east side of Kokohead filled with tuff from the newer
crater. From a photograph by F. E. Harvey.

The deepest part of the smaller crater is now being filled by
debris washed down from the east slope of Kokohead. The
west side of the small crater is now about 120 feet above the
bottom of the pit. This entire wall is made up of tuffs with
which are mingled corals, shells and other bits of reef rock.
The lumps of coral are sometimes as much as a foot and a halt
in diameter, but for the most part they are smaller. These bits
are usually well preserved and the life forms are readily recog-
nizable. They are rather evenly scattered through the tufts.
The study of these fossils would be of much interest, as it would
possibly show the age of the reef through which the crater
broke and thus give us another clue to the ages of the various
eruptions.

The beds from the smaller crater lap over and form the ridge —
that separates it from Hanauma Bay. This bay is not the site of a
single crater as stated by Dutton,* but of several small ones.
It is worthy of note also that the exposure on the sea shore that
so closely resembles a section cut through to the middle of a
crater is not such a section, but rather the encroachment of the
sea upon this group of five or six craters.

* Fourth Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey, 218.

314

Branner—Geology of the Hawaiian Islands.

Hanauma Bay, the site of several extinct craters.

Well borings on Oahu.—
Several records of wells
bored for water near Hon-
olulu are given by Dana
and Hitcheock.* In addi-
tion I have, with the aid of
Mr. Fred E. Harvey of the
Government Survey, been
able to collect several others,
aud these records, about for-
ty in all, have been plotted
to scale for the purpose of
attempting a correlation of
the beds penetrated. It was
found that the characters
of the materials passed
through as reported are not
sufficient to warrant corre-
lation. Herewith are given
four of the sections that
appear to resemble each
other closely. They are all
in the city of Honolulu.
The enormous quantity of
water flowing or being
pumped from the wells on
Oahu afford a valuable con-
tribution to our knowledge
of subterranean waters. It
is to be noted that in every
instance the wells penetrate
beds of coral or other eal-
careous rocks. These rocks
appear to be built round the
voleanic core of the islands,
but they are sometimes in-
terbedded with lavas, tufts,
or water-worn bowlders.
The chief rainfall is in the
mountains, but the waters
follow down the valleys,
sink into porous beds that
occupy the lower ends of
the valleys and pass seaward
as underground waters. It

* Geology of Oahu. Bul. Geol.
Soc. Amer., xi, 15-17.

d1s

e

Branner— Geology of the Hawaiian Islands.
is said that several places are known about the islands where
13

these fresh waters issue beneath the sea.

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A GRouP oF WELL RECORDS IN HONOLULU.

I. Mrs. Ward’s well at Kukuluaeo below Kin

II. Thomas S

III. Mr. Sass

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VERTICAL SCALE

directly upon

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Buried soi
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IV. Pumping Station, corner of Alafai and Beretania sts.
with forests.

316 Branner—Geology of the Hawaiian Islands.

the old soil surfaces. These soils still retain many root impres-
sions, while at the base of the tuffs are abundant plant frag-
ments preserved as petrifactions. In many places by roadsides
and in quarries one may see vertical holes left in the tuffs
where the plants have decayed out after being buried. Exam-
ples are visible in the new cut opposite Coral Island and in
the old cuts near the railway just west of Mr. Dimon’s place
in Moanalua. In some instances the tree trunks have been
petrified and preserved. They often show branches of the
plants. The largest trunks seen were about four inches in
diameter.

Am. Jour. Sci., VPlate XV.

PEA
SOUT
THE HAWA

MOCATLE
ee
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Am, Jour. Sci., Vol. XVI, 1903.

YOU I EAST LocH

MIDDLE

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SOUTH COAST :r OAHU
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Map of Pearl Harbor or Pearl Lochs near Honolulu. From the Government Survey’s latest maps,

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EF. Howe—Tuffs of the Soufriére, St. Vineent. 317

Arr. XX X.—L—ecent Tuffs of the Soufriere, St. Vincent; by

Ernest Hower.

' WaueEn geologists visited the region of the West Indian vol-
canoes after the violent eruption a year ago, a detailed study
of the vast deposits of ejecta was all but impossible, and in
papers which have appeared during the year, writers have con-
fined themselves to descriptions of varied phenomena of the
eruptions and to discussions of complex physical problems.
Matters which for the time were of less general interest, such
as the forms and character of the new deposits, were to a large
extent left untouched. It was my good fortune in February
last to be able to spend several days in the vicinity of the
Soufriere in St. Vincent, and while there, to study under
favorable conditions the enormous deposits of recent ejecta.

Geography.—The Island of St. Vincent les just north of
the Grenadines and Grenada toward the southern end of the
chain of the Lesser Antilles. It is about 18 miles in length
and 11 in breadth, the longer diameter having a north and
south direction. It is wholly mountainous, several peaks rising
over 3,500 feet above the sea, and before the last outbreak of
the voleano the interior was everywhere densely wooded.

The northern third of the island is dominated by the Souf-
riere, between which and the abrupt cliffs of Morne Garu, the
northern outlier of the hills to the south, is a well marked
depression or pass leading from the eastern to the western side
of the island. It is from this pass northward that the havoc
was wrought, the rampart of the Morne Garu having protected
the lands to the south from more than relatively slight and
temporary damage.

Topography.—The Soufriére rises on all sides, with even,
constructional slopes of rather low angle, to an altitude of a
little over 4,000 feet. The sides of the hill have been deeply
eroded by streams that have eaten back almost to the crater
vim, leaving sharp, radiating spurs between them, the crests of
which are in places a thousand feet above the stream-beds on
either side. To the north and west abrupt cliffs look down
upon the present crater; they are the remains of a much older
erater-wall that Drs. Flett and Anderson have aptly compared
with Monte Somma. In times past recurrent eruptions have
obliterated more or less tompletely previous drainage systems
and presented fresh initial slopes, partly controlled by earlier
sculpturing, to the attack of streams. Taking this into account,
as well as the only partial consolidation of the fragmental
rocks, the erosion of the slopes of the Soufriére may be con-
sidered to have advanced into late youth or early maturity.

Am. Jour. Scit.—FourtH Series, Vou. XVI, No. 94.—Ocrozer, 1903.
22

318 LL. Howe—Tuffs of the Soufriere, St. Vincent.

The devastated area has been admirably deseribed by various
writers, notably Drs. Anderson and Fett, in their report to
the Royal Society,* and Dr. E. O: Hovey,t and a further
deseription would involve unnecessary repetition.

The bolder forms of the consequent drainage which had
been developed on the slopes of the Soufriére have been little
changed as a result of the recent eruptions. Changes that
have taken place are due less to the new material thrown out
than to the abnormal erosion resulting from the complete
removal of vegetation and the unusually heavy rains following
eruptions. The effects of this erosion are naturally best
observed in the areas adjoining the larger streams near their
mouths. Directly after the great eruptions the valleys of the
Wallibou and Rozeau Dry rivers were almost completely filled
in their lower portions with the ejected material from the
Soufriere, and about a mile back from the coast these aceumu-
lations were nearly a hundred feet in depth, according to the
accounts of many who saw them soon after the eruptions, and
my own observations some months later confirmed these esti-
mates. From the regions of maximum accumulation there was
a gradual decrease in thickness towards the mouths of the
rivers, where landslides occurred, leaving cliffs of the older
and younger tuffs not more than 20 feet high. The old drain-
age systems were still sufficiently well marked to direct the
new streams that were at once formed, and these began
actively to attack the new deposits, with the result that at the
time of my visit there had been developed a miniature system
of canyons which showed in their nearly vertical walls excel-
lent sections of recent deposits.

recent deposits.—The ejecta of the recent eruptions now
occur in formations of three distinct types, with characters
directly related to their modes of origin. The composition of
all of them is essentially the same and corresponds closely to
that of some of the larger ejected blocks, which appear to be
basalts, rich in plagioclase. The material varies from the finest
powder to blocks of massive rock several feet in diameter, the
most abundant being a coarse sand in which broken crystals of
plagioclase, augite and a little hornblende may be distinguished.
In the great eruption of September considerable pumice was
thrown out, hardly any of which is to be found in the earlier
deposits,

The most conspicuous deposits and probably the oldest are

*Preliminary Report on the Recent Eruption of the Soufriére in St. Vin-
cent, and of a visit to Mount Pelée, in Martinique. Proc. Royal Soe., vol.
70, pp. 423-445. London, 1902.

+Martinique and St. Vincent: A Preliminary Report upon the Eruptions

of 1902. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. xvi, Art. 26, pp. 333-372, 1902.
This Journal (4) xiv, 319-359.

EF. Howe—Tuffs of the Soufriere, St. Vincent. 319

the valley fillings. Hovey says of them: “The chief of these
beds were formed in the Wallibou, Trespé and Rozeau valleys,
on the leeward (west) side, and in the valleys of the Rabaka
Dry River and its tributaries, on the windward (east) slope, with
by far the greatest thickness along the Wallibou and Rabaka
Dry rivers. In the valley of the Wallibou the deposits were
not less than 60 feet deep in places, while in the Rabaka Dry
River the fresh material filled a gorge which is said to have
been 200 feet deep before the eruptions began.’’* These
tuffs, now well exposed in typical “ bad-land” topography,
consist of a mixture of clay and fine grit, with numerous
coarser, angular rock fragments seldom larger than a clenched
fist. The prevailing color isa bluish gray where they are moist,
but some deposits of the September eruption, still hot and
causing secondary steam eruptions, are of a light reddish brown
or straw color. The ejecta of repeated eruptions, accumu-
lating layer upon layer, have produced a fairly well marked
stratification in these beds, the individual strata, for the most
‘part, consisting of unassorted materials.

Resting in places upon the deposits just described, and
everywhere covering the hillsides and ridges, are accumula-.
tions of quite a different kind, ranging in thickness from afew
inches to five or six feet. They are in all cases distinctly
stratitied and extremely uniform in character. The lower
portions consist of typical unconsolidated lapilli, shghtly
coarser than peas and becoming smaller in size upward, and
mixed with a fine sand until the top layer of the finest dust is
reached, the line between the two sorts of materials always
being a sharp one. This upper member has been converted
into mud by the rains and has subsequently hardened into a
firm crust, two to six inches thick, which protects the uncon-
solidated material below. On close examination, this crust is
found to consist of numerous layers or overlapping lenses made
up of small pellets of clay.as large as buck-shot, closely packed,
but not mashed, together. When not too crumbling, portions may
be removed whose structure at once suggests that of an oolitic
limestone. Material of precisely the same character was col-
lected from the tuffs of Montserrat, and I was told that similar
layers have been found in the older deposits of St. Vincent.
Last summer, at the crater rim of Kilauea in the Hawaiian
Islands, Dr. Whitman Cross collected a quantity of pellets,
which differ in no way from those that came from St. Vincent.
This structure would seem to be explained by the fact that at
the time of violent eruptions, and after the fall of the coarser
material, particles of dust still held in suspension would be
attracted to the globules of condensing steam, which, on fall-

*Op. cit., p. 342.

320 EF. Howe—Tuffs of the Soufriere, St. Vincent.

ing, would accumulate more and more of the fine material,
until, on reaching the ground, they would be in the form of
hard clay pellets. When I visited the crater, such drops,
although much diluted, were falling almost continuously, fol-
lowing the small intermittent eruptions of steam and mud that
were taking place from time to time. Flett and Anderson
make reference to the same phenomenon in speaking of the
Soufri¢re. They say: “ Before midday there had been very
heavy rain-showers, and it was noticed that the rain-drops ear-
ried down fine particles of ash.”* And again, in describing
the eruption of Pelée, which they witnessed: “ In a minute or
two fine, grey ash, moist and clinging together in small elob-
ules, poured down upon us. After that for some time there
was a rain of dry, grey ashes.’’+

It may not be out of place to suggest here that this globular
oolitic structure might be looked for in. older tuffs in other
parts of the world, as for example, in the great Tertiary
deposits of the Rocky Mountains, and that its occurrence might
serve as a means of indicating the proximity of the vent from
which the breccias and tuffs were derived, since from the
nature of their origin, deposits of this character could not occur
at any great distances from the source of supply. |

The third kind of deposit is stream-laid voleanic debris in
the bottoms of the canyons near where they empty into the
sea. This is in all probability largely composed of recent
ejecta, but there is considerable old material mixed with it,
such as fragments removed from the older tuffs exposed by
erosion. ‘These fluviatile deposits are only prominent near the
mouths of the larger streams, and are hardly to be separated
from the submarine deltas where an enormous quantity of
material has been laid down. Unfortunately nothing is known
of the changes in depth that have taken place along the coast-
line, nor of the effect of coastal landslips that continued to take
place for some time after eruptions. . These fluviatile deposits, ©
plainly due to the overloading of the streams during the rainy
season, are of only relative importance in St. Vincent, and the
chances are that after another period of heavy rains only faint
traces of them will be left. They are of interest, however, for
purposes of comparison with tuffs of other regions, where
similar deposits should be found, and where, on account of
included fraginents of older rocks, the actual age relations with
other tuffs of the same series of eruptions might be misinter-
preted. They are obviously the youngest deposits in St.
Vincent.

Where fresh sections of the older and younger tuffs have
been exposed by landslips from the ends of small spurs and

* Op. cit., p. 428. + Op. cit., p. 443.

EE. Howe—Tuffs of the Soufriere, St. Vincent. 321

ridges, along the coast, an interesting structure is brought out.
Deposits of the second kind, following as they do the rolling
surfaces of the ridges and sides of the spurs, appear to have
been compressed into a series of anticlinal folds. Precisely
this structure occurs in the sea-cliffs about one mile south of
Basse Terre, Guadeloupe, where the unconformable relations
with the underlying beds are obscured and the pseudo-folding
most perfect and deceptive.

Mode of Origin.—W hatever interest the deposits may have
depends very largely upon their mode of origin, and in regard
to this there is considerable trustworthy information.

The events attending the first eruption of the Soufriere, as
reported by eye-witnesses, may be briefly summarized as
follows:

On Wednesday, May 7, 1902, explosions occurred and vast
clouds of steam rose from the Soufriere, but no damage was
done, and only a film of fine dust was noticed on the leaves of
the trees on the lower slopes. Almost at the same time, streams
such as the Wallibou and Rabaka became raging torrents of
hot, muddy water, probably due to the overflow of crater
lake. According to information which I received from several
persons who witnessed the eruptions, no mud-flows occurred,
and I could find no evidence in the deposits themselves to
show that they had descended directly from the crater as mud
streams. Doubtless these torrents scoured their stream-beds
clean, and possibly removed a little soil and vegetation, but
brought about no marked changes. It was not until the early
afternoon of this same day that the eruptions reached destruc-
tive violence, when an enormous black cloud, “‘ laden with hot
dust, swept with terrific velocity down the mountain-side,
burying the country in hot sand, suffocating and burning all
living creatures in its path, and devouring the rich vegetation
of the hill with one burning blast.”* Although added to by
subsequent violent eruptions, it was at this time that the great
tuff beds in the valleys were formed. The exact nature of
this “‘down-blast” may not be clearly understood as yet,
but the fact of its occurrence in St. Vincent and of a similar
one in Martinique cannot be questioned. Briefly, its effect
was to sweep the ridges clean and to fill the ravines and valleys
with the enormous quantities of hot dust and lapilli with which
it was charged, in the same way that depressions and spots
protected from the wind are filled with great drifts of snow by
a driving storm. Deep deposits did not occur in the upper
portions of the ravines, since they radiated from the crater and
lay directly in the line of the blast, which could sweep them

*Anderson and Flett, op. cit., p. 427.

322 Et. Howe—Tuffs of the Soufriere, St. Vincent.

as clean as the ridges. It was only in the lower valleys, whose
directions were more or less transverse to that of the blast, that
great accumulations of ejecta were formed. Following this
blast came a fall of lapilli and dust from clouds that had been
carried upward, and not until then were the ridges and upper
ravines covered with new material to an appreciable extent.

In all probability these events did not take place in as simple
a manner as has been indicated, but were complicated by
repeated eruptions of greater or less intensity, but which would
hardly modify the general relations of the two deposits. What
did undoubtedly affect the character of the deposits filling the
valleys were torrents, due to the unusual precipitation of rain
connected with the eruptions. The action of these streams was
very interesting and peculiar and was described in detail by
the first observers. The loose and unconsolidated materials
were picked up so readily by the torrents that the streams
became overloaded and clogged, and dams were formed which
soon gave way, permitting a rush of accumulated and partly
cleared water to lower portions of the channel, where the
process was repeated. Hovey,* in speaking of the Wallibou
River, describes how ‘it cut into and undermined the beds of
dust and lapilli along the banks. Its waters became so over-
loaded with sediment that they could only flow in pulsations,
showing that intervals of time were needed by the stream to
gather strength to force its way along with its burden.”
Water was also soaking into the beds of extremely hot ejecta
and being converted into steam, which broke forth at intervals
with force enough to throw dams across the streams and to divert
them from their channels. These processes undoubtedly did
much to add to the incoherent character of the valley fillings
and to obliterate in many instances their original stratification.

Of the submarine deposits nothing is known. Extensive
deltas were developed at the mouths of the larger streams,
only to disappear after a brief existence, the angle of the ‘sub-
marine slopes being too great to support the unwonted loads
which had been suddenly laid down upon them.

One cannot fail to be impressed by the geological processes
that are being carried on at the Soufriere—the ejection and
deposition of comminuted rock, the first partial consolidation
into stratified tuffs, their erosion, and redeposition on the sea-
bottom. For years to come the West Indian volcanoes should
continue to be worthy of the detailed study of the general
geologist, as well as the petrographer and physicist.

U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
*Op. cit., p. 344.

Sellards—Fossil Insects in the Permian of Kansas. 323

Art. XXXI.—Discovery of Fossil Insects in the Permian
of Kansas; by E. H. Seviarps.

Tue question of the age of the Upper Paleozoic formations
of Kansas has occasioned considerable difference of opinion
among geologists and paleontologists. Professor C. S. Prosser,
who, among others, has been a thorough student of the pr oblem,
in a recent ver y full review of the evidence from zodpaleontol-
‘ogy and stratigraphy, concludes, in harmony with his earlier
results, that “the weight of evidence” favors “correlating
the upper formations with the Permian.” * In his synopsis
of the views of geologists who have written on the subject,
however, Professor Prosser makes it evident that this opinion,
although perhaps receiving the greatest support, is not unani-
mous. Any additional paleontological evidence is therefore
especially welcome. Until recently the discussion has been
confined largely to the marine invertebrates, which unfor-
tunately become extremely rare near the top of the series.

During.the summer of 1902 the writer discovered a rich
insect locality in the Marion formation, in the southern part
of Dickinson county, Kansas. The condition of preservation of
the insects is exceptionally good. A very large proportion of
the wings are complete and their details of structure clear,
even the minute hairs often being present. The entire bodies
of the insects are occasionally preserved. A considerable num-
ber of insects had been previously obtained from the Coal
Measures near Lawrence, Kansas, mostly by the University
Geological Survey of Kansas. The insects from the Marion
seem on the whole very different from those of the Lawrence
shales and other Coal Measure deposits. The Coal Measure
insects, as far as known, are on the average large ; on the con-
trary, most of the Marion species are small. Cockroaches at
this new locality are much in the minority. Of some six
hundred specimens collected, not more than about sixteen are
cockroaches and these are of small size and belong for the most
part to the Coal Measure and Permian genus “toblattina.
Fossil plants were discovered in the Marion in 1899. + The col-
lections made from the Marion and Wellington (?) during
1899-1900 seemed to the writer at that time to indicate a
Lower Permian flora.t These collections have since been
increased, and it may now be said with a good deal of confi-
dence that, although a few species have survived from the
Upper Coal Measur es, the Marion contains on the whole a dis-

* Journal of Geology, vol. x, p. 728, 1902.

+ The occurrence of two specimens of insects among the plants was noted
by the writer in connection with the description of the Tzeniopterid ferns

from this formation (Kansas Univ. Quart., vol. x, p. 11, 1901).
{ Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., vol. xvii, p. 208) 1899-1900,

324 Sellards—Fossil Insects in the Permian of Kansas.

tinctly Permian flora. The marked change in the insect fauna
in passing from the Lawrence shales to the Marion formation
is therefore paralleled by the plant evolution.

From the biological side the discovery of a productive insect
horizon in deposits of Permian age is of the greatest import-
ance. Aside from the cockroaches, the number of insects
known from the Permian system is confined to a few interest-
ing specimens. The terrestrial habits of most adult insects,
together with their soft bodies, cause them, as a rule, to be
rare fossils as compared with marine shelled animals, especially
in Paleozoic deposits. The conditions of deposition, however,
during the latter part of the Paleozoic seem to have been more
favorable for the preservation of insects as well as of plants,
and thanks, especially, to the faithful researches of Scudder in
this country and of Brongniart and others in Europe, a good
deal is now known of Coal Measure insects. The degree of
organization of Upper Carboniferous insects indicates a much
earlier origin for the class, and their remains, if not already
found, may be confidently expected in pre-Carboniferous
deposits. Unfortunately there seems to be as yet ro unques-
tioned record of the occurrence of Hexapoda back of the Car-
boniferous. Insects have been reported from three pre-Car-
boniferous localities,—Ordovician (Lower Silurian) of Sweden,
Middle Silurian of France, and Devonian of Canada. Regard-
ing the Ordovician fossil, Professor Moberg with commendable
frankness has written the writer that, as no more examples of
Protocimex siluricus have been observed, he is now of the
opinion that it is not impossible that he and the entomologist
may have been misled by a ‘“lusus nature.” Brongniart,
although still retaining faith in the Silurian fossil Paleoblattina
Douvilli, admits that it has been regarded by some as a piece
of a trilobite. According to White, Kidston, and Ami, the
“fern ledges” at St. John, New Brunswick, heretofore
regarded as Devonian and from which several insects have
been obtained, contain a Carboniferous flora closely related to
that of the lower part of the Upper Carboniferous, or the
Meso-Carboniferous. Papers by Dr. G. F. Matthew may be
consulted, however, in which the deposits are referred to a
much earlier terrain.

The classification of Paleozoic insects and their relation to
Mesozoic and recent forms are stiil in an unsettled condition.
The Permian types coming in the interval between the better
known forms of the Coal Measures on the one hand and of the
Mesozoic on the other will perhaps throw some additional hght
on the interrelation of the older and younger members of the
class.

Paleontological Laboratory, Yale University Museum,
New Haven, Conn., June 24, 1903.

C. Barus—WNote on the Constants of Coronas. 325

Art. XXXII.— Note on the Constants of Coronas, by
C. Barvs.

1. In the course of my work with atmospheric nucleation, it
appeared that the standardization of coronas which I published
some time ago* is inadequate for the purpose. A revision has
become necessary of such a kind as to include the features
which have developed in the intervening time, in particular
the oceurrence of marked periodicity im the nucleation (n
particles per cubic centim.) as related to aperture, and of the
exhaustion losses of which there was no indication in my
earlier work. The origin of the latter was for a long time puz-
zling, but they are now completely referable to the subsidence
of fog during the brief period within which the coronas are
visible and the nuelei loaded by condensation. I will show else-
where that if successive identical partial exhaustions of the vol-
ume ratio y are presupposed, the phenomena are expressed by

z—I
1, = Nz 10¢-7) "8 TT (1 — Sis?)
Z

where Z is the number of the fiducial and z of any subsequent
exhaustion, nz, and 2, the corresponding nucleations, S the
appropriate subsidence constant and s the current relative
aperture of the corona. II is the function (1—S/sz)\(1—S/s2,,)
....-(1—S/s2_,). The constant S may either be computed
from observation of s and 7 in the region of normal coronas
(where »=C’'s* is known) or it may be computed from the
observed time of fog suspension. Clearly all observations
must be made strictly in time series.

To be independent of the optics of coronas which are not
worked out, I have determined the diameter of fog particles
from subsidence experiments. Thus for an observed aperture,
s,, the diameter d,, from subsidence gives the fundamental
constant, s,d@,=a’’. This constant differs materially from
a@’=ds as found from diffraction measurements, as the tables
show. The corresponding n values in the former case are
about twice as large as the 2 values in the latter, seeing that
the cube of @ enters the equations.

2. Haplanation of tables —To correlate the present with
my earlier investigations I will give a series of results found
by using a small circular part of the Welsbach mantel as a
source of light. Coronas in this case are more easily identified
becaused of the simplified color scheme, to the practical advan-
tages of which I have already referred. These are followed
by results with electric light seen through ruby glass.

* This Journal, xiii, p. 81, 1902; Phil. Mag. (6), iv, 1902, p. 24.

326 O. Barus—WNote on the Constants of Coronas.

Table 1. Constants of coronas. Condensation chamber 20°"
broad, 25°" high, 35°" long. Distances of eye and source from
chamber 85 and 250°", resp. 6=22°; barom. 75°3°"; dp=16:9™;
y="17; a= "064; B=0; S=2°6; a =-0029 (subsidence); @/ 00a
(diffraction); 2,=209,000; m=4:'7X10~6 ; s measured to outer
edge of first ring. Phosphorus nuclei. First Series, Welsbach
lamp.

=— — S =
: | t | © | corona® | orcs | dow (NM(I—S)) ” | -021n=%
1 7memay eee onesies: 2°2 |X10—3|460000| em
D209 ane aire phen hata 1-7 | ----) 1350000) .2000290
3|22 eee eg! Sar ae 1°3'-.| .__ ea@eon 320
4127 |10°3] yob 300"! 408 | .1-000° | 22. aipeom 350
5/80 | 8:3] wee 1572 e202 “751° "| 1 2 ieSome 385
6/34 | 68| wpbg | 86-3 | 116 ‘557. | 2 hioge 425
7137 | 60| gbp | 59:4 | 80-0 408. | 122 eeeOe 475
S410 |5:8) wre | 63-6 | 72:2 289. | 2c eOmmp 530
944 | 4:6|wbrb|p| 26-7 | 36:0 204. | 2.2 eae 595
10/48). 4-2)\c wre | 20:4.) 27-4 ale 200 | 28800 680
1L/51 857) corona, 11379), ) 187s ‘090 208 | 19000 780
2 CLD aye ec 9-0 dol "055 9215) Skee 920
13) Sie ac . Heel (585) 032 | 205 | 6700] -001110
IAGO ora ase DO es 15 “O15 199 | 3100} 1480
15'63 ales es 6 8 “004 220 800! 2250

Second Series. Electric and ruby light. 6=15°5°; barom.,’
75°83 ; 8p=16°9™ 5. a= 06323 S=2:3 5, m=42 > ees
188,000. Other data as above.

= WO aes S =
z| t | § | corona | 950 <3 | 335 92 | n{ i) Mo ere
0|min|cm x 1073/1073 x 1073) cm
TPS MC hoe Soe ateaa ee i 9:2 | _... |412000| .000269
Pole ECAR kD Ata rol | ARAM SW le 7 | 22. teen 293
Dt BS ie Ol SWIM NEA seems aa 1:30 | .-=. | 242008 320
4) 51 |9:°0| wope | 182 | 244 1:°000 -| __.- | 188000 349
5| 55 |8°3| w'cyg 145 195 746 | 2.2. 1a 00es | 385
6] 58 |6°5| wgbp | 70-2 | 94:1 ‘554 | 5. | Oao oe 426
i (62 15°71) wey b || eto co ‘409° | 2.2. 4) SonOee 473
8| 65 |5°4| wrg | 39:2 | 52°6 ‘286. | <_-. | aS eume 531
9} 68 |4°7) we bp | 26-0 | 34:8 ‘901 | 4) Seen 595
10} 71 |4°2) wrbg | 19°2 | 25°7 "137° | 188 | 25800 676
LL Ta scTh wy bie eer ead 7-0 091. | 186 | 17200 775
12| 78 3:1] wobg | 7:8 | 105 | -056 | 186 | 10500| 913
13} 81 |2°7| corona 4:99 | 6:6 033 200 | 6200 | .001090
14| 84 |2°1 fs 1°9 3°] 017.) 6188e) ee iag 1370
15/87) [eaters i 1:0 006 | 180] 1000 1960

* Dashes denote approaches to a color, thus g’ is greenish. Dots denote deep
color,

O. Barus—WNote on the Constants of Coronas. 327

In table 1, 2 denotes the number of the partial exhaustions
each of volume ratio, y, and made in succession, ¢ the current
time in minutes (the interval being about 3 min. to allow
for adjustments and for diffusion), s the chord of the angular
aperture, $, at radius /?, so that s=60 sin ¢. The eye and
source of light were at distances 85 and 250° from the inter-
vening condensation chamber and the former was focussed for
long distances. ‘The pressure and temperature of the atmos-
phere were P and @, and the fixed pressure decrement on
exhaustion uniformly 6p =17™, nearly, so that the precipitate
per cub. em. is m = 4'7 xX 10-°g. Measurements were made to
the outer edge of the first ring. In the column marked
“coronas,” the color of the annuli is specified from within
outward, using obvious abbreviations. The nucleation is
marked n’ if computed from the aperture s, standardized with
lycopodium, n’’ if computed from s standardized by subsidence
measurements, VV if computed relatively as a geometric pro-
gression, 2 when the latter is reduced as suggested and the
absolute values corrected for time and exhaustion losses, ete.
The arbitrary initial nucleation is shown under m,, and corre-
sponds to z=4. The other coefficients are @, referring to
time losses, a referring to exhaustion losses, S referring to
subsidence losses. Though 7 is measured for the partially
exhausted receiver, a final correction (1/y) need not be added,
for the influx of filtered air leaves the nucleation undisturbed.
Wierratio n/N — 275 s'/107 2 ¥ if constructed in charts,
shows the wide departure from the constancy which would be
anticipated. Diameters of the fog particles are given under d,
the equation referring to the method of computation. All
data will be fully discussed later.

As to the nature of the color sequences of the first ring of’
coronas corresponding to successively increasing sizes of parti-
cles, the clue may be obtained from extremely small particles
and excessively large (opalescent) coronas, using the electric
hght as asource. In such a ease the colors follow the order
of wave-length, and one sees wv, wb, wg, wy, W 0, WI, We,
with all intermediate color gradations. In succeeding series
this is repeated with more and more overlapping until after
two cycles have been passed all periodicity is lost (appreciably)
in the normal coronas. |

If the data of the table be mapped out graphically in terms
of s, the periods of 2 and d are now sharply marked. In the
d curves for instance, cusps in the region of 6, 4, 3, 2 times
ae (large in comparison with wave-length) may be recog-
nized. 2

Brown University, Providence, R. I.

328 Bumstead and Wheeler—Radio-active Gas.

Arr. XX XIII.—Wote on a Radio-active Gas in Surface Water;
by H. A. Bumsreap and L. P. WHEELER.

Durine the visit of Prof. J. J. Thomson to New Haven
last spring, he ealled the attention of the writers to the work
done in the Cavendish Laboratory on a radio-active gas found
in waters coming from deep levels. At his request we under-
took to ascertain if a similar gas existed in the deep level
waters of this locality. For this purpose water from a spring
near New Milford, Conn. of an estimated depth of 1500 feet
was obtained, the gas driven off by boiling and tested in an
electroscope. The normal air leak was found to be increased
about three times. The gas was very much diluted owing to
air spaces in the boiling apparatus, so that the leak found does
not represent the real activity of the gas as it comes from the
water. In the meanwhile the water from one of the New Haven
city reservoirs (an artificial lake fed entirely by surface drainage)
was tested and found, somewhat to our surprise, to contain a
strongly active gas. From 7-5 liters of this water about 175°
of gas were obtained and this introduced into a Wilson elec-
troscope of about 380° capacity increased the normal air leak
about twelve times. The result was the same whether the
water came through the city supply pipes or was obtained
directly from the lake. Water, from which the gas had been
expelled and which was aerated by dropping, had not recovered
the power of giving off a radio-active gas after sixteen days.
This would indicate that the gas is not an emanation from any
radio-active substance dissolved in the water ; and this is further
evidenced by the fact that the residue from the water is very
slightly, if at all, active.

In casting about for an explanation of the presence of an
active gas in surface water, where none had been found in
England, we were led to test the gas drawn from the ground
(about five feet deep), which proved to be approximately three
times as radio-active as the gas from the surface water. The
rate of decay of the activity of both gases was measured by
enclosing a sample of each in a gas-tight electroscope and tak-
ing readings twice daily for two weeks. The curves obtained
are identical within the limits of accuracy of the measure-
ments, and show an initial rise of activity lasting four or five
hours and a subsequent falling off which follows fairly well
an exponential curve. The activity falls to half its value in a
time very close to four days. After the gas is blown out the
excited radio-activity on the walls of the electroscope can be
detected for about two hours. In these respects these gases
follow closely the behavior of the emanation from radium as
determined by Rutherford and Curie. Further investigation
of the properties of the gases is in progress.

Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University,

New Haven, Conn., Sept. 16, 1903.

Chemistry and Physics. 329

S CalH NE PETC? ENCE EE Lh Gab Can.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

1. Radium and Helium.—Speaking at a dinner of the Society
of Chemical Industry at Bradford, England, last July, Sir
WitiiaAmM Ramsay announced that he and Mr. Soddy, of Mon-
treal, who has been working in his laboratory, had found that
helium is a constituent of the gas emanating from radium. The
gas from radium was first passed through a tube cooled with
liquid air, in which the active part of the emanation was con-
densed and remained behind, while the gas which passed through,
when examined in a microscopic Pliicker tube, showed undoubtedly
the whole spectrum of helium. There is, in Ramsay’s opinion, a
production of helium continuously from radium.

A few days after the above announcement was made, a state-
ment appeared in the London 7Zimes that Str W. and Lapy
Hveerns, upon photographing the spectrum of the light emitted
by radium at ordinary temperature, had obtained eight definite
bright lines in the ultra violet, entirely different from the spark-
spectrum of radium, four and perhaps five of which lines agreed
with the lines of helium. — Chem. News, |xxxvili, 39. H.L. W.

2. The Action of Salts of Radium upon Globulins.—W. B.
Harpy has given an account of some experiments carried out in
the laboratory of Sir William Crookes, and with his assistance.

Two solutions of globulin from ox serum were used, one electro-
positive, made by adding acetic acid, the other electro-negative,
made by adding ainmonia.

They were exposed in shallow cells, one wall of which was
made of thin mica, to the radiations from 50 m.g. of pure radium
bromide, enclosed in a capsule covered with mica, so that two
sheets of mica were interposed between the radium and the solu-
tion. No action took place in one hour. The globulin was then
exposed as naked drops, separated by 3 mm. of air from the
radium salt, with suitable controls, shielded from the radium.
In the positive solution the opalescence rapidly diminished—that
is to say, solution became more complete. The negative solution
was turned to a jelly, at first transparent, rapidly becoming-
opaque. ‘The action was complete in about three minutes.

Radium, like other radio-active bodies, gives off matter in three
states—(1) an emanation having the mobility of a heavy gas, (2)
positively charged particles of little penetrating power, and rela-
tively large size, (3) ultra-material negative particles, of a size
much smaller than atoms. A mica plate will screen off 1 and 2,
therefore the globulin solutions are unaffected by the ultra-mate-
rial negative particles. The rate of action and conditions of the
experiment make it unlikely that the emanation was the active
agent, though, owing to its nature, intense solvent or coagulating
power may safely be predicated of it. The action observed may

330 Scientific Intelligence.

be almost certainly due to the positive particles. These are of
material dimensions.

Globulin systems, therefore, seem to be completely transparent
to the ultra-material electrons, and so too, probably, are the living
tissues, since the physiological influences of the discharges from
radium seem to be limited to a superficial layer a few millimeters
deep.— Chem. News, |xxxviil, 73.

3. Chlorine Smelting with Electrolysis. — In a paper read
before the Faraday Society, JAMES SWINBURNE gives an outline
of a novel metallurgical process, which, if successful, promises at
least to revolutionize the treatment of certain complex ores, par-
ticularly those containing zinc and lead together, which present
great difficulties when treated by the present methods of smelting.

The first operation, which is the distinctive feature, consists in
forcing chlorine gas, under pressure, into a receptacle, called the
transformer, which resembles a blast-furnace. The chlorine is
here made to act upon sulphide ores with the result that metallic
chlorides are formed and sulphur distils off. The heat produced
by the reaction is sufficient to effect the distillation and to fuse
the chlorides. Chloride of sulphur is not formed as long as the
sulphides are in excess, hence the sulphur in the ores is saved as
such. The chlorides are tapped from the transformer in the molten
condition. The next step usually consists in treating the chlorides
with water to separate soluble chlorides from insoluble ones, and
also to separate gangue which comes from the furnace suspended
in the fused chlorides. The subsequent operations depend upon
the nature of the chloride mixture. Lead and silver chlorides are
dried and fused in contact with metallic lead, which extracts the
silver and any gold; the lead chloride is then fused in contact
with metallic zinc, which gives lead practically pure, and anhy-
drous zine chloride. The soluble chlorides are treated with spongy
copper, when lead and silver are precipitated; then copper is pre-
cipitated with “cement” zinc. Ferric oxide is then precipitated,
after the solution has been oxidized by chlorine, by means of zine
oxide, and manganese dioxide is separated by the further action
of the same reagents. The final liquid, containing only zine
chloride, is evaporated to dryness, and the anhydrous chloride is
fused and electrolyzed with the formation of metallic zine and
chlorine. The chlorine thus produced is then used for the decom-
position of ore, and is thus used over and over.— Chem. News,
Ixxxvili, 63. H. L. W.

4. The Mazza Separator for Gases. — For a long time cen-
trifugal force has been used as a means of separating liquids of
different densities, as in the well-known cream separators. A
process for separating gases from their mixtures, depending upon
the same principle, has been recently devised by Siegnor Mazza,
formerly an officer in the Royal Engineers of the Italian Army.
The machine consists essentially of a drum revolving with great
velocity, into which the gaseous mixture is sucked in consequence

of the rotation, and the components, divided by the effect of

Chemistry and Physics. 331

centrifugal force, are automatically driven out by the same means.
It is stated that it is possible in this way to obtain air so much
enriched in oxygen as to make it much more effective in the
combustion of fuel, and it is expected that the applications of
the process will be important in metallurgical operations, in the
production of steam, etc. It is expected, also, that the method
will be used in the treatment of illuminating gas in order to
separate a mixture rich in hydrogen from one of higher heating
and illuminating power, and also for separating a large part of
the carbon dioxide from blast-furnace gases, in order to make
them more efficient.— Chem. News, 1xxxviil, 68, 76. H. LL.) W.

5. A Double Salt of Potassium and Barium Nitrates. — A
double salt having the formula K, Ba(NO,), has been prepared
by Wu. K. Watiprince of the Sheffield Laboratory. The com-
pound is remarkable because double salts of alkali metals and
barium have been entirely unknown, and also because double
nitrates are very rare. For these two reasons the salt is a very
unusual one, and one whose existence would not be expected from
analogy. The salt crystallizes from solutions containing the com-
ponents under considerably varying conditions, but the crystals
are very rough and opaque. They are tetrahedral in habit, like
simple barium nitrate, and the author suggests that it is possible
that their structure is pseudomorphic.—Amer. Chem. Jour., xxx,
154. Ho. We

6. Light Waves and their Uses; by A. A. MicHELSoN. 166

Decennial Publications of the University of Chicago, 1903.
—The eight lectures which make up the present volume were
delivered at the Lowell Institute in 1899, and it is a source of
satisfaction to all who are interested in physics that their publi-
cation has not been longer delayed. Among instruments of pre-
cision there are few which rival Professor Michelson’s interfero-
meter in simplicity, in accuracy and in wide range of application,
and perhaps none. which is so interesting in respect to the natural
phenomena which it incidentally illustrates. The author has suc-
ceeded in giving an admirably clear and simple account of the
phenomena of interference, and of the many important researches
which he has carried out by means of the interferometer and the
echelon spectroscope. The presentation is so skilfully managed
that the book can scarcely fail to hold the interest of the general
reader, while at the same time physicists and astronomers will
find in it much valuable information. _ Hace Be,

7. The Sub-Mechanies of the Universe; by O. Reynoxps.
Xvli+254 pp. Published for the Royal Society of London.
Cambridge, 1903.—In this memoir Professor Reynolds believes
that he has shown that there is “one, and only one, conceivable
purely mechanical system capable of accounting for all the phys-
ical evidence, as we know it, in the Universe.” Whether this
belief is correct in whole or in part, whether the author’s funda-
mental hypotheses are reconcilable with all known facts, and,
more particularly, whether, if this be a legitimate explanation, it

332 Scientific Intelligence.

is the only conceivable one, are questions which only time and
careful criticism can settle. But in any event the work is a very
remarkable one and will doubtless receive the careful attention
of mathematical physicists both on account of the distinguished
reputation of the author and of the extraordinary results which
he has obtained. ‘The theory assumes, as the substructure of the
universe, a system of uniform spherical grains of changeless
shape and size, so close that they cannot change their neighbors
but are continually in relative motion with each other. Where the
grains are in normal piling the properties of the medium can (by
properly choosing the diameter, mean relative velocity, and mean
path of the grains) be made identical with those of the ether
within the limits of observational accuracy. If, in any space, the
number of grains is less than in normal piling, such “negative
inequalities ” will move without resistance through the medium,
will possess an apparent mass and will attract each other with a
force varying inversely as the square of the distance ; these are
therefore taken to represent the molecules of ordinary matter.
In a similar manner, electrical changes are accounted for by a
different sort of inequality in the piling of the grains, and the
mechanical structure of the granular medium is shown to be
capable of accounting for many of the phenomena of electricity
and of light. Like Professor Reynolds’ other works, the memoir
is throughout marked by great originality of thought and ana-
lytical skill. H. A. B.

Il. GroLocgy AND MINERALOGY.

1. U.S. Geological Survey ; C. D. Waxcotr, Director.—The
following publications have recently been issued :

TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL ReEporT, 1901-02, 206 pp., 26 pls.
436 persons are now on the roster of the Geological Survey and
the appropriation for 1901-02 was $1,079,800. In addition to
the regular geologic and topographic work, the survey has now
in charge the reclamation of the arid lands. The ideas advanced
in 1877 by Major Powell, then Director of the Survey, regarding
the arid regions have at last been enacted into law. In the
matter of publications, great improvement is shown. Hereafter
the annual report will be confined to one volume and the matter
formerly contained in the unwieldy reports is to be published
as “professional papers.” The work in Alaska is in charge of
four parties and is yielding results of great scientific and eco-
nomic value. (See Professional Papers, Nos. 1, 2, 10.)

ProFEssioNaL Papers. No. 1. Preliminary Report on the
Ketchikan Mining District, Alaska; by A. H. Brooks, 120 pp.,
2 pls., 6 figs.

No. 2. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward
Peninsula, Alaska; by A. J. Cottier, 68 pp., 12 pls.

No. 4. The Forests of Oregon; by HENRY GANNETT, 33 pp.,
7 pls. |

522

Geology and Mineralogy. 333

No. 5. The Forests of Washington—A Revision of Estimates;
by Henry GANNETT, 36 pp., 1 map.

No. 6. Forest Conditions in the Cascade Range, Washington;
by Frep G. PLumMER, 39 pp., 11 pls.

No. 7. Forest Conditions in the Olympic Reserve, Washing-
ton; by A. Dopwett and T. F. Rixon, 107 pp., 20 pls.

No. 8. Forest Conditions in the Northern Sierra Nevada,
California; by J. b. Lerere, 186 pp., 12 pls.

No. 9. Forest Conditions in the Cascade Range Reserve,
Oregon; by H. D. Lanerttn, F. G. Plummer, A. DopweEt1,
T. F. Rrxon and J. B. Lerere. With an Introduction by
Henry Gannett, 289 pp., 41 pls.

No. 10. Reconnaissance from Fort Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound,
Alaska; by Watrrer C. MENDENHALL, 65 pp., 9 pls.

WATER SUPPLY AND IRRIGATION Papers. No. 77. The
Water Resources of Molokai, Hawai; by Watpremar LinpGREN,
60 pp., 4 pls. Molokai, the fifth in size of the Hawaiian Islands,
is of basalt fringed by coral reefs on the south. ‘There are no
impermeable strata, and the extreme porosity of the rocks allow
free access of sea water as well as of rain, and zones of varying
salinity result.

No. 78. Preliminary Report on Artesian Basins in South-
western Idaho and Southeastern Oregon; by I. C. RussEtt, 51 pp.,
2 pls.,3 figs. Four artesian basins are described by Prof. Russell
and a sketch of the general geology of the Idaho-Oregon region
is given. :

No. 79. Normal and Polluted Waters in Northeastern United —
States; by M. D. Letauron, 186 pp., 17 figs., 148 analyses and
tables. ‘The river systems discussed are the Merrimac, the Black-
stone, the Connecticut and its tributaries, the Housatonic, the
Delaware, and the Ohio.

Fottos. No. 87. Camp Clarke Folio, Nebraska; by N. H.
Darton.

No. 88. Scotts Bluffs Folio, Nebraska; by N. H. Darron.
Western Nebraska shows typically the geological conditions of
the Central Great Plains area. It is a region of flat-lying sedi-
ments, including volcanic ash, not older than the Kocene.
Erosion has developed “bad land” topography in the soft strata.
As illustrations of ‘simple structures the Camp Clarke and Scotts
Bluffs folios will serve as Physiographic texts.

No. 89. Port Orford Folio, Oregon; by J.S. Ditter. Taken
in connection with the Coos Bay folio (No. 73), the Port Orford
folio furnishes a description of an area adjoining the Pacific
coast large enough to give a clear idea of the geological structure
of the region. The area is chiefly occupied by pre-Cretaceous
schists of sedimentary origin and sandstones of Cretaceous and
Tertiary age. The igneous rocks are gabbros (basic and acid
types) with corresponding basalts, serpentines and dacite por-
phyry dikes. The region has undergone a series of elevations
and depressions apparently without faulting.

Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourts Series, Vou. XVI, No. 94.—OctToper, 1903,
23

334 Scientific Intelligence.

No. 90. The Cranberry Folio, North Carolina-Tennessee; by
Artruur Keitn. The mapping of the Cranberry district involves
the solution of some of the most difficult problems in Appalachian
geology. The region includes gneisses and granites of Archean
age, Algonkian ? schists, rhyolites and diabases, Cambrian sedi-
ments and basalt. The metamorphism has been extreme and the
fault structure is complicated and presents some unique features.
The text of this folio deserves especial mention as an illustration
of what can be done to make difficult geological structure intelli-
gible to the non-expert. -

No. 91. Hartville Folic, Wyoming; by W. S. Tanerer
SmirnH. The Hartville area shows a section of practically hori-
zontal sediments from Carboniferous to Recent. These strati-
fied beds are underlaid unconformably by Algonkian metamor-
phics, which in turn are cut by small masses and dikes of granite
and pegmatite. Iron and some copper are the economic products.

2. The Correlation of Geological Faunas. A Contribution
to Devonian Paleontology ; by Henry SHater Wiriiams.—U.
S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 210, 147 pp. Washington, 1903.

Shifting of Kaunas as a Problem of Stratigraphic Geology ;
by Henry SHaLrer Wiriiams. (Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol.
14, pp. 177-190, 16 pls. Rochester, April, 1903.)

These two papers present the mature ideas of their author on
the subject of geological correlation. The studies were com-
menced in 1881 and have been carried on almost continuously
since. The chief area investigated has been the Devonian region
extending from Ohio across the southern counties of New York,
and the sections include all the Middle and Upper Devonian
strata from the top of the Onondaga limestone to the base of the
Olean conglomerate.

The fauna of the typical Hamilton formation is cailed the
Tropidoleptus carinatus fauna. The fauna of the Black Shales
is the Lingula spatulata fauna. The third fauna, the Portage
Shales, is characterized as the Cardiola speciosa fauna, while the
Chemung is the Spirifer disjunctus fauna.

A great many of the frequency and range values of the species
occurring in these fossil faunas were determined, and from the
results it was possible to construct standard lists of the dominant
species with their relative percentages. These must always be
of great service in any faunal comparisons of the Devonian. The
methods employed are of course applicable to the Silurian or any
other formation, as well as to the Devonian, and similar com-
parative studies would result in standard lists for each.

Considerable discussion is given regarding the shifting and
recurrence of faunas, and concrete examples are shown, together
with the methods of their correlation. The statistics of all this
work in its various aspects demonstrate the intrinsic value of
fossils for measuring and indicating time. No such positive
evidence is furnished by the sediments when considered on the
side of their lithological constitution, their structural form, or
their stratigraphical position, Cc. E. B,

Geology and Mineralogy. 335

3. Pseudoceratites of the Cretaceous ; by Aupneus Hyarr.
Edited by T. W. Stanton.—Mon. U. 8. Geol. nue vey, vol. xliv,
pp- 351, pls. xlvii, Washington, 1903.

This work was first submitted to the Direciae of the United
States Geological Survey as early as 1897. It was greatly revised
and extended by the author up to the time of his death in 1902,
and contains the results of his last work.

The Pseudoceratites are considered as retrogressive Cretaceous
ammonites, showing the sutures and simple outlines characteristic
of the Triassic. They are distinctly accelerated in development
as: compared with the Jurassic species. It is shown under
Placenticeras that the arrest of development takes effect only
after the three principal lateral saddles and lobes are formed in
the neanic stage. Up to this stage their development is more
complex than in the young of the Jurassic species. This explains
the imaginary anachronism of the group in its relations with the
apparently more complicated allies of the Jurassic.

Two hundred and six species are described, belonging to fifty-
two genera. C. E. B.

4. Publications of the Earthquake Investigation Committee in
Foreign Languages. No. 13, 142 pp.—During the year 1900, 385
earthquakes occurred at Hitotsubashi, (Tokyo) Japan. The
seismograms of these earthquakes have been analysed by Dr. F.
OMARL.

5. The Lilac-colored Spodumene from California.—In a note,
recently published in Science (Aug. 12, vol. xvill, p. 304), CHARLES
BASKERVILLE discusses the remarkable phosphorescence shown by
the transparent lilac-colored spodumene from Pala, California,
described by G. F. Kunz in the last number of this Journal. He
states that a crystal was excited “‘ by the action of X-rays for five
minutes sufficiently to cause it to photograph itself when subse-
quently placed directly upon a sensitive plate (thin white paper
being interposed). and allowed to remain in an especially con-
structed padded black box in a dark room for a period of ten
minutes.” He also proposes the name /vunzite, after Mr. G. F.
Kunz, for this variety of spodumene.

6. ZLabellen zur Bestimmung der Mineralien mittels dusserer
_Kennzeichen von Albin Weisbach. Sechste auflage durchsehen
und erganzt von Dr. Frirepricu Koipecx. Pp. vill, 120. Leip-

zig, 1903 (Arthur Felix).—This well known and long valued work
has been revised and brought up to date by Dr. Kolbeck without
essential change in form or arrangement. Since the publication
of the previous edition, three years since, the honored author has
passed away, his death occurring on February 26, 1901.

7. Purchase of the Siemaschko Collection of Meteorites.—It 1s.
announced that the collection of meteorites of the late Julien de
Siemaschko of St. Petersburg, containing some three hundred and
sixty different occurrences, has been purchased by Prof. H. A.
Ward and added to the Ward-Coonley collection, preserved in
Chicago. A catalogue of this collection, numbering now 580
kinds, is promised for the near future.

36 Scientific Intelligence.

Oo

8. Meteoritenkunde von EK. Conren. Heft II, pp. vii, 302.
Stuttgart, 1903 (EK. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagshandlung, EK.
Nigele).—The second part of Cohen’s important and compre-
hensive work on meteorites, recently issued, is devoted to the dis-
cussion of the physical features of meteorites : the structure both
of irons and stones, the crust and black veins, the form and char-
acter of the surface, the number and size of the individuals of a
given fall. All of these most interesting topics are treated with

care and conciseness and with especial reference to the observa-
tions and views of the many writers who have contributed to our
knowledge of them. The author, however, also gives the reader
the benefit of the results of his own extensive studies. The latter
-part of the volume (pp. 192-290) is devoted to supplements to
Heit I, treating of the methods of investigation and the mineral
constituents of meteorites.

9. Meteorites from New South Wales.—An account is given
by A. Liversiper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of
New South Wales (vol. xxxvi, 341), of several recently discovered
Australian meteorites. One of these, the Boogaldi meteorite, is
an iron remarkable for its pear-shaped form and well-preserved
fused crust. The others are largely stony in character; they
include two masses from Barratta belonging with that found in
the same locality in 1860; two masses from Gilgoin found in
1889 and 1893; also the Eli Elwah or Hay meteorite first
exhibited in 1888.

III. MIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften, Leipsig
1903 (Wilhelm Engelmann).—The following are recent additions
to this valuable series :

Nr. 20. Abhandlung tiber das Licht; von Christian aeeneee 115 pp.
Second edition.

Nr. 21. Uber die Wanderungen der Jonen wihrend der Elektrolyse : von
W., Hittort. Part lolita pp: Second edition.

Nr. 134. Experimental-Untersuchungen tiber Elektricitaét ; von Michael
Faraday. Series xvi-xvii, 102 pp.

Nr. 185. Theorie der Gestalt von Flissigkeiten im Zustand des Gleich-
gewichts ; von Carl Friedrich Gauss. 73 pp.

Nr. 136. Experimental Untersuchungen tiber Elektricitiét: von Michael
Faraday. Series xviii-xix. 98 pp.

Nr. 137. Abhandlungen zur Thermodynamik chemischer Vorgiinge ; von
August Harstman. 73 pp

Nr. 138. Uber die Bewegung der Koérper durch den Stoss. Uber die
Centrifugalkraft ; von Christian Huyghens. Edited by Felix Hansdorff.
19 PP:, 49 figs.
_ Nr. 139. Thermodynamische Abhandlungen uber Molekulartheorie und
Chemische Gleichgewichte ; von C. M. Guldberg. 89 pp.

PEA RX:

Pei JOUR Sol VOL, XV. £903:

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THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[FOURTH SERIES. |]

Art. XXXIV.—Mineralogical Notes; by C. H. WARREN.

I. Native Arsenic from Arizona.

A RECENT discovery of native arsenic at Washington Camp,
Santa Cruz Co., Arizona, adds still another interesting occur-
rence of this mineral in North America to those already
recorded.

We are indebted to Mr. George A. Lonsbery, superintendent
of the Double Standard Copper Mine, now operated by the
Copper Century Mining Co. of Boston, Mass., for calling the
attention of Professor W. O. Crosby of the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology to the occurrence, and for generously pre-
senting him with the best and largest part of the find. The
specimens, together with the following data regarding its occur-
rence, were very kindly placed with the writer for study by
Professor Crosby.

The arsenic occurred in reniform masses attached to the
walls of a small pocket in a dolomitic limestone. The pocket
was situated in close proximity to an important fault at a depth
of about sixty feet. Many of the masses are remarkably fine
ones, weighing in some instances several pounds, while the
ageregate weight of the arsenic was something over fifty
pounds. The limestone of the region is highly metamorphic
and is traversed by two parallel and closely adjoining veins of
copper ore (chalcopyrite, sphalerite and some galena with a
gangue of garnet, quartz and calcite) on which some develop-
ment has been done. The faulted zone is characterized by
‘considerable brecciation. Masses of igneous rock, granite and
an acid porphyry outcrop in the immediate neighborhood, and
their intrusion is undoubtedly closely connected with the for-
mation of the ore-bodies, and also with the subsequent faulting.

Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH SERIES, Vout. XVI, No. 95.—NOVEMBER, 1903.
24

338 CU. H. Warren—Mineralogical Notes.

The reniform masses, as is usual with native arsenic, are
black in color, or gray on freshly broken surfaces, and consist
of many thin concentric layers. While no distinct crystallo-
graphic outlines can be seen, each layer appears to be made up
of semi-crystalline arsenic having a prismatic structure nor-
mal to the surface. What appear to be extremely small pris-
matic erystals have been noticed in a single instance. The
masses are considerably fissured and the openings thus formed
have been largely filled with later minerals, which also appear
abundantly on the surface and in the solution cavities men-
tioned beyond. Of these minerals quartz and calcite are the
most abundant, the former as small but well-terminated pris-
matic crystals, the latter in a slightly discolored, massive
erystalline form.

1

Fic. 1. Side view.

(as)

Fie. 2. Top view.

The arsenic has been attacked to a considerable extent by
some solvent. This has removed portions of the arsenic by
attacking first the edges of the layers, where these were
exposed by a fissure. It then encroached gradually on the
substance of the layers by dissolving out narrow channels vary-
ing in width from that of a line to 0°5™™. These channels
vamify into networks, which give rise to an appearance sug-
gesting that of a finely sun-cracked piece of mud. This

C. H. Warren— Mineralogical Notes. 339

appearance is illustrated by figs. 1 and 2. The outlines of each
layer are marked by extremely thin but distinct shells, in many
instances also curiously corroded, which represent the more
refractory upper surface of each layer. The distances between
such shells indicate a thickness for the original layers of from
DF tosl5"™. 7

Associated with the quartz and calcite, and evidently of the
same age, is a little reddish sphalerite and minute crystals of
iron pyrite. (Iron pyrite also occurs abundantly in the wall of
the pocket.) In a vein of quartz traversing one specimen,
extremely minute, gray prismatic crystals of arsenic are embed-
ded, and on the reniform surface of the same specimen can be
seen a light gray druse of arsenic. This arsenic is clearly of
the same age as the quartz and indicates that the same solu-
tions which deposited the quartz were carrying some arsenic,
evidently derived directly from the reniform masses.

Careful qualitative tests showed the presence of a small
amount of antimony and a trace of sulphur in the arsenie.

N. N. Evans,* in a recent description of native arsenic from
a vein traversing a nepheline-syenite rock in the vicinity of
Montreal, attributes its formation there to deposition by fuma-
role action. It is believed that a similar method of formation
obtained for the Arizona arsenic. (Gaseous emanations, carry-
ine some volatile arsenic compound, may very probably have
escaped from underlying igneous rocks into a pocket in the
limestone, and finding there, as suggested by Professor Crosby,
a local relief of pressure, decomposed and deposited successive
layers, eventually forming the reniform masses. After their
formation these were fissured to some extent by shrinking but
chiefly through movements connected with the faulting. Sub-
sequently, solutions carrying silica, carbonate of lime, and a
small amount of sulphides removed a portion of the arsenic
and deposited the minerals named.

The author is indebted to Mr. John J.. Gardner of Boston
for the very excellent photographs from which the present fig-
ures were taken.

Il. Anthophyllite with the Fayalite from Rockport, Mass.

‘During the fall of 1902 a mineral was submitted to the
author for identification by Messrs. F. W. Horton and Cutler
D. Knowlton, students in the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology. The mineral was found by them in the quarries of
the Rockport Granite Co. at Rockport, Mass., and proved to
be fayalite, the first occurrence of which was described b
Penfield and Forbes,t who analyzed it and established the
optical constants for the species.

* This Journal (4), xv, 92. + This Journal (4), i, 129.

340 C. H. Warren—Mineralogical Notes.

It is the object of this paper to once more call attention to
the remarkable occurrence of this rare mineral, and to describe
an interesting zone of a new fibrous amphibole which has
resulted from the reaction between the silica of the enclosing
pegmatite and the fayalite.

The fayalite of this second find appears to be identical in
character, and in its general mode of occurrence, with that
described by the authors cited above, although it was some-
what larger in size. The several large and fine specimens,
which the discoverers very kindly brought to the author for
examination, indicate clearly that the mass was roughly len-
ticular in form, having a maximum thickness of about ten
inches and tapering from this to an edge of about 0°5 inches.
Mr. Horton states that about 250 pounds was taken out in all,
and that it was entirely surrounded by the pegmatite, portions
of which still adhered to the specimens studied. The mineral
was for the most part fresh, showing, however, in some of the
thinner portions alteration to a brown ferruginous powder.

Magnetite occurs chiefly as a marginal secretion. A narrow
granular rim never exceeding a few millimeters in width prac-
tically surrounds the fayalite, while single grains often attain- —
ing a diameter of 4™™ are often observed near the outside of
the mass.

Thin sections examined under the microscope show that
magnetite is quite plentifully scattered through the fayalite in
the form of very minute grains, which have the characteristic
cross sections of magnetite. The grains are frequently arranged
in rows, which extend across the fayalite very much in the
way that inclusions do in the quartz of many rock sections.

Where the fayalite comes in contact with the quartz of the
pegmatite, a reaction rim is developed consisting of radial
fibrous aggregates. The fibers shoot out into the fayalite on
one hand and into the quartz on the other. The line of sepa-
ration which marked the original contact is distinct, and
passes through the centers of the radial groups. The zone
varies in width from 3 to 8™™, although in one instance, where
an overlapping of an edge of the fayalite had occurred, a mass
of fibrous mineral some 3°™ in thickness was observed.

The fibers are translucent, white to a light brown in color,
-and at once suggest anthophyllite by their appearance. On the
side toward the fayalite, magnetite grains are embedded in the
mass of fibers, which, as will appear later, are residual after
the alteration of the fayalite to anthophyllite. The mineral is
seen both in radiating groups and as isolated fibers in portions
of the fayalite near the margin, but none has been observed at
a greater distance than three or four centimeters from it. The
larger magnetite grains usually act as the center for a group of

C. H. Warren—Mineralogical Notes. 341

radiating fibers. Thin sections from such portions show clearly
that the fayalite has been altered by mineralizing solutions
which gained access along crevices, cleavage cracks, or along
the lines of magnetite inclusions, evidently drawn in by the
force of capillary action. Every stage in the alteration of the
fayalite can be seen, from that of the pure iron silicate with
only now and then an encroaching fiber of anthophyllite,

through those stages where patches or islands of fayalite are
entirely surrounded by the secondary fibers, to the stage where
the change is complete and the field is entirely composed of
anthophyllite with grains of residual magnetite. The mag-
netite shows no evidence of having played a part in the reaction
other than to serve as nuclei for the radiating groups of fibers.
_ Under the microscope between crossed nicols, the fibers

show parallel extinction, a fairly high single and a high double
refraction. Cross sections of a group of fibers show that each
one is a minute prismatic crystal of an amphibole, the sides of
the prisms making angles that measured approximately 123 and
57 degrees. A careful study of prismatic and basal sections
was made in parallel polarized light with a quartz wedge in order
to determine the position of the different vibration directions.
The following relations were established; c=a, a=c,. b=6, axial
plane parallel to the brachypinacoid. In convergent light a
biaxial interference figure is obtained from sections parallel to
the macropinacoid.. The axial angle is large, the loci of the
hyperbolas lying just in the edge of the field of the microscope.
The character of the double refraction is positive and the dis-
persion is well marked, red less than violet.

Basal sections are also confirmatory of the above since they
show the central portion of an obtuse interference figure.

Before the blowpipe the fibers blacken, round slightly and
become strongly magnetic. They are insoluble in acids. Care-
ful qualitative tests show the mineral to be a practically pure iron
silicate, with only traces of aluminium and magnesium. It
seems, therefore, that the fibers are those of a pure iron antho-
phyllite, and represent a new member of the amphibole group.
The formation of this metasilicate of iron from the orthosili-
cate by the addition of SiO, derived from the pegmatite, may
be illustrated by the following equation :

Fe,Si0, +Si0,=—Fe,Si,0..
Fayalite Anthophyllite

A quantitative analysis to verify the above conclusion is
desirable, and it is hoped that the time and facilities for mak-
ng it may soon be available.

ntimately associated with the anthophyllite is a dark green
lepidomelane mica. It usually lies with its cleavage faces

342 OC. H. Warren—Mineralogical Notes.

parallel to the surface, although it is occasionally seen lying
along cleavage planes in the fayalite. On one specimen where
a considerable amount of the lepidomelane was developed, a
large number of zircon crystals, one to three millimeters in
diameter, were embedded. The mica corresponds to the variety
annite, described from this locality by Cooke.* It fuses to a
black magnetic globule, gelatinizes with acids, and reacts for |
aluminium, potash, and a little magnesium. Its axial angle
in oil (refractive index 1°515) was found to be 8°—24’.
This mica is probably not a reaction product like the antho-
phyllite. It is present in other parts of the pegmatite of
the quarries, and its occurrence in connection with the fayalite
is indicative of nothing more than of the tendency of the ferro-
magnesian and other minerals belonging to an early period
of erystallization to collect about anything that might have
induced crystallization, in this case the mass of basic iron sili-
cate. The presence of the zircon strengthens this view.

Two theories may be advanced regarding the origin of the
Rockport fayalite; first, that it is a basic inclusion which has
been thoroughly fused and recrystallized under conditions
which led to the development of a coarsely crystalline texture
like that of the pegmatite itself, during which process of erystal-
lization the magnetite segregated toward the margin and the
anthophyllite was developed: second, that the fayalite was
formed from the pegmatite by the action of superheated vapor
or steam under pressure as suggested by Iddingst for the faya-
lite crystals occurring in the lithophyses of the obsidian of the
Yellowstone National Park. After its formation and segrega-
tion, the temperature and pressure diminished, allowing the
erystallization, etc. It is perhaps hard to understand just how
the segregation took place, and if it did, it would seem as if
smaller masses of a similar nature should exist in the peg-
matite. None have been found, however, except the one before
alluded to.

In favor of the inclusion theory may be cited the occurrence
of fayalite described by Gmelin.{ He describes the mineral
as an enclosed mass in trachytic lava at Fayal. It is stated that
the mass showed evidences of fusion and that it was filled with
bubbles in places. There is a possible analogy between the
two occurrences.

The inclusion theory calls for the existence of a rock which
is nearly a pure orthosilicate of iron in composition, a supposi-
tion that seems rash. The second. theory seems the most
reasonable to the author.

* This Journal, xliii, 222, 1867.

+ U. S. G. S., 7th Ann. Report, p. 280.

“ ee Untersuchung des Fayalits, Poggendorff Annalen, li, 160,

C. H. Warren— Mineralogical Notes. 343

The author wishes here to thank Messrs. Horton and Knowl-
ton for generously furnishing him with the material for study.

Ill. Cerussite and Phosgenite from Colorado.

In making blowpipe tests on some specimens of cerussite it
was noticed that when the finely-powdered mineral was heated
on a platinum wire in the Bunsen flame, after the color due to
the lead had disappeared, a persistent crimson coloration was
imparted to the flame, indicating the presence of strontium.

The cerussite was purchased from Messrs. George L. English
& Co. of New York, and through their courtesy it was learned
that it came from the Terrible mine, Isle, Custer Co., Colorado.

It is crystalline and massive in character, of a prevailing
grayish white color, which changes in places to a light amber
tint. The surface is discolored with a yellowish brown earthy
coating.

A chemical analysis* made on carefully selected fragments,
having a specific gravity of 6-409, yielded the following results:

Ratio.
CO, SS [7 ee Se ee ID aS
EO = 10-50 223) = 3 5T | .39n
“SrO = 3:15+103°3= °030 |
Alks. trace.
FeO trace.
99°76

Careful tests were made for barium and calcium with nega-
tive results. The ratio is very sharp, PbO+SrO: CO, = 1:1,
and indicates the formula (Pb, Sr) CO, for the mineral. Cal-
culated to one hundred per cent, the composition becomes
PbCO = 95°52 per cent; SrCO, = 4-48 per cent. No stron-
tium could be detected in the phosgenite.

It is, perhaps, not surprising to find such a notable amount
of strontium carbonate isomorphous with the lead carbonate,
but, so far as the author has been able to ascertain, it is the
first recorded instance of such a carbonate, and adds another
undoubted case of isomorphism to those already known among
the orthorhombic carbonates. |

By plotting the specific volumes (the specific gravity of lead
and strontium carbonates being taken as 6°517 and 3°697 respec-
tively) of lead and strontium carbonates as ordinates and the
percentages of strontium carbonate as abscissas, a specific grav-

*The analysis was made by the author while he was connected with the

He eae egy Laboratory of Sheffield Scientific School, during the spring of
1900.

344 C. H. Warren—Mineralogical Notes.

ity of 6329 was calculated for a carbonate having the same
composition as that of the one analyzed. This compares very
satisfactorily with the actual specific gravity, 6-409.

Associated with the cerussite is the chlor-carbonate of lead,
phosgenite. This is distinguished in appearance from the
cerussite by its clear brown color and by three excellent cleay-
ages, prismatic and basal, at right angles to each other. It was
possible to identify the basal cleavage by the positive uniaxial
interference figure obtained when sections parallel to this
cleavage were examined under the microscope. On such frag-
ments a much poorer cleavage approximately half way between
the prismatic cleavages was also observed, indicating the pres-
ence of the cleavage parallel to the face 100. The prismatic
and basal cleavages are of about the same degree of perfection.
In one specimen a somewhat tabular habit was noticed parallel
to the basal cleavage.

The relative amounts of cerussite and phosgenite vary con-
siderably in different specimens, but the latter has always been
observed as a core surrounded by the former. In one specimen,
weighing nearly two pounds, the cerussite is simply a rim aver-
aging 1 in thickness. This is separated from the phosgenite
by a very narrow white band of powdery material. The above
facts suggest that the cerussite is an alteration product of the
phosgenite. Small cavities, possibly formed by solution, lined
with minute acicular crystallizations of cerussite have been
. noticed on most of the specimens examined.

Contributions from the pooeice Department of the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology, No. 116, vol. 15.
Boston, Mass., June, 1903.

Plate XVI.

XVI, 1903.

Seis, Vol.

Am. Jour.

(‘UeMO 10}FV)

‘“oAW OAV 943 ‘sisuarvosvbopnw shiwo1aeyo
‘TAX QLVIg dO NOLMVNV1dxXY

[= 7

a

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XVI, 1903. Plate XVII.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII.

Cheiromys madagascariensis, the Aye Aye; showing the slender third digit of the hand.
(After Owen.)

Wortman—Studies of Eocene Mammalia. 345

Arr. XXX V.—Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the Marsh
Collection, Peabody Museum; by J. L. Worrman. (With
Plates XVI and X VII.) |

[Continued from vol. xv, p. 436. ]

Tue first suborder, or the Cheiromyoidea, is of great inter-
est, inasmuch as it numbers among its representatives the very
curious and interesting creature commonly known as the Aye
Aye, now livingin Madagascar (Plates XVI and XVII). This
species was‘first brought to the attention of naturalists by the
French traveller Sonnerat more than a hundred years ago, and
was for a: long time looked upon as belonging to the order
Rodentia, or the Gnawers, closely allied to the squirrel.

In 1862, Richard Owen received a specimen of the animal,
and from a careful study of its anatomy conclusively demon-
strated its lemurine affinities. As we have already seen, the
character of its incisors and the form and general make-up of
its jaws are exceedingly like those of the rodents; but in the
complete bony ring surrounding the orbit, as well as in the
prehensile extremities and the remainder of its anatomical ©
structure, it bears the unmistakable stamp of its Primate rela-
tionship.

The hands are long and slender and the fingers are provided
with claws. The third digit of the manus is curiously modi-
fied, in that while of the same proportional length as the
others it is exceedingly slender. It has, indeed, been aptly
compared to a wire with a hook at itsend. The animal is
nocturnal in its habits, inhabiting the dense forests of Mada-
gascar, where it 1s said to be rare.

The specimen which was sent to Owen was kept in captivity
for some time, and Dr. Sandwith, who obtained the animal, was
enabled to learn its curious habits. He wrote as follows: “I
observe he is sensitive of cold, and likes to cover himself up in
a piece of flannel, although the thermometer is now often 90° in
the shade. He is a most interesting little animal, and from
close observation I have learned his habits very correctly. On

receiving him from Madagascar, I was told that he ate bananas;
so of course I fed him on them, but tried him with other fruit.
I found he liked dates,—which is a grand discovery, supposing
he be sent alive to England. Still I thought that those strong
rodent teeth, as large as those of a young Beaver, must have
been intended for some other purpose than that of trying to
eat his way out of a cage—the only use he seemed to make of
them, besides masticating soft fruits. Moreover he had other
peculiarities,—e. g., singularly large, naked ears, directed
forward, as if for offensive rather than defensive purposes;

346 Wortman—Studies of Hocene Mammalia in the

then, again, the second finger of the hands is unlike anything
but a monster supernumerary member, it being slender and
long, half the thickness of the other fingers, and resembling a
piece of bent wire. Excepting the head and this finger, he
closely resembles a Lemur.

“ Now, as he attacked every night the woodwork of his cage,
which I was gradually lining with tin, I bethought myself of
tying some sticks over the woodwork, so that he might gnaw
these instead. I had previously put in some large branches for
him to climb upon; but the others were straight sticks to cover
over the woodwork of his cage, which alone he attacked. It so
happened that the thick sticks I now put into his cage were
bored in all directions by-a large and destructive grub, called
here the JMoutouk. Just at sunset the Aye-aye crept from
under his blanket, yawned, stretched, and betook himself to
his tree, where his movements are lively and graceful, though
by no means so quick as those of a Squirrel. Presently he came
to one of the worm-eaten branches, which he began to examine
most attentively ; and bending forward his ears, and applying
his nose close to the bark, he rapidly tapped the surface with
‘the curious second [third] digit, as a Woodpecker taps a tree,
though with much less noise, from time to time inserting the
end of the slender finger into the worm-holes as a surgeon would
a probe. At length he came to a part of the branch which
evidently gave out an interesting sound, for he began to tear it
with his strong teeth. He rapidly stripped off the bark, cut
into the wood, and exposed the nest of a grub, which he
daintily picked out of its bed with the slender tapping finger,
and conveyed the luscious morsel to-his mouth.

‘““T watched these proceedings with intense interest, and was
much struck with the marvellous adaptation of the creature to
its habits, shown by his acute hearing, which enables him aptly
to distinguish the different tones emitted from the wood by
his gentle tapping; his evidently acute sense of smell, aiding
him in his seareh.”’

I have quoted thus at length these interesting observations
upon the grub-eating habits of the Aye Aye, for the reason
that there can be no doubt, apparently, that they are directly
responsible for the rodent-like character of the incisors, as well
as for the tendency to degeneration and reduction of the
molars and the curious modification of the third finger of the
hand which is made to fulfil the functions of a probe, plex-
imeter, and scoop. We shall presently see in what way these
modifications throw light upon some of the extinct American
forms of this same group.

The chief diagnostic features of the suborder have already
been given, and to these should be added the lack of bony

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 347

union of the two rami of the lower jaw, as in the Rodentia.
It is probable that this condition is in some way correlated
with the enlargement of the incisors and their final growth
from persistent pulps, as seen in the most advanced species.
Of the extinct American forms, I recognize two groups, which,
on account of the wide differences between them in point of
structure, I classify in two distinct families. The structure of
one of these groups is imperfectly known, and it is impossible
to state with certainty whether or not they are Primates.
Osborn has recently proposed* to arrange them as a primitive
suborder of the Rodentia, Proglires, but there are so many
serious objections to such a view that I choose to regard them
as Primates allied to Cheiromys. My reasons for such a
course will be given after the species have been described.

The suborder as thus constituted includes three families,
defined as follows:

Incisors reduced to a single pair above and below, enlarged,
faced with enamel, and growing from persistent pulps, rodent-
like ; premolars reduced to one above and absent below ; molars
quadritubercular above and below, and rodent-like in pattern,
with tendency to degeneration. Cheiromyide.

One pair of incisors above and below, enlarged, recurved, trans-
versely compressed, and slightly twisted ; crowns sheathed with
enamel, not growing from persistent pulps, and altogether unlike |
those of rodents ; cheek teeth in lower jaw reduced to two small
styliform rudiments inserted immediately behind the large incisors ;
upper cheek teeth unknown. Metacheiromyide.

One to three pairs of incisors in the lower jaw, with central
pair enlarged, having distinct roots, and with crowns sheathed in
enamel ; premolars never less than two in lower jaw ; molars
tritubereular above, with fourth cusp rudimentary; anterior cusp
of trigon present in lower molars; fourth premolar becoming
molariform above and below. Microsyopside.

Family Metacheiromyide fam. nov.
Metacheiromys Marshi gen. et sp. nov.

The remains upon which this family and genus are founded
consist of a single specimen of a fragmentary skeleton, which
includes the two upper incisors, with a portion of the pre-
maxillary attached ; portions of the back and base of the skull,
including an otic "bulla ; one mandibular ramus, with the
entire tooth-border preserved ; the bodies of nearly all the
cervicals; a few dorsals and caudals; some ribs; the glenoid
cavity of the scapuia; the proximal and distal ends of a hume-
rus; the proximal and distal ends of an ulna; the distal end
of a radius; a portion of the pelvis, and the proximal and
distal ends of a tibia.

* American Eocene Primates, etc., Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., June 28,
1902

348 Wortman—Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the

The superior incisors, figure 105, more nearly resemble the
upper canines of Hapalemur: griseus than any other teeth
105 with which I have been able to compare
them. They are, however, less pointed,
somewhat thicker in front, and have a
decided twist. The office of this torsion
was doubtless to bring into apposition flat-
wise the points of the two teeth implanted
by diverging roots. Both the crowns and
the roots are considerably compressed
from side to side, the crown terminating
behind in a sharp cutting edge. In cross
section, therefore, the tooth gives an ellip-
tical outline, pointed behind. ‘There is a
worn surface upon the front face of the
Ficurn 105.—Supe- Crown, showing the point where it most
rior incisor of Meta- frequently impinged upon the lower inci-
chetromys Marshi Wort- sor. The crown is completely imvested
at eee natural with enamel, and the tooth was implanted
: ; by a distinct root and was therefore of
limited growth. The remaining cranial fragments furnish
little information of the general skull structure further than
that there was a well-ossified tympanic bulla more or less filled
with cancellous tissue.

Figure 106.—Lower jaw of Metacheiromys Marshi Wortman ; side view.

(Type.)
FicurE 107.—The same jaw ; viewed from above.
Both figures are one and one-half times natural size.

Although not complete, the lower jaw, figures 106 and 107,
exhibits some remarkable characters. Posteriorly the lower
edge is broken away, as well as the coronoid, condyloid, and
angular regions. The front third, however, is entire, and in
this part the ramus displays an unusual lack of depth, but is of
normal transverse thickness. This latter dimension is consider-

~ Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 349

ably augmented in the region of the implantation of the single
enlarged incisor. The crown of this tooth is not preserved,
being broken away at the level of the alveolus. The root is
subeval in cross section, with a rounded angular part internal.
Projecting the contour of the broken part of the jaw from
that which is preserved, the horizontal ramus is seen to be
rather shallow and slender. There was a well-developed mas-
seteric fossa, the anterior portion of which is shown in the
specimen. That which may be regarded as the most extraor-
dinary feature of the jaw is the practical absence of cheek
teeth. The dentinal border is preserved entire and in this are
to be seen two shallow sockets, the first of which is situated
immediately posterior to the enlarged incisor. After a short
interval behind, a second similar alveolus occurs, and it is per-
fectly evident that these served for the implantation of two
single-rooted styliform teeth, which were apparently caducous.
The remainder of the tooth border was entirely edentulous.
The mandibular symphysis is not rugose, and there is no trace
of any tendency to codssitication of the two rami.

The characters of the bodies of the cer- tas
vical vertebre are of an indifferent nature,
and furnish little or no information of
the affinities of the species. They are
rather broad and depressed, and are with-
out inferior keels, as in the rodents and
certain lemurs, notably Wycticebus. The —
caudal vertebrze denote that there was a
long tail. The ribs, as indicated by a few
heads, are likewise of the usual pattern
and wholly uncharacteristic.

The glenoid cavity of the scapula has a
form usually seen in the living lemurs,
perhaps more resembling that of Prop-
thecus than any of the other existing
species. It will, however, answer quite
as well for that of a squirrel. The
humerus, figure 108, is more characteris-
tic, and itis in this bone that the Primate
affinities begin to manifest themselves.
The head is globular, somewhat pointed ui
behind, and overhangs the shaft but pyeurs 108.—Right
slightly. The greater tuberosity rises to humerus of Metachetro-
the level of the head, and is of consider- mys Marshi Wortman ;
able fore and aft extent. It equals aha DablEete Size:
slightly more than one-half the antero- © °?”
posterior diameter of the articular portion. The lesser tuber-
osity is also prominent and separated from the greater tuber-

350 Wortman—NStudies of Eocene Mammalia in the

osity by a distinct bicipital groove. The deltoid crest is
moderate, but the extent to which it descends upon the shaft
can not be determined on account of the imperfect condition
of the bone. Upon the whole, its proximal end presents a
very strong likeness to that of Cheiromys and Propithecus
among the ‘Pr imates, and differs from that of the rodents. The
distal end is noteworthy for its great proportional breadth. The
internal condyle is prominent, as in allearly mammals. There is
an entepicondylar foramen and an unusually broad supinator
ridge. On account of the incompleteness of the latter, it is im-
possible to state whether it terminated abruptly above, as in
Cheiromys, or sank gradually away into the shaft, as in Propithe-
cus and the other lemurs. ‘The distal articular extremity pre-
sents the usual divisions into trochlear and capitellar portions.
A characteristic feature of this part of the Primate humerus is a
ridge descending from the shaft in front, to become continuous
with the external raised edge of the ulnar articular surface. No
trace of this ridge is found in the humerus of the Rodentia,
but in the fossil it is present, although not so strong as in exist-
ing lemurs and monkeys. The trochlear portion for articula-
tion with the ulna is well rounded and terminates behind in a
moderately deep olecranon depression. The capitellar portion
is unusually globular and displays upon its outer side a distinct
groove which extends somewhat more than halfway around the
articular extremity.

Among living forms, the only case in which this groove is
so well developed is in Propithecus. Cheiromys, Galago, and
Cheirogaleus exhibit distinet traces of it, but 1t is confined to
the upper outer edge of the capitellum. In Propithecus it is
associated with a characteristic shape of the articular head of
the radius, which consists of a central depression surrounded
by a more or less flat ringlike area around the edge. The head
of the radius is not preserved in the fossil, but the similarity
in the structure of the corresponding humeral articulation
leaves little doubt that its form was like that of Propzthecus.
The distal end of the humerus is thus seen to be like that of
the lemurs and entirely different from that of Paramys and
Sciurus, with which I have compared it.

The olecranon of the ulna is unusually long, and in this
respect differs from all the modern lemurs, as well as from
Scvurus. It is deeply grooved upon its outer side and presents
an extensive, flattened, subcutaneous area upon its under side.
In the first of these characters it resembles the ulna of Propi-
thecus, and in the second that of Chewromys. ‘The similarity
to these two genera also extends to the distal ends of both the
ulna and radius.

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 351

The tibia, figure 109, is the most characteristic part of the
skeleton preserved, and in the absence of the feet this bone,
especially in its distal end, may be said to be one of the
most distinctive of the entire Primate Fass HG0
skeleton. The chief characteristics
of the tibia in the lemurs and mon-
keys may be briefly stated as follows:
The proximal surface is divided into
two subequal articular facets, which
are separated by a relatively high,
pointed tibial spine. The long,
straight shaft is much compressed
- from side to side and marked at the
lower part of its upper third in front
by aroughened tubercle for the attach-
ment of the semitendinosus, one of
the chief inner hamstring muscles.
The distal extremity is relatively nar-
row transversely and limited internally
by a large pointed malleolus. The
articular surface which it offers to the
astragalus is slightly concave from
before backward, but in a transverse
direction is almost plane and slopes
outward toward the fibula. This
arrangement is associated with a highly
characteristic form of the astragalus,
which in turn is indicative of a pre-
hensile pes. Among the Rodentia,
on the other hand, the tibia and astrag-
alus are equally characteristic and Ficurz 109.—Right tibia
distinetive of another type of foot. oar ares he onan
In the fossil under consideration, the yi, natural size. (Type.)
tibia has every mark and feature of
the Primate so unmistakably stamped upon it that I have no
hesitancy in referring the species to this order, in a position not
far removed from Chezromys.

Discussion.—We have already seen that in Chetromys we
have an undisputed Primate, in which the incisors have under-
gone modification exactly similar to that of the Rodentia. We
have further seen that the presence of these teeth in this animal
is associated not only with a peculiar modification of the third
finger of the hand, but with a grub-eating habit and a tendency
to degeneration of the molars and premolars. Now in the
extinct creature before us, we have, if the evidence derived
from its osteology can be trusted, an equally unmistakable
Primate undergoing the same modification of the incisors, and

352 Wortman—Studies of Hocene Mammalia in the ;

in which the cheek teeth had almost completely disappeared.
We have no information of the structure of the hand; but
whether or not any of the fingers were modified in a manner
corresponding to that of the Aye Aye, the practical loss of the
molars and premolars can be accounted for on no other supposi-
tion than that the nature of the food upon which the animal
subsisted was so soft as to require no crushing power on the
part of the grinders. From what we know of the habits of
the Aye Aye, the inference is both logical and natural that
this food was also soft larvee, which the animal was doubtless
accustomed to seek in a similar way. From the comparative
slenderness and weakness of the lower jaws, we may even
further suggest that the animal captured these grubs in soft or
decayed wood. )

If the facts of structure have been correctly interpreted and
our hypothesis in regard to the habits is well founded, what
shall we say of the relationship between MMetacheiromys and
Cheiromys? Is it possible to suppose that these modifications,
so profound and unique among the Primates, have originated
twice in the same group entirely independently of each other?
Metachecromys can not be placed directly in the ancestral line
of Chetromys for the reason that by the loss of the grinders it
had, in the Eocene, already reached a more advanced stage of
evolution than the living genus. but to deny that the two
were descended from a common ancestral stock would, it
seems to me, involve such a tremendous assumption as to lay
a heavy burden upon our powers of belief. Such assumption
becomes all the more onerous in the complete absence of any
evidence in its support. If one had no proofs upon which to
base an opinion respecting the community of origin and dis-
tribution from a common center other than that afforded by
these two animals, so widely separated in space and yet so
closely connected in structure, he could still feel amply assured
of the security of his foundations. This evidence of the
relationship between the Madagascar and Wyoming species,
therefore, adds but another link in the chain of proof already
set forth, that both forms were migrants from a common
boreal home.

Family Microsyopside.
Microsyops Leidy.

The next family of this group to be considered is the Micro-
syopside. The type genus Jficrosyops was separated and
described by Leidy in April, 1872.* In June, 1871, Marsh
had previously described a species, Zyopsodus gracilis,t which

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1872, p. 20 (published April 16).
+ This Journal, vol. ii, 1871, p. 42.

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 353

Leidy, at the time he proposed the genus M/icrosyops, thought
to be identical with the specimens he had in hand, and adopted
Marsh’s specific name gracilis. Marsh, however, in the same
paper in which he described yopsodus gracilis, had proposed
another species, Lamnothervum elegans. From an examina-
tion of Marsh’s types, Leidy afterward concluded that it was
to LZ. elegans that his specimens were to be referred, and that
Hyopsodus gracilis was a different species. His exact words
are:* “The specific name of J. gracilis was originally given
under the impression that the remains referred by Professor
Marsh to Hyopsodus gracilis pertained to the same [species
of| animal. A specimen exhibited to the writer by Professor
Marsh would indicate that JZ. gracilis is the same as the
animal named by him Lzmnothervum elegans. As Microsyops
is generically distinct from Limnotheriwm as characterized
from the typical species, LZ. tyrannus, the specific name of the
former would be JLicrosyops elegans.”

A careful examination of the types confirms Leidy’s con-
clusions as given above, and establishes the further important
fact that Hyopsodus gracilis of Marsh is not only distinet
specifically, but represents an apparently undescribed genus of
the Microsyopside. The oldest members of this group come
from the second stage of the Lower Eocene, or Torrejon beds,
of New Mexico. The first species of this group found was
described by Cope as ALixodectes.t Quite recently Osborn
has added a second genus Olbodotes.{ The chief characters
of Miaxodectes, which is known almost exclusively from lower
jaws, are the following: There are eight teeth in the jaw, of
which three are molars, three are premolars, one is a canine,
and one an incisor; the last premolar is much simpler than the
molars in structure; the two incisors, representing the central
pair according to Osborn, are moderately enlarged.

Olbodotes has a full incisor dentition in the lower jaw, with
a tendency to enlargement of the central pair. The premolars
are reduced to two and the fourth premolar is simpler than in
Mixodectes. It is therefore the most primitive species of this
group thus far known, if correctly referred to this series.

From the succeeding Wasatch, Cope has described another
genus under the name of Cynodontomys. This species, while
very much like the Torrejon Jliwodectes, differs from it in
having lost either the canine or the second premolar and in the
greater enlargement of the incisors.

In the Wind River, we have the first appearance of the
genus Aecrosyops, which differs from Cynodontomys in the

* Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of the West, 1873, p. 84.
+ Amer. Philos. Soc., 1882-18838, p. 550.
a American Eocene Primates, etc., Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1902, p.

~

Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtTH SERIES, Vout. XVI, No. 95.—NOVEMBER, 1903.
25

354. Wortman—Studies of Hocene Mammalia in the

more complex and perfectly molariform character of the
fourth premolar. In the Bridger, from which the type of the
family was derived, there are at least four well-marked species
now known. The characters of the genus, as understood
almost exclusively from the dentition, are as follows: There is
but a single pair of incisors in the lower jaw and presumably
a like number in the upper jaw; the enamel is not limited to
the anterior face of the tooth, as in the Rodentia, but completely
invests the crown, and the teeth are not of continuous growth ;
a small canine and two premolars are present, or no canine and
three premolars, according to the way in which we interpret
the first small tooth behind the enlarged incisor to be a pre-
molar or canine; except, perhaps, in one species, the fourth pre-
molar above and below is completely molariform; the superior -
molars are tritubercular in structure, with a faint beginning of
a fourth cusp and a slightly developed mesostyle, which be-
comes stronger in the later species; the two rami of the lower
jaws are not coossified.

I know of no remains of other parts of the skeleton that
with certainty can be referred to any species of the genus. I
have seen, however, some skeletal fragments which I strongly
suspect belong to a species of this genus, but I lack the evi-
dence to make the necessary connections.

Microsyops elegans Marsh.

Limnotherium elegans Marsh, this Journal, January, 1871, p. 12; Micro-
syops gracilis (in part) Leidy, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1872, p. 20;
Mesacodon speciosus Marsh, this Journal, September, 1872, p. 205 ; Palcwaco-
don verus Leidy, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1872, p. 20; Microsyops
elegans Cope, Tertiary Vertebrata, 1883, p. 217 ; Microsyops gracilis Osborn,
American Eocene Primates, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1902, p. 210.

Description of the Type.—The type of this genus and spe-
cies consists of a fragment of a left mandibular ramus bearing
the first and second molars, together with the fourth premolar,
and the roots of the last molar. The anterior and posterior
parts of the jaw are not preserved, so that it is impossible to
determine the full dentition. The molar crowns may be de-
scribed as consisting of an anterior, tricuspidate, elevated por-
tion, usually termed the trigon, and a posterior, wider, less
elevated part, or heel. The three cusps of the trigon are
conical, and are placed in the form of a more or less per-
fect equilateral triangle, with the apex directed forward. Of
these, the anterior is much the smallest of the three, the two
posterior cusps being subequal in size and standing nearly oppo-
site each other. The heel is considerably wider than the ante-
rior, or trigonal, part of the crown and bears three distinet
cusps enclosing a basin. Of these, one is external, one inter-
nal, and one posterior. The external cusp is the largest and

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 355

has a V-shaped pattern. One arm of the V extends forward
and inward to join the base of the trigon and the other inward
and backward to the posterior cusp. The internal cusp is
relatively small and conical, and situated directly opposite the
large external one. In front of this, between it and the
internal cusp of the trigon, is a deep notch through which the
valley opens internally. The posterior cusp of the heel is
small and indistinct; it is situated upon the posterior rim of
the central valley, more to the inner than to the outer side ; it is
connected with the outer V-shaped cusp by a low ridge, and is
separated from the inner cusp by a notch. The crown of the
fourth premolar is nearly like that of the true molars, the
only noticeable difference in its structure being the absence of
the anterior cusp of the trigon, together with the smaller size
and more posterior position of the interior trigonal cusp. The
chief characteristics of these teeth are seen in the broad heel
as compared with the trigon, as well as the slight elevation
and distinctness of the cusps of the latter.

Description of the Type of Mesacodon speciosus.—The
specimen upon which this genus and species were founded

110

Figure 110.—Lower jaw of Microsyops elegans Marsh (type of Mesacodon
speciosus Marsh); viewed from above; two and one-half times natural size.

consists of a well-preserved lower jaw, figure 110, of the right
side, lacking the condylar, coronoid, and angular portions.
The last molar is missing, as well as the canine or second pre-
molar and the crown of the large incisor. After careful com-
parison with J/zcrosyops elegans, I can not discover any differ-
ence between the two. The teeth are very nearly of the same
size and, as far as ascertainable, the crowns of the molars and
premolars are constituted in exactly the same way. I do not
hesitate, therefore, to refer them to the same genus and species.

The additional information furnished by this specimen per-
mits an accurate determination of the entire dentition of the
lower jaw. The enlarged incisor is implanted by a distinct
root and was not, therefore, of persistent growth; its position
is procumbent, being directed much forward and a little up-
ward. Most of the crown is broken away, but enough remains
to show that the enamel was not limited to the anterior face
of the tooth, as in Chetromys and the Rodentia, but invested

356 Wortman—Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the

it posteriorly as well as in front. The canine or second pre-
molar follows without diastema, and judging from the size of
its alveolus was relatively large. An indistinet ridge upon the
inner side of the socket indicates that the root was grooved in
this situation, a fact which is against its interpretation as a
canine and in favor of its being a premolar. The third pre-
molar had not been fully erupted at the time of death, and is
only partly protruded trom the jaw; it is implanted by two
roots somewhat diagonally to the long axis of the ramus and
has a pointed crown, with a small, though distinet, heel. The
fourth premolar is identical in structure with that of the type
of J. elegans already described, as are also the molars. The
last molar is not preserved in either specimen. The ramus is
deepest in front at the posterior border of the symphysis, nar-
rowing considerably behind. The tooth line does not pass
behind the coronoid to such an extent as in Uhezromys and the
Rodentia. The anterior border of the masseteric fossa is prom-
inent and, as in both Chezromys and the Rodentia, toward its
upper posterior portion forms the root of the coronoid, which
therefore has a position much external to the tooth line. The
opening of the inferior dental canal lies considerably below
the level of the tooth crowns—a character in which it agrees
with Chetromys and differs from both the modern squirrels
and Paramys. It may be further noted that the symphysis
is roughened, but not codssified with the opposite ramus.
Description of other Material.—There are in the Marsh col-
lection six other specimens of more or less complete lower jaws,
which I refer to this species. Among these specimens there
are several examples of a last molar. This tooth very closely
resembles the other molars in structure, differing only in the
elongation of the heel by reason of the greater size and promi-
nence of its posterior cusps. In no case do any of the upper
teeth accompany these lower jaws, but in another species to be
described later, there are upper and lower teeth in association,
so that the form of the upper molars is known with certainty.
In my own collection there is a well-preserved upper jaw of a
small form of Jicrosyops, bearing all the molars and the last
premolar, which accord so well in size with what the upper
teeth of MW. elegans should be, that I have no hesitaney in
attributing it to that species. I obtained this proportional size
by measurement of the teeth of many living species of lemurs, as
well as of those of the one known J/icrosyops above referred to.
There should be also mentioned here, the species described
by Leidy under the name /alwacodon verus, from a superior
molar. According to Leidy’s figure, this tooth, figure 111, is
identical with the upper teeth which I refer to J/icrosyops
elegans, and it therefore becomes a synonym of that species—

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. Obi

a-conclusion which has been already reached by Osborn. The
more important features of the upper teeth of this species may
be stated as follows: There are three molars, of which the first
and second are subequal, with the third smaller; the crown has
three main cusps and a faint indication of the fourth; the two
outer cusps are more or less crescentic in structure; there is a
small though well-inarked mesostyle; both intermediates are
present in the first and second molars, but the posterior is
absent in the last; the fourth premolar is molariform, but
lacks any trace of the posterior intermediate. I give here-
with a reconstruction in outline of the dentition, figure 112, as
derived from several specimens.

Figure 111.—Upper molar of Microsyops elegans Marsh (type of Palcac-
odon verus Leidy); crown view; twice natural size. (After Leidy.)

Figure 112.—Upper and lower jaws of Microsyops elegans Marsh ; side
view ; natural size; composed from several individuals.

The measurements of the type of J/icrosyops elegans are as
follows: :

From base of posterior root of last molar to anterior ex-

Mem OL.crown. of fourth premolar 2222 2225-2242. LGxOn
From base of posterior root of last molar to anterior

exmmemity of crown of first molar ._..%22- -- eee a AE)
Length of fourth premolar and first and second molars 11:0
ienetheot first and,second molats.. 0. ...-2.+--.-----.- 75

The measurements of the type of J/esacodon speciosus are :

Length from posterior root of last molar to base of inci-

DOP. kee eSBs Bae CMe BRE 29 To (oe ee Cae eee ene eee Z0n0 rere
From base of incisor to posterior extremity of fourth

PRO aie eter UE Perea os ke Lk 75
Depth of jaw at posterior border of symphysis ---- .--- 8:0
MeneurOmaaw atlastmolarien se on. a5 Se) es-+ ety) TO

Measurements of the last lower molar and upper teeth of
other specimens :

Peneuhwoignipper) molars; 4. Gye eA) oo) ott el ORs
Length of upper molars and fourth premolar-_--------- 14°5
Rena cmeowlastlower molar iy semeen) oo) eye a ek 5:0

Length of second and third lower molars .._.---.---.... 8°5

358 Wortman—Studies of Hocene Mammalia in the

The type specimen was found by Professor Marsh, at Grizzly
Buttes, Bridger Basin, Wyoming. The type of JMJesacodon
speciosus was also found by Professor Marsh at the same place.
Other specimens are recorded from this locality ; also from
Dry Creek, and from Millersville. The single specimen which
I obtained is from the same horizon as that in which the type
was found. ©

Microsyops gracilis Leidy.

Microsyops gracilis Leidy, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., April 16, 1872,
p- 20; Bathrodon typus Marsh, this Journal, August, 1872, p. 19, Separata;
Microsyops typus Osborn, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1902, p. 212.

As already noted, Leidy, in his final description of JZ, gra-
celis, believed it to be the same as J. elegans. This is
undoubtedly true of the first specimen mentioned, but a second
lower jaw was associated with the latter, with the expression
of some doubt as to its specific identity. There are in the
Marsh collection four specimens, exclusive of the type of Bath-
rodon typus, figure 113, consisting of the upper and lower
jaws of a form which agrees in every way with the figures and
descriptions given by Leidy of his second specimen. These
are supplemented by three more examples of upper teeth
obtained by myself in the type locality last summer. The
additional material enables me to determine that this series of
specimens is not only larger than the typical J. elegans, but

114

Figure 1138.—Lower jaw of Microsyops gracilis Leidy (type of Bathrodon
typus Marsh); viewed from above; two and one-half times natural size.

Figure 114.—Upper jaw of Microsyops gracilis Leidy; crown view ;
twice natural size.

presents other constant differences which I think impossible to
account for on the basis of differences in age or sex. In no
case are the upper teeth, figure 114, associated with those of
the lower jaw, but as in the preceding species, the size and
character of the two correspond so closely that there can be
virtually no doubt of their relations. The more important
distinctive characters are the following: The teeth are slightly
larger than those of Jf. elegans, and the jaw is appreciably
heavier and deeper ; the last upper molar has a distinct meso-
style and a posterior intermediate cusp, both of which are
absent in the same tooth of J/. elegans; the fourth superior
premolar has a mesostyle and the posterior intermediate dis-

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 359

tinet ; the external cusps of the superior molars are apparently
less flattened and crescentic than those of JZ. elegans.

In one specimen of an upper jaw, the second and third pre-
molars are preserved, although the tooth which I take to be
the second is not in place. The third is implanted by three
roots, two of which are external and one internal. The crown
is composed of a single large external and a smaller internal,
or lingual, cusp. The second is a two-rooted tooth, much
smaller than the preceding ; its crown is a simple, transversely
flattened cone, with a slight indication of a heel, and is very
much like the corresponding tooth in many of the modern
lemurs. No other parts of the skeleton are known, but I here
eall attention to an unassociated calcaneum, figure 115, which
is not only Primate, apparently, but is
about the right size for this or the pre-
ceding species and may possibly pertain
to one of them. The Primate characters
of the bone are seen in the short and
incurved tuber, as well as in the arrange-
ment of the facets, which are much like
those in Lemur catta. The chief pecu-
liarity, however, is in the elongation of — pygupne 115. —Calea-
the part below Ae astragalar facet, recall- neum of Microsyops (2);
ing at once the elongated caleaneum of dorsal view ; twice nat-
some of the modern Madagascar species. Tee oh Nears
I mention this matter for the reason that jtgy;.? ”
there is no other known Primate in the
Bridger to which, as regards size, it could mento If this
supposition is sustained, these animals are certainly Primates.

The measurements of the type of Bathrodon typus are as
follows :

iemaneot- second and third molars.°./.:_.-....-.--- -8°25™™
Measurements of other specimens: .

From base of last molar to base of incisor_._---...--- 22°00™™ -
Kenethvot first and second molars 2......:.-.-..---- 9°00
Length of fourth premolar and first and second molars 12°50
Depth of jaw at posterior border of symphysis -.---- 9°00
Depth of jaw at anterior border of third molar .-_-.-- 10°00
Bearer tipper molars 22336222 8. fe ot ee 11-00
Leneth of upper molars and fourth premolar ---.- .--- 15°00
Length of third and fourth premolars and molars ---. 18°00

The type of Bathrodon typus was found by Mr. F. Meade, Jr.,
at Grizzly Buttes; other specimens were obtained at Church
Buttes and Millersville. I secured specimens on Cottonwood

Creek and at Church Buttes. The caleaneum was found on
, Dry Creek.

360 Wortman—Studies of Hocene Mammalia in the

Microsyops annectens Marsh.

Bathrodon annectens Marsh, this Journal, vol. iv, August, 1872, p. 19,
Separata ; Microsyops annectens Osborn, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., June,
1902, p. 218.

The type of this species, figure 116, consists of a fragment
of a lower jaw of the left side, bearing the last molar. The
only character by means of which it can be distinguished from
the two preceding species, at least as far as the type is con-
cerned, is that of size. This distinction, however, is so pro-
nounced that the validity of the species can not be questioned.

116 The crown of the last molar has
identically the same structure as
that of IZ. elegans and of I. gra-
cilis. The trigon is slightly ele-
vated above the heel and the ante-
rior: cusp is not very distinct.
The heel displays its characteristic

Figure 116. — Last lower breadth, with the laree externaiaine
molar of Microsyops annectens nate cusp and the smaller external
Marsh (type of Bathrodonannec- and posterior cusps. The posterior
tens Marsh); crown view; two : .
and one-half times natural size, CUSP 18 not situated at the center of

the posterior border, but very much
to the inner side, in a position almost behind the internal—an
arrangement which gives an imperfect quadrilateral outline to
the heel. This is highly characteristic of the genus Jlicrosyops,
and insures its recognition at sight.

In the present collection, there are four other specimens
represented by lower jaws alone, which give the lower denti-
tion in its entirety. The form, proportions, and relations of
the other teeth are very like those in the two species already
described.

The measurements of the type are as follows: .
Length of last.molaraje:. ib ..4. se eo ee OT Sie
Depth of the jaw at anterior margin of third molar_-.. 11:0

Measurements of other specimens :

Length‘of “molar sermes: 22.22... 9 2 reo"
Liength'of second and third molars -22. 22-2 2a 10°0
Length of molars and premolars to base of incisors -.. 30°0

The type specimen was found near Henry’s Fork, by Mr.
F. Meade, Jr., of the Yale party, in September, 1871. Addi-
tional specimens from the same locality were obtained by Mr.
Harger and others. |

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 361

Microsyops Schlosseri sp. nov.

This species is founded upon a fragment of a left mandibu-
lar ramus, figure 117, bearing the second and third molars,
together with two fragments of the upper jaw containing the
first and second molars in one, and the second molar in the
other. There is also an anterior portion of a jaw, bearing a
part of the incisor and the premolars much worn, which I like-
wise refer to this form.

The chiet difference between this
species and JZ. annectens is one of
size. It exceeds J. annectens to
about the extent that the latter
exceeds Wf. gracilis. Another fea-
ture of importance is seen in the
wrinkled surface of the enamel,
especially in the valley of the heel,
where it is quite rugose. The
anterior cusp of the trigon is small, Freure 117, —Upperand lower

though distinct, in the crown of molars of Microsyops Schlosseri
Wortman; side and crown

the first molar, but consists of little views: one and one-half times
more than a thiekened cingulum in naturalsize. (Type.)

the second. ‘The internal cusp of

the trigon is broken, but apparently had about the same degree
of elevation as is usual in the other species. The jaw is notably
heavier than that of JZ. annectens.

Associated with the type lower jaw is a second upper molar
which seems to be too much worn to belong to the same indi-
vidual. The specimen, however, was collected by Professor
Marsh himself, and knowing his great care in such matters,
there must have been in the manner of their occurrence very
good reason for putting the two together. A second isolated
fragment of an upper jaw includes the first and second molars.
The chief characters of these teeth are as follows: The outer
cusps are moderately flattened externally; the mesostyle is
distinct, though small; the intermediates are as in the other
species ; the postero-internal cusp is represented by little more
than a cingulum in the second, but is more distinct in the first ;
the enamel is rugose.

The following are the chief measurements of the type and
of the upper molars referred to this species:

117

Length of second and third lower molars_-----.------- 12-02"
Memaubkotelast lower molar wesc Le ye a OD
Depth of jaw at anterior border of third molar.-_------ 10°5
Antero-posterior diameter -of first and second upper

NON ANtS peemane a wiht i iy MM Sy a oes ca Oe 10°5

362 Wortman—Studies of Hocene Mammalia in the

The type specimen was found by Professor Marsh, at
Henry’s Fork of Green River, August 9, 1873. The other
specimens were obtained at the same locality.

In addition to the species herein described, there are prob-
ably at least two others indicated by fragmentary specimens.
One of these consists of an upper molar tooth of a small
species about equal in size to WZ. elegans. It comes from the
upper horizon of Henry’s Fork, and dtffers from the upper
teeth which I have attributed to JZ. elegans in the absence of
the mesostyle, absence of intermediates, and the greater promi-
nence of the postero-internal cusp. It apparently belongs to
Microsyops, but I refrain from proposing a specific name for
so fragmentary a specimen.

In like manner, there is a fragment of an upper jaw con-
taining two molars, from the lower horizon. The structure of
these molars differs from all other species of JMicrosyops from
the Bridger beds in the more distinctly conical shape of the
external cusps, as well as in the prominence of the intermedi-
ates. I suspect-that the form may be the same as one of the
Wind River species in which the upper teeth are entirely
unknown.

Smilodectes gen. nov.

This genus is founded upon the specimen originally described
by Professor Marsh under the name of Hyopsodus gracilis.
Osborn in his synonymy refers it to Sarcolemur, but the struc-
ture of the teeth distinctly forbids its reference to either of
these genera. In certain respects the dentition, as far as
known, resembles that of J/ccrosyops more than that of any
other genus, but in others it exhibits distinct relationship to
that of Motharctus and Limnothervum. ‘The number of teeth
in the lower jaw is eight, as against seven in J/icrosyops, of
which the most anterior is an enlarged incisor. Just as in
Microsyops, the succeeding tooth may be rated either as a
canine or an incisor; if a canine, there are then three pre-
molars and if a premolar, there are four. The fourth premolar
is not molariform. The single enlarged incisor distinguishes
the genus from WVotharctus and Limnotherium, and the more
complex fourth premolar from J/ixodectes.

Smilodectes gracilis Marsh.
Hyopsodus gracilis Marsh, this Journal, July, 1871, p. 42.

The type of this species and genus consists of the anterior
part of a left mandibular ramus, figure 118, containing the
fourth premolar, first molar, and a portion of the third pre-

Marsh Collection, Peabody Musewm. 363 —

molar. Parts of the alveoli for all the remaining teeth in front
are also recognizable, so that the number of the teeth can be
accurately determined. With this I associate three other speci-
mens, in two of which the last molar is well preserved.

The jaw has about the same depth as that of the larger
species of Microsyops, which it otherwise resembles in its
general form. The symphysis is deep and rugose, projecting
somewhat below the level of the lower border of the ramus,
but exhibits no traces of codsification. The alveolus of the
enlarged incisor lies close to the symphysis, and unlike that of
Microsyops indicates an almost vertical position for this tooth.

Immediately behind the incisive 118
alveolus is a medium-sized socket A
for the first premolar or canine. eS)

tooth, with the larger of the roots
posterior. The third premolar is
likewise two-rooted. A portion of
the crown denotes that there was a ~ fax

slight indication of a heel. The eee ee eae
rest of the crown is broken away. sodus Seite Meet) and Tage
The fourth premolar isin about the lower molar of Smilodectes gra-
same stage of evolution as that of cues Marsh; side eu of BaD
Limnotherium or Notharctus. The i754 one-half times nataral size.
internal cusp, however, is smaller,

but the heel is broader and provided with two cusps instead of
one. The first molar also closely resembles that of Lemnothervum
tyrannus, lacking the great transverse breadth of the posterior
part of the crown seen in J/icrosyops. The arrangement of
the cusps is very similar to that seen in Lamnothervum.

I also place in this species three specimens in which the last
lower molar is preserved, but which do not show the number
of teeth. The association may be therefore incorrect. In one
specimen, part of an upper molar is preserved which exhibits
a structure like that of J/icrosyops, and not like that of Lem-
notherium. ‘The last lower molar, on the other hand, resem-
bles the same tooth in Limnotheriwm more than that of
Microsyops, from all of which, in connection with the charac-
ters of the type, I conclude that the specimens must be referred
to the species under consideration.

The last molar differs from that of d/ccrosyops in the central
position of the posterior cusps. In Jicrosyops, as we have
already seen, this cusp stands almost directly behind the inter-
nal one. In this respect the tooth resembles the last molar of
Limnotherium, but the cusp is not so large and is more dis-
tinct from the posterior rim of the heel. Again this molar
differs from that of Lemnothervum in having a distinct internal

Behind this comes a two-rooted ~ ipep: pps mi G2 )ms.
‘eeiieee Tr

3864 © Wortman —Studies of Hocene Mammalia in the

cusp of the heel, as in Microsyops. Associated with one of
the specimens containing the last lower molar is a portion of
an upper molar. Enough is preserved to show that there were
three main cusps, together with a rudimentary fourth, very
much as in Microsyops.

The type specimen was found by Professor Marsh, at Grizzly
Buttes, Bridger Basin, on September 5, 1870; other specimens
were obtained at the same locality.

The Relationship of the Microsyopside.

There is as yet no absolutely conclusive evidence by means
of which the position of this group can be determined with
certainty. The species had always been considered, without
good reason, to belong to the Primates, until Matthew, from
an associated astragalus of JLixodectes pungens, put forth the
view that these forms are rodents. Osborn following Matthew,
placed them in a primitive suborder of the Rodentia, which he
called Proglires. He says:* “ Ltelationship to the Rodentia
is now found to be indicated by: (1) progressive elongation of
median incisor; (2) disappearance of lateral incisor; (3) reduc-
tion of canines; (4) disappearance of the anterior premolars
and reduction of third premolar; (5) transformation of fourth
premolar into molar forms, thus foreshadowing a homodont
molar-premolar series ; (6) width and extension of talonid (as in
Eocene Paramys); (7) rodent form of astragalus. Agaznst
the Rodent relationship are: (1) Persistence of the canine;
(2) absence of diastema; (3) absence of any evidence (except
the levelling of the premolars) of adaptation for antero-
posterior or orthal motion of the jaw.”

If the astragalus which Matthew associates with the lower
jaw of Wivodectes really pertains ta the same animal, there is
then strong presumptive proof that this species, at least, is not
a Primate. From long personal experience in collecting in the
Torrejon beds, however, I have found that only too frequently
the fossils are washed out of their original matrix and badly
mixed. Without a full knowledge of the circumstances under
which these particular specimens occurred, and in the absence
of reasonably conclusive evidence which would tend to pre-
clude the possibility of a mixture, I should not feel inclined to
attach any very great weight to this association. At all
events, I should wish some stronger evidence upon which to
rest so important a generalization.’ As for Osborn’s alleged
additional evidence of relationship to the Rodentia, attention
may be called to the fact that he seems to have overlooked
Cheiromys and left it out of account entirely. With the

* American Eocene Primates, etc., Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1902, p.
204.

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 365

exception of the character of the astragalus, which, as we have
just seen, is open to question, all the characters cited, save
one—the molariform fourth premolar—are evidence of rela-
tionship with, and apply equally to Chevromys as well as to the
Rodentia. The molariform fourth premolar is not an espe-
cially rodent character. It occurs among the Lemuroidea in
Hapalemur griseus, Otogale Monteiri, Galago Alleni, and
Hemigalago Demidoffi. In like manner, the evidence against
rodent relationship, as given by Osborn, can be quite as well
considered to be evidence against relationship to Cheiromys,
for Owen has long since conclusively demonstrated that this
species is a Primate, with a highly modified rodent-like denti-
tion. Altogether, I fail to see wherein Osborn has given any
reasons, beyond those already well known, for regarding the
Microsyopsidee as members of the Rodentia. On the contrary,
to my mind, there is fairly conclusive proof that these animals
are not rodents. I shall now proceed toa statement of this
evidence. ,

In Part I of the present series of papers (p. 96, Separata), I
have presented my views at some length upoa the theory of
“Ousp Migration,” as originally propounded by Osborn.* I
have likewise dissented from the use of the terminology of the
mammalian molar cusps proposed by him, on the ground that
their homologies were incorrectly deter mined and the names
applied inappropr iate and misleading. [have further expressed
the opinion that, as far as any nomenclature is applicable to
these cusps, which would convey any information of their
homological relationship, that proposed by Scott is preferable
because based upon ascertained and undisputed facts in the
history of the premolar series. By far the most important
principle embodied in Scott’s determination of the order of
appearance and homological position of the cusps of the pre-
molars, although never expressed nor stated by him, is that by
means of which we are provided with the key to a proper
interpretation of the molar cusps and the determination of
their history. AJl theoretical considerations, as well as all the
evidence obtainable, point with such directness and definite
precision to the conclusion that the molars and molariform
premolars have passed through identically the same changes
and have been subjected to precisely the same influences, that
it may be accepted as one of the basic and fundamental truths
of dental morphology. Credence in any other view would be
equivalent to believing that the corresponding teeth on the
opposite sides of the mouth have had different histories. This
principle or law has not as yet been ocularly demonstrated, for
the reason that no Eutherian mammals older than those from

* Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1886, p. 242.

366 = Wortman—Studies of Hocene Mammalia in the

the Tertiary are known. In the earliest Eocene, the molars,
with a few notable exceptions, had already assumed such a
degree of complexity as practically to obliterate all traces of
the order of appearance and manner of development of the
cusps. When, however, the ancestors of the Puerco fauna are
found, and the more primitive stages of their tooth develop-
ment obtained, I look forward with the utmost confidence to
the production of all the evidence necessary to a complete and
final demonstration of the truth of this hypothesis.

While this principle, enunciated by Scott, may be made to
include any given group of mammals, and the history of their
molar cusps thus determined, yet at the same time I feel well
assured that no general law can be framed nor can any termi-
nology be devised which will be applicable to all the Mammalia,
unless it is confined strictly to the position of the eusps, with-
out any reference whatever to their homologies. The reason
for this difficulty is, that different groups of mammals have
adopted different plans for increasing the complexity of their
molars. In many divisions, the order of appearance and posi-
tion of the cusps, as outlined by Scott, undoubtedly obtains;
but in others, as I shall presently show, it has been different.

Taking as a starting poimt a transversely flattened conical
crown, a complicating premolar of the inferior series, in a large
number of groups of the Mammalia, passes through the follow-
ing stages: (1) The posterior edge or slope of the crown
elongates and develops a second or posterior root; (2) this
slope of the crown becomes thickened transversely, and flat-
tened from before backward, so as to present a triangular area
with the apex at the summit; (3) this area looks upward and
backward, and is bounded by a descending ridge on each side ;
(4) a thickened ledge is formed at its base, foreshadowing the
heel; (5) on the znner descending ridge, bordering the posterior
triangular area, appears a new cusp, small at first, which is
posterior and internal to the main cusp; (6) concomitantly,
the heel broadens and its posterior edges grow up in such a
way as to form a basin; (7) at the same time a cusp may or
may not be developed, at the anterior slope of the crown; (8)
the heel develops two cusps, one of which is external and one
internal in position.

Thus, it will be seen that all the elements necessary to the
formation either of the quadritubercular or of the so-called
tuberculo-sectorial crown are present, and further growth of
the new elements is all that is required to effect a complete
molariform transformation. That the evolution and develop-
ment of certain premolars has taken place in this manner, is
supported by a great abundance of evidence from many well-
known phyla whose history has been determined with consid-

Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum. 367

erable exactness. In connection with teeth having this devel-
opmental history, one important point to remember is, that the
antero-internal cusp, or the one which originates upon the
inner ridge of the posterior triangular area, is always slightly
posterior to the antero-external or main cusp. And it is also
of the wtmost vmportance to recall that the apex of the original
single-pointed premolar corresponds to, and is homologous
with, the antero-external cusp. This has been determined as
true of the Ungulata, Carnivora, Insectivora, Primates, and
probably of other orders.

In the case of the Rodentia, however, it is different. If a
perfectly unworn, lower fourth premolar of a member of the
Sciuromorph division is examined, figure 119, it will be seen
that the new cusp, instead of originating upon the internal, is
an outgrowth of the external, descending ridge bordering the
posterior triangular area. It thus happens that the cusp which
corresponds to, and is homologous with, the apex of the origi-
nal single-pointed premolar zs the antero-cnternal and not the
antero-external cusp, as in the orders just referred to.

Figure 119.—Fourth lower premolar of a species of Paramys,; outside (a)
and crown (b) views; three times natural size.

Further proof of this is found in the fact that the antero-
internal cusp has a position in advance of that of the antero-
external, which should be the case if the new element had
arisen upon the external instead of upon the internal ridge.
The ancestral type of the Sciumorphs is represented by the
genus Paramys of the Eocene, figure 119, and in this group
the manner of origin of the premolar cusps is clearly shown.
Distinct traces of this succession are still visible in the squir-
rels and spermophiles of the present day. The genus Wysops
of the Bridger beds (Homys of the European Eocene), while
closely allied to Paramys, without much doubt represents the
beginning of the Myomorph division of the Rodentia, and it
is interesting to note that this same plan of origin of the
cusps of the lower premolars is true of this group as well.
No sufficiently primitive stages of the teeth of either the His-
tricomorphs or the Lagomorphs have to my knowledge as yet
been found, which would enable one to say with absolute
certainty whether or not the complication of their teeth has

368 Wortman—Studies of Eocene Mammalia.

followed this plan or some other,* but I think there can be
little doubt that it is a rule of very general application and a
fundamental character of the entire order.

From this it follows that no names can be given to these
cusps unless we wish merely to indicate their position. Pro-
fessor Osborn, in reply to my strictures upon his cusp nomen-
clature, says ‘that although wrong the names should still
stand.” His ter minology was proposed to supersede the old
names then in vogue, which attempted nothing more than to
indicate position. This proposal was elaborately made, and its
adoption has been strenuously insisted upon, on the ground
that the homologies of the cusps had been determined and
that Osborn’s system thus expressed something more than the
mere fact of position. The names themselves ¢ carry with them
the significance of this alleged homology, which, according to
the oft-repeated and many-times-published statements of its
author, constitutes one of its chief merits. In view of the
facts above set forth, however, [am more firmly than ever of
the opinion, that all-such attempts are foredoomed to failure,
and I believe they should be abandoned as utterly useless and
confusing ; that of Professor Osborn, being doubly erroneous,
is therefore the most open to objection in this regard.

The Microsyopsidee, as we have already seen, follow the
Primates in the plan of addition of the cusps to the pre-
molars and presumably to the molars also, which, to my mind,
effectually disproves Osborn’s suggestion that they are mem-
bers of the Rodentia. If further evidence is required, we
have only to refer to the great dissimilarity in the structure of
the molars in the two groups. In no living rodent does the
molar pattern approach that of Jd/2crosyops, except, perhaps,
in the squirrels and their extinct forerunner, the Eocene
Paramys, but even here the differences can be readily de-
tected. Among the Lemuroidea, on the other hand, the great
similarity im the constitution of the molar crowns to those of
the Microsyopsidee is apparent at a glance, Add to this, the
completely transitional molar pattern afforded by Smdzlodectes,
together with the strong evidence that the ‘contemporary
Metachetrome ys Was a Primate, and the proof of their relation-
ship is all but demonstrated.

* Sciuravus Marsh, of the Bridger, which in many respects is closely re-
lated to Paramys, furnishes the beginning of a modification leading directly
into such types of molar crown as those seen in Steneofiber, Palceocastor, and
Castor. In like manner, Mysops and Sciuravus afferd the stem types from
which both the Histricomorphs and Myomorphs were in all probability de-

rived. This subject will be more fully treated in a subsequent part of the
present work.

[To be continued. |

T. Holm—Triadenum Virginicum (L.) Rafin. 369

Art. XXXVI. — Triadenum Virginicum (L.) Rafin. <A
morphological and anatomical study; by THro. Hom.
(With figures in the text.) :

THERE are said to be.at least thirty generic synonyms of
Hypericum, of which Spach is the author of nineteen; Hyperi-
cum L. is, however, the only one recognized by Bentham and
Hooker, while the other genera are treated merely as sections
of two large groups: in accordance with the presence or absence
of hypogynous glands in the flower. The suppression of these
proposed genera may in some instances seem justified, since not
a few of the writers who have dealt with the segregation of
genera, and especially of small ones, have perhaps gone too far
in their discrimination, or they have not always expressed their
reason for making these segregations as clearly as might be
desirable. But whatever the case be, a renewed study of
several of these segregations may lead to their reéstablishment,
especially after careful observations in the field, rather than by
continued research in herbaria.

Moreover, in late years the anatomical method has rendered
great assistance by the supplementing of characters derived
from the internal structure. The actual value of such anatomi-
cal’ characters is, however, only to be perceived when the
structure of most of the species of a given genus is known, and
we believe that, for instance, the Wypericacee have been studied
thoroughly from this point of view to enable us to draw certain
distinctions between the genera.

In presenting a study of the genus Zrzadenum, it is the
writer’s intention to demonstrate the validity of one of the
obscure genera of Rafinesque, which has, as it appears, been
imperfectly known heretofore, and ignored by most authors,
even by Bentham and Hooker. The history of the genus is
very brief. Rafinesque removed Linneeus’s [Hypericum Vir-
ginicum from the genus and referred it to a new genus 77rzade-
num, on account of the presence of three glands in the flower,
alternating with the stamens. Zriadenum Virginicum (L.)
Rafin. is also known under the name Hodes or Hlodea Vir-
ginica, but this genus, established by Adanson, does not include
plants of habit or structure like that of Zrzadenum. Finally,
Hypericum Virginicum, as described in the Synoptical Flora,*
is our plant, and it so happens that we have not reached a
single step farther in regard to the classification of this plant
than at the time of Linneus.

It is true that Rafinesque founded his genus 7riadenwm on
no other characters than the floral glands and reddish flowers,

* For references consult the Bibliography appended to this paper.

Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH Series, Vou. XVI, No, 95.—NoOVEMBER, 1903.
26 uae

370 = T. Holm—Triadenum Virginicum (L.) Rafin.

remarkable, however, in the genus Hypericum, but to a critical
student it would appear as if there might be some good reason
for suspecting additional, and perhaps more valid, characters to
accompany those, already pointed out by Rafinesque ; and from
the writer’s observations upon this plant in a living state
through several seasons, Zrzadenum has proved to be quite an
interesting plant and undoubtedly a good genus.

The flesh-colored flower attracted our attention when we
saw the plant for the first time, growing in a swamp in com-
pany with S?hexia, Asclepias, Eriocaulon and others, and
when we examined the parts underground, we found a rhizome,
which was very different from that of other species of “* Hyperv-
cum,” as far as known. A continued study of the plant from
seedling and of the subterranean organs in connection with an
anatomical investigation of the vegetative organs compared
with those of other members of Hypericacew, and quite espe-
cially of Hypericum, has convinced us that Zriadenum pos-
sesses sufficient morphological and anatomical characters to
entitle it toa genus. In presenting the results of our study,
we will begin with some notes upon the morphology of the
plant which have not been hitherto recorded.

In the seedling stage, Zrzadenum Virginicum does not differ
from most of the species of Hypericum except in the very
characteristic glaucous hue of the leaves. There is a primary
root, a short hypocotyl and a pair of small cotyledons above
ground. The seedling reaches the flowering stage commonly
in the first summer, and ripens the seeds late in the fall, while
the main axis dies off during the winter. Nevertheless the
plant is perennial, for during the flowering period the basal
stem-portion has commenced to ramify, and shows from one to
two pair of horizontal branches, stolons, which are developed
in the axils of the cotyledons and the subsequent pair of leaves.
The former, those that arise from the axils of the cotyledons,
are characteristic by their somewhat swollen and short inter-
nodes, and small, membranaceous, scale-like leaves ; they ramify
freely, but are rootless for several months (T in figures 1 and
2); their color is crimson or yellowish brown. The other
stolons (St. in figure 2), which develop further up the stem,
have longer internodes, and are not swollen, and as a rule they
do not ramify. When we examine the plant in the succeeding
early summer, the main axis, including the main root (R in
figs. 1 and 2) has died off altogether, while several vegetative
or already flowering shoots have developed. from the stolons;
and when these aérial shoots finally die off during the fall, the
remaining part of the tuberous stolon is able to continue its
ramification for at least another year.

Triadenum Virginicum thus possesses an underground

T. Holm—Triadenum Virginicum (L.) Rafin. 371

rhizome of more or less tuberous stolons with scale-like leaves,
which, to our knowledge, is not met with among the species of

San ==.
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oer NN X
Tl GALI :
DATA
See A
NW, A J

fTypericum proper. If, for instance, we examine the perennial
Hypericum maculatum during the winter, we observe the
presence of numerous green shoots above ground at the base
of the withered flowering stem, and these shoots are also

872 = T. Holm—Tvriadenum Virginicum (L.) Rafin.

developed from the axils of the lower stem-leaves, perhaps even
from the cotyledons. But they are not subterranean; they
bear only green leaves and have no swollen internodes, and a
like manner of propagation is met with in other species, for
instance [/. perforatum and H. tetrapterum. The rhizome
of Zriadenwum is especially characteristic, by the fact that while -
the underground portion of the main axis stays alive for some
time, it never shows the swelling of the internodes as do its
lateral branches, at least those from the axils of the cotyledons.
Tuberous rhizomes are common, as we remember, but they are
mostly of two kinds: either is the main axis very slender and
develops equally slender, horizontally-creeping stolons of which
the outermost internodes become swollen so as to form a tuber,
“tuberiferous stolons,” or the main axis is already at the seed-
ling stage visibly swollen, the swelling being moreover obsery-
able in all the subsequent internodes, that stay underground,
as we remember from Sanguinaria, Podophyllum and many
others; such rhizomes are called “ tuberous.”

Now in regard to the root-system, Zriadenwm possesses a
main root, as shown in figures 1 and 2 (R.), which persists for
about two seasons, when the stolons break off from the mother
plant and develop adventitious roots at the nodes (v7 in figure 3),
or more correctly just above these. The position of these
adventitious roots is quite singular since they break ont in a
very short distance above the axillary buds, one above each,
and when the buds stay dormant, the roots appear as if they
were axillary; these roots are endogenous. This position of
adventitious roots is not frequently met with, and we might
recall some of the earlier observations upon this subject.
Most frequently secondary roots develop at the nodes of stems,
and when the leaves are opposite (and the stem quadrangular ?)
there may be observed four such roots at each node, one on
each side of the leaf-base, or there may be several, as in a num-
ber of Graminew, Juncacew, Ranunculacew, Umbellifere, ete.

Irmisch found from one to four secondary roots above the
axillary bud in certain species of Pyrola; Professor Warming |
observed a similar position of such roots in Hottonia, Dentaria,
Cardamine, Sedum, various species of Campanula, ete. In
Pyrola aphylla, which we have described in a_ previously
published paper, the adventitious roots do not break out exactly
above the buds, but a little to the right or left of these.

But in Zriadenum we observed only one root above each
bud, two at each node, although the leaves are opposite; we
must not forget, however, to state that the stem is cylindrical
in this genus.

While thus the subterranean organs of Zriadenum offer
several points of interest, and by which the genus shows a

T. Holm—Triadenum Virginieum (L.) Rafin. 378

marked deviation from the genus Hypericum, the organs
above ground are of no less importance. We need only refer
to the floral structure, as already indicated by Rafinesque. But
besides this the leaves show a character by which they may be
readily distinguished from those of broad-leaved species of
Hypericum, not including Androsemum, which is evidently a
distinct genus; this character consists in the venation: the
veins in Zriadenum being very prominent on the lower face
of the blade, and the secondaries being more numerous, but
shorter and proceeding from the midvein under an angle that ©
is much broader than is observable in the leaves of Hypericum.
In the latter the secondaries proceed, as a rule, from below the
middle of the midvein, while in 7rzadenwm they are notice-
able almost to the apex of the blade. These are the points
which we observed in the external structure of our plant, and
which ought to be mentioned in the diagnosis, whether it be
accepted as a genus or not.

The observation of these characters induced the writer to
extend the study to the internal structure, and to compare this
with what is known, so far, about the general anatomy of the
order. Moreover, Z7zadenum has not hitherto been exam-
ined from this point of view, and, as will be seen in the follow-
ing, it possesses certain structural peculiarities which, together
with the morphological, seem to entitle it to generic rank.
The anatomy of the vegetative organs is as follows:

The root.

On the almost capillary, lateral roots developed upon the
main one, hairs occur in abundance; there is a narrow cortical
parenchyma, which is quite solid, and of which the cells are
arranged radially towards the thin-walled endodermis, in which
the spots named after Caspary are plainly visible. The peri-
cambium consists of two layers outside the leptome, but of
only one outside the hadrome. . The root is diarchic with, in
all, four vessels in two groups separated from each other by a
few strata of thin-walled conjunctive tissue, and alternating
with two groups of leptome. Ducts of rhombic cross-section
are developed in the pericambium, one outside each of the two
groups of leptome. Moots that are slightly thicker show the
same structure, but are triarchic. But if we examine one of
the thicker, lateral roots, we notice the structure to be some-
what different; the cortex, consisting of seven layers, shows a
tangential collapsing of the innermost five; the endodermis
shows a number of radial divisions, while the pericambium
exhibits the same structure as in the thinner roots, though with
a larger number of ducts outside the broad groups of leptome ;
these ducts are, also, rhombic in transverse section and have

374 = T. Holm—Triadenum Virginicum (L.) Rafin.

four secretory cells; the hadrome consists of many vessels with
a few strata of thick-walled conjunctive tissue.

The secondary roots developed upon the rhizome are quite
thick and show the same collapsing of the cortical parenchyma ;
the pericambium has commenced to divide itself tangentially
with the large ducts still persisting, and, moreover, similar ducts
are, also, observable in the leptome; a small cambium is devel-
oped and the hadrome occupies the greater portion of the cen-
tral cylinder. In other words, these secondary roots show the
structure of the perennial type. Van Tieghem, who studied
the root of Hypericum calycinum (evidently “lateral roots”),
observed two ducts in the pericambium, one on each side of
the leptome, but none in the leptome itself.

The aérial stem.

This is glabrous and cylindrical with a thick-walled epi-
dermis, which covers some five or six layers of cortical paren-
chyma with distinct intercellular spaces, but without lacunes ;
there is a thin-walled endodermis surrounding the leptome,
cambium and hadrome, and the innermost part of the central
cylinder is occupied by a pith, which soon becomes hollow.
No stereome or hypoderm was observed. Two kinds of ducts
occur in the stem; some with the four secretory cells very nar-
row (fig. 6), which traverse the cortex close to the epidermis,
and of which there may be until twenty, and others with wide
secretory cells (fig. 7) which are developed in the leptome and
which are very numerous. In the uppermost portion of the
stem, where the pith was unbroken, a single duct, rhombic in
cross-section, was observed in the center. The occurrence and
arrangement of the ducts in the stem seems very variable, and
has been described by Van Tieghem in species of Hypericum,
Tridesmis, Haronga, etc., but they do not seem to be frequent.

When present in the pith the ducts are said to occur to the
number of four, evidently corresponding with the four angles
of the stem; the single and central duct observed in the pith
of Triadenum seems thus to correspond with the circular out-
line of the stem.

The rhizome.

The stolons, slender and tuberous alike, have several layers
of cork underneath the epidermis; the cortex forms a broad,
but very open, tissue, and there is an endodermis of the same
structure as observed in the above-ground stem. The leptome
and hadrome enclose a central pith of rather small cells. Ducts
are quite numerous in the internodes and we counted about
forty in the cortex near the periphery, which were round, not
rhombic, in transverse section (D in figure 8); besides these

T. Holm—Triadenum Virginicum (L.) feafin.. 375

there were twelve others, of the same shape, in the leptome.
No ducts were found in the pith. The structure of the tuber-
ous rhizome of Zrradenwm is so different from that of Hyperz-
cum calycinum, that a comparison seems unnecessary; we
might only state that Van Tieghem found four ducts in the
pith, corresponding with the four rows of leaves.

The leaf.

The aérial leaves are glabrous and very glaucous; the struc-
ture is bifacial. Very characteristic is the marked difference
in the lumen of the epidermal cells, when we compare the
upper face with the lower, the cells of the upper being much
the larger. Stomata occur only on the lower face; they are
surrounded by three to four cells and are sunk below the epi-
dermis; the cuticle is smooth.

The palisade tissue consists of but one layer and is quite
solid, in contrast to the open pneumatic tissue. The midrib is
prominent on the lower face, where it is supported by a collen-
chymatic tissue, but without any stereomatic layers. The
translucid spots, so very characteristic of the order, are, also,
noticeable in Zrzadenum, but the dark spots are entirely want-
ing. Ducts like those described in the stem occur, also, in the
leaves and are of two kinds: Rhombie (in cross-section), with
narrow secretory cells (D in fig. 4), were observed in the collen-
chyma and close to the epidermis ; these, five in all, accompany
the midrib to about the middle of the leaf-blade, but not any
further. The other kind are, also, rhombic, but the lumen of
the secretory cells is much wider; these, five in all, are located
in the leptome (D in fig. 5) and may be followed throughout
the length of the midrib.

So far as known, the stomata in the Hyperzcacew are only
surrounded by two or three cells, thus Zrzadenum forms an
exception ; and the presence of ducts in the leaf seems to be
exceedingly rare, and usually restricted to the petiole alone.
The disposition of the ducts in the vegetative organs of Z’ria-
denum seems characteristic of the genus, when compared with
the other Hypericacee, and four systems may be recognized :

(1) The medullary, only observed in the stem above ground ;
(2) those of the cortex in the stolons, the stem and the leaf-
blade; (8) those of the pericambium of the root ; (4) those of
the leptome in the root, the stem, the stolons and the leaf.

There is, still, another species of Z72adenwm in this country,
T’.. petiolatum, and we regret to say that we have been unable
to secure fresh material of this for comparison. Judging from
the structure of the flower and the venation of the leaves, it
appears to belong to this genus, but, as is often the case, the
parts underground are but seldom preserved in herbarium-speci-
mens. We hope that future observers may study this species, and

376 =. Holm—Triadenum Virginicum (L.) Rafin.

make a comparison between the two. But whatever the result
may be, Linneeus’s Hypericum Virginicum can no longer be
considered as a species of this genus, and even if Rafinesque
did not give but a mere hint as to its probable validity as a
genus, Zriadenum, nevertheless, appears tenable and indeed
quite distinct from Hypericum and the other “ generic syno-
nyms.”

Brookland, D.C.
Bibliography.

Blenk, Paul: Die durchsichtigen Punkte der Blatter. Inaug.
diss. Regensburg, 1884.

Coulter, John M.: Hypericacee in Synopt. Flora of N. Am., i,
291, 1895-97.

Holm, Theo.: Pyrola aphylia (Bot. Gaz., 25: 246, 1898).

Nilsson, N. Hjalmar: Dikotyla jordstammar. (Act. Univ. Lund.,
19, 238, 1882-83.)

Solereder, Hans: Systematische Anatomie der Dicotyledonen,
p. 134, Stuttgart, 1899. _

Spach, E.: Hypericacearum monographiz fragmenta (Ann. d. sc.
nat. Bot., 1836).

Spach, E.: Conspectus monographie Hypericacearum (ibidem,
1836).

Van Tigehows Ph. : Canaux sécréteurs des plantes (Ann. d. se.
nat. Bot. ser. 7,1: 47, 1885).

Warming, EKug.: Smaa morphologiske Bidrag. (Bot. Tidsskr.,
ser. 3,1: 84 and ili: 80. Copenhagen, 1876-79).

Weill, G.: Note sur la répartition des organes sécréteurs dans

~ PHypericum calycinum (Journ. de Bot. 17:56. Paris, 1903

(not seen).

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES, p. 371.
Triadenum Virginicum (L.) Rat.

FiGuRE 1.—Rhizome of a specimen, collected in October; natural size.
S = base of fruitbearing stem ; T = two tuberous stolons, devel-
oped from the axils of the cotyledons; R =the primary root.

. Figure 2.—Rhizome of another specimen, collected at the same time ; nat-
ural size. St. =a slender stolon, developed from the axil of
one of the lower stem-leaves ; the other letters as above.

FiGurE 3.—Rhizome of a specimen, collectedin June; natural size. This
rhizome represents a tuberous stolon, of which the terminal
bud has developed into an above-ground stem. B= anaxillary
bud, ‘still dormant; St. =the beginning development of an
axillary stolon. r= secondary roots, developed above the axil-

lary buds.
FicurE 4.—Transverse section of a leaf. Ep = epidermis of the lower face ;
D = a duct. x 320.
Figure 5.—Transverse section of a leaf; the duct (D) is here located in the
leptome ; V = vessels. x 820.
FIGURE 6.—Transverse section of stem. Ep. =epidermis. D=a duct,
located in the cortex. x 820.
Figure 7.—Transverse section of stem. End=endodermis. D=a duct;
L=leptome ; V = vessels. x 820.

FicurE 8.—Transverse section of a tuber. C = cortical parenchyma; D=
ly

duct, of which four are visible in this section. x 75.

C. R. Keyes—Ephemeral Lakes in Arid Regions. 377

- Art. XXX VII.— Ephemeral Lakes in Arid Regions ; by

CHARLES R. Keryss.

Tue bolson plains—those broad mountain-locked basins
which oceupy so large a part of the high plateau regions of
both Old and New Mexico—present certain geographic pecu-
liarities that many writers have taken as evidence of their
lacustrine origin. Their Spanish name signifies a purse. This
they certainly are. From the immediate piedmont zone there
is a gentle slope from all sides towards the middle. Drainage-
ways there are none. And the central depression has no out-
let. The reported remnants of old terraces on the mountain
slopes, so far as personal examination has gone, all seem to be
mistaken interpretations.

Since the flat-bottomed intermontane basins assumed their
present attitude as slightly warped surfaces of an old destruc-
tional plain, they have been modified by fluviatile rather than
lacustrine conditions. The old surface, formed on the beveled
edges of Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata, has been covered by
deposits which, though they are stratified gravels, sands and
clays, must be now regarded as of subaérial origin.

The coarse materials covering the bolsons are readily seen to
be composed of the same kinds of rocks that are found in the
adjoining mountains. The arroyas in flood time carry out into
the plain immense quantities of bowlders, gravel and finer
materials. These produce great alluvial fans which become
confluent and form marginal conglomerates of great thickness.
For example, in the Sandoval bolson at the foot of the Ortiz
mountains, the conglomerates are 150 or more feet in thickness.
Shumard* reports their thickness in the Jornada del Muerto at
500 to 600 feet. Powell,t Dutton,t Hiull,§ and others have

_ described these bolson gravel deposits and consider them to
have a subaérial genesis. This evidence is sufficient to clearly
indicate that for the great part at least the later deposits of the
bolsons cannot have ascribed to them a lacustrine origin.

There are some of the bolson plains in which limited deposits
occur giving undoubted evidences of the existence of old lakes.
The Sandoval bolson, south of Santa Fe, contains traces of a
comparatively recent lake of considerable size. At the present
time the remnants are found in a group as small salt ponds,
the chief of which is Laguna del Perro.

There is a class of jakes which occur in connection with the
bolsons which appear to have escaped the notice of writers on
the arid regions. For want of a better title they are here
called ephemeral lakes. They originate under abnormal though
frequently recurring conditions.

* Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., i, p. 841; 1858.

+ Geology of Unita Mts., p. 170, 1876.

{Geology High Plateaus, p. 219, 1880.
' § Occurrence of Artesian and Underground Waters, etc., p. 140, 1892.

878 0. R. Keyes—Ephemeral Lakes in Arid Regions.

On the Jornada del Muerto and many other similar basins
there are slight depressions in the surface, which during the
rainy season collect the storm waters in sufficient quantities to
last several months. These ponds, which are frequently half a
mile across, are welcomed by the stockmen.

Of similar character, but on a much grander scale, are cer-
tain ephemeral lakes which are known to have been formed at
a comparatively recent date. From the local reports concern-
ing some of these, there seems to be something of the mythical.
There are, however, several instances, which are well authenti-
cated, of the sudden formation of such lakes and their existence
through a period of years. ;

One of these is located on the Mexican Central Railroad near
the station called San José, about 75 miles south of El] Paso in
the state of Chihuahua, Mexico. This depression in the plain
had been reported-in the past to have contained water at times.
The Rio Carmen, which runs west of Chihuahua and about 100
miles from San José, loses itself in the plain. Whenever there
are excessive rains, which are said to occur at rare intervals
along this stream, the waters form a lake often of considerable
size. When recently a lake of large size made its appearance
in a night, it was the first time in 15 years, according to the
railroad officials, that the phenomenon had occurred.

Near Laguna station on the same line of railroad, 160 miles
south of El Paso, similar conditions obtain. <A short time ago
the railroad company was compelled to move its track for a
distance of seven kilometers on account of the water rising in
the central depression in the bolson. Unusually heavy rains in
the mountains suddenly brought the water of the Sanz river
down in a body never before known. When the railroad was
located it was believed that it was at an elevation far above the
level of any possible “lake” waters, and far enough away from
any future shore line.

In the famous Elephant Butte case which was fought through
the United States courts for so many years, some interesting
data bearing upon the subject in hand were brought out. One
instance is especially worthy of note. The state of Tamanlipas
is crossed by the Rio San Juan, a stream of considerable size
which flows into the Rio Grande at the city of Camargo.
Many years ago, according to the old man who was a witness
in the legal case, occurred a great flood in the San Juan valley.
It filled full the valley of the Rio Grande, broke over the foot
hills and made a long chain of large lakes, from which naviga-
tion of the Rio Grande lower down was carried on for a num-
ber of years. These lakes, which were formed in dry desert
basins in the course of a few days, lasted for a period of 80
years.

New Mexico School of Mines, Socorro,

July ist, 1903.

Eakle—Identity of Palacheite and Botryogen. 379

Art. XXX VIII.—WNote on the Identity of Palacheite and
Botryogen; by AnTHuR S. EAKLE.

UNDER the name palacheite,* the writer recently described
erystals of a deep red ferri-magnesium sulphate, found at the
old Redington quicksilver mine, now known as the Boston
mine, Knoxville, California. A. later investigation of the
chemical composition and erystallization of botryogen shows
that palacheite is probably very pure and well crystallized
botryogen, and therefore not new as supposed. On noting the
similarity in composition of the two sulphates, the analogy of
the two in crystallization and physical properties was at once
apparent.

Owing to the variations shown in the composition of botry-
ogen, different formule have been assigned to the mineral,
and the one given by Hockauft and quoted i in Dana’s System
of Mineralogy, namely, MgFeS,O,+Fe,S,O,+18H,O, led to
the error of overlooking botryogen as being the same substance.
Clevet later deduces from his analyses of “botryogen the form-
ula Mg (FeOH) (SO,),.7H,O or 2MgOFe,0,.480, + 15H,0,
which latter is the same formula given to palacheite.

The analyses of botryogen show varying amounts of other
oxides, namely FeO, MnO, CaO and ZnO, which have been
regarded as impurities, replacing the MeO or FeO, but the
small amount of material spared for the analyses of palacheite
did not show the presence of any of these impurities.

The writer collected an abundance of beautiful specimens of
the sulphate this summer, during a visit to the mine, and
Professor Blasdale of the Chemical Department kindly made
special qualitative tests on larger amounts for impurities, with
the result that a small amount of manganese, probably less
than one-tenth per cent, is present, but no zinc. The material
is, therefore, the purest botryogen that has been found.

The axial elements for botryogen and palacheite are as fol-
lows: —

Botryogen @:6:¢c=0°6521 :1:0°5992 ; B=117° 34' (Haidinger)
Palacheite @ 26: c=0°6554-: 1: 0:39965:382-117° 9’

The short vertical axis for palacheite was calculated by
assuming the most frequently occurring clinodome as {011}.
The corresponding form on botryogen is /0235, which practi-
cally gives the same length of c-axis for botryogen as for pala-
cheite. The only orthodome observed was {201}, but it is

* Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. of Cal., iii, 231-236, 1908.
+ Zeitschr. Kryst., xii, 240-254, 1887.
t{ Idem, xxviii, 510, 1898.

380 Eakle—Identity of Palacheite and Botryogen.

exceedingly small and seldom occurs. Assuming it as {101},
the vertical parameter for palacheite would become 0°7992,
which corresponds to the c-axis of botryogen, calculated by
Hockauf from Haidinger’s measurements. Most of the crystals
are worthless for the determination of the elements, because of
striated and vicinal faces; but the axial elements for palacheite
were calculated from the measurements, with the two-circle
goniometer, of several very minute crystals which gave good
reflections, and it seems probable they are nearer the true values
for botryogen than those given by Haidinger.

The excellent cleavage parallel to the clinopinacoid seems
not to have been observed on botryogen. This cleavage is
more prominent and better than the prismatic cleavage. Very
little has been done on the optical properties of botryogen.
Hockauf states that the plane of the optic axes les nearly
normal to the prismatic faces. As a matter of fact it is nearly
parallel to the edge 110, 110. The analogy of the interfacial
angles to those of anorthite, which he mentions, probably
means little, as the crystals are undoubtedly monoclinie.

The crystals remain unchanged in ordinary dry air, as the
original specimens, exposed in the laboratory, for over a year,
have suffered no alteration. Much yellow earthy sulphate,
however, accompanied the material recently obtained, which
may have been derived from the crystals by exposure to damp-
ness. This yellow coating has a strong astringent taste, like
coquimbite, while the taste of the fresh crystals is barely per-
ceptible or none. The yellow coating must be a different sul-
phate, although Hockauf states that the analyses of the ochre
yellow substance and of the red crystals were essentially the
sane.

An unsuccessful attempt was made with a small amount of
the original substance to recrystallize the mineral; with the
large amount of material now at hand, further experiments
will be made in the hope of obtaining good crystals. The
main difficulty is perhaps in keeping the mineral into solution
in pure water without the precipitation of the basic sulphate,
which so readily forms.

While the name palacheite should be recalled, although the
name botryogen is a misnomer for these crystals, the work
will stand as a more complete study of the rare sulphate botry-
ogen than has heretofore been possible.

University of California. e

J. OC. Blake—Colloidal Gold. 381

Art. XX X1X.—On Colloidal Gold: Adsorption Phenomena
and Allotropy ; by J. C. BuaKe.

[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Lab. of Yale University—CXX. |

Rep and blue colloidal gold solutions have long been known,*
the red being changed to blue by the action of electrolytes.
Hence, in order to study all of the concurrent phenomena, it
is necessary to begin with a red solution. All of the red solu-
tions heretofore described, however, have either contained
objectionable impurities, like the acids of phosphorus, or have
been very dilute and hard to prepare in stable form with
constant properties. I have found that a concentrated red gold
solution, free from all these objections, may be prepared by
pouring into acetylene water containing ether an ethereal
solution of gold chloride dried at 170°. The resulting garnet-
colored solution of colloidal gold is exceedingly stable, though
quite strongly acid. It is seareely turbid in ordinary light,
but gives the Tyndall effect when a beam of light is thrown
into it with a lens. This solution has been investigated with
regard to the adsorption phenomena of the gold when precipi-
tated by electrolytes, an investigation attended by some inter-
esting observations on the apparent allotropy of gold.

It should be rememberd that Linder and Pictont and ~
Whitney and Ober,{t working with colloidal solutions of
arsenious sulphide, have found that when such solutions are
coagulated by electrolytes, part of the basic radical of the
electrolyte is retained by the coagulum, with the liberation of
the corresponding amount of free acid in the filtrate. The
base thus retained by the coagulum cannot be washed out
with water. Since the suspended particles of which the
colloidal solutions are made up are known to be negatively
electrified, whereas the basic radicals or ions carry a positive
charge, the question arises whether the basic radical retained
by the coagulated colloid may not be held by reason of the
mutual neutralization of these charges, with the formation of
a chemical compound or pseudo-chemical compound, thus
perhaps affording an indication of the nature of chemical
union and proving that the phenomena of the permanent
suspension of solid particles in liquids and their subsequent
precipitation by electrolytes are essentially electrical, as is
assumed.in Whetham’s§ hypothesis. It was thought that the

* Faraday, Phil. Trans., cxlvii, 145; Pogg. Ann., ci, 318. Zsigmondy,
Lieb. Ann., ecci, 29, 361 ; ‘Zeit. phys. Chem.., Xxiil, 63.

+ Jour. Chem. ’Soe., xvii, 63.

t Jour. Am. Chem. "Soe. xxiii, 842.
§ Jour. of Physiol., xxiv, 288; Phil. Mag., xlviii, 474.

382 J. OC. Blake—Colloidal Gold.

results to be obtained with colloidal gold solutions would be
especially interesting in this connection, both because of the
great improbability of ordinary chemical union between the
gold and the basic radicals, and because of the ease and
thoroughness with which the precipitated gold could be
washed.

Red colloidal solutions of gold prepared according to the
method just described were precipitated by solutions of
barium compounds, and the coagulum was analyzed for gold,
barium, and carbon, derived from the acetylene. Except
when otherwise stated, all the filtrations and weighings were
made on asbestos felt contained in a perforated platinum
crucible. The mixed coagulum, either washed or unwashed,
was ignited in a porcelain crucible and then treated with aqua
regia in small amount either at the ordinary temperature or on
the steam bath, the carbon being nearly all dissolved in the
latter case. After dilution, the undissolved carbon was filtered
off, washed, dried at 200°, weighed and ignited. The gold
was determined as the metal in the filtrate from the carbon by
precipitation with magnesium ribbon. The barium was pre-
cipitated as sulphate in the filtrate from the gold and weighed
after standing twelve hours on the steam bath.

It was found that if the colloidal gold solution contained a
little unreduced gold chloride, the coagulum was coherent,
spongy, opaque, insoluble. in water, and reflected brownish
yellow light. If, however, the gold chloride had been com-
pletely reduced, the coagulum was blue-black, non-coherent,
readily soluble in pure water to a blue colloidal solution, the
color being due to transmitted light.

I. The Spongy Form of -Gold.

In the following experiments the gold chloride used in
preparing the colloidal gold solution was not quite all reduced,
and the colloidal gold, precipitated with a solution of a barium
salt, came down in the spongy form. The coagulum was
either washed in succession with the amounts of water given
in the table, the included liquid being finally pressed out of the
spongy precipitate as much as possible, or the coagulum was
not washed, but merely dried between filter papers. For pur-
poses of comparison the amounts of the barium compounds
(caleulated as hydroxide) which were present in 0°5%™* of the
supernatant liquid are also given in the table.

™

J. C. Blake—Colloidal Gold. 383

TABLE I.
Cale. amt.

Vol. of Mixed of Ba(OH). Error of
gold Precipi- eee coagulum, aoe pee in0‘5 cm? analysis.
sol. tant. we a 7 ignited. eee ut supernatant grm.
em?, ae erm. sei or liquid. grm.

50 em*
To BalN9,). 50 04151 0°4151 0:0000 0°0003 90-0000
100 em* 300
1200 n—BaCi, 100
100 20680 sme = “O:0G20- 2 0.003 a0. eens
10 cm* Ge Not
610 | washed. | 0°7569 07566 0°:0000 0:0001 0:0003—
ees 1 Dried |
10 d rie \
1 between |
3
gio 100 em =| sfilter | 9.6499 0:6417 0:0066 0:0060 0-0016—+
n—BaCl, | papers. J

From the foregoing results it is plain that very little of the
barium compound is held by the gold under these conditions,
and that the traces thus retained cannot readily be washed
out—a condition agreeing exactly with what would be ex-
pected if the barium were held as nitrate or chloride dissolved
in the liquid mechanically retained by the spongy gold. The
obvious physical properties of this spongy gold proved to be:
identical with those of the gold thrown out from strong solu-
tions of gold compounds by ferrous sulphate or oxalic acid,
which is known to be crystalline.t

Il. Zhe Biue Form of Gold.

In the following experiments the gold chloride used in pre-
paring the colloidal gold solution was all reduced, and the
colloidal gold, precipitated with a solution of a barium com-
pound, came down in the non-coherent blue form. In the experi-
ments given under A (p. 386), the coagulum was washed suc-
cessively by decantation with the given amounts of hot water
without the use of a filter, part of the finely-divided gold thus
temporarily re-suspended being washed away. In the experi-
ments given under b, the coagulum was thrown upon an ash-
less filter (or asbestos felt) held in a large platinum cone, the
mother liquor was exhausted by suction, and the barium com-
pound held by the unwashed gold and the filter was determined.

* Gold lost by explosion, presumably owing to the formation of a hydride
during reduction by magnesium.

+ This error becomes 0:0008—if the barium held by the gold be calculated

as the chloride.
¢t Roscoe and Schoelemmer, Treatise on Chemistry, 1898, ii, p. 399.

€
384 J. C. Blake—Colloidal Gold.

By comparing the amounts of the barium compounds thus
found with the amounts of the barium compounds held by
the filter in blank experiments similarly conducted, and with
the amounts of the barium compounds held by 1™* of the
supernatant liquid, a very fair estimate of the amount of the
barium compounds held by the gold can be arrived at. In
these experiments the amounts of carbon left with the gold
after ignition, not readily dissolved in the subsequent treat-
ment with agua regia, first became noticeable, indicating that
in the former experiments most of the carbon had been lost by
decantation. In the experiments given under C (p. 387), a
freshly prepared solution of barium hydroxide, containing about
208™ per liter, was used as the precipitant, the supernatant liquid
being still slightly acid ; while in the experiments given under
D, the barium hydroxide was added to alkaline reaction. The
wash-water was neutral to litmus.

The results of Table II (pp. 3886, 387) show that as long as
the solution is even slightly acid only insignificant amounts of
barium are held by the gold, whether washed or unwashed.
Other colloidal (blue) gold solutions, prepared by the action of
hydrazine hydrate on a water solution of gold chloride, in which
the free acid was nearly neutralized by the hydrazine hydrate
before the gold was precipitated by barium chloride, gave
similar results. When the supernatant liquid becomes alkaline,
on the other hand,.the amount of barium retained by the gold
becomes appreciable. It is probable that none of this amount
was due to the presence of barium carbonate, although there
was doubtless some barium- chloride (formed by the reaction)
present with the hydroxide in experiment (12) of the table,
owing to the insolubility of the chloride in alcohol. There is,
however, no reason to suppose that the amount of barium
hydroxide retained by the gold precipitated from alkaline
solution is greater than that which would have been retained,
owing to the well-known tenacity of free alkalis for solid sub-
stances, by any finely-divided insoluble substance under similar
conditions of concentration.* In fact, the absence of adsorp-
tion phenomena in acid solution and the presence of such
phenomena in alkaline solution is in full accord with Van
Bemmelen’s functional equation for absorption from solution
by porous solids

Ve zon —/ (C res0p1@.80.)

where Oxo is the concentration of the base in the liquid
retained by the solid, and C’ represents the concentrations of
the given substances in the supernatant liquid. C”’ increases
as C’x,s59, Imcreases, and decreases as O’s,, increases.

* Of. Van Bemmelen, Zeit. anorg. Chem., xxiii, 364.

J. 0. Blake—Colloidal Gold. 385

Hence, it appears that adsorption phenomena are not pro-
nouncedly concerned, if at all, in the color changes brought
about in red gold solutions by electrolytes, or in the subsequent
precipitation of the blue or of the spongy gold. Some inter-
esting results might be obtained in this connection by working
with neutral red gold solutions, such as might have been pre-
pared by dialysing the ones here deseribed; but it is difficult
to see how any such results could be intelligible unless differ-
entiated by a series of parallel experiments from the effects
due to the hydrolysis of neutral salts and absorption of the
basic radical by porous solids. If these two effects are identical,
as suggested by Whitney and Ober, then Whetham’s hypothe-
sis can receive no support from the results to be obtained with
them. ©

The “blue gold” precipitated in these experiments is amor-
phous and has a dark bronze appearance when viewed in
reflected light. The three apparently allotropic forms of gold
here noted, named according to the colors most readily ob-
served, as in the case of silver,* are the following :

Color in Color in
Form of gold. reflected light. transmitted light.
“Yellow gold” Golden Blue
* Blue gold ” Dark bronze Blue
“Red gold” Light goldent Red

* This Journal [4], xvi, 282 (1903).
+ Well seen in the Tyndall effect.

_ Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vor. XVI, No. 95.—NOVEMBER, 1903.

386

J. C. Blake—Colloidal Gold.

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388 Scientific Intelligence.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLEGEN Cae

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

1. The Utilization of Atmospheric Nitrogen for Agricultu-
ral and Industrial Purposes.—In an address before the recent
International Congress for Applied Chemistry at Berlin, Dr.
Frank stated that we are now in a position, by the help of
electric power, to combine the hitherto passive nitrogen of the
air and to make it useful for the fertilization of land and for the
production of nitrogenous chemical products. The particular
process described depends on the fixation of nitrogen by calcium
carbide, a product of the electric furnace which is now exten-
sively manufactured. The product of this reaction is not cal-
cium cyanide, as might be expected, but calcium cyanamide :

CaC, + N,= CaCN,+0C.
From this product cyanamide itself is readily prepared, and

both substances yield ammonia when heated with water under |

high pressure :
CaCN,+3H,O = CaCO, +2NH,
CNH, +3H,O = (NH,),CO,.

Experiments with plants have been made which indicate that
the crude calcium cyanamide will serve very well when used
directly as a fertilizer. The substance contains from 14 to 22
per cent of nitrogen, according to the process used for its manu-
facture, so that it approaches Chili saltpeter and ammonium-sul-
phate in its richness in this fertilizing element. As an indication
of the availability of these substances for plant-food, it may be
mentioned that cyanamide, by simply taking up water, is con-
verted into urea: :

| CN OEE HO CE NEO:

The importance of a cheap method of fixing atmospheric
nitrogen can hardly be over-estimated, in view of the fact that
about three-quarters of the Chili saltpeter and ammonium sul-
phate are used for agricultural purposes. It may be expected
also that the supply of Chili-saltpeter would otherwise soon be
exhausted, since the export of this salt from the western coast of
South America increased from 68,500 tons in 1860 to 1,453,000
tons in 1900. The world’s future food-supply largely depends
upon the supply of nitrogenous fertilizers.—Zevtschr. angew. Chem.,
KV1,) 936: H. L. W.

2. The Use of Calcium Cyanamide for Producing Alkaline Cy-
anides.—The production of calcium cyanamide has been described
in the preceding notice. At the recent International Congress
for Applied Chemistry at Berlin, Dr. G. Ertwern has explained
the use of this new material in the manufacture of cyanides. He
states that calcium carbide, with proper treatment, can be made
to take up from 85 to 95 per cent of the theoretical amount of

Chemistry and Physies. 389

nitrogen when heated in a muffle with fuel instead of being
heated in an electric furnace. The black product, containing
lime and carbon as impurities, impure calcium cyanamide with
20 to 23} per cent of nitrogen, can be treated for the production
of cyanides in various ways. It has been found possible, how-
ever, to produce the calcium cyanamide by a single operation in
the electric furnace according to the equation,

CaO +2C+N,=CaCN,+CO.

This direct process is more economical than the indirect one by
means of calcium carbide, and it will be of great practical import-
ance not only for the production of cyanides, but also for the
preparation of the substance for fertilizing purposes.

It was found that calcium cyanamide, by a simple leaching
process, yields crystallized dicyandiamide :

2CaCN, +4H,O = 2Ca(OH), + (CNNH,),.

The latter salt, ie. by a simple fusion process, gives pure alka-
line cyanides :
4ONNH,+2Na,CO,+4C = 4NaCN +2NH,+H,+6CO+N,
Another important result is the production of a substitute for
potassium cyanide, to be used in gold extraction, by fusing crude
‘ealclum cyanamide with common salt. The product corresponds
to 30 per cent potassium cyanide, is extraordinarily cheap, and
answers the purpose as well as the pure salt.—Zettschr. angew.
Chem., Xvi, 533. HT. Wee
3. The § Separation of Gaseous Mactires by Centrifugal Force.
—In the preceding number of this Journal a process for separat-
ing gases of different density by centrifugal force was noticed.
It seemed necessary, therefore, to mention here the fact that
CLAUDE and Demoussy have reached the conclusion that this
method produces only very slight results, if, indeed, there is any
separation at all. These experimenters used a strong steel tube
about 50™ long and 3° in internal diameter, provided with stop-
cocks at the ends and with interior spring-valves near the ends.
The tube was charged with gaseous mixtures under pressure, so
that the differences in density were augmented, then it was ro-
tated about an axis perpendicular to its center at the rate of 3600
revolutions per minute. It did not seem prudent to exceed this
speed, which was greater than that used in the industrial machines
that have been referred to. The internal valves were adjusted
by springs in such a way that they opened by the action of cen-
trifugal force, and closed tightly after the speed became slower.
Analyses showed that the gases collected beyond the valves after
rotation did not differ appreciably from the original mixtures in
the cases of air, oxygen and carbon dioxide, and even hydrogen
and carbon dioxide.— Comptes Rendus, exxxvil, 250. 4H. L. W.
4. Investigations on. Double Salts by Physical Means.—Dr.
H. W. Foore of the Sheffield Laboratory has devised a method
for determining what double salts are formed by two single salts
with a common ion. The method depends chiefly on well-known

390 Scientific Intelligence.

principles of solubility. At a given temperature there will be
but one saturated solution possible when both salts are present in
excess, provided the salts form no double salts with each other.
If one double salt forms, there will be two definite saturated
solutions, one when A and AB are both present as solids, the
other when AB and B are present. The single salts alone or a
double salt alone can exist in contact with a series of saturated
solutions containing A and B. It follows that when two salts,
either simple or double, are present in the solid state the composi-
tion of the solid will change as the relative proportion of the
two salts changes, but the composition of the saturated solution
will remain constant. When, however, only one salt, either
simple or double, is in the solid state its composition must remain
fixed, while the composition of the saturated solution varies
within certain limits. By making a series of saturated solutions
with a pair of salts, therefore, and determining the composition
of the solutions and the residues, it is possible to determine the
composition of every double salt that is formed. Dr. Foote has
applied the method in several cases with entirely satisfactory
results; for instance, he has shown that five cesium mercuric
chlorides, and no others, exist at the temperature of the experi-
ments. These salts, 3CsCl.HgCl,, 2CsCl.HgCl,, CsCl. HgCl,,
CsCl.2HgCl, and CsCl.5HgCl, were described by Wells in this
Journal in 1892. The method, which is an application of the
Phase Rule of the late Professor Gibbs, promises to be exceed-
ingly serviceable in the investigation of double salts, for by its
use every double salt, whether well-crystallized or not, can be
detected, while by the old method some members of a series
might easily be overlooked.—Amer. Chem. Jowr., xxx, 330, 339.
H. EW
5. Ausgewdhlte Methoden der Analytischen Chemie ; von
Prof. Dr. A. Crassen. Zweiter Band, 8vo, pp. xvi, 831. Braun-
schweig 1903 (Vieweg und Sohn).—The first volume of this excel-
lent reference-book for practical analysts has already been noticed
in this Journal. The present second volume deals with the non-°
metallic elements, and it need only be repeated here that every
analytical chemist should have access to this valuable work.
H. L. W.
6. Physical Chemistry in the Service of the Sciences; by
Jacosus H. van’r Horr. English version by ALEXANDER SMITH.
8vo, pp. 150, Chicago 1903. (The University of Chicago Press.)
—This book comprises a series of nine lectures delivered in June,
1901 at the decennial celebration of the University of Chicago.
The subjects discussed, after an introductory address, are the rela-
tion of physical chemistry to pure chemistry, industrial chemistry,
physiology and geology. In view of the eminence of the author
it is hardly necessary to say that these lectures give an excellent
account of the more important achievements of physical chem-
istry. H. L. W.
7. Penetrative Solar Radiations. — M. R. Buonpuor believes

Chemistry and Physics. 391

that he has discovered new radiations from the sun which he
terms the n-rays. A fine glass tube containing sulphide of cal-
cium exposed to the sun for a very short time continued to
glow, but the glow diminished when a plate of lead was inter-
posed between the shutter and the sulphide, and increased when
the lead was removed. When an oaken joist 3°™ thick, a piece
of cardboard, and several sheets of aluminum were successively
interposed there was no diminution in the glow. A layer of
pure water entirely arrested the m-radiations. The radiations could
be concentrated by a quartz lens. They are regularly reflected by
a polished glass surface, and diffused by an unpolished surface.
— Comptes Rendus, 24. Nature, July 9, 1903. Teme:
8. Spectra of the Cathode light in Gaseous Compounds of
Nitrogen and Carbon.—M. H. DeEstanpREs states that the
cathode light gives the same spectrum as the anode light in the
luminous part of the spectrum and also between >A = 400 and
A = 800, but from A = 300 to A= 200 a new band spectrum is
observed having a remarkably simple relation between its bands.
—Comptes Rendus, Sept. 14, 1903. ay ep
9. The Dark Cathode Space.—Numerous papers have appeared
on the analogy between conduction in gases and electrolytic con-
duction in fluids. G. C. Scumipr extends the analogy to a con-
sideration of the phenomena in the dark cathode space and founds
a theory upon Nernst’s theory of the electrolysis of certain water
solutions. A soluble electrode is one which sends electrons or
ions into the gas; an insoluble one which cannot. White hot
electrodes and electrodes from which cathode rays are emitted
are considered soluble; also light electric metals that emit elec-
trons on exposure to light. This theory is borne in mind in the
author’s experiments. ‘The dark cathode space is regarded as a
space poor in ions. The fall in potential is also considered from
the view of the poverty or affluence of ions. The poverty extends
to the cathode itself, while the anode possesses the abundance.
The cathode dark space behaves as a dielectric, and does not
screen electric waves.—Ann. der Physik., No. 11, pp. 622-652.
3h, Gt.
10. Observations of Slow Cathode Radiations with the help of
Phosphorescence.—P. Lenarp contributes an exhaustive paper
on this subject, and also upon secondary excitation of cathode
rays. He gives his reasons for preferring the employment of
phosphorescence to the use of the electrometer. The former
serves to individualize the phenomena, while the latter gives the
integral effect. He introduces the new term Quanten to denote
the corpuscle or portion of negative electricity. The path of the
Quanten is a cathode ray. Electrically laden atoms he terms
bearers of electricity or Zrdger. Ultra-violet rays pass into a suit-
able tube, where they are submitted to varying differences of
electric potential, and the spreading out of the rays is observed
on a phosphorescent screen, contained in the same tube. Various
phenomena are described and theories of absorption of energy

392 Scientific Intelligence.

are discussed. It was found that the secondary excitation of
cathode rays is not due to a splitting up of the molecule in ‘an
electrolytic sense. The question is discussed whether the bearers of
electricity are bound to the material gas particles, and whether the
light electric phenomena are due to double layers on material in
air which subsist for a long time in a vacuum.— Ann. der Physik.,
No. 11, 1908, pp. 450-490. Fe

11. Discharge of Electricity from Hot Platinum.—Harorp A.
Witson, of Trinity College, Cambridge, finds that the presence
of traces of hydrogen in platinum wire enormously increases the
leak of negative electricity from it. The presence also of traces’
of phosphoric pentoxide greatly increased this leak. The varia-
tion of the negative leak with air pressure and potential differ-
ence is due to the ionization of the air by collisions of air mole-
cules with the negative ions leaving the wire.—foy. Soc., June
18, 1903; Nature, July 16, 1903. “is ip

12. Penetrating Radiation from the Earth’s Surface.—Mr. H.
Lester Cooxe of McGill University, Montreal, working under
the direction of Prof, Rutherford, gives as the results of his inves-
tigation:

““(1) The proof of the existence of a very penetrating radia-
tion, present everywhere under ordinary conditions. This radia-
tion is similar in properties to the radiation from radium, and is
comparable to it in penetrating power. This radiation is account-
able for between 30 and 33 per cent of the natural ionization
observed in ordinary testing vessels, 33 per cent being the greatest
reduction obtained by the use of massive lead screens. This
penetrating radiation may have its origin in the radio-active
matter which is distributed throughout. the earth and atmosphere.
It was not found possible to obtain sufficient excited activity on
a wire charged negatively in the open air to show the presence of
a very penetrating radiation due to it. The effect observed is
too large to be accounted for by the excited activity distributed
on the walls of the laboratory. |

(2) That all substances examined give forth a radiation of a
not very penetrating character: that this is probably the cause
of all the residual ionization in the electroscope when surrounded
by heavy metal screens; and that this activity varies with dif-
ferent substances, being very low in the case of brass.

(3) The reduction by the experimental arrangements of. the
number of ions produced per ¢.c. per second in air under atmos-
pheric pressure from 14 to 5.”— Phil. Mag., Oct., 1903, pp. 403—
411. J. T.

13. Mathematical Papers of the late George Green. xii+336
pp. Paris, 1903 (A. Hermann).—This is a fac-simile reprint by
photographic process of Ferrers’ edition of Green’s Papers and
is to be welcomed as increasing their accessibility to students of
mathematical physics. There is no better introduction to the
theory of electrostatics and the Newtonian potential in general
than the celebrated paper of 1828 in which the name potential

Chemistry and Physics. 393

was first used and in which the great utility and preéminent
importance of this function was first made plain. Few, if any,
improvements in the presentation of the general theory have
been made in the seventy-five years since its publication, and it
has. all the advantage of being the original work of a great
genius and of showing in a measure the processes by which he
reached his results. That such a work should have been pro-
duced by a young man without any mathematical training except
what he could gain for himself is one of the most interesting
chapters in the natural history of genius. Some of the other
papers are of less direct interest at the present day; that on the
propagation of light in crystallized media, however, is still the
foundation of the theory of the elasticity of wolotropic solids
and cannot be neglected by the student who desires a compre-
hensive knowledge of the history of this important subject.
H. A. B.

14. Electric and Magnetic Circuits; by Exiis H. Crapper.
xi+379 pp. New York, 1903 (Longmans, Green and Co.).—The
plan of this elementary text-book for students of electrical engi-
neering is not unlike that of the school arithmetics in which a
large number of numerical examples are propounded for solution
by the student, each collection of problems bring prefaced by a
brief statement of the “rules” necessary for solving them, and by
two or three worked-out examples. The explanatory portions
leave much to be desired especially in the more elementary
sections. The definitions are often inaccurate and sometimes
quite meaningless, as on p. 3 where the ampere is defined as ‘the
time rate of change of the coulomb per second.” ‘The expla-
nations often give entirely wrong ideas of the relations between
electrical quantities and of the laws which express them, as in the
discussion of K.M.F. and P.D. on pp. 34 and 35 and the curious
statement on p. 39 that the constant ratio of the E.M.F. to the
current “‘was discovered by Ohm to be equal in all cases to the
total resistance of the circuit”. Most of the formulae used for
solving the problems are introduced as depending directly upon
experiment with no indication that they might easily be deduced
from preceding ones ; it is hard to believe that there is any very
large number of students of electricity so deficient in logical
memory as to find this method easier and more “practical” than
an orderly and logical presentation. A still more serious defect,
in a book primarily intended to teach engineers to calculate, is
that no attention is paid to the limits of accuracy in data and
results. In the illustrative examples, currents and resistances are
calculated to six or seven significant figures, the cost of incan-
descent lights per candle-hour is determined to the ten-millionth
of a penny, and in one case (p. 306) the torque exerted by a
motor is calculated to eleven figures from data given to four figures.
Such calculations cannot be regarded as good models for imitation
by future engineers. H,. Ai B,

394 Scientific Intelligence.

IJ]. GEkroLoGy AND MINERALOGY.

1. United States Geological Survey: C. D. Waxcort, Direc-
tor.—The following publications have recently been received:

Forios No. 92. Gaines Folio, Pennsylvania-New York.

No. 93. Elkland-Tioga Folio, Pennsylvania; by Myron L.
FuLLer and Wiriiam C. ALDEN,

These folios are specially interesting as an expression of the
revision of classification of the terminal Devonian formation of
the New York-Pennsylvania area based on recent surveys. The
classification adopted is as follows:

Pottsville 30'-200’

| Pennsylvanian 4 Sharon conglomerate 60-100’

| ssh !

Carboniferous 4 Mauch Chunk 0-100

Mississippian

oe

Oswayo 1000’
Devonian 2... = oe eee © Cattaraugus 500’
Chemung 600-2000’ +.

The definition of the formations is based upon lithologic charac-
ters. In describing the Chemung on the Gaines quadrangle the
author says: ‘“ It should be clearly distinguished from the paleon-
tologic division called Chemung which includes both the marine
fauna of the lithologic Chemung and the fresh and brackish
water fauna of the overlying Cattaraugus and lower portion of
the Oswayo formations.” In other words, the Chemung fauna
may be regarded as ranging above the Chemung formation and
as high as the lower part of the Oswayo formation.

Lithologically the Chemung is limited below by the bluish
shales of the Portage, not reached in these quadrangles, and
above by the red shales of the Cattaraugus. Soft laminated .
shales predominate; limestones predominate in upper part;
the thickest beds in the upper 100 or 200 feet. A single
bed of bright red shale is reported ? 300 feet down in the Tioga
quadrangle, and a thin lens of iron ore at same level, with
dull reddish brown shales still lower. A bed of gray cross-bed-
ded sandstone of Cattaraugus type is reported 60 or 100 feet
below the top. Vertical worm borings, concretions of sand, and a
few thin lenses of conglomerate are seen in the upper part of the
formation. ‘T'wo horizons of iron ore beds are seen, one ‘ close to
the top,” the second 300 feet or more down. The upper is the
“ Mansfield” ore beds a few feet below the first red bed of the
Cattaraugus. Chemung character of rock and fossils are said to
occur for 50 to 100 feet after the reds of the Cattaraugus first
appear.

The limits of the Cattaraugus are given as from the first pro-
nounced red beds upward for 500 feet, the upper limit arbitrarily
drawn. Thered beds are thicker in the southeastern portion of the
area and are thinner and more widely separated by more pro-

Geology and Mineralogy. 395

nounced beds of other kinds to the west and northwest. Cross-
bedding is conspicuous. This corresponds in general to the forma-
tion which has been called the red Catskill.

Oswayo is characterized by green and gray sandstones and
shales with occasional thin beds or lenses of red shale from the
arbitrary top limit of the Cattaraugus to a point at which decid-
edly red beds begin to appear about 1100 feet higher up. These
beds are also more or less cross-bedded.

The Mauch Chunk includes from the lowest recognized red bed
overlying the Oswayo for 100 feet upward or less, and is termi-
nated above by an unconformity.

The Pottsville formation is described in the text as including
the Sharon conglomerate member at the base, 60 to 100 feet in
thickness, almost entirely quartz, ‘‘and is frequently a coarse
sandstone rather than a conglomerate.” The upper portion is more
sandy and shaly than the lower and with one or more coal seams;
the fossil plants in which have been identified with those of the
Mercer horizon of the Pottsville.

It is evident from these definitions that the limits set for the
formations are both local and arbitrary ; and as the characters
used in drawing the lines are recognized as varying across the
area mapped in these two contiguous folios, it 1s not probable
that formations based on the same criteria of discrimination will
agree in stratigraphic position for many miles either side of this
area. H. S. W.

2. Geological Survey of Canada: Rosert Bett, Director.—
The following reports have recently been issued :
Yo. 797. Report on the Cambrian Rocks of Cape Breton; by
G. F. Matthew. 246 pp., 18 pls.

No. 821. Report of the Section of Chemistry and Mineralogy;
by G. Christian Hoffmann, pp. 1 R to 67 R.

No. 822. Catalogue of Canadian Birds, Part II. Birds of
prey, woodpeckers, flycatchers, crows, jays and blackbirds, includ-
ing the following orders : Raptores, Coccyges, Pici, Macrochires,
and part of the Passeres; by John Macoun. 413 pp.

No. 827. Mesozoic Fossils, Vol. I, Part V (and last). On some
additional fossils from the Vancouver Cretaceous with a revised
list of the species therefrom ; by J. F. Whiteaves, pp. 309-416,
and pls. 40-51.

In the first of these reports Dr. Matthew gives details of the
Coldbrook and Etcheminian terranes, and the fossils found in
them and of their relation to the Laurentian upper series. The
results of an interesting investigation of the orientation of brachi-
opod shells are reported from which the direction of the current
during their burial is estimated, based upon a large number of
observations upon the shells of numerous genera. The shells of
Acrothyra furnish the most satisfactory evidence. Mr. Macoun
contributes a second part to his catalogue of Canadian birds ; the
third is announced as almost ready for printing.

. Doctor Whiteaves completes, in the contribution here listed,
his valuable Memoir upon the Cretaceous Rocks of Vancouver.

396 Scientific Intelligence.

The present volume contains the detailed description of collec-
tiqns made from these rocks since 1871. H. 8. W.

3. EHlements of Geology: A text-book for colleges and for the
general reader ; by JosepH LxeConre, revised and partly rewrit-
ten by Herman LeRoy Farrcnitp. 5th edition, revised and
enlarged. 667 pp., 1002 figs. 1903. (D. Appleton & Co.)—The
revising author makes. special mention of the adoption in this
volume of Professor Chamberlin’s Planetesmal Hypothesis of the
Origin of the Earth, stating that “recent studies discredit the
nebular hypothesis” which has long held a prominent place in
geology. Other new points of view resulting from the general
progress of science are noted, and the illustrations are augmented
by a number of original views reproduced by photography of
typical geological features, and, as is stated in the reviser’s
preface, “‘the spirit and style of the revered author have been
held as the model,” and successfully. H. S. W.

4. Chemical Analyses of Igneous Rocks ; Published from
1884-1900, with a Critical Discussion of the Character and Use
of Analyses; by H. 8. Wasuineron. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof.
Paper 14, Washington, 1903, 4°, 495 pp.—This is a publication
whose appearance will be gladly welcomed by petrographers,
chemists and geologists interested in the chemistry of rocks.
Since the time of Roth, whose collected tables were so long an
invaluable aid in petrographic investigations, no such adequate
collection as the one before us has appeared. The work begins:
with a discussion of the methods of making analyses and a just
emphasis is laid upon the considerable amount of poor or incom-
plete work which is often done in this direction. A basis for the
rating of analyses according to their completeness and accuracy
is described and all of those in the tables are rated according to
the standards adopted. Following this method the whole num-
ber is divided into two sets of tables—‘‘ superior analyses,” of
which 1987 are given, and “inferior analyses,” of which there are
984. The superior analyses are classified according to the new
quantitative system recently proposed by Cross, Iddings, Pirsson
and Washington, and thus serve as a most complete exposition of
this system. In all these cases the calculated “norm” of the
system is given with each analysis. The inferior analyses are
classified according to prevailing systems, that is they are grouped
under the names with which they have been published. With
all analyses the locality of the rock, the name of the analyst and
the reference in the literature are given, and usually some
appended remarks containing useful information. The accom-
panying text contains also an interesting discussion of the infor-
mation thrown on the new system of classification by the gen-
eralized facts which the collection affords. The whole evinces the
results of a vast amount of patient and unwearied industry in
the search through the literature and in the collating and reduc-
ing to form of the material collected. Its value is greatly
enhanced by a very complete system of indexes, to new rock
names, to old rock names, to localities, to the text, and there is

Geology and Mineralogy. 397

also a glossary of the terms of the new classification. The work
cannot fail to exert a permanent influence on the advancement of
petrographic science. ie We Ps

5. Californite ( Vesuvianite),* —a new ornamental stone; by
Groree F,. Kunz. (Communicated.)— A discovery has been
recently made in California of a mineral which promises well as
an addition to the increasing list of semi-precious or ornamental
stones found in the United States. It is not indeed a new min-
eral species, but a compact massive variety of vesuvianite (ido-
crase). The discovery was first announced in the report of the
U.S. Geological Survey for 1901, by the writer.t The mineral
was found by Dr. A. EK, Heighway, on land owned by him on the
South Fork of Indian Creck, 12 miles from Happy Camp and 90
miles from Yreka, in Siskiyou County. Here a hard and hand-
some stone, varying from olive- to almost grass-green, and tak-
ing a fine ‘polish, outcrops for some 200 feet along a hillside
about 100 feet above the creek, and large masses have fallen into
the bed of the creek below. It was at first supposed to be jade
(nephrite), but proves upon analysis to be vesuvianite. The
fallen pieces were in some cases as much as five feet square and
two feet thick, of excellent quality for polishing, and of varying
shades of light to dark green. ‘The associated rock is precious
serpentine.

This substance closely resembles a mineral from the south side
of the Piz Longhin, in the Bergellthal, also found in rolled
pieces in the bed of the stream called the Ordlegna, near Casac-
cia, in the Upper Engadine. These were at first taken for jade-
ite,{ but were positively identified as vesuvianite by the analysis
of Berwerth.§ It seems at first remarkable that the same mistake
should have been made in both cases as to this massive vesuvl-
anite, but its whole aspect is so jade-like that it is not surprising.
The rich translucent green color, fine-grained subsplintery frac-
ture, and brilliant luster when polished all strongly suggest jade.
The polished surface shows minute pale streaks or flocculi, which
still further heighten the resemblance.

The following analysis was made through Prof. F. W. Clarke,
chief chemist of the U. 8. Geological Survey, by Mr. George
Steiger, in the spring of the present year.

ANALYSIS OF VESUVIANITE, FROM SISKIYOU Co., CALIF.

SO Maee ee | SOF bade MIO n sly: Ls 0°10

PAO a eo 23 Lu Hers EOL fells) 0°02

Wap ees 2 oi: col 2 33°51 RON oe 0:29 below 100° C.
10 3G Se Sa ae ee a7) EEOwes 3s) 4°18 above 100° C.
Bee Ge eles 0°39 ——— |
MnO Re A 58 ou FAS 99°85
Aya) tee te ree oe! 2 OOD NE

*N. Y. Acad. Sciences, Oct. 19, 1908: N. Y. Min. Club, Oct. 20, 1908.
+ Mineral Resources of the U. S. (extract), p. 80.

{ Fell enberg, Jahrb. Min., vol. i, 1889, p. 103.

§ Ann. Mus. Wien, vol. iv, 1889, p. 87.

398 Screntifie Intelligence.

The analysis is essentially that of a normal vesuvianite, though
the percentage of water is unusually high; the lime and the iron
are below the average; the titanium and phosphorus are excep-
tional occurrences. .

The mineral is compact, of remarkable toughness, and readily
admits of a fine polish, quite as high and beautiful as that of
nephrite (jade), with which it was at first confounded. It is sub-
translucent to faintly translucent, with very weak double refrac-
tion. The hardness is 6'5, and the specific gravity (from two
determinations) 3°286. The luster is vitreous, often inclining
to resinous, and the streak white. The color is a yellow leek-green,
with inclusions of a darker green, generally more translucent than
the surrounding mass.

This interesting mineral exists in large quantity, and could be
cut into a variety of ornaments, in the same way as jade, nephrite
and chrysoprase. It is a form of vesuvianite distinctive enough
to warrant giving it a special variety name,—which, if appro-
priate and euphonious,, would undoubtedly aid the sale of the
stone in the arts. I therefore propose the name “ Californite” for
this massive, translucent mineral, —which occurs in quite a range of
colors, from almost white to pale green, leek-green, even dark
grass-green shades.

What appears to be the same mineral has recently been an-
nounced from two other localities quite remote from the first.
One of these was reported by that indefatigable prospector, Mr.
M. Braverman, of Visalia, as existing in Burro valley, in Fresno
County, a mile and a half from Hawkins school house, and 32
east of Fresno city. The material is pale olive-green, translucent,
with darker spots in a paler mass. It breaks with an uneven frac-
ture, slightly splintery and partly crystalline, and hence much
resembles the Siskiyou County material.

The other locality is apparently not very distant from the last
mentioned ; it is said to be in Tulare County, near the town of
Selma, which though in Fresno County, is not far from the Tulare
line. Here the mineral is of even a richer color, at times resem-
bling the tint of apple-green chrysoprase for which it was at first
mistaken.

6. Native Bismuth and Bismite from Pala, California ; by
GrorceE F. Kunz. (Communicated.)—The remarkable locality at
Pala, San Diego Co., California, noted for its colored tourma-
lines and other lithia minerals, has now been found to yield also
native bismuth in considerable abundance, and likewise the oxide,
bismite. Specimens have lately been received by me through the
courtesy of Mr. W. H. Crane, of the American Lithia Co., of
New York. Overlying the great mass of amblygonite at the
lepidolite mine (described in this Journal for September, 1903) is
a heavy capping of coarse granite, throughout which both
metallic bismuth and bismite are present in more or less profusion.
The latter appears as a coating of an orange-yellow to grey color,
permeating the quartz and associated minerals, and between the

Miscellaneous Intelligence. — 399

crystalline platy masses of the bismuth, from which it is unques-
tionably derived. The native bismuth is generally in long irreg-
ular crystals, always forming a capping over another mineral,
evidently tourmaline ; it also appears in platy crystalline masses,
several millimeters in. length and breadth, up to 12 or 15. The
characteristic pinkish tin color is well shown in a cut section, and
on the pronounced ¢ faces of cleavage. One bismuth crystal, an
inch in length, was evidently a pseudomorph or replacement of
bismuth after a feldspar (?). The hardness is a little above 2.

7. The Production of Precious Stones in 1902 ; by GrEorGE F.
Kunz. Extract from Mineral Resources of the United States,
U. 8S. Geological Survey, Washington, 1903.—This report gives
an interesting summary of the production of the various gems
and ornamental stones throughout the world with particular ref-
erence to this country. The total importation of precious stones
into this country amounted in 1902 to nearly $25,000,000. The
comparative table for the years 1896 to 1902 shows that in that
period the production of sapphire in this country increased from
$10,000 to $115,000 ; of tourmaline from $3,000 to $30,000 ; of
turquoise from $40,000 to $130,000. No diamonds have been
found in this country during 1902, but the production in South
Africa was large, aggregating upwards of four million pounds
sterling. It is noted as a matter of curiosity that a cubic meter
of diamonds from the De Beers Mine was found to weigh
11,976,000 carats and had the approximate value of about
$76,000,000.

An interesting account is given of the production of diamonds
and carbons (carbonado) in Bahia, Brazil, and a description is
given of some very large masses of carbon found there. The
largest of these, found in 1895, weighed 3,078 carats ; another,
found in 1894, weighed 975 carats and a third was found in 1901
weighing 7504 carats.

III. MisceLLaneous SciENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. Report of the U. 8. National Museum under the direction
of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1901.
—This volume gives the reader a good knowledge of the activity
in the work of the National Museum at Washington, the con-
duct of which is one of the important functions of the Smith-
sonian Institution. It contains the report of the Assistant Secre-
tary in charge of the Museum, Mr. Richard Rathbun, with also
those of W. H. Holmes, Curator in the Department of Anthro.
pology, of F. W. True, Curator of Biology, and of G. P. Merrill,
Curator in Geology. ‘Among the special papers accompanying
the volume is one giving a full account of the exhibit of the
Museum at the Pan-American Exposition illustrated by many
plates; another on flint implements and fossil remains from a
Sulphur Spring at Afton, I. T., by W. H. Holmes ; on archzo-
logical field work in northeastern Arizona by Walter Hough; a

400 : Scientific Intelligence. 4

narrative of a visit to Indian tribes of the Purus River, Brazil,
by J. B. Steere.

The Afton Sulphur Spring is remarkable for the fossil remains

discovered in its immediate neighborhood. These are chiefly the
teeth of the mastodon and the mammoth, also teeth of the fossil
bison and horse ; with them occur bones of some recent animals.
Stone and bone implements were also found in large numbers in
the spring. The conclusion is reached that these deposits owe
their existence for the most part to the superstition of the Indians
who by their offerings sought to propitiate the spirits of the
spring.
to: The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and Lacca-
dive Archipelagoes , edited by J. StantEy Garpiner. Vol. II,
Part I, pp. 492-588, 9 pls. (See this Journal, xiii, 321; xiv, 74 ;
xv, 240, 488.)—This part includes the results of the studies of
some of the smaller collections of the expedition: Alcyonarians,
Nudibranchs, Sponge-crabs, Land Planarians, and Lagoon De-
posits; these are by Professor 8. J. Hickson, Miss Edith M.
Pratt, Sir Charles Eliot, Messrs. L. A. Borradaile, F. F. Laidlaw,
J. Stanley Gardiner, and Sir John Murray. Professor Hickson
found the alcyonaria to be of more than ordinary interest, as the
specimens were obtained from a considerable number of dredg-
ings made in several localities over an extensive area, thus afford-
ing an opportunity for a study of the variation in form, color,
and other features; hitherto a species often having been founded
on a single specimen or on a few from a single locality. Miss
Pratt gives valuable results of anatomical investigations and
comparative studies of four genera of the group: Sarcophytum,
Lobophytum, Sclerophytum, and Alcyonium. K. J. B.

3. Catalogue of the Collection of Birds’ Eggs in the British
Museum (Natural History), Vol. WL; by EKucenz W. Oars,
assisted by Capt. Savitte G. Reip. Pp. xxi, 349 with x plates.
London, 1903.—This third volume includes 907 species belong-
ing to the Carinate (Psittaciformes-Passeriformes) ; it corre-
sponds to volumes II and III, already issued, of Dr. Sharpe’s
Hand-list of the Genera and Species of Birds.

4. A Hand-list of the Genera and Species of Birds; by R.
Bow per SHarpPe. Vol. IV, pp. xii, 391. London, 1903.—The
list of known species of Passeriformes down to the end of the
Certhiide are included in this volume. It is announced that the
whole work will be completed with the issue of a fifth volume,
which will probably be published in the course of a few months.

5. Cold Spring Monographs, Nos. I and LI._—These mono-
graphs give the results of work done at the Biological Labora-
tory of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences at Cold
Spring Harbor, L. I. No. I, by Mabel E. Smallwood, is on the
Beach Flea, Talorchestia longicornis, with three plates and three
text-figures. No. II, by OC. B. Davenport, is on the Collembola
of Cold Spring Beach with special reference to the movements of
the Poduride, with one plate.

THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[FOURTH SERIES.]

Ar el. Polar Climate im Time the Major Factor im
the Evolution of Plants and Animals, by G. R. Wretanp.

Tue long period of physical evolution which preceded and
made possible the appearance of life on the globe forms a sub-
ject with which the physicist, the chemist, and the astronomer
must deal in common. For the history of these changes is an
inferential one based on the physical properties, constitution,
and relative position of the materials of the globe in space.
And indeed the same is largely true of the immense period of
time which doubtless elapsed from the appearance of whatever
was the most primitive form of protoplasm to the evolution of
the oldest organisms now found fossilized. From this crucial
period onward, the paleontologist can decipher the main facts
in the story of life on the globe, although he can at no point
dispense with the mathematical sciences. Especially is this
true when it is attempted to gain a knowledge of climate in
time, certainly the most tangible and readily understood, and
doubtless the fundamental factor in evolution. To make this
latter statement clear let the extent to which organic growth
and life-processes involve chemism, be recalled in the light of
the more recent experiments of such investigators as Loeb and
Matthews. Now chemism refers solely to those properties of
matter which are unchangeable and eternal. On the other
hand, chemical change is governed by the conditions of elec-
trification, and of heat, light, and moisture, which are none
other than the elements of climate, or weather conditions. Life
then, as far as we have succeeded in scrutinizing it, is a func-
tion of variable mechanical factors combined with chemism,
which is fixed, and of climate as dependent mainly on the

. Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH SERIES, Vout. XVI, No. 96.—DEcEmBER, 1903.
28

409 G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time.

manner of terrestrial reception of the solar radiant energy.
Climate, although following a fairly fixed trend, in itself sub-
ject in so far as the globe is concerned to an evolutionary
course, is at all times in given localities subject to the acci-
dence of countless movable conditions.

Thus it is that in any attempt to reach a general idea of the
course of life on the globe, the scene of its origin, the location
of dispersion centers, and the more active factors in the chang-
ing of organisms and evolving of new species, it at once
becomes necessary to consult first of all the astronomical and
physical records. Secondly, it becomes a subject of the highest
interest when we are able to consult both the physical and
biologic record in those later periods of the earth’s history
where these overlap. Each then supplements the other. In
taking a glance, however, at the subject of climate in time,
and particularly polar climate, I shall, leaving the considera-
tion of the pre-fossil period to the geo-physicist, mention but
briefly several associated theories of an astronomical or phys-
ical nature, and then confine myself mainly to biologie data.
And I hold that the evidence taken in its entirety indicates as
most probable the polar origin of life, and the development
throughout more especially later geological time of the great
groups of animals and plants markedly possessing invasive
power, mainly in boreal regions. Secondarily these northern
forms dispersed themselves southward over the V-shaped con-
tinents, and there appears to be but little likelihood that aus-
tral forms ever played as conspicuous a part in the great faunal
and floral movements of the past. In a word, that the great
evolutionary Schauplatz was boreal is possible from the astro-
nomical relations, probable from the physical facts, and ren-
dered an established certainty by the unheralded synchronous
appearance of the main groups of animals and plants on both
sides of the great oceans throughout post-Paleozoic time.
Moreover, the efficient cause of this origin in high latitudes of
hardy and effective colonizers is to be sought for in the vicissi-
tudes of polar climate as compared with the more equable and
static conditions of the tropics. |

Climate in time, or geological climate, may be considered as
the resultant of two sets of factors, both of which are subject
to an evolutionary process which is in the one set more or less
irregular and subject to cataclysm, and in the other more purely
differential or secular. The first set includes chiefly altitude,
emergence and stability of the land masses, deflection of the
winds and tides, and probably reception of meteoric material.
The main possible differential factors of geological climate are:
Change in obliquity of the ecliptic, axial fixity, internal heat
reaching the surface, rate of solar radiation, length of day,

G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time. 403

composition of the atmosphere, seasonal distribution of light,
and orbital eccentricity.

Now apoint of prime importance when we come to the con-
sideration of such topics in connection with the fossil record
is the vivid impression we get of the general stability of the
globe, and of the main features of climate throughout very
long periods of time. The facts of the fossil record lend
much of reality to our ideas of the relative or the actual per-
_manence of matter. But it would only be presumption on the
part of one who has interested himself almost entirely with
biological studies to attempt an arbitrament of the results of
research on fundamental physical and astronomical subjects.
It will, however, doubtless suffice for the purposes of the
present argument if but two of the above climatic factors sub-
ject to secular change,—namely, axial fixity, and orbital eccen-
tricity, be here mentioned at any length.

Axial Fixity.—V ariations of latitude due to motion of the
poles are theoretically due to mountain making, denudation,
and glacial ice caps, and though slight, have with increasing
refinement of astronomical measurement become determinable.
As the result of prolonged calculation Dr. 8. C. Chandler of
Cambridge finds evidence of polar shifting in all reliable
observations since 1750. From the available data he finds the
motion of the pole to be a much varying component arising
from an annual revolution in a narrow ellipse about 30 feet
long, but varying in form and position, and a revolution in a
circle about 26 feet in diameter with a period of about 428
days.

According to Croll, the shifting of the southern ice caps to
the north would move the earth’s center of gravity from 500
to 1000 feet, but this would in part be compensated by oceanic
shifting. It is evident that the change from this cause must
be shght. And Lord Kelvin holds that the equatorial bulge
is such that no geologic changes of surface could have possibly
altered the position of rotation sufficiently to sensibly affect
climate.

Nor is it likely that accumulations of extra-terrestrial mate-
rial in some one quarter of the globe could ever have had such
an effect. If so, there should be some stratigraphical evidence
of cceasional local large aerolitic deposits. But none are
known and the facts indicate that in the long run the surface
of the globe has as a whole received accretions from without
about equally. Beyond the slight movements above given
there is, therefore, no evidence of departure from a relatively
fixed position of the earth’s axis, and until direct evidence has
been adduced, it is both legitimate and necessary to set aside as
valueless all mere speculations to the contrary.

404 G. R. Wieland— Polar Climate in Time.

Orbital Eecentricity.— At times of high eccentricity of the
earth’s orbit, secondary climatic changes are set up which have
been the subject of profound discussion ever since the publi-
eation of James Croll’s “Climate and Time,” in which he
contends strenuously that periods of high eccentricity are
causes of climatic change sufficiently great to produce a glacial
epoch in the hemisphere passing through aphelion winter.

Let us recall that according to Croll’s theory the causes of
glacial periods are physical, not astronomical. That is to say,
solar radiation remaining approximately constant, orbital eccen-
tricity does not in itself produce any diminution in the sum
total of solar heat received each year by the entire surface of
the globe, or at any latitude. This follows from three causes ;
1st, by Kepler’s second law the radius vector sweeps over
equal areas in equal periods of time; 2d, the amount of
heat received is inversely as the square of the distance from,
the sun; and 3d, the orbit of the earth is constant in the
long run as regards its major axis and the length of the year,
the increase of heat with eccentricity being, according to Sir
John F. Herschel, less than -005 of the total solar heat received
now, an amount too slight to markedly influence climate.

When eccentricity is high, therefore, summer is shorter
and hotter and winter longer and colder, or v2ce versa, depend-
ing on the change in perihelion and aphelion due to the pre-
cession of the equinoxes, but the actual yearly amount of solar
heat received will be fairly constant for any given latitude.

The argument of Croll is that the true causes of glaciation
following eccentricital variations result from the entailed dis-
turbances in the ocean currents, the winds, the rain and snow-
fall, atmospheric humidity, and (first suggested by Newcomb)
increased radiation of heat into space, as temperature rises
during the short perihelion summer.*

In addition, A. R. Wallacet has pointed out that these climatie
factors have been profoundly affected in the polar regions by
changes in the land masses resulting in much modification in
the warm and cold currents, and, especially, altitude and the
winter storage of cold, which is not offset by any similar
storage of summer heat. Now to go into this question at great
length, nor can it be fully discussed short of this, is hardly —
within the scope of the present thesis. And to announce a
mere opinion is of course not argument. But it does seem to
me that the contention of Croll (pp. 57-66 of ‘Climate and
Time” ) that the low temperatures of the Antarctic regions are
due in considerable measure to the cumulative cooling effect of

* On Some Points in Climatology. A Rejoinder to Mr. Croll. This Journal,

vol. xxviii, No. 157, 1884.
+ Island Life.

G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time. 405

great bodies of ice and snow there found, and that such effects
would be heightened if the orbital eccentricity were now much
higher, is fairly sustained. It is doubtless true that the great
mountainous area of Antarctica is mainly responsible for a

condition which is in a lesser degree paralleled by the Greenland
ice cap,* and that a much heavier Arctic ice cap would be
present were it not for the deep polar sea discovered by Nansen.

But there are no known facts invalidating such impressive
testimony as that afforded by the conditions at Sandwich Land,
as so graphically described by Capt. Cook. He says, “We
thought it very extraordinary that an island between 54° and 55°
south latitude should in the very height of summer be almost
covered with frozen snow several fathoms deep, . . . masses of
ice were continually breaking off and dropping into the sea
with a sound like a cannon..... the savage rocks raised
their lofty summits till lost in the clouds and the valleys were
covered with seemingly perpetual snow.” On the other hand,
depending on the course and source of the prevailing winds
and currents, low-lying lands with fairly equable summers are
often found in close proximity to glacier covered regions.
Indeed snow and ice seldom accumulate in Arctic lowlands.
According to Lieutenant Payer, during the short summer in
high latitudes under the influence of dry winds and the sun
the ice fields diminished four feet in thickness, or the equiva-
lent of 45 inches of rain. And most northern travelers have
noted the sudden burst of luxuriant herbaceous vegetation on
the Tundras as soon as the cold winds cease to blow in from
the snow fields and ice packs, and thus blanket the winter
store of cold with a fog, sleet, and snow-laden atmosphere.
Moreover, F. W. Harmer has shown, in one of the most
important contributions to the subject of climatology made in
recent years,} that many of the phenomena of the “ Great Ice
Age” may be accounted for in a simple manner on the basis
of alterations in the course of the Gulf Stream, in the pre-
vailing winds, and in the shifting of the areas of prevailing
high and low barometer, with respect to the land masses sur-
rounding the polar area. It is not, however, the purpose to
pass any final judgment, or formulate a theory as to glacial
epochs.

*From what was previously known of temperatures and of ice and snow
conditions, Nansen had supposed that his great difficulty in crossing the
Greenland ice cap would be due to melting snow during the long summer
day. Butto his great surprise he found mid-winter conditions on the ice cap,
and he and his men suffered from well-nigh uncontrollable thirst during
their entire journey over it, in themonth of August being dependant for
drinking water on small quantities of snow melted against their bodies.

+ The influence of winds on climate during the Pleistocene epoch; a

Paleometeorological explanation of some geological problems.—Quar. Jour.
of Geol. Soc., August, 1901.

406 G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time.

From the great mass of facts, only the few just given are
selected, because they rivet attention to the true nature of
Arctic climates as we find them now, and help us to better
eall to mind the extent of the changes which the geological
and paleontological record, and this is the main point, shows
them to have undergone. Let us note further, that the several
Greenland, New Siberian Island, and Spitzbergen plant beds
show that secular diminution of heat had steadily proceeded
from the Mesozoic on, until, in the later Tertiary, moderately
sharp winters like those of the present temperate zone ruled in
the north polar area, which at this critical juncture presum-
ably took on for the first time in its history the land-locked
condition and rigorous Arctic climate such as we see to-day.
Then simultaneously, possibly with a brief period of low solar
radiation, maximum obliquity of the ecliptic, a highly eccen-
trie orbit, changed position of the Gulf Stream, and also may-
hap the emergence of boreal mountains, the glacial period
set in. But whether or not this was preceded after the same
manner by an earlier Miocene glaciation is a topic I shall not
need to take up.

The fundamentally important point is, that extensive Arctic
explorations taken together with the fossil plant record, pre-
clude glacial periods in the north polar area previous to Mio-
cene time. And as we go back in time, periods of high
eccentricity with changed position of the ocean currents and
areas of barometric pressure, tended less and less to produce
glaciation at either pole. They must rather have resulted nm
prolonged hot, or frosty, or cool, or rainy, or dry seasons. Each
return of high eccentricity thus witnessed, speaking compara-
tively of the general or average conditions of the epoch in
which it occurred, the most profound climatal modifications,
these always being greatest at the poles and diminishing toward
the equatorial regions where they would be scarcely felt. As
eccentricity is always fluctuating with a tolerable frequency of
maximum periods, and as these always last long enough for
equinoctial precession to reverse the maximum effects, the
polar areas have hence been throughout geological time the
scene of a steadily increasing and finally stupendous shuttle of
climatic change.

Nor need we, so far as the main question is concerned, carry
this general statement further. It does not affect, unless in its
favor, the force of the present argument, for mstance, that
there is increasingly abundant evidence of Permian glaciation
in the southern hemisphere. The fact is that in the north all
the known evidence is against pre-Miocene glacial epochs and
in favor of mild climates throughout the early Tertiary, and
of more and more tropical climates in all of the Mesozoic and

G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time. A0T

Paleozoic, though subject throughout, let it be repeated, to the
shuttle of seasonal change due to orbital eccentricity. But
let us now turn to the biologie record.

Theoretical early polar life, and the generalized conditions
of the Paleozoic.—lf it were permissible to accept the sug-
gestion made by Chamberlain* and others that the early his-
tory of the globe was mainly one of quiet meteoric aggrega-
tion without the fusion of all its mass at any time, the period
during which the origin, or introduction, of life could have
taken place might be considered as greatly lengthened, and
extending back into very novel conditions. But although this
idea may have very important elements of truth in it, it is one
requiring much further elaboration, and as we shall see need
not here be taken up. The hypothesis of the early nebular
constitution of the solar system and of the molten globe, as
formulated by Kant and by Laplace, and as supported by most
of the every-day facts of geology, astronomy, physics, and
chemistry, as well as rigid mathematical interpretation, must as
yet afford the main basis of speculation. One cannot but
admire the confidence with which Lord Kelvin speaks of the
first formed crust of the molten globe a few centimeters thick,
and says that, ‘‘ All the reckonings of the history of the under-
ground heat .... are founded on the very sure assumption
that the material of our present very solid earth all round its
surface was at one time a white-hot hquid.”

Now in the face of concrete facts, bare suggestions to the
contrary cannot have a very great weight. If the molten
globe is to be accepted as a reality, it is then clear that perhaps
in part owing to the equatorial bulge, but mainly because
heavy tides and currents must long have continued to break up
the initially formed crust in the equatorial regions, there must
first have appeared at the poles sufficient crustal stability to
make hot water life possible. It is also to be recalled that as
strongly indicated by G. H. Darwin’s hypothesis, the moon
must have been at this early period much closer to the globe
than now. If so there must long have been produced lunar
tides of tremendous power sufficient to break up crusts of
many meters in thickness in the equatorial regions, while at
the pole weak tides would rule. A great interval of time
must then have elapsed between the first appearance of crustal
stability at the poles and at the equator, an interval of time
enough for the formation all round an undisturbed molten
globe of a crust a sufficient number of meters in thickness to
resist the lunar and solar tidal stress. This length of time
between the appearance of stable conditions suitable to the

* On Lord Kelvin’s address on the Age of the Earth as an abode fitted for
life. Annual Report Smithsonian Institution, 1899.

408 G. R. Wieland— Polar Climate in Time.

lower forms of life at the poles and their later appearance at
the tropics would also be lengthened by the greater heating
power of the sun at the equator, a factor doubtless greater
then than now. In any case the critical temperature and the
stability necessary even to hot water life may well have required
a million years to slowly move southward to the equator, after
an initial appearance at the poles. And the highly interesting
view that the requisite physical conditions of life did actually
first appear and inaugurate life itself at the north pole, and
that as the result of evolution in the northern circum-polar
area new species were continually dispersing from thence
southward throughout time down to the glacial period, was
ably presented by Mr. G. Hilton Scribner, more than twenty
years ago.* When Mr. Scribner wrote, the work of G.
H. Darwin had not yet appeared, and while overlooking
the part that tides must have played in preventing equatorial
stability and thus have been the main factor in preventing
early equatorial life, his chief conclusion is regarded as funda-
mentally correct, and to him belongs the credit of its first
enunciation. Though it seems quite clear that life could as
reasonably have had a similar beginning at much the same
time at both the poles. |

The causation of this assumed early polar origin of life, has
of course a direct bearing on the view of climate here pre-
sented. But without indulging at present in speculations how-
ever interesting, I shall only say in passing that we cannot
admit that the properties of primal protoplasm, whether of
mundane or extra-mundane origin, depend on anything else
than the physical, electrical, chemical, vz¢a/ and other proper-
ties of matter. “ Hie nthilo nihil fit.’ +

* Where Did Life Begin? New York: Charles Scribnev’s Sons, 1883.

+ The theory that the origin and entire course of life is wholly based on
the properties of matter must be held as the most comprehensible, even if
life was actually transplanted from some: other sphere, for thus pushing its
origin back a stage leaves us in precisely the same position as before. But
that life may have originated very remotely and have reached this globe,
perchance, from other celestial bodies is not utterly without the bounds of
reason, as suggested by the experiments of Professor Dewar and Sir W. T.
Thiselton-Dyer, showing that seeds (and spores) have wonderful resistant
power to cold. These experimenters placed the seeds of flowering plants in —
vacuo at —250° to —253° C., a condition approximating outer space, with-
out greatly affecting their vitality,—a good proportion of the seeds which
had been thus passed through a sub-crystalline state afterward growing when
planted. Other seeds were soaked in liquid hydrogen and afterward germi-
nated, as did yet others after immersion in liquid air contained in a red hot
platinum dish !

It is above all things conceivable in the light of such experiments that
virile spores and resting stages of lowly organized forms may have reached

this globe from the outer space at any time in its history, or indeed may
still be reaching it for aught we can say, in the vastest numbers. The ‘‘red

G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time. 409

With regard to the period of an assumed polar origin or
implantation of life, needless to say little can be said from the
purely historical view in so far as now known. In general the
all sufficient assumption is that consolidation of the continents
went on apace, and that there was a continuous dispersion of
increasingly diverse forms from the slowly enlarging and more
equable polar areas towards the borders of the lessening trop-
ical belt over-hot for life. Hven though the globe was never un
the white hot condition, this was still doubtless the case, and
the presumption is strong that coupled with eccentricity the
same progressive climatic changes already mentioned played
their part even in the ancient period, culminating in the uni-
versal tropical conditions of the Paleozoic to which the unim-
peachable geophysical and paleontological record carries us
back. But it is, of course, not possible to now trace out the
actual march of events in the Paleozoic, abundant though its
fossil forms may be. It may only be remarked that the oreat
preponderance of aquatic animals and spore-bearing plants
made the distribution of Paleozoic life easy, and rapid, and
general, facts which aside from the scanter record render it
very difficult to reach conclusions concerning any invasion of
polar forms so far as recorded in fossil floree and faunee.*

In general it may be said that in the Devonian and Lower
Carboniferous most plant forms are, so far as present, more or
less ubiquitous. During these periods the Equisetales, Lyco-
podiales, Filicales, Sphenophyllales, Cycadofilices, and Cordat-
tales appear to reach a high degree of specialization and for
the greater part a cosmopolitan distribution. These general-
ized floral conditions were, however, interrupted in the Permo-
Carboniferous by the appearance in the southern hemisphere,
mainly below the tropic of Capricorn, of a new and simpler
type of flora than that continuing to flourish and develop in
snow” (Spheerella nivalis) of the Arctic regions shows us that in the old
worn out and frigid stage of a planet life may still be present.

The life of hot springs affords an example of low organization at the
opposite temperature extreme.

*Tt is true that many large seeded plants existed, but their seeds would
readily be carried from island to island, when not too distant, bearing in
mind the much freer circulation of ocean drift among the Paleozoic islands.
An excellent example of the ease with which the ferns make their way is
afforded by the isolated occurrence of Adiantum Cappillis Veneris along a
stream fed by thermal waters in the Southern Black Hills, far beyond its
utmost normal north-limit. This shows how readily spore-bearing plants
transplant themselves to great distances and to strange places. Nor may the
new station for the ‘‘ Adder’s Tongue,” Ophioglossum Vulgatum, recently
found in Iceland, mean that at this “point a last stand is being made against
the cold that has driven this fern from its original boreal home, but just as
readily that it has long since during glacial times been pressed far to the

south, and that its spores have again been wafted northward from either
Eurasia or America.

410 G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time.

the north—the so-called Glossepteris—fiora. In this the genus
Glossopteris was so extraordinarily abundant as to have sug-
gested to Seward in his eloquent presidential address* the idea
that it must have monopolized wide areas over large parts of
southern South America, Africa, and Australia to the exclu-
sion of other plants, just as the Bracken to-day covers sunny
hillsides with a carpet of green. The southern origin of the
Glossopteris flora is certainly a legitimate assumption, and was
doubtless connected in some way with climatic changes eulmi-
nating in the glacial conditions of the southern Permian. But
whilst the Glossopteris flora in reality thus furnishes the first
suggestion of the breaking up of ancient generalized tropical
conditions by an invasion from the far south, there remains
the fact of the immense extent and distribution of more varied
northern forms, as well as the return and long persistence of
wide-spread uniform conditions during the Trias and Jura.
The vertebrates of the later Paleozoic are not as yet under-
stood to indicate any differentiation into zoological realms,
although a much fuller knowledge of the Permian faunas of
Texas, South Africa, and Northern Russia may yet furnish
evidence of such.

Although doubtless increasing in force, polar influences due
to eccentricity during Paleozoic time must hence from the
nature of the record long or always remain more or less
obscure. It is, however, from this period on that the facts of
polar origins become clearer and clearer. As soon as we get
in the Mesozoic, the fortuitous combination of fairly numerous
freshwater strata on the Continental mainlands and the early
representatives of the more highly organized vertebrates and
plants, which by reason of their organization are easily lable
to displacement and extinction, and hence constitute delicate
horizon-markers, we become more and more aware of a vast
procession of similar series of both animals and plants from
north to south on both sides of the Atlantic. To this main
line of our discussion let us now yield attention.

The Argument for Polar Origins as Based on the Verte-
brates.—The earlier expression of the north to south move-
ment of types originating in the high north consists in the
fact that the small and delicate so-called mammals of the
Jurassic are much alike in beds on both sides of the Atlantic
presumed to be of about the same age. In the Cretaceous the
same general fact is true, but in an accentuated form. And
throughout the Tertiary the completer the record the greater
the parallelism displayed between synchronous faunee of the
various European and American horizons yielding vertebrate
fossils.

* British A. A. S. meeting at Southport, 1908, Address to the Botanical
Section.

G. f. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time. A411

Now all the divisions of the Tertiary, the Eocene, Oligocene,
Miocene, and Pliocene were markedly periods of great inland
lakes and flood plains, which on the whole favored the deposi-
tion of far more extensive freshwater beds than those of
earlier times when the continents were rather smaller. More-
over, these periods witnessed the expansion of the primitive
mammalian stocks into the existing mammalian orders, as well
as the rise and extinction of many striking forms. As a con-
sequence, the mammals being from size, habit, and frequency —
of preservation among the best of all horizon-markers, the
Tertiary record, unlike the older and more imperfect Mesozoic
record, is often quite complete. The North American Ter-
tiary strata are more than a mile in total thickness, and contain
imbedded at intervals, which of course depended on local con-
ditions, a score or more of successive faune. When closely
studied these are found to possess many peculiarities of their
own. Many of the genera and families of each are new and
unheralded in preceding groups. No vertebrate paleontologist
would consider these new elements as direct local derivatives
from preceding faune. That is to say, there is throughout the
series an ever-recurring lack of precursor forms, if we except
the later stages of certain groups like the horses which evolved
many successive species in the great mid and late Tertiary
American plains. In short, most of the groups come suddenly
with a large proportion of new elements scarcely or not at all
related to ‘preceding forms and they gO as suddenly, as if by a
succession of “ waves” or “impulses.” In Europe there are
not such extensive eae deposits as in America, but there
is a reasonably complete record, and it shows the same history
of new faunal influxes. But this is not all. The series of
unheralded faunal influxes forming so prominent a feature in
the European Tertiary was made up of much the same suc-
cessive elements, possessing the same peculiarities as well as
many of the same genera and closely related species, and
appearing in the same order, and at essentially the same time
as in America. In fact, essentially the same new complex
faunee appear, as explained, at about the same time on both
sides of the Atlantic so often and so continuously as to make
this mode of appearance the rule, not the exception. And
such differences as do present themselves are explicable on the
basis of the known great imperfections of the fossil record, on
some climatal differences, and because of the unlikelihood
that all the elements of faune, including diverse orders and
families, could in any case whatsoever reach such widely sepa-
rated regions.*

* These facts of similarity become more and more striking with exacter

methods of study and the multiplication of known forms with each added
year of exploration. Thus Charles Depéret in a recent study of the early

AI? G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time.

How best explain this extensive faunal parallelism? As the
deep oceans and the continents, though slowly increasing in
area as the result mainly of delta formation, have occupied
relatively the same position as now far back in geological time,
there have been no means of horizontal dispersion back and
forth. Although this view has been at times called into requi-
sition it appears to be utterly unsound. ‘The great antiquity
of the principal elements of the life of the Hawaiian Islands,
Australia, New Zealand, Madagascar, bears unmistakable testi-
mony to the dithculty of dispersion of the higher types of life
across ocean barriers in any direction, and indeed shows such
dispersion of the vertebrates to be nearly impossible. Nor is
it conceivable that there was a constant exchange of American
and European monkeys, ganodents, cumbrous ungulates, horses,
dogs, rodents, bears, etc., etc., back and forth by way of the
polar regions. The difficulties of the enormous distances,
doubtless in most of Tertiary time increased by mountain
ranges, of the Behring’s Strait, or the Aleutian Island route,
for such interchange between the Tertiary basins of Wyoming
and France are obvious enough. ‘The shortest nearly all land
route that may by any possibility have existed so nearly as may
he judged from present shallow ocean depths, would have been
by way of the transverse submarine plateau marked by Ice-
land, the Faeroes, and Shetlands, the average depth between
these islands, exclusive of the deep waters off the Greenland
coast, now being some 250 fathoms. The remaining possibility
lies almost directly in line with the north pole and would be a
route by way of Melville Peninsula and Cockburn Land,
North Devon, Ellesmere Land, Grinnell Land, Melville Land,
The Spitzbergen Group, and Franz Josef’s Land, Nova Zembla
and Northern Siberia. Even now this route involves but short
‘water gaps. But even if conditions were more favorable than
now, it is not conceivable that with the exception of a very
few times in the past, if ever, could animals have succeeded
horses (Revision des Formes Européenes de la Famille des Hyracotherides,
Lyon, March, 1901) finds as the result of close analysis that Hohippus Marsh
of the Wasatch is close to Hyracotherium Owen and to Propachynolophus
Lemoine of the Suessonian, that Protorohippus Wortman from the Wind
Riveris very similar to Propaleotherium Gervais and Pachynolophus Pomel,
and that Hpihippus and Kohippus Marsh are similar to Lophiotherium of
Gervais. Depéret shows that the early horses of Europe are most closely
allied to those of America in their successive evolutionary stages, or even
identical, and Professor Osborn in speaking of this similarity says (Science,
p. 674, April 24, 1903): ‘‘It is probably premature to establish generic
identity between these American and European forms ; but it is evident that
the time is not far distant when such identity is likely to be established, unless
we take the ground that the European and American forms were entirely
independent in their evolution from the time of their first appearance.” In

Europe, as in America, it appears, however, that in the later history of the
horses there was mainly an indigenous evolution of species.

G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time. Aalto

in passing by either of these routes. At all times since the
earliest Mesozoic either animals (or plants) in so doing would
so repeatedly have been forced to change their mode of life
and endure new conditions during the reproductive season,
especially after sharp winters set in in the northern regions,
that one must greatly doubt if any ever accomplished the
journey after the later Cretaceous. Likewise that any of the
synchronous similar faune or elements of faunze could have
come from the south is contrary to the evidence of the fossils
themselves, and contrary to what we know of the general north
to south movement of animals and plants as so fully and thor-
oughly demonstrated by Wallace in his Island Life. Again,
that the same series of peculiar genera of horses, dogs, camels,
etc., were constantly being evolved independently at widely
separated points is preposterous. |

Taken singly and collectively, the facts of Mesozoic and Ter-
tiary vertebrate distribution in the northern hemisphere explain
themselves satisfactorily on no other than the sole remaining
hypothesis, namely, that of a common polar origin of the prin-
cipal ancestral stocks, which then dispersed secondarily out-
wards in waves or impulses from the polar area and spread
over America and Eurasia. The various high northern lands
mentioned above then become, instead of mere migratory
routes, centers of origin and a means of ready dispersion, the
various stocks only passing out uniformly from them in the
southward direction—that which always offered least resist-
ance to migration and extension ot habitat. In addition a
large part of Northern Siberia may be included in this northern
area so subject to change, since Cape Chelyuskin lies 600 miles
north of the Arctic Circle, while many Tertiary islands must
have existed that have since disappeared. It is all the while
to be borne in mind that broken land areas at the north are
likely to have been important factors in the faunal and floral
changes there taking place. |

It is to be added that it is not impossible, and even seem-
ingly probable, that the Antarctic area represented a minor
dispersion center facing the apices of the triangular continental
masses whence certain peculiar elements of the South Ameri-
ean, African and Australian faunee may have originally sprung.

More recently a masterful résume of the facts relating to
the impressive synchronous succession of similar vertebrate
faunz in Europe and America has been given by Dr. J. L.
Wortman,* and to him belongs the merit of first having pointed
out its great extent and bearing on the question of the polar
origin of the main ancestral mammalian stocks. Although the

* Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the Marsh Collection, Peabody Museum,
this Journal, vols. xi-xv, 1901, 1903.

414 G. R. Wieland— Polar livin in Time.

general idea was vaguely suggested by Saporta, and very defi-
nitely by Scribner twenty-five years since, it has never hitherto
been seriously entertained, worked out, or applied by verte-
brate paleontologists in their discussion of the distribution of
fossil faune.

As here held because of the following reasons, the north.
polar area has since the Carboniferous been of relatively more
importance in the origination of hardy stocks with strong
invasive power, and which have mainly followed outwardly
lines of longitude, the more readily because of the secular
retreat southward of tropical conditions throughout long
periods of time:

(a) The parallelism between the life of America and Eurasia —
is apparently greater than that of the more isolated continental
areas of the far south—South Africa, Notogea, and Neogea.

_ (6) The great land masses lie about and project well within
the Arctic area, and have, therefore, afforded the presumably
wider geographic range.

(c) There is much reason to believe that the lands near the
north pole were always much divided into islands and peninsulas,
and were thus, as elsewhere explained, a more active scene of
plant and animal change than even a much larger and more iso-
lated body of land such as Antarctica may have been.

(d) It is reasonably certain that over a large portion of the
Antarctic area the continuity of life was interrupted by glacial
conditions in the Permian.

But the same physical and ethologic principles apply to both
of the polar areas. And it is of much moment to the views
here advanced that although the discovery of the first evidence
of the ancient vertebrate and plant life of Antarctica is yet to
be made, the former presence of abundant life within the
austral area has at various times been suggested or claimed. A
convenient summary of literature bearing on this subject has
been given by A. E. Ortmann.* And Osbornf says very
distinctly that, “‘ One of the greatest triumphs of recent bio-
logical investigation is the concurrence of botanical, zoological,
and paleontological testimony in the reconstruction of a great
southern continent to which the name Antarctica has been
given.”

The discovery of the great horned turtle J/colanza in Pata-
gonia, Australia, and Lord Howe Island, and as yet nowhere
else, is only one of various striking facts that do suggest a
former south polar land connection of these now widely sepa-
rated localities. But not to tarry too long, I shall only remark
that the views of Antarctica have come to be much involved

* Am. Nat., vol. xxxv, No. 410, Feb., 1901.
+ Ann. New York Acad. Sci., No. 1, pp. 1 to 72, July 31, 1900.

G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time. 415

with a belief in extensive lateral intermingling of African,
Notogean and Neogean life. Crossing and recrossing of
either of the polar areas we believe rarely to have taken place,
and certainly during periods of polar cold this becomes quite,
or whoily impossible.

Now it follows from @ priori reasons, that since vertebrate
stocks originated more and more frequently in the boreal area
as time went on, down to the Glacial epoch, there must have
been a preceding development of food plants of quite as
-varied character as the animals themselves, and with one more
word we may turn to the plant record. Nothing could at the
present time be more satisfactory to paleontologists than the
discovery of polar localities yielding fossil vertebrates. As
justly remarked by Professor Nathorst in a letter to the writer,
“Tt is very curious that not a single mammalian bone has
hitherto been found in any Tertiary deposit within the Arctic
area.” But this dearth of actual evidence is quite as much
due to the unfavorable conditions for the preservation of fossil
bones on the exposed surfaces in high latitudes as enumerated
by Nordenskjold and Palander, as to the lack of exploration.
One cannot but believe that in the course of time there must
be found in the high north evidence in abundance comple-
mentary to that of the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary verte-
brate-yielding horizons of America and Eurasia.

The Argument for Polar Origins as Based on the Plants.
—In the case of the plants there is both a northern and conti-
nental record. Both taken together supplement and confirm
the evidence afforded by the vertebrates of the radiation of hardy
stocks from the polar area on a grand scale. Indeed it is on
the basis of the facts afforded by both the past and present
distribution of plants, that more or less well defended theories
as to the northern origin of the present temperate flora, and,
a priori, fauna have from time to time been proposed. A
belief in a Scandinavian flora of great antiquity, occupying the
polar area and during the advent of the glacial period radiat-
ing out on every longitude and to every latitude, was held by
Forbes and Darwin fifty years ago. It was given a certain
basis in fact by Sir Joseph D. Hooker in his Outlines of the
Distribution of Aretic Plants in 1861, and later on Saporta in
the Levue de Dewx Mondes (1883), after the discovery of the
Cretaceous Arctic fossil flore, stated his belief in the Arctic
origin of the main groups of animals and plants far back in |
geological time, and including man as well. The definite con-
ception, well fortified by facts, of a universal southward dis-
persion of plants from the northern polar area during Tertiary
time was, however, first conclusively formulated and _ pre-
sented by Asa Gray in his Dubuque Presidential Address before

416 G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time.

the Botanical Society of America in 1875. In 1883 additional
facts were given by Mr. G. Hilton Scribner, who took up the
subject from the standpoint of the northern origin of life itself.
Moreover, in 1883 Nathorst published a map of fossil Tertiary
plant localities in the north polar regions and the hypothetical
routes of their migration southwards.

As we have already seen, the point at which the evidence
from the side of the vertebrates is most wanting, lies in the
entire absence of known vertebrate-bearing horizons within
the polar circles, whilst, on the other hand, the American and
European record is quite complete in Tertiary time, there
being abundant horizons covering this period of rapid mam-
malian development. Contrariwise in the case of the plants,
the northern record from the Cretaceous on, is one of the most
interesting within the ken of the paleobotanist. But as the
main development of the early Dicotyls and other plants con-
stituting the best horizon markers took place in the late J urassie,
at a time when there is a considerable dearth of freshwater
beds in close succession, the plant record: also has its serious
weak point. The general facts of both records are, however,
so entirely complementary that it is a matter of some surprise
that they have so little occupied the attention of biologists.

The fact that, as recently shown by Seward,* there are strik-
ing similarities in the plants of the Inferior Odlite of York-
shire, and those of the lower Jurassic of Bornholm (Sweden),
Japan, and the Rajmahal series of India, may, so far as present
knowledge goes, be considered an early indication of a north to
south movement of plants. It is noteworthy that Gingko and
Baiera, so abundant in the Lower Jurassic of England, Japan,
and Bornholm, are so far unknown in this horizon in India.
Few forms, albeit, have a more striking northern development
during Jurassic and Cretaceous time than the Gingkoales.

Following the period of very generalized tropical conditions,
the earliest extensive comparison of European and American
flore that can now be made is that between the Jurassic of
Portugal and the Trias of America. Notwithstanding this
time hiatus, about two-thirds of the Portuguese genera, as has
been pointed out by Ward, are present in the American Trias.
In the Lower Cretaceous of Maryland and of Portugal the
comparison is a much more striking one. There are, indeed,
some species of wide distribution common to both. But as
Professor Ward has said, ‘‘ We should not, of course, expect
the species to be common to any great extent, and the com-
parison is practically limited to the genera. Looked at from
this point of view, we see that the resemblance is indeed close,

* Occurrence of Dictyozamites in England, with remarks on European and
Eastern Mesozoic Floras, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., May, 19038, vol. lix.

G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time. AL]

a great number of the important genera occurring in both
floras. There are no less than forty-six of these common to
the two, though in some cases the author’s individuality is
probably alone responsible for slight differences in the names.
For example, forms referred to Bazera by one would be
referred to azeropsis by another, and so with Ctends and
Ctenidium, Myrsine and Myrsinophyllum, Oleandra and
Oleandridium, Saliw and Saliciphyllum, Thuya, and Thu-
qutes, ete.’”’*

Moreover, Professor Ward finds that the proportion of
species of the similar genera bears some relation to the rela-
tive size of the two flore, about 1 to 4 (200 species being
known from Portugal to about 800 in Maryland). Thus the
proportion of Portuguese to American species is respectively
for the genus Aralia 2 to 11, for Lrachyphyllum 5 to 9, for
Cladophlebis 12 to 25, for Hrenelopsis 2 to 6, for Laurus 8 to
8, for Myrica 2 to 11, for Podozamites 7 to 15, for Sphenole-
pedium 3 to 9, ete. Of Magnolia, however, there is only 1
species. to 12 in Portugal. Professor Ward concludes that, “ On
the whole it may be considered that the Lower Cretaceous flora
of Portugal is, botanically speaking, a very close repetition of
that of America; and in view of the fact that in both coun-
tries a number of distinct horizons showing the progressive
change in the flora throughout that period have yielded fossil
plants in such a way that, if the Portuguese beds were as fully
developed as are the American ones, each of these florules
might be compared, the subject becomes rather fascinating.”

‘To note further the parallelism between continental floree of
Europe and America from the Cretaceous on, is scarcely
required. It may be remarked that previous to the discovery
of the rich Potomac flora and of various archetypal dicotyls
in certain Jurassic strata it was supposed that the Angiosperms,
now the predominant type of vegetation, had their origin in
the Middle Cretaceous. The sudden and simultaneous appear-
ance at this time in large number of species in Europe and
America of the main forest types of to-day with but few fore-
runners, however, constitutes such a protound phenomenon of
American and Eurasian plant parallelism as is scarcely explica-
ble on the basis of lateral distribution. Furthermore, there is
indicated a steady decline in temperature and retreat of trop-
ical conditions to the southward. The Dakotas and Wyoming
still enjoyed Floridian conditions in the Eocene. From this
time on the temperature decline was marked.

But let us take a glance at the northern record. It is of
more than passing interest to note that it so happens that the
most varied Upper Devonian flora yet discovered is that of the

* XViIth Ann. Rep. U. 8. Geol. Survey, 1894-95, pp. 469-540.
Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vout. XVI, No. 96.—DECEMBER, 1903.

418 G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time.

Bear Island which lies in 74° north latitude about midway
between the North Cape and Spitzbergen. To be exact, it
includes, according to Nathorst,* Filices, Sphenophyllales
(extinct plants from which have been derived the horsetails
and lycopods), Calamites and Lycopods. These plants indicate,
needless to say, a decidedly tropical climate, and from their
diversity ot form and structure “show that vascular plants
must have existed for an exceedingly long period previous to
Upper Devonian time.” As stated above, up to and includ-
ing this period and the Lower Carboniferous the Paleozoie rep-
resents a generalized tropical period in so far as can now be
determined. Nor is there reason to believe that other than
tropical conditions ruled at the north during the Permo-Car-
boniferous and Trias. Likewise the Jurassic plants from Spitz-
bergen, King Charles’ Island, Franz Josef’s Land, Cape Flora,
and other far northern localities leave no question of the con-
tinuance of these conditions within the Arctic area. Regard-
ing the late Jurassic and the very earliest Cretaceous, or the
period covering the origin of the Dicotyls, we as yet have
scanty evidence from the north. But from this time on the
record of climatic change furnished by the northern plants
becomes a striking one indeed. |

- Greenland is one of the best known of Arctic lands. Though
largely an Archaean area of eruptive rocks much too old to shed
any light on the character of ancient northern life, and intensely
scoured and glaciated, this winter-locked land affords abundant
and reasonably connected evidence of the slow decline in tem-
perature that culminated in the Glacial epoch, as well as of the
exceedingly rich and varied flora that just preceded this period
of decline. About the edges of the great ice cap far to the
north on the west coast, and mainly between 69” 15’, and 72°
15’ N. L. there are numerous outcrops of Sandstone and slate
containing intervening layers of coal, clay, and clay ironstone,
from which have been obtained some of the finest series of
Cretaceous and Tertiary fossil plants known, the best and most
numerous localities being on the peninsulas of Nugsuak and
Svartenhuk, and on Disco Island. The most northerly locality
is in Grinnell Land, 82° N. L. These plant-bearing beds have
a total thickness of from 2,000 to 8,000 feet, and are covered
by an additional 2,500 feet of basalt, which has protected them
from erosion by superimposed ice. Being loose of texture, it
is held that they would certainly long since have been com-
pletely eroded away were it not for this basalt covering.
Although known for nearly a hundred years, the first adequate
collections of fossils from these plant beds were made by

* Zur Fossilen Flora der Polarlander, Erster Teil. Dritte Lieferung. Zur
Oberdevonischen Flora der Baren-Insel. Stockholm, 1902.

G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time. 419

Nordenskiéld and Steenstrup, and studied by Professor Oswald
Heer, the chief results being published in his magnificent
monograph the Flora Fossilis Arctica.

Heer divided the Greenland beds into (1) the Aome beds, (2)
the Atane beds, (3) the Patoot beds and (4) the Tertiary beds.
In all there occur more than 600 species of plants.

In the lower or Home beds (the so-called Greenland Urgonian),
twenty or more Cycads, as many Conifers, a number of ferns,
five Monocotyls, and one Dicotyl are present. The Cycads are
mainly of a quite modern type and also include a species close
to Cycas revoluta, now native of warmer Japan, but are almost
uniformly dwarfish forms. The conifers, sequoias, and pines
seem to have formed extensive forests. The single Dicotyl
(Populas primaeva) was regarded as the oldest of all the
dicotyls until the later discovery of primitive dicotyledonous
types in the lower Cretaceous of Maryland and Portugal, to be
again mentioned. Heer concluded that the mean temperature
when the Kome beds were laid down was about 71° to 72°.
This is that of Cuba now.*

In number (2) the Atane beds there occur at Lower Atani-
kerdluk more than fifty Dicotyls, including the fig and the
bay. There are fewer ferns and a diminishing number of
conifers, and the presence in this much changed floral facies of
about four Cycads shows them to be a waning group, although
no other than very slight decline in temperature is indicated.
In (8) the Patoot beds the Dicotyls reach a fully established
sway, numbering about 70 species with 18 conifers, whilst the
Cycads disappear. Oaks and planes are here the most abun-
dant forest trees, and alders, maples, figs, bay, walnuts and
birches are present. A secular decline in temperature is
indicated. In all these floree a noteworthy phenomenon often
noted amongst Upper Cretaceous plants and eloquent of the
origin of the Dicotylsin a moist and hot climate, is the growth
side by side of forms whose nearest relatives are now found
quite exclusively in either temperate, warm temperate or hot
climates. Thus inthe Atane beds the bread fruit tree, now
Only found in the hotter lands, grew side by side with the oak
and chestnut.

The Greenland Zertiary includes twenty beds containing

* A quite similar climate and forest facies is indicated by the fossils of the
‘Lower Cretaceous” cycad-bearing horizons of the Black Hills ‘‘rim,’”’ where
large numbers of cycads, possibly in part of a somewhat older general type
than those of the Kome beds, formed the underbrush or grew in the open dells
of great coniferous (Araucarian) forests. The beautifully silicified trunks
with the leaves and fruits of the Bennettitalean cycads and numerous
immense Araucarian silicified logs as well as many plantimpressions tell the
story. It is significant that here as elsewhere the sway of the gymnosperms

was very suddenly disputed by the inrush of Angiosperms, with but very
few precursor forms.

490 G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate m Time.

Eocene and probably Miocene plants, represented by nearly
three hundred species. The conifers, Taxodium, Thuja, Se-
ee Gingko, Abies and Pinus are present. Among the

icotyls are a profusion of oaks and walnuts, with poplars,
elms, ashes, planes, maples, chestnuts, alders, beeches, birches..
There are, moreover, bays, six species of magnolia, three of
ebony, and a soapberry, as well as smilax and other climbing
vines. Heer considered the mean temperature indicated by
these plants of northern Greenland to have been not less than
55° F'.; though Professor Nathorst, the most distinguished
living authority on the plants of the polar lands, shows this
estimate to be certainly too high for the close of the period,
which was, however, warm enough for the ripening of walnuts
in 70° 25’ N. L. Moreover, by this time fairly sharp polar
winters had set in. Supplementary evidence showing this
steady decline in Arctic Tertiary temperature has accumulated
from a series of localities fairly girdling the pole. The prin-
cipal ones are the Sabine Island on the east coast of Green-
land, Iceland, Spitzbergen and the new Siberian Islands.

In brief the north polar regions were as yet markedly tropical
in Jurassic time, and less so by the close of the Cretaceous ;
whilst the several northern fossil floree indicate a steady, per-
sistent, unmistakable secular decline in temperature over the
entire polar area, culminating in the late Tertiary in arctic
conditions. ‘

That the rich vegetation of the various horizons represented
within the Arctic area forms the original source of most of the
plant families, which as the evidence shows spread synchron-
ously over Eurasia and America throughout Cretaceous and
Tertiary time, is a conclusion which we can scarce escape.
But as to the actual first home of the Dicotyls it would of
course on the basis of present knowledge be a gratuitous guess
to say that this was within the Arctic circle. They may rather
be a legacy left over from the later generalized tropical periods,
these being characterized, as stated, by easy distribution. The
first Mono- and Dicotyls may hence never be assigned to any
particular region.

It is, however, to be observed that the early Angiosperms,
which appear alike unheralded in the Cretaceous of Maryland
and Portugal, may really be younger than the plants of the
Greenland Urgonian (Kome beds). I only need note that the
belief in the similar age of these beds rests entirely on floral
evidence, and that equivalent flores in such widely separated
localities afford very insufficient proof of synchronism. More-
over, in view of what we now know of southern migrations if
in the case of two quite similar but widely distant fossil faunee
or floree, one rests far to the north, it is likely, once the strati-

G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time. 491

graphic succession is learned in more detail, to be found over-
lapped and the more ancient. And, conversely, in the case of
two such remarkably similar flore as are found at essentially
the same latitude in the Lower Cretaceous of Portugal and
Maryland, there is a strong likelihood that they are really of
much the same age.

Reasons for the Origin of Prepotent Northern Stocks.—
As has been seen, the fact of extensive southern migration for
long periods of time isa patent one. It now remains to take
up the most interesting enquiry as to why hardy stocks origi-
nate at the north, and especially as to how their origin has
been governed by the secular decrease in temperature which
northern life shows to have taken place, as well as by the
shuttle of climatic change, caused by orbital eccentricity,
doubtless the most active of all factors producing change in
the life of the polar areas. It is trite to say that the enquiry
here briefly taken up must largely await future study, involv-
ing as it does the fundamental working principles of evolution.
But it is possible to mention certain sahent elements of the
completer answer.

Vegetal and animal forms are often figuratively spoken of as
driven south, or east, or west. Now forms of life may be
driven out of a region, that is exterminated within its bounds,
but unless rarely, in the case of the more intelligent higher
forms of animals fleeing from some newly appearing dreaded
enemy, they are never actually driven into a new habitat.
Nor do they migrate except in a most general sense. They
simply make their way aided by or in spite of vicissitudes of
climate and season, as if from one side of a stream or one
hillside to another, changing more or less all the while, while
somewhere to the rear the original stock is also changing into
a new one or being directly cut off.

Again the conditions under which the life of a given locality
thrives are always in the long run retreating southward, and
other and hardier forms are always to be found to the north-
ward, though in less and less number as the secular approach
of glacial cold slowly and surely depopulated the Arctic area.
Now, only the hardy remnant of the once abundant northern
life yet dwelling on the borders of the great ice cap is left.
But it is a remnant with the power to invade, and that is still
pressing south in the same manner as the more profuse boreal
life of the past. Hence, as secular cooling is always going on,
and as the general nature of growth is constant, a condition of
high northern organic potential resulting in a southward stress
and movement must always exist.

The idea here meant to be conveyed can be readily illus-

499 G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time.

trated. According to C. Hart Merriam* nine species of plants
brought back from Lady Franklin Bay by Lieut. Greely also
occur on the bleak and storm beaten summit of San Francisco
Mountain in’ Arizona, hundreds of miles south of any other
known station.t These plants grow at an altitude of 3,500
meters and their seeds were either carried southward by birds,
or they are a far southern remnant of a once wider habitat
during glacial times, which is more probable. Beneath the
summit where these isolated species grow are found on a small
scale successive realms of animals and plants recapitulating in
a way the great life belts that can be distinguished in passing
from the mountain base to the Arctic Ocean. Now itis very
clear that in the event of secular or perchance local decrease
in temperature the Arctic forms at the top of San Francisco
Mountain would immediately step into the places left vacant
down the slopes by killing or weakening frost. Conversely,
if melior conditions were to begin from any cause to rule at the
summit, owing to increased seasonal heat or dryness, overlapping
especially the reproductive season, or for other causes, this far
southern skirmish line of the advancing northern flora would
doubtless be beaten back or destroyed. Every agriculturist
knows this principle and avails himself of it. Experience has
everywhere taught that for any given locality northern varie-
ties of plants (and animals) are the hardier, and that southern
stocks are weaker and evenimpossible of successful introduction.
Hence for any given isotherm as viewed at the present time the
maximum of easy conditions of growth always hes somewhere
to the south. And it appears that among other effects, where
forms of life do succeed in holding out against more and more
stringent conditions there is especially a resulting increase of
fertility, while on the other hand, where such forms after being
inured to rigors are tr ansplanted, or naturally make their way
into far more favorable conditions, there results a more robust
growth and a decrease in fertility. This would be one
prime reason why the southward stress due to secular diminution
in heat would be the more readily taken advantage of.

Evidently then from the record of the past, the vast majority
of southern types are known to have made their way from the
north, and at the same time the present organic facies and
everyday knowledge shows that life utterly fails to make its
way northward again and that southward stress is ever present.

* Biological survey of the San Francisco Mountains, U. 8. Dept. of Agri-
culture. North Americau Faune. Bulletin No. 3, Washington, 1890.

+ List of plants growing both on the shores of Lady Franklin Bay, and at
the summit of San Francisco Mountain, Arizona:

Androsace septentrionalis ; Arenaria verna; Cerastium alpinum ; Cystop-
teris fragilis; Saxifraga caespitosa; Saxifraga nivolis; Oxyna digyna ;
Trisetum subspicatum.

G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time. 493

But whilst the constant changes in animal and plant forms, due
to the operation of such causes as these, are fairly apparent, the
subject of the vicissitudes of the southern movement of life
“as it takes its way along the great north and south rivers and
is split by the great north and south mountains” of America
and Eurasia, is a fairly separate topic. What is plain is that
there is and has been a constant stress due to northern prepo-
tency extending all the way to the pole itself, where, as has
been repeatedly stated, climatic variation has always been rela-
tively greatest. And this brings us to the consideration of
what the mere determination of the nature of the southward
organic stress scarcely explains, that is to say to the crux of the
entire question, the reason why prepotent races tended so con-
stantly to originate at the north. Norcan I hope adequately
to deal with this feature of the present subject. However, the
ordinary physical environment and the far reaching effects of
climatic conditions considered of course in their widest sense,
and including in a largely unexplained manner electrical con-
ditions, are the sole and the only evolutionary factors influenc-
ing life as such, within the range of my vision.*

From such a view-point quite the first of the elements of
polar climate that occurs to me is the peculiar distribution of
hight. Well might J. W. Dawson, who was not an evolution- |
ist, say in remarking on the varied northern flore and the fact
that the flora of Canada, where growth is arrested by cold
nearly six months in the year, is in some respects richer than
that of temperate Europe, that,—+

“Tt is indeed, not impossible that in the plans of the Creator
the continuous summer sun of the Arctic regions may have
been made the means of the introduction or at least for the
rapid growth and multiplication of new.and more varied types
of plants.’ The italics are mine. But we have a fund of
facts directly bearing on how much of this growth of new
species was thus produced, without any extraneous interference

*T am glad that but recently so powerful a thinker as Ward has not hesi-
tated to thus define his view of bathmism—‘‘ . . . Motility (or the power of
spontaneous molar motion which is the differential attribute of life) in its
later stages takes the form of bathmism, and becomes the universal growth
force of the organic world. What I wish especially to emphasize here is
that motility, with its generalized form, bathmism, is simply a property of
protoplasm and of all living organizms, as much so as sweetness is a prop-
erty of sugar, bitterness of quinine or isomerism of protein. Zoism is a
synthetic creation of chemism.” (Pure Sociology, p. 115.) I take the liberty
of underscoring the last sentence. A simple theory of life may best be
founded on the idea of an atomic basis of consciousness as a true property
of matter differing in degree in the several atoms just as the several chemical
elements differ in their magnetic or their radiant powers, or in any of their
other fundamental properties, none of which are definable except in terms of

themselves.
+ The Geological History of Plants, New York, 1888.

494. G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time.

or direction other than that based on the properties of matter,
including the power of living and undergoing evolution,

Kerner Von Marilaun performed various culture experi-
ments in the powerful light of the Alpine heights of the
Tyrol, and his conclusion from these is definite. He says :*

“From these culture experiments two things may be learned:
first, that a very brilliant light is able to influence the distribu-
tion of plants, and to set up an impassable barrier for many of
them; secondly, many plants have the capacity of adapting
themselves to various degrees of light intensity, but in con-
sequence they develop such a varying character that they
might be mistaken tor wholly distinct species.” It also is
known that certain species with the foliage exposed to the direct
rays of the sun have violet or red hairy leaves, and that these
same species growing in shady places may have green and
nearly hairless leaves. Again, the leaves of one and the same
species may have on low ground few hairs and thin cuticular
layers, while on high mountains its leaves may be shrouded in
thick grey or white fur and have a thick and leathery texture
in consequence of strongly developed cuticular layers. And
Kerner further states that herbs with vertically directed leat
surface are never to be met with in shady places. The leaves
and branches of plants of vertical habit when brought into the
shade tend to twist and bend so as to present a broader leaf
surface to the diffuse light.

It is obvious that in temperate and tropic regions the vertical
position of the young and tender leaves of such plants as the
ferns and cyeads, is a protection against strong sunlight. Later,
when thick epidermal layers have formed, the leaf bends into
its normal position and catches the nearly full rays of the sun.
Curved young pinnules, like those of Cycas, also afford protec-
tion from the hot sun. From such facts, and they could be
extensively added to, it is very clear that the peculiar light
relations of the Arctic regions must always have had great
influence on plant, and perforce on animal life. The further
minor changes produced during southward migration could
only be deduced from extended careful study. The range
of light variation lies between the polar perihelion day or
night of 200 solar days, and the equal division of twelve hours
of “daylight Ae twelve hours of darkness at the equator. When
the greatest local variation in length of light succeeding darkness

takes place within the Arctic circle, periods of vernation and
reproduction must be more powerfully altered and changed
there than elsewhere, reasoning from cause to effect. It would
seem also that the hibernation of many animals, including cer-
tain forms of such diverse groups as monkeys, bears, aud tur-

* Page 394 of Oliver’s translation of Pflanzenleben,

G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time... 425

tles, now living in tropic or subtropic regions, is a habit acquired
in an original boreal home, and never broken.

As bearing on the general effect of light and darkness on
plant growth, the elaborate experiments of MacDougal™ are of
high importance. He shows that etiolated tissues tend to
remain in a primitive condition, though there may be trans-
ference of light effects to etiolated parts, that hght shortens
the meristematic period and induces the formation of perma-
nent tissue, and that aplastic material is not so readily laid
down in the absence of light. These facts are all suggestive
of a chemico-physical basis of growth and development, and
in complete accord with the ideas proposed here.

But with regard to the effect of the Arctic night on plants
there have been probably no experiments in detail, although
it is well known that the women of Disco Island find no difh-
culty in growing in their homes ornamental plants from far
southern latitudes. If it were attempted, however, to demon-
strate experimentally the effect of conditions representing hypo-
thetical climates of the past, it would be necessary to use plants
which have changed greatly and could therefore yield only
relative results. Thus the entire cast of vegetation in the
Carboniferous, of course conformed in transpiratory and other
delicate functional structures to the moist hot climate, diffuse
sunlight, and superabundance of carbonic acid characterizing
that period. Hence while duplications of these climatic features
may be readily made in the laboratory, their effect on plants
now living affords only a general idea of the actual effect of
the conditions of Carboniferous vegetation.t

As in the ease of leght, heat and moisture were also similarly
variable to the utmost degree in the polar areas. Even if the

* Memoirs of the New York Bot. Garden, vol. 11, Jan. 20, 1903.

+ A series of experiments, apparently requiring further extension—espe-
cially with reference to Pteridophytes,—has recently been made by H. F.
Brown and ¥. Enscome (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1xx, p. 397-413, pl. 5-10) to deter-
mine the probable effects of varying amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide
on the photosynthetic processes of leaves and on the mode of plant growth.
These experimenters subjected plants during periods of several months to
an artificially conditioned atmosphere containing as much as 11°47 per cent of
carbon dioxide, and found that this resulted in diminished leaf surface, in-
creased starch and chlorophyll content, deeper green, and various stem modifi-
cations. Fructification was apparently checked. Without attaching undue
importance to experiments which leave many categories of inquiry unsatis-
fied, we may say that it is demonstrated that variations in the amount of
atmospheric carbon dioxide do affect plant growth profoundly. And the
effect on animals is equally or even greater, considered as either direct or
indirect. At the poles, in addition to the direct chemical effect due to
increase or decrease in the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide, there is a
further important physical effect. Dr. Arrhenius (Philosophical Magazine,
S. 16, vol. xli, No. 251, April, 1896, pp. 237-279) estimates that the addition
of but two to three per cent of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere would be

sufficient to give to the Arctic regions the genial climate indicated by their
Tertiary flora.

496 G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time.

north polar area had been at times in the past occupied by a
continental mass with a but little broken shore line, the general.
statement that during periods of high eccentricity, this region
underwent relatively more change in the distribution of sea-
sonal heat and moisture than the inter-polar portions of the »
globe, could searcely be challenged. But there is every reason
to believe that the presence of numerous peninsulas and arehi-
pelagoes has long characterized the Arctic regions, and that
these added very directly to the peculiarities and vicissitudes
of northern climate, more especially, too, because of a doubt-
less not infrequent diversion, as change went on, of ocean
currents. At times of high eccentricity there must have been
within the limits of the time of the precession of the equinoxes,
the most extraordinary changes and diversities in cloudiness,
rainfall, dryness, heat and frostiness in the localities about the
pole. As in the case of light these changes must have affected
the economy of plants and animals profoundly. The possible
difference of 36 solar days in the length of the seasons would
in many cases produce totally different weather conditions dur-
ing the periods of reproduction, sometimes favorable, some-
times adverse. Extermination must have been not infrequent,
and likewise favorable turns of seasons. But it is scarcely
necessary to go into these particular features of polar climate
at great length now. This general statement may here suffice
as the effect of varying conditions of light, heat and moisture
on the lesser scale to be seen in temperate and tropic regions,
and therefore their general significance must be fairly well
understood. Aside from these factors it only need be remarked
that there remain the more conjectural, magnetic, electrical
and perhaps other effects included within the idea of climate
as the resultant or manner of the terrestrial reception of radiant
energy.

Perhaps the most fundamental corollary to the view of
northern origins as now dealt with at some length, is that of a
rapid origin of new species or even genera of both animals
and plants. But the idea that this has been the general rule
has been suggested, or even insisted upon by various natural-
ists. And this rapid origin is especially noteworthy in the
vertebrata. The hearse, I am told by an eminent authority,
accomplished more evolution dnring the deposition of some
900 feet of John Day and White River Oligocene and Miocene
sediments, than in ail of previous Tertiary time as represented
by far more than a mile of sediments. The same is in fact
known to be true of so many vertebrate stocks that it may well
be the rule. More recently Cumings in his able study of the
Morphogenesis of Platystrophia* has also found in the case

* This Journal, vol. xv, 1-48, 121-136, 1903.

G. PR. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time. 497

ef this exceedingly well represented brachiopod genus extend-
ing quite through the Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian,
that the fundamental difference between its earlier and later
history ‘fis the presence of intermediate groups during the
former period, and their absence during the latter.” In view
of his own studies and the testimony of others a summation of
the general facts is thus stated :—‘‘Given a new and vigorous
stock in a favorable environment, the initiation of new species
takes place with great rapidity.”

It may of course be added that by any “rapid” evolution
I here mean only relatively rapid. Sudden changes of climate,
or the transportation from warm to much colder localities and
vice versa, result in very obvious changes in animals and plants,
but such do not usually leave the stock a vigorous one, or end
in extinction. I have described an excellent example of this
kind in the ease of the shutting out of salt water from the
Currituck Sound by the closing up of the Currituck Inlet in
North Carolina by drifting sands in 1828.* Previous to that
year this inlet formed such a passage from the ocean through
2 narrow outer beach into the waters of Currituck Sound as
is now formed by the new or Ocracock Inlet to Pamlico
Sound. With the closing of the Currituck Inlet there resulted
a conversion of upwards of one hundred square miles of shal-
low salt or brackish water to a fresh water area; and it is within
the memory of men now living that the resultant changes in
the life of. the sound were immediate and striking. Previ-
ously the sound had been a valuable oyster bed. But within
a few years after the exclusion of salt water the oysters had
_ all died out, and their shells may now be seen in long heaps
where they have been thrown out in dredging for a boat way
in the shallow Coinjock Bay, a southwestern extension of the
sound. Furthermore, the salt water fishes were driven out,
and fresh water fishes took their places, whilst such changes
were produced in the vegetation as brought countless thou-
sands of ducks of species that had only been occasional before,
thus making this one of the finest hunting grounds on the ©
Atlantic Coast.

Owing to the landlocked condition of the Arctic area, and
its numerous peninsulas and archipelagoes, such changes must
from the Mesozoic on often have occurred there and by depop-
ulation added to the general tendency to rapid change.

Some idea of the amount of evolution which may be under-
gone in isolated and favorable areas after a general dispersion
has taken place, may be gained by the consideration of island
life. The great development of tree-like plants, elsewhere

* This Journal, p. 76, July, 1897. -

428 G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time.

herbaceous, as seen in the arboreal lobelias, the shrubby gera-
niums, violets and plantains, and the strange arborescent
Compositae of the Hawaiian Islands, affords an instructive
example. But the evolution of the main groups of flowering
plants having long since taken place, we cannot expect to find
in islands, which at most show little more than such changes
as have taken place in Tertiary time, evidence of the origin of
new orders of plants; though such changes as are observed, or
greater, doubtless often take place after the successful invasion of
a new area, or in the case of the destruction of competitors in the
old home. Moreover, if, as was always the case in the Arctic
regions, the period of rigor was quickly followed by one of
extremely favorable conditions ceming on, nevertheless, at a
rate easily taken advantage of by both plants and animals,
races of great strength must quite surely be generated; and
likewise new species, to an extent and with a rapidity that can
scarcely be estimated on the basis of the fairly static conditions
of most islands. As polar changes were mainly governed by
the precession of the equinoxes, we know that the time scale
was one of 12,934 years for the passing from rigorous to melior —
conditions and wice versa, throughout the successive periods of
high eccentricity.

Summation.—From the preceding portions of the present
consideration and argument, it appears that climatic changes
of a character affecting life must in the course of time be of
minimum amount at the equator, and increase towards the
poles, where the maximum amount of such change occurs.
Hence throughout time, the nearer a given locality to either
pole, the greater the seasonal vicissitudes to which its life is
subjected. Next, the view that the origin of life itself took
place at the north (or at both of the poles), was accepted as in
all probability the reasonable one, although as mentioned, the
bare possibility that there has been a supplementary or an
original extra-terrestrial origin of life also requires consider-
ation. In either case, should the globe ever have been molten,
the conditions making it probable that terrestrial life appeared
' at the poles, were not due alone to lesser solar heat there but
mainly to the mechanical action of heavy lunar tides in the
primitive equatorial lava seas. If the globe was never molten,
any excessive equatorial heat whatever in the early geological
periods would still leave the polar areas the probable early
scene of life as at present understood. Attention was also
called to the fact that the Paleozoic must have been because of
climatic and other reasons, such as the freer circulation of
oceanic waters, and the greater number of aquatic animals,
and lowly organized or spore-bearing plants, a period mainly
of generalized origins. Hence, there can be slight strati-

G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time. 499

raphic record of the distributory movements of faune and
ees in the Paleozoic, although there are excellent reasons
for supposing that even then polar climates were the most
important of evolutionary factors. It would seem that from the
origin of life down to the Mesozoic the north and south polar
areas may have played a well nigh equal part in creating a
certain southward and northward stress with, to borrow a term
used in different sense by Ward (Pure Sociology), a sort of
breaking up or Karyokinetic origin of species in the tropics.
But beginning with Mesozoic time and extending to the glacial
period, overwhelming evidence points to the polar origin and
continuous outward dispersion from the north polar area of
most of the great plant and vertebrate groups. Whatever
minor role was played by the south polar area yet remains to
be demonstrated. The successive unheralded synchronous
appearance of in large part unrelated and complex northern
faunz, leaves us no other alternative hypothesis than that of
boreal origin, in spite of the fact that vertebrate fossils of
Mesozoie and post-Mesozoic age from the Arctic(and Antarctic)
area are unknown. ‘The similarity in successive unrelated and
diverse faunze synchronously appearing on both sides of the
fairly permanent Atlantic, as the record shows, cannot be
accounted for throughout long periods of time on the basis of
lateral interchange. Nor can similar series of changes, and
similar genera and even species have so often arisen inde-
pendently at such widely separated points, as to have pro-
duced the parallelism so constantly evident in the fossil verte-
brates of Eurasia and America. And these same principles
apply to the record of the post-Paleozoic floree as next reviewed
and shown to be in all essentials the complement of the verte-
brate record, and far completer. Further, it was recalled that
the outward movement especially of Conifers and Dicotyls from
‘the Arctic area for long periods of time, has frequently been
recognized by scientists. Some of the traces of this movement
are still evident in the present strikingly homogeneous circum-
boreal flora, although its main development, as in the case of
the vertebrates, was obscured and partially checked by the
appearance of glacial conditions.

Without attempting to follow out the several lines of evi-
dence of northern origin and of southern migration and dis-
placement any further, it does appear fully conclusive that all
the factors of climate and therefore the main alternative poten-
tialities producing organic evolution; have been in the highest
degree variant in the polar areas. And this being true. the
grouping of the continents about the north pole so that they
have come to cover fully 300° of the Arctic circle would make
it reasonable to suppose, were there not abundant direct evi-

430 G. R. Wieland—Polar Climate in Time.

dence pointing to the fact, that the northern circumpolar area
has probably been, ever since the older Paleozoic at least, the
main evolutionary center from which animal and plant life have
radiated. But the theoretical view is as we see supported by
overwhelming proof that such has been the fact, and that it is
from the Arctic area that the greatest waves of change have
swept out to lessen and disintegrate, though I do not at all
mean to infer cease, in the more static conditions of the tropics.

The true nature of the southward organic stress was next
illustrated, and some of the peculiar climatic conditions making
the origin of new stocks more likely at the north were also
pointed out. In particular I have also shown the possible
connection between periods of high orbital eccentricity and the
origination of the organic “‘ waves or impulses” that students
of the fossil record often speak of, or for which there is more
or less conclusive evidence, especially among Tertiary verte-
brates.

These cognate facts, as thus brought together, 1t seems to me
sustain incontrovertibly our main thesis that polar climate has
been the major factor in the evolution of plants and animals.

Peabody Museum, Yale University,
New Haven, Conn.

—Blake—C ALES of Bredig’s Silver Hydrosols. 481

Art. XLI.— Note on the Composition of Bredig’s Silver
flydrosols ; by J. O. Bua.

[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Lab. of Yale University.—CXXI. ]

In preparing silver hydrosols by passing the electric spark
between silver electrodes under water according to the method
of Bredig,* it was noticed that the anode was eroded fully as
much as the cathode, especially if the current passing was
small (four ampéres) ; and the freshly prepared lquid was |
always distinctly alkaline. The black deposit which at first
settles out was dried at 105° or at 140°, and found to lose
weight on ignition. The alkalinity of the liquid and the loss
on ignition of the deposit were attributed to the presence of
silver compounds, formed by oxidation of the anode. Some
silver solutions obtained by the action of the current without
sparking led to a confirmation of this belief.

‘Electrodes of specially purified silver consisting of plates
0-5™™ thick and 38™™ wide, and of convenient length, as well as
electrodes of silver wire obtained in the market, were immersed
one or two centimeters in water from a tin still, or in “ con-
ductivity ” water, and connected with the street current having
a voltage of 110. On placing the silver electrodes in the
water white and yellowish clouds seemed to arise from them
and disseminate throughout the liquid, although the electrodes
were some centimeters apart. This phenomenon, investigated
in open vessels and in U-tubes plugged with asbestos, gave the
following results :

Distance
between EKrosion
Time. _ electrodes. of anode.
hrs. em. erm. Conditions.
2 Bon Ue In an open vessel.
2 2 0:0692— eae er
In an open vessel, each
2 2 0:0655 — electrode surrounded by a
filter paper.
9 9 Geaieloes oe e ie
: 4 0°3107 — as ke y two loose asbestos
ee
9 3 0°0184— y two tig gee
. ( plugs.

Throughout these experiments the cathode remained
unchanged in weight, although a yellowish gray slime of

* Anorganische Fermente, Leipsig, 1901. Zeit. Angew. Chem., 1898, p.
951.

432 Blake—Composition of Bredig’s Silver Hydrosols..

metallic silver collected on it, from which the yellowish clouds
were derived; the anode at first gave rise to snow-white clouds
(silver hydroxide ?), but soon became coated with a brown-red
layer of silver peroxide, whereupon the white clouds ceased to
be evolved in appreciable amount. On one occasion, when the
anode was nearly touching one of the asbestos plugs, a bridge
of the snow-white material was formed between the anode and
the asbestos. When the current was broken this band soon
dissolved, leaving a skeleton of peroxide; but the white band
re-formed when the circuit was closed again. The resulting
solution was strongly alkaline at first, but became neutral by
standing, doubtless because silver hydroxide was originally
present in the solution and was changed to the carbonate by
the carbon dioxide of the air. Part of the silver derived from
the yellowish clouds remained in suspension, forming a
hydrosol.* When alcohol is substituted for the water no
action takes place without sparking and only the cathode is
eroded with sparking, forming a black silver alcosol, thus
strengthening the supposition that the erosion of the anode in
the presence of water when the spark is not passing is due to
oxidation. It would seem very likely, moreover, that the
anode would be similarly oxidized while the spark is passing,
not to mention the possibility that part of the finely-divided
silver torn off from the cathode might also’ be oxidized when it
is carried into the region of the anode.

In Bredig’s method of preparing silver hydrosols by spark-
ing between silver electrodes .under water, the current is
frequently stopped on account of the rapid erosion of the
electrodes. During such intervals of stoppage the conditions
are the same as in the experiments of which a description has
just been given, excepting, possibly, the distance between the
electrodes. It seems certain, therefore, that in Bredig’s
experiments silver compounds must have been formed, thus
accounting for the facts mentioned in the opening paragraph
of this note, and for the fact, noted by McIntosh,f that the
electrical conductivity of the water is greatly increased by the
process of sparking. It would seem essential that these facts
should be taken into consideration in such extended investiga-
tions as the latter author has made on the catalytic properties
of the finely-divided silver contained in hydrosols prepared
according to Bredig’s method, especially when working with
neutral or acid solutions.

This inquiry was made at the suggestion of Prof. F. A.
Gooch, to whom my thanks are due.

* Of, Billitzer, Ber. Deutsch. chem. Ges., xxxv, 1929.
+ Jour. Phys. Chem., vi, 19.

Blake— Behavior of Red Colloidal Gold Solutions. 438

fea XL. — Borgen of Red Colloidal Gold Solutions
toward the Electric Current and toward Electrolytes ; by
J.C. Buaxe.

[Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale University—CXXIL. |

I. Behavior toward the Hlectric Current.

Ir is generally stated that colloidal gold solutions,* as well
as permanent suspensionst and solutions of typical colloids,
such as egg-albumen,{ are coagulated and precipitated by the
passage of the electric current, red colloidal gold solutions
being simultaneously turned blue. I have investigated the
behavior in this respect of completely reduced red solutions of
colloidal gold, formed by the action of an ethereal solution of
gold chloride dried at 170° on acetylene water containing ether.§
Such solutions contained in an ordinary beaker are apparently
unaffected by the passage of the current for hours between

old or platinum wires 1"™™ in diameter at a potential difference
of 110 volts, unless, owing to the proximity of the electrodes,
enough chlorine is liberated from the hydrochloric acid pr esent
to attack the colloidal gold with the formation of a solution of
gold chloride from which ordinary gold is deposited on the
cathode. This apparent inactivity toward the current is due
to the fact that the conditions favor uniform diffusion of the
gold throughout the liquid. When, on the other hand, the
colloidal gold solution is contained in an ordinary U-tube, with
an electrode in each arm, barely entering the liquid in order to
avoid the diffusing effect of the escaping gases evolved by the
current (amounting to about 0°005 ampere under the given
conditions), electrical migration and concentration of the gold
may be observed. Under these conditions, when contact is
made, the gold immediately begins to settle from around the
cathode with a clear surface of. demarcation, leaving a color-
less liquid, but never passing the bend of ‘the U-tube; the
gold solution around the anode grows deeper in color for about.
half an hour and then grows lighter in color, until aftertwelve
hours or more only a ” faint pink tint remains, all the gold
being now concentrated in a red cloud at the bend of the
U-tube except for a slight deposit of dark-colored slime on the
node. When the U-tube was so constructed as to have a
long horizontal portion between the two arms, the phenomena
were unchanged, the red cloud forming midway between the

*Zsigmondy, Lieb. Ann., ceci, 29; Bredig, Anorganische Fermente,
Leipsig, 1901, p. 28.

+ Spring, Rec. trav. chim. Pays. Bas., xix, 215.

t Hardy, Jour. of Physiol., xxiv, 292.

§ Cf. this Journal, xvi, 381.

Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, VoL. XVI, No. 96.—DECEMBER, 1903.
30

434 Blake—Behavior of Red Colloidal Gold Solutions.

poles, thus showing that the effect is not due to gravity. The
red cloud may at any time be readily diffused throughout
the liquid by gentle agitation or warming, and slowly diffuses
spontaneously when the current is broken. By withdrawing
the clear liquid and dissolving the red cloud in pure water a
purified red colloidal gold solution may be obtained.

This experiment becomes still more instructive if an asbes-
tos plug be placed in one arm of the U-tube, just below the
anode, as shown in the cut. Imf the plug is tight, the electrical
osmosis of the liquid carries the gold with it to some extent.
If the plug is loose, no movement of the liquid is observable
and the gold moves in obedience to the
current.

When the plug is loose the gold moves
toward the anode as soon as contact is made,
settling from around the cathode in exactly
the same manner as in the former experi-
ment; simultaneously a little gold is car-
ried into the lower part of the asbestos
plug below the anode, while that above the
plug rises a little way, leaving the. color-
less liquid clearly defined. By the end of
half an hour this latter surface of demarca-
tion settles back to the asbestos plug, and
thereafter for a long time (a week in one
experiment, with interruption of the cur-
rent over night) the gold solution above
the plug remains unchanged, except that a dark-colored slime
in shght amount forms on the anode, as in the former experi-
ment. The gold below the ashestos plug not carried into it
during the first half hour gathers in a red cloud at the bend of
the U-tube as in the experiment where no plug was used. In
the one experiment which was continued for a week, this red
cloud practically all disappeared, and the gold which it con-
tained was deposited in the lower end of the asbestos plug for
a distance of 1°, coloring the asbestos red.

It was found that when the hydrochloric acid formed in the
reduction of the gold chloride was removed from the colloidal
gold solution by dialyzing the liquid until it became neutral to
litmus, the electrical movements of the gold were not notice-
ably different from those given above. Also, when a red eol-
loidal gold solution was prepared without the presence of
ether, by the action of a dilute aqueous solution of gold chlor-
ide on acetylene water, the results were still the same.

These various occurrences may, perhaps, be explained as
follows: All of the gold particles are originally negatively
electrified and hence start toward the anode. This state of

Blake—Behavior of Red Colloidal Gold Solutions. 435

affairs never changes in the arm of the U-tube carrying the
cathode. But the gold particles at first concentrated around
the anode by the action of the current give up their negative
charge to that pole, and, being for some reason unable to
remain in contact with it (except to a slight extent in the for-
mation of the dark-colored slime), depart laden with a positive
charge. Hence the surface of demarcation at first formed
above the asbestos plug soon settles back to its original posi-
tion, causing the plug to become positively charged, which
then acts as the anode to the particles below it. The posi-
tively charged particles repelled from the lower end of the
asbestos plug, or from the anode if no plug is present, meet-
ing the negatively charged particles from the cathode, form
some sort of a union, possibly by mutual attraction without
disruption of the water envelopes with which they are sur-
rounded, thus producing the red cloud at the bend of the U-
tube. The fact that the gold in this cloud was ultimately car-
ried into the asbestos plug in the one experiment continued for
a week shows that the positively charged particles present mm
the cloud must slowly lose their charge; and both that fact
and the fact that diffusion restores the original conditions*
indicate that the union of positively and negatively charged
particles in the red cloud is very feeble. The fact that the
gold above the plug does not settle, on the other hand, is a
further indication that some kind of aggregation of oppositely
charged particles must take place to form the red cloud in the
bend of the U-tube.

The formation of the red cloud midway between the elec-
trodes in these experiments closely resembles the formation of
a precipitate similarly situated observed by Lehmannt in his
study of suspensions made viscous by gelatine. A dark-col-
ored corona gradually extended from the anode and a light-
colored corona from the cathode. Midway between the elec-
trodes the coronas met with the formation of a precipitate and
the liberation of heat. So, also, the reverse or ‘‘ secondary
movement” noticed by Hardy in the case of egg-albnmen, as
well as the reverse movement of haemoglobin noticed by
Gamgee,§ must be closely similar in their nature to the back-
ward movement of the gold here described.

Il. Behavior toward Electrolytes.

Bodlander| and Spring4 have each insisted that in studying
the action of electrolytes on permanent suspensions it is neces-
sary to distinguish two phenomena: (1) Coagulation ; (2) Pre-

* Cf. post, p. 441. + Wied. Ann., lii, 455.

t Loe. cit. S$ Proc. Roy. Soc., Ixx, 79.
|| Neues Jahrb. f. Mineral., ii, 156. | Loc. cit.

436 Blake—Behavior of Red Colloidal Gold Solutions.

cipitation, A considerable amount of an electrolyte up to a
definite limit can be added to a permanent suspension without
causing any appreciable sedimentation within a reasonable
length of time. This portion of the electrolyte is concerned
in bringing about “ coagulation.” The further addition of an
electr olyte. after the above limit has been reached causes sedi-
mentation to take place, the rate of settling varying with the
amount of electrolyte thus added. This portion of the electro-
lyte is concerned in bringing about “ precipitation.” In work-
ing with colloidal gold solutions it is necessary to distinguish
five effects :

(1) Coagulation of red gold solutions.

(2) Precipitation of red gold solutions.

(3) Coagulation of blue gold solutions.

(4) Precipitation of blue gold solutions.

(5) Transformation of red gold solutions into blue gold solu-
tions.

Transformation of red colloidal gold solutions into blue
colloidal gold solutions, with subsequent sedimentation.

The most obvious change brought about in red colloidal
gold solutions by the addition of electrolytes is the change of.
color from red to blue, with subsequent subsidence of the
gold: The change of color was investigated to some extent by
Hardy,* who used a dilute red colloidal gold solution produced
by the action of phosphorus in ether on an aqueous solution of
gold chloride. The difference in the stability of his solution
and the one used in these experiments, as indicated by the
strengths of the various electrolytes necessary to produce the
change of color, is so great that the results here recorded may
be found none the less interesting. A red gold solution pre-
pared according to the method ‘already described and diluted
to contain 0:0490 grams of gold per liter was titrated with
electrolytes of known str ength, the change of color from
purple to violet which ensues soon after the original red color
has changed to purple being taken as the end-point. The time
required “for titration varied from two to five minutes, but the
time factor is not active until the end-point is nearly yeached.
Consequently only the last portions of the electrolyte were
allowed to drop regularly from the burette. The gold solu-
tion changed from violet to pure blue in about two minutes
after the titration was completed and the gold all settled out in
four or five hours—the maximum ratet of subsidence in water
noted in any experiment, including the work on absorption.
The results are given in the following table.

* Proc. Roy. Soc., Ixvi, 110; Zeitsch. Phys. Chem., xxxiii, 389.
+ Cf. Durham, Chem. News, xxxvii, 47.
{ This Journal, xvi, 381.

Blake—Behavior of Red Colloidal Gold Solutions. 487

TABLE I.
Vol. of Amt.
gold of | Aver- |Final concentration of
solution Electrolyte. elect. ages for| electrolyte in terms
em’, Gan, | GU. of normal strength.
OES A(S0.). 1911.0 0% | 9-4 * -oooa of PE me
Pee tae oa.) 04, COU 8 3
me per liter.
50 A 2°1 ‘
50 | —KAI(SO,),.12H,O} 2°2 | 9.9 |. Bee anes
50 100 ( a 2 9:9 2°9 0004 of 3
per liter.
50 258
oe ae 1 gram mol
Ope BG] 32 | 3°11 |-0058 of —2
50 |10 2 3-0 2a
100 6-5 per liter.
et ae Teen ae 1 gram mol.
n 3° 3°45 |" 0
50 10 —_— Ba(NO.,), : 3:3 2 :
100 6-8 per liter.
5ON NaCl Ci kGr Na ot lyoram= mol:
100 : 15-0 per liter.
m2
2. Sie aaa NaCl 100 °083* of 1 gram mol.

per liter.

These results are in accord with Whetham’st hypothesis,
that the activity of electrolytes toward colloidal solutions is an
exponential function of the valency of the basic elements
which they contain, the final concentration of sodium chloride
necessary to induce the change of color from red to blue being
224 times that of barium chloride, which, in turn, is 14°5 that
of potassium alum. No amount of a tenth-normal solution of
sodium chloride brings about the change of color within a
reasonable length of time (see the last experiment of the table),
the final concentration required, -13-normal, being greater than
that of a tenth-normal solution. The fact that the change of
color takes place suddenly at a given concentration of the
electrolytes and that a weaker concentration of the same elec-
trolytes does not produce the change of color even after a con-
siderable lapse of time, tends to disprove the hypothesis of
Whetham, since time should be an active factor in bringing

* Solution not turned blue in two days.
+ Jour. of Physiol., xxiv, 288; Phil. Mag., xlviii, 474.

438 Blake—Behavior of Red Colloidal Gold Solutions.

about the change of color if it is the haphazard coincidences
of gold particles and basic ions which condition the transfor-
mation, rather than some uniform and sudden change through-
out the entire liquid, such ‘as would be indicated by the
observations of Bodlinder on the coagulation and precipita-
tion of kaolin suspensions.

That the effect of mixing two electrolytes whose basie ele-
ments have different valencies is subtractive rather than addi-
tive was shown by Linder and Picton* for colloidal solutions
of arsenious sulphide and by Hardy+t for colloidal solutions of
egg-albumen, and is indicated by the following experiments,
in which a red colloidal gold solution containing a known
amount of a salt of a univalent basic radical was titrated to
the violet color by barium chloride.

TABLE IT,
Final | Final
Vol. of Amt. | cone. || Amt. | cone.
gold | Electrolyte No. 1.| of el. | of el. Elec. No. 2. | of el. | of el.
solution. No. 12) iNo. £e ° INe. 245 Nores
cm’. em’, | em’,
nN nN
50 ——NH,NO,| 65 | -052 || ——BaCl,| 9-2 |-0074
10 Val)
n Nigeae
50 [Average from Table I.] | mca BaCl,| 3-11] -0058
| 10

It seems impossible to reconcile these results with Whetham’s
hypothesis. It is evident that a quantitative study of the
effects of mixtures of electrolytic substances in various pro-
portions in turning red solutions blue offers an interesting
tield for the investigation of the properties of electrolytes
themselves.

It was thought likely that the remarkable stability of these
red colloidal gold solutions was due to the ether present, act-
ing as a non-electrolyte in inhibiting the action of electrolytes
after the fashion of typical colloids, such as gelatine—a phe-
nomenon first vent out by : araday,t and applied by Lotter-
moser and Meyer,§ Zs! and others. Consequently the
following ey eee were monde on the same gold solution
used above, but diluted with four volumes of water, To this
diluted solution various amounts of ether were added before
titration. The results are given in the following table.

* Jour. Chem. Soc., Ixvii, 63. + Jour. of Physiol., xxiv, 182.

{ Phil. Trans., exlvii, 145. § Jour. Prakt. Chem., lvi. 248.

|| Zeitsch. Anal. Chem., xl, 697; Schulz and Zsigmondy, Hofmeister’s Bei-
triige, iii, 137.

Blake-—Behavior of Red Colloidal Gold Solutions. 489

TaBLe IIT.
Volume of gold solution, 50°™.

Volume es okay Ades

ratio of 100 Aver- Final concentration
ether (SO.4)2.12H.O) ages. of electrolyte in terms
added. em?, em?, of nermal strength.
1S
te? ; ;
1-9 1°8 00035 |
1:9 |
2°58
1:50 ci 2°61 | -00050
2,0 |
3°15 | 1 gram mol.
25 3°05 3°18 | -00060 r of 3 yee bee
Saturated, |
|
pe | 5-00 | - 5-00 | -00091
air during |
titration. |
Saturated, |
under 9°20 J

_eth er. J

In the last two experimeuts of the table neither aluminium
nor sulphurie or hydrochloric acid could be found in the ether.
’ Hence it appears that the presence of the ether tends to inhibit
the action of electrolytes to such an extent that a red gold solu-
tion kept saturated with ether by a superimposed layer of it
required more than four times as great a concentration of the
potassium alum to produce the change of color as was required
by a solution containing the same amount of gold and acety-
lene and but very little ether. The effect, if any, of varying
the amounts of gold and acetylene is covered up by the simul-
taneous variations produced by changes in the amount of ether
present.

‘Since it was found impossible to turn red colloidal gold solu-
tions blue in the experiments with the electric current detained
at the beginning of this paper, other electrical means of bring-
ing about the change of color were sought; but neither the
alternating current from an induction coil, giving an inch
spark in air, nor long-continued sparking between gold elec-
trodes with the direct current, as in Bredig’s* method of pre-

*Loe. cit. Zeit. angew. Chem., 1898, p. 951; Bredig and Reinders, Zeit.
Phys. Chem., xxxvii, 328,

440 Blake— Behavior of Red Colloidal Gold Solutions.

paring gold hydrosols (aqueous colloidal solutions), served to
bring about the desired result.t Hence the following experi-
ments were made in order to find out, if possible, whether
electrical phenomena were demonstrably concerned in bring-
ing about the change of color. In the experiments given
under A of Table IV a red colloidal gold solution containing
0°0193 gram of gold per liter was titrated with electrolytes
without the presence of the current, for purposes of compari-
son; in those given under B the titration was made in the
presence of electrodes of platinum wire at a potential dif-
ference of 110 volts and 0:5" apart. In these experiments
the first noticeable change of color of the liquid from red to
purple was taken as the end-point. Under these conditions
the liquids included under A, as well as those titrated with
sodium sulphate under B, assumed a distinct purple or violet
color within ten minutes after the titration was completed, but
the gold remained suspended for some days, finally settling in
the form of a purple or violet powder. The liquids titrate
with potassium alum in the presence of the current changed
from purple to blue almost at once.

TABLE LV.
Volume of gold solution, 100°™°.
A. Titrated without the electric current.

| Amt. “a
of | Final concentration of
Hlectrolyte. elect. | Aver- | electrolyte in terms
| em®. | ages. | of normal strength.
n | 3°19 | | 1 gram mol
—“_ _KAl(SO,),.12H,O| 2°90 3°01 -00029 of —® “per liter .
100 oe 5 “05 | |
2°95 |
15:8 | |
ees 16-4 163-140 of 1 gram mol. per liter
17°2 |

B. Titrated in the presence of the electric current.

1°36

|

| 1 gram mol. ;
” __KA\SO,),.12H,0| 1°45 | 1:35)-00013 of —= per liter
100 gr alae | |
1:25
20:4
n — Na,SO, 18°2 | 20°1 |-167 of 1 gram mol. per liter
21-8 |

These results are sufficient to show that the phenomena
involved in the titration of red gold solutions with electrolytes
in the presence of the electric current are complex and demand

* Cf. Spring, loc. cit. .

Blake— Behavior of Red Colloidal Gold Solutions. 441

extended investigation. Thus the presence of the electric cur-
rent increased the activity of the potassium alum, but retarded
that of the sodium sulphate. Since the acid radicals were the
same, it is necessary to attribute the difference in behavior to
the basic radicals, thus strengthening the belief that the basic
radical is the active factor in causing precipitation when the
current is not acting. In one experiment with a hundredth-
normal solution of potassium alum, it was found that the
amount of electrolyte required to turn the red solution blue
was not changed by the passage of the current under the same
conditions as before for ten minutes and subsequent titration
after the current was broken. This supports the conclusion
arrived at above (p. 435) that red colloidal gold solutions are not
necessarily permanently affected by the passage of the electric
current.

The separate coagulation and precipitation of red gold solu-
tions and the separate coagulation and precipitation of blue
gold solutions, as well as the reverse change of color from blue
to red with its apparent hysteresis, are being studied further.
The fact that these gold solutions show five different effects on
the addition of electrolytes, instead of two as in most col-
loidal solutions, renders them exceedingly interesting from a.
theoretical standpoint. Until the activity of electrolytes in
bringing about each of these effects is better understood and
differentiated, it would seem that speculation with regard to
the causes which induce them would be idle; for in the
process of turning red solutions blue as ordinarily conducted
all five phenomena are doubtless involved. -Some results
obtained by titrating the same gold solution first to the purple
color, then immediately to the violet color, are given below.
The fact (noted above) that in the former case the gold settles
slowly in the form of a purple or violet powder, in the latter
ease in the form of a blue powder and at the maximum rate,
indicates that within the limits between the two readings is
included the entire range of concentration of the electrolyte
necessary to increase to the maximum the rate of subsidence of
the red gold, to complete the change of color from red to blue,
and to precipitate the blue gold thus formed.

TABLE V.
Volume of gold solution, 50°. Electrolyte, aan KA1(SO,4)2.12H.0.
Titrated to purple. Titrated to violet.
2°25.) ‘65 |
2°45 3°40
2°50 3°45
2°40 $ 2°41 3°45 + 3°49
2°70 3°55

442 J. C. Branner—Peak of Fernando de Noronha.

Art. XLIIL—J/s the Peak of Fernando de Noronha a vol-
canic plug like that of Mont Pelé? by Joun C. BRanner.

Ir is doubtful whether the writer would have ventured the
suggestion made by the title of this note if the idea had not
occurred many years ago to no less a person than Charles
Darwin. In his “ Journal, ” new edition, New York, 1878, p.
11, Mr. Darwin says of the island of Fernando de Noronha:
“The most remarkable feature is a conical hill about one
thousand feet high, the upper part of which is exceedingly
steep, and on one side overhangs its base. The rock is phono-
lite, and is divided into irregular columns. On viewing one
of these isolated masses at first one is inclined to believe that
it has been suddenly pushed up in a semi-fluid state. At St.
Helena, however, I ascertained that some pinnacles, of a nearly
similar figure and construction, had been formed by the injec-
tion of melted rock into yielding strata, which thus had
formed the moulds for these gigantic obelisks.”’

The italics (not Mr. Darwin’s) direct attention to the chief
point of interest in the present connection. In his “ Geolog-
ical Observations,” second edition, page 27, Darwin again
refers to the Fernando peak, as follows: “ At St. Helena there
are similar great, conical, protuberant masses of phonolite,
nearly 1,000 feet in height, which have been formed by the
injection of fluid feldspathic lava into yielding strata. If this
hill has had, as is probable, a similar origin, denudation has
been here effected on an enormous scale.”

The writer spent some months on the island of Fernando
many years ago while a member of the Geological Survey of
Brazil, and an article on its geology was published in this
Journal in February, 1889. The following is quoted from that
paper (vol. exxxvii, page 152): “The Peak is the most strik-
ing landmark in the South Atlantic Ocean; it is 1000 feet
high, with the upper portion perpendicular or overhanging in
such a manner as to make the summit quite inaccessible. The
few drawings of this peak that have been published are taken
from the same point—the anchorage—and even the best of
them, that in the Challenger reports, conveys but a poor idea
of its grandeur. Seen from other points it presents a striking
variety of outlines.” Two cuts of the peak are given in that
article, one of which was reproduced by Professor Dana in his
Manual of Geology, 4th ed., p. 263. Owing to the points of
view, neither of these cuts, however, gives a just idea of the
shape of the peak. The one in Dana’s Geology was made
from a photograph taken with the camera pointing up at an
angle of forty-five degrees.

J.C. Branner—Peak of Fernando de Noronha, 448

iS ¥
oly

Gut 4.
silly MS

The Peak of Fernando de Noronha seen from the iand to the south. From
a photograph made by J. C. Branner in July, 1876.

With this note is given a drawing (fig. 1) made from a pho-
tograph taken by the writer in 1876 from the plateau above
which the peak rises; the observer looks northwest, and the
peak is about a mile away. Attention is called to the upper
slope on the right, and to its general resemblance to fig. 4,
plate XII, of Dr. Hovey’s description of the new cone of
Mont Pelé published opposite page 276 of this Journal for
October, 1903. :

Fig. 2 is a sketch made by the writer from a point a little
farther to the north and from a distance of about three-
quarters of a mile. This view shows both the peak proper
and the hill at its base on the west, which is of the same kind
of rock as the peak itself, that is, phonolite. On the right the
talus slope descends to the sea beach. The attention is called
to the resemblance of this view to the profile given in fig. 3 of

444. S.C. Branner—Peak of Fernando de Noronha.

Dr. Hovey’s paper on Mont Pelé. The drawings are on dif-
ferent scales.

The vertical part of the rock is about 500 feet high. The
edge of the plateau from which the sketch was made is shown
in the foreground of fig. 2; it is about 275 feet above the
ocean (aneroid) and this may be taken as nearly the general
level of the island. |

ences toe mes Oe ee ee no

The Peak of Fernando de Noronha seen from the plateau above the vil-
lage. A sketch made in July, 1876.

But little importance was attached to Mr. Darwin’s sug-
gestion in regard to the origin of the peak of Fernando until
recent developments on Martinique brought it again to mind.
It certainly is true that upon any other theory than that of the
formation of the peak as a volcanic plug we have an amount of
erosion to account for that does not seem to be in harmony
with the general topography of the island.

But while the resemblance of the peak to the Mont Pelé
plug is striking, it is realized that this resemblance may be
quite accidental.

In Nature for October 15, 1903, p. 573, Sir Richard Strachey
calls attention to a case in India of which the Mont Pelé peak
reminds him.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacew. 445

Art. XLIV.—Studies in the Cyperacee ; by Truro. Horm.
XX. “Greges Caricum.” *

Or the two methods adopted for the classification of species,
and especially of those pertaining to large genera, the artificial
system, of course, has the advantage of being the most con-
venient, but seldom leads further than to their immediate
determination. The natural classification is, on the other
hand, much more difficult by being based upon supposed
affinities between the species themselves, thus excluding such
morphological characters as are common to a number of species,
but of no importance from a biological point of view. Let us,
for instance, consider Linnezeus’ classification of the species of
Carex. When he treated the genus, “ Vignea” had not yet
been invented, and the “ Indicze” were not known. And with
the object in view to render the. determination of the species
as easy as possible, Linnzeus arranyed these in accordance with
the inflorescence, this being a single spike: staminate, pistillate
or androgynous, or the spikes being several: androgynous or
with the sexes separate, the pistillate spikes being either sessile
or peduncled. Such classification is, of course, very artificial,
considering the fact that the monostachyous species contain
representatives ‘of very different habit and of very different
structure of the perigynium. But it is much less artificial than
the system in which the species are simply classified as Vignew:
all those with two stigmata, and Carices genuine: those with
three. For m the former, the Vzgnew, if the number of stig-
mata be’ the most important character, the species must neces.
sarily become badly mixed, since then Carew vulgaris, lenti-
cularis, angustata and their numerous allies must be arranged
side by side with CO. rosea, muricata, stellulata, vulpinoidea,
stipata, ete. The Linnean method is still adopted in a number

of manuals and systematic works, where it figures prominently
in the artificial keys, and justifiably so. But it is rather sur-
prising that the author, who treated the Cyperacew in the very
modern and compr ehensive work: “Die natiirlichen Pflanzen-
familien,” should not have felt called upon to give a more
natural classification of the Carices than the one adopted, where

* Harlier numbers were published in this Journal as follows: No. 1 in vol. i,
Fourth Series : 348, 1896—No. 2 in vol. ii: 214, 1896—No. 3 in vol. iii: 121,
1897—No. 4 in vol. iii: 429, 1897—No. 5 in vol. iv: 18, 1897—No. 6 in vol.
iv: 298, 1897—No. 7 in vol. v: 47, 1898—No. 8 in vol. vii: 5, 1899—-No. 9
in vol. vii: 171, 1899—No. 10 in vol. vii: 485, 1899—No. 11 in vol. viii:
105, 1899—No. 12 in vol. ix: 355, 1900—No. 13 in vol. x: 33, 1900—No. 14
in vol. x: 266, 1900—No. 15 in vol. xi: 205, 1901—No. 16 in vol. xiv: 57,
1902—No. 17 in vol. xiv: 417, 1902—No. 18 in vol. xv: 145, 1908—No. 19
in vol. xvi: 17, 1903.

446 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

the species appear in the old-fashioned sections : Mono-, Homo-
and Hetro-stachye with the same distinction in regard to the
distribution of the sexes as once proposed by Linneeus, and
regardless of “natural affinities.” We are told that C. pawer-
flora and rupestris together constitute one division “‘ Rupestres,”
because they are moneecious and tristigmatic, while C. cephalo-
phora and Baldensis represent the “ Bracteose,’ because their
inflorescence is capitate and subtended by leafy bracts, even if
the former be distigmatic, the latter tristigmatic; moreover
that C. macrocephala and curvula constitute the “Curvule”
because both have three stigmata and a spicate-capitate
inflorescence.

Almost a century after Linneeus had described the Carzees,
the genus became divided by Beauvais* in “ Vignea” with two >
stigmata and a plano-convex achzenium and “Carex” with three
stigmata and a trigonous achenium. As a subgenus or at least
as a section “ Vignea” has been preserved, but not as a genus.
A third section became proposed by Tuckerman,t the so-called
“ Vigneastra”’ including the /ndice, and these were character-
ized as possessing androgynous, ramified spikes and two or
three stigmata. This paper by Tuckerman actually contains
the first attempt in combining the Carices in natural groups
with names indicating the most characteristic type of each.
Tuckerman did, however, begin his new system with the
Psyllophore, the monostachyous, and passed from these over
the Vignee and Vigneastra to the Legitime, somewhat similar
to the old method. And he omitted to write the diagnoses of
his groups, leaving the reader to interpret the affinities. But
in the appended ‘“Annotationes” Tuckerman expressed his
views regarding the affinities of a few types, and he suggested,
for instance, that the Psyllophore might perhaps be referable
to the Vignew and Legitime, that the Dioice might belong to
the Stellulate, the Scirpine to the Montane, and the Leupestres
to the Digitate; in other words, Tuckerman had evidently
grasped the correct idea of eliminating the J/onostachye
altogether as a section and to classify them as lesser developed
types of the Ste/lulate, ete.

This same idea we find expressed, but much more carefully
worked out in the posthumous work “Symbole Caricologice,”
published by Vahl under the auspices of the R. Danish Acad-
emy (1844). The author, Salomon Drejer, with remarkable
skill undertook to treat the genus from a phyletic point of
view, and he defined the transition from the lesser developed
types to the more advanced in such a way as to overthrow the
older, artificial classification. The number of stigmata, the

*In Lestiboudois’ Essai sur la famille des Cypéracées, Paris, 1819, p. 22.
+ Enumeratio methodica, 1848, p. 10.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. » 447

distribution of the sexes and the form of the inflorescence had
with him no weight unless they were in correlation with other
characters which might be considered of biological importance,
such as the structure of the perigynium (wériculus). In this
way the species of the old section d/onostachyw became trans-
ferred to various pliostachyous groups as representing “ formee
hebetatee” of these, and even the /ndicw with their manifold
decompound inflorescences, even these he did Ee feel inclined
to preserve as distinct from the others. Only the Vegnew and
Carices genuine were recognized, though with the understand-
ing that the former should not be restricted to distigmatie
species alone, nor the latter to tristigmatic species.

Characteristic of the Vigne is, thus, not only the more or
less dense-flowered, spicate or capitate inflorescence with com-
monly both sexes represented in each of the smaller spikes, or
the normally two stigmata, but also the peculiar structure of
the perigynium, being mostly plano-convex with the margins
more or less prominent and the beak being usually shit deeper
on the convex face, a structure that is, however, also met with
in certain species of the Carzces genuine, for instance among
the Stenocurpe. In the Carices genuine the perigynium
exhibits three types, one in which the beak is very short,
entire or subemarginate, a second in which there is a distinet
beak with the orifice hyaline, two-lobed or irregularly bifid,
while in the third type the beak is quite prominent with the
apex bifid or even bidentate.

These three types of perigynium were suggested by Drejer
as being sufficiently valid for dividing all the genuine Carices
in three primary sections, as already indicated in his little
book: Revisio critiea Caricum borealium,—But this general
classification does not, however, seem feasible when we remem-
ber the several modifications that are noticeable among the
lesser and higher developed types within the minor “ greges.”’
On the other hand, we must fully admit the recognition of these
characters as being very important, when applied to the cen-
tral, specific types of each “ grex,” and when taken in con-
nection with the other characters, which Drejer suggested as
fundamental for the establishment of his “ greges.” He enu-
merates, for instance, the consistence of the perigynium, mem-
branaceous or spongious, its surface being glabrous or pubescent,
the bracts being leafy or scale like, sheathing or merely auricu-
late at base, the spikes being erect or dr ooping, contiguous or
remote, and finally the distribution of the sexes; this last char-
acter he considered, however, to be of minor importance, since
it appears inconstant in a number of cases.— With these char-
acters in mind Drejer classified a number of Carices genuine
in eleven “greges” with diagnoses appended, but as already

448. TL. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacec.

stated, his manuscript was left unfinished by his premature
death, and none of the Vzgnew had been treated, nor did he
leave any notes upon these. However, the general idea which
he had formed relating to the classification of the latter is so
clearly expressed in the introduction of his paper, that the
“ greges” of these, the Vegnew, may be well constructed on
the same basis as the others. But the method proposed by
Drejer for the, classification of these numerous species is so
original and so distinct from any of the previous methods, for
instance those suggested by Kunth, Fries and others, thus no
comparison or combination of these seems possible.—If the
Vignee be treated and if some new “ greges” be suggested as
supplemental to the Carices genuine, the treatment must be
carried out in accordance with the same principles as once sug-
gested by Drejer, whenever we intend to adopt and follow his
method.

Nevertheless, an attempt has been made* to classify the
Vignee and the Carices genuine in natural sections: the for-
mer in accordance with Fries, viz., Acro- and Hyparrhene;
i. e. in accordance with the distribution of the sexes: with the
staminate flowers borne at the top of the spikes or at the base
of these, and the latter, the Curices genuine, in accordance
with Drejer. It is readily perceived that these two methods
are not to be combined, since the former, the one of Fries, is
founded upon merely artificial characters, while the latter
strives to be as natural as possible. Moreover, the interpreta-
tion of the “ greges,” proposed by Drejer, is far from correct,
in spite of the fact that the diagnoses have been written in
excellent Latin. Let us, for instance, examine the Z7rachy-
chlene Drej., as interpreted by Professor Bailey. With
Drejer this “‘grex” contained such species as C. glauca, his-
pida and trinervis, while Professor Bailey has made it a com-
plex of utterly different types and with the exclusion of C.
glauca, which this author, strange to say, has referred to the
Acute of Fries. This section, the Acute, did not, however,
with Fries contain such species as C. glauca, but only C. acuta
and prolixa, while Fries himself had C. g/awea as a member of
“ Pallescentes.” And the treatment of the Vegnew by com-
bining the various and very incongruous sections of Kunth,
Fries, Nyman, Christ and Tuckerman has necessarily resulted
in confusion.

A somewhat more successful attempt has been made by
Rey. G. Kiikenthal in his treatment of some South American
Carices, in which the Acro- and Hyparrhene have become
dissolved into groups that are more natural, and where the

* Bailey, L. H. Proceed. American Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. xxii, p. 59,
1886.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 449

various sections or greges have been more correctly interpreted.
However, the combination of MWicrorhynche and Morastachye
does not seem natural to us, and we can not either accept the
Bifurcate Kikthl. as an alliance of two groups as distinct as
the Physocarpe and EHchinostachye, nor can we accept the
Leptocephale and Physocephale Bail. And the Dactylosta-
chye Dre}. were hardly intended for such divergent types as
the Oligocarpe or the Laxiflore, nor does it seem natural to
refer Phyllostachys as a whole or in part to the Spheridio-
phore Drej. Whether the Vigneastra be distinct from the
Vignew and Carices genuine remains to be seen; the charac-
terization of the Graciles, the Polystachye and Indice at least
does not seem to warrant any such segregation. If the author
had treated a larger number of species and from other parts of
the world, he would no doubt have altered some of his views
and enlarged the number of “ greges,” especially of the Vegnee.

Similar to the system adopted by Professor Bailey, Mr.
Kiikenthal has made a number of combinations of groups
formerly proposed by Kunth, Fries, Tuckerman and others.
And as we have stated above, such combinations are not always
feasible, when we bear in mind that the principles upon which
these classifications were based are quite distinct. We might
illustrate this by an example taken from the Canescentes of
Fries, as accepted by Mr. Kiikenthal and Professor Bailey.

Fries himself defined the Canescentes as “ Hyparrhene 8
. canescentes: typice albide” including such species as C.
canescens, remota, stellulata, tenuiflora and a few others.
With Mr. Kiikenthal the Canescentes are species with:
“utriculi neque alati neque marginati neque spongivsi brevi-
rostres vel erostrati,” and excluding C. remota, which is trans-
ferred to another section: the /?emote of Ascherson.

With Professor Bailey the Canescentes Fr. is supposed to
be identical with the Hlongate Kunth, the Tenuzflore Kunth,
the Heleonastew Kunth, the Stel/ulate Kunth, the Deweyane
Tuckm., the Loliacee Nym., the Monastes Nym. and
Lagopine Nym.

It would seem from the above statements that an independent
treatment would be safer, since such contradictions as are liable
to arise from combined systems would be averted. And with
the object in view of establishing a classification of Vignew and
Carices genuine in accordance with the principles suggested
by Drejer, the writer has made an attempt to arrange a number
of species from various parts of the world, but mostly from the
northern hemisphere, and only such as have been directly
accessible to study and represented by sufficient material. The
result of our study is, as will be seen from the following pages,
the maintenance of the Vigneew and Carices genuine, while

Am. Jour. Sc1.—FourtH SERIES, Vor. XVI, No. 96.—DECEMBER, 1903.
31

450 T. Holm—Studics in the Cyperacea.

the Vigneastra appear to us as inseparable from these, especially
from the latter. That we enumerate the Vignew before the
Carices genuine must not be understood as if it were our
idea that these are older than the others; we consider them
both as two parallel groups that evidently developed from cer-
tain monostachyous types, branching out in several, more or less
restricted ‘“greges.” In these, the “greges,’ we have begun
with the simplest types, when such are represented in the
shape of monostachyous species: “forma hebetate.” The
supposed central types are so indicated, but besides these there
are usually certain species which cannot be placed in direct
sequence with these, and which to some extent show transi-
tion to other “ greges;” these are enumerated as “* Desciscentes.”

As to the arrangement of the “ greges ” we have begun with
those which we suppose are the least advanced in each group ;
among the ‘‘ greges” themselves are several which to us appear
as illustrating a parallel development, for instance Athrochlene-
Stenocarpe and Podogyne, Trichocarpe-Echinochlene, ete.
When we compare the “ greges” of the Vignew with those of —
the Carices genuine it is readily seen that there are several
types among the latter which habitually remind us of the
former, the Vignew; such analogies are not uncommon among
the Melananthe, the Athruchlene and the Chionanthe. :

However these analogies do not extend beyond the mere
composition of the inflorescence and especially in regard to the
distribution of the sexes: the spikes being often androgynous
or gyneecandrous as in the Vegnew. While apparently typical
to several species, androgynous or gyneecandrous spikes occur
so frequently among the Carices genuine, the formerly so-
called ‘‘Heterostachye,” that this character seems too fallacious
to be depended upon to any large extent. But some excep-
tions exist, and we have not, so far, observed a single case
where the terminal spike was not gyneecandrous in such species
as CU. triceps, virescens and Shortiana, to which such structure
seems to be typical, besides a number of others, 1. e. CU. squar-
rosa, atrata, alpina, Buxbaumii, ete., even if exceptions be
not infrequent.

It seems, also, to be a marked characteristic of the so-called
“ Vigneastra” that most of the spikes or sometimes all of
them are androgynous, but as we have already stated, we have
not felt induced to maintain this section, since none of the
species, which we have had an opportunity of examining,
proved distinct from the Carices genuine. While some of
these Vigneastra possess a habit that is very distinct from
other Carices, it is not difficult to see several and very impor-
tant analogies in their morphological structure by which the
distinction becomes very faint and hardly sufficient for the

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacew. 451

segregation of these as a special group. The following points
may be taken into consideration: Tuckerman, who established
the group, mentions the decompound spikes as being branched
and androgynous, and the number of stigmata varying from
two to three, and of the four sections enumerated by him, the
writer has examined representatives of the /ndzca, the Poly-
stachye and the Graciles, all of which have been accepted by
Mr. Kiikenthal (1. c.).

Of these the Graciles should include distigmatic species with
mostly simple and single spikes; the Polystachyew, on the
other hand, should possess numerous spikes, from two to four
together from each sheath, and with two or three stigmata,
while in the /ndice the spikes constitute a widely ramified
inflorescence of which the secondary and tertiary axes are
developed from perigynium-like organs, and the stigmata being
constantly three. Among the Graciles, C. brunnea Thunbg.
is a good type, and it is true that all the spikes are androgynous,
and that the spikes are very often only one or two together on
the same peduncle, and that the stigmata are but two. Never-
theless, this species can by no means be segregated from the
Carices genuine on that account, but is barely referable to any
of the Vignew, since the spikes are cylindrical, borne on long
and slender peduncles, besides that the structure of the peri-
gynium is very different from that of any member of the Vegnew,
being ellipsoid, much flattened, prominently striate, hairy on
the nerves, and abruptly narrowed into a linear, bifid beak. It
happens, however, that the perigynium is sometimes glabrous
in Non-Indian examples, as stated by Mr. Clarke, but even
such specimens would hardly be referable to the Vignew either.

Of the second section, the Polystachye, C. Jamesoni Boott
shows us a plant with very long and slender, cylindrical,
androgynous spikes, borne on long peduncles and more or less
branched from the base. These branches are subtended by
narrow bracts, somewhat longer than the scales but otherwise
not different from these, and they all proceed from an ochrea-
like perigynium, but of which the flower is not developed ;
each secondary branch is thus merely the rhacheola extended,
as is very frequently observed in a number of Carices
genuine, even if it may be somewhat abnormal in these.
Furthermore, in C. J/amesonw there are several peduncles
developed from each leaf-sheath, making the inflorescence
ample and rich-flowered, but otherwise the principal structure
is well comparable with that of the inflorescence of the Carices
genuine ; we suggest the affinity of this species to be with the
HHymenochlene.

Much more singular in structure and habit are the /ndice,
of which we might consider C. cladostachya Wahl. The

452 TL. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacea.

culms are branched in almost their whole length and from the
numerous leat-sheaths long peduncled, androgynous spikes pro-
ceed, of which the secondary ramifications are sessile and
developed from perigynia without flowers. These empty
perigynia correspond, as we have described before,* with the
basal ochree, but differ from these by their function and strue-
ture. Their function is to spread the lateral spikes into an
horizontal position, and this takes place by means of a swelling
of the base of these small organs. In other words, they repre-
sent prophylla with purely mechanical function, as we remem-
ber so well from the similar, but much higher developed,
sheath-like prophylla in the umbels of Cyperus. The minor
inflorescences of CU. cladostachya may look more like those of
a Vignea, but the presence of the empty perigynia with their
special function makes the species better comparable with some
of the Carices genuine, in which similar rudimentary and basal
perigynia have been observed. The /ndice contain, thus, the
most singular types of the Vzgneastra, but we have, neverthe-
less, failed to find a single point in their combined morpholog-
ical structure by which their segregation from the others might
_be warranted. The almost constant presence of both sexes in
each spike is of course noteworthy, but such androgynous
inflorescences are, as we know, not uncommon among the other
Carices. And we think that such cases where a species with
normally gyneecandrous spikes appears as inseparable from
others which are truly heterostachyous, that such cases may be
considered more anomalous than when we place the Vzgneastra
as members of the various “greges” of Carices genuine.

We refer to C. Magellanica, of which the lateral spikes are
normally gyneecandrous; still no one would doubt its affinity to
be with C. limosa and rariflora. And we might, also, recall
the singular C. stenolepis in which the lateral spikes are con-
stantly gyneecandrous besides, not infrequently, the terminal,
and the aftinity of this species seems, notwithstanding, to be
with the Sprostachye, as suggested by Drejer (1. ¢.). :

Some few ‘ Carices genuine,” for no author has as yet
segregated them from these, deserve just as much the distine-
tion of being enumerated as Vigneastra as those mentioned
by Tuckerman, Bailey and Kiikenthal, and these are: the
pliostachyous C. Willdenovii, Steudelii, Backw, wlegitima,
Linki and pedunculata with all the spikes audrogynous and
in no wise to be distinguished from the Vigneastra ;}+ the only
difference which we see lies in their smaller size. There is, on
the other hand, aspecies which we have enumerated as a mem-
ber of the Carices genuine, and which, according to our opin-

* This Journal, vol. ii, 1896, 214, and vol. x, 1900, p. 38.
+ This Journal, vol. x, 1900, p. 33.

T. Holm-—Studies in the Cyperacee. 453

ion, represents the most peculiar type among these; this is C.
Fraseri. By the structure of its leaf, being destitute of
sheath, ligule and midrib in connection with the characteristic
inflorescence and rhizome,* this species would be better sepa-
rable from the other Carices than any of the most highly
developed Vigneastra.

Synopsis of the “ greges.”
I. ViIGNEz.
| Brachystachyc nob.

Spikes several, short, few-flowered, sessile, remote or the
upper ones contiguous, gyneecandrous or, but seldom, androgy-
nous; the bracts often conspicuous, but very narrow; scales
mostly hyaline; perigynia somewhat spreading, green or light
brown, ovate, mostly sessile, plano-convex, nervose, glabrous
or a little scabrous along the upper margins, sometimes spon-
gious at the base, the “beak short, obliquely cut or almost
entire; stigmata two.

Goals . C. trisperma Dew., tenuiflora Wahl., loliacea Schk.,
macilenta Fr., canescens I.., vitilis Fr., helvola Bl., Bonan-
zaensis Britt. ;

Desciscentes: C. microstachya, Ehrh., tenella Schk.

Neurochloence nob.

Spikes several, short but many-flowered, sessile, mostly con-
_ tiguous, gynecandrous or the lateral wholly pistillate ; bracts
inconspicuous ; scales brownish; perigynia erect, br ownish or
dark green, often shortly stipitate, elliptical to oval or roundish,
plano-convex, nervose, glabrous or scabrous above, the beak
very prominent, at least in the central types, slit on the convex
face, the orifice hyaline; stigmata two.

Flebetate: C. nardina Fr., oreophita Mey., ursina Dew.

Centrales: C. glareosa Wahl., lagopina Wahl., Pribylovensis
Macoun, eryptantha Holm, neurochlena sp. n.,+ heleonastes
Ehrh., norvegica Willd.

Argyranthe nob.

Spikes several, mostly short and loose-flowered, seedilel con-
tiguous or the lower ones remote, gyneecandrous or the lateral
wholly pistillate; bracts short and narrow; scales hyaline or
light brown; perigynia erect, membr Anaceous, hght green, stipi-
tate, lanceolate, | plano-convex, nervose, serrulate along the nar-
row margins, the beak long, bidentate ; stigmata two.

Centrales: C. Deweyana Schw., Me aisiates Schk.

* This Journal, vol. iii, 1897, p. 121.
+ The diagnoses of the new species will be published in a subsequent paper
in this Journal.

454 T. Holm—WStudies in the Cyperacee.

Astrostachye nob.

Spikes several, short and few-flowered, sessile, remote, gynz-
candrous or the lower ones purely pistillate; bracts short and
narrow; scales brownish; perigynia spreading, brownish, ses-
sile, cordate or ovate, plano- convex, nervose, spongious at the
base, winged, tapering into a serrulate, bidentate beak; stig-
mata two.

Hebetate: C. dioica L., puralela Lest., gynocrates Wormskj.,
Davalliana Sm., exilis Dew.

Centrules: C. stellulata Good., scirpoides Schk., sterilis Willd.,
interior Bail., albata Boott, nubigena Don, elongata L.,
leviculmis Meinsh.

Desciscens: C. remotu L.

Acanthophore nob.

Spikes several, mostly short, but often dense-flowered, ses-
sile, contiguous or remote, androgynous; bracts often long,
but narrow 3; scales brownish ; perigynia somewhat spreading,
brownish, mostly sessile, ovate and acuminate to suborbicular
and abr uptly beaked, plano- convex, faintly nerved or nerveless,
spongious at the base, narrowly winged, the beak serrulate,
bidentate ; stigmata two.

Pe C. rosea Schk., ne Good., spargunioides Muebl.,
Muehlenbergit Schk., glomerata fh hunbg., cephaloidea Dew.,
muricata L., lejorhyncha Mey., Hookeriana Dew., occiden-
talis Bail., vagans sp. n., trachycarpa Cheesem., Hoodit
Boott, gravida Bail., alopecoidea ‘Tuckm., conjuncta Boott.,
vulpina L., phaeolepis sp. n., chrysoleuca sp. n., vitrea sp. n.

Desciscentes: CU. cephalophora Muehl., vulpinoidea Michx., vica-
ria Bail., Maackii Maxim., gibba Wahl.

Stenorhynche nob.

Spikes several in a dense-flowered, decompound panicle or
head, sessile, contiguous, androgynous ; bracts conspicuous, but
usually narrow ; scales green or light brown; perigymia spread-
ing, light brown or greenish, stipitate, ovate, tapering into a
very long, bidentate beak, plano-convex, nervose, the narrow
margins serrulate ; stigmata two.

Centrales: C. crus corvi Shuttlew., stipata Muehl.

Sychnocephale nob.

Spikes numerous in a dense-flowered head, sessile, gyneecan-
drous; bracts very long, leaf-like; scales green or light brown;
perigynia erect, linear. ‘lanceolate, acuminate, light green, stipi-
tate, compressed, few-nerved, wingless, the beak very long,
serrulate, bidentate; stigmata two.

Centrales: C. cyperoides L., sychnocephala Carey.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 455

Xerochlenc nob.

Spikes many, rather large, in a dense-flowered, spicate inflor-
escence, sessile, mostly contiguous, androgynous; bracts often
conspicuous, setiform ; scales brownish ; perigynia mostly erect,
seldom spreading, brown, stipitate or sessile, broadly ovate to
orbicular, plano-convex, nervose, more or less winged, serrulate,
tapering ‘into a distinct, bidentate beak; stigmata two, seldom
three. Some species show tendency of becoming dicecious.

Centrales: C. divisa Huds., marcida Boott, Sartwelli Dew., dis-
ticha Huds., repens Bell., arenaria L., arenicola Fr. et Sav.,
Kirkii Petrie, potosina Hemsl, Schreberi Schr., brizoides L.

Desciscentes: C. inversa R. Br., resectans Cheesem., Douglasi
Boott, macrocephala Willd.

Psyllophore Lois. ex p.

Spike single, brownish to light green, androgynous, lax and
few- flowered, the pistillate portion squarrose at maturity ;
scales oblong, acuminate, those of the pistillate flowers decidu-
ous; perigynium shining brown to greenish, erect, but reflexed
at maturity, membranaceous, elliptical, shortly stipitate, obso-
letely two-nerved, glabrous, tapering into a beak with hyaline,
obliquely cut orifice ; stigmata two.

Hebetate: C. ee: L., macrostylon Lapeyr., sagittifera Lowe.

Phenocarpe nob.

Spikes numerous, small, in a dense-flowered panicle or spi-
cate inflorescence, sessile, contiguous, androgynous; bracts
short, filiform ; scales brownish 3 perigynia erect or somewhat
spreading, ovate to orbicular, shining brown, spongious at base,
plano-convex, nervose, with thin margins and a serrulate,
bidentate beak ; stiemata two.

Centrales: C. paradoxa Willd., teretéiuscula Good., paniculata
L., appressa R. Br., virgata Soland., decomposita Muehl.

Athrostachyc nob.

Spikes several in a dense-flowered head, or the lower ones
somewhat remote, sessile, gyneecandrous ; bracts seldom con-
spicuous ; scales brownish ; perigynia erect, lanceolate to ovate
or suborbicular, brown, plano- -convex, nervose, more or less
broadly winged with a long, serrulate, obliquely cut or biden-
tate beak; stigmata two.

Centrales: C. tribuloides Wahl., Crawfordii Fern., scoparia Schk.,
Muskingumensis Schw., leporina L., athrostachya Olney,
Jfestiva Dew., petasata Dew., pinetorum Liebm., siccata
Dew., pratensis Drej., adusta Boott, kaloides Petrie, viridis
Petrie, wnea Fern., Liddonii Boott.

Desciscentes: C. Bonplandii Kth.*

* —illota Bailey.

456 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

Pterocarpe nob.

Spikes several, large, heavy and dense-flowered, contiguous
or the lower ones remote, sessile, gyneecandrous ; bracts incon-
spicuous; scales light brown or green; perigynia erect or
slightly spreading, ovate to orbicular, light brown or greenish,
compressed, nervose, broadly winged with a prominent, serru-
late, bidentate beak ; stigmata two.

Centrales: C. cristata Schw., albolutescens Schw., mirabilis Dew.,
alata 'Torr., straminea Willd., straminiformis Bail., tenera
Dew., Bicknellii Britt., stlicea Olney, festucacea Schk.

Desciscentes: C. Bebbii Olney, foenea Schk., planata Fr. et Sav.,
neurocarpa Maxim.

Microcephalce nob.

Spike single, shining brown, very small, roundish to oval,
dense-flowered, androgynous ; scales broadly ovate, brown with
hyaline margins; perigynia greenish, spreading at maturity,
membranaceous, broadly ovate, sessile, nerveless, glabrous,
tapering into a straight beak with hyaline orifice, ‘slit on the
convex face; stigmata two

Hebetata: C. capitata L.

Cephalostachyc nob.

Spikes several, reddish brown, androgynous, dense-flowered,
sessile in a roundish or oblong head; bracts mostly inconspic-
uous, scales ovate to lanceolate, acute; perigynia shining
brown, plano-convex, elliptical to ovate, sometimes turgid, stipi-
tate to sessile, prominently many-nerved, scabrous along the
beak, the orifice of which’ is bidentate or merely slit on the
convex face; stigmata two.

Centrales : a foetida All., Colensoi Boott, stenophylla Wahl.,
chordorrhiza Ehrh. .
Spherostachye nob.

Spikes several, androgynous, dense-flowered, sessile in a
roundish head; bracts inconspicuous; scales broadly ovate,
acute, shining brown with hyaline margins; perigynia yellow-
ish, becoming fuscous at maturity, membranaceous, ovate, tur-
oid, distinctly stipitate and diverging, nerveless or nearly so,
olabrous or minutely scabrous along the prominent beak with
obliquely cut orifice; stigmata two.

Cenirales: C. incurva Lightf., duriuscula Mey.

Il. CaRiIcrEs GENUINE.

Melananthee Dre}.

Spikes several, dense-flowered, peduncled,: but mostly con-
tiguous, oynzecandrous, or the terminal staminate and the

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacec. 457

lateral pistillate; bracts conspicuous, sheathless; scales mostly
dark ; perigynia erect, often purplish spotted or black, ellipti-
eal, sessile, somewhat compressed, few-nerved, minutely gran-
ular and, sometimes, scabrous along the upper margins, the
beak short, entire or emarginate ; stigmata three.

Hebetate: C. alpina Sw., melanantha Mey., melanocephala
Turez.

Centrales: C. atrata ., ovata Rudge, aterrima Hppe., bella
Bail., nigra All., chalciolepis Holm, nivalis Boott, obscura
Nees, Mertensii Prese., Parryana Dew., stylosa Mey., acce-
dens nob.,* Raynoldsii Dew., holostoma Drej., Buxbaumii
Wahl., bifida Boott, guadrifida Bail., Gmelint Hook.

Desciscentes: C. ustulata Wahl., venustula sp. n., Montanensis
Bail., microcheeta sp. n., Tolmiet Boott, nigella Boott, spec-
tabilis Dew.t —

Microrhynche Dre}.

Spikes several, often dense-flowered, sessile or short-pedun-
cled, contiguous or, sometimes, remote, the terminal staminate,
the lateral pistillate or the uppermost staminate or androgy-
nous; bracts foliaceous, sheathless; scales mostly dark and
obtuse ; perigynia erect, mostly light green, roundish to ellip-
tical, often stipitate, compressed, more or less prominently
nerved, granular and often scabrous along the upper margins,
the beak short, entire to emarginate; stigmata two.

| Hebetatee: C. rufina Dre}.

Centrales: C. stricta Good., angustata Boott, rhomboidea Holm,
prionophylla Holm, cespitosa L., lugens Holm, Yukonensis
Britt., Hindsii Clarke, decidua Boott, vulgaris Fr., Thun-
bergit Steud., gymnoclada Holm, tricostata Fr., turfosa Fr.,
fimula Fr., anguillata Drej., Groenlandica Lege., rigida
Good., Fylle Holm, hyperborea Drej., Warmingit Holm.
chimaphila Holm, stans Dre}j., aquatilis Wahl., sphacelata
sp. n., chionophila sp. n., nudata Boott, consimilis sp. n.,
cyclocarpa sp. n., interrupta Beklr., acutina Bail., limno-
charis sp. n., variabilis Bail., lenticularis Michx., torta Boott,
acuta L., prolixa Fr., Bueckit Wimm., Sitchensis Presc.,t
Nebrascensis Dew., pulchella nob.,§ notha Kth., laciniata
Boott.

Desciscentes: C. scopulorum Holm, orbicularis Boott.

Morastachye Dre}.

Spikes several, long and dense-flowered, long-peduncled,
more or-less drooping, remote, the terminal and uppermost
lateral staminate, the others pistillate; bracts foliaceous and

often very long, sheathless; scales mostly dark, acuminate to

* = spreta Bailey non Steudel.

+ = invisa Bailey.
t = Howellii Bailey. ae

Hallii Bailey non Boott.

458 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

aristate and longer than the perigynia; perigynia erect, mostly
light green, oval to roundish, sessile, more or less turgid,
faintly nerved, often granular, sometimes minutely scabrous
along the upper margins, the beak short, entire to emarginate ;
stigmata mostly three.

Centrales: C. subspathucea Wormskj., salina Wahl., hematole-
pis Drej., halophila Nyl., Drejeriana Lge., cryptocarpa
Mey., capillipes Drej., Lyngbyei Hornem., macrocheta
Mey., nesophila sp. n., scita Maxim., ternaria Forst., phacota
Sprgl., prelonga OC. B. Clarke, aperta Boott,* crinita Lam.,
gynandra Schw., maritima L., glaucescens Ell., pruinosa —
Boott, picta Boott, Kiotoensis Fr. et Sav., incisa Boott,
Schottit Dew.,t magnifica Dew., lacunarum sp. n., Magel-
lanica Lam., limosa L., laxa Wahl., rariflora Sm., stygia
Fr., littoralis Schw.

Cenchrocarpe nob.

Spikes several, loose-flowered, peduncled, but erect, mostly
remote, the terminal staminate, the lateral pistillate; bracts
foliaceous, sheathing; scales dark or greenish, obtuse; perigy-
nia erect, glaucous, oval to elliptical, nearly sessile, trigonous,
turgid, more or less distinctly nerved, glabrous, the beak
mostly short with entire or obliquely cut orifice; stigmata
three.

Tlebetate : C. bicolor All., aurea Nutt.

Centrales: C. intermedia Mig., panicea L., livida Willd., Cali-
fornica Bail., sparsiflora W ahl., tetanica Schk., Meadii Dew.,
Crawti Dew., vaginata Tausch.,{ polymorpha Muehl.

Desciscentes: C. granularis Muehl., pallescens L., Torreyt
Tuckm., rigens Boott.

Lejochlene nob.

Spikes several, lax and few-flowered, peduncled, erect or
somewhat drooping, remote, the terminal staminate, the lateral
pistillate ; bracts foliaceous, sheathing; scales hyaline, mucron-
ate; perigynia erect, pale green, often glaucous, elliptical,
stipitate, trigonous and turgid, many-nerved, glabrous, the
beak distinct and often curved, the orifice oblique; stigmata
three.

ITebetate: C. polytrichoides Muehl., Geyert Boott, meulticaulis
Bail., ambigua Link.

Centrales: C. digitalis Willd., plantaginea Lam., Careyana
Torr., laxiflora Lam., Hendersonii Bail., platyphylla Carey,
Hitchcockiana Dew., olbiensis Jord., laxiculmis Schw., pty-
chocarpa Steud., stderosticta Hance.

Desciscentes: C. grisea Wahl., oligocarpa Schk., conoidea Schk.,
glaucodea Tuckm.

* — turgidula Bailey. + = obnupta Bailey. t = Saltuensis Bailey.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 459

Dactylostachye Dre}.

Spikes several, lax and few-flowered, peduncled, erect or
somewhat drooping, contiguous, seldom remote, the terminal
staminate, the lateral pistillate; bracts sheathing, but often
bladeless; scales reddish brown, obtuse; perigynia erect, dark
green, elliptical, trigonous, stipitate, nervose, pubescent, the
beak short, straight with oblique orifice; stigmata three.
Hebetate: C. grallatoria Maxim., heteroclita Fr. et Sav., humilis

Leyss.

Oitiles - C. digitata UW., ornithopoda Willd., ornithopodioides
Hsm., concinna R. Br... amphora Fr. et Sav., Brenneri
Christ., pediformis Mey., lanceolata Boott, Richardsonii R.
Br., conica Boott, pedunculata Muehl., Halleriana Asso,
Boottiana Benth., Baltzellii Chapm., Linkii Schk., llegitima
Cesati, cryptostachys Brongt.

Desciscens: CU. triquetra Boott.

Trachychlence Dre}.

Spikes several, cylindrical, dense-flowered, peduncled and
nodding, remote or the upper ones contiguous, the terminal
staminate, the lateral androgynous or wholly pistillate; bracts
foliaceous with very short sheaths; scales dark, acute; perigy-
nia somewhat spreading at maturity, purplish spotted, ovate to
subglobose, sessile, faintly nerved, minutely hairy or scabrous,
the beak short, emarginate to subbidentate; stigmata mostly
three. :

Centrales: C. glauca Scop., virescens Muehl., triceps Michx., tri-
nervis Degl., hispida Schk., setigera Don.
Desciscens : C. spissa Bail.

Microcarpe Kuekthl.

Spikes several, cylindrical and often very long, more or less
dense-flowered, peduncled, nodding, remote or the upper ones
contiguous, the terminal staminate, the lateral pistillate or,
sometimes, the upper ones androgynous; bracts foliaceous
with long sheaths; scales hyaline to hght green or brown,
acute; perigynia often small to the size of the plants, some-
what spreading at maturity, light green, elliptical, trigonous
and sometimes turgid, sessile, nervose, glabrous, the beak
short with the orifice entire, oblique; stigmata three.
Centrales: C. microcarpa Bertol., Mendocinensis Olney, strigosa

Huds., gracillima Schw., maxima Scop.
Desciscentes: C. oxylepis Torr. et Hook., Davisii Schw. et Torr.,
Jormosa Dew.
Athrochlene nob.

Spike single, androgynous, dense-flowered, the pistillate por-
tion squarrose at maturity: scales lanceolate or oblong, obtuse,
deciduous; perigynia shining brown, erect, but reflexed at

460 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

maturity, membranaceous, fusiform or ovate, prominently
stipitate, nerveless, glabrous, tapering into a long beak with
the orifice hyaline and obliquely cut; stigmata mostly three.

Hebetate: . pyrenaica Wahl., nigricans Mey.

Stenocarpe nob.

Spikes several, slender and not very dense-flowered, borne
on long peduncles, often drooping, remote or the upper ones
contiguous, the terminal and, sometimes, the uppermost lateral
staminate, the others pistillate ; bracts mostly filiform and
short, sheathing ; scales purplish or brown, acuminate; peri-
gynia purplish, slightly spreading, membranaceous, attenuated

at both ends, triquetrous, faintly few-nerved, glabrous or a

little scabrous above, the beak prominent, bidentate with erect

teeth or obliquely cut, often hyaline; stigmata three.

Hebetate: C.lejocarpa Mey., circinata Mey., hakkodensis Franch.,
mucronata All., curvula All.

Centrales: C. sempervirens Vill., frigida All., ferruginea Scop.,
tristis M. Bieb., luzulefolia W. Boott, luzulina Olney, ablata
Bail., firma Host., hirtella Drej., hispidula Gaud., gynody-
nama Olney, tenax Reut., setosa Boott, juncea Willd., psy-
chrophila Nees, petricosa Dew., stenantha Fr. et Sav.

Desciscentes: C. tenuis Host, misandra R. Br., cruenta Nees,
longicruris Nees.

Podogyne nob.

Spikes several, the terminal and, sometimes, the uppermost
lateral (1 or 2) staminate, clavate, long-pedunecled, the others
pistillate, very robust, dense-flowered, globose to ovoid or
cylindrical, long-peduneled, drooping, contiguous or somewhat
remote; bracts foliaceous, narrow, sheathless; scales purplish
black, lanceolate, acuminate to emarginate, often aristate ; peri-
gynia light green, purplish above, ~ spreading on very long,
ciliate stipes, membranaceous, lanceolate, compressed, two-
nerved, ciliate, the beak prominent, bidentate : stigmata two.

Centralis: C. podogyna Fr. et Sav.
Lamprochlence Dre}.

Spikes several, short and few-flowered, sessile or peduncled,
erect, contiguous, the terminal staminate, the lateral pistillate ;
bracts narrow, sheathing ; scales brownish, broad, mucronate,
the margins hyaline; perigynia shining brown, erect, ovate or
elliptical to almost orbicular, somewhat tureid, trigonous,
sessile, faintly nerved, elabrous to minutely scabrous, the beak
short with hyaline, oblique orifice ; stigmata three.

Hebetate: C. rupestris All., obtusata Liljebl.
Centrales: C. obesa All., nitida Host, pedata Wahl., eburnea

Boott, alba Scop., villosa Boott, pilosa Scop., depauperata
Good.

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 461

Chionanthe nob.

Spikes several, snow-white, androgynous, the staminate por-
tion dense-flowered, the pistillate few-flowered, almost sessile
in a roundish or oval head; bracts foliaceous with long and
green blades; scales white, ovate, acute or obtuse; perigynia
white with a few minute, purplish streaks and spots above,
oblong, trigonous, sessile, two-nerved, glabrous, somewhat
inflated, the beak very short, entire, but erosely denticulate
around the orifice; stigmata three; rhacheola not developed.
Centralis: C. Baldensis L.

Leucocephale nob.

Spike single, snow-white, androgynous, dense-flowered ;
scales of staminate flowers elliptical, those of the pistillate
broad and obtuse to emarginate, all white; perigynia some-
what spreading, membranaceous, whitish, elliptical, sessile,
faintly nerved, glabrous, the beak very short, obliquely cut;
stigmata three; rhacheola well-developed; leaves destitute of
sheath, hgule and midrib.

Centralis: C’. Frasert Andrews.

Ellynanthee nob. |
Spike single, androgynous, the pistillate portion few-flowered ;
scales brown, very broad, amplectent; perigynia membrana-
ceous, whitish to brown, erect, oval to obovoid, obtusely tri-
angular in cross-section, sessile, faintly two-nerved, pubescent
above, the beak short, but distinct, with hyaline entire or
obliquely ent orifice ; stigmata three.
Flebetate: C. filifolia Nutt., elynoides Holm.

Spheridiophore Dre}.

Spikes several, the terminal staminate, clavate, the lateral
pistillate and roundish, few-flowered, sessile or the lowest one
peduneled, erect, contiguous to remote; bracts foliaceous, nar-
row, sheathless; scales brownish or purplish, acuminate, often
mucronate; perigynia dark green, slightly spreading, elliptical
to obovate or globose, trigonous, sessile or shortly stipitate,
obscurely nerved, more or less pubescent, the beak short, emar-
ginate to bidentate with the teeth erect; stigmata three.
Hebetate: C. scirpoidea Michx. |
Centrales: C. ericetorum Poll., membranacea Poll., polyrrhiza

Wallr., precox Jacq., montana L., Moorcroftii Boott, varia
Muehl., communis Bail., pilulifera L., breviculmis R. Br.,
defleca Hornem., fossii Boott, pennsylvanica Lam., vere-

cunda nob.,* turbinata Liebm., Floridana Schw., leucodonta
nob.t

* — inops Bail. non Kunze. + = rigens Bailey non Boott.

462 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacea.

Desciscentes: C. tomentosa L., globularis L., Chapmanii Sartw.,
dasycurpa Muehl., Whitneyi Olney, pubescens Michx.,
Coultert Boott, pisiformis Boott.

Trichocarpe nob.

Spikes several, cylindrical and more or less robust, dense-
flowered, sessile or the lowest ones peduncled, but erect, remote,
the terminal and uppermost lateral staminate, the others pistil-
late; bracts foliaceous, often very long, sheathing ; scales
pur plish or brown, mucronate to aristate; perigynia brownish
or dark green, erect, ovate to ovate-lanceolate or elliptical, more
or less turgid, sessile, nervose, more or less pubescent, prom-
inently beaked, the beak bidentate with spreading teeth ; stig-
mata three.

Centrales: C. vestita Willd., Yosemitana Bail., hirtissima W.
Boott, Oregonensis Olney, hirta L., filiformis L., lanugi-
nosa Michx., evoluta Hartm., Houghtonii Torr., trichocarpa
Muehl., aristata R. Br., striata Michx., Pierotii Miq., pumila
Thunbg., Wahuensis Mey., psilocarpa Steud.

Desciscentes: C. nutans Host, paludosa Good., riparia Curt.,
subdola Boott, trifida Cavan., Songorica Karel. et Kuir.,
baccans Nees, Myosurus Nees, composita Boott, brunnea
Thunbg. |

Echinochlene nob.

Spikes several, cylindrical, dense-flowered, sessile and erect,
remote, the terminal staminate or sometimes andro- to gyne-
eandrous, the lateral pistillate, often with a few staminate
flowers at the base or apex; bracts foliaceous and often very
long, sheathing; scales light purplish to brown, mucronate to
aristate; perigynia shining reddish brown, seldom grayish,
erect, elliptical to oval, plano-convex or trigonous, sessile,
nerved, the beak short, bidentate and prominently spinulose ;
stigmata two or three.

Centrales: C. lucida Boott, Lambertiana Boott, Buchanani
Berggr., Wakatipu Petrie, dipsacea Berger., dissita Sol.,
uncifolia Cheesem., Petriei Cheesem., testacea Sol., lVee-
stana Endl.

Desciscentes: C. decurtata Cheesem., Raoulit Boott., comans
Berger., cirrhosa Berggr.

Hymenochlene Dre}.

Spikes several, cylindrical, slender and not very dense-flow-
ered, peduncled and drooping, remote, the terminal staminate,
the lateral pistillate ; bracts foliaceous, the lowest sheathing ;
scales hyaline with green, excurrent midrib ; perigynia light
green, erect to slightly spreading, membranaceous, oval to ellip-

T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee. 463

tical, turgid and trigonous, stipitate, faintly nerved or nerve-
less,. seabrous along the prominent, bifid or bidentate beak
with hyaline orifice ; stigmata three.

Hebetate: C. rhizopoda Maxim., Steudelit Kth.,- Willdenowii
Schk., Backii Boott, macroglossa Fr. et Sav., filipes Fr. et
Sav. parcifiora Boott, longerostruta Mey.

Centrales: C. arctata Boott, vacillans Sol., debilis Michx., sil-
vatica Huds., elata Lowe, Cherokeensis Schw., Arnellit Christ,
transversa Boott, curvicollis Fr. et Sav., anisostachys Liebm.,
longirostris Torr., Turczaninoviana Meinsh., flexilis Rudge,
capillaris L., Krausei Beklr., Williamsii Britt.

Desciscentes: C. Assiniboinensis W. Boott, prasina Wabhl.,
Chinensis Retz., seabrata Schw., confertiflora Boott, dispa-
latha Boott, olivacea Boott, amplifolia Boott, speciosa Kth.,
Jamesonii Boott.

Spirostachye Dre}.

Spikes several, cylindrical, but rather short, dense-flowered,
peduneled, but mostly erect, remote, the terminal staminate,
the lateral pistillate; bracts foliaceons, sheathing; scales brown-
ish, acuminate; perigynia mostly greenish, more or less spread-
ing at maturity, oval to elliptical, somewhat turgid, sessile,
nervose, glabrous or scabrous along the beak, which is quite
long and bifid; stigmata three.

Centrales: C. Hornschuchiana Hppe., diluta M. Bieb., punc-
tata Gaud., distans L., binervis Sm., levigata Sm., Camposit
Boiss. et Reut., Lemmonii W. Boott, extensa Good., Mairii
Coss. et Germ., aphanolepis Fr. et Sav., trichostyles Fr. et
Sav., Ringgoldiana Boott, Micheliit Host, brevicollis D. C.,
flava L., Oederi Retz., viridula Michx., Morrowii Boott.

Desciscentes: C. squarrosa L., typhina Michx., stenolepis Torr.

ichinostachye Dre}.

Spikes several, cylindrical, robust and dense-flowered, the
terminal staminate often gyneecandrous, the lateral pistillate,
peduneled and drooping, contiguous, squarrose at maturity ;
bracts foliaceous and very long, the lowest one sheathing ;
scales lanceolate, light brown or greenish, mucronate to aris-
tate; perigynia greenish, reflexed at maturity, membranaceous,
ovate to elliptical-ovate, somewhat inflated, trigonous, stipitate,
prominently nerved, glabrous, the beak distinct, bidentate;
stigmata three. -

Hebetate: C. microglochin Wahl., paucifiora Lightf.

Centrales: C. subulata Michx., Pseudocyperus L., Forstert Wahl.,
alopecuroides Don, Doniana Sprgl., jfascicularis Sol.,
Schweinitzit Dew., hystricina Muehl., retrorsa Schw.

464 T. Holm—Studies in the Cyperacee.

Physocarpe Dre}. “re

Spikes several, cylindrical, sessile or the lowermost pedun-
cled, erect, remote, the terminal and, sometimes, the upper-
most lateral. staminate, the others pistillate; bracts foliaceous,
but mostly narrow, sheathless; scales lanceolate, acuminate,
brownish or purple; perigynia shining, light green to dark
purplish, almost black, spreading, but not reflexed, membrana-
ceous, globular to oblong-elliptical, membranaceous, inflated,
sessile, nervose, elabrous, the beak short, bidentate to merely
emarginate; stigmata three, seldom two.

Hebetate: C. Engelmannii Bail.

Centrales: C. ambusta Boott, oligosperma Michx., miliaris
Michx., ampullacea Good., leevirostris Hie rotundata Wahl.,
utriculata Boott, physoca “pa Presl., pr ysochloena sp. n. , vesi-

caria L., pulla Good. , Olneyi Boott, mirata Dew.,* compacta
RR. Br,

Physocephale Bail. ex p.

Spike single, oval to globose, androgynous; scales lanceolate,
reddish brown with broad hyaline margins; perigynia reddish
brown, spreading, membranaceous, much inflated, sessile, faintly —
nerved, glabrous, the beak short with hyaline, obliquely cut
orifice ; stigmata three.

Hebetata: C. Breweri Boott.

—Rhynchophore nob.

Spikes several, cylindrical, very robust and dense-flowered,
sessile or short peduncled, mostly erect, contiguous, the ter-
minal staminate, the others pistillate or, sometimes, the upper-
most lateral staminate; bracts foliaceous and very long, the
lowermost with a short sheath; scales pale, lanceolate, aristate
or mucronate; perigynia greenish, erect or ascending, mem-
branaceous, ovate, much inflated, stipitate, strongly nerved,
glabrous or scabrous along the very prominent beak, which is
sharply bidentate ; stigmata three.

Hebetate: C.uda Maxim., Michauxiana Beklr., folliculata L.
Centrales: C. intumescens Rudge, Grayii Carey, Ldzurcei Fr. et
Sav., monile Tuckm., Halei Carey, bullata Schk., Tucker-
mannii Boott, lupulina Muehl., gigantea Rudge, lurida
Wahl., Dickinsiz Fr. et Sav.
Desciscens: CO. rhynchophysa Mey.
Brookland, D. C., Aug., 1908.

* = exsiccata Bailey.

Baskerville— Ulira- Violet Light upon Harth Oxides. 465

Art. XLV.—Action of Ultra- Violet Light upon Rare arth

Oxides ; by CHARLES BASKERVILLE.

Durtne the extended S peneiieneanis of the action of ultra-
violet light, cathode rays, Rontgen rays, and the emanations of
radium upon gems and minerals in the Morgan-Tiffany gem
and Morgan-Bement mineral collections in the American
Museum of Natural History, a number of rare earth oxides
were subjected to the action of ultra-violet ight.* The follow-
ing oxides were exposed to ultra-violet light produced by a
Piffard lamp:

Gadolinium oxide (prepared by Waldron Shapleigh).t+

Lanthanum oxide (prepared by H. 8. Miner).

Neodidymium oxide cpa’ by a method of Baskerville
and Stevenson).

Praseodidymium oxide (prepared by the method of Basker-
ville and Turrentine).

Cerium oxide (prepared by H. S. Miner).

Samarium oxide (prepared by Waldron Shapleigh).

Thorium dioxide (chemically pure according to general
acceptation previous to 1900, prepared by Baskerville and
Davis).

Yttrium oxide (prepared by Waldron Shapleigh).

Yttrium, erbium, and ytterbium oxides mixed (prepared by
NB LACS Miner).

Erbium oxide (bought from Kahlbaum).

Erbium group oxides (prepared by Benton Dales).

Uranium oxide (prepared by S. Auchmuty Tucker).

Uranium oxide (prepared by 8. Auchmuty Tucker).

Yttrium oxide (prepared by Dennis and Dales).

Ytterbium oxide (prepared by Benton Dales).

Titanium dioxide (bought from Eimer and Amend).

Zirconium dioxide (prepared by Venable and Baskerville).

Only two of the above oxides responded at all to the action
of ultra-violet light, namely, zirconium and thorium dioxides,
which phosphoresced strongly. The thorium dioxide remained
luminous in the dark for a greater length of time. The zir-
conium dioxide showed no radio-activity when tested by the
electrical and photographic methods. It-is strange that the
two rare earths forming normally the dioxide are the only
ones to exhibit this property. This will be investigated
further.

* Reported to New York Academy of Sciences, Oct. 6, 1903.

+ My thanks are due to Doctors Miner, Tucker and Dales for the ‘generous
loan of preparations.

AM. Jour. Sci.—Fourts SERIES, Vout. XVI, No. 96.—DECEMBER, 1903.

466 Baskerville—Ultra- Violet Light upon Earth Oxides.

In view of the fact that these two earths give this charac-
teristic response to ultra-violet light, it became immediately of
interest to learn the effect of the light upon minerals carrying
those substances in different proportions. The following min-
erals were subjected to the action of ultra-violet light without
a single one of them giving either fluorescence.or phosphor-
escence: :

SaMARSKITE, Berthier Co., Que.

TuoritEe (Orangite), Arendal, Norway.

et Barkevik, Norway. |
“3 (Auerlite), Green River, N. C.
Sipyurrz, Amherst Co., Va.
-Cotumpitr, Portland, Conn.
Monazirr, Arendal, Norway.
. Zlatoust, Ural.
3 171st St. and Washn. Ave., New York.
we Amelia C. H., Va.
oe Alexander Co., N.C.

Monazite sand, Rio, Brazil.

Monazitr, Tyedestrand, Norway.

XENOTIME, Cheyenne Canyon, Colo.

oe Alexander Co., N. C.
i Hitterde, Norway.

Evxenit® (in Samarskite), Mitchell Co., N. C.

AxEscHYNITE, Hitterde, Norway.

Poxycrass, nr. Marietta, S. C.

Frreusonitz, Llano Co., Texas.

“ Ytterby, Sweden.

The extended investigation of the action of ultra-violet light
upon minerals carried out by Dr. Geo. F. Kunz and the writer
will shortly be published im full.

University of North Carolina, Sept. 15th, 1908.

Chemstry and Physics. 467

SOLENT EEC. EN TE oh oe Gk N-C Be

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

1. A New Method for the Determination of the Faintest
Traces of Arsenic.—ARMAND GAUTIER, who has devoted much
attention to the determination of small amounts of. arsenic, and
to the distribution of this element, has now described a very
simple and accurate method for determining the most minute
quantities of it. The method, which is par ticularly well adapted
to the examination of chlorides, while the older methods present
difficulties in such cases, consists in adding, under proper condi-
tions, specially purified ferric sulphate solution to the liquid to
be tested, boiling, and thus precipitating all the arsenic with the
basic ferric salt; then dissolving the filtered precipitate in sul-
phuric acid and using the resulting solution directly in the Marsh
apparatus.

The method is so delicate that 0°001™ of arsenic in a liter of
water is entirely recovered by means of it. A sample of sea-
water taken at 30°" from the coast of Brittany, at a depth of 5™
gave 0°010™5 of arsenic per liter; water from near the Azores, at -
10, 18385 and 5943™ depth gave 0:025, 0-010 and 0:080™8 per liter;
water from a salt spring at Missery gave 0'010™S per liter; various
samples of common salt gave from 0:001 to 0°045™% in 1008,
while a sample of the same substance from a volcanic fissure at
Vesuvius gave 0°175™8 in 100%. Various reagents supposed to
be pure were found to contain arsenic; thus water distilled from
copper and glass after the addition of sodium carbonate gave
0:0007 and 0:0011™ per liter, while so-called pure ammonia-bicar-
bonate of soda, potassium nitrate and sulphate, etc., gave appre-
ciable quantities of the element.— Bulletin, xxix, 859. H.L. Ww.

2. The Influence of Small Quantities of Water in bringing
about Chemical Reactions between Salts.—Many experimenters
have investigated the influence of traces of moisture in reactions
between gases, but apparently no one has hitherto made similar
experiments with solids. PrERmAwN has therefore made a number
of experiments in this direction, and has chosen for this purpose
the salts of lead and mercury mixed with salts of potassium,
usually the iodide, where the progress of a reaction would be

indicated by, a change of color. Equivalent quantities of lead
chloride and potassium iodide were dried over strong sulphuric
acid and then mixed. It was found that after drying forty-eight
hours no visible change took place on mixing the salts, but on
keeping the mixture a week in a sealed flask a faint yellow
color appeared, which, after some months, became bright yellow.
Attempts were made to find how much water was necessary in
order to make the reaction immediately visible; the results were
not very concordant, but indicated that about 0°5™S was neces-
sary when 2% of potassium iodide and an equivalent quantity of

468 Scientific Intelligence.

lead chloride were mixed in a glass flask of 200° capacity. It was
found that lead formate and lead nitrate act in a similar way to
the chloride, when mixed with potassium iodide, while lead sul-
phate reacts much more slowly, although exposed to the air, and
the carbonate and oxide react very slowly indeed.

When mercuric chloride and potassium iodide were treated in
exactly the same way as has been described, a strong coloration
was produced on mixing, but by drying with specially prepared
phosphorus pentoxide, the mixture obtained has been kept for some
months without change. Mercuric cyanide showed no reaction
with potassium iodide, while mercuric chloride and potassium
chromate reacted very slowly, although exposed to the air.

The author believes that there is no reason for thinking that
the reactions take place in any way essentially different from sim-
ilar reactions in solution, except in their slowness. He observes
that mercuric chloride, which is ionized but slightly in solution,
appears to react more rapidly than the readily ionized lead chlor-
ide; hence it appears that ionization cannot be the cause of the
difference, and the conclusion is reached that the specitic reaction
velocity seems to be the real determining factor.— Chem. News,
Ix xaxy ity 97. H. L. W.

3. The Determination of Argon in the Atmosphere.—Moissan
has determined the amount of argon in more than twenty samples
of air from many different localities. The oxygen and nitrogen
of the air were absorbed by hot mixtures of lime and metallic
magnesium, and the last traces of these gases, as well as of
hydrogen, were removed by the action of hot metallic calcium
which this investigator has succeeded in preparing in a state of
great purity. The description of the method of analysis indi-
cates that the results are very exact. With the exception of a
single analysis, where 0°9492 per cent of argon was found in a
sample of air from the Atlantic Ocean, the results are very con-
cordant, and show that the amount of argon in the air is very
constant, whether taken on land or sea, or at high or low alti-
tudes. For instance, the percentage of argon found in another
Atlantic Ocean sample was 0°9318; two from Paris, 0°9337 and
0°9319; from London, 0°9325; from Berlin, 0°9323; two from the
summit of Mt. Blane, 0°9352 and 0°9327; from St. Petersburg, .
0°9329; from Moscow, 0°9323; from the summit of Mt. Pelée,
0°9366; from the Gulf of Naples, 0°9326; and from Venice,
0°9357. The author sums up by saying that samples of air col-
lected in the interior of continents at altitudes from 0 to 5800™
show in 100° an amount of argon which varies from 0°932 to
0°935°°, while samples of air from the surface of different seas
show in general a slightly larger amount of argon but are also
very constant except in the case of a single sample. The author
states also that these researches have confirmed the important
views of Dumas and Boussingault concerning the constancy in
composition of the terrestrial atmosphere. — Comptes Rendus,
Cxxxvil, 600. H. L. W.

Chemistry and Physics. 469

4, 4 New Method for Detecting Chlorides, Bromides and
Todides. — BeNepicr and Snetut have devised the following
method for the purpose under consideration: The reagents used
are potassium iodate of one-tenth, potassium iodide of one-fifth
and nitric acid of five times “ molar” concentration (sp. gr. of
HNO, 1:18). The operations are carried out in a rather wide
test-tube. To the neutral solution acetic acid and KIO, are
added. If iodine is thus found the liquid is boiled with addition
of small quantities of KIO, until no further coloration is pro-
duced. To the liquid is then added nearly one-half its volume of
dilute nitric acid. Coloration shows bromine, which may be con-
firmed by shaking a portion with chloroform or carbon disul-
phide. The main solution is boiled until colorless, 1 or 2° of KI
are added, and the liquid is boiled again until colorless. An
equal volume of concentrated nitric acid is then added together
with a few drops of silver nitrate solution. A white precipitate,
insoluble on warming, shows silver chloride. The concentrated
nitric acid is added to prevent the precipitation of silver iodate
in case there should be iodate still left in the solution after the
treatment with potassium iodide. When a thiocyanate is present,
the test for iodine is made in a portion after the addition of
sodium acetate. If salts of other acids are present, the silver
halides are first precipitated, filtered and washed, then decom-
posed with zinc and dilute sulphuric acid, neutralized, filtered,
and treated as above. The method is said to give very satis-
factory results, but it is evident that considerable care would be
necessary in making the test for iodine, since other reducing
agents would give the same reaction as an iodide.—Jour. Amer.
Chem. Soc., xxv, 809. Hi phe Wa

5. Quartz Glass.— A very full account of the behavior of
this material has been given by H. Herazus before the Inter-
national Congress of Practical Chemistry held lately in Berlin.
The history of the working of quartz was related. Experiments
were made as early as 1839; and the prominent experimenters in
the subject have been Gaudin, Gautier, Boys, Dufour, Hutton,
Shenstone, and, also, Heraeus.

The chemical relations of quartz are especially interesting.
Quartz vessels are unaffected by water, acids and Salt solutions ;
but are affected by alkaline fluids. At high temperatures all
oxides are dangerous for the vessels. One therefore should care-
fully clean such vessels; and abstain from touching them with the
fingers. If one encloses a quartz tube in an electric furnace and
heats it for several hours to about 1300°, its surface remains
clear and limpid when it is taken out of the furnace. With a
microscope, however, one perceives a slight change of the surface;
when it cools sufficiently to be taken by the hand the whole sur-
face becomes quickly clouded and non-transparent. Heraeus
attributes this to a vitrification of the amorphous silicate and is
a surface action. When this experiment is repeated in a closed
platinum cylinder no such silicate is formed. At high tempera-

470 Scientific Intelligence.

tures the quartz is attacked by phosphoric acid; according to
Prof. Mylius, crystallized silicic-phosphoric acid is formed—this
also happens with the melting of phosphoric-ammonia-magnesia
in phosphoric acid determinations.

Quartz at highest temperatures is not attacked by metals free
from oxides. It allows a slow passage of hydrogen. Thisis much
less than in the case of platinum and enters at a higher tempera-
ture than in the case of the latter. Shenstone states that a mix-
ture of nitrogen and oxygen in quartz vessels, heated to the melt-
ing point of platinum, is converted into hyponitrous acid. The
temperature of melting of quartz is about 2000°.. The coefficient
of expansion is extraordinarily low—far lower than with any
known material—and makes the quartz very suitable for thermom-
. eters which are now constructed by Dr. Siebert and Kuhn.

If one passes an electric discharge through a rarified quartz
tube a strong odor of ozone is noticed. This is a very noticeable
phenomenon with Arons mercury lamp enclosed in a quartz vessel.
It is impossible to remain long near such lamp. This behavior of
quartz was first noticed by Lenard, Ann. d. Physik, 503, 1900.—
Deutsche Mechaniker Zeitung, Oct. 1, 1903. Ae

6. Absorption of Ultra-Violet Rays by Ozone. — lt is well
known that the earth’s atmosphere absorbs the ultra-violet rays
below 4 =3000. W. N. Hartley found an absorption band of
ozone at a mean wave-length of X = 2560. Epegar Meyer has
taken up this subject and has obtained quantitative results by a
new method. The new feature of the method consists in the
employment of the photoelectric photometer of Kreusler to deter-
mine the regions of absorption. This photometer is described in
the Ann. der Phys., vi, p. 398, 1901. It- was found that the
extinction coefficient of ozone increased with the amount of
ozone, and Hartley’s absorption band was rediscovered; but at a
mean wave length of A = 2580.

Since the earth’s atmosphere strongly absorbs the ultra-violet
rays, Meyer discusses the question whether this absorption is
largely due to ozone. A. Levy concludes from his ozonometric
measurements, extended over twenty years, that 100° of air con-
tains 1°65™& of ozone. Meyer takes this result, makes the
assumption tiit it is the ozone which absorbs the short waves,
and computes the energy distribution in the solar spectrum by the
aid of Planck’s formula. The graphical representation of the
results show that in the region 2200 there is more than twice the
energy that appears at wave-length 2500. The quantitative
determination of the absorption bands of ozone are more con-
clusive than the determination of the question whether the ozone
is chiefly instrumental in the absorption of the short waves of
light.— Ann. der Physik, No. 12, 1903, pp. 849-859. pies

7. Induced Thorium Activity. — Thorium possesses, in -com-
mon with radium, two kinds of radiation; the straight line radia-
tions and the so-called emanation. Rutherford attributes the
induced activity to this emanation. If one brings the source of

Geology and Mineralogy. 471

the radio-active emanation into an electric field the greater por-
tion condenses on the negative electrode which then becomes
temporarily active. According to J. J. Thomson and Ruther-
ford the radio-active emanation throws off a negative electron
that ionizes the air, resulting in a positive charge which wanders
to the cathode. Curie sees in the emanation only a peculiar kind
of streaming out of energy, a condition of matter in which pos-
sibly a gas is the bearer of the energy. Rutherford attributes
the phenomenon to a radio-active gas of the argon group. The
radio-activity is the indication of a series of atomic reactions.
Out of thorium, for instance, comes ThX, from the latter arises
the emanation and this again suffers a sub-atomic chemical change
with formation of induced activity. EF. von Lercu studies
induced activity without regard to any especial hypothesis and
sums up his results at the end of his article. One of his conclu-
sions is that palladium appears to absorb the emanations. He
also concludes that his experiments show the material nature of
induced activity.— Ann. der Physik, No. 12, 1908, pp. 745-766.
7 Jats

8. Liffect of Pressure on Arc Spectra. —J. EK. Petavei and
R. 8. Hurron find that at about 44 atmospheres a number of
iron lines in the ultra-violet above 3800 are very strongly reversed.
The absorption due to the presence of iron vapor results in a
diminution of intensity toward. the violet end of the spectrum,
It was found that certain of the lines appear in the vacuum glow
spectrum with their characteristic intensity, neighboring lines of
almost equal importance in the ordinary are and self-induction
spark have so greatly diminished as to be quite invisible, the
effect, therefore, is in no way connected with the actual exposure
of the photograph or the intensity of the light.—PAil. Mag.,
November, 1903, pp. 569-577. js, 1

Il. GroLtocy AND MINERALOGY.

1. United States Geological Survey, C. D. Watcort, Direc-
tor.—Among recent publications of the Gee logon Survey are
the following :

WATER SUPPLY ARD IRRIGATION Papers, No. 80. The Rela-
tion of Rainfall to Run-off ; by Grorae W. Rarrer. 102 pp., 23
figs. The relation of rainfall to run-off is influenced by many
complex factors and no general expression is possible. Rainfall
records covering less than 35 years are not reliable, and no satisfac.
tory run-off records are at hand. Mr. Rafter undertakes to estab-
lish a more rational theory than has heretofore been proposed.

No. 81. California Hydrography ; by JoserpH Bartow Lipe-
PINCOTT. 478 pp., 4 figs. The data covering the water supply
of California has been collected from various sources.

Nos. 82, 83, 84. Progress of Steam Measurements for the Cal-
endar year 1902; by F. H. Newett. No. 82 (195 pp.) covers the
Northern Atlantic coast and St. Lawrence Drainage ; No. 83 (300

472 Scientific Intelligence.

pp.) the Southern Atlantic, Eastern Gulf, Eastern Mississippi and
Great Lakes Drainage; No. 84 (196 pp.) the Western Mississippi
and Western Gulf Drainage.

Butuetins No. 212. Oil fields of the Texas-Louisiana Gulf
Coastal Plain; by C. W. Hayrs and Witiiam Kennepy. 170
pp., 11 pls. 12 figs. The geology of the Gulf coastal plain is
described and also the detailed geology of the oil pools of the
different districts. The elliptical domes which have furnished
the conditions for oil accumulation are of a different class from
the anticlines of the Appalachian region and ‘ could scarcely have
been produced by horizontal compression.” The oil of this dis-
trict is ‘‘ derived, in part at least, from the action of decomposing
organic matter, both animal and vegetable, but chiefly the latter,
upon gypsum.” ‘The “oil ponds” in the Gulf water are shown not
to be produced by diatoms but ‘derived from oil that is either
indigenous in the mud or derived from underlying rocks.’

No. 214. Geographic Tables and Formulas; by Samuzt 8. Gan-
NETT. 284 pp. The tables and formulas used by topographers in
the field and the office have been brought together in convenient
form.

No. 215. Catalogue and Index of the Publications of the U. 8.
Geological Survey 1901 to 1903 ; by Puitie C. Warman. 234 pp.

No. 216. Primary Triangulation and Primary Traverse, Fiscal
year 1902-03 ; by 8.8. Gannerr. 211 pp., 1 map.

ProFessionaAL Paprr, No. 15.—The Mineral Resources of the
Mount Wrangell District, Alaska; by W. C. Menpenwart and
F, C. ScuravER. 68 pp., 10 pls., 5 figs) The Mount Wrangell
district has important deposits of copper and of gold. The cop-
per, chiefly bornite, occurs along the contact between the Niko-
lai greenstone (Carboniferous, 4000 ft. thick) and the Chitistone
limestone (Permian) and has been concentrated from the green-
stones. Gold to the value of $225,000 was mined in the Chesto-
china field in 1902. ‘The region is extensively glaciated but
the present glaciers are but insignificant remnants of their prede-
cessors,” and the surface forms of the ores have been removed.

ProFEssiIonaAL Paper, No. 13.— Drainage Modifications in
Southeastern Ohio and Adjacent Parts of West Virginia and
Kentucky ; by W. G. Tieutr. 108 pp., 17 pls., 1 fig. Taken in
connection with Leverett’s monograph on the Erie and Ohio
Basins (U. 8. G. 8. Mon. XLI), Professor Tight’s paper gives a
detailed account of the interesting drainage modifications of the
upper Ohio and its tributaries. A very extensive rearrangement
of divides and basins has taken place, the general history of
which is outlined as follows: the high level valleys are pre-Glacial ;
the deflection of the streams producing the present drainage sys-
tem was accomplished by the first advance of the ice sheet (pre-
Kansan ?); the extensive erosion of the valleys to depths below
present drainage lines was accomplished during a long inter-
glacial interval ; these interglacial valleys were partially filled by
deposits from flooded streams and afterwards partially recut

Geology and Mineralogy. , 473

during the last Glacial epoch ; post- -Glacial erosion is represented
by the channels cut in the floor of these deposits since the waters
have acquired their present volume. ‘The Ohio River Valley
from New Martinsville to Manchester is of interglacial origin.’

2. Nebraska Geological Survey.—EK. H. Barsour, State Geol-
ogist. Volume I, 1903. 242 pp., 166 figs., 13 pls.—For a num-
ber of years geological exploration has been carried on in
Nebraska by Professor Barbour, both at private expense and as
director of the Morrill Geological Expedition. The State has
now made an appropriation for the publication of reports. The
present report contains chapters on Hydrography, on Geology
including mineral resources, on Soils, and on the Geology of Jef-
ferson County. Considerable study has been made of the drain-
age conditions and attention is called to the down-stream shifting
of the Loup tributaries of the Platte, and to the local artesian
and salt water basins. The eeological formations represented
are: Carboniferous 1200 ft. (8 to 10 inches of coal); Permo-Car-
boniferous, 200 ft.; Dakota, water-bearing beds, 250 ft.; Benton,
200 ft.; Niobrara ; Pierre, 100 to 3000 tits Oligocene, Bad Lands,
600 to 800 ft.; Miocene, Butte Sands, 500 to 600 ft.; Pliocene,
200 ft.; Pleistocene, drift and loess. Volcanic dust is found

widely distributed over the State.

_ 3. The Geological Structure of Monzoni and Fassa,; by
Maria M. Ocitvizs Gorpon. Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc., vol. vin,
special pt., pp. 179, with maps, figs. and pls. 1902-3.—The
Monzoni region has long been known as a classic field of research
in varied branches of geology, and since the publication of
Brégger’s remarkable memoir (Die Eruptionsfolge der Triadi-
schen Hruptivgesteine bei Predazzoin Stid-Tyrol) numerous papers
dealing with features of the area and especially with the prob-
lems of the igneous rocks have appeared. In some instances
these have led to discussions which have become rather acri-
monious in character, the varied opinions apparently having
arisen from insufficient study of the field relationships.

All this makes the present work by Mrs. Ogilvie Gordon the
more timely as it consists mainly of the results of detailed and
patient study and mapping of the field relations, and her conclu-
sions, which are not based upon generalities, but upon observed
facts, throw a flood of light upon the structure of the area and
will prove of service in helping to solve similar problems else-
where. The important features of her paper are the location
and description of the various folds, and systems of faults, and
the relation which the igneous intrusions bear to these fold and
fault systems. The intrusions she believes to be of Tertiary age.

TV (es

4, North American Plesiosaurs; by 8S. W. Wituiston. Pub-
lications of Field Columbian Museum. Geological series, vol. ii,
No. 1, 77 pp., 29 pls.

_ This paper has been presented by the author as part of one of a
series of monographic studies on the North American represen-

474 Scientific Intelligence.

tatives of this order. Of all the larger groups of the reptiles
from the American Mesozoic, the Plesiosaurs have probably been
least satisfactorily known. . This is the more remarkable as the
group has shown a high degree of differentiation and skeletal
remains can not be considered as rarities. Thirty-four species
and nineteen genera of Plesiosaurs are listed by the author. The
majority of these have been known only from small portions of
the skeleton and, excepting the specimens described by the author,
the general osteology of no single species had been satisfactorily
worked out. The full description and the excellent illustrations
of Dolichorhynchops osborni Williston incorporated in this paper
furnish for the first time the materials upon which a satisfactory
comparative study of the American forms of this group can be
based. Important contributions to our knowledge of the general
structure of the Plesiosaurs are made by the author in his inter-
pretation of the structure of the frontal, occipital.and palatine
regions. In Dolichorhynchops, the elements which represent
what have been considered as the frontals appear to be parietals
reaching forward to the premaxillaries and separating the true
frontals. The supraoccipital region in this form consists of two
distinct and considerably separated elements. In Brachauchenius
the palatines and pterygoids are broadly contiguous along the
median line and the openings far back between the pterygoids ©
are thought to represent the internal nares. An important addi-
tion to the types of Plesiosaurs already known is made in the
description of Brachauchenius lucasi Williston, based upon a
large-headed, short-necked species from the Benton Cretaceous of
Ottawa County, Kansas. This genus shows single-headed cervi-
cal ribs and has the peculiar characters of the palate mentioned
above. The addition of this very distinct type to the numerous
genera already known serves to emphasize the statement that the
Plesiosaurs have shown a remarkable degree of differentiation in -
this country.

Professor Williston has already given us a most valuable mon-
ographic study on one of the groups of American marine rep-
tiles, viz., the Mosasaurs, and we shall look forward with much
interest to the appearance of his completed work on the order
which is now engaging his attention. J. C..M.

5. Spodumene from Pala, California. —'The beautiful ame-
thystine spodumene from Pala, San Diego, Cal., which was
described by G. F. Kunz in the September number (p. 264) and
named Aunzite by Baskerville (see Science, Aug. 12, and this
Journal, p. 335), is also the subject of a descriptive article by
W. T. Scuatier (Univ. California, Bull. Geol., 111, 265, Sept.,
1903). The crystals are simple and show the forms in the pris-
matic zone, @(100), 5(010), 7(220), m (110), 2 (130), A (850).
The peculiar etching figures are discussed and figured in detail
and approximate symbols assigned to them. The following
results are given as the average of several analyses:

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 475

SiO, Al,O; Mn,.0O; Ibi ® Na,O K,O Ign,
64:42 27°32 0°15 7°20 0°39 0:03 0 = 99°51

A view is given of the mine from which the mineral is obtained
and it is remarked that the green variety of the species, hiddenite,
is also found there. 3

Ill. MiIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1, National Academy of Sciences.—The autumn meeting of
the National Academy of Sciences was held at Chicago from
Noy. 17 to 29. The list of titles of papers presented will be given
in the following number.

2. American Association.—The annual meeting of the Ameri-
can Association for the Advancement of Science will be held in
_ St. Louis in Convocation Week, beginning on December 28. Most
of the societies usually affiliated with the Association will hold
their meetings at the same place and time, and joint sessions in
many cases are promised. The success of the first Convocation
held at Washington a year ago gives reason to anticipate an
equally interesting occasion at St. Louis.

3. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution, showing the operations, expenditures and conditions
of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1902. Pp. lxvi,
687, with many plates. Washington, 1903.—The report of the
Secretary, 8. P. Langley, in the volume now issued, was noticed
on p. 242 of the preceding volume. In addition to this and other
administrative matters the volume contains a General Appendix
(pp. 117-659) which presents the usual selection of interesting
scientific memoirs relating chiefly to the year 1902.

4. The Physico-Chemical Keview.—It is announced that an
international review of the sciences of physical chemistry and
the allied branches of chemistry and physics will be begun in
1904 with Dr. Max Rupotrui, of Darmstadt, as editor-in-chief,
and with the cooperation of numerous scientists in Germany and
abroad. It will contain abstracts of papers published elsewhere;
these will be in French and English as well as German and will
be prepared by the authors so far as possible. The Review will
be issued twice a month, making an annual volume of about 860
pages. Specimen numbers will be sent post-free by the pub-
lishers, Gebriider Borntraeger, Dessauer Strasse 29, Berlin SW.

OBITUARY.

Rosert Henry Tuursron, Director of Sibley College and
Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Cornell University, died
in Ithaca on October 25th, his sixty-fourth birthday.

Prorressor HENRY CARRINGTON Bouton, the well known
chemist and author, died in Washington on November 19 at the
age of sixty years.

INDEX. TO, VOLTA =.

A

Academy of Sciences, National, Chi-
cago meeting, 475.

Alden, W.C., Elkland-Tioga folio,
Penna., 394. -

Arc spectra, effect of pressure on,
Petavel and Hutton, 471.

Ascutney Mt., Vermont, geology,
Daly,_ 267.

Association, American, meeting at
St. Louis, 475.

B

Barker, G. F., radioactivity of tho-
rium minerals, 161.

Barus, C., constants of coronas, 325.

Baskerville, C., spodumene from
California, 835; action of ultra-
violet light upon rare earth oxides,
465.

Beecher, C. E., the genus Romin-
geria, 1.

Blake, J. C., some isomorphous triple
thiocyanates, 12; colors of allo-
tropic silver, 282; colloidal gold,
381; Bredig’s silver hydrosols, 4381 ;
red colloidal gold solutions, 433.

Boltwood, B. B., chemical analysis
by electrolysis, 100.

BOTANY.

Cyperacez, studies in, XIX, Holm,
17; XX, 445.

Garden in Cuba, experimental, At- |

kins, 105.
Triadenum virginicum (L.) Rafin.
Holm, 369.

Branner, J. C., geology of the Ha-
waiian Islands, 301; peak of Fer-
nando de Noronha, 442.

Bredig’s silver hydrosols, Blake, 431.

British Museum, Catalogue of bird’s
egos, Oates and Reid, 400.

Bumstead, H. A., obituary notice of
J. W. Gibbs, 187; radio-active gas
in surface water, 328.

Bush, L. P., dates of publication of
certain genera of fossil vertebrates,

Cc

California, river terraces of Klamath
region, Hershey, 240.

Canada geological survey, 395.

Cathode light, spectra, Deslandres,
391.

— radiations, investigated by phos-
phorescence, Lenard, 391.

— space, dark, Schmidt, 391.

Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis,
Classen and Boltwood, 100.

Chemisches Praktikum, Wolfrum,
101.

Chemistry, Analytical, Classen, 390.

— Physical, Van’t Hoff, 390.

CHEMISTL.RW-

Argon in the atmosphere, Moissan,
468. ;

Arsenic, new method for determina-
tion, Gautier, 467.

Ceesium, iodides, Foote, 100.

Calcium cyanamide, use of, Erl-
wein, 388.

Chlorides, bromides, etce., new
method for detecting, Benedict
and Snell, 469.

Chlorine smelting with electrolysis,
Swinburne, 330. .

Gases, Mazza separator for, 330.

— separation by centrifugal force,
Claude and Demoussy, 389.

Gold, iodometric determination,
Maxson, 159.

— colloidal, Blake, 381.

— — solutions, Blake, 433.

Hydrogen, heat of combustion of,
Mixter, 214.

* This Index contains the general heads, BOTANY, CHEMISTRY (incl. chem. physics), GEOLOGY,
MINERALS, OBITUARY, ROCKS, ZOOLOGY, and under each the titles of Articles referring thereto are

mentioned.

INDEX.

Hydrosols, Bredig’s silver, Blake,
431.
Lead, radio-active, Hofmann and
Wolf, 99.
Nitrogen, utilization of
pheric, Frank, 388.
Potassium and barium nitrates,
double salt of, Wallbridge, 331.
Radium, action of salts of, upon
. globulins, Hardy, 329.
— and helium, Ramsay, 829.
Salts, effect of water on chemical
reactions, Perman, 467.
— double, investigations by phys-
ical means, Foote, 389.
Silver, allotropic, colors of, Blake,
282.
— colloidal, Hanriot, 100.
Sodium sulphate solutions, Marie
and Marquis, 99.
Thiocyanates, on isomorphous
triple, Blake, 12.
Ultra-violet light, action on rare
earth oxides, Baskerville, 465.
Uranium, determination by zine
reductor, Pulman, 229.
Classen, A., Chemical analysis by
_ electrolysis, 100: Ausgewihlte Me-
thoden der gnalylischen Chemie,
390.
Climate, polar, relation to evolution,
Wieland, 401,
Coast Survey, United States, 1902
report, Tittman, 106.
Cohen, E., Meteoritenkunde, 336.
Cold Spring, L. I., monographs, 400.
Coral reefs, origin of, as shown by
the Maldives, Gardiner, 208.
Coronas, constants of, Barus. 325.
Crapper, E. H., Electric and Mag-
netic Circuits, 3938.
Crookes, W., Spinthariscope, 99.
Cuba, experimental garden in, At-
kins, 105.

atmos-

D

Daly, R. A., mechanics of igneous
intrusion, 107.

Dielectric constants, heat of a change
in connection with changes in,
Speyers, 61.

E

Eakle, A. S., identity of palacheite
and botryogen, 379.

Earthquake investigation committee
publications, 335.

Eaton, G. F., characters of Pterano-
don, 82.

477

Electric and Magnetic Circuits, Crap-
per, 398.

Electricity, discharge from hot plat-
inum, Wilson, 392.

Emmons, S. F., contributions to
Economic Geology, 101; Little Cot-
tonwood granite of the Wasatch

Mts., 139.
F
Fairchild, H. L., Elements of Geol- -
ogy, 396.

Fernando de Noronha, peak of,
Branner, 442.

Fitzgerald, G. F., scientific writings
of, Larmor, 106.

Fuller, M. i Hlkland-Tioga folio,

Penna., 394.

G

Gardiner, J. S., origin of coral reefs
as shown by the Maldives, 203;
Maldive and Laccadive Archipel-
agoes, 400.

Geological map of New York State,
Merrill, 102.

GEOLOGICAL REPORTS.

Canada, 395.

Maryland, Vol. IV, Clark, 104.

Nebraska, Vol. I, Barbour, 473.

New Jersey, 103.

South Africa, 474.

United States, 23 Annual Report,
d82.

— Bulletins, Nos. 205-210, 185; No.
213, 101; Nos. 212, 214-216, "472,

_~ Folios, Nos. 87-91, 332 ; Nos. 92,
93, 394,

— Monographs, XLII-XLIV, 185.

— Professional papers, Nos. 1-10,
d02; Nos. 18, 15, 472.

— Water supply and irrigation
papers, Nos. 73, 75, 76, 101; Nos.
78, 79, 832; Nos. 81-84, 471.

Wisconsin, bulletins 9, 10, 267.

Geology, Elements of, LeConte and

Fairchild, 596.

— Kconomic, contributions to, 1902,

Emmons and Hayes, 101.

GEOLOGY.

Ascutney Mt., Vermont, geology,
Daly, 267.

Baptanodon, Knight, 76.

Batrachian, from the Coal Meas-
mee of Joggins, N. S., Matthew,

478

‘Climate, polar, relation to evolu-
tion, Wieland, 401.

Codonotheca, Sellards, 87.

Cretaceous, pseudoceratites
Hyatt, 335.

Crinoids, biserial arm in certain,
Grabau, 289.

Elkland-Tioga, and Gaines folios,
New York and Penna., 394.

of,

Eocene mammalia in the Magehel

collection, studies, Wortman, 345.

Fauna of Stafford limestone, New
York, Talbot, 148.

Faunas, correlation of geological,
Williams, 334.

Fossil vertebrates, dates of publica-
tion of certain genera of, Bush,
96.

Hawaiian Islands, geology, Bran-
ner, 301.

Igneous intrusion, mechanics of,
Daly, 107.

Lakes, ephemeral, in arid regions,
Keyes, 377.

Monzoni and Fassa, geological struc-
ture, Gordon, 473.

Paleozoic faunas of New Jersey,
Weller, 108.

Permian of Kansas, fossil insects in,
Sellards, 328.

Plesiosaurs, North American, S. W.
Williston, 473.

Pteranodon, Eaton, 82.

River terraces of Klamath region,
California, Hershey, 240.

Romingeria, on the genus, Beecher,

Silicic acid in mountain streams,
Headden, 169.
Stafford limestone of New York,
fauna of, Talbot, 148.
Gibbs, Josiah Willard,
notice, Bumstead, 187.
Glass, quartz, Heraeus, 469.
Grabau, A. W., biserial arm in cer-
tain crinoids, 289.
Green’s mathematical papers, 392.

H

Hall, C. W., Geography of Minne-
sota, 104.

Harrington, B. J., formula of bornite,
151.

Hawaiian Islands, geology of, Bran- |
ner, 301.

obituary

Hayes, C. W., Contributions to eco- |

nomic geology, 101.
Headden, W. P., silicic acid
mountain streams, 169.

in

Heat of combustion of hydrogen, |

Mixter, 214.

|

INDEX.

Hershey, O. H., river terraces of
California, 240.

Bil] Bice "Texas mercury minerals,
251.

Holm, T., studies in the Cyperacee,
XIX, 17; XX, 445; Triadenum
virginicum (L.) Rafin., 369.

Hovey, E. O., newcone of Mt. Pelé,
Martinique, 269.

Howe, E., tuffs of the Soufriére, St.
Vincent, d17.

Hyatt, Aw pseudoceratites of ihe
Cretaceous, O00.

I
Igneous intrusions, mechanics of,
Daly, 107.
K

Kansas, fossil insects in the Permian
of, Sellards, 823.

Keyes, ro « .. ephemeral lakes in
arid regions, 377.

Knight, W. C., notes on the genus
Baptanodon, 76.

Kunz, G. F., new lilac-colored spodu-
mene, 264; Californite, 597 ; native
bismuth and bismite, California,
398 ; production of precious stones
in 1902, 399.

L

Lakes, ephemeral in arid - regions,
Keyes, 377.

Le Conte, J., Elements of Geology,

396.
Light Waves and their uses, Michel-
son, 831

M

Maldive and Laccadive Archipela- —
goes, Gardiner, 400.

Maldives, origin of coral reefs as
shown by, Gardiner, 208.

Marsh collection, studies of Kocene
Mammalia in, Wortman, 345.

|Martinique, new cone of Mt. Pelé,

Hovey, 269; Branner, 442.

| Maryland geological survey, vol. iv,

Clark, 104.

|Mathematical papers of George
Green, 392.

Maxson, R.N., iodometrie determi-

nation oe cold, 155.

| Merrill, F. Zi H., New York as

geologic map, 1901, 102.
Meteoritenkunde, Cohen, 336.

INDEX.

Meteorites, New South Wales, Liv-
ersidge, 336.

— Siemaschko collection bought by
H. A. Ward, 3835.

Michelson, A. A,, light waves and
their uses, 381.

Mineral Tables, Weisbach, 335.

MINERALS.

Anthophyllite, Mass., 339. Arse-
nic, native, Arizona, 336. Arti-
nite, 185.

Bismite, California, 398. Bismuth,
California, 398. Boothite, Cali-
fornia, 186. Bornite, formula,
151. Botryogen, 379.

_Californite, 397. Calomel, Texas,
253. Cerussite, Colorado, 348.
Chrysocolla, Palmer, 49.

Kglestonite, Texas, 258.

Fayalite, Mass., 339.

Kunzite, 335, 474.

Montroydite, Texas, 259.

Palacheite, Californite, 186, 379.
Phosgenite, Colorado, 348. Plat-
inum in ore of Rambler mine.
Wyo., 268.

Spodumene, new lilac-colored, Cali-
fornia, 264, 335, 474.

Terlinguaite, Texas, 255.
minerals,
161.

Vesuvianite, 397.

Minnesota, Geography, Hall, 104.
Mixter, W. G., heat of combustion

of hydrogen, 214.

Monzoni and Fassa, geological struc-

ture, Gordon, 473.

Moses, A. J., new mercury minerals

of Texas, 253.

Mt. Pelé, Martinique, new cone,

Hovey, 269; Branner, 442.

Thorium
radioactivity, Barker,

N

National Bureau of Standards, Strat-
ton, 106.

— Museum, U. G., 399.

Nebraska ‘geol. survey, vol. 1, Bar-
bour, 478.

Nebulosity around Nova Persei, cause
of, Very, 49.

New Jersey geological survey, 103.

New York State geological map, 1901,
Merrill, 102.

— Museum, 102.

Nova Persei, cause of nebulosity
around, Very, 49.

479

O
OBITUARY.

Bolton, H. C., 479.
Gibbs, J. W., 187.
Knight, W. C., 268.
Wesley. Je LUG:
Renard, M., 268.
Smith, H. L., 268.
Thurston, R. H., 475.

Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten
Wissenschaften, 336.

P
Palmer, C. M., hydration of chryso-
ecolla, 45.
Physico-Chemical Review, 475.
Precious stones, production of in
1902, Kunz, 399.
Pulman, O. S., determination of
uranium by zine reductor, 229.

R

Radiation from the earth’s surface,
penetrating, Cooke, 392.

Radio-active gas in surface water,
Bumstead and Wheeler, 828.

— lead, Hofmann and WoOlfl, 99.

Radio-activity of thorium minerals,
Barker, 161.

Radium, see CHEMISTRY.

Read, al , rare metals from Ram-
bler mine, Wyoming, 268.

Reynolds, O., Sub-Mechanics of the
Universe, 331.

ROCKS.

Granite, Little Cottonwood of the
Wasatch Mts., Emmons, 1389.

Igneous rocks, chemical analyses,
Washington, 396.

— — mechanics of intrusion, Daly,
107.

Plumasite, California, 105.

Tuffs of the Soufriére, St. Vincent,
Howe, 317.

Ss

Sellards, E. H., Codonotheca, 87;
fossil insects in the Permian of
Kansas, 328.

| Sharpe, R. B., Hand-list of Birds,

400.
Smithsonian Institution, Report for
1902, 475.
Solar radiations, penetrative, Blond-
lot, 390,
Soufriére, St. Vincent, tuffs of, Howe,
ol7.

480 INDEX.

Speyers, C. L., heat of a change and
changes in dielectric constants, 61.

Spinthariscope, Crookes, 99.

St. Vincent, tuffs of Soutriére, Howe,
317.

Stellar revolutions within the Galaxy,
Very, 127.

T

Talbot, M., fauna of Stafford lime-
stone of New York, 148.

Texas, mercury minerals of, Hill,
251; Moses, 253.

Thorium activity, induced, 470.

U

Ultra-Violet light, action upon rare
earth oxides, Baskerville, 460.

— rays, absorption by ozone, Meyer,
470

United States—See Geological Re-
ports; also Coast Survey and Na-
tional Museum.

Universe, Sub-mechanics of, Rey-
nolds, 381.

V

Van’t Hoff, J. H., Physical Chemis-
try, 390.

Very, F. W., cause of nebulosity
around Nova Persei, 49; stellar
revolutions within the galaxy, 127.

WwW

Warren, C. H., mineralogical notes,
337,

Washington, H. S., Chemical analy-
ses of igneous rocks, 396. _

Wasatch Mts, Little Cottonwood
granite, Emmons, 139.

Weisbach, Tabellen, 335.

Weller, S., Paleozoic faunas of New -
Jersey, 103.

Wheeler, L. P., radio-active gas in
surface water, 328.
Wieland, G. R., polar climate in
time in relation to evolution, 401.
Williams, H. S., correlation of geo-
logical faunas, 334; shifting of
faunas, 334.

Williston, S. W., North American
Plesiosaurs, 478.

Wisconsin geological survey, 267.

Wolfrum, A., Chemisches Prakti-
kum, 101.

Wortman, J. L., studies of Eocene -
mammalia in the Marsh collection,
345.

Vb,
ZOOLOGY.

Catalogue of Birds’ Eggs, British
Museum, 400.
Hand-list of Birds, Sharpe, 400.

Dr. Cyrus Adler,
Librarian U. S. Nat. Museum.

— £AME RICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

<9 Sx
‘

Sr toga

Eprtor: EDWARD S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

ie "Proressors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
_ _W.G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, OF CAMBRIDGE,

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_ PROFESSOR JOSEPHS: AMES, oF BALTIMORE,
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Pu lished monthly. Six falar per year, in advance. $6.40 to countries in the
; Uni Remittances should be made either by money orders, registered
coretoeply on ser York —

NOVEL RUBELLITES.

The success scored by the Swiss Cyanites, so carefully developed last year by
our expert, led us to experiment with the familiar and beautiful Rubellite in Lepido-
lite from California. The result pleases not only the popular fancy, but wins the
approval of the severest of critics,—the crystallographer. The “developed”
specimens from which the Lepidolite surface and inferior crystals have been
chiseled away, leave the beautiful pink Tourmaline crystals in bold relief on the
lilac background. The terminations of the crystals are generally exhibited in all
their perfection, a feature rarely seen in the crude specimens. The beautiful
chrysanthemum-like effect of the crystal radiations and clusters is strongly ~
accentuated. The few case and drawer specimens worked out will not be added
to, as the high labor cost prohibits further work.

SWISS CYANITE.

A recent lot of several hundred pounds, collected expressly for us, yielded
nothing equal to the material originally secured by our traveler. Several of the
earlier developed specimens still remain.

CANADIAN AUGITE:

A large shipment yielded a few choice groups of the pale green type of bright

and symmetrical crystals of large size.
FAYALITE,
Rockport, Mass. - Rare. A small lot of pure massive pieces.

CHRYSOBERYL,

Greenwood, Maine. An overhauling of our stock and careful development of the
best material yielded crystallizations superior to anything offered before.

~

NATIVE ARSENIC—NEW LOCALITY

From Alden Island in the Queen Charlotte Group, British Columbia. A yein
recently uncovered afforded fine botryoidal masses well displayed in white lime-
stone. Quite as typical, more attractive, and at the same price as the old Saxon
specimens.
GREENOCKITE.
As a fine green coating over Marcasite. Also from Aurora, Mo., gemmy Ruby
Blende, etc.

64-PAGE “COLLECTION CATALOG’’.

Numerous full-page photo-engravings.

Gives prices and descriptions of,—
Minerals for study and reference arranged in systematic collections.
Sets of ores for prospectors.
Detached crystals for measurement.
Series illustrating hardness, color and other physical characters.
Laboratory minerals sold by weight.
Sundry supplies.

MAILED FREE TO ANY ADDRESS.

The largest dnd most complete stock of Scientific and Educational —
Minerals in the world. Highest awards at Nine Expositions.

FOOTE MINERAL CO.,

FORMERLY DR. A. E. FOOTE,

PHILADELPHIA, PARIS,
1817 Arch Street. 24 Rue du Champ de Mars.

Dr. Cyrus Adler,

soos U. S. Nat. Museum.

*

mel. XVI AUGUST, 1903.

" Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in.1818.

TE

= AMERICAN ©
| JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Epitorn: EDWARD S. DANA.

ASSO CIATE EDITORS

PROFESSORS GEOL, GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, or Camsrince,

PROFESSORS A. E. VERRILL, HENRY o WILLIAMS anp
| L. V. PIRSSON, or New Haven,

_ Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHILADELPHIA,
ProFessor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Battimore,
Mr. J. S. DILLER, oF WASHINGTON.

TOURLTH SERIES:

No. 92 2 PC UST. 1.903:

|
VOL. XVI-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXVI] i

itblished monthly. Six ‘dollars per year, in advance. $6.40 to countries in the
stal Union. Remittances should be made either by snOneY orders, teeisteres
letter or bank checks foriate on New York banks).

NOVEL RUBELLITES.

The success scored by the Swiss Cyanites, so carefully developed last year by
our expert, led us to experiment with the familiar and beautiful Rubellite in Lepido-
lite from California. The result pleases not only the popular fancy, but wins the
approval of the severest of critics,—the crystallographer. The “developed”
specimens from which the Lepidolite surface and inferior crystals have been
chiseled away, leave the beautiful pink Tourmaline crystals in bold relief on the
lilac background. The terminations of the crystals are generally exhibited in all
their perfection, a feature rarely seen in the crude specimens. The beautiful
chrysanthemum-like effect of: the crystal radiations and clusters is strongly
accentuated. The few case and drawer specimens worked out will not be added
to, as the high labor cost prohibits further work.

SWISS CYANITE.

A recent lot of several hundred pounds, collected expressly for us, yielded
nothing equal to the material originally secured by our traveler. Several of the
earlier developed specimens still remain.

CANADIAN AUGITE.

A large shipment yielded a few choice groups of the pale green type of bright

and symmetrical crystals of large size.
FAYALITE,
Rockport, Mass. Rare. A small lot of pure massive ‘pieces. .

CHRYSOBERYL,

Greenwood, Maine. An overhauling of our stock and careful development of the
best material yielded crystallizations superior to anything offered before.

NATIVE ARSENIC—NEW LOCALITY

From Alden Island in the Queen Charlotte Group, British Columbia. <A vein
recently uncovered afforded fine botryoidal masses well displayed in white lime-
stone. Quite as typical, more attractive, and at the same price as the old Saxon

Specimens.
GREENOCKITE.
As a fine green coating over Marcasite. Also from Aurora, Mo., gemmy Ruby
Blende, ete.

64-PAGE “COLLECTION CATALOG ’’.

Numerous full-page photo-engravings.

Gives prices and descriptions of,—
Minerals for study and reference arranged in systematic collections.
Sets of ores for prospectors.
Detached crystals for measurement.
Series illustrating hardness, color and other physical characters.
Laboratory minerals sold by weight.
Sundry supplies.

MAILED FREE TO ANY ADDRESS.

The largest and most complete stock of Scientific and Educational
Minerals in the world. Highest awards at Nine Expositions.

FOOTE MINERAL CO.

FORMERLY DR. A. E. FOOTE,

PHILADELPHIA, PARIS,
1317 Arch Street. 24 Rue du Champ de Mars.

ie Cyrus Adler,
_ Librarian U. S. Nat. Museum.» ve

Seen Xvi CCC ( SEPTEMBER, 1903.

Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.

THE

ia AMERICAN
|| JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Eprtor: EDWARD S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Proressors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, or Camsrince,

Proressors A. E. VERRILL, HENRY S. WILLIAMS ano |]
4 L. V. PIRSSON, or New Haven, ipo
. {| —_—~ Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHILADELPHIA, .
= : _Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Battimore,

Mr. J. S. DILLER, or WasHIncTon.

FOURTH SERIES.

VOL. XVI-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXVI.]
No. 93.—SEPTEMBER, 1903. 3

WITH PLATES IX-X. aga n Institu . ™
Ye

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NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUW
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THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 125 TEMPLE STREET.

Published monthly. Six dollars per year, in advance. $6.40 to countries in the
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AUSTRALIAN MINERALS,
The following have just been received from our Australian traveler as a result
of several collecting trips:

ZIRCON VAR. HYACINTH. In sharp crystals, possessing the true
color of this beautiful gem, and a high natural polish. About 6 to 8 mm. diam.

PHACOLITE. Unrivalled examples of the less complex habits of twinning
assumed by this beautiful Zeolite, : Heese

ARAGONITE AND FERROCALCITE. Showing tufted groups on
dark basalt.

STAR SAPPHIRE. - Hexagonal water-worn crystals of deepest blue,.some

over 2 cm. diam. Polished cross sections show a six-rayed star.

STOLZITE. The rare lead tungstate. A small lot comprising some of the
finest erystallizations ever seen. One especially gemmy example of the tabular

~ habit.

RASPITE. A single fine specimen accompanied the Sfolaies .
DYSCRASITE. Silver cntnose Metallic masses. Rare.
ARBORESCENT COPPER. In delicate “fronds” and branching crys-

tallizations. ex, "uae :
TURQUOIS of good color, on a dark gray shale,

64-PAGE “COLLECTION CATALOG”.

Numerous full-page photo-engravings.
Gives prices and descriptions of,—
Minerals for study and reference arranged in systematic collections.

Sets of ores for prospectors.
Detached crystals for measurement.
Series illustrating hardness, color and other physical characters.

Laboratory minerals sold by weight.
Sundry supplies. —

MAILED FREE TO ANY ADDRESS.

The largest and most complete stock of Scientific and Educational
Minerals in the world. Highest awards at Nine Expositions.

FOOTE: MINERAT. CC.

FORMERLY DR. A. E. FOOTE,

PARIS,

PHILADELPHIA,
24 Rue du Champ de Mars.

1817 Arch Street.

| Cyrus Adler,

ee ibrarian U. S. Nat. Museum.

THE

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

FOURTH SERIES.

VOL. XVI—[WHOLE NUMBER,

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1908

: _ Published monthly. Six dollars per year, in advance.

pe or bank checks (preferably on New York banks).

PROFESSOR GEORGE Ee BARKER, OF PHILADELPHIA,
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Mr. J. S. DILLER, or WasHINcToN.

No. 94.—OCTOBER, 1903.

WITH PLATES XI-XV. Ui ws
a.

OCTOBER, 1903.

Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.

AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Eprror: EDWARD S. DANA.

Proressors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
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Proressors A. E. VERRILL, HENRY S. WILLIAMS anv —
| - L. V. PIRSSON, or New Haven,

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THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, I25 TEMPLE STREET.

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$6.40 to countries in the -

Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by money orders, registered

AUSTRALIAN MINERALS

The following were received from our Australian traveler as a result of several .
collecting trips: F

ZIRCON VAR. HYACINTH. In sharp crystals, possessing the true gem
color, and a high natural polish. About 6 to 8 mm. diam.

PHACOLITE. Unrivalled examples of the less complex habits of twinning
assumed by this beautiful Zeolite. —

ARAGONITE AND FERROCALCITE. Showing tufted groups on
dark basalt.

STAR SAPPHIRE. Hexagonal water-worn crystals of deepest blue, some
over 2 cm. diam. Polished cross sections show a six-rayed star.

STOLZITE. The rare lead tungstate. A small lot comprising some of the
finest crystallizations ever seen. One especially gemmy example of the tabular
habit.

RASPITE. A single fine specimen accompanied the Stolzites.
DYSCRASITE. Silver antimonide. Metallic masses. Rare.
ARBORESCENT COPPER. In delicate “fronds” and branching crys-

tallizations.

TURQUOIS of good color, on a dark gray shale. —

64-PAGE “COLLECTION CATALOG”.

“ Numerous full-page photo-engravings.
Gives prices and descriptions of,—

Minerals for study and reference arranged in systematic collections.
Sets of ores for prospectors. .>
Detached crystals for measurement.
Series illustrating hardness, color and other physical characters.
Laboratory minerals sold by weight.
Sundry supplies.

MAILED FREE TO ANY ADDRESS.

The largest and most complete stock of Scientific and Educational
Minerals in the world. Highest awards at Nine Expositions.

FOOTE MINERAL CO.,

FORMERLY DR. A. E. FOOTE,

PHILADELPHIA, PARIS,
1317 Arch Street. 24 Rue du Champ de Mars.

NOVEMBER, 1903.

Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.

i, jAMERICAN
|| JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Epitor: EDWARD S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Proressors GEO. L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, oF CAMBRIDGE,

Proressors A. E. VERRILL, HENRY S. WILLIAMS anp
| L. V. PIRSSON, or New Haven, |

Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHILADELPHIA,
ProFessor JOSEPH S. AMES, or BALTIMORE,
Mer. J. S. DILLER, oF WasHINcrTon.

FOURTH SERIES.

VOL. XVI-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXVI.]
No. 95.—NOVEMBER, ae

= WITH PLATES XVI-XVII. VE << institys. >

NOV 2 1903

NEW HAVEN, CONNECTIQUT., |
1903 tional Must

——
—=

THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, I25 TEMPLE STREET. —

Rerablished monthly. Six dollars per year, in advance. $6.40 to countries in the
- Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by money orders, registered
2 letters, or bank checks (erally on New York banks).

SOUTH DAKOTA MINERALS.

A personal trip to the Black Hills region and work done by our own special
collector at numerous localities places on sale the following ;

AUTUNITE. Showy specimens exhibiting bright yellow crystalline
scales coating the rock. :

JAMESONITE. Bright metallic masses of characteristic bladed struc-
ture. Lowest prices recorded for the species. :

BINDHEIMITE. Yellowish masses associated with above.

MELANTERITE. Solid fibrous masses of bluish green color.

ANDALUSITE. Large well defined crystals, single and grouped.

“MODEL” SELENITE. Widely’ known from Ohio. The new erys-
tals are different in one important respect—they are three or four sizes larger —
than the old. A varied stock of extra selected quality 4 to 6 inches long.
Several types.

SPODUMENE. Large rectangular cleavages.

COLUMBITE. A few good erystallizations.

“DIAMOND MICA.” Rhomb-like cleavages and crystals of Muscovite
of striking aspect.

IRIDESCENT LIMONITE. The most astonishing combination of
colors to be found outside of a Pike’s Peak colored photo.

ORTHOCLASE. Simple crystals and Caxlsbad twins of exceptionally
sharp angles. 2to38cm. diameter. Loose and in matrix.

“DEVILS HILL SAND CRYSTALS.”

(Calcites containing about 64% of sand.)

Our collector made a ten-day trip to the locality, far from the railroads in
the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. These remarkable crystals have been
investigated crystallographically by Prof. S. L. Penfield (this Journal) and
their mode of occurrence described by Prof. E. H. Barbour (Bull. Geol.
Soc. Am.) .

The locality was well worked and only the best portion of the erystalliza-
tions handled were saved. By far the largest lot ever brought from the
locality was shipped. It embraces the loose doubly terminated steep.
_ hexagonal pyramids as well as hundreds of clusters and concretions of the
same, 2 to 10 inches diameter. The low prices include but one profit, They
have not been handled by two dealers, as was a lot formerly retailed.

64-PAGE “COLLECTION CATALOG”.

Numerous full-page photo-engravings.

Gives prices and descriptions of,—
Minerals for study and reference arranged in systematic collections.
Sets of ores for prospectors.
Detached crystals for measurement.
Series illustrating hardness, color and other physical characters.
Laboratory minerals sold by weight.
Sundry supplies.

“MAILED FREE TO ANY ADDRESS.

The largest and most complete stock of Scientific and Educational
Minerals in the world. Highest awards at Nine Expositions.

FOOTE MINERAL CO.

FORMERLY DR. A. E. FOOTE,

PHILADELPHIA, PARIS,
1317 Arch Street. - 94 Rue du Champ de Mars.

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SICT. S See Ges
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Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.

—_—

| JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

EDITOR: EDWARD S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

THE ee
AMERICAN ©

j _PRoFEssors GEO L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, or CamsripcE,

ie PROFESSORS A. E. VERRILL, HENRY S. WILLIAMS anp
L. V. PIRSSON, or New Haven,

“PROFESSOR GEORGE F. BARKER, oF PHILADELPHIA, - | ~
ae JOSEPH S. AMES, or BaLtimore,
mej. >. DILLER,-or WASHINGTON.

FOURTH SERIES, — | iG
‘VOL. XVI-[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXV1]

No= 96. —DECEMBER, 1903.

-NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT, ost
en 2A

ee

blished monthly. Six dollars per year, in advance. $6.40 to countries in the
Union. Remittances should be made either by money pee registered
aie checks Seta on ge York banks).

RADIO-ACTIVE MINERALS

ACCORDING TO

NEM EF“. CURIK.

(Thesis presented before the Faculty of Sciences, Paris, June, 1903.)

The locality from whence a specimen comes is important, no two sources of a
mineral affording examples of exactly the same degree of radio-activity. Their
external appearance also differs. Hence the number of local examples of several
minerals has been increased in this list beyond the number actually deseribed in
the thesis. (Three Thorites are omitted.) The localities of the following speci-
mens are not always the same as those of the specimens investigated by Mme.
Curie.

The steady development of the subject of radio-activity soon leaves any list
incomplete. We supply numerous other minerals desired by investigators in this
and allied subjects.

1 Uraninite (Pitchblende) 13 Xenotime
2 ws a 14 Aeschynite
3 ° 4 15 Fergusonite
4 vt of 16 tk
5 Cleveite ; 17 Samarskite
6 Torbernite (Chalcolite) 18 Columbite (Niobite)
7 Autunite 19 2 me
8 Thorite 20 - a
9 m 21 Tantalite

10 Orangite 22 .

11 Monazite 23 Carnotite

12 . 24 es

The collection comprises twenty.four specimens averaging about 100 grams
each, numbered to correspond to above list. Each specimen consists of a number
of pieces in a glass stoppered bottle, all fitted compactly in a handsomely finished
mahogany cabinet. Price complete, express paid, $30.00.

Prepared by

FOOTE MINERAE Ce

- Established by Dr. A. E. Foote, 1876.
1317 Arch Street, 24 Rue du Champ de Mars,
PHILADELPHIA. PARIS.

Dealers in Rare Minerals for Educational, Experimental and Commercial Uses.
Gram to carload lots. Minerals purchased. Mail small sate with your offer..

I lusfrated Catalog Fr ee.

VW 3 1309

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