- Nera ee ew aes 5 Seka ne ak eA A Pra ew yrtn Thea ema PMP the as See eee aac pa Poet NAAM sae er ares eee THE AME i Cae JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Environ; EDWARD S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Proressors GEORGE L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, or Camprince, Proressors ADDISON E. VERRILL, HORACE L. WELLS, L. V. PIRSSON anp H. E. GREGORY, or New Haven, Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PuHinapELPuHia, Proressor HENRY S. WILLIAMS, or Iruaca, Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Bautimore, Mr. J. S. DILLER, or Wasuinerton. FOURTH SERIES VOL. XXI—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXXI.] WITH 4 PLATES. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. 1-906 1G5b80 CONTENTS TO VOLUME XXI. INU ene Pale = Page Arr. I.—The Heating Effects produced by Rontgen Rays in Different Metals, and their Relation to the Question of Changes in the Atom ; DyakivA BuUMSTWAD A, Now in the experiment described at length above, the absorp- tion by the zine strip was about 0°8; the two-tenths observed behind the zine included not only the primary rays which got through but also some of the more penetrating secondary rays from the rear surface. Hence e-4:!<0°2, and as J = O-08°™ ie 20. If we assume, as before, that one-half of the secondary rays generated in any element are propagated straight back toward the front surface (which will exaggerate the ‘intensity of the secondary rays), we get for the intensity of the secondary rays escaping from the front surface a = rv —(A, +A.) Be 1 = ie aa +A»)l Writing this pj oie Lap N/A cae (A, ae A,)é the fraction is seen to be of the form Leu AY which (for positive values of #) increases as x diminishes. Hence a Za. Te (1 =e 20!) The primary rays absorbed in the zine strip Ae em) em") hence I K ee eee) or Ae in which of course, if there is to be no generation of fresh energy, a must be less than unity. We may make a similar calculation for the rear surface, but it is sufficient to observe that even if all the effect observed behind the metal is due to secondary rays, the ratio of these to the primary rays absorbed cannot be greater than 0-2. So that by considerably exaggerating all possibilities in favor of the production and escape of secondary rays we are unable to give to the secondary rays which escape an intensity one-half as great as that of the primary rays absorbed. Now in order 22 Bumstead—Heating Effects produced by Rontgen Rays. to account in this way for the observed difference in the heat- ing of the lead and the zine, we must assume that at least half of the energy of the primary rays absorbed in the zine escapes in the form of secondary rays; this is on the supposition that none so escapes from the lead; if the lead loses any energy in this manner then the fraction for the zinc must be greater than one-half. It appears therefore that the experimental results cannot be accounted for in this way. Numerical Results. The measurements of the absorptions of lead and zine ran so nearly parallel throughout the course of the experiments, with rays differing considerably in penetration, that it was eventually considered unnecessar y to make a separate correction to each measurement with the radiometer. The absorptions were measured from time to time during the investigation and the results are given in the following table; the numbers give the fractions of the primary rays absorbed by aluminium of the same thickness as the window, and by lead and zine of the same thickness as the strips, the latter being behind the alumi- nium except in the first three experiments when no aluminium was interposed. The last experiment in the table is the one made with the radiometer instead of the electroscope. Absorptions, os Exp. Al Pb Zn Zn I Raye 0°925 0:924 1001 II ES 0°926 0°920 =) AON Ill Beads 0:944 0:947 0:997 IV 0°5 0°862 0°856 1:007 V 0°45 0°790 0:780 1:013 Vi 047 0°830 0°803 1:034 VII 0°45 0-809 0°805 1:005 VII 0°31 0-684 0°684 1:000 XE 0°34 0676 0648 1:043 xe 0°32 0°675 0°655 10381 XI ey 0-907 0°880 1:030 NV CT ACC, Sa ings aes 1:016 The average value of the ratio is applied as a correction in the energy measurements below. The energy measurements are given in the following table. Column I gives the time of exposure of the strips in minutes. Columns I and IIT give the deflections in centimeters, pro- duced by exposure of the lead and zine respectively. These are the observed deflections, corrected for the effect of the induc- tion coil upon the magnetic “torsion head’; this was always Bumstead— Heating Liffects produced by Rontgen Rays. 23 down-seale and varied from 0-1 to 0°3™; it was determined each time by allowing the coil to run with the lead screen in front of the window of the radiometer. The plus and minus signs indicate the direction of the deflection ; thus a. change of sign in either column represents a shift of the wheel, so that the positions of the strips are interchanged. Columns IV and V contain the deflections corrected for lack of balance of the radiometer. In experiments 1, 2, 3 and 9, the radiometer was sensibly balanced when tested by the two lead strips; in 4,5 and 6, there was a lack of balance of 15 per cent in the positive direction ;in Tand 8 the lack of balance was 10 per cent in the same direction. Accordingly, in the first case the positive deflections (zinc) are reduced 15 per cent, in the second case the positive deflections (lead) are reduced 10 per cent. The changes in the conditions are explained by the fact that between the groups of experiments mentioned the radiometer, for one reason or another, had to be taken down and readjusted. Columns VI and VII contain the deflections reduced to the steady state, by dividing by (1—e—”%). The values of y used were, for lead 1°5, for zine 0°67. Column VIII contains the ratios of VI to VII; it is the ratio of the heat generated per second in the lead strip to that generated in the zine strip. The first three experiments were made with the vanes between the window and the strips; the last six with the strips between the window and the vanes. IBeqoy./ IL II Til IV V VI VIL VIII 1 15 —3'45 41:30 aes Eee —3'85 +2°06 1°87 2 1°75 —6°84 +2°26 pga ete —765 43°58 2°13 o9 15 +5:20 —1:90 Saar See tet OO Qual —— a Olle mul Oe} 4 15 —65d1. +2°43 Be ee RAI) —618 43°41 1°81 5 15 —667 +2°64 SSeS ae ee® —7:46 43°55 2°10 6 15 —707 +2:°96 a et Aeol —790 +3°96 2:00 7 15 +709 —2:30 +6°39 Ae pe +712 —3°63 1:96 Selo 9271.6) 32 1" 41-7 8:80 uN +9°85 —5':07 1:94 9 3:0 —13°75 +6°4 aes Bee 89S eh) 11:88 The average of the ratios in Column VIII is 1:96; reducing to equal absorptions, we get, as the result of these measure- ments, that when Rontgen rays are equally absorbed in lead and in zine, the quantity of heat generated in the lead is 1:93 times the quantity generated in the zine. The necessity of the writer’s returning to America has temporarily interrupted this investigation. Further experi- ments are, however, now under way in which other metals will be compared, and the experimental conditions varied as 24 Bumstead—Heating Lifects produced by Réntgen Rays. much as possible. An attempt will be made to detect the effect with a thermopile as well as with the radiometer ; and to ascertain whether cathode rays produce similar effects, as might be expected. If the present results are due to some hitherto unsuspected source of error, it is hoped that the error may reveal itself as the condition’ are varied. It isinno perfunctory spirit that | wish to express my thanks to Professor J. J. Thomson for permission to work in the Cavendish Laboratory and for the help which I constantly derived from his advice and suggestions, some of which were vital to the success of the experiments. I take pleasure in acknowl- edging my great indebtedness to him. Conclusions. The present experiments indicate that when Rontgen rays are equally absorbed in lead and in zinc, approximately twice as much heat is generated in the lead as in the zine. It does not appear possible to attribute this result to errors in the meas- urements or in the theory underlying the experimental method. To account for this effect the writer has been able to think of only one hypothesis which is not in more or less direct con- flict with experimental facts. This hypothesis is that, by means of Rontgen rays, the atoms of certain elements may ‘be artifici- ally broken up and that the energy thus liberated forms a part (and perhaps the greater par rt) of the energy which appears when the rays are absorbed by matter. New Haven, Conn., Oct. 20, 1905. AD iB ichanan = Speopte Gravity of Soluble Salts. 25 Arr. Il.—On a Method of Determining the Specific Gravity of Soluble Salts by Displacement in their own Mother- liquor; and its Application in the case of the Alkaline Halides ;* by J. Y. Bucwanan. Durine the summer of 1904 I was oceupied with the determination of the specific gravity of various saline solutions by the hydrometr ic method, which I designed for use on board the “Challenger” and have perfected in the course of years, since that date. The most important condition of success with this method is to operate always at the samme temperature, and during an operation to keep that temperature perfectly con- stant. The temperature which I used was 19°5°, both because a great quantity of similar work has been done at this tem- perature and because, in the room which it was my privilege to occupy in the Davy-Faraday Laboratory, this temperature is one which is very easily produced and kept constant, so long as the temperature of the air outside does not exceed it. This work was put a stop to by the arrival of the great anticyclone of the summer of 1904 which persisted over northern Kurope for nearly six weeks and produced tropical conditions, which were evidenced alike by the high temperature of the air and by its insignificant diurnal variation. In these circumstances I decided to make use of the time by putting into practice a method of determining the specific gravity of soluble salts which I have long intended to tr y. The specific gravity of an insoluble substance is determined by the amount of distilled water which a known weight of it displaces. In the case of soluble salts it has been the custom to replace the water by a hydrocarbon or mineral oil. The objections to the use of this liquid are numerous, especially when the salt, the specific gravity of which it is desir ed to deter mine, is rare or costly. Moreover, to judge by the want of agree- ment among the values of the specific gravity of the same salt found by different chemists, there is gr eater uncer tainty about the numerical results than there should be. One reason for this may be that the salts are not insoluble, but only sparingly soluble in the oil, and that sufficient attention has not been given to this point: There is one liquid in which every soluble salt is quite smsoluble, and that is its own mother-liquor at the temperature at which the one parted from the other. By immersing the salt in its own mother-liquor at the temperature of what we *Read at the meeting of the Chemical Society of London on 6th April, 1905. 26 J. ¥. Buchanan—Specific Gravity of Soluble Salts may call its birth, and by making the maintenance of this tem- perature a conditio sine quad non of every manipulation dur- ing which the two are brought together again, errors due to uncertain solubility are eliminated, and contamination of valu- able me paneiatoas is avoided. It is therefore by the immersion of each salt in its own mother-liquor that I determine its dis- placement; and this, combined with the weight of the salt and the specific gravity of the mother-liquor, gives the specitic gravity of the salt. It is obvious that the method is applicable only to salts which ave a mother-liquor, such as KCl; RbBr; CaCl,,- 6H,O; BaCl,2H,O; it is inapplicable to salts such as CaCl, ; BaCl, : and the like, whick have no legitimate mother liquor. The anticyclonic meteorological conditions which pre- vailed during the greater part of July and August ms were very favorable to this class of work, “The anticyelone began to give way when the work was nearly finished, and it was evident that, in the absence of artificial arrangements for the preservation of a constant laboratory temperature, this class of | work cannot be carried on easily or satisfactorily except in the hottest summer weather. It is an essential condition of success that the work be car- ried on in aroom, for the time being, especially devoted to the purpose, and occupied by one investig ator. He must have in it everything that he requires, including his balance. The win- dow of the room must face the north, and the precautions generally to be observed are similar to those prescribed by Bunsen for the practice of his gasometrie method. The salts used in this research were the chlorides, bromides and iodides of potassium, rubidium and cesium. The rubidium and cxesium preparations were from the works of Schuchardt in Goerlitz and were of the highest degree of purity. The potassium salts were also unexceptionable as regards quality and were supplied by Merck. All of these salts dissolve easily, and most of them abundantly, in water. They also crystallize with great readiness. The first operation is to prepare a hot solution of the salt such that, after standing over night, or for such length of time as may be deemed sufficient, it shall furnish about 60° of mother-liquor and about 15° of er ystals. _In the case of the potassium salts there was no difficulty, as their solubility at all temperatures is well known. ‘The solubility of the rubi- dium and cesium salts had to be determined, at least approx- imately, in each case, in order to economize the costly material. The following simple method furnished the required informa- tion easily and expeditiously. A suitable vessel, beaker or flask, is weighed empty, and then with 25 grams ‘of distilled by Displacement in their own Mother-liquor. 27 water, of the temperature of the air. The salt is then grad- ually added and the mixture stirred with the thermometer. In the case of every one of these salts the temperature falls rapidly and by as much as from 15° to 20°. The salt is added as rapidly as it is taken up by the water. When the fall of temperature slackens, a minimum is soon reached, while some salt still remains undissolved at the bottom of the vessel. It is then continually stirred; the temperature rises slowly while the salt gradually passes into solution, until, at a certain tem- perature the amount of salt remaining undissolved is such that a further rise of one degree of temperature will evidently cause it to disappear. The vessel is now weighed and, as result, we have the weight of salt dissolved in 25 grams of water at about the last observed temperature. With a little eare it is easy to arrange that this temperature shall be in the neighborhood of that of the air. The vessel with its contents is now beated, and salt added by degrees, while the tempera- ture rises and finally reaches the boiling point or whatever other temperature may have been determined on. Salt is added until the liquid is saturated at this temperature. The vessel is again weighed and the salt dissolved at the higher temperature is ascertained. These simple experiments, which are completed in very few minutes, furnish all the information that is required for the economical employment of the material. In the absence of more detailed information the following results obtained in the above way are worth quoting: 100 Grams or WatTER DISSOLVE Grams Bey ied 262088 | Bi (157) 93) 1a | 15622 of |RbBr RbI) RoI | CsCl | CsI) Csi \CsBr CsBr CsBr OsBr at °C 12 | 20 boiling 25 | 12) 107) 75 | 24:5 | 50 | 93-5 With this information there is no difficulty in preparing the solution which shall, after allowing for unavoidable loss in preparation, give the required amount of mother-liquor and of erystals. The water is warmed and the pure salt is added while the temperature is raised to that of ebullition, or to any lower temperature that may have been selected. ‘When the salt has all passed into solution, the liquid is poured into a flat crystallizing dish and crystallization begins immediately. The area of the dish should be such that the layer of solution shall not be more than half a centimeter thick. The mother-liquor is then everywhere in close touch with the erystals. The dish is then put away in a cupboard for the night. In the morning, the temperature of the contents of the erystallizing dish and that of the air were taken very carefully. The mother-liquor was then poured off clear into a stoppered 28 J. Y. Buchanan—Specific Gravity of Soluble Salts bottle, while the crystals were collected, allowed to drain, and dried in the ordinary way. The temper ature which the mix- ture had when separated is noted as that at which the crystals and the mother-liquor were in equilibrium; and it is exactly at this temperature that they have to be brought together again in order to determine the specific gravity of the salt, It is at this temperature also that the specific gravity bottle is weighed when filled with distilled water and with mother- liquor respectively. In fact the temperatnre of equilibrium and of separation is the only temperature used. In Table I, the experimental details are given in full in the case of one salt, namely, cesium chloride. For the other salts the results only are given, and they are collected in Table IT. All the weights given in this paper represent the weight im VACUO. The specific gravity bottle which was used was one of the common and convenient form which has a thermometer for a stopper and a lateral capillary tube for the adjustment of level. Its nominal capacity was fifty cubic centimeters. On three occasions one of 25° capacity was used for determining the displacement of the mother-liquor. The concentration (77) of the mother-liquor is determined by titration with tenth-normal siiver nitrate solution. This solu- tion was made with the greatest care and contained exactly 17 grams of silver nitrate in one liter, at the ordinary temperature of the laboratory at the time. The burette used was divided into tenths of a cubic centimeter and had a capacity of 50°. The determination of the halogen was not made until the specific gravity had been deter mined, and, if the concentra- tion was not already known within narrow limits, a prelimin- ary titration was made, after which the volume of mother- liquor was weighed, which would certainly require 401° for titration. The capacity of the burette from 0 to 40° was determined by weight with great care. The concentration is stated in gram- molecules salt per 1000 grams of water. For weighing out the salt and passing it directly into the specific gravity bottle a special and convenient form of weigh- ing tube was used. It was made out of a stoppered specimen tube with an internal diameter of 2 centimeters and a length of 7 or 8 centimeters. The lower end of this tube was opened and a piece of thin glass tube joined to it before the blowpipe. This tube, which had a length of about 3 centimeters, had an external diameter such that it could just pass freely through the neck of the specific gravity bottle. The wide end was closed with a glass stopper and the narrow end with a small india rubber cork. It was the custom to work so as to have about 15° of dry by Displacement in their own Mother-liquor. 29 TasBLE 1.—Hxperimental Details in the Case of Cesium Chloride. Formula and molecular weight of salt ..____-- | STUDY SETURL Ce ea MoruHer-Liquor. Determination of Specific Gravity. Weight of specific gravity bottle. -_......__=- Weight of specific gravity bottle filled with dis- UMeCL Wet se See Weight of water which flleib ss 4s -.W,—W, Weight of sp. gr. bottle + mother-liquor.--____- Weight Om MmMother-liguor 2 yo ee w,—w, Specific gravity of mother-liquor_._.__--_-- - Analysis. Weight of mother-liquor taken __222- 222i. _- Cb. cents. 34, AgNO, solution used __-.__2._-_- Weight cf salt equivalent to silver used ~ 10000 Weight of water in W2™*: mother-liquor w,—v, Concentration of mother-liquor expressed in gm. w molecules salt per thousand gms. water 0°1 im SALT IN CRYSTAL. Determination of Specific Gravity. A. Weight of first portion of salt __-_.------. Weight of sp. gr. bot. +salt + mother-liquor Weight of mother-liquor. ..--w,,—(w,+,,) Weight of water displaced by mother- MiQUOT Pena Ne ii eae Boe i See a Weight of water displaced by salt -.w,—w,, Specie orawityeOl salts 2 oe” — B. Weight of second portion of salt -.._.-_.--. Sum of weights of the two portions_w,,+w,, Weight of sp. gr. bottle + salt-+ mother- TOMO Orley i een Seva en rie Sere ee ue RTE Weight of mother-liquor -.-. - Weight of water displaced by the mother- HC Oi LO Iap ae see epee IS 3 eA LINN a 8 Weight of water displaced by the salt 2, . w,, Speciicreravityiotralb. 2 4 ea bee ay C. Weight of water displaced by salt -.«, ie S/O faa nliiny: COME TSENG, OR eS ye Ne me Accepted specific gravity of salf .-....__...-- | wi, (w, ar Ww, 4 2/CsCl=168-5 23°15'€, 38°89002™* | 89°2399 50°3499 135°0620 96°1720 1°9104 Ogatene Aiea ae 0°69448ms- 0°3390 12°1563 | 22-1299ems. (146°5514 85°5385 160°4249 | 72°7900 38°1085 12°2414 3°9820 6°67438™* 3°9890 3°982 380 J. Y. Buchanan—Specific Gravity of Soluble Salts salt to be added in two charges to the specific gravity bottle. These charges were intended to be nearly, though not quite, equal. The available supply was distributed between two weighing tubes by approximate weight, after which the exact weight of each portion was determined in the usual way. The two portions of ceesium chloride weighed respectively 22°1229 and 26° oe grams, so that in the first determination of specitic gravity 22°1229 grams and in the second 48-7449 grams were concerned. It is not immaterial whether the first portion is charged into the empty specitic gravity bottle and the mother- liquor poured over the dry powder, or is charged into the bottle which is already about half full of mother- ‘liquor. In the former case the elimination of the entangled air is difficult and takes time, during which it is not easy to prevent the temperature getting out of hand. By the latter process very little air is carried past the surface of the liquid and very little stirriug with the thermometer, which is required on other grounds, suffices to eliminate it. Owing to the readiness with which these salts crystallize and to the siowness with which all salts dissolve in an almost saturated solution, the temperature of the mixture of salt and mother-liquor, during the adjustment of level in the specitic gravity bottle, must on no account be permitted to fall below T by even 0:01°, nor should it be allowed to rise above it by more than 0:1°. The regulation of temperature was effected entirely with a standard thermometer divided into tenths of a degree, each tenth occupying a length of rather more than one millimeter on the stem. The thermometer which forms part of the specific gravity bottle is used chiefly as a stopper of convenient form. So soon as the level of the liquid has been adjusted in the bottle, it is weighed. The temperature and pressure of the air are kept account of for the reduction of all weights to the vacuum. When the first weighing has been completed, about 20 or 25° of the clear mother liquor are drawn off and the second charge of dry salt is added and mixed, after which the level is adjusted, and the weight determined. In the absence of experience it might be thought that it would be difticult to draw off so much of the liquid without some of the solid salt ; but no matter how much they may be stirred up, these crys. tallized salts settle at once and completely to the bottom when immersed in their saturated solutions, and the operation pre- sents no difficulty. It was at first intended to make a series of three determinations with each salt, but two were found to be sufficient. During all these manipulations the temperature of the air in the laboratory never differed from that of erystal- lization (T=23°1°) by more than one or two tenths of a degree, by Displacement in their own Mother-liquor. 31 and it is only in such conditions that operations of this kind ean be carried out successfully. Before bringing the crystals together with the mother-liquor in the specific gravity bottle, the operator must realize that their common temperature when mixed is to be as nearly as possi- ble exactly that of crystallization or equilibrium (T); and he must take such measures as his experience dictates to arrive at this end. Preliminary experiments on a somewhat extensive scale are absolutely necessary, and the success of an operation depends almost entirely on the operator and the trouble that he is prepared to take. Table II gives for each salt, MR, the temperature, T, of equilibrium between crystals and mother -liquor, and, in con- densed form, the experimental data of the determination of S, the specific oravity at T of the mother-liquor, that of water ut the same temperature being unity; of m, the concentration of the mother-liquor in gram molecules salt per 1000 grams water, and of D,, D,, D,, the three observed values, as well as D, the finally accepted value, of the specific gr avity of the salt, all at T and referred to that of water at the same temperature as unity. The letters and suffixes have the same significance as in Table I. The figures in line T show how uniform the temperature was during the period over which the experiments were spread. All the experiments were made between the 12th and 22d of July, 1904, with the exception of those on caesium bromide, which were made on August 10th. By that time the anti- cyclone had begun to break and the value of T for this salt is 21:4°. For all the other salts, T lies between 22°8° and 24:°3°. During the whole of the period the barometer was very steady, varying between 758 and 761 millimeters, and the relative humidity of the air varied between 40 and 50 per cent. Of the three values D,, D,, D, for the specific gravity of the salt, D, is obtained directly from the first portion of the salt, D, from the sum of the two portions, and D, is derived from D, and D, by subtraction. D, represents very nearly the mean of D, and D, and is the accepted value for the majority of the salts. It is expressed to three places of decimals, of which units in the second place are exact. It will be noticed that in the case of rubidium chloride the value of D, is accepted. The second determination depends on the appr oximate weight of the second portion of salt when the tube was being filled, the exact weighing on the balance of preci- sion having been accidentally omitted. The operation was how- ever completed, and the calculation made with the approximate 80¢-F | ecP-F 686-8 SGF-8 O16. 90L-% 70-8 619-6 EoGale ale ee ee erate q ‘Ay1avt8 “ds peydeooy lay GOS | ery | 6868 | 98rE | Seek | (s.8) | SCO. | 889-8 | TS6T |” iar, AAesids > ~ 8h96-9 | STOL-9 | EPL9-9 | OTPO-2 | 898-2 | 146-8 | SOLT-8 | Togs. | 1900-4 | “m=ttm tm sus “yuouTSOR[derq = 9600-28 | ¥9F9-68 | 0829-96 | SPZL-FE | SEG7-7G | (9L-FS)) 4100-96 | PICL-GT | PLGO.PL | ~~~ ~~~” Ti “SULB “Tus Jo UsIEM —*O a 2 OL S o80¢-h | ScPF 686-E SeP-€ 018-8 (FL-8) | 870-8 619-6 AeRplb tines "d= 51, ApAvts oyroeds ~ cH SCPS-TT | 99FG-CT | FIPS-ST | SCOL-FL | 890-91 | 2896-GT | GOPT-LT | G009-6T | G88G.PT | em ‘SUIS “quomooETdst( q 9168-88 068¢-2¢9 | GFPL-SP | 2809-0G | SSFS-1¢ | OGLL-eh | SOAT-CS | GhTS-e¢ | BGsP-le | EDA SSD HO MELON mem x CLOS-7 | 997-7 716-8 SBF-8 861-8 904-8 | 2680-8 QO eGyesat = saat "T= ty AtAets oploedg cree cs eccra9 9G. | cyel-4 | OOLP-8 | 990-4. | G0L6-8 | S6PL-e1 | Tuce-c | °° "meus “Suemoouder S 0688-90 | 9868-26 | GSSI-08 | LALP-9S | 9060-48 | VTIO-GT | TGLT-L6 | 864-98 | P89E-SI orm "sums “4[¥s Jo FYSIOM “V ea} ‘TVASAUQ NI Wve ‘fipaniy ofroody (a) = — -—— ¢ Z . . ral . 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The result shows that the value of D, may be safely accepted. In case of potassium chloride the value of D, (1°951) is accepted, and the reason for this is as fol- lows: The first portion of salt was in very coarse powder, and in mixing it with the mother-liquor numerous crystalline particles were observed which contained gaseous enclosures, easily perceptible by the naked eye. As was expected, the observed specific gravity proved to be low. The second por- tion was much more finely powdered and the specific gravity resulting from the two was higher (1°8872). But this result is affected to the full extent by the gaseous enclosures in the first portion. We therefore calculate the specific gravity from the © second portion alone, which gives 1:9510 for the specitic gravity. Discussion.—lt isan advantage of the method just described that it furnishes more than the mere determination of the specific gravity of the salt. Thus, by ascertaining almost simultaneously the specific gravity of the mother-liquor and the displacement in it of the crystals, both being at the tem- perature of equilibrium, data are obtained for the deter- mination of the relation between the displacement of the salt in crystal and its apparent displacement in saturated solu- tion at that temperature. It has not hitherto been permissible to make exact comparisons of this kind owing to the independ- ence of the observations on the salt and on the solution, which have been available. In discussing the results of observation it is convenient to arrange them in a more articulate form than that of Table IT so as to bring each feature forward prominently and by itself. The group of salts which forms the subject of these experi- ments is one of the most remarkable in nature. The salts -are nine in number and include all the possible binary combinations of the members of the electro-positive triad K, Rb, Cs with those of the electronegative triad Cl, Br, 1. The two triads of simple bodies make three triads, or one ennead (*) of binary compounds. The relations of the different members of the ennead are best shown in a table of the form of Table III. In it the salts of the same metal, M, are all in one column, and those of the same metalloid, R, all in one line. The symbol MR represents both the formula and the molecular weight of the salt. TaBLeE III. Values of MR. K Rb Cs (a) Formula KCl RbCl CsCl Cl KBr RbBr CsBr Br KI RbI CsI I * From the Greek évvedc, which signifies a body of nine. Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vou. XXI, No. 121.—January, 1906. 3 34 J. Y. Buchanan—Specifie Gravity of Soluble Salts (6) Molecular weight. 74°6 121°0 168°5 Cl i 1L@)eu 165°5 213°0 Br 166°1 212°5 » 260°0 I Compartment (a) of Table III contains the formula and com- partment (0) the molecular weight of each salt. The latter is the fundamental attribute of a substance, on which all its pro- perties depend. The molecular weights of the salts which occur in one column differ by the amount of the difference of the atomic weights of the metalloids which they contain, that is, by 445 or 47. Similarly, contiguous salts in one line have molecular weights which differ by 46-4 or 47-5. If we con- sider the two diagonal triads in the ennead, we see that they are characterized by the fact that both the elements in each unit are different from those in either of the other units. Further, along the diagonal KCl—CsI the molecular weights of the units differ as much as possible from each other, while the atomic weights of the components of each unit are as nearly as possible identical, being close neighbors in the atomic series. On the other diagonal, ae CsCl, the molecular weights of the units agree with each other as “nearly as possible, while the atomic weights of the constituents of the units differ from each other as much as possible. TABLE IV. The Salt in Crystal. K Rb Cs (a) Values of T (C°). O3cAvy 22°95 23 les Cl 23°4° 230° 91°4° Br DAES 24°3° 29°82 i (0) Values of D. LsQ5u 2°706 3°982 Cl 2°679 3°210 4°455 Br 3°043 3°428 4°508 I MR (c) Values of > 38°2338 44-710 42°310 Cl 44°460 51°553 47°820 Br 54°580 61°986 57°670 I z MR (d) Values of isp ° 2°1294 2°489 2°350 Cl 2°470 2°864 2°657 Br 3°032 3°444 3°204 I by Displacement in their own Mother-liquor. 35 The Crystal.—Table IV contains four compartments. In the first (z) we have the values of T, the temperature at which the crystals and mother-liquor of each salt were in equilibrium, and that at which the various displacements were observed. Under the experimental conditions, which have been minutely described above, it is impossible to fix in advance the exact temperature of equilibrium of the crystallizing liquid. This is given by the meteorological conditions, modified by the structural features of the laborator y and of the apartment or enclosure where crystallization takes place. In the second compartment (6) we have the values of D, or the specific gravity of the salt in crystal at T, referred to that of distilled water of the same temperature as unity. The data ia this compartment are in most cases for different, but always neighboring, temperatures. The differences of the values of T are, however, so small and those of D are so great that we may discuss the specific gravities as if they had been made at one common temperature. On examining the values of D, we see that they increase with those of MR in Table III; but the increase is not con- tinuous, it is remittent. It takes place trzad-wise ; and this holds whether we take the triads in column or in line. Com- paring salts in the same line, we see that replacing Rb by Cs causes a rise of specific gravity which is twice as great as that caused by the substitution of Rb for K. Comparing salts in the same column, the replacement of Cl by Br causes more than double the rise caused by the substitution of I for Br. However we regard it, we see that the specific gravity of the salts is a periodic function of their molecular weight, within the ennead. : MR In the third compartment (c) we have the values of Dp the displacement of one molecule (MR) of salt stated in grams of water, and in compartment (d) the same constant is stated ; AR : : in gram molecules of water Tap) In dealing with the spe- cific gravities, we saw that, whether we follow the columns or the lines, they i increase with increase of molecular we eight. In the case of the molecular displacements this holds for the columns but not for the lines. In these the salts of rubidium have the greatest molecular displacement, the potassium salts have the least, and the caesium salts occupy an intermediate position. As we shall see later, this irregularity is due to a specific peculiarity of the cesium salts. Meantime it may be noted that the volumetric equivalent of one gram molecule of any of the salts of the ennead varies from 2° 124 H,O to 3-204 H,O, the iodides having the highest and the chlorides the 36 J. Y. Buchanan—Specific Gravity of Soluble Salts lowest equivalents. The average difference between the volu- metric equivalents of the iodides and bromides is 0°563 H,O, and that between the bromides and chlorides is 0°348 H,O. The Mother-liquor.—TVhe values of T are the same for the mother-liquor as for the crystals, and are presented in Table IV (a). In Table V (a) we have the values of m or the molec- ular concentration of the mother-liquor. This is expressed in gram molecules salt per 1000 grams water. It represents also with great exactness the solubility of the salt in water at T, and we shall consider it for a moment from this point of view. TABLE V. The Salt in Mother-liquor., K Rb Cs (a) Values of m. 4°7619 7°7670 12°1563 Cl 5°7250 6°7229 5°3057 Br 89344 8°2307 3°5454 I (0) Values of S. 11798 1:4971 19101 Cl 1°3746 1:°6292 1°6968 Br eo ae 1°8548 15488 I (e) Values of — vv 31°228 38069 49°021 Cl 39°038 44°131 48°137 Br 49°506 58°575 67°907 iE v (d) Values of 18m 1°735 2-115 2°723 Cl 2°169 2°452 2°674 Br 2°750 3°257 3°773 I The least soluble of the nine is cesium iodide, which has the highest molecular weight, and potassium chloride, which has the lowest molecular weight, comes next to it. Next to ceesium iodide, in molecular weight and in solubility, we have cesium bromide; and, similarly, next to potassium chloride, in molecular weicht and in solubility, we have potassium bro- mide. In the latter case the solubility increases with the molecular weight while in the former it decreases with it. But, if Table III be referred to, it will be observed that, as regards molecular weight, KCl and CsI occupy singular posi- tions in the ennead. On the other hand, KBr (119-1) and RbCl (121) have almost identical molecular weights, as have also CsBr (213) and RbI (212 5), yet the solubilities in each by Displacement in their own Mother-liquor. 37 pair respectively are very different. The lowest solubilities are on the diagonal KCl-CsI and the highest solubilities on the diagonal KI-CsCl. RbBr, which occupies the middle place on both these diagonals, ‘is also in the middle of the middle column and of the middle line, and is the center of the ennead. Its solubility, besides being nearly the average of the group, has a symmetrical position with respect to those of the other salts. On one diagonal the solubility of its neigh- bors is lower, on the other higher than its own. In its column the solubility of its neighbors is higher, in its line it is lower than its own. In compartment (>) of Table V we have the values of S, the specific gravity of the mother-liquor at T, referred to that of distilled water of the same temperature as unity. These num- bers cannot, as they stand, be compared with each other because they refer to solutions of such different concentrations. They enable us, however, to arrive at the average apparent displacement of one gram molecule of salt in the saturated solution which contains 1000 grams of water at T. Thus, tak- ing again cesium chloride as an example, we have for the weight of salt dissolved in 1000 grams of water w =m. CsCl = 2048°34 grams. Adding 1000 grams to this we have for the weight of the solution W = 1000+w = 3048°34 grams. The specific gravity (S) being 1:9101, the displacement of the solution is : Vi = 1595:92 grams of water, whence the gross apparent displacement of the salt in solution is v =V —1000 = 595'92 grams, and the mean apparent displacement per molecule is v — = 49:021 grams. m Ue In compartment (c) we have the value of — for each mem- , mM ber of the ennead. This expresses, in grams of water, the average apparent displacement of one gram molecule of salt in its saturated solution at T. In compartment (@) the same con- v stant is expressed in terms of gram molecules of water ( "5 ). m Before commenting on the numbers in the table, it is impor- tant to form a clear conception of their physical meaning. 38 SJ. ¥. Buchanan—Specific Gravity of Soluble Salts We shall best arrive at this by returning to our detailed example of chloride of caesium. As the quantity of saturated solution which contains 1000 grams of water weighs 3048-34 grams and displaces 1595°92 grams of water, we may imagine it to have been prepared in the following way :—1595°92 grams of water are taken and ceesium chloride is dissolved in it so that each portion, as it is added, forms a saturated solu- tion with the exact quantity of water which it requires for this purpose and the remainder of the water remains uncon- taminated. Parallel with the dissolution of the salt, pure water is removed at such a rate as to keep the displacement or bulk of the liquid always the same. When no more salt will dissolve we have a saturated solution which contains 1000 grams of water. The weight of caesium chloride which has entered the solution is 2048°34 grams and the weight of water which has left it is 595-92 grams, whilst the displacement of the liquid is the same at the end of the operation as it was at the beginning. In thus describing the preparation of the saturated solution, we have described an operation of substitu- tion. Jt as ther efore permissible to regard solutions as pro- ducts. of substitution. If we give to the above numbers their molecular interpretation, we see that the mean apparent displacement of one molecule of caesium chloride in its satu- rated solution at 23°1° is equal to that of 2°723 gram mole- cules of water, and therefore, oe in these conditions, CsC? is volumetrically equivalent to 2-723 HO. Ifwe study Table V (@), we see that the average molecular displacement of the salts increases with their molecular weight, whether we follow the columns or the lines. The only excep- tion is furnished by cesium bromide, the displacement of which is very slightly lower than that of ceesium chloride. The greatest molecular deplec ments is that of caesium iodide. which has the highest molecular weight; and the least molee- ular displacement is that of potassium chloride, which has the lowest molecular weight. The pair, potassium bromide and rubidium chloride, which have almost equal molecular weights, have also almost equal molecular displacements. The same is true of the pair, potassium iodide and cesium chloride, but rubidium bromide has a markedly lower displacement. Finally, the pair, rubidium iodide and cesium bromide, which have almost identical molecular weights, present no resem- blance in their apparent molecular displacements. Comparison of the Displacement of the Salt in Crystal and in Mother-liquor.—The molecular displacement = of the salts in crystal is given in Table IV (c) in terms of grams of water; that of the ‘salts in mother- liquor is similarly ¢ given in Table V (c). by Displacement in their own Mother-liquor. 39 If we compare these two tables, we find the remarkable result that while in the case of the potassium and the rubi- dium salts the figures for the displacement in crystal are greater than those for the displacement in mother-liquor, in the case of the cesium salts the reverse is the case. TABLE VI. The Salt in Crystal and in Mother-liquor. K Rb Cs MR v (a) Values of Tye ris 7°010 6641 — Gre Cl 5°422 7°422 — O'317 Br D074 3°411 —10°237 I MR wm (0) Values of Deas 1°225 1°175 0°863 Cl 1°139 1168 0°993 Br 1°103 1°059 0°849 I IDs in0 molecular displacement of the salt in crystal from its mean molecular displacement in mother-liquor. In compartment (0) ey UR we have the ratio (> 5) of these quantities. Taking the figures in compartment (@) we see that in the case of the salts of potassium and rubidium crystallization is accompanied by considerable expansion, and this is what is usually met with. In the case of the cesium salts the reverse is the case, and very decidedly so in the case of the chloride and of the iodide, much less so in the case of the bromide, which, in this, as in other particulars, maintains its singular position. In this connection it should be noted that among the ratios (Game D est to Tae are those for RbI (1:059) and for CsBr (0:993) respectively; and their molecular weights are almost identical. Further the salts situated co-diagonally to them, namely. RbBr and CsI, have ratios whose difference from unity are almost equal, namely +0-168 for RbBr and —0-°151 for CsI. Taking a general view of the figures in (4) which give the ratios of displacement i in crystal and in mother-liquor, we see great differences. The most striking examples are, as in the case of solubility, the extreme members of the ennead KCl In Table VI (a) we have the difference Dre) of the We given in compartment (6), the two which are near- 40 J. Y. Buchanan—Specific Gravity of Soluble Salts. and CsI. The former expands by more than 25 per cent, and the latter contracts by 15 per cent on crystallizing. These figures accentuate the peculiarity of the caesium salts, that crystallization is accompanied by contraction. An interesting conclusion can be drawn from the behavior ‘of the different salts in this respect, namely, that the crystalliza- tion of the potassium and rubidium salts of the ennead must be hindered by increased pressure, while that of the cesiwm salts must be helped by the same agency. Conclusion.—The method of determining the specific gray- ity of a soluble salt in its own mother-liquor, as described in the first part of the paper, involves manipulations of too deli- cate a character to permit it to pass into general practice in competition with other methods for the same primary pur- pose. When, however, the specific gravity of the salt has been ascertained in this way, the relation between its apparent displacement in the state of crystal and in that of saturated solution have been ascertained at the same time. In the sec- ond part of the paper the observations are discussed from this point of view, but owing to exigencies of space the dis- cussion has been limited to the accentuation of the salient features. One of the most important of these is the connec- tion which reveals itself between the molecular weight of the salts and their specific gravity and displacement in er -ystal and in saturated solution, in definite conditions. The authority of the periodic law makes itself as clearly felt in the limited area of the ennead as it does in the realm of the elements. It is true that the cesium salts introduce some irregularity into the periodicity, but this is not to be looked on as an exception, but as an interference, the nature of which it will be interesting to trace. Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. 41 Arr. II1.— Further Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid and Potassium Permanganate in the Presence of Various Inorganic Salts ; by James Brown. [Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—exliii. ] Ty a previous paper® I have shown that the effect attributed by Wagnert to the catalytic action of ferric chloride in the reaction between hydrochloric acid and potassium permanga- nate is in reality due to oxidation of oxalic acid, added to reduce the residual oxides of manganese, by the chlorine formed during the reaction. Wagner’s results of a similar nature with the chlorides of chromium, cadmium, gold, and platinum, from which he argues that these salts also act cataly- tically in the reaction under consideration, have recently been investigated, and it has been found that with the chlorides of gold and cadmium the assumed catalytic effect is due entirely to the chlorine retained in solution, while with the chlorides of platinum and chromium the observed differences are lar gely due to the chlorine retained in solution, but partly also to an excessive reduction of the per manganate, as will be shown. Care was taken in this work to use pure salts, and for this purpose chromic chloride, platinic chloride, and auric chloride were especially prepared and purified. The chromic chloride was prepared by totally reducing potassium dichromate with strong hydrochloric acid, precipitating chromic hydroxide with ammonium hydroxide, filtering off and washing the precipitate until free from all soluble material. The chromic hydroxide was then dissolved in dilute hydrochlorie acid and the excess of the acid removed by evaporating several times to small volume, replacing the water as it evaporated. In this way a solution was obtained showing slight excess of chlorine over that corresponding to the chromic chloride. The platinie chloride provided commercially was found to contain a con- siderable quantity of ferric chloride. This was removed by precipitating the platinum as the chlor-platinate with a concen- trated solution of ammonium chloride and alcohol, filtering off and washing with alcohol until free from all iron. The ammonium chlor-platinate was then ignited to spongy platinum, the latter dissolved in aqua regia, the excess of nitric acid volatilized by continued heating with hydrochloric acid, and the large excess of hydrochloric acid in turn removed by evap- orating to small volume several times. The commercial auric * This Journal [4], vol. xix, 31. + Maassanalytische Studien, Habilitahonsschrift, Leipzig, 1898. 42 Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. chloride also contained iron. This was removed by heating with a strong solution of oxalic acid, filtering off the gold thus precipitated, and washing until free ‘from iron and oxalic acid. The gold was then dissolved in aqua regia, and the excess of nitric and hydrochlorie acids removed as “with platinum. Wagner* states that in experimenting with the various metallic chlorides which he regards as catalyzers, he used tenth- normal solutions of the same content in chlorine. This with ones : . oe 19°5 chlor-platinie acid would mean a solution containing e825 grams of platinum to the liter since chlor-platinie acid con- tains six atoms of chlorine to the molecule. With chlor-auric Ours e acid it means =4:9322 grams of gold to the liter since chlor-auric acid contains four atoms of chlorine to the mole- cule.. Similarly tenth-normal solutions of chromic chloride, cadmium chloride, and ferric chloride must contain 1:7366 grams chromium, 5°6 grams cadmium, and 1°8666 grams iron, respectively. The solutions used in the experiments about to be described were standardized in this way in respect both to chlorine and metal, and in no case showed a noticeable excess of chlorine, the excess never exceeding the equivalent of one or two hundredths of a cubic centimeter of normal hydro- chlorie acid. Experiments were then conducted in the following manner: To a 300%" flask were added 100°* of normal hydrochloric acid, and in addition either 9°90°™* of tenth-normal ferric chloride, cadmium chloride, chromic chloride, chlor-platinie acid, or chlor-auric acid. Of approximately twentieth-normal potas- sium permanganate 9°90 were then added, and the flask fitted in a ground joint to a return condenser approximately 60°™* in length, was heated for one hour, or thirty minutes, on he Ostwald thermostat at a temperature of 50°C. Of approxi mately tenth-normal oxalic acid 9°90°"* were then added, and permanganate run in to color. Calculations of the amount of permanganate “apparently reduced” were then made by sub- tracting the permanganate equivalent of the oxalic acid from the total permanganate used, (that is the “ K MnO, before diges- tion” plus the “KMnO, to color.’ >) Similarly the “K MnO, apparently unreduced ” is obtained by subtracting the “ KMn0, apparently reduced ” from the “ KMnO, before “digestion.” * Loc. cit., p. 85. Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. 43 The results follow: TABLE I, = poems a HiN)2C201=20'09°"8 KMnO,y. Oxygen value KMn0O,=0-0003982 20 ys 9:90em? H.C,0,=19°62°™3 KMnO,. | grim. per cm?. a a N N before Sle H.C.0, | KMnO, a i —HCl — HCl soy Ss | 20 ently re- ently un- i 10 digestion = ie to color Vaasa reduced @ |6 | during | during em’. em’. em’. 5 | @ em?. em’. digestion digestion Oe as: cm?, em?. a |e 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 12°28 2°56 7°34 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 | 12°11 2°39 7°51 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 | 12°53 2°81 7°09 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 | 12°69 2°97 6°93 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9:90 | 12°61 2°89 TOL 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 12°51 Psegiss) Higlel 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90) 2:70 2°98 6°92 N pede | em?. 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 13°35 3°63 6°27 100 9:90 9:90" |, 50: | 60 9°90 13°20 3°48 6°42 100 9°90 9:90) | 004) 602179590 13°23 3°51 6°39 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 13°75 4°03 5°87 i100 9°90 9-90" | 50") 60. 9°90 13°79 4°07 5°83 oe N {octCls em’, 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 | 12°88 3°16 6°74 100 9°90 9:90" |-50)4-60 9:90 | 12°84 3°12 6°78 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 27041 PoE) 6°91 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9:90 13°18 3°46 6°44 100 9°90 999 50 | 60 9°90 13°28 3°56 6°34 N H.PtCl, | Om eeG em’. 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9590 ee len 5°05 4°85 5200 9°90 990 | 50 | 60 9°90 14°15 4°41 5°49 100 9:90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 | 13°95 4°23 5°67 100 9°90 92905 5.07 "60 290) 14°35 4°63 5°27 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 SSS 4°05 5°85 44. Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. Tas LE I (continued). N ; [20ems 20 (HN), C,0,=20°09°"8 KMnO,. Oxygen valve KMn0,=0:00038982 grm. perem®. 9°90°™? H.C,0,=19°62°"> KMnOs,. | : | | Se ve KMnO, | KMn0, | | KM Fe aye | appar- | appar- N w01 SN Anct,| semen 3S 8 HaC204 re *. ently re-lently un- 1 10- SNHOPRE) PE aay ey o color 4 |digestion| & |‘-s duced | reduced Ses during | during ene em? ems g ® Cans ane digestion | digestion Sud | & € | j em®, em?, | | se LOO |5579:90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9:90 | 13:97 125 5°65 100 | 9:90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9:90 | 13:73 4:01 5°89 100 9°90 | 9°90] 50 | 60 9:90) | 13235.91-) ois 6°27 100 | 990 9:90 | 50 | 60 9:90 | 14:27 4°55 5ca5 100 | 9-90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 | 13°02 353028 16560 pas i9F els | em?, 100 | 990 | 9°90 | 50 | 60 (F990) 13:46 a Sei ae eoale 100 990 9°90 50 | 60 | 9:90 | 1445 | 4:73 | 517 100 | 9:90 }|-- 9:90 | 50 | 60 9:90; 372 4:00 | 5°90 100% |) 990s 9:90. 15507 60 | 9590 1 1 AD On e260 100 | 9:90 990 | 50 | 60 | 9:90 | 13:92 | 4:20 | 5-70 From these results it may be seen that in accordance with Wagner’s views, there is more permanganate required to bring about final coloration in those exper iments in which the various chlorides which he regards as catalyzers are used than in their absence. To ascertain whether these differences are due to the . interfering action of the chlorine as shown with ferric chloride in the previous paper,* the experiments of Table II were per- formed in a manner identical with those of Table I, except that a current of air dried and purified was passed through the liquid while digesting to remove the chlorine. The results of these experiments are outlined in Table II. TABLE II. [KMnoO, and H.C.O, solutions same as used in Table I. ] | [=| | ono, 84 eae N | N before i vo H.C.0,4 KMnO, | a 5 3 : 3 8 | 4 A 5 during | during Aes Mate ae gq |o Cie cm". digestion digestion 2 | 4 4 em?, em®. | «_é at 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 18°14 8°42 8:48 100 9°90 9°90 |. 50 | 60 9°90 182120)... 8:40 8°50 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 | 18°08 | 8°36 8°54 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 |. 18-09 8°37 8°53 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 | 18°10 8°38 8°52 * Loe. cit., p. 36. Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. 45 Tasie II (continued). [KMnO, and H,C,0, solutions same as used in Table I. ] x [pies & |g ee N | N before | © | 3 H.C20, | KMnO, 5 5 {Hel ipo tCl2 digestion g | = g to color eel eae eee : f A Ss is ‘ during | during eu oe a: = g as om digestion digestion eles em”. cm’, 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 VS2Vt 8°39 8°51 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 18°09 8°37 8°53 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 18°18 8°41 8°49 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9-90 18:08 8°36 8°54 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 18°05 8°33 8°57 | Tole gaa cm! 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 16°72 7°00 | ZOO) 100 9°90 9590 | 50 | 60 9°90 16°99 7:27 2°63 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 17°01 7°29 2°61 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9-90 16°76 7°04 2°86 100 9290 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 16°71 6°99 259) | TpH:PtCle | 6 cm? 100 | 990 | 990) 50) 60) 9-90) 1962 | 9.90 | 0-00 100 | 990 | 9:90 | 50| 60] 990 19:67 | 9:90 | 0-00 100 | 990 | 990) 50/60] 9:90] 19:69 | 9:90 | 0-00 100 | 990 | 9:90 | 50|60| 9-90 | 195 | 9-90 | 0-00 100 | 9:90 | 9:90} 50|60| 9:90| 1951 | 8-79 | o-11 100 | 9:90 | 9:90! 50160! 9-90! 1951 | 8-79 | o-11 SUANC!, | '10 4 em? 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 L822 8°40 1°50 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 18°07 8°35 1°55 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 18°14 8°42 1:48 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 18°09 8°37 1°55 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 | 9°90 18°15 8°43 1°47 apFecls cmMs3 100 9°90 9:90). 50) |2 60 9°90 18°14 8°42 1°48 100 9290 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 18°05 8°33 1°57 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 18°07 8°35 1°55 100 9°90 959012 5.02) 260 9°99 18°09 8°37 1°53 100 9290) 959 OM OO OO 9°90 18°15 8°43 1°47 46 Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. Here it is shown, as with ferric chloride in the previous paper, that the chlorine held in solution is responsible for the low indications of the amount of permanganate apparently reduced during digestion when no means are used to remove this chiorine. With cadmium chloride and chlor-auric acid the same amount of permanganate is here shown to be reduced as when the permanganate is digested with hydrochloric acid alone, and it is further seen that the maximum effect is accom- plished by thirty minutes heating. In all experiments in which chlor- -platinie acid was used the oxides of manganese, noticeable in those experiments in which ferric, cadmic, and chromic chlorides were used, were entirely reduced, and the liguid at the close of the digestion was perfectly clear, showing only the eclor due to the chlor-platinic acid ; when the chlorine is removed in these experiments the permanganate required to bring about final coloration is substantially equal to the oxalie acid added, the slight excess over this value being due probably to difficulty of distinguishing the end color. In the last two experiments the values are a little below that corresponding to the oxalic acid; this may be due to a slight residue of man- ganese oxides which appeared not to be entirely reduced at the end of the half hour’s digestion. This point, however, has not been sufficiently investigated to be definitely decided. With chromic chloride we find a var iety of phenomena. In all ex- periments shown in Tables I and IL the permanganate is entirely reduced and the chromic chloride is partially oxidized, leaving at the end of the digestion a clear liquid oreenish- yellow in color. When the oxalic acid is added the chromic acid is reduced totally or in part, tending to restore the origi- nal green color to the solution, but the chromic chloride does not seem to be oxidized to any noticeable extent on running in permanganate to color, the end reaction showing a green liquid colored faintly by the permanganate. In an experiment show- ing such a variety of reactions, most of which are indefinite, concordance of results is not to be expected even when the chlorine is removed, and the experiments of Tables I and I], in which chromic chloride were used, show wide variation. Wagner* has noted the separation of hydrated oxides of manganese with all his “catalyzers” except gold and platinum. The exception holds for platinum but not for gold, in my ex- perience, as with the latter the same residual oxides of man- ganese are noticeable as with ferric and cadmic chlorides. With chromic chloride I found no residual oxides, as already stated, Wagner’s statement to the contrary notwithstanding. It will be seen by a comparison of the results of Table I of this paper with those of Table I of the previous paper, that although in both tables the “ K MnO, apparently reduced dur- ing digestion” is greater in the presence of the metallic chlor- * Loc. cit., page 87. Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. 47 ides than in their absence, the readings of the present paper are considerably greater than cor responding readings in the previous paper. These differences can be explained on the evident supposition that the oxidation of the oxalic acid by the chlorine was more extensive in the experiments recorded in this paper than in those of Table I of the previous paper, for these differences disappear when the chlorine is removed from the sphere of action, the differences between the readings of Tables I] and III of the previous paper on the one hand and those of Table II of the present paper on the other being small and in all probability due to differences in the strength of the permanganate solution used. The experiments of this paper were made with as little shaking as possible to avoid ex- pulsion of chlorine mechanically, and allow the chlorine to exert its maximum oxidizing effect on the oxalic acid during the time of the titration. These variations show still more conclusively the non-concordance likely in Wagner’s process, and the dependence of results on the oxidizing action of the chlorine. The conclusion must be drawn, then, that Wagner’s results with each of the salts which he regards as catalyzers are in all cases largely dependent on the oxidizing action of the chlorine held in solution. With ferric chloride, cadmium chloride, and chlor-auric acid, the assumed catalytic effect of chlor-metal acids formed by the union of the metallic chlorides with hydro- chloric acid, which are more easily oxidized by potassium per- manganate than is hydrochloric acid, is unsubstantiated. With these three compounds the apparent catalytic effect is due entirely to the chlorine retained in solution. With chromic chloride and chlor-platinic acid the observed differences are due partly to the chlorine retained in solution but partly also to the total reduction of the residual oxides of manganese. With platinic chloride the action is apparently catalytic, this compound exerting a reducing action on the higher oxides of manganese for med in the presence of the other compounds. With chromic chloride the action is not catalytic, the assumed catalyzer being oxidized to chromate, thus losing its identity, as is not the case with a true catalyzer. Another series of experiments was made to ascertain whether any difference in the amount of higher oxides of manganese formed in the presence of ferric chloride, cadmium chloride, or chlor-auric acid, or in the amount of chromate formed in the presence of chromic chloride, is caused by the removal of chlorine in the experiments of Table IL. Experiments were made as were those of Table I, the digestion being continued one hour without the removal of chlorine, and the chlorine then removed by blowing a current of air through the solution for one-half hour. Oxalic acid was then added and perman- 48 Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. ganate run in to color as before. The results showed all desired agreement with those of Table Il, proving that the removal of chlorine during the hour’s digestion has no effect on the oxidizing material other than chlorine retained. As these experiments were merely confirmatory, they are not given here. Wagener has also shown the diminishing effect of manganous chloride* and sulphate in the amount of permanganate appar- ently reduced by hydrochloric acid after the above method of experimentation. This part of his work has also been investi- gated and gives results as shown in Table III, in which the chlorine was not removed during digestion, and Table IV, in which the chlorine was thus removed. Difticulty was encoun- tered in maintaining the solutions of manganous salts at con- stant value in neutral solution, basic manganese salts settling out on standing a few days. One hundred and twenty cubic centimeters of normal hydrochloric acid to the liter were therefore added in making up the tenth-normal nea salts. This would make an excess of approximately 1:20™° of normal hydrochloric acid in 9°90 of the solutions, the amount used in the experiments ; and only 98°80°™* of normal hydrochloric acid used. TABLE III. allowance was made for this excess, (20cm? - TEN): 2020, = 40°99 KMnO, Oxygen value KMn0O,=—0:0003903 grm. percm®. 9:90°™? H,C20,=20°75°™? KMnOQ,. ] eye | KMnO, | KMn0, « KMn0, 2 te appar- | appar- Nuc | “uci |_before | 3 | & . | HeC20, | KMn0, | ently re-|ently un- 1 ese idigestion| @ |.8 to color | @quced | reduced A aS 5 . | during | during Gite cm* em’. qa | © em’. cm’. digestion |digestion eee ‘em’, “em? ) os a Le = 2 |B .| appar appar N acl Nims 0, before E bp ie H2C201 | KMn0Os |entiy re- ently un- 1 10 digestion s |e s to color | auced | reduced és Silico z , 4 during | during em*. em?, (Siu q |o es cm". digestion digestion S i: em?, cm?, [=I 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 12°48 1°63 8°27 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9:90 12°45 1°60 8°30 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 12°51 1°66 8°24 100 9°90 9-90 | 50 | 60 9390) 2255 1°70 8°20 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 12°25 1°40 8°50 TaBLe IV. [KMnO, and H,C,0, solutions same as used in Table III. ] KMnO, e g ; KMnO, KMnO, N N before fo eealvou @)HsC20. KMnO,g | ePhot Pha —HCl —~HOl |a- nats 5 | oO . ently re- ently un- 1 10 digestion me to color Fae cal ie bee Bula during | during cm’. em’. cem*. Elo cm? em*. digestion|digestion s 2 em’, em’. 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 19°59 8°74 1:16 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 19°55 8°70 1:20 100 9°90 Ore OO OO 9:90 | 19°48 8°63 Meo 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 19°66 8°81 1:09 100 9°90 990M 75071560 9°90 19°64 8-79 aeavL 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 19°53 8°68 1°22 | N | | {ouncl: | em?, 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 | 9:90 16°61 5°76 4-14 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 17°09 6°24 3°66 100 9290 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 16°38 5°53 4°37 100 9°90 990M aOR 60 9°90 OE92 6°07 3°83 100 9°90 9:90 | 50 | 60 9°90 16°68 5°83 4°07 100 9°90 9:90 |; 50 | 60 9:90 16°89 6°04 3°86 N {ouns0. cm’. 100 9:90 9:90 | 50 | 60 | 9:90 | 16-68 | 5:83 | 4:07 100 9°90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90 16°89 6°04 3°86 100 9:90 9°90 | 50 | 60 9°90. | 16°65 5°80 4°10 100 9°90 FEI Oo Orr. GO. 9°90 PE 5°92 3°98 100 9°90 9-907 505) 60 9:90 16°43 5°58 4°32 100 9°90 9:90" |)-50" |) 06 D9 OM eel Geoyd 5°72 4°18 Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourra SERIES, Vou. XXI, No. 121.—January, 1906. 4 50 Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. Here it is seen that, as shown by Wagner, less permanganate is required to bring about final coloration in those experiments in which manganous sulphate or chloride was used than in their absence. From the experiments recorded in Table IV, it must be concluded that this diminishing effect is due to the intervention of the Guyard reaction so that the higher oxides of manganese are formed in larger proportion by the introdue- tion of the manganous salt, thus giving more material (if we disregard the volatile and indefinitely reacting chlorine when it is retained in solution) to oxidize the oxalic acid. Wagner has attributed this diminishing effect to a slowing of the reac- tion between hydrochloric acid and thinks such is the protect- ing influence of a manganous salt in titrations of ferrous salts by potassium permanganate in the presence of hydrochloric acid. It is a diminishing of the reaction between hydrochloric acid and potassium per manganate, but this diminishing is due to the formation of higher oxides of manganese, which, as is well known, are less easily reduced by hydrochloric acid than is the permanganate itself. Such action is unquestionably the intervention of the Guyard reaction, as first suggested by Zimmermann.* It has been found that with each of the salts which Wagner regards as catalyzers the apparent catalytic effect is entirely or largely due to the chlorine retained in solution. The question therefore arises: In what way does the chlorine affect the result? It is evidently effective in oxidizing the oxalic acid. It seemed likely, therefore, that the lesser oxidation of the oxalic acid, necessitating a oveater amount of permanganate to bring about final coloration, in the presence of the various chlorides used, is due to a lesser retention of chlorine in the presence of these salts. It was decided, therefore, to deter- mine the chlorine retained in solution under the varying condi- tions, and also the residual higher oxides of manganese or with the chromic chloride the chromate formed during digestion, thus obtaining the total oxidizing value of the material retained in solution at the close of the hour’s digestion. For this purpose potassium permanganate was digested with hydro- chloric acid in the presence and absence of the various salts used in the preceding experiments of this paper for one hour at a temperature of 50° C. as there indicated. The flask con- taining the -liquids was sealed to a Voit flask, to which was fitted in a ground joint a return condenser approximately 60™ in length and with a bore approximately 3° in diameter. At the close of the hour’s digestion this condenser was removed, * Ann. Chem., cexiii, 311 (1882). Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. 51 and the Voit flask connected with a Drexel washing-bottle containing about 300° of an approximately two per cent solution of potassium iodide, the Drexel washing-bottle being joined to Will and Varrentrapp bulbs also containing a strong solution of potassium iodide to absorb escaping iodine fumes. The chlorine retained in solution in the flask was driven into the potassium iodide by means of a strong current of air dried and purified in the usual manner, the liberated iodine titrated by means of an approximately twentieth-normal solution of sodium thiosulphate, and its equivalent in permanganate cal- culated. In those experiments in which the digestion was made with hydrochloric acid alone, and in the presence of cadmium chloride and chromic chloride, the ‘‘ oxidizing mate- rial not chlorine” was determined by adding potassium iodide to the digestion liquid after the removal of the chlorine, and titrating the liberated iodine with sodium thiosulphate. Its permanganate equivalent was then estimated as indicated in the table. By adding together the ‘“ K MnO, equivalent” of the chlorine retained in solution during digestion and the “ K MnO, equivalent” of the “oxidizing material not Cl formed during digestion ” we have the “ total K MnO, found.” The difference between this last value and the “KMnO, before digestion ” gives the “KMnO, lost” as indicated in Table V. Since, however, potassium iodide could not be added to the solution containing ferric and auric chlorides because of the reduction of these salts with liberation of iodine, an action probably indefinite under the conditions of experimentation, the average of the permanganate equivalent of the ‘oxidizing material not Cl” obtained with hydrochlorie acid alone and with cad- mium chloride was taken as indicating the same value with ferric and auric chloride. The results of Table II have shown that the residual oxides of manganese are substantially con- stant with hydrochloric acid alone and with cadmium, ferric, and auric chlorides. So no error is introduced by the pro- cedure here adopted. Calculations of “ KMnO, found” and “K MnO, lost” were then made as with hydrochloric alone, and with cadmium chloride. The results follow: ~ i? i TST Caen) ets Lo ae 52. Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. TABLE V. 20cms Ti (H.N):C:0,=40-98e"9 KMnO,. | Oxygen value KMnO,=0°0003904 grm. per em?. Iodine value, Na2S,0;=0°005726 grm. per em*. 9:90°™’ KMnO,=10°17°™? Na»S.O3. {ems NaeS203=0°923em3 NaeS2Os. Oxidizing muate- | oa “Sj Clretained . : Nuc Nuc como Er Be lok during eigestion Saas digestion qe, KMn0, 1 10 | og | £9 | oS |Na.S.0, | KMnO, |Na,8.0,;| KMnO,| found | lost =i == pe Equiv. | | Equiv. em cre ou a> |e? les em? cm? ems | ems BES | oe 100 9-90 | 9:90 | 60 50) 30] 8°62 7:95 1°48 1°36 9°31 0°59 100 | 9:90 | 9:90 | 60] 50| 30] 8-69 | 8-02 | 1:48] 1:36] 9:38 | 0-52 100 9:90 9°90 | 60 50) 30} 8°64 7:97 TPO“ET 1°30 9°27, 0°63 100 9:90 | 9°90 | 60 50) 30} 8°69 | 8:02 1°47 135 9°37 0°53 100 9°90 9:90 | 60} 50) 380! 8:82 8°14 1°47 Leseo 9°49 0°41 100 9-90" | 9:90 | <60'1 50130), 8:64) 7-972) 4g 130) | 29:2 7e Oss 100 9 90 9°90 | 60} 50) 30] 8:67 8:00 1:48 1°36 9°36 0:54 100 9°90 9°90 | 60] 50) 30} 8°83 8:15 1°41 130 9°45 0°45 100 9°90 9°90 | 60| 50| 30| 8:79 8:11 WA elo 9°46 0°44 N l pCdCle ems 100 9°90 | 9-90 | 60501230) 766R 7507 1°42 OBIE i SBe a2, 100 | 9:90 | 9-90 | 60| 50| 30] 7-68 | 7-08 1:40 | 1:29] 8:37 | 1:53 100 | 9:90 | 990 | 60) 50] 30| 7:64 | 7-05 | 1:39 | 1:28] 8-33 | 1-57 100 | 9:90 | 9:90 | 60| 50) 30| 7:69 | 7-09 | 145 | 1°38] 8-42 | 1-48 100 | 9:90 | 9:90 | 60| 50| 30| 7:65 | 7:06 | 1:39 | 1:28] 8:34 | 1:56 | orcs cm? 100 9°90 | 9°90 | 60! 50 30 7°64 | 1505 | 2°07 1°91 8°95 0°94 100 DSO OOO GOO) 3.0 Hei 6°98 2°09. el92 8:90 1°00 100 | 9:90 | 9-90 | 60) 50] 30| 7-50 2 2°06 | 1:90] 882 | 1-08 100 | 9:90 | 9-90 | 60| 50| 30] 7-62 | 7:03 | 2:09 | 1:92) 8-95 | 0°95 100 | 9:90 | 9:90] 60| 50| 30| 7-64 | 7-05 | 2-08 | 1:91| 8:96 | 0-94 “FeCl; | ems | 100 9:90 9:90 | 60| 50| 30]. 8:59 PRA a eecleah [1°32] 9°24 0°66 100 9:90 9°90 60) BO} 30} 8°89 | 852 Osi pargesele [1°32] 9°52 0°38 100 9790.; | --9:9051. 60) 50) 30:1) 8°69.)> 8:02) sas [1°32] 9°34 0°56 100 | 9:90 | 9-90 | 60| 50] 30] 8-64 | 7-97 | .... | [1:32]| 9-29 | 0-61 100 | 9:90 | 9:90 | 60| 50} 80] 8-88 | 819 | -__. | [1°32]| 951 | 0-39 N H2Pt0l, | 10 6 | em? | 100 9:90 | 9:90 | 60 | 50} 30) 10°08 | 9°30 \oesse SEE) OBO 0°60 100 9°90 9:90 | 60| 50] 80) 10°14 9°35 on fais eee oes 9°35 0°55 100 | 9:90 | 9:90 | 60) 50 30/ 10-01 | 9:28 | 2 | 2) goa almoren 100 | 990 | 9:90 | 60| 50) 30] 10:12,| 9:34) _-.. | ____ | 934/056 100 9°90 9:90 GOs 50) 30) O50 ies seo a2 oes enh 9:29 0°61 Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. 53 TaBLE V (continued). 20cm pH) C:0.=40-98™2 KMnO,. Oxygen value KMnO,=0-0003904 grm. per em’, Todine value, Na2S203=0°005726 grm. per cm®. 9°90°™? KMnO,=10°71°™ NagS.Os. {ems Na2S20;=0°924em3 NaeS.Os3. / Oxidizing mate- oe | a 58 during digestion 2! wot Cl formed) 7.4.) Noq| N HAuCh| kno, |4* | 68 | 8 a during dlesstion!) KMnO, | KMn0, 1 10 4 og | #2 | 25 |NaS.0, | KMn0,|Na,8.0;| KMnO,| found | lost < . 3 8° | 85 B= equiv. equiv. i ‘ oe cae One Wishes liste HENS tone em3 ems em3 oo Mev? 100 9-90 9590760) | SOF 30/862) |) 7-95) eee 32) 9-2i)| Ores 100 9°90 9:90 | 60! 50; 380| 8:77 SOOM nee mele st roe 9°41 0°49 100 9°90 9°90 | 60} 50} 80; 8:80 Sr Da ies ae [1-32 9°44 0°46 100 9°90 9°90 | 60} 50) 80; 8°88 SS) eos ieee 9°47 0°48 100 9°90 D-FOMI TOUR oO 3.0) PSeS aves Silay ies [1°32 i 9:47, 0°43 | MnCl, em3 100 S290 R990) 60) 1.50)|5 305 458i 4°43 aol. |) 5:08 |). 9751 0°39 100 9°90 9°90 | 60 | 50| 30) 5:71 5:27 4°86 4°48 | 9°75 0°15 100 9°90 9°90 | 60 | 50 30. 5°63 5°19 4°74 4°37 | 9°56 0°34 100 9°90 9°90 | 60} 50; 30; 5:52 5°09 4°88 4°50} 9°59 | O°31 100 9:90 9:90 | 60 50 30 5°85 5°39 4°63 | 4-27 | 9°66 0°24 100 9-90 9°90 | GO| 50! 30! 5°77 5°32 4°81 4°43 | 9°75 0°15 NMnS0. cm? 100 9590 | 9°90 | 60| 50| 30| 5°72 | O52 Ue \e 4979 4°42 | 9:69 0°21 100 9°90 | 9:90 | 60} 50) 30| 5°66 5°22 | 4°83 45, 95617 0°23 100 9°90 S79 0F 260 50 | 30} 5°42 | 5°00 5°09 4°69 | 9°69 0°21 100 9°90 | 9°90 an 50| 30| 5°78 5°33 | 4°73 4°36 | 9°69 (ewzil 100 9°90 9:90 | 60 50, 30| 4:93, | 3°90 | 6:36 5°87 Quit, eOwls Here it is seen that the total oxidizing material retained in solution, or the “total KMnO, found” is substantially the same with hydrochloric acid alone, and in the presence of aurice and ferric chlorides. With cadmium chloride there is a con- siderable falling off in the chlorine retained in solution while the residual oxides of manganese show on the average only a slightly smaller value than with hydrochloric acid alone. There is, therefore, a deficiency of about 1:00™ in “ total KMnO, found” as compared with the value tound with hydro- chloric acid alone. With platinic chloride the “ total KMnO, found,” or oxidizing material retained in solution, in this case all chlorine, is substantially equal to that found with hydro- chloriec acid alone. With chromic chloride there is a defi- ciency after adding together the permanganate equivalents of the chlorine retained in solution and the “ oxidizing material not Cl,” presumably in this case chromic acid. With manga- 54. Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. nous chloride and sulphate the “ KMnO, found” is slightly greater than with the hydrochloric acid alone, due probably to a lesser formation of the more volatile and indefinitely react- ing product chlorine, more permanganate going to form the more definitely reacting oxides of manganese than in the digestion with hydrochloric acid alone. The amount of man- ganese oxides represented by “oxidizing material not Cl” the above table is seen to vary widely. This is in accordance with Volhard’s* assertion that acids hinder the reaction between manganous salts and permanganate to give higher oxides of manganese. This action, rather indefinite under even the most favorable conditions, ‘might be expected to be especially so in the presence of the large amount of acid used in these experiments. With all the salts above used, and especially with cadmium chloride, the ‘total K MnO, found” is less than the perman- ganate added before digestion. The natural supposition seemed to be that this deficiency was due to the escape of chlorine during the digestion. On adding potassium iodide solution, however, to the Voit flask during the hour’s digestion, no appreciable escape of chlorine was noticeable, while the oxidizing material showed the same values as in Table V. This was true whether the digestion was made with hydro- chloric acid alone or in the presence of any one of the salts used in Table V. It appeared evident, therefore, that the chlorine disappeared in the digestion liquid, and that the greater or less extent of this disappearance accounted for the greater or less amount of chlorine found to be present in the digestion liquid at the close of the hour’s heating. Thinking that possibly these various salts might interfere in some way with the iodine liberated by permanganate from potassium iodide in the presence of hydrochloric acid, experiments were made to ascertain whether any of the observed differences were due to such interference. These experiments were con- ducted as follows: Into a flask were introduced 100%™ of normal hydrochloric acid, and in addition either 9:90°™ of tenth-normal hydrochloric acid, or 9:90™ of one of the tenth- normal salt soltitions there indicated. An excess of potassium iodide was then added, 9-90" of permanganate run in and the iodine liberated estimated with sodium thiosulphate. These experiments showed that normal values are obtained by titrating iodine by thiosulphate in the presence of hydro- chloric acid and any one of the various salts used, thus exclud- ing the possible inference that the large amount of acid or possibly the metallic chlorides interfered in the reaction. * Ann. Chem., excviii, 337 (1879). Oxygen value, KMnO.=0 0003894 grm. per em?. Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. 55 The variations above noted must therefore be due to some secondary reaction occurring during the digestion. The experiments outlined in Table VI were therefore made with varying periods of digestion, to note more carefully the pro- gress of these variations. The manner of experimentation was to digest solutions made up as were those of Table V on the water bath during varying periods of time with the Voit flask trapped with potassium iodide solution to prevent escape of chlorine. After the digestion an excess of potassium iodide _ solution was added and the liberated iodine determined by use of sodium thiosulphate. In this way the total oxidizing material formed during digestion is estimated in one operation rather than in two, as was the case in the experiments of Table V. Results are indicated in Table VI. TasLe VI. Iodine value NaeS202,=0°005671 grm. percm®. 9°90°™§ KMnO,=10°80e™ Na.S.Os. 1em™8 Na.S.03;=0°917¢™? KMnO,. N N 2 18 = HCl Fring H.O KMn0O, G He Nae8.0; | KMnO, | KMnO, ; ood z if equiv. lost em?®, em, em, em?, é A an em?, em?, em’, 100 9:90 0.00 9°90 Deal) LO sell 9°82 0:08 100 9°90 res 9°90 | 10 | 50 10.58 9°70 0°20 100 9°90 ae 9°90 | 15 | 50 10°48 9°61 0°29 100 9°90 Ae 9:90 | 30 | 50 10°42 9°55 0°35 100 9°90 ia 9°90 | 45 | 50 10°39 9°52 0°38 100 9°90 ED 9°90 | 60 | 50 10°21 9°36 0°54 | N ee | Ipexcme ye | 100 9°90 ee 9°90 5 | 50 10°35 9°49 0°41 100 9°90 Sy 9°90 oo 10°39 9°52 0°38 100 9°90 a 9:90 |} 10 | 50 9°70 8°89 1:01 100 9°90 SE 9°90 | 10 | 50 9°75 8°94 0°96 100 9°90 fie 9:90 | 15 | 50 9°31 8°53 LESH 100 9°90 zs 9°90 | 15 | 50 9°43 8°64 1°26 100 9°90 ies 9°90 | 15 | 50 9°50 8°71 1:19 100 9°90 es 9°90 | 15 | 50 9°52 8°72 1:18 100 9°90 sae 990 | 30 | 50 9°3 8:61 1:29 100 9°90 ihe 9:90 | 45 | 50 9°36 8°58 Nes? 100 9°90 nes 9°90 | 60 | 50 9°07 8°31 1°59 100 25°00 ae 9°90 | 60 | 50 7°34 6°73 3°17 100 50:00 ee 9°90 | 60 | 50 4°64 4°95 5°65 100 [2grms.]| 9:90 9°90 | 60 | 50 0°81 0°74 9-116" 56 Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. TABLE VI (continued). Oxygen value KMn0,=0:0003894 grm. perem*. Iodine value Na,S.03;=0°005671 grm. perem®. 9°90°™? KMnO0.,=10°80°™8 NaoSoOs. 1°™* NasS.03;=0°917°™3 KMnO,. N N | S Pa | THC] | 7pCrCls | H2O | KMn0. |g | 2 | NasS.O;| KMnO, | KMn0, Ma] Ss. | equiv. lost 3 | 3 3 3 we 3,0 3 | 3 3 em’. cCme* em?’, cm?°. EI g em”. em”, cm’, 100 9°90 ae 9:90 | 5 | 50 10°61 | 9:72 | 0-18 100 9:90 ail 9:90 | 10 |.50 | 10:38 9°45 0°43 100 9:90 i ee A ODOM alia tees, 9°89 9:06 0°84 TOOie 9590 ie 9:90 | 30 | 50 9°65 8°84 1-06 100 9:90 Ae 9°90 | 45 | 50 9.61 8°81 1:09 100 | .9:90 i 9:90 | 60 | 50 9°61 | 8:81 1:09 | s MnCl: em? | 100 9°90 o 9:90 UD EXO a OS 9°83 0:07 100 9:90 oer 9:90 | 10 | 50 | 10°69 9°80 0:10 100 9°90 ae 9:90 | 15 | 50 | 10°67 9.78 0712 100 9-90 ve 9:90 | 30 | 50 | 10°52 9°64 0:26 100 9:90 a 9-90 | 45 | 50 | 10°48 9°56 0.34 100 | 9:90 Ei 9:90: | 60.) 50 | 10:50) 49:62 0:28 | Maso, em”, 100 9°90 Ae O90 Bea On le hos 2 9°83 0:07 190 9:90 9-904. TOTS Oc kel O10: Oren 0:09 100 O59 04a Ae 9:90 | 15 | 50 | 10°56 | 9:68 0:22 100 9:90 | ihe 9:90 | 30 | 50 | 10°48 9°61 0°29 100 99025) 0 29-90) 45) 1250.1 1049 lea yO-onl 0°29 100 9-00 YY 9:90 | 60 | 50 | 10°50 | 9°62 0:28 h Here may be noted a greater loss of permanganate during equal periods of time with cadmium and chromic chlorides than with hydrochloric acid alone, the excess loss in the former case increasing with the time of digestion. This phenomenon is especially noticeable with cadmium chloride, and to deter- mine whether this excess loss of permanganate is in any way proportionate to the amount of cadmium chloride used, amounts of this salt greater than that represented by 9:90°"" of a tenth- normal solution were used. The result was as anticipated ; the loss of permanganate increased with the increase in the amount of cadmium chloride used, until with 2 grams of this salt the Brown— Work on the Interaction of Hydrochloric Acid. 57 total K MnO, found showed a permanganate equivalent of only 0-81" as indicated in experiment marked *. It would appear, therefore, that with cadmium chloride, and to a lesser extent with chromic chloride, the permanganate is reduced without leaving anything like a proportionate amount of chlorine in solution at the close of the hour’s digestion. This may be due to reduction of the permanganate with liberation of oxygen, which does not act on the hydrochloric acid to produce chlorine, or to action of chlorine first liberated on the water giving oxygen. By either of these actions there would be a loss of the chlorine which goes to oxidize oxalic acid in Tables I to LV and to liberate iodine from potassium iodide in Tables V and VI. To ascertain whether this loss is oécasioned by formation of oxygen, the following experiment was made: To 100°™ of normal hydrochloric acid were added 2 grams of cadmium chloride, 10°™* of water and the solution transferred to a 100°%™ burette, enough water added to completely fill the burette, which required about 10° additional, and the burette inverted in a porcelain dish filled with water, the upper end of the burette being carefully stoppered. Almost immediately gas began to accumulate and continued to accumulate slowly for about three hours, at the end of which the permanganate color had disappeared. The amount of gas collected was too small to admit either of qualitative or quantitative tests with the crude apparatus here used. Additional experiments must, therefore, be made to determine definitely whether oxygen is evolved in this way. The evidence, however, so far as it goes, consistently points to evolution of oxygen in the interaction of hydrochloric acid and potassium permanganate in the presence of cadmium chloride. The author intends to investigate this point further, as well as the action of the other salts which Wagner regards as catalyzers. Gooch and Danner* have shown that oxygen is evolved from potassium permanganate acidified with sulphuric acid. Some such action, it seems, occurs in the experiments of this paper when permanganate is acidified with hydrochloric acid in the presence of cadmium chloride, part of the oxygen of the permanganate being evolved directly instead of liberating chlorine from hydro- chlorie acid, or the chlorine first liberated acting on the water to set free oxygen. The author is indebted to Prof. F. A. Gooch for much advice and assistance in the preparation of this paper. * This Journal [3], vol. xliv, 301 (1892). 58 Hershey—Some Western Klamath Stratigraphy. Arr. IV.— Some Western Klamath Stratigraphy; by Oscar H. Hersuny. Ty his paper in the May (1905) number of this Journal, Mr. J.S. Diller presents strong evidence in support of his contention that the Bragdon formation in northwestern California is a member of the Carboniferous series. Although I recognize that good paleontologic evidence must be. the ‘final arbiter in all discussions such as this concerning the Bragdon sediments, I am as yet not willing to fully accede to his conclusions, but without further field-work am unable to combat them. I make this explanation for the reason that this paper may appear to be an indirect reply to Mr. Diller, whereas it is an endeavor to record some important observations before the vividness of their memory be dulled by time.* The objects of this paper are to introduce another formation from the Klamath region, and to show how thrust faulting may have given rise ‘to apparently inexplicable problems in the geology ‘of northern California. The folding of the strata characteristic of the southern Kla- math region is largely replaced northward by thrust faulting, breaking” the rocks into four great eastwardly tilted fault blocks. Four important members of the fault system are now known. The most westerly wes discovered and elucidated by Mr. Diller. It bounds the Klamath province on the southwest and is marked by the abutment of easterly dipping typical Franciscan sediments against the ancient schists of South Fork and Redwood Mountains; hence, it may be designated the Redwood Mountain fault. The next easterly (second magni- tude faults ignored), which most directly concerns this paper, passes about two miles east of Orleans on the Klamath River, and may be known as the Orleans fault. The third has its finest development in Eddy gulch, near the Black Bear mine and postoftice and may be known as the Black Bear fault. In this portion of its course it dips easterly at a low angle, prob- ably 15° or 20°, the ancient schists of the Abrams formation having been thrust for possibly five miles over on to the cherty shales considered of Devonian age; but in passing northward and southward it straightens up yand becomes nearly or quite vertical, although for scores of miles it continues a prominent break in the strata. The fourth great fault is marked by east- wardly dipping sediments with strong Cretaceous character- istics apparently overhung by Devonian limestones and cherty * Writing in the field, in eastern Nevada, without notes, maps or refer- ences, I must ask the reader’s indulgence to informalities and to possible slight inaccuracies in figures. Hershey—Some Western Klamath Stratigraphy. 59 shales, near the southern end of Scott Valley, as discovered by Dr. A. C. Lawson and the writer several years ago. This may be designated the Callahans fault. These faults are profound breaks comparable with the first magnitude faults the world over, and may extend entirely through the Klamath province, although this is said with less confidence concerning the Callahans fault. The throw appears to be generally not less than a mile and may in many places exceed two miles, even where the dip is steep. The age as indicated in the case of the Redwood Mountain and Callahans faults by the strata involved, and perhaps in the Orleans fault by its persistent accompaniment by serpentine dikes, seems to be Cretaceous or later but not as late as the opening of the Quaternary, Indeed, it is my impression that on the south, Horsetown sediments lap across the Orleans and Black Bear faults without dislocation. The territory to be especially considered lies along the Orleans fault for ten miles northerly and southerly from the Klamath River. Here it marks a remarkable change in the stratigraphy. I will first describe the rocks east of the fault. With the exception of a small area of possible Salmon horn- blende schist several miles south of the Klamath River, the formation first encountered east of the fault in the vicinity of Orleans is a great series of black shales, limestones and blue cherts which, for the purpose of this paper, I will designate the Blue Chert series, from its most characteristic constituent. This oceurs in beds from fifty to several hundred feet in thick- ness, made up of thin regular layers. The prevailing dark blue-black color seems to have been bleached in places, some outcrops having a whitish or light gray color. Also, isolated areas of very limited extent possess red chert very closely resembling typical Franciscan chert; the invariable presence of igneous rock suggests reddening of the blue chert by heat. Between the chert beds are somewhat thinner layers of soft black shale, much of which has been crushed to a schistose structure. The limestones occur in small lentils, either iso- lated or developed along certain lines parallel to the strike of the shales. They probably represent definite horizons, of which there may be several in the series. They are generally thoroughly recrystallized and without recognizable fossils. Indeed, the only fossils known between the Orleans and Black Bear faults, in the Salmon River basin, which is largely occu- pied by this series, are radiolaria in the cherts. The age, therefore, can only be determined upon lithologic grounds. “Lt is pr esumed to be Devonian because similar rocks elsewhere in the Klamath region carry Devonian fossils. 60 Hershey—Some Western Klamath Stratigraphy. The peculiar bluish bedded cherts occur throughout the area of outcrop of this series, but in some localities are more strongly developed than in others. ‘They are especially promi- nent south of the Black Bear mine, where I estimate the thiek- ness of the formation to be oboe 5000 feet, of which probably 3000 feet is chert. Beginning at the Orleans fault, two miles east of Orleans, and proceeding thence up the valley of Pearch Creek, climbing the western flank of Orleans Mountain, we find first a belt of quartz schist (produced by the shearing of chert) and asso- ciated with it lentils of limestone, the whole dipping easterly 45° to 60°. This is succeeded by ordinary cherts and shales in alternating layers, all dipping eastward at angles not less than 30°. But the formation has been very thoroughly shattered by the intrusion of igneous material. In places, this occurs in a network of small dikes traversing the sedimentary rocks in all directions; in others it is in large masses almost exelud- ing the shales and cherts. Inclusions of the latter are exceed- ingly common and vary in size from infinitesimal fragments to masses a quarter of a mile in length. All the larger fragments more or less preserve the original easterly dip. By means of them one can trace, in Pearch Creek valley, the outlines of a succession of strata at least 3000 feet thick, everywhere dip- ping easterly at a comparatively steep angle. This thorough intrusion of the Blue Chert series by appar- ently dioritic and diabasic material is general throughout its extensive outcrop areas in the western Klamath region. Prob- ably no quarter section of it is without these dikes and in many square miles there is much more igneous than sedi- mentary rock. I want to strongly impress ‘the fact that this intrusion is not local. In Pearch Creek valley, the intruded igneous material appears to pass upward into a volcanic series of andesites and rhyolites, which, if I rightly remember, is 800 to 1200 feet thick. An important member in the lower part of the series is an andesite characterized by small block-like crystals of hornblende probably originally a pyroxene. This may be partly in the form otf large dikes penetrating deep into the complex of sedimentary and intruded rocks, but it also spreads out in the form of a thick sheet. The upper portion of the series consists of gently dipping beds of white rhyolite, some of which is fragmental, suggesting tuffs. Specimens of dif- ferent phases were submitted to Mr, Diller for microscopic examination and he conceded the probability of this being a voleanic series. Certainly its attitude and texture oppose the idea of its having been intruded beneath the great thickness of sedimentary rocks above it. Hershey—Some Western Klamath Stratigraphy. 61 The volcanic series dips at a much lower angle than the Blue Chert series beneath it, suggesting marked nonconform- ity by reason of pre e-voleanic uplift and great erosion. Else- where in the western Klamath region masses of volcanic rocks rest nonconformably on the Blue Chert series. I have never seen any evidence of volcanic rocks interbedded with this series. In one place, below Cecilville in the valley of the South Fork of Salmon River, tuffs and lavas occur under Pale- ozoic limestone and chert, but the contact is a noncontormity reversed by overturning. It is my impression that in the western portion of the Klamath region, all the clearly volcanic rocks are younger than the Devonian Blue Chert series. Above the rhyolite in Pearch Creek valley, there is a forma- tion of black slaty shale whose maximum thickness I estimate at 3000 feet. At the base there is a slight development of coarse sandstone, apparently made up of debris from the underlying quartz-bearing rhyolite. It hardly anywhere attains a thickness of 50 feet, but may be traced along the contact for several miles; and there is little doubt of its having been laid down on the surface of the volcanic series. I have found no evidence of nonconformity at this contact and it is my impres- sion that the deposition of the sandstone followed closely that of the rhyolite. Excepting this thin basal sandstone, the formation contains no conglomerate, sandstone and limestone, and only a few thin layers of chert. Its most characteristic feature is that it is largely composed of layers of the thickness of coarse paper. It resists weathering so well that it stands in high rugged ridges and peaks, often bare of soil, and having a rusty color on outcrop. The reddish brown high ridge at the head of Pearch Creek, a prominent feature in Orleans scenery, is largely of this formation. So far as known, it is confined to a basin-like depression in the surface of the older rocks, in an area possibly 20 miles long (north-south) and‘ 10 miles wide, lying west of Know- nothing Creek, south of Salmon River, east of the Orleans fault and north of “Trinity Summit.” As the valley of Nordheimer Creek is largely cut in it, I propose to designate it the Nordheimer formation. Its dips are prevailingly toward the center of the basin but usually not at high angles, contrasting with the dips of the Blue Chert series lower. Their relation is certainly that of marked nonconformity although they are separated by igneous rocks. The Nordheimer formation is badly shattered by intrusive rocks. They are clearly plutonic, being largely in ie form of batholithic masses of gray and ereenish, fine-grained crystal- 62 Hershey—Some Western Klamath Stratigraphy. lines, probably in part metagabbro, diabase and diorite. In part of the area that properly belongs to the Nordheimer, the shale exists only as large inclusions. Ten miles south of Orleans, the plutonies have so thoroughly usurped the area that I gave up tracking the shales. These igneous masses must extend down into the Blue Chert ser ies, but there is also a great amount of igneous material in the latter that has no representative in the Nordheimer. I am compelled to admit that the western portion of the Klamath region has had at least two marked epochs of igneous activity between early Devonian and late Jurassic times. No traces of fossils having yet been discovered in the Nord- heimer, its age can only be conjectured. It may be late Devonian, but that would imply a strong nonconformity in the Devonian series. It is more likely Carboniferous. Some of its characters suggest the Baird formation. It might also be a western representative of the Triassic Pit shales, “but it is not likely to be any younger. These suggestions show that there is nothing definite upon which to base an argument as to its age. “On the western side of the fault, a belt from four to seven miles wide is occupied, so far as sediments are concerned, by a series which I have heretofore described as a portion of the Bragdon formation. It is about 5000 feet thick and consists of a rapid alternation of soft black slates (produced by the shearing of thin-bedded shales) and of gray crushed coarse sandstones. The latter occur from top to bottom of the forma- tion and it is difficult to determine that they are more abundant in one quarter than in another. The coarser grains are largely various colored cherts like those common in the Bragdon con- glomerates of the eastern area. In fact, this alleged western Bragdon is identical in essential characters with the eastern Bragdon except that the conglomerates of the latter are here replaced by coarse sandstones, and that it is more highly altered by shearing. I have treated the subject at such leneth in former papers on this region that it is unnecessary to repeat the comparison any further. Perhaps this western formation is not the Bragdon, but I am as yet so far from convinced of it that I will continue to refer to it under that name; at any rate, its identity with the original Bragdon is not essential to this paper. It has yielded no fossils “except some apparent seaweed impressions several miles north of Orleans. The original bedding pianes are clearly apparent in the Orleans region so that there is no difficulty in determining the structure. In the central portion of the belt it lies at low angles, inclined to form a slight syneline. Within a quarter of a mile of the fault, near the Klamath River, it dips steeply Hershey—Some Western Klamath Stratigraphy. 63 eastward, bent down by the thrust. Farther south the strata come up with nearly horizontal attitude to the almost vertical fault plane, leaving no doubt of the see of the fault. In approaching the western border of the belt, the strata are bent up and presently there appears under them a formation made up of white sericitic and green chloritic schists that are evidently sheared rhyolites and andesites. In a very short dis- tance another fault brings down the Bragdon slates. This may be repeated several times in 20 miles, but far the larger por- tion of the area is Bragdon. The shearing becomes more pro- nounced toward the west until traces of the bedding planes are virtually destroyed. 1 now consider the Weitchpec schists, formerly classed as pre-Bragdon, as a portion of this series. Indeed, the apparent ancient schists of Redwood Mountain on the Korbel-Hoopa trail are probably Bragdon, although un- doubted pre-Devonian schists occur in South Fork Mountain. The fact is that the Bragdon spreads over an immense area west of the Orleans fault, running as a broad belt far to the north and as a narrowing belt (in places several belts) south- ward to the Sacramento Valley. Along the trail from Orleans to Hoopa, one is scarcely off it except when on serpentine. Wherever the base of this western Bragdon is exposed, it is underlaid by igneous rocks which have characters suggesting a volcanic series. In addition to fraementals (which appear to be tuffs) and vesicular lavas, the other textures and structural relations of the members certainly oppose the idea that they have been intruded under 5000 feet of sediments. No dikes rise from the igneous rocks into the slates and there are no inclusions of the latter in the former. Furthermore, the slates pass so readily from contact with one to that with another member as to suggest an erosion interval between the two formations. Below the volcanic series there is a great complex of intruded igneous material and of shales, bedded blue cherts and lime- stones identical in character with the Blue Chert series east of the Orleans fault. Its outcrop begins west of Hoopa Valley as a narrow belt and extends southward, gradually widening, to the border of the Sacramento Valley. The limestone len- tils which it contains are in places quite fossiliferous, contain- ing, if | remember rightly, early and middle Devonian faunas. Thus we seem to have on both sides of the Orleans fault a great series (or two lithologically identical series) of shales, cherts and limestones that has everywhere been excessively intruded by igneous material. Over the complex is volcanic rock that may represent two formations on opposite sides of the fault, possessing similar characters. Over this is altered shale thousands of feet thick. But the upper sedimentary 64 Hershey—Some Western Klamath Stratigraphy. formation east of the fault is not the same as the upper forma- tion west of the fault. Which is the older ¢ It is beyond question that the Bragdon and N ordheimer can- not be equivalents. The plane of the Orleans fault is so steep that the horizontal displacement cannot exceed half a mile. Five miles south of Orleans, the two formations would contact along the fault if the serpentine dike were absent. Equiva- lence would imply that a formation which preserved its char- acter of alternating sandstone and shale over an area at least 2050 miles, within half a mile lost all its sandstones except the basal one, and then preserved invariable its new character over 10 20 miles. The Bragdon formation comes up to the Orleans fault on the west along a distance exceeding 50 miles, but no trace of it has been found east of the fault short of the “eastern Brag- don area.” The Nordheimer formation comes up to the fault on the east, but has never been identified west of it. Yet within two miles these formations have thicknesses respectively of 5000 and 8000 feet. There certainly is here a problem worth considerable effort to solve. If faulting had not occurred, it is probable that the two formations would somewhere: be founds in original contact. If the Nordheimer is the older, it is probable that a portion of it is buried under the Bragdon just west of the fault. If the Bragdon is the older, it was removed by erosion previous to the deposition of the Nordheimer east of the fault or else it lies under the Blue Chert series, a very remote possibility. The latter would imply that there are two cherty series of identical characters and three systems of intrusive material. The Bragdon is more highly altered by shearing than is the Nordheimer, but that is no ‘criterion of relative age. The Bragdon was softer and less able to resist a shearing stress. Besides, the dynamical action operated only in the territory west of the fault. But there is one feature about this western Bragdon which makes it. practically certain that it is younger than the Nord- heimer. Jt is absolutely without a trace of any intruded igneous material other than granite and serpentine (originally peridotite chiefly). I made a similar statement in connection with the “eastern Bragdon area” and Mr. Diller has taken exception to it, so to ‘be cautious I will modify the above statement as follows: In the course of several hundred miles travel in the western Bragdon area I have never observed any evidence of intrusive rock except a few small masses of granite and a few serpentine dikes, the latter usually on the borders. This does not mean that within the Bragdon area there are no igneous rocks other than those mentioned. In going west- Hershey—Some Western Klamath Stratigraphy. 65 ward one will frequently arrive at a point where the strata bend up and presently igneous rocks appear. They usually have the characters of surface volcanics and always are in belts parallel to the strike of the slates and sandstones. Such features as | usually accept as criteria in the determination of the fact of intrusion in the Blue Chert and Nordheimer forma- tions are positively absent here. Even these igneous rocks do not appear in the 4- to 7-mile belt of pure Bragdon next to the Orleans fault. I have gone 12 miles north from Orleans with out seeing anything but Bragdon and have had similar experi- ences on “long trips in other directions. The significance of this will be apparent when I say that in the course of several hundred miles travel in Blue Chert areas and several score in the Nordheimer area, I have probably not for any five minutes been out of sight of nearby igneous rocks. The only theory i in explanation of this distribution of the intrusives which seems to me to have a natural ring is that at the time of their formation (granite, peridotite and all later igneous rocks excepted), the Bragdon formation of the western area was not in existence. Otherwise, the igneous material has exercised a most remarkable selection. Tam aware that intrusives will to a certain extent concentrate into certain formations which are most easily penetrated, but this objection does not apply in this case. There is nothing about the Brag- don to make it especially resistant to melted rock. On the contrary, it is the softest and most easily broken formation of pre-Cretaceous age in the Klamath region west of the Sacra- mento River. Granite and peridotite found little difficulty in cutting through it. My observation of intrusives in other regions such .as eastern Nevada lends no encouragement to the idea that the Bragdon resisted the penetration by such mate- rial as intimately injected every other formation of the region. The hypothesis of “localization” is not pertinent because we are dealing with a territory several thousand square miles in extent and an asserted contrast which is not based on very limited observation. Remember, we have on one side tens of thousands of dikes and scores of large batholiths and on the other side nothing. If the Bragdon formation goes down under the Blue Chert series east of the Orleans fault, it must necessarily be intimately intruded by the igneous rock which is so abundant in all parts of the other series. This would break down any theory based on an alleged resistance to intrusion and would make it unrea- sonable to suppose the intrusives rapidly gave out in the half mile accounted for by the fault. (This fault is far younger than any igneous rock entering into this discussion.) There- fore, it appears to me improbable, almost to the extent of cer- Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Series, Vou. XXI, No. 121.—January, 1906. 5 66 Hershey—Some Western Klamath Stratigraphy. tainty, that the Bragdon formation is older than the Blue Chert series east of the fault and its superposition proves that it is younger than the similar series west of the fault. In the case of the Nordheimer and Bragdon we have two areas of shales practically adjoining, one badly shattered by a certain system of intrusives and the other entirely free from them, It would seem to be ignor ing very strong evidence to fail to consider the Bragdon the younger. Within several miles east of the Orleans fault, extending from Patterson’s in the valley of New River, to Hall City, there is a succession of limestone outcrops from which Mr. Diller’s party and the writer have collected fossils represent- ing a very late Carboniferous or perhaps Permian fauna. Associated with the limestones are shales not very greatly dif- fering from the shales of the Blue Chert series. It is my impression that this late Carboniferous or Permian series is just as thoroughly intruded by igneous material as the Blue Chert and Nordhéimer formations ; ; but I regret that a lack of opportunity to visit the belt during the past few years prevents me from basing this statement on clear mental pictures of igneous rocks cutting the fossiliferous limestone. However, I distinctly remember that the belt containing the late Carbon- iferous or Permian rocks, especially in the New River countr : contains more than the usual amount of igneous material, largely in-the form of small batholiths. The ‘Braedon area, a few miles west, has none of them (serpentine, oranite and later intrusives excepted). Between the Blue Chert series, which I have decided must be pre-Bragdon, and the late Carboniferous or Permian rocks there is nothing suggesting the Bragdon formation and no fault or known interval of deposition to account for its absence. However, the country has not yet been so thoroughly explored as to give this argument conclusive value. I am not endeay- oring to settle the question now, but to show that all the known evidence points strongly to the Bragdon formation of the western area being younger than the Blue Chert series , younger than the Nordheimer for mation, even younger than’ the late Carboniferous or Permian limestone. Sept. 30, 1905. = Rete J. A. Dresser—Study in Metamorphic Rocks. 67 Art. V.—A Study in the Metamorphic Rocks of the St. Francis Valley, Quebec; by Joun A. Dresser. Tue Quebec group as originally defined embraced several com- paratively narrow belts running parallel to the folding of the Appalachians throughout the extent of that system in Canada.* They were found to consist of much altered strata of Cambro- Silurian age, which had been deposited under peculiar condi- tions such as to strongly distinguish them from normally depos- ited strata of the same age. Instructure they were thought to generally form synelinal folds, often highly distorted and overturned. All lay to the east of the dislocation run- ning from the northern end of Lake Champlain to the St. Lawrence river in the vicinity of Quebec city, which is known as the Champlain and St. Lawrence fault. It was subsequently ascertained+ that within the Quebec Group thus defined there had also been included certain older measures belonging to the Cambrian and Precambrian systems, and also frequent and extensive masses of ancient and highly altered rock of volcanic origin,{ whose igneous character had not been previously recognized. Accordingly, in the re-examination more recently made by the Geological Survey of Canada,§ these rocks along with certain of the associated vol- canics have been separated from the Quebec Group, but the progress of geological investigation has not yet admitted of a very detailed subdivision. The most extensive of the older belts thus brought to light is that which comprises the Sutton Mountain anticline, fig. 1, the course of which, in common with the other principal axes of the Appalachians is a northeast-southwesterly one. Near the St. Francis river, which crosses it about at right angles, it is rather less than six miles wide, including a small band of Trenton whose position within the older measures has been hitherto explaimed as “due to an intricate system of folding and faults.’’| A section across the Sutton Mountain series and the included * ““ Geology of Canada,” 1863, pp. 225-297, Sir W. E. Logan. + ‘‘ The Quebec Group in Geology,” Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, vol. i, 1882, Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn. t‘* Notes on the Microscopic Structure of some Rocks of the Quebec Group,” Report Geological Survey of Canada, 1880-1-2. Dr. F. D. Adams, “The Quebec Group,” Appendix A to Harrington’s ‘‘ Life of Sir W. E. Logan,” by Sir J. W. Dawson, 1883. § Annual Reports Geological Survey of Canada, 1880-1—-2, and 1887-8, Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn ; 1886, 1887-8 and 1894, Dr. R. W. Ells. | Ann. Report Geol. Survey, 1886, p. 18 J. 68 J. A. Dresser Study in the Metamorphic Rocks Trenton in the vicinity of Richmond* forms the subject of this paper. The line of the section extends between lots ten and twenty-seven in the twelfth range of the township of Cleve- land, and is about a mile and a half east of the St. Francis river, to which it is approximately parallel. The direction of the sections is N. 38° W., magnetic. The adjacent rocks at both north and south have been recently mapped in the reports of the Geological Survey as Cambrian, the black limestone, No. 3 of the section, as Trenton, and the rest as Precambrian. Pecnmbnes ey Piicscey Cal Jonules Sketch map showing the Precambrian of a portion of Southeastern Quebec as designated on the Geological Survey maps of 1886 and 1894. Le BlacksMicaaS clasts aces ened eae een 100 feet 2a Gray Nii caiSehiste ss) see scree eee 1320 3. blacklimestone meee aa we wee nee lam 2800s AS Graya MiICcaASCOISt ein. aoe ae er eee 4590 “* be Micaceousolomite ns 222) see sername een 300nmks 6. Black iMiicar schists ae eens 600 * Vee Quartzite ses eee ie ae eye ge LSOyiaes 8:7 Micaceouss Dolomite ]secnm ) leaner GO 9= Gray Mica Schists: 22-62). 25a 736 ORs Lotal Sedimentany= 2456 5s: eee 17310 feet 10 Amycdaloidal: Mrape se = 222) eee Totalslgneoust: 25> eae eee * This locality was considered by Logan to furnish the key to the structure of the Quebec Group. Hither hereturned after severing his connection with the Geological Survey, and spent four seasons in making a detailed map of the district for about five miles on either side of this section. This map, which seems to have been ready for engraving at the time of his death, was unfortunately, never published. tw — K = wy a a w yy Q x « kK ‘ WAS, 7 BLAGK SCHIST of the St. Francis Valley, Quebec. ew [ea] QUARTZITE — Yamila or erde TA Oressev. 153,02. 1A tas OO 7 “< Catan Clg lant, Cet een ag he tegey « ¢ Cee . ‘ ‘ . Cc Map and section across the Sutton Mountain Series near Richmond, Quebe 70 J. A. Dresser—Study in the Metamorphic Rocks Lirnowoey. Black (Graphitic) Limestone.—This is a very dark gray, or more frequently, a black impure limestone carrying a large proportion of graphite, which is sometimes so great in amount as to give the rock somewhat of the unctuous feel of that min- eral. It is consequently very soft and brittle. It is usually mnch wrinkled and corrugated by pressure and not infre- quently has a distinct slaty structure developed at high angles to the bedding plane. It contains numerous veins of crys- talline calcite and quartz, in which cases these minerals are intricately associated in the same veins without any dis- eernible arrangement. Some of the veins carry a little pyrite. At Melbourne village, opposite the town or Richmond, this rock is marked as fossiliferous on the Montreal sheet of the Eastern Townships map issued by the Geological Survey to accompany the Annual Report of 1894, but no ” determination of the fossils or indication of their age is recorded except that the notation of the map includes the rock with the ‘Farnham Black Slates’ of the Lower Trenton formation, D3?. usually much wrinkled and contorted, and cleaves very smoothly in the most intricate folds. In color it is a light or greenish gray, weath- ering to dark gray, or brown, tints. Under the micr oscope it appears as a rather fine even-grained and much altered sandstone with a highly developed schistose structure. The grains are both feldspar and quartz and are contained in a micaceous (sericite) cement in which chlorite occurs In varying amounts. in| be, 2 sano 11481 || 11795 92 11360 16% | 62 LGG2Fe 133 573 92 | 857 62 95 452 167 59 724 133 666 93 916 58 94 545 168 57 782 134 760 94 944 54 90 639 166 56 836 134 850 91 12000 55 92 730 166 60 | 891 137 942 90 060 59 98 820 171 56 950 139 12040 92 116 56 96 92 176 54 12006 136 136 99 170 35 91 12011 170 4 O6L 137 DOI 90 224 53 89 101 170 ol 114 136 316 82 25 50 90 175 188 49 164 134 406 59 324 52 96 | 232 222 | 5] 216 132 502 79 We es 54 98 311 240 Leora) 128 600 124 | 95 435 2138 | 695 121 96 556 189 791 114 97 670 170 888 105 97 775 162 985 | 101 | 84 | 876 151 13079 | 98 92 | 974 151 ial 96 | 97. | 18070 150 268 | Calcium Metasilicate. 97 Curve I.—Inversion of Wollastonite. Inversion Temperature, 1225°. Rate of Heating, 3°6° per minute. 13000 aK (eS) ot S 12500 12000 e rw) S oS Temperature in Microvolts. Temperature in Degrees; 11500 0 10 20 30 Time in Minutes. there were signs of some action. The grains were cemented tightly together, while the microscope disclosed what appeared to be an incipient crystallization. From water we turned to the solvent action of a fused salt.* The necessary properties in a salt which should answer our purpose are evidently the possession of an ion common to cal- cium silicate, so that metathesis may not result ; sufficient fusi- bility, and sufficient solubility, in order that the excess may be removed after the process is complete. These requirements are fulfilled by calcium vanadate, Ca(V O,),, which is prepared by heating calcium carbonate with the proper proportion of vanadic acid. In the first trial, we heated one gram of vanadate with several grams of pseudo- wollastonite at a temperature of 800° to 900° for a number of days. The solvent was then partially extracted by hot water, after which the residue, so far as possible, was removed by very dilute hydrochloric acid. The product was all changed into wollastonite. In later experiments, we tried larger quantities of vanadate and heated for different periods. One gram of vana- date readily transforms 5 grams of silicate and is removed when the change is accomplished with less trouble than a * Calcium chloride forms chloro-silicates. Gorgeu, Bull. Soc. Min., x, 271. In our experiments we did not get a pure product, though the majority ‘of it, when a large excess of calcium chloride was used, crystallized in transparent lath-like crystals of orthorhombic (?) symmetry. The ratio of chlorine to silica in the product was in accord with the formula 2CaSi0O3.CaCle. 98 Allen and White—Polymorphic Forms of larger quantity. The mass thus formed is scarcely pasty at the highest beualgoan rete of an ordinary Bunsen burner, yet the yellow. color shows that the silicate is completely permeated by the vanadate. If one desires as large crystals as possible, it is well to take more vanadate and heat for a longer time. To get the silicate in pure condition, it is-best to break up the fused mass in a mortar, with a little water, cover it with, say, 50 to 100-cce. cold water, and then add a few drops of dilute hydrochlorie acid, stirring thoroughly. After a few minutes, pour off the water and repeat the treatment until the water is no longer colored yellow. In this way the calcium vanadate is decomposed and removed more readily than with water alone, while if one keeps the acid cold and very dilute, the sili- cate is not decomposed to any extent, and the microscope shows the product to be unmixed with foreign matter. It consists, as stated above, entirely of arlene in beautiful transparent crystals of short prismatic habit, with sharp edges and well developed faces. The largest were about 0-2 mm long. This formation of wollastonite could har dly be anything else than a true reversion. It is well known that such transforma- tions in solid bodies may be facilitated by the use of solvents which probably overcome resistance to molecular movement. In this case, at the temperature of 800 to 900°, wollastonite should be the more stable polymorph, possessing a lower vapor pressure and a lower solubility. Given a nucleus of this form, therefore, the other should pass into solution and continually precipitate in the form of wollastonite. That this is really what happens, we proved by stopping the transformation before it was complete (5 grams silicate to 1 gram vanadate heated three hours). Large grains of pseudo-wollastonite remained unchanged except for a rounding of corners and edges, and side by side with them appeared small well-formed crystals of wollastonite. ‘As these crystals, on account of their freedom from bubbles or pores, seemed especially adapted for the determination of density, two separate preparations were made for this purpose. PREP. I. PREP. AT: Sp. gr. 2°914. Speier Analysis. Analysis. Cal. for CaSiOg SiO Ree the cae 51°94 52°00 51°86 CaO eine t ane 47°69 47°46 48°14 HerOxe etek. s 2: ato) 18 a WHO 2 -38 “49 Bele: * Both preparations had a pale blue tint, which led us to suspect that the vanadium had been reduced in the process OE heating over the gas flame to the blue oxide V204. Calcium Metasilicate. 99 These numbers show very satisfactory agreement with the specitie gravity 2°915 of the wollastonite which crystallized from an under-cooled melt, and may be regarded as the true specific gravity of pure wollastonite. Some further light has been thrown on the formation of wollastonite by the unpublished work of Messrs. Day and Shepherd of this laboratory. They have examined the entire series of lime-silica mixtures and have obtained wollastonite easily in a variety of mixtures. There appears to be little dif- ficulty in obtaining true wollastonite as soon as an excess of either component is present in the charge. The metasilicate first crystallizes in the hexagonal form, but the inversion to -wollastonite occurs during cooling with little or none of the difficulty which we encountered in pure CaSiO, preparations. True wollastonite can, in fact, be obtained more readily out of concentrations with a shght excess of CaO than by the use of vanadie acid, but the crystals so formed are not large enough ‘for convenient microscopic study, and cannot be readily sepa- rated. In accord with nearly all of our laboratory experiments, both crystallization and inversion go on more slowly in the presence of an excess of silica, due probably to mechanical inertness or viscosity. Pseudo- Wollastonite.—This form may be obtained by heat- ing wollastonite above 1180°, or by crystallizing a melt above this temperature. It is only rarely that anything but pseudo- wollastonite is obtained on cooling a melt, but to insure its formation the melt needs only to ‘be slightly agitated to over- come the instability. Pseudo-wollastonite has “been described optically by Bourgeois.* It shows a basal cleavage, is optically positive, and very nearly uniaxial, though Bourgeois regards it as really monoclinic. Doeltert combats this view, but Mr. Wright in the microscopic part of this paper finds additional arguments in support of it. It crystallizes, under such con- ditions as have obtained in our experiments, in fibrous, fan- shaped aggregates. The density of the inverted but. still unmelted crystals is variable, owing, no doubt, to the presence of bubbles, and not to be distinguished with certainty from the wollastonite, showing again that the volume change which accompanies the inversion is very small. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF WOLLASTONITE AT 25° COMPARED WITH WATER AT 205°, 1. Inverted but not 2. Inverted but not melted. melted. 3. Melted. 2°886 2°896 2°913 2°886 2°896 2°912 * Bull. Soc. Min., v, 14-15. tN. Jahrb. f. Min., 1886, i, 120 and 122 100 Allen and White—Polymorphie Forms of Melting Point of Pseudo- Wollastonite. This was determined in practically the same way as the inversion, except that some of the readings were made every half minute. The rates of heating varied between 2-1 and 2-7° per minute. First SAMPLE. Four MELTINGS. Microvolts. Degrees. * IE Se ede 15058 TOMEO Ns 16065 1511°5 15062 1511°3 16073 151271 SECOND SAMPLE. ONE MELTING. Microvolts. Degrees. WE Geese 16053 1512-0 (curve 3.) |] ies Dye ares 16072 1512°1 THIRD SAMPLE. ONE MELTING. Microvolts. Degrees. Gees pee 16060 1512°7 FourtH SAMPLE. Two MELTINGS. Microvolts. Degrees. 1B ys) Rhee oan nea 16104 1513°5 16104 1513°5 Melting point, 1512. Summary and Conclusions. 1. Wollastonite and pseudo-wollastonite are enantiotropic forms of calcium metasilicate, showing an inversion point at about 1180°. The change W,—>W,7 is easily effected by heating above this temperature, while the reverse change has not been accomplished without the addition of other sub- stances, owing to the sluggish nature of the silicate. Cases of suspended transformation are common enough, but a reversion which fails altogether even after heating for days in contact with the stable form is remarkable. We may compare it to the ease of the glasses of the alkaline feldspars, which resist all attempts to make them erystallize by heating and sowing with nuclei. The fact very well illustrates one of the difficulties which the experimenter constantly encounters in the study of * Fractions of degrees are given in order to show the agreement obtainable in such determinations. The absolute value of the melting point is dependent upon the thermoelectric extrapolation of the gas scale, and is subject to cor- rection whenever the latter shall be extended to this point. + Let W, represent the optically negative form, and W, the positive. Calcium Metasilicate. 101 TABLE III.* Melting of Pseudo-Wollastonite. Curve 2. Eee aed Repay ends ean oe |e repo (ata ee Gontron Sei rent, FSS (Control p anar| Melt. [Poh unin 15616 ; 16109 | 33) ne | 15993 8 72 | 15604 66 | 16001 7 : 008 7 688 | 70 175 27 6 621 7 TOP RRC es 70 028 6 034 6 760 | 66 245 26 7 Aare 047 7 Oe |e 140 70 054 6 | | 060 7 836 66 315 28 7 [ere 074 8 He A 2 S08 65 082 10 | | 092 12 913 | 62 lie 380 - 69 16 | | 126 25 TAD S68 | 90 151 32 | 183 987 | 55 470 247 | SO ea 928 | 108 398 | 45 Heyes) | 16046 63 | 968 9 | ee On 8 | the silicates. Molten calcium vanadate brings about the rever- sion at temperatures below the inversion point by the forma- tion of a solution from which the more stable wollastonite erystallizes in well-formed prismatic crystals. Excess of lime or silica also facilitates the reversion. Following the invariable rule, the change W,—>W, occurs with an absorption of heat. The volume change which accompanies this transformation is so shght that it is uncertain _ which form is the more dense. The pseudo-wollastonite melts at 1512° to a comparatively thin liquid, which almost always crystallizes above 1200° on cooling down again. This explains why true wollastonite can- not generally be formed from a liquid of its own com- * All the numbers in this table are 7 microvolts too high, on account of a slight, unavoidable leakage current through the insulation of the hot fur- nace. Hence the true melting point is 16053 microvolts, as given in the previous table. - 102 Allen and White— Polymorphic Forms of ; Curve II.—Melting of Pseudo-Wollastonite. Melting Point, 1512°. Rate of Heating, 2°7° per minute. 1550 Temperature in Degrees. 7 1500 Temperature in Microvolts. {Ones 20 Time in Minutes. position. We have already shown that the liquid can be undercooled to a glass; it follows naturally that by a suita- ble disturbance a sufficiently undercooled melt should crystal- lize directly to wollastonite. In fact, we have in one or two instances thus obtained well developed rosettes which the microscope showed were optically negative, and in one case the whole charge excepting a few surface grains yielded wollas-- tonite. That wollastonite rarely forms in this way is due, first, to the difficulty of undercooling the melt sufficiently, and second, to the release of the heat of fusion which tends to raise the temperature again beyond the inversion point. The addition to calcium silicate of fluorides or borates in the proper proportion (to which some investigators have resorted), of course lowers the temperature of erystallization; and it is to this influence rather than to any mysterious “ mineral- izing” action that the synthesis of natural wollastonite is to be ascribed. It seems not impossible also that for a similar reason Gorgeu may have obtained it together with chloro- silicates, as he claims to have done, by the addition of calcium chloride. So in the glasses of commerce which contain much sodium silicate, a slow cooling sometimes gives rise to crystals of wollastonite below the inversion point. Although the temperature at which wollastonite may erys- tallize from a magma is conditioned by the composition of the Calcium Metasilicate. 103 latter, it may be worth while to call attention to the fact that the value of the inversion temperature as a point of reference in geology is not impaired by the varying complexity in the composition of the magma, inasmuch as this temperature has to do with an equilibrium between two solid states of calcium metasilicate, and has no relation to the solution out of which either form crystallizes. It will of course be slightly affected by pressure in the usual way, and also to some extent by the impurities which, in small quantity, are found in the natural mineral, provided these are really dissolved in it. IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF THE Two Forms oF CaLcium METASILICATE. Specific Gravity at 25° compared with water at 25°. Inver-| Melt- Symmetry. sion | ing | Cryst. Point.| Point.|from an} Cryst. Mol under-| from ae cooled | Ca(VOs)e. , melt. : monoclinic ° _ |) a. 2°914 : : aes ‘91 ps Wollastonite optically negative 1180 2°915 |p 5.919 probably monoclinic | |... Pseudo-Wollastonite { pseudo-hexagonal 15127) .... ---- | 2°912 Isat 3°) optically positive Optical Study. In the thin sections which were made from the various preparations of calcium metasilicate, both forms, wollastonite and pseudo-wollastonite, were recognized, and determined by their optical properties alone, their morphological features being too indefinite and inconstant to be of service. | For- tunately several of the optical characteristics of the two min- erals differ sufficiently to render the separation under -the microscope relatively simple. Textually the preparations show considerable variation, although in general the artificial wollastonite occurs in fibrous or long prismatic aggregates, while the pseudo-wollastonite is more coarsely crystalline and granular in appearance. Radial spherulites of wollastonite in which the crystals are elongated parallel to the axis of symmetry (0) were observed frequently, especially in the sections of wollastonite from erystallized glass. In size the crystals range from the finest cryptocrystalline aggregates to individuals several millimeters in length. As 104 Wright— Optical Study of a rule the crystals formed out of a melt are larger than those produced by heating the silicate glass. Wollastonite.—Under the microscope the artificial wollas- tonite resembles closely natural wollastonite and often pre- sents its characteristic arrangement of divergent fibers. The colorless laths are usually transparent and show perfect cleav- age cracks parallel to their long direction. Twinning after a face in the orthodiagonal zone was recognized on several of the crystals. Two of the crystals formed from the melt of calcium metasilicate and calcium vanadate were of sufficient size (1 x°*2x-5™") to permit goniometric measurement of their faces.* Both crystals were “elongated i in the direction of the axis of symmetry (4) and showed evidences of cleavage after u (001) and ¢ (100). On the first crystal, the forms w (001),t » (101), ¢ (101), @ (102) and e (110) were observed ; on the second, which was less perfect, the forms ¢ (100), w (001), ¢ (101) and a (102) occurred, with two uncertain forms (302)! and (203)?. The forms (001) and (101) were the best developed and gave sharp reflexion signals. The faces of the other forms were smaller and less satisfactory in their measurement. The accordance of the observed interfacial angles with those of natural wollas- tonite, however, was sutticiently close to prove their identity. The following comparison of their polar angles shows differences which are not greater than had been anticipated from the inferior reflexion signals obtained. Artificial Wollastonite. Natural Wollastonite. Letter Symbol. Miller. o p ) p U 0 001 90°00’ 5°30/+5' = 90°60" 5°30 Cc wn 0 100 gs 90 27 us 90 00 € a0 110 43 10 89 58 43.39: 239000 v +10 101 90 00 45 06 90) 002 2 45e33 a —420 102 eg 19 54 “s 20 03 t = 101 af 39 29 ce 39 35 The greatest and least refractive indices were determined by Schroeder van der Kolk’st method of refractive solutions to be about 1°621 and 1°636. Birefringence, about 0-015. Optic axial plane, perpendicular to the cleavage lines. Optical char- acter of principal zone, both positive ‘and negative. Optical character of mineral negative with optic axial angle in air, 2 E = 69°30'’—70°00’, measured on several different prepara- x Une s two- ae goniometer with reduction attachment was _ use + The crystallographic orientation of Goldschmidt’s ‘‘Winkeltabelle,” Ber- lin, 1897, pp. 286-287, has been followed in the notation. ¢{ Kurze Anleitung zur Mikroskopischen Krystallbestimmung, Wiesbaden, 1898. Calcium Metusilicate. 105 tions after the Bertrand-Mallard method. In certain sections the optic axial angle appeared to be smaller than in others, a fact for which no explanation has been found. Optic axial dispersion p>v. All of the above properties agree well with those of natural wollastonite and substantiate the thermal and chemical evidence of Messrs. Allen and White. Several of the preparations of wollastonite were ecrypto- crystalline and could be identified only by their low birefring- ence and fibrous spherulitic character. Pseudo-wollastonite appears either in the form of small irregular grains often tabular in shape or in short prisms or fibers arranged in parallel or divergent groups. The grains are transparent and show occasionally well developed basal and imperfect prismatic cleavage lines. Limiting refractive indices, about 1°615 and 1°645, as measured by the method of refractive liquids. Birefringence about 0°025—0:035, considerably higher than in wollastonite. It is imteresting to note in this connec- tion how slightly the mean refractive index of wollastonite differs from that of pseudo-wollastonite. Accurate optical measurement would be required to ascertain satisfactorily which mineral has the higher average index of refraction. The same conditions prevail in their specific gravities, where the differences observed might well be ascribed to experi- mental error. Optical character, positive, with very small optic axial angle 2K = 0°—8°. Plates cut parallel to the basal pinacoid show in convergent polarized light an interference cross which can often be seen to open slightly on turning the stage. The optic axial angle thereby is so small that from it alone the mineral might be regarded uniaxial, the mere opening of the interfer- ence cross being an optical anomaly analogous to the irregu- larities noted in many minerals. This is the view taken by J. H. L. Vogt* in his studies on the formation of minerals in slags. His opinion was strengthened by the hexagonal form of the erystals and by the observed extinction parallel to the basal pinacoidal cleavage cracks. Doeltert, who also made an extended microscopic study of this silicate, came to the conclu- sion that the mineral was either hexagonal or orthorhombie in erystal system, his observations agreeing otherwise with those of Vogt. Bourgeois,t on the other hand, pronounced the min- eral monoclinic. His work was accomplished before that of Doelter and Vogt and appears to have been less extensive in scope. After a brief mention of the essential optical features he describes the occurrence of twinning lamellee in certain of the * Mineralbildung in Schmelzmassen, Kristiania, 1892, 57-59. + N. Jahrb. f. Min. 1886, i, 119-122. ¢ Bull. Soc. Min., v, 14-15. Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourrn Series, Vou. XXI, No. 122.—FErBRUARY, 1906. 8 f 106 Wright—Optical Study of elongated crystals and interprets them as indicative of the - monoclinic system. Doelter also mentions in passing the rare occurrence of twinning lamellze in his preparations, but seems to have attached no significance to the fact. The present writer also observed in several of his sections sharp and occasionally polysynthetic, twinning lamellae which were not unlike oligoclase feldspar twins in appearance. On a plate per pendicular to the optic normal the twinning Jamellze were normal to the plate and parallel to the basal “pinacoid, their trace running parallel to the basal cleavage lines. The lamellee showed an extinction angle a: a = 2°. Since the cleavage cracks are not perfect, the small extinction angle of 2° might easily be overlooked, under ordinary circumstances, and the extinction be considered parallel. In the hexagonal and orthorhombic crystal systems the basal pinacoid is a plane of symmetry and cannot act as a plane of twinning nor show an extinction angle, however small. The fact, then, that twin- ning after the basal pinacoid does occur in the ee -wollas- tonite crystals and does show an extinction angle, the double of which when taken between adjacent lamellee is 4°, precludes the uniaxial and orthorhombic crystal systems. The writer con- siders the mineral with Bourgeois as probably monoclinic. The twinning law is analogous to that of Tschermak in the micas, where the basal pinacoid i is also the plane of composition. Since its crystals frequently similate hexagonal forms, pseudo- wollastonite may well be treated as pseudo-hexagonal and probably monoclinic in form. It is not a modification of the natural monoclinic wollastonite. and differs from the latter profoundly in optical as well as erystallographical features. Paramorphic changes.—The phenomenon of paramor phism, the change of crystal structure of a chemical substance in the solid state with cons sequent preservation of the erystal habit of the original form, is well illustrated in the inversion of wollas- tonite to pseudo- wwollastonite. Since in certain paramorphic minerals it has been noted that a plane of symmetry or other direction may be common to both simulated and simulating mineral, several experiments were made to ascertain whether any cr ystallographie or other relations exist between the origi- nal wollastonite crystals and the pseudo-wollastonite which replaces them. Cleavage fragments of natural wollastonite from Diana, N. Y., were heated in an electric are and then cooled rapidly by plunging them into mercury. Sections from this preparation showed that the wollastonite had thereby passed into the pseudo-form without any apparent regularity. The fibers of the original wollastonite were unaltered up to that portion which had touched the electric are, from which point outwards irregular grains of pseudo- wollastonite occurred Calcium Metasilicate. 107 without recognizable crystallographic grouping. The contact between the natural and pseudo form was sharp, indicating that the transition had taken place without any intermediate stage. In a second experiment, natural wollastonite was heated in the electric furnace to 1260° and thus changed in the solid state to pseudo-wollastonite. The resulting mass consisted again of grains of the pseudo form, irregularly | arranged, althou oh indi- eations of the original fibrous wollastonite texture are still indistinctly shown The conditions were altered in still another experiment by heating artificial wollastonite crystals, which had been obtained by erystallizing the silicate glass, to the inversion temperature (1190°) for about an hour. The resulting preparation was instructive in showing the paramorphic change in its incipient stage. The original larger crystals were filled with particles and clusters of the pseudo-form, arranged without apparent regard to the host. Had the preparation been allowed to remain at the inversion temperature for a longer period of time, the change would undoubtedly have progr essed until all original wollastonite fragments had been completely replaced by innumerable pseudo- -wollastonite grains. As the above experiments were made with cleavage fragments of natural and artificial wollastonite which are not so well adapted to. show paramorphism as crystals, artificial crystals of wollastonite obtained from the calcium vanadate flux were heated in the electric resistance furnace above the inversion temperature, and the product examined. The original crys- tals were elongated parallel to the axis of symmetry (b) and were bounded ‘chiefly by forms of the orthodome zone with perhaps the unit prism and unit clinodome forms. After the alteration, each one of the original wollastonite crystals was found to have changed entirely to one pseudo-wollastonite individual alone, and rarely to two or more grains, as is usually the case, a remarkable fact which may be due perhaps to the minute size of the original crystals and to the equality of specific volumes of the two forms. In one instance a basal section of the pseudo-form was contained in the orthodiagonal zone of the original mineral, while in another plate cut perpendicular to the optic normal, ‘sharp twinning lamellae were visible, the traces of which ran parallel to a unit prism or clinodome form terminating the crystal and making an angle of 29° with the direction of elongation of the simulated crystal. From these and other observations, it 1s evident that, generally speaking, in paramorphic change the planes of symmetry of the two forms do not coincide. Certain crystallographic directions, ' ' Fae ie Wright—Caleium Metasilicate. hokvevgr, may or may not retain their character during the change. The paramorphic change of pseudo-wollastonite to wollas- tonite, which is the more imporant from the geologist’s stand-. point, could not be observed, since the conditions under which it was effected involved solution and pr ecipitation, and did not occur in the solid state. Summary. - The chief results attained by the optieal study of the calcium metasilicate preparates were : 1. Identification of artificial wollastonite, whose properties agree precisely with those of natural wollastonite. 2. Determination of the pseudo-hexagonal, probably mono-. clinic, crystal system of the second form of CaSiQ,; in its erys- tals the occurrence of distinct and often repeated twinning lamellae parallel-to the basal pinacoid and with an extinction angle a: a = 2°, was considered the decisive factor. Geophysical Laboratory, U. 5. Geological Survey. 0. E. Gordon— Early Stages in Paleozoic Corals. 109 Arr. VIL.—Studies on Earl ly Stages in Paleozoic. Corals ,* by C. E. Gorpon. THE group of the Iie has been the object of careful and detailed study for many years. The discovery that these organisms were really animals enlisted the attention of many investigators during the latter years of the eighteenth century. As first defined, the group included the Hydroid polyps, Bry- * ozoa and Sponges ; ; forms now known to be quite distinct. In 1828 Milne-Edwards showed that the ‘“Sea-mat” and allied forms possessed a definite mouth and anus. Later the Sponges were made a distinct class, and finally the Hydroid types were firmly established as a distinct division of the Ceelenterates. “The anatomy and classification of the group thus purged of intruders were placed on a firm basis by the classical works of Dana and of Milne-Edwards and Haime (1857).” Since then studies in the development, comparative anatomy, and histol- ogy of the Anthozoa have contributed toa further and more exact knowledge of the group, although much remains that is . yet doubtful and obscure. Especially is this true of the extinct Anthozoa of Paleozoic time: the Rugosa of Milne-Edwards and Haime, the Tetracoralla of Heckel. Since with these extinct forms only the hard parts are pre- served, the study of relationships and mode of development is exceedingly ditticult, and all conclusions on these points are - necessarily, to a greater or less degree, matters of conjecture and inference. Several investigators, however, have endeay- ored to show the relationship of these extinct types to modern forms. How far they have succeeded in doing this is still a matter of dispute. In so far as the plan of structure, which should be under- stood to mean the plan of growth from the earliest stages, can be proved to be similar to that of modern forms, just so far ean relationships be assumed. Here we recognize that an inference can be drawn from a study of the hard parts, for example, the arrangement of the septa in corals. This arrange- ment is such that a reasonable assumption may be made as to their order of appearance. The difficulty must le in securing specimens well adapted to show primitive characters with respect, to the plan of growth of these septa. With modern corals the order of appearance of the mesen- teries is made of prime importance, and since the septa follow the mesenteries, the endeavor to classify the fossil forms has *he studies embodied in this paper were carried on in the Paleonto- logic Laboratory of Columbia University, New York City. 110 ©. E. Gordon—Early Stages in Paleozoic Corals. been on the order of appearance of the septa, so far as could be inferred by a careful study of early stages. It is by no means true, however, that the early stages of all fossil forms will give us the clue to the phylogeny of the group. It fre- quently happens that certain individuals represent a special- ized condition and are, on that account, not suitable for work- ing out their own life history, which could be inter preted only by. a careful comparative study of many individuals. This specialized condition may result from an acceleration in devel- opment of certain ancestral characters resulting in a prema- ture appearance of certain stages which normally belong some- what later in the animal’s life, and which obscure the early conditions by their premature "development ; again, certain characters are retained longer than usual and are pr olonged to the obliteration of later stages, for the appearance of which the life of the animal is not long enough. In interpreting the ‘structural characteristics of any species the possibility of specialization must not be overlooked. Among forms some- what removed in geological time from the ancestral stock, one must look for types in which acceleration, or retardation, or both, have been important factors in altering early ancestral conditions, and have produced new species, or varlelice: according to one’s choice of designation. It is not within the province of man to say where, or in what parts, these modifications are to take place when only natural conditions operate to produce them. They are to be looked for anywhere, and it is reasonable perhaps to expect them in parts which have taken on new physiological import- ance, or have ceased to have such importance, as responses to certain conditions. Instances are numerous which forcibly illustrate the principles of acceleration and retardation. ~The genera Cyathophyllum and Heliophyllum are distinguished by the presence in the latter of carinae. But sections of certain Heliophyllums (//eliophyllum halli) show the carinae appear- ing very late in the life of the individual.* Up to the time of their appearance they are not to be distinguished from Cyatho- phyllum. In other individuals the carinae appear so early as entirely to obliterate the Cyathophyllum stage. It is clear that here are two types originating from a common ancestor, which had both a Cyathophyllum and a Heliophyllum stage, the latter being a late ephebic character. One retained the Helhophyllum stage as an ephebic character, and is to be regarded as a retarded type. The other became accelerated until the carinae stage became established as a nepionic char- acter. It is apparent that here are two distinet types, each * “Hamilton Group of Thedford, Ontario,” Shimer atl Grabau ; Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. xiii, pp. 167-168. O. E. Gordon— Early Stages in Paleozoic Corals. hs eh having a Cyathophylum ancestor, but that acceleration has produced in one ease a distinct type in which the Cyathophyl- lum stage is either lost, or is of such short duration that it escapes notice. In attempting to arrive at some definite conclusion as to the ancestral condition of any fossil group, or as to whether any particular plan of structure in fossil forms is a primitive one or not, one must not ignore these facts so obviously illustrated in many groups that have been carefully and_ successfully studied. In the absence of proof that the specimens in hand are primitive, or that they illustrate a primitive condition, of which one must always be in doubt, one must in order to meet the first requirements of a safe premise select a type most likely to be primitive, and this must be done on the basis of chronogenesis. A type occurring late in geological time, at least a considerable time subsequent to the earliest occurrence of a type at all similar, is likely to be far from primitive, in all respects at least, and at all events is not a safe type for study. But a specimen selected on the basis of its early appearance in geological time may be presumed to give the most primitive conditions which it is possible to obtain until an earlier form which is favorable for study can be secured. Dr. J. E. Duerden has attempted to show by studies based on Lophophyllum proliferum that it is unnecessary to “ account for a primitive tetramerism ” in the Rugosa.* He would, on the basis of his studies, consider the quadripartite symmetry as a secondary development erected on a primitive hexameral arrangement of the primary septa; and by the development of the secondary septa, according to his interpretation of the primary condition, he finds the Rugosa, in so far as LZ. pro- literum may be representative, most closely related to the modern Zoanthez. In this paper I am not so much concerned with establishing the relationship of the Rugosa as with dis- cussing the probable number of the primary septa in these forms. Certain studies which I have undertaken seem to indicate that there is still good ground for believing that the tetrameral plan is a primitive one.| Moreover, a careful study of the diagrams in Duerden’s paper has raised the question if after all they may not illustrate a primitive tetrameral arrangement of the main septa. It will be necessary in order to make as full a comment as seems desirable on Duerden’s studies of Lophophyllum to reproduce a few of his figures. * Johns Hopkins University Circular, January 1902; Annals and Maga- zine of Natural History, May 1902. + For valuable suggestions and criticisms in carrying on these studies the writer is deeply indebted to Dr. Amadeus W. Grabau. “112 C. E. Gordon—Early. Stages in Paleozoic Corals. In figure 1 we have a “transverse section, through the tip of the corallum. The dark median lines of only six primary septa are present, but the out- lines of the septa as a whole are not clearly determinable, their surfaces being fused throughout. ‘The two median septa are represented by a continuous line, while the other four septa are arranged as an upper bilateral pair and a lower bilateral pair. Of the six primary interseptal spaces the two upper are slightly ‘smaller than the others. By interseptal spaces may be here understood the interval between the dark lines of two contiguous septa ; the septa are so broad as to occupy the whole of the cali- cinal cavity, leaving no interseptal loculi.” 1 The author explains that the terms “upper” and “lower” are used merely for convenience and have no morpholog- ical significance. J wish here to. eall attention to Duerden’s observation that the two upper “ primary” (of Duerden’s figures) interseptal spaces are smaller than the others, as this fact lends some support to a different interpretation of the figures from that which Duerden had given and which I presently wish to discuss. FictrE 1. Lopho- “In all the figures the upper border cor- phyllum proliferum. responds with the convex side of the coral, eee tt as ‘s ae es and the lower with the concave border ; the corallam. After Duer. Primary. septa are indicated by the Roman aon numeral I, and the later septa by the letters A-D, according to their order of appearance within the four primary interspaces.” The reader’s attention is again called to the exact language of the author, as great stress is laid by him upon the develop- ment of these septa in four primary interseptal spaces, which according to him do not represent the whole number, but only four out of six such spaces. I think another interpretation may be given to this early arrangement as exhibited in the apical section studied by Duerden. In figure 2, which is a transverse section through the tip of another corallum taken comparatively a little higher than in the case of figure 1, two new septa are making their appear- ance, apparently as a unilateral pair. This is probably to be explained as a case of slightly unequal growth, as Duerden remarks. The dark tadpole-shaped spaces represent the inter- ‘septal loculi and partly indicate the boundaries of the septa. The dotted line in all the figures marks the outline of the actual section. 0. FE. Gordon— Early Stages in Paleozoic Corals. 118 Figure 3 represents a transverse section of a third corallum taken a little higher than in the previous sections. Duerden remarks that the six’ primary septa are recognizable by their greater size. The outlines of the septa are indicated in the fizure by the thin marginal lines and the oval interseptal loculi. The two median septa are now distinct from one another and the upper is larger than the lower. Duerden indicates that the former is “thereby already recognizable as the main or chief septum.” 2 3 FicurE 2. L. proliferum. Sec- Ficure 3. L. proliferum. Section tion through the tip of a second of a third corallum from a still higher eorallum; a little higher than. in level. After Duerden. figure 1. After Duerden. He also makes the important observation that the “upper primary interseptal spaces are much narrower than the middle and lower interspaces. Within each of the latter an additional septum (A) has appeared, and within the middle, right interspace the rudiment of a second additional septum (B) occurs. No new septa are ever developed within the two upper intersep- tal spaces.” Figures 4 and 5 are easily interpreted with respect to what has already been explained concerning the structural features of previous figures. Figures 6 and 7 will be referred to again. The reader’s attention is now directed to figures 8, 9, 10 and 11, which are Duerden’s diagrams reproduced again, but this time inverted. This has been done for the sake of easier com- parison. In figure 8 it will be noticed that what are now the upper lateral septa are, as indicated by the dark lines, more nearly at right angles with the median than are the lower ones, while the median dark lines of the lower ones in this figure (upper in Duerden’s) have a proximity to the median dark line which is at this stage very noticeable and suggestive. Before entering upon a further discussion of the diagrams obtained by inverting Duerden’s figures, I wish to call atten- 114. OC. E. Gordon—Early Stages in Paleozoic Corals. tion to the possibility, which I have suggested above, of a specialized condition in Lophophyllum proliferum. Wopho- phyllum is a Carbonie type. It occurs comparatively late in the geological history of the Rugosa. It may, therefore—I should say rather, it must, therefore—have been somewhat i) Ficure 4. L. proliferum. Sec- Fieure 5. L. proliferum. Section tion from same specimen as in of same corallum as before from case of figure 3, but a little further about the middle of its length. After from the apex. After Duerden. Duerden. modified from an earlier condition. Whether this modifica- tion took place in the arrangement or order of appearance of the septa there is no absolute means of ascertaining, while one cannot gainsay the possibility that either acceleration, or retard- Ficure 6. JL. proliferum. Sec- Figure 7. Section towards the tion from upper part of the same upper region of a fourth individual. corallum as before. After Duerden. After Duerden. ation, or both, have operated to produce an apparent anomaly in Lophophyllum in these respects. C. FE. Gordon— Early Stages in Paleozove Corals. 115 The arrangement and order of appearance of the septa in the Zaphrentoid coral, as generally accepted, is illustrated in figure 15; (A) is the “cardinal” septum ; (gy) the “counter” septum ; (s) the “alar” septa. The radiating lines indicate septal margins as they appear on the surface of the corallum when viewed from below. By the figure it will be seen that in the cardinal quadrant the septa first to appear take a posi- tion next the alar septa. In the counter quadrants the first to Ficures 8, 9,10 and 11. Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 of Duerden, inverted. appear take a position next the counter septum. Let us care- fully examine Duerden’s figures to see if in any way they may reveal traces of a tetrameral arrangement of the septa accord- ing to the law apparent in the development of the septa in the Zaphrentoid coral as above explained. By referring to figure 9, which it will be remembered is Duerden’s diagram (figure 2) inverted, we observe the appear- ance of two secondary septa, each marked A, apparently as a unilateral pair. I have already remarked that this appearance as a unilateral pair may be explained on the principle of unequal growth. Since we are concerned only with their rela- tion to the septa, marked in the figure by the Roman numeral 116 ©. E. Gordon —Eurly Stages in Paleozoic Corals. I, this unilateral order of appearance is of no significance, par- ticularly as later figures almost conclusively show that it is simply a matter of unequal growth. It will be observed in figure 9 that the septum marked (A) bears a relation to the septum marked I in the lower left hand quadrant very similar _ to the relation which septum number 2 in the counter quad- Figure 15. Plan of the septa in a Zaphrentoid coral. rant of figure 15 bears to septum number 1. Likewise the septum marked (A) in the upper left hand quadrant of. figure 9 holds a relation with reference to the adjacent primary sep- tum similar to that which number 1 in the left hand cardinal quadrant of figure 15 bears to the adjacent transverse septum. It will be remembered, also, that in the above explanation of Duerden’s figure 1, the comparative thinness of the upper pair of septa marked I was pointed out and that this was consid- ered to be suggestive. In figure 10 (figure 3 of Duerden, inverted) we observe a further increase in the number of secondary septa. Here the comparative thinness of the lower pair of septa marked I is again noticeable. In the upper quadrants are two secondary septa marked (A), each lying adjacent to the upper lateral “primary” septum on the side in which it appears. In the lower quadrants are two new septa marked (A) and in the left the beginning of a third, marked (B), which bears the relation to (A) that the latter holds with respect to the adjacent sep- tum marked I. In this figure we also notice the division of the median septum into an upper and lower portion, the upper part of which, in Duerden’s figures, is marked the “ cardinal,” the lower the “counter”; i. e., in Duerden’s diagram 8, the upper The C. FE. Gordon—EHarly Stages in Paleozoic Corals. 117 (the lower here) is called the “car dinal, ” and the lower (the upper in figure 10) is called the “counter.” Figures 4 and 11 mark an increase in the number of secondary septa, and a noticeable increase in the length of the “cardinal” septum, and a shorten- ing of the “ counter ” septum. In figure 11 it will be observed how similar the general arrangement of the septa is to that given in figure 15. The lower portion of the median corresponds to (g) in. figure 15, the upper to (#).. In the upper quadrants the secondary septa (A) in their relations to the upper pair marked I, follow the plan exhibited in the cardinal quad- rants of figure 15. In the lower quadrants the secondary septa marked (A) and (B), as also do the “primary” septa (Duerden) marked I, have an arrangement that str ongly sug- gests the condition in the counter quadrant of figure 15. Figures 5 and 12 show this arrangement even better, and bear a striking similarity to figure 15. There is now evi- dent a striking bilateral arrangement of the septa, which accord- ing to Duer den and Pourtalds proceeds from an unsymmetrical development of the secondary septa in only four of six primary interspaces— proceeding as they do on the assumption that there are six primar) y septa. An examination of figures 13 and 14 shows the position of the fossula in Lophophyllum to be in the same position as in the Zaphrentoid coral. To designate the cardinal septum always as the primary septum on the convex side of the coral- lum (after Nicholson) introduces some difficulty in making comparisons. The cardinal septum is to be regarded as that which, with the secondary septa in the same quadrant, exhibits a pinnate arrangement. ‘That this may occur on the concave or convex side of the corallum is well known. According to Jakowlew the one fossula which can be determined is always developed on the cardinal septum.* Both the pinnate arrange- ment of the septa, which marks the position of the cardinal septum, and the fossula are by this author regarded as the product of the mode of growth of the corallum. However thatmay be, we have examples of the fossula and the cardinal Figure 12. Figure 5 inverted. * “ Weber die Morphologie und Morphogenie der Rugosa,”? Verhandlungen der Russisch-Kaiserlichen Mineralogischen Gesellschaft zu St. Petersburg. Bd. XLI, Lief 2, 1904. 118 @. E. Gordon—EKarly Stages in Paleozoic Corals. septum occurring on the concave side. Since we find not only the fossula, but also the pinnate arrangement of the septa, occupying the position of the lower portion of the median sep- tum in Duerden’s figures, this portion must be the cardinal, which in this specimen is on the concave side; and the upper portion is the counter instead of the cardinal, as Duerden has designated it. That this interpretation is correct is clearly shown by the figures. We have now simply to invert the diagrams to get a well organized Zaphrentoid type, in so far as the adult arrangement of septa and fossula are concer ned. It remains yet to consider the two upper “ primary ” septa of Duerden’s figures in more careful detail. Certain studies 15 14 Figures 15 and 14. Figures 6 and 7 inverted. which I have made on Streptelasma profundum from the Black River limestone seem to indicate most strongly a tetra- meral plan of growth 1 in the primary septa of the Rugosa; to use a borrowed phrase, “ in so far as this type may be ‘taken as representative.” These studies will be given in greater detail presently. Their significance here, however, is to indicate that the tetrameral arrangement is not a secondary develop- ment on a hexameral basis, but on the contrary, that the hex- -ameral arrangement in the tip of ‘Lophophyllum i is really only apparent and that Z. proliferum from the beginning exhibits a quadripartite plan of the septa. To one who examines Duerden’s figures the hexameral plan at first sight seems to be the only way of interpreting this very early condition, And I am well aware that by some it is likely to continue as the only interpretation. Jakowlew came to the important conclusion that the prim- ary spaces in which the secondary septa did not develop | 0. L. Gordon—Early Stages in Paleozoic Corals. 119 appeared adjacent to the counter septum without regard to whether the latter appeared on the convex or concave side of the polyp.* In so far as Jakowlew’s careful comparative studies are conclusive this would again indicate that what Duerden has designated as the cardinal septum is really the counter septum, as I, by comparison with a typical Zaphrentoid arrangement above, have pointed out to be the case. By an examination of the diagram of the adult we are further impressed with the fact that the so-called primary spaces in which secondary septa do not develop are at the time of maturity not to be distinguished in any respect from the spaces which separate the secondary septa in the same quad- rants. We note also that the lateral septa marked I in the upper quadrants of Duerden’s figures have a position and an order of appearance which, if they were to be regarded as sec- ondary septa, would correspond to the septa marked by the Arabic numeral 1 in the counter quadrants of figure 15, which illustrates the usually accepted order of appearance in the Zaphrentoid coral. We are furthermore impressed by the fact that the later sections of the corallum (figures 7 and 14) show the appearance of the tertiary septa, in the two Aam- mern next the “ cardinal” (Duerden) at the top of figure 7, having precisely the same relations to adjacent septa as do the tertiary septa in all secondire Kammern. The tertiary septa may have no sequence value, but the fact that they appear at all in the “‘ primary ” interspaces next the “ cardinal” septum is suggestive that these spaces do not differ essentially from the secondary interspaces. I am aware that in support of the imterpretation which I shall presently present as an explanation of the presence of this pair of so-called primary septa next the ‘“ cardinal” sep- tum, I have no absolute proof. JI have called the reader’s attention to the striking resemblance which Duerden’s dia- grams have to the usually accepted arrangement and order of appearance of the septa in the Zaphrentoid coral when the diagrams are inverted and their structural features interpreted in the terms of Zaphrentis. In Streptelasma (figure 16) it will be seen that the tertiary septa are present also in all inter- spaces. As to any sequence in their order of appearance, it was not possible to determine in the specimen, as their lower ends were very thin, and the extent to which they went down into the calyx could not be traced. The lines representing the ter- tiary septa in figure 16 do not indicate their indistinctness at their lower ends. With regard to the “ultimate fate of the two bilateral pairs of primary septa”? Duerden expresses himself as follows : * Ueber die Morphologie und Morphogenie der Rugosa,” Seite 412. 126 C0. E. Gordon—Early Stages in Paleozoie Corals. | “One pair forms the ‘alar’ or lateral septa of the paleontolo- gist, while the two moities of the remaining pair, recognized by Ludwig and Pourtalés, but not accepted by Kunth, are disposed one on each side of the axial septum on the convex side of the ealice.”’ By the several figures reproduced here, e. g., figure 5 or figure 12, we observe how accurately this statement disposes of the septa, so far as their position is concerned, according to the Zaphrentoid plan. We see the “two moities” occupying exactly the position which the first two secondary septa to appear in the counter quadrant should occupy and we see them appearing before those of the cardinal quadrant as the greater number of septa in the counter quadrant of the adult FIGURE 16.—Streptelasma profundum. Diagrammatic drawing somewhat enlarged. would indicate to be the natural and logical order. The fact that the counter quadrant has the greater number of secondary septa supports the idea of acceleration in this quadrant. It is also to be noted that the number in the upper quadrant of Duerden’s figures exceeds that in the lower quadrant by more than one, if we inelude the so-called ‘ primary ” septa. How are we to account for this close resemblance of LZ. pro- liferum to a typical Zaphrentoid? Are we to regard these “primary” septa, which ‘‘ are disposed one on each side of the axial septum on the convex side of the calice,” as primary or secondary? If primary, what evidence is there that they are primary? If secondary, what evidence can be brought for- ward in support of their secondary nature, or what explanation ean be offered of their appearance so early in the lite history of the individual? The strongest evidence of their primary nature, of course, is their presence in the extreme tip of the C.F. Gordon— Early Stages in Paleozoic Corals. 121 corallum. There they are, and if they do not show by their presence a primary hexameral arrangement some very strong evidence must be brought forward to show why they do not. I am aware of the difficulty of explaining away their very apparent primary character, especially as any per fect series of fossil forms is not at hand to give us the absolute proof that L. proliferum may be at the extreme end of an accelerated series in which the pair of “primary ” septa under discussion appear at progressively earlier and earlier stages in the life history of the individual until at last in Z. proliferum we have them established so early that they simulate the nature of primary septa. In my eriticism of Duerden’s paper I wish to accord the author the credit due his careful investigations and _ to acknowledge his wide acquaintance with the “Anthozoa. I would be understood in offering any other interpretation of his figures than that which he gives as being conservative, and far from committing myself as to having “settled the matter. At the same time I believe that such an acceleration, difficult as it might be to account for, is far from being impossible, rs it is not quite probable. In the absence of definite proof we have to rely upon analogy to a large extent, and call to our service in interpreting the structures in Z. “prolifer um the knowledge furnished by studies upon other forms. The idea of acceleration is by no means anew one. The principle undoubtedly has been an all important factor in bringing about those mutations which are the true species in certain evolutional series. In fact, it seems to be An many eases the only means of interpreting certain aberrant indi- viduals which are so often grouped together in a heterogene- ous way. We may be unable to explain why certain structures appear earlier im the life of certain individuals than they did in-ancestral forms; but it is undoubtedly to be explained in many cases as a reaction towards its environment on the part of the individual, the response being a new anatomical struc- ture, or a different plan of development because of a new importance of old structures, such as the assumption of a greater physiological importance of certain ones. On this wise it would not be difficult to imagine that for some reason or other, obscure as that may be, the mesenteries next the “ cardi- nal” septum in Duerden’s figures are really secondary septa ealled into being so early as to appear to be primary septa. The striking resemblance of Duerden’s figures, if I may again call attention to this fact, to the usually accepted Zaphrentoid type of arrangement and the fact that the so-called primary septa follow the well recognized law of Kunth, are offered in Am. JouR. Scl.—FourtH Series, Vou. XXI, No. 122.—FrEBRuarY, 1906. 9 122 O. FE. Gordon—Early Stages in Paleozoie Corals. support of this interpretation; the possibility of acceleration makes the inference logical.* If these two septa were called into being at a relatively early period, that is, before they normally would appear in a non-accelerated type, it is easy to conceive how, once estab- lished, this acceleration, as the name implies, ‘would cause these septa to appear at an earlier and earlier stage until in a later geological type they would appear in the early nepionic stages SO fully developed as to present the character of prim- ary septa. Their true nature then, in the absence of a series showing this progressive acceleration, could be explained by noting ‘the subsequent development of secondary septa that were not accelerated, and, in this connection, noting the final FE Figures 17 and 18. A portion, in each case of figures 7 and 14, with new lettering. position of the septa that were accelerated, as I have done. Duerden’s figures, to my mind, lend themselves in every respect to this interpretation. At the risk of repetition I have at this place introduced a portion, in each case, of figures 7 and 14 with new lettering, which may serve to recapitulate and make a little clearer the foregoing discussion. Figure 17 shows in a diagrammatic way the value of the septa as interpreted by Duerden in figure 7. (P,), “ cardinal septum” (Duerden); (P,) “counter septum” (Duerden) ; (P) * The suggestion of Boveri that the anomalous number of the septa of the first cycle in Tealia crassicornis may be explained as due to the precocious development of four septa belonging to the second cycle, is a recognition of the fact that acceleration in development may operate to conceal a primitive condition. Boveri’s suggestion is supported by his own observations on the peculiar mesenterial arrangement in an undetermined larval form. (This suggestion was not seen until this article was written.) : C. EB. Gordon—FKarly Stages in Paleozove Corals, 128 other “primary septa,” (Duerden); (S) secondary septa. The subscripts indicate the order of appearance. Figure 18 is a portion of figure 14 and is figure 17 inverted. The ‘lettering in this case indicates the author’s interpretation of the value of the septa. (P,) “cardinal septum” (author) ; (P..) “counter septum” (author); (P) ‘“alar septa ” (author) ; (S) secondary septa. The subscripts indicate the order of appearance. Note that the cardinal and counter septum are reversed and that the number of primary septa are reduced by two. Duerden, from his wide acquaintance with modern corals, makes the statement that no living coral presents such a mesen- terial (septal) sequence as L. proliferum, yet it bears the closest resemblance to what is found to be characteristic of Zoanthoid polyps, except that the mesenterial increase takes place in only two exocoelic chambers in these forms, while, as Duerden would have it, in LZ. proliferum it is carried on in four such chambers. Of whatever value the fact may be, it yet remains that no modern coral has precisely the same septal sequence as is described for L. proliferwm, which suggests that here we have merely a specialized type of the Zaphrentoid coral. Starting with the hypothesis that the primary septal plan of Z. proliferum is hexameral, we have yet to investigate other corals, selected with the purpose of getting a primitive species as well as one which is favorable for study, to find out how far they lend support to the hexameral primary septal plan or tend to disprove it. The difficulty involved in getting sections of coral tips that really show anything one way or the other is appreciated only after one has made the attempt. The tips either break at an inopportune moment, or after sectioning show nothing con- elusive. Turning fr om sections which revealed little or noth- ing, I was more fortunate in securing some specimens of Streptelasma profundwm from the Black River limestone. The specimens were silicified and had been removed from their matrix by acid. Though small, they showed the well-preserved septa on the inside of the corallum. These specimens were carefully examined. Two were found which revealed the arrangement of the septa at the base of the calyx on the inside of the coral so satisfactorily that they were set aside for detailed study. During the attempt to sketch the relations of the septa in one of these specimens the corallum was unfor- tunately broken into several pieces so that it was impossible to make a satisfactory drawing. A drawing of the other is given in figure 16, which in all essentials is like the one which was broken. 124. CO. EF. Gordon—Early Stages in Paleozoic Corals. The corallum of Streptelasma profundum in figure 16 is represented as split on the counter septum and rolled out; the point toward which the heaviest lines converge is the apex; the curved line is the circumference of the calyx ; (C) is the counter septum; (S), the secondary septa; (T), the tertiary septa ; (Card), the cardinal septum. The corallum was so small and fragile that it was impracticable to attempt drawing to an exact scale, as the measurements could not be made in the cor- allum without the risk of breaking it. Care was exercised not to exaggerate the relations of the septa, so that in the drawing, though necessarily more or less diagrammatic, one sees a very close approximation to the actual appearance. In this figure . it is obviously impossible to represent anything but lengths. In doing this I have tried to be true to facts. At the base of. the corallum (and in describing the corallam from now on it must be remembered that we are looking down into the vase of the corallum) the septa are not so deep (by depth I mean extension from the wall inward) as a little way up, as though they had undergone resorption or ceased to grow. In modern corals a resorption of the mesenteries takes place at the base, as the animal grows upward.* It is not unlikely that this is the explanation of the tapering off that was observable in all the septa which extended deepe st into the calyx. Of the four primary septa represented in the drawing, the counter ex- tended farthest down, the cardinal next, and the alar septa next. The bending represented in the alar septum on the right is meant to represent the slight deflection of the inner edge ot the septum upward, as though the mesentery has been crowded by the counter septum at the base. Attention is directed to the fact that only four septa appear in the early stage of the corallum. The alar septum on the left is appreciably longer than the secondary septum adjacent to the counter repr resented in the left hand portion of the figure by S. The lat- ter showed greater depth near the base than the corresponding one on the right, as though it had been resorbed to a less extent, or as though it had ¢ grown faster. The second second- ary septum in the left hand counter quadrant exhibits a eon- dition of unequal growth. The order of development of the secondary septa is plainly seen to correspond exactly to that in the Zaphrentoid coral in figure 15. With respect to the ter- tiary septa, although examined with the aid of a powerful binoc- ular in artificial light, it was impossible in all cases to tell to what length they extended down into the coral. In the eardi- nal quadrants near the main septum they merged with a ridge *<‘ Morphology of Coral Polyps,’ J. E. Duerden, Smithsonian Miscella- neous Collection, Quart. Issue, vol. ii, No. 1, 1904, p. 98. shennan O. E. Gordon— Early Stages in Paleozoic Corals. 125 represented by the curved line, which ridge was small and of about the same size as the tertiary septa. As was stated above, the specimen was examined by the aid of a binocular in electric ight. No doubt was left in my mind that the four septa indicated by the heaviest lines in the figure extended farthest down into the base of the calyx. Not content, however, with my observations, I submitted the speci- men to two others, whose results tallied with mine. The results, therefore, seemed to indicate that Streptelasma pro- Jundum showed a primary tetrameral arrangement and that ‘the further addition of the secondary septa proceeded i in accord- ance with the law that the Zaphrentoid type has been shown to illustrate. In the criticism offered above of Duerden’s figures I have, I think, offered another possible interpretation of the occurrence of one of the pairs of so-called primary septa in the tip of Lophophyllum proliferum. Whether this interpretation is accepted or not, I think it is by no means established that the hexameral ar rangement is a primitive one. In the first place, as I have pointed out above, Z. proliferum is in some respects, notably because of its occurrence in Carbonic time, not a suitable specimen upon which to establish a primitive arrangement of the septa. S. profundum from the Ordovicie was selected for study mainly because of its early geological occurrence. The fact that it shows a primary tetrameral arrangement suggests that such was the primitive condition. To my mind it suggests this because it is a comparatively old type and, because, so far as the septal sequence is concerned, it shows absence of acceleration. It is evident, I think, that the primitive condition of these septa in the Rugosa is not yet settled. The tetrameral arrange- ment, if primary, will so long as this is made the basis of clas- sification, place those corals. which possess it in a group by themselves. No modern corals exhibit the peculiar septal plan as revealed in Streptelasma profundum ; nor, in fact, as revealed in Lophophyllum proliferum. The fact that Lopho- phyllum is quite distinct from anything that is modern per- haps gives some support to the view that it is merely an accel- erated type of a Zaphrentoid coral, occurring as it does among an extinct group. Whether the hexameral plan is derived from a tetrameral one is still an unsolved mystery. Developmental studies among modern forms may yet throw some light on this ques- tion. From the wide prevalence of the tetrameral arrangement among the extinct Rugosa it is probable that it is something inherent rather than acquired by mode of growth, especially 126 ©. FE. Gordon—FKarly Stages in Paleozoie Corals. ag it is characteristic not only of bent forms but also of simple, straight cones. At all events, one may take exception to the statement that “studies on the septal development of extinct Paleozoic corals reveal that in these early forms the primary septal plan was hexameral like that of modern forms.” Further studies upon well-preserved specimens of early Rugosa are much to be desired. Postscript. Since writing this article I have received and carefully read an excellent paper by Dr. Duerden on ‘“ The Fossula in Ru- gose Corals.” In this article I find a full recognition of the principle of retardation in development. The author shows beyond question that the alar fossulae and the cardinal groups of shortened fused septa in Hadrophyllum are developmental stages when compared with the ephebie condition of a form like Streptelasma. Since retardation in development means the retention in the adult stage of characters which belong to earlier stages, nepionic or neanic, Hadrophyllum must be a retarded type when compared with a form like Streptelasma, which passes through a Hadrophyllum stage. Both forms are probably to be regarded as derived from a protostreptelasmic stock. The author of the paper makes the point that, “Whenever alar fossule are present they represent an incom- pletion in the establishment of the newer septa of the alar region as compared with species in which no alar fossule are repre- sented ; they have only a developmental significance and would not correspond with any structural peculiarity of the fully devel- oped polyp.”* This is the point which I have insisted upon with reference to the pair of so-called “ primary septa” in LZ. proliferum ; namely, that they do not have the structural importance which Duerden gives to them, but that they have a developmental significance only. Duerden further remarks: “As would naturally be expected from such an explanation even individuals of the same species may vary much with regard to the presence or absence of alar fossule.” + This is evidently true. The only exception one might take to such a statement is the propriety of calling the variations * “The Morphology of the Madreporaria, VI, The Fossula i in Rugose Cor- als,” p. 33. + Ibid. , P. 33. C. E. Gordon—Early Stages in Paleozoic Corals. 127 members of the same species. For example, Hadrophyllums in which no alar fossulee were present in the adult stage would be accelerated types and properly should be made a distinct genus. ; Literature. Manual of Paleontology, Nicholson and Lydekker, Vol. I. Treatise on Zoology, edited by EK. Ray Lankaster, Part II, Porifera and Coelenterata. “ Relationships of the Kugosa (Tetracorolla) to the Living Zoin- ther,” J. EH. Duerden, Johns Hopkins University Circular, January 1902. ‘Report on the Actinians of Porto Rico,’ J. E. Duerden, U.S. Fish Commission for 1900, Vol. IIL. “Morphology of Coral Polyps,” J. E. Duerden, Smithsonian Mise. Collections, Vol. XLVII, Quart. Issue, Vol. II, No. 1, 1904. “Hamilton Group of Thedford, Ontario,” Hervey W. Shimer and Amadeus W. Grabau. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. XI, pp. 149-186. “Ueber die Morphologie und Morphogenie der Rugosa,” von N,. Jakowlew. Verhandlungen der Russisch-Kaiserlichen Min- eralogischen Geselschaft,” Bd. XLI, Lief 2, 1904. Text-Book of Paleontology, Zittel. “Deep Sea Corals,” L. F. de Pourtales. Illust. Catalog Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard College, IV. * Actinozen und Bryozeen aus dem Carbonkalkstein im Govern- ment Perm,” R. Ludwig, Paleontographica X. * Korallen aus Paliolithischen Formationen,” R. Ludwig, Palzeon- tographica XIV, 1865-66. “Beitrige zur Kenntniss fossiler Korallen,’? A. Kunth, Zeit. der Deutsch. Geol. Geselsch., xxi, 1869 5 xxii, 1870. “The Morphology of the Madreporaria, VI; The Fossula in Rugose Corals,” J. E. Duerden. Biol. Bull., Vol. LX, No. I, June, 1905. 128 Randall—Ferric Chloride in the Zine Reductor. Arr. VIIL—The Behavior of Ferric Chloride in the Zine Lteductor ; by D. L. Ranpatt. [Contributions from the Kent Chemical Laboratory of Yale Univ.—exliv.] Tue column of amalgamated zine as applied in the earlier form of the Jones reductor* or the simpler form now gener- ally employedt has proved very effective in the reduction of ferric sulphate preparatory to the estimation of the ferrous salt by potassium permanganate. The impression has pre- vailed, however, that the salt of iron acted upon by the amal- gamated zine must be the sulphate and that chlorides and nitrates must not be present even in small amounts. The following work was undertaken to see whether ferric chloride might not be treated effectively in the reductor and the reduced solution successfully titrated with standard per- manganate. For this work a solution of ferric chloride was made up and standardized by evaporating known amounts with 10° of sulphuric acid to the fuming point of the acid, passing the solution thus freed from chlorides through the reductor, and titrating with standardized permanganate. In general the procedure was to first run 100°* of warm dilute 2-5, per cent sulphuric acid through the reductor, next to pass in the iron solution diluted with 100° of the warm 2°5 per cent acid and then to wash down with 200°™* of the warm dilute acid followed by 100° of hot water. The receiving flask of the reductor was kept in a vessel containing running tap water, so that the solution was cooled as fast as it was reduced; and in some of the early experiments carbon dioxide was passed in at the beginning of the reduction to drive out the air and at the end of the reduction before titration, a prac- tice which was found to be unnecessary and so was discon- tinued. In this work a column of amalgamated 20-mesh zine was used in the reductor. In the preliminary experiments there was some evidence in the high results that chlorine was evolved, even in dilute solu- tions, but. this tendency was overcome by adding 1 gram of manganous sulphate in solution to the receiving flask before starting the reduction, according to the suggestion of Keisslert and Zimmer manny to apply to titrations of ferrous salts by permanganate in the presence of chlorides. Table I shows the results obtained under the var ying condi- tions detailed. * The Chemical Analysis of Iron, Blair, 2d edition, p. 208. + Ibid., 4th edition, p. 94. ¢ Ann. Phys., exviii, 41; cxix, 220-226. § Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges., xiv, p. 779. Randall—Ferric Chloride in the Zine Reductor. FeCl; taken. Exp. cm’, ee 20 TS XO) $s 20 4* 20 Re 20 6* 20 Hees 2) Sane 20, 9. 20, 10 20 hal 20 12 20 13 20 14 20 15 20 16 20 17 20 18 20 19 20 20 20 21 20 22 20 23 20 24 20 TOD OF WO De Fe. erm, "0349 "0349 "0349 “0349 "0349 "03849 "0349 "0349 “0349 "0349 "03849 ‘0349 "0349 "0349 "0349 "0349 ‘0349 "0349 "0349 "0349 ‘0349 0349 "0349 “0349 H.S0O4 20%. HCl. em. e@m3, 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 30 100 30 100 3d 100 40 100 50 lo pp be SS SrS7e OS iso 1S oS Oa SS Oe SoS SS) b TABLE I, Volume at titra- tion. em?, 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 MnSO, 5 KMnOx,. grm. Or le en | nm a) e Or Or bo Or Fe found, grms. “C354 ‘0354 0353 0354 °0350 °0350 "0348 "9349 "0351 "0348 0350 °0548 °0350 ‘0350 0354 ‘0354 "0348 °0350 °0350 °0350 0351 "0353 ‘0354 "0354 129 Error. grms. ++ +t+t+t+]+++4+ 14+ 14H 14444 °0005 °0005 ‘0004 ‘0005 ‘0001 ‘0001 000] °0000 “0002 ‘0001 ‘0001 ‘0001 °0001 ‘0001 ‘0005 °0005 ‘0001 “0001 “0001 ‘0001 "0002 -00038 °0005 *0005 In the last seven experiments by diluting abundantly it was possible to work with a greater amount of free acid. Having found the work to go successfully with small amounts of iron and dilute permanganate solutions the experiment was con- tinued with the use of more ferric chloride and a stronger per- manganate solution. Or Or Or Orb wo Ww WH St or or oo Fe . taken. grms. "0437 0437 0437 "0437 0437 “O874 “0874 H.SO,4 2°5%. HCl. em?, § em®*, 100 O 100 0) 100 0 100 0) 100 O 100 0) 100 0) ALAR T nee Volume at titra- tion. em?, 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 MnsO,. germs. ee ee er | ihe KMn0O,. em?, * CO, was used in receiving flask. Fe found. germs. 0434 "0435 0438 "0436 0437 “0874 0873 Error. grms. + ae ae ‘00038 ‘0002 ‘0001 0001 ‘0000 “0000 ‘0001 Volume Fe H.SO,4 at titra- Fe FeCl;. taken. 2°3%. HOCl.- tion. MnS0O;. KMnO,. found. Error. XPS CM! seo TMS. | Meas eCmoun seme: grms. em’. grms. grms. 8 100 1748 100 Q 600 ig 30°90 1742 —-0006 9 100 -1748 100 0) 600 It 80°92 +1748 —-0005 10* 90 °2532 100 0) 600 We 44°95 2533 +:0001 11 90 °2532 100 O 600 ile 45°00 2536 +:0004 12 3) O49 3 100 0) 600 is" 45°01 °2537 +:°0005 13 00 +2532 100 ) 600 ile 44°95 -2533 ++°0001 14 00 °2532 100 0 600 Ite 44°97 +2534 +4:0002 15 100 +5064 250 0 800 Ake 89°94 +5069 +:°0005 16 100 +5064 250 0) 800 1: 89°94 +5069 +°0005 pS 75 °4872 100 0 750 ils 70°81 ‘4871 —-0001 18 1) “4879 100 0 750 Ike 70°75 °4867 —-0005 19 75-4872 100 0) 750 ite 70°83 *4878 = +°0001 20 75 “4872 100 O 750 Ike 10°82 °4872 +:0000 21 75 *4872 100 0 750 ibe 70°83 *4873 = =+:0001 22 100 6497 100 0) 750 Is 94°43 -6497 +:0000 23 100-6497 100 0 750 le 94°44 6498 +°0001 24 100 +6497 100 10 750 ks 94°44 +6498 +0001 25 100 °6497 100 20 1000 a 94°53 °6503 +:°0006 26 100 °6497 100 25 1000 5° 94°53 6503 +:0006 27 100 +6497 100 25 1000 1:25 94°53 +6503 +:0006 28 100 “6497 100 25 1000 1°25 94°48 6500 +:00038 2) 100 6497 100 25 1000 5°00 94°49 -6501 +:0004 130 Randall—Ferrie Chloride in the Zine Reductor. TaBLeE IT (continued). For purposes of comparison Table III gives some results obtained by the direct evaporation of the ferric chloride solu- tion with sulphuric acid. TABLE III. Fe Volume at FeCls = taken. H.SO,1:1. titration. KMnOQg,. Fe found. Error. em?, germs. em, em?. em?, _ grms. grms, 715 “4872 5) 750 70°75 ‘4867 — ‘0005 US "A872 25 750 70°83 ‘A873 +:000L 15 "A872 ANS) 750 70°83 4873 +:0001 75 "4872 Is) 750 70°88 "AS76 +:0004 These experiments show that it is possible to reduce ferric chloride in the zine reductor and to determine the iron with success by potassium permanganate, provided the titration is carried on in the presence of manganous sulphate and in solu- tions sufticiently dilute. A small excess of hydrochloric acid has no influence on the result in dilute solutions, and by dilut- ing to one liter the excess may amount to as much as,25°™* of the strongest acid. In closing the writer expresses his thanks to Prof. F. A. Gooch for advice and assistance given during the progress of the work. * Changed standard of solutions. Eastman—Dipnoan Affinities of Arthrodires. 181 Arr. [X.—Dipnoan Affinities of Arthrodires; by C. EASTMAN. In the modern fauna, Veoceratodus stands out as an isolated landmark which has preserved faithful indications of the course evolution has taken amongst Dipnoan fishes. Compared with its nearest surviving relatives, Protopterus and Lepidosi- ren, it represents a relatively early larval stage of development ; and its generalized organization bears witness to an extremely ancient origin, Regarding the Ceratodont type as decidedly more primitive in structure than that of D7pterws and its allies, and this view is supported by weighty evidence, two conclusions are possible with respect to their genetic r elations. Either the more primitive type was in existence as early as the Devonian, and has survived practically unchanged ever since ; or else modern Lung-fishes are to be looked upon as degen- erate descendants of the Dipterus stock. Objections stand in the way of either theory. Opposed to the first is the failure of Paleontology to realize our concep- tion of a ‘Palwoceratodus’—that is to say, of fossil organisms standing in ancestral relations to both Ctenodipterines and Ceratodonts ; and added to this is the difficulty of supposing any primitive type to have come down tous from remote ages with- out undergoing extensive modifications. The newer interpre- tation, proposed some years ago by Dollo,* is attended with still graver difficulties. For it we make Dipterus the initial term of a series leading through various Paleeozoic genera and culminating in modern Lung-fishes, it will be necessary, as Professor Bridge has observed,t “‘to assume the possibility of an ossified skull so far degenerating as to lose almost all trace of endochondrial ossification, and secondarily revert to the con- dition of a skull so completely cartilaginous, and so primitive in other respects, as that exhibited by the living Ceratodus. So far as I am aware, there is no evidence to justify belief in such a possibility.” Comparison of other structural features besides the skull leads to altogether similar conclusions. Thus, the argument that the heterocercal tail of Dipterus raust be antecedent to the diphycereal (or gephyrocercal) of MWeoceratodus is met by Furbringer? in following wise: “Nachdem in jeder Beziehung * Dollo, L., Sur la phylogénie des Dipneustes, Bull. Soc. Belge Géol., vol. ix (1895), pp. 79-128. + Bridge, T. W., Morphology of the Skull in Lepidosiren, etc., Trans. Zool. London, vol. xiv (1898), p. 370. { Fiirbringer, K., Beitrige zur Morphologie des Skeletes der Dipnoer. (Semon’s Zool. Forschungsreisen in Australien, etc.), Jena Denkschr., vol. iv (1904), p. 500. 182. Lastman—Dipnoan Affinities of Arthrodires. Ceratodus als der primitivere erkannt ist, muss auch die Annahme Dollo’s, dass die Heterocerkie bei Dipterus etwas Primitives bedeute, fallen. Der Schwanz von Ceratodus zeigt zwar gewisse Riickbildungen; fur eime ehemahlige Heterocerkie bei ihm ist aber kein Beweis erbracht. Ich kann nach alledem, falls tiberhaupt eine Verwandtschaft zwischen Dipterus und den recenten Dipnoern besteht, diese im Gegen- satz zu Dollonur im Sinne von Woodward und Bridge auffassen.” Elsewhere the same author expresses himself unreservedly as to the relative specialization of the two types: “So wiire eines doch sicher, dass Cfenodus und namentlich Dipterus weit hoher differenzirt sind als Ceratodus.” Smith Wood- ward’s opinion is that Dzpterus and its allies are more special- ized than any existing Dipnoan, and that the more generalized types have alone survived to represent the group at the present day.* Though he does not distinctly say so, his remarks would imply that the archetype of Ceratodus was ancestral to Ctenodipterines, the latter becoming finally extinct. So much for a statement of the problem. Remains to inquire whether Palseontology can point the way toward asolu- tion, even if indirectly. It has been said that no generalized form standing in the relation of ancestor to both Dipterus and Ceratodonts—the latter alone having persisted,—is known from the Devonian. Were such aform to be brought to light, or should its existence become a necessary postulate from other facts, it is evident that the question as to descent of mod- ern Dipnoans would be stripped of much perplexity. In that event; also, there would be no necessity for an appeal to the imperfection of the paleontological record, such as has hereto- fore existed. Now we confidently believe that the relations between recent and fossil Dipnoans will appear in much clearer light through comparison of Veoceratodus with Arthrodires, taking Mylostoma and Dinichthys as typical examples of the latter. There is no novelty in the idea that Arthrodires are related to Lipneusti, Newberry’s original suggestion to that effect hav- ing found several warm supporters, notably Cope and Smith Woodward. It must be said, however, that the question has remained eminently controversial, first one and then another of rival interpretations gaining headway. That a singular lack of unanimity prevails as to the SV tematic position of. “Arthrodires must be apparent to anyone having a casual acquaintance with the literature. The reason for such diver sity of opinion evi- dently lies in non-recognition of homologies between the struc- tural type of Arthr odires on the one hand, vand those of fossil and * Woodward, A.S., Catalogue Fossil Fishes British Museum, Part It (1891), introduc. p. XX. Eastman—Dipnoan Affinities of Arthrodires. © 133 recent Dipnoans on the other. It is even denied by writers of authority that such homologies exist. Dean, for instance, affirms that there is as much propriety in referring Arthrodires to the sharks as to Dipnoans, and in his later contribution proposes to exclude them from fishes altogether.* ‘Their nature is conceded to be highly problematical by Dreabent Jordan, who dismisses all thought of a connection between them and Lung-fishes. Thus, in the recent standard treatise of this author we read as follows: + These monstrous creatures have been considered by Woodward and others as mailed Dipnoans, but their singular jaws are quite unlike those of the Dipneusti, and very remote from any struc- tures seen in the ordinary fish. The turtle-like mandibles seem to be formed of dermal elements, in which there lies little homology to the jaws of a fish and not much more with the jaws of Dipnoan or shark. The relations with the Ostracophores are certainly remote, though nothing else seems to be any nearer. They have no affinity with the true Ganoids, to which vaguely limited group many writers have attached them. Nor is there any sure founda- tion to the view adopted by Woodward, that they are to be con- sidered as armored offshoots of the Dipnoans. Again, at page 445 of the same work, occurs this passage : These creatures have been often called ganoids, but with the true ganoids like the garpike they have seemingly nothing in common. They are also different from the Ostracophores. To regard them with Woodward as derived from ancestral Dipnoans is to give a possible guess as to their origin, and a very unsatis- factory guess at that. What is meant by the charge that Woodward’s view rests upon insecure foundation issimply this: Arthrodires are pr ovisionally classed amongst Dipnoans by Woodward on the assumption that they were autostylic; however probable the assumption, its truth remains to be demonstrated. And we must admit that, according to the usual interpretation of jaw-parts in Artbrodires, it would be very difticult to prove that autostyly existed. Granting all this, yet in the light of a novel inter- pretation, and of cumulative evidence drawn from various parts of the skeleton, the problem may be simplified, perhaps even placed in fair way of solution. Our object will now be to suggest a new interpretation of the dental elements of Arthrodires, and to point out certain homo- *Dean, B., Paleontological Notes, Mem. New York Acad. Sci., vol. ii (1901), p. 111. +tJordan, D. S., Guide to the Study of Fishes, vol. i, p. 582 (New York, 1905). 184 Huastman—Dipnoan Affinities of Arthrodires. logies between them and WVeoceratodus. Provided a ease be made out, the structural resemblances between the two types ean hardly be explained except on the hypothesis of a common origin. It therefore becomes necessary to suppose that a generalized archetype of modern Dipnoans, probably derived directly from the Elasmobranch stem, was present during the lowermost Devonian, giving rise to “two specialized groups, but manifesting itself, ike Zamulus, Cestracion, Scorpions and other archaic survivals, extraordinary persistence and conserva- tism ever since. The relations between the three recognized orders of Dipnoans would then appear after some such scheme as this : Neoceratodus Ceratodus sturii Ctenodus Titanichthys Uronenus Coccosteus, Dinichthys Phaneropleuron Dinomylostoma, Mylostoma Scaumenacia Homosteus Dipterus Macropetalichthys Primitive Ceratodonts In what follows we shall endeavor to show (1), that the dentition of Arthrodires is distinctly of the Dipnoan type, aris- ing in the same manner and representing the same elements ; (2) the relations of the Meckelian cartilage are identical in both types; (3) the dermal plates forming the cranial roof have undergone corresponding reduction and are arranged after essentially the same pattern, both in Arthrodires and Cerato- donts; and (4), Weoceratodus recalls throughout its entire organization, save for the absence of dermal armoring, the principal features of Arthrodires. Such intimate structural resemblances cannot be explained by parallelism, but point plainly to common descent. Dentition of Dinichthys and Neoceratodus compared.—So long ago as 1875, Newberry* was struck with the close par- allelism between the jaws of Dinichthys and those of Pro- * Newberry, J. S., Rept. Geol. Surv. Ohio, Paleont. vol. ii (1875), p. 1d. Eastman—Dipnoan Affinities of Arthrodires. 135 topterus, even imagining the latter to be a lineal descendant of “ Placoderms.” Now the trenchant dental plates of Protop- terus and Lepidosiren are clearly but a variant of the Cerato- dont type, and we have to take only a step further to see that the Dinichthyid dentition has been similarly derived. No dif- ficulty is offered by the so-called “ premaxillary ” teeth of Din- achthys, which are the precise equivalents of the vomerine pair in modern Dipnoans. As for the characteristic crushing plates in upper and lower jaws of Ceratodonts, these occur nor- mally in M/ylostoma, but in Dinichthys have become rotated so as to stand upright in the jaws, their outer denticulated margins functioning against one another like the blades of a pair of shears. An inkling as to how this variation was brought about is afforded by the Triassic Ceratodus sturw,* which may be taken to represent an incipient stage of meta- morphosis. The dental plates of this form are seen to be turned more or less on edge, the corrugations interlocking in opposite jaws when the mouth is closed, and a rudimentary beak being developed in front which recalls the well-known projection in Dinichthyid mandibles. As for the so-called ‘maxillary ” or “ shear-tooth ” of Din- ichthys, this corresponds plainly to the triturating upper (pal- ato-pterygoid) dental plate of Ceratodonts, turned rather more upright than in (C. sturi: and its anterior process or “shoulder” is represented by the forwardly placed ascending process of modern torms.t In Arthrodires, as in other Dipnoans and higher forms, the functional lower jaw is formed by mem- brane plates which have ossified around the Meckelian carti- lage. Distinct angular and articular elements appear to be wanting in Dinichthys, but the splenial is strongly developed, supporting the dental plate properly speaking in front, and being articulated posteriorly with the cranium by cartilage, as in Weoceratodus. But one interpretation can be given of the conspicuous groove which extends forward along the inferior border of the splenial, passing underneath and to the inner side of the dental plate proper, and terminating at the sym- physis. Init were lodged remnants of the Meckelian cartilage, precisely as in the lving Protopterus.{ Intermandibular teeth have not been definitely proved to occur, although their presence would be in strict accord with embryological evi- dence, and the appearance of certain specimens has created a *Teiler, F., Ueber den Schadel eines fossilen Dipnoérs, Abhandl. k. k. Reichsanstalt Wien, vol. xv (1891), pt. 3, pl. iv. + This process is well shown in Plate la, fig. 4, of Miall’s ‘‘ Monograph of the Sirenoid and Crossopterygian Ganoids.” Palzont. Soc., 1878. { Wiedersheim, R., Morpholog. Studien, Heft 1, p. 55, pl. ii, figs. 3, 8. Firbringer, K., op. cit., p. 481, pl. xxxix, fig. 28. 136 = Kastman—Dipnoan Affinities of Arthrodires. surmise that such were developed ;* moreover, in Coccosteus we are confronted with a denticulated symphysial margin the significance of which has not been explained. Finally, it should be noted that an approach to the Dinichthyid form of mandible is made even amongst Ctenodipterines,+ and some of these also developed cutting surfaces, as in Sagenodus perten- wis, for instance. Dentition of Mylostoma and Neoceratodus compared.—Our knowledge of J/ylostoma received important additions a few years ago, as the result of Dr. Bashford Dean’s investigation of the type species, JZ. variabile.t In the light, however, of Fig. 1.—Upper dentition of Mylostoma variabile Newb., from the Cleve- land shale of Sheffield, Ohio. x 1g. freshly discovered material, it is clear that this author was not entirely successful in determining the relations of the palato- pterygoid plates in the unique specimen studied by him. That their true arrangement is depicted in the accompanying text-figure 1, can be proved in several ways, as follows: First, in no other position is there such accurate fit between upper and lower dental plates when the jaws are closed. Secondly, this reconstruction is in harmony with embryological evidence. And thirdly, it is identical with the arrangement recently * Dean, B., Fishes, Living and Fossil, p. 188. (New York, 1895.) + Atthey, T., On Ctenodus obliquus, etc., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 4, vol. xv (1875), p. 309, pl. xix, fig. 2. By Smith Woodward this speciesis consid- ered identical with Sagenodus incequalis Owen. : t Dean, B., Paleeontological Notes: On the Characters of Mylostoma New- berry, Mem. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. ii (1901), pp. 101-109. — Eastman--Dipnoan Affinities of Arthrodires. 187 worked out for a new genus, intermediate between Mylostoma and Dinichthys—as the name Dinomylostoma impiies—from the Portage beds of Mt. Morris, New York. For the privi- lege of studying the important specimen referred to, the writer is indebted to his friend Professor Schuchert, of Yale, in whose custody it is, and at whose suggestion the specific title is inseribed to the memory of the late Professor Beecher. It is beside our purpose to present here a detailed account of the new form; suffice it to note that it permits accurate 2) ~ Fig. 2.— External aspect of (7) right, and (b) left mandibles of Dinomylo- stoma beecheri (MS.), from the Portage of western New York. x lg. reconstruction of the entire dental apparatus, and acquaints us for the first time with the articular union between the lower jaw and cranium of Arthrodires. In this latter respect the conditions are exactly as we should anticipate from analogy with Weoceratodus ; the articular cartilage is attached to the outer surface of the splenial at its posterior extremity, and forms a hinge with the suspensorial cartilage of the cranium. Whether this latter was in direct connection with the head- shield, or supported by a squamosal element, we are as yet with- out information. The articular cartilage of the left mandible is somewhat indistinctly shown in text- -tigure 2; that belong- ing to the right mandible is removable, and has ‘been omitted in the uppermost figure. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourtu Serius, Vou. XXI, No. 122.—FEBRuARy, 1906. 10 138 = Hastman—Dipnoan Affinities of Arthrodires. On referring to the diagram in fig. 1, it will be seen that the vomerine teeth in Mylostoma are succeeded behind by two pairs of palato-pterygoid plates, instead of one only, as in Ceratodonts. Embryology teaches, however, that the dliserep- ancy is apparent, not real ; for as shown by Semon,* the den- tal plates of Veoceratodus arise through concresence of conical denticles, which are at first disposed so as to form two pairs of palato- pterye goid plates, arranged as in J/ylostoma, these after- wards fusing ito one. Clearly, therefore, the upper dentition of Weoceratodus passes through an early Mylostoma-stage. Further, it will be noted that the peculiar posterior contour of the hindermost pair of plates in A/ylostoma (the same holds true also for Dinomylostoma) is conformable to, and therefore to be associated with, the usual pattern of palato-pterygoid cartilage found in all Dipnoans. Amongst Ctenodipterines this element is ossified, and passes under the name of “ upper dentigerous bone” ; the fact that it is unossified in Arthro- dires agrees with other evidence pointing to their lesser spe- cialization. The mandibles of JJylostoma betray unmistakable indica- tions of a Ceratodont origin, for the functional dental plate is even more sharply demarcated from the supporting splenial than in Dinichthys or Dinomylostuma. It even bears prom- inent ridges radiating from the imner margin, which may possibly be a survival of primitive Dipnoan conditions. The presence of intermandibular teeth would be in complete har- mony with embryological ‘evidence, and as a matter of fact, certain detached teeth have been somewhat doubtfully inter- preted as such by Newberry.+ The pair figured by him, how- ever, have every appearance of being vomerine; interpreting them as such, we must confess ignorance of a pair opposed to them in the lower jaw. Amongst Ctenodipterines, Synthe- todus is the only genus in which “symphysial teeth are perma- nently retained, thus paralleling an evanescent stage of /Veo- ceratodus. Cranial Characters of Arthrodires and Neoceratodus com- pared.—The most notable peculiarity of the skull in Veocera- todus, as compared with Ctenodipterines, is its retention throughout life of a completely closed and almost entirely unossified chondrocranium. The contrast presented by Dip- terus in this respect is very striking, Traquair’s claim being amply supported that this genus attained a higher grade of *Semon, R., Die Zahnentwickelung des Ceratodus forsteri. Zool. For- schungsreisen in Australien. Jena Denkschr., vol. iv (1901), pp. 116-183. + Newberry, J. 8., Paleozoic Fishes of North America, Monogr. Wes Ss Geol. Surv., vol. xvi (1889), p. 165, pl. xvi, fig. Eastman—Dipnoan Affinities of Arthrodires. 139 specialization than any existing Dipnoid.* But in Arthrodires, on the other hand, all available evidence goes to show that the skull was constructed upon essentially the same model as in Veoceratodus ; consequently the latter serves as a most valu- able criterion for interpreting various structural details which have heretofore been misunderstood. So far as can be deter- mined from the interior of the headshield in Jacropetalich- thys,+ Chelyophorus,t Homosteus$ and a few other genera, the chrondrocranium of Arthrodires was even less ossified than in WVeoceratodus. It is certain that the parasphenoid was largely cartilaginous, and for all that appears to the contr anys the palato- pterygoid elements must have remained entirely so The presence of a pineal gland, sometimes but not alraye communicating with the external surface, is clearly indicated in the Arthrodiran skull, its position being as in Veoceratodus. There are also conspicuous ridges on the under side of the cra- nial shield, both in Arthrodires and in Weoceratodus, which extend forwards and inwards from the posterolateral angles, and give off descending processes in front. These are seen in the recent form to furnish support for the palato-pterygoid dental plates. Herein we have an explanation for the great solidity of these ridges in Dinichthys, for it can scarcely be doubted that they served a corresponding function as regards the powerful shear-teeth of. that form. We have next to speak of the dermal bones forming the cranial roof. Their origin is admitted to have been through fusion of numerous small dermal plates; but that which is tr uly remarkable, and claims our closest attention, is that the pri- mordial Dipterus- like plates should have become reduced prac- tically to the same extent, and rearranged almost exactly in the same fashion, both in Arthrodires and Meoceratodus. When was this simplification brought about ? Amongst Cteno- dipterines, despite their specialization in other respects, we know that the mosaic pattern of cranial roofing bones persisted as late as the Carboniferous. Amongst Arthrodires, reduction had already taken place in the lower Devonian, after which a fairly uniform pattern was adhered to. Amongst Ceratodonts, we have yet to learn how their cranial plates. were arranged anterior to the Trias. Manifestly modern Dipnoans cannot be derived from both Ctenodipterines and Arthrodires ; and if descendants of the former, how are we to explain the extraor- *Traquair, R. H., On the genera Dipterns, Paleedaphus, Holodus, etc., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. ii (1878), p. 5. + Cope, E. D., On the Characters of some Paleeozoic Fishes, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. xiv eo), p. 455, pl. xxix. { Eichwald, E. von, Lethea Rossica, vol. i (1860), p. 1529, pl. lvii, figs. 1, 2. S$ Woodward, A. S., Note on some Dermal Plates of Homosteus, Proe. Zool. Soe., 1891, pp. 198-201. 140 = Eastman—Dipnoan Affinities of Arthrodires. dinary resemblance between them and Arthrodires as regards cranial osteology, to say nothing of other skeletal Renmin | But if modern forms are not directly descended from either 3 Fig. 38.—Dinichthys pustulosus Eastm. Middle Devonian ; Iowa. Restora- tion of the headshield, dorsal aspect. x 14. Fig. 4.—Neoceratodus forsteri Krefft. Dorsal aspect of cranial roof, drawn as if flattened out. Cartilaginous portions dotted. x 1. of these groups, 1f their ancestry can be projected backward in imagination to the starting-point from which both of them diverged, then these difficulties become reconciled, real homologies are ‘established between all three groups, and two of them are seen to have elaborated similar cranial patterns. Eastman—Dipnoan Affinities of Arthrodires. 141 Space is wanting to enter into detailed comparisons of the cranial roofing plates as they occur in Arthrodires and modern Dipnoans, but it will be evident from the annexed figures that there is marked agreement between them. Allowance must of course be made for the fact that some of the elements, such as the pre- and sub-orbitals, remain more or less cartilagi- nous in the modern form. The centrals, also, have become enlarged, much more so than in the Triassic C. s¢twriz, and excluded from contact with each other in the median line though elongation of the median occipital. Yet the latter element is relatively less elongated than in /Zomosteus, and Macropetalichthys affords a parallel example of fusion between the pineal and rostral. Turning to Protopterus, we find that the bones corresponding to the centrals are actually in contact for a certain distance anteriorly, aud those of C. stw- rii have practically the some conformation as in Dinichthys. In all known Dipnoans, recent and fossil, two opercular bones are present, but these remain for a time fused together in the young Neoceratodus. Coccosteus, and Dinichthys as well, is commonly understood as having one opercular element ; Jae- kel, however, affirms the existence of two in the former genus. * The significance of this observation, if confirmed, is apparent. Aas and Body-armoring.—Both in living Dipnoans and amongst all Arthrodires where the vertebral column is known, the latter remains notochoral, and the neural and haemal arches, together with the dorsal fin- “supports, have expanded extremi- ties, The resemblance between Coccosteus and Neoceratodus in this respect is very great. The encasement of the anterior portion of the trunk in dermal armor is to be looked upon as a specialized feature peculiar to Arthrodires, yet comparable, in a general way, to the extensive ossification observed amongst Ctenodipterines, and to the ganoine investment of their squa- mation. The question of body-armoring is of purely second- ary importance in determining aftinities, inasmuch as wide variation prevails amongst closely related forms. So far as we may rely on negative evidence, Jlacropetalichthys and Asterosteus were unprotected by abdominal ar mor, and within a single family of Ostracophore es, Plerichthys is scaled, Both- riolepis naked. The fact that two of the dermal covering plates are articulated with the headshield should occasion no surprise, when it is remembered that the so-called ‘ cranial ribs” —which may represent morphologically a pair of costal elements—articulate with the skull in modern Dipnoans. Fins.—Many writers have taken it for granted that the tail of Coccosteus was heterocercal. Not a particle of evidence * Jaekel, O., Ueber Coccosteus und die Beurtheilung der Placodermen, Sitzungsber. Gesellsch. Naturf. Freunde, Jahrg. 1902, p. “109. 142. Hastman—Dipnoan Affinities of Arthrodires. exists in favor of this supposition ; on the contrary, authorities like Traquair and Smith Woodward agree that it may as well have been diphycercal. Now it still remains to be proved that the diphycerey of eoceratodus is not a primitive fea- ture, that does not faithfully reproduce ancestral characteristics. One is indeed, at perfect liberty to believe that the tail of Ceratodonts and Arthrodires never advanced beyond the diphy- cereal condition, Dipterus and its allies alone becoming hetero- cercal. Inasmuch as the median fins of Coccosteus are well separated, their continuity in Veoceratodus would seem to be a secondarily acquired character; but the burden of proof surely rests on those who hold that original heterocerey has become suppressed through abortion of the extreme end of the axis, and coalescence of the dorsal and anal fins. No enlightenment could be more welcome than that which would acquaint us with the structure of the paired fins in Arthrodires, as to whether they were biserial or uniserial, Crossopterygian- like or Pleuracanthus-like. Of the pectoral pair no trace whatever has been preserved, nor do we even know that a girdle was present. Failure of the latter to be preserved might be attributable to a cartilaginous condition resembling that of Veoceratodus, but we should expect to find at least some traces of fin rays, were these structures developed. Complete atrophy of the pectoral pair would indicate, of course, high specialization. Obscure traces of a pelvic pair have been detected in some specimens of Coccosteus, but nothing is known of their configuration or structure. There seems to be no doubt ‘as to the occurrence of a pelvic arch, and all that different writers have affirmed of it 1s consistent with the view that it was constructed essentially as in modern Dipnoans. In the latter it has remained cartilaginous; in Coccos- teus and pe it was ossitied. Conclusions.—The aggregate of facts brought together through comparison of Arthrodires with modern Dipnoans ces ‘to uphold the following general proposes Neoceratodus bears intimate resemblances to Arthrodires on ae one hand, and to Ctenodipterines on the other, but represents a more primitive structural type than either. 2. It is impossible to regard Weoceratodus as the degenerate descendant of both the earlier, more specialized groups, nor of either of them to the exclusion of the other ; since, however, it partakes of the characters of both, community of origin is necessarily presupposed for all three ‘orders, Sirenoids, Cteno- dipterines and Arthrodires. 3. Arthrodires and COtenodipterines may be regarded as specialized offshoots which diverged in different “directions from primitive Dipnoan ancestors; and the more generalized Eastman—Dipnoan Affinities of Arthrodires. 143 descendants of these latter have alone survived until the present day. 4, The primitive stock must have been autostylic, diphycer- eal, without a secondary upper jaw and dentigerous dentary elements, and with U/ronemus- or Dipterus-like type of denti- tion; characters which do not permit us to ascribe the ultimate origin of Dipnoans to the Crossopterygil, but suggest rather a descent from Pleuracanthus-like sharks. 5. The recognition of Arthrodires as an order of Dipneusti precludes their association with Ostracophores in any sense whatever. The ‘“Placodermata,” as originally understood by M’Coy and Pander, is therefore an unnatural assemblage, and should be abandoned. EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. Fig. 1. Reconstruction of the upper dentition of Mylostoma variabile Newb., from the Cleveland shale of Ohio. The small obtuse vomerine teeth are succeeded behind by two pairs of palato-pterygoid dental plates, as in the young of Neoceratocdus. The dotted lines are intended to indicate the posi- tion of the supporting palato-pterygoid cartilage. x, Fig. 2. Mandibles of Dinomylostoma beecheri(MS.), from the Portage beds of Mt. Morris, N. Y. Both the right (a) and left (b) mandibles are shown from the lateral, external aspect. The posterior portion of the splenial in 6 is seen to have the compressed articular cartilage attached to its outer side. Fig. 5. Restoration of the cranial shield in Dinichthys pustulosus Kastm. from the Middle Devonian of lowa. C, central; WO, external occipital: M, marginal; MO, median occipital; P, pineal; PO, preorbital ; PtO, post- orbital ; R, rostralor mesethmoid. Sensory canals represented by double dotted lines. x ly. Fig. 4. Cranial roof of the recent Neoceratodus forsteri Krefft, drawn as if flattened out, and dermal plates lettered to correspond with those of Din- ichthys. The anterior median plate is commonly termed mesethmoid. x 14. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 144. Lull, New Name for the Dinosaurian Genus Ceratyps. Art. X.—A New Name for the Dinosaurian Genus Ceratops ; by Ricuarp 8. Lutt. In a recent letter to Professor Osborn, Mr. T. D. A. Cocker- ell calls attention to the fact that the nate Cer atops, used by Professor Marsh in 1888, for a genus of horned dinosaurs, was preoccupied by Rafinesque in 1815, who thus designated a genus of birds. The dinosaurian genus is a well-defined one from the Judith River beds of Montana and their equivalent, the Belly River of Canada; the chief generic characters as set forth by J. B. Hatcher * being as follows: ‘“ Parietals reduced to a narrow median bar and slender postero-lateral processes, enclosing on either side large elongated parietal fontanelles. External branches of parietals overlapped by the elongated and triangu- lar squamosals. Supraorbital horn cores well developed, circular In cross section except near the base, and curving backward and outward. Nasal horn core strong and curved forward instead of backward as in Jonoclonius.” The type species is Ceratops montanus Marsh, and Hatcher also included in the genus Monoclonius recurvicornis Cope, M. canadensis Lambe, and J. belli Lambe. Ceratops paucidens Marsh, Hatcher abandoned owing to the nature of the type material, which was such as to preclude precise definition. This genus is guite distinct from Monoclonius and Centro- saurus, 1ts contemporaries, and from the Laramie genera Aga- thaumas, Triceratops, Diceratops and Torosaurus. The name Proceratops is offered as a substitute for Cera- tops as suggestive of the latter name aie as indicating the fore- runner of the great horned dinosaurs of the Laramie. This necessary change would seem to invalidate Marsh’s family name of Ceratopside given in 1888 and necessitate the use of Cope’s term Ag athaumide (1889) for the group. Amherst, Mass. * Bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey, No. 257, p. 93. Trowbridge—Primary Feathers in Flight. 145 Arr. XI—On the Interlocking of Emarginate Primary Feathers in Flight; by C. C. Trowsrineer. Tus paper contains the results of observations showing that certain birds interlock the emarginate primary feathers of their wings in flight. Some of these observations were made a number of years ago, but were withheld from publication until sufficient evidence could be collected to demonstrate con- clusively the existence of this principle of animal mechanics. The additional evidence has been obtained and the complete paper is now presented. A paper published in 1887, entitled ‘Something New About the Fight of Birds,’* contained a short account of an observation which I made during the autunim of 1885; namely, that on several occasions some of the primary or long end feathers of wings of hawks were found interlocked when these birds were killed while in flight. The primaries found inter- locked were those which were emarginate, that 1 is, having their webs narrowed half way to the tips (as shown in fig. 1), the feathers being interlocked in the emarginations. The essential facts of the observation were also presented by my father, the late Professor W. P. Trowbridge, before the National Academy of Sciences and the New York Academy of Sciences, and shortly afterwards a controversy on the sub- ject took place in Sczence between the late Dr. Elliot Coues, who opposed the hypothesis that the primaries were inter- locked in flight,+ and the late Professor J. 8. Newberry and Professor Trowbridge, who took a strong stand in its favor. Investigation of; the subject has been continued by me with the purpose of obtaining further facts. In September, 1891, at New Haven, Conn., during the migrations, S$ a large number of hawks were feild and exam- ined as soon as they fell to the ground. ‘The observations on one occasion were assisted by my father and on another by Mr. Henry Townsend of .New Haven. These and later observa- tions have been presented before the New York Academy of Sciences but have not been published heretofore. The alleged interlocking or overlapping of the primaries has been repeatedly disputed by prominent ornithologists, a fact which has caused me to defer the publication of a paper on the subject until I could decide the question positively. HOE C? Trowbridge, O. ote vol. xii, No. 12, p. 202. + Sci., vol. x, No. 256, 321. t Ibid., a xi, No. 257, p. 9. SC. C. Trowbridge, Bae Flights in Connecticut. The Auk, xii, No. 3, July 1895. ° 146 Trowbridge—Interlocking of Emarginate This paper contains the following sections : J. Emarginate primaries, their form and inter-relation. II. Observations made at New Haven, Conn., in 1891, showing the interlocking of the primaries in certain species. IIf. Observations made at New Haven, Conn., and at Paterson, N. J., in 1904-5. IV. Measurements of the notches in the emarginate webs, showing how long the primaries were interlocked. V. Species which have emarginate primaries. VI. Three well-defined types of flight in Raptores. VIl. Function of interlocked primaries in flight. VIII. The wear of the primaries as shown by the microscope. IX. Summary and Conclusions. 1 J. EmarGinate PRIMARIES, THEIR Form anp INTER-RELATION. The number of primary feathers of the wing that are emar- ginate in different species is often used as one of the means of identification in standard works on ornithology. The emar- ginate shape of these feathers is natural and not produced by wear, as is well known. It is very marked in eagles and hawks and other birds of prey. In some species, six out of ten primaries are deeply emarginate on the posterior web. A complete set of emarginate primaries of a common hawk (Buteo lineatus) are shown in fig. i. In this species the first Primary Feathers in Plight. 147 primary (1) is emarginate only on the posterior web, and the fifth primary (5) emarginate only on the anterior web, while the three other primaries (2, 8 and 4) are emarginate on both webs. The sixth primary (6) is not emarginate “and is shown for comparison. The emarginate contour of the anterior web is sometimes called “sinuate.”’* When the primaries are in their natural places in the wing the emargination of the ante- rior web in every case exactly corresponds to the emargination of the posterior web of the preceding feather, and permits the feathers to be easily and firmly interlocked at the points on the webs where the emarginations begin. (See @ and 4, fig. 1.) This correspondence is characteristic and demonstrates the inter-relation of emarginate primaries. To illustrate the way in which primaries are interlocked, the five outer primaries of a Red-shouldered hawk are shown as they appear when they are not interlocked, as seen from beneath the wing, in fig. 2, and then as they are when inter- locked in fig. 8. The same set of primaries as seen from above the wing are shown in figs. 4 and 5. The primaries may be more widely separated than they appear in these figures and yet be firmly interlocked, espe- cially in the case of large birds where the feathers are long i in proportion to their rigidity. Under these circumstances the emarginate portions of the primaries are usually curved shghtly upward by the pressure of the air. This upward curve has oiten been observed. II. OpseRVATIONS MADE AT NEw Haven, Conn., SHOWING THE INTERLOCKING OF PRIMARIES IN CERTAIN SPECIES. In September, 1891, during the hawk migrations of that year, about thirty hawks were killed, examined as soon as they had fallen to the ground, and the number of primary feathers interlocked recorded. These observations are given in Tables I and II, in which the columns marked A and B refer to the wings of the bird, because the wings were not designated by “right” and “left” salvar the observations were mades The hawks were shot as they were passing over a high hill south- east of New Haven, Conn. Large migratory ‘flights of hawks have oceurred along the coast of Connecticut nearly every autumn, the greatest flights having taken place in September. On numerous occasions many “thousands hawks have passed during a day, when flocks of upwards of one hundred of certain species have been observed. In the opinion of the writer, the time of these extensive migratory movements is directly dependent upon the fo) direction and velocity of the wind. If the wind starts to blow *K. Coues, Key to N. Amer. Birds. 148 Trowbridge—Interiocking of Emarginate Tg; ar er al Fie. Fig. Fic. Fie. a oar Primaries not interlocked, viewed from beneath the wing. 3 Primaries interlocked, viewed from beneath the wing. F: Primaries not interlocked, viewed from above the wing. a Primaries interlocked, viewed from above the wing. Primary Feathers in flight. 149 from the north, northeast or northwest, hawks immediately appear in large numbers. Records seem to show that these birds utilize the wind asa means of migration, and that they begin their migration movements independent! y of changes of temperature that occur.* The hawks that were shot had been migrating for hours, alternately soaring and _ coast- ing, and were killed as they passed over one ‘of the high hills near the coast. During the migration, where a portion of the journey is against the wind, if hawks approach a hill in line of their flight, they usually coast with set wings and descending pass ‘rapidly over the crest of the hill close to the ground. Having passed the crest of the hill they almost invariably soar until they have ascended many hundred feet, apparently using the upward air currents that exist on the windward slope. They then again coast towards the next hill that lies in the direction in which they are migrating. In a few places the coast line is at ‘right angles to the diree- tion of migration. At these pointsin the migratory route the hawks often fly almost against the wind. Where the wind is favorable the hawks migrate at an altitude of a thousand feet or more. The observations at Paterson, N.J., in the spring (Table IIT, ete.) have been made when hawks are moving northward, migrating in the manner just described. This brief description of the way in which the Falconide make their migrations has been given to show the conditions under which tle observations recorded in this paper have been made. All the hawks obtained were killed during the migrations. An examination of Table I shows the following significant facts : — N P perfect wings of 23 specimens of one species SCAM TONS OEY lee ee See see aa UE ag es ea 40 Number of wings found with some primaries interlocked_ 40 Number of wings with five e (all) primaries interlocked... 10 Number of wings with four primaries interlocked sss a. 8 Number of wings with three primaries interlocked ___-. 11 Thus 29 out of 40 wings were found to have an average of 76 per cent of their emarginate primaries interlocked. Total number of emarginate primaries of perfect wings... 200 Total number of emarginate primaries of perfect wings HUIICHSTH OLLIE OL pe UG Sg a ae Sheth a hae Se ae ee ue 134 Percentage of primaries found interlocked. -.---.--....--67.0% *©. C. Trowbridge: Relation of Wind to Bird Migration, Amer. Nat., XXXvi, 429, Sept., 1902. 150 Trowbridge—Interlocking of Emarginate TABLE I. Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter velox) (5 outer primaries emarginate), Number of primaries interlocked in columns A and B. A B Both No. = Date. wing. wing. wings. Remarks. i fsreyitts Si, Wei) 2 2 4 9 ce ce ee 3 3 6 Supls bate te 4 : 4 Wing Bb badly shot 4 ‘ 66 (<3 5 3 8 eh ea Scams Ss ae ayant Both wings badly shot, some primaries interlocked 6 «ce ce ce 5 5 10 Gi (75 ce (x5 8 4 7 8 ce 66 ce 5 5 10 9 Sept. 9, 1891 4 5 9 9 10 ce 6¢ 66 3} 9 5 11 Sept. 14, 1891 1 a2 1 Wing B moulting 12 (75 (79 oe Y 3 5 fe) 3 “ee 66 6e 9 3 5 fe) TAG gs haa ee 4 Wien sa ses 15 ce 66 ce 4 5 9 NOs uae ets 3 5 asst: ys oa eaters: 0 0 0 Hawk wounded, record not possible 18 6 ce ‘S 4 3 if 19 (73 ce oe ] o 3 20 (73 (75 6 5 8 Ss 94 66 6c 66 4 9 6 fe) 29 ce 6e (7 5 ) Hi Q 93 ce ce 66 3 3 6 Q Total 74 60 134 TABLE II, Osprey, (Pandion halicetus carolinensis) 4 outer primaries emarginate. Marsh hawk, (Circus hudsonius) 4 outer primaries emarginate. Broadwinged hawk, (Buteo latissimus) 3 outer primaries emarginate, Number of primaries interlocked. (= aan => A B Both Species. Date. wing. wing. wings. Remarks. Osprey Sept. 8, 1891 0 ) Bird wounded, no record Osprey SOG Ones Sie 3 Wing B broken at tip Marsh hawk compel A ieee 4 3 7 Young of year Broadwinged hawk CS yeaa pene: 2 2 4 Young of year Primary Feathers in Plight. 151 In Table II both wings of the first Osprey were discarded because the bird was w ounded, and also one wing injured by shot in the case of the second Osprey, leaving “five perfect wings with a total of eighteen emarginate primaries; fifteen, or 83 per cent, of these were interlocked. II]. OpsERvaTIONS MADE aT New Haven, COoNN., AND AT Paterson, N. J., IN 1904-5. Since the data of Tables I and II were obtained, many hawks have been shot and at once examined, and the ratio of the num- ber of primaries found interlocked to the number of primaries that are emarginate has been found to be about the same as in the above tables. The observations given in Table III were made during the past year, and were obtained incidentally while I was engaged in a study of certain notches made in the primaries by “the interlocking of these feathers. The observations made on October 27th recorded in this table were on adult birds, all flying low, scudding with half-closed wings against a strong northwest wind. Two of the three fell dead when shot. The observations in these tables is conclusive evidence that a very large percentage of the emarginate primaries are found interlocked when hawks are killed while in flight. TaBLeE IIT. Sharp-shinned hawk, Accipiter velox, 5 outer primaries emarginate. Number of primaries interlocked. (FS = => Right Left Both Date. wing. wing. wings. Remarks. (1) Sept. 21,1904 1 A 6 Young (2))) Seay rama 5 I 6 Young: deep notches in primaries GysOct.. 27,. 5 ZI 9 Adult: bird fell dead (4) ay ee 2 2 4 Adult : bird fell dead. (5) See aT 2 3 5 Adult (6) May -1,°1905-— 3 3 6 Notches in primaries 3™™ deep (es Tae (is) 5 5 Adult: notches 2-5™™ deep Total 18 23 4] In this table 41 out of 65 emarginate primaries were inter- locked, or 63 per cent. For explanation of notches see next section of the paper. Specimens 1 to 5 were shot at New Haven, Conn., 6 and 7 at Paterson, N. J. * Right wing torn by shot and discarded. 152 Trowbridge—Interlocking of Emarginate IV. MeasuREMENT oF NOTCHES IN THE PRIMARY WEBS SHOW- ING HOW LONG THESE HK EATHERS WERE INTERLOCKED. It has been suggested that the interlocking of the feathers in the many instances which have been recordéd was accidental and took place while the birds were falling to the ground. Perhaps a few primaries were thus accidentally interlocked after the birds were shot; on the other hand, it is probable that as many or more of ‘the emarginate primaries if inter- locked while the birds were flying became unlocked when the birds were struck by shot and fell. This matter has been carefully investigated and the fact demonstrated that the feathers interlocked were in that condition either intermit- tently or continually for several hours previous to the death of the birds. Considerable dithculty has been experienced in obtaining the necessary observations. During the past few years not less than thirty trips have been made to a hill five iniles from New Haven, Conn., in the autumn, and ten trips to the Watchung Mountain range near Paterson, N. J., in the spring. Many times large numbers of hawks were observed but none could be obtained, owing to the fact that they were migrating with a fair wind at an altitude that was beyond gun range. The observations were finally collected and are given herewith. When hawks are shot while they are flying, deep notches are found in the edges of the posterior webs of the emarginate feathers that are interlocked. In unlocking the feathers it is necessary to lift them free of these notches. (See N, fig. 6.) The notches are due to the pressure of the feathers which have been in contact. It occurred to me that the immediate disappearance of the notches on unlocking the primaries would Primary Feathers in Flight. 153 indicate that the feathers had been interlocked a very short time. If, however, the notches remained for a period of minutes or more it would show that the feathers had been interlocked for a longer time. This proved to be the case in experiments which consisted of artificially interlocking the emarginate primaries for different lengths of time. The recovery of the semi-elastic webs of the primary feathers notched by the pressure of the interlocked feathers has there- fore been the subject of investigation. Measurements have been made which consisted in determin- ing the widths of a notch at different intervals of time imme- diately after the death of a hawk. For the purpose of explanation, in fig. 7 the initial width of the notch is indicated Saas Seam: 22 min, (FouR MEASUREMENTS FROM“SERIES 16% ) by the distance apart of the lines A and A’, and the gradual diminution in its width is indicated by the notches on the lines A, B, C, and D, which represent the edge of the web of a primary ‘at different intervals of time after the feathers were unlocked. Method of Measurement. The method of measurement was as follows: the points of a pair of fine dividers were adjusted to correspond with the width of a notch in a primary as soon as possible after a hawk had been killed. Impressions of the points were then made in a notebook and their distance apart afterwards determined by means of a fine scale. Measurements were made every few minutes in this way until the notch disappeared or ceased to diminish in width. Am, Jour. Sci1.—FourtH Series, Vou. XXI, No. 122.—Fepruary, 1906. 1l 154 Trowbridge—Interlocking of Emarginate In the case of Series 4 and 8 a photographic method was employed and the width of the notches measured by means of a h epeold star plate measuring machine loaned for the pur- pose by the Department of Astr onomy, Columbia University. The caliper method was used in subsequent measurements because it was found to be sufficiently accurate. The’ method of photographing the primaries consisted in constructing a standard 8, as shown in fig. 8, to support both camera C and the primaries P. The latter were held in posi- tion by thumb-tacks T. An auxiliary lens, L, was used by which a life-sized image was formed on the film when the object was held on the standard, 15 centimeters from the lens. Photographs of the notches in the first primary feathers are shown in figs. 9 and 10. The former is one of the photographs of Series 4, a Sharp-shinned hawk. The latter is one of Series VCC WN SSS SSS Yj, “ 8, an Osprey, which was moulting and the primary had not completed its growth ; therefore, the notch is not at the point where the emargination begins, which is the usual case. The photographs given were selected from among those in Series 4 and 8 as giving the best definition for reproduction. Curves have been drawn from the measurements showing the recovery of the web of the feathers after the pressure caused by the interlocking of the feathers was relieved. Sim- Primary Feathers in light. 155 ilar curves have been obtained by artificially interlocking the primaries for several hours and then measuring the recovery of the web of the feathers with a micrometer microscope. It 9 Fic. 9. Notch in the first primary feather of a Sharp-shinned hawk formed by the interlocking of the feathers. Photograph taken 18 minutes after the bird was killed. (Round object is a large thumb tack holding feathers in place.) 10 Fie. 10. Notch in the first primary feather of an Osprey formed by the interlocking of the feathers. Photograph taken 60 minutes after bird was killed. was found that artificial interlocking of the feathers for fifteen minutes produced either no notches or those that were small and rapidly disappearing, while interlocking them for several 156 Trowbridge—Interlocking of Emarginute hours formed notches only about one-half as deep as those found when the hawks were killed. As previously stated, the records of the widths of the notches were made by the impression of the points of a pair of dividers, the actual measuring being done in the laboratory afterwards. In this way each measurement was little influ- enced by the preceding. This naturally resulted in experi- mental variations, but it seemed to be the best method to employ and the measurements give approximate curves of the rate of recovery of the web of the feathers in each case, which was all that was desired. If the measurement had been mostly confined tc the second, third, etc., primaries instead of the less elastic first primaries, more nearly perfect curves would have been obtained, as shown by curves 14, 15 and 16. TABLE IV. Recovery of the webs of three primary feathers of a Broad- winged hawk (Buteo latissimus) shot at 10.50 a.m., April 15th, 1904, at Paterson, N. J. Series 1. Notches found in the primaries of the right wing a few minutes after the bird was shot. Time after First primary Second primary Third primary fall of bird. width of notch. width of notch. width of notch. Minutes. mm. min. mm. 0) tnd ae ae 10 (approx.) tol 2°0 17 20 0'8 ae iL°7/ 30 0'3 1°0 1°3 40 0°53 0:2 0°8 60 O'5 0-0 0°0 Series 2. Primaries of left wing artificially interlocked for 50 minutes with strong pressure within one-half hour after death of bird. Time after First primary Second primary Third primary unlocking. width of notch. width of notch. width of notch. Minutes. mm. mm. mm. 0 Del 0:4 0) 3) 1°0 0°0 0 The reason for making sixteen series of measurements was to include every possible condition and to obliterate the effect of experimental errors in the conclusions drawn. The results all point to the fact that wherever notches were found the primaries must have been interlocked for two or more hours. Deep notches are almost always present in primaries that are found interlocked, and, moreover, in almost all of the primaries that are emarginate that are not found interlocked, showing that the latter were unlocked when the birds were shot and fell to the ground. Primary Feathers in Flight. 157 The results of the measurements are shown by the accom- panying tables and curves. Eeplanation of Table IV. Table IV shows the result of observations on the primaries of a Broad-winged hawk. They were the first made, and while the few measurements must be regarded as only approximate they demonstrate the fact that the feathers were interlocked for some hours previous to the death of this bird, as seen from TABLE V. Recovery of the web of a first primary feather notched by natural inter- locking, specimen : Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter velox), adult ¢, shot at 2.38 P. M., April 21st, 1904, Paterson, N. J. Series 3. Series 4. By calipers. By photography ca — ao ane Time after Time after fall of Width of fall of Width of Time. bird. notch. Time. bird. noteh. h. m. Minutes. mm, he ma. Minutes. mm. 225) 23 1°85 2°48 10 1°92 HIST) 19 1°70 2°56 18 1°80 3°02 24 1°55 3°45 67 1°53 3°10 oe 1°50 - 4°40 22 1°39 3°19 4] 1°40 4°50 132 1°16 4°07 89 1°50 SMG) 157 1:07 4°30 V2 1:0 +549) 167 98 4°38 120 1°05 10°45 487 ‘66 4°49 124 1°10 5°00 142 LO 5°20 162 Weal 9°00 382 “60 10°40 522 ‘50 a comparison of the two series of measurements. The time required for the webs of the feathers artificially interlocked to recover (see Series 2) was very short and the notch was not even formed in one-half hour in the ease of the third primary. Before the measurements of Series 2 were made the primaries of the left wing were interlocked for five minutes, but as no notches were formed, the interlocking period was increased to thirty minutes. This bird was shot by a person near me and was handled before I reached it. The primaries were then not interlocked but the notches were very prominent, so their recovery was measured. It was not possible to obtain another specimen of this species of hawk for measurement. * Time was lost preparing camera for Series 4. 158 Trowbridge—Interlocking of Emarginate Explanation of Table Vand Curves in Fig. 11. The measurements in Table V were made on one of the first primary feathers of a Sharp-shinned hawk; Series 3 by calipers and Series 4 by photography and a measuring machine. The primaries of the wing of the same bird as that from which Series 8 and 4 were taken were later artificially inter- locked and pressed together with constant pressure; then, after having been interlocked for several hours (see fig. 11, 0 _ q = Cr) = 2 = cS a = a Zz o a 150 2.00 Time in Minutes Fic. 11. Series 3 and 4: Recovery of a web of a first primary feather notched by natural interlocking. Sharp-shinned hawk, Accipiter velox, Series 3 by calipers, Series 4 by photography, see Table V, primary found interlocked. Series 5 and 6: Recovery of the webs of first primary feathers of the same bird when the feathers were interlocked by artificial interlocking. Series 5 interlocked for 2 hours 40 minutes, Series 6 interlocked for 4 hours 10 minutes, measurement by micrometer microscope. Series 5 and 6) the feathers were unlocked and the gradual recovery of the web as shown by the decrease in the width of the notch was measured by means of a micrometer microscope. Series 5 was taken seven days after the hawk was killed and Series 6 was taken about one week later. The notches in the webs of the feathers thus artificially made are seen to be less in width than the notches found in the webs of the feathers which were naturally interlocked (Series 3 and 4). The rate of recovery is approximately the same as is also the form of the curves, as in Series 3 and 4. Primary Feathers in Flight. 159 Explanation of Table VI and Curves in Fig. 12. In Table VI, Series 7, first primary of an osprey was made by calipers and Series 8 by. photography and a measuring machine. These series are shown by curves in fig. 12. It should be kept in mind that the purpose of the measurements was to determine the rate of diminution of the width of the notches rather than their exact width. The width of the notches in Series 7 and 8 are not equal, because it was not possible to take the photographs exactly life size. The rates of decrease of 7 and 8 are seen to be the same. TABLE VI. Recovery of the web of a first primary feather notched by natural inter- locking. Osprey (Pandion haliaetus carolinensis), shot at 3.45 Pp. M., April 21, 1904, at Paterson, N. J. First primaries of each wing found deeply notched. Series 7. Series 8. By calipers. By photography 1 ae aad ———_—_—_“*— aa oO ce TEEN \ Time after Time after fall of Width of fall of Width of Time. bird. notch, Time. bird. notch. h. m. Minutes. mm. h. m. Minutes. mm. 3°49 4 3°3 4°00 aS 3°22 4-00 15 2°5 4°08 23 2°85 4°08 23 2°4 4°45 60 2°84 4°30 51 2°4 5°05 80 2°76 4°45 60 2°] 5°20 95 D2 5°00 7a oy 10°45 420 1°67 5°20 95 reall 9°00 315 1°6 11°45 480 oy The primaries of the same bird were then artificially inter- locked. The measurements of the resulting notches are also shown in fig. 12. Series 9 was made two days after the bird was killed, and Series 10 several days after that. Explanation of Table VII and Curves in Fig. 18. In fig. 18, Series 12, is merely a verification of previous observations, the species being a Sharp-shinned hawk; and likewise Series 13. Series 14 and 15, Table VII, are important since they show the rate of change in the depth of the notch found in the second and fifth primaries of -a Sharp-shinned hawk. The webs of these feathers are seen to be more elastic than those of the first primaries and the recovery is more rapid and com- plete. The feather structure of the first primary is very rigid and therefore its web not only requires a long time to recover 160 Trowbridge—Interlocking of Emarginate from the pressure of the adjacent primary but usually a small permanent notch remains, 10 or 15 per cent of the initial width. Series 12, 13, 14 and 15 are shown by curves in fig. 13. On September 21st, 1905, a specimen of the Marsh hawk, Cir- cus hudsonius, was killed at New Hav en,Conn. The bird was shot after it had been coasting for several hundred yards 12 Hee eeeseeoe KEE RRR eee EEA SPER SSE RRBSSeeeeee RS aE Tee SE eee eee A ee SE es ee HNL ee ee N aa al — Width of Notch in Millimeters, Ee ee esa SeRinIEoeeeetis (ana e ae wae a eee |_| 0 50 : 100 Time in Minutes. Fie. 12. Series 7 and 8: Recovery of the web of a first primary feather notched by natural interlocking. Osprey, Pandion haliaetus carolinensis. Series 7 by calipers, Series 8 by photography, see Table VI. Series 9 and 10: Recov ery of the webs of the first primaries of the same bird when the feathers were notched by artificial interlocking. Series 7 for 1 hour strong pressure, Series 10 for 3 hours li geht pressure. toward the hill on which the writer was stationed. The left wing was broken near the shoulder; the four (all) emarginate primaries of this wing were interlocked. The right wing pri- maries were partly interlocked, but shot had cut the feathers, and all the emarginate primaries of both wings had notches in them from four to six millimeters in width. Primary Feathers in Flight. 161 TaBLeE VII. Recovery of the webs of the 2d and dth primaries, notched by natural interlocking, specimen: Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipter velox), adult 4. Shot at 11.49 a. m., Oct. 27, 1904, New Haven, Conn. Series 14. Series 15. 2d primary r. wing. 5th primary r. wing. (=m =< ae (CEERLATAT Ce == aay Time after Time after fall of Width of fall of Width of Time. bird. notch. Time. bird. notch. heme Minutes. mm. h. m. Minutes. mm, ILC A ite 3 ent 11:55 04. M. 6 MPL T5555 6 0:9 11°56 7 lex 11°58 9 0°8 11°58 9 1-4 RECO es Nie | On7 12°02 P. M. 13 Holl 12°02 14 0°8 12°04 15 1:0 12°07 18 0°7 12-09 20 0:9 Wee 25 0°6 12°18 29 0°8 12°26 37 0°6 TQ 38 0:7 12°40 51 OF 12°40 51 (0s) 1°16 87 0:4 1°16 87 0°4 13 f i Hone Pepe ea eed se sa db a AL Na ee 2 | See Se aa ee sae © GUE Ra See aaa eens =) eG ORES Ree ahaa 2 | NO n SS goes aes ¢ AA — HOR RR Emmm=: : Lege sae ee Ssonan REESE eal 5 AS a ae a es ae 2 RON ins ea HES Sane eee a LEIS aaa) ie PSs Pome eclomialaiaial ake 150 200 100 Time in Minutes. Fic. 15. Series 12: Recovery of the web of the first primary feather, right wing, of a Sharp-shinned hawk, Accipiter velox, Shot Sept. 21, 1904, 10.58 A. M., New Haven, Conn. Feather found interlocked. Series 13: Recovery of the web of a first primary feather of a specimen of the same species, shot Sept. 22, 1904, 9.24 a. m., New Haven, Conn. Feather found interlocked. Series 14 and 15: Recovery of the webs of primaries of a specimen of the same species, shot Oct. 27, 1904, 11.49 a. m., New Haven, Conn. Series 14, second primary right wing; Series 15, fifth primary, right wing. Feathers found interlocked. See Table VIL. 162 Trowbridge—Interlocking of Emarginate The primaries of the left wing were lifted out of the notches and the third primary subjected to measurement. The recoy- ery of this feather from the pressure caused by the interlock- ing is shown in Series 16, fig. 14. The notches in the other feathers were as wide as the feather measured and disappeared gradually approximately at the same rate. It is seen that the notch decreased in width from 4:8 to 1:8 millimeters in about two hours. In the case of this hawk a little over two minutes were lost before the feather was unlocked and subjected to measurement, but it has already been shown that it requires 14 Width of Notch in Millimeteys. C {0 20 30 40 30 60 70 8o 30 (og Wd 120 130) Time in Minutes. Fie. 14. Series 16. Recovery of the web of the 3d primary of the left wing of a Marsh hawk, Circus hudsonius, shot Sept. 21st, 1905, 9.26 a. m., at New Haven, Conn. 1st-4th primaries of left wing found interlocked. ten to twenty minutes to form the smallest notch. So that this time (2 minutes) was a small factor in the time of forming the notch. V. SPECIES WHICH HAVE EMARGINATE Primary FEATHERS. he emarginate formation of the primaries is more pro- nounced in the /eaptores than in any other birds, especially in the case of the sub-order of Accipitres, or diurnal birds of prey, eagles, hawks, ete. Some of the family of Cathartidae or American vultures have a number of their primaries emar- Primary Feathers in Flight. 163 ginate, a few of the family Avdredae or herons, birds that fre- quently both soar and coast, and other large. winged water- fowl. In case of a few small birds , notably some of ‘the family LTyrannidae, or flycatchers, one or two of the primaries are emarginate. These birds are “insect hawks” and dive and sail with set wings for their prey, and the formation may be more than rudimentary i in this case. In almost, if not in every instance where emarginations are present, the species is one which frequently coasts with set wings or dives through the air, In many species the emargi- nate formation of the primaries is present but in far less degree than in those above mentioned. In a large number it is rudi- mentary or wanting. Impor tant examples of North American species having emarginate primaries are as follows: The Bald Eagle, 7. lewcocephalus, and Golden Eagle, A. chrysaetus, each have six primaries deeply emarginate, the Osprey, P. Aaliaetus carolinensis, having four. The Luteos, or buzzard hawks, have three to five primaries emarginate. In early editions of Coues’ Key of North American Birds this sub-family was classified as follows: “ Heavy weights tive outer primaries cut,” containing one example, now Parabuteo unicinctus harrisi: Harris’s Buzzard, “ Heavy weights, four outer primaries cut,” B. albocaudatus sennetti, B. borealis, the latter the familiar large Red-tailed hawk, and several varie- ties of this species. Light weights; “four outer primaries cut,” B. lineatus, B. abbrewatus, ete. Light weights: “three outer primaries cut,” comprising B. swainsont and B. latissimus, the second being the Broad- winged hawk mentioned frequently i in the present paper. In the sub- genus Archibuteo the species have from two to five outer primaries emarginate, and in Asturina or hawk- like buzzards, four. In the sub-family Accipitrinae, or the true hawks, the num- ber of emarginate primaries are A. atricapillus 4, A. coopert 4, A. velox 5. Tn the sub-family of Falconinae, or falcons, the first one or two outer primaries are emarvinate. In the sub-family of Milvinae, or kites, f. sociabilis, or the Eveglade kite, has five outer primaries emarginate, the other species in this sub. family pe but two primaries emarginate. In the case of the sub-order Striges, or owls, the number of emarginate primaries varies from one to six; some examples are as follows; S. cenerea (Great grey owl of Canada) has five outer primaries emarginate, S. nebulosa 4, V. nyctea (Snowy owl) 4, M.asio4, B.viginianus 3, A. wilsonianus 1, A. accipt- trinus 1. 164 Trowbridge—Interlocking of Emarginate VI. THREE WELL-DEFINED Types or FLicgut In RApPTorREs. Three distinct types of flight employed by birds of prey, herons and various other large birds, are as follows: (1) Periodic wing beats; in which fora part of the stroke at least the primaries are fully extended. a ae SIN iy La —PaOXe N ‘Gs (2) Soaring (in circles): in which the wing is widely extended and the primaries may or may not be extended, depending on conditions of wind, ete. (8) Coasting with set wings. In this case the primaries are partly extended only, as shown in fig. 15. Diving through the air differs only in degree from coasting but in this case the wing is partly closed, the primaries nearly flexed and the 16 tail often closed, steering being aided by the wings, as in fig. 16. Of course birds often combine these types, i. e., alternat- ing periodically (1) and (2), or (1) and (3). Coasting flight is one that is employed by Raptores, herons, gulls, etc., continu- ally, both during their migrations and in their daily evolutions. Primary Feathers in Flight. 165 During the autumn I have often watched flocks of from twen- ty ae to seventy-five Broadwinged hawks coasting together for a distance of upwards of half a mile without beating their wings; this maneuver, characteristic of their manner of migration, was periodically repeated after a short interval of soaring. VII. Tar Function or INTERLOCKED PRIMARIES IN FricutT. In coasting flight: The primary feathers, the most import- ant feathers of the wing, are subjected to gr eat strain and pres- sure. The backward pressure on these feathers is par ticularly great under the following conditions: (1) When a bird is sail- ing or coasting through the air with set wings, fig. 15. (2) When it is diving or tw isting in pursuit of its quarry as in birds of prey, fig. 16. In both cases some means of producing rigidity in the end of the wing seems necessary. “In these types of flight the interlocking of the primaries would make the end of the wing very rigid, thereby not only forming a strong surface to withstand the pressure ‘of the air, but when the primaries are interlocked no muscular force i is required to keep them partially extended. In addition, the shape of the wing is curved by the process of interlocking figs. 18 and 19, in such a way that the lower rather than the upper surface of the feathers bears the pressure of the air when the bird is coasting or diving ; the effect of the interlock- ing of the primaries appears to make a much more efficient aeroplane of the wing than when the primary feathers are not interlocked. No special set of muscles is required for interlocking the primaries. In coasting flight, if these feathers are extended and then allowed to fall back, the pressure of the air forces the end of each primary above the plane of the succeeding primary and those that are emarginate become interlocked. These feathers can usually be interlocked artificially by holding an open wing in the hand and striking the air with it as in a downward wing beat. In soaring flight (circling): Whether the emarginate primaries are interlocked in soaring flight or not is an undecided question. Photographs and visual observation of Turkey buzzards and other large birds show the primaries considerably separated when these birds are soaring, but this is by no means evidence that the feathers are not sufticiently overlapped to keep them in place without muscular effort. When a bird is soaring in a light wind the air pressure acts on the primaries almost entirely from beneath. The outer primaries of large birds while soaring have been observed to 166 Trowbridge—Interlocking of Emarginate be bent upwards by the air pressure. They are then not only extended in a horizontal plane but also separated to some extent in a vertical plane. Under these circumstances while the primaries would appear widely apart, they might readily ili Fic. 17. Primaries not interlocked, viewed from in front of the wing. 18 Fie. 18. Primaries interlocked, viewed from in front of the wing. Fic. 19. The bowed effect of the wings is seen in many species iniswift coasting flight. The twist of the wing is shown as given by Pettigrew.* be held in an extended position, or in other words interlocked, by the emarginations, thus forming a firm stepped aeroplane at the end of the wing. * Pettigrew, Animal Locomotion, p. 186 and 198. Primary Feathers in Flight. 167 VIII. THe Wear OF THE PRIMARIES AS SEEN BY THE MicRo- SCOPE. The primaries of a number of hawks killed when their plumage was at various stages of wear, were subjected to, microscopic examination, In this way it was hoped to deter- mine if the primaries had become worn by habitual inter- locking, or by the absence of any wear to find an argument against any such interlocking, “Tt was found that the wear of the extreme edge of the pos- terior webs of the emarginate primaries began very shortly after they had completed their growth, that is, after the moult. Also that a general breaking of the feather structure all along the edge of the webs in most cases obscured any special wear at any particular place. In a number of cases, however, the webs of the feathers, where the webs touched when inter- locked, were completely broken down, apparently showing wear from constant contact or pressure. Owing to the uncer- tainty of this evidence, no further observations were made. IX. Finat SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. The most salient facts established in this paper are as fol- lows: (1) Of over thirty hawks killed while in coasting flight, which were examined immediately after they fell, in every case some emarginate primaries were interlocked (several slightly wounded birds not included). In the case of 27 spec- imens of one species, 175 out of all emar ginate primaries (270) were found to be interlocked, or about 65 per cent. Other observations agree approximately with this ratio. Many hawks, including seven species not recorded in this paper, haye been shot and found with their primaries interlocked by the writer and others. There is, therefore, conclusive evidence that when hawks are killed while in flight, of certain types, a large percentage of the emarginate primaries are found firmly interlocked. (2) The webs of emarginate primaries of hawks that have just been killed show well-detined “notches” where the edges of the interlocked webs have rested against one another. The facts determined by a long continued study of the formation of the notches are these: (3) The notches formed by artificially interlocking the pri- maries are identical with those found after birds are killed and which are always present when the primaries are found inter- locked. 168 Trowbridge—Interlocking of Emarginate (4) It requires from ten to twenty minutes to form even very slight notches artificially in the primaries of a freshly killed bird. (5) When the notches are formed artificially by a strong pressure for several hours they are not as deep as those made by the natural interlocking of the primaries. (6) The notches found in the primaries of freshly killed birds could not have been formed accidentally during the time between when the birds were shot and when they were exam- ined (often less than 380 seconds), but were the results of a pressure due to the interlocking of the primaries acting either constantly or intermittently for two or three or more hours directly previous to the time when the birds were killed. (7) The interlocking of the primaries as an auxiliary mechan- ism of flight appears to be advantag eous for three reasons : (a) To ‘make the end of the wing, or that part formed by the primaries, more rigid when the wing is employed as an aero- plane in coasting flieht. (b) To produce a curvature of the wing which gives to the bird better control in the air. (c) To keep the primaries partly extended without muscular exertion on the part of the bird; otherwise the air pressure produced by the motion of the bird acting against the prima- ries would tend to close them, unless the bir d was continually exerting muscular force to keep them extended. Confirmatory Observation in Japan. After this paper had been submitted for publication, a letter on the subject appeared in Sezence,* written by Professor Bashford Dean describing an observation recently made by him in Japan. The facts of the observation were stated with care- ful detail, but only a small portion of the letter is here quoted. “It so happened that we were coming up the narrow canal from Sakai to Matsue in the face of a strong wind, so strong, indeed, that our small steamer labored to make head way against it. At one point we disturbed a kite, Mi/vus melan- otus—a very common bird, by the way, along Japanese water- ways—which rose slowly in the face of the wind and after making several circles followed the margin of the canal, flying and soaring, almost opposite the boat and making about equal headway.” ...... ‘For several minutes the hawk thus flew alongside of the boat, with quite regular peri- ods of flapping and soaring ; then, suddenly shifting its course, it circled out, soaring, passing over my head at a distance on about twenty feet. I could then see plainly that the primaries * Sci. xxii, No. 564, Oct. 20th, 1905. Primary Leathers in light. 169 of one wing (right) were interlocked—the condition of the other wing I had not time to observe.” ““My conclusion, therefore, is that the interlocking of the primaries of the hawks takes place, as Mr Trowbridge has shown, under the conditions of soaring in the face of a strong wind.” Written from Rinkai Jikenjo, Misaki-Miura, Japan, September 3, 1905. This confirmatory observation of Professor Dean’s was apparently made under the most favorable conditions. The observer and the hawk were both moving for a part of the time at nearly the same velocity ; therefore they were approxi- mately stationary with respect to each other, and hence the bird must have appeared almost like a still object and the observation made with certainty. The observations presented in this paper have shown that when hawks are killed in certain types of flight a large per- centage of the emarginate primaries of their wings are found - interlocked, and it has been proven that these feathers were interlocked for several hours previous to the moment when the hawks were killed; therefore the principle of the interlocking of the emarginate primaries in flight has been conclusively demonstrated. Phoenix Physical Laboratory, Columbia University. New York, September, 1905. Am. Jour. Scl.—FourtH SERIES, VoL. XXI, No. 122.—Frpruary, 1906. 12 ; 170 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs. 1. The Determination of Nitrous and Nitric Acids.—W EISEN- HEIMER and Her describe a convenient method for the gaso- metric determination of either or both of these acids. The operation is carried out with a flask of 50° capacity, in which the slightly alkaline solution of the substance (containing ‘1 to ‘2 g. of nitrite) is placed. Carbon dioxide is led in froma Kipp’s gener- ator through a tube reaching below the liquid in the flask, and a delivery tube is attached which ends in a turned-up point in a trough containing 12 per cent sodium hydroxide, in such a man- ner that an eudiometer filled with the sodium hydroxide solution may be placed over the outlet. A funnel tube provided with a pinch-cock is placed in the third hole of the rubber stopper of the flask. The stem of this funnel tube is narrowed at the end and it is filled with water up to the funnel at the beginning of the operation. The apparatus is first freed from air by passing car- bon dioxide through it, then 10 or 15° of a five per cent solution of potassium iodide are introduced, and then, slowly, the same amount of dilute hydrochloric acid. All the nitrous acid is thus converted into nitric oxide according to the equation HNO, + HI—=NO+I+H,0. The liquid is slowly raised to the boiling-point and the gas is swept over into the eudiometer by the stream of carbon dioxide, and is measured. When nitric acid is to be determined, a newly filled eudiometer is placed over the delivery tube, 10 or 20° of a concentrated solution of ferrous chloride in strong hydrochloric acid are introduced, and the gas formed according to the equation HNO, +3FeCl, +3HCl = NO +3FeCl, +2H,O is collected and measured as before. Test analyses with nitrites and nitrates alone, and with mixtures of both, gave very satisfac- tory results. The method has the advantages of being rapid and in fur nishing direct determinations of both acids in a ‘single sam- ple of substance.— Berichte, xxxviil, 3834. H. L. W. 2. The Modifications of Antimony—SrocK and SIEBERT have found that, like arsenic, antimony exists in a yellow, a black, and a metallic gray modification. The last is the most stable form, and the only one heretofore mentioned in chemical literature. The black modification may be obtained by heating the yellow form to temperatures above —90°, by the action of oxygen upon liquid antimony hydride above 99° , and also by the sudden ee of the vapor of ordinary antimony. its specific gravity 5°3, while that of the ordinary metal is 6°7. It is chemically Sone, often igniting when exposed to the air. It is changed into metallic antimony by heating, the change being instanta- neous at 400°. The authors consider the black precipitates pro- Chemistry and Physves. 171 duced by the action of certain reducing metals upon antimony solutions as mixtures of black and metallic antimony. The prep- aration of yellow antimony is difficult, since it rapidly blackens at temperatnres above —90°. It is formed in small quantities by the action of oxygen upon SbH, at —90° or —91°, just above its freezing point. It is formed also by the reaction of chlorine and antimony hydride when dissolved in liquid ethane at —100°. The authors call attention to the interesting fact that while anti- mony, arsenic, and phosphorus have similar allotropic modifica- tions, the stable form at ordinary temperatures is the metallic one with antimony, the black one with arsenic, and the yellow one (in absence of light) with phosphorus. — Berichte, xxxviil, 3837. H. L. W. 3. Quantitative Determination of Bismuth.—Two articles have been recently published in which the determination of bis- muth as the phosphate, BiPO,, is recommended. STaeHLER and ScHAFFENBERG find that the metal may be completely precipi- tated by adding tribasic sodium phosphate to the nitric acid or hydrochloric acid solution until the stronger acid has been replaced by phosphoric acid, since in the latter the precipitate is entirely insoluble. The precipitation is. made at a boiling tem- perature by the addition of boiling ten per cent sodium phos- phate solution. If the liquid becomes alkaline, it should be acidified with a little nitric acid. After boiling a short time the precipitate settles well, and then, while the liquid is hot, the sub- stance is collected on a Gooch filter, and washed with a one per cent solution of nitric acid to which a trace of ammonium nitrate is added. After drying, the precipitate is ignited for ten min- utes over a large Bunsen burner, and is then weighed. ‘Test analyses gave excellent results, and it was shown that bismuth can thus be separated from copper, cadmium, mercury, and sil- ver, but: not from lead, since lead phosphate is but. slightly solu- ble in phosphoric acid. H. Satxowskt1, for determining bismuth as phosphate, recom- mends operating in a weak nitric acid solution, in which case the separation from Cu, Cd, Hg, Ag, Pb, Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, Zn, Cr, and Al may be effected with good, or in some cases with only satis- factory results. In this case, where a strong acid is present, hydrochloric acid and other chlorides must be absent. Atten- tion is called to the fact that the almost complete insolubility of bismuth phosphate in weak nitric acid affords a very satisfactory method for the qualitative detection of bismuth. — Berichte, XXXVIli, 8862 and 3943. H. L. W. 4. The Distillation of Gold.—Motssan finds that gold can be readily distilled in the electric furnace, that its boiling-point is higher than that of copper, but lower than that of calcium oxide. When the vapor is condensed on a cold surface, the metal is found in the filiform. condition, or in very small microscopic crystals. When alloys of gold and copper, or of gold and tin, are distilled, the copper and the tin distill more rapidly than the gold. 172 Scientific Intelligence. Moreover, in distilling an alloy of gold and tin, when the mixed vapors come in contact with air the tin is oxidized and the gold condenses in the finely divided condition corresponding to the “purple of Cassius.” Similar purple products are formed also with other oxides, such as silica, zirconia, lime, magnesia, and alumina.— Comptes Rendus, exli, 977. H. L. W. 5. Fluoride of Bromine.—Although Moissan had noticed that fluorine reacts with bromine very vigorously, the product of the reaction was not isolated by him. Lrsrau has now prepared the compound and has found that it is a colorless, fuming liquid cor- responding to the formula BrF,. Its vapor is very irritating, attacking the skin violently. It solidifies at about 4° to a color- less , crystalline solid. The compound possesses great chemical activity, reacting violently with water, and attacking many other substances similarly to free fluorine.— Comptes Rendus, exli, 1018. H. L. W. 6. On some Properties of the a-Rays from Radium.—Prof. kK. RUTHERFURD thus summarizes his recent investigation of this subject. (1) The rays from radium in radio-active equilibrium are com- plex, and consist of a particles projected with different velocities. 2) The a particles decrease in velocity in passing through air and through aluminium. (3) The absence of increased deflection of the rays from a thick layer of radium, after passing through aluminium, observed by M. Becquerel, is a necessary consequence of the complexity of the rays. (4) The decreasing path of the rays in air, observed by Bec- querel, is also a necessary consequence of the complexity of the Trays. (5) There is evidence of a distinct scattering of the rays from radium C in their passage through air.— Phil. Mag., Jan. 1906, Be 166-176. J. £ . Emission Spectrum of the Auer burner.—H. Rusens has measured the amount of energy given out by the so-called Degeas mantle which is composed of 99-2 per cent thorium oxide (ThO,) and 0°8 per cent cerium oxide (Ce,O,). The method of measure- ment was substantially that described in Wied. Ann., lx, p. 737, 1897. The measurements were taken between -wave lengths A= 0, 454 and A +18. Curves of energy are given for the Auer burner in question, for the ordinary Bunsen burner and with a mantle covered with a thin layer of iron oxide. One obtains the latter by dipping the Auer burner in ink and then raising to a glow in the Bunsen burner. The mantel shows then in the flame mantel of the burner a red glow. The curves show that the mantel of the Auer burner is transparent for the rays of the Bun- sen burner. They also show that the Auer burner radiations depart largely from the maxima of the Bunsen burner. Rubens believes that the cerium oxide plays a role in the burner similar to that of a sensitizer on the photographic plate in that it brings Chemistry and Physics. 173 forth an absorption region at a desired place without influencing the remaining spectral region. If another coloring substance could be found which added to the thorium mantel could blacken not only the short waves of the visible spectrum but also the yel- low and red without disturbing greatly the ultra-red, the light working of the burner would be increased three times. "Ann. der Physik, No. 14, 1905, pp. 725-738. ae 408 8. Afterglow produced by Lightning Discharges.—K. Touchet (Compt. Rend., exl, p. 1031, 1905) accounts for this by the sup- position of an after-heating of the air. K. EK. F. Schmidt (Elektro- techn. Zeitschrift, xxvi, p. 903, 1905) believes that it 1s a phos- phorescent effect. B. Watrer gives his reasons for supposing that it is due to an after-discharge of electricity along the first path of the original discharge.—Ann. der Physik, No. 14, 1905, pp. 863-866. Jee 9. Specific Heat of Superheated Steam. — Regnault in his investigation on this subject used a water calorimeter at the tem- perature of the room. This method had the disadvantage that the steam condensed in the calorimeter. ‘To avoid the resulting errors Regnault let steam at 128° and afterwards at 217° stream through the apparatus. L. Rusens and F. HENNING use parafiin oil instead of water above 100° and thus avoid the condensation of the steam, and proceed as with non-condensing gases. They obtain the result Ci 0,720 (le 0; 00014 0G) = —Ann. der Physik, No. 14, 1905, pp. 739-756. Jae: 10. Use of the Microphone Contact for Telegraphic Relays, and for Detection of Weak Currents.—It has occurred to many inventors that a relay might result from simply placing a micro- phone contact against the vibrating disc of a telephone. It was soon realized that the excursions of such a disc were too small to actuate efficiently such a microphonic centact ; moreover the pressure of the contact on the disc interfered with the vibration of such a disc. Cur. JensEN and H. SreveKine have taken up the general subject of microphonic contacts with the view of using them in some form of telephonic relay. In order to shun disturbing vibrations the microphonic contact was placed on a Julius suspension consisting of a heavy board or table hung from the ceiling with the usual arrangement of supporting wires. They found this suspension very useful. No mention, however, is made of the singing of microphonic contacts; a trouble which is very difficult to overcome in the practical use of any micro- phonic contact. Possibly the currents employed by these investi- gators were too feeble to cause this singing. The paper contains a great many measurements of microphonic resistances and con- cludes with the following questions which were suggested by the investigation. (1) What sensitiveness must one desire in order to obtain a Ee) working telegraphic relay ? (2) In avoiding shaking or other disturbances within what limits is it safe to work without the necessity of too delicate adjustments ? 174 Scientifie Intelligence. (3) What pressure is it best to select ? (4) What electromotive force at the contact should one em- ploy ? The authors did not succeed in supplanting the galvanometer by a microphonic contact for the detection of very feeble cur- cae —Ann. der Physik, No. 14, 1905, pp. 695-724. Joie Mathematical and Physical Papers ; by Sir Grorexr Cie Strokes, Bart. Vol. V, pp. xxv + 370 (Cambridge University Press).—This is the final volume of the collection and covers the period from 1876 to 1903. It is well known that, dur- ing these years and, in fact, for some time prior to 1876, Stokes spent much labor upon his duties as secretary of the Royal Society and as a member of its publication committee. These duties were so conscientiously performed that (in the opinion of those who knew him) they interfered greatly with his own work. But the service to science which he thus indirectly rendered by aiding, criticizing, and suggesting extensions of the work of others, must have been very great. Some idea of this service may be obtained from the present volume, which is largely made up of notes aud explanations appended to papers by other authors in the publications of the Royal Society. One hitherto unpublished paper upon Water Waves (written in 1880) is included, as is also the Wilde Lecture on the nature of Réntgen rays, in which the accepted theory of these rays was first pro- posed. A very interesting feature of the volume is the series of examination papers which Stokes prepared, from time to time, for the Mathematical Tripos and for the Smith’s Prize Examina- tion at Cambridge. In the preface, Prof. Larmor promises a further volume “ of biographical character, to be occupied iu part by a selection from Sir George Stokes’ voluminous scientific correspondence, includ- ing some unpublished manuscript material” ; this will be looked for with much interest and it is to be hoped that nothing will interfere with its early publication. Hp AGmBs 12. Birpuek der Physik ; von O, D. Cuwotson. Band III. Deutsch von EH. Berg. Pp. xi+988. Braunschweig (F. Vieweg und Sohn).— ” Phe first two volumes of this German translation of the Russian text-book of Prof. Chwolson have been noticed in previous numbers of this Journal. The present volume deals with the theory of heat and bas the same admirable qualities. of clearness, completeness and perspective which are so noticeable in the earlier volumes. Ha AVeBs 13. The Polariscope in the Chemical Laboratory. An Intro- duction to Polarimetry and Related Methods ; by Gro. Wm. Rotrr, A.M., Instructor in Sugar Analysis in ‘the’ Mass. Insti- tute of Technology, pp. 820, Svo. New York, 1905. (Macmillan Co.)—It has happened not infrequently i in the past that Ameri- can men of science, when impelled by one or another motive to prepare elementary text-books, have produced works decidedly superior to any analogous publications that had appeared previ- Geology and Mineralogy. 175 ously in Europe. This result may perhaps depend primarily on the national virtue vaunted by Matthew Arnold, that “in matters within their range most Americans see straight and. see clear,’ but is doubtless influenced also by an altruistic sentiment acting to help forward the cause of education and of national well-being such as was illustrated very remarkably long ago by the career of Noah Webster as set forth by Horace Seudder in his biogra- phy. The fact that such books are usually written without any hope of pecuniary gain throws them in a sense into the category of scientific memoirs and imparts a note of eclecticism, open-- mindedness and fair-mindedness not to be looked for in the ordinary productions of Grub St. The book of Mr. Rolfe is noteworthy as a successful effort to elucidate and explain to beginners and even to the intelligent workman a form of scien- tific apparatus which is not infrequently held to be innately complex and difficult of comprehension. He has done this simply and clearly, and his descriptions cannot fail to be understood by all persons occupied with the business of testing and manufac- turing sugars. The book will be appreciated also by those chemists and students of chemistry who wish to keep in touch with the progress of knowledge in the great field of saccharine matters and the related carbohydrates. F. H. S. JOG Ce AND MINERALOGY. 1. Status of the Mesozoic Floras of the United States (Second Paper) ; by Lester F. Warp, with the collaboration of Witt1am M. Fontarnet, Artuur Brepins, and G. R. Wieranp. Part I, Text, 616 pp.; Part IJ, Plates I-CXIX. Monograph XLVIII, U. 8. Geol. Survey. (Washington, 1905.)—The extensive and sumptuously illustrated work before us forms the seventh paleo- botanic monograph published by the United States Geological Survey. It, however, more immediately follows Part II of the 19th annual report, On the Cretaceous Formations of the Black Hills as indicated by the Fossil Plants, and Part II of the 20th annual report, On the Status of the Mesozoic Floras of the United States,—both of which are of monographic proportions. The monographs of the survey solely on fossil plants are therefore now virtually ten in number. The subjects of Monograph XLVIII, being mostly in continua- tion of previous work, occupy a wide range, chiefly as follows : The older Mesozoic of Arizona; the Jurassic of Oregon with the description of numerous ferns and many handsome cycad and ginkgo leaves with other conifers ; various minor Jurassic-Cre- taceous flore from Cape Lisburne, Alaska, from Montana, and from California; the description of many additional cycadean trunks from the Freezout Hills of Carbon County, Wyoming, to the illustration of which 18 handsome plates are devoted; the flora of the Shasta formation of California and Oregon; further plants from the Kootanie of Montana, and the Lakota of South 176 Scientific Intelligence. Dakota ; an exhaustive description of the occurrence and macro- scopic characters of the cycadeoidean trunks from the lower members of the Potomac group of Maryland, illustrated by many plates ; the description of various additional plants or specimens from the Potomac group of both Virginia and Maryland with various correlations and a discussion of the age of the beds. The study of the Maryland and Wyoming cycadean trunks is by Professor Ward. The most of the descriptions of flore are by Professor Fontaine. Mr. Bibbins contributes a paper on the Potomac group and the occurrence of the cycadean trunks therein, together with a splendid triple-plate map (Plate LXXX), showing the areal distribution of the formations of the Potomac group in Maryland, on which are indicated all of the known plant and cycadean trunk localities. Mr. Wieland’s contribu- tions to the volume include the discovery of the leaves of the Wyoming cycad trunks, with some account of their structure, and two papers on the stratigraphy and paleontology of the Black Hills rim, including a description of the leaves of the Lakotan quasi- cycad Nilssonia nigricollensis, strikingly like some of the forms of the Oregon Jurassic described by Fontaine. Most interesting is the beautiful cycadean trunk from the Grapevine Valley of Colusa County, California, described by Professor Ward. This fossil is from the lower Chico or Horse- town beds, the strata in which it occurs doubtless being of much the same age as those yielding the numerous cycadean trunks in Maryland and South Dakota. The most interesting feature dis- played by the trunk is the presence of a peduncle in the axil of every leaf-base of the lateral trunk surface. This extraordinarily prolific growth of axillary fruits likewise characterizes the fine type Cycadeoidea nigra from Boulder, Colorado, but is not found in equal degree in any other cycadean Specimens. For the first time the Cycad trunks from Maryland are adequately illustrated by numerousand beautiful plates, and Pro- fessor Ward also adds many views of additional trunks and finely conserved fragments from the Freezout Hills of Wyo- ming. While holding the illustration and descriptions given by Professor Ward as in the main most effective, necessary and admirable, the reviewer nevertheless feels called upon to say that he does not find from his own anatomical and structural studies that there is any such great specific variation as is ascribed to these cycads. Macroscopic leaf-base and armor characters may serve to distinguish certain occasional and unique specimens within specific limits; but as soon as one comes to deal with a large number of trunks, so many transitions in preservation and structure appear that the method fails of accuracy. The study of the additional materials from the Potomac series of Virginia and Maryland shows a similarity of floral change in these beds of both states. It also appears that while impor- tant floral changes of the Potomac group are evident in the Raritan, little change in vegetation occurred during the Patuxent a on Geology and Mineralogy. 177 and Arundel, doubtfully referred by Bibbins to Upper Jurassic and ascribed to the Lower Cretaceous by Professors Ward and Fontaine. Neither of the latter now hesitate to regard the flora of the Potomac as essentially Wealden and Lower Cretaceous, on the basis that the Wealden is the non-marine equivalent of the Neocomian, this being of course the most interesting geo- logic question dealt with by the volume. As Marsh held the Potomac to be Jurassic on the basis of its pre-Neocomian equiva- lency, there is of course no hiatus in the observations of those who have dealt with the upper boundaries of the Jurassic— always so uncertain because in both Europe and America the marine Jura is followed by the formation of fresh- to brackish- water beds most difficult to divide, though containing the most striking fossils. The reviewer had the pleasure of hearing Professor Marsh defend his hypothesis many times, and perhaps mainly because of that fact finds some difficulty in regarding the question as fully and finally clesed. It does appear, however, that, as Professors Ward and Fontaine insist, the evidence that the Wealden is an unconformablé transition series has much increased. It is also to be urged that the direct evidence of marine Jurassic superposition, as in the still doubtful cases like the Glen Rose beds of the Trinity group in Texas, must still be awaited with much interest ; that the origins of animal and plant forms are always being traced further and further back ; and finally, that it is a very significant fact that the dicotyls creep in as if by stealth in both the Arundel (ogersia), and near the Minnewaste limestone in the Black Hills (Sapindopsis). This appearance of new species with a strong invasive power may well mark profound physical changes within Potomac time, though such may be locally difficult to determine. G. R. W. 2. Geology and Paleontology of the Judith River Beds ; by T. W. Stanton and J. B. Harcumr. Bull. 257, U. 8. Geol. Surv., 1905, pp. 174, pis. 19.—During the year 1902, there was pub- lished a series of short, but interesting discussions between Osborn, Hatcher and Stanton, showing considerable difference of Opinion regarding the position of the Judith River beds and their correlation with the Belly River beds of Canada. These difficulties were worked out satisfactorily in the field during 1903, in northern and central Montana and adjacent areas of Canada. The principal conclusions of Stanton and Hatcher are as follows: “(1) The Judith River beds are distinctly older than the Laramie, being separated from the latter by at least several hun- dred feet of marine shales identical in their faunal and lithologic features with the Pierre to which we have given the local name Bearpaw shales, from the Bearpaw Mountains about which they are well exposed. (2) The Belly River beds of Canada are identical with the Judith River beds of Montana. The name Judith River beds, having priority, should be the accepted name for this formation and the terms Belly River and Fish Creek should be dropped. 178 ; Scientific Intelligence. “‘(3) The marine sandstones and shales immediately underly- ing the Judith River beds do not represent either the Benton, as some Canadian geologists have supposed, or the Fox Hills and upper Pierre, as most geologists of the United States who have examined them have believed, but they constitute a distinct hori- zon within the Montana group which we have called the Claggett formation, from old Fort Claggett at the mouth of Judith River, near which they are well developed. “(4) The Eagle formation, from its stratigraphic position and faunal relations, marks the base of the Montana group in this region, Ke (5) The Bearpaw shales, the Judith River beds, the Claggett and the Eagle formations all belong to the Montana group, and together probably form the equivalent of the Pierre as that term is generally understood, though the possibility is recognized that in the typical area the Pierre may have more restricted limits. (6) Faunas similar to that of the Fox Hills sandstone have a great vertical range and are likely to be found at any horizon within the Montana group where a littoral or shallow-water facies is developed. The use of the term Fox Hills as a formation or horizon name outside of the original area in South Dakota is therefore of doubtful propriety, as experience has shown.” The vertebrate fauna is described by Hatcher. ‘ A considera- ble number of genera and species pertaining to all five of the known classes of vertebrates have been described. Unfortu- nately these genera and species are for the most part based on exceedingly fragmentary and unsatisfactory material.” Of fishes there are 8 species ; of tailed Batrachia, 5 ; Plesiosauria, 3; Che- lonia, 14; Rhynchocephalia, 4 ; Crocodilia, 2; Dinosauria, 37 ; birds, 1; mammals, 2. ‘ When considered in its entirety, the vertebrate fauna of these beds is remarkably similar to, though distinctly more primitive than, that of the Laramie. Almost or quite all of the Laramie types of vertebrates are present, though, as a rule, they are represented by smaller and more primitive forms. The similarity between this fauna and that of the Lara- mie contrasts strongly with the great dissimilarity between the vertebrates of the Judith River and those of the Atlantosaurus beds, the next older fresh-water horizon in this region.” Of invertebrates, Stanton notes 35 species of Pelecypods, 30 Gastropoda, 1 Placenticeras, and 1 cockroach. ‘The species enumerated ... fall into the three general categories of marine, brackish-water, and fresh-water forms, the latter including a few more or less doubtful land shells.” The brackish-water fauna contains Ostrea, Mytilus, Modiola, Anomia, Corbicula, Corbula, Panopea, Rhytophorus, and Goniobasis. As a rule, the fresh- water forms are found in distinct beds associated with land Mol- lusca and land vertebrates. “It is evident that after the depo- sition of the Claggett formation a considerable area in north central Montana and in Alberta and Assiniboia emerged from the sea and became the habitat of land and fresh-water animals. Geology and Mineralogy: 179 Since there was no obvious break in the sedimentation, it is prob- able that the larger part of the area was covered by low-lving swamps and lagoons. For some time there were slight oscilla- tions that occasionally for brief intervals brought large parts of the area down to sea-level and gave the lagoons sufficient connec- tion with the ocean to allow the growth of oysters and other brackish-water forms over areas that had been occupied by fresh waters. ‘Then for a longer period, during which 300 or 400 feet of sediments were formed, there was no connection with marine waters, though it is not probable that the area was ever very many feet above tide. During this epoch the general upward movement was reversed, and when the subsidence progressed more rapidly than deposition connection with the sea was soon again established, bringing in, first, brackish waters with their oyster beds, over nearly the entire area, with probably local bays and straits having more open and direct oceanic connections, © such as is indicated by the occurrence of marine fossils in the Judith River on Cow Creek. Finally marine conditions were fully established over the entire area, so far as known, and con- tinued during the deposition of the Bearpaw shales.” The fossil plants of the Judith River beds are described by Knowlton. There are 28 species. Of these, 8 are conifers, ‘and when the actual number of individual specimens is considered it is safe to say that fully nine-tenths belong to these species.” “It appears that the flora of the Judith River beds that has thus far come to light shows very little affinity with the true . Laramie or the Fort Union, but does exhibit an undoubted rela- tionship with that of the Dakota group or with the Cenomanian and Senonian of the Old World, or, in broad terms, with the lower and middle portions of the Upper Cretaceous.” 5s. 3. Paleontology of the Malone Jurassic Formation of Texas; by F. W. Craein. Bull. 266, U.S. Geol. Surv., 1905, pp. 172, pls. 1-29.—It is not often that American Paleontology is enriched by a work describing a marine Jurassic fauna, and this bulletin is therefore all the more desirable. The region from which the fauna was gathered is about Malone Mountain, or about 75 miles southeast of El] Paso, in Texas. On the basis of the ammonites, this fauna shows the closest affinities with that of the Tithonian of Europe. The nearest relations of American localities with that of Malone are in Mexico, having been described by Castillo and Aguilera. The relation of the Jurassic with the overlying Lower Cretaceous could not be made out, because no continuous section connecting the two systems was seen. An important feature of this work is a chapter of eleven pages by Stanton, entitled “Stratigraphic notes on Malone Mountain and the sur- rounding region, near Sierra Blanca, Tex.” The fauna consists of: Corals, 1 (new); Echinoidea, 2 unde- termined forms; Vermes, 3; Bryozoa 1 (new);,Pelecypoda 56 (40 new); Gastropoda, 18 (17 new); Cephalopoda 10 (5 new). No land vertebrates were seen, only fragments of fishes and swimming reptiles. C28. 180 Scientific Intelligence. 4. The Copper Deposits of Missouri; by H. F. Barn and E. O. Unricu. U.S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 267, 1905, pp. 52.— “Copper is found only in the southern part of Missouri, within the region broadly known as the Ozark uplift.” The annual out- put has thus far been small ; for 1903 it was $30,210. The stratigraphic sequence and the extensivé synonymy of the Ozark rocks are worked out in detail by Ulrich, and as it will be of service throughout the Mississippi Valley, his table of forma- tions is presented herewith : System.) Series. | Formation. Thickness, Joachimelimestoneie = ee ee 0-150 | | a St. Peter (“Crystal City”) sandstone} 0-200 LS ( | o =| : i Seis sl eelaldetterson City lamestones ees a _| 50-250 Ors | © 5 Ep | Y _ | — - i ; s in! Olea; | 4 = lor Ser a 4 |Roubidoux tormation: 27 = 2-2 22e 70-225 + eer es. | Orr S aS | ‘Gasconade limestone. ___________- 450-650 Sea is | op os Sea\iH| é é Sie 20 once eM ligins forma blon = so 2 eyen sess: 0-120 Ss = eS | ee Als loge oO = . S&S [ 'Bonneterre limestone 22223: see eee oS {| oe | = ee Motte sandstone, 2-222 ...25202* 0-300 Archean granites and porphyries CxS: 5. Developmental Stages in the Lagenidae; by JosmpH A. Cusuman. Amer. Nat., Aug., 1905, pp. 537-553.—This readable short paper for the first time applies Hyatt’s Principles of devel- opment to the unicellular animals. The growth stages in com- pound forms are easily determined, and phylogenies of consid- erable importance are established. The simplest form in the family is Zagena, and the Lagena-stage is present in odo- saria, Marginulina, Dimorphina, Polymorphina, and Cristel- laria. Old age characters, uncoiling, and the development of spinose or ‘wild growths” are also clearly shown. The paper gives a remarkably clear exposition of how Hyatt’s Principles may be applied to the Foraminifera. Cas: nen Ney Geology and Mineralogy. 181 6. Revised Nomenclature of the Ohio Geological Forma- tions ; by Cuartes 8. Prosser. Geol. Surv. Ohio, 4th ser., Bull. 7, 1905, pp. i-xv, 1-36.—As the title of this paper indi- cates, it revises the names applied to the geological formations of Ohio, in accordance with modern usage. It is a revision and elaboration of a similar paper published by the same author in the Journal of Geology, Oct., 1903, pp. 519-547. 7. Mesozoic Section on Cook Inlet and Alaska Peninsula ; by T. W. Stanton and G. C. Martin. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer- ica, June, 1905, pp. 391-410, pls. 67—70.—This is a very impor- tant paper describing in some detail the Upper Triassic (2000 feet), Lower Jurassic (1000), Middle Jurassic (1500-2500), Upper Cretaceous (1000), and Tertiary (2000) strata of the Cook Inlet region. ‘The writers also illustrate a very interesting local uncon- formity, which they were able to trace for about a quarter of a mile. ‘The fact that the same fauna is found both above and below this unconformity is evidence that the erosion interval was geologically brief, and it probably did not affect a wide area.” 8. New York State Museum; Report of the Director, 1904. Joun M. Crarke. 1905, pp. 1-146.—This is the report of the Director of the Science Division of the Education Department, the State Museum, and the State Geologist and Paleontologist, for the year ending September, 1904. The report states what has been done during the year, and the work now in hand. 9. The Geology of Miller County ; by 8. H. Batt and A. F. Smiru.—Mo. Bureau Geol. and Mines, IJ, sec. ser., 1903, pp. i-xvi, 1-207, many plates and a geological map.—Describes the geology of the Cambrian, Ordovician, Mississippian, Pennsylvanian, and Pleistocene formations of the county. 10. The Quarrying Industry of Missouri; by KH. R. Buckley and H. A. Buruter. Ibid., II, sec. ser., 1904, pp. i-xv, 1-371, many plates and a geological map. 11. Zhe Geology of Moniteau County ; by F. B. Van Horn and EK. R. Bucxiry. Ibid. III, sec. ser., probably 1905, pp. i-vill,_ 1-104, many plates and a geological map.-—There is no date on the title page of this book, it being replaced by the stamp of the ‘*Typographical Union.” It is to be hoped that this practice will be relegated to the rear, as the date of a book is worth far more to its users than the fact that the work was set up by a given typographical union. In this volume, the geology of the Cambrian, Ordovician, Devonian, Mississippian, Pennsylvanian, and Pleistocene forma- tions of the county are described. 12. Note on the use of Buena Vista as the name of a geologi- cal terrain ; by CuarLEs 8. Prosser. (Communicated.)—In the December (1905) number of this Journal, Professor H. D. Camp- bell proposes the name “ Buena Vista shale,” derived from a town of that name in Virginia, for the upper formation of the Cam- brian system in the middle portion of the Valley of Virginia 182 Scientific Intelligence. (vol. xx, pp. 445, 446). So far as the writer is aware, Buena Vista as the name of a geological division was first used by Dr. Edward Orton in his report of Pike county, Ohio, and published in 1874. The term:was applied to a subdivision of the Subcarboni- ferous (Mississippian) rocks of southern Ohio, and Dr. Orton’s statement was as follows: “ This subdivision has a definite base, viz., the upper surface of the Waverly black slate [now known as ‘the Sunbury shale]; but there is no characteristic stratum that constitutes a convenient superior limit. As the most valuable of the building rock, however, that is furnished by this part of the series in southern Ohio occurs within fifty feet of the slate, these fifty feet next above the slate may be somewhat arbitrarily taken as a subdivision. It may be designated as the Buena Vista sec- tion—the name being derived from a locality on the Ohio River that furnishes a large amount of stone of unequaled quality.” (Rept. Geol. Surv. Ohio, vol. ii, Pt. I, p. 626.) This name was revived, the upper limit of the terrain defined, and applied to the lower member of the Cuyahoga formation in southern and cen- tral Ohio by the writer in December, 1904 (Amer. Geol., vol. xxxlvy, f.n. on pp. 341, 342). In view of the above facts it does not appear to the writer that Buena Vista is available for the name of a Cambrian formation of Virginia. 13. The Configuration of the Rock Floor of Greater New York ; by Witttam Herserr Hopes. 1905. Bull: No. 270, U.S. G. 8. Pp. 96, Plates V, figs. 6—The present is an> espe- cially favorable time to study in detail the structure of the rock floor of Greater New York by means of the bore holes and excea- vations which have been made in the course of engineering opera- tions. This information if not now collected would be ultimately largely lost and Professor Hobbs, perceiving this some years ago, has collected a large amount of geological information which will be of the highest importance to engineers engaged in con- struction work. The details also have bearings, as Professor Hobbs points out, upon structural problems in the geology of the region. Je 18s 14. Formation of Phenocrystsin Igneous Rocks.—In his open- ing address before the Geological Section of the British Associa- tion forthe Advancement of Science at the meeting in South Africa, Prof. H. A. Miers, president of the section, alluded to a number of important problems in geology whose elucidation is greatly aided by experimental research. Chief among these isthe difficult question of the differentiation of igneous magmas and the origin of igneous rocks. After mentioning the results attained by dif- ferent workers in this field the speaker gave some of his own results obtained in the study of the cooling and crystallization of saturated solutions which tend to throw light on rock textures. Ostwald had previously shown that a saturated solution can exist in such a condition that crystallization may take place sponta- neously or be readily induced by shaking,-etc.; this is termed the labile state. On the other hand, the solution may be in such a Geology and Mineralogy. 183 condition that no amount of stirring or shaking or introduction of foreign substances can make the solution crystallize and it appears that this can only be done by the introduction of a crys- tal, or the part of one, of the dissolved substance. This latter is called the metastable state. Prof. Miers has made experiments to ascertain the exact limits between these two states in a given solution, determining the changing concentration by an optical method, and the tempera- ture at which the change into the labile state occurs. Thus it was found that in a solution of sodium nitrate containing 48 per cent of the salt, if dust (containing assumably submicroscopic particles of NaNO, or “germs”) be not excluded, crystals make their appearance on the surface of the liquid, grow, and sink, but although they may be actively stirred about no new ones form and the liquid remains in the metastable state till a temperature somewhat below 16° is reached, when the labile region is entered and a cloud of new crystals make their appearance. Thus in a cooling supersaturated solution from which germs have not been excluded there are two periods of growth; one in which a com- paratively small number of isolated crystals are growing regu- larly and a subsequent period in which a shower of small crystals is produced. If the rate of cooling is slow enough or the stirring violent enough to keep the liquid in the metastable condition there will be no second period or sudden production of small crystals. These events were found to take place in all of the solutions studied and the same process is suggested as an explana- tion of the porphyritic texture found in igneous rocks; “in a silicate magma in all probability the temperature 1s sufficiently high to be that of the metastable condition, the rate of cooling sufficiently slow to keep the liquid in that condition for a consider- able time and the viscosity sufficiently great to prevent the growing crystals from sinking at once; we have therefore all the conditions favorable for the growth of porphyritic crystals ; these must have generally originated throughout the liquid as spontaneous nuclei if the magma entered the labile state, or may have been started by inoculation or cooling at the margin if the magma as a whole remained in the metastable state. In the latter case suppose that further somewhat sudden cooling brings the magma to the labile condition, then there will be a sudden and spontaneous second growth of nuclei which will not be able to attain the dimensions of the porphyritic crystals; we have here all the conditions necessary for a second generation of one of the constituents of the rocks.” Tag OWES 15. Beitrdge zur chemischen Petrographie; von A. Osann, IT Teil, Analysen der Eruptivgesteine aus den Jahren, 1884-1900. Pp. 266, 8vo. (Stuttgart, 1905.)—This work is in fact a continua- tion of that of Roth, whose well-known Tabellen proved for many years of such value to petrographers. It will be used chiefly by Europeans, as in this country it is replaced by Wash- ington’s great work, but since in the latter the analyses are 184 Scientific Intelligence. arranged according to the new quantitative system, the book referred to will also be of service, as in it they are arranged according to the classification of Rosenbusch and thus supple- ment his well-known work. The book has been made up ina way that makes it very convenient for reference and its whole arrangement evinces both industry and careful compiling. Levees 16. Bettrdge zur Petrographie des westlichen Nord-Grénland ; von M. Brerowsxky. Zeitschr. d. deutsch. Geol. Gesellsch. lviii, pp- 15-90, 1905.—The material upon which this investigation is based was collected and brought back by Drygalski in his expedition to the west coast of Greenland in the years 1891-1893. It consists chiefly of pebbles from glacial moraines. As a result of the work the author concludes that northwest Greenland con- sists chiefly of crystalline schists referred to the Archean and of Cretaceous strata penetrated by basalt. ‘The crystalline schists are gray mica and hornblende gneisses with inclusions of hornblende rocks of various kinds and cut by granite intrusions. All these gneisses are supposed to be of eruptive origin. One of them is interesting from the fact that it contains a blue alkali hornblende referred to astochite, the rock thus representing among the gneisses, the alkali series of the igneous families. The hornblende included masses are referred to altered peridotites. The pebbles in the moranial material show that not only crys- talline schists but rocks of higher horizons are covered by the inland ice. The jater eruptive rocks which break through the Cretaceous are feldspar basalts. The author suggests that the petrographic characters of the Greenland gneisses allies them with those of the Scandinavian peninsula and that they may be of the same age. Tas Va ee 17. Recherches geologiques et pétrographiques sur les Lacco- lithes Environs de Piatigorsk ( Caucase du Nord) ; par VERA DE Derrwies. Pp. 84, 4°; 12 figs. and 3 plates (map). Geneva, 1905.—On the northern outslopes of the Caucasus lies a_ hilly area, celebrated for its mineral springs which have rendered it one of the health resorts of Russia. Several small towns, whose existence is largely due to the influx of patients desiring to avail themselves of the curative properties of these waters, have grown up in this region. The best known of these is Piatigorsk (Five Hills) connected by a branch with the main railway line to Viadikavkas and the Caucasus. The main topographic features of the area, through which the branch line runs to Piatigorsk, are a group of scattered hills which are formed by a number of laccoliths intruded into the Jurassic beds. As has been fre- quently found to be the case in western America they occur on the outer flank of the main mountain chain, where the sediment- ary strata begin to be flexed by orogenic disturbance. These laccoliths present every stage of erosive dissection from examples, in which the covering has not only been removed but Geology and Mineralogy. 185 the igneous mass has been so deeply bitten into that only a rem- nant remains, to those where only at the top is a small portion of it revealed and finally the case where no igneous rock is seen but must be inferred from the structure and associations of the domed elevation. The igneous rocks composing these masses present several varieties of feldspar porphyry, quite similar to those found in the laccoliths of Colorado and Montana. This region was visited and briefly studied in the autumn of 1897 by those geologists who took part in the excursion to the Caucasus of the VIIth International Congress at St. Petersburg and it afforded to the European members of the party an excel- lent and instructive example of geological phenomena which many of them had until then regarded as confined to America, and which hitherto they had not had an opportunity of seeing. The area has now been studied. and mapped by the author quoted above and the results of the work which have been car- ried out under the direction of Prof. Duparc of Geneva, are given in full, especially on the petrographic side. The rocks of the different occurrences have been analyzed and in the conclusion a number of deductions are drawn. This work will be of espe- cial interest to many American geologists for its confirmation, in another part of the world, of the results of their studies of the phenomena of laccolithic intrusions. Wet View Be 18. Physikalische Krystallographie und Einleitung in die krystallographische Kenntnis der wichtigsten Substanzen ; von P. Groru. Pp. 820, with 750 figures and 3 colored plates. Leipzig, 1905 (Wilhelm Engelmann).—It is interesting to com- pare the volume which has just appeared with its three predeces- sors published at intervals during the past thirty years. The increase in size from the 528 pages of the first edition (1876) to the present volume, one-half larger, is the most apparent change, but more important still is the development and expansion which the successive works show in the principles and their applications as they concern the topics embraced under Physical Crystallo- graphy. The author has a happy power of assimilating and making use of all that is most valuable and novel in the work of others, and at the same time his own independent investigations enable him not only to make important contributions of his own, but also to bring the whole into a compact and homogeneous system. The changes which the present edition exhibits most particularly are those concerned with the classification and mutual relations of the different physical properties. Something of this will appear from the classification given in the Introduction. The physical characters of crystals are distinguished first as scalar and vectorial. The former are those which are independent of direction, as density, specific heat, etc., for crystals and all the properties of amorphous substances. The latter embrace those in which the direction is essential ; further in regard.to them, the term “bivectorial” is used for properties not acentric, that is, Similar in opposite directions from a given point. The bivec- Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH SERIES, Vou. XXI, No. 122.—Frpruary, 1906. 13 186 Scientific Intelligence. torial physical characters are, further, classified into those of higher and‘lower symmetry. The former are called “ ellipsoidal characters’ because their numerical values for all possible direc- tions are determined by at most three different values in direc- tions at right angles, corresponding in general to the axes of an ellipsoid. Here belong, for example, the optical characters, according to which all crystals fall into five divisions. The bivectorial characters of lower symmetry embrace these con- cerned with elasticity and cohesion and the lowest grade of all is shown by those involved in the molecular growth and resulting structure of the crystal, where thirty-two classes are required to embrace all possible types. The discussion in succession of all the various characters, beginning with those involving light, is clear and complete. The subject of the molecular structure of crystals, from the theoretical side, is also clearly presented, and it is shown how the fundamental laws of rational indices and zones follow. The second half of the volume is devoted to the description of the successive systems, with the various classes falling under them and the special forms belonging to each. The methods employed in the investigation of crystals are treated in the last one hundred and fifty pages. 19. Preliminary Notice of a New Meteorite from Texas ; by Kenneta 8. Howarp (Communicated).—A new aérolite from the Staked Plains of northwestern Texas has just been secured by Ward’s Natural Science Establishment. It will be known as the Estacado, having fallen near the place of that name in 1882. The following resuits are taken from an unfinished analysis by Mr. John M. Davison : Specific gravity 3°63. Metallic part 16°41 per cent. Stony part 83°59 per cent, of which 53°61 per cent is insoluble in HCl and 29:98 per cent is soluble. The analysis of the metallic per- tion calculated to 100 per cent is DTH eY pan iain garcons 89°45% ANG ete Se Paar eee OLD CONE ee ie cee 56 AER eRe peas erent ae trace (OT rae ites Re trace 100% A complete account will be published shortly. 20. Mineralogical Survey of Ceylon, Report for 1904; by A. K. Coomarsswamy, Director. Pp. 21 with map and 3 plates.— This Report gives much valuable information in regard to the occurrence of gems and rare minerals in Ceylon, including the remarkable thorianite. An interesting occurrence is described on the Haldummulla estate, where corundum occurs in violet, pink and purplish crystals loose in the soil, and also in blocks of a sillimanite rock. These were not found in place, but doubtless Geology and Mineralogy. 187 came from a point not far distant. The sillimanite rocks have been found in certain parts of Ceylon somewhat abundantly in the garnetiferous leptynites. The author remarks: ‘The silli- manite-bearing rocks have a strong resemblance to the khonda- lites of Southern India; they do not, however, occur in the same way above the charnockite series, but completely incorporated with it, forming probably bands and lenticular masses ; the rocks have, however, been rarely seen 77 sééu, and it has not been possi- ble to study closely their relation to the charnockites proper. It must be pointed out that there is a complete transition to the ordinary granulite type. On the one hand, we have a rock com- posed wholly of sillimanite, and all varieties from this, through quartz-feldspar-sillimanite-garnet schist, to garnetiferous leptynite with very little sillimanite, and ordinary garnetiferous and non- garnetiferous leptynites can be collected.” Intrusive granite rocks which have been called the “ Balangoda group” have afforded a number of rare and interesting minerals, including, thorianite, thorite, allanite, baddeleyite, geikielite and cassiterite. The thorianite occurs in moderate quantities near Kondrugala in Bambarabotuwa, Sabaragamuwa. It is found in heavy black crystals, more or less water-worn, associated with zircon and pebbles of ilmenite. It is obtained by the same method used in washing gems, and it is stated that the whole amount thus far removed from Bambarabotuwa is less than 30 ewt., and it is not probable that more than a total of 5 tons could be obtained from the Kuda Pandi-oya valley; two other localities mentioned might yield half a ton additional. An interesting account is given of the occurrence of gems and the methods of gemming in Ceylon; this is supplemented by some excellent illustrations reproduced from photographs. ‘The gem-bearing gravel, or illam, occurs in beds, patches, or pockets deposited by streams and rivers, and may be found at any depth, up to 120 feet, the greatest depth observed, viz: at Botiyatenna, Rakwana. Where the illam is found in its typical form, it con- sists largely of white quartz pebbles, ranging in size from a small shot to a football, indeed in all gradations of size up to that of the bowlders associated with the illam, 21. The Production of Precious Stones in 1904 ; by GrorGE F, Kunz (Extract from Mineral Resources of the United States, U.S. Geol. Survey).—The annual reports in regard to the Pro- duction of Precious Stones always contain matter of interest. Of recent discoveries in this country the most important noted are those of Southern California, particularly in San Diego county, which has yielded near Ramona fine blue and white topaz ; also rose-colored beryl at Mesa Grande and Pala, and axinite at Bon- sall. The colored tourmalines, both in California and Maine, have been mined extensively, and the new locality of peridot at Talklai, Gila Co., Arizona, has yielded large quantities of fine gems. Much interesting information is given in regard to the diamond industry, particularly in South Africa. 188 Scientific Intelligence. 22. Celestite in Canada (Communicated).—Henry Lamparp notes the occurrence of crystals of celestite at Longue Pointe on the Island of Montreal. They are found in a vein, with fibrous structure, in the Trenton limestone near where it is cut by an igneous dike. III. MiIscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. American Association.—The fifty-fifth annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science was held at New Orleans during the week beginning Dec. 29, with Prof. C. M. Woodward as President. Six affiliated societies met at the same time. The next meeting of the Association has been appointed for New York City in Convocation week, beginning Dec. 27, 1906. Professor W. H. Welch has been elected Presi- dent. 2. Ostwald’s HNlassiker der exakten Wissenschaften. Leipzig, 1904 (Wilhelm Engelmann).—The following are the titles of the latest additions to this highly valuable series of scientific classics: No. 146.—Uber die Liésung der unbestimmten Probleme zwei- ten Grades; von JosEepH Louis Lagrange (1768). Pp. 131. Aus dem Franzésischen tibersetzt und her ausgegeben von Eugen Netto in Giessen. No. 147.—Beitrag zur physiologischen Optik; von JoHANN Benepixt Listine. Pp. 52, with portrait and two plates. Herausgegeben von Prof. Dr. ‘Otto Schwarz, Leipzig. No. 148.—Uber das Gedichtnis als eine ‘alleemeine Funktion der organisierten Materie ; von Ewaip Hurine. Pp.) 2ieea GOR: trag gehalten in der feierlichen Sitzung der Kaicethohes Akade- mie der Wissenschaften in Wien, am XXX Mai, MDCCCLXX. No. 149.—Tastsinn und Gemeingefiihl ; von Ernst HErNricu Weser. Pp. 156 with portrait. Herausgegeben, von Ewald Hering. No. 4150. — Bestimmung des Brechungs-und Farbenzerstreuungs- vermoégens verschiedener Glasarten in Bezug auf die Vervoll- kommung achromatischer Fernrohre ; von JosepH FRAUNHOFER. Pp. 36, with portrait, 1 plate and 6 text figures. Herausgegeben, von Arthur von Oettingen. The Science Year Book, with Astronomical, Physical and Chemical Tables, Summaries of Progress in Science, Directory and Diary for 1906 (Second year of issue). Edited by Masor B. F..S. Bapmen-PowELu. Pp. 208; 360; vi. London, 1905. (King, Sell & Olding, Ltd).—The Preface states that in this issue of the Science Year Book, ‘‘a number of additions and alterations have been made. New maps of the Constellations and of the Moon replace the old ones. Maps of Magnetic Variation and Rainfall are added, as are tables of Geology and of the Animal Kingdom. In addition to many new notes, among those in Physics and Chemistry is a table of Spectra. Im the Directory, a list of Universities with Professors of Science is included ; also a list of Colonial Scientific Societies, and many new names are added to the Biographies.”’- MERELY A REMINDER THIS PAGE is occupied by us merely as a-reminder that the only concern in America which can supply you with SPECIMENS IN ALL DEPARTMENTS OF NATURAL HISTORY (Except Botany and Entomology) Is Ward’s Natural Science Establishment To our old friends, the leading museums, colleges, educators and private collectors of the world, we are continually offering new things, some of which will be announced at the bottom of this page, from time to time. We endeavor to always remember you with our latest circulars; if you have failed to receive these recently, a line from you will bring them by return mail. To those who have not formerly dealt with us,—our sigiictanes¢ was founded in 1862, and incorporated in 1890 as a stock company with a paid-up capital of $125,000. We occupy a frontage of 250 feet facing the University of Rochester, and are known from the Yukon to the Ganges as the largest institution in the world dealing in Naturat History Specimens. For over forty years we have made it our sole business to collect, prepare and sell these, individually or in collections. Quality rather than extreme cheapness is our aim, and we have spared no expense to maintain a high standard and a standing in scientific circles. We pay no commissions, but deal direct with our customers, and sell at list prices only. We offer school collections as low as. $5 and have made one cabinet costing over $100,000 (Field Columbian Museum, Chicago), and seventeen others ranging from $10,000 to $70,000. In numerous instances we have built a large public museum complete at one stroke. Our catalogues, over twenty in number, are not mere price-lists, but are valuable as reference works, and have even been used as text-books in academies and colleges. A small charge is made for these, except to our regular customers or teachers intending to purchase; a list will be sent upon. request. We also issue free circulars in all departments, and shall be glad to place your address on our mailing list. OUR DEPARTMENTS. Mineralogy (Minerals, Rocks, Crystal Models, Meteorites, etc.). Geology (Phenomenal Series, Relief Maps, Geological Models). Palaeontology (Fossils, Casts of Celebrated Fossils, Wall Charts, etc.). Archaeology and Ethnology (Specimens, Models, Casts of Monuments). Invertebrates (Shells, Echinoderms, Corals, etc.; Biological Supplies). Zoology (Mounted Skins and Skeletons, Custom Work in Taxidermy). 2 Human Anatomy (Human Skeletons, and Anatomical Models of all inds). SPECIAL ANNOUNCEMENT FOR THIS MONTH. Another consignment of fossil fishes from Scotland, includ- ing additional species, has just been received. Write for list. Our new Circular No. 53 gives a complete list of our current free circulars in all departments. There are many and attractive new ones which you will want. Ward’s Natural Science Establishment, 76—104 COLLEGE AVENUE, ROCHESTER, N. Y. (25 Index XI-XX, now ready. Price $1.00. CONTENTS. Arr. VJ.—Wollastonite and Pseudo-W ollastonite ; by ical. : ALLEN and W. P. Wnireg, with optical study by F. E. WRIGRT obo Se SPR ee ae ee V1ITI.—Studies on Early ee in Paleozoic Corals; by ©. BE, GORDON VIII.—The Behavior of Ferric Chloride in the Zine Redue- or $> by DD. LARANDALL +2 22 ee ae TX.—Dipnoan Affinities of Arthrodires ; by O. R. Eastman 131 X.—A New Name for the Dinosaurian Genus Ceratops ; by D8 iis Bae Dy os bu opto eee Ne tara eee ee Ree Seer XI.—Interlocking of Emarginate Primary Feathers in Flight; hy-C. C. EROWBRIDGE {900 25 Foe es eee SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Determination of Nitrous and Nitric Acids, WEISEN- HEIMER and Heim: Modifications of Antimony, Stock and Sippert, 170.— Quantitative Determination of Bismuth, STAEHLER and SCHAFFENBERG : Distillation of Gold, Motssan, 171.—Fluoride of Bromine, LEBEAU: Prop- erties of the a-Rays from Radium, HK. RutHERFORD: Emission Spectrum of the Auer burner, H. Rusens, 172.—Afterglow produced by Lightning Discharges, B. WALTER: Specific Heat of Superheated Steam, L. RUBENS and F. HennineG: Use of the Microphone Contact for Telegraphic Relays, and for Detection of Weak Currents, C. JENSEN and H. SIEVEKING, 173.— Mathematical and Physical Papers, G. G. Stokes: Lehrbuch der Physik, O. D. Cawotson: Polariscope in the Chemical Laboratory, G. W. ROLF, 74. Geology and Mineralogy—Status of the Mesozoic Floras of the United States (Second Paper), L. F. Warp, 175.—Geology and Paleontology of the Judith River Beds, T. W. Srawton and J. B. HatcuHer, 177.—Paleontology of the Malone Jurassic Formation of Texas, F. W. CRAGIN, 179.—Copper Deposits of Missouri, H. F. Barn and EH. O. Utricw: Developmental Stages in the Lagenidae, J. A. Cusuman, 180,.—Revised Nomenclature of the Ohio Geological Formations, C. 5. Prosser: Mesozoic Section on Cook Inlet and Alaska Peninsula, T. W. Stanton and G. C. Martin: New York State Museum, J. M. CuarKe: Geology of Miller County, S. H. Batu and A. F. SmiTH : Quarrying Industry of Missouri, E. R. Buckuey and H. A. BUEH- LER: Geology of Moniteau County, Ff. B. Van Horn and EH. R. BOOKLEY : Note on the use of Buena Vista as the name of a geological terrain, C. 8S. Prosser, 181.—Configuration of the Rock Floor of Greater New York, W. H. Hosss: Formation of Phenocrysts in Igneous Rocks, H. A. Miers, 182. —Beitriige zur chemischen Petrographie, A. Osann, 185.—Beitrige zur Petrographie des westlichen Nord-Gronland, M. BatowsKky : Recherches géologiques et pétrographiques sur les Laccolithes Environs de Piatigorsk (Caucase du Nord), V. Dp Derwiss, 184.—Physikalische Krystallographie und Einleitung in die krystallographische Kenntnis der wichtigsten Sub- stanzen, P. Grotu, 185.—Preliminary Notice of a New Meteorite from Texas, K.S. Howarp: Mineralogical Survey of Ceylon, Report for 1904, K. Coomaraswamy, 186.—Production of Precious Stones in 1904, G. F. Kunz, 187.—Celestite in Canada, H. Lamparp, 188. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—American Association : Ostwald’s Klas- siker der exakten Wissenschaften, 188. r. Cyrus Adler, ee ; : 7 Librarian U. S. Nat. Museum. > t OL. SoD MARCH, 1906. Fat ets 5 Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. pe al Pe ed Ce | AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Epirorn: EDWARD S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Proressors GEORGE L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, or CAMBRIDGE, Proressors ADDISON E. VERRILL, HORACE L. WELLS, L. V. PIRSSON ann H. E. GREGORY, or New Haven, Proresson GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHILADELPHIA, Proressor HENRY S. WILLIAMS, or Iruaca, Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Battrmorse, Mr. J. S. DILLER, or WasuHinetTon. FOURTH SERIES VOL. XXI—_[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXXI.] No. 123—MARCH, 1906. PLATES I-IV. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. 1906 hs THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 123 TEMPLE STREET. ao ee ee Sa ETT I Published monthly. Six dollars per year, in advance. $6.40 to countries in the Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by money orders, registered letters, or bank checks (preferably on New York banks). . FINE ZEOLITES FROM WEST PATERSON We have an unusually fine assortment of the minerals which this famous locality affords :— Apophyllite Stilbite Pectolite Thaumasite Prehnite Datolite From Guanajuato, beautiful Apophyllite and cream white Stilbite. | From Colorado, Analcites in #-inch milk white crystals with Mesolite. VICTORIA. We still have a few of the fine quality Analcites, Gmelinites, Natrolites, Phillipsites and Phacolites. OTHER RECENT FINDS. A new habit of Barite from Maryland. Small limpid erys- tals of adamantine lustre, mounted on brilliant iridescent Siderite druses. Very attractive and novel specimens. see 978°605 978°632 Os OQ Mupooners=)= 222- 978°751 978°795 +0:044” Colonel Burrard remarks that these differences are not affected by any constant quantity, and that, ‘ Basevi’s and Heaviside’s observations were taken with a care that it is diffi- cult for us to equal.” ‘The only faults. which have been * Bathymetric Features of the North Polar Sea, with a Discussion of the Continental Shelves and previous Oscillations of the Shore Line (Chris- tiana 1904). + Phil. Trans. Royal Soc., Series A, vol. cev, 1905. i 220 Fisher— Cause of Changes of Level in the Earth's Crust. \ found with their work are such as would tend to produce con- ‘stant error.” Is it not possible that the large difference in the force of gravity at Dehra Dun may be to some extent due toa real change of density beneath that station in the interval of between thirty and forty years? We know that during 1905 a severe earthquake was experienced at Dehra Dun; ‘and the stress which caused it must have been accumulating since Basevi’s time. May not that process have been accompanied by a gradual change of density which Conyngham’s observa- tions revealed in progress 4 Taking the mean force of gravity to be 978 centimeters, a change of density amounting to 13 per cent in a depth of 50 miles in the underlying magma a Dehra Dun would have been quite suficient to cause the whole of the observed dif- ference in gravity, supposing the higher density of the two to be 3. It seems, therefore, that if this change of gravity at Dehra Dun cannot be accounted for by errors of observation, it amounts to a proof that changes of density, and therefore movements, have taken place in the substratum of the earth’s crust in sub-Himalayan regions within the last thirty years. x Lik S. W. Williston— North ‘American Plesiosaurs. 221 Art XVI.—WNorth American Plesiosaurs: Elasmosaurus, Cimoliasaurus, and Polycotylus; by S. W. Wiuston. (With Plates I-IV.) Dvrine the past two years I have had the opportunity of studying nearly all the specimens of plesiosaurs preserved in the American museums, a study undertaken in the preparation of a monographic revision of the American forms, and, it is hoped, of the genera of the world also. The accumulation, however, of material recently has made the completion of the task a more arduous one than was at first suspected. I have therefore determined to publish from time to time the more important results obtained, with the hope eventually of gather- ing the whole together in a final monographic revision. Fur- thermore, I am convinced that specimens of this order of reptiles are not as rare in America as has been believed, and hope to continue field search until the more important charac- ters cf the group have been established. I have already said, and I repeat, that the taxonomy of the plesiosaurs is very per- plexing; I doubt if that of any other order of reptiles is more so, chiefly because of the fragmentary nature of much of the known material. I desire in this place to express my sincerest thanks to those gentlemen who have generously aided me by the communica- tion of material under their charge, and in particular to Dr. Witmer Stone of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, Professor Henry F. Osborn of the American Museum of New York City, President Slocum and Professor Cragin of Colo- rado College, and to my old friend, Mr. William H. Reed, curator of paleontology of the University of Wyoming. i am especially grateful for the generosity with which Pr ofessor Charles Schuchert, the curator of the (Feological Department of the Yale Museum, has placed freely at my disposal the rich collections of that museum, collections which I had, for the most part, assisted in making a good many years ago; and to which were added many useful notes made by the late Pro- fessors Marsh and Baur, and by myself while an assistant in that museum twenty years or more ago. Professor Marsh had begun, before his death, the critical study of the plesiosaur material of the Yale Museum, and had had much of it pre- pared and some illustrations ‘made. All of this has been placed at my disposal. Professor Marsh had not definitely determined any of his species, and had only tentatively located some of them in genera, aside from the Jurassic species de- scribed by him as Pantosaurus striatus. Most of the observa- Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourts SErigs, Vou. X XI, No. 123.—Marcnu, 1906. 16 : 222 SS. W. Williston—North American Plesiosaurs. tions of his notes have been anticipated by myself or others ; others new to me I shall fully acknowledge in each case. The present paper will deal chiefly with this material, that especi- ally belonging to the genus Hlasmosaurus. Other material in the collection will be discussed in later papers, so far as the more important characters are concerned. Cimoliasaurus. The genus Crmoliasaurus has been, and yet is, poorly understood. Lydekker subordinated a dozen or more generic “names as synonyms, some of which have been accepted as such by later writers. Professor Marsh was inclined, as his notes show, to accept the name Cimoliasaurus in lieu of Elasmo- saurus for the species now in the Yale Museum. A brief review, therefore, of the real characters of that genus, as interpreted by the light of considerable material, will not be out of place here. The type of the genus and species Cimoliasaurus magnus Leidy is a number of dorsal and cervical vertebrae from Mon- mouth county, New Jersey, probably from rocks of an epoch corresponding with the Fort Pierre Cretaceous, and they have been, for the most part, well figured by Leidy in his “ Cretaceous Reptiles. a Wathethe original specimens he later associated a series of fourteen vertebra ze, or rather centra of vertebrae, from the same locality, and he speaks of such bones being common in the deposits of New Jersey. Leidy, however, sadly misin- terpreted the positions of his centra in the vertebral column, nor was Cope much more correct in his interpretation of them. I would interpret figures 13-15 of Plate V of the above- mentioned work as of a posterior cervical centrum ; figure 16, a more posterior cervical or early pectoral ; fiewres ees ie median or postero-median cervical. Figures 1-3 of Plate VI represent a dorsal centrum; figure 4 is of an anterior dorsal, as is also figure 5; figures 6 and 7 are of a posterior cervical ; 8-15, of median cervicals : 16-19, of an anterior cervieal. Leidy’ s description of the genus Discosaurus appeared on the page following that of ‘Cimoliasaur us, and was based upon two caudal vertebree from the Cretaceous of New Jersey (Plate V, figures 1-3) and an anterior caudal vertebra from the same region. Other vertebree from the Cretaceous of Mississippi (figures 10, 11) he afterwards separated as the type of a distinct species, ‘and was probably correct in so doing. Cope long ago showed the similitude of these vertebra to those of Cimoliasaurus and made the name Discosaurus a syhonym, in which Leidy acquiesced. We may therefore assume that all these vertebrae, save those from Mississippi, pertain not only to Cimoliasaurus, but to } i S. W. Williston—North American Plesiosaurs. 223 | J ~N the type species as well; from which certain definite generic characters are evident. Cope erred in most of the distinctive characters that he assigned to the genus Hlasmosaurus, but was correct in an important one,—the length of the neck. - We shall see that in all the known species assigned to Hlasmo- saurus, of which this part of the skeleton is known, the neck is very long, and that all of its vertebree, save the most pos- terior ones, are longer than broad. Cimoliasaurus is, there- fore, a relatively short-necked plesiosaur, though not so short as in the genus Polycotylus. Nothing is known of the pec- toral girdle or of the skull of Cimoliasaurus, and more deci- sive characters may be,—I believe will be, forthcoming when these parts of the type species are known. Unfortunately, here as among the mosasaurids, it may be a long time before the subject is cleared up finally. I am, however, firmly of the opinion that the two genera are distinct, and therefore object to the indiscriminate use of Cimoliasaurus in the way that it has been used, both in this country and in Europe. While we may assume the distinction between Cimolia- saurus and Hlasmosaurus, we can by no means do so for the genus Lrimosaurus, described long ago by Leidy from a dorsal vertebra from the Cretaceous, probably Benton, of Clark county, Arkansas. I believe that this, genus will com- prise species now located under Hlasmosaurus, and possibly, if not probably, the type species of that genus. For the present, however, we do know pretty nearly what “7usmo- saurus is, and I shall therefore use this name as the designa- tion of at least ten species of the genus known to me, so far as they can be distinguished by true generic characters. I should perhaps except one of the species described below, /lasmo- saurus (2?) marshi, because | am of the opinion that it will eventually be necessary to locate it elsewhere. Indeed I should do this now, did I not feel doubtful of its relationships to some other, as yet poorly distinguished genera. Hlasmosaurus. The type species of Hlasmosaurus was founded by the late Professor Cope, and based upon a specimen ascribed to the Niobrara Cretaceous of western Kansas, in the vicinity of old Fort Wallace. From the locality given for the type specimen I long ago concluded that its horizon was really basal Fort Pierre Cretaceous, and not Niobrara; and an examination of the type specimen, now in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, to which much of the original matrix yet adheres, confirms this determination. Though the type speci- men included a large part of the skeleton, yet through some — 294 OS. W. Williston—North American Plesiosaurs. misinterpretation of its parts by Professor Cope, and the absence of other, essential parts, it has remained until the present time not well understood. Nor is it possible yet cor- rectly to define it in all its details, since in no one species do we know the complete skeleton ; and it is possible, even more, it is probable, that there are two or more concurrent genera among the following species, which may eventually have to 1 Figure 1.—Pectoral girdle of Cryptoclidus oxoniensis Phillips. From drawing of articulated specimen, American Museum of Natural History. be distinguished from each other. Its relationships are near- est with the genus Cryptoclidus of Europe, a figure of the pectoral girdle of which, copied from a drawing kindly made for me from an articulated specimen in the American Museum of New York City, is given herewith (text-figure 1). But the two genera are very distinct. Indeed I am not at all sure but S. W. Williston—North American Plesiosaurs. 225 they are distinguishable by more than generic characters, for the family Hlasmosaurus is a distinct one, though its charac- ters are not quite those assigned to it by Professor Seeley. I may add that so far, from a prolonged study of the American specimens and descriptions, [am of the opinion that no single species of American plesiosaurs can be placed in any known European genus. Unfortunately, the type specimen of Elasmosaurus no longer has the girdles described by Cope. What has become of them is not known. There are some parts of these, espe- cially the clavicular arch, that are necessary for a correct under- standing of the genus. However, from an attentive study of this type specimen and of several other specimens which can be with much probability, if not certainty, referred to the same species, I am enabled to give the following characters for the genus Hlasmosaurus. Those characters der ived from the type specimen or type species are given in italics; those derived from other species referred to the genus, in roman :— Elasmosaurus. Symphysis of mandible short ; teeth aniso- dont. Neck with seventy-six true cervical vertebre and three pectorals, the centra increasing in length to the fifty-eighth, and. then decr easing to the dorsals ; thence nearly uniform through the thoracic region ; postertor cervicals and dorsals much wider than high, and wider than long ; spines of verte- bree wide and not high , ; zygapophyses weak. Pectoral girdle with large scapule meeting each other in the middle line. No interclavicular foramen. Coracoids broadly separated posteriorly to the interglenoid thickening, the posterior end not much dilated. Cervical ribs single-headed. Ischia short. Skull short; parietal crest much elevated ; supraoccipital bones parial; palatines separated by pterygoids. Cervical vertebree from sixty to seventy-six in number. Scapule approaching or meeting in middle line. Propodial bones short; two epipodial bones only, not wider than long; digits much elongated. Elasmosaurus platyurus Cope. ort Pierre Cretaceous of Kansas. A detailed description of this specimen, in completion or correction of that given by Cope, will be given later. Certain measurements and remarks may be appropriate here. The very broad, depressed, posterior cervical vertebre of the posterior third, or say the posterior seven feet, prohibited much motion in the living neck, either vertically or horizon- tally. The motility of the neck practically ceased at the fifty- eighth vertebra. Thenceforward the neck was more slender, very slender toward the head. It was to this part that most, if 296 = =S. W. Williston— North American Plesiosaurs. not all, motility was confined. The total length of the neck in this species in life, allowing six millimeters only for the thickness of the interarticular cartilages between adjacent vertebrae, was exactly twenty-three feet. A close approxima- tion to the length of the trunk is nine feet ; of the tail, eight feet. The length of the head, using Z. snowii for comparison (and the remains of the type preserved show that there must have been great resemblance between these two forms in the skull), was less than two feet. The entire length of the animal in life, then, was a little over forty-two feet, an esti- mate somewhat less than that reached by Cope. Other speci- mens referred to this genus exceeded these dimensions very materially, indicating, “if their proportions were alike, an extreme length of not less than sixty feet. The elasmosaurs doubtless were the longest, if not the largest, of all known marine reptiles. In the extreme elongation of the neck, Hlasmosaurus exceeded all other vertebrated animals of the past or present, and was, if we assume a diphyletic origin of the short-necked forms, the most specialized of all plesiosaurs, since in no other genus ‘do we know of any species having as many as fifty cer- vical vertebre. But I ‘am rather of the opinion that the short-necked types were descendants of earlier and longer- necked forms. Unless this is the case, we know of no early plesiosaurs which could have been the progenitors of such forms as Polycotylus with twenty-six cervical vertebree, or Brachauchenius with as few as thirteen. In their paddles, the elasmosaurs were very generalized, in that the epipodials were scarcely broader than long, and their number is but two. In the clavicular arch, Hlasmosaurus was specialized, while in the coracoids it seems to have retained generalized characters. As to the habits of these long-necked plesiosaurs in life, I am satisfied that they were in general scavengers, living largely in shallow waters, as well as often out at sea. Numer- ous remains were found the past season in Wyoming, in the Upper Cretaceous, associated with longirostral and brevirostral amphiccelian crocodiles, dinosaurs, and lepidosteal fishes, as well as with turtles of marsh or fresh-water habit. And especially noticeable was the large number of immature or quite young animals found in these deposits. It was with a specimen of an elasmosaur (Z. snow?) that Mudge first noticed the occurrence of the peculiar siliceous pebbles which he described; and it was also with another, a large species yet unnamed,’ from the Benton Cre- taceous, that the like specimens were found described by me in 1892. That this habit was not confined to this type of plesiosaur, however, is certain, since I have also observed it th American Plesiosaurs. 227 in different species of Polycotylus and Trinacromerum, both relatively short-necked and long-headed plesiosaurs. Much doubt and even ridicule have been thrown upon this supposed habit and the use of the pebbles by these reptiles. But the cumulative testimony of writers, both on this and the other side of the Atlantic, is quite conclusive. It has been assumed that the plesiosaurs could not have utilized the pebbles as a means of digestion in a muscular stomach. Dr. Eastman, who has vigorously opposed the idea of the possession of such a bird-like structure on the part of the plesiosaurs, seems to have been quite unaware of the fact that the modern croco- diles have a real, bird-like and muscular gizzard, and so described by Dr. Gadow. The crocodiles have a similar habit, or at least such a habit has been imputed to them, and it is not at all unreasonable to suppose that, strange as it may seem, the plesiosaurs had a real, muscular ‘vird-like gizzard, which utilized the pebbles in whatever way the er ocodiles may utilize them. Elasmosaurus orientalis Cope. Cretaceous of New Jersey. This species was based upon two mutilated and _ isolated cervical centra from New Jersey. It seems far more probable that these vertebre really belong with Cimoliasaurus. Cope afterwards associated with this species an excellent series of vertebre from the Pierre of Montana, which I have studied in the American Museum. [I have not the least doubt but that Cope was in error in this collocation. Jam not sure of the distinction of this specimen from “/. platyurus, though a careful comparison of the measurements and sketches made by myself will, I think, decide their identity. If not Z. platyurus, the species is doubtless entitled to a new specific name. Elasmosaurus intermedius Cope. Fort Pierre Cretaceous of Montana. This species was based upon nineteen centra without pro- cesses, and all more or less mutilated; now in the museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia. I can not distinguish them specifically from /. platy YUrus. Elasmosaurus serpentinus Cope. Niobrara Cretaceous of Nebraska. This species was based upon much better material than was either of the foregoing ones, and it is both recognizable and distinct. Unfortunately, no fizures have ever been given of the type specimen, and I have not had, so far, an opportunity to study the specimen. As in his other descriptions, Cope iden- 298 =. W. Williston—North American Plesiosaurs. tified some of the vertebree wrongly. The -first dorsal verte- bra, as he describes it, is in reality a posterior cervical, while his seventh is either the last pectoral or the first true dorsal. From his description, | make out sixty-two as the number of cervical vertebree preserved, and eighteen dorsals. As this number of dorsals is smaller than is known in any other species of plesiosaurs, [ am confident that the series was not complete. If Cope was correct in the serial relations of the cervical vertebree described, the species is quite distinct from anything otherwise described. His descriptions of the pec- vo FIGURE 2.—Scapule and coracoids of Hlasmosaurus snowti Williston. Specimen No. 636, Yale Museum. toral and pelvic girdles and of the limbs indicate an excellent specimen now in the Field Museum, which will be shortly described by Mr. E. 8. Riggs, anda perfect humerus from the Hailey shales in the collection of the University of Chicago. Hlasmosaurus snowit Williston. Niobrara Cretaceous of Kansas. This species, based upon an excellent skull and a connected series of eighteen cervical vertebree in the museum of the University of Kansas, I identify with much certainty in an S. W. Williston—North American Plesiosaurs. 229 excellent specimen in the Yale collection (No. 1644), collected in 1874, by the late Professor B. F. Mudge, with my assistance, on Plum Creek, in western Kansas. It was the first specimen of plesiosaur that I ever saw. The locality of its collection is only a few miles distant from, and in almost precisely the same horizon as, that of the type specimen of the species, which was obtained from Hell Creek by the late Judge West, in 1890. Fortunately, the Yale specimen has, in addition to numerous vertebree which quite agree with those of the Kansas specimen, parts of the girdles and limbs. I suspect that the specimen represents a somewhat immature animal; if not, it offers almost generic differences from the /. platyurus. The coracoids are of the true elasmosaurian type, that is, with the 3 FIGURE 5.—Pubes of Hlasmosaurus snowti Williston.: Specimen No. 636, Yale Museum. posterior parts broadly separated (text-figure 2), though this part is unusually wide and short. It has, on the other hand, scapulee of the usual type, not very much widened in the pro- scapular part. The humerus is quite elasmosaurian also, resembling that of E! dschiadicus, though shorter (Plate ITI, figure 3). The pubis is, however, very distinctive, readily dis- \‘tinguishing the species from £. ischiadicus, in that the anterior and external borders are markedly concave, and the symphysial border is much prolonged (text-figure 3). Another specimen of much larger size, in Yale Museum (No. 1641), has a pubis strikingly like this, though the femur is elongated and the epipodials are short. Hlasmosaurus (?) marshiin. sp. Niobrara Cretaceous of Kansas. The specimen upon which this species is based is No. 1645 of the Yale Museum, collected in 1889 by Mr. H. T. Martin, in the chalk of Logan county, Kansas. It consists of thirty- two vertebre, a scapula, and a nearly complete fore limb. 230) = =6S. W. Williston—North American Plesiosaurs. The scapula, save the tip of the dorsal process, and the paddle are in excellent preservation. The vertebrae have suffered much from compression, as is usually the case with the soft- boned plesiosaurs in the Kansas chalk. The scapula is figured in outline herewith (text-figure 4). Its inner part is greatly expanded and produced to meet its mate broadly im the middle line. At their symphysis the two bones are extended backward in a narrow, elongated process, which did not, however, unite with the coracoid, as was the ease with “. platyurus. In front, the two bones leave a broad, angular interval for the clavicle or interclavicle. Neither of these bones has ever been certainly defined in this genus, though Cope figured the pectoral girdle of /. platyurus 4 Fieure 4.—Scapule of Elasmosaurus marshii Williston. No. 2062, Yale Museum. as meeting broadly in front, as though the clavicle were fused with the scapule. I believe that the missing bone is the interclavicle, and that the clavicles will be found to be as in Cryptoclidus. The structure of the paddle is clearly shown in Plate II, fivure 2, as arranged under the supervision of Professor Marsh. I do not know under what conditions the bones were collected, but doubtless they were sent in from the field with the different parts dissociated. A careful study of the mounted specimen, however, assures me of the essential cor- rectness of the restoration. The peculiar form of the hume- rus, quite unlike that of any other species of plesiosaur known to me, will enable this species to be readily recognized, though the characters of the seapulee and vertebrze may possi- bly be insufficient. The bone is short, as is seen,—an elasmo- W. Williston—North American Plesiosaurs. 231 saurian character, but it differs from the propodial of any other elasmosaurian known to me, in having an additional facet for a supernumerary epipodial at its distal end. There is, also, an additional mesopodial bone, which is wanting in other species of Hlasmosaurus. These characters abel believe, of generic value, but until the structure of the cora- coid is known I leave the Species provisionally in this genus. The femur has a length of 870™", and a width of 218™™. Thirty-three vertebree are preserved with the type speci- men, but as already stated they have suffered much from dis- tortion, and their exact measurements can not be given. They are all clearly from the posterior part of the neck and the dorsal region. Some of the posterior dorsals are missing, though one of the sacrals is preserved. Their characters, so far as they are shown, are clearly elasmosaurian. The ribs are of course single-headed ; the spines are broad and not very high ; the posterior dorsals are more flattened at their extremi- ties, and their articular rims are sharp, with slight crenula- tions. The lengths of the centra are given in millimeters, as approximately as the crushed condition will permit, as fol- lows :— Cervicals: 135, 135, 135, 135, 135, 135, 138, 138, 130, 127, 125, 125, 125, 120. Dorsals: 115, 115, 115, 112, 110, 110, 100, 95, 90, 90, 90, 90, 90, 90, 90, 90, 90, 85, 80 (sacral). If this species had similar proportions to those of /. platy- urus, its length in life was about fifty feet. Hlasmosaurus ischiadicus Williston. Niobrara Cretaceous of Kansas. Ee ischiadicus Williston, Field Col. Mus. Pub., Geol. Ser., vol. ii, p. 72, pls. x, xxvi, 1903. This species, based upon the ischia, ilia, caudal and supposed cervical vertebrae, was originally referred provisionally to the genus Polycot ylus by myself, though gravely doubting its ee location there. An excellent specimen in the Yale Museum (No. 1130), comprising the front paddle nearly com- plete, a number of vertebrae, and the nearly complete pectoral girdle, seems to be of the same species. I was at.one time inclined to the belief that the specimen represented an unde- scribed species, notwithstanding the resemblance of the ischia, chiefly because of the differences in the structure of the ilia, and because of the characters of the vertebrae which I had identified as cervical. That all the centra preserved in the Kansas specimen are pygals seems hardly possible. If any of them are cervicals, the species are undoubtedly distinct. This question, however, I can not decide until I have had an oppor- 232 oS. W. Williston—North American Plesiosaurs. tunity of again examining the type specimen. I therefore place the Yale specimen for the present in this species. The characters of the pelvis, that is, the short ischia espe- cially, and the shape of the pubis, will be readily appreciated by an examination of Plate I. The paddle is especially note- worthy because of the primitive number of the epipodial bones (there are no supernumeraries), and this character I have also observed in the paddles of three other species of the genus. The paddle, it is also observed, is much elongated, and the femur is relatively short (Plate II, figure 1). The few vertebrae of the neck preserved are quite “elasmosaurian in character. Other propodials of this species are preserved in the University of Chicago collections. Elasmosaurus sternbergi n. sp. Niobrara Cretaceous of Kansas. The only parts referable with certainty to this species are two complete dorsal vertebree and some additional fragments in the University of Kansas collection, obtained some years ago by Mr. Charles Sternberg in the yellow chalk of Gove county, Kansas. I describe them, nevertheless, since they indicate the largest plesiosaur of which I have any knowledge. If they belonged to a long-necked form like 4. platyurus, the animal could not have been less than sixty feet in length. That they pertain to a long-necked form is quite certain, and the general characters of the vertebre are like those of AVas- MOSAUPUS. The dorsal centra are nearly circular in outline, somewhat broader than high, with their sides gently concave. The dia- pophyses are stout, directed upward and outward to a plane above the zygapophyses. The zygapophyses are separated by a notch and are rather small. The spine is flattened and elon- gate. Figures of these vertebree will be given in a later com- munication. Wadthiott dorsal-centrumies 335 eee 165"™ Heioht ofisamen S2ehe tks 20 Gane eee He Dane eae) Length OES INNO ate Pe Cae eer pee Mencia SC) Width of more posterior dorsal; ase eo} Heiehtot same: 2 407 Bicyee aks Goh sate mies eda 143 Lene thiot same So Gc hiss Se sien ee eS This is the only specimen referable to this species that I have ever seen in the many years of my acquaintance with the Kansas saurians. Its extreme rarity will therefore justify the description of the rather meager material. EHlasmosaurus nobilis n. sp. Niobrara Cretaceous of Kansas. A very large specimen referable to a new species is repre- sented by a considerable portion of a skeleton in the Yale S. W. Williston—North American Plesiosaurs. 233 Museum, obtained a good many years ago from the Fort Hays limestone, or basal strata of the Niobrara Cretaceous, of Jewell county, Kansas, by B. F. Mudge. The specimen bears the catalogue number 1640. Unfortunately, the specimen had been injured in collecting before it fell into proper hands. Originally it is probable that the larger part of the pectoral girdle, and perhaps, also, of the pelvic g eirdle and hind limb had been present, in addition to numerous ver tebree, and all in an undistorted condition. The specimen, notwithstanding what it has suffered, is of much interest, since it is the only verte- brate of which I have any knowledge from the Hays lime- stone. Additional figures and descriptions will be given later. For the present, the figures of the femur, ilia, and dorsal and sacral vertebre given in Plate IV will render the species recognizable. A massive fragment of the scapula shows a broad and firm union with its mate in the middle line. The posterior projection of the coracoid is very long and much constricted before its extremity, its distal width being a little less than twice that of its least width; the outer posterior angle is acute and not. much produced. The femur shows facets for but two epipodial bones. Benothvote tenn uri Ss ein ee sie enn 33 fn Greatest width distally ._....-- BRENT ENS DN 206 A rather common species referable to this genus from the fence-post and lower horizons of the Benton is represented by a number of specimens in the Kansas University collections, and will be described later, with figures. Two additional species also referable to. this genus are known to me from the Hailey shales (probably equivalent to the Benton Cretaceous) of Wyoming, and will be described and figured later. Polycotylus Cope. The genus Polycotylus, described by Cope in 1870 from a number of mutilated vertebrae and fragments of podial bones, has remained hitherto much of a problem, and its characters have been very generally misunderstood. Fortunately, there is an excellent specimen in the Yale Museum (No. 1125), collected now many years ago by the late Professor Marsh in the vicinity of Fort Wallace, Kansas, from the Niobrara chalk, which I believe can be referred with certainty to the type species P. HS Cope. That it belongs in the genus Polycotylus is beyond dispute, the vertebrae agreeing quite with the type as they do. This species seems to be the most common one of the order in the Kansas chalk, and is repre- sented by several other specimens in the Yale Museum and by specimens in the University of Kansas collection. It is not at 234 S. W. Williston—North American Plesiosaurs. all improbable that the validity of the generic name may be eventually called into question, since there seems to be no dif- ference between the teeth of this form and that described by Leidy years before, from the Cretaceous, presumably Niobrara, of Minnesota, as Piratosaurus. However, as the identity must remain for many years, if not always, more or less doubt- ful, it would be very unwise to make any changes at the present time. The Yale specimen, presenting as it does not a few interest- ing morphological and structural characters, will be fully described and figured later. It comprises the larger part of the skeleton, with the lower jaws, parts of the skull, teeth, ete. From the study of this specimen, supplemented. by other specimens, clearly conspecitic, the generic characters may be stated as follows :— Polycotylus. Teeth rather slender, with numerous well- marked ridges. Hace with slender beak. Cervical vertebre twenty-siz in number; dorsals twenty-eight or twenty-nine, inclusive of three pectorals ; all short and all of nearly wni- form length. Chevrons articulating in a deep concavity ; all the vertebrae, and especially the cervicals, rather deeply concave, and with a broad articular rim. Pectoral g girdle with distinct clavicles, interclavicles, and interclavicular fora- men; the scapule not contiquous in the nuddle. Coracoid with a long anterior projection, united in the middle, back of the interglenoid bar, to the posterior margin ; a foramen on each side, back of inter glenoid thickening. Ischia elongated. Paddles with four pipodyal bones, all much broader than long. The foregoing characters, it will be seen, are very much like those already given by me for Dolichor ynchops, and I am somewhat in doubt as to the validity of that genus, or rather of Trinacromerum Cragin, of which, as I suspected, Dolicho- rhynchops is a synonym. The only important distinctions are the deep concavity of the centra and the mode of articulation of the chevrons. In none of the known species of Z?rina- cromerum are there more than three epipodial bones, while in the two species referred to Polycotylus there are four well- formed ones. This may be, in addition to the vertebral char- acters, sufficient to distingwish the genera. I give herewith some additional fiowres of Polycotylus late- pinnis, made from the Yale specimen 1125 (Plate ITI, figure 1). The pelvic girdle, as will be seen, is remarkable for ‘the great elongation of the ischia. The paddle figured by me in my previous paper on the plesiosaurs* was correctly assigned to the species, but is a hind paddle instead of a pectoral limb. * Field Col. Mus. Pub., Geol. Ser., vol. ii, pl. xx. AR 2 S. W. Walliston— North American Plesiosaurs. 235 A front paddle preserved in the Yale collection, has, as usual, the humerus more expanded distally. An outline of the cora- coids and scapule, as preserved, is given in text-figure 5. Polycotylus dolichopus n. sp. Niobrara Cretaceous of Kansas. A species quite distinct from P. latepinnis is represented in the Yale collection by two specimens, the one a femur and most of the paddle (No. 1642), the other a humerus and some \ WS WN TT FIGURE 0.—Scapule and coracoids of Polycotylus latipinnis Cope. No. 1125, Yale Museum. of the mesopodial and epipodial bones (No. 1646), both from the Niobrara chalk of Kansas. I am convinced that these two specimens are conspecific, judging especially from the shape of the epipodials, but in the possibility that they may prove to be distinct, specimen No. 1646 may be considered the type of the species.. The species is especially characterized by the slenderness of the shaft of 236 SS. W. Williston—North American Plesiosaurs. the propodials, the great transverse dilatation of the epipodials, and the markedly greater concavity of the posterior border of the propodials (Plate III, figure 2). The metapodials and phalanges are also notable for their shortness and robustness. There are four facets on the distal extremity of the propodials for articulation with the epipodials. Length of femur (No. 1642)" -2222)> > aie Greatest distal expanse 2... .22 22222 be Length of humerus (No. 1646) -___-.- We 27 Greatest distaliexpanse 22 == "=e eee 172 An additional species of this genus is known to me, and will be figured and described in a later communication. Trinacromerum Cragin. The genus 7rinacromerum, if it be distinct from Polycoty- Jus, as I believe that it is, is represented in the Yale col- lection by a considerable portion of a skeleton (No. 1129), clearly identifiable with 7. anonymum Williston, from the Benton Cretaceous. This specimen, which offers some addi- tional facts of interest, will be figured and described in a later communication, in connection with the description of the type species of the genus, 7. bentonianuwm, which I have recently . studied in the Colorado College collection. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE I. Pelvic girdle of Elasmosaurus ischiadicus Williston. p, pubis; i, ilium ; is, ischium. Specimen No. 1130, Yale Museum. Puate II. Ficure 1.—Right pelvic paddle of Klasmosaurus ischiadicus Williston. Specimen No. 1130, Yale Museum. FieurEe 2.—Left pectoral paddle of Hlasmosaurus (?) marshii Williston. Specimen No. 1645, Yale Museum. PuateE ITI. FicurEe 1.—Left half of pelvic girdle of Polycotylus latipinnis Cope. la, pubis; 10, ischium; 1c. ilium. Specimen No. 1125, Yale Museum. FIGURE 2.—Right propodial and epipodial bones of Polycotylus dolichopus Williston. Specimen No. 1642, Yale Museum. Ficure 3.—Right humerus of Hlasmosaurus snowtt Williston. Specimen No. 1644, Yale Museum. Puate LV. Elasmosaurus nobilis Williston. Specimen No. 1640, Yale Museum. Ficure 1.—Right ilium. FIGURE 2.—Left ilium. FIGURE 3.—Right femur. FIGURE 4.—Posterior sacral vertebra. FIGURE 5.— First sacral vertebra. Figure 6.—Anterior dorsal vertebra. Figures 7, 8.—Posterior dorsal vertebre. FIGurRE 9.—-Middle sacral vertebra. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXI, 1906. Elasmosaurus ischiadicus Williston. Plate |. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXI, 1906. Plate JI. Fie. 1. Klasmosaurus ischiadicus Williston. Fie, 2, Elasmosaurus(?) marshii Williston. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX1, 1906. Fic. 1. Polycotylus latipinnis Cope. Fic. 2. P. dolichopus Williston. Fic. 8. Elasmosaurus snowti Williston. Plate IV. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXI, 1906. Elasmosaurus nobilis Williston. Kraus and Hunt—Sulphur and Celestite. 237 ART. ell he Occurrence of Sulphur and Celestite at Maybee, Michigan ; by E. H. Kravs and W. F. Hunr. A. Relation of Celestite-bearing Rocks to Occurrences of Sulphur and Sulphureted Waters. Tar celestite-bearing rocks occur quite extensively in New York and Michigan has been recently pointed out.* Perhaps one of the best localities to study these rocks in respect to the formation of sulphur and sulphureted water is at the Wool- mith quarry, midway between the towns of Scofield and May- bee, Monroe Co., Michigan. Inasmuch as Sherzert has reported in detail concerning the geology of this locality, it is sufficient to say that the nine dif- ferent beds exposed at this quarry are assigned to the Monroe series, perhaps the equivalent of the Salina in New York The rocks are for the most part dolomites, sometimes, how- ever, quite siliceous. Many of the strata also contain a rela- tively large per cent of bituminous matter. It is also important to state that the strata at or near the surface are usually quite compact and vary much in color—from gray to brown—and are more or less blotched or streaked. These compact layers are characterized by an unusually high specific gravity. But since the rocks are not homogeneous, different values were obtained, ranging from 2°80 to 3:45, which are for the most part considerably higher than that of a normal dolomite, namely 2°80 to 2°90. “This high specific gravity must, hence, be considered as indicative of the presence of some mineral, possessing quite a high specific gravity, disseminated through- out the rock. As one descends into the quarry the rocks become more porous and cavernous. It is in these layers with cavities ranging from a few inches up to a foot or more in diameter that the native sulphur with its usual associates, celestite, cal- cite, and sometimes gypsum, is found. The occurrence of these minerals is clearly one of secondary formation. The rocks near the surface, although compact where they have been protected, show, when exposed, the characteristic structure of leached celestite-bearing rocks. This, together with the high specific gravity already referred to it, ‘would suggest the presence of celestite. In order to determine the presence of the mineral and also its probable percentage, an *H. H. Kraus, ‘‘Occurrence of Celestite near Syracuse, N. Y., etc.,” this Journal (4), xviii, 30-89, 1904; also ‘‘ Occurrence and Distribution of Celestite-bearing Rocks,” this Journal (4), xix, 286-2938, 1905. aha. epee Report on Monroe County,” Geological Survey of Michigan, POE Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourta Srrizs, Vou. XXI, No. 123.—Marcsu, 1906. 17 238 Kraus and Hunt—Sulphur and Celestite. analysis of the uppermost layer, characterized as Bed A by Sherzer, was made. As already indicated, this rock is by no means homogeneous and, hence, in order to obtain as near as possible the average composition of the same, many chips were taken from a speci- men of approximately the following dimensions, 4 x 5x 6 inches. The specific gravity of most of the chips was deter- mined and the following are some of the values obtained : 2°80, 2°87, 2°98, 3°17, 3°33, and 3°45. The methods pursued in this and the following analyses were those recommended by Hillebrand.* Knowing that much would depend upon the careful separation of the earth alkalies, the utmost care was exercised in their determination. The precipitates were in every instance tested spectroscopi- cally and, if necessary, the extraction repeated until in each case they could be considered free from contamination. We may, therefore, regard the results obtained as very accurate. They are as follows: Per cent. Ratio. SIO eee rhe hae Ewe SDS Al,O fs Fe,0, ee tae ae oe CAO nes Se ee ore coe 25°18 0°44884 DA Wan Oa te a i aa 18°11 0:44871 BS AO Fe oie Meri eae oie oie ee 0°18 0°00085 PSY OI SIL La Si SSN Dee EN 7°56 0:07587 Na Ogee sie eau a O-1l 1 GAG Masiesegg) ReAIe ies ACL ac Sa 0°05 PRO ESaARe ie peee nee 0°02 Oe Sa ee Pes We Vo 0°04 COM ate ae 39°55 0°89886 SOE LEE Bee MaRS CEE USERU EG soe 0:07907 Organic matter -222_--2 2. 0°92 PTS 123 Regre ean eye ya ees trace ASO Genk Shee eer 99°25 The percentages of the oxides of calcium, magnesium, strontium, and barium, together with the carbon dioxide and sulphur trioxide, are important. It is at once noticeable that the amounts of strontium oxide and sulphur trioxide are rela- tively high. A comparison of the combined ratios of the oxides of calcium and magnesium with that of the carbon dioxide, | Mec (44884) MgO (-44871) shows that the rock is essentially a dolomite and, in fact, a normal dolomite. We, thus, have quite conclusive evidence * Bulletins 148 and 176, U. 8. Geological Survey. : CO, (89886) = 1: 10014, Kraus and Hunt—Sulphur and Celestite. 239 that all of the calcium and magnesium oxides are doubtlessly present as carbonates and not in part as sulphates. The unusually high percentages of strontium oxide and sulphur trioxide are extremely: interesting. If we consider the sma!l amount of barium oxide present as isomor phous with the strontium oxide, we obtain the following proportion : ( SrO (:07587) ) , 1 Bao { 00085) ° These values would indicate that the sulphur trioxide is combined with the oxides of strontium and barium and, hence, evidence is at hand that the mineral celestite is present in this uppermost layer to the extent of 14°32 per cent. The results of the analysis are, therefore, in harmony with what has already been said concerning the structure and _ specific gravity of the rock. The very small amount of the combined oxides of aluminium and iron, namely 0°37 per cent, would preclude any appreci- able quantity of pyrite or mar casite being present. It is, how- ever, significant, as will be seen later, that or ganic matter and a trace of hydrogen sulphide were noted. Descending into the quarry, not only do the strata become more porous and cavernous but at various levels water con- taining a considerable amount of hydrogen sulphide is encoun- tered. As said, the porous layers contain native sulphur associated with celestite. Sherzer in discussing the probable origin of the sulphur at this quarry rightly refers the same to the hydrogen sulphide, which is to be observed to a very large extent in Southern Michigan. In the immediate vicinity of the Woolmith quarry most ‘of the wells show var ying amounts of it. These wells are from 18 to 20 feet deep and after pass- ing through the drift penetrate rock to the extent of two to four feet. The layer, which is doubtlessly encountered, is the one called Bed A, an analysis of which was just given. Sherzer thought that the hydrogen sulphide might be due to the decomposition of pyrite and marcasite, which were sup- posed by him to be present in considerable quantities. The analysis of the rock of Bed A, however, shows clearly that if these sulphides of iron are present in the upper strata, they must be present mm amounts which are almost insignificant when compared with that of strontium sulphate. In some of the lower layers, in a few instances, pyrite has been noticed but always in verv small amounts.- Its occurrence is also clearly secondary. Without a doubt we are dealing with descending waters at this locality. It is also of vast importance to call attention to the fact that when the rocks of the various layers in this quarry—the same : SO, (07907) = 1 : 10306. 240 Kraus and Hunt—Sulphur and Celestite. holds good of many of the celestite-bearing rocks of central New York—are treated with dilute acid, hydrogen sulphide is liberated together with the carbon dioxide. Even boiling in water is sufficient to give rise to the liberation of the sulphur- eted hydrogen. To be sure, in some instances, the amount is very small, but, nevertheless, even a trace is of great import, indicating ‘that a sulphide decomposed by hot water is present. Such a sulphide i is doubtlessly strontium sulphide. Hence, we must consider the theory that the decomposition of pyrite or mareasite by the formation and subsequent oxidation of hydro- gen sulphide has given rise to the native sulphur at this quarry as untenable. However, when we consider that the uppermost strata con- tain about 14 per cent of strontium sulphate, which is quite soluble in water and, hence, easily transported to the lower layers, and, secondly, that these and the lower strata contain considerable quantities of organic matter; thirdly, that there is only a negligible amount of iron present, and lastly, that hydrogen sulphide is easily liberated by hot water, it seems evident that the celestite, present in a disseminated condition and which has by the action of the organic matter become par- tially reduced to the sulphide, must be considered as the source of the hydrogen sulphide. Therefore, if the foregoing statements be true, an analysis of one of the more porous and cavernous layers, the cavities of which contain native sulphur, ought to show not only the presence of strontium as a sulphate but also as a sulphide, which would be indicated in the analysis as sulphur trioxide and sulphur, respectively. Such an analysis was made with the following results : Per cent. Ratio. PSO See SO eel a eae ee se 20°14 FeO eee GOL Mice eee Or8e CaO ica ei Crit aan 19°56 0°3493 MOR is seen Srey 15°32 0°3795 OVA © aaltepet apie tae (RC ciabis as nes en hn ORK G 0:006371 BO Ge RRS AT() #7 0:000457 TUNE Ses ah peactinnn i arten Ut) MM er eon ye QIK Q 0-000587 SOM Sianii2 ois 0°56 0006994 COR vauia ea eias 31:94 0°7259 N33 O). es RS Scot Gas 0°09 | EG © eh apie ratedenr a a8 CAM ONO) E Cle ENS Sn eae ee 0:03 Oroanic: matters... sees Ord? 100:00 * By difference after deducting the oxygen equivalent of the sulphur. Kraus a Hunt—Sulphur and Celestite. 241 The sulphur was calculated from the hydrogen sulphide obtained directly by the liberation with hydrochloric acid, absorbed in potassium hydroxide, acidified and titrated with T iodine solution. 100 The silica is present, no agape as free silica. The value of the ratios of the oxides of the calcium and magnesium, as also that of the carbon dioxide, give the following proportion : CaO (°3493) ) MgO (-3795) { Hence, this rock may be considered as a siliceous dolomite. The sulphur trioxide represents the total amount of sulphur present as sulphate and sulphide, whereas the hydrogen sul- phide is to be considered as being derived from a sulphide only. Hence, if we consider the hydrogen sulphide as being due to the decomposition of the strontium sulphide and, therefore, deduct from the percentage of strontium oxide given in the analysis, the amount necessary to unite with the 0-02 per cent of sulphur* to form strontium sulphide, the following relationship between the ratios of the strontium and barium oxides and the sulphur trioxide, actually present, is revealed : | Bao f 006174 : SO, 00516 = 1:099 : 1. These values are so close that we must consider the evidence in support of the above theory as very conclusive, namely, that the celestite as the source of the sulphur is partially reduced to strontium sulphide, which, when acted upon an acid and even by water under certain conditions,+ will liberate hydrogen sulphide. Oxidation of the hydrogen sulphide will, of course, then give rise to the sulphur. That the sulphur should be associated with celestite is from the foregoing self-evident. Osann,{ in reviewing Sherzer’s theory of the origin of sul- phur at the Woolmith quarry, suggested that it was doubtlessly due to the reduction of the strontium sulphate, as is now revealed by the analysis above to be the case. As to how the strontium sulphate has been reduced to the sulphide, nothing definite can be said at this time. Doubtlessly, it is the result of the action of the organic matter present, which may in some cases be quite high. Whether organic matter alone, or perhaps with moisture, but unaided by bacteria, can cause a reduction of the sulphate, is now being investigated. : CO, (:7259) = 1:004:1 * Determinations from other portions of this same layer showed as much as 0°12 percent hydrogen sulphide. The analysis was, however, not complete and, hence, is not given. These figures show, nevertheless, that sulphureted hydrogen may be liberated in appreciable amounts. + Compare Bischof’s Chemische Geologie, 1863, i, 833. ¢ Groth’s Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographie, etc., xxviii, 821, 1897. 242 Kraus and Hunt—Sulphur and Celestite. The formation of hydrogen sulphide in this way is of great importance, for no doubt many of the sulphureted waters encountered in localities where celestite-bearing rocks have been noted are to be referred to the above process. These rocks are quite common in southern Michigan and here we also find many so-called “ sulphur” wells. The formation of sulphur by the reduction of celestite is analogous to the process which by many is supposed to-have played an important role in forming the enormous deposits at Girgenti and vicinity on the Island of Sicily. Here it is, however, assumed that gypsum (CaSO,,2H,O) has been reduced to the sulphide and then hydrogen sulphide liberated and subsequently oxidized.* B. Cry rystallogr aphy of the Celestite. As already shown, in the cracks, crevices, and cavitiest of the lower strata at this quarry beautiful crystallizations of celestite are to be observed. Since crystals of celestite from this locality had not as yet been measured, a large number were collected with this in view. The crystals were for the most part clear and transparent, possessing a slight bluish tint. The faces were bright and the Images, on the whole, very good, so that measurements could be made with very great accuracy. Two distinct types of crystals were observed and measured. Figure 1 represents the tabular variety. These crystals were about 10" in width and 2™ thick and showed the following forms: ¢{001%, m{110}, dj{102t, and 0/011}. The other, prismatic, type is represented by figure 2. These were about 6™™ wide and 4™™ thick and showed the following additional forms : a} 100}, Cee n{120t,andz{111}. On the prismatic type the pyramid {1 227 was also observed, but the images | Obtained were rather poor and, hence, the readings somewhat doubtful. On a few erystals the pyramid L{10°55-44}, § P43, was noted, which up to now has not been observed on celestite. Although the indices are large, the reflections were of such a character that no mistake could have been made in the identity of the form. Also on several crystals a small prism face (410) was recorded. In this case, the readings are not to be consid- ered as accurate as in the case of the pyramid just referred to, but nevertheless this prism, which is also new on celestite, must be considered as present. Although this form had not been noted on celestite before, it has been observed on barite. *Brauns, Chemische Mineralogie, 1896, 384 and 389; alse ‘Kemp, The Mineral Industry, 1895, 585. + This Journal [4], xix, 1905, 290. Kraus and Hunt—Sulphur and Celestite. 243 - As shown in the figures, the crystals were developed on one end only, having occurred attached. The forms observed are a{100%, 5{010}, c{001}, m§110}, n{120}, N{410}, 2} 111}, ¥{122t, 1310-55-44}, of011}, dj 102. The measurements are as follows: Crystal system—Orthorhombic (holohedral). , Axial ratio: @:6:¢= "7781 : 1: 1:2673, Observed. Calculated. 1 Ny (110) (310) == TOP AO RUE Sieh neue wes Cg (02) (102) TOMAS Ee ek er ene We 1 e120) (120) 65 28 Goa 12st DO ea (OLA) (O11) 103 56. 103. 50 Cae (OOM) (111) 64 174 64 18 Coy = * «(001 (122) 56 26 56 36 Cees (O0)1) (10°55°44) 58 44 58 36 Bakeries) (111) 90 32 90 40 Bue ay (UL) eee CLL) 67 174 Oia? L:L = (105544) : (10°55-44) We 112 26 TO = ees (NOE a ygs09. 4 (102) 59 59 59 58 TO — Wve (U0) (011) Gli) 61 6 UNG IN = (410) (410) 22 32 DOA srl 244 Kraus and Hunt—Sulphur and Celestite. C. Chemical Composition of the Celestite. Ly; e A number of clear, transparent crystals were selected for an analysis and the following results obtained : i. inf Average, SiO, BRS Peniea ee 0°22 0:23 0°225 Be:O: ) “T5 . . Al.O. (ine ora 0°15 Oss 0°140 CaO Mia Ss ae 0°45 0:47 0°460 MeO FUE Oy AS Serena 0°12 0°14 0°130 BAO Rese ae Dee MS 1Lo@ye 1°290 SO ieee apenas Dooto 53°78 582765 SOE eke a. Sa ON OS 43°60 43°590 99°53 99°67 99°600 The measured crystals possess a specific gravity of 3°979. The determinations were made by means of the hydrostatic balance at a room temperature of 19°5 C., while that of the water was 20°5° C. D. Natural Hitch Figures on Celestite. While examining the crystals from the Woolmith quarry, it was observed that many of the faces showed natural etch figures. Closer examination, however, showed that these figures could not be studied as 3 well as those noted on some crys- tals obtained from the Island of Put-In-Bay, Lake Erie, where ce- lestite also occurs in large quan- tities. The natural etch figures are well defined and their form as well as their position on the vari- ous faces show conclusively the symmetry of the holohedral class of the orthorhombic system. Figure 3 shows these figures upon a crystal from Put-In-Bay. In form and distribution they are very similar to the artiticial etch figures observed by Prendel.* The solvents used by Prendel were sulphuric acid in one case and potassium carbonate and hydrochloric acid in the other. To our knowledge, natural etch figures on celestite have never been described. We are indebted to Prof. E. D. Campbell, Director of the Chemical Laboratory of this University, for valuable sugges- tions relating to the chemical portion of this paper. Mineralogical Laboratory, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., November, 1905. * Célestin von Dorfe Dorobany bei der Stadt Hotin, Gouvernement Bessa- rabien, Groth’s Zeitschrift fir Krystallographie, etc., 1898, xxx, 319. Todd and Baker— Predictions for the Total Eclipse. 245 Arr. X VII—ZLocal Predictions for the Total Eclipse of the Sun, 1907, January 13-14, in Turkestan and Mongolia ; by Davin Topp and Rosrrr H. Baxer. [Contributions from Amherst College Observatory—Ixxiii. | Srx total eclipses of the sun happen during the next six years, and it might be expected that contributions to knowledge of the corona would be correspondingly ample. Of these eclipses, however, the tracks of those of 1908 and 1911 are wholly confined to the Pacific Ocean, with the possibility of observing stations on only two or three difficult islands ; the eclipse of 1909 is too near the north pole and that of 1910 too near the south pole for ready observation ; totality of 1912 can perhaps be excellently obtained in Brazil;* but of them all, that of 1907 seems least uncertain to yield significant results. Following the last eclipse (1905, August 30) by an interval of seventeen months, the figure and type of the corona will doubtless have changed completely ; so that it is in the highest degree important to photograph this totality. Fortunately, the track of the eclipse of 1907, January 13— 14, is wholly on land. But a good part of the region visited is so remote and difficult of access, in Mongolia and the Gobi. desert, that it can be occupied only by equipping tedious and expensive expeditions. Only one station in Mongolia, Tsair- osu (see table below given), seems likely to be considered. But the western half of the track crosses Turkestan, a trans- iCaspian region penetrated by the imperial railways of Russia. For travelers from the United States, it can readily be reached by Naples, Constantinople, the Black Sea, Tiflis, the Caspian Sea, Bokhara and Samarkand. For Europeans a convenient route would be Berlin, Warsaw, Moscow, Samara, Orenburg and Tashkent. On this railway and about two-thirds of the way from Tashkent to Samarkand lies Jizak, only a few miles from the exact line of central eclipse. Other easily accessible places near Jizak, and well within the belt of totality, are Zaamin, Nau and Ura-tiube. The last is practically central. If we go farther east, the track of the eclipse leads into a region more and more difficult in every way, although the totality is a few seconds longer there, and the eclipsed sun a few degrees higher. In order to exhibit the exact circumstances of the eclipse, throughout the entire length of its track, the indicated data have been calculated for eleven stations, as exhibited in the following table. Also the results of the calculated example in the British Nautical Almanac, for a station between Yarkand and Cherchen, are included.t The computations are based on the Besselian elements of the American Ephemeris, and the geographical positions of the towns have, tor the most part, been obtained from a map recently published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington.t * Todd, Total Eclipses of the Sun (Boston, 1900), p 249. + The Nautical Almanac for the Meridian of Greenwich, 1907, p. 594-5. t Pumpelly and Davis, Explorations in Turkestan (Washington, 1905), p. 157. 246 Todd and Baker—Predictions for the Total Eclipse. £6 61 PSG ¢.196 ACRES BS eres ae NSO-ITBST, 6 6 FI G&é 8-016 V8 G57 OURS “VITODNOJ FI O& GG &G&é 6-196 Slatin eeu woeyo.1oy() 66 66 OL O&& 9-016 A 2 Se ae nen pee aie 0-196 OS O/Giee Gist RS I tiga ti 1G GZ 66 666 6-016 8-§ G o9quty-Btyl) Th 46 8h OE 6-016 [ae GSS puvyle x P66 LY 866 6-146 G-8G [ ~~ UlWeRZz OG 16 vv OE F-0L6 Ser) [ete Ore eta WLSSO VE 16 6 86& 6-146 8.99 1. 2 ean (46 096 iVV o9&S 5 6:0L6 s6-L wu YVOd VUIVYSeY, i4P ol ifV 616 06-146 s&-FF wl ~ teqQuity—) ‘NVISAMUOT, ‘W ‘NVLSHMUD J, ‘opngtyye “YNUize ‘| prVsaoy *£4178404 ‘ophyiyye =“ qynuize "WE pleMoy “£41404 sung $,ung 4q °N wo1y BK) sung sg 4a (N Wo1g jo ——___—,_ ——_~’__-4ovyu00 ISI = WOTPBANG S see —~ *40e87U09 SAL woryeIn(, ‘esdijoe Jo afppiut yW (eSvUIT yoorTp) ‘esdrjo9 Jo e[pprlur yy (ecdvUt 4oe.1p) wortsod uorzisod jo o[Ssuy jo o[SuVy Mie Pte ASS (GSI Delite = Ove E 8¢ 66 0 I7 901 &F FV iN Tes Git gen enna Oe NSO-11BS J, ‘VITODNOW 1S lls IL 9-41 Lv &6 8-0G PV &6 68 06 G6 6& ¢8 6 8& ‘O 6 ~or sss GeyoLoyO 9 LE O 0-16 GL &4 0-1 OL &6 Sl Gr 1z@ FG 64 GI 8& ENTE Gos hes ce? Sa ae aay a ae TCO G-79 9G Gé VLE VG GY Ee ES) LL 16 4h G6 8& NP Bee er DUE Le I G6 O 6-66 9G GG F-16 VE 6G Li GiekGiou LeG 6L LL CI 8& $8 Se ee UU LOya L i 0) G8I IP 66 6-OL 68 G66 Ss OES ke G& VL OS 8& '§ G “7 > yVod VULIVYOV T, ‘NVISHMUOT, “W GG PV &@ 0-89 06 G6 9-6F 81 66 SiGte sea hG cer |r cl 6& iScG Dyce ee nyUKs IG 66 6&6 Rs Genee eG GOL 6 66 9S. 69 0¢ G6 69 8 OF SNE Ws eee toe oe eELNG I Ig & 6-0F 8 G4 [:4iS- 29) = GG Gg OF 0¢ OF69 6¢ 66 SOR Gis teanen ore a naies 22 oqniz-B1l) NG AiO: a Te Et G61 & 62 6r Lr 06 96 89 99 6& GES ue CZ, LY 66 &@ Ggg- lt 66 P:8G 69 16 OSs VK 0G 8r 19 8 OF RCES a SO ee ee YV2ry’ s8G9 w8E 466 sI-GF w0G yo s8:0 w6T yl@ s6V w8 06 /OF 69 19S o6¥ S& See ee ONT) ‘NVLSAMUD I, ‘OUIT} WROT [BOOTT “TPOIMUIAL4) “You “OuIT “UOT}R4S = oe SS SS ULOLZ “ epngyiye'y [eayue9 jo ‘spue ‘spue *SUISOq "SULSOq epnytouo'y WOLFE SOTL] ULB NT osdtpou Aqye}O.L, AWTTRIOT, asd toy L06L ‘tr-ey hwonune ‘asdyoy 020g 1PI0L Observatory House, Amherst, Mass., 31st January, 1906. Chemistry and Physics. 247 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. Silicon-fluoroform.—By the action of silicon-chloroform upon tin and titanium fluorides, Rurr and Atserr have suc- ceeded in preparing the hitherto unknown silicon-fluoroform, SiHF,. Titanium fluoride is preferable to the tin compound for the preparation of the new compound. ‘The reacting substances were heated in a copper bomb or in a well dried sealed-tube of glass for 18 hours at 100-120°, and the resulting product was collected by condensing with liquid air. The reaction is as follows: 3TiF, + 4S8iHCl, = 4SiH F, + 38TiCl,. Silicon-fluoroform is a colorless gas which forms a liquid boiling at —80° and solidifying at about —110°. When brought into contact with sodium hydroxide solution it is decomposed with the liberation of an equal volume of hydrogen, according to the equation SiHF, +3NaOH +H,0 = Si(OH),+3NaF+H,. When heated in a closed tube to about 420° the gas is decom- posed with deposition of silicon as follows : 4SiHF,=2H, +3SiF,+Si. It is combustible in the air, and forms explosive mixtures with the same, possibly according to the equation 12SiHF, + 60,=3SiF, +3810, + 4H,SiF, +2H,Si0,. The preparation of silicon-fluoroform completes a series of halo- gen compounds in which the boiling-point rises rapidly with the atomic weight of the halogen as follows: Compound, SiHF, SiHCl, Sill Br, SiHI, Boiling-point, —80° +33° about 110° about 220° — Berichte, xxxviii, 52. H. L. W. 2. Decomposition of Ammonium Sulphate by Hot Sulphurie Acid in the Presence of Platinum.—It has been shown by DEth- PINE that the use of platinum sponge for regulating the boiling in the determination of nitrogen by Kjeldahl’s method leads to a large or even a total loss of the ammonia. This fact has been confirmed by von Dam, who has shown that nitrogen gas escapes during the operation. The subject has now been studied further by Delépine, and the reaction has been satisfactorily explained by him. It was found that metallic platinum dissolves in strong, hot sulphuric acid, and that this solvent action does not depend upon the presence of nitrous acid as has been supposed. It was found also that in the presence of ammonium sulphate platinum sponge does not lose weight appreciably when treated with the hot acid, and it was shown that nitrogen gas and sulphur dioxide 248 Scientific Intelligence. were evolved under these circumstances in amounts exactly cor- responding to the equation (NH,),SO, +2H,SO, = N, +380, +6H,0. The part played by the platinum in the reaction is shown by the following equations : 4H,SO,+ Pt = eee ), +250,+4H,0 ; 3Pt(SO,), +2(NH,), SO, = JN. "s+ 3Pt-+ 8H, SO,. The truth of this interpretation was shown by the fact that a col- ored solution is obtained by treating platinum with sulphuric acid, and that this solution deposits most of its platinum when it is heated with ammonium sulphate. There is a further, indirect proof in the fact that sponges of metallic gold and iridium, which do not dissolve in sulphuric acid, cause no loss of ammonia under similar treatment.— Bulletin, xxxv, 8. H. L. W. 3. The Determination of Tellurous and Telluric Acids.—To make these determinations Brre places the substance in a porce- lain boat in a combustion tube which is drawn out in front, bent downward, and connected with two small U-tubes each contain- ing 5° of water. Gaseous hydrochloric acid is then passed through the tube, and when the air has been expelled, the tube is rapidly heated below redness, while the current of gas is moder- ated, and thus tellurous chloride is formed and collected in the receivers. The liquid is transferred to a weighed porcelain cap- sule, 5° of pure nitric acid are added, the liquid is evaporated on a sand bath, and the residue is heated cautiously to decom- pose the basic tellurous nitrate without fusing the resulting oxide. Tellurous oxide is then weighed. When certain salts are thus analyzed, the metallic chloride remaining in the boat may be weighed. The author gives some satisfactory results obtained by this method.— Bulletin, xxxili, 1310. H. L: W. 4. Manganese as a Fertilizer Jor Plants.—The view was formerly held that the small quantities of manganese present in vegetable and animal substances were accidental “and unnecessary, but recently many investigations have indicated that this metal is indispensable to the living cell. Brrrranp has recently shown by field experiments that the application of pure manganese sul- phate to the soil at the rate of 50** per hectare showed a marked fertilizing effect upon a crop of oats, amounting to an increase of 22°5 per cent in the yield. An analysis of the crops to which manganese was applied showed no increase in its contents of the metal over the crop to which none was applied.— Comptes Rendus, exti. 1955, BH. lL. W. 5. Conversations on Chemistry, by W. Ostwarp. Authorized translation by Sruart K. Turnsuty. Part Il, Zhe Chemistry of the Most Important Elements and Compounds. 12mo, pp. 373. New York, 1906, John Wiley & Sons.—The first volume of this work, by another translator, was recently noticed in this depart- ment of the Journal. Like its predecessor, the second part has many interesting and excellent features, and if the old conversa- Chemistry and Physics. 249 tional plan here adopted is approved, the book will be a good one for younger students of chemistry. H. L. W. 6. Experimental Electro- Chemistry, by N. Monrort Hopxtys. 8vo, pp. 284. (D. Van Nostrand Co., 1905.) Price, $3.00 net.— As the name indicates, this book deals more particularly with experimental electro-chemistry. The theory: of electrolytic dis- sociation is presented with some experimental evidence to support it. Detailed directions are given for a number of electrolytic preparations. The action of primary and secondary cells is dis- cussed and illustrated by experiments. An excellent bibliography of the more important works on electro-chemistry is given at the end. There are some rather surprising omissions. Thus, while two chapters are devoted to the theory of electrolytic dissociation, there is hardly a mention made of the electrical methods of meas- uring dissociation. Instead, the method depending on the depres- sion of the freezing point is described in some detail, though this method is hardly to be classed under electro-chemistry. H.W. F. 7. Radiation from Ordinary Materials —Norman B. Camp- BELL sums up a, paper on this subject, containing the results of work done in the Cavendish Laboratory, as follows: “If the object of this paper has been attained, it has been proved beyond doubt, that the emission of ionizing radiation. is an inherent property of all the metals investigated ; and I see no reason why it should not be extended to all substances. It is not of course necessary that this ray emission should be identified at once with radio-activity—if that word be taken to mean a process of ray emission accompanied by atomic change. But the constant intensity of the rays and the probability that the greater propor- tion of them are a rays, which is suggested by the investigation of their charge and their penetration, afford considerable support for that hypothesis ; while I know of no other process which affords any analogy. But before the identity can be established irrefutably further work is required, which I hope to be able to sapply in the future.”— Phil. Mag., No. 62, 1906, pp. 206-226. J: 8. Spark Potentials—Various observers have compiled tables of such values for the information of electrical engineers. M. ToEPLER gives the following table as the result of recent investi- eation. Sparking dis- tanceincm. 9d 10 15 20 20 30 35 40 45 Kilovolt ob- served = 22: dG 466 s63d7h 18:97 94:6. M22) teal | 13951 3 153:8 Kilovolt eal- culated by Walter __. 316 471 62°77 782 93:3 1093. 1249 1404 156°0 Kilovolt ecai- culated by Toepler ___ 27°97 46°38 63°20 79°24 94°75 109°88 124°738 139°38 153°82 —Ann. der Physik, No. 1, 1906, pp. 191-209. TD: 250 Scientifie Intelligence. 9. Measures of Radiation in relation to Resonators in the Region of Short Electric Waves. —It has been noticed by F. Kirchener that the optical properties of Lippeman’s emulsion are changed when the emulsion is moistened ; and he explains this by the supposition that the swimming silver particles act as elec- trical resonators and that their time of vibration is changed by the increase of distance apart. M. Pawrzoxip has studied the effect of gratings interposed between the electrical exciter and receiver of short electrical waves, guided by the analogy con- ceived by Kirchener. The gratings were placed at various dis- tances from the receiver and at different angles. When a strait rod exciter was used to produce the waves, a wave component was discovered in a plane perpendicular to the exciter which differed 90° in phase from the ordinary component. The effect of a grating in certain positions is to produce often a combined effect of received and emitted radiations.—Ann. der Physik, No. 1, 1906, pp. 116-137. J. T. 10. Hlectrical Rectifier.—In previous papers A. WEHNELT has described a rectifier for alternating currents which serves the pur- pose of the Cooper Hewitt mercury rectifier, or the Gratz alu- minium rectifier. The cathode is covered with certain oxides which greatly diminish the cathode fall of potential. Such an electrode he terms oxide electrode. When this oxide electrode is properly heated and made the cathode, the difference of poten- tial can be made only 18:20 volts, while if the neighboring cold anode is made the cathode, the potential rises to many thousand volts. The electrical current, therefore, will pass readily in one direction and with great difficulty in the opposite direction. Wehnelt ascribes the performance of the rectifier to an increase of ionization at the oxide electrode.—Ann. der Physik, No. 1, 1906, pp. 138-156. 3.0 II. Grotogy AND MINERALOGY. 1. United States Geological Survey. Twenty-sixth Annual Re- port, 1904-1905, of the Director, CHARLES D. WatcotT. 322 pp., 26 maps.—The volume contains besides the executive,and financial statements brief reports from the chiefs of parties upon the scientific results of the year’s work. The three great branches of work carried on by the Sur-ey are the geologic, topographic: and hydrographic. Connected with the latter is the Reclamation Service, by means of which considerable tracts of arid land will ultimately be brought under cultivation. It is of interest to note the amount of the appropriations to’ the several divisions, as these are in some measure indicative of the lines along which the work of the Survey is being at present chiefly pushed. The entire appropriation aggregated $1,484,820, of which 309,200 was assigned fur topographic work, 188,700 for geologic work, 14,000 for paleontologic work, 23,000 for chemical work, 200,000 for gauging streams, 50,000 for preparation of report Geology and Mineralogy. 251 on mineral resources, 130,000 for survey of forest reserves. ‘The preparation and printing of maps and reports also aggregates a large amount. In addition 80,000 was appropriated for continu- ation of the investigation of the mineral resources of Alaska and 60,000 for testing coals. ‘Among the many interesting results of the year’s Lots may be singled out the finding on Cape Lisburne of 15,000 feet Of Juras- sic strata containing 150 feet of Jurassic coal distributed in over forty beds, at least ten of which are four feet or more in thickness, the first Jurassic coal to be found in Alaska. In addition the Carboniferous was found to contain some coal, being the only Paleozoic coal of economic value known in America west of the Rocky Mountains. The coal and petroleum deposits about Con- troller Bay have also been found to be of importance. Under the subject of topography it is noted that the total area of new surveys was 21,296 miles, making a total of 955,996 miles surveyed, or 32 per cent of the area of the United States. Those familiar with the maps will have noticed the improved quality of those issued in recent years. Sixteen folios, forming Nos. 110 to 125 of the geological atlas of the United States, have been published during the past year. In the investigation of the mineral wealth of the United States and the education of the mining public in regard to the nature of economic deposits with consequent economization of time and money in their exploitation, the Survey has justified itself many times over ; but its chief claim for world-wide recognition is founded on the more purely scientific work done, which in the past quarter century has contributed either directly or indirectly more than any other one factor toward the advances of modern geology. J. Be 2. U.S. Geological Survey. Recent Publications.—The fol- lowing list contains the titles of recently issued publications. Topocrapuic ATLAS. —Ninety-nine sheets. Forros—No. 127. Sundance Folio: Wyoming—South Dakota. Description of the Sundance Quadrangle: by N. H. Darron. Pp. 12, with 5 colored maps and 9 figures. No. 128.—Aladdin Folio: Wyoming—South Dakota—Montana ; by N. H. Darton and C. C. O’Harra. Pp. 8, with index map and 4 colored maps. Washington: 1905. No. 129.—Clifton Folio : Arizona; by Wa tpEemar LINDGREN. Pp. 13, with 4 colored maps. Proresstonat Paprrs.—No. 37. The Southern Appalachian Forests ; by H. B. Ayres and W. W. Asuz. Pp. 291, with 37 plates, two figures, and two colored maps. No. 40.—The Triassic Cephalopod Genera of America; by AtpHeus Hyarr and James PErrin Smitn. Pp. 394, with 85 plates and one figure. No. 43.—The Copper Deposits of the Clifton-Morenci District, Arizona; by WatpEMAR LINDGREN. Pp. 375, with 25 plates, 19 figures, and one colored map. 252 Scientific Intelligence. Mineral Resources of the United States. Calendar year 1904; by Davin T. Day, Chief of Division of Mining and Min- eral Resources. Pp. 1264, with two plates. Butuerins. —No. 265. Geology of the Boulder District, Colorado ; by N. M. Fenneman. Pp. 101; v, with 5 plates and 11 figures. No. 268.—Miocene Foraminifera from the Monterey Shale of California ; by Rurus M. Bace, Jr. Pp. 78; v, with 9 plates and two figures. No. 270.—The Configuration of the Rock Floor of Greater New York; by Wir11am Hersert Hopss. Pp. 963; v, with 5 plates and 6 figures. No. 272.—Taconic Physiography ; by T. Netson Datz. Pp. 49 ; III, with 14 plates and 3 figures. No. 273.—The Drumlins of Southeastern Wisconsin (Prelim- inary Paper); by Wittram C. Atpren. Pp. 43; III, with 9 plates and 8 figures. No. 276.— Results of Primary Triangulation and Primary. Traverse, Fiscal year 1904-5; by Samunt 8S. Gannett. Pp. 263 ; III with 1 plate. WatER SUPPLY AND IRRIGATION PapEeRs. — No. 123. Geo- logy and Underground Water Conditions of the Jornada del Muerto, New Mexico; by Cuartes Roitiin Keryus. Pp. 42; V, with 9 plates and 11 figures. No. 137.—Development of Underground Waters in the Eastern Coastal Plain Region of Southern California; by Watrrer C. MenpENHALL. Pp. 140; III, with 7 plates and 6 figures. No. 138.—Development of Underground Waters in the Central Coastal Plain Region of Southern California ; by WaurTer C. MeENDENHALL. Pp. 162; III, with 5 plates and 5 figures. No. 139. — Development ‘of Underground Waters in the Western Coastal Plain Region of Southern California; by Wat- TER C. Menpenuaty. Pp. 103; III, with 8 plates and one figure. No. 140.—Field Measurements of the Rate of Movement of Underground Waters; by Cuartes 8S. Sricater. Pp. 119; III, with 15 plates and 67 figures. No. 142.—The Hydrology of San Bernardino Valley, Califor- nia; by Watrer C. MenpEnuatt. Pp. 124; ILI, with 12 plates and 16 figures. No. 147.—Destructive Floods in the United States in 1904; by Epwarp Cnartes Murpuy anp Orners. Pp. 206; II, with 18 plates and 19 figures. No. 150.—Weir Experiments, Coefficients aud Formulas ; by Rosert E. Horron. Pp. 189; I, with 38 plates and 16 figures. No. 151.—Field Assay of W ater ; by Marsnaut O. Lrien- TON. Pp. 76; III, with 4 plates and 3 figures. No. 152.—A Review of the Laws Forbidding Pollution of In- land Waters in the United States. Second edition; by Epwin B. GoopELi. Pp. 149; IIL. Geology and Mineralogy. 253 3. The Triassie Cephalopod Genera of America ; by AtpuErus Hyarr and James Perrin Situ. Prof. Papers, “No. 40, U.S. Geol. Surv., 1905, 214 pp., 85 pls.—This extensive monograph of marine Triassic cephalopod genera is practically the work of the junior author, ‘but the inspiration and general supervision of the work was [the late] Professor Hyatt’s contribution.” ‘In this work every genus of cephalopods known to occur in Ameri- can ‘Triassic strata is described, and a representative species under each one is described and figured.” The marine Triassic development of Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, and California is unusually complete. The lower (800’), middle (1000’), and upper (2000’) members “are represented by calcare- ous deposits, aggregating approximately 4,000 feet in thickness.” In addition to a summary statement of the various sections and their cephalopod species, this work defines in detail 85 genera (20 new) and 88 species (66 new). For many of the species the stages of growth are also described. Of the genera, 80 are Am- monoidea, 1 belongs to the Belemnoidea, and 4 are Nautiloidea. Of the ammonoid genera, 22 are restricted to western North America ; the rest are also found either in Europe or Asia. Fifteen are common to America and Asia, 10 to Europe and America, and 33 to the three regions. Of species, 7 ammonoids and 1 nautiloid are common to the Alps and America. From these statements, it is seen that the ammonoids are very widely distributed, and as early as Triassic time are, as is well known, likewise excellent horizon markers s, not only for closely adjoining regions, but also for inter-continental correlations. This work is of great value, not only to the student of the Ammonoidea, but as well to the SUE tae Nes of Triassic forma- tions. Cast 4, Miocene Horaminifera from the Monterey Shale of Cali- fornia ; by Rurus M. Baae, Jr. Bull. No. 268, U. 8. Geol. Surv., 1905, 55 pp., 11 pls—The Monterey shale is from 2000 to 2500 feet thick. The bulk is made up of diatom skeletons, but there is also present an abundance of well-preserved Foraminifera. The clay marl of Graves Creek, San Luis Obispo County, has yielded a fauna of 66 species in 17 genera. There are no arena- ceous genera, warm-water Miliolide, and but one Nummulite, but a large number of rotaline types are present. This faunal composition, the author states, “shows the purity of the waters in oceanic circulation,” and less than 500 fathoms deep. Most of the species are those of living forms. The illustrations are excel- lent. Cc. S. 5. North Carolina Geological Survey. Vol. I, Corundum and the Peridotites ; by J. H. Pratr and J. V. Lewss. 8°, pp. 464, pl. xlv, figs. 35. Raleigh, 1905.—This volume presents:very fully the geology, petrology and mineralogy of the belt of corun- dum-bearing rocks of western North Carolina. The peridotites and associated basic magnesian rocks are first taken up and the Am. JouR. Scl.—FourtH SERIES, Vou. XX, No. 123.—Marcu, 1906. 18 254 Scientific Intelligence. various occurrences in the state are described with the aid of maps, sections and illustrations. Then follows a complete petro- graphic study of these rocks accompanied by many analyses. Their modes of alteration and decomposition and their origin are discussed, and this is succeeded by a mineralogical description of the North Carolina corundum together srih an account of its technical properties and uses. The authors then describe its modes of occurrence in this region and elsewhere, following this with a statement of its distribution. Next comes a chapter devoted to the alteration of corundum and a study of the minerals associated with it, which contains a large amount of detailed observations upon many species. The work is concluded with an account of the chromite and other economic minerals of the peridotitic rocks of the region. While a considerable part of the matter here given has, in more or less condensed form, been previously published else: where, especially in this Journal, the rest of it is new and the whole thus collected forms a most valuable compendium of the peridotitic rocks of the region and their associated minerals. As such it is, not only of local, but of general interest and will prove of service to the mineralogist, the petrographer and the economic geologist. The volume is well printed and illustrated and is a handsome specimen of the bookmaker’s art. It Wy 12 6. Cancrinite-Syenite from Kuolajdrvi; by I. G. SunpeE xt. Bull. Comm. Geol. de Finlande, No. 16, 1905, 20 pp.—The author | has analyzed this rare and interesting rock type previously described by Ramsay and Nyholm (Ibid. .. No. 1, 1895), and the results of the work, which has been carried out in detail with great care, are as follows SiOz, Al.Os3, Fe.0Os, FeO, MgO, CaO, Na.O, K.O, H.0, COz, TiO. 52:25, 20°46, 3°82, 0°68, 0-14, 2°39, 10:05, 6-18, 1°83, 1-69, 0°32 — 100-15 This includes traces, or minute quantities, of ZrO,, NiO, MnO, SrO, BaO, P.O, and SO,, which total 0°34. The low silica and very high alkalies are notable. The calculation of the mineral composition shows that it contains nearly 27 per cent of cancri- nite. IEG: 1 7. Opal Pseudomorphs from ‘White Cliffs, New South Wales by C. AnpERson and H. Sranrtxy Jrvons.—The authors offer the latest explanation of these interesting psendomorphs which in recent years have engaged the attention of a number of miner- alogists. They show that the original mineral must have been monoclinic, with a good cleavage perpendicular to the symmetry plane, with certain interfacial angles and characterized by a cer- tain geological mode of occurrence. It could not, therefore, have been either gypsum, sulphur, anhydrite or celestite, and the vriters believe that glauberite, the sulphate of soda and lime, most nearly fills the required conditions and was the original mineral. (Records Austr. Mus., vol. vi, Pt. I, pp. 31-37, 1905.) Tie Webs Geology and Mineralogy. 255 8. The Physical Geography, Geology, Mineralogy and Paleontology of Essex County, Massachusetts ; by Joun Henry Suars. 1905, pp. 418, figs. 209, map in pocket. Salem, Mass. (Published by the Essex Institute.)—The region described in this handsome volume is both interesting and exceptionally varied from the geological point of view, especially as regards its igneous rocks and glacial geology. The author’s intimate acquaintance with the county, based on many years of residence and study, renders his exposition detailed and authoritative. The numerous good illustrations are mostly from photographs, the type and paper irreproachable, and the publication is a valuable contribution to the geology of the Hastern States and highly ees alike to its author and to the Essex Institute. . 8. W. 9. Lead and Zine Deposits of Virginia; by Twas L. Watson. Geol. Survey of Virginia, Geol. Series Bulletin, No. 1. Pp. 156 with 14 plates and 27 figures, 1905.—This is an interest- ing account of the important lead and zine deposits of Virginia, with a discussion on the genesis of the ores and the methods employed in mining and smelting. The lead and zinc mines group themselves into two divisions: (1) those of southwest Vir- ginia limited to the Great Valley region and (2) those of the crystalline belt, or Piedmont region, east of the Blue Ridge mountains ; almost all the ore production has been from the former region. The estimated annual output from the Virginia mines, from 1894 to 1903, is given as not exceeding 15,000 tons ; the minerals forming the bulk of this are smithsonite and cala- mine. 10. Asbestos: its Occurrence, Exploitation, and Uses ; by Fritz CirkeL, M.E. Pp. 169, with 19 plates. Ottawa, 1905. Mines Branch, Department of the Interior.—The asbestos industry of Canada, which had its beginning in 1877, has now attained such magnitude that this monograph on the subject is of particular inter est. The author states that there are now sixteen mills, with a capacity of 3500 tons per day, in active operation and that there is every prospect of this output being largely increased in the course of the present year. Of the two mineral species included under this name, the only one which has any importance in Canada and the one which has proved to be much the more useful in application to the arts, particularly because of its relative strength of fiber, is the fib- rous variety of serpentine, called chrysotile. The fibrous variety of amphibole, corresponding mostly to tremolite and in part to actinolite, while mined to some extent in Italy and elsewhere, and occurring in Hastings County, Ontario, has proved to be of much less importance. Fibrous serpentine occurs in the Laur- entian formation, in the Templeton area, north of Ottawa, in con- nection with serpentinous limestone, and also in the eastern town- ships in the Province of Quebec. Deposits in the former area have been to some extent exploited, but without any great suc- cess. ‘The region in which active work has been carried on now for nearly thirty years is that south of Quebec, including Thet- 256 Seventific Intelligence. ford, Black Lake area, and the Danville, Orford and Potton area not far distant to the southwest. ‘The serpentines here are dis- connected masses, generally of small extent, im the series of slates, schists and diorites designated as a part of the Cambrian. Serpentine also occurs extensively in the Gaspé Peninsula, but this region has not been developed to any considerable extent. A full account is given in this volume of the separate mines and the methods of working them; the various commercial purposes to which asbestos can be applied are also explained at length. It is now found possible to spin asbestos threads so that one, for example, weighing not more than an ounce per hundred yards, has a fair degree of strength. Asbestos cloth and rope are ex- tensively made, and the material is also used for roofing and numerous other purposes, most of them equally familiar. 11. Lhe Cobatt-Nickel Arsenides and Silver Deposits of Temiskaming ; by Wittnr G. Miter, Provincial Geologist. . Pp. 66. ‘Toronto: L. K. Cameron, 1905. Report of The Bureau of Mines, 1905. Part Il Thomas W. Gibson, Director.—The remarkable development of the nickel industry in Canada lends interest to this report of a new deposit of cobalt-nickel arsenides and silver, discovered during the year 1904, during the building of the Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway. The minerals identified are native silver, smaltite, niccolite and chloanthite, and associated with these several silver and cobalt minerals of rarer occurrence. ‘The veins are narrow, some 10-12 inches in width, and the ore from the silver-bearing veins is stated to contain 11°4 per cent of silver, 11°3 per cent of cobalt, while that from the veins not carrying silver shows 15°6 per cent of cobalt and 7-0 per cent of nickel. ‘The veins occupy vertical cracks and fissures, cut- ting across the slightly inclined conglomerate slate series of the Lower Huronian. Economie Geology of the United States; by Herinricit RE ; 435 pp., 25 pls., 97 figs. New York, 1905 (The Macmillan Company).—This recent publication by Professor Ries of Cornell University is another indication of the increasing consideration given to Economic Geology as an important department of the eeneral subject of geology. An elementary text-book for class room use was greatly needed in this subject and the present book admirably fills that need. The book is about equally divided into two parts: Part I treats of non-metallic minerals and includes, besides others, chapters on coal, petroleum, etc., on building stones, clay, lime and cements, on salines, gypsum, fertilizers, and abrasives; Part II discusses the metallic minerals and, besides a chapter of general discussion on the subject of ore bodies and their formation, includes chapters which in turn treat of the occur- rences of the important metals. The book is well and profusely illustrated with maps, geological sections, tables and half-tone engravings. $222 3-222 ee 221 XVII.— Occurrence of Sulphur and Celestite at Maybee, Michigan; by E. H. Kravs and W. F. Hunt___-- -__- 237 X VIII.—Local Predictions for the Total Eclipse of the Sun, 1907, Jan. 13-14, in Turkestan and Mongolia; by D. opp and sh: BAK MR. oi 2 aera ees eee eens 245 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physies—Silicon-fluoroform, Rurr and ALBERT: Decomposi- tion of Ammonium Sulphate by Hot Sulphuric Acid in the Presence of Platinum, DELHPINE, 247.—Determination of Tellurous and Telluric Acids, BERG: Manganese as a Fertilizer for Plants, BERTRAND: Conversations on Chemistry, W. OstwaLD, 248.—Experimental Electro-Chemistry, N. M. Hopxins: Radiation from Ordinary Materials, N. B. CampBELu: Spark Potentials, M. ToEPLER, 249.— Measures of Radiation in relation to Resona- . tors in the Region of Short Hlectric Waves, M. Pamrzoup: Electrical Rec- tifier, A. WHHNELT, 250. Geology and Mineralogy—United States Geological Survey, C. D. WaxLcort, 200.—U. 8S. Geological Survey; Recent Publications, 251.— Triassic Ceph- alopod Genera of “America, ‘A’. Hyarr and J. P. Sura: ee Fora- minifera from the Monterey Shale of “California, R. M, Baae, Jr.: North Carolina Geological Survey, J. H. Prarr and J. V. Lewis, 253,—Oaneri- nite-Syenite from Kuolajirvi, I. G. SuNDELL: Opal Pseudomorphs from White Cliffs, New South Wales, C. ANDERSON and H. S. Jmvons, 254.— Physical Geography, Geology, Mineralogy and Paleontology of Hssex County, Massachusetts, J. H. SEARS: Lead and Zine Deposits of Virginia, T. L. Warson: Asbestos: its Occurrence, Exploitation, and Uses, F. CIRKEL, 200.—Cobalt-Nickel Arsenides and Silver Deposits of Temiskam- ing, W. ’G. Matter: Economic Geology of the Eintied States, H. Rigs, 256. = dandbuch der Mineralogie, C. Hintzx, 257. E Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Scientific Results of the Expedition to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, 207.—Carnegie Institution of Washington, 208.—Report of Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, S. P. Lanetny: Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, O. H. Tirtmanyn, 259.— Publications of the United States Naval Observatory, C. M. CHESTER: Bureau of American Ethnology: Bulletins of the United States National Museum: Mazama: A Record of Mountaineering in the Pacific North- west: Elementary Mechanics, G. A. MERRILL, 260. Ir. Uyrus “AGIC!, : i Sis Librarian U. S. Nat. Museum. ; SOs: Fi ; VOL. XXI. APRIL, 1906. Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. AME RI CAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Epitorn: EDWARD S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Proressors GEORGE L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, W. G. FARLOW anp WM. M. DAVIS, or CamsBrince, Proressors ADDISON E. VERRILL, HORACE L. WELLS, L. V. PIRSSON anp H. E. GREGORY, or New Haven, Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PHILADELPHIA, Proressor HENRY S. WILLIAMS, or Iruaca, Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Batrtimorz, Mr. J. S. DILLER, or WasurinetTon. FOURTH SERIES VOL. XXI—[WHOLE NUMBER, CLXXI.] No. 124—APRIL, 1906. Ed : cc | \ NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. Sationa Mik 1 9 06 near aaa = i THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 123 TEMPLE STREET. _ Published monthly. Six dollars per year, in advance. $6.40 to countries in the , Postal Union. Remittances should be made either by money orders, registered letters, or bank checks (preferably on New York banks). FINE ZEOLITES FROM WEST PATERSON We have an unusually fine assortment of the minerals which this famous locality affords :— Apophyllite Stilbite Pectolite Thaumasite Prehnite Datolite From Guanajuato, beautiful Apophyllite and cream white Stilbite. From Colorado, Analcites in $-inch milk white crystals with Mesolite. VICTORIA. We still have a few of the fine quality Analcites, Gmelinites, Natrolites, Phillipsites and Phacolites. OTHER RECENT FINDS. A new habit of Barite from Maryland. Small limpid erys- tals of adamantine lustre, mounted on brilliant iridescent Siderite druses. Very attractive and novel specimens. A description of this occurrence by Mr. W. F. Schaller of the U. 8. Geological — Survey will shortly be published. Brown Fluor, Tiffin, Ohio. A new shade in this many- colored mineral. Rich dark brown cubes of fine lustre contrast- ing well with the light blue Celestite. A few left. Clear Sphalerite, Tiffin. Isolated lustrous crystals. Defin- ite form and transparent yellowish brown, recalling the old Santander (Spain) cleavages. EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. Private collectors and institutions will be interested in our students’ specimens—neat typical specimens of an average size of 22 x 2 inches at a minimum of cost. Our free Collection Catalog gives prices. Complete Illustrated Catalog with valuable lists and tables, postpaid 25 cents. Rare Ores in Quantity for Technical Research and Manufacturing. High grade Titanium, Tantalum and Molybdenum ores a specialty. Correspondence solicited with consumers and pro- ducers. FOOTE: MING AL CGT W. M. FOOTE, Manager. DEALERS IN MINERAL SPECIMENS. RARE ORES IN TON LOTS. 1317 Arch Street, Philadelphia. Established 1876, by Dr. A. E. Foote. yuIgi 10) AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES.]| Arr. XIX.—Some Peculiarities of LFock- Weathering and Soil Formation in the Arid and Humid Legions; by E. W. Hinearp.* Some of the differences in the processes and the results of weathering in the arid and humid regions respectively have been long commented upon; but we do not find anywhere a measurably full discussion of the subject. I have discussed the various phases as observed by myself, in various publica- tions; but I desire to give in this place a summary of the points noted, especially as regards soil-formation, and the con- clusions to be drawn therefrom. The potent effects of water upon both the mechanical and chemical processes of rock decomposition being well under- stood, the relative scantiness of rainfall in the arid regions leads us at once to expect a slower rate of decomposition of rocks and of their component minerals under the arid régime. The old observation of the freshness of the surfaces of half-finished obelisks in the quarries of Syene, and the good conservation of the same in the obelisks of Lower Egypt under shghtly more humid conditions, as compared with the fate of Cleopatra’ s Needle at New York, are familiar to all. It is not, of course, moisture alone, but very essentially the temperature conditions accompanying both its abundance and scarcity, that are con- cerned in the effects produced. Aridity being intimately correlated with the existence of deserts, we are at once led to associate sand and dust with arid conditions. The dust storms of the arid regions are as proverbial as are the sands of the desert; and the latter are in the public mind the symbol of sterility. It is only of late that * Read at the December meeting of the Cordilleran Section of the Ameri- can Geological Society, at Berkeley, Cal. Am. Jour. Sct.—FourrH Series, Vou. XXI, No. 124.—ApriL, 1906. 19 262 EF. W. Hilgard—Peculiarities of Rock - Weathering. the almost invariable high productiveness of the desert sands under irrigation is becoming a somewhat familiar conception, yet accepted with difficulty because in the more familiar humid region, “ poor sandy lands” are a well-authenticated fact, and a “ strong’ or “ substantial” soil is one containing a more or less considerable proportion of clay. The reasonableness of this popular idea is well illustrated in the investigation made years ago by Dr. R. H. Loughridge,* of a very generalized loam soil covering the uplands of Ken- tucky, of Tennessee, Mississippi, and Louisiana east of the Mis- sissippiriver. In this investigation it was shown that by far the greater portion of the recognized plant-food ingredients was contained within the impalpable portion, viz., the “ clay ” and finest silts, only an insignificant amount being found in the “sandy ” portion of the soil. The extreme poverty of the sandy lands of Florida, as shown by analyses subsequently made by him, fully corroborated these points for the humid region of the cotton states at least. And in Europe, the sandy lands of the northern plain are equally sterile without fertilization. How is it then that the sands and dust of the arid region are so highly productive so soon as irrigated ? A comparative microscopic examination of sands from Flor- ida and that from the arid deserts at once reveals the difference, which is equally accentuated by their chemical analysis. While the Florida or Mississippi soil sand under the microscope shows almost wholly quartz grains with clean, polished surfaces, the typical desert sand shows a great variety of minerals in granu- lar form, coated with half-decomposed, finely pulverulent mineral matter, which also constitutes the “ dust” portion of the material. Analyses made of the coarse and fine portions of such soils by Mr. L. M. Tolman + and by E. C. Lea (unpub- lished), proved that the surface-covering of the coarse sand grains was practically of the same composition as the fine dust itself. The subjoined table shows that in the typical upland clay loam from Mississippi (a soil noted for its high produet of cotton) dissolution of soil ingredients substantially ceased when a diameter of only -036™™ of the soil granules was reached ; while from that limit, in the coarser portions of the California soils, obtained by the same process of hydraulic eleutriation, and up to half a millimeter diameter, there was not only no diminution but an actual increase of acid-soluble matters. It thus appears that while in the humid Mississippi soil, solu- bility of plant food practically ceased above a grain-diameter * This Journal, Jan. 1874. + Rep. Calif. Exper. Station for 1898-1901, p. 33. E. W. Hilgard—Peculiarities of Rock- Weathering. 263 of -036™™, in the arid California soils as large an amount was found in the sand-grain sizes between ‘12 and °50™™ as in the 016 to -025"™ silt of Mississippi. How does this radical difference between the sands of the arid and humid regions come about? The pulverulent nature of the soils formed under arid conditions supplies the answer. The binding material, the “ clay,” that forms so important a character of the prevalently clayey and loamy soils of the humid region, is in the properly arid soils present in minute proportions only; except of course where clays from prexist- ing clay formations have taken part in soil formation, or where, Per cent Phos- in phoric Soluble Total Sediments. Soil. Potash. Lime. Magnesia. Acid. Silica. Alumina. soluble. Colloidal clay, ? diameter. Mississippi ...__-___- BUGS = 39) t 08 20s OL Ta 8.0 7n 1-82 Califiormiae(Chino)-=25. 77-60% 4 V6. 4a 04 ele 702, 1:35 3°56 California (Jackson).. 1643 13 +12 ‘08 05 2°83 2:13 5°34 Very fine silt, :016™™ diam. IMISSISSIppl 222.22 So One All SOc Oe 2-Ole @1o36 5°22 @aliiornia (Chino); 2 2718753) 7:24 "753, 4°29" 06 4:96 1-76 7°84 California (Jackson).. 34:90 -10 ‘04 ‘08 ‘02 2°50 2°44 5°18 Fine silt, :016-"025™™ diam. IMiSssIssippl.2 542s o 0 13:67 "12 “09 10 02 °32 Ne 82 California (Chino) Lis DENY) °05 “aha 02 ‘Ol *80 51 1°50 Calstorias(diackson):=) 9:96), 208) ~ 504... 108 01 BO al 01 2°25 Silt, °025--036™" diam. EEN a Mississippi 32.3 222.4 aiee a ae Sp OGL == oe me "36 California (Chino) --_ 3°92 at oe a tnd eu ae lost California (Jackson). 768 ‘06 ‘02 +05 01 "82 74 1:70 Silt, 036-047" diam. Calilormiar(Chimo)22- 23 64007 505. Sr 0m) 22°01 "80 D5 1°66 California (Jackson).. 821 04 ‘01 :003 ‘001 = -43 64 129 Coarse silt, °047-072™™ diam. Cahtormar(Chino) 222) 7:92) 06.6 20.203 5-02 "89 59 1-79 Calitorova (Jackson) 75:90 \.03' "01 012-003 -42 "30 hid Fine sand, :072-:120™™ diam. California; (Chino) == 18h. 20652,.26 — “10°: 08 “98 Be 143+ California (Jackson).. 4:03 ‘01 ‘01 ‘005 :003 :28 09 408 Coarser sand, *120—050™™ diam. Calhtornia, (Chino) 22.3617 bl 69 122-04) = 2430, 6 Tb 9 4°98, California (Jackson). 10°10 we a: ee, ts big -- not detd. 264 & W. Hilgard—Peculiarities of Rock - Weathering. as in swamps or marshes, humid conditions exist in the arid region as well. Since kaolinization, which must precede the formation of colloidal, plastic clay material, is essentially a process of hydra- tion, the presumption is that it will progress more slowly in regions of deficient rainfall. That this is actually the case can hardly be questioned by any one who has studied comparatively the results of rock decay in both the arid and humid regions ; the contrary assertion, lately made, cannot, so far as I know, be supported by any facts properly observed and _ interpreted. The contrasts between the condition of the granites and grano- diorites on the upper portions and the lower slopes of the Sierra Nevada and of the Sierra Madre of southern California, and still more between the latter and the southern Alleghenies, are so strongly accentuated as hardly to require discussion. The enormous deposits of almost fresh granitic sand at the base of the southern arid ranges, so coarse that the trees and seeds must be planted far below the surface in order to main- tain life, while in the Alleghenies a clay subsoil formed in place lies within a foot of the surface on which the planting is done, are a practical demonstration of the greater intensity of clay- formation in the humid regions. These differences in characters of the regolith of the two regions may be schematically illustrated in a diagram. This would show that in the humid region the humous “soil” as arule extends only from six to nine inches from the surface, these being the depths prescribed by the Eastern Experiment stations for the taking of samples of “surface soil”; beneath which follows almost invariably a more clayey subsoil, which as a rule is unadapted to the growth of crops, so that not more than half an inch of it is allowed to be plowed up to the surface at once, on pain of spoiling the seed-bed for the suc- ceeding season at least. No such restriction applies to the typical arid soils, in which the ‘‘ surface” or humous soil is rarely less than three feet in thickness, and frequently extends to a much greater depth even with a considerable humus- content. This state of things is illustrated by the columns of California soils, in two of which the humus has been determined as reaching to the depth of twelve feet, as shown in the table here presented; and doubtless to at "least one foot beyond. The root of a hop plant here before you illustrates one of the practically most important results of this great depth and pulverulent texture of soils in the arid region. This root at ten feet is still over a millimeter in diameter, and of course went at least two feet deeper than the specimen shows. Now E. W. Hilgard— Peculiarities of Rock -Weathering. 265 since a root cannot perform its functions in the absence of the oxygen of the air, it is clear that the air readily penetrates to the depth shown; and in many cases observed, even to as much as twenty feet and more. And since both air, moisture and humus are found at these depths, this implies not only that the farmer in the arid region can fearlessly plow to any practi- cable depth, but also that the mass of his available soil is from three to five times as great as that of an equal area of land in the humid East. In other words, he has several farms one above another, instead of a single one with one or two feet of available soil and subsoil. If this be so, then it might be allowable in the arid region to use the regolith materials thrown up from cellars directly as cultivable soils. Daily experience shows this to be the case. Except where heavy clay soils prevail, or where wet macera- tion has at some time consolidated the subsoil mass, the mate- rials from eight or ten feet depth dug out of cellars or the foundations of houses can oftentimes be directly used as surface soils in garden and fields; and the farmer in grading his land for irrigation ordinarily excavates it as deeply as may be necessary without fear of the “raw subsoil,” as would be needful in the humid East. The prompt natural afforesting of the placer and even hydraulic mines in California teaches the same lesson. Searching for the physical and chemical causes of this state of things, we see at once that it is mainly referrible to the per- vious, pulverulent nature of the regolith, which is itself the result of the absence or great deficiency of plastic clay. It is immaterial whether or not this is concurrent with a slow rate of kaolinization, as the microscope seems to indicate. It is quite certain that the plastic clay substance, the “colloidal clay,’ is formed only in small amounts; and this is quite consonant with what we know of the transformation of kaolin into plastic clay. Mere pulverization will not accomplish this; under wet trituration® it is certainly at least a physical hydration process, which does not occur in the case of other fine powders. It is true that the latter may be molded into shape when wetted ; but that shape is not retained after drying if any pressure is applied, while clay proper dries into a hard, resistant mass, such as in arid climates like that of Mesopo- tamia has not even required burning to retain the Assyrian inscriptions for thousands of years. These ancient nations understood the peculiar character of plastic clay better than those who to-day contend that its plasticity is simply due to the fineness of its particles ; for we nowhere find that chalk or *See Johnson and Blake, this Journal, May, 1867. 266 EF. W. Hilgard—Peculiarities of Rock - Weathering. other easily obtainable fine powders have been similarly used. Nor will the finest “slickens” of our quartz mills, which remains suspended indefinitely in distilled water, serve for modeling, any more than for pottery or porcelain. The utmost possible comminution of graphite or tale, so closely similar to kaolinite in softness and erystalline texture, will fail to impart to them anything resembling the adhesive plasticity of colloidal clay. In aks humid region the abundant and long-continued rains eause the plastic clay in the surface soil to diffuse in the soil water and to be carried into the subsoil, where much of it stops at a shallow depth and thus pr oduces the clayey subsoils of humid regions. In the arid region, notwithstanding the extreme fineness of many soils which causes them to rise as dust at the slightest br eath of wind, no such action occurs and thus oppor tunity is afforded for the deep penetration of roots, which allows much of the ordinary vegetation brought from the humid region to do without rain or irrigation during a six months drought. The fact that in most parts of the arid regions, the scanty rains occur during the coldest portion of the year, pr “obably accounts in a large measure for the retardation of rock decay ; which, others things being equal, is probably in all cases accelerated by heat. On the other hand, the abrupt and constantly recur- ring changes of temperature account for a large part of the physical disintegr ation which produces the great masses of pulverized rock or sand which we find in “desert” regions. The intense radiation of beat into space through the far undersaturated air of the arid climates, which occurs so soon as the sun disappears and often results in the violent disrup- tion of cobbles from unequal contraction, naturally affects pro- foundly the macrocrystalline rocks especially ; crumbling their surface and enabling the torrents to carry off almost fresh “sand” composed of all the mineral rock-constituents into the arid valleys; where under the influence of vegetation and increased moisture their chemical decomposition can progress more rapidly. Not, however, rapidly as in the humid region, where the humus acids aid materially in mineral decomposition. For not only is the humus-content of arid soils usually very much less than in the humid, but so soon as formed such acids are neutralized by the carbonate of lime always present in far greater proportion than in the humid soils, save when the latter are directly derived from calcareous formations. This leads us to the consideration of chemical peculiarities of arid and humid soils respectively. E. W. Hilgard—Peculiarities of Rock - Weathering. 267 Average Composition of Soils in the Humid and Arid Regions of the United States.* Humid. Arid. No. analyzed. 696 573 Insoluble:aresidue {ses 8 aos 6 been 84°17 69°16 Solubblessulicam seein ese ae 4:04 6°71 Sum of insoluble residue ond soluble StnG ag ie mean NLR a OTT 8 75 87 Rotashentecse tars Aten Ria ye ekki. “Dal 67 PSY OXG ANG 2 a ist a ee ei a RT 14 35 1 CATES So et CA "19 1°43 WGC TG yee es Ws Se A ee a ea "29 12a iT OX- OF MANGANESE qo oe =e ke oS} mal eeLOxide OleOle, eee ea e588 5°48 AUN a ees ee LES A Ol BG PL Phosphoric acid goa s) 520 eee eee "12 "16 Sulphunicsacids ts 0h eae ee 05 06 Water and organic matter .-._.--. 4°40 515 Hygroscopic moisture __..2.---.-- 2 5°46 Haus Pee EE CS ee US een saT Ly 2K Me Maio Neal? INitroseninehumuUs ee ae 5:00 15:28 INTtLO gen IM SOU Meee ees Osk7: 0°14 The table before you shows these peculiarities, which I have somewhat elaborately discussed elsewhere. A glance shows the main points of difference to lie just where they would be expected as resulting from a diminished rainfall, causing a cor- responding diminution of the leaching-out process, which in the humid climates is the necessary consequence not only of a large rainfall, but especially of its occurrence during the warm season, when the concurrent effects of warmth and the « consequent evolution of carbonic acid, both from the roots of vegetation, and from the oxidation or fermentation of dead vegetable matter, can be exerted. Hence we see that the lime which in the humid region is constantly and abundantly leached out into the drainage “and streams, isin the arid retained to an extent amounting to from ten to thirteen times the average content found in humid soils not directly derived from ‘calcareous formations. OMA re 1011 1012 11 76 55 16 Oe — To Hie D rb LOLI TL20 4 40 50 SOke3 34a ert 40 50 rr 1011 O111 24 Siders 80 51-82 33 81 40 in 1011 O111 98 20 5 Summary. This paper describes the preparation and erystallographie properties of two modifications of cesium chromate, Cs,CrO,, of cesium bichromate, Cs,Cr,O,, and of cesium trichromate, Cs,Cr,O,,, and leaves in doubt the existence of a second form of the bichromate. It proves that a pressure of thirty atmospheres during the process of crystallization is not sufficient to produce any meas- urable difference of crystallographic axes or angles in hexagonal cesium chromate, but makes it probable that it effects a change of habit in the crystals. In conclusion I must express my thanks to Professor Theo- dore W. Richards and Dr. Charles Palache of Cambridge, and Professor Paul von Groth of Miinchen, for their encourage- ment and advice during the progress of this investigation. Cambridge, Mass., and Miinchen,1901-1903. A. H. Verrill— New Species of Dynastes. 317 Art. XX VIII.— Descriptions of two remarkable new species of Goliath Beetles (Dynastes) from Dominica Island, Antilles—Brief Contributions to Zoology from the Museum of Yale University, No. LX VI, by A. Hyarr VERRILL. Dynastes tricornis sp. nov. Male.—Elytra, thorax, and head polished, deep purplish black with no hair except along the edges of the segments, where the hairs are short, sparse, and rusty or ferruginous red; ventral surface highly polished, deep brownish black with very few sparsely distributed reddish hairs along the edges of the segments. Legs stout, black, and smooth, except along the tibie of the anterior pair, which are deeply but minutely pitted ; tarsi and tibize edged with fine reddish hairs ; processes of tibiz very similar in form to those of ). Hercules. Dorsal outline of elytra broad, obtuse, and slightly compressed later- ally at a point about one-third the distance between the ante- rior and posterior extremities. Thorax shield-shaped in a dorsal view; concave in a lateral view and bearing three slender, smooth, curved, processes or “horns.” The three horns are arranged in a triangle with the two posterior ones forming its base and curving forward and inward toward the third process, which forms the apex of the triangle; the anterior processes rounded below and flattened above, somewhat thickened near the center and curved semi- circularly upwards at the outer end. No hairs on any of the thoracic processes. Head minutely pitted and without appendages of any sort, except a small, slightly raised, transverse ridge between the eyes. Lateral posterior edges of the thorax below appendages and upper surface of anterior appendage minutely pitted. Length from anterior extremity to tip of abdomen (exelu- sive of thoracic process), 1:45 inches; width of thorax at pos- terior segment, 0°60; width of thorax at widest point (across two posterior processes), 0°70; width of thorax at anterior seg- ment, 0°25; width of elytra at widest point, 0°85; length of two posterior thoracic processes, 0°35; length of single anterior _ process, 0°45. Habitat.— Highest mountain slopes of the island of Dominica. Several specimens. Female unknown. As will be seen by the foregoing description, this new Dynastes is very distinct from any other species of the genus. Its small size, three thoracic and no occipital appendages, as well as its polished and uniformly colored surface are charac- ters which serve to identify it at a glance. 318 A. H. Verrill-——New Species of Dynastes. In the arrangement of thoracic horns it resembles D. Vep- tunus trom South America, but from this species it differs very materially. It appears to be very rare in Dominica, for during two years collecting in the island I have procured but few specimens, and it is unknown to most of the natives, who, as a rule, are fairly familiar with the fauna of the island. Dynastes Lagaii sp. nov. Figure 1. Male.—Much smaller than either Dynastes Hercules or Vulcan and averaging scarcely if any larger than Dynastes tricornis. Elytra brownish olive, with a bright metallic luster in living specimens, sparsely and irregularly ‘spotted with circular mark- ings of deep brown, most numerous near the posterior extrem- Pe stk nee a aa ag EEE xy ae aa ze a 3 Ps aE are Figure 1. Dynastes Lagaii. Male, natural size. Type; phot. A. H. V. ity and lateral and anterior edges. Thorax, head, abdomen, legs, ventral surface, edges of elytra and a broad band across anterior portion of ely tra, rich chestnut-brown. Thorax with a short, cylindrical, s slightly curved process. é Head with a stout, short, crescent-shaped process. Thoracic “horn” with a minute, scarcely perceptible process on either side at base. Occipital “horn” without protuberance of any sort except a very minute notch or tooth on the dorsal surface near the base. Entire dorsal surface thickly and conspicuously pitted and everywhere covered with short, yellowish brown hair which becomes longer and conspicuous around the base of the ocei- pital process, posterior portion of thorax, and along the median line of elytra. Ventral surface of thoracic process A. H. Verrill—New Species of Dynastes. 319 covered with thick, velvety, golden-yellow hair. Ventral sur- face of head, thorax, and abdomen finely but thickly pitted, and with scarcely any “hair except along the edges of segments and posterior extremity of abdomen; the latter with a long thick fringe of silky golden hair. Female.—Searcely distinguishable from female of D. Her- cules, except by the much smaller size and abundant hair which completely covers the dorsal surface. Length, exclusive of thoracic and occipital processes, 2-00 to 2°25 inches ; length of thoracic process, 0-45 to 0°60; length of occipital process, 0°20 to 0°25; width of thorax at posterior segment, 0°80 to 0°85. FicurE 2, a. Dynastes Hercules. Male, 24 mat. size. Fiaure 2, b. Dynastes Vulcan. Male, 24 nat. size. Type, phot. A. H. V. ‘ Habitat.—Interior mountain ranges of Dominica IL., from 2000 to 4000 feet above sea level. Several specimens. To make this notice more complete, the description of a third rare species is here reproduced. It was originally described in a brochure published by A. H. Verrill at Rosseau, Dominica, April, 1905.* Dynastes vulean A. H. Verrill. Figure 2, 6. Male.—Much smaller and with much shorter and more slen- der thoracic and occipital processes than even the smallest and most undeveloped specimens of Dynastes Hercules. * Description of a new species of Dynastes ( Hercules Beetle) from Dominica. By A. Hyatt Verrill. 320 A. H. Verrill—New Species of Dynastes. The thoracic “ horn” is much more curved and has the two lateral projections much nearer base than in YD. Hercules. Occipital horn slender near base but wide vertically from a point near middle to near the anterior end; compressed later- ally, broad in profile, but slender when viewed anteriorly, in marked contrast to the occipital appendage of D. Hercules, in which species the occipital “horn” is fully as wide anteriorly as laterally, and nearly circular in section. Protuberances on occipital appendage three in number aud of almost equal size and equally spaced between anterior extremity and middle of the “horn.” No indication of a bifurcated tip to the occipital appendage, as is usually the case with D. Hercules. Anterior profile outline of occipital process almost straight, not convexas in DY). Hercules. Thorax broader, more depressed, and less conical in dorsal outline than in Her- cules. Elytra broader, more obtuse posteriorly, and more con- vex in protile than in DY. Hercules. Color of elytra uniform, dark, sooty-brown, occasionally with indications of circular or lunate markings of a lighter, more yellowish shade. Lower parts lighter and more brownish than in Hercules, with more abundant and lighter colored hair; especially on ventral sur- face of the head and thorax. Dorsal portion of thorax, espe- cially posteriorly, much rougher aud more deeply pitted than in D. Hercules. Length, from anterior extremity to tip of abdomen, exclusive of thoracic appendage, 2°60 to 2°65 inches; dorsal length of thoracic appendage, 1°40 to 1°50; anterior length of occipital appendage, 1:06 to 1:10; width of thorax at posterior segment, 1:15 to 1°20 inches. Habitat.—W indward or Atlantic siopes of Dominica. Three specimens. Female unknown. Samuel Pierpont Langley. 321 Prorrssorn SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY. In the death of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, America loses its most prominent astronomer and_ physicist. Professor Langley was born in Roxbury, near Boston, August 22, 1834, and died February 27, 1906. In this interval of over seventy-one years he contributed immensely to the study of the physies of the solar atmosphere and of the earth’s atmos- phere, besides also taking a prominent part in practical work, such as the distribution of standard time, and development of the aeroplane, considered as a flying machine. His popular writings are distinguished by a beautiful diction, and the pleasure that he took in conversing with young students is proverbial. After studying at the Boston High School, making a special preparation as architect and civil engineer, and filling tem por- ary positions in the Observatory of Harvard College and the U.S. Naval Academy, he settled, in 1867, as director of the Allegheny Observatory ; at the same time the present writer settled at Cincinnati Observatory, and from that to the present the close relationship of the subjects in which we were inter- ested has produced a corresponding personal intimacy. Especi- ally were we for many years first united in the effort to intro- duce a uniform system of time signals that should be controlled by local observatories, and be a means of support for these institutions in their straightened finances. While devoting much thought to praetical astronomy during 1867-1875, Professor Langley still found time to devote his equatorial to the study of the sun’s surface and his drawings of the details of the spots have all the wonderful characteristics of the rarest and best of modern photographs. His attempts to meas- ure the relative temperatures of the spot and the surface, by the thermo-electric method, led to his development of that form of the electric resistance thermometer, which he called the ‘ bolo- meter.” Each form of thermometer has its special troubles, and the bolometer is no exception. For twenty years we have been accustomed to receive pamphlets and memoirs, detailing the steady progress made by himself or his assistants in improving the sensitiveness and accuracy of the bolometer. Notwithstanding the rival apparatus of Angstrém and the ther- mopile, the bolometer is still in favor; of course both instru- ments must be used side by side if we would attain results better than either one can give alone. By applying the bolometer to the solar spectrum Langley was able to reach far beyond the limit before recognized and to measure the relative distribution of heat throughout the whole extent of the spectrum; he thus laid the foundation for all modern study ot the special absorbing and radiating powers of atmospheres and gases for the individual wave lengths of light. 322 Samuel Pierpont Langley. The last published memoirs by Langley and his assistant, Mr. C. G. Abbot, demonstrate beyond all peradventure the steady decrease of the absorption of the earth’s atmosphere as the wave lengths increase. From the measurement of the distribution of heat in the solar spectrunn Langley then passed to the distribution of energy, and from this to the sum-total of energy in the spec- trum. Now the sum total of energy was also supposed to be given by Pouillet’s or some other form of pyrheliometer, and Langley at once began to experiment with every form or modi- fication of this apparatus. He traveled extensively in this country and Europe in order to consult with all those who were working on these problems, and his progress, up to the end of 1883, was presented in his report on the Mount Whit- ney expedition, published as Professional Paper Number xv of the Signal Service, under the title, ‘* Researches in Solar Heat.” He had already observed from the summit of Mount Etna, and in 1878 from the summit of Pike’s Peak, but these new observations were made from the still higher summit of | Mount Whitney. In fact the study of the solar atmosphere forced him, first of all modern physicists, to undertake the greatest expense and labor in order to realize even a few days of work at the highest possible altitude. The general result of the expedition to Mount Whitney was to demonstrate that, in all probability, the universal opinion of physicists was in error in believing that the infra-red rays are more absorbed than the luminous and ultra-violet: as Langley himself states, considering the weight of authority against him, he felt bound to repeat his exper iments in every manner, and with every pre- caution. It also followed that the accepted value of the heat radiated from the sun, as received at the outer surface of the earth’s atmosphere, must be very greatly increased, and that its value could not be less than 2°6 calories, while it might be as high as 3°5, the most probable figure being 3-0 calories.* We believe that up to the last Professor Langley saw no reason to depart greatly from this result. He made. this experience on Mount Whitney a strong argument as to the importance to meteorology of similar observations at other great elevations. In 1887 Professor Langley was appointed | Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, succeeding Professor S. F. Baird. This necessitated his removal to W ashington, where he was able to established the Astro-physical Observatory, and to con- tinue the researches begun in Allegheny. Washington is unfortunate as regards the steadiness of the atmosphere, but its selection was forced u pon Langley by circumstances over which * Namely small calories, or a gram of water heated from 0° Centigrade to 1° Centigrade per square minute per centimeter. Samuel Pierpont Langley. 323 he had no control, and the great work that has been done there will undoubtedly prove an important preliminary experience, leading to the eventual establishment, in a favorable location, and under a competent physicist, of an astro-physical observa- tory that shall be worthy the name of the founder. Buta very different problem had also fascinated our colleague, namely the soaring flight of the condor, the buzzard, and the sea-gull. While at the Allegheny Observatory he had gathered a collection of aeroplanes and of well mounted birds’ wings, had placed them on his whirling machine, and had endeavored to penetrate the secrets of flight. After his settle- ment at Washington a larger machine and more elaborate . experiments were made, in which he was assisted by Mr. George E. Curtis, who had become familiar with the subject through his studies with me of problems treated in my ‘“‘ Meteor- ological Apparatus and Methods.” Professor Langley’s work, entitled ‘“ Aerodromics” and his incisive article, ‘ The Internal Energy of the Wind,” were but the beginning of the * new series of studies that occupied his attention up to the beginning of his last illness. A large appropriation was made by Congress for researches and experiments in artificial flight. The best of physicists and mechanics were employed to perfect the powerful little motor. A detailed report on the results has not yet been published, but it is very important that it should be prepared, both in order to save others from the wasteful labor of going over the same ground again, and also in order to secure for America the credit for the great work that was accomplished by him. He was one of the pioneers in this class of work, and like all pioneers prepared the way for the success that we hope ultimately to obtain. A few years ago we spoke of the conquest of space by the railroad, and of time by electricity, or the conquest of the ocean by the steamship, without having the least idea that within the next decade wire- less telegraphy and the steam turbine would give us a still more complete conquest. It is so also with the air; we now have the balloon, the aeroplane and the kite, but eventually we shall have the flying machine in some practical form. As administrative officer in charge of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, Langley defended the principle that the secretary should not sacrifice his scientifie work to routine office work, but by continuing it should confer the greater honor on the institution. Personally Professor Langley was of the gentlest and kindest nature. Nothing but the conviction of duty ever drew a harsh word from him. He could be silent and suffer, but not quarrel. His tender care for his mother and his kindly sympathy for the children of his friends (he had none of his own) will ever endear him to the memory of those who knew him best. CLEVELAND ABBE. 324 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIPIC INTEL ETC BN eR: I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs. 1. The Determination of Sulphur in Pyrites.—This import- ant analytical operation has given much trouble to chemists, but there is hardly another process that has received so much study and has produced so much literature as this, so that it would seem that the methods in use must have been perfected in all of their details. Recent investigations by Hintz and Weser show, how- ever, that there is a serious source of error in Lunge’s method as applied by many chemists. They find that when barium chloride solution is added slowly to the acidified solution containing ammonium sulphate the amount of barium sulphate obtained is decidedly less than when the reagent is added rapidly. They find that in the first case the barium sulphate contains ammonium sulphate which volatilizes upon ignition and leads to a loss of sulphur. This unexpected result recalls to the reviewer a variety of natural barite from Missouri in which Ludeking and Wheeler (this Journal III, xlii, 495) found 0:2 per cent of ammonium sulphate, a circumstance which shows the tendency of ammonium sulphate to crystallize with barium sulphate. Hintz and Weber give the following directions for determining sulphur in pyrites : Treat 0°5% of pyrites with 10° of a mixture of 3 parts of nitric acid, 1°42 sp. gr, and 1 part of hydrochloric acid, 1:17 sp. gr., allow the action to go on in the cold at first, and finally complete the decomposition on a boiling water-bath. Then transfer the liquid to a porcelain dish, evaporate to dryness on the water-bath, moisten with 5° of concentrated hydrochloric acid, and evapor- ate again. Take up the residue with 1° of hydrochloric acid, 1°17 sp. gr., and about 100° of hot water, filter through a small filter and wash the residue at first with cold, finally with hot water. Add to the filtrate, of somewhat more than 150° volume, while warm, 20° of 10 per cent ammonia and heat about 15 min- utes to about 70°. Filter off the ferric hydroxide precipitate and wash it with hot water until the volume has reached about 450°. Add a little methyl orange, neutralize with hydrochloric acid and add 1° of hydrochloric acid, 1°17 sp. gr. in excess. Heat until boiling begins and precipitate with a boiling solution of 24°° of 10 per cent barium chloride diluted to 100°, adding the reagent at one time as rapidly as possible with vigorous stirring. Rinse the iron precipitate from the filter, dissolve it in as little hydro- chloric acid as possible, precipitate warm with ammonia, filter, and wash the precipitate. Heat the filtrate and washings until the greater part of thea ammonia has been driven off, acidify slightly with hydrochloric acid, and treat with some hart nae chlo- ride solution. ‘Tf any barium sulphate i is found here, add it to the main precipitate. Filter the barium sulphate precipitate, washing Chemistry and Physics. 325 at first by three decantations with boiling water, then with boil- ing water on the filter until the chlorine reaction has disappeared. Dry and weigh it.—ZeZtschr. analyt. Chem., xlv, 31. H. L. W. 2. The Determination of Grape Sugar.—The present methods for the quantitative determination of glucose are not based upon definite chemical equations ; for instance, the amount of cuprous oxide produced by Fehling’s method depends upon conditions of concentration, etc. Glassmann has now worked out two modifi- cations of Knapp’s method, which appear to depend upon strict stochiometric principles, but only one of these, apparently the most convenient one, will be noticed here. The grape sugar solution is poured into a boiling solution of mercuric cyanide and caustic potash, or a similar alkaline solution of potassium mer- curic iodide, when metallic mercury is precipitated according to the following equations : CH,OH(CHOH),CHO + 3He(CN), +6KOH = COOH (CHOH),COOH +411,0 + 6KCN +3Hg, and CH,OH(CHOH),CHO + 3HelI,.2K1+6KOH = COOH(CHOH), COOH + 4H, O + 8KI+3He. The precipitate is filtered and washed, dissolved by heating with strong nitric acid, and the mercury is determined with a standard thiocyanate solution, with ferric alum as an indicator, according to the method of Rupp and Krauss, which is carried out exactly like Volaardt’s volumetric method for silver. A ee eee NH,SCN solution is equivalent to :003009% of C,H,,O,. (The author incorrectly gives this value for 1°™ of 54, normal solu- tion.) A nnmber of test analyses carried out with pure grape sugar give very satisfactory results, but no statements are made in regard to substances which interfere with the process.— Berichte, xxxix, 503. He We 3. The Boiling of the Metals of the Platinum Group.— Motssawn has heated samples of 150% each of osmium, ruthenium, platinum, palladium, iridium and rhodium, in his electric furnace, and has succeeded in bringing all of them to the point of ebul- lition and distillation by the use of currents of from 500 to 700 amperes and 110 volts. Fusion took place in one or two minutes, and boiling was reached in less than four minutes. The vapors were condensed upon a copper tube through which a rapid stream of cold water was passed, so that metallic spherules or micro- scopic crystals, usually in the form of felt, were produced. All of the metals dissolved carbon from the crucible, which they gave up as graphite upon cooling. The most difficult of all the metals to distil is osmium. Palladium is more readily fusible than platinum, but it does not appear to be more readily volatile than platinum and rhodium.— Comptes Rendus, exlii, 189. H. L. W. Am. Jour. Sct.—Fourts Sgrizs, Vou. XXI, No. 124.—ApRIL, 1906. 23 326 Scientific Intelligence. 4. Rapid Preparation of Hydriodic Acid.— A convenient and rapid method for preparing this acid is described by Boproux. He divides a certain weight of iodine into two equal parts. To the first barium peroxide is added in the presence of water : BaO, +I, = Bal, +0,, The remainder of the iodine is then dissolved in the filtered solu- tion, and sulphur dioxide is passed in until decolorization takes place : Bal, +1,+S0,+H,O = BaSO,+4HI. The acid is then concentrated by distillation, for the reaction with sulphur dioxide does not take place normally in extremely concentrated solutions, so that it is recommended to use about 180 of water for 100£ of iodine.— Comptes Rendus, exlii, 279. H. L. W. 5. The Radio-activity of Polonium.—Mmn. Curte, who has obtained and described polonium as a radio-active element accom- panying bismuth in pitchblende, finds that the material may be enriched by fractionally precipitating the oxychloride by means of water, when polonium is concentrated in the first precipitates. Having thus obtained poloniferous oxide of bismuth with an activity 250 times that of uranium, she measured its rate of decay and found that it loses one-half of its activity in 140 days. This corresponds very closely to the rate of decay of Marckwald’s ‘“‘radio-tellurium,” so that it may be regarded as certain that the two substances are identical.— Comptes Rendus, clxii, 273. H..L. W- 6. The Electrochemical Equivalent of Silver.—The importance of this constant is such that investigators still prosecute investi- gations to determine it with all possible accuracy. G. van Dux, p- 286, in a very full paper, reviews the results of previous investi- gators and gives his own. The following table gives the values (corrected) obtained by various physicists : Mascart ee 2 tern eckee noes 2 ORO tala lays) (pee olkey Se ee ee 0-011181 F. and W. Kohlrausch__-__- 0011182 | Patterson and Guthe __-_-_-_- 0-01118 Rayleigh and Sidgwick____ 0°011176 | Pellat and Leduc_________- 0-011189 Pellat and Potier___------- 0011191 | Van Dijk and Kunst____-__ 0-011180 Van Dijk devotes considerable space to a discussion of the cor- rections employed by Richards which led the latter to adopt the value 0°011175, and believes that his own result, a = 0°011180 is the true electrochemical equivalent of silver.—Ann. der Physik, No. 2, 1906, pp. 249-288. Als ABS 7. The Electrolytic Coherer—Under the title of asymmetrical action of an alternating current on a polarizable electrode, Dr. GuNpRy discusses the reasons for the action of what is at present probably the most sensitive receiver employed in wireless teleg- raphy. This receiver consists of a very fine platinum point which forms the anode, in an electrolytic solution, of an E.M.F. of several volts. The current through this electrolytic cell is Chemistry and Phystes. 327 greatly increased by the excitation of electric waves. Fessenden, to whom the priority of the discovery of this receiver has been awarded, believes that the action arises from an increase of heat in the immediate neighborhood of the small electrode ; this explanation has been found untenable. Later éxperiments of Rothmund and Lessing show a coherer and not an anticoherer effect when the electrolyte (phosphoric acid and hyperphosphor- ous acid at higher temperatures), has a negative resistance tem- perature coefficient. Reich believes that the action results from a depolarizing effect. The object of Dr. Gundry’s paper is to show that in a polariz- able electrode, in general, as soon as we pass beyond the stage of initial capacity the alternating current gives rise to an asym- metry which appears as a coherer effect. His experiments were conducted only with mercury electrodes on account of the more definite conditions which can be obtained by their use. One electrode was very small in order that it might be considered unpolarizable, the other more than one thousand times greater. A galvanometer in the alternating circuit showed that the cur- rent, before symmetric, was rendered asymmetric by passage through the cell. In other words, there was superposed on the alternating current a direct current, and the production of this direct current involves the existence of an asymmetry in the E.M.F. of the polarization produced by the alternating current. This asymmetry, the author believes, is a natural consequence of the osmotic theory of electromotive force in general and its appli- cation to polarization in particular. For the production of the alternating current the sine inductor of Kohlrausch alternated in use with the Dolezalek alternating current machine made by Siemens and Halske. An upper limit of 5000 alternations per second was obtained. Experiments with a platinum electrode both anodically and cathodically polarized, showed that the magnitude of the direct current value varied at high frequencies much less with the frequency than is the case with the mercury electrode.—Phil. Mag., March, 1906, pp. 329- 353, J. T. 8. Ionization by Réntgen and Cathode Rays.—This is a study at Wiirzburg by J. Herwee of various unsolved points in regard to this subject. It is shown that the ionization produced by the X-rays up to a temperature of 400° is independent of the tem- perature ; in other words, the resulting ionization is not accom- panied by a rise in temperature. It is also shown that simul- taneous ionization of air by a glowing wire and the X-rays results in a simple superposition of both ionizations. X-rays and also cathode rays produce a diminution of the dis- charge potential of the Glimmentladung ; the effect of the rays is dependent upon the volume of gas between the electrodes and the pressure. A theoretical discussion of the movement of electrons in a combined electrostatic and magnetic field concludes the paper.— Ann. der Physik, No. 2, 1906, pp. 333-370. Fer 328 Scientific Intelligence. 9. Modern Theory of Physical Phenomena; by Atucustro Rieu. Authorized Translation by Avceustus TROWBRIDGE. New York, 1905. (The Macmillan Co.) La Theorie Moderne des Phénomends Physique; par Aveusro Rieut. Traduction libre sur la 2° edition italienne par EuGENE Necurcea. Editions de “L’Eclairage Electrique.” These two translations bear witness to the richly deserved pop- ularity of Professor Righi’s little book. It is without question the best popular exposition that we have of the modern point of view which explains the phenomena of electricity, radio-activity and optics in terms of the electron. The translation is very well done and the book can be recommended ungualifiedly to the gen- eral reader who desires to get in a simple and non-technical form the gist of the epoch-making developments of the theory of elec- trons. LL. Pe We Il. Geroroagy anp MINERALOGY. 1. Red Beds of Southwestern Colorado and their Correlation; by Wuitman Cross and Ernest Hower. Bull. Geol. Soe. Amer., xvi, Dec., 1905, pp. 447-498, pls. 82-85.—This is the most important paper thus far published on the “ Red Beds” of the Rocky Mountain region, and should be read in connection with Stanton’s paper.on the Morrison formation published in “The Journal of Geology,” xiii, 1905, pp. 657-669. All of the Red Beds regions, from northeastern Arizona north to central Wyoming and east to the Front Range of Colorado, are reviewed by Dr. Cross. As his conclusions are of the first importance, his “summary” is repeated here in full. It is as follows: “1, A marked angular unconformity is exhibited near Ouray, Colorado, between a well defined fossiliferous horizon of the Dolores Triassic formation and an extensive section of Paleozoic beds, including the Cutler Permian and the Hermosa Pennsyl- vanian formations. “2. The Ouray unconformity is evidence of a stratigraphic break, of as yet unknown importance, in the midst of the Red beds of western Colorado. There are reasons to suppose that this hitherto unrecognized break is widespread and explains many discordant features of various Red bed sections, not only in Colorado, but in the adjacent Plateau province. ‘3. Lhe fossiliferous horizon of the Dolores formation, occur- ae above the unconformity noted, has been traced down the Dolores and San Juan valleys into the Plateau province. The sections of the mountain and plateau districts are comparable in many ways. “4, A vertebrate fauna, similar to or identical with that of the Dolores formation, has been found at widely separated points in New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado, and pale- ontologists regard it as clearly of upper Triassic characteristics. Geology and Mineralogy. 329 “5. Through the stratigraphic correspondence of the Red beds and associated formations in the Rocky Mountain and Plateau provinces and the evidence of the Triassic vertebrate fauna at numerous points, certain correlations are more or less clearly indicated. “q.-The Hermosa formation appears to occupy the same stratigraphic position as the Aubrey of. Utah and Arizona, Further investigations are necessary, however, to explain certain faunal differences or dissimilarities noted by paleontologists between the formations. “6, The Cutler formation, being older than the Ouray uncon- formity, is probably of Paleozoic age and corresponds more or less closely to the Permian portions of the stratigraphic sections of the Plateau and Mississippi Valley provinces. “¢e, The Dolores formation includes diminished equivalents of the Shinarump and Vermilion Cliff formations of the Plateau. The Shinarump may include important divisions not represented in the Dolores. “d. The La Plata formation is seemingly equivalent to the White Cliff sandstone. Its local assumption of red color has led to confusion with the Vermilion Cliff in certain districts and a reference to the Trias. Since the White Cliff sandstone under- lies marine Jurassic beds, and the La Plata transgresses the Dolores and all older beds in marked unconformity, the Jurassic age of the lower division of the Gunnison group seems estab- lished. “¢. The McElmo formation appears to correspond closely to the Morrison and Como beds and the Flaming Gorge group of Powell. It is probable that the marine Jurassic horizon belongs between the La Plata and McElmo formations.” Ces. 2. Annales de Paléontologie ; published under the direction of Marcellin Boule, Professor of Paleontology at the National Museum of Natural History. Paris (Masson and Co.). Vol. I, Pts. I and II, Jan., 1906.—This new serial in quarto form is to appear four times a year, and will have at least 20 signatures and 20 plates. The price outside of Paris is 30 francs a year. The illustrations are heliotypes made directly from the fossils, while interpretations and explanatory drawings are to appear in the text. Hach paper is independently paged, so that works of the same nature may be bound together or each may be bound sepa- rately ; a second pagination appears at the bottom of each page, which is that of the annual volume. The contents of the first part are as follows : Fossiles de Patagonie. Les attitudes de quelques animaux ; par M. Albert Gaudry. Pp. 1-42. Paléontologie de Madagascar. 1. Fossiles de la céte orientale ; par Mareellin Boule et Armand Thevenin, avec la collaboration de J. Lambert. Pp. 1-17, pls. 1, 2. Describes Upper Cretaceous invertebrates. A new genus of echinoid was described as oet- lingia by Lambert, in 1898, and the name is used here, but 330 Scientific Intelligence. unfortunately it has been preoccupied by Hall and Clarke since 1893 fora Russian Ordovician brachiopod: Part IZ. Sur quelques gisements nummulitiques de Madagascar ; par Robert Douvillé, pp- 1-8, pl. 1. Les grands chats des cavernes ; par Marcellin Boule. Pp. 1- Dil, OSS NS} Types du Prodrome de Paléontologie stratigraphique univer- selle de @ Orbigny. Pp. 1-4, pls. 1, 2 (incomplete).—The origi- nal very brief descriptions of d’Orbigny are here republished with short observations by A. Thevenin; no attempt, however, is made to indicate the present name for these fossils. The illus- trations are of much value, as they are photographs of the origi- nals. At least five of the species figured are American Paleozoic forms. Remarks on these are reserved until the work is com- pleted. ; Cc. S. 3. Arthrophycus and Dedalus of Burrow Origin, and Pre- liminary Note on the Nature of Taonurus ; by Curron J. SarLeE. Proc. Rochester Acad. Sci., iv, Feb., 1906, pp. 203-214. —The first article treats of the supposed fucoids usually known as Arthrophycus. An elaborate study has been made of a very extensive series of well-preserved specimens found in the Medina sandstones about Rochester, New York. From these researches, the author concludes that these bodies are not organic, but are the burrows of an animal, possibly a polychete worm. These burrows and packings may be nearly horizontal with the sedimen- tation or vertically spiral either to the right or left. The generic term Arthrophycus is retained for the plumose forms found on the bedding planes, and Dedalus for the spiral burrows. Taonurus treats of very similar burrows known to Americans as Spirophyton, and usually regarded as fucoid. These fossils are common in the eastern Hamilton formation and are undoubt- edly made in the same general way as are Arthrophycus and Dedalus. 'The evidence and deductions on which the author bases these conclusions can not be presented here, and must be read in detail in order to appreciate these by no means simple fossils. C. 8. 4, Echinoderma ; by F. A. Barurr. Zool. Rece., xli, Dec., 1905, 96 pp.—This valuable annual record of the literature of HKchinoderma, for 1904, continues the high standard set by the author. It lists 103 titles, and notes the contents of these papers in detail. 5. The Osteology of Champsosaurus Cope; by Barnum Brown. Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., ix, Dec., 1905, pp. 1-26, pls. i-v.—This memoir gives a detailed description of three more or less complete skeletons of the semiaquatic rhynchocephaloid rep- tile Champsosaurus from the lower strata of the lignite above the Ceratops beds of the Laramie, as exposed on Hell Creek, 130 miles northwest of Miles City, Montana. The material has been well worked out, and the memoir is handsomely illustrated by heliotype plates made in Germany. Geology and Mineralogy. 331 6. Maryland Geological Survey, Vol. V, 1905. Wm. Buttock Crark, State Geologist, pp. 656, pls. 35, figs. 55.—The present volume is largely devoted to economic subjects and each of the parts have been issued separately at different times. The Second Report on Magnetic work in Maryland by L. A. Bauer, now in charge of the magnetic work of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, forms Part I of the volume. This mag- netic survey of Maryland is the most complete of any magnetic survey in the world except that of Holland, the magnetic declin- ation, inclination and force having been determined in every portion of the State. The results have proved of both great practical value and scientific interest. The plate showing the lines of equal magnetic declination indicates their extreme irregu- larity, a pronounced focus of magnetic disturbance existing 19 miles northwest of Washington, a local variation of 7 degrees occurring within 7 miles. It is stated that a mathematical analysis of the forces producing the disturbances in this locality traces their source to parallel ridges running approximately in a northeast and southwest direction, agreeing with that of the ser- pentine beds, as mapped by the geologists. The report also contains among other papers a report on the highways of Maryland and more than 400 pages on the distribu- tion, value and geology of the Maryland coals. This volume, like the preceding ones of the series, is hand- somely printed, illustrated and bound. J. B. 7. Les Tremblements de Terre. Géographie Séismologique, par F. bE Monvessus DE Battore. Préface par A. de Lapparent, pp. 500, pls 3, 89 page maps and figures; Paris, 1905 (Librairie Armand Colin).—The author of this volume has been known for many years as one who has patiently and laboriously collected all available statistics regarding earthquakes over the whole world, and he is one of the small group of men to whom the new science of seismology owes much. In this publication the whole subject of the geographic distribution of earthquakes is clearly and fully discussed. The numerous detailed maps occurring at intervals through the volume show graphically the location and frequency of recorded shocks. The method of representation has been to cover each town or center of seismic disturbance by- a black circle, the length of the radius of the circle being propor- tional to the number of shocks. This method has been substi- tuted in place of graded tints, bounded by curves of seismic fre- quency, the departure having been made on account of the essen- tially discontinuous and localized nature of earthquake centra. This has its advantages for the student of seismology, giv- ing greater precision to the graphic representation of the data, but also possesses its disadvantages, especially for the casual reader. The area of a black disc impresses the eye rather than the radius, giving the impression of a greater concentration of shocks at certain centers than is actually the case. Again, as the time of observation grows longer the number of scattered shocks 332 Scientific Intelligence. in a region will presumably increase and the additional small circles will finally give something of the tinted effect. In addi- tion, in the more sparsely settled districts there is a lack of complete record of small shocks away from the centers of popula- tion and a consequent tendency for the larger circles to cluster around the inhabited districts. For these reasons it might have been advantageous to have supplemented the present detailed maps with more comprehensive ones in which curves and tints should bring out the lines and places of greatest seismic disturb- ance. To a slight extent this has been done. The author reiter- ates his previous conclusions in regard to the independence of the great majority of shocks from volcanic centers, even in vol- canic regions. The data also bring out the poverty of earth- quakes over the geologically undisturbed portions of the crust and their association, on the contrar y, with great fault zones, lines of folding, regions of great relief and geosynclines. They are evl- dence, in brief, of the internal forces of the world still at work. In regard to the more highly inferential portions of the work ; the author assumes the truth of the extreme views held chiefly by certain European geologists in regard to former land masses covering the greater portions of the present ocean basins and known as the Africano-Brazilian continent, the North Atlantic continent, etc., and discusses the relation of the earthquake zones to the fragmentation and foundering of these supposed land masses. It need hardly be said that much of this is high] hypothetical and that according to the charts in the back of the volume there was apparently no room for the ocean waters during Mesozoic time. On the whole, however, the volume is a most valuable contribution to that branch of geology which deals with earthquakes. J. B. 8. The Copper Deposits of the Clifton-Morenci District, Ari- zona; by WatpEemMar LinpeGren. U. 8. G. 8. Professional Paper No. 43. 365 pp., 25 pls., 19 figs. in text.—The Clifton copper district is second only to Bisbee in rank among the cop- per districts of Arizona, its production for 1903 amounting to 53,400,000 pounds of copper. The present paper is a complete and detailed discussion of the ore deposits of this area and con- tains, particularly in its discussions of the contact metamorphism shown in the district and of the secondary enrichment of the ores, important contributions to the subject of economic geology. The underlying rocks of the quadrangle are schists and a granite of pre- -Cambrian age. Upon these rest unconformably a series of Paleozoic sediments, of nearly a thousand feet in thick- ness, composed chiefly of limestones, with some interbedded quartz- ites and shales, Above this series are found in certain sections several hundred feet of sandstones and shales which have been assigned to the Mesozoic.’ Intruded into all of these rock types in the form of stocks, dikes, sheets and laccoliths are a series of igneous rocks ranging in type from diorite-porphyries to granite- porphyries. These intrusions probably occurred in early Ter- bo Miscellaneous Intelligence. 333 tiary time. Immense flows of later Tertiary lavas which lie unconformably upon the earlier rocks are found to the north of the district and in some places extend down into this quadrangle. No great disturbance of the region occurred until the intru- sions of the porphyries, which caused extensive breaking and dis- location of the sedimentary rocks. Subsequently folding must have taken place, and the uplifted area broke into fragments, which gradually settling down, formed the rocks into monoclinal blocks. The ore deposits of the district are always found within or closely adjacent to the porphyry intrusions and are considered to have an intimate genetic relation with these rocks. They occur in two main forms; either as tabular bodies in strongly meta- morphosed beds of limestone or shale, or as veins in fissures which traverse all of the rock types of the district. The intru- sions of the porphyry produced in the adjoining limestones and shales important contact-metamorphic action which resulted in the metasomatic development of garnet, epidote, diopside and other silicates, accompanied by pyrite, magnetite, chalcopyrite and sphalerite. The sulphides were not later introductions but contemporaneous in their formation with the other contact min- erals. The contact zone received large additions of oxide of iron, silica, sulphur, copper and zinc, which it is believed were given off by the intruded magma and forced through the adjoin- ing sedimentary beds. These deposits when unaltered are every- where of too low grade for profitable extraction, but have in many places been attacked by oxidizing surface waters and greatly enriched in value. Workable ores of this class are almost wholly oxidized, being made up chiefly of the two carbonates, malachite and azurite. The vein deposits were formed somewhat later, but probably while the igneous rocks were still hot and giving off mineral- bearing waters which, circulating through the rocks, deposited the ore materials in the fissures, forming normal veins largely of the replacement type. The bulk of these deposits consist of pyrites with a copper content in the ore, usually below one per cent. But descending oxidizing waters have served to enrich these deposits also, forming in them a belt of chalcocite ore varying between 200 and 250 feet in thickness. During the earlier days the rich ores from the oxidized deposits in limestone and shale furnished the major part of the output, but at present the camp is depend- ing chiefly on these large low-grade bodies of chalcocite ore. Ill. MiscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. A Contribution to the Oceanography of the Pacific; by James M. Firyr. Bull. U.S. National Museum No. 55, pp. 62, pls. 14, 1905. Compiled from data collected by the United States steamer Nero in 1899 while engaged in the survey of a route for a trans-Pacific cable-—The instructions regarding the 334 Screntific Intelligence. survey were to follow as nearly direct lines as practicable from Honolulu to Midway Island, thence to Guam, thence to Luzon, and also from Guam to Japan. Soundings were to be taken on the outward voyage at intervals of ten and two miles alternately, temperatures and nature of bottom being also observed. The return voyage was planned to cross the primary route zigzag at angles of 45°, the sides of the angle to be twenty miles in length: soundings to be taken at the apices of the angles. In this manner an examination was made of a belt of ocean about fourteen miles wide and over 6,000 miles in length, unequalled in thoroughness, so far at least as soundings are concerned, by any survey hitherto made of an ocean tract (p. 2). Several submarine mountain ranges were encountered, the most noteworthy occurring east of Guam, with peaks rising to a maximum of 689 fathoms below the sea level, and valleys descend- ing to a depth of more than 5000 fathoms. Four soundings below the 5000 fathom line were made in the abyss now known as the ‘‘Nero Deep.” The deepest, 5269 fathoms, was about seventy-five miles east-southeast from the island of Guam and is the deepest sounding ever recorded, being only sixty-six feet less than six statute miles. In computing the gradients from station to station serially on the outward voyage only, involving 1,100 soundings, sixty-nine localities only are found where the gradient exceeds 10 per cent. Of these fifty have an incline between 10 and 20 per cent, eleven between 20 and 30 per cent and six between 30 and 40 per cent. The steepest declivity was found on the slopes of the peak south- west of Midway Island, which rises to 82 fathoms beneath the surface of the water. Here there is a change in depth of 1,269 fathoms (7,614 feet) in a horizontal distance of 1:8 sea miles, a eradient of 70 per cent. With the few and localized exceptions, the bed of the Pacific Ocean, as developed by this survey, though rising here and there near to the sea level, and again descending to depths of five to six statute miles, follows easy gradients. In commenting upon these results attention should first be called to their great value. ‘The first reconnaissance of the ocean basins has already been completed and the results are embodied in the various charts showing the bathymetric contours. What is now most largely needed are detailed cross-sections such as this supplies of the Pacific Ocean and which the necessity of cable laying has fortunately secured. This has given some pre- cision to the knowledge of submarine gradients along this line. That such is lacking in the Challenger and Albatross cross-sec- tions may be seen by noting the distance apart of the stations except in the vicinity of land, and the resulting fact that the gradients given by connecting the stations are in nearly all cases comparatively flat lines, while the islands rise up with gradients in striking contrasts. For this to be true would imply that there were few or no submarine peaks of the same nature as those forming the oceanic islands but falling short of the surface, an assumption to be justly regarded as unwarranted and disproved along the line of the present cross-sections. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 335 An important extension of the present line of work would be a detailed areal survey of chosen regions, one sounding being taken for every square mile, in order to determine the more detailed topography and possibly throw light on the question of the origin of the surface, whether from warping, faulting, folding, igneous extrusion or possibly i in some cases from previous s s subaerial erosion. On account of the slowness of sedimentation over the bottoms of the open oceans, it is doubtful if even geological aeons would suffice to mask the significant features of the broader structures. Such aresearch might throw unexpected light upon such problems as that of the permanence of the continental plat- forms. The difficulty and expense of the project, however, are snch that it could only be undertaken by government enterprise. I.) Bs 2. The Microscopy of Vegetable Foods, with special reference to the Detection of Adulteration and the Diagnosis of Mixtures ; by Anprew L. Winton, Ph.D., with the collaboration of Dr. JosEF Mortier. Pp. 701, with 589 illustrations. New York, 1906 (John Wiley and Sons).—‘ Turn about is fair play.” Dr. Winton assisted Dr. Moeller in the preparation of a recent edition of the standard work, “ Mikroskopie der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel,” and now the favor is well returned. The present volume is in part an excellent translation of the German treatise, but it is very much more. It embodies the results of careful investigations by Dr. Winton, in a wide field of research, and is throughout characterized by clear statement. Dr. Winton is wise in striking the happy mean between a too extensive presentation of the subject and the scanty hints hitherto accessible to students who read only English. Physicians, ana- lysts, and pharmacists will find this coon sufficiently detailed to answer the more important questions which are now arising, and where the information falls short, suggestions as to further trea- tises are given. In a concise preliminary chapter devoted to the equipment of a laboratory, the subjects of Histology and gross Morphology are succinctly given. With this in hand, the investigator proceeds to. consider the products of “Grain,” and then to glance at sundry seeds which are among the many impurities. The third part is devoted to Oil-seeds and Oil-cakes, and here one unfamiliar with the subject comes upon some interesting surprises : numerous unlooked-for species are referred to as accidentally mixed with the more common oilseeds of the mills. Leguminous plants furnish material for an instructive chapter, the range being very wide. Nuts have also a prominent place. To Fruits and Vegetables, the authors have given a large amount of most useful study. Dr. Winton’s examination of the “ Jam” fruits is especially noteworthy. In view of this volume, taken especially in conjunction with Dr. Leach’s treatise on Food- Inspection, it may be unhesitatingly said that our Boards of Health are now well supplied with excel- lent counsel in English as to the best methods of investigating 336 Scientific Intelligence. intentional or “accidental” adulterations of foods. Both of the treatises are also desirable additions to the library of every prac- ticing physician. G. L. G. 3. The Philippine oun of Science. Vol. I, No. 1; edited by P. C. Freer. Co-editors; R. P. Srrone and H. D. McCas- KEY. Pp. 115, with 22 fioures. Manila, 1906. Bureau of Printing. —For four years past the Bureau of Government Laboratories of the Philippine Islands has been active in research work, having published thirty-six bulletins dealing particularly with subjects in botany and zoology, and also with various tropical diseases. A new Bureau of Science has now been formed by the consolidation with it of the Bureau of Mines, and the Philippine Journal of Science has been begun under the editor ship of Dr. Paul C. Freer, and with Richard P. Strong and H. D. McCaskey as co-editors, to contain the researches carried on under the auspices, as well as articles by others, in the Philippine Islands or adjacent countries of the Orient, who are carrying on related scientific work. The first number appeared in January, and contains articles by E. B. Copeland on the Water Relations of the Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera), with introduction by Paul C, Freer; by H. S. Walker on the Coconut and its Relation to the Production of Coconut Oil; by P. G. Woolley on the Occurrence of Schistosoma Japoni- cum vel Cattoi in the Philippine Islands; and by R. P. Strong on a Study of Some Tropical Ulcerations of the Skin with Refer- ence to their Etiology. Papers on_systematic botany and mono- graphs of various families and genera of Philippine plants will appear from time to time as supplements. The subscription price of the Journal is five dollars per year, and the supplements are supplied to regular subscribers without additional charge. This new Journal has a unique sphere and should prove of great value to science. 4. Guide to the Invertebrates of the Synoptic Collection in the Boston Society of Natural History ; by J. M. Arms SHELDON. Boston, 1905. (Published by the Society. )—The actual speci- mens of the fossil and livi ing animals in the synoptic collection of invertebrates in the Museum of the Bostou Society of Natural History are accompanied by numerous diagrams and drawings. These figures illustrate not only the microscopic forms but also such anatomical structures, developmental stages, and other fea- tures as are deemed of general interest and which are not dis- tinctly shown in the specimens themselves. They are numbered consecutively with the specimens which they accompany, the whole series of 1264 numbers presenting a comprehensive view of the natural history of the invertebrates. In this book of 505 pages, Mr. Sheldon gives a very interesting description of the important features illustrated by each of these 1264 specimens and drawings. It is in no sense a mere cata- logue, however, but a connected account of the salient features in the whole field of invertebrate zoology. With this book in hand one would be able to study to the best possible advantage the collections displayed, for even without the collections the book is entirely readable, interesting, and instructive. W. R. C. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 337 5. Monograph of the Isopods of North America. Bulletin of the U. S. National Museum, No. 54. By Harrier Ricuarp- SON. 8vo, 727 pp., 740 text cuts. 1905.— This is a complete monographic work on this group of Crustacea. All the genera and species, as well as the larger groups, are well described and nearly all the species are illustrated, most of the drawings having been made by the authoress. Analytical tables are given for the larger genera. The work is a very valuable contribution to American marine zoology. v. 6. An Account of the Crustacea of Norway. By G. O. Sars. Bergen. Published by the Bergen Museum.—We have received parts XI and XI of Vol. V of this extensive monograph, includ- ing parts of the families Thalestridz and Diosaccide of the Cop- epoda. Like all the previous parts, it is profusely illustrated by autographic plates drawn by the author, whose skill and industry are truly marvelous. ‘This work is of great importance to Amer- ican naturalists, for large numbers of the species and genera are found also on the American coast. Vv. 7 Birds of the Southern Lesser Antilles. Proc. Boston Soe. Nat. History, Vol. XXXII, No. 7, pp. 203-312. 1905. By Austin H. Crarx.—This includes a brief general account of the physical - conditions of several of the islands, as related to the avifauna, and some facts relating to the recent destruction of many of the birds by hurricanes and volcanic eruptions. It gives a pretty full catalogue of the birds, especially of Barbados, St. Vincent and Grenada, but little is said of those of Dominica. Vv. 8. Additions to the Avifauna of Dominica. Notes on species hitherto unrecorded, with descriptions of Three New Species and alist of all Birds now known to occur on the Island ; by A. Hyatr VERRILL. Oct., 1905. Published by the author. Rossean, Dominica.—In this brochure 72 species are added to the fauna of Dominica, making the total number now known 135. The greater number of additions are, of course, migrating species. The new species are Thalurania belli (a humming bird) ; Buteo rivierei ; and Setophaga tropica, a native redstart allied to S. ruticélla. This paper forms a useful supplement to that of Mr. Clark, pre- viously noticed. Vv. 9. Beitrdye zur chemischen Physiologie, herausgegeben von FP. Hormetster. VII. Band. Braunschweig, 1906 (Verlag von F. Vieweg und Sohn).—Of the forty-six communications included in the latest volume of the Beitrige a large number are devoted to studies of enzymes and their activities. 12 * From element derived by writer. 366 Schaller—Siderite and Barite from Maryland. The unit rhombohedron 7 occurs on nearly all of the erys- tals as small faces truncating the apex of the crystals. The new scalenohedron ¥ = {3251{ occurs on all the crystals and is a characteristic form for this locality. Though it varies in size, becoming relatively wide and short or narrow and long, its general form is shown in figure 1. The zone v y y“'v™' is sometimes somewhat striated between y and y™“, and using the dot signal, it was seen that there was a maximum of brightness in the position required for the faces {7.6.13.1t and {§1120%. It could not be shown, however, that these faces were actually present. The form f= {0221} occurs as broad dull faces giving no reflection and only an almost imperceptible haze of light. Meas- urements of the p-angle gave values from 59° to 62°, calc. 62° 17’. The concavities give an indefinite blaze of light in the zone of the negative rhom- bohedrons, about 80° from the base, so that they do not reach down to the prism zone. A study of these hollows on the goni- ometer, using the dot signal, showed that they consisted of vertical striations approxi- mating in the center of the form }0661%, and at the extreme edge to {1120{, with many forms in between these. Fig. 1 is an attempt to illustrate the actual appearance of these crystals, show- ing, particularly, the concavities described. The indentations in the orthographic pro- jection are somewhat exaggerated. With the exception of these and the broad dull faces of {0221', the faces of the crystals are highly polished, and do not show any etching. It seems probable that these hollows should be regarded as the result of an incomplete or skeletal growth rather than as the result of etching. They are, ina way, analogous to the hopper-shaped ~ crystals of sodium chloride, where the two faces 001 and 100 (in one zone) alternate and the result- ant hollow has, in cross section, a V-shape. In the case of the siderites, however, instead of an alternation of the two faces, 0661 and 1120, there is a gradation from the prism to the rhombohedron and the result is a rounded hollow instead of a sharply angular one, as in the case of sodium chloride. Siderite. Schaller—Siderite and Barite from Maryland. 367 Etch Figures.—A cleavage piece was left standing in cold dilute hydrochloric acid for several days and then examined under the microscope, when well-defined etch figures could be observed. These are triangular in shape and possess a plane of symmetry parallel with the shorter diagonal of the cleavage rhomb of siderite, and are shown 5 3 in figure 2. They resemble in symmetry the figures shown in Miers’ Mineralogy (page 112) for ealeite and not those given for qa XA -dolomite. The symmetry of sid- erite is, therefore, the same as Q that of calcite and not that of dolomite, a conclusion sustained by the forms of the crystals. ; ae ee on cleavage sur- Value for c-axis Although ~~ ~*~ siderite is a common mineral, good erystals are rare and the literature on siderite is poor in crystallographic data. The only value for the axial ratio given and which is adopted in all books is one obtained in 1812 by Wollaston. His statement in regard to siderite is as follows:* ‘I have examined various specimens of this substance, some pure white, others brown, some transparent, others opake. That which gives the most distinct image by reflection is of a brownish hue, with the semi-transparency of horn. It was obtained from a tin mine, called Maudlin Mine, near Lostwithiel in Cornwall. By repeated measurements of small fragments of this specimen, the angle appears to be so nearly 107°, that I cannot form any judgment whether in perfect crystals it will prove to be greater or less than that angle. In this instance the carbonate of iron is nearly pure, and so perfectly free from carbonate of hme. ..... nee The measurements of the faces giving good reflections were used for calculating a value for the c-axis. The angles for the same form varied somewhat on different crystals, though the values obtained from the measurements of different forms agree very well with each other. From the average reading, the following values were calculated : Krom 10 meas. of 7 = {1011}, ¢ = 82352 ee Aue Up Ned 1 e ——/-82463 16. ey 13951 c= 8931 _ Average, ¢ = °8240 An attempt was made to measure the cleavage angle directly, but it was found that the resultant cleavage faces were never * Phil. Trans., 159, 1812. 368 = Schaller—Siderite and Barite from Maryland. perfectly plane, with the result that each face gave several signals. After this value for ¢ was obtained and found to be differ- ent from the commonly accepted value, 10 more erystals were measured and after the greatest care in so adjusting each erys- tal that the reflections from the scalenohedral faces of w fell as nearly as possible in a straight line, each reflection was care- fully measured. In the case of more than one signal, the ex- tremes were measured and the average taken. The average value for the p angle for each crystal (six faces) is : 68° 14’ Zl 26 27 18 20 15 19 16 29 Ay. 68°203', .. ¢ = °8243 The values for the two extremes, 68° 14’ and 68° 29’, are: C= olei and Cr 8302 ‘Taking the average of the values found from 7, v, y, namely, ‘8240, and that found from the 10 erystals, namely, *8248, we get as a value for the c-axis for siderite of known purity, c = °8241 As however, this value differs considerably from that adopted for siderite and as the crystal faces were at times uneven and the angular measurements showed considerable variation, the writer is rather hesitant in urging this new value. It, at least, serves to throw some question over the commonly accepted value and shows the need of additional measurement of material shown by chemical analysis to be pure. The complete lists of forms so far observed on siderite is as follows: C= 0001 tia 5052 d = 0881 Ns OUO eh eA OT d = 4486 Ge 1120 = OLN a = 4483 GF = N012 A¥= 0332 Oo == Sil 2*—= 3034 f= 0221 B= 2461 Te LOU O == O11 ay tan 82 5 = 1075 Si 0550 tt= 4159 Those with no reference mark are found in Dana’s Miner- alogy. *Gonnard, Bull. Soc. Min., xviii, 382, 1895; also Ist supplement, Dana. +The present paper. {Cesaro, Ann. Soc. G. Belg., xviii, 1891; also lst supplement Dana. Schaller—Siderite and Barite from Maryland. 369 Barite. The barite occurs in three different forms on the specimens seen by the writer. The first is the white massive form which is often imbedded in the matrix. It is usually opaque and shows good cleavage. The second form occurs as an opaque white efflorescence which is composed of an aggregate of min- ute crystals. The third form is present in transparent color- less crystals which often reach a length of several millimeters, though usually they are rather smaller. The lar gest ones seen were about a centimeter long and 1 to 2™™ thick. On some specimens these transparent crystals are attached by one end to the massive barite and form a fringe, as it were, around it, the crystals standing normal. This occurrence is very suggestive of a secondary formation of the crystals, they being derived from the massive barite in the matrix. The large clear er ys- tals are probably a more perfect development than the white eftlorescence and both are doubtless derived from the massive barite. In the massive barite there are no siderite crystals, though small fragments of the matrix are included therein, and in the efflorescence there are frequently found enclosed crystals of siderite, and the clear large barite crystals are intermingled with those of siderite. The crystals of barite are of especial interest as they are of an uncommon habit; they are prismatic, elongated parallel to the vertical axis. Such crystals have been noticed several times but are not the common form for barite. The faces of the crystals are highly polished and gave excel- lent signals. The prism zone is occasionally striated, especially the macropinacoid, though for the most part the zone is not striated and each face is distinct and plane. The forms pres- ent are: Oi" OO i = AO Gan LA b = 010 n= 320 vie wale} Ge F100 Ne TO pe Xi 130) Os == OIA R = 923 Bi == SO) i, = NO a= 1 20 f= 04 Nee oor 3) 0) = aes iD The prism B = {370} oceurs twice on two crystals as small faces, usually giving a ‘fair reflection. The angles measured are as follows: AB RnO G2 ae O2 ea OMA Dn oe Ae Cale Ofmcd ox The form was first noted by Diising* and classed as doubtful by Dana and is not included in Goldschmidt’s Winkeltabellen. * Zeitschr. f. Kryst. xiv, 481, 1888. 370 = Schaller—Siderite and Barite from Maryland. The pyramid V = $551} is new for barite, meas. (p), 84° 55’, 84° 58’, 84° 08,’ 84° 45’ cale. (p) 84° 45’ It occurs as very small faces. The general ideal view of these crystals 3 is shown in figure 3, though in detail the size of the various forms varies consider- ably even on the same erystal. There are, also, unusually more faces (line faces) in the prism zone than are shown in the figure. Occasionally the crystals are flat, parallel to the macropinacoid, but they are usually of equal diameter, horizontally. At times, too, one side of the terminated end is much larger than the other. On account of the excellence of the signals, an axial ratio was calculated from the measurements. From the prism faces values for @ were obtained and values for p, and g, were obtained from the pyramids and domes (the crystals being measured on the two-circle goniometer). From 44 values for @ and 70 values for c, the following are obtained which come very close to the accepted value: a= ‘8146 65131265 Barite. Bo be Cambrian Locks of Georgetown, Col. 371 Arr. XXXIV.—Pre-Cambrian Locks of the Georgetown Quadrangle, Colorado ;* by Sypney H. Bat. Introduction. In the summer of 1904 a geological survey of the George- town (Colo.) quadrangle was made by the writer under the supervision of Mr. J. E. Spurr and with the assistance of Mr. ©. H. Hershey. To each the writer gratefully acknowledges great indebtedness. The present paper is a preliminary deserip- tion of the pre-Cambrian formations exposed in this region. The Georgetown quadrangle is situated in the center of the north halt of Colorado and lies between the meridians 105° 30/ and 105° 45’ west longitude, and the parallels 39° 30’ and 39° 45’ north latitude. The northeast corner of the quadrangle is 26°5 miles west of Denver. Idaho Springs and Georgetown are the principal towns. Topography. felief.—Situated upon the east slope of the Colorado or Front Range, the region is one of high elevation and of great relief, Massive Mount Evans (14, 260 feet) is the highest peak in the quadrangle and is the center from which the main ridges radiate. The lowest elevation is 7,450 feet, in the valley of Clear Creek at the eastern edge of the quadrangle. Drainage. The streams are all mountain torrents of steep grade. The northern and central portions of the quadrangle are drained by tributaries of the South Platte River, including Clear Creek, its afiluents, and the headwaters of Bear Creek. The southern portion of the quadrangle is drained by tributa- ries of the North Fork of the South Platte. Evolution of topographic jorms.—From a pot command- ing a wide view of this portion of the Colorado Range, three distinct topographic forms are recognizable ; first, an ancient, mature mountainous upland ; second, V- shaped valleys incised in this upland; and third, glacial cirques developed at the heads of some of the valleys, passing below into U-shaped valleys. The mountainous upland over considerable areas in the east central and southeastern portions of the quadrangle has been but little modified by recent erosion, and remnants of the old surface are preserved on the crests of ridges throughout the quadrangle. The mountainous upland was an ancient land surface with about the same differences in altitude as those of the present. surface. Dome-shaped mountains and smooth * Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Am, Jour. Sct.—Fourts SERies, VoL. X XI, No. 125.—May, 1906. 26 372 Ball--Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. ridges, however, existed where sharp peaks now are, and the valleys between were broader and less steep than those of the present streams. The drainage was dendritic and mature, the surface being adjusted to the structure of the underlying rocks and to the varying resistances to erosion of the different for- mations. Lakes did not then exist. The period at which this mountainous surface reached maturity is unknown, but it was probably in late Tertiary or early Pleistocene time. After the old upland had been formed, deformation increased the gradient of the streams and they cut the present canyons, straight-walled and beset with pinnacles and rugged ribs of rock, in the old broad valleys. The valley-heads of these revived streams were afterward occupied 1 DY alpine g glaciers of two distinct epochs. The glaciers eroded cirques, arétes, U-shaped valleys, hanging valleys and lake basins, and by the deposition of lateral, terminal and ground moraines further modified the topography of the upper portions of the valleys. General Geology. Preliminary outline.—The rocks of the Georgetown quad- rangle, with the exception of Pleistocene deposits and intru- sive ignedus rocks possibly of Tertiary age, belong to the pre- Cambrian complex of the Colorado Range. The oldest rocks, named in this article the Idaho Springs ‘formation, are crystal- lines probably of sedimentary origin. These rocks have been most intricately injected by a series of holocrystalline igneous rocks, pr esumbly of pre-Cambrian age. So intense is injection that the rocks of the quadrangle may be considered an immense igneous breccia, exposure after exposure being encountered in which it is difficult to decide whether to map it as the older rock intruded by the younger, or as the younger rock with inclusions of the older. Some idea of the complexity of injection may be gained from the fact that in a distance of one mile, on the ridge between Silver Creek and Clear Creek, six formations alternate seventy-six times, or at the rate of one alternation to 70 feet. This is exclusive of a number of minor injections and inelu- sions. That the injections of the pre-Cambrian igneous rocks took place at widely separated periods is shown. by the different degrees of schistosity dev eloped in the different formations. The granitoid habit of the igneous rocks and the character of their “metamorphism indicate that the present surface during the whole period of pre-Cambrian intrusion was buried beneath deep masses of overlying rocks At three points near Chicago Creek, at elevations of from 9,200 to 10,100 feet, residual bowlders of red or brown silicified sandstone are rather abundant. Pebbles of the pre-Cambrian granites are contained. Outerops of lithologically similar Ball—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. 373 sandstone occur on the North Fork of the South Platte one mile above Shawnee and at Pine Post Office on the same stream, both localities being south of the Georgetown quadrangle. The sandstone is lithologically like certain facies of the lower Wyoming of the foothills of the Front Range. It is possible that in Mesozoic time the quadrangle or a portion of it was submerged beneath the sea. In comparatively late, probably Tertiary time, dikes, sheets and stocks of siliceous and inter- mediate igneous rocks intrude the pre-Cambrian complex. Within the quadrangle there is no evidence that these ever reached the surface and formed flows, although they may have done so. Certain of these rocks are somewhat like some of the andesitic pebbles in the Denver formation* of the Denver Basin and others are somewhat similar to dikes which cut the Lower Wyoming formation near Boulder, Colorado. The evolution of the land surface and the two per iods of Pleistocene alpine glaciation have already been mentioned. The stration aphic succession of the formations of the George- town quadr angle from the top down follows :— Recent.— Alluvinum Alluvial fan deposits Landslides Talus Travertine. Pleistocene.— High Basin debris sheets (sheets of rock debris at the heads of non- glaciated streams ; indicating pre-glacial downcutting and late glacial filling). Later glacial deposits, including lateral, terminal and ground morainal deposits and overwash gravels. Gravels of terrace 25 feet above present stream channels. Gravels of terrace 55 feet above present stream channels (possibly pre-Glacial). Earlier glacial deposits, lateral and ground morainal deposits, and terminal morainal deposits in the adjoining Central City (Colo.) quadrangle to the north. Gravels of terrace 180 feet above present stream channels. Tertiary.—? Intrusive igneous rocks of widely varying char- acter in dikes, sheets “and stocks. Mesozoic.—? Sandstone residuals, Pre- Cambrian.—Pegmatites and contemporaneous granite and granite-porphyry. Silver Plume granite. Rosalie granite. a e I Probably contemporaneous. uartz-bearing diorite. | Gneissoid granite. Quartz monzonite gneiss. Idaho Springs formation (biotite-sillimanite-schists, biotite- schist and quartz-gneiss with lenses of silicate rocks). * Cross, W., U.S. Geol. Survey. Monograph XXVII, pp. 315-6. ~I 4 Ball—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. PRE-CaMBRIAN Rocks. The Idaho Springs Formation, Name.—The name Idaho Springs formation is applied to a series of interbedded, metamorphic, crystalline rocks, presum- ably of sedimentary origin, which are typically exposed in the hills surrounding Tdaho Springs. Distribution.—The formation is widely distributed over the quadrangle and there is scarcely a square mile m which it does not occur in areas of some size injected by igneous rocks or as shattered fragments included in them. Petrog graph y.—The Idaho Springs formation includes four intensely metamorphosed crystalline members, three of which, the biotite-sillimanite schist, the biotite-schist, and the quartz. eneiss, are interbedded with and grade into one another, while the fourth, the lime-silicate rocks, although interbedded with the others, appears only to grade into the quartz. gneiss. The biotite-sillimanite-schist is a foliated and often intensely crenulated, normally fine-grained black rock which on weath- ered outcrops has a rusty appearance. Biotite, quartz, feld- spar and sillimanite are alwavs recognizable megascopically, and muscovite, garnet, tourmaline and corundum are some- times prominent. Sillimanite occurs in single rods and bundles of rods elongated in the plane of schistosity and these are eut by transverse fractures whose interstices are filled by biotite flakes. The biotite-sillimanite-schist is injected lit-par-lit by an ancient pegmatitie rock and it also often contains “eyes” of a more modern pegmatite, which will be referred to later. Microscopic examination shows the texture to be that of a typical schist, the constituents all having a common parallel alignment, that of the biotite and muscovite plates and the sillimanite rods and bundles being very pronounced. The feldspars prove to be orthoclase and microcline with some plagioclase (albite or an acid oligoclase, rarely andesine) whose twinning is notably uneven. Quartz and orthoclase are often micropegmatically intergrown and in a rock which has sut- fered such profound metamorphism it seems probable that this texture originated during recrystallization. Sillimanite was produced largely at the expense of feldspar, and to a less extent of biotite. Sillimanite, in turn, sometimes alters to a kaolin- itic material. Zircon, apatite and magnetite, rather constant accessory minerals, are only of interest from the fact that the last two often show a distinct orientation parallel to the plane of schistosity. Corundum, andalusite, and in part garnet, muscovite and tourmaline are clearly later than the major recrystallization of the rock, and from field relations are con- sidered products of contact metamorphism. Ball—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. 375 The biotite-schist is differentiated from the type just deseribed by a finer grain, a less perfect schistosity (continuous films of biotite being absent), by a medium or light gray color, and by the almost total absence of muscovite and sillimanite. Small segregations of magnetite surrounded by white halos from which they have abstracted all the ferromagnesian min- erals are rather common. The quartz-gneiss is a well banded, dense, vitreous rock varying in colon from gray to brown, red or ‘black. Quartz er eatly predominates over all other constituents, which include most of those present in the biotite-sillimanite- ‘schist. Under the microscope the gneiss is composed of intricately interlock- ing quartz lenses elongated parallel to the banding, the darker color of certain bands” being due to magnetite cubes in discon- tinuous rows. The quartz-gneiss is exposed for a distance of one-half of a mile on Sugarl loaf Peak. Distributed in bands in the three types of the Idaho Springs formation already described, but particularly characteristic of the biotite-schist, are white ellipsoidal masses from one-half to four inches in ‘length. These sharply bounded masses are flattened parallel to the plane of schistosity and in some instances are mashed to paper-thin sheets. They are composed of quartz and sillimanite, other minerals being present only in small amounts. The ellipsoidal masses occur “widely over the area, but are particularly well developed on Chief and Pendle- ton mountains. The silicate rocks of the Idaho Springs formation, which include many intergrading facies of widely varying composition and texture, grade into the quartz-gneiss. The facies are horn- blende-augite- feldspar-gneiss, quar tz-magnetite-gneiss, and sev- eral kinds of massive rocks. These massive rocks include coarse-grained aggregates of quartz, epidote and brown garnet in varying proportions with texture of a miarolitic pegmatite, and lime-silicate rocks composed of dominant calcite with smaller amounts of scapolite, grossular garnet, bottle-green pyroxene and quartz. The microscope shows calcite to be rather widely distributed and titanite to be a common accessory mineral in the silicate rocks of the Idaho Springs formation. Perl haps the most striking textural peculiarity is the presence of micropegmatitic inter growths of epidote and zoisite, epidote and garnet and calcite and garnet, all clearly the products of recrystallization. The silicate rocks are well exposed in the vicinity of Alpine Peak. Origin of the Idaho Springs Formation—The Idaho Springs formation has been so greatly metamorphosed that all original textures have been destroyed. The hthologie varia- tion across apparently bedded bands suggests a sedimentary 376 Ball—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. series, while the bands containing the ellipsoidal masses are most naturally regarded as conglomerates. The quartz gneiss is present in such thick masses that it can scarcely be of pegmatitic or vein origin and probably represents intensely metamorphosed sandstone. The silicate rocks would in this interpretation of the origin of the formation represent cal- careous sandstones and impure limestones, while the biotite-sil- limanite-schist and biotite-schist would be metamorphosed shales and arkoses. The abundance of aluminum silicates in the series and the similarity to metamorphic rocks of known sedimentary origin strengthens the view of the supposed sedi- mentary origin of the Idaho Springs formation. This forma- tion then may be regarded as an intensely metamor phosed series of shales, arkoses, sandstones, conglomerates and impure lime- stones. Age.—The Idaho Springs formation is the oldest member of the pre-Cambrian series in the Georgetown quadrangle, and it forms the network into which the other formations were injected. The pre-Cambrian quartzite of South Boulder Creek (Colorado), described by Dr. C. R. Van Hise,* lies unconformably upon a granite which in the amount of ’mash- ing suffered and in lithological character somewhat resembles the Silver Plume granite “later to be described. While the gap of 15 miles between Idaho Springs and South Boulder Creek has not been traversed, it is believed that the Idaho Springs formation is vastly older than Van Hise’s pre-Cam- brian quartzite. Hornblende- Gneiss. Distribution.—The hornblende gneiss has a wide distribu- tion, especially in the southern portion of the quadrangle. It occurs in sheets and dikes in the Idaho Springs formation and may have formed surface flows. Petrography.—The hornblende-gneiss is typically a rather fine-grained, well-banded rock in which white laminae of quartz and feldspar alternate with black or greenish-black layers of hornblende. Biotite is developed at the expense of hornblende where maximum movement has occurred, and along shear planes the rock passes to a biotite-hornblende- schist. Aggregates of hornblende or biotite, or both, give a porphyritic aspect to certain facies. Mather massive, fine- grained facies occur but are rare. The microscope shows the banding to be partially a segrega- tion into laminae of like minerals during recrystallization and partially a result of lit-par-lit pegmatitic injections. The parting parallel to the banding is largely due to the common *U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 86, p. 320. Ball—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. 377 elongation of the ragged hornblende prisms, and to a some- what imperfect orientation of the hornblende cleavage. Horn- blende and biotite together form over one-half the rock, while plagioclase, usually labradorite, and smaller amounts of ortho- clase and quartz are the other essential constituents. Titanite, apatite, zireon and ilmenite or magnetite are accessories, and augite, epidote and pyrite are sometimes present. ‘he more massive facies show traces of igneous texture, one rock from the west bank of Soda Creek, .8 of a mile south of Idaho Springs, being a metadiabase of ophitic texture in which the ferromagnesian mineral is hornblende. Age. — The hornblende- gneiss cuts the Idaho Springs forma- tion and is therefore younger. The gneiss itself is cut by the other igneous rocks of the quadrangle. From the excellent schistosity developed over wide areas in this much meta- morphosed basic igneous rock, it is probably almost as ancient as the Idaho Springs formation. Quart: z- Monzonite- Gneiss. Distribution.—The quartz-monzonite-eneiss is widely dis- tributed, particuiarly in the central and southern portions of the quadrangle. The largest area is on Paines Mountain. Petrography. — The quartz- monzonite-gneiss 1S a gray, medium-grained gneissic rock which is normally porphyritic. The gneissic¢ str ucture is due to the segregation in alternating bands of quartz and feldspar and of biotite and hornblende. The parting parallel to the gneissic structure is seen, under the microscope, to be due to they parallel orientation of biotite blades through recrystallization and to a slight elongation of the horn- blende individuals parallel to the schistosity. The orientation of the hornblende is probably largely due to the more vigorous attack by solutions upon those hornblendes of the m« ynzonite at right angles or highly inclined to the plane of developing schistosity than those whose elongation was originally parallel LOnate Apatite, zircon and titanite in certain instances show marked parallelism to the gneissic structure, indicating the extreme recrystallization to which the rock has been subjected. Rudely ellipsoidal white porphyritic striated feldspar crystals lie in the medium-grained schistose aggregate of biotite, feld- spar, hornblende and quartz. These feldspars are alioned parallel to the gneissic structure and have suffered the same deformation as the smaller constituents of the rock. The quartz-monzonite-gneiss near West Geneva Creek contains also pink microcline phenocrysts, sometimes 2 inches long, often twinned according to the Carlsbad law. These have perfect crystal outlines with their longest axis at right angles to the oneissic structure even in the most metamor phosed ¢ eroundmass. 378 Bull—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. Microscopie examination shows that they are uneracked while the feldspars of the groundmass are fractured. T hey are with- out much doubt of metamorphic origin and were formed after the rock became a gneiss. In certain exposures these micro- cline feldspars have been mashed by later deformation into ellipsoids and even into ribbon-like masses. The original rock was a porphyritic quartz-monzonite, in some facies of which the alkali feldspar is so subordinate that the rock becomes a granodiorite. Plagioclase is more abundant than the other essential constituents, quartz, microcline, ortho- clase, biotite and hornblende, and of these latter any one may predominate. Hornblende, however, is not present in some slides. The plagioclase in the “eroundmass” and the ellipsoidal porphyrite crystals is either oligoclase or andesine. The por- phyritic plagioclase is characterized by zonally arranged mag- netite cubelets, and by rods, hexagonal plates, and dots, proba- bly of hematite: Mier opegmatitic intergrowths of quartz and each of the three feldspars occur alone the borders of the grains. The alterations of biotite are interesting in that when hornblende is present epidote is the major alteration product, while, on the other hand, when hornblende 1s absent, chlorite or muscovite accompanied by rutile needles is the alteration product. The rock is characterized by the unusual abundance and coarseness of the accessory minerals, magnetite, titanite, apatite, zircon and pyrite. Py rite is usually surrounded by or intergrown with magnetite. Age.—The quartz-monzonite-gneiss intrudes and includes fragments of the Idaho Springs formation and the hornblende- gneiss. It is in turn cut by the gneissoid-granite and the igneous rocks which succeed it. While in some exposures its age rela- tions with the Idaho Springs formation, the hornblende- eneiss and the gneissoid-granite are clear, the quartz-monzonite- oneiss usually ¢ contacts with these in a sharp line with parallel gneis- sic structure. South of Navlor Lake some exposures occur in which the Idaho Springs formation and the quartz-monzonite- gneiss seem to grade into one another, apparently as the result of the absorption of the schist by the monzonite when injected. The close resemblance in mineral composition of the quartz- monzonite-gneiss to the quartz- monzonite is striking, forming a good example of the repetition of a monzonite injection. Gneissoid- Granite. Distributcon.—Stocks and dikes of gneissoid-granite inject- ing the formations already described are widely distributed in the quadrangle. The gneissoid-granite covers large areas in the southwestern corner of the quadrangle and numerous Pre-Cumbrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. 379 smaller areas occur east of Georgetown and west of Idaho Springs. Petrography.—The gneissoid-granite is a fine to even- grained granite, more or less eneissoid, which is gray when fresh, and flesh pink to yellowish brown when weathered. Feldspar, quartz and biotite are visible to the naked eye, although the last is sometimes practically lacking. Muscovite plates, “which reach a maximum diameter of one-half of an inch and enclose the other constituents poikilitically, are locally prominent. Magnetite, pink garnet, and sillimanite are occa- sionally visible. The quartz under the microscope is of the normal granitic type except for the abundant melusion in many or the. orains of needle-like opaque microlites. Orthoclase and micro- cline greatly predominate over oligoclase or a related acid plagioclase. Micropegmatitic intergrowths of each of the feldspar species with quartz oceur. The content of microcline, often microperthitic, increases with increase in the recrystal- lization to which the rock has been subjected, and, in conse- quence, is absent in some slides and is the pr edominant feldspar in others. While some microcline may be original, the larger portion is certainly of secondary origin. It occurs in wedges and hook like masses which sometimes separate quartz or ortho- clase fragments of similar orientation ; again, elongated areas are arranged end to end as if forced into planes of weakness. In other cases altered plagioclase or orthoclase grains are dot- ted by fresh areas of microcline similarly oriented and elongated parallel to the cleavage of the orthoclase or the albite twinning of the plagioclase. The host is often fractured and unshattered microcline bridges the crack, while a narrow rim of orthoclase or plagioclase next the microcline is fresh, in contradistinction to the altered feldspar of the main mass. While clearly later than the other feldspars, the time at which this microcline formed is unknown. Biotite has no unusual features. The poikilitie muscovite plates, already mentioned, grade into sericitic shreds, the altera- tion product of the feldspar, and are themselves secondary. Sillimanite, which has also been previously mentioned, occurs in parallel aggregates in the center of muscovite plates and mmay be one of its alteration products. The accessory minerals constantly present are zircon, apatite and magnetite, while ilmenite and garnet sometimes ‘occur. The granite magma when injected must have been very fluid since it inserted itself between the folia of the earlier gneisses and replaced in a marked degree inclusions of the Idaho Springs formation. Dark bands in seroll-like patterns of more basic granite preserve the outlines of schist inclusions, 380 Ball—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. while lace-like shreds of biotite often suggest the forms of original inclusions now almost totally absorbed. Similar phe- nomena are referred to at greater length under the peematites and associated granites and granite-porphyry. (See page 386.) The rock varies, often in the same exposure, from an almost massive to a banded rock in which quartz and feldspar layers are separated by discontinuous sheets of aligned biotite plates. Microscopic examination shows that the oneissoid structure is due largely to recrystallization and partially to granulation. The more gneissoid facies occur about the border of large areas of granite or around gneiss inclusions. Age.—The gneissoid-granite injects and encloses portions of the formations already described and is, in turn, included in and cut by the quartz-monzonite and the succeeding igneous formations. Quartz- Monzonite. Mnstribution.—A_ large irregularly shaped batholith of quartz-monzonite, which ‘disappears beneath the older rocks at rather low angles, occupies the central, north central and east central portions of the quadrangle. Minor intrusive masses are rather widely distributed. Petrography.—The quartz-monzonite is a gray to bluish- gray, medium-grained, granular rock, often more or less por- phyritic in habit. Macroscopically, feldspar, quartz, biotite and hornblende are essential constituents, while magnetite and titanite are accessories. In the porphyritic facies rather good crystals of pink microcline feldspars, which are usually twinned according to the Carlsbad law, reach a maximum length of 1 inch. A matted coating of tiny epidote crystals occurs rather characteristically along many joint fractures. The texture upon microscopic examination proves to be hypidiomorphie granular, rather even-grained in the non-por- plyritice and uneven in the por phyritic. With variation in the relative amount of the alkali and lime-soda feldspars, the rock varies from an acid to a basic quartz-monzonite with granodioritic affinities. The essential minerals in the order of their abundance are oligoclase or andesine, microcline often microperthitic, quartz and biotite, and orthoclase and horn- blende if present. The accessory minerals , magnetite, apatite, pyrite and zircon, are particularly abundant. The order of the solidification is normal, although the period of the separa- tion of biotite overlapped that of titanite, and it in turn was overlapped by that of plagioclase. Quartz i is micropegmatiti- cally intergrown with each of the feldspar species. Needle- like opaque microlites are characteristic interpositions in quartz, and magnetite cubelets and hematite in hexagonal plates occur Batl—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Gapracivion, Col. 381 in plagioclase. Apatite grains in quartz are sometimes deeply embayed and resemble the familiar corroded quartz pheno- erysts of rhyolite. Near the borders of the batholith a rude eneissoid structure is developed which microscopic examination proves to be in part original and due to flow orientation of the phenocrysts and biotite in a common plane, and in part a secondary struc- ture due to granulation and slight recrystallization. Age. —Field observation shows that the quartz-monzonite is younger than the gneissoid granite and older than the Rosalie granite. Its relation to the quartz-bearing diorite will be dis- eussed under that formation. Quartz- Bearing Diorite. Distribution.—Quartz-bearing diorite occurs in small stocks and dikes which are largely confined to the northern one-fourth of the quadrangle and are particularly abundant south of Idaho Springs and northeast of Georgetown. Petrography.—The quar tz-bearing diorite is a medium to coarse-grained, rather uneven, evanular rock, composed of or ayish- white striated feldspar, greenish-black hornblende, and a little quartz. Biotite plates, which reach a maximum diam- eter of 2 inches, poikilitically enclose the other constituents at some exposures. Epidote occurs in matted films on joint faces and in rude pseudomorphs after hornblende and biotite in the rock mass. Under the microscope the texture is allotriomorphie or with the partial development of plagioclase individuals hypidio- morphic granular. The order of crystallization of the minerals is nor mal, except that biotite in some cases solidified simultane- ously with. orthoclase and quartz. Plagioclase varies from andesine to bytownite, a basic labradorite being the most com- mon species. It is characterized, as are quartz and orthoclase in a less degree, by a vast number of minute tabular and cir- © cular interpositions which are black and opaque or clove-brown and translucent. Plagioclase is altered more or less com- pletely to sericite, zoisite and quartz. (Green hornblende, in elongated grains, often twinned parallel to 100, is usually rid- dled - with blebs of the other constituents> @uar tz, which with orthoclase forms wedges between hornblende and plagioclase, is micropegmatitically intergrown with each species of feld- spar, biotite and hornblende. Diallage, filled with the opaque inclusions characteristic of the species, and surrounded by secondary cores of hornblende, is a rather rare constituent, although its presence is not surprising in view of the basic nature of the plagioclase. In the alteration to hornblende the dark inclusions of the diallage disappear, their substance 382 Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. apparently being absorbed in the production of the hornblende. Large poikilitic plates of biotite have already been mentioned as characterizing some outcrops and small biotite blades are rather constant constituents. Biotite is also secondary to horn- blende. The accessory minerals include magnetite, ilmenite, pyrite, and large and abundant crystals of apatite. Zircon and rutile are less common. Apatite crystals enclosed in feldspar have embayed borders as if magmatically corroded. Diorite upon the borders of the intrusive masses is some- times mashed to a gneissoid rock partly through recrystalliza- tion and partly thr ough granulation. Hor nblende and feldspar are segregated into lenses rudely elongated parallel to the part- ing, and blades of biotite and a colorless amphibole, probably anthophyllite, are developed parallel to the gneissic plane. The albite twins of the plagioclase are sometimes aligned parallel to the gneissic structure, while the undulose extinction of orthoclase passes into the « gitter”’ structure of microcline, the latter mineral being clearly secondary to the former and occurring solely in mashed facies of the diorite. Associated with the diorite and linked to it by some grada- tional facies are fine-grained, granular rocks of greenish “black color which are perhaps best styled hornblendites. Under the microscope some of these, with the exception of minor quanti- ties of plagioclase, quartz and accessor y minerals, are formed of green hornblende; others are made up of large irregular green hornblende individuals enclosing poikilitically laths of biotite, grains of enstatite showing schillerization and _ partial columns of a colorless amphibole, probably anthophyllite. In some slides this amphibole, which alters to tale, is as abundant as hornolende. Still another of these rocks is in one portion of the slide composed entirely of hornblende and in another largely of white monoclinic pyroxene near malacolite. These fine-grained rocks have suffered considerable recrystallization and their original character is in doubt. Age.—The quartz-bearing diorite bears the same structural relations to the other formations of the Georgetown quadrangle as does the quartz-monzonite. The contact “of the two forma- tions is nowhere well exposed in the quadrangle, although inter- mediate types indicate that the two may be variants of the same magma. Near St. Mary’s Lake, north of the Georgetown quad- rangle, the two appear at some places to grade into one another and in others the diorite clearly ents the quartz-monzonite. The two are believed to be differentiation products of the same magma, the quartz-bearing diorite on the whole being slightly younger. Ball—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. 383 Rosalie Granite ( Biotite- Granite). Distribution and Name.— Exposures of the Rosalie granite are confined to the southern portion of the Georgetown quad- rangle. The type locality is that in the southeast corner of the “quadrangle on Deer and Elk creeks, where the granite weathers into dome-shaped hills and ventle valleys, covered by mushroom-like forms of granite. A second area forms the ridge between Mount Evans and Mount Rosalie and the granite is named from the latter peak. Petrography.—The Rosalie granite is a coarse grained, mas- sive, granular rock whose predominant constituent is a salmon- pink microline often showing Carlsbad twinning. These feld- spars, which vary in length from one-half to two and one-half inches, are rudely tabular in form and are separated from one another by ramifying bands of quartz, feldspar, biotite and magnetite, all of medium size. Under the microscope the texture is uneven and hypidio- morphic granular. The essential constituents of the rock began to separate in the order usual in granites, but the periods of § separation of all overlapped, and in consequence each con- stituent encloses blebs and partial crystals of the others. Mag- netite in some cases separated simultaneously with quartz and feldspar. ‘he minerals in the order of their abundance are microcline, quartz, orthoclase, oligoclase and biotite. Micro- cline, often microperthitie, contains hexagonal plates, dots and rods of hematite. These interpositions also occur frequently in plagioclase and less frequently in quartz, and in association with them in the latter mineral are opaque hair-like inclusions. Quartz at its contact with the various feldspar species and biotite forms micropegmatitic intergrowths. Zircon, apatite and magnetite are constant accessory minerals, while muscovite, titanite and pyrite are less frequent. With ‘the exception of minor granulation, the Rosalie granite is but little deformed. Age.—The Rosalie granite cuts the quartz-monzonite and in turn is intruded by dikes of apparently the Silver Plume granite described below. Silver Plume Granite ( Biotite- Granite). Distribution and Name.—Stocks, dikes and irregular intru- sive masses of the Silver Plume granite are especially well developed in the vicinity of Georgetown, north of Meridian Hill and on Alps Mountain, but. occur widely distributed throughout the quadrangle except in the extreme northeast and southeast corners. It forms the south wall of the Clear Creek canyon at the mining town of Silver Plume and it derives its name from this village. 384 Ball—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. Petrography.—the Silver Plume granite is a medium- grained hypidiomorphic granular rock Which by the increase in size of the pinkish-white por phyritic feldspars (Carlsbad twinned microcline) and the decrease in size of the encircling quartz feldspar and biotite individuals passes near the contact with older rocks into granite-porphyry. Some of the smaller dikes are wholly of the granite-por ah ey facies. The granite at some localities is notably rich in biotite and is then dark gray in color mottled by the pink feldspars ; at other localities the biotite content is normal and the rock is pinkish-gray. Under the microscope the essential constituents of the granite in descending order of abundance are alkali feldspars, quartz, biotite and oligoclase and oligoclase-albite. Original muscovite is lacking in some slides, in others it is associated with biotite, and in certain rare instances is the only mica present. Muscovite also forms large plates which poikiliti- cally enclose quartz globules; these. plates grade into sericitie shreds secondary to orthoclase and are themselves evidently secondary to feldspar. The order of the consolidation of the minerals from the magma is normal, although the periods of separation somewhat overlapped each other. Quartz is of chief interest from the constant presence in it of thread-like opaque inclusions; these are less abundantly present in feld- spar. Of the alkali feldspars, microcline, often with micro- perthitic bands, predominates in some slides and is lacking in others. While sometimes occurring in secondary veins in orthoclase and oligoclase, it is in the main an original constitu- ent. Among the accessories zircon and apatite are abundant, magnetite rather common, and ilmenite, pyrite, titanite and rutile rare. The phenocrystic feldspars near the contacts of the granite mass are arranged in well defined planes which follow the sinuosities of the contact. The rock has not been recrystal- lized and the parallel orientation and the poorly defined cleavage consequent thereto are original structures due to movements in the magma prior to final solidification. Second- ary gneissic structure has only been formed over small areas subjected to unusual dynamic ‘movement. Age.—The Silver Plume granite cuts all of the formations previously described and with the exception of the pegmatite and associated granite and granite-porphyry is the youngest member of the pre-Cambrian formations. Pegmatite and Associated Granites and Granite-Porphyry. Distribution.—These. rocks, the youngest of the pre-Cam- brian formations, nowhere form large areas, but are, on the other hand, present in small bodies in almost every “outerop in the quadrangle. Ball—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. 385 Pegmatite.— While each of the granular igneous rocks already described grades into a pegmatite, the ‘pegmatite of most interest is that which intrudes or grades into the youngest pre-Cambrian granites and granite-porphyry. In a single exposure the “pegmatite and granite may grade into one another at one point and at another the rocks may be sharply differentiated, the pegmatite as a rule being younger. Salmon- pink feldspar, either orthoclase ‘or microperthitie microcline, is usually the predominant mineral of the peg- matite. A greasy-gray, acid plagioclase is restricted in its dis- tribution to pegmatite dikes in the quartz-monzonite. Slightly smoky quartz, which microscopic examination shows to con- tain abundant opaque thread-lke interpositions and myriad fluid inclusions, is always present and, in the tiny banded quartz apophyses which are given off from the large dikes, it is the only constituent of the pegmatite. Biotite is more com- mon than muscovite and the two micas characteristically occur in separate bodies of pegmatite, although they are sometimes associated in the same masses and in rare instances a core of biotite is surrounded by a muscovite border. An interesting form of pegmatite is composed of diamond-shaped muscovite plates up to 1 inch in diameter embedded in quartz, each mineral being present in nearly equal amounts. The rock is closely allied to beresite from the Ural mountains and to a rock described by Mr. J. E. Spurr from Belmont, Nevada.* Magnetite is a widely distributed constituent and in some eases forms over one-third of the pegmatite mass, which in consequence becomes a lean iron ore. Magnetite occurs in octahedral crystals of a maximum diameter of 4 inches or in irregular aggregates up to 6 inches across. It is in some instances the only femic mineral of the pegmatite, but is usually associated with biotite and less often with muscovite. Black tourmaline is a widely distributed but never abund- ant mineral in the pegmatites. It occurs either in crystals embedded in quartz or orthoclase, in micropegmatitic inter- growths with quartz and feldspar, in feldspar metasomatically replacing it or in felts along cracks in the pegmatite. Hence while tourmaline usually solidified prior to quartz and feldspar, it sometimes solidified contemporaneously with them and rarely after them. The femic mineral usually associated with tourmaline is muscovite, both of which minerals from other localities usually contain some fluorine. Red garnets are locally very abundant in the more siliceous pegmatites. Rare constituents include allanite, apatite, hornblende, beryl and a quartz-feldspar pseudomorph, probably of spodumene, * This Journal, vol. x (1900), p. 351. 386 Ball—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. The pegmatite dikes are sometimes rudely banded, quartz being usually segregated in the center. Such banded dikes along their str ike pass into coarsely granular pegmatite. The various textures of the pegmatites and the granular texture of the granite sometimes grade into one another in a single out- crop 100 feet in diameter, and in consequence the physical eondi- tions which in some cases determined the production of one texture could have varied little from those which produced others. While typically massive the pegmatites are locally mashed into gneisses, partly by granulation and partly by reerystalliza- tion. Quartz-magnetite pegmatite was particularly subject to recrystallization, producing a quartz-magnetite-gneiss in which eyes and thin bands of magnetite lie in quartz. The pseudo- morphous gneissic structure sometimes present in pegmatite surrounding schist inclusions will be described later. The magina appears to have varied from a comparatively dry magma from which the granites solidified, through molten masses rich in water from which some of the pegmatites soliditied, to a body so saturated with water that the banded quartz veins deposited by it resemble water-deposited veins. The extreme fluidity of the magma which deposited the pegmatites is indicated by a number of characteristics of that rock. The pegmatitic magma or fluid sought out the smallest cracks and crevices and deposited its material thereim, and the presence of pegmatite in small masses in nearly every outcrop in the quadrangle indicates that the older rock masses were thoroughly saturated with the pegmatitic material. That the process was one of saturation rather than ordinary igneous injection is shown Ee the presence in the biotite- sillimanite- schist of the Idaho Spring formation of isolated lenticular “eyes” of pegmatite similar to that of the larger pegmatite masses. The constituents of these “eyes” are absolutely uncrushed and cannot be considered segments of a sheared pegmatite dike. The pegmatites further absorbed consider- able masses of this schist and from the center of the larger inclusions gradations occur in certain instances from pure schist to schist containing thin bands of pegmatite along its folia, thence to pegmatite in which only a few scroll- like figures of darker pegmatite faintly suggest the crentlations of the almost totally absorbed schist, and ‘lastly to pure pegmatite. In the. latter, however, a fair parting is sometimes preserved, indicat- ing that the structure of the schist is partially preserved by metasomatic replacement, and the parting may be considered a pseudomorph of that of the schist. A further proof of the extreme fluidity of the pegmatite magma is the influence upon the mineral composition of the Ball—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. 387 pegmatite exerted by the rock in which the pegmatite was injected. Biotite is the characteristic femic mineral of peg- matites which inject the granites already described, the quartz-monzonite-gneiss, the quartz-bearing diorite, and the hornblende gneiss, although hornblende is often the typical dark mineral of pegmatites in the last two formations. Muscovite is the typical femic mineral of pegmatite dikes in the Idaho Springs formation, and 98 per cent of the occurrences are in this formation. ' The pegmatite dikes in quartz-monzonite areas are characteristically without femic minerals and often contain, instead of an alkali feldspar, a soda-lime feldspar. Magnetite alone of the abundant femic constituents of the pegmatites is not influenced by the rock intruded and was evidently an original constituent of the pegmatite magma. In areas of unusually complex injection where the Idaho Springs forma- tion and the granular igneous rocks are in approximately equal development, both biotite and muscovite are often associated with one another. Where the pegmatite passes from a fairly large area of granite to an area of the Idaho Springs formation, the substitution of muscovite in place of biotite is usually coextensive with the boundaries of the two formations. Where, on the other hand, the pegmatite has traversed a single forma- tion for a long distance and then passes to a second formation, there is a distinct “lag” in the mtroduction of the mineral characteristic of the pegmatite in the second formation. This is well seen on the north side of the quartz-monzonite batholith where the quartz-feldspar pegmatite extends several hundred yards into the biotite-sillimanite-schist of the Idaho Springs formation, before muscovite, the characteristic mineral of peg- matites in that formation, is present. A chemical discussion of these observations is impossible, since the composition of the pegmatite is unknown. Itis indeed probable that the pegmatitic substances left the cool- ing mass of granite at widely varying times and at their birth probably varied in chemical composition. Field evidence, however, indicates that the pegmatitic substances prior to solidification abstracted sufficient material from the enclosing rocks to materially modify their chemical composition. The lag already mentioned indicates that the change in composition did not occur immediately upon entering a formation, but only after the pegmatitic magma had traversed it for some distance. The Granites and Granite-Porphyry.—The granites asso- ciated with the pegmatites are massive granular rocks char- acterized by a fine or medium-grained allotriomorphie texture. While the granites intergrade, not only with pegmatite but with one another, certain types are rather well defined. Amu. Jour. Sc1.—FourtyH Series, Vou. XXI, No. 125.—May, 1906. 27 388 Ball—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. In the northern part of the quadrangle a white medium- grained muscovite-granite, which often has pink garnet as an abundant accessory, grades into muscovite- _pegmatite. North of Georgetown the oranitic rock is a gray muscovite-bearing alaskite in which a predominates over feldspar. In the central or southern parts of the quadrangle a pink or pinkish gray fine-grained biotite-granite predominates. The same granite in the southeast corner of the quadrangle is medium- grained. Under the microscope the order of crystallization is normal except that the rare accessory mineral titanite in certain instances lies in irregular grains between quartz and feldspar and therefore separated ‘simultaneously with them. Micro- cline, usually with microperthitic bands, is the predominant constituent of most of the granites. Orthoclase and an acid plagioclase, oligoclase- albite, are also usually present. Quartz forms micropesmatitic intererowths with the three species of feldspars and is further characterized by abundant thread-like inclusions. Biotite and muscovite are in no way peculiar although original muscovite is more widely distributed than in any other eranite of the quadrangle. Zircon, magnetite and apatite are common and abundant accessory minerals, while titanite, garnet and fluorite sometimes occur. In the southeastern portion of the quadrangle pegmatite and the associated granite grade into pink granite-porphyry. The groundmass is a fine- erained microgranitic aggregate of micro- cline and quartz, and i in some facies orthoclase and magnetite and in others biotite. The phenocrysts include pink tabular microcline and orthoclase, rounded shghtly smoky quartz, bio- tite and sieve-like hornblende crystals. Titanite and magnetite are accessory. Fluorite is a rather constant accessory ‘of the granite-porphyry and the associated granite. It forms trans- parent colorless wedges, dotted by deep purple spots, between quartz and feldspars, which in contact with it have slightly rounded faces. Fluid inclusions are fairly abundant. Fluo- rite occurs in an area ten miles distant from known mineral- ized veins, and from this and the uniform distribution of the mineral in the slides examined it is believed to have been deposited in minute cavities in the rocks by pneumatolytic action. Similarity of the Pre-Cambrian Granites. Although no chemical analyses of the rocks of the George- town quadrangle have been made, microscopic examination shows a marked mineralogic similarity i in the granites, the intrusions of which were separated in every case by consider- able time intervals and in one case by the intrusion of more Ball—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Georgetown, Col. 389 basic rocks. The granites are characteristically biotite-granites in which microcline, which undoubtedly is in some cases a product of recrystallization and in others of deformation, is usually the predominant feldspar. Orthoclase in turn pr edomi- nates over oligoclase or oligoclase-albite. Microcline through- out the series is characterized by microperthite bands which are less common in orthoclase. The presence in quartz of abundant thread-like inclusions of undetermined nature is also characteristic. Biotite appears to contain titanium, since rutile or some other titanium mineral is a by-product of its altera- tion. Original muscovite, except in certain of the pegmatitic granites, is present in negligible amounts. Of the accessory minerals, apatite, zircon and magnetite are constantly and rather abundantly present. The granites of the Georgetown quadrangle present a rather interesting example of the repeated injection of a granitic magma or magmas of rather constant composition. Mr. E. B. Mathews* emphasized the close chemical and mineralogical similarity of the granites of the Pike’s Peak (Colorado) quadrangle, which lies at the south end of the Colorado Range. The granites of this region and those of the Georgetown quadrangle possess many character- istics In common. * Journal of Geology, vol. viii, pp. 214-240. 390 Gordon and Graton—Formations in New Mexico. PED DDO. Lower Paleozoie For mations in New Mex- ico ;* by C. H. Gorpon and L.C. Graton. Srupents of New Mexico geology have hitherto generally agreed in asserting the absence of the older Paleozoic forma- tions in that region. _Endlich,+ followed by Clark, considered certain limestones and quartzites occurring at the base of the sedimentary section of Lake Valley, Sierra County, to be Silurian, and some quartzites east of the Sandia Mountains, in Sandoval and Bernalillo counties, have been regarded, probably erroneously, as Cambrian.§ With these and possibly a few other exceptions, it has commonly been stated that rocks rep- resenting the Lower Paleozoic periods are wanting in the Territory, and that the Carboniferous formations rest directly on granites, gneisses and schists, which are generally considered to be pre-Cambrian, although in some cases the granites are thought to be of later age. This prevailing view has recently been summarized as follows : “‘ At present there is no reliable evidence that any of the Lower Paleozoic beds are represented within the limits of New Mexico. The great Cambrian, Silurian, Ordovician and Devonian systems which are so extensively developed in other parts of the American continent have thus far failed to be observed in the southern Rocky Mountain region.”’| Herrick states that in southwestern New Mexico oceur strata supposed to be older than the Burlington ‘* some of which have been referred to the Devonian (Hamilton),” but adds that “as far north as Socorro County the stratified rocks overlying the granite have revealed no remains indicating an earlier age than the Carboniferous, and the writer knows of no positive datum representing anything older than the Coal Measures. 4 During the past season a reconnaissance study of the mining districts of New Mexico was carried on by the U.S. Geologi- cal Survey under the direction of Mr. Waldemar Lindgren. In the prosecution of this study many facts of stratigraphic significance were obtained, and it soon became evident that in certain places pre-Car boniferous.strata are present. Although * Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. +The mining regions of southern New Mexico. Am. Nat., vol. 17, pp. 149-157, Feb. 1883. } The silver mines of Lake Valley, N. M., Trans. A. I. M. E., vol. 24, 1895, pp. 138-167. § Yung and McCaffery, Trans. A. I. M. E., vol. 33, p. 354, 1905. || Keyes, C. R., Geological formations of New Mexico, Report of Governor foe aee p. 338. See also U.S. G. S., Water Supply Paper No. 123, p. 20, “| Herrick, C. L., A Coal Measure forest near Socorro, N. M., Journal Geol., vol. xii, p. 258, Apr.—May, 1904. Gordon and Graton— Formations in New Memnico. 391 the studies of these rocks are yet incomplete and their geo- graphical distribution or extent has not been fully defined, sufficient data are at hand to show that resting upon the pre- Cambrian rocks is a series of beds of a maximum thickness of over 2,000 feet which are representatives of the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian systems, and that these rocks are present along a belt which crosses Grant, Sierra, and Luna counties, and extends from the east side of the Rio Grande westward beyond the Arizona line and probably con- nects with the similar formations of the Clifton copper dis- trict of Arizona.* The localities where these rocks are best exposed are in the Caballos Mountains near Shandon, in the Hillsboro and Kingston mining districts along the east side of the Black Range, in the vicinity of Cook’s Peak and the Florida Mountains, and just west of Silver City. Rocks which unques- tionably belong in the same systems occur in the Georgetown and Lone Mountain mining districts, and probably in the Telegraph district. Gambrian.—This system is known to be present in the Bis- bee district in southeastern Arizona, and in Texas, and recently Mr. G. B. Richardson of the U.S. Geological Survey has found Cambrian fossils in. the Franklin Mountains just south of the New Mexico line.t Rocks which have been referred to this system are known in the Clifton district in Arizona, but heretofore there has been no final proof of the existence of Cambrian formations in northeastern Arizona nor in New Mexico. The Cambrian rocks in southwestern New Mexico consist of massive and flagey quartzites, indurated sandstones, sandy shales, all more or less ferruginous, with occasional beds of siliceous limestone. These strata, which vary from 50 to _ 1,100 feet in thickness, are separ ated from the underlying pre- Cambrian oneisses and. schists by a great erosional unconfor- mity. In the eastern part of the area where these quartzites have been found there appear to be certain well-marked divi- sions of the rocks. The lowest consists of a coarse, dark brown or red ferruginous quartzite, the lowermost beds of which are conglomeratic. As observed in the Florida Moun- tains, this division has a thickness of about 60 feet. Overlying these dark quartzites in some places, and replacing them in others, is a white quartzite, sometimes shaded pink, which varies from a few to 75 feet in thickness. In the Shandon district at the base of the Caballos Mountains this white quartzite is only 4 or 5 feet thick, and in places rests directly on the granite. The maximum development of the white quartzite was observed * Lindgren. W., Clifton Folio, U. S. Geological Survey, No. 129. + Science, vol. 23, No. 581, p. 267. 392 Gordon and Graton—Formations in New Mexico. in the Florida Mountains, where the uppermost beds alter- nate with thin beds of limestone, forming a transition to the limestones above. The highest division isa series of beds hav- ing a maximum thickness of 40 feet, composed of dark brown and green, sandy shales and thin-bedded quartzites. These latter rocks are well developed in the Caballos Mountains near Shandon, where in certain layers they contain linguloid shells which have been identified by Dr. Charles D. Walcott as Obo- lus (Westonia) stoneanus Whitfield, a form of the Upper Cambrian, found at Newton, N. J., and in the St. Croix sand- stone of Wisconsin. In no one place were all three divisions observed, and it may be the white quar tzite is but a local phase of one of the other divisions. Near Silver City these rocks have a thickness of nearly 1,100 feet. They consist mostly of quartzites of dark red, brown or black color due to iron stain, which contain three beds of cherty limestones 30 to 75 feet thick, and near the top and near the bottom a thin band of shale; a few feet at the very base is a conglomerate. Ordoviccan.—A series of limestones, for the most part massively bedded and having a maximum thickness of 1,200 feet, rests conformably upon “the Cambrian rocks. The thinly bedded cher ty members of the lower portion of this series sug- gest resemblance to Abrigo limestone of the Bisbee district,’ s which is Middle Cambrian, but some poorly preserved organic remains found about 100 feet above the quartzite in the Silver City section are regarded by Mr. E. O. Ulrich of the U. 8. Geolog ical Survey as belonging certainly in the Lower Ordovyi- cian. At this place, where the upper limit is not definite, the limestones considered to be Ordovician are about 770 feet thick, consisting at the bottom of 265 feet of cherty limestone over- lain by 185 feet of alternating narrow bands of limestone and chert, and succeeded by about 330 feet of gray or pinkish, fine- grained, siliceous limestone. In other localities the limestones of the lower portion of the series are notabiy crystalline, and near the axis of the Black Range at Kingston and in the Carpenter district they are essentially marbles, often mottled blue and white. In these crystalline beds no fossils have been found. The upper members are in part composed of thin cherty beds. A stratum of quartzite from 3 to 5 feet thick is present in places near the top of the series, but is not persistent. Fossils are fairly abundant in the upper part of these lime- stones. Corals are most common, and at Silver City brachio- * Ransome, F. L., Prof. Paper, U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 21, p. 33. Gordon and Graton—Fformations in New Mexico. 393 pods are plentiful just above the most cherty beds. Both the corals and the brachiopods belong in the Richmond division of the Upper Ordovician. The character of transition of the rocks of this system into those above ig not yet wholly established. Locally the upper portion of the limestone series is coarsely brecciated, the beds being composed of blocks of various sizes up to 10 feet in breadth and the spaces between filled with calcareous material derived from the disintegration of the same beds. The dis- turbance appears in some instances to have involved a bed of quartzite or gritstone, fragments of which occur along with those of the limestone. In Sierra County the surface of the limestone is undulating or billowy, and over considerable areas the topmost layer is altered to a highly siliceous rock, in places quartzose and drusy, in others constituting a flint breccia. In some eases the silicifi- cation and brecciation was observed to extend along cracks downward into the lower limestone beds, which fact, taken in connection with other facts touching the nature and occurrence of the phenomena, warrants the conclusion that the silicification has been effected by hot waters coming up from below and spreading out along the contact with the overlying impervious shales. The silver deposits at Kingston and in adjoining dis- tricts occur in the upper part of this limestone. Whether the coarse brecciation and billowy surface repre- sent a kind of unconformity caused by a retiring of the waters following a period of limestone formation, as suggested by Chamberlin,* or whether it is due to underground solution, crustal movement, or to some other cause, we are as yet unable to decide. At Silver City a perplexing feature of different character arises. In the 870 feet of limestones which overlie the Caim- brian quartzites, there is no visible stratigraphic break ; and in the upper 420 feet, no lithologice difference has been noted, yet in the lower part of this 420 feet are found Ordovician fossils, while near the top a Silurian fauna is present. It should be said that the rocks at this critical point are not so well exposed as they are at most places: in the section, and that the original character of the limestones is somewhat obscured by impregnation of ore-bearing minerals and by their decomposition produets. It may be added that in the Clifton district Devo- nian strata rest with apparent conformity on the Ordovician limestones, while in the Bisbee region both Ordovician and Silurian are absent although there is no structural break in the stratification. * Geology of Wisconsin, vol. 1, pp. 138-140. 394 Gordon and Graton—Formations in New Mexico. Silurian.—The general position of the rocks belonging in this system, which have been identified only in the Silver City region, and at Lake Valley, has already been stated. They occur at the upper part of a series of limestones which throughout the greater portion contain Ordovician fossils. In this upper portion, near Silver City, close to the top, are found pentameroids and other brachiopods which Mr. Ulrich places in the Silurian and regards as the equivalent of the Silurian horizon found in the Franklin Mountains near El Paso. These rocks, as has been said, differ little if any in appearance from Ordovician rocks underlying, and hence the bottom limit of these Silurian rocks is not definite. Since corals considered to be Ordovician have been found within a hundred and fifty feet of the top of this limestone series, an arbitrary thickness of 100 feet is assigned to the Silurian. . It is possible that small thicknesses of “Silurian strata occur at other places in the territory and have been overlooked ; but it is more reasonable to suppose that they are absent, and the Sil- ver City region thus stands as the only locality of Silurian rocks in western New Mexico or eastern’ Arizona. The silver deposits of Chloride Flat, near Silver City, are situated in the topmost portion of this limestone. Devonian.—Where Silurian rocks are absent, Devonian strata rest directly upon the Ordovician limestones. In some places there is a well-marked unconformity at this horizon but in others no unconformity is apparent. Where the Devonian rocks overlie the Silurian at Silver City, the succession of sedi- mentation seems to have been perfect. The formation, which has a maximum thickness of 465 feet, consists almost wholly of shales and presents two well- aieraererl divisions, the lower com- posed of black carbonaceous fissile shales, and the upper of blue shales which weather to a buff or brownish red color, and are more or less calcareous. In Sierra County the black shales are from 100 to 200 feet thick, but at times vary greatly in thickness within short distances due to the uneven character of the lime- stone surface upon which they rest. No fossils have been dis- covered in these lower or black shales. At Lake Valley they have heretofore been included in the Lower Carboniferous.* In the same region the upper or blue shale division has a thick- ness of 50 to 100 feet and in places is highly fossiliferous, not- ably at Kingston and 2 miles east of Hillsboro, where the beds contain brachiopods in profusion. Fossils were also known to occur between the Santa Rita and Georgetown districts. Dr. George H. Girty of the Geological Survey, to whom the fossils were referred, states that the fauna is char acteristically Upper Devonian and adds that it is one of peculiar interest * Cf. Clark, E., loc. cit. Gordon and Graton—Fformations in New Mexico. 395 inasmuch as it is the same which was discovered years ago in the Ouray limstone in southwestern Colorado by Mr. Endlich. It is characterized by the large and striking species Camaro- techia endlicht Meek, and heretofore has not been recognized outside of the San Juan Mountains. At Silver City the Devonian system is represented by fissile shales,—about 200 feet of black shales at the bottom followed by 260 feet of red shales, in neither of which have fossils been found. It may be added that the Devonian system is not repre- sented in the Franklin Mountains of Texas, but is present in eastern Arizona. Carboniferous.—In the northern half of New Mexico, where the pre-Cambrian compiex is overlain by sediments, the lowest and oldest stratified rocks are Carboniferous. The work of the past summer indicates that in these instances, with possibly one or two exceptions, the Pennsylvanian division of the Car- boniferous lies at the base of the section. It is interesting to note, however, that wherever the lower Paleozoic rocks are present, the Mississippian or Lower Carboniferous strata sepa- rate the Devonian from the Pennsylvanian rocks. This is the well known Mississippian fauna which was first recognized in New Mexico in the Lake Valley mining district. 396 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. a I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. Carbon Subowide-—From certain results that they had obtained by the action of phosphorus pentoxide upon nitroge- nous organic compounds, Diets and Wo.r were led to investi- gate the action of this oxide on ethyl malonic ester, an organic substance containing no nitrogen. As a result a remarkable compound free from hydrogen was obtained, which is actually a new oxide of carbon O,O,, or, structurally, OC:C:CO. The reaction taking place is represented by the equation CH,(CO,C,H,),= 2H,0 + 2C,H, +0C :C: CO. This action is brought about by distillg the malonic ester at a diminished pressure of 12™” and passing the vapor through a large bulb containing phosphorus pentoxide distributed upon glass wool and heated to about 300°. Any unchanged ester is condensed in a well cooled receiver, while the more volatile ethylene and carbon suboxide are condensed in a second receiver by means of liquid air. The ethylene is ‘finally allowed to evaporate and the carbon suboxide is purified by distillation at a low temperature. The formula was established by elementary analysis, vapor density determination, and by the explosion of a measured volume of the vapor with an excess of oxygen in a eudiometer. Practically no contraction took place after this explosion, and three volumes of carbon dioxide were formed, as shown by the equation C,0, +20, = 3CO,,. The new compound is a colorless, highly refracting liquid having a powerful, unendurable odor. It boils at +7° and solidifies at a low temperature. The vapor violently attacks the eyes and respiratory organs, and is evidently very poisonous. It burns with a very smoky flame which shows a blue border. In its reactions it behaves as an anhydride of malonic acid, readily forming this acid when brought into contact with water. Upon being kept in a sealed tube it undergoes spontaneous decomposi- tion, with the formation of red products which are evidently complex in their nature. The decomposition takes place almost instantly at 100°.— Berichte, xxxix, 686. H. L. W. 2. New Method for the Quantitative Determination of Halo- gens in Organic Compounds.—VavuBEL and ScHEUER have devised a method for this purpose, which is applicable to many substances, and which appears to be simpler and more con- venient than the methods now in vogue. About 0:2 to 0°55 of the substance is weighed out into a dry fractioning bulb, the side tube of which is attached rather low down on the neck and slants upward at first to serve to some extent as a reflux con- Chemistry and Physics. 397 denser for sulphuric acid. The side tube then turns down per- pendicularly and is connected with a Volhard’s flask (a conical flask with a triple-bulb connected to it near the bottom). The Volhard’s flask is charged with an aqueous solution of silver nitrate into which the delivery tube does not dip. To the fractionating flask containing the substance is attached a drop- ping funnel, the stem of which reaches nearly to the bottom of the flask, by means of an ordinary cork, or better with a ground glass connection, and by means of this 30 to 50° of concentrated sulphuric acid are delivered upon the substance. The acid is gradually heated with aspiration of air through the apparatus during the heating or at the end of the operation as occasion may require. In cases where bromine or iodine are set free a little filter paper or metallic copper is used with the substance in order that enough sulphur dioxide may be produced to reduce these substances. After the halogen ‘acid or free halogen has been distilled over, the liquid in the receiver containing the silver halide as well as much silver sulphite is transferred to a beaker, treated with considerable water and 50°¢ of concentrated nitric acid and heated gradually at first, and finally strongly. The silver halide is collected and weighed as usual.— Chemiker Zeitung, XXX, 167. 5 We 3. The Distillation of Metals of the Iron Group.—Motssan has continued his investigations upon the boiling and distilla- tion of metals, and finds that the metals of the iron family have very different boiling points. Manganese is the most volatile of all, and it distils easily at a lower temperature than lime. Next comes nickel, which boils quietly ; then chromium, which distils in a regular manner with a current of 500 amperes and 110 volts. It is more difficult to boil iron, and before boiling takes place there is a tumultuous disengagement of gas which the metal has taken up, but with a current of 1000 amperes and 110 volts 4005 of iron were distilled in 20 minutes. Uranium has a higher boil- ing point than iron, while uranium and tungsten are still more difficult to bring to boiling. The latter metal could only be brought to regular ebullition by the use of a current of 800 amperes and 110 volts after an exposure of 20 minutes.— Comptes Rendus, exlii, 425. H. L. W. 4. Atomic Weight of Rudium.—The question as to whether this atomic weight is 225 as determined by Mme. Curie by a chemical method, or 258 as found by Runge and Precht from a study of the spectrum, has been discussed by H. C. Jones. He shows clearly that no valid objection can be raised to the higher value on the ground of position in the periodic system, for the higher number readily allows it to be placed in the group with barium, but in a series below the one in which it would be placed as 225. He prefers the higher atomic weight on the ground that he believes that the greater the mass of the atom, the less is its stability and consequently the greater is its radio-activity. This view is contrary to Rutherford’s conception of the transforma- 398 Scientific Intelligence. tions of the radio-active elements, but Dr. Jones brings forward the argument that radium is not formed directly from radium, and favors the view that the production of radium is a product of synthesis, not of mere decomposition. The question can be finally settled only after a considerable amount of pure radium material is available, and some time must elapse before tae is realized.—Amer. Chem. Jour., xxxiv, 467. 1s ER 5. Mechanical Separation - ‘of Organic Substances. Soa and ‘ToupLain have applied a novel method for the detection of adulterations and impurities in chocolate, which will probably be applicable in other cases. The insoluble matter freed from fat was treated with liquids of increasing densities, from 1°340 to 1-600, made by mixing carbon tetrachloride avd benzine, in such a manner that successive portions were caused to float when whirled in centrifugal tubes. The different ingredients were thus readily distinguished by their colors, they could be collected upon filters and weighed, and then be subjected to microscopic . examination. Oil-cake, germs, shells, potato-starch, and mineral- matters were thus easily separated in the case of chocolate.— Comptes Rendus, exlii, 639. H. L. W. 6. Constitution of the Klectron.—W. KaurMANN, whose exper- imental proof that the mass of the electron increases with ‘its velocity, and that this mass is probably largely electrical, has been prompted by late theoretical discussions to repeat his work with a view of determining which theory best explains the exper- imental results.. The theories he takes are those of Abraham, Lorentz and Bucnerer. The theory of Abraham may be called the theory of the rigid electron, in which the field of the electron extends outwardly to infinity and within to the surface of a sphere of constant radius @; and the Maxwellian equations relating to a solid sphere with surface or volume charge in space are employed. H. A. Lorentz assumes (Versl. Kon. Akad. Wett. Amsterdam, 27 May 1904) that the dimensions of all bodies, including the molecules and the electrons, change their dimensions with velocity ; and that mechanical mass changes in the same or analogous way as that of the electron. Bucherer supposes that the electron undergoes a deformation, keeping a constant volume. He makes use of the so-called «“ Heavyside ellipsoid,” and can translate his theoretical results into those of Lorentz by this theory of deformation. Kaufmann employs in his experiments a crystal of radium bromide, submitting its ®-radiations to both electrical and mag- netic fields ; and carries out the research with remarkable skill. His entire apparaus can be clasped in a man’s hand, and the almost microscopic details are carried to great perfection. He arrives at the result that Abraham and Bucherevr’s theories agree better with the experimental results than that of Lorentz. The ratio of charge to mass deduced from the various theories are as follows : Chemistry and Physics. 399 é — = 1,878.10’ Abraham B “ 1,876.10’ Bucherer lees lelOn . lorentz —Ann. der Physik, No. 3, 1906, pp. 487-553. Sie, Mh 7. Retardation of the Velocity of the a Particles in passing through Matier.—Professor Rutuerrorp gives a_ preliminary note on this subject. He has repeated his former results, and concludes that further experiments confirm them. An _ active wire was coated with radium C. The velocity of the @ particles was found to decrease in passing through aluminum. The low- est value of the velocity observed was ‘64V,, where V, is the initial velocity of projection of the a particles from the bare wire. Me : The value of — for the @ particle from radium C after passing m through a screen equal in absorbing power to 55° of air, was found to be the same as for the a particle of the bare wire. This experiment shows that the @ particle retains its charge and mass unaltered over a great part of its range in air.— Phil. Mag., April, 1906, pp. 553-554. Says 8. Electrical Conductivity of Flames containing Salt Vapors jor alternating currents.—For rapidly alternating currents a flame containing an alkali-salt vapor behaves like an insulating medium having a high specific inductive capacity. The view is con- firmed that the negative ions fromall salts have the same velocity. Not more than one molecule in 30 salt molecules is ionized at any instant in the flame, but each molecule is probably ionized and recombines several million times per second. The steady currents observed through salt vapors in flames are very far from the maximum possible currents corresponding to the number of ions produced per second. The paper is a full one and is by Prof. N. A. Witson, and E. Goup.— Phil. Mag., April, 1906, pp. 484-505. Jeegls 9. Electrically prepared Colloidal Solutions.—The size of the diameters of the particles of gold, silver and platinum in elec- trically prepared colloidal solutions lies between the limits (2—6)x10°°™s. The electro-negative, non-oxidizable metals, gold, silver and platinum, give solutions in water and ethyl malo- nate, in which the particles are negatively charged. The electro- positive, oxidizable metals give solutions in water, methyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol, in which the particles are always positively charged. ‘The velocity of the particles under a known electric force have been determined and the potential differences between the liquid and the particle have been deduced by using the formula 4 v y e— = & .—E. F. Burton, Cavendish Laboratory, Phil. Mag., April, 1906. die, ON 10. Recombination of Ions in Air and other Gases— Among the large number of important papers on ions in the April num- 400 Scientific Intelligence. ber of the Philosophical Magazine is a very suggestive one by Prof. W. H. Brace and Mr. R. D. Kreeman on this subject. They conclude in the main that (1) the range varies inversely as the pressure ; (2) that the total number of ions set free in a gas is independent of the pressure, but is different in different gases. me Mag., April, 1906. Uy ith Nucleation of the Atmosphere.—The subject of the nuclea- Hoe of the atmosphere, discussed by C. Barus in a series of papers published in this Journal (volumes xiii to xx) is treated at length by the same author in the following exhaustive memoirs : A Continuous Record of Atmospheric Nucleation ; pp. xvi, 226, from volume xxxiv of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowl- edge. The investigation was carried on with the aid of a grant from the Hodgkins Fund. The Nucleation of the Uncontaminated Atmosphere; pp. xl, 152. Publication No. 40 of the Carnegie Institution of W ashingon. II. Grotogy anp MINERALOGY. 1. Geology ; by Tuomas C. CHamBertin and Roun D. Satispury. In three volumes, Vol. JZ, Harth History, Genesis— Paleozoic, pp. xxvi, 677 and index, with geological map of the United States compiled by Bailey Willis, numerous paleogeo- graphic maps and other illustrations. Vol. III, Karth History, Mesozoic— Cenozoic, pp. xi, 578 and index to vols. i, li, ui. Maps and illustrations, as in the preceding volume. Nee York, 1906 (American Science Series, Advanced Course. Henry Holt & Co.). —Since the publication of Vol. I of this work in 1904, with its able and original discussions of earth processes, every geologist has awaited with much interest the completion of the series. This interest has been justified, for the volumes now issued are conspicuous, even more than the first, for the many original points of view and the radical departure from the older manuals both in methods and subject matter. This series will doubtless give a marked stimulus to investigation for the forthcoming decade. This is partly due to the “fact that the volumes look forward rather than backward, an unusually large place being given to working hy potheses, while unsolved problems are frankly recognized and the student is carried along with the investigator to the still debatable ground. The chief innovations are found in the chapters devoted to “Hypotheses of Earth Origin” (81 pp.), and “ Hypothetical Stages leading up to the known eras” (50 pp.). The Proterozoic, a name long since proposed by Irving, is used as the approximate equivalent of the Algonkian and 55 pages are given to this era. Ordovician is fully adopted in place of the long-contested name of Lower Silurian ; the Subcarboniferous for the first time in a text-book is given the dignity of a separate period of equal rank with the Devonian, and called the Mississippian ; the true Car- boniferous becoming the Pennsylvanian. The lower Cretaceous Geology and Mineralogy. AOL is similarly separated into the Comanchean, of equal rank with the Jurassic and Cretaceous. The discussions are based upon the doctrines of the permanency of continents and that of the world- wide character and periodicity of the great deformative move- ments, the latter being used as the basis for the separation of the Mississippian and Comanchean. The problems of the Permian and Pleistocene receive considerable attention, the former occu- pying 59 pages, much in small print, and the latter 190 pages. As stated in the preface ‘the familiar calling of the biological roll under each period is abandoned, and will perhaps be missed.” The paleontological side of the earth history is subordinated in space to the paleogeographical and the problems dealt with are chiefly the origins and mutations of the faunas and floras. From the preceding necessarily brief statements it is seen that these volumes are strikingly radical and stimulating both in their method of treatment and in the subject matter. For these rea- sons, however, they do not supplant the standard manuals at present before the public, but rather supplement them. Taken in connection with Dana’s Manual and the fourth edition of Geikie’s Text Book, the advanced student is, at present, admira- bly provided with condensations of geological knowledge. The authors state that the ‘three volumes are designed to furnish the basis for a year’s work in the last part of the college course, or in the early part of a graduate course.” Many teachers, however, may question whether such students are sufficiently mature to use these volumes as texts, but they certainly furnish much lecture material for the teacher and form excellent reference books for mature students. To the young student, with an _ insuflicient basis of facts and limited experience in their interpretation, the prominence given to hypothesis, though otherwise an excel- lent feature, may be dangerous, possibly leading him to neglect the detail of the science for this more attractive field. Geology is a science which has suffered much in the past from ungrounded speculation, since speculation is easier than investigation, and _ interpretations must be largely based upon the unseen. These volumes, however, should be carefully read by every advanced student in geology and no teacher can consider himself abreast of the times until he has become familiar with them. They will also be found intelligible and interesting by men in other branches of science. J.B. 2. Traiteé de Géologie; par A. pE JiappaRENT. 5th edition in three volumes, 2015 pages. Paris, 1906 (Masson & Co.).— This elaborate work of the eminent French geologist and geographer, considerably enlarged from the previous edition, suggests a comparison with the three-volume Geology of Cham- berlin and Salisbury, lately completed. De Lapparent devotes one volume to ‘‘ phénoménes actuels,” morphology, physiography, erosion, volcanoes, earthquakes and so on, and two volumes to “ géologie proprement dite,” under which an elaborate review of historical geology is presented, covering all parts of the earth, 402 Scientific Intelligence. although Europe is naturally more fully treated than the other lands. While one cannot expect to find in a general work of this kind detailed accounts of all topics, nevertheless the space given to many problems suffices to place them definitely before the student; for example, the changes of level along the coast of Holland and Flanders in historic times are well summarized near the end of the first volume. Among the features of the work that will excite much attention are the maps of the world, on which the successive formations are charted, and on which lines are drawn, even across the oceans, to indicate in a general way the probable division of land and water in different epochs. Thus it is brought forth in a striking manner, that eastern South America, nearly all Africa, southern Asia, and much of Australia agree in lacking marine deposits during long consecu- tive periods ; they are therefore looped together and regarded as parts of a great unit. Although there must be much of specu- lation in such maps, as no one can know better than the author, they perform a great service in giving the student a rapid sum- mary of facts of distribution, to be amplified by the text. The evolution of terrestrial relief is treated near the end of the third volume, where among other reasons for not accepting Suess’ theory of horsts, a strong point is made of the long persistence of littoral conditions in certain districts (as in N. W. France), for such persistence would not be a natural consequence of Suess’ views. W. M. D. 3. Coon Butte, Arizona, and the Canyon Diablo Meteorites.— Recent papers on this subject by D. M. Barrincer and B. C. TILGHMAN give a detailed description of the crater-like form of Coon Butte, and reaffirm with confidence the hypothesis early suggested that it was formed by the impact of an enormous meteorite falling with something like its original planetary veloc- ity.* As is well known, this region has afforded many thousand masses of meteoric iron varying in weight from a thousand pounds and more down to a few ounces, the total amount aggregating, it is stated, more than ten tons. Further, since the gentlemen above mentioned have taken possession of the property, their search has revealed several thousand additional masses, aggrega- ting more than a ton. The various remarkable features of the | iron are too well known to need to be rehearsed here, but it is interesting to note that Professor J. W. Mallet has found both platinum and iridium in samples of residues from solution in hydrochloric acid. Besides the iron, large quantities—a ton or more in weight—of magnetic oxide of iron have been found dis- tributed over the surface of the rim and the surrounding plain. This “iron shale” contains nickel, iridium, and platinum, and *The theory, advanced in 1896 by G. K. Gilbert, that ‘‘the crater, although exhibiting no volcanic rock, is essentially voleanic, having been produced by an explosion of steam generated by some subterranean volcanic intrusion,” has hitherto been generally accepted. See G. K. Gilbert, in U. 5. G. S., 14th Ann. Rep., I, 187, also Science, iii, 1, 1896. Geology and Mineralogy. 403 apparently in the same proportion as in the meteorite itself, from which it is believed it was derived. Similar material, consisting of magnetite in various forms, was also found within the crater at depths varying from 300 to 500 feet. Part of this was in form of small spherules or “shale balls ”;. these showed a nucleus of metal- lic iron with an envelope of magnetite. The character and dis- tribution of this magnetic oxide, the latter similar to that of the masses of iron, furnish the authors with confirmation of the mete- orite hypothesis as to the origin of the crater. Further confir- mation is found in the distribution of the masses of meteoric iron found, in the large amount of minutely pulverized silica, as well as fragments of limestone, within the crater, and in the absence of volcanic rocks or volcanic phenomena from the immediate region. The meteoric masses have been found distributed over a crescent-shaped area surrounding the hole and concentric with it, extending from northwest to east. Only two or three masses of the iron have been found within the crater itself. A number of borings with the diamond drill were made in the effort to locate the _ supposed mass or masses within the crater, one of these to a depth of over 1000 feet. Several of them met with an obstruction of undetermined nature, which was believed to be the expected meteorite. The authors state that they have already begun to sink a shaft in the center of the crater and that they propose to carry it, if possible, to a depth sufficient to settle the question beyond all possibility of doubt. It is much to be hoped that this plan will prove practicable and that it may be carried to a success- ful conclusion. It would be a matter of extraordinary and unique interest to establish positively the truth of the hypothesis named. It is interesting to note, also, though not immediately con- nected with the subject in hand, that a meteoric stone was found by Mr. Barringer in June, 1905, not far from Coon Butte ; this is described by Professor Mallet on an earlier page of this present number.— Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., pp. 861-904, 1905. 4. Geology of the New Hebrides ; by D. Mawson. Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, 1905, pt. 3, pp. 400-485, pls. 15.—For the benefit of the general reader it may be said at the outset that the New Hebrides are an island group in the Pacific between lat. 14° and 21° 8. and long. 168° and 170° KE. They are mountainous, partly volcanic, heavily wooded, unhealthy, inhabited by about 50,000 natives, of Papuan stock, governed by a mixed commis- sion of English and French naval officers. Area about 5100 square miles, divided among 12 principal islands. The larger islands are high and show extensive exposures of volcanic rocks underlying areas of raised coral formations, the latter showing in places elevations of nearly 2000 feet. The smaller islands are sometimes volcanic, sometimes of coral formation. There are several active volcanoes in the group. The author describes these geological features, listing the Miocene fossils in the bedded rocks and giving in detail the petrography of the lavas. We quote the following analyses made by him: Am. Jour. pet Moras SERIES, Vou. XXI, No. 125.—May, 1906. oo 404 Scientific Intelligence. SiO. Al,O; Fe.O; FeO MgO CaO Na.,O K.,O H.O + I 63°60 15°84 1:45 Dein apelin 4. 3°08 4°33 3:26 3:88 Il 46°78 21:22 4°63 Olt 4:30) 122070) e400: 64a III 43:98 17°69 5:97 6:638=5 83) vil 34 O64 ee IV 60°96 16°62 3°87 ZO 0°9D 6:50) 3:01 9b 20s Heo) CO: THO; P,0; Cr.0; MnO Cl Total Sp. gr. 1 0s30% none 0-7 0-10 tr. tr. tr —slOOS pee oe II 0:50 Ue 1°20 0:31 0:05 tr. tro — 00:21 o0 Til 0°95 {FIP 1:20 0:32 00D mete tr, = 100A Sie. ge Iv 018 0°10 0°50 0:20) = 0;045 str tr. = 99°87 ~ 2:04 I Hypersthene andesite perlite (adamellose) Leleppa Island. II Basalt porphyrite (hessose) Mau Island. III Basalt porphyrite, dike (auvergnose) Fatmalapa, Efate Island. IV Hornblende andesite (harzose) Wai Malikoliko, S. W. Santo. In concluding the author notes that the coral formations in recording crustal movements have developed three main types of islands corresponding to as many possible land-movements. First, in regions of continuous upheaval, islands veneered with coral limestone terraces like the New Hebrides. Second, on subsiding areas, islands which are typical atolls like those of the Ellice group. Third, in regions of both upheaval and subsidence, islands in which coral limestones are interbedded with volcanic submarine tuffs or other products; seen in the larger islands such as Viti Levu of the Fiji group. The work is accompanied by a number of maps and interesting photographs of the island scenery, rock sections, etc., and is an excellent contribution to Pacific geology. Esme: 5. Salient Geological Features of British New Guinea ; by A. G. Marirranp, West Aust. Nat. Hist. Soc., April 11, 1905, 26 pp.—This gives a brief résumé of the observations made by the author in a trip along the coast in a Government vessel with excursions inland. It was found that the coastal districts and many of the adjacent islands were composed of extinct voleanoes and their ejections and on the northeast coast and the Louisade Archipelago of horizontal limestones, upraised coral formations. A large portion of the backbone of the mainland is formed of ancient crystalline rocks with bedding at high angles. The country is beginning to yield an increasing amount of gold, amounting in the year 1902-03 to over $200,000. Levene 6. Geological Survey of Canada: Rosert Br, Director. —The following publications have recently appeared : AwnnuaL Report, Part B. Report on the Klondike Gold Fields ; by R. G. McConnetz. Pp. 71, with colored map. This gives the results of field work carried on during the season of 19038. Part J. Report on the Geology of a Portion of Eastern Ontario; by R. W. Exts. Pp. 89, with colored map. Recent Mineral Discoveries on Windy Arm of Tagish Lake, Yukon; by R. G. McConnetzt. Pp. 12. The quartz veins described carry various silver and copper ores. Geology and Mineralogy. 405 The following valuable maps have been issued by the Depart- ment of the Interior, James Wuirr, Geographer. Relief Map of the Dominion of Canada, scale 100 miles to one inch. Resource Map of the Dominion of Canada with statistics of productions, scale 197°3 miles to an inch. Standard topographical Map, Ontario, Windsor sheet, sheet 1, S.W. 7. Mica: its Occurrence, Exploitation and Uses; by Frrrz CrrKEL. Pp. 148, with colored map. Ottawa, 1905. Mines Branch, Department of the Interior.—This bulletin is similar in scope to the one on asbestus before noticed (p. 255) and also deals with a very important industry. In 1902, Canada ranked next to India in the production of mica, yielding nearly an amount valued at $250,000, or about one-quarter of the world’s supply. The mica is, In part, muscovite, which is obtained from pegmatite veins or dikes in the Laurentian formation, the best deposits being those of the Saguenay District on the Lower St. Lawrence, with others - north of Ottawa and elsewhere. A considerable part of the mica, however, is obtained from phlogopite, workable deposits of which - are confined to Canada. These deposits exist particularly in an area of 520 square miles included in the country north of Ottawa, in the townships of Burgess, Lanark and Loughborough, proy- ince of Quebec. The horizon of mica deposits is confined to the upper portion of the Laurentian siliceous rocks which underlie the limestone proper. These gneisses are generally of gray or reddish gray appearance, with hornblendic bands, nearly all of which are highly siliceous. These beds penetrate through the calcareous layers into the massive crystalline limestone formation. In the Buckingham and Templeton areas, apatite and mica are seldom found in the crystalline limestone, but in the Gatineau area several large dikes of pyroxene occur in this formation, carrying workable mica deposits. Two classes of deposits are distinguished: 1. Contact deposits, forming the contact between the gneiss and pyroxene, and 2. pocket deposits, occurring in fis- sures wholly in pyroxene, or on the contact between intrusive feldspar or diorite and pyroxene. ‘The former deposits are the most important from a mining point of view. 8. Beitrage zur Mineralogie von Japan, No. 2, pp. 23-74.— The second number of the Contributions to the Minerology of Japan, edited by T. Wada, contains several mineralogical papers, one of which, on crystals of the new mineral naegite (this Journal, x1x, 90), deserves special mention. A paper descriptive of Japanese meteorites by K. Jimbo is also important, giving new facts and correcting various errors in foreign catalogues as to time and place of fall. It is stated that thirty metorites have thus far been discovered in Japan, representing sixteen distinct falls ; most of these are stones. 9. Studies in Fluorite.—A recent paper by Harry W. Morse discusses in detail the fluorescence and thermo-luminescence of fluorite and also the nature of the gaseous and liquid inclusions. 406 Scientific Intelligence. Although many interesting results are obtained, no explanation is arrived at for the luminescence of the mineral; it is con- cluded that there is no proof that the organic substance present in the mineral, to which the color is probably due, has anything to do with the fluorescence and the thermo-luminescence. The regeneration of the latter power of chlorophane seems to indicate that a part of the emitted neh e least has an inorganic source. — Proc. Amer. Acad., xli, No. March, 1906. 10. International Geological iba ghee — The tenth annual meeting of the Congrés Géologique International will be held in the City of Mexico from September sixth to thirteenth. A most interesting series of excursions is announced in the prelimi- nary circular. HOE MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. National Academy of Sciences.—The Spring meeting of the National Academy of Sciences was held at Washington on April 16-18; thirty-four members were in attendance. The following gentlemen were elected members of the Academy : Benjamin O. Peirce, of Cambridge, Mass.; W. B. Scott, of Princeton, N. J.; and Josiah Royce, of Cambridge, Mass. Prof. Wilhelm Ostwald, of Leipzig, and Prof. H. A. Lorentz, of Leiden, were elected foreign associates. The Draper medal was presented to W. W. Campbell of the Lick Observatory at a dinner given by Professor Alexander Agassiz at the new Willard Hotel on April 17th. The following is a list of the papers presented at the meeting : J. McK. Catretu: The distribution of American men of science. C. S. Perrce: Recent developments of existential graphs and their con- sequences for logic. THEO. Hotm: Commelinacez. Morphological and anatomical studies of the vegetative organs of some North and Central American species. A. Acassiz and H. L. Cuarxk: On the classification of the Cidaride. THeo. Gitu: Interference of oviposition of a Sargasso fish with a flying fish. H. F. Ossporn: Faunal and geological succession in Eocene and Oligocene Basins of Rocky Mountain region. W. J. Stncuair : Volcanic ash in the Bridger Beds of Wyoming. C. E. Dutron: Radio-activity and volcanoes. C. D. Watcotr: Cambrian faunas of China. GroRGE EH. Hate: Recent solar investigations. W. W. CAMPBELL and C, D. PERRINE: Some recent solar eclipse results. M. I. Pupin: Feeble, rapidly alternating, magnetization of iron. J. M. Crarts: Primary standards for temperature measurements between 100° and 550°. AsapH Hat: Biographical memoir of Admiral John Rodgers. W. M. Davis: Biographical memoir of George P. Marsh. THEO. GILL: The life history of Pterophryne. 2. The Franklin Bi-Centenary.—A General Meeting of the American Philosophical Society was held at Philadelphia on April 17-20 in celebration of the two hundredth anniversary of the birth of Benjamin Franklin. The introductory exercises were held on Tuesday (17th) ;.Wednesday was devoted to the Miscellaneous Intelligence. AQT reading of original papers on scientific subjects, and the special commemoration exercises and addresses were given on Thursday and Friday. The occasion was throughout one of the very high- est interest. 3. Chemistry of the Proteids; by Gustav Mann. Based on Professor Otto Cohnheim’s ‘Chemie der Eiweisskérper.’ 1906. Pp. 606. London and New York, 1906 (The Macmillan Co.). —The publication of an important volume exclusively devoted to the proteid substances, within two years after the appearance of the second, enlarged edition of Cohnheim’s Eiweisskérper, brings evidence of the growing interest which the newer knowl- edge of the albuminous substances has begun to awaken. Dr. Mann’s book, although primarily based upon the well-known German compilation, can justly lay claim to considerable original merit in addition to that of a successful translation ; for aside from bringing the literature practically up to date, the author has both revised the German version and somewhat extended its scope. Among the more important innovations may be men- tioned: the physiological considerations (somewhat concise) introduced in connection with several aspects of the chemical study of the proteids; the more detailed discussion and inter- pretation of physico-chemical problems here concerned and in which Dr. Mann departs at times from Cohnheim’s views; a valuable résumé of the chemistry of the autodigestion of nucleo- proteids and its attached significance ; a well-arranged digest of the very recent work on the synthesis of compounds of the polypeptid type ; additional references to the historical aspects of the included topics. It is impossible to subject the vast array of detailed informa- tion to a critical review here. Sufficient must be the praise to which the painstaking and distinctly critical (though unbiased) efforts are richly entitled to. Dr. Mann’s book will be an almost indispensable reference work in the physiological laboratory ; and it is likely to do commendable service to biological science by affording to those less conversant with its chemical problems a more ready opportunity to become acquainted with its progress and present status—to study the cell as “a chemical and physico- chemical mechanism.” i. BoM, 4, Wilhelm Fliess und Seine Nachentdecker, O. Weininger und H, Swoboda; von Ricuarp Prennic. Pp. 66. Berlin, 1906 (Kmil Goldschmidt).—This monograph is a defence of the priority claims of Fliess in respect to the formulation and publi- cation of his somewhat startling theories of the “ permanent bisexuality ” characterizing living things and the periodicity of biological processes. It therefore possesses little more than polemical value. 5. The Lagoon of Venice.—The Venetian Institute of Science, Letters and Arts has undertaken a systematic study of geophysi- cal phenomena which concern directly and indirectly the Lagoon of Venice. With this object a special commission has been 408 Scientific Intelligence. appointed, and the preliminary investigations, bearing principally on the tidal-waves in the upper Adriatic together with the rivers flowing into it and the lagoon of Venice, intr rusted to Dr, Giovanni Piero Magrini, who is to be assisted by Professors Luigi de Marchi and Tullio Gnesotto of the University of Padua. Any publica- tions which might prove useful in this undertaking are solicited by the President, A. Favaro. 6. The Philippine Journal of Science.—The second number of volume one ‘of this new periodical (see xxi, p. 336) has been recently issued, accompanied by Bulletin No. 36, having the title: A Hand-list of the Birds of the Philippine ee by Richard C. McGregor and Dean C. Worcester. Pp. 123. 1. Field Columbian Museum.—The following publications have been recently issued : Botanical Series, Vol. IL, No. 8, Prenuncie bahamenses—I. Contributions to the Flora of the Bahamian Archipelago ; by C. F. Mintspaven. Pp. 137-184. Report Series, Vol. Il, No. 5. Annual Report of the Director, Freperick EF’. J. Sxirr, to the Board of Trustees for the year 1904-1905. Pp. 333-435, plates 1xi—]xx1. La Matiére, sa Naissance, sa Vie, sa Fin; par P. De Hern. Pp. 119, with 61 figures. Bruxelles, 1905, Hayes (Imprimeur des Académies Royales de Belgique). Nouvelles Orientations Scientifiques: Ouvrage traduit du catalan avec l’autorisation de Vauteur; par J. Pin Y. Souter. Pp. 164, with 36 figures. Paris ; 1905 (Garnier Frerés, Editeurs). The Universal Kinship; J. Howarp Moors. Pp. 329. Chicago, 1906 Charles H. Kerr & Co.). OBITUARY. James Mitts Peirce died suddenly in Cambridge on the 21st of March, 1906, in the 72d year of his age. A member of the faculty of Harvard College for nearly 50 years, he served the University as Tutor in Mathematics, as Assistant Professor, and as Professor and Dean of The Graduate School and Dean of The Faculty of Arts and Sciences. He was remarkable for the breadth and depth of his scholarship and for the thoroughness and finish of his work whether as lec- turer, legislator, or administrator, rather than for his scientific productiveness. His students knew him as a helpful friend and as an inspiring teacher, his associates as one of the most genial and lovable of men. WwW. E. B. NATHANIEL 8S. SHALER, Professor of Geology in Harvard Uni- versity and Dean of the Lawrence Scientific School, died on April 10th, at the age of sixty-five years ; a notice is deferred until another number. M. P. Curte, the French chemist and physicist, to whom, with Mme. Curie, our knowledge of radium and its properties is largely due, was accidentally killed in Paris on April 19th. Professor LioneL Suira Beate, well known through his works on the microscope, died on March 28 at the age of seventy- eight years. Warps Natura Science ESTABLISHMENT A Supply-House for Scientific Material. Founded 1862. Incorporated 1890. HUGHMILLERIA, Sarle. We have acquired Mr. Sarle’s entire collection of this remarkable new genus of Eurypterids, and are prepared to furnish museums and colleges with select material. The collection is unique and the locality no longer accessible. Our circular 23 gives an account and figures of Dr. Clarke’s restorations in relief of the dorsal and ventral surfaces, based upon Mr. Sarle’s specimens. PERIPATUS. A correspondent in New Zealand has sent us a few nicely preserved speci- mens, the first to reach America. BIOLOGICAL WALL-CHARTS. Our new illustrated catalogue of the Leuckart (zoological), Kohl (botani- cal), Sussdorf (anatomical), Schmeil and Hicker charts is ready for distribu- tion. DEPARTMENTS: Geology, including Phenomenal and Physiographic. Mineralogy, including also Rocks, Meteorites, etc. Palaeontology. Archaeology and Ethnology. Invertebrates, including Biology, Conchology, etc. Zoology, including Osteology and Taxidermy. Human Anatomy, including Craniology, Odontology, etc. Models, Plaster Casts and Wall-Charts in all departments. Circulars in any department free on request; address Ward's Natural Science Establishment, 76-104 College Ave., Rochester, New York, U.S. A. (2s" Index XI-XX, now ready. Price $1.00. CON TEASE Ss Page Art. XXIX.—A Telephone Relay ; by J. TRowsBRipGE -.. 339 XXX.—Stony Meteorite from Coon Butte, Arizona; by J. WM aaa: 22 SS SS Sa re ee eee XXXI.—New Stony Meteorite from Modoc, Scott County, Kansas; by G. P. MERRILL, with analyses by W. Tassiy 356 XXXII.—Determination of the Feldspars by Means of their Refractive Indices’ by. YE. WRiGHT 22-352 2s 361 XX XIII.—Siderite and Barite from Maryland ; by W. T. DCHALLER | eyo te ee he eee et eee 364 XXXIV.—Pre-Cambrian Rocks of the Georgetown Quad- rangle-Colorados by So. BauL = 252 c 22 eee ee 371 XXXV.—Lower Paleozoic Formations in New Mexico; by C, H.-Gorpvon and. LC. Graton 22 ee SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics—Carbon Suboxide, Drzts and Wour: New Method for the Quantitative Determination of Halogens in Organic Compounds, VAUBEL and ScHEUER, 396 —Distillation of Metals of the Iron Group, Morssan: Atomic Weight of Radium, H. C. Jones, 397.—Mechanical Separation of Organic Substances, BornpDAs and TouPpLaIn: Constitution of the Electron, W. KAUFMANN, 398.—Retardation of the Velocity of the a Particles in passing through Matter, RUTHERFORD : Electrical Conduc- tivity of Flames containing Salt Vapors for alternating currents, WILSON and GoLp: Electrically prepared Colloidal Solutions, Burton: Recom- bination of Ions in Air and other Gases, BRaGG and KiEEMAN, 399.— Nucleation of the Atmosphere, 400. Geology and Mineralogy—Geology, CHAMBERLIN and SALISBURY, 406.—Traité de Géologie, A. DE LapparEnt, 401.—Coon Butte, Arizona, and the Can- yon Diablo Meteorites, BARRINGER and Ti~GHMan, 402.—Geology of the New Hebrides, Mawson, 403.—Salient Geological Features of British New Guinea, MAITLAND: Geological Survey of Canada, 404.—Mica: its Occur- rence, Exploitation and Uses, F. CIRKEL: Beitrige zur Mineralogie von Japan: Studies in Fluorite, H. W. Morse, 405.—International Geological Congress, 406. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—National Academy of Sciences: Frank- lin Bi-Centenary, 406.—Chemistry of the Proteids, G. Mann: Wilhelm Fliess und Seine Nachentdecker, O. Weininger und H. Swoboda, R. Prennic: Lagoon of Venice, 407.—The Philippine Journal cf Science: Fiela Columbian Museum, 408. Obituary—J AMES MILLS PEIRCE, NATHANIEL S. SHALER, M. P. Curin, LIONEL Sito BEALE. Dr. Cyrus Adler, | Librarian U. S. Nat. Museum. SO ee 1m . VOL. XXI. JUNE, 1906. SS a IS ET HI ET ES I SI EE EES SS OD Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Epirorn: EDWARD S. DANA. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Proressors GHORGE L. GOODALE, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, W. G. FARLOW ann WM. M. DAVIS, or Camprwcez, Proressors ADDISON E. VERRILL, HORACE L. WELLS, L. V. PIRSSON anp H. HK. GREGORY, or New Haven, Proressor GEORGE F. BARKER, or PuHinapELeuta, Proressor HENRY S. WILLIAMS, or IrHaca, - Proressor JOSEPH S. AMES, or Battimore, Mr. J. S. DILLER, oF WaAssineton. FOURTH SERIES VOL. XXI—[/WHOLE NUMBER, CLXXI.] No. 126—JUNE, 1906. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. SOG ~< THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 123 TEMPLE STREET. PT re Ti / sites Published monthly. Six dollars per year, in advance. Ka 40° en PERS ies lan + Postal Union. Remittances should be made either byf/ motley ae registered % letters, or bank checks (preferably on New York banks). UR ss fe t'ahs i June Removal Sale 1-2 Prices Museum and Laboratory Specimens ORDER NOW. LATE ORDERS WILL PROBABLY BE DELAYED IN DELIVERY. An opportunity to secure minerals at exactly half present and future prices is occasioned by our removal to another location in Philadelphia. Ovr last moving was ten years ago. “Three moves equal a fire,’ is the popular saying. It might be revised to read “three fires equal a mineral moving.” We must sell. To emphasize the importance of this sale, we are including (besides as many more) all of the minerals mentioned in our “Complete Mineral Catalog” in heavy type under “Choice Minerals’ and ‘Meteorites,’ pages 99-135. A free copy of this 215 page illustrated catalog will be sent on request to teachers. To others 25 cents postpaid. Payment must accompany orders from those unknown to us unless business references are furnished. Purchaser pays transportation. The Cream of our entire stock is offered you, being choice things which are in constant demand. Many are our exclusive specialties and not on sale elsewhere in good specimens. The former regular prices will prevail after June 30th. Money Refunded on any items returned at purchaser’s expense, within ten days of delivery. “No questions asked.” Collections in our catalog will be sold during June, with or without cabinets, at 20 per cent. reduction. Illustrated 96 page Collection Catalog free to all. Correct labeling guaranteed. Address Dept. D, FOOTH MINERAL CO” 1317 Arch Street, Philadelphia. Established 1876, by Dr. A. E. Foote. [ See last page of Advertising Sheet. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE [FOURTH SERIES. | Art. XXXVI.— The Radio-Activity of the Salts of Radium :* by Bertram B. Botrwoop. , ’ THE relation between the a-ray activity of a salt of radium from which all the emanation and the corresponding active disintegration products have been removed and the a-ray activity of the same salt when the total, equilibrium quantity of emanation and active products are present, does not appear to have been previously determined with any great degree of accuracy. According to Mme. Curie,t the maximum activity attained by solid salts of radium after several months is five to six times that which they possess when first separated from a solution. It is stated elsewhere in the same work (p. 116) that when a sample of radium-barium chloride was heated to a red heat, the final, maximum activity was about 1:5 times greater than that attained by the same salt in the normal, crystalline condition, while, in the case of a similar preparation which had been heated to fusion for several hours, the final activity attained a value over twice as great as that ultimately reached by the salt in the form separ ated from solution. For radium- barium chloride which had been heated to a cherry-red heat for several hours, the activity of the salt immediately after heating was found to be only 16-2 per cent of the activity of the same salt when tested fifty-seven days later (p. 117). Rutherford and Soddyt have also determined the rise in activity of a solid radium salt in the form of a thin film _ * The general results and conclusions reached in this paper were presented at a meeting of the American Physical Society held in New York City on February 24, 1906. + Untersuchung tiber die Radioaktiven Substanzen. Uebersetzt von W. Kaufmann. Braunschweig, 1904, p. 32. ¢ Phil. Mag. (6), v, 445, 1903. Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH SERIES, VoL. XXI, No. 126.—Junz,.1906. A 410 Boltwood—Salts of Radium. obtained by the evaporation of a solution from which all eman- ation had been removed. The activity of the freshly prepared residue from this solution was found to be 25 per cent of the activity of the same residue twenty-one days later. In none of the papers mentioned are the conditions of exper- iment shown to be such as to preclude the escape of a portion of the emanation from the material tested, nor do they afford any data on the proportion of the total emanation which was retained by the solid radium compound. Experiments con- ducted by the writer on uranium minerals* have demonstrated that it is possible for this class of radium compounds to lose at ordinary temperatures very considerable proportions of the radium emanation produced within them. Since the numerical value of the ratio of the activity of radium itself to the activity of its disintegration products is of considerable importance, and since, moreover, a knowledge of the value of this ratio was essential for the interpretation of other more complicated relations, the following experiments were undertaken in order to determine the relative a- ray activity of radium salts from which all emanation had been removed and the activity of the same salts when the total, equilibrium quantity of radium emanation was retained within them. Activity of the Salts. The radium salt used was a weak preparation of radium- barium chloride, having an activity not over 100 times that of uranium. The salt had been prepared about six months pre- viously by chemical operations and repeated recrystallization of the chloride with the object not so much of obtaining a strongly active material as of separating any actinium or polon- ium which might have been present in the raw material. A few milligrams of this salt were dissolved in 250° of distilled water to which a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid had been added. Of this solution exactly 10° were introduced into a glass bulb by means of a standard pipette, the solution was diluted to about 100° with water, and the bulb was sealed by fusion. After about sixty days the emanation and other gases in the solution were removed by boiling and were intro- duced into an air-tight electroscope. The Jeak after three hours, as indicated by the fall of the gold leaf, was equal to 4:60 scale-divisions per minute. This corresponded to a quantity of radium in solution in the bulb equal to 8:5 x10~ milligram, or to a content of 8°5 x 1077 milligram of radium in 1° of the original solution. A number of ver y thin films of the radium salt were now prepared by slowly evaporating to dryness 10° of the standard * Ibid. (6), ix, 599, 1905. Boltwood—Salts of Radium. 411 solution in each of several flat, glass dishes 50™" in diameter and 9™™ in depth. The time taken for the Neen was about three hours, and the salt was deposited in a fairly uni- form and extremely thin layer on the bottom of the dish. The freshly prepared films were introduced into an electroscope and their activity measured. The electroscope in which the solids were measured con- sisted of an ionization vessel of sheet metal 14°" in height, circular in cross-section, 15°" in diameter at the top and bottom and 19° in diameter at a point midway between the top and bottom. A circular aluminium plate, 75°" in diam- eter, was supported 9°5™ from the bottom by a vertical, insulated, brass rod, which extended through the top of the ionization vessel and carried a small old leaf at its upper extremity. This gold leaf was surrounded by a metal case pro- vided with small mica windows. The insulated plate could be charged at will to a potential of about 400 volts from a small storage battery, and the leak of the charge from the plate determined by the fall of the gold leaf which was observed through a microscope with a transparent scale in the eye-piece. The lower half of the ionization chamber could be swung to one side about a pivot without disturbing any other part of the instrument, permitting the placing on the bottom of the ioniza- tion chamber of the dishes containing the substances to be tested. When in its normal closed position, the bottom of the ionization chamber was held firmly by three small spring clamps. The entire metal case of the electroscope was electri- cally connected to earth, as was also the positive pole of the battery. The insulated plate was in all experiments charged negatively. The initial activity of the films having been determined, they were placed in an air-tight beil-jar over fresh, concentrated sulphuric acid and allowed to remain in this desiccating atmos- phere during the intervals between the different measurements. The experiments were conducted during the winter months in a building heated by steam, and measurements were made only on clear, cold days when the atmosphere in the laboratory con- tained a minimum amount of moisture. When a measurement was to be made, the dish carrying the film was removed from the bell-jar, placed immediately in the electroscope and the measurements carried out as rapidly as possible. The dish was then replaced in the bell-jar and another one removed and measured. The initial activities of the several films and the activities after the lapse of the stated times is given in the following table in terms of the fall of the gold leaf in divisions per minute. The readings in each case are corrected for the 412 Boltwood—Salts of Radium. natural air-leak of the instrument, which averaged 0°038 division per minute. TABLE I. Film No. Ree ie) ine. 1 1:14 3°02 12 days 31 days 2 1°20 4°84 Heil 17 days 3 ILO 4°60 When the last measurement given in the table was made, the dish containing the film was quickly placed in the bottom ‘of a small copper can having a capacity of about 300%. The can was closed with a tight- fitting cover provided with two open- ings to which were fitted glass tubes. One of these tubes was attached by a short piece of rubber. tubing closed with a pinch- cock to the Reichardt apparatus,* and from the other tube, which extended nearly to the bottom of the can, about one- half of the air in the can was exhausted by suction. About 150° of warm water containing a little hydrochloric acid was introduced through the tube, and the tube was then connected with a flask containing boiling water. A current of steam was passed through the can, and the displaced gases were collected in the Reichardt apparatus. After passing steam for about 15 minutes the accumulated gases were introduced into the air- tight electroscope. The activity of the emanation obtained from the films is given in the following table (Table IT) in terms of the fall of the gold leaf in divisions per minute. The percentage of the total emanation present in each film was calculated by dividing the observed leak by the leak caused by the total, equilibrium quantity of emanation corresponding to the amount of radium in the film (4°60 divisions per minute). TABLE II. 3 Observed Per cent of Ne leak emanation present 1 1°65 35 9 2 3°29 71°5 3 3°07 66°5 Knowing the length of time which had passed from the time when the emanation had been wholly removed from the saltt to the time when the emanation retained by the film was re- moved and measured, it is possible to calculate what proportion * This Journal, xviii, 379, 1904. + A freshly prepared film was subjected to the same treatment as were the older films, and the complete absence of emanation from the fresh films con- clusively proven by experiment. Boltwood—Salts of Radium. 413 of the emanation formed from the radium was actually re- tained by the solid salt. In the following table (Table III) the per cent of the total emanation contained in each film is given in the first column, the per cent of the total emanation which would have been found after the stated time had elapsed, if none had escaped, is given in the second column, and the ratio of these, or the per cent of the emanation actually formed which was retained by the film, is given in the third column. Tape III. Film No. ils 2. 3. 1 35°9% 50% 71°3% 2 71°5% 100% 71°5% 3 66°5% 95% 70°0% It is apparent from these numbers that in the films used the radium salt retained only from 70 to 71°8 per cent of the total radium emanation formed within them. Since the increase in the activity due to the accumulation of definite proportions of emanation and products is given in Table I, it is possible to calculate the activity which the films would have ultimately attained if no emanation had escaped from them. Thus in the case of film No. 1, the difference between the initial activity and the activity at the end of 3 days 22 hours was 1°88. This represents the activity due to 35°9 per cent of the emanation and active products of rapid change. One hundred per cent of the emanation and active products would therefore have an activity of 5°23 div. per minute, and the maximum value of the activity would be 1:14 plus 5°23, which is 6°37. Dividing 6°37, the maximum actiy- ity, by 1°14, the initial activity, gives the value 5°59 for the ratio of these two numbers. The corresponding data for all three of the films is given in the following table (Table IV). TaBLe IV. ; unas Initial Hn d oe et ane eee Ratio film activiLy activity retained emanation is retained 1 lee 3°02 30°9 5°23 6°37 5°59 2 1°20 ae 2A Hales 5°61 6°81 5°68 3 1-12 4°60 66°5 5°23 6°35 5°67 The average value of the ratio of the activity of the salt free from emanation to the activity of the salt containing all of its radium emanation is, from the above, 5°64. The increase in the activity of a film of pure radium bromide was also determined by evaporating a solution of pure radium bromide containing a little hydrochloric acid to dryness in one of the glass dishes. The activity of the freshly prepared film 414 Boltwood—Salts of Radium. was determined and the dish was then allowed to remain in a desiccator over sulphuric acid for about six weeks. At the end of this period the activity was again determined, and was found to have risen to 3°1 times the initial activity. It is evident that this film retained only about 45 per cent of the emanation formed within it. For the solution from which it was pre- pared I am indebted to Mr. A. 8. Eve of McGill University. Conclusions. The ranges in air at atmospheric pressure of the a particles from radium and its disintegration products of rapid change have been determined by Brage and Kleeman.* The ranges which they found were the following : Tea ECCMID sce Cote eee ee ae G In 2 .Hmanation or Radium A. =. -- 4°93 3°) Radium Av or Bmanation 222202" 4°85 7 MEe] a ee KO UK NOT Cyprcg tena ier yea meen Nee A/S R The sum of these numbers is equal to 19°62 and this number is 5°60 times the range of the a particle from radium itself. The value found for the relative ionization or activities of the different products, namely 5:64,+ agrees so closely with the ratio of the relative ranges of the same pr roducts that it appears highly probable that the a-ray activities of the different products are proportional to the ranges of their @ particles. Moreover, since according to the disintegration theory when the par ent substance and the products are in radio-active equilibrium the same number of atoms of each are undergoing disintegration per second and the same number of a particles are projected from each exploding atom, it would appear probable that the ionization produced by each a particle is proportional to its range. That the ionization measured was produced almost wholly by the a particles was demonstrated by covering one of the films which had attained its maximum activity with a sheet of aluminium 0-1™ in thickness. The ionization then pro- duced was only about 0°38 per cent of the ionization produced by the bare film. New Haven, Conn., April, 1906. * Phil. Mag. (6), viii, 719, 1905. +The value for the ratio was also determined in an electroscope having an ionization chamber 16™ long, 8:5°" wide and 7™ high. The charged plate, 13° long and 5°™ wide, was suspended 3:5°™ frre the bottom, The ratio of the activity of the emanation-free salt to the activity of the same substance containing all of its emanation as determined in this smaller electroscope was 0°39, and this lower value is to be attributed to the fact that a portion of the @ particles of longer range were stopped by the walls and plate before they had completed their full paths, which resulted in a corresponding reduction in the total ionization. Boltwood—Thorium Minerals and Salts. 415 Art. XXX VII.—The Radio-Activity of Thorium Minerals und Salts ;* by Brrrram B. Boirwoop. Tue radio-activity of the element thorium has been the cause of much discussion and the subject of many apparently contradictory statements in the literature. Following the original announcements by Schmidtt and by Mme. Curie, that the thorium minerals and salts possessed radio-active pro- perties, Hofmann and Strauss published a paper§ in which it was stated that they had separated an inactive thorium com- pound from a specimen of the mineral euxenite. In a paper by Hofmann and Zerban| the claim was later made that an inactive thorium preparation had been obtained from a Brazil- lan monazite sand, and that thoria separated from broggerite, cleveite aud samarskite, although active when first prepared, had lost its activity some months after its removal from the minerals. Following this in another paper,4 the same authors claimed to have separated entirely inactive thorium oxide from a specimen of Norwegian gadolinite. It has also been stated by Baskerville and Zerban®* that a new source of inac- tive thorium had been found ina “rock” from South Amer- 1¢a. In apparent contradiction to the above we have the state- ments of Rutherford and Soddyt+ that ordinary commercial thorium nitrate and the purest thorium nitrate obtainable gave equal proportions of thorium-X ; the statements of Strutttt that he was able to obtain measurable amounts of thorium emanation from solutions of all of the thorium-bearing min- erals, including euxenite and a large number of others, which he tested; and the statements of Mme. Curie and a number of other investigators who had in all cases detected radio-active properties in “the thorium minerals which they had examined. The announcement by Hahn§$ that he had obtained a highly radio-active preparation, rot certain residues sepa- rated from the mineral thorianite, which was many thousand times more active than ordinary thorium and which gave out *The general results and conclusions reached in this paper were presented at a meeting of the American Physical Society held in New York City on February 24, 1906. + Annal. d. Phys., Ixv, 141, 1898. ¢ Compt. rend., cxxvi, 1101, 1898. $ Berichte d. chem. Ges., xxxiii, 5126, 1900. || Berichte, xxxv, 531, 1902. 9) Berichte, xxxvi, 3093, 1903. ** Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., xxvi, 1642, 1904. ++ Proc. Chem. Soc., xviii, 120, 1902. tt Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., A lxxyi, 88 and 312, 1905. $§ Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., A lxxvi, 115, 1905. 416 Boltwood—Thorium Minerals and Salts. a proportionately larger amount of the characteristic thorium emanation, appeared at first to add a further complication to the question as to the radio-activity of ordinary thorium salts. Hahn has suggested,* however, that this novel radio-active body, which has been named “radio-thorium,” is itself a dis- integration product of ordinary thorium. If this hypothesis is correct, it is to be expected that, in the natural minerals con- taining thorium, the parent substance and its product will have reached a state of radio-active equilibrium and the total activ- ity of the thorium and its products will be proportional to the absolute amount of the element thorium which is present. The experiments which are described in the present paper were undertaken with the object of determining what propor- tion of the total a-ray activity of radio-active minerals was produced by the thorium present and whether the activity due to thorium was in all cases proportional to the actual amount of this element contained in the mineral. Composition of the Minerals. The minerals used in these experiments were thorianite, thorite, orangite and monazite. The determination of the per- centage of thorium oxide in each mineral was carried out in the following manner. The thorianite was dissolved in con- centrated nitric acid and the thorite and orangite in dilute hydrochloric acid. The solutions were evaporated to dryness and the residues heated to render the silica insoluble. The residues were then moistened with concentrated hydrochloric acid, boiling water was added and after a short period of diges- tion the insoluble portions were removed: from the solutions by filtration. The filtrates were again evaporated to dryness, the residues treated with a few drops of hydrochloric acid followed by a small quantity of water and the solutions thus obtained were filtered to remove traces of separated silica. The solu- tions were cooled and diluted, and then treated with an excess of hydrogen sulphide. The precipitated sulphides were filtered off, the filtrates were boiled to remove the excess of hydrogen sulphide, and were poured into boiling solutions containing a considerable excess of oxalic acid. The mixed solutions were then allowed to stand at ordinary temperature and at the end of 24 hours the precipitates of oxalates of the rare earths were collected on filters. The oxalates were converted into nitrates and the excess of nitric acid in the solutions was removed by evaporation. A solution of ammonium oxalate saturated in the cold was prepared and portions of this containing a con- siderable excess of the salt over the amount necessary to pre- * Jahrb. d. Radioaktivitit, ii, 425, 1905. Boltwood— Thorium Minerals and Salts. A417 cipitate all of the rare earths as oxalates were measured out. These portions of the ammonium oxalate solution were heated to boiling and the dilute, boiling solutions of the neutral nitrates of the rare earths were pour red into them with constant stirring. The mixed solutions were diluted with water to twice their initial volume and were allowed to stand in the cold for 48 hours, when the precipitates formed were removed, converted into neutral nitrates and again subjected to the treatment with an excess of ammonium oxalate. The second precipitate of rare earths free from thorium was filtered off, and the two ammonium oxalate solutions were combined, heated to boiling and an excess of hydrochloric acid was added. The solutions were then allowed to stand at ordinary temperatures for 48 hours, the precipitated thorium oxalate was collected on a filter and was ignited to convert the oxalate into oxide. The finely pulverized monazite was treated with sulphuric acid in a platinum dish. The resulting product was treated with ice water, and the insoluble portion was again treated with sulphuric acid. After removing the part soluble in ice- cold water, the insoluble material remaining was a third time treated with hot sulphuric acid, and a residue amounting to 3°0 per cent of the original mineral remained, which was not further attacked by sulphuric acid. The combined aqueous solutions were made strongly alkaline with ammonia, and the precipitate of phosphates was removed, washed free from sul- phates and dissolved in nitric acid. The dilute, nitric acid solution was heated to boiling and poured into a boiling solu- tion containing an excess of oxalic acid. After 24 hours the precipitate of “oxalates was removed, the oxalates were con- verted into chlorides, and the precipitation of the rare earths as oxalates was repeated. The second precipitate of oxalates was converted into chlorides, and to the dilute, boiling solution — of the chlorides was added an excess of sodium thiosulphate. The solution was boiled for about 20 minutes until the odor of sulphurous acid could no longer be detected in the steam. The precipitate was then separated from the solution, was treated with hot, dilute hydrochloric acid, the residue of sul- phur was removed, and, after the excess of hydrochloric acid present had been lar oely neutralized with ammonia, the treat- ment with sodium thiosulphate was repeated. The second precipitate was treated with hot, dilute hydrochloric acid, the chlorides obtained were converted into the neutral nitrates, and the solution of the nitrates was twice treated with an excess of ammonium oxalate in the manner described for thorite and thorianite. The thorium was finally weighed in the form of the oxide. The rare earths were all recovered 418 Boltwood— Thorium Minerals and Salts. from the various solutions which had been obtained in the above series of operations and were reworked for the separation of any thorium which might have escaped the first treatment. Only an insignificantly small amount of thorium was recovered by this second treatment. The residues of sulphur from the precipitates formed by the sodium thiosulphate were also ex- amined for traces of thoria, but with negative results. Exactly 10 grams of monazite was taken for the analysis. The thorium oxide finally obtained in all cases was perfectly white after intense ignition over the blast lamp. The percentage of uranium in the minerals was determined in the case of thorianite by direct analysis, carried out by the method which has been previously described.* In the case of the other minerals, and also in the case of thorianite, the uranium present was determined indirectly by comparisons of the amounts of radium emanation produced in the minerals with the amount of emanation produced in a standard, ana- lyzed sample of uraninite.t With the thorianite the results obtained by these two independent methods were in excellent agreement. Radio-activity of the Minerals. The radio-activity of the different minerals was determined by a method very similar to that which has already been described by McCoy.t The minerals were ground to an impalpable powder with redistilled chloroform in an agate mortar. In the form of a thin paste with chloroform, the pow- der was then painted with a camel’s-hair brush on a thin plate of aluminium. The sheets of aluminium were 7:5™ wide, 9 in length and approximately 0-1"™ in thickness, and weighed about 2 grams each. After the chloroform had evap- orated it was possible to determine the increase in weight due to the film with considerable accuracy. In order to avoid the necessity of making corrections for the absorption of the rays by the material itself,g the films were made very thin with a weight of only about 5 milligrams of material on a surface of 60 sq. cm. The errors then due to the absorption of the rays were very small and were within the limit of error of the other measurements. It was found that the activities of films of approximately equal weight prepared from the same material by the above method were in good agreement, and that for tilms weighing up to 10 milligrams the activities were quite closely propor tional to the w eight of material taken. The ionization produced by ‘the films was measured in two different electroscopes, a smaller one having an ionization * Boltwood, Phil. Mag. (6), ix, 603, 1905. + Boltwood, loc. cit. t+ Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., xxvii, 391, 1905; Phil. Mag. (6), xi, 176, 1906. S$ McCoy, loc. cit. Boltwood—Thorium Minerals and Salts. 419 chamber 16™ long, 9°5°" wide and 7™ high, with a charged plate 13°" long and 5° wide suspended 3 5 from the bottom, and a larger electr oscope with an ionization chamber 15 to 19% in diameter and 14™ in height, having a circular plate 7-5 in diameter at a distance of 9°35 from the bottom. The electro- scopes are described in greater detail in an accompanying paper (p. 411). Calculation of the Thorium Activity. From the weight of mineral in a given film and the corre- sponding activity as measured in the electroscope, it is a simple matter to calculate the activity of one gram of the mineral in terms of the fall of the gold-leaf i in scale divisions per minute. It has been stated by McCoy* that for uranium minerals con- taining no thorium, the total activity is directly proportional to the amount of uranium present, and experiments made by the writer on a series of uranium minerals have led to a similar conclusion, provided that corrections are introduced for the amount of radium emanation which escapes from the minerals when in a finely powdered condition. There are therefore two methods available for calculating the activity due to thorium in a series of minerals containing both thorium and uranium. One of these is to determiue, from the measurement of a min- eral containing uranium only, the activity corresponding to one gram of uranium with its active disintegration products. Knowing this value, it.is a simple matter to deduct from the activity of a uranium-thorium mineral of known composition that part of the activity due to uranium and prodneis. If no other radio-active bodies than thorium are present, the remain- ing activity will be due to thorium and its products only, and on dividing this by the weight in grams of thorium present the activity of thorium per gram will be given. The other method of calculating the activity of the thorium is to solve by algebraic methods “the equation obtained through the meas- urement of two or more unlike thorium-uranium minerals, the equations having the form aU +6Th= OC, where @ is the weight of uranium in one gram of the mineral, b the weight of thorium in the same quantity, and C is the total activity of one gram of the mineral. This second method is only applicable if the activity of the thorium is a constant. The results as given in this paper were calculated by the first method. The activity corresponding to one gram of uranium and products in a mineral retaining all of its radium emanation * Phil. Mag. (6), xi, 176, 1906. 49) Boltwood— Thorium Minerals and Salts. was determined for each of the electroscopes,* and after deduct- ing that part of the activity: of the thorium minerals due to uraninin, the remainder was divided by the weight of thorium oxide per gram of the mineral. The number thus obtained represented the activity of one gram of thorium in the min- erals. The general results obtained are given in the table which follows (Table I). The activities are given in terms of the fall of the gold-leaf in the scale divisions per minute. The numbers printed i in ordinary type refer to the measurements made in the smaller electroscope, those in italics to the meas- urements made in the larger electroscope. TABLE I. Activity per gram of mineral. : — —_ ---—. — Activity Per cent Per cent Due to Dueto per gram Mineral. uranium. ThO, Total. uranium. thorium. of ThOs. Thorianite, Ceylon _---- 11°2 78°8 85 35 50 63 L53 39 93 118 Thorite, Norway .--. 0-4 52-0 34 I 33 63 62 2 6 115 Orangite, Norway 2222 9:4 511 63 30 33 64 108 50 58 11h Monazite, N. Carolina 0°35 4°66 4°] ie) 3°0 64 Ural LS a3 113 It will be seen from the numbers given in the last column that the activity of one gram of thorinm oxide in the four dif- ferent minerals varied less than one per cent when determined in the smaller electroscope and not over two per cent from the average when determined in the larger electroscope. This variation is within the limits of error of the several measure- ments. It is therefore evident that for the four minerals examined the activity of thorium per gram, or as it will be called, the specific activity of thorium, was a constant. The difference in value between the specific activity as determined in the smaller electroscope is due in part to.a greater sensitiveness for the larger instrument and in part to the fact that more complete ionization was obtained in the larger ionization vessel than in the smaller. In the smaller electroscope a portion of the a-par- ticles of longer range are stopped by the walls and charged * The experimental determination of this factor will be described in a later paper. Boltwood—Thorium Minerals and Salts. 491 plate before they have reached the ends of their free paths in air, as a result of which the maximum ionization is not obtained. This is shown by the value of the ratio of the activities of the films in the smaller electroscope to the activi- ties of the same films in the larger electroscope, which for the thorium minerals was equal to approximately 1:8, while the same ratio for a film of pure uranium oxide was only 1:6. This indicates that the average range of the a-particles from thorium is greater than the average range of the a-particles irom uranium. Radio-activity of Thorium Salts. In order to determine whether the activity of thorium salts which had been separated from varions minerals by different chemical methods was the same per gram of thorium as the specific activity of the thorium contained in the minerals, the tollowing salts were examined : 1. Portion of about 18 grams of pure thorium oxide which had been obtained by working up a quantity of old worn-out incandescent gas mantels obtained from various sources. The mantel dust had been treated with sulphuric acid to convert the earths into sulphates, and the sulphates in dilute solution had been precipitated as oxalates with oxalic acid. The thorium in the oxalates was then extracted by boiling with a strong solution of ammonium oxalate, the solution was greatly diluted and was then allowed to stand in the cold for 48 hours, when the insoluble oxalates were filtered off. The thorium was precipitated as oxalate from the filtrate by the addition of hydrochloric acid to the boiling solution, and the oxalate was converted into oxide by intense ignition over the blast lamp. ‘The oxide thus obtained was pure white. 2. Portion of a quantity (1 kilo) of thorium nitrate obtained from the Welsbach Light Co. A few grams of this nitrate were dissolved in water and the thorium was precipitated as hydroxide, which was then converted into the oxide by intense ignition over the blast lamp. The nitrate had been prepared by the Welsbach Co., by their customary process, from North Carolina monazite sand. i 3. Thorium oxide prepared from the same material as No. 2. A portion of the nitrate was converted into the hydrated, crystalline sulphate [Th(SO,),.9H,O]. A few small, per- fectly clear crystals were selected and converted into the oxide by intense ignition over the blast lamp. 4. A portion of the nitrate mentioned under No. 2 was con- verted into the anhydrous sulphate. ‘The solution of the sul- phate in cold water was heated and a quantity of the so-called 499, Boltwood—Thorium Minerals and Salts. “basic” sulphate of thorium separated. This was ignited to a high heat to form the oxide. 5. Thorium oxide prepared from thorianite by the analyti- cal method described earlier in this paper. The mineral was first dissolved in concentrated nitric acid. 6. Thorium oxide which had been prepared from thorianite. The mineral had been decomposed by fusion with sodium bisulphate and the thorium salts purified by conversion into the double ammonium oxalate as in the case of No. 5 above. Thorium oxide obtained from North Carolina monazite sand by the operations described under the analysis of this mineral. 8. Thorium oxide supplied by Mr. H. 8. Miner, chemist of the Welsbach Light Co., and stated by him to have been obtained from monazite sands by the ordinary analytical opera- tions in which the thorium was separated from the other rare earths by repeated precipitation with sodium thiosulphate. All of the samples of oxides here mentioned had been pre- ‘pared at least one month previous to the time at which the measurements given in the table were carried out, and all had been subjected to the highest temperature of the blast lamp at the time of their preparation. TaBLeE II. Activity per gram of oxide. (ine SSS SS PR SLT Small Large Number. Source of oxide. electroscope. _ electroscope. i Mantel dust 28 50 2 Welsbach nitrate 23 Al 3 of ne 26 46 + <6 ss 28 49 5 Thorianite 75 124 6 es 66 116 7 N.C. monazite 63 113 8 Miner’s oxide 62 110 The activities of the oxides were determined for thin films in exactly the same way that the activities of the minerals were determined. It is important to mention the fact that careful attention was given to the question of the emanating power of both the natural minerals and the separated thorium oxides described in this paper. The minerals were chosen particularly because of their low emanating power for both radium and thorium emanations, which was not over one per cent for the highest. Rutherford has shown* that the emanating power of ordinary * Phys. Zeit., ii, 429, 1901. Boltwood—Thorium Minerals and Salts. 493 thoria is greatly reduced by heating the material to a white heat. The oxides used in the present research were all heated in a platinum crucible to the highest heat of the blast lamp. Quantities several hundred times the weights of the films employed were tested for emanation by placing them in a closed vessel for 24 hours with a plate charged negatively to about 400 volts at a distance of about one centimeter above them. The plate was then tested in the electroscope, but no evidence of an active deposit was obtained. The oxides were therefore essentially non-emanating. Discussion of Results. The results obtained from the measurements. of the activity of the separated thorium oxides indicate a number of interest- ing facts with regard to the activity of thorium. The oxides obtained from the commercial thorium salts (Nos. 1 to 4) are unitormly about half as active as the oxides separated from, or contained in, the natural thorium minerals. Since the source of the commercial thorium salts is monazite sand, and since it is shown that the thorium in this mineral and in the salts prepared from it by certain described analytical methods are of normal activity, it is obvious that the chemical treat- ment to which the commercial salts are subjected results in the separation of about one-half of their radio-active constitu- ents. If it is assumed that the activity of thorium salts is due to the presence of radio-thorium and its disintegration products, then it must be assumed that in the salts of lower activity about one-half of the total radio-thorium present in the mineral has been separated from these salts. From the data given by Hahn* it would appear that in the method of separation by which his radio-thorium was obtained not more than at most two per cent of the total radio-thorium was separated from the mineral. The commercial method of pre- paring pure thorium salts is therefore much more efficient in effecting the separation of the radio-thorium.t The fact that the specific activity of the thorium in the minerals was found to be constant is strongly in support of the theory that radio-thorium is a disintegration product of ordinary thorium. It would appear quite impossible to explain the agreement by any other assumption. * Loc. cit. + Several pounds of residues obtained from the treatment of monazite with concentrated sulphuric acid were kindly supplied by the Welsbach Company. These residues were examined for the presence of radium and radio-thorium, but with practically negative results for both substauces. The amounts of these elements retained in the residues could not have been, ‘at most, more than a fraction of a per cent of the amounts contained in the original mineral. 494 Boltwood—Thorium Minerals and Salts. The data given in this paper has also a direct bearing on the claim made by Hofmann and Zerban* that the activity ot thorium in a mineral is dependent on the amount of uranium contained in the mineral. There is a great variation in the uranium content of the two minerals thorianite and thorite, in fact the former contains nearly 18 times as much uranium per gram of thoria as the latter, but as shown in the table the specitie activity of the thorium in both minerals is the same, This is also true for the thorium in the orangite and thorite. It is interesting to note that Dr. Zerban was so kind as to send the writer a specimen of 100 grams of gadolinite from Soters- dalen, Norway, supposed to be similar to that examined by Hofmann and Zerban. The mineral was slightly but quite measurably radio-active, was found to give off small quanti- ties of radium emanation (corresponding to about 0-01 per cent U) on solution in acids, and on being worked up fur- nished a small quantity of thorium oxide of approximately normal activity. The same results were obtained with gado- linite from Llano County, Texas, and the same species of mineral from Ytterby, Sweden. In the published writings of Hofmann and Zerban there is nothing to indicate that any account was taken of the actinium in the minerals with which they worked. This radio-active element invariably accompanies the separated thorium, and in the thorium oxide separated from minerals containing much uranium and little thorium the activity due to the actinitum may be much greater than the activity due to the thorium present. Thus, for example, the thoria separated from a sample of North Carolina uraninite, containing 1°5 per cent of ThO, and 68 per cent of uranium, was found 40 days after separation to have an activity measured in the smaller electroscope equal to over 550 divi- sions per minute, or nearly ten times the normal activity. A solution of ten grams of this mineral w as, however, examined by Mr. Dadourian, using the excited activity method ( (see p. 427 of this number), for determining the activity of the thorium in solution, and the activity of the thorium as determined in this manner was found to be normal. All the data available at present point to the conclusion that the amount of actinium in a radio-active mineral is proportional to the amount of uranium in the mineral, and it is the opinion of the writer that the results obtained by Hofmann and Zerban are merely in support of this conclusion and have no direct bearing on the question of the activity of thorium and thorium com- pounds. In the table on page 422 of this paper (Table II), the high result obtained for the activity of the thorium oxide separated from thorianite (No. 5) is without doubt to be attri- - * Loc. cit. Boltwood—Thorium Minerals and Salts. 495 buted to the presence of actinium in the compound. In the oxide, No. 6, the greater portion of the actinium had been separated from the thorium in some stage of the chemical treatment. It is important to mention a attain fact with regard to the chemical properties of radio-thorium. Particular emphasis has been laid by Ramsay* on the statement that the oxalate of radio-thorium is insoluble in an excess of ammonium oxalate. It has already been pointed out by Mme. Curiet that the chemical properties of a radio-active element can not be deter- mined with certainty from experiments conducted on a mix- ture of a small quantity of the active element with very large proportions of a neutral substance. The writer has found this to be particularly the case with actinium, which, when separated from a mineral containing thorium and other rare earths, persistently remains with the thorium through subse- quent chemical operations, including the extraction of the thorium oxalate from a mixture of rare earth oxalates by an ammonium oxalate solution, but which, when separated (as “emanium ”’) from a mineral containing no thorium, remains just as persistently with the lanthanum, if this element is present in the original mineral or is added to its solution, and remains undissolved if the lanthanum oxalate is treated with boiling ammonium oxalate solution. Similar conditions appear to hold for radio-thorium, and when accompanied by thorium its oxalate is readily soluble in a solution of ammonium oxa- late. The insolubility of the radio-thorium in the thorium- free preparation described by Ramsay can in no sense be con- sidered as indicative of its chemical behavior in an entirely pure condition. In these cases we have probably to do with a peculiar and novel sort of chemical entrainment which is quite distinct from the ordinary processes of solution and precipita- tion. It is a very fortunate circumstance that, while the work described in this paper was in progress and before any definite conclusions had been reached, the investigation of the radio- active properties of thorium was quite independently under- taken by Mr. Dadourian, who now presents his results in a paper published in this same number of the Journal. Mr. Dadourian made use of a method which was distinetly dif- ferent from that of the writer, and which depended on the measurement of the activity of ‘the deposit formed on a nega- tively charged plate exposed to the emanations escaping from solutions of thorium salts and minerals. The agreement * Journ. de Chem. Phys., iii, 617, 1905. + Compt. rend., cxxxii, 278, 1906. AM. ours Sc1.—Fourtu SERIES, Vou. XXI, No. 126.—Junz, 1906. 30 496 Boltwood—Thorium Minerals and Salts. shown in the results obtained by these two independent methods is certainly striking, and would seem to warrant the conclusions which have been reached in the matter. The thorium nitrate from thorianite used by Mr. Dadourian was prepared from the thorium oxide No. 6, mentioned on page 422 of this paper, and the thorium nitrate from North Caro- lina monazite was prepared from the thorium oxide denoted in the list as No. 7. The fact that Mr. Dadourian’s values for the thorium activities of these two preparations are quite independent of any: actinium or radium which might have been present, adds a special significance to the “numbers obtained by him, as well as to the numbers which he obtained for the other thorium preparations. The agreement of the results obtained by both of us would appear to support the suggestion made by Hahn,* that the disintegration of thorium itself is rayless. It affords me much pleasure to acknowledge my indebted- ness to the Welsbach Light Company, and especially to their chemist, Mr. H. 8. Miner, for their great kindness and gener- osity in supplying me with the greater part of the materials used in these investigations. Their uniform courtesy and liberality has been sincerely appreciated. Conclusions. 1. The specific activity of thorium with its equilibrium quantities of disintegration products is constant. 2. Radio-thorium is a disintegration product of ordinary thorium. 3. Certain of the ordinary, commercial salts of thorium con- tain only about one-half of. the equilibrium quantity of radio-— thorium corresponding to the thorium present. 4. The change undergone by thorium in disintegrating to form radio-thorium is probably ray less. : New Haven, Conn., April, 1906. * Loc. cit. H. M. Dadourian—Radio-activity of Thorium. 427 Arr. XXXVIII.— The Radio-activity of Thoriwm ;* by H. M. Dapovrtan. Ir has been shown by O. Hahn +t that it is possible to sepa- rate from thorianite minute quantities of a radio-active sub- stance which is far more active than what is known as thorium. The fact that this substance gives off the same emanation as thorium has led him to suggest that the activity of thorium may be due to the presence in thorium of this substance, which he has named radio-thorium. He has further made the natural supposition that radio-thorium is a disintegration product of thorium. But so far as the writer knows, radio-thorium has not yet been separated from any source except thorianite and no quantitative determi- nations of the relation between the amount of thorium and its radio- activity has been made, so that the interesting suggestions mentioned above cannot be regarded as fully confirmed. The following experi- e ments were undertaken in order to determine the quantitative relation be- tween the thorium activ- ity of various . minerals and separated salts, and their content of thorium. The method used is - based upon the measure- ment of the excited activ- ity obtained by exposing a negatively charged body to the emanations evolved by the substance to be tested. The adjoining figure is a sketch of the charging vessels used in these experiments. Each mineral or salt to be tested was dissolved and the solution poured into a flat-bottomed glass dish, A, of 9°5°™S diameter and 4°™s depth. This was placed in a tin vessel, OC, of 15°™s diameter and 18°"* height, which had a movable cover and could be made air-tight. The body upon which the active deposit was to be obtained was a circular copper plate, BB, of 11°’ diameter, * Read before the American Physical Society, Feb. 24, 1906. + Chemical News, April 28 and Dec. 21, 1905, Jahrbuch fiir Radioactivitit und Electronik, 1905. 498 HH. M. Dadourian—Radio-activity of Thorium. insulated from the tin vessel and connected to the negative terminal of a battery of 400 volts, the other terminal “being connected to the tin vessel. After exposures of 19 hours the copper plates were taken out of the charging vessels and introduced into a testing vessel connected with a Dolezalek electrometer, and the activity observed as usual. Another testing vessel, containing a ura- nium oxide standard, was connected with the electrometer, in parallel with the first testing vessel, in order to test the sen- sitiveness of the electrometer during the experiments and allow for changes in the sensitiveness if there were any. The elec- trometer had a sensitiveness of about 200% per volt with 100 volts on the needle and the scale at a distance one meter from the mirror. The emanation generated at a given horizontal layer of the solution has to diffuse through the liquid above that layer in order to reach the surface. Therefore on account of the rapid decay of the thorium emanation (half-value period being 54 seconds) the percentage of the emanation, generated at that layer, which reaches the surface of the solution, will depend upon the depth of the layer. Thus the concentration being the same, the emanation which crosses a square centi- meter of the surface per second depends upon the depth of the solution, provided it is not so deep that the emanation produced at ‘the bottom has time enough to decay to a negligi- ble value before reaching the surface, in which case it will be independent of the depth of the solution. The solutions used in these experiments were not deep enough to fulfill the above condition, therefore it was necessary to make all the solutions of the same depth. The equality of depth was realized by putting equal volumes (50°) of each solution in the flat- bottomed dishes, which were of the same diameter (9-5°™5). For similar reasons the negatively charged plates were kept at . equal distances from the surface of the solution to which they were exposed. . The solutions tested were of different concentration, there- fore in order to be able to compare their activities it was necessary to determine the quantitative relation between the concentration of the solution and the amount of emanation obtained. Two solutions of thorium nitrate were prepared, one of which had a concentration twice as great as the other. Equal volumes of these solutions were vlaced i in flat-bottomed glass dishes of equal diameter, thus securing equal depths. Two copper plates were exposed to these solutions under similar experimental conditions and introduced into the test- ing vessel. The ionizations produced by the active deposits obtained from the more concentrated and the less concentrated H. M. Dadourian—Radio-activity of Thorium. 429 solutions were found to be 10-9 and 5-4 respectively. These results show that, everything else being the same, the amount of emanation obtained is strictly proportional to the concen- tration of the solution, as would be expected on theoretical grounds. The substances tested, chosen on account of their easy solu- bility, and the results obtained are given in the following table: No. of Percent- No. of Substance. eramsin age of gramsof Observed Specific solution. ThOs. ThO., activity. activity. if, II. III. IV. v. VI. Dre 0 Mh OniGess 22 woe as 2°00 51°7 1034 ae Aa Mehoriamite ss. 55 1:29 76°5 0°987 ee nee Thor. nitrate (1)-- 2°20 45°6 1°003 10°7 10°7 os So) 2515 46°6 1°002 12°5 12°5 8 cel (3) jee LO) 38°0 0°38 4°3 11°3 Se aA 30277 48°9 0°376 8°3 220 Be pot (0) ere 2s Od 48°3 1:00 22°0 22°0 Column I. The thorite was dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid. The solution was evaporated to dryness, to render the silica insoluble, the silica filtered off and the filtrate diluted in 50° of distilled water. The thorianite was dissolved in con- centrated nitric acid, the solution diluted and a slight residue of insoluble material filtered off. The solution was then evaporated to remove the excess of nitric acid and the remain- der diluted to 50° with distilled water. The thorium nitrates number (1) and number (2) were prepared by the Welsbach Light Co., from North Carolina and Brazilian monazites respectively. Thorium nitrate number (8) was bought from Eimer & Amend about three years ago. Thorium nitrates number (4)f and number (5)t were prepared from North Carolina monazite and from thorianite respectively, by Dr. B. B. Boltwood, to whom the writer is indebted for the minerals and salts tested in these experiments, as well as for their chemical analyses. ° Column II gives the number of grams of the substances in the solutions, column III the percentage of thorium oxide in each substance. In column IV the number of grams of thorium oxide present in the solutions is given. It is obtained by multiply- ing the numbers of column II by those of column III. *The percentage of ThO, of this salt was not known, therefore it was calculated from the formula Th(NO;),+12H.0. This gives the minimum percentage, hence the calculated specific activity is maximum. + The process of preparation of these salts is given in a paper by Dr. B. B. Boltwood, in this number of the Journal. 430 H. M. Dadourian—Radio-actwity of Thorium. Column V gives, in centimeters per minute,* the average of the ionization produced by the active-deposit measured between 4 and 5 hours after the removal of the potential dif- ference from the negatively charged plate. Some of the sub- stances tested contained more or less radium and actinium. Therefore a comparison of the activities observed during the first few hours, after the removal of the potential difference, could not have been a comparison of the activities due to thorium. But thanks to the rapid rates of decay of the excited activities due to radium and actinium compared with that due to thorium, the activities observed after 4 hours from the removal of the potential difference were entirely due to thorium, the part contributed by radium and actinium having become ‘negligible. Two sets of observations were taken for thorite and thorianite, of which the second set was taken under more favorable ‘experimental conditions. The average observed activities obtained from the first set were 25-7 for thorite and 21°2 for thorianite, while those obtained from the second set were 26°3 and 25-2 respectively. In column VI the activity per gram of thorium oxide of each substance is given. It is obtained by dividing the num- bers of column V by those of column IV. For brevity this will be called the specific thorium activity of the substance. The agreement between the specific thorium activities of thorite and thorianite is striking, when the difference in nature and origin of these minerals and the experimental difficulties are taken into consideration. On the other hand, there is just as close an agreement among the specific thorium activities of the first three thorium nitrates in the table. Yet there is a marked difference between the specific activities of these two groups, the thorium in the salts being only about half as active as the thorium in the minerals. This difference could not be explained by possible experimental or accidental errors. It was to be accounted for in some other manner. At first 1t was assumed that thorium might be composed of two or more simple ele- ments of which only one was undergoing radio-active disinte- gration and giving off the characteristic thorium emanation, According to this, ‘the specific thorium activity will be different for different substances which do not have a quantity of the emanating component proportionate to their content of the remaining components. Thus the difference among the specific activities is accounted for, but the agreement, S whieh is of greater significance, remains to be explained. On account of its impr obability and insufficiency this assumption, with some others which will not be considered here, was abandoned in favor of another. * The spontaneous ionization in the testing vessel was 0°45°™s. H. M. Dadourian—Radio-activity of Thorium. 431 According to this hypothesis radio-thorium is a disintegra- tion product of thorium and the producer of thorium X. Thorium emanation being a radio-active product of thorium X, the amount given off by a substance is proportional to the quantity of thorium X present. For a substance-in which thorium X and radio-thorium are in radio-active equilibrium, the quantity of thorium emanation given off will be propor- tional to the amount of both thorium X and radio-thorium but not necessarily to that of thorium present in the substance. If, however, all three, thorium, radio-thorium and thorium X, are in radio-active equilibrium, the proportionality will hold for each of them. All of the substances tested were in radio-active equilibrium as regards thorium X. Therefore the quantity of thorium emanation evolved by any of them should be propor- tional to the amount of radio-thorium only or to the amount of both radio-thorium and thorium present, according as the latter were or were not in radio-active equilibrium in the substance. The experimental results given in the above tables follow as natural consequences of this hypothesis. Thus the amount of thorium emanation evolved by the solutions of the minerals should be proportional to their content of thorium as well as radio-thorium, as these are, in all probability, in radio-active equilibrium in the minerals. In other words, the specific thorium activity of the minerals should be the same. This was shown to be the case for the minerals tested, and thorium nitrate number (5), which was prepared from thorianite. On the other hand, this hypothesis leads to the conclusion that the low specific thorium activity of the commercially pre- pared salts is due to the loss of part of the radio-thorium in the process of chemical preparation. Therefore, if thorium nitrate salts are prepared from minerals without losing any radio-thorium, their specific thorium activity should be the same as those of the minerals. In order to test this, thorium nitrate number (4) was prepared from 10 grams of North Carolina monazite. The specific thorium activity of this salt was found to be 22-1. This is about the same as the specific thorium activities of thorium nitrate number (5) and the min- erals thorite and thorianite. But thorium nitrate number (1), which was prepared from the same mineral (North Carolina monazite), had a specific thorium activity of only 10°7.* The only rational explanation of this great difference in the activity of thorium obtained from the same mineral but by two dif- ferent analytical methods, is the one just given. Thus thorium and radio-thorium were in radio-active equi- librium in the specimens of North Carolina monazite from *Dr. B. B. Boltwood tested these substances by a method described in a paper in this number of the Journal and arrived at similar results. 432 H. M. Dadourian—Radio-activity of Thorium. which thorium nitrates number (1) and number (4) were pre- pared. No appreciable amount of radio-thorium was lost in the preparation of thorium nitrate number (4). Therefore thorium and radio-thorium were in equilibrium in this salt. This accounts for the fact that its specific thorium activity was about the same as those of the minerals. About half of the equilibrium quantity of the radio-thorium, on the other hand, must have been Seana from thorium nitrate number (1) during the process of its chemical prepara- tion. The few years’ time which had elapsed between its preparation from the mineral and these experiments was too short for the thorium and radio-thorium, in the salt, to come into radio-active equilibrium, hence the low specific thorium activity. The more important conclusions arrived at by the above experiments may be summed up as follows : First. The amount of radio-thorium in minerals is propor- tional to the quantity of thorium present. Therefore radio- thorium is a transformation product of thorium. Second. If thorium and its successive products radio-thorium and thorium X are in radio-active equilibrium in a substance, the amount of thorium emanation evolved by the substance is proportional to the quantity present of any and all of them. Third. The difference in the specific thorium activities of substances which are in radio-active equilibrium with regard to thorium X, is due to the separation of some of the equili- brium amount of the radio-thorium from the substance. Fourth. The fact that thorium nitrate number (3), which was prepared over three years ago, was notably deficient in radio-thorium, indicates that the ‘rate of recov ery and conse- quently the rate of decay of radio-thorium is very slow, and that the half-value period cannot be below two years. In conclusion, I wish to express my hearty thanks to Pro- fessor H. A. Bumstead for suggesting these experiments and for the kind interest he has shown during the progress of the work. Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, New Haven, Conn. McCoy and Ross—Thorium Compounds. 433 Arr. XX XIX.—The Relation between the Radio-actiwity and the Composition of Thorium Compounds ; by H. N. McCoy and W. H. Ross. Tue work here described was undertaken with two objects in view. The first was to determine the relation between the radio-activity of thorium minerals and their thorium content, and the second to determine the intensity of radio-activity of thorium, free from its transformation products. The first of these problems was readily solved in a very decisive manner ; but the complete separation from thorium of all of its products has proved to be so difficult that we shall not longer delay reporting on the results already obtained. One of us has shown* that the total activity of any pure uranium compound or of any uranium mineral, free from thorium, is, for each class, proportional to the uranium con- tent of the substance; but that minerals are 4:15 times as active as the pure compounds of equal uranium content. The excess of activity of the ores is due to radium, ete.; and the above results seem to show that all of the radio-active bodies found in thorium-free uranium minerals are transformation products of uranium. The present study, in a similar manner, of compounds and minerals containing thorium, with or without uranium, forms the natural sequel to the work on uranium. The reports of the interesting work of Ramsay,+ Sackurt and Hahn§ on the isolation, in a crude state, of a very highly active body, called radio-thorium, from a thorium ore, though they appeared while the present work was in progress, only served to increase the importance of this investigation. All of the thorium minerals which we have studied con- tained uranium in measurable, though often very minute, quantities. When the activity due to uranium and its products had been allowed for, the remaining activity, due to the thor- ium and its products in the mineral, was, in every case, propor- tional to the thorium content of the sample. The activity due to 1% of thorium, together with its products, in a mineral, is about 950, the unit of activity being that due to 1°" of a thick film of uranium oxide, U,O,.| The activity of pure * McCoy, Ber. d. chem. Ges., xxxvii, 2641, 1904; Phil. Mag. [6], ix, 176, 906 + J. de Chimie Phys., iii, 617, 1905. t Ber. d. chem. Ges., xxxviii, 1756, 1905. $ Hahn, ibid., xxxviii, 3371, 1905, Radioaktivitiit, ii, 233, 1905. | The activity of 18 of uranium in a pure compound is 791, while that of ae quantity, of uranium, plus its products, in a mineral, is 3280. 280=4°15 x 791. 434 MeCoy and Ross—Thorium Compounds. thorium dioxide, ThO,, resulting from the analysis of thorium minerals, increases with time and reaches a maximum about thirty days after extraction ; at the end of this time the activity due to the thorium and products is practically equal to that of an equal mass of thorium contained in a mineral. Since it has been shown* that radio-thorium, Rt, extracted from a thorium mineral, gives ThX, ete., it would seem almost certain that the following series represents the successive pro- ducts of thorium, if, as the present work clearly shows, Rt is the product of Th. Th > Rt > ThX + Em > ThA > ThB. Rutherford and Soddyt have shown how ThX and subsequent products may readily be removed, and Schlundt and Mooret have confirmed and extended these observations. It is an easy task to reduce, by the methods of these investigators as well as by a number of other new methods which we have found equally effective, the activity of thorium to a small fraction of the original value; but within a month practically the whole of the activity is regained. These processes do not appreciably remove radio-thorium, the separation of which from thorium is a difficult matter, and one which we have not yet completely accomplished. The determination of the radio-activity of thorium com- pounds is not as simple as in the case of uranium compounds, because the former produce a gaseous emanation, the activity of which is considerable compared with that of the solid film. One of us has shown§ that the total radio-activity of a uranium compound may be determined in two ways. Each of these two ways involves the quantitative measurement of the activ- ity of thin films of the substance, of known weight, varying from about 1 to 20™€ per sq.cm. The thickest of such films of all uranium compounds show maximum activity. The total activity of unit weight of a uranium compound is twice the activity due to one surface of an infinitely thin film of unit weight. The activity of such an ideal film is found by graphi- cal extrapolation, for zero weight, of the observed values of the ratio of the weight, w, to the activity, a, of very thin films. The limiting value of this ratio is designated as (2) oaelinte 0 total activity of unit weight of the compound, 4, = 2/(=) . UO) This method may be applied to the compounds of thorium. * Hahn, loc. cit. + Phil. Mag. [6], iv, 370, and v, 69, 1902. tJ. Phys. Chem., ix, 682, 1905. S$ McCoy, J. Am. Chem. Soc., xxvii, 391, 1905. McCoy and Ross—Thorium Compounds. 435 Good films of thorium dioxide may be made, as in the case of uranium compounds, using alcohol as the suspending liquid. Critical consideration leads to the conclusion that the emana- tion produced by a thorium compound must be distributed into three parts; (1) retained in the granules of the substance ; (2) emanated by the granules and absorbed by the film; (8) ema- nated by the granules and evolved by the film. These three portions of the emanation will be referred to as the retained, the absorbed, and the evolved emanation. Together the absorbed and the evolved constitute the whole of the emanated emanation. The effect of the evolution of the emanation on the observed activity of the film can be determined theoretically. In the case of a film which has been freely exposed to the open air for at least several hours, the activity due to the film alone is diminished by reason of the loss of emanation. This diminu- tion is due to a deficiency, both of the emanation and of -thor- ium B, the active product of the emanation. The activity of ThB is approximately equal to that of the equilibrium quan- tity of emanation® and therefore the loss of activity is equal to twice that due to the emanation which has escaped. The activity of a film placed ina small closed space, such as an electroscope case, Increases with time and reaches a maximum in about five minutes. The increase of activity is due to the accumulation of the evolved emanation. The activity of this evolved emanation is exactly twice as great as if it had remained in the very thin film, because there is now no absorp- tion of the radiation by the metallic plate, on which the film is deposited. It follows from these considerations that the actual activity of the evolved emanation exactly compensates for the deficiency of activity of the solid film. Therefore the observed activity of a very thin film of a thorium compound is equal to the true activity. This relation holds very closely for films of strongly ignited thorium dioxide up to about °005® per sq. cm. The thorium dioxide, sample A, used in the preliminary measurements was made by heating and finally igniting strongly, in the blast, thorium nitrate made by C. A. F. Kahlbaum. This sample was said to contain ammonia only as an impurity. Its purity otherwise and freedom from non- volatile impurities was established by the analysis of a solu- tion made by dissolving about 4% in 250° of water. 25% evaporated to dryness and ignited gave 0:1750% of residue; portions of 25° diluted and precipitated with ammonia gave upon ignition ‘1746 and -1748%. Finally portions of 25° gave by Neish’s methodt+ -1751 and -1754* of pure ThO,. The * Rutherford, Radioactivity, p. 307, 1904. +J. Amer, Chem. Soc., xxvi, 780, 1904. 436 McCoy and Ross—T, horium Compounds. close agreement of the results of the three methods shows clearly the purity of the sample. The activity of sample A was determined more than a month after preparation; when it had attained a constant (maximum) value. Table I gives the results obtained with very thin films of sample A of thorium dioxide; w is the weight of the film; a is the observed activity of the film, the unit of activity being that due to 1%" of a thick film of pure U, O.. The area of each film was 39°8*4 °™, TasLe I. THORIUM DIoxIDE—A. Ww WwW a ; es ‘2798 41°36 -00676 *2020 30°80 "00599 ‘1026 20°70 "00495 ‘0546 12°27 00444 WwW Y (“) = '00387 Gis. i -0070 Cobo w a 005¢ 0o%o0 0030 29S 2/0 ofS- 22oO 2S- ro Weight, w. Curve I, which is nearly a straight line, represents Table I. (2) = -00387. Accordingly &,, the specific activity of this say Ot The observed activity of thicker films of thorium com- pounds must be corrected for the effect of the emanation. To do this the activity of the evolved emanation must be known. This was found as follows: the film was allowed to remain Sample of thorium dioxide, is equal to McCoy and Ross—Thorium Compounds. - 437 in the electroscope case for 5 or 6 minutes in order to allow the maximum amount of emanation to accumulate. The elec- troscope was then charged and as soon as the leaf had reached the beginning of the scale, in the subsequent discharge, the film was rapidly withdrawn from the case, by means of a thread. The small door of the case opened and closed auto- matically. At the instant of removing the film the position of the leaf on the scale was noted and the stop-watch was started. The leaf continued to move with gradually decreasing velocity for about 5 minutes; at the end of which period the emana- tion had almost completely decayed and the motion of the leaf had become very slow and uniform, corresponding to the nat- ural leak of the instrument. Calling D the number of divisions of the scale traversed by the leaf in 5 min., corrected for the natural leak, and #' the initial activity of the emana- tion, then # = +173 D; as shown by the following calculation. Unit activity discharged the electroscope ‘075 division per sec. _ Therefore == ae, For the thorium emanation A = -013. If ¢= 300sec. e~7#=0 practically, and therefore H=:173 D Fis very small except for the thicker films. Table II gives the results for some thick films of sample A of thorium dioxide. TABLE IT, w w EH Ez F 1°8893 Dory ‘87 °68 9182 RKO) OCT “80 2798 43 65 -90 U (3) represents the value of the ratio © for an infinitely thin E/, E film, curve IJ. For such an ideal film of unit weight, the activity of the evolved emanation would be - =1-71. This is also the activity of the emanated emanation of unit weight Ww 438 + McCoy and Ross—Thorium Compounds. of this sample of thorium dioxide, since there would be no absorption of the emanation by such a film. The fraction emanated, of the whole amount of emanation produced by the sample, can now be calculated. About one-fourth of the activity of ThO, is due the emanation.* Therefore the total activity of the whole of the emanation of 1% of the sample = “a = 129. — = 013. Therefore 1°3 per cent of the whole emanation is emanated. The last column of Table II gives the fraction, 7) of the emanated emanation which is evolved by the film. . The above results may now be used to correct the observed activity of a thick film. The observed activity, w,, of a film of 2 90 80 7° .60 Bed Fy 6 € 40 4 Ge 16 4& 2.0 Weight, w. a thorium compound is too great by the amount £, the activity of the evolved emanation. But the value a,—#, which repre- sents the activity of the solid film alone, is too low, because the film has lost a fraction of its emanation and ThB. The lost activity is equal to 2’ since the activity of the ThB is equal to that of the equilibrium amount of the emanation. The total activity of the film is #,w. Therefore the true activity of the film is a,—H @4=1—9Ff kw Table II! gives in column 2 the observed values of the activity, @,, and in column 3 the corrected values, a. The * Rutherford, loc. cit. DP. McCoy and Ross—Thorium Compounds. 439 fourth column contains the values of the ratio, v, of the activity of any film to that of a thick film of maximum activity. «= a 56°9 2°308 s 1 ce loo = 2 w Slee k, is the absorption coefficient®* and s is the area of each film, Big toes Meee TaBLE III. THortum Diox1ipE—A. w Ay a x ke "0546 WUBI) 12°26 "216 Waa °1026 20°70 20°66 °363 175 °2020 33°80 33°66 °592 Ne 2798 41°36 41:0 el 182 °9182 55°6 54°7 are ile 1°8893. 58°8 56°9 aye BOs Mean 178 The specific activity, %,, of the sample can now be calculated from the absorption coefficient. Oo 2ha 2X 118X569 5 = = 509 8 39°8 k The mean value of /,, for the two methods, is 513. Thorium dioxide contains 87-9 per cent of thorium. There- fore the activity of unit weight of thorium, together with its : “ Sone saeaie active products in sample A, is ee 584. The activities of several thorium minerals have been determined by the extrapo- lation method as worked out for sample A of pure thorium dioxide. The locality of origin and the composition are shown in Table LV. TaBLeE IV. Per cent Per cent No. Name. Th. UE 1 Orangite Langesundsfjord, Norway. 43:1 7:76 2 Thorite oe es 46°6 6°26 3 Monazite McDowell Co., N. Carolina 5:27 "33 4 a . Roade, Norway 15°18 "46 5 § Commercial sample Die ai The analyses for thorium were made by the method of Neisht and for uranium by reduction with zine in sulphuric acid * McCoy, J. Chem. Soc., xxvii, 395, 1905. + Loe. cit. 440 McCoy and Ross—Thorium Compounds. solution and titration with permanganate* after separation as phosphate by the method of Br earley. it The activity of films of thorium minerals can be corrected for the effect of the emanation according to the formula applied to films of pure ThO,. In calculating @ from a,, the approxi- mate value of #,, as found from the uncorrected activity of the thinner films, was used. This procedure involved no appre- ciable error. The results are given in Tables V to IX. The significance of the symbols has already been given. The curves for all the minerals were smooth. It is not necessary to reproduce them here. TaBLE V. ORaAnGITE, No. 1. w Ay a i E a 1°2400 52°29 47°2 02628 5°8 *3415 45°01 44°] ‘00775 1°5 "2259 39°24 38°8 "00583 1:0 1212 28'46 28°38 °00428 t(-55) °0526 14°85 14°8 "00355 (24) Ww w —) = ‘00310 == |) = (") (2) TaBLeE VI, TuHoriTE, No. 2. Ww w Cy a == E a 1°1825 50°51 47°] 02511 3°90 3243 43°03 49°4 00765 1°16 2339 39°37 39°0 00600 °88 1349 29°74 29°6 00456 (°53) ‘0904 22°61 22°6 00400 (34) w \ Ww - (— ) = 00301 —)\)=— ( a ie (a). TapLe VII. Mownazirs, No. 3. w Ay a 2 E a 1:0587 4°70 4°55 233 ons) °2825 3°96 . 3°94 O717 “04 *2059 3°43 3°42 0602 (03) °1094 2°36 2°35 0466 (-02) ‘0476 1°28 1°28 0387 (-01) 3 03332) i * Kern. J. Amer. Chem. Soc., xvi, 229, 1903. + Analytical Chemistry of Uranium, 1903. XXili, 685, 1901 ; Pulman, this Journal, Ww { The values of # in parenthesis are calculated from H = w i, @) . 0 McCoy and Ross—Thorium Compounds. 441 TaBLE VIII. Monazirs, No. 4. WwW w Cy a E 1°1081 12°83 12°27 ‘0908 ‘64 2973 10°75 10°64 0279 OT 2123 9°33 9:48 0224 O11) ‘1078 6°26 6°24 ‘0173 (06) 0526 3°68 3°67 0143 (-03) ON ape by ‘los TaBLe IX, Mownazire, No. 5. WwW w a a — E A, 1:0590 2°15 a O30 2 ‘3174 1:89 @ 168 Sune 2156 TO ss Wl Ses 1375 1B z > 100 S85 1170 1:25 as 094 hae iS ; oo 0785 "89 oS) “088 os io) 0348 46 S ONG ies (=) — "067 a], In Table X, #,,, represents the total activity of 1% of the mineral as calculated from a ee) k,y represents the activity due to the uranium and products contained in 1* of the mineral. This is equal to 3280 times the weight of uranium in 1* of the mineral, since it has been shown* that the total activity of that quantity of any thorium- free mineral containing 1% of uranium is 3280 units. #,7, is the difference between #,,, and #,,; it represents the total activity, due to the thorium and its products, in 1% of the min- eral. In the last column P,, is the weight of thorium in 1£ ; Kirn of the mineral. —™ is as nearly constant as one could reason- Th ably expect, considering that all of the errors of experiment are accumulated on this ratio. The radio- activity of any min- eral which is sufficiently old, geologically, is therefore equal to 3280 Py + 953 Pm. TABLE X. THORIUM MINERALS. No. 3 Name %Th ZU ky, m ky U ky Th am Th 1 Orangite = ASP eho 649 255 394 914 OE ihvonite 4.6.6 6:26 664 205 459 985 Smee Momaziteres | 9 5n2/7 2313 60°2 10°9 49°3 935 4 66 = NPIS "46 164 15 149 982 5 G6 EO) Oi) 29°8 4:0 25°8 950 Mean = 953 * McCoy, Phil. Mag. (6), xi, 176, 1906. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Fourta SEries, Vou. XXI, No. 126.—Junz, 1906. 31 449 MeCoy and Ross—Thorium Compounds. All of the thorium activity measurements, as well as those of uranium compounds and minerals, were made with a dis- tance of 3°5™ between the active films and the charged elec- trode. While this thickness of air is sufficient to absorb practically all of the alpha rays of uranium, it is scarcely great enough to absorb completely the more penetrating alpha rays of some of the radium and thorium produets.* With a greater distance than 3°5°™ between the films and electrode a somewhat greater activity will be found for uranium and thorium minerals. The general relationship between the radio-activity and the composition of such minerals having now been fully established, we are starting a new series of measurements on minerals with the object of determining their activities under conditions such that the maximum ionizations due to the alpha rays can take place in the space between the film and the electrode. In the analyses of the minerals the thorium was weighed as dioxide. This was very pure, chemically. It had been sepa- rated by Neish’s method, having been precipitated once by oxalic acid, once by potassium hydroxide and two or three times by m-nitrobenzoic acid. The activity measurements of three such samples, B, C, and D, were made from time to time until after about one month the activities had reached con- stant maximum values. The ThO, then contained the maxi- mum amounts of ThX, Em, ThA and ThB. The results of the maximum values are given in Tables XI to XIII with a summary in Table XIV. TABLE XI. THORIUM DIOXIDE B. WwW w hy a m= E 2267 61°4 60°9 00372 1°04 0 40°2 40°1 00292 (‘5) 0673 2521 Zowil 00268 (*3) w ( ) ==) 0943 a], TABLE XII. THORIUM DIOXIDE C. WwW w Cy a 5 EH 2634 68:2 67°8 "00389 1:04 ® *1292 41°8 41°7 ‘00310 (5) ‘065 Asal Za 00273 (-2) *Rutherford Radioactivity, p. 135, 1904; Bragg, Phil. Mag., viii, 721, 1904; Bragg and Kleeman, Ibid., x, 318 and 600, 1905. McCoy and Ross—Thorium Compounds. 443 TABLE XIII. THortum DioxipE D. WwW Ww ay a a E 2088 57°6 57-2 00365 ijl 1083 35°9 35°7 ‘00303 (6) "0585 21°6 21:5 00272 (3) TABLE XIV. THORIUM DIOXIDE. ky Sample Source C. i} ky P A MheaNitrate = 942 S00387 oly, 588 B Orangite Noles a3 "00243 823 936 C ihoriterNos2 222225 — 200230 870 989 D Monazite No, 4__...- 00240 833 948 Mean of B, Cand D-.- 958 The mean value of = for the last three samples is 958, while the value of the corresponding ratio for thorium in min- erals is 953. From this it follows that none of the radio- thorium has been separated from the thorium by the processes of analysis. However, we have been able by certain other processes, many times repeated, to reduce the permanent activity of thorium considerably below that of sample A, pre- sumably by the removal of part of the radio-thorium, but we have not yet obtained thorium which is, or remains, ‘entirely inactive. We shall discuss this problem fully in a later paper. It is possibly still a question whether thorium, entirely freed from radio-thorium, ThX, ete., will produce rays capable of ionizing gases;* but that it is undergoing transformation, rayless or otherwise, which gives rise to active products, seems certain from the fact that the portion of the radio-activity due to thorium, of any mineral, is directly proportional to the thorium content of that mineral. We believe our experiments also show clearly that the activity of thorium compounds is not due to bodies accidentally retained by thorium (as radium frequently is by barium sulphate), but that the radio-thorium, ThX, ete., are disintegration products of thorium. Kent Chemical Laboratory, University of Chicago, April, 1906. * Tnactive or slightly active thorium has been reported several times (Hof- man and Zerban, Ber. d. chem. Ges., xxxvi, 3093, 1903; Zerban, ibid., XxXvili, 557, 1905; Baskerville and Zerban, J. Amer. Chem. Soc., xxvi, 1642, 1904; but in such cases no statement has been made of the minimum intensity of activity that could have been detected. Hid Berry and Gregory—Prorosmarus alleni. Art. XL.—Prorosmarus alleni, a new genus and species of Walrus from the Upper Miocene of Yorkiown, Vir- ginia ; by Epwarp W. Berry and Witurm K. Cuncoee Dvrine a recent excursion of one of the classes in geology of the Johns Hopkins University, one of the students, William E. Curley, Jr., found on the beach at Yor ktown, Va.,* a left mandibular ramus of a new extinct mammal evidently allied to, but much more generalized than the existing species of walrus, Odobenus rosmarus and Odobenus obesus. The specinen was presented to the Department of Geology of the University, where it is now deposited under the care of Professor William Bullock Clark, who has generously entrusted it to the present writers for identification and description. The new genus agrees with Odobenus: (1) in the general characters of the mandible ; ( (2) in the general location “of the mental foramen, which is in each case followed by a much smaller foramen ; (3) in the cylindrical shape of the cheek teeth. In other characters Prorosmarus is much more primitive and approaches the Otariidz or Eared Seals in the following features: (1) The mature jaw retains two well devel- oped incisors in each ramus as in the young walrus, the adult walrus lacking the incisors. (2) The canine retains its primi- tive position and caniniform shape, whereas in the walrus the canine has been taken over into the molariform series, as shown by its biting against the molariform outer upper incisor and by its separation. from the molariform series in the young jaw. The interpretation of this tooth as a canine in Odobwnus was adopted by Flower, Huxley, and J. A. Allent in the solu- tion of the long vexed question of the homologies of the unique dentition of the walrus. (3) The inner side of the lower canine of our specimen is considerably worn, and hence to judge from the conditions in other Pinnipeds the upper jaw must have retained three functional incisors in the adult. (4) Viewed from the side the whole ramus is less curved downward and the chin and symphysial surface is much more slender and slopes more forward than in Odobenus, but is much heavier and more roundly developed than in the Otaries. The posterior half of the ramus is thus relatively deeper and the anterior half is relatively shallower than in Odo- benus. (5) The opposite symphysial surfaces did not be- *These late Tertiary littoral deposits have been recently recognized by Clark and Miller as distinct from the underlying beds and formally named the Yorktown formation. +See summary in Allen’s ‘‘ History of North American Pinnipeds.” Washington, 1880, pp. 47-957. Berry and Gregory —Prorosmarus allent. 445 come anchylosed as is the case in even the young walrus, but remained separate, although the deeply corrugated surfaces were closely appressed and doubtless firmly bound together by ligament. (6) The coronoid process is relatively higher, more 1 Fie. 1. The type of Prorosmarus allent, lower jaw (left ramus), external view. One-third natural size. slender and more inclined backward thau in Odobenus. (7) Viewed dorsally, the opposite mandibular rami rapidly con- verge to a point opposite the first ‘‘molar” when they sud- 2 Fie. 2. Lower jaw (left ramus), external view, of an old male Atlantic Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus). One-third natural size. denly expand into a broad spatulate everted lower lip. In cross section this region is broad at the top, narrowing rapidly below (figs. 1, 4A). In Odobenus, on the contrary, the rostrum is much compressed above and broadly convex below (figs. 2, 4C). (8) In Prorosmarus on the lower border of the jaw below 446 Berry and Gregory—Prorosmarus alleni. the second and third “molars” is a prominent rounded protu- berance about 4™ long and gradually fading away posteriorly. This protuberance may have furnished attachment for liga- ments binding the rami together as well as for the digastric muscle which depressed the jaw. In the modern walrus this process is indicated in the young jaw, but becomes strongly inflected, lengthened, and less conspicuous in the adult. Addi- tional and less important differences from Odobenus are as ‘ 3 Fic. 3. Type lower jaw (right ramus) of Alachtherium cretsii DuBus. Internal view, one-fourth natural size. (After Van Beneden.) follows: (9) The subequal size of the molariform teeth which in Odobenus successively decrease in size, the most anterior (c) being the largest. (10) The molars must have been circular in section whereas in the adult walrus they are laterally com- pressed. The molariform teeth probably also had a somewhat more pointed tip than in Odobenus. (11) Prorosmarus retained one more fully functional molariform tooth (p,), which is vestigial or absent in the walrus. In brief the jaw of Prorosmarus seems to be much less specialized than is the modern walrus jaw. In the latter, doubtless in response to the need for an effective crushing appa- ratus, the distal portion of the jaw has become very massive ; the enormous growth of the upper canines has caused the dis- appearance of the incisors and the transference of the lateral upper incisor and the lower canine to the molariform or cheek series; the effective center of the lower molar series has gradually been shifted forward and the upper molar series have acquired oblique wearing surfaces, so that the shock of impact is partially transmitted ‘to the massive upper canines. Berry and Gregory—Prorosmarus allent. 447 The detailed description of the specimen is as follows: Prorosmarus alleni gen. et sp. nov. Mandibular ramus complete except posteriorly, the coronoid process and the region of the mandibular angle being broken off at a point which leaves the inferior dental canal (8"™ in diameter) centrally located and on a horizontal line with the alveolar border. The jaw is extremely massive throughout and is vesicular anteriorly and along the alveolar region. The canine alone is in place and from its worn appearance indicates an old animal, as does also the character of the whole specimen. Dental formula. —The dental formula of the lower jaw is C_, P M,, but judging by analogy with the Q(éo, ts)? 4(pi—pa) ? walrus one or more of the true molars may have been present in the young jaw, and even as vestiges, without alveoli, in the adult. It would be interesting to know whether the milk teeth were better developed than in Odobenuws, as Flower believed that in Odobenus the vestigial milk teeth “never cut the gum, but are absorbed rather than shed,” this process commencing before birth. In the upper jaw there must have been three incisors (the existence of the outer pair being plainly indicated by the worn antero-internal face of the lower canine), a canine not nearly so much enlarged as in Odobenus, four premolars and possibly one or more much reduced molars. The outer lateral incisor, like its opposing tooth the lower canine, had not yet been taken over into the molariform series. Thus the com- plete dental formulaof the adult was probably I3, C1, P4 M4. The internal incisor (i, of the typical Eutherian for mula) was evidently considerably reduced in size as compared with the other teeth, but still functional, and was apparently retained in the specimen until after the death of the animal. It is placed almost behind the outer incisor, decumbent, directed forward at an angle of about 45°. Alveolus round, 8™™ in diameter and 2™ in depth. The outer incisor (4,) is large, approximately paralleling the canine in direction. Alveolus 18 15™ in diameter, the longest diameter being transverse ; depth 5™. Canine—Bluntly conical, dir ected slightly forward and out- ward and curving slightly backwar d, nearly circular at the base in cross section but slightly flattened anteriorly. Much worn on the antero internal quadrant, presumably by the attrition of the upper outer incisor. Height 2°2°", diameter 1-7°", diastema 1-4. The premolars were all rounded, simple and deep-set. The first alveolus indicates a vertical, slightly forward direction and is 1-7°" in diameter and 4°4°™ in depth. The second alveolus indicates a shght outward and forward direction and is 1°8™ in diameter and 4°" in depth. The third alveolus is very slightly 448 Berry and Gregory—Prorosmarus alleni. inclined backward and is 1°9™ in diameter and 3-8™ in depth. The fourth alveolus indicates a considerable backward inclina- tion of the contained tooth, and is 1:8“ in diameter and 3°2™ in depth. Thus we see a progressive shortening of the alveoli from betore backward, but apparently no diminution worth taking into account in the diameter of the teeth for the whole qaglersonm series. There is no indication of an additional molar, which is remarkable, when we consider the large size of the fourth premolar, and indicates that the fifth tooth in the molar series was vestigial or absent. Anterior mental foramen large. Mandibular symphysis 11™ long and 4°" in greatest heig ht, very massively corrugated throughout, The muscular Unie ine are all strongly mar ked. . Measurements. Total length, condyle to incisive border (estimated) -_... 21°5°™ Anterior border of first ‘‘ molar” (p,) to posterior border of coronord (estimated es 2 a eee i Breadthiof coronoidvat base. sass 5225 225 o= ee Za Horizontal diameter of coronoid at base .---.----------- 4°5 Denethof molar series £225 = 4. se et a a eee 8 Antero-posterior diameter of alveolus, first incisor .--.--- sae ss second:: tr. - 0:0 0-0. tr.=100°59 I Hard, dark hardibank. Il Soft, light hardibank. III Soft, blue ground. 472 Seentific Intelligence. Regarding the origin of the diamonds in these voleanie necks, the author is not inclined to agree with those who place great stress on the presence of enormous temperatures and pressures as necessary conditions, basing their views on the artificial forma- tion of the mineral in contracting cast iron by Moissan and others. He adverts to Friedlander’s experiments by which diamonds were formed by stirring molten olivine with graphite rods, and also to the fact that diamonds have been found in the mines in olivine and in garnet, both of which are original minerals in the kimberlite. From this he concludes that if the deep-seated ferro- magnesian magma contained carbon or carbon-bearing gases, its crystallization into the minerals mentioned above would natu- rally give rise to the formation of diamonds. Leaver es 10. Petrogenesis ; by ©. Dor iter. Pp. 256, 8vo. Braun- schweig, 1906 (Vieweg & Sohn).—The author, who is well known, not only through his researches during the past in different fields of petrographic study, but latterly, especially by his experiments and those of his students in the artificial production of rocks and minerals, gives in this volume a general introduction to the forma- tion of rocks, not only igneous rocks but crystalline schists and sediments as well. The subject is treated both from the point of view obtained by geological observation and petrographic study, and also from the results recently gained by researches along the lines of physical chemistry. The work of different authorities and the views expressed by them upon a great variety of subjects, such as the differentiation of igneous rocks, are competently treated and often subjected to a temperate criticism which the author’s learn- ing and experience render just and valuable. As an introduction into the field of theoretic petrology the work will be of great service to geologists, mineralogists and chemists. It inclades separate chapters upon the earth’s interior and volcanic processes; upon the mode of occurrence of the igneous rocks in which the influences of pressure, of viscosity, of the réle of mineralizing vapors, etc., are treated ; upon the structure of igneous rocks ; upon the differentiation of igneous magmas; upon the order of succession of magmas, etc., etc. : It is clear that a work of this character which contains so many theoretical views, often the personal ones of the author; invites much discussion and criticism and in this way will be a benefit to the science of petrology. Such discussion here would transcend the proper limits of this notice, but we think, for example, that the criticism of Professor Doelter of analytical methods used in rock analysis (p. 65) is given a somewhat sharper form than it justly deserves, and would tend, with those unfamiliar with such processes, to give a wrong impression. The methods of analysis to-day, which in the case of minerals such as tourmalines and hornblendes yield ratios of exceeding sharpness, naturally will give equal results in the case of rocks, which are only mixtures of the same oxides in somewhat different proportions, provided the Geology and Natural History. 473 analyst has the proper skill and experience with which to use them. The weight of criticism should be laid rather on the anal- ysts than the methods. i, Vie Ps 11. Héhlenkunde ; von W. von KNEBEL. Pp. 222, with plates and figures, 8vo. Braunschweig, 1906 (Vieweg & Sohn).—The author in this volume has brought together all of the various facts, phenomena, and theories which concern the origin and occurrence of caves and also of “karst” formation. The classi- fication of caves, the different kinds of rocks in which they occur ; the influence of ground waters, as well as the subterranean, springs and rivers with the life which they contain; the deposits found in them, the meteorological phenomena they exhibit; the influence they have exerted on the development of civilization, are illustra- tions of the variety of topics treated in this work. The subject matter has been handled in a broad and yet com- prehensive manner, and the text is embellished by a considera- ble number of excellent illustrations, which add to its value. Although written in a somewhat popular style, which thus makes _the work suitable for a wide circle of readers, it will, neverthe- less, be found a useful adjunct to the library of the working geologist and of the teacher. 1 Veee 12. Coal Resources of Wyoming.—A preliminary report on this subject by L. W. TRumBULL is given in Bulletin No. 7 of the School of Mines, Univ. of Wyoming, Laramie. The total pro- duction of coal from the state for the year ending Sept. 30, 1905 was about five and one-half million tons. 13. Over de Betrekking van het Bekken der Anthropoiden tot dat van den Mensch, door JAN VAN DER HorEveN LEoN- HARD. 103 pages, | plate and 1 table. Amsterdam, 1905 (C. L. Petersen).—That a change in the habitual posture would affect the statical relations existing between one part of the skeleton and another, might be assumed as a matter of course. It is also well known that /uxatio coxe, for example, can bring about cer- tain modifications of the bone, independent of disease. It may therefore be asked what would happen if the pelvis, for any cause whatsoever, should change its static relations to other parts of the skeleton ; and these changed relations should take place with a change of posture ? The author has taken pelvic measurements on all anthropoid skeletons in Holland. In order to arrive at a more exact compari- son with the human pelvis, he multiplied the measures of each pelvis by the quotient arising from dividing the length of the anthropoid vertebral column in question by the aver age length of the human pelvis. Through this reduction the natural relation of all the parts to each other is said to be retained. Supposing that the ancestors of man resembled the anthropoids, the ancestral type of pelvis would have to undergo certain trans- formations in its transition to the present type, owing to the fact that the weight of the body and the counter-pressure of the Am. Jour. Sci.-—FourtH Series, Vou. XXI, No. 126.—June, 1906. 33 474 Scientific Intelligence. femur would operate in an entirely different direction than before. This assumption is supported in a convincing manner by the tabulated measurements. ‘The latter tend to prove that the human pelvis, in its essential lines, can be derived from the anthropoid pelvis through the effect of static influences brought into action by a change of posture. They also throw light on the relation which exists between the pelvis of the infant and that of the adult. The difference between these two is known to rest almost exclusively on the operation of the above-mentioned forces, whose influence is manifested as soon as the erect posture is assumed. The measurements employed show in a striking manner that the infant pelvis occupies a position exactly between that of the adult and that of the anthropoid. The conclusion, therefore, is that the human pelvis must have developed from one closely related to that of the modern anthropoid. G. G. MAC CURDY. 14. Catalogue of the Fossil Plants of the Glossopteris Flora in the Department of Geology, British Museum (Natural His- tory). Being a Monograph of the Permo- Carboniferous Flora of India and the Southern Hemisphere ; by E. A. Newer ARBER. Pp. lxxiv, 255, with 51 figures and 8 plates. London, 1905.—Twenty vears since, the catalogue of the Paleozoic Plants in the British Museum by Mr. Kidston was published. It has now been decided to prepare a series of detailed catalogues, and the first of these is the volume which is before us. It deals with the Glossopteris Flora, which, aside from its very great general scientific interest, is of much practical value to pros- pectors for coal in India and the Southern Hemisphere. This flora has not hitherto been comprehensively treated. The author gives an account of the less abundant and less known species as well as the characteristic types represented in the Museum col- lection, and also gives a revision of the older records from the standpoint of present knowledge. : 15. Catalogue of the Madreporian Corals in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume V. The Family Poritide. II. The Genus Porites, Part I. Porites of the sndo- Pacific Region ; by Henry M. Brernarp, M.A. Pp. 303, with 35 plates. London, 1905.—This fifth volume of the catalogue of Madrepore corals is devoted to the genus Porites as represented in the Indo-Pacific region. . This genus is more generally dis- tributed in the warm seas than any other of the stony corals, and on account of its closeness of texture has played an important part in reef-building. The peculiar intricacy of the structure of the skeleton has hitherto been a difficult problem to the student of coral morphology ; but the author remarks that, as the result of his labors, “the intricate skeleton of this genus can now be reduced to order and the principles of structure minutely described, although we are still far from having unravelled the exact nature of many of the variations.” The difficulty of the problem will be realized from the further statement “that there Geology and Natural History. 475 were, indeed, moments near the beginning of it when the writer was in despair and on the verge of resigning his undertaking altogether.” 16. The British freshwater Rhizopoda and Heliozoa; by JAMES Casu, assisted by Joun Hopkinson. Vol. I, Rhizopoda, part I, pp. 148, with 16 plates and 32 text-figures. London, 1905 (The Ray Society).—A systematic treatise designed to describe and illustrate as fully as possible all the species of rhizopods and heliozoans known to occur in Great Britain. The present volume takes up 14 genera of the order Amoebina and 3 genera of the order Conchulina, a new term proposed for the shelled freshwater rhizopods. Not all of the genera are tenable; for example, Ouramoeba was established by Leidy upon specimens of the com- mon Amoeba proteus, on the body of which occurred a growth of a parasitic fungus, and the author follows Leidy’s error in describing these fungi as protoplasmic filaments of the body of the rhizopod. The synonymy of the species is very complete. The illustrations are excellent, particularly those of the nine colored plates, and are mainly from drawings by the author. We RavCs 17. Guide to the Invertebrates in the Collection of the Boston Society of Natural History. —The reference to the author of this work, on p. 336 of the April number, should have read Mrs. Sheldon instead of Mr. Sheldon. 18. Notes from the Harvard Botanical Station in Cuba.—The production of sugar-cane seedlings, to which reference has been, made several times in this Journal, is now progressing very favor- ably. The wide geographical range of parents has enabled us to make interesting experiments in regard to the adaptive charac- ters of the varieties. Our stock of varieties has been obtained at different times from Australia, Java, Mexico, and the West India Islands. The larger proportion of these varieties from the West Indies may be regarded as more closely related to our original Cuban strains. In the earlier years of the crossings, the conditions of weather were not propitious for pollen transfers, and it was found to be largely a matter of luck whether the seed set or not. In fact, it was beginning to be thought by us that the climate was not favorable to this line of experimenting. But in spite of bad weather, Mr. Robert M. Grey, the Superintendent in charge of the Station, succeeded in securing a fair number of desirable crosses. ‘These seedlings have been transplanted into cane ground, and tests have been made of the content of sugar. Experiments show that the “Amber Cane” is still as good as any of the new varieties of our earlier series. The last seasons have been better for the experimental work, being wholly exceptional in the recent annals of Cuban climate. Mr. Grey has been able to take advantage of the anomalous condi- tions and has succeeded far beyond our most hopeful expectations in obtaining new varieties. We now have at the Station about seven hundred sorts of cane seedlings, of the most varied parentage. It is believed that among this large number will be some which 476 Scientific Intelligence. will have a larger content of sugar and at the same time possess good powers of resistance to untoward influences. It is interest- ing to note that “Sereh” is not noted at the Station or on the Estate. Since it is the policy of the Station to place at the ser- vice of the Cubans the results of these experiments, improved varieties will be described at an early day. Plants of various species which were brought by Mr. C. G. Pringle from Mexico direct to Cuba a few years ago and set out at once in the grounds of the Station, have done well with the exception of a few which were destroyed in a freshet which injured a part of our grounds. Most of them are now well established as stocks for experimental purposes, During the past winter, Mr. Robert Cameron, Head Gardener of the Garden at Cambridge, made a long journey in the West Indies to secure certain fresh specimens ‘of desirable economic plants for the Cuban Station. These have reached the grounds in good condition, and are nearly ready for crossing. To meet the demands for a wider range of soil for these new “plants, addi- tions have lately been made to the land used for study, and it is already found that our range of plants can now be materially increased. We have about all the sorts of soil and the kinds, of exposure needed for our purposes. Gi TaeGe 19. Plant Response as a means of Physiological Investiga- tion; by JaGapis CHuUNDER Bose, M.A., D.Sc., Professor, Presi- dency College, Calcutta (Longmans, Green and Co., London, New York, and Bombay, 1906).—This volume of more “than 700 pages is a direct outgrowth of a previous work by ne same author, entitled, ‘ Response in the Living and Non-living 7 pubs lished in 1902. The first nine chapters in the earlier “treatise were devoted to electric response, and response in plants, while the remainder of the work was given up toa consideration of response in inorganic matters. A great deal of that work was so interesting that it almost compelled a continuance of investi- gation along the same lines. In the present volume the author attempts to prove by the use of extremely delicate multiplying apparatus, by which slight movements are increased many fold, that even those parts of liv- ing plants which have not hitherto been seen in motion possess a considerable power of response to external stimulation. The types of multipliers are for the most part unlike those previously employed in vegetable physiology, and, therefore, the paths struck out by the investigator are generally new. Whether the paths lead directly to the conclusions which the author adopts, must remain an open question until his researches have been many times repeated by others. But it may be unhesitatingly said that a careful reader of the present volume must be impressed by the ingenuity of device and the delicacy of mani- pulation obvious throughout the whole of the experimenting, and, further, one is struck by the apparent truthfulness of all the records. Assuming that the instruments work exactly as Geology and Natural History. ATT described, it is difficult to reach conclusions which differ materi- ally from those stated by Professor Bose. The author has undertaken to show that the plant is a machine, the movements of which in response to external stimuli are ‘“‘reducible to a fundamental unity of reaction.” He says, “In analysing plant-movements the greatest complexity arises from the confusion of effects due to internal energy and external stimulus respectively. I have however been able to discriminate the characteristic expressions of these two factors and thus to disentangle the complex phenomena which result from their com- bined action. Another very obscure problem is found in the nature of so-called spontaneous or autonomous movements. By the discovery, however, of multiple response, and by the con- tinuity which I have been able to establish as existing between multiple and autonomous responses, it has been found possible to demonstrate that there are, strictly speaking, no spontaneous movements, those being known by this name being really due to external stimulus previously absorbed by the organism. Thus all the experiments have tended to show that the phenomenon of life does not, as such, connote any intrusion into the realm of the organic of a force which would interfere with that law of the Conservation of Energy which is known to hold good in the inorganic world. The elucidation of the fact that such varied and obscure phenomena in the life processes in the plant, as, for. instance, growth and the ascent of sap, are fundamentally due to the same excitatory reactions as are seen otherwise exemplified in the simple mechanical response now familiar to us, constituted a further result which, at the outset of the investigation, was little to be foreseen. It has been shown finally that there is no physio- logical response given by the most highly organised animal tissue that is not also to be met with in the plant. ” In a further notice an analysis will be made of some of the chapters : the present is simply to call attention to the general character of a very suggestive work. G. L. G. 20. A Monograph of the British Desmidiaceae ; by W. WEST and G. 8. Wrst. Vol. IIL, pp. 204; 32 colored plates. London, 1905 (printed for the Ray Society).—The first volume of this important monograph, published in 1904, has already been reviewed in this Journal (xviii, 473). The second volume main- tains the high standard set for it by the first and continues the description of species. Only three genera receive treatment ; namely, Kuastrum, with 46 species, Micrasterias, with 18 species, and Cosmarium, with 50 species. These genera include some of the most beautiful of the Desmids, and all three have a very wide geographical distribution. Of the species here described and figured nearly four-fifths have already been recorded from the United States. A. W. E. 21. Die Phlanzenfaubel in der Weltliteratur ; by Auc. WtNScHE. Pp. 184. Akademischer Verlag fiir Kunst und Wissenschaft, Leipzig and Vienna, 1905.—The various fables in which plants 478 Scientifie Intelligence. play an important part are discussed, with special reference to those found in the literature of Germany. The work is of liter- ary rather than of scientific interest. A. W. E. Ill. MiscELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.. 1. Die Bahnbestimnung der Himmelskirper; von Juivs BavscHINGER. Pp. 653, with 84 figures. Leipzig, 1906 (Wil- helm Engelmann).—The present volume is of particular interest since, coming from the hands of the able director of the Berlin Jahrbuch and Computation-bureau, the opportunities for practi- cal testing of the methods have been unsurpassed. Also since the date of Watson’s treatise of some 40 years and that of Oppol- zer of some 20 years ago, which may be said to have covered the field of comet and asteroid orbit-computation at their epoch, and that of the less comprehensive but valuable works of Klinkerfues, Frischauf,* Moulton and others, a number of important contribu- tions to this branch have been made. An especially interesting feature of Dr. Bauschinger’s work are the historical sketches of the various phases of the problem. The treatise is divided into seven parts, the first three of which treat of the codrdinates, the heliocentrics and the geocentric motion of a body moving about the sun according to Kepler’s laws. Part four gives the solution of the problem of a first orbit and it is noteworthy to find that both for an ellipse from three ob- served positions and a parabola the methods presented in detail are substantially the Gauss-Encke and Gauss-Hansen for the former and the Lambert-Olbers-Gauss for the latter. The remark- able formulae of Gibbs, which are probably the most striking contribution of late years to the domain of orbit-computation, are briefly considered with modifications of Gibbs’ original some- what involved method ; and reference is made to the ingenious methods of Weiss, Fabritius and others. For the exceptional case where four observations are requisite an expeditious method of the author is presented. The so-called direct methods, where three or any number of observations may be used, are briefly treated; the Laplace-Bruns method alone is given in full and reference only made to the work of Harzer, Leuschner and others. Part tive comprises the determination of a definitive orbit from all available observations by the method of least squares, and part six the theory of special perturbations, examples being given for the variation of constants and the perturbations in rectangular coordinates. In part seven are found methods for orbits of meteors, satellites and binary stars. Dr. Bauschinger has already published a collection of numerical tables for use in theoretical astronomy and the two works * To which an appendix with an application of Gibbs’ principle has lately been issued by the same publishers. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 479 together may be confidently recommended as a complete and practical presentation of the present status of orbit determination. W. L. E. 2. Report of the United States National Museun under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1904. Pp. xvi, 780, with 66 plates and 142 text-figures. Washington, 1906.—The Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Mr. Richard Rathbun, gives in this volume a report of the present condition of the U. 8. National Museum and the work done during the year named. This is supplemented by the reports of the Head Curators. Part II contains the History of American Geology by George P. Merrill, noticed on a preceding page (p. 467) ; also a description of the Howland Collection of Buddhist Religious Art in the Museum by I. M. Casanowicz, and of Flint Implements of the Fayum, Egypt, by H. W. Seton-Karr. 3. The Dynamics of Living Matter; by Jacques Lorn. Pp. 233. New York, 1906. (The Columbia University Press, The Macmillan Company, Agents.)—The scope of this volume is clearly indicated by the introductory paragraph: “In these lec-' tures we shall consider living organisms as chemical machines, consisting essentially of colloidal material, which possess the peculiarities of automatically developing, preserving, and repro- ducing themselves. The fact that the machines which can be created by man do not possess the power of automatic develop- ment, self-preservation, and reproduction constitutes for the pres- ent a fundamental difference between living machines and artificial machines. We must, however, admit that nothing con- tradicts the possibility that the artificial production of living matter may one day be accomplished. It is the purpose of these lectures to state to what extent we are able to control the phe- nomena of development, self-preservation, and reproduction.” The present book presents the same broad views of the funda- mental problems of physiology as have dominated the earlier “Studies in General Physiology” and the ‘“‘ Comparative Physiol- ogy of the Brain” by the same author. It is impossible to read these comprehensive records, characterized as they are by the author’s remarkable familiarity with the literature of compara- tive physiology and his unusual personal experience as an investi- gator, without immediate profit. His treatment of biological themes is as original as it is unique. The point of view may be unusual at times, but it is always suggestive. One may not always follow Professor Loeb with an enthusiasm equal to that with which some of his more radical views are championed. Nevertheless in such cases the critical reader will usually find that the pursuit of the new ideas stimulates, even if it- fails to convince him. To help in the construction of a mental picture of the make-up of living matter, Loeb has drawn aid from the newer discoveries of physical and chemical science. The topics: general chemis- try of life phenomena, the general physical constitution of living matter, the role of electrolytes, tropisms, fertilization, heredity, 480 Scientific Intelligence. and regeneration will serve to indicate the range of the lectures. The chapters on tropisms, for example, are of exceptional gen- eral interest and show how trenchant the author’s critique may become at times. In discussing a theme upon which so widely divergent views are held, he wisely says: “The more fertile a principle i is, the more we can afford to be conservative in apply- ing it.” (p. 159.) Loeb mountains that the tropisms and trop- ism-like reactions will one day form the main contents of a scien- tific psychology of lower forms. The subject of fertilization, as might be anticipated, is discussed in a comprehensive way. Indeed the writer is far more successful in the treatment of gen- eral topics of this character than of more specific problems like those of secretion, for instance. The volume will be fruitful in awakening further interest in general physiology, and cannot fail to add to the author’s influence on the progress of biological research and teaching in America. L. B. M. 4, Carnegie Institution of Wushington—The following are recent publications of the Carnegie Institution : No. 9.—The Collected Mathematical Works of George William Hill. Volume II, pp. 339. Containing memoirs Nos. 37-49. Volume IIT, pp. 577. Memoir No. 50, A new theory of Jupiter and Saturn. No. 40.—The Nucleation of the Uncontaminated Atmosphere ; by Cart Barus. Pp. xii, 152; with 104 figures. 5. Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences.—Science Bulletin, vol. I, No. 7 (pp. 141-186) contains two papers by Chas. Schaeffer. The first describes some new Coleoptera from Brownsville, Texas, with notes on species now first recorded from the United States chiefly from the Huachuca Mts., Arizona ; the second paper gives a list of Bombycine moths collected in 1905 in the Huachuca Mts. A third paper by H. 8S. Dyar describes some new moths from Arizona. Der Ablauf des Lebens ; Grundlegung zur Exakten Biologie ; von Wilhelm Fliess. Pp. 584. Leipzig und Wien, 1906. OBITUARY. Professor NaTHANTEL 8. SaHaLer, whose death on April 10 was announced in our last number, was born near Newport, Ky., on Feb. 20, 1841. He went to Harvard in 1859, enrolling in the Lawrence Scientific School and studying chiefly with Louis Agassiz. After receiving the degree of §8.B. in 1862, he enlisted in the Fifth Kentucky Battery and saw active service in the Union army for two years. On returning to Harvard he was appointed lecturer in 1864, professor of paleontology in 1869, pro- fessor of geology in 1888, and dean of the Lawrence Scientific School in 1891. He was given the degree of LL.D. by Harvard in 1903. Shaler’s lectures on geology were always popular; it is believed that he thus addressed some 7,000 students, probably a larger number than were ever taught geolog ry by any other man. He was of marked individuality, inventiveness and activity, of Obituary. 481 strong feelings and of unusually wide interests. The department of geology at Harvard flourished under his leader ship, increasing greatly in number of teachers, subjects taught, students enrolled and equipment. The department of mining and metallurgy was developed under his initiative. The Scientific School was rehabilitated by his vigilant care as dean, and at the time of his death he saw the beginning of a consummation to which he had long looked forward : the establishment of a Graduate School of Applied Science at Harvard under the endowment of his long- time friend, Gordon Mackay. Shaler was director of the Ken- tucky Geological Survey from 1872 to 1879, geologist of the U.S. Geological Survey for a number of years, president of the Geological Society of America in 1895; he was frequently con- sulted on mining enterprises in the South and West, and was a member of Topographical Survey, Highway and Gipsy Moth commissions of Massachusetts. His writings covered many phases of geology, the brachiopods of the “Ohio Valley, the caverns of Kentucky, glacial phenomena in New England, the structure.of the Narragansett basin, the features of sea coasts, the face of the moon. In recent years, his thoughts turned towards social problems, as illustrated in three volumes, The Individual, The Citizen, and The Neighbor, and he found enter- tainment in writing on the Elizabethan period in blank verse. His death was caused by pneumonia following an operation for appendicitis ; it came upon him suddenly in the midst of work, his last official act being the preparation of a circular announcing the establishment of the new Graduate School of Applied Science and the associated changes in the administration of scientific work at Harvard. W. M. D. IsRaEL Cook Russett, Professor of Geology in the University of Michigan, died May Ist, in the 55th yearof hisage. His death coming in the middle of a busy life, is a blow, not only to the uni- versity which he had actively and efficiently served since his appoint- ment in 1892, but to the science in this country which during many years he had so materially promoted by his work and publications. He was educated at New York University and Columbia College and soon became ‘connected with the Government surveys of the West. His investigations of former Lake Lahontan, like those of Gilbert’s Bonneville, produced results which have become classic in geologic literature. His explorations in Alaska and in the extreme northwestern states contributed knowledge of great interest and importance from little known regions, and laid the © way for detailed investigations of the future. His interests tended largely to the physiographic side of geology, and his volumes, written in a popular way for instruction, on the volcanoes, glaciers, rivers and lakes of North America, have had a host of readers and have stimulated interest in geologic science. He also made the Triassic deposits of the east a field of special study, and his volume on the Newark formation is a standard work of reference on this subject. His genial disposition endeared him to all who knew him and he will be mourned by many friends. L, V. P. FENDER Gs A Abbe, C., obituary notice of 8. P. pane del. Abbe, E., memorial to. 338. Abraham, H., Ions, Electrons and Corpuscules, 466. Academy, National, meeting at Washington, 406. Agassiz, A., Albatross Expedition to Eastern Pacific, 257. Alaska, Copper River region, geol- ogy, Mendenhall, 82 ; Mesozoic sec- tion in, Stanton and Martin, 181. Albatross Expedition to the astern Pacific, Agassiz, 207. Allen, E. T., polymorphic forms of calcium metasilicate, 89. Arizona, Coon Butte, Barringer and Tilghman, 402; copper deposits, Lindgren, 532; stony meteorite, Malet, 347. Association, American, New Orleans, 188. Auer burner, 172. meeting at B Baker, R. H., solar eclipse of 1907, | 245, Ball Soyo, Georgetown, Col., 371. Ballore, F. de M. de, les Tremble- ments de Terre, 331. Barnes, C., nucleation of the atmos- | phere, 400. Bauschinger, Bahnbestimmung, 478 Berry, E. W., Prorosmarus “alleni from Virginia, 444. Birds, se ZOOLOGY. Boltwood, B. B., radio-activity of salts of radium, 409 ; of thorium minerals and salts, 415. Bose, J. C., Plant response as a) means of investigation, A476. Boston Society of. Natural History, | Guide to Invertebrate Collection, Sheldon, 336, 475. spectrum of, Rubens, pre-Cambrian rocks of | radio-activity | OLUME XXI* BOTANY. Desmidiacez, British, West, 477. Fungi, of N. America, Index, Vol. 1, pt. 1, Farlow, 87. Pflanzenfabel in der Weltliteratur, Winsche, 477. Plant response as a means of phy- siological investigation, Bose, 476. Plants, manganese as fertilizer, 248. Rhizopoda, British freshwater, Cash and Hopkinson, 475. Bradley, W. H., precipitates on as- bestos, 403. British Museum, catalogue of Glos- sopteris flora, Arber, 474; Madre- porian corals, Bernard, 474. — New Guinea, geological features, Maitland, 404. Brooklyn Institute, bulletins, 479. Brooks, W.R., The Oyster, 88. | Brown, if ,interaction of hydrochloric acid and potassium permanganate, Al. | Buchanan, J. Y., determination of specific ovavity of soluble salts, 20. _Bumstead, H. A., heating effects of Roéntgen rays in different metals, 1. C California, Miocene foraminifera, Bagge, 253. |Canada, geol. survey, see GEO- LOGICAL SURVEYS. Carnegie Institution, publications, 258, 479. (Cey lon minerals, Coomaraswamy, 186. Chamberlin, T. C., geology, 400. CHEMICAL WORKS. Ammonia, liquid, as a_ solvent, Bronn, 79. Chemistry, Conversations on, Ost- - wald, 248. |/— Progress for 1904, Annual Report, 80. Elements and Compounds, ties of, Martin, 79. Affini- * This Index contains the general heads, BoTANy, CHEMISTRY (incl. chem. physics), GEOLOGY, MINERALS, OBITUARY, Rocks, ZOOLOGY, and under each the titles of Articles referring thereto are mentioned. INDEX. CHEMISTRY. Alkaline metals, boiling points of, Ruff and Johannsen, 78 ; hydrides of, Moissan, 77. Ammonium sulphate, tion, Delépine, 247. Antimony, modifications, Stock and Siebert, 170. Asbestos, precipitates on, Penfield and Bradley, 453. Bismuth, determination, Staehler and Schaffenberg, 171. Bromine fluoride, Lebeau, 172. Caesium chromates, Fraprie, 309. Calcium hydride, gaseous in acety- lene, 464; preparation, Jaubert, 464. — metasilicate, polymorphic forms, , _Allen and White, 89. Carbon oxybromide, von Bartel, 465. suboxide, Diels and Wolf, 596. Cyanogen, synthesis of, Wallis, 464. Ferric chloride in the zine reduc- tor, Randall, 128. Gold, colorimetric determination, Maxson, 270. — distillation, Moissan, 171. Grape sugar, determination, 3825. Halogens in organic compounds, determination, Vaubel and Schauer, 396. Hydriodic acid, rapid preparation, Bodroux, 326. Hydrochloric acid and potassium permanganate, interaction, Brown, 41. Iron group, distillation of metals, Moissan, 397. — rusting of, 78. Tron-cyanogen compounds, cause of color, 78. _Manganese as a fertilizer for plants, Bertrand, 248. Nitrous and nitric acids, determin- ation, Weisenheimer and Heim, 170. Organic substances, mechanical sep- pa neOns Bordas and Tourplain, 8. Platinum group, boiling of metals of, Moissan, 325. aon radio-activity of, Curie, ond. Radium, see Radium. Silicon, fluoroform, Ruff and Al- bert, 247. Silver, electro chemical] equivalent, Van Dijk, 326. — vapor, molecular weight, Warten- berg, 463. decomposi- ‘Chwolson, 485 Sulphur in pyrites, determination, Hintz and Weber, 324. Tellurous and telluric acids, Berg, 248. Thorium, see Thorium. O. D., Lehrbuch der Physik, 174. Cirkel, F., asbestos, 255; mica, 405. Coast Survey, report, Tittmann, 259. Coherer, electrolytic, Gundry, 326. | Colorado, Georgetown, pre-Cambrian rocks, Ball, 371. —red beds of southwestern, Cross and Howe, 3828. Colloidal solutions, electrically pre- pared, Burton, 599. Condenser sparks, energy, duration, etc., Heydweiller, 465. “Container,’’ new form for Muse- ums, Goodale, 451. Corals, Madreporian in British Mu- seum, Bernard, 474. — Paleozoic, early stages, 109. Cross, W., red beds of southwestern Colorado, 328. Crystallography, Groth, 185. Crystals, drawing of, Penfield, 206. Cuba, Harvard Botanical Station, 475. Gordon, D Dadourian, H. M., radio-activity of thorium, 427. DeLury, J. S., cobaltite in northern Ontario, 275. Doelter, C., Petrogenesis, 472. Dominica, Avifauna of, A. H. Ver- rill, 337. Dresser, J. A., metamorphic rocks of St. Francis Valley, Quebec, 67. Dynamics of Living Matter, Loeb, 479. E Earthquakes, de Ballore, 331. Eastman, C. R., Dipnoan affinities of Arthrodires, 131. Electrical conductivity of fiames, Wilson and Gold, 399. — radiation, Paetzold, 250. — rectifier, Wehnelt, 250. Electro-Chemistry, Hopkins, 249. Electrolytic coherer, Gundry, 326. Electron, constitution of, Kaufmann, 398. Elektrische Kraftiibertragung, Phil- ippi, 81 Ethnology, Bureau of American, publications, 260. 484 F Farlow, W. G., Bibliographical Index of North American Fungi, vol. i, pt. 1, 87. Field Columbian Museum, 408. Finland, igneous rocks of, Hackman, 85. Fisher, O., changes of level in the earth’s crust, 216. Flames, electrical conductivity, Wil- son and Gold, 399. Fliess, W., Pfennig, 407. Foods, microscopy of vegetable, Win- ton, 339. Franklin Bi-Centennary, 406. Fraprie, F. R., cesium chromates, 309. G Geological Congress, International, meeting at Mexico City, 406. GEOLOGICAL REPORTS AND SURVEYS— Canada, publications, 404. Maryland, vol. v, 1905, 331. North Carolina, vol. 1, 253. ec States, 26th annual report, — — Topographie Atlas, 251; folios | 81, 251; monographs, 175, 253 ; professional papers, 81, 83, 84, | 251, 332; bulletins, 82, 177, 179, | 180, 252, 253; water supply pa-_| pers, 82, 252. Virginia, bulletin 1, 255. Wisconsin, bulletin, No. XIV., | Grant, 470. | GEOLOGY— Arthrodires, Dipnoan affinities, | Eastman, 131. Arthrophycus and Daedalus of bur- row origin, Sarle, 330. Bragdon formation, Hershey, 58. Bryozoa, Bassler, 469. Buena Vista, priority in use of) name, Prosser, 181. Ceratops, new name for, Lull, 144. Champsosaurus Cope, osteology of, Brown, 330. Coal resources of Wyoming, 473. Copper deposits of Arizona, Lind- gren, 5382; of Missouri, Bain and | Ulzich, 180. ‘ » H op 1 | Copper River region, Alaska, geol- ogy, Mendenhall, 82. Diamond fissures, South Africa, Harger, 471. INDEX. Diplodocus Marsh, osteology, Hol- land, 470. EKarth’s crust, changes of level in, Fisher, 216. Essex Co., Mass., geology, Sears, 255. Floras, Mesozoic, of the U. §&., Ward, 175. Glaciation of Orford and Sutton Mts., Quebec, Wilson, 196. Glossopteris flora, British museum, catalogue, Arber, 474. Hohlenkunde, von Knebel, 473. Judith River beds, geology, Stan- ton and Hatcher, 177. Jurassic formation of Texas, pale- ontology, Cragin, 179. — fossils, localities of supposed, Veatch, 457. Laccoliths of Piatigorsk, V. de Der- wies, 184. Lead and zine deposits of Virginia, Watson, 255; of Wisconsin, Grant, 470. — zine and fiuorspar deposits of Kentucky, Ulrich and Tangier Smith, 84. Mesozoic Floras of U. S., Ward, 179. — section in Alaska, Stanton and Martin, 181. Miocene foraminifera of California, Bagg, 208. Ohio geological formations, nomen- clature, Prosser, 181. Paleozoic corals, early stages, Gor- don, 109. — Insects, revision, Handlirsch,468. — Lower, formations in New Mex- ico, Gordon and Graton, 390. Petrogenesis, Doelter, 472. Pleistocene of New Mexico, ruminant from, Gidley, 470. Plesiosaurs, North American, Wil- liston, 221. Pre-Cambrian rocks of Georgetown, Colorado, Ball, 371. Primates, Wasatch and Wind River, Loomis, 277. Proceratops, Lull, 144. Prorosmarus alleni from Virginia Miocene, Berry and Gregory, 444. Protostega, osteology, Wieland, 469. Red beds of southwestern Colorado, Cross and Howe, 328. Rock floor of New York, configura- tion, Hobbs, 182. Rock-weathering, peculiarities of, Hilgard, 261. Tonopah Mining District, Nevada, geology, Spurr, 83. ete., new INDEX. GEOLOGY — Continued. Triassic cephalopod genera of America, Hyatt and Smith, 253. Unconformities, significance of cer- tain, Keyes, 296. Upper Carboniferous genera, Ul- rich and Bassler, 469. Geology, Chamberlin and Salisbury, 400. — Lapparent, 401. — American, History of, Merrill, 467. — Economic, of the United States, Ries, 256. Geophysical research, Gibbs, 461. Gibbs, J. W., geophysical research, 461. Goodale, G. L., new form of ‘‘ Con- tainer”’ for Museums, 451. Gordon, C. E., early stages in Paleo- zoic corals, 109. Gordon, C. H., lower Paleozoic for- mations in N. Mexico, 390. Graton, L. C., lower Paleozoic for- mations in N. Mexico, 390. Greenland, rocks of northwest, Belowsky, 184. Gregory, W. K., Prorosmarus alleni. from Virginia, 444. Groth, P., Crystallography, 185. H Handlirsch, A., revision of Paleozoic Insects, 468. Harvard Botanical Station, Cuba, 475. Hatcher, J. B., Geology of Judith River beds, 177. Headden, W. P., phosphorescent calcites, 301. Heating effects of Rontgen rays in different metals, Bumstead, 1. Hershey, O. H., Western Klamath stratigraphy, 08. Hilgard, E. W., peculiarities of rock- weathering, 261. Hillebrand, W. F., new mercury mineral from Texas, 89. Hintze, C., Mineralogie, 257. Hobbs, W. H., configuration of rock floor of New York, 182. Hofmeister, F., Beitriige zur chemis- chen Physiologie, 357. Hopkins, N. M., Electro-Chemistry, 249. Howard, K. S., new meteorite from Texas, 186. Howe, E., red beds of southwestern Colorado, 328. Hunt, W. F., sulphur and celestite in Michigan, 257. ‘Tons, 485 I Invertebrates, Guide to, Beston So- ciety Natural History, Sheldon, 336, 475. Hlectrons and Corpuscules, Abraham and Langevin, 466. — in air, recombination of, Bragg and Kleeman, 399. J Jones, H. C., Electrical Nature of Matter, 465. K Kentucky, lead, zinc and fluorspar deposits, Ulrich and Tangier Smith, 84 Keyes, C. R., significance of certain unconformities, 296. Klamath stratigraphy, Hershey, 58. Knebel, W. von, Hohlenkunde, 473. Knight, C. W., pseudo-leucite, Yukon T., 286; re-formation of soda-ieucite, 294. Kraus, E. H., sulphur and celestite in Michigan, 237. Kunz, G. F., production of Precious Stones in 1904, 187. L Lampard, H., celestite in Canada, 188. Langevin, P., ions, Electrons and Corpuscules, 466. Langley, Samuel Pierpont, obituary notice, Abbe, 321 Lapparant, A. de, Géologie, 401. Leidy, Joseph, Memorial, 338. Life and Matter, Lodge, 338. Lightning discharges, after from, Walter, 173. Lindgren, W., copper deposits of Arizona, 332. Lodge, O., Life and Matter, 338. Loeb, J., Dynamics of Living Matter, 479. glow Loomis, F. B., Wasatch and Wind River primates, 277. Lull, R. S., new name for the genus Ceratops, 144. M Magnetic field and coronal stream- ers, J. Trowbridge, 189. — relations of powdered iron, Tren- kle, 465. Magnetization by rapidly oscillating currents, Madelung, 80. 486 Mallet, J. W., meteorite from Coon Butte, Arizona, d47. Mann, G., Chemistry of the Proteids, 407. Martin, G., Affinities of Elements and Compounds, 79. Maryland Geol.-Survey, see GEOL. REPORTS. Matter, Electrical nature of, Jones, 465. Mawson, D., Geology of the Hebrides, 403. New Maxson, R.N., colorimetric deter- | mination of gold, 270. Mazama, 260. McCoy, H. M., radio-activity thorium compounds, 483. Mechanics, Merrill, 260. Mendenhall, W. C., geology of Cop- per River region, Alaska, 82. Merrill, G. P., new meteorite, Scott Co., Kansas, 3806; History American Geology, 467. Meteorite, iron, Rodeo, Mexico, Farrington, 86; new from Texas, Howard, 186. — stone, Coon Butte, let, 347; new, Scott Co., Merrill, 556; Shelburne, Borgstrém, 86. Meteorites, Canyon Diablo, Barrin- ; ger and Tilghman, 402. Miers, H. A., phenocrysts in igneous rocks, 182. Miller, W. G., ides of Temiskaming, 256. Mineralogie, Hintze, 207. — von Japan, 409. MINERALS. Asbestos, Canada, 259. Barite, Maryland, 369. Calcites. phosphorescent, 301. Celestite, Canada, 188; Michigan, 237. Cobaltite, Northern On- | tario, 275. Caro- lina, 253. Feldspars,determination of, Wright, 561. Fluorite, 405; in Kentucky, 84. Mercury mineral, new, Terlingua, Texas, 8). Mica, Canada, 405. Opal pseudomorphs, New South Wales, 254. Pseudo-leucite, Yukon Pseudo-wollastonite, 89. Siderite, Maryland, 364. Silver, Canada, 256. Smaltite, Canada, 206, 294. Sulphur, Michigan, Corundum, N. T., 286. 287. of | of | Arizona, Mal- | Kansas, | Ontario, | cobalt-nieckel arsen- | Soda-leucite, re- -formation, INDEX. | Thorianite, 187. Wollastonite, 89. | Missouri, copper deposits, Bain and Ulrich, 160. — geol. Bureau, publications, 181. N | National Museum, eee a 260; report June 1904, 47 | Nevada, geology of Tenaga mining district. Spurr, 83. New Hebrides, Geology, Mawson, | 408. | New Mexico, lower Paleozoic forma- tions, Gordon and Graton, 390. New York, configuration of floor of, Hobbs, 182. — State Museum, bulletins, 87, | Norway,, Crustacea, Sars, 387, Nucleation of the atmosphere, Barus, 400. OBITUARY. Beale, L. S., 408. | Curie, P., 408. Langley, S. P., 321. rock 181. Peirce, J. M., 408. Russell, I. C., 481. Shaler, N. S., 408, 480. Observatory, Wes: Naval, 260. Oceanography of the Pacific, Flint, | Orbits of celestial bodies, determina- | tion, Bauschinger, 478. heeicaee A., Chemische Petrographie, 183. Ostwald, W., Conversations on Chemistry, part li, 248. /Ostwald’s Klassiker der exakten Wissenschaften, 188. | Oyster, Brooks, 88. le Pacific, Albatross Expedition to the Eastern, Agassiz, 257. — oceanography, Flint, 535. Paléontologie, Annales de, Vol. I, pts. I and II, 330. Penfield, S. L., drawing of crystals, 206; precipitates on asbestos, 453. Petrography, see ROCKS. Philippi, W., Elektrische Kraftiber- tragung, 81. Philippine Journal of Science, 336, | 408 Physical measurements, Sabine, 467. — Phenomena, Modern Theory of, Righi, 328. | Physik, Lehrbuch, Chwolson, 174. INDEX. Physiologie, Beitriige zurchemischen, Hofmeister, 337. Polariscope, Rolfe, 174. Prosser, C. S., use of name Buena ‘Vista for a geol. terrain, 181. Proteids. chemistry of, Mann, 407. Q Quebec, metamorphic rocks of St. Francis Valley, Dresser, 67. — glaciation of Orford and Sutton Mts., Wilson, 196. R Radiation from ordinary materials, Campbell, 249. Radio-activity of polonium, Curie, 326; of the salts of radium, Bolt- wood, 409; of thorium, Dadourian, 427; of thorium minerals and salts, Boltwood, 415; retardation of the velocity of a particles in, Ruther- ford, 399. Radium, atomic weight of, Jones, 597. — crystal photography, Walter, 466. — properties of a-rays, Rutherford, L072. — radio-activity of the salts of, Bolt- wood, 409. Randall, D. L., ferric chloride in the zine reductor, 128. Read, T. T., re-formation of soda- leacite, 294. Relay, telephone, J. Trowbridge, 339; Jensen and Sieveking, 173. Ries, H., Economic Geology of the United States, 256. Righi, A., Modern Theory of Physi- cal Phenomena, 328. ROCKS. Analyses of igneous rocks, Osann, 153. Cancrinite-syenite from Kuolajirvi, Sundell, 254. Igneous rocks, phenocrysts in, Miers, 182; of Finland, and Kola penin- sula, Hackman, 89. Metamorphic rocks of St. Francis Valley, Quebec, Dresser, 67. Peridotites of N. Carolina, Pratt and Lewis, 253. Petrography of northwest Green- | land, Belowsky, 184. Rolfe, G. W., Polariscope, 174. Réntgen and cathode rays, ionization, Herweg, 327. — rays, heating effects, Bumstead, 1. 487 Ross, W. H., radio-activity of tho- rium compounds, 433. Russia, Piatigorsk, laccoliths of, V. de Derwies, 184. Rutherford, E., properties of a-rays ’ from radium, 172; retardation of velocity of a particles, 599. S) Sabine, W. C., Physical Measure- ments, 467. Salisbury, R. D., Geology, 400. Salts, determination of the specific eravity, Buchanan, 25. Sarle, on Arthrophycus and Deda- lus, 330. Schaller, W. T., siderite and barite from Maryland, 564. Sears, J. H., geology, ete., of Essex Co., Mass., 255. Smithsonian Institution, annual re- port, June 1905, 259. Soils, formation of, Hilgard, 261. South Africa, diamond fissures, Har- ger, 471. Spark potentials, Toepler, 249. Specific gravity of soluble salts, de- termination of, Buchanan, 25. Spectrum of Auer burner, Rubens, Lie: — of the high tension flaming dis- charge, Walter, 465. Spurr, J. E., geology of Tonopah mining district, Nevada, 83. Stanton, T. W., geology of the Judith River Beds, 177. Steam, superheated, specific heat, Rubens and Henning, 173. Stokes, Sir G. G., Mathematical and Physical Papers, 174. | Sun, total eclipse of, 1907, 245. al Tassin, W., analysis of meteorite from Kansas, 356. Telegraphy, wireless, influence of the earth in, Sachs, 80. Telephone relay, microphone contact for, Jensen and Sieveking, 173; Trowbridge, 339. Temiskaming, cobalt-nickel arsen- ides, Miller, 256. | Texas, Jurassic formation, paleon- tology, Cragin, 179. — new mercury mineral, Hillebrand, 85. : — new meteorite from, Howard, 186. 458 INDEX. Thorium, radio-activity of, Dadou-| Wilson, A. W. G., glaciation of Or- rian, 427 — compounds, radio-activity, McCoy | Winton, A. L., and Ross, 433. — minerals and salts, radio-activity, Boltwood, 415. | Todd, D., total solar eclipse, Jan., 1907, 245. | Trowbridge, C. C., interlocking of | feathers in flight of birds, 145. | Wright, F. E., ford and Sutton Mts., Quebec, 196. Microscopy of Veg- etable Foods, 335. Wisconsin, lead and zine deposits, Grant, 470. optical study of wollastonite and pseudo-wollaston- ite, 105; determination of feldspars, 061. Trowbridge, J., magnetic field and Wyoming, coal resources, 473. coronal streamers, 189; telephone | relay, 339. | | | x U | X-ray, new kind, Seitz, 80. | — see Rontgen rays. United States, economic geology of, Ries, 256. | — see Coast Survey, Geol. Re- Z ° ports, National Museum, Observ- | ZOOLOGY— atory. | Vv | Veatch, A.C., localities of supposed Jurassic fossils, 457. Venice, Lagoon of, 407. | Merrill Ar “ei, new species of Dy-| nastes, Dominica, 317; avifauna of | Domini¢a, 337. Virginia, lead and zine deposits, | Watson, 200. | Ww White, W.P., polymorphic forms of calcium metasilicate, 89. Williston, S. W., North American | Plesiosaurs, 221. , Avifauna of Dominica, A. H. Ver- vill, 337. Birds, interlocking of feathers in flight, Trowbridge, 145. — of the Southern Lesser Antilles, Clark, 337. Corals, Madreporian, Museum, 474. Crustacea of Norway, Sars, 537. Dynastes, new species from Domin- ica, Verrill, 317. Echinoderma, Bather, 330. Invertebrates of Boston Soe. History, Sheldon, 336, 475. Isopods of No. America, Richard- son, 387. Lagenidz, developmental stages, Cushman, 180. in British Nat, OUR PRICES FOR MINERALS will always compare favorably with even the ‘‘reduced ” prices of other dealers. We believe in small profits and large sales. Minerals for Physical Determinations in the laboratory is one of our specialties. Send for circular No. 36. We handle PENFIELD CONTACT CONIOMETERS WHITTLE DIAMOND SAWS Orders Filled Promptly WARD'S NATURAL SCIENCE ESTABLISHMENT, ROCHESTER, N. Y. Warps Naturat Science EstaBlisHMENT A Supply-House for Scientific Material. Founded 1862. - incorporated 1890. DEPARTMENTS: Geology, including Phenomenal and Physiographie. Mineralogy, including also Rocks, Meteorites, CUO, Palaeontology. Archaeology and Ethnology. Invertebrates, including Biology, Conchology, ete. Zoology, including Osteology and Taxidermy. Human Anatomy, including Craniology, Odontology, ete. Models, Plaster Casts and Wall-Charts in all departments. * Circulars in any department free on request; address Wards Natural Science Establishment, 76-104 College Ave., Rochester, New York, U.S. A. Z CONTENTS. Page — Arr. XXXVI.—Radio-Activity of the Salts of Radium ; by. B.. Be Borrwoop-.. -..:. 2. 4. eS 409 XX XVII.—Radio-Activity of Thorium Minerals and Salts ; by. B. By Bonrwoon. ----.--.-.--2=.-i2 XXXVIII.—Radio-activity of Thorium ; by H. M. Davov- RIAN ooo ek bea $e oe 427 XXXIX.—The Radio-activity and Composition of Thorium Compounds ; by H. N. McCoy and W. H. Ross. ..___- 433 XL.—Prorosmarus alleni, a new genus and species of Walrus from the Upper Miocene of Yorktown, Virginia; by i. W. Berry and W. K. Grecory:... 22-222 444 XLI.—A new form of “Container” for use in Museums of Economic Botany ; by G. L. GoopaLE_...--.--2 222: 451 XLII.—Filter Tubes for Collection of Precipitates on Asbes- tos by 8. L. PENFIELD and W. M. BRapLEy —... 222225 453 XLUL—Age and Type Localities of the Supposed Jurassic Fossils collected by Frémont in 1843; by A. C. VEaton 457 XLIV.—Certain Suggestions by J. Willard Gibbs on Geo- physical: Research-22 2-222 3 <3 se ee 461 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE Chemistry and Physics—Molecular Weight of Silver Vapor, WARTENBERG: Carbon Oxybromide, A. von Barte., 463.—Industrial Preparation of Cal- cium Hydride, JAUBERT: Synthesis of Cyanogen, etc., from the Hlements, T. WALLIS : Gaseous Hydride of Calcium in Acetylene, HoFFMEISTER, 464. —Electrical Nature of Matter and Radioactivity, H. C. Jonus: Energy, Duration, Damping and Resistance of Condenser Sparks, A. HEYDWHIL- LER: Magnetic Relations of Powdered Iron of Various Densities, W. TRENELE: Spectrum of the High Tension Flaming Discharge, B. WAL- TER, 46).—Photography of a Radium Crystal by its Own Light, B. Wax- TER: Ions, Electrons, Corpuscules, 466.—Physical Measurements, 467. Geology and Natural History—Contributions to the History of American Geology, G. P. Merritt, 467.—Revision of Paleozoic Insects, A. HANnpD- LIRSCH, 468. —Study of James Types of Ordovician and Silurian Bryozoa ; Descriptions of Upper Carboniferous Genera and Species [of Ostracoda]: Osteology of Protostega, G. R. W1ELanp, 469.—Osteology of Diplodocus Marsh, W. J. HoLuanp ; New Ruminant from Pleistocene of New Mexico, J. W. GipLey; Report on Lead and Zine Deposits of Wisconsin, 470.— Diamond Pipes and Fissures of South Africa, 471.—Petrogenesis, 472.— Hohlenkunde: Coal Resources of Wyoming : Over de Betrekking van het Bekken der Anthropoiden tot dat van den Mensch, 473.—Glossopteris Flora: Madreporian Corals, 474.—British Freshwater Rhizopoda and Heli- ozoa: Harvard Botanical Station in Cuba, 475.—Plant Response, 476.— British Desmidiaceae: Pflanzenfabel, Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Bahnbestimmung der Himmelskorper, 478.—Report of U. S. Nat. Museum for year ending June 30, 1904: Dyna- mics of Living Matter, 479.—Carnegie Institution of Washington : Brook- lyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 480. Obituary—N. S. SHaterR and I. C. RUSSELL. InDEX TO Vou. XXI, 482. oe ya ih hitises eas Dea alt ae sat Buy Alaa Ae An Y | Vs frie, tt att Lh ae ‘WATE 3 9088 01298 5727