=
ner ifr aurea ried emcrineroprs
Peete ee eT ES
SE eS ge petend. . Deane SSSR S ees eee ahs )
> “ nm ial rN m . oi =, % - i

nan Mt SN Reet teeta el le Bos 7 heat: Ss + ° ; ad eet

Mele ee Aree he Morag be mM Meth te Cee A'S tls AT, Rt =

Pr es nate We Rete ie kre pstreh de He. 9.0 Bn Om ete Be hed neigh Be bag Be good? Mt Lom tg Lin dim thy wi

ne Sane Sinem et ete 2. ¢ = tw Serer eer rrtaes ae Me.

Te Wr eree-tys Oe ee So LP nh Lutte ne Pye tore Fete ap

Pe oeresas cc as one nerrewreas

ce aN
ated he oe na aap a Ae Rats oe ts
> Nest Celt Bed tk Baie, = a PesTe
hetedest eae Sn te RANT cepts hs, Perit ag ee rane Ped be Gomme t= -
Cee Nien “ Sea het ~ Pete te Salles Mg,
ata Sato Nyt oe aie teh, Siglip Mia Ot mg RNa rod digit in” ene
a neat en are mm meena eae
a eames =

pate Oe er
“es Eee iar are

Sides adie BR Re Gore ts ty nm

- eo, Seba PRP Aw SR enn .

Pein nomena) cute: enters
Nore PO fod” eam Seg, a wieirs v a Dashes Mi. fam gone Aohens ia ee
PA Ante m6 ibe tatnte s Ln en i i ee ice Perens .
_ tate ~ Wnt ron Sg, De. athena. ede a ee “het Pog ag iw” 7 ¥ darn - tate mee , "
pristine ee, eee a AN tg te chs tek oP AT TL dee ee - :
ee ih Br ree On eee we. ee INA I. Hn he, heh Bann Meg
Oro te Oe, ee diese, a ee Oram te hei ty eee eee a ". ‘. “
Sidiesbtde ee eee 7 Pehitet ee et "FO NN Soe ela dins iy lode Hin Me tog OM PTY ee ML,
- —F rare ome Tee. iewtbete 62 hotnetg O Stng le Pt Cet
ees ere an A ate enter pary = RM ch al east oe ee ete Fa,
ete He F. ate, S38 5 erie een Fo ee eee Atom Resta oP. no
Nei tert ee ee feast. teat on ae ee late on el rem ee foe Ng chads ae. oy,
ptaiarentae oe rT Ne Me ener Pt tent arercecimen eg te et ee er! em Rae :
and tee On - fe al ia tire ee mt pm
ed pet a \ Aetomtian tae ee Oe nls
* ie he <A
i PEt om a teen
-iedieaane ee Moth hehe Me monn .
OM Pe, ag mg 2
et rie :
> cates ain si een — Witte ww,
iste eo ee ee ws et eatg# ae
; hein? Sas
| th Samet 2 mn = oe he
meee bate aed
~ Pe,” *
| i dein welll, 5.
hl ediniesienh ae
* “— Sener ap
eda ee
cheat ~Pa “=> - oe me le oa
STO, Sr seats! tape whee NS ee. retere. ge
ws Me ot ome - enti ee , . 7 ape
we ener nts oe +5 am
. an} 40 whe, ~ wie atte
fo ete hem Mares nr ae oe
= —. . tot * * , . .
ial A ~~ ~. ~~. Pel he tenn
~ ao ee PTs ha
~ ms Soe a a tety ang mabe HL ~
x Saran a “= _ es ~* “ - =
s : i. a 7 Z > - “ :
" s .
S_< te = - < — ee =
wx 8 =e Oe es fate Rant oceughe ve ge Tr, A o. da
ote ~ - 2 - * td
, “ e . -~ « .
oa ~ ~ = ~
in a ~ -*- a ~
= - % me he Mere. “ > we —_
: — ~— ’ mw. - = =
* od - 7 - ~~ —_ "see a -
~~ ; : wi ® = ene ~
Fa i : t. et a
- wn . pe ~ . ps :
me -~
- e « ~~ os
- - wee “ --s F
7 co i aha - i
- 5S : re ears
= a ”a 7 SisPa 2
fy A t — ad 4
= a ~
ce - - = r Belgie ar at whe,
. oi mae ~ ~ Seine” NeNetagta seg
poet. | - — at ae he
* . c we = “: o* ie e inp 5
« * Pd “<". ‘xaos Sarid olin “4 iN eahnechnt aera ene
. ~ oe hat = iearuseine a eee NR at daa eat ees wh
‘* = - rate = on bn. Reed To oe SS AD ed. "a Y
F ie . es ~ ws een ' —s Pah orn ~ "Peta Annan taco aia Ras oT Le $ ’ aa “4
oA ~ o . rutheet — » Me o ' A i" g . rok: as _
a - “ Toe At we . he ee. tea : Ba ae i ALU Y “
ba are ie ta nt > et . hh 2 is Pore ed ran 4 Ta elem ne, en treat tial
> ~ ve > : iat Jat . : -_ Shum cecal ares ‘ SS aetL he, et adn
a tw vedi Pm 0 Oe A «Pat x PD Gp Ste Sig 9 ‘ ; Trea ecw
ne . A 24 . ieee te ee naib ee ted ae oe S oa teas <f i ek treet eee bow woth 456 vrs hee at
ee v* . *s Pn my Pee) ay ct te ry eee ahh we ee ‘ " 4 Wee ms Py ie <7 ae A st
ei mh An? Rally aD eal SAA oe, a ere «. ™ . out ok ee ee ee an sane
¢ batitictae er Hs “ - oa o-.’ ~ : : sn mene A
- je at INS elas oe ate me, ¥ a : $n ty
ate, . r 7 , sae froma ‘
. ald ‘ Lys Oe rr si
a oo Pebe ses ess pia eee *: pieces ae
. ~ 6m = pe gate ~o* , teat <= SAL ae gee eee
ee ee .
SSR atte we tas z > ae
Low .

Gonerete

ree

—— hes 6. « ‘tar a sheen 5 aiees res ¥

|

S y . 7
EP ply li ¥
H ‘ re |:
| Yi: ar. iil } |
i
U (i ne! a
|

sy
|

rod
b bp’
“?

rh
i)

ae
\. Gna ‘)
N “ red 8.
eee
ane
eel ‘ay

Wy

Wi ‘| ae " Se j x
Nill ee Ea

my

in
a

0

2

le
ah.)

“ors

see
I
EAN

ors

é

*

ea halae%

DEA
:

f
eal

ty

sot

mel ‘
Pecoraro rs ‘4 ~

ver

Sgguicate!

4

lI
if

ee
AL INC aR

ra
fee call Mlle

GF
GGA

5 Tee

»

fos

Sua

My mtd 1) ?)
s Sa Gk,
hte hy inset

Gti
wey

a

ONE

fps ALL hy
MON Hale

Maes ae ae & |
EN Sy, So cel | | Se

cs!
Ny “sy iepal)

re

THE

AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. -

Epitor: EDWARD S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Prorrssors WILLIAM M. DAVIS ann REGINALD A. DALY,
oF CAMBRIDGE,

Prorressors HORACE LL. WELLS, CHARLES SCHUCHERT,
HERBERT EH. GREGORY, WESLEY R. COE anp
FREDERICK E. BEACH, or New Haven,

Proressor HDWARD W. BERRY, or BAutrmMore,
Drs. FREDERICK L. RANSOME anp WILLIAM BOWIE,
> oF WASHINGTON.

FIFTH SERIES
VOL. I—[_WHOLE NUMBER, CCI).

WITH FOUR PLATES

NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.

1S) ale

Op \

Cae }

‘

Seliona M wr

THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR COMPANY
NEW HAVEN

CONTENTS TO. VOLUME, I:

ietftolaaaly J¥ene aly :
Page
Art. I.—Relations of Subjacent Igneous Invasion to Regional
Mennmnorpbisms. by J. -bARBELE SUES eee J, 1
Art. II.—Note on Augite from Vesuvius and Etna; by H.
Se WaAsnineron and H: KE. Merwin ..200.0...0..0.08 6. 20
Arr. I1I.—Chionophila Benth., a Morphological Study; by
Tueo. Horm. (With 15 figures drawn from nature by
aieeaMulOr)..+........ FA es a Re ae, aA dl

Arr. 1V.—Geology of the Muddy Mountains, Nevada, with
a Section to the Grand Wash Chiifs 1 in AVicstenti rizoner
Ren WONG WHICL col ce se eect tie eels ete Bie el star koe 39

Arr. V.—The Stanley Shale of Oklahoma; by C. W. Honess 63
Art. VI.—Popocatepetl again in Activity; by P. Warrz... 81

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—A Revision of the Atomic Weight of Aluminium,
T. W. Ricwarps and H. KreprtKa: The Chemists’ Year Book, 1920,
F. W. Arack, 88.—Dictionary of Explosives, A. MARSHALL: Catalysis
and its Industrial Applications, E. Jopninc: American Lubricants, L. B.
LockHart; Fuel Oil in Industry, S. O. ANDROS: Spectra of Isotopes,
T. R. Merron. 89.—Magnetic Susceptibilities of Low Order, 90.—The
Airplane, F. BepELL: A Field and Laboratory Guide in Physical Nature
Study, KE. R. Downine, 91.—Annuaire pour |’An 1920, 92.

Geology—Der Siidrand der Puna de Atacaina (NW-Argentinien); Kin Beitrag.
zur Kenntniss des Andinen Gebirgstypus und zu der Frage der Gebirgs-
bildung, W. PencK, 92.--Der Selpausselka, L. LetviskKA: De marine
Kridtaflejringer, J. P. J. Ravn. 93.—Illinois State Geological Survey, F.
W. DEWotF: Bulletins of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, 94.—
Guide to the Mineral Collections in the Illinois State Museum, A. R.
CrooK, 99.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Report of the Secretary of the Smithson-
ian Institution, C. D. Waxcort, for the year ending June 30, 1920, 95.—
Publications of the Allegheny Observatory of the University of Pittsburgh,
F, SCHLESINGER, 96.

Obitwary—M. Mareouwues: K. H. Struve: Y. Denace, 96.

1V CONTENTS.

Number:2:

Art. VII.—The Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur, Nodosaurus
textilis Marsh; by R. 8. Lutn (With Plates I to IV)..

Arr, X.—Mississippian Formations of the Horton-Windsor

Page

District, Nova Scotia; by W.A: Bet. .) cee 153

Arr. XI.—Relations of Subjacent Igneous Invasion to Re-

gional Metamorphism (continued); by J. BARRELL..... 174.

Arr. XII.—Permian of Coahuila, Northern Mexico; by E.

BOSE. ci es eens 6 so ee 187

Arr. XITI.—Occurrence of Structures like Walcott’s Algon-

kian Alge in the Permian of England; by O. Hotrepann 195

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Phisics—Perchloric Acid as a Dehydrating Agent in the Deter-

mination of Silica, H. H. WiLtLarp and W. HK. Coxe: Chemistry and
Crystallography of Some Fluorides of Cobalt, Nickel, Manganese and
Copper, F. H. EpMistTer and H. C. Cooper, 207.—Notes on Chemical Re-
search, W. P. DReaper: Elementary Chemistry for Coal-mining Students ;
L. T. O'SHEA, 208.—Creative Chemistry, E. E. SLtosson: Ot en est La
Météorologie, A. BercEt, 209. — Etude sur Le Systeme Solaire, P. REyNaup,
210.—The National Physical Laboratory, Report for the Year 1919, 211.

Geology and Mineralogy—Geology of Anglesey, E GREENLY, 212.-—Abriss der

Allgemeinen und Stratigraphischen Geologie, E. Kayser: Geology and
Mineral Resources of Bexar Co.. Texas, E. H. SELLARDS: Geology of Tarrant
County, W. M. Winton and W.S. Apxkins: Mineralogy, an Introduction
to the Study of Minerals and Crystals, E. H. Kraus and W. F. Hunt,
213.—Ore Deposits of Utah, B. S. Butimr, 214.

Obituary—H. A. BumMsTEAD: W. DEW. ABNEY: P. S. UMFREVILLE: W. A.

HowarpD: Y. DELAGE, 214.

CONTENTS. Vv

Number 3.

Page
Art. XIV.—John Day Promerycocheeri, with Descriptions
of Five New Species and One New Subgenus; by M. R.

Seems ey are Sok ee sii cee nie wie A ee coe eee 215
Arr. XV.—EHpisodes in Rocky Mountain Orogeny; by C. L.

1. LULLED. oo 92 BAC ei tet Saeees MRI eg Sane eens Ta DPE tn 245
Arr. XVI.—Relations of Subjacent Igneous Invasion to Re-

gional Metamorphism (concluded); by J. Barrery..... 255
Arr. XVII.-—The Post-Glacial Terraces of Anticosti Island;

byes Hi. PwennoreL and -W. H. Coninw....2....005¢. 268

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Devitrification of Glass, A. F. O. GeERMANN: A Substi-
tute for Thoulet’s Solution, A. TuHrrL and L. Stout: Priestley in America,
1794-1804, EK. F. Smirx, 279.—Introduction to General Chemistry (H.
Copaux), H. Lerrmann: A Text-Bocok of Organic Chemistry, E. DEB.
BARNETT: Comparison between wave lengths of solar and of terrestrial
origin, A. Perot, 280.—The Imaginary in Geometry, J. L. S. Harton:
The Principles of the Phase Theory, D. A CLisBens: Lessons in Mechanics,
W.S. FRANKLIN and B. MacNurrt, 281.—Lessons in Electricity and Mag-
netism, W. S. FRANKLIN and B. MacNourt, 282.—Die Stellung derRelativ-
itatstheorie in der geistigen Entwicklung der Menschheit, J. PEtzoLpr,

283.

Geology—The Earth’s Axes and Triangulation, J. DE G. HuntTErR, 283.—Inves-
tigations of Isostasy in Himalayan and Neighbouring Regions, S. G. Bur-
RARD, 280.—Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey, F. Warp,
ete., 286.— The Erosional History of the Driftless Area, A. C. TROWBRIDGE:
Geological Survey of Western Australia. A. G. MAITLAND, 287.—Tenth
Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of Mines, for the fiscai year
ending June 30, 1920, F. G. CoTrrRELi, 288.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—The System of Animate Nature, J. A.
THomson, 288.—Mechanismus und Physiologie der Geschlechtbestim-
mung, R. GoupscHmiptT, 289.—Biology, General and Medical, J. McFar-
LAND: An Introduction to the Study of Cytology, L. DoncastEr, 290.—
A Laboratory Manual of Invertebrate Zoology, G. A. DREw: Considéra-
tions sur lHtre Vivant, C. Janet: Collection les Maitres de la Pensée
Scientifique : Practical Bacteriology, Blood Work and Animal Parasitol-
ogy, HE. R. Stirr, 291.—Memoirs of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum of
Polynesian Ethnology and Natural History, A. FoRNanDER: New Geo-
graphy, Book I, A. EH. Frye: Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, H. A.
Loneman: Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute,
Wellington, N. Z.: The National Academy of Sciences, 292.—Observatory
Publications: A Laboratory Manual of Anthropometry, H. H. WiLpER, 293.

Obituary—W. T. Szpawick: L. FLetcHerR: L. W. RIppDLE: A. MUIRHEAD ;:
F. Houssay, 294. =

vi | CONTENTS.

Nuimmber 4.

Page
Art. X VITI.—Determinate Orbital Stability: its Mechanism
and some of its Functions in Celestial Mechanics; by F.

Bu TAavtoRe y o4 08 1 ae Gh ays ite ien th eer 295

Arr. XIX.—Paleobotany and the Earth’s Early History;
by A. P. COLEMAN, 2. . 0...) 206s 24 a5 50 eer 315

Arr. XX.—Evolution of Geologic Climates; by C. ScnucnuERT 320
Arr. XXJI.—The American Bothriodonts; by E. L. Troxein 325
Art. XXII.—Paleolagus, an Extinct Hare; by E. L.

TROXELL' 3 bi %.0b 2% on Pa 340
Arr. XXITI.—White Mountain Physiography; by A. C.

LANE. 2 205.5 Wee 2) LOA AA ee 349
Arr. XXIV.—An Alkali Gneiss from the Pre-Cambrian of

New Jersey ;-.by Nz B.A: Hips. « o:. 4p eee 355

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—The Double Decomposition of Saltsin Connection with
the Phase Rule, E. RencApgE, 364.— A Comparison of the Atomic Weights
of Terrestrial and Meteoric Nickel, G. P. Baxter and L. W. Parsons:
General and Industrial Organic Chemistry (F. Molinari), T. H. Pops,
365.— A Treatise on Chemistry, Roscok and SCHORLEMMER: Musical Sands,
C. Carus-WILson, 366.—The Electric Furnace, H. Motssan: Lessons in
Heat, W. S. FRANKLIN and B. McNott, 367.—Matter and Motion, J. C.
MaxwELL: Mechanical Sciences Tripos: A Text Book of Physics, W.
Watson, 368.

Geology—Crinoidea Flexibilia, F. SprincER, 369.—Dunkard Series of Ohio,
STAUFFER and ScHRoYER, 371.—The Stratigraphy and Paleontology of
Toronto and Vicinity, Part I, The Pelecypoda, B. H. Stewart: Notes on
the Geology and Oil Possibilities of the northern Diablo Plateau in Texas,
J. W. BEEve: The Weno and Pawpaw Formations of the Texas Comanch-
ean, W.S ApDKINS, and On a new Ammonite Fauna of the Lower Turon-
ian of Mexico, E. BOsE: Fossil Corals from Central America, Cuba, and
Porto Rico, with an account of the American Tertiary, Pleistocene, and
Recent Coral Reefs, T. W. Vaucuan, 372.—Studies in Minor Folds, C.
K. Decker: Lithologic Subsurface Correlation in the ‘* Bend Series” of
North-Central Texas, M. I. Gotpman: The Hadrosaer Edmontosanrus |
from the Upper Cretaceous of Alberta, L. M. Lampe, 374.—The Nomen-
clature of Petrology, A. HoLMEs, 375.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Carnegie Institution of Washington, R.
S. WoopwarD, 375.—Collected Fruits of Occult Teaching, A. P. SINNETT :
Spiritualism—lIts Present Day Meaning, a Symposium, H. Carter, 376.—
Types of Mental Deficiency, M. W. Barr and E. F. Maroney : Practical
Bank Operation, L. H. Laneston, 378.—First Pan Pacific Scientific Con-
ference, Honolulu, Hawaii, Aug. 20, 1920, Part I, Organization, Proceed-
ings, Resolutions, 379.—The Origin of Man and of his Superstitions, C.
READ, 380.

Obituary—S. W. BurnHAm: ©. H. FerRnaup: I. A. Frecp: F. J. V. SKIFF:
A. G. Natuorst: T: Miyake: J. O. Cain: C. Toupr, 380.

CONTENTS. Vu

Number DBD.

Page
Arr. XXV.—Post-Glacial Warping of Newfoundland and
Momeroecotia by tt. A DALY fo. i ee ee eee He 381
Arr. XX VI.—New Camels in the Marsh Collection; by R.
oe | TTT ay Ap cg Ge 392
Arr. XX VIJ.—Leptauchenia Leidy and Cyclopidius (Pithe-
eisfes| Cope, etc.; by M. R. THorRPE..).........5...- 405
Art. XX VIII.—A Potamogeton from the Upper Cretaceous;
PMR ea Ia Feet Uo ete e wee eel sale) oper, 3 age aieleamis 420
Arr. XXIX.—Additional Notes on the Crystallography and
Composition of Boulangerite; by E. V. SHannon...... 423
Arr. XXX.—The Oriskany Sandstone Faunule at Oriskany
Bae New Vork: by El. N: MATON o..5. 2.55... oe 8s 427
Art. XXXJ.—Two Petrified Palms from Interior North
Peamemteamove Ni He STRVENS «462 )6 66s ss eee ss Hee 431
Art. XX XIJI.—The Isomorphic Relations of the Sulphosalts
of Lead, Silver and Copper ; by W. F. Fosmae....... +t4

Arr. XXXIII.—The Occurrence of Caleareous Sandstone
in he Recent Delta of Fraser River, British Colombia,
memaaamby WAG JOUNSTON 250500. 8 ede ee bd ee he 447
Arr. XXXIV.—The Age of the Recent Delta of Fraser
River, British Columbia, Canada; by W. A. Jounston 450

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Separation of Gallium from Indium and Zine by Frac-
tional Crystallization of the Cesium-Gallium Alum, P. E. BRownNING and
E. Porter, 4553.—Text-Book of Practical Chemistry, G. F. Hoop and J. A.
CARPENTER: Dictionary of Chemical Solubilities, Inorganic, A. M. Comry
and D. A. Haun, 454.—Inorganic Chemistry for Schools and Colleges, J.
L. Howe: Luminous phenomena in the Lilienfeld tube, J. E. LILIENFELD
and F. Rornrer, 455.—Observations ov. Soaring Flight, E. H. Hankin,
456.—Elementary Caleulus, W. F. Oscoop: Space, Time and Gravitation,
A. S. Epprneton, 457. — Principle of Relativity, H. W. Carr, 458.

Geology—Zur Alteren Geschichte des Diskontinuitatsproblems in der Biogeo-
eraphie, N. v. Horsten: Recent Molluses of Gulf of Mexico, ete., C. J.
Maury, 459.—Brachiopoda Trisdica, C. DIENER : Cephalopoda Dibranch-
iata, E. v. BULow-TRUMMER: Coal in Great Britain, W. Gipson: Mono-
graph of the British Ordovician and Silurian Bellerophontacea, F. R. C.
REED, 460.—West Virginia Geological Survey, I. C. WaurrsE, 461.

Zoology and Botany—Sanitary Entomology, W. D. PiercE, 461.—Embryology of
Chick: B. M. Patren: University of lowa Studies in Natural History, C. C.
Nuttine: Origin and Development of Nervons System, C. M. CurLp, 462. —
The Cactacee, N. L. Britrronand J. N. Rose: Phytoplankton of the inland
lakes of Wisconsin, G. M. Smiru, 463.—Introduction to Bacterial Diseases
in Plants, E. F. Smita: Text-book of Pastoral and Agricultural Botany,
J. W. HARSHBERGER, 464.—Heredity and Evolution in Plants, C. S.
GAGER: Diseases of Economic Plants, F. L. Stevens: Nature-Study of
Plants, T. A. Dymres: Chemistry of Plant Life, R. W. THatcHER, 465.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Annual Report Carnegie Foundation,
H. S. Pritcuerr and R. A. Franks: National Academy of Sciences,
466.—Science News Bulletin: French-English Medical Dictionary: Labora-
tory Manual for Detection of Poisons and Powerful Drugs, 467.—Intro-
duction to Chemical Pharmacology: New York State Income Tax
Procedure, 1921, 468.

Vill CONTENTS.

Number 6.

Page

Henry AnDREWs BumsrEeap (with Frontispiece) .......... 469
Art. XXXV.—Two New Fossil Carnivora; by M. RR.

THORPE 2 ip650. 6004062) 408, 2030) 2 rr 47

Arr. XXXVI.—A New Harmonic Analyzer ; by W. Mason 484

Art. XXX VIT.—Orientite, a new hydrous Silicate of Manga-
nese and Calcium from Cuba; by D. F. Hewexrr and

Hi. V. SHANNON ......0.. 055-205 «or 491
Art. XX XVIII.—Post-glacial Faulting in the French River

District of Ontario ; by W. H. Hopes: > 2092) geen 507
Arr. XX XIX.—A Note on the Cernaysian Mammal Fauna ;

by W. D. Marrurw.. . . 0... 2. «08 «3 eer 509

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Geology and Mineralogy—The Appendages, Anatomy, and Relationships of
Trilobites, P. EB. Raymonp, 512.—The Geology of Hardin County, and the
Adjoining Part of Pope County, S. WELLER, ete., 515.—Devonian Floras,
a study of the Origin of Cormophyta, EK. A. N. Arsor, 514.—Le Platine
et les Gites platiniferes de l’?Oural et du Monde, L. Duparc and M.-N,
TikoNowl!TcH : Elemente der physikalischen und chemischen Krystallo-
graphie, P. Grotu: Crystallography, J. B. JornpANn, 515.—New Mineral
Names, W. E. Forp, 516.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—National Academy of Sciences: The Princi-
ples of Immunology, H. T. KARSNER and E. E. Ecker, 518.—Microhiology,
C. E. MarsHatz: Bibliotheca Zoologica Il, O. TascHmenBERG, 519.—Flora
of Glacier National Park, Montana, P. C. SranpLey: The Topographical
Survey of the United States: Report of the “Librarian of Congress, H.
Putnam, for the year ending June 30, 1920: The Maine Naturalist, 520.

Obituary—G. F. Wricut, 520.

INDEX, 921.

mu > NG ~ ate od ae we S aa s Sas st fain SS 2 oe he So
Be ER 4 tye Sad Bn Pe od ¥ iar PR gy = Ps — ‘ >
wie tee rng ore pt reais . \ a .
ae 7 ie < > ‘ i; cx » bi ek pine o. oe: ° v
tk Mee bee fos eo ee eS JAN ,UARY, 1921
w * ve 7 ¢ - —“ . ra yee a re - 3 z < 2 . .
A

pa Bere Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818 |
At Eee Geen We v4 |
ee THE ~ JAN4 199% |
ge lo, ai - ee
|} JOURNAL OF CIENCE.
: : Eprror: EDWARD S. DANA.
ee . |
ae ee ASSOCIATE EDITORS |
| Prorsssons WILLIAM M. DAVIS ayn REGINALD A. DALY,
‘fF | , | | oF CAMBRIDGE, |
a : ; — |
|) Prorrssors HORACE L. WELLS, CHARLES SCHUCHERT, |
_ HERBERT E. GREGORY, WESLEY R. COE anp |
| FREDERICK E. BEACH, or New Haven, |
cof : |
| -Proressor EDWARD W. BERRY, or Bautimore, |
| Drs, FREDERICK L. RANSOME anp WILLIAM BOWIE, |
| OF WASHINGTON. |
|
one
"e : = FIFTH SERIES. |
aM, VOL. I-[WHOLE NUMBER, CCT]. |
S | No. 1—JANUARY, 1921. |
. |
| :
‘ : NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.

£2 LE. |
|
|

“THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 123 TEMPLE STREET.

Published aiseenis ‘Six dollars per year, in advance. $6.40 to countries in the
Postal Union ; $6.25 to Canada. Single numbers 50 cents; No. 271, one dollar.
Entered as ‘second-class matter at the Post Office at New Haven, Conn., under the Act
of March 3, ee esos S Seas

A Sse ee ee

AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY -

By the late Freperick V. Emerson, Pa.D.

Formerly Professor of Geology and Geologist for the State Experiment
Station, Louisiana State University. ; :

we

This book gives the reader an idea of the processes and principles of geol-
ogy, with especial reference to the geology of soils and of mineral fertilizers.
In the short time it has been on the market, the following colleges, among
others, have adopted this book as a required text:

Ohio State University

State University of Iowa

Iowa State College of A. and M. Arts
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Texas A. and M. College
Massachusetts Agricultural College
University of Tennessee

University of Missouri

Syracuse University ‘

Michigan Agricultural College
Oregon Agricultural College

Utah Agricultural College

North Carolina State College

State University of Kentucky

The text matter contains 270 maps, diagrams, and_half-tones, illustrating
specific items and forming integral parts of the book. Usable bibliographies
and lists of soil and geological maps are also included.

319 pages, 6 by 9—115 figures—cloth, $3.00 post paid.

Send for a Free Examination copy of this book.

JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.
432 Fourth Avenue, New York
London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.

Montreal, Can.:
Renouf Publishing Co.

AJS-1-21

%

THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[FIFTH SERIES.]

oe

. Art. I—Relations of Subjacent Igneous Invasion to
Regional Metamorphism; by JosepH BaRRELL.*

CONTENTS.
SUMMARY.

Part J. Regional relations.

Introduction.

Subjacent igneous invasion in mountain provinces.

Underground extension of Cordilleran batholiths.

Batholiths of New England.

Relations in New England between batholithic and metamorphic limits.
Preliminary statement.
The pre-Newark floor of the Connecticut Triassic.
The section across southwestern Connecticut.
The section across northwestern Connecticut.

Lack of metamorphism in Pennsylvania folds.

Part II. Metamorphic and metasomatic relations of orogenic batholiths.
Heating and crystallizing effects of magmas.
Chemical or metasomatic effects of emanations.
Prevention of deep penetration of meteoric waters.
Development of anhydrous or hydrous silicates.
Silication in relation to igneous intrusion.
Relation of magmatic gases to atmosphere and ocean.
Limited depth of zone of anamorphism and rock flow.

Part III. Interpretation of dynamo-metamorphic features in the roofs of
batholiths in mountain provinces.

Preliminary statement.
Features produced by movement of solutions and selective crystallization.
Development of lit-par-lit structure by the force of crystallization.
Development of banded orthogneisses as a result of successive injections.
Rejuvenescent and decadent stages of injection.
Alternation of injection and mashing.

SUMMARY.

[In summary, evidence is presented (Part I) that
batholithic invasions widen downward and may occur
close below many rocks where they have not been sus-
pected.

* This paper was written by Professor Barrell apparently in the year 1913
or 1914. He later added some marginal notes and rearranged it, but never
put it in finished form. He had mentioned to me certain plans for using the
material and on the basis of those statements and the marginal notes, I have
edited the manuscript. It is evident from his notes that he planned a re-
arrangement to include definitions given by other authorities. This I have
attempted, putting in brackets all the essential parts which have been added.

FRANK F’, Grout.

Am. Jour. Sci.—FirtH Series, Vou. I, No. 1.—January, 1921.
1

2 J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

Batholiths like those in the American Cordillera seem
to come to place without crustal compression, but those of
the Archean shield and those of the later Appalachian 1n-
vasions are accompanied by compression. <A detailed
study of three or four regions shows the metamorphism to
be related to the igneous invasion more than to the depth
and pressure. One of the regions of deepest burial and
close folding in Pennsylvania shows slight metamor-
phism.

II. The action of magmas, both by heating and meta-
somatism, is reviewed. The solutions are not meteoric in
origin. The results in minerals depend on equilibria,—
largely on the presence of H,O and CQ,.

The depth of anamorphism may be small, due (1) to
weakness of some rocks, (2) to invasion of batholiths.
An argument for shallow depth is based on the complete-
ness of Archean metamorphism and the salt of the ocean
as a measure of erosion.

III. The features of metamorphic rocks are reviewed
and interpreted as due to one or another factor. Major
factors are batholithic invasion and compression. Move-
ments of solutions, selective crystallization, lit-par-lit in-
jection gneisses, and the alternation of injection and
mashing, each leave their marks. | |

PART I. REGIONAL RELATIONS.
INTRODUCTION.

The phenomena of regional metamorphism are mani-
fested in a widespread crystallization and reconstruction
of rocks, in granulation and recrystallization. Mashing
and shearing compete with folding, as three distinct
modes of yielding, in giving complicated structures;
mashing and recrystallization lead to segregation of
minerals in layers, and are manifested in a dominant
foliated and banded arrangement which formerly was
taken as evidence of sedimentary origin. Metamorphosed
terranes pass in places into massive holocrystalline rocks
which are now proved in most cases to be of intrusive
igneous origin. In rare cases, however, they seem to be
completely recrystallized sediments. A former interpre-
tation which prevailed in this country until near the close
of the nineteenth century regarded all these gneisses,
including the granite ones, as merely the last term of
metamorphism of sediments in place, especially in the

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. 3

heated and softened bottoms of geosyncelines. Orogenic
deformation was looked upon in connection with the
trapped sea waters as the agent which accomplished the
work. The newer interpretations, however, regard the
fluids and gases of igneous rocks as of juvenile origin,
making their way for the first time toward the surface
of the earth. These present views in regard to the origin
of the granitic rocks and their emanations raise the prob-
lem as to how far igneous action is essential for the
development of regional metamorphism. To what extent
does regional metamorphism imply the invasion of deep-
seated bodies of magma of regional extent, even when
these give no direct evidence of their presence; or to
what extent may mere crustal compression and deforma-
tion of deeply buried rocks carry forward this work?

Since, by the very terms of this question, the magmatic
invasions, if they are the controlling causes of regional
metamorphism, are concealed, the problem can not be
directly solved. It must be attacked by inference, but
the attack is none the less desirable, since it raises
problems with many bearings, and directs the attention
to the observation of field relations. The accumulation
of these from many sources and by many minds must 1n
the end give adjusted quantitative value to the opposing
factors and lead to a better understanding of the
mysterious inner earth.

The problem and the conclusions, as outlined in this
article, were formulated in the mind of the writer from
1904 to 1906, and presented more or less completely to
successive classes of advanced students. The points for
first presentation are profound metamorphism of some
large areas in New England where igneous rocks are
near by, but the depth of burial shght; and the relatively
small effects in a Pennsylvania region where igneous
rocks are absent, but the depth of burial has been very
great, and folding fully as close as in the New England
region.”

The fact that in all the intensely metamorphosed

* [The degree or intensity of metamorphism is judged by the usual crite-
ria: deformation of original structures and textures; formation of new
minerals; recrystallization; shape, size, and arrangement of grains with
resulting cleavage and luster; and changes in the composition of the rock.
The changes that occur without notable additions were discussed by Lahee in
a paper onthe crystalloblastic order and mineral development in metamor-

phism (Jour. Geology, 22, 500, 1914), but in this paper instances are cited
where the changes are more profound and result from magmatic additions. |

4 J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

province ef the southern Appalachians no post-Cambrian
intrusives were mapped by the geologists who worked in
that field, whereas much of the metamorphism was of
post-Cambrian date, led the writer to hold the matter in
considerable reserve, and refrain from publication. But
in 1907 Keith in the Pisgah, North Carolina, folio® noted
the undetermined age of the Whiteside granite which
occupies large areas in North Carolina and Georgia, and
stated that it might be as late as Carboniferous. In the
geological map of North America issued in 1911, large
eranite areas in the southern Appalachians are mapped
as post-Cambrian; and in the Ellijay, Georgia, folio.*
1913, La Forge and Phalen state, in regard to the small
patches of younger granite on the east and the gabbro
dikes cutting the Lower Cambrian on the west, that from
their structural relations both are believed to be of late
Paleozoic age. This increase of knowledge brings the
late Paleozoic orogenic history of the southern Appala-
chians into closer kinship with the late Paleozoic history
of New England. It was the study of the latter field, in
addition to some years of experience in the Cordilleran
province, which led to the development of the ideas
expressed in this article. They apparently may be
extended to cover the southern Appalachians, and seem
to imply enough generality of application to warrant
publication. Various additions have been made to utilize
the contributions bearing on this subject made by others
in later years.

SUBJACENT IGNEOUS INVASION IN MOUNTAIN PROVINCES.

Suess and Daly have in separate volumes broadly dis-
cussed in recent years the phenomena of batholithic
invasion. Adams and Barlow, Sederholm, and others
have made clear many detailed illustrations. The ecumu-
lative effect of all this work is to show the widespread
occurrence of those bodies named batholiths by Suess,
which he, in common with the French geologists, held to
broaden downward ‘‘bis in die ewige Teufe’’, and which
Daly classifies as subjacent igneous bodies in order to
distinguish them from those clearly injected into the
crust. In broad regions, these are now known to be of
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and even of Cenozoic age, extending

7A. Keith, U. S. Geol. Survey, Geol. Folio 147.
*L. LaForge and W. C. Phalen, U. 8. Geol. Survey, Geol. Folio 187.

a

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. 5

through geological time that process which operated so
widely in the Archeozoic and destroyed by batholithic
invasion, perhaps everywhere, the older foundations of
the earth.

Harker? makes the valuable distinction between the
character of igneous intrusion in plateau and in mountain
provinces. In the first, the intrusions have not been
connected with great compressive movements; in the
second, they are so related, and this determines a dif-
ferent habit in the forms of the intrusive bodies. Harker,
however, does not go into the problem of the granite
eneisses and their contacts as exhibited in provinces
marked by regional metamorphism. In fact, he favors
Bregger’s view that the granite batholiths are nothing
more than large and irregular laccoliths.

In the classification of batholiths according to the
environing conditions which existed at the time of their
solidification, we may draw two distinctions. First, they
may have approached to within a few thousand feet of
the surface of the earth, into a zone of fracture and rapid
cooling, or they may have ceased their upward progress
at a depth of miles, while still in the zone of flow and

_where their heat and their emanations would persist and

affect the roof above them for at least a geological period.
Those coming to rest at a depth of a few miles may be-
come exposed in later ages by profound erosion. Those
which lie deeper, if there be such, can never be recognized,
except indirectly by an interpretation of their effects.
Secondly, we may divide batholiths, following the sug-
gestion of Harker, into those whose rise has not been
accompanied by regional deformation, and, on the other
hand, those during whose rise great regional deformation
has prevailed. To illustrate these categories: The
Boulder batholith of Montana is a body whose exposed
portion covers about 1100 square miles, and whose cover
over broad areas consisted merely of a somewhat earlier
series of extrusive andesites a few thousand feet in thick-

ness.. Some folding of the older sedimentary rocks seems

to have gone on before the invasion of the batholith, but
the latter shows no effects of compression. The dis-
turbanees at the time of its origin and later seem to have
been essentially movements of vertical adjustment.

In New England, on the other hand, the granites are

* A. Harker, Natural History of Igneous Rocks, Chap. III, 1909.

6 J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

associated with regional metamorphism and themselves
show various stages of mashing. Some, such as those of
eastern Massachusetts, are intruded into Carboniferous
schists and must have reached comparatively near to the
surface; others, especially many of the pre-Cambrian
granites, must have solidified at profound depths, since
the portions now exposed have been uncovered through
many cycles of uplift and erosion.

It is especially with this group, which is illustrated in
the regionally metamorphosed province of New England,
and which may be called orogemc batholiths, that this
article is planned to deal.

UNDERGROUND EXTENSION OF CORDILLERAN BATHOLITHS.

To estimate the part which batholithic invasion may
play in regional metamorphism, it is necessary to form
a conception as to the amount of broadening which they
may take on with depth. The first step in observation
and inference is from the nature of the margins. These
in places show broad, flat or domal, or irregular roofs;
in other places, contacts plunging steeply for thousands
of feet. The general character, however, is a broadening
with depth. Inference from the nature of the outcrops.
can not safely lead us very far, but it does show no evi-
dence of a bottom, no narrowing into pipes or laccolithic
form. The doming of the roof would result from the
hydrostatics of the magma, without any need of a floor.
Being lighter than the solid rock around it, the batholith
must perforce exert an upward pressure, and a pressure
ereater in proportion to the thinness of the cover.

The next step downward is taken by noting the relation
of cupolas to the main body. The roof is seen to be
irregular, and beyond the margin satellitic stocks break
up and are intersected by the erosion surface. Erosion
to a greater depth would join these to the parent body,
and show at farther distances a new set of satellitic
stocks. The location of these latter can be recognized in
places by the centers of outlying metamorphism or
centers of converging dikes.

On a larger scale, small ‘batholiths are seen to occur
more or less irregularly in regions adjacent to the greater
ones. A good illustration is seen in the great batholith
of central Idaho and its relation to those of southwestern
Montana. They transgress rocks of various Mesozoic

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. fj
«ages, but are younger than early or middle Tertiary.
They seem, therefore, closely related in age to the Lara-
mide revolution, their intrusion beginning in the Creta-
ceous and probably extending into the Eocene. The Idaho
batholith is 250 miles long by 80 miles wide. The Boulder
batholith outcrops 80 miles east, showing a length of 60
miles, and a width of 18. Between the two are various
smaller batholiths and stocks of irregular form and dis-
tribution. Still farther east 80 to 100 miles, in the Little
Belt quadrangle, occur the Castle Mountain and Crazy
Mountain stocks. Thus there is an irregular dying out
of surface exposures from Idaho toward central Montana.
But the Little Belt region is particularly instructive in
giving suggestions of a broad underground occurrence of
intrusions. Numerous dikes occur, but the most striking
feature is found in the south central portion of the quad-
rangle. Here a mountain rises to an elevation of 8200
feet, showing no igneous core, but rivalling in elevation
the mountains made by the Crazy Mountain stocks and
their aureole of metamorphosed sediments. This moun-
tain, like those possessing central stocks, has on its flanks
a zone of radiating dikes. The physiographic form
points to a local hardening of the sedimentary formation,
a zone of metamorphism which, as shown around the other
stocks in the Livingston formation, is equally or even
more resistant than the igneous rock in the center. The
dikes, to those who seek their meaning, look inward to a
hidden igneous body, like the statues of the Alhambra
legend whose eyes focussed on the spot of buried treasure.
Interpreting the Crazy and Castle Mountain stocks in
accordance with these indications of hidden magma, as
well as by their own broad metamorphic girdles, leads
to the conclusion that they must widen downward, and
that much of the region is underlain by a broad batholith
of which only the roof-dikes and the greater cupolas show
upon the surface. The irregular flexures of the Liv-
ingston formation are due to the irrégular sagging and
doming of the cover of a magmatic chamber now solidi-
fied. Some compression is shown, but the chief feature
of the deformation is its irregular vertical warping.
T'o the south, in the Yellowstone National Park, Hague®
has shown that many of the stocks are not volcanic necks
and never reached the surface, and Daly’ has presented

° Arnold Hague, Science, new ser., 9, 425-442, 1899.
TR. A. Daly, Proe. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci, 47, 63, 1911.

8 J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

the reasons for regarding these stocks as the seat of a ,
Pliocene batholith which here may have broken through
its roof. Thus there are strong inferences that regional
batholithic invasion has occurred under a vast region in ~
Idaho and western Montana, a larger portion being con-
cealed than has become revealed by erosion.

Another line of evidence of broader character is found
in the lava flows and volcanic breccias which spread over
the greater part of the Cordillera. These imply the
presence of widespread magma with depth as the sources
of this surface material. But the study of regions of
exposed batholiths shows that gravitative differentiation
proceeds, granites coming to occupy the upper parts of
the magma chamber and invading even the older and
more basic surface materials. This is the history of the
Laurentian cutting the Keewatin flows, and of many
younger examples down to the Boulder batholith, whose
quartz monzonite comes to metamorphose and cut the
somewhat older andesites and basalts. The evidence of
exposed regions suggests, therefore, that Tertiary granite
should occur widely in depth under much of the Cordil-
leran province.

Still another line of inference, and the one of broadest
character, is that founded on the geodetic evidence.
Cordilleran seas occupied, through much of Paleozoic and
Mesozoic times, portions of what is now one of the great
plateau regions of the world. Mountain ranges were
raised, and crustal warpings took place from time to
time then as now, but the general average of the Cordil-
leran province remained near sea-level, as shown by the
preservation, through these earlier eras, of sediments
mostly of marine origin. The principle of isostasy re-
quires that the subcrustal regional densities must have
corresponded with this attitude, giving conditions of
equilibrium.

Now, however, the geodetic observations show that a
condition of regional isostasy prevails, comparable to
that in other portions of the United States, notwith-
standing the mountainous as well as plateau character
of the province. Furthermore, there is evidence that
in the Great Basin the depth of isostatic compensation
is probably shallower than in any other part of the
United States. This contrast of the present and the
past is strongly suggestive of a thinning of the crust
and a decrease in subecrustal density in the Cordilleran

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. 9

province during the Cenozoic. The most probable, and
perhaps the only cause, which can be assigned to explain
this effect is a general rise of magma to higher levels,
the heat being carried by emanations and volcanic out-
break into the roof rocks. The result would be decrease
in density, because of thermal expansion as well as that
expansion dependent upon the passage from the solid
to the liquid state.

In accord with the evidence that the Cordilleran prov-
ince has been uplifted by vertical forces, forces which
may be inferred as due to intrusion, is the fault block
character of the region. Mountain folding and over-
thrusting have not been absent, but the more dominating
feature is found in the presence of gravity faults which
show that large blocks of the crust have been elevated
by vertical forces. The process culminates in the high
and unfolded crust blocks of the Colorado plateaus, but
with a few exceptions even the basin blocks have been
elevated and the average elevation of the Great Basin
is now probably between 4000 and 5000 feet above the
sea.

Although each broader step of inference leads to a
_ view of broader subcrustal igneous invasion, it does not
prove that a universal molten sea of rock underlies the
Cordillera at a moderate depth. The crust seems to
possess sufficient rigidity to show that the rise of
magmas never at any one time wholly broke up the
foundations of the older crust. It seems to have been
an intermittent process and to have gone forward on
axial zones, as shown by the trend of the fault block
structures.

Krosion to a depth of some miles, or even to the
present sea-level, would, however, show an enormous
extension of batholithic outcrops, and remind one of the
broad development of the Laurentian granites. ‘That
which gives unique character to these earliest invasions
is the profound depth to which erosion has penetrated,
as well as a more universal development.

BATHOLITHS OF NEw ENGLAND.

The outcrops of the pre-Cambrian are confined to
restricted areas in New England, occurring especially
in the anticlinorium of the Green Mountain axis and,
according to the geological map of North America issued

10s J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

in 1911, in smaller areas adjacent to Narragansett Bay.
The Green Mountain granitic axis shows inclusions of
sediments corresponding to the Grenville series, and these
doubtless are an extension of the Laurentian granite
eneisses as shown in Canada and the Adirondacks. The
indications are that the axis once formed the floor of
all New England upon which the Paleozoic sediments
were laid down. The character of the Laurentian
has been described by many geologists, the intrusive
nature being first recognized by Lawson in 1885. The
detailed descriptions of the Haliburton-Baneroft district
by Adams and Barlow’ develop two conclusions of im-
portance in the present connection. First, the intrusions
are in broad domal masses, in which movement went
forward during crystallization. Second, the granites
profoundly altered the adjacent sediments, and this
metamorphism dies out with distance from the intru-
sions, the amphibolites and paragneisses of the Grenville
passing into blue limestones interbedded with more
clastic layers. Where exposed in New England, the
Archeozoic is dominantly the Laurentian granite, and the
older sediments consist of minor areas pee
metamorphosed and injected.

Turning to the Paleozoic intrusions, an inspection of
the geologic map of North America will show the large
extent to which they outcrop east of the Connecticut
River. Between the Connecticut and the Green Mountain
axis they occur more sparingly and in smaller areas.
This marks the boundary of the batholiths, and farther
to the west, in the Taconic synclinorium, even dikes are
rare or wanting. Dale has noted an amphibolite intru-
sion eight miles west of Pittsfield, Massachusetts. In
the region of Franklin Furnace, New Jersey, dikes,
mostly | basic, voleanic necks filled with breccia, and a
laccolithic intrusion of nepheline syenite occur just west
of the southward extension of the pre-Cambrian axis.

The evidence is clear that the New England batholiths
reach much wider development at moderate depths below
the present surface. Many show domal form to their
margins and between them the sediments are in many
places so infiltrated with magmatie emanations and cut
by pegmatite dikes as to leave no room for doubt that
they are the roofs of bodies of granite. The chief struc-

*F. D. Adams and A. E. Barlow, Geol. Survey Canada, Mem. 6, 1910.

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. Pi

tural distinction between this province and the Lauren-

tian of Canada appears to rest upon the lesser depth to

which erosion has planed and the resulting lesser
destruction of the batholithic roofs.

RELATIONS IN NEw ENGLAND BETWEEN BATHOLITHIC AND META-
MORPHIC Limits.
Preliminary Statement.

The regional metamorphism of New England is
marked both by a thorough recrystallization of the sedi-
ments and a folding and mashing. The intrusive rocks
are also involved to a greater or less extent. The gen-
erality of this relation, both for this and other regions,
has caused them to be linked together in geological theory
as direct cause and effect; the deformation of deep-
seated rocks being regarded as the cause of their regional
metamorphism. This conception developed, however,
before the igneous and intrusive nature of the basal
eneisses was recognized, and even yet the importance
of deep-seated batholithic extension has not been con-
sidered in the theory. It is desired here to test this
prevailing conception against another which would
regard recrystallization as largely and directly related
to batholithic heat and emanations, and the folding and
mashing as a related but partly independent process, due
to crustal compression, but going on most readily in the
weak and recrystallizing roofs of batholithic chambers.

The Pre-Newark Floor of the Connecticut Triassic.

To test this question, let the region be considered which
lies in Connecticut between the Triassic of the Connect-
icut Valley and the dying out of the Appalachian folds
in the Hudson Valley. The crust movement at the close
of the Newark sedimentation gave a regional tilt of about
20° east to the rocks of the Connecticut Valley, and a
regional tilt of about 20° west and northwest to the New
Jersey area: Hxtensive faulting also took place as a part
of the movement. The western margin in Connecticut,
the eastern in New Jersey, are not in general, however,
fault boundaries. They are the two slopes of a geanti-
elinal arch upraised at the beginning of the Jurassic
period. The fault movements, however, partly neutral-
ized the effects of the tilt, so that the actual elevation of

12. )SsoJ. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

this axis in western Connecticut is unknown. Neverthe-
less, the breadth and dip of the crust blocks show that the
elevation was great, notwithstanding that peneplanation
had ensued by the beginning of the Comanchean.

The Connecticut Valley is the foot of the eastern slope
of this Jurassic anticlinorium. As a result of later
base-levelling across this, on going west from the edge
of the valley one passes progressively into rocks origi- °
nally deeper and exposed by successive cycles of post-
Newark erosion. On the edge of the Connecticut Valley,
as Davis was first to note, is exposed the old Triassic
floor upon which the basal Newark sediments were laid
down. Here there has been no erosion since the mid-
Triassic beginning of the Newark sedimentation. It is
physiographically the nearest to the surface of the earth
- in the Appalachian revolution of any part of western
Connecticut. What, then, is its character? In the
northern half, two granite bosses outerop, each about
four miles in diameter. The northern especially is asso-
-clated with more or less fine-grained intrusive amphibo-
lite. The country rock is a lustrous sericite schist, be-
coming coarse-grained where penetrated by pegmatite
dikes and dikelets. In the southern part of this border
zone, the Prospect gneiss is intersected. This is a belt
exposed for more than thirty miles, with an average
width of two miles, and striking slightly diagonal to the
contact. It consists of sheets of slightly gneissoid coarse
biotite granite porphyry. The texture is highly variable,
and it seems to have been intruded in successive sheets.
It does not widen in passing away from the Triassic floor
into what was presumably greater original depth. It
appears, then, to have been a great dike intrusion, rather
than a batholith. South of this occurs a dark slate, the
Orange phyllite, containing quartzitic and caleareous
beds. This is the least metamorphosed sedimentary
formation in western Connecticut. South of this is found
the Milford chlorite schist, extending to Long Island
Sound. This is a hydrothermally altered series of basic
sheets, strongly resembling the Keewatin chlorite schists,
though of Paleozoic and probably of late Paleozoie age.

The topography of this area is in detail rugged, sheets
of feldspar porphyrite (now slightly altered) having
been injected into a previously mashed series of much
the same composition. The older and thoroughly chlori-
tized portions are probably only slightly older, as shown

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. tS

by the similarity in composition. They show that.
extensive deformation and hydrothermal alteration was
going forward at the time of their formation. They have
the character and relations of a superficial series whose
basic nature marks the first intrusion of the batholithic
magmas. Such series, as seen more clearly in the Cordil-
leran field, accumulate as thick surface flows and breccias
as the first stage in the batholithic cycle. As they
thicken, injection into them takes place, as well as out-
pourings on the surface. If any of these are ancient
surface flows and breccias, the evidence is, so far as the
writer has observed, now destroyed, and it is only the
latest intrusive sheets which show much of their original
nature. These are thin and somewhat limited, showing
in places chilled margins on both contacts. The altera-
tion has been a hydration and pyritization accompanying
and following mashing by which chlorite, serpentine,
quartz, calcite, and pyrite have been developed. The
pyritization proceeded along the joints of the more
resistant sheets, showing that jointing persisted in the
unmashed portions. Rare, thin seams of pegmatite with
tourmaline are found. The assemblage of phenomena
show alteration at only moderate depth.

The changes in passing from central Massachusetts to
Long Island Sound along this resurrected Triassic floor
show a progressive rise through the crust from the broad
areas of Williamsburg granite, which Hmerson regards
as of Carboniferous age, to comparatively superficial
rocks and possibly surface flows, presumably of the same
igneous cycle as the granites to the north.

Now, the degree of deformation does not notably
change. Cleavage and close folding is dominant in the
southern as well as in the northern part, but the degree
of metamorphism is conspicuously different. Surround-
ing the granites, feldspathization and pegmatization
have occurred. Garnet, staurolite, and sillimanite are
developed. The sediments are transformed into coarse
and lustrous muscovite schists, the basic rocks into
amphibolites. In the south, removed from the batholiths
and presumably nearer the ancient surface, the argillites
are black slates, somewhat crumpled and lustrous, but
such as, if occurring in a more homogeneous formation,
might have supplied slates of commercial quality. The
impure limestones have apparently retained their ear-
bonic acid in the presence of quartz and kaolin. The

14. «J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

basic igneous rocks have suffered hydration and have
surrendered their lime to the carbonic acid which per-
vaded them. The degree of anamorphism appears, there-
fore, to be here conditioned upon depth and contiguity to
batholthie masses, not upon the intensity of the
deformation. !

The Section across Southwestern Connecticut.

It has been shown that in passing westward from the
Connecticut Valley one crosses a Jurassic anticlinorium
leveled by later erosion. One transects also the struc-
tures imposed by earlier deformations, so that the actual
depth at which occurred the metamorphism of the rocks
of any given locality is difficult to state. It is clear,
however, that the great faults which cut diagonally across
the Connecticut Valley at Meriden largely die out on
entering the western metamorphic province. This is
shown by the moderate offsets of the western margin as
compared to the great offsets and repetitions of the
strata in the middle of the valley. Doubtless distributive
faulting in the western province occurs and some greater
faults may be concealed by.the complicated structures.
The Pomperaug Valley, holding Triassic strata in the
midst of the anticlinorium, shows that it is by no means
a single great structural arch. Nevertheless, the regional
dip of the Triassic floor gives strong suggestions that
on passing west from New Haven to Bridgeport or Derby
one goes progressively into regions once deeper in the
erust. It is as if the railroads were inclines at slopes
of 5°, 10°, or 15° leading from the upper world down-
ward into the abyss. The exposures are best on the New
Haven-Derby trolley line. What, then, are the changes
to be observed in the nature of the rocks?

At the eastern contact, the least altered sheets of
porphyrite are found and quartz infiltrations are rare.
One to two miles west, the cleavage is much more pro-
nounced and uniform. Considerable silicification is
present and quartz lenses occur in discontinuous strings,
having deformed the chlorite schists by the power of
‘their crystal growth. One passes then into the Orange
phyllite, a soft black crumpled slate. Some three miles
farther west, the first sheets of the biotite granite
porphyry appear, interbedded vertically in the highly
foliated sediments. Within a few hundred feet of the

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. 15

first thick sheet, quartz infiltrations become noticeable,
then fine-grained garnets enveloped in muscovite.
Within a hundred feet the sediments become transformed
and at the contact are lustrous but fine-grained schists.
In between the granite sheets, the texture of the schists
becomes coarse and sparkling. Still farther northwest,
sheets of granite and pegmatite become more abundant,
the schist becomes feldspathized, crumpled, and of maxi-
mum coarseness, cyanite and garnet become abundant,
the proportion of magma increases, and the rocks pass
finally into truly igneous masses. In the region of Dan-
bury the granite gneisses envelop and intrude the
Stockbridge limestone, and it is found to be transformed
into a coarse white friable marble.

The beginning of the intense anamorphism on this
section is clearly a contact effect of the first granite
sheets, here with vertical attitude. Beyond, they show
evidences of being part of an injected and intensely
altered batholithic roof. The metamorphism, then, is
here primarily related to the presence of magmas, but
is secondarily related to depth. Deformation is the
adventitious factor which has affected all the section and
produced cleavage with hydration in the upper and cooler
portions, cleavage with dehydration in those portions
which are deeper, hotter, and invaded by magmatic ema-
nations.

The Section across Northwestern Connecticut.

The writer has made a study of the geologic section on
the northern state line of Connecticut from the Green
Mountain anticlinorium, here represented by the southern
Berkshire Hills, westward across the Taconic syncli-
norium into New York State. The Laurentian Becket
eneiss, with its included metasediments, and the Lower
Cambrian Dalton schist outcrop in the anticlinorium.
The rocks are overturned and overthrust upon the Stock-
bridge marble of Cambro-Ordovician age. This outcrops
in the picturesque Housatonic Valley, here some eight
miles in breadth and marking the structural limb between
anticlinorium and synclinorium. The axis of the latter
holds synelines of the resistant Berkshire schist, of upper
Ordovician age. The structures throughout are intensely
deformed by minor and major folds and by mashing.
The folation planes are in general inclined eastward at
a dip of about 30°, showing an intense regional over-
thrusting.

16 ~=J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

The metamorphism of the Paleozoic sediments is in-

tense. The Lower Cambrian sediments, originally

feldspathic muds, have been transformed into lustrous
muscovite schists, microcline gneisses, and quartzites.
The schists are closely crumpled, and show segregation
lenses of quartz, holding needles of tourmaline. The
Cambro-Ordovician limestone has become a white or
mottled marble holding mica and tremolite. Quartzitic
bands in places include needles of tourmaline. The
Berkshire schist in the eastern outcrops shows coarse
crystallization and the development of garnet and stauro-
lite. In the axis of the synclinorium, however, the meta-
morphism of this rock dies out rapidly, and it turns to
a grayish or greenish sericite schist. In New York State
it passes gradually into the dark Hudson River slates.
It would seem that here the severity of the deforma-
tion is roughly in accord with the degree of meta-
morphism and is a sufficient explanation of the facts
without invoking the aid of magmatic heat or emanations.
Closer observation shows, however, a lack of exact accord
between the local degree of deformation and the local

degree of crystallization. The small synclines of Berk- -

shire schist in the middle of the limestone valley show
strong metamorphism even where not intensely deformed.
The pinched axis of the syncline, although of the same
stratigraphic level, shows a lesser degree of metamor-
phism. ‘The limestone beds, even where flat-lying and
showing the bedding fairly undisturbed, are nevertheless
transformed into coarse marbles. The rocks of the valley
have, however, been deeply buried beneath overthrust
masses so that the greater depth at which they were
deformed must have been a contributory factor in the
metamorphism. )

Turning to another side of the problem, what is the
evidence or lack of evidence that batholithic intrusions
may lie below? The nearest Paleozoic granites, as
mapped by Hobbs,® lie on the axis of the anticlinorium
some twelve miles south of the Connecticut-Massachu-
setts line. None are known in the synclinorium. Direct
evidence is therefore lacking. The indirect evidence is
as follows: The Lower Cambrian Dalton schists overlie
the Archean complex and outcrop in anticlines within the
limestone valley. They vary from muscovite schists to

°W. H. Hobbs, in Preliminary geological map of Connecticut, by H. E.
Gregory and H. H. Robinson, Conn. Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey, Bull. 7, 1906.

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. a

feldspathic quartzites. The schists show many segrega-
tion seams and lenses of quartz and feldspar, the quartz
holding needles of tourmaline. The boron and fluorine
which enter into tourmaline are elements not found in
elastic sediments. They are commonly regarded as the
evidences of pneumatolysis, but if so, they have the
capacity to rise for great distances through metamorphic
zones before entering into crystallization as tourmaline.
It is well known that tourmaline tends to crystallize,
especially in siliceous formations. Apparently, then, the
volatile constituents have come as gases from some depth
beneath in the Archean complex. That the boron and
fluorine have shown a capacity to rise is most clearly
shown in a quartzite member within the Stockbridge
marble. At Ashley Falls, Massachusetts, the joints in
this member show the development of tourmaline crystals
in their walls, arranged across the bedding planes. The
tourmaline is a replacement mineral lining the cross-
eutting joints and developed at the expense of preexist-
ing biotite. In the Dalton schist, the development along
the foliation planes conceals this kind of evidence of
introduction, but the pegmatitic character of the lenses
gives support to such a view.

Of course it is possible to discount the value of this
evidence based upon tourmaline, and to cite the existence
of fluorite deposits in regions free from any signs of
igneous activity.. But it is thought that the evidence
given in the first part of this article on the widespread
nature of subjacent igneous bodies, tends to support the
view that where tourmaline is abundantly present,
magmatic emanations were passing through at the time
of its formation and supplied the volatile elements neces-
sary for its development.

Another line of evidence is found in extensive infiltra-
tions of silica which have developed, in the Stockbridge
marble, reefs of malacolite, tremolite, and quartz, over a
distance of eight miles between Falls Village, Connect-
icut, and Sheffield, Massachusetts. Several varieties and
stages of the action may be noted. Reefs of rugged rocks
show that, first, an infiltration of siliceous waters depos-
ited quartz in veins. Then an increase in temperature
occurred, the waters attacked the lime and magnesia, and
coarse-grained tremolite replacements occurred. ‘The
reaction did not occur wholly in place, however, since the
materials were taken into solution and deposited in veins

Am. Jour. Sct.—Firtu Series, Vou. I, No. 1.—January, 1921.
2

18 J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

showing all gradations from quartz to pure tremolite.
The tremolite veins in places cut the older vein quartz
and give clear evidence of the carrying of tremolite in
solution.

Between Ashley Falls and Falls Village another phase
may be seen. ‘T'ough, massive reefs of white pyroxene
rock, malacolite, are found, with granitic grain and in
some places clearly developed by infiltration, not by the
mere alteration of an impure marble. The reefs occur in
certain local areas and are not restricted to a definite
horizon in the marble. The large size and unbroken
character of the crystals, as well as the presence of
pyroxene rather than amphibole, ally these occurrences
with the phenomena of igneous contact action, and show
a development after the regional mashing. In general,
these reefs are surprisingly free from the minerals
usually associated with igneous emanations. Only rarely
is pyrite or chalcopyrite found, and in only one locality
near the eastern margin of the limestone is tourmaline
associated. Here, near the head of Whiting River, large
erystals of feldspar and phlogopite and smaller ones of
tourmaline occur with malacolite. Thus this evidence,
while indicative of rising waters, does not clearly show
those waters to have been magmatic.

LACK OF METAMORPHISM IN THE PENNSYLVANIA F'OLDS.

The valley in Pennsylvania between the pre-Cambrian
and Silurian outcrops corresponds in structural position
to the valley in western New England which has just been
described. It is a region of close folding, the folds be-
coming open farther west in the state. The limestones
of this eastern belt have been crumpled into folds, many
of which are but some tens of feet in radius. In other
places, extensive overturning into recumbent folds: has
taken place. The argillites above have been mashed into
slates holding much of commercial quality. The writer
has recently assembled the evidence to show that a great
depth of cover has been removed from this region,!® but
the nature of the structures alone serves to make it clear
that they originated at considerable depth. It is re-
garded as a tract of great crustal shortening, and the

1°? Joseph Barrell, The Upper Devonian delta of the Appalachian geosyn-

cline, this Journal (4), 36, 429-472, 1913; 37, 87-109, 225-253, 1914.
4 R. T. Chamberlin, Jour. Geology, 18, 228-251, 1910.

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. 19

depth at which took place the folding of the rocks now
exposed was certainly in places several miles, even allow-
ing for erosion accompanying folding. Chamberlin’s
restoration, not allowing for erosion, shows a depth of
four and a half miles as a maximum on the west, and
six miles as a maximum on the east. In depth of burial
and intensity of deformation, this region must therefore
be regarded as having been subjected to conditions as
severe as those of western New England. No evidences
of Paleozoic igneous intrusion younger than the Cam-
brian are found in the region, the nearest of such intru-
sions being some pegmatite dikes in the Philadelphia
region.

What, then, is the degree of regional metamorphism
as compared to western New England? It is found in
answer to be insignificant. ‘The effects have been a re-
duction of porosity and a partial elimination of the com-
bined water from the argillaceous sediments. At the
base are limited thicknesses of Lower Cambrian quartzite
with some beds of hydromica slate. Above this, the
Cambro-Ordovician limestone shows no degree of altera-
tion. The upper Ordovician slates are dark and rather
dull in luster. Under the microscope they show a grain
beneath a tenth of a millimeter in diameter. Sericite
giving aggregate polarization is the most abundant
mineral, but kaolin also occurs.1? There is thus seen to
be a profound difference from those coarse white marbles
and garnet-staurolite mica schists which occur in the
same structural belt in western New England.

Since the depth and deformation have been great in
both cases, the difference can logically be ascribed only
to a lack in the Pennsylvania region of heat and erystal-
lizing solutions. This in turn suggests what is in accord
with the other lines of evidence, that magmas have under-
lain the one region at moderate depth, and have been
absent from the other.

[Daly’* reasons similarly from his work in British
Columbia, and cites authorities for other localities show-
ing that deep burial has produced metamorphism that is
only partial or nil.]

(To be continued)

“T. N. Dale, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 275, pp. 75-85, 1906.
*R. A. Daly, Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 28, 405, 1917.

20 HH. S. Washington and H. HE. Merwin—Note on

Arr. IIl.—Note on Augite from Vesuvius and Etna;
by Henry 8S. WasHineton and H. HK. Merwin.

The problem of the constitution of the pyroxenes that
contain alumina and ferric oxide—the augites—is one of
the most puzzling and, in some respects, one of the most
important that are presented by the rock-forming
minerals. In an effort to aid its solution, | have made
during the last few years a number of analyses of typical
augites from Italian voleanoes, in the lavas of which
augite is one of the most constant and most characteristic
minerals. The study of these is not yet complete, and
several more analyses remain to be made. But having
recently completed two analyses of augite from Vesuvius
and Etna, of which Dr. H. HE. Merwin has determined the
optical and crystallographic data, it seems to be advisa-
ble to publish the results as a slight contribution toward
our knowledge of this important group of minerals. This
seems to be the more justified as, notwithstanding that
the species was based first on the crystals from these two
voleanoes, we have as yet no satisfactory or modern
analyses of them.

AUGITE FROM VESUVIUS.

Vesuvius has long been noted for its pyroxenes.
Beautiful diopsides are found in many of the ejected
blocks of Somma, and loose crystals of augite are among
the products of many of its eruptions. The crystals
studied here were obtained from the bottom of the crater,
in part by me in -June, 1914, and in part byaiire ae:
Malladra, Director of the Osservatorio Vesuviano, during
the same spring. For his kindness in sending me the
material for study I would express my sincere thanks.

Occurrence.—The crystals are found, either loose, and
entirely or almost entirely free of scoria, as at many other
voleanoes; or as phenocrysts in a highly vesicular leucite
tephrite, which was being ejected in small amount from
the orifice at the bottom of the funnel during my visit
LOeKb2

The crystals are mostly of the usual, well-known, simple
forms, such as are figured by Dana? and in most text-

*A. Malladra, Rend. Acad. Sci. Napoli, November, 1914; Washington and
Day, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 26, 375, 1915.
* Dana, System, Figs. 16, 17, and 18, page 354, 1892.

Augite from Vesuvius and Etna. 21

books of mineralogy. The faces present are: a(100),
b(010), m(110), and s(I11). A small proportion are
twinned, forming the common contact twins, with twin-
ning plane a(100). They vary, in general, from 3 to 9
mm. in length (parallel to the vertical axis), though some
attain lengths of one centimeter or more. The thickness
is from one-half to two-thirds of the length, and there is
usually a slight tabular development parallel to a(100).
The faces are fairly smooth and bright, much brighter
than those of the Stromboli augites described in a
previous paper,® and the edges are sharp. There is but
little scoria adherent to the loose crystals, but microsco-
pical examination of the powdered material revealed the
presence of small amounts of inclusions of glass and
crystalline matter (magnetite, leucite, and feldspar).

Physical data.—Of a dozen erystals studied, four had
_sets of faces that were sufficiently good for approximate
measurements (by Merwin). ‘These indicate the proba-
bility that crystallographically diopside does not repre-
sent augite. The measurements were as follows:

m/\m (110) A.(110)=92°0'-93°97 ; mean—
92°56’ 4 measurements.
Bs (£11) A (111)=—61°20-59°50’ ; mean—
60°36’ 8 measurements.
For diopside the values are:
te i— 92, 30"; 8 /\S==)9 TT",

Measurements of ¢ and p for four pyramid faces, s, gave
values of 24°23’-25°5' and 34°1'-33°15', respectively, as
compared with 25°7’ and 33°4’ for diopside.

Speaking of the pyroxenes as a group, Dana long ago
pointed out:* ‘‘It is noteworthy that the angles vary but
little even for a wide variation in composition.’’ While
this is quite true, yet since that time, with more exact
means of measurements and of chemical analysis, a more
systematic study of the relations of the physical and
chemical properties, and for other reasons, we are
beginning to-appreciate more than we did thirty years ago
the probable importance of even small variations.

An optical examination showed that the Vesuvius
augites studied are variable in composition. The general
color is a slightly yellowish gray, and there is little indi-

* Kozu and Washington, this Journal, 45, 463, 1918.
' * Dana, System, 363, 1892.

22 H. 8S. Washington and H. E. Merwin—Note on

cation of zonal structure. There is little if any pleo-
chroism. The index @ varies from 1.700 to 1.711. The
extinction angle is large, as usual, about 45°, but no exact
measurements were made, because of the variability in
composition and the consequent indeterminateness of the
data.

The specific gravity of the crystal fragments used for
the analysis was found to be 3.242 referred to water at
23°. This low result is probably to be ascribed to the
presence of the glass inclusions.

Chemical composition.—For my analysis some of the
cleanest loose crystals were selected, and, in order to
obtain sufficient material, to these were added crystals
obtained from specimens of the scoria from about the
orifice. Great care was taken to free the erystal
fragments from adherent scoria, and the analysis was
made on what was probably as pure material as could be
obtained from this source. It was, however, not practi-—
cable to obtain material entirely free from the small
inclusions of glass, etc., and the analysis, therefore, does .
not represent an entirely pure augite substance. In
spite of this defect, however, it is thought best to publish
it, as a Slight contribution to our knowledge of the Vesu-
vian augites, and as illustrative of the dangers, in the
form of included foreign matter, that may lurk in the
chemical study of many minerals. The presence of the
inclusions is also of interest in view of the very close
correspondence in chemical composition between these
augites and a pyroxenite published by Lacroix, to be
mentioned later.

TABLE I.
Analyses of Augites of Vesuvius.

‘i 2 3 4
SIOb: on oe ercr hea thats 47.60 46.95 46.42 47.90
Jt EG ae ete aah i i Sgn 6.01 6.75 9.14 6.58
SOM ee) Pra Bye ae ag Wi 4.47 5.03 Weare. :
eG; uch eae 2 a 4.59 4.09 4.87 Se
dod @ EM ney, fem Cees 14.43 16.04 13.19 14.20
CAO eee wae fee Ose eee 19.02 20.86 22.01
Na Oconee eee eee 0.70 n.d. n.d. 1.14
HESO)'.. Se recente ie ee 0.76 mid n.d. 0.38
la © SE eae eters ef i 0.08 n.d. n.d. 0.62
HO J a at 30 ii ioe n.d. n.d. 1.49
IPO ALY aoe aes n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.70
Tat Bal Cerca RAR yar ea Re er 0.13 n.d. 0.14 md:
Sie Oe eae ee none n.d. n.d. n.d.

100.51 100.32 99.65 100.39*
* Including F — 0.02

bo
Su)

Augite from Vesuvius and Etna.

1. Augite, Crater of Vesuvius, June, 1914. Washington analyst.

2. Augite, Monte Somma. Doelter analyst. Tschermak’s Min. Petr.
Mitth., 283, 1877.

38. Augite, Vesuvius. Casoria, ref. Zs. Kryst., 42, 881, 1907.

4. Pyroxenite, Monte Somma. Pisani analyst. Lacroix, C. R. 165, 209,

TOUT.

Earlier analyses—The earlier analyses of Vesuvian
augites, collected by Dana, Hintze, and Doelter, and most
completely by Zambonini,’ are very unsatisfactory, either
because of their early dates, or because of their incom-
pleteness. However, two of them, which seem to be
somewhat less inferior than the others, are given in
Table I. While these older analyses show the general
characters of augite, yet they all are seriously defective in
that titanium dioxide and the alkalies are not determined
in any of them, although it is clear from my analysis, and
from our knowledge of augites elsewhere, that these
constituents are present in distinctly appreciable
amounts. The high alumina shown by them is due to the
presence of titanium dioxide. Furthermore, the iron
oxides are not separated in many of them. Lacroix has
called attention® to these serious defects in all the existing
analyses of pyroxenes of Vesuvius, and I can only join
with him in urging the need for better analyses of this min-
eral group from Vesuvius and from other localities, and,
incidentally, call attention to the general inferiority of the
ereat majority of the analyses of pyroxenes, especially as
regards the fundamental points of selection of pure mate-
rial, and accuracy and completeness of the analyses.

The publication of analyses of such inferior quality is
to be deplored, as leading possibly to seriously incorrect .
generalizations at the hands of those who accept blindly
and without critical judgment any analysis that is offered
them. One of the striking features in the study of the
chemistry of minerals and rocks is the complacency with
which such inferior work is accepted and published. Much
of it is based on impure material, often not ascertainedly
so, carried out by inexperienced analysts, by poor
methods, or with impure reagents; and yet it is accepted
in good faith by both analyst and author. This state of
affairs has done much—much more than is generally
thought—to hinder the progress of our knowledge of the
chemistry of minerals.

°F. Zambonini, Mineralogia Vesuviana, 151, 1910.
eae acrou, Cl Rs 165, 211, 1917.

24 H. 8S. Washington and H. E. Merwin—wNote on

Comparison with pyroxemte.—lt is not necessary here
to discuss my analysis of the Vesuvius augite, partly
because of its being based on impure material, and partly
because it will be discussed later, when the series of Ital-
lan augites is more nearly complete. Attention must,
however, be called to the very remarkable correspondence
between it and an analysis by Pisani of a pyroxenite of
Monte Somma, published by Lacroix, which is given in
column 4 of Table I. Lacroix does not describe this rock
in detail, but it would appear to be holocrystalline and
composed almost entirely of pyroxene. It is a somewhat
noteworthy example of the possibility of diverse erystalli-
zation of a part of a magma, either as a monomineralic
or almost monomineralic, granular rock, or as well-
formed crystals of a definite mineral.

Lacroix mentions and gives analyses of several types
of the pyroxenite, all of which are more or less closely re-
lated chemically. It occurs, according to him,’ as homoe-
ogenic rocks, that is, ‘‘granular forms, not only of the
flows , but also of the differentiated portions of the same
magma which have not necessarily reached the surface.’’
Such homoeogenic rocks are assumedly of abyssal origin
and, if the general theories of gravitative adjustment of
Daly and Bowen are correct, they would be expected to
have come up, or been carried up, as broken-off blocks,
from very deep down in the volcanic mass. My augite
crystals, on the other hand, occur, as has been said, in the
light scorias that form the uppermost seum or fr oth of the
ascending magma. This would indicate that, in this case
at least, separation by gravity has not been carried to
completeness. That this is also true elsewhere is indi-
cated by the occurrence of such augite crystals (almost
always of the same crystal form) at other volcanoes,
such as Stromboh, Etna, and the Alban voleano. Indeed,
they are rather common at many volcanoes, and similarly
crystals of cossyrite and kaersutite (sodic hornblende)
are met with as such loose crystals at Pantelleria and
Linosa, to speak only of Italian volcanoes.

But the incompleteness of such a separative process is
not to be wondered at, considering the convection currents
in, and the presumably violent movements of, the upward-
welling mass of magma, as well as the presence of gas,
whose bubbles would act lke those in a glass of cham-

"A. Lacroix, C. R., 165, 205, 1917.

Augite from Vesuvius and Etna. 25

pagne to keep up a dry raisin, which would otherwise
sink. (‘‘Forsan et haec olim meminisse juvabit.’’)

The interesting point is that, with portions of the
magma of almost identical composition, we get, in the one
ease, a typically granular rock, and in the other, well-
formed, loose crystals. We have, unfortunately, no
detailed petrographical description of Lacroix’s pyroxen-
ites. Of some of them he says (page 210) that they
are composed of ‘‘a little leucite filling the interspaces
of plates of biotite which surround automorphic crystals
of augite or inclose them poikilitically.’’ Of the most
pyroxenic type, that of which an analysis has been cited,
nothing is said as to the form of the augites; but their
being spoken of as granular (‘‘grenues’’) leads one to
think that the augites are xenomorphic. We know many
pyroxenites from elsewhere of this granitoid type of
texture and, so far as my experience of them goes, they
do not show evidence of being built around automorphic
and euhedral crystal cores; though conceivably evidence
of such an origin may well have been obliterated in the
process of growth, if this were not zonal.

It will be evident that pyroxenites of the first type of
Lacroix, with automorphic augites, would be quite in
harmony with Bowen’s theory of the settling of the heavy
erystals in a magma.® Bowen studied the sinking of
olivine and pyroxene crystals, and the rising of those of
tridymite, in artificial melts, and the striking way in
which the first two sank and the third rose was sufficient
proof of the actuality of the phenomenon and the rel-
ative densities of crystal and liquid. So far as I know,
we have few data, at least exact data, on the densities of
liquid lavas, but the point arises as to whether the augite
crystals are really heavier than the liquid in which they
occurred.

The density of the augite crystals was determined as
0.242 at 23°. The average density of the solid leucite
tephrite of Vesuvius’®: may be taken as about 2.8, while

*“N. L. Bowen, this Journal, 39, 175, 1915. The sinking of crystals of
feldspar and their accumulation at the bottom of flows of obsidian were
observed by Von Buch (Geéogn. Beschr. Canar. Ins., 229, 1825), who men-
tions experiments made by a M. de Drée, in which feldspar crystals settled to
the bottom of a crucible. The matter is discussed by C. Darwin, about
1844 (Geological Observations, 2d ed., 132-140, 1891), who attempts thus to
account for the differentiation of trachyte and basalt.

*Cf. Roth, Abh. Berl. Akad. Wiss., 1877, 13; and Zirkel, Lehrb. Petrog.,
3, 19, 1894. Roth gives the average as 2.77.

26 H. S. Washington and H. E. Merwin—Note on

vom Rath?® gives the values 2.512 and 2.592 as the
densities of the glassy crusts of Vesuvian bombs of 1872,
and Lagorio™ 2.319 as that of a Vesuvius obsidian. We
may therefore provisionally accept a density of about 2.5
for the Vesuvius glass. As to the liquid lava, we have no
data; but, assuming a density of 2.8 for the solid lava,
we may conclude from the discussion of Daly? based
on Mellard Reade’s and Barus’ data as to expansion,
that the molten lava would have a density of about 2.35.
This does not take into account the presence of dissolved
gases, which would unquestionably lower the density,
and at the same time decrease the viscosity, very
materially. It is clearly evident, therefore, that augite
crystals, placed in such a leucite tephrite magma, would
be much more dense than the magma, and would tend to
sink, though the actual sinking of many of them would be
more or less prevented by movements in the liquid, and by
the possible presence of attached e gas bubbles in the upper
portions of the mass. Anyone who has made mineral
separations with heavy liquids will appreciate the possi-
bilities of disturbance of a ‘‘theoretically’’ perfect
separation, adherent particles of the lighter minerals
here replacing the gas bubbles of the magma.

But the occurrence of masses of rock of granitic
texture, without euhedral erystals, or erystals formed
freely in the body of the liquid, of the same composition
as such crystals formed in what must have been a very
similar magma and at the same voleano, seems to demand
the recognition of some other factor than gravity, or
at least one in addition to that of gravity.

This is not the place to enter into a discussion of the
various kinds or causes of differentiation that have been
suggested, but I must recall the case of Shonkin Sag and
the explanation of its differentiation by fractional
crystallization advanced by the late Prof. Pirsson, which,
it seems to me, Daly has not adequately mett® by an
appeal to eravitative ‘differentiation. Pirsson and I held
much the same views on these matters, and I feel inclined
to revive a theory put forward many years ago,'* chiefly

* Vom Rath, Z. deutsch geol. Ges., 25, 240, 1873.

“ Lagorio, Tscherm. Min. petr. Mitth., 8, 475, 1887.

“R. A. Daly, this Journal, 15, 277, 1903.

*“L. V. Pirsson, this Journal, 11, 12, 1901; U.S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 237,
188, 1905. Cf. Daly, Igneous Rocks and their Origin, 223, 238, 1914.

“ Washington, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 11, 409, 414, 1900; Jour. Geol., 9.
663, 1901.

Augite from Vesuvius and Etna. 27

to account for the different types of laccolithic differen-
tiation. This is based on fractional crystallization,
perhaps aided by convection currents, as Pirsson sup-
posed, the crystallization beginning at the rough walls,
and the crystals of this portion (in the present case mono-
mineralic) interfering with each other so as to produce a
granitoid textured rock. Crystallization of free floating
erystals (therefore euhedral) in the magma could, and
probably would, also go on simultaneously. ‘The process
is analogous to the slow freezing of a bottle of salt solu-
tion, which begins at the walls, so that clear ice forms
above, at the sides, and at the bottom, leaving finally a
central core of highly concentrated solution. With the
more complex rock magmas the process would be
conceivably more complex than this, but the same general
principles would seem to apply. Unquestionably, the
influence of gravity might or would be felt, especially on
the loose floating crystals, but this would probably have
less or no effect on the wall accumulations. The process
is analogous to Daly’s chilled border concept, but differs
from this in that, according to Pirsson’s and my —
hypothesis, the border crystallization product does not
represent the original magma, as conceived by Daly, but
would be an ‘‘extreme pole of differentation.”’

On such a hypothesis the formation, either simulta-
neous or successive, of a granular pyroxenite, composed
of closely packed and adherent, anhedral crystals, and
free-floating, euhedral crystals, is readily understandable ;
more readily thus, it seems to me, than on a hypothesis
based purely on the influence of gravity. It also serves
to explain, as that of gravity does not, such examples of
vertical, tubular differentiation as those of Magnet Cove
and Mount Johnston, Quebec, which are impliedly
regarded by Suess?® as analogous to ‘‘piping’’ in a steel
ingot.

But we are getting far away from our little augite
Oe Let us pass on to those of a near-by voleano,

tna.

AveiTt oF Monti Rossi, Etna.

The loose crystals of augite that are found in abun-
dance in the ashes and tuffs of Monti Rossi, formed by
the eruption of 1669, and elsewhere around Etna, would

Suess, The Face of the Earth, 4, 559, 1909. Cf. H., S. Washington,
Jour. Geol., 9, 607, 1901; F. D. Adams, Jour. Geol., 11, 254, 1903.

28 H. 8S. Washington and H. E. Merwin—Note on

seem to have been among’ the first augites to be studied.
They were described as early as 1783 by Romé de L’Isle,
a few years later by Dolomieu (1788), and by Spallanzani
about 1792. It may be of historic interest to cite here
Spallanzani’s analysis, which seems to have been the
first, or among the first, of the analyses of these augites.*®
He found: ‘‘free silica 34.5, lime 18.7, iron 7.6, alumina
12.4, magnesia 11.0, sum 84.2*’ It will be seen that, 1m-
perfect as the analysis is from the modern standpoint,
Spallanzani determined the presence of all the most essen-:
tial constituents, and approximately in their relative
order of abundance.

Physical characters—The augite crystals examined
were obtained in July, 1914, by Dr. Day and me in the
ashes of the western summit of Monti Rossi, near
Nicolosi. Though they do not appear to be as abundant
as they were in Spallanzani’s day, yet a handful was
readily collected in half an hour.

The habit is the usual one, like that of the crystals of
Vesuvius and Stromboli, though they are, on the whole,
somewhat smaller, and with a decidedly greater tendency
to prismatic development, some of them being three
times as long as thick. They are bounded by the planes
a(100), 6(010), “m(110), and s(ill). The ordinary
contact twins (twinning plane a(100)) seem to be rarer
than at Vesuvius or Stromboli. They are jet black, and
the faces are lustrous, much brighter than those of the
Vesuvius crystals, though close examination shows that
they are not flat planes, but are as if the crystals were
cracked, so that they do not give good reflections for the
goniometer. For this reason no ‘erystallographie meas-
urements were made.

In powder or particles under the microscope they are
of a greenish gray color, without pronounced pleochroism.
The Top eue index 8 varied from 1.710 to 1.715; +he
highest value of y was 1.735, and the lowest of « was 1.702.
Thus the chemical analysis is probably ee closely
represented by the values: o—1.704, B=1.711,

The extinction angle is high, but was not sctemaned.
as the cleavage is poor and it was not thought worth while
to grinda section parallel to b(010).

= Spallanzani, Viaggi alle due Sicilie, (1) Chap. 7, (page 172 of Milan
edition, 1825). Ina (somewhat pathetic) note referring to the low summa-
tion he says: ‘‘It must be noted that, apart from the almost unavoidable loss
in manipulation, and that of the moisture present in the schorls, the lime is
here deprived of the acid with which it was originally provided (combined).’’

Augite from Vesuvius and Etna. 29

The specific eravity of the crystal fragments used for
the analysis, determined with a pycnometer, was 3.373
referred to water at 22°.

Chemical composition.—The loose crystals appear to
be very pure, except for patches of a siliceous material
(which was readily removed by dilute hydrofluoric acid).
Small grains of yellow olivine project from the surfaces,
but they are not found in the interior of the erystals.
After crushing a batch of crystals to small fragments for
analysis, all these olivine particles were carefully
removed by repeated search under a binocular, and the
material used for analysis is confidently believed to have
been free from them. ‘The crystals, however, contain a
small amount of minute inclusions of magnetite, which it
was impracticable to remove entirely. Treatment -with
a magnet of about 0.6 g. of the powder analyzed showed
that this was present to the extent of 3.94 per cent, and
in column 2 of Table II the analysis is corrected for 4
per cent of magnetite.

TABLE II.

i 2 3 4.
od UE) Ea ae oe ae Pees ay 47.89 50.09 47.63 47.38
EMO) Mesa: 3) ces Bigs: Ss Sorel 6.74 5.52
ee sks Se 4.17 1.47 n.d. 5.52
LE Ells A ete eee Rea 5.98 4.96 11.39 7.89
BOB OIO MS ine cate Sick e's 13.40 14.01 12.90 15.26
CEN ee ee ee an 21.49 22.48 20.87 19.10
OMe ees o.6 4 ae 0.70 0.73 n.d. n.d.
dS Bees Be 0.01 0.01 n.d. n.d.
Sere ete. ce OLA 0.22 0.29 0.43
LIM = SO ae 2.02 Pet n.d. n.d.
IEDC) Ges hs veer anea 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.10

99.62 100.00 100.08 99.53

Ree ee i aia vi Ys 3.313 2.886 2.935

Augite, Monti Rossi, Etna. Washington analyst.

Same, corrected for 4 per cent of magnetite.

Augite, Monti Rossi, Etna. S. van Waltershausen analyst. Der Etna,
2, 490, 1880. (First published in 1853).

Augite, Monti Rossi, Etna. Rammelsberg analyst. Pogg. Ann., 103,
436, 1858.

- wtp

Only five or six published analyses of these augites are
to be found, and all suffer from the same defects that
were pointed out in the ease of the Vesuvian augite, that
is, non-determination of titanium and alkalies, and, in
many, non-separation of the iron oxides.

Discussion.—Any extended discussion of my analysis
is unnecessary here, and will be reserved for a future

30 Washington and Merwim—Augite from Vesuvius, ete.

occasion, in connection with those of other Italian augites.
It may, however, be of interest to give the composition of
the Etna augite in terms of the usual molecules, which
is as follows (No. 1): |

1 2
Ca Migs > sitar ak oe TOO.) 80.1
Cahepity sce fa aes coe 16.5 §
CASIOE | a. ae Rydioae Se 15 none
(Wie Bie) Sisco 5 ie ro none 7.5
(Mo Me )AL SIO), 25. sosvs 7.0 7.0
Na (26,41) 8.0; 7. oe 5.0 5.4

It will be seen that the Etna augite (1) is composed
very largely of diopside and hedenbergite molecules, with
a little wollastonite and acmite, and a small amount of
the aluminous T'schermak molecule. In general it much
resembles the augite (2) of Stromboli,’ though this
carries somewhat less of the diopside molecule, and
considerable hypersthene instead of wollastonite. The
respective refractive indices are as follows:

Augite, Etna a==1.704, B= 1.7114 eae
Augite, Stromboli, 21.693, B—1.699, y—=1.719

This is not the place to discuss the differences, but it
may be mentioned that the higher indices of the Etna
augite are to be connected with its higher wollastonite
and titanium content, which seem to more than counter-
balance the higher ferrous oxide of the Stromboli augite.
The Stromboli augite, furthermore, is slightly higher in
magnesia, which would tend to lower the refractive index.
On the whole, it may be said that the chemical and optical
data for both of these augites are quite in accord, and bear
out observations made on the pyroxene molecules gener-
ally. é

Geophysical Laboratory,
Carnegie Institution of Washington,
July, 1920.

“ Kozu and Washington, this Journal, 45, 468, 1918.

T. Holm—Chionophila Benth. 31

Arr I1L—Chionophila Benth. A Morphological Study;
by Tueo. Horm. (With 15 figures, drawn from nature
by the author.)

The genus Chionophila Benth. is a member of the tribe
Cheloneae, and its nearest allies in North America are
Chelone and Pentstemon; as distinguishing characters
Gray, Bentham and Hooker consider the structure of the
calyx, corolla and fruit as the most important. The calyx
being funnelform, obtusely five-lobed in Chionophila,
deeply five- parted in the two other genera; the corolla
being densely bearded at the base of the lower lip in Chio-
nophila, while in Pentstemon this structure recurs only in
certain species: P. barbatus Nutt., P. laevigatus Soland.,
P. pubescens Soland., and a few others; moreover the cap-
sule being septicidally dehiscent in Chelone and Pentste-
mon, but at first loculicidal in Chionophila; in the last of
these the capsule is enclosed in the marcescent calyx and
corolla, while it is free in the others; also the seeds are
different, being rather large, oblong, " with a very loose,
reticulated outer coat in Chionophila, winged in Chelone,
and angulated, but marginless in Pentstemon. Very lit-
tle, however, is said about the habit of Chionophila:
Herba perennis, humilis, caespitosa, glabra is the charac-
terization offered by Bentham and Hooker; a dwarf per-
ennial, glabrous or nearly so is all, that Gray has to say.

At the time of Bentham and Gray the genus was sup-
posed to be monotypic, but since then a second species has
been proposed by Professor L. F. Henderson! C. Tweedyi,
by Canby and Rose referred to Pentstemon, P. T'weedyi.
However this second species differs from C. Jamesii
Benth. according to Professor Henderson, by the corolla
being quite saccate at base dorsally, thus causing the
corolla to be turned aside at quite a strong angle with the
axis of the inflorescence, beside by the calyx being short
and more lobed, and the lower lip of the corolla being
merely papillose. Professor Henderson found this new
species in open, loose soil at the bases of mountains in
Idaho. C. Jamesii, on the other hand, is a member of the
high alpine flora of ‘the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and
Wyoming.

* Henderson, L. F. New Plants from Idaho and from other localities of

the North West. (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, vol. 27, 1900, p. 352.)
* Canby and Rose in Bot. Gazette, vol. 45, 1896, p. 67.

32 T. Holn—Chionophila Benth.

Recently C. T'weedyi has been raised to generic rank,
receiving the unfortunate name ‘‘Pentstemoniopsis,’”
for as will be shown in the subsequent pages, the plant
is undoubtedly just as close an ally of Chionophila
as of Pentstemon; moreover the frequent use of making
generic names by adding ‘‘opsis’’ has resulted in names
of too great length, and sometimes also in such terrific
combinations as: Saxifragopsis, Stellariopsis, Bombac-
opsis ete. ,

Now with respect to Chionophila Jamesii the plant is
not caespitose, but stoloniferous , and the shoot above
ground shows very plainly the structure of a typical mon-
opodium. There is a rosette of leaves, and generally only
one flower-bearing stem, which is axillary. In the center
of the rosette is a bud, vegetative, which terminates the
shoot, and the flower-bearing stem is always axillary, pro-
ceeding from near the base of the shoot, from the axil of
one of the basal leaves. The leaves are opposite with
long sheaths, and the accompanying diagram (fig. 1)
shows the structure, which is the commonest met with.
Four pairs of leaves constitute the rosette, L.1—L.*; of
these L.* enclose a vegetative bud, which will develop a
new rosette in the coming year, and in the axil of one of
the leaves L.' is a floral stem (St.) When stolons develop,
they generally proceed from the axils of the leaves of the
previous year, now present as withered leaf-sheaths, and
these stolons consist of two to three stretched internodes,
covered by leaf-sheaths; they grow in a horizontal direc-
tion, and become terminated by a rosette of leaves, repeat-
ing the structure of the mother-shoot. During the first
season the stolons remain attached to the mother-shoot,
and roots develop freely from the nodes. The number of
stolons may vary from one to as many as six, but one or
two are the most frequent. The subterranean stem is
ascending, densely covered with remnants of leaf-
sheaths, and of a soft, fleshy consistence-—The monopo-
dium represents a structure, which is evidently rare; we
remember this structure being characteristic of certain
species of Carex, for instance C. laxiflora, C. digitata, C.
Fraseri and some others, which J have described in this
journal. A sympodium, however, is the most frequent
structure observed in rhizomes especially. Among the
Smilaceae Smilax herbacea shows the interesting case of

® Rydberg, P. A. Flora of the Rocky Mountains, New York 1917.

T. Holm—Chionophila Benth. oo

the rhizome representing a sympodium, while the aerial
stemisatruemonopodium. Unfortunately the literature
gives little information about these structures, and with
regard to the structure of the shoot above ground being a
monopodium so distinctly represented by Chionophila,
there is no mention of this structure being represented by
any of the other Scrophulariaceae; as a matter of fact the
word ‘‘monopodium’’ does not occur in any of the Ameri-
ean manuals of Botany, dealing with floras of certain
regions. Nevertheless it constitutes a character of no
small importance, and none of the species of Pentstemon,
which I have examined, exhibit this structure. It may be
mentioned at the same time, that Arabis dentata exhibits
a monopodium exactly as that of Chionophila, and is the
only Arabis, known so far, of which the shoot is of mono-
podial growth. The monopodium occurs also in Clay-
tonia, Calandrinia, Viola ete., which I have described in
previously published papers on these genera.

Concerning the inflorescence in Chionophila, this is not
a spike, but a unilateral cyme, a monochasium; the floral
stem begins with two or three pairs of small, linear, oppo-
site bracts without buds; but above these the bracts be-
come somewhat larger, broader, and we find at each pair
a single flower, and a lateral branch, which again termi-
nates in a flower with two bracts and a lateral branch and
soon. In Chionophila the composition of the inflorescence
is not so very distinct on account of the short internodes,
the leaves and flowers being rather crowded, but in Col-
hnsia grandiflora Doug]. the structure is plainly visible,
and corresponds exactly with that of Chionophila. In
Pentstemon, on the other hand, there is a regular cyme in
the axil of each leaf; in P. Newberryi Gr. the axillary
cymes are one-flowered, there being only a single flower,
but with two bracts, indicating a ‘‘dichasium’’ with two
lateral branches suppressed, non-developed.

Characteristic of Chionophila, when compared with
Pentstemon, is thus the monopodial ramification of the
shoot, and the inflorescence representing a monochasium.
The floral structure has been described very exactly by
Gray, Bentham and Hooker, except that it seems to have
been overlooked, that the calyx, in fresh specimens, is dis-
tinetly folded lengthwise as shown in figure 2.

Internal structure of the vegetative organs.

The roots:—In Solereder’s treatment of the Scrophu-

Am. Jour. Sci.—FirtH SEertigs, Vou. I, No. 1.—January, 1921.
3 =

34 T. Holu—Chionophila Benth.

lariaceae nothing is said about the root-structure. With
respect to C. Jamest the structure is of special interest,
since I observed the development of cork to take place in
the peripheral stratum of the cortex, the stratum border-
ing on the exodermis (fig. 5), and, as we remember, De
Bary records only two cases of cork being developed in the
peripheral strata of the root-cortex, namely in Clusia and
Bignonia capreolata ;* since then Olivier detected a simi-
lar structure in Artanthe pothifoha, Jasminum humile,
and Ruyschia Souroubea;? to these may be added Tecoma
radicans and Cephalanthus occidentalis.®

There was no primary root in any of the specimens,
which I collected, and the root-system consisted merely of
several strong, secondary roots developed from the sub-
terranean part of the stem; these roots were sparingly
branched, and only slightly hairy. Inside the epidermis
is a thinwalled, contractile exodermis (Ex. in fig. 5), cov-
ering an open cortical parenchyma of about twenty layers,
with no starch or erystals; a phellogen (Ph.) arises, as
stated above, in the peripheral stratum. Inside the cor-
tex follows a thinwalled endodermis (End. in figure 6),
surrounding the pericambium (P), in which tangential
cell-divisions appear outside the protohadrome, being the
only indication of secondary increase in the young roots.
The roots are pentarch with five strands of leptome alter-
nating with five short rays of hadrome. The center of
the stele represents a relatively broad, thinwalled pith
without starch.

As the roots grow older the cortex collapses, and some
few secondary vessels develop on the inner flank of the
leptome. The main stem, which is terminated by the ro-
sette of leaves, shows the following structure. The upper
internodes are cylindric, glabrous and smooth. A thin
cuticle covers the slightly papillose epidermis, and the
cortical parenchyma is homogeneous, of about twenty
strata with distinct intercellular spaces, and containing a
little starch. There is no endodermis, and no pericyele,
but a band of isolated, small strands of leptome, and a con-
tinuous band of cambium, inter- as well as intra-fascicu-

*De Bary, A. Vergleichende Anatomie, p. 563. 1877. See also Van
Tieghem, Ph. Recherches sur la symétrie de structure des plantes vasculaires.
(Ann.se:; nat. Bot. Ser. V, 13..p..208.. 1870:)

° Olivier. Recherches sur l’appareil tégumentaire des racines, ibid. Ser

VI, 11. p. 124. 1880.
° Holm, Theo. Rubiaceae; Bot. Gaz., (vol. 43, p. 155). 1907.

T. Holm—Chionophila Benth. 35

lar; there are eight primary mestome'strands with a few
vessels, but with neither mestome-parenchyma nor libri-
form; the center of the stele contains a thinwalled, starch-
bearing pith. Further down, and below the rosette, the
epidermis is more or less collapsed, and replaced by two to
three layers of cork, developed from the hypodermal
structure of the cortex. The cortex is as above; in the
stele is no endodermis, but a parenchymatic pericycle, and
two concentric bands of leptome, separated by some ten
layers of radially arranged parenchyma, a secondary cor-
tex. Some secondary vessels may be seen in the primary
mestome-strands, and the hadrome thus constitutes much
deeper rays than in the internodes above.

The flower-bearing stem, which is axillary, is two-
winged at the base, with the stele circular (in cross sec-
tion). It is glabrous and smooth, but the cuticle is, here
and there, wrinkled longitudinally. The epidermis is
thickwalled, especially the outer cell-wall, and the cortex
is also somewhat thickened, and consists of six to seven
strata, very open from the wide intercellular spaces, and
destitute of starch and crystals. HEndodermis is barely
distinct (End. in fig. 7), and the pericycle is merely pres-
ent as a single layer of small-celled parenchyma (P. in
fig. 7), which is continuous and bordering directly on the
numerous small strands of leptome. There are eight
primary mestome-strands, containing a few (four) layers
of radially arranged, thickwalled, and porous mestome-
parenchyma. The interfascicular tissue consists of lep-
tome, and three to four layers of radially arranged, thick-
walled parenchyma. ‘The pith is solid, homegeneous, with
no starch or erystals (fig. 7). Inthe wings of the stem is
only thinwalled cortex, no collenchyina being developed.

This portion of the flower-bearing stem was subter-
ranean, but the structure of the upper, aerial internodes
is about the same. However, small hairs with cuticular
pearls (fig. 9) occur on the internodes, and the cuticle is
more wrinkled. The epidermis is more thickwalled, the
cortex contains chlorophyll, and is very open from lacunae
of quite considerable width, but otherwise the inner tis-
sues are as described above.

Characteristic of the stem is thus the complete absence
of collenchyma and stereome, the only strengthening tis-
sue being represented by the thickwalled, interfascicular
parenchyma.

36 T. Holm—Chionophila Benth.

The leaf.—The leaves of the rosette are thick, fleshy,
and glabrous; they are held in an almost vertical position,

PR. | es Weise), S

0 t IB Chi iO

a op 14 —
ee Ze
ae ye: 5 13

and the stomata are equally distributed over both faces of
the blades. While cuticular striations are very pro-
nounced on the ventral face of the leaf, (fig. 10) the cuticle

/
\
=

T. Holm—Chionophila Benth. 37

is smooth on the dorsal. Viewed ‘‘en face’’ the lateral
eell-walls of epidermis are, on both faces, straight, quite
thick and porous, especially on the dorsal face; the
stomata (fig. 8) are free, and surrounded by mostly four
ordinary epidermis-cells. In cross-sections the structure
of the cuticle is readily visible (fig. 10), and the outer cell-
wall of epidermis appears quite thick. The chlorenchyma
consists of four layers of palisade-cells, which cover a
very open pneumatic tissue of about eight strata. In the
marginal portion of the leaf the palisade-tissue extends
to the dorsal part of the blade and there is no mechanical
tissue neither stereome nor collenchyma in any part of the
leaf. The mestome-strands are collateral, all single, and
surrounded by green parenchyma sheaths. The leaf-
structure is thus approximately isolateral on account of
the distribution of the stomata, but not with reference to
the structure of the chlorenchyma. ‘The leaf-structure
thus resembles that of the high alpine Claytonia megar- ©
rhiza,‘ as far as concerns the distribution of the stomata
on both faces of the blade, the several strata of palisade-
cells, the thick cuticle and thickwalled epidermis. Bon-
nier® and Wagner? have offered some interesting contribu-
tions to the knowledge of the structure of alpine plants,
and according to these authors the leaf-structure of Chion-
ophila and of Claytonia megarrhiza appears to be the
typical one, which characterizes the overwintering leaves
of alpine species. And the highly developed assimilating
tissue is in correlation with the pronounced intensity of
hght at the higher elevations, the considerable decrease of
carbonic acid in the atmosphere, beside the very short
time of vegetation. At the same time these winter-green
leaves are protected against too excessive transpiration
during the period of the melting of the snow, by means of
the very thick cuticle and pronounced thickening of the
cell-walls of epidermis. However, only the leaf has been
studied by these authors and the Monocotyledones have,

“Holm, Theo. Claytonia Gronov, Mem. Natl. Acad. of Se., vol. 10,
Washington.

* Bonnier, G. -Cultures expérimentales dans les hautes altitudes, (Comptes
Rend. Acad. Se., 1890).

Bonnier, G. Influence des hautes altitudes sur les fonctions des végé-
taux, (ibid. 1890).

Bonnier, G. Etude expérimentale sur 1’influence du climat alpin sur la
végétation et les fonctions des plantes, (Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, 1888).

°* Wagner, A. Zur Kenntniss des Blattbaues der Alpenflauzen und dessen
biologischer Bedeutung, (Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math. nat.
classe, May, 1892).

38 T. Holm—Chionophila Benth.

almost, been passed by in silence. To obtain a more com-
plete idea of the alpine structure and its correlation with
the surrounding medium it will be necessary to include
the stem as well as the root structure, and to decide
whether certain structural peculiarities may be really
epharmonic or inherited.

Finally with reference to Pentstemoniopsis this plant
shows exactly the same monopodial growth as Chiono-
phila: a terminal rosette of leaves, axillary floral stems,
and axillary stolons. The monochasium is also repre-
sented in this plant, and more distinctly than in Chiono-
phila, since the inflorescence is more open. The seeds
also agree with those of Chionophila (fig. 15), but the
flower and the fruit resemble those of Pentstemon. The
habit of the plant thus corresponds with that of Chiono-
phila, the deeply cleft calyx and the free capsule with
those of Pentstemon. The corolla with the lower lip
bearing short-papillae instead of distinct hairs as in
Chionophila is of small importance, but the gibbous base,
and the horizontal position of the flower render the plant
distinct from both, and especially when combined with the
monochasial ramification of the inflorescence.

Pentstemoniopsis is undoubtedly a good genus, if we
include the vegetative characters, and the structure of the
inflorescence in the diagnosis.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

Fie. 1. Chionophila Jamesii. Diagram of the shoot; for explanation
see the text.

Fic. 2. The flower, seen from above; enlarged.

Fie. 3. The fruit surrounded by the marcescent calyx and corolla;
enlarged.

Fic. 4. The capsule removed from the calyx and corolla; enlarged.

Fic. 5. Cross-section of a secondary root; Ep. —epidermis; is.
exodermis; Ph.=phellogen; X 320.

Fic. 6. Cross-section of inner part of same root; C.=cortex; End.—
endodermis; P.—pericycle; L.=leptome; V.=vessels; X 496.

Fic. 7. Cross-section of inner part of stem; S.=pericycle; P.—pith;-
H.—hadrome; other letters as above; X 320.

Fic. 8, Ventral epidermis of leaf with a stoma; X 496.

Fic. 9. Epidermis of stem with hairs; X 320.

Fig. 10. Dorsal epidermis of leaf; X 496.

Fig. 11. Pentstemoniopsis Tweedyi (Rose) Rydbg. The flower, side-
view; enlarged.

Fie. 12. “Lower lip of flower; enlarged.

Fig. 13. The stamens, four fertile, one sterile; enlarged.

Fig. 14. The fruit; enlarged.

Fig. 15.. The seed; enlarged.

Clinton, Md., April, 1920.

C. R. Longwell—Muddy Mountains, Nev. 39

Art. 1V.—Geology of the Muddy Mountains, Nevada,
with a Section to the Grand Wash Cliffs in Western
Arizona'; by CHESTER R. LoNGWELL.

INTRODUCTION.

The area with which this paper is concerned is in south-
eastern Nevada and northwestern Arizona, as indicated
on the accompanying index map (fig. 1). The general
region of which this area is a part has more than one
strong appeal to the geologist. It is practically un-
mapped, and hence has the lure of the unknown. The
pioneer scientists who traversed the Plateau and Great
Basin regions gave only passing notice to the Virgin and
Muddy mountains, and the inaccessibility of the region
has discouraged later efforts. As a result, a large area
still presents opportunities for scientific work of an ex-
ploratory nature. Moreover, the location of the region
near the edge of the Basin Range counfry and imme-
diately adjacent to the Plateau Province gives it a eriti-
cal interest, because the stratigraphic, structural, and
physiographic relations of Basin to Plateau must be
determined largely by a study of this border zone. Are
the rocks west of the Grand Wash Cliffs fundamentally
different from those to the east? What is the nature and
what the age of structure lines dividing the two prov-
inces? ‘T’o what extent does the physiography of the
region help in unravelling the more recent geological his-
tory? These questions concern matters which are not
only of interest in themselves, but are fundamental in the
larger problems touching the origin and development of
the Plateau, the eastern part of the Great Basin, and the
Colorado River system.

Previous reports——The Whipple, Ives, and Wheeler
parties did not map the area considered in this report, but
made reconnaissance surveys of closely adjacent areas.
Dutton included in his atlas of the Grand Canyon district
a generalized geologic map of the Grand Wash and the
eastern part of the Virgin Mountains. ‘The first repre-
sentation of the geology of the Muddy Mountains and the
lower Virgin Valley appeared in 1903, on Spurr’s map of
southern Nevada, included in Bulletin 208 of the U. S.

* Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological
Survey.

C. R. Longwell—Geology of

40

| a 7 FUOD) PUDDD
” 7) y LT

a ‘$7 sydad Appnw {lls NOMS SS SESS
Gna 7 eng ena eixboy SERS
nv, 3 o7 d- BL
BARE) Bonaney rate of Ys) puredonzra We

‘87 22774NPD (er
‘SS 18d NS ir
‘SS QU1UOIOZ | eA)

| "S) FOq IDM Fra7¢
i vorzDu40of sdoyusoyy 3
(es

‘DRO ‘salshyd.og ie
UDILGUY - DAg | Ie e/
D20zZOD/ AT }OPun 7

—

‘6u09 dunsouryo boom -

usrgvuUsios 274145 FS,

“SS POPPoq -ssou ARIE lle

Lh tt tH | ervsowopbuns a Ge NSN —

ae oe spog bursdg ag4044 |—-——
shoj2 aurvsl | [i

SFisodap 2oIANIT YI. |
pusbaT

aa y

7

| DF
buried SAD CAM NI

ie: ORS
a F We - ulodo Pee
Dey ‘ j “AS
|

a

alte TIM

n
s |
taht |

Fl

aie

Mg
ore

an

y Uy : --- =

<\ .
OX

a V4
=H ‘270 J ~ bag 5 eon ee
haousoznney smo7f PAv? paring |yul6! aaj fo spunsnoy } $222W)27099 702uU0z1410 Seu EO T> (2 Galnees
PUDMQ\PUPDIONY “hthydsod 2Y/ ¥2P7Z re (8! G Sioee 1D22749/ : o/ = x : es = 0 * auozspuns pun Fre

UPILJUOD-AgF —ss79ub Puv ASIYIS

yas ala! on S 0

2 70209/0q pauimirz2apus] |; L191 W-C 4972995
UBIUOAIT “DUOISItU77 SYDId Appnys ss) fi] | aUu0799Uu27 SYDIAd hppnw eon
~uniddrs ee w1of bursd§ S160 gf arly TERN kg =
“SISSIP) ‘DUOJSIUIZ ZUIDIIN]) C BBC I uorousof buradG S4960 Y

CE TIO NG, SO 2 272I7A77 OD Raz

QUOZOPUDS 70dnNg = ih if DUOZSIU77 puiodanig

ONAD ZT

UdIMUL IY ( PUAZSPUDS OUIUOIO FD bas 0 /
PUOISPULI] GOT IDM TIE ‘Y-Y U072099 DUOZSIUT7 27774770 9 x
‘uorgowutof~f I1doyuso fy l= _=\9 Re =
27SSvIL,[\ azosamobuos dunanuiy 9 jecsogZ pesodxa 20// mi. a
. Pe uineee BET IG ==)? =< DUOZS DUDS 7BdNG| i223
Q7ISSOANL (020) f OT =) SS oa ees e eee af mm! S
. ‘PFZODADWUOJOUD L UOZLDA bea) EN re QUuU0zS9U27 qvqivy — rH
PLE ECM ANG Uu0IgnULos bujdG PSAOjy Reale : i210
éQUDIONT ‘SAD IP 2U170 S |= lz FH =
hiousopond “97780d9p PDIANTIVW [oss |l ae
5
a)

WA aqosauozbund uozZLFAQ :
GE) vorgnusof buride 2540 y Es

LEE
m4 dO SDWOYL IS

auop~
syvag hppnw

the Muddy Mountains, Nevada, etc.

42 C. R. Longwell—Geology of

Geological Survey. The portion of the map representing
the Muddy and Virgin mountains was based on seant in-
formation, and the author made no claim of its accuracy.

Nature of this paper.—The report of which this paper
is an abstract will appear as a publication of the U. S.
Geological Survey, and will present in detail the results
obtained in five months of field work in 1919. This ab-
stract will state only the most essential facts and conelu-
sions regarding the topography, stratigraphy, structure,
and physiography of the region mapped.

Acknowledgments.—The writer wishes to express his
thanks to members of the Geological Department of Yale
University, who secured research funds for prosecuting
the field work on which this paper is based. Acknowledg-
ment is also due the U. 8S. Geological Survey, which fur-
nished surveying instruments and field equipment,
although the writer was not a regular employee of that
organization. Mr. Harold S. Cave, at that time a grad-
uate student in the University of Missouri, spent several
weeks in the field and gave valuable assistance. During
the preparation of the report continued interest and ad-
vice from Professors Charles Schuchert and H. E. Greg-
ory were of especial assistance. The most sincere thanks
are due them and other members of the — who gave
helpful suggestions.

GEOGRAPHY.

Climate and drainage.—Southeastern Nevada has an
average annual rainfall of less than 6 inches, and is part
of alarge arid region. Dne to the proximity of Colorado
River, however, the drainage is entirely exterior. Virgin
River is a permanent stream, receiving its supply in part
from the mountains of southern Utah, and in part from
its principal tributary, Muddy Creek, which has its source
in a number of large springs. Other stream channels
reach every part of the area, but all are dry except at
times of infrequent rains.

Topography.—The general uniformity of surface which
characterizes the Colorado Plateaus ends abruptly at the
Grand Wash Cliffs. To the west, rugged, barren ranges,
trending generally north and south, are separated by wide
structural valleys of low elevation. The Virgin Moun-
tains have a number of sharp peaks, the highest reaching
an elevation of 7,700 feet. St. Thomas Gap, a low pass of

the Muddy Mountains, Nevada, etc. 43

structural origin, permits easy passage between the
Grand Wash and Virgin valleys. The highest part of
the Muddy Range is Callville Mountain, an abrupt mass
shaped roughly like a large letter ‘‘C’’ with the open-
ing toward the south. The general elevation of the
mountain above sea-level is about 3,000 feet, but many
peaks rise to an elevation of 4,000 feet or higher.
Muddy Peaks, the highest points, are nearly 5,800 feet
above sea-level. Both north and south of Callville
Mountain the average elevation is slightly more than
2,000 feet, and abrupt ridges rise several hundred feet
higher. Everywhere the surface is nearly destitute of
vegetation and has been carved into extremely rugged
forms.

The valleys of Grand Wash, Virgin River, and Cali-
fornia Wash are each several miles in width, and have a
total area approximately equal to that of the intervening
ranges. ‘The stream courses occupy comparatively nar-
row inner valleys, from which there is a gradual rise
toward the mountain walls on a series of broad terraces,
partly dissected into badlands. Colorado River has cut
canyons through the ranges, but its valley is wide and
comparatively open in crossing the intermontane troughs.
South of the Muddy Range the Colorado is less than 700
feet above sea-level.

Rock SERIES AND FORMATIONS.

West of the Grand Wash Cliffs sedimentary formations
are separated into two especially distinct groups. The
first is a thick series resting on pre-Cambrian schists and
ending upward with Mesozoic sediments. This group
clearly corresponds to the series exposed in the Grand
Canyon and on adjacent plateaus, and, as in the case of
that series, the limestones, sandstones, and shales belong-
ing to many periods have remarkable conformity among
themselves. The second group has a distinctly younger
aspect, and is separated from the older series by an un-
conformity .of the first order. Below this break the
youngest rocks exposed are not higher in the time scale
than middle Mesozoic, whereas the oldest rocks of the
younger series are probably later than middle Tertiary.
Other unconformities within the younger group indicate
continued unrest and an incomplete sedimentary record
since the disturbances which first tilted the older rocks.

44 C. R. Longwell—Geology of

Era Period Epoch Formation Thickness
(in feet)

Quaternary Varieus alluvial deposits O- 400
Unconformity
Pliocene? | saiine clays, silt, and sand 200-1800
Cenozoic u e Fr
Tertiary coer te
Horse Spring formation 1000-2800
Lilocene?
Overton fanglomerate : 20-3500
oR lief aml dole Creat Unconformity
(Equiwlent to) 750~2000
Jurassic Cross—bedded sandstone (the LaPlata)
Chinle formation 800-3200
Mtosoz0ic¢ Shinarump conglomerate 10- 200
Triassic
makers aie eee
Moenkopi formation 1200-1600
Disconformity
Kaibab limestone 400- 700
Permian
Coconino sandstone 0 = 75
esha Pn ipsa cela Supa: Ssaidsvone === =) = -1900t—
Pennsyl- Not exposed. Unimewn thickness
vanian
Callville limestone 1100+
(No unconformity observed) e
Paleozoic Bluepoint limestone . 900+
Mississip=
pian Rogers Spring formation 600+
pees ee
Devonian
(and older?) Muddy Peaks limestones 1200+
|
- ak BE
Cambrian
(and lator) Sandstone, quartzite, shale, and
limestone. In Virgin Mountains.

Rocks of the Virgin Mowntavns.

Exposures of pre-Cambrian rocks occupy large areas
both north and south of St. Thomas Gap. The rocks are
schists and gneisses, injected with coarse-grained gran-
ite. Above these crystalline rocks lie 70 to 100 feet of
red arkose, 150 feet of gray quartzite and sandstone,
several hundred feet of greenish shale, and limestones
thousands of feet thick. The limestones are in large
part Pennsylvanian, Mississippian, and Devonian, but
probably the Ordovician and Cambrian periods are also
represented. The clastic sediments at the base probably

the Muddy Mountams, Nevada, etc. 45

correspond to the Middle Cambrian Tapeats sandstone
and Bright Angel shale of the Grand Canyon district.

Rock formations younger than the Paleozoic are
exposed in St. Thomas Gap. They are identical with
formations in the Muddy Mountains.

Rocks of the Muddy Mountains.
Paleozoic Formations.

Devonian System.—Limestones of Devonian age are the
oldest rocks recognized in the Muddy Mountains. They
are in Callville Mountain, a great block which has been
thrust over Jurassic sandstone. All of the beds between
the overthrust plane and recognized Carboniferous are
here referred to the Devonian, but further work may
show that some of the lower strata belong to older
periods. Devonian fossils were found in a zone about
50 feet thick, more than 300 feet below the base of the
Mississippian. Below this fossiliferous horizon there
are 900 feet of limestone in which no fossils were found
except a few alge. As the beds are of the same general
nature and as no unconformity could be found in the
series, the entire thickness of 1,200 feet is tentatively in-
cluded in one formation, which will here be called the
Muddy Peaks limestone because of its prominence in the
Muddy Peaks mass.

The limestone is dense and hard, and many beds have
a siliceous appearance. Layers are regular and heavy,
ranging from 2 to 20 feet in thickness. In color they
are either very dark from included carbonaceous matter,
or decidedly light, beds or zones of the two alternating.
Lenses and thin layers of sandstone occur at intervals,
especially near the top of the formation. At the base
brecciation and shattering are extreme through a thick-
ness of 100 to 500 feet.

Most of the fossils collected from the formation have
been misplaced, and therefore a complete list is not avail-
able for publication in this paper. The following par-
tial list has been identified by Dr. E. O. Ulrich: Helio-
phyllum sp. undet. (calyx less than 1/2 inch in diameter),
Zaphrentis sp. undet. (calyx 1 inch or less in diameter),
small Stromatoporoid of undetermined genus and species,

Atrypa aff. reticularis (differs from the typical form in

46 CR: Longwell—Geology of

having finer plications), and Platyschisma? ambiguum
Walcott. |

If the writer’s field determinations are correct, the
fauna also contains Spirifer whitney. Dr. Ulrich states
that this fauna evidently represents that of the Devonian
Nevada limestone found at Eureka, Nevada. The hori-
zon is Upper Devonian.

Mississippian System—A plain disconformity sepa-
rates the Muddy Peaks limestone and higher sediments.
Above this break at least 1,500 feet of carbonaceous lime-
stone, containing an abundance of chert at many horizons,
yields fossils of Mississippian age. No physical break
was seen in this series of beds, but the faunas of the upper
and lower portions are so strikingly different that the
limestone may be separated into two formations. The
following forms were found in the lower 600 feet: Trip-
lophyllum sp., Leptopora aft. typa, Leptena analoga,
Schuchertella aff. chemungensis, Chonetes loganensis,
Productus sp., Camarotechia metallica, Spirifer centro-
natus, Spiriferina solidirostris, and Reticularia cooper-
ensis?

Dr. G. H. Girty, who identified the forms, refers this
fauna definitely to the Lower Mississippian, correlating
the horizon with the Madison limestone. This formation
is prominently exposed near Rogers Spring, and will be
called the Rogers Spring formation in this paper. In
addition to its faunal peculiarities it is characterized by
the presence of a considerable thickness of dark quartzite
in the upper half.

The younger Mississippian formation yielded the fol-
lowing forms: Tvriplophyllum sp., Cyathaxoma sp.,
Fenestella sp., Derbya aff. kaskaskiensis, Chonetes aft.
loganensis, Composita aff. subquadrata, Productus aff.
scitulus, Pustula aff. indianensis, P. aff. arkansana, Spiri-
fer sp., Conocardium n. sp., Leptodesma aff. spergenensts,
Pleurotomaria n. sp., Paraparchites sp., and Bairdia sp.
Dr. Girty pronounces this fauna Upper Mississippian,
corresponding to the fauna of the Brazer limestone of
northern Utah. The formation will be referred to as
the Bluepoint limestone, because it forms the corner of
Callville Mountain which is locally called Bluepoint.

Pennsylvanan System.—tiIn Callville Mountain the
Bluepoint limestone is overlain by at least 1,100 feet of
dark gray, heavy bedded limestone containing the follow-

the Muddy Mountams, Nevada, etc. 47

ing fossils: Triplophyllum sp., Productus cora, Pustula
nebraskensis, P. nebraskensis var., Dielasma bovidens,
Spirifer cameratus, S. rockymontanus, S. sp., Composita
subtilita, Edmondia sp. On the basis of this fauna Dr.
Girty correlates the limestone with the Magdalena group
of New Mexico. In this paper the formation will be
called the Callville lumestone, because of its prominence
in Callvile Mountain. An indeterminate thickness has
been eroded from the sections studied in the Muddy
Mountains, and the contact with the overlying Supai sand-
stone was not seen at any place. Limestone with similar
fossils and lithology was recognized in the Virgin range.
In the Grand Wash Cliffs, limestone containing Pennsyl-
vanian fossils lies immediately beneath the typical Supai
sandstone, but the limestone does not resemble the Call-
ville formation lithologically. The thick series of strata
in the lower cliff contains an abundance of dolomite, and
does not resemble any part of the Callville Mountain Car-
boniferous section.

The lower part of the Supai sandstone may be of Penn-
sylvanian age but for convenience the entire formation
will be discussed under the Permian.

Permoan System.—The Supa sandstone is prominently
exposed in the upper Grand Wash Cliff, and in tilted fault
blocks to the west. In the upper cliff the sandstone is
more than 1,000 feet thick, and practically all of it is
bright red, fine-grained, and regularly bedded. In the
Virgin and Muddy mountains cross-bedding is very prom-
inent in the formation, gypsum and gypsiferous shale
occur at several horizons, and in the most westerly ex-
posures the typical red color is largely replaced by grey.
No fossils were found in the sandstone, but at least a part
of it is assumed to be Permian, corresponding to the
Upper Supai described by Schuchert in the Grand
Canyon district. In the lower Grand Wash Cliff, Pennsyl-
vanian fossils were found near the top of beds which ap-
parently correspond to Noble’s basal Supai in the Grand
Canyon. These beds may mark the upper lmit of the
Pennsylvanian, or the Pennsylvanian-Permian contact
may lie at a higher horizon, within the typical red sand-
stone.

Typical Coconino sandstone lies above the Supai in
the Upper Cliff, in Grand Wash Valley, and in the Virgin
Mountains. In these exposures the maximum thickness

48 _C. R. Longwell—Geology of

observed was 75 feet, and the formation thins consistently
westward, losing its identity in the Muddy Range.

The Kaibab limestone has two thick limestone mem-
bers, both composed of dark gray, cherty limestone in
heavy beds. In Grand Wash these members are separ-
ated by red sandstone, but in the Virgin and Muddy
Mountains the dividing horizon is occupied by massive
gypsum which is locally 100 feet thick. At the base the
formation has alternating layers of sandstone and lime-
stone, forming a variable thickness. The total thickness
of the formation ranges from 400 to 700 feet. Fossils are

Fie. 3.—Upper Grand Wash Cliff, 10 miles north from the mouth of the
Grand Canyon. Thickness of strata exposed about 900 feet. 1, upper
part of Supai sandstone; 2, Coconino sandstone; 3, alternating sandstone
and limestone layers at base of Kaibab limestone; 4, lower heavy lime-
stone member of the Kaibab; 5, upper heavy limestone member. Bench
between 4 and 5 due to weak shale and sandstone.

abundant in the heavy limestone members. Dr. Girty has
identified the following list: Fvstulipora sp., Leptopora
n. sp., Phyllopora n. sp., Cystodictya sp., Enteletes? n. sp.,
Derbya sp., Productus wesi, P. occidentalis, P. semiretic-
ulatus, Margifera lasallensis?, Pustula subhorrida, P.
montpelierensis, Squamularia aff. guadalupensis, Com-
posita subtilita, C. mexicana, Griffithides sp., and Acan-
thopecten coloradoensis.

Dr. Girty states that this fauna is Permian, cor-
responding to that of the typical Kaibab and also to the

the Muddy Mountains, Nevada, etc. 49

fauna of the San Andreas limestone in the Manzano
Group of New Mexico.

Mesozoic Formations.

Interval between eras.—A distinct disconformity sep-
arates the Kaibab limestone from Mesozoic sediments.
Local depressions or valleys 50 to 100 feet deep, cut into
the Kaibab in early Triassic or pre-Triassic time, are
filled with chert and limestone fragments from the under-
lying rock. No angular divergence was found between
Paleozoic and Mesozoic formations.

Fie. 4.—‘‘Magnesite’’ of the Horse Spring formation, in Muddy Valley.
Beds dip 32° N.E. Thickness of 300 feet shown.in figure.

Triassic System.—tThe lower Triassic is represented |
by thin-bedded limestone, shale, and sandstone forming a
total thickness ranging from 1,200 to 1,600 feet. In the
Muddy Mountains limestone makes up practically half of
the thickness. 'T'ypically the layers are regular, but are
very thin, beds more than a foot thick being exceptional.
Shale, sandstone, and gypsum members occur at inter-
vals, and abundant ripple-marks indicate shallow water
during deposition. Marine fossils, dominantly pelecy-
pods, are found at many horizons. The upper. part of the
deposits are continental, and consist mainly of shale.
with abundant gypsum. Tracks of small reptiles occur
in the shales.

Am. Jour. Sci.—Firtu Seriss, Vou. I, No. 1.—January, 1921.
4

50 C. R. Longwell—Geology of

The following forms, found in the limestones, were
identified by Dr. Girty: Aviculipecten utahensis, A. spp.
1 and 2, A. n. sp., Pseudomonotis n. sp., Myalina n. sp.,
Pteria? sp., Sedgwickia? n. sp., Myophoria n. sp., M. aff.
lineata, Pleurotomaria? n. sp., Pleuwrophorus? n. sp.,
Pseudomelania? n. sp., Murchisonia? sp., and casts of
starfishes.

Although this list is not diagnostic in itself, it serves to
correlate the horizon with beds in Arizona, Utah, and
Idaho in which, Dr. Girty states, ammonites have been
found, proving a Lower Triassic age for the horizon.
Very clearly the formation corresponds closely to the

‘Fic. 5.—Unconformable contact of Pliocene(?) intermontane deposits and
Horse Spring beds. Valley of Muddy Creek.

Kanab Valley ‘‘ Permian,’’ to the ‘‘ Lower Shinarump”’ of
northern Arizona, and to the Moenkopi formation of
Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. The name Moenkom
has been applied to the beds of this horizon over a large
region, and this name will also be used here for the for-
mation in the Muddy Mountains, inasmuch as there is no
reasonable doubt regarding the correlation.

A disconformity separates the top of the Moenkopi for-
mation from the Shinarump conglomerate, which ranges
in thickness from 10 feet to 200 feet and varies in compo-
sition from coarse conglomerate to conglomeratic sand-
stone. Pebbles are mainly quartzite and chert, and are

the Muddy Mountams, Nevada, etc. 51

well rounded. Beds are local and lenticular, and the en-
tire formation is characterized by extreme crossbedding.
Fragments of silicified wood are abundant, and large logs
are common, especially near the top. Descriptions of the |
conglomerate in the Navajo country, 300 miles to the
east, are equally accurate for the formation in the Muddy
Mountains. With the exception of the petrified wood no
fossils were found, and the conglomerate is called Upper
Triassic merely to agree with its present classification in
the Colorado Plateaus.

The Shinarump conglomerate is overlain, without ap-
parent unconformity, by the Chinle formation, a thick
series of sandstones and gypsiferous shales. Near Colo-
rado River this formation is 800 feet thick, and at least a
third of the thickness is made up of coarse sandstone lay-
ers, many of them conglomeratic. Northward the thick-
ness increases to 3,000 feet within 20 miles, and the coarse
materials almost disappear. Near Muddy Creek the
greater portion of the formation consists of red gritty
shale and fine-grained sandstone, with an abundance of
gypsum, both primary and secondary. Ripple-marks are
common, and silicified wood occurs at some horizons.
Evidently the deposits are continental, and the source
was in highlands which lay to the south, probably in cen-
tral or southern Arizona. The formation corresponds
closely in lithologic character and in stratigraphic rela-
tions to the Chinle formation of the Navajo country and
to the Dolores of southwestern Colorado; and in this
report the name Chinle is extended to the horizon in the
Muddy Mountains, although no faunal evidence of its age
was found in that region.

Jurassic System.—No unconformity was found between
the Chinle formation and the overlying Jurassic sand-
stone, which is heavy bedded, cross-bedded on a large
seale, and typically bright red, although gray is the pre-
dominant color locally. As a rule the false beds are
straight and meet the true bedding planes at high angles;
but tangential cross-bedding also occurs, and in some sec-
tions it is véry conspicuous. The sand grains are fine to
medium in size and show indications of wear by the wind.
Probably both wind and water had a part in the final
deposition of the sand. Without doubt the formation
was laid down in an arid climate, and its great thickness
—ranging from 800 to at least 2,000 feet—required neigh-

52 C. R. Longwell—Geology of

boring highlands of considerable elevation to furnish the
materials. The sandstone corresponds to the La Plata
Group of Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah; and it is prob-

~_ able that these widespread deposits of remarkably similar

character had a common source in a mountain range to
the south, perhaps the same highlands which furnished
materials for the Chinle formation. The sandstone is
here referred to the Jurassic period to agree with the
present classification of the La Plata Group.

Cenozoic Formations.

Tertiary deposits——The general structural conformity
of sedimentary beds in the Muddy Mountains ends with
the Jurassic sandstone. Younger sediments record a new
order. A widespread surface of erosion was cut across
the upturned edges of Mesozoic and Paleozoic strata, and
on this surface the first record is found in a coarse, heavy
alluvial fan deposit which embodies fragments of all the
older local rocks. In its most typical phase the deposit
consists mainly of limestone fragments, angular or
slightly worn, with sand filling the interstices, and with a
firm cement of calcium carbonate. Beds are lenticular,
and fragments of many sizes are jumbled together with
evidence of only the rudest attempt at sorting. lLime-
stone masses 3 to 25 feet in diameter are not uncommon.
Exposures of the deposit are distributed over the entire
area, but the thickness varies greatly. Near Bitter
Spring it is 20 feet thick, whereas near Overton the thick-
ness 1s more than 3,000 feet. Adjacent to the Virgin
Mountains the formation has a nearly uniform thickness,
averaging 25 feet. Because of the peculiar character and ~
evident origin of the deposit, Lawson’s term fanglomerate
is especially appropriate as a lithologic designation, and
in this paper the formation will be called the Overton
fanglomerate, from its typical development near the set-
tlement Overton in the Muddy Valley.

The Overton deposits indicate rugged topography and
arid or semi-arid climate. Near the end of the fan stage
relief became more subdued, for the coarse sediments
grade upward into fine playa and lake deposits which have
a total thickness of at least 2,500 feet. These beds con-
sist of sandstone, limestone, magnesium carbonate, shale,
tuff, and gypsum, and the change from one type of sedi-

the Muddy Mountams, Nevada, etc. 53

ment to another is often abrupt horizontally as well as
vertically. Limestone and magnesian beds make up
about a third of the thickness, and form the most con-
spicuous part of the formation. Much of the limestone
is practically pure calcium carbonate, lies in heavy, regu-
lar beds, and has a delicate pink color on fresh surfaces.
- Oolitic or concretionary structure is common. No fossils
were found, and it is probable that the limestone formed
as a chemical precipitate in basins of brackish water. In
many parts of the area the limestone horizon is occupied
by 100 to 300 feet of a snow white deposit which is almost
pure magnesium carbonate; and in other sections the two
types of deposit interfinger. Thin beds of volcanic ash
occur at short intervals in the limestone and ‘‘magnesite’’
and are also found at higher horizons.

For this series of beds the name Horse Spring forma-
tiov 1s proposed, because of the prominent exposures near
Horse Spring, in the Virgin Mountains. No fossils were
found in these deposits or in the Overton fanglomerate,
and their exact age is therefore undetermined. In lith-
ology, in degree of deformation, and in general regional
relationships the Horse Spring deposits compare well
with the Siebert and Esmeralda formations of southwest-
ern Nevada. Both of the latter formations are of Upper
Miocene age, and the Overton and Horse Spring sedi-
ments will be referred tentatively to the same epoch.

All of the large intermontane valleys contain thick de-
posits of silt, clay, and sand which have suffered much
less deformation than the next older formations. Wher-
ever contacts were observed the intermontane sediments,
lying horizontally or only moderately folded, rest on the
bevelled edges of steeply tilted Horse Spring and Overton
beds. For the most part the silt is in massive layers 6
inches to 2 feet thick, separated by lenticular layers of
sand imperfectly cemented. Clay free from grit occurs
in very minor quantity. Adjacent to the mountains the
base of the sediments consists of coarse, unassorted
gravel; but at a higher horizon the finer materials are in
direct contact with solid rock ridges and have thin lam-
ination, indicating that at least a part of the deposition
occurred in lakes deeper and more permanent than playa
lakes. - In the Virgin Valley, beds of rock salt 50 to more
than 100 feet thick occur in the lower 400 feet of the sedi-
ments, and gypsum layers are common through a much

54 C. R. Longwell—Geology of

greater thickness. Apparently the maximum exposed
thickness of the sediments is nearly 2,000 feet, and an un-
determined amount has been removed by erosion. The
formation has the essential characteristics of interior
basin deposits in an arid or semi-arid climate. No diag-
nostic fossils were found in these beds, and reference of
the formation to the Pliocene is made tentatively, because
of apparent correspondence to deposits of that age near
Panacea, 100 miles to the north.

Quaternary deposits—Various alluvial deposits are
distinctly younger than the sediments of probable Plio-
cene age, and will be grouped as Quaternary, with the fol-
lowing classification according to their nature and origin:
(1) Coarse gravels and sand, with a thickness ranging
from 10 to 300 feet, underlying high surfaces of aggrada-
tion. These deposits are practically uncemented except
in the upper 4 or 5 feet, where a rich matrix of calcium
carbonate or gypsum forms a resistant caliche. (2) Rem-
nants of consolidated fan, talus, and travertine deposits
adjacent to mountain walls. (3) Alluvial fans still or
until quite recently in process of building. (4) Recent
talus cones and slope covers. (5) Valley filling of
banded silt and sand of undetermined thickness. (6)
Sand dunes, in river valleys and on terrace surfaces.

Igneous rocks.—The north end of the Black Mountains
is composed mainly of intrusive porphyries and buried
flows, all probably of Pliocene age or later. A thin flow
of augite-olivine basalt, apparently derived from the
Black Mountain voleanic center, is included in the saline
clays of Virgin Valley and extends northward almost to
St. Thomas. In Grand Wash Valley two flows of olivine
basalt, separated by a vertical interval of 70 feet, are
buried in Quaternary gravels. Apparently their source
was to the north. :

STRUCTURE.

The region has been affected by both faulting and fold-
ing, and the structure is complicated. Four principal
groups of structural features are recognized, as follows:
(1) Great faults or fault zones which separate adjacent
ranges. (2) Intersecting faults which divide each range
into a mosaic of blocks. (3) Folding, both moderate and
intense. (4) Overthrusting, apparently of a major char-
acter. The intermontane faults will be discussed first,

the Muddy Mountams, Nevada, etc. 55

and other structural features will be considered in their
relation to separate ranges.

Intermontane faults —At the top of the upper Grand
Wash Cliff the Kaibab limestone lies approximately 4,000
feet higher than tilted blocks of the same formation on the
floor of Grand Wash Valley. The valley represents a
zone of large normal faults, all with downthrow on the
west. The largest of these displacements, represented in
part by the Cliffs, amounts to about 7,000 feet near Colo-
rado River but decreases to the north. Since the original
faulting, the upper cliff has receded 2 to 6 miles, and the
lower cliff has been greatly dissected. ‘The greater re-
treat of the upper cliff is due mainly to the weak Supai
sandstone at its base; but it is possible that the faulting
occurred in stages separated by long time intervals, and
therefore that the upper cliff has suffered much longer
erosion than the lower. Lack of coarse materials in the
intermontane clays near the foot of the lower cliff sug-
gests recurrence of faulting in comparatively recent time.

Virgin Valley is also an important fault zone. Closely
spaced faults parallel to the river and with large down-
throw to the west are represented by high scarps on the
west side of the Virgin Range. North of St. Thomas out-
erops of pre-Cambrian schist end abruptly on the east
side of the river, and on the Muddy Mountain side Meso-
zoic and Tertiary sediments dip steeply eastward. The
total displacement amounts to many thousands of feet,
but precise measurement is not practicable.

Faults bound the Muddy Mountains on the west, at
least in part, and it is probable that California Wash is a
fault zone similar to Virgin Valley.

Structure of the Muddy Mountains.

In the Muddy Mountains there are three well defined
structural divisions, separated by lines extending gener-
ally east and west. The northern division, between the
Arrowhead. fault and Muddy Creek, is characterized
chiefly by folding, with faulting an important but second-
ary factor. The central division consists of Callville
Mountain, an irregular remnant of an overthrust block
which is bounded as well as cut by large normal faults.
In the southern division there is a series of folds with
axes extending approximately northeast and southwest,

56 C. R. Longwell—Geology of

eut and modified by a number of normal faults. ‘This
folding continues into the Black Mountains, and hence
there is no definite structural division between the two
mountain groups.

Northern diision.—North of Callville Mountain the
outcrops of Mesozoic formations have the shape of a>
large letter ‘‘L’’, due to the intersection of two anti-
clines at nearly right angles. In the Narrows anticline
the beds have been tightly compressed and overturned to
the east, and a large strike fault has caused a duplication
of formations at the surface. East-west faults have fur-
ther complicated the structure, and near the Arrowhead
road the Kaibab and Moenkopi limestones have been
thrust over Jurassic sandstone, probably in connection
with the Callville Mountain overthrust. The Arrowhead
anticline is a broad asymmetric fold which plunges be-
neath the intermontane clays at the east end, and at
the west dies out as it meets the stronger fold from the
north. The Overton and Horse Spring beds are involved
in the Arrowhead fold, and near the Narrows of Muddy
Creek they are moderately folded parallel to the Nar-
rows anticline. Numerous minor faults affect all for-
mations.

Central Division—On the north side of Callville
Mountain, Devonian and Carboniferous limestones lie
at an elevation many hundreds of feet higher than
adjacent Mesozoic sediments, and the fault plane be-
tween formations shows large downthrow on the south,
indicating that the older rocks were once in an even
higher position with respect to the younger. This re-
lation suggests overthrusting, and north of Muddy
Peaks the actual thrust plane is well exposed. De-
vonian limestone les on the Jurassic sandstone, and
the contact is marked by a smoothly polished surface,
above which the limestone is intensely shattered through
a thickness ranging from 100 to 500 feet. This shat-
tering is also conspicuous along the north base of Call-
ville Mountain. The vertical displacement due to the
overthrust is at least 9,000 feet, and yet the thrust plane
is practically parallel to the bedding. This fact sug-
gests that the movement affected a large area. Crum-
pling and minor thrusting indicate that the direction of
overthrusting was from southwest to northeast. Hyvi-
dently that portion of the block which formerly lay north

the Muddy Mountans, Nevada, etc. 57

of Callville Mountain has been removed by erosion,
whereas to the west and south the strata involved in
the movement have been carried downward by normal
faulting, leaving Callville Mountain as the only remnant
now exposed. 3

Subsequent to the overthrusting, pronounced doming
has occurred north of Muddy Peaks, permitting the strip-
ping which has exposed the thrust plane. Normal fault-
ing, accompanied by tilting of blocks, has also affected
Callville Mountain, and many of the scarps have a re-
markably fresh appearance. The Arrowhead fault is
marked by a fault-line scarp, the thrown block now occupy-
ing the higher position. Exposed portions of the actual
plane have striations which dip westward 40° from the
horizontal, thus indicating that the shove was greater
than the throw. The Rogers Spring and White Basin
faults, each with displacement of at least 2,500 feet,
bound a high, narrow horst. The dropping of fault
blocks is chiefly responsible for the depression known as
White Basin. Faults with large displacement affect the
western part of Callville Mountain, and a number of these
bound narrow tongues of Horse Spring limestone which
have been dropped into the mountain mass.

Southern division.—The axes of Bitter Wash and Sand-
stone Spring anticlines are parallel, and both are essen-
tially parallel to the long axis of Muddy Peaks dome.
Moreover, the three structures are almost equally spaced,
and the intensity of folding is practically the same in all.
The Sandstone Spring anticline plunges sharply at both
ends, and therefore it 1s actually a dome with elliptical
plan. Without doubt the three folds belong to the same
series, and thus the central and southern divisions of the
Muddy Mountains and the northern part of the Black
Mountains are to some degree a unit in structure. Both
the Bitter Wash and Sandstone Spring anticlines are
greatly modified by faulting.

Deformation of mtermontane deposits——On the south
side of Muddy Valley the intermontane clays show little
disturbance, but have a perceptible general inclination
toward the valley ranging from 100 to 200 feet per mile.
In the Virgin Valley, however, the clays have been con-
siderably folded. Northeast of Bluepoint a zone of dis-
turbed strata follows the direction of the Rogers Spring

58 C. R. Longwell—Geology of

fault, the net result being a monoclinal dip southeast by
east, although strong dips to the northeast occur locally.
Near the line of greatest disturbance dips of 20° are com-
mon and inclinations as high as 40° were observed. This
folding probably occurred in connection with recurrent
movement on the Rogers Spring fault within compara-
tively recent time.

An anticline following the course of Virgin River for
several miles south of Muddy Creek is indicated by per-
sistent dips ranging from 20° to 35°, westward on the —
west side of the stream and eastward on the east side.
Four miles south of St. Thomas a broad, gentle swell
intersects the steeper north-south fold, producing a
dome. A more pronounced east and west anticline affects
the clays on both sides of the river immediately north of
Bitter Wash, where the underlying Horse Spring beds
have been exposed by erosion. Between Callville Moun-
tain and Virgin River the clays have a basin-like struc-
ture, produced by combination of the anticlines men-
tioned and the monoclinal dip eastward from the Rogers
Spring fault.

Structure of the Virgin Mountains.

Only a small part of the Virgin Mountains was studied
in connection with this report, and therefore the major
framework cannot be fully described. Northeast of St.
Thomas the end of the principal range is a large anticline
with a metamorphic core, the thick sediments dipping
northwest and southeast from the axis, which extends
generally northeast. South of St. Thomas Gap the rocks
dip steeply eastward in a great tilted block in which both
faulting and folding have complicated the details of struc-
ture. One system of faults, trending nearly north and
south, is responsible for a number of parallel, finger-like
ridges. Faults of another important system extend N.
60° to 70° K. St. Thomas Gap has resulted from the
dropping of a large irregular block or a number of ad-
jacent blocks, and on the floor of the gap the rocks have
been tilted by folding and faulting. Displacements on
faults bounding the gap and affecting the adjacent high-
lands range from hundreds of feet to several thousand
feet. Ina plunging anticline near Mud Well the Overton
and Horse Spring formations appear to be almost con-

the Muddy Mountains, Nevada, etc. 59

formable on the Mesozoic rocks. Sawtooth Ridge is an
overturned block of Kaibab lmestone with local over-
thrust relations to younger formations. Apparently its
structure is the result of intense local compression.

In general, faults do not seem to be continuous from the
Muddy Mountains to the Virgin Range, but the Rogers
Spring fault is a possible exception. The eastern bound-
ary of the schist ridge northeast of St. Thomas is proba-
bly a fault, and it is directly in line with the monoclinal
folding of the clays northeast of Bluepoint.

Jt is worthy of note that both faulting and folding
appear to be much more intense in this region near the
Plateaus than in known parts of the Basin Ranges far-
ther west. Instead of a gradual dying out of the effects
of deformation toward the east, those effects are intensi-
fied in a border zone, and the change to strata which are
relatively little deformed appears abruptly, at a well
defined line.

PHYSIOGRAPHY.

Old surfaces of aggradation and erosion.—In all of the
wide intermontane valleys remnants of former aggrada-
tion surfaces are preserved as mesas, which usually have
a capping of caliche, a firm conglomerate with a rich
matrix of calcium carbonate or gypsum deposited on
evaporation of ascending ground-water. The highest
surface, represented by Mormon Mesa, lies 700 to 800 feet
above present stream grades, and successively younger
surfaces are 250, 100, and 40 feet above the streams. All
of the surfaces are underlain by coarse gravel and sand to
a depth ranging from a few feet to 300 feet. The two
lower levels form narrow belts bordering streams, and
may appropriately be termed terraces. The upper sur-
faces are much more extensive, and are not terraces in the
ordinary sense of the term. Remnants of the highest sur-
face show that it once extended through St. Thomas Gap
and covered all of the area north of Callville Mountain ex-
cept a few scattered peaks, and rock-cut benches border-
ing these higher points indicate that the base-level corre-
sponding to the aggradation surface remained stationary
for a considerable period. In Callville Mountain a dis-
tinct fall line marks the elevation at which the surface met
the mountain walls. Many stream channels on the surface
of the mountain have easy grades and comparatively wide

60 C. R. Longwell—Geology of

valleys, but near the edges of the block they plunge
sharply by a succession of falls which total a height of 400
feet or more. The aggradation surface has a general
slope conforming to the grades of the larger streams, and
also slopes from the mountain walls toward the valley in-
teriors. A considerable part of this highest surface was
destroyed during the growth of the next one, which is
locally 5 or 6 miles in width and connects with smooth
benches cut on solid rock. The inner surfaces or ter-
races record comparatively short halts of base-level.
Within relatively recent time both the Virgin River and
Muddy Creek have incised their floodplains, which may
properly be considered a third terrace level.

OUTLINE OF GEOLOGIC HISTORY.

In the Virgin Mountains the geologic record extends
backward into pre-Cambrian time, but in the crystalline
rocks the record is complicated and obscure. Appar-
. ently the clastic Cambrian sediments were deposited on
a nearly even surface which cuts across the structure
planes of the metamorphic rocks. During much of the
Paleozoic era southeastern Nevada was part of the Cor-
dilleran geosyncline, although it was east of the area
which received the thickest sediments. Further study
will be required to determine the amounts and kinds of
sediments deposited previous to the Devonian period.
The Upper Devonian sea shallowed to the east and deep-
ened to the west and north. Earlier Devonian invasions
may have covered the region, but faunal evidence is not
available. Marine invasions occurred in both Lower and
Upper Mississippian, in Pennsylvanian, and in Permian
times. During the Permian and perhaps during the
Upper Pennsylvanian, thick continental and littoral de-
posits accumulated under conditions of aridity or semi-
aridity. At the close of the era the region was uplifted
without perceptible tilting, and suffered moderate ero-
sion.

The Californian Lower Triassic sea deposited limestone,
gypsum, and clastic sediments, and a great thickness of -
continental deposits followed the retreat of the sea. An
interval of erosion succeeded, and another epoch of con-
tinental sedimentation began with the deposition of the
coarse Shinarump conglomerate. A thick series of sand,

the Muddy Mountains, Nevada, ete. 61

silt, and clay was furnished by highlands which arose to
the south, and the enormously ‘thick and, widespread
Jurassic sandstones were probably derived from the same
source. All of the Mesozoic sediments indicate aridity
of climate. In post-Jurassic time the region suffered in-
tense folding, accompanied by overthrusting, probably
in connection with the Sierra Nevada disturbance. Dur-
. ing the late Mesozoic and the first half of the Tertiary the
Muddy Mountain area was probably part of a high region
with exterior drainage, and received no deposits which
have been preserved. Intense normal faulting occurred,
and thick basin deposits were formed, probably in Upper
Miocene time. After erosion had subdued the topog-
raphy there was a recurrence of faulting which formed
new basins, in which thick deposits of saline silts and
clays accumulated. The present drainage system was
established later, probably in Quaternary time, and since
its establishment there have been changes of base-level
amounting to several hundred feet. Comparatively re-
cent disturbances have deformed late Tertiary and Qua-
ternary deposits, and it is possible that considerable fault-
ing accompanied these latest crustal movements.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Ball, Sydney H.: A geological reconnaissance of southwestern Nevada and
eastern California, U. 8. Geol. Survey Bull. 308, 1917.

Buwalda, J. P.: Tertiary mammal beds of Stewart and Jone valleys in
west-central Nevada, Univ. Calif. Publ., Bull. Dept. Geol., vol. 8,
No. 19, 335-363, 1914.

Carpenter, Everett: Ground water in southeastern Nevada, U. S. Geol. Sur-
vey Water Supply Paper 365, 1915.

Dake, C. L.: The horizon of the marine Jurassic of Utah, Jour. Geol., 27,
637-646, 1919.

— The pre-Moenkopi (pre-Permian?) unconformity of the Colorado
Plateau, Ibid., 28, 66, 1920.

Darton, N. H.: A reconnaissance of parts of northwestern New Mexico and
northern Arizona, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 435, 1910.

Dutton, C. E.: Tertiary history of the Grand Canyon district, U. S. Geol.
Survey Mon. 2, 1882. Also 2nd Ann. Rpt., p. 126, 1882.

Gilbert, G. K.: The basin range system, U. S. Geog. and Geol. Surveys W.
100th Mer., vol. 3, 1875.

Girty, G: H.: New species of fossils from the Thaynes limestone of Utah,
Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., 20, 239, 1910.

Gregory, H. E.: “Geology of the Navajo country, U. S. Geol. Survey Prof.
Paper 93, 1917.

Hill, J. M.: The Grand Gulch mining region, Mohave County, Arizona, U.S.
Geol. Survey Bull. 580, 39-58, 1916.

— The Yellow Pine mining district, Clark County, Nevada, U. S. Geol.
Survey Bull. 540, 223-274, 1914.

Ives, J. C.: Report upon the Colorado River of the West, Ex. Doc., 36th
Cong., 1st sess., 1861.

62 C. R. Longwell—Muddy Mountains, Nev.

Lawson, A. C.: The petrographic designation of alluvial fan formations,
Univ. Calif. Publ., Bull. Dept. Geol., vol. 7, 325-334, 1913.

Lee, Willis T.: A geological reconnaissance of a part of western Arizona,
U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 352, 1908.

Marvin, A. R.: Geology of route from St. George, Utah, to the Gila River,
Arizona, U. S. Geog. and Geol. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vol. 3,
193-225, 1875.

Noble, L. F.: The Shinumo quadrangle, Grand Canyon district, Arizona,
U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 549, 1914.

Robinson, H. H.: The San Franciscan voleanic field, Arizona, U. S. Geol.
Survey Prof. Paper 76, 1913.

Schuchert, Charles: Paleogeography of North America, Bull. Geol. Soe.
America, vol. 20, 427-606, 1910.

— On the Carboniferous of the Grand Canyon of Arizona, this Journal,
45, 347-369, 1918.

Spurr, J. E.: Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel
and adjacent portions of California, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 208,
1903.

Turner, H. W.: The Esmeralda formation, Am. Geologist, 25, 168, 1900.

Walcott, C. D.: Permian of the Kanab valley, Arizona, this Journal, 20,
1880.

Wheeler, G. M.: U.S. Geog. and Geol. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vols. 1 and
3, 1875.

C. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma. 68

Art. V.—The Stanley Shale of Oklahoma; by C. W.
Hownzsss.

[By permission of C. W. Shannon, Director, Oklahoma Geological Survey,
Norman, Oklahoma. ]

INTRODUCTION.

Although the Stanley shale was not defined and named
until 1902! the strata composing this formation have been
known since the fore part of the 19th century, when the
early explorers and travelers entered the regions of the
outcroppings and wrote brief descriptions of the topog-
raphy and described some of the exposures.” ®

In January, 1857, the Arkansas Geological Survey was
organized and D. D. Owen made State Geologist. His
explorations and studies led him into all parts of the
State and by 1860 his second report appeared, which had
to do with the middle and southern counties of Arkansas,
including the area of outcrop of the Stanley in that State.
His work was of the nature of a reconnaissance, and his
untimely death prevented his writing all of the report;
nevertheless he succeeded in determining, at least to his
own satisfaction, the general position in the geological
column of the Jackfork and Stanley, both of which he as-
signed to the ‘‘sub-Carboniferous,’’ 7. e. ‘‘at least not
lower than the base of the ‘sub-Carboniferous’..... and
the highest and newest of this great series of sandstones,
slates and shales not younger than the base of the true
coal measures.’’+

Since his time several geologists have studied the Stan-
ley both in Arkansas and in Oklahoma, notably J. A.
Taff,> George H. Girty,® and H. D. Miser.’

* Taff, J. A.: Atoka Folio of the U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 79, page 4
(‘‘from the village of Stanley in the Kiamitia Valley, where it is extensively
exposed’’).

* Nuttall, Thos.: ‘‘A Journal of Travels into Arkansas Territory during
the year 1819,’’ ete., pp. 296, Philadelphia, 1821.

* Ward, J. A.: ‘‘A Geological Reconnaissance of the Arkansas River,’’
Cincinnati, 1853.

* Owen, D. D.: 2nd Rept. of a Geological Reconnaissance of the middle and
southern counties of Arkansas for 1859-60, pp. 13-153. Philadelphia, 1860.

* Taff, J. A.: Atoka Folio, No. 79, U. S. Geol. Survey, Atlas.
oa Girty, Geo. H.: Fauna of the Caney Shale, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull.

“Miser, H. D.: Manganese Deposits of Caddo Gap and DeQueen Quad-
rangle. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 660-C.

,

C. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma.

64

DOS?
Cee

Om,
eters:

PAZ Y-y

On
POOR

oy,

<0

OOS?
LK 52505

S
SX

SONS
oS

OX
SOKKRKS

of el

Seey

‘hajunjgy peer pmnoys fiaypunjgy ‘aaoqe puesey ey} UL— "ALON

©
Se%
eens,
Seetetes

©

& 7 vy =
OOS at ae

Le
[_——$$_$__—_______|________—99,
3 SS aes ae ae ee
es Ada a
See a ee ee
oe ee
eee SS ee
ee y QoL
ag aT A ESE Ul ST
eel

o,
Q
°&X

\
= ft
\
|
Ly

1 OIC
eee i —
Bearer oe ae
PER LG aad
ees BAY j an
atotehcteteall NE Sah
SORRY el

ps ! Ad il

WE 4024

ONCE = ony (2 MeLHoneg 02 welaguled
Kepyers fo aseg seay ffA/
3 E =
LOS 324 eeu 3 :
~ RR ne GD. Sophy X2PUT (9199) A OEGS ANAPYEZS§
(9129) BYOISPULS y1Ofy2LL
inane

(VEDYOUYOUOZ) PULS K2IM14AL

C. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma. 65

Many of the details of the lthology, distribution and
structure of the sediments have been worked out and facts
regarding the origin and source of the beds and evidences
of their age have accumulated, until it is believed a close
approximation to the truth with respect to these matters
is at hand. That the Stanley is either upper Mississip-
pian or Lower Pottsvillian (lowermost Pennsylvanian)
in age has for sometime been the opinion of David White®
and most stratigraphers are in accord with this view.

During the four years just past it has been the privilege
of the writer to pursue his own bent and his interests have
led him into a field which involves the Stanley series. The
area covered lies in southeastern Oklahoma (see index
map) in the south-central part of the Massern Ranges
(‘‘Ouachita Mountains’’ of most writers), and the sur-
face exposures range in age from doubtful Cambrian to
Pennsylvanian. ‘The succession of geological formations
in this region is essentially the same as that in west-cen-
tral Arkansas, where the same formations are exposed
and where identically the same dynamic forces have oper-
ated. This succession has been worked out and briefly
described by H. D. Miser® after years of painstaking
study and labor in the DeQueen and Caddo Gap Quad-
rangles. In brief the complete section is as follows:

Generalized section of Paleozoic rocks in the Ouachita Mountain
region of west-central Arkansas.

[From U. 8. Geol. Survey, Bull. 691, p. 272; by H. D. Miser. ]

Carboniferous : Feet.
Pennsylvanian :
LA NTIS, SECEDE (OT Ue i ea a A 6,000
Upper Mississippian :
MEM reno MOSCONE So. fc secre censor olse ede a ran a ee 0,000-6,600
Beemer ee ee is oe ae 6,000
Honoprmes sandstone: 0.2.2.0. 0.060. el eee 0-200
Unconformity.
Devonian (upper part may possibly be Carboniferous) :
Peale OMOVAGMINIC). Usk ek os Suk hk 0-950
Unconformity .(?2)
Silurian :
MEIScONTT Mauna habe . soi ieig wks «obi endie Led 50-300
_ Unconformity (2?)
LE LESTE SSE LG SCLC Bg sae a 0-1,500

* Quotation in Fauna of Caney Shale, p. 8, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 377.
° Miser, H. D.: loc. cit.

Am. Jour. Sci.—FirtH Series, Vou. I, No. 1.—January, 1921.
5

66 CC. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma.

Unconformity (?) Feet.
Ordovician :
Polk. Creek shale. «ait. ogee ee ee 0-200
Bigfork chert 3/5. (23 trade ea © ee 700
Womble shales. (35 .cc..eney See ake ee 250-1,000
Blakely sandstone |... 7-25 seine.) 0-500
Unconformity (?)
Mazarn ‘shale. PiU 5 S's. Ue ee 1,000
Ordovician (2) ;
Crystal Mountam sandstone , 2; 222.25 2 eee 850
Unconformity.
Cambrian: a
Collier shale (observed thickness)..............-- 200

A great many notes and other data have been secured
bearing on the general geology of this whole section as
exposed in Oklahoma but only the Stanley formation will
be described here. The report, complete with photo-
graphs, maps and sections, will appear in due time as a
bulletin of the Oklahoma Geological Survey. In the
meantime my thanks are due to Dr. C. W. Shannon, Direc-
tor of the State Survey, who made it possible for me to
carry out these researches. I wish also to acknowledge
my indebtedness to Dr. Charles Schuchert, who has crit-
ically read and corrected this manuscript.

THE STANLEY SHALE.

The Stanley shale is exposed throughout the full extent
of the Massern Ranges from Atoka, Oklahoma, to Little
Rock, Arkansas, covering in all many hundreds of square
miles of territory. That portion of the formation under
discussion, which comes to the surface in the Lukfata
Quadrangle on the flanks of the great anticlinorium has
been studied with considerable care as have also certain
areas adjacent to the north and to the west. A cursory
examination was made of the sediments in the vicinity of
Redden and east (northeast of Atoka in the Atoka Quad-
rangle) and a hurried trip made through the Kiamichi
River valley (in the Antlers Quadrangle) but of the ex-
posures in Arkansas the writer has seen only those oceur-
ring near the Oklahoma-Arkansas line—a strip about 10
miles wide. In the descriptions which follow, therefore,
it should be understood that it is the region of the Lukfata
Quadrangle in particular and the areas immediately ad-
jacent to the north and west, a few miles in each case, to
which the writer refers. His statements in no case are
drawn from or concern any other area.

C. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma. 67

The Stanley shale formation in general is composed
of materials which are non-resistant and when exposed
to weathering and erosion are easily reduced to low
rounded hills and ridges. and intervening flats, and
‘‘olades.’’ Good exposures of shales, slates, sandstones,
and the other rocks composing this formation are, there-
fore, not very plentiful and such as do occur are un-
fortunately almost always interrupted at frequent inter-
vals—the sandstones projecting, the shales covered.
Along the ereeks and rivers in favorable places, espe-
cially where streams flow across the strike of the rocks,
partial sections of the strata present themselves to view,
but elsewhere, on all the slopes and hill tops rarely does
one see more than exfoliated bowlders of the hard sand-
stones or float from the thin-bedded materials.

Being a humid region trees and brush form a thick
cover over most of the country and a mantle of rocky soil
prevails on all the low slopes. The flats, where wet and
low, often bear an impenetrable undergrowth of bram-
bles, green-briers and thorns, but where higher and drier
are sometimes grass covered and more or less open with a
poor, blue clay soil.

The strata have been sharply folded,contorted and bent,

over the entire region under discussion. Large and small
drag folds are practically everywhere present, slicken-
sided zones and slates have been developed in all the
strata throughout the mass and faults of unknown dis-
placement occur to such an extent that one never knows,
except at the very bottom of the formation, where the
Stanley lies upon the recognizable Arkansas Novaculite—
whether what he is looking at is right side up or not or
whether there be repetitions in the section. It is, in fact,
impossible to find anywhere an undisturbed continuous
and measurable section. Consequently, a determined
thickness of the Stanley is not known and cannot in the
Lukfata Quadrangle be calculated or estimated. The
thickness elsewhere is stated by Taff and Miser to be ap-
proximately 6,000 feet. The writer has not attempted
to measure the type section of the Stanley at Stanley,
Oklahoma, but coneurs in the belief that it must be at
least as thick as that, and with a similar thickness in the
area studied to the southeast.

The basal beds of the Stanley (in the Lukfata Quad-
rangle) are tough, hard, fine-grained, evenly bedded, blue-
gray, stony flints, interbedded with a little hard, even

68 CC. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma.

bedded, drab, slaty shale in layers one-half inch or less up
to three inches thick and averaging one inch. Grading
upward into thin-bedded, hard, fissile, blue, slaty shale
uniformly and evenly bedded, the blue tough flints become
less and less and practically cease at a horizon 65 feet
above the bottom where a very characteristic thin quartz-
ite (1 foot to 4 feet) occurs. This is cut by numerous 1
inch quartz veins traversing it in all directions; it is a
resistant layer and forms a shelf or projecting ledge in
many places and it is found from one end. of the region to
the other which is a very good indication of widespread.
(50 X30 miles) conditions and persistence of beds. Dr.
Schuchert thinks these basal 65 feet should join to the
Arkansas Novaculite series, thus making the heavy
bedded, light gray quartzite, the bottom of the Stan-
ley.1° The following is a measured section of the
second and third divisions of the Arkansas Novaculite
plus the succeeding basal beds of the Stanley as observed
on Flat Rock Branch at the road crossing SE. 14, see. 17,
T. 38S., R. 26K., Oklahoma.

Basal Beds of Stanley.

Top. Feet. Inches.
1. Dark thin fissile shale weathering greenish to
bronze, one or two thin quartzitic layers.... 6
2. Light gray quartzite heavy bedded and cut with
VeUTS Of, WAC y MNT. do wort «mane 2 3 6
3. Light gray quartzite thin even quartz veins.. 8

4. Thin-bedded fissile blue slaty shale—evenly
finely bedded now and then a harder quartz-
itic layer under two inches in thickness.... 29

). Thin-bedded fissile blue slaty shales uniformly
and thin bedded, jointed; one inch layers
quartzite occur not infrequently and are ex-
tremely hard and tough and of blue-gray
CS eo ek Pak heeteve aie ce Stee ind Pcie ee 32

Gos Eat inte Waiver yo. 5 lek cos cee

7. Hard even bedded drab slaty shale..........

6. | Hard bive fant layer... 4). e. coe ee

9

0

ak
o> LO NS cll ell”)

‘Drab hard shale’ 40.52 oe 2 oe
Blie-eray Sint layer 23904. 60 ee
Hard even bedded drab clay shales........... 1
11. Uniformly bedded banded white flint, banded
only at the bottom; top massive gray flint.. 1
Upper Division Arkansas Novaculite.
12. Concretionary resistant, gray harsh novaculite

weathers porous (calcareous) white and
eriity 2113 )) 7) Bak OE en a 26

7° Personal correspondence.

C. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma.

Saheasay fa Pe Ane bettas sae Ge. %
Bluish gray harsh novaculite with red tinge
weathers lavender and finally to a cream-
TOT, POTOMS TCM EOIG Cock coe acti. oe cept 6, w 4 one aenoie
Resistant blue quartzite, flinty film 14% inch
BUR te BN TE el cece a) tS sea, ew vn ys
Pme_white traneiiecent Mints... 2.0... es
Coneretionary massive schistose cream-colored
porous chert (novaculite) weathers almost
BNE. DIL SOR ee a ok. as

Middle Division Arkansas Novaculite.

Stony black chert (novaculite)..............
Coal-black shale, weathers to a brown clay
shale, fissile hard, thin bedded.............
Coal-black shale and black flint (novaculite)
thin bedded and concretionary............
Thin-bedded (chiefly under 1 inch) black flints,
few shales in bottom; vein quartz in upper 2
L5G 2S Be ie ie Pear arene cone en er a
Partially covered coal-black brittle slaty, flinty
eM eens ee en cine ge Uwe tel Cas os
Coal-black brittle slaty shale and black flint,
seamed by minute quartz veins intricately
PORMSRS OUTER S82 UPR diag SLL ob ale lo esl
Blue-black fiints (novaculite) in layers 2 to 6
PM SP eth tt A te Lier ek, esa cedaey 6 Lia
Hard black flint and shaly seams in beds not
Pea HRC 2 A a scr ucife! Gino) 9: odviie wah ceesendliare
Hard black novaculite ledge. ... 2... os oes
Covered, probably black slaty shale..........
Pate Olack Wovaculite, ledge... 2’... eee oe
Cmme-piaek tard slaty shale... Pie
Palen mina ig PehVer os cae. Poe ee Sh.
Shaly flinty layers, coal-black, up to 1 inch in
Pinte betes ee eas Le SG ese ie, See,
Coal-black slaty shales and thin flinty layers. .
Bee GURL OUS NI ho isties does Does opens tess
Black slaty shale and a few 1 inch layers of
TL 'EiGL GET E S 2 ISaa
Lenticle of thin-bedded shale pinching out....
Black even-bedded cherty layer..............
Coneretionary black flint undulating surfaces. .
Thin, slaty black flints undulating...........
A local intraformational conglomerate—a thor-
oughly cemented black flint with pebbles
clearly outlined on both fresh and weathered
specimens thickness 6” occurs at this horizon
but was not found at this place.

Basal Division Arkansas Novaculite.

Feet.

ual

3

iw)

69

Inches,

WR oO

wow

Co CO CO CO

70 C. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma.

Above the quartzite ledge, at the base of the Stanley,
occur some siliceous shales and sandstones which are
micaceous, ripple-marked, and cross-bedded. They are
greenish gray in color when fresh but weather to a dingy,
bronzy appearance upon exposure. There are, however,
only a few feet of these and they are quickly followed by
a considerable thickness, perhaps 200 feet or more of
schistose, red, soft, sandstones and grits, the red color
being due to oxidation. These are usually coarse to
medium-grained, are often micaceous and seem to be de-
veloped best within the eastern half of the area mapped
(see map).

A heavy bed of very resistant tuff intervenes at this
place in the section whose thickness approximates 90 feet
on Mountain Fork River, sec. 27, T. 28., R. 25K. The
material consists, for the most part, of fresh feldspars and
resembles a coarse graywacke or arkose in the hand speci-
men but is in reality a voleanic ash. It is usually gray in
color, flecked or mottled with green blotches of chlorite,
but there are as many varieties and degrees of fineness
and coarseness of this rock almost as one might collect
specimens.

This tuff is a very important layer of rock, for it is the
only recognizable horizon in the lowermost 3 000 feet of
the Stanley and makes a good identifiable key ledge from
the distribution of which it will be possible to decipher
the major structural features of the lower part of this
formation if they ever are to be made out.

That this rock is a tuff and not a graywacke or arkose
of sedimentary origin, as has hitherto been supposed'!
was discovered by Dr. C. P. Berkey in 1917, when he re-
ported to me in a letter the results of an examination of
some rocks sent to him at the close of my first summer’s
work in the region.

In plane- polar ized light, under the microscope, almost
any of this material thus far examined may be seen
plainly to be made up wholly or partially of angular frag-
ments which are bounded by broadly curved concave lines
meeting in sharp points, characteristic of volcanic ash
fragments and known as ‘‘bogen structure.’? The ma-
jority of the fragments have devitrified and under crossed
nicols these lose their identity in an aggregate of quartz,

ot Miser, ESD osloe:.cit.

C. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma. 71

feldspar, sericite and other minerals masking the original
structure. Angular lithic fragments of slate, pieces of
limestone and sandstone of megascopic size are extremely
common as xenoliths and occasionally one sees a piece of
basalt in the tuffs. The feldspars are remarkably fresh
in most specimens and are medium acid in composition,
approximating that of oligoclase or oligoclase-andesine
ordinarily. Chlorite occurs in noticeable amounts for
the most part in large grains or blotches up to an inch in
diameter.

The map accompanying this article gives all of the out-
eroppings of the Stanley tuffs in the Lukfata Quadrangle
as they have been mapped by the writer—all the outcrop-
pings having been located by pacing and checking on the
section corners.

Following the tuff is a thick series, several hundred feet
over all, of hard and soft thin-bedded sandstones, slates
and shales, chiefly sandstones, which may be described as
fine- and uniform-grained dark greenish gray sandstones,
usually cross-bedded and often ripple-marked.

This completes what is estimated to be about the lower
third of the formation.

Succeeding these sandstones and continuing well be-
yond the middle of the Stanley, black shales and slates
become the predominating materials and instead of ridges
and wooded slopes one finds bushy flats and glades where
they outcrop. This transition to softer rock is not sud-
den nor are the shale masses entirely without sandstones.
The latter cease gradually, and by degrees they become
thinner and more irregular as time goes on until gritty
sediments practically are wanting. The shales are all
black or dark steel-blue in color and are well indurated.
Cone-in-cone concretions characterize a portion of this
subdivision of the Stanley and are found widespread
geographically. The thickness of the shaly portion has
not been estimated but there must be several hundred feet
of the shales.

Passing upward one again encounters sandstones of
the bluish gray, massive, hard, resistant variety inter-
bedded with blue, hard clay shales, and these are suc-
ceeded by black cherty shales and thin-bedded black
cherts and flints.

The black flints constitute a well-defined formation, in
themselves, of about 25 feet thickness and were encoun-

72 CC. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma.

tered repeatedly in outcrop all the way from Little River,
sec. 34, T. 48., R. 21E., east-northeast for 40 miles to sec.
21, 'T. 18S., R. 27E. The black flints are without organic
remains and have not been found west of Little River.

The topmost 2,000.feet or so of the Stanley is a rather
monotonous series of alternating, even fine-grained sand-
stones and sandy shales, thin-bedded, more or less ripple-
marked and cross-bedded in the lower portion but
becoming heavier bedded in the uppermost members and
passing gradually, by transition, into the coarser sand-
stones and ‘‘millstone grits’’ of the Jackfork sandstone
formation. |

The writer succeeded in obtaining a succession of the
uppermost beds including the transitional series and
basal portion of the Jackfork in a place where there was
no doubt as to the correct sequence of the deposits and
this will be appended in condensed form. The succession
occurs in the north central part of sec. 22, T. 1N., R. 26K.
along Beech Creek.

STANLEY-JACKFORK TRANSITION SERIES.

Section on Beech Creek, Sec. 22, T. 1N., R. 26E., Okla.

Beginning 400 paces west and 300 paces south of W.1% cor.
sec. 23, T. 1N., R. 26H.
Top. Feet. Inches.
38. Gray sandstone thick-bedded, concluding the
section 100 paces south and 36 paces south-
east of the N.1/, cor. sec. 22, T. 1N., R. 26H. 14 6

oi. . Covered, probwely shalés.”. $2). [cw ee 12
36. Massive ledges fine-grained gray quartzitic
samustewe Male: ailete a oS Re Ce ee 22 2
ao. ‘Covered, probably halen v.40). it eee bo
34. Massive and heavy bedded sandstones and
GMAPEZIESS Hin). et ts. th eae eters ae be olaiye Be +t 8
33. Black carbonaceous shales and thin argilla- ;
GEDILS, FaNISLOBES. 32. bolo yp seveee § oe eee 10
32. Sandy shales and thin sandstones interbedded
with heavy massive ledges gray quartzite.. 25 10
Si.) Covered, probably a clay ‘sliale. 12 7 2). oae 20
30. Thin, gray, hard sandstones with sandy car-
bonaceous Shale-partin’s 2.) iy) eee 10 i)

29. Massive gray sandstones and quartzites un-

dulating but without shale partings, in beds

one totem: feet... eae ia. a ke bee ae eee 87 4
28. Poorly exposed sandy shales and sandstones.. 62

27.

26.

ie
10.

C. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma.

Feet.
Massive gray sandstone undulating in beds 1
to 6 feet, at bottom of which are fossil
IMM Se7SeCUS (ANG: SCALES 2. clesr. ee eee ee 15
Resistant hard, gray sandstones and thick-
bedded soft gray sandy shales, with plant

remains (collection No. 471) at bottom.... 18
Thin sandstones and sandy shales inter-
meoder ‘ard undulating = 02.08... ee. 12

The approximate Stanley-Jackfork contact.

Sandy greenish grey shale and soft sandstone
with fossil plants at bottom (Collection

6070) Shs ye He 6
Greenish gray, soft sandstones, blue and
Pm trerareley is ades Fitek* Gs es acy Leh gs hese 3

Massive ledges 1 to 6 feet thick, of blue-gray
quartzitic sandstone undulating, no shales
OE) “Lg LRTI CASS Be ace nae pe ee EERE ng ze Wey Cr 18
Greenish gray quartzites and hard sand-
stones in beds 1 to 4 feet thick interbedded
with blue clay shales in beds 1 foot to 7
AUT Perth ok Oa, Sake aed, aur setice’ ty yf bales Al

Massive hard gray sandstones averaging 1
foot in thickness containing two thin clay

Suid | CeZRIEI HG SAS ia ae eae ene ce ora a 21
Light blue clay shales containing soft clay
comererions. In-part Sandy: . 6.02. 6k. es 21

Massive ledges of blue quartzite and ote
itic sandstones 1 to 4 feet in thickness with
three or four thin (2 inch) shale partings. 22
Mass of blue clay shale with thin layers of

sandstone containing fragments of plants... 9
Soft blue clay shales including a few thin

fine-grained greenish gray sandstones..... 50
Covered, probably chiefly shale, calculated

enna ceite inf oaste ICAL SST NN Eh 58

Quartzitic sandstone ledges, massive, in beds
2 inches to 9 feet in thickness, containing
one, inch shale parting is. 4:4. sec ea 4 34
Hard quartzitic greenish gray sandstones in
beds 2 or more feet thick interbedded with
shales, the softer materials all being covered.

Calculated thickness, over all............. 695
Resistant hard sandstones in beds 1 to 3 feet
ipliwierah DP essee dra eR cee be gyri b og tbe hare eceitss Dili

Fine-grained greenish gray soft sandstone

73

Inches.

10

74 CC. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma.

oye Feet. Inches.
containing fossil plants, seeds, etc. (Collec-

OWN 07 AIO jie ob eee i a ee 6
9. Thin-bedded dark sandy shales and sandstones
containing fossil plants in two horizons . 7
8. Massive evenly bedded gray resistant sand-
stones in beds 1 to 11 feet thick........... 25 1
7. Dark shales and thin dark sandstones par-
tially covered? cient... . cis eee 205
6. Massive gray hard sandstones, in part pecu-
larly cross-bedded and undulating........ 23
5. Shales and sandstones, not well exposed...... 12
4. Hard greenish gray sandstone with shale
partings Tyee. We honk Ae. Ae 7 6
3. Blue soft clay shales somewhat sandy below. 48
2. Resistant massive blue quartzitic ledge...... 15
1. Fine-grained gray sandstones and soft dark
green Sandy shale) .f0 (4.92 0ek Oa. eee b4 D
Total thiekmess dee) seo. ae ee 1791 "

From the point where this section was concluded
northward, higher in the series, the greater portion of the
rocks is covered for some distance, certain hard ledges
only being exposed to view. ‘These materials, however,
are seen to be of the same hard quartzite and resistant
white or gray sandstone as occurs below, alternating with
some dark clay shales and shaly sandstones, the mass as
a whole forming a formidable mountain (Walnut Moun-
tain) 2,100 feet high striking N. 70° E. many miles across
the country.

Just what proportion of the Beech Creek section
should be assigned to the Jackfork formation and what
part to the Stanley is difficult to say. The two forma-
tions are conformable and continuous in deposition. In
general the sandstones of the Stanley are dark greenish |
gray in color and fine-grained while those of the Jackfork
proper are white and coarse-grained. On this basis one
would be inclined’ to place most of the Beech Creek sec-
tion in the Stanley, but certainly the uppermost 325 feet
at any rate belong to the Jackfork. Farther west, T. 4S8.,
R. 20E., one encounters the same difficulties of delimita-
tion.

PALEONTOLOGY.

Organic remains in the Stanley shale are indeed
searce. Why there should be so few in all this 6,000 feet

C. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma. — 75

or more of sediments is surely not because there was no
life nor does it seem that the dynamic forces operative in
this region should have destroyed all traces of its exis-
tence. A few fossils have, however, been found, and the
writer believes that continued search will reveal more.

A collection of plants including some ferns was col-
lected from the upper Stanley in Arkansas a number of
years ago (as referred to by Miser, U. 8. Geol. Survey,
Bull. 660-C, p. 66). The Beech Creek locality, see. 22, T.
DN Re 26E., Oklahoma, as indicated in the description
above, has yielded fragments of plants including fern
pinnules and some seeds i in several horizons. The J ack-
fork sandstone above is at times quite replete with bits of
wood and leaves. The writer has found great numbers of
them all through the mountains from Atoka to Arkansas
in the Jackfork but they are always so poorly preserved
that little use can be made of them.

Somewhere in the Stanley (exact locality not known)
two plants were discovered, Nos. 977 and 882, both poorly
preserved.

At a point 450 paces east of the W.14 cor. see. 33, T. 48.,
R. 21EK., on the west bank of Little River near the middle
of the Stanley close to the cone-in-cone horizon, were
found two plants (numbers 941 and 942). In this same
place on Little River in a tough coarse sandstone layer
three inches thick, and in the same outcrop, but not the
same horizon, with the plants the writer found also a
small marine fauna—so far as known the first animals
ever found in the Stanley. These consisted of bryozoa
and brachiopods and great numbers of crinoid stems for
the most part, collectively numbered as specimens 943
and 944,

Near the bottom of the Stanley (within about 25 feet
of the bottom) in the exact center of sec. 27, T. 2S., R.
241. were found a few specimens of an inarticulate brach-
iopod No. 1015, and the same horizon was located also 4
miles to the east at a point 275 paces (2,000 paces per
mile) south of the center of sec. 29, T. 2S., R. 25H., where
three or four more specimens of the same brachiopod were
found. (No.1016.) These occur in a hard pinkish white
fine-grained sandstone.

It remains to mention one other occurrence of fossils—
a rather unusual one—and that is the presence of crin-

76 OC. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma.

oidal fragments embedded in the tuff in the lower part of
the Stanley.

The fossil plants, poor though the materials are, were
all sent to Dr. David White of the U. S. Geological Sur-
vey for identification and interpretation; the fossil shells
and other animals were submitted to Dr. Charles Sehu-
chert of Yale University who in turn showed them to
Dr. Ulrich of the U. 8. Geological Survey. Dr. White
has not yet reported on the plants from the Beech Creek
locality but concerning the others he says:

‘“No. 941 is a specimen representing a portion of a Lepidoden-
dron trunk. It is, however, partially decorticated and therefore
is not specifically determinable.

‘No. 942 is a wholly decorticated Lepidodendroid stem, in
which the nerve traces are very obscurely indicated. It may be
either Lepidodendron or, more likely, Bothrodendron.

‘““No. 977. This number is given to two Calamarion frag-
ments, each of which contains a complete internode. The rock
has been so crushed and the stem fragments so deformed that it
is impossible to say with confidence whether either of the stems
belong to Astrocalamites. Both might belong to Calamites.

‘“No. 882 is a fragment of a fern frond, bearing slender pinne
of some Sphenopteris. The fragment is so weathered as to show
only the topography and dim outlines of the pinnules, the nerva-
tion and borders of which cannot be clearly discerned.

‘‘These specimens, I am sorry to say, are none of them speci-
fically determinable. Therefore, any conclusion as to the age of
the beds must rest on inferences based upon the general aspect
or facies of the decorticated or badly worn and deformed frag-
ments.

‘“‘The phyllotaxy of the Lepidodendron indicates a relatively
ancient Carboniferous type. One of the Calamarian fragments
is more suggestive of Asterocalamites than Calamites. The
Sphenopteris may belong to a group found in the upper part of
the Mississippian and in the very old Pennsylvanian.

‘‘The collection does not contain anything specifically identi-
fiable with any form characteristic either of the Mississippian or
Pennsylvanian. It appears, however, to harmonize with other
material collected by Ulrich, Miser and myself from the Stanley
or Jackfork of Oklahoma and western Arkansas, none of which
is really satisfactory, since all the fossils are very fragmentary
and have generally been rubbed or deformed in the course of
depositions in gritty rock. After examining your specimens the
tentative conclusion that the Stanley represents either very late
Mississippian, possibly upper Chester, or Pennsylvanian of
earlier date than I am acquainted with in the Appalachian
trough, is slightly stronger.’’

C. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma. 77

With regard to the small marine fauna found on the
banks of Little River (specimens 943 and 944) and the
inarticulates from the base of the Stanley (specimens
1015 and 1016) Professor Schuchert writes as follows:

‘Tt seems to me fairly certain that these specimens cannot be
other than either Mississippian or Pennsylvanian. As you got
an undoubted Lepidodendron even beneath lots 943 and 944
and as the specimen appears to me like a Pennsylvanian form, it
seems that the whole of the Stanley and Jackfork may be Penn-
sylvanian in age rather than Mississippian. The marine fossils
do not indicate anything to the contrary. Your marine fossils
are as follows:

Orbiculoidea nitida Phillips. Loc. 1015 and 1016.

I cannot distinguish the specimens from Coal Measures
forms.
Crinoid columnals. Loc. 948 and 944. Common. At least
two species.
Cystodictya sp. undet. Loc. 943 and 944.
Rhombopora, sp. undet. Loc. 944.
Fenestella, sp. undet. Loc. 944.
Undet. Bryozoa. Common Loe. 944.
Productus suggesting Pustula nebraskensis, Loc. 948 and 944.
Chonetes, sp. undet. Loc. 9438.
Very fragmentary. Finely striate form.
Fish bone. Loe. 943.

Dr. Ulrich reports as follows:

‘‘Frankly speaking, these Stanley remains are certainly a
poor lot—not at all noisy in imparting information. Only the
Orbiculoidea mtida which identification seems as good as can be
made with the material, is in sufficiently good condition to war-
rant a definite opinion.

‘“The finely pustulated fragments of brachiopods I believe to
belong to a species of Chonetes. As all the fragments expose the
inner surface of the valves I deduce that the exterior is dis-
tinetly striated. But whether it is most like Mississippian or
Pennsylvanian types one can hardly say. Still as the striated
Mississippian species of Chonetes are practically confined to beds
older than the Warsaw and as it is almost too much to concede
that the Stanley can be Lower Mississippian, then these frag-
ments may be said to point toward the Pennsylvanian rather
than Mississippian.

‘“The Bryozoa also are too imperfect for satisfactory determi-
nation. And yet they are not quite hopeless. There is a frag-
ment of Fenestella. This says nothing. Then there are a
couple of branching specimens concerning which I cannot decide

78 C. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma.

whether they should be called Rhombopora or Batostomella.
These also throw no light on the question.

‘‘But the fragments of Cystodictya suggest Chester and
Lower Pennsylvania species rather than older species of the
genus.

‘‘Winally there are two fragments that seem to belong to
Prismopora, a genus ranging from Mid. Devonian to Pennsylva-
nian. Because of their smallness these Stanley specimens sug-
gest P. minuta, a Middle to Upper Pennsylvania species in
Illinois.

‘‘The invertebrate part of the evidence by itself would not be
conclusive either way. The trend of the evidence is toward the
Pennsylvanian rather than the Mississippian (either early or
late). Again there is nothing in the collection that may be
justly cited as definitely opposed to correlation of the Stanley
with lower Pottsville or basal Morrow, which conelusion I
reached in my ‘‘Revision’’ mainly on physical and diastrophic
consideration.

‘‘The fossils observed by me in the Jackfork seemed decidedly
corroborative of my convictions respecting the post Chester age
of the Stanley. So far as I can see your new evidence leaves the
problem just about where I left it in 1911—that is, with the
probabilities favoring assignment of the Stanley to the earliest
Pennsylvanian. ’’

ORIGIN OF THE STANLEY SHALE.

The outstanding facts with regard to the sedimenta-
tion of the Stanley are: (1) the dark color of all of the
shales, slates, and sandstones; (2) the uniform even fine -
orain of the sandstones and quartzites; (3) the total ab-
sence of limestones and of caleareous cements in the sand-
stones; (4) the tremendous thickness of the series;
(5) the ripple-marked and cross-bedded structure of
nearly all of the strata, sandstones and shales alike.
Whatever the theory for the origin and source of these
beds the above facts must be accounted for. Without
arguing the various possibilities and impossibilities of
such an accumulation, the writer wishes only to state that
the conditions involved appear to him to have been essen-
tially a gradually subsiding area into which a large river
throughout the subsiding period discharged its load.
How large the basin of subsidence could have been, how
well-defined and what the shape of it was,are only matters
of conjecture with him. That the inflowing river, which
discharged its sediments into the bay or basin, was large
is attested by the absence of all conglomerates and coarse
sands, and by the silty nature of the deposits from top to

C. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma. 179

bottom of the Stanley—a silt which was more sandy at
certain periods than others by reason of the well-known
conditions controlling all large rivers, and one which was
rich in organic matter at all times.

~The ripple marks, rill marks, and cross-bedding
throughout the succession would indicate that mud flats
were repeatedly if not almost continuously a feature of
the delta on which the ancient river laid these sediments.
The silts, sands, and muds were evidently washed around
and shifted about on the flats, re-sorted and finally depos-
ited in the ripple-marked and cross-bedded condition in
which we find them.

That fragments of plants, pieces of wood, bark, leaves,
ete., should be washed down a river and become buried in
the sands is, of course, a well-known fact and in accord
with the facts of the Stanley sediments.

It should also be expected that a great delta deposit at
the mouth of a large river such as it appears the Stanley
must have been would from time to time, especially during
periods of storms and rough sea, be peopled by marine
animals. These doubtless would not move voluntarily
from their habitats to fresh water but might easily be
_ washed along by littoral currents and heaved shoreward
by storm waves. ‘T'hus one may account for the few
brachiopods and other animals found. With reference to |
the bryozoa and other fossils found at the Little River
locality special mention should be made of the fact that
this fauna occurs in a horizon about 3 inches thick com-
posed chiefly of quartz gravel whose grains average about
2 mm. and that the fossils are broken to bits. Regard-
ing the character of this fossiliferous layer Professor
Schuchert says:

*“The physical character of the rock of localities 943 and 944
leads me to the following physiographic and geologic conclusion.
The material came in the main from a granitic country, though I
think there were present also metamorphic rocks, for there
appears to be present considerable micaceous schist. This
schist is still in angular pieces and larger than the quartz peb-
bles, indicating shorter transportation. In addition, there is
much black shale present, some of which is also metamorphosed
but apparently not all of it. The quartz pebbles are fairly well
rounded and with the sand appear to have come a much longer
distance than the shale and schist. There are also rounded
pieces of garnet present.’’

80 C. W. Honess—Stanley Shale of Oklahoma.

At no other horizon in the entire Stanley, excepting the
tuff, is there so coarse a material.

Higher in the Stanley where the plant horizons were
found, and in the Jackfork sandstones above, the vegetal
remains occur in thin beds charged with small twigs and
other small plant fragments, and also as scattered indi-
vidual specimens. The latter are usually large, pieces of
limbs and logs, but in all cases are macerated and eroded
fragments—materials, it appears, which have been floated
down stream from land areas to the south and southeast
and out upon the delta to the north where they were en-
gulfed in the sands.

Columbia University, June, 1920.

P. Waitz—Popocatepetl Again im Activity. 81

Arr. VI.—Popocatepetl again im Actiwity; by Pau
Waltz.

For some months we have seen from Mexico City on
clear days of the rainy season that small eruption clouds
were rising in puffs from Popocatepetl. This was a
rather unusual spectacle, as since 1720, the year in which
the last historically confirmed eruption occurred, the
voleano apparently has shown only a very slight activity
of fumaroles and solfataras. The long duration of this
year’s rainy season was not favorable for an investigation
of the state of the mountain. As soon as better weather
promised to allow of a successful ascension I gladly
accepted the invitation of the Sociedad Cientifica ‘* Anto-
nio Alzate’’ to study the voleano. After careful prepara- .
tion for the excursion I began the ascent in the company
of some friends on the 10th of October of the present
year; favored by wonderful weather conditions and good
luck, the excursion had the very best of success.

We started from Amecameca (2532 m. above sea-level)
on horseback at noon and after a five hours’ ride through
beautiful forests at sundown, reached Tlamaeas, a locality
_ situated on the north slope of the voleanic cone at a height
of about 4000 m. above sea-level. ‘The ranch house which
years ago stood there at the side of a small hut used for
sulphur smelting, had long since been destroyed by the
revolution, but we found a few huts made of logs and
covered with zacate-grass, which offered us a good shelter.

After a rather uncomfortable night on account of the
low temperature, we started on the llth of October at
4 a. m. on horseback from Tlamacas and rode as far as
Las Cruees. (about 4500 m.) from which point the horses
were sent back to Tlamacas. From here on we made use
of a fairly good zigzag trail which had been constructed
last winter by the sulphur diggers (azufreros): a proof
that in the past winter no snow lay on the slope of the
mountain, although in former years a cover of snow used
to reach down to Las Cruces. While this cover of snow
has disappeared almost entirely, the glacier of the
voleano, which formerly on account of the thick cover of
snow could not be observed at all, is still well preserved.
This glacier lies in a depression between the main cone
and a prominent promontory, the Pico del Fraile, and
has been preserved up to the present date because the

Am. Jour. Sct.—Firra Series, Vou. I, No. 1.—January, 1921.
6

82 P. Wate—Popocatepetl Agan m Actwity.

Fic. 1.—The crater of Popocatepetl on October 11, 1920, as seén from the low-
est level of the crater rim. The west wall and the andesite porphyry in the
background.

P. Waite—Popocatepetl Again in Activity. 83

main cone is especially thick on this side and a very
special kind of stratification diminishes the velocity of
propagation of the heat waves from the depth toward
the surface. The glacier reaches from the main sumimit,
the Pico Mayor of the voleano (5450 m.), on the north-
west slope of the cone, down to about 4800 m. We also
found on the north side of the cone the side which was
used for the ascent, small patches of snow in the depres-
sions where it had been accumulated by the wind. On
the east, south and west slopes the cone was entirely free
from snow.

I arrived at the lowest part of the crater rim at 9: 30
a.m. During the interval before my friends could join
me I was able to study the crater and observe a rather
strong eruption. At 11 o’clock we began to ascend on the
rim of the crater, climbing along its east and south side
in order to reach the highest point lying on the west side,
where we arrived at 2 p.m. We climbed down on the
other side of the crater rim until we again reached its
lowest portion and from there went quickly down to Las
Cruces and Tlamacas. Here we remained a second night
and after having been able to observe and photograph a
very strong eruption at 7 o’clock, the next morning we
rode to Amecameca, and returned to Mexico City, where
we arrived on the evening of the same day.

With the exception of the disappearance of the snow
cover, the form of the mountain has not changed since
the beginning of its new stage of activity. The crater
also has preserved its form and figure, at least no consid-
erable changes could be observed, and comparing the
pictures of the crater which I made in 1905 with those
taken on the present trip, | cannot find any changes. This
does not apply, however, to the bottom of the crater.
As long ago as 1895, Aguilera and Ordonez, who at that
time studied the mountain and measured the crater,
remaining at its bottom for several days, described in its
lowest portion a small lagoon, which was also well known
to all those who had ascended Popocatepetl during the
last 20 or 30 years. This lagoon has disappeared and in
its place, but of much greater dimensions, I found an
elliptical accumulation of andesite bowlders. This hill
has a NW-SE longitudinal axis about 100 m. long, a
transverse axis about 75 m. wide, and a height of 40 to
90m. There is no doubt that this hill of black andesite
bowlders is the upper part of a lava plug which after the

84 P. Waitz—Popocatepetl Agam in Activity.

Fic. 2.—Cauliflower clouds of a steam eruption of Popocatepetl, October
1920.

P. Waite—Popocatepetl Again m Activity. 85

last lava eruption of the volcano fell back into the
chimney and which during the two centuries of httle
activity on the part of the voleano lay buried under the
débris of the crater walls and later on under a lagoon.
The recent activity of the voleanic focus has pressed the
plug slowly upward, and if, as seems probable, this
activity should continue to increase, we may perhaps be
able to observe the formation of a Pelée-needle within the
erater of the voleano. But it is more probable that the
course of events will be similar to those which we have
been able to study on the voleano of Colima, where we
have observed that during the course of nearly a century
the formerly deep crater has been slowly filled up to the
rim with block-lava.

We had the opportunity to observe that all the steam
explosions which occurred in separate puffs during our
stay on the crater, had their origin between the plug and
the crater walls, while the plug itself showed no develop-
ment of steam. Later visitors to the voleano, among
whom was a gentleman who had accompanied me on my
excursion, believed they were able to observe, on the first
of November, that the plug meanwhile had been raised
still farther, and that isolated emanations of steam now
occurred also within its mass, and, judging from the
yellow color, emanations of sulphur also.

From time to time the steam explosions (with the
steam there is always mixed some sulphur dioxide (SO,) )
seem to throw up sand and ashes; we have been able to
observe fresh accumulations of this material on the
lowest portion of the crater rim and in these deposits
the traces of larger stones also, which cannot very well
be called bombs, because they were not of freshly molten
material. _

The steam explosions are connected with very strong,
thunder-like noise, which can be very well heard as far as
Tlamacas at least. Strong eruptions throw the steam
out above the crater rim in thick clouds, which on account
of their whirling movement take the form of cauliflower
clouds.. The explosion which we observed from Tlamacas
on the 12th of October at 7 a.m., rose at least 500 m.
above the highest point. We could not observe any kind
of earthquake during the eruption, even in cases of strong
explosions, and standing at the crater rim itself. Smaller
eruptions of steam generally disperse within the wide
crater, the longitudinal axis of which is, according to the

86 P. Waitz—Popocatepetl Again im Actwity.

measurements of Aguilera and Ordonez, 600 m. (nearly
E-W), while the smaller axis has a length of 400 m.,
a depth from the highest point of 500 m., and from the
lowest portion of the rim 250 m. During the pauses
between the rather infrequent steam explosions one hears
only the whistling of the fumaroles and the solfataras,
which produce a noise similar to that of a number of steam
engines blowing off steam at the same time.

Two of these solfataras in particular were known to me
from my former ascension of the crater in 1905; they do
not originate in the bottom of the crater, but le in the
lower portion of the crater walls in the southeast and
southwest portion, and therefore have not yet been
covered by the mass of bowlders of the plug, the form of
which probably corresponds to that of the chimney.

It is too early to prophecy anything about the further
development of the activity of Popocatepetl. If the
observation said to have been made during the excursion
on the first of November should prove to be exact, and
the plug had been rising during the fourteen days since
my ascent and investigation, for about 20 to 30 m., as those
gentlemen state, then we may assume that the activity
of the voleano is increasing. This we can conclude also
from the development of steam, which is becoming contin-
uously stronger. We cannot expect to see a Pelée-needle
rising from the crater, with its depth of 500 m. as was
mentioned above, but we can expect that the crater will
become filled slowly with solid block-lava, produced by
the breaking up and dismemberment of the column of
solid andesite which fills the chimney. Of course not only
years, but tens of years or even a whole century, may
pass before the mass of bowlders fills the whole crater.
Yet before the whole crater will be filled with these masses
another event may take place as has been the case in the
voleano of Colima, where in 1869 an adventitious.cone
with a double summit was formed which produced a
small lava stream. For the formation of such a lateral
adventitious cone the east and south sides of Popocatepetl
are especially predestined, as they are characterized by a
particular thinness of the crater wall.

Finally, there exists another possibility: The explosive
power of the focus, be it through endogene processes in
the magma or be it through the accumulation of pressure
due to a casual closing of the emanation channels still
open at the present time through the immense masses of

P. Waite—Popocatepetl Again wm Actiwity. 87

bowlders slowly accumulating in the crater, may be so
far increased that it will be able to throw the contents
of the crater into the air by a single formidable eruption.
In this case we have to expect and to fear the occurrence
of glowing clouds (Glutwolken, nuées ardentes). We
have had an opportunity to observe and to study this
phenomenon also on the voleano of Colima. There in
1913 the contents filling the entire crater up to the rim,
as well as the mass filling the chimney to a great depth,
and even the upper 150 m. of the crater cone, were thrown
into the air by one single eruption and blown into dust
partly by the explosion itself, partly by the fall of the
masses on the cone and into the crater. Glowing clouds
rolled down the flanks of the cone for several days and
accumulated in the barrancas at the foot, where they
flowed to a distance of about 12 km. from the crater.

Fortunately the Mexican volcanoes are not inhabited
(within a radius of 10 km. around the summit of Popo-
catepetl we do not find a single inhabited place and towns
do not exist within a radius of 15 km.); and the country
furrowed by deep barrancas around the voleano would
place strong obstacles in the way of lava streams and
glowing clouds; therefore even a very highly increased
activity of Popocatepetl would not have to be feared.
Greater damage could be caused by extraordinarily strong
eruptions of ashes, as the flat roofs used in this part of the
country would not resist the weight of heavy masses of
ashes.

MeExico, November, 1920.

88 Scientific Intelligence.

SCIENTIFIC “INT EET G ENCaee

J. CueEmistry AND Puysics.

1. A Revision of the Atomic Weight of Aluminiwm.—THEO-
DORE W. RicHArps and HENRY KREPELKA have published a pre-
liminary paper upon the atomic weight of aluminium, giving the
results of four determinations based upon the ratio of aluminium
bromide to the silver required to combine with the bromine in it.
The preparation and purification of the aluminium bromide was
carried out in a most ingenious and evidently perfectly effective
apparatus, and all the details and whole process were carried out
with the greatest care and skill, such as is always shown in the
atomic weight determinations directed by Richards. The results,
based upon bromine as 79.916 and silver as 107.88, are 26.967,
26.965, 26.956 and 26.954. The average is 26.960, while the re-
sult calculated from the total weights employed—nearly sixteen
erams of the bromide and over nineteen grams of silver—is
26.963. The agreement of the results is remarkably close.

The usually accepted atomic weight of aluminium, 27.1, is
based chiefly on the work of Mallet, published in 1880. This
work has been highly regarded because results by three distinct
methods agreed closely, so that the more recent result, in 1897, of
Thomsen, 26.99, based upon a single method, was not accepted
by the international committee. The new result is not far from
that of Thomsen, and it appears probable that future work will
not change it to any considerable extent. It seems certain, there-
fore, that the atomic weight of aluminium is slightly less than 27,
and this is a matter of interest to those who are studying the
structure of atoms and their numerical relations.—Jour. Amer.
Chem. Soc., 42, 2221. H. L. W.

2. The Chemists’ Year Book, 1920; Edited by F. W. ATACK.
Fifth edition, 16mo, pp. 1136. Two volumes. New York, 1920
(Longmans, Green & Co. Price $7.00 net).—The appearance
in 1915 of the first edition of this work of English origin was due
to the cutting off of the supply of German pocket-books which
had been previously used by many chemists and other scientific
workers. As it appears in its fifth year the book shows a vast
amount of useful, well-arranged information, and it may be re-
earded as an improvement upon the German hand-books as well
as a further convenience in its language to English-speaking
chemists. It is well printed upon very thin paper of excellent
quality so that it is very legible, while its bulk is small in com-
parison with its large number of pages. There are many tables,
among which may be mentioned those giving gravimetric factors,
five figure logarithms, specific gravities, solubilities, and the very
extensive ones dealing with the properties of inorganic and of
organic substances, and of minerals. There are also tables re-

Chemistry and Physics. 89

lating to oils, fats and waxes, as well as to essential oils, alkaloids,
synthetic dye stuffs, and drugs. Much valuable information is
given in regard to analytical processes, including many technical
tests and quantitative determinations. H. L. W.

3. Dictionary of Explosives; by ARTHUR MARSHALL. 8vo,
pp. 159. Philadelphia, 1920 (P. Blakiston’s Son & Co.).—This
book in its main part gives an alphabetical list of the special and
proprietary names of explosives with descriptions of their charac-
ter, and in a great many cases their percentage compositions.
There are more than 400 names in the list. There is a preliminary
classification of the names according to the applications of the
products in coal mining, blasting, as high explosives and as propel-
lants. There is a final index of constituents where the names
of the explosives containing each constituent are given. The
book is of interest in showing the astonishing development of
explosives in recent times, and in explaining the compositions of
these materials. H. Ll. W.

4. Catalysis and its Industrial Applications; by HE. JoBuine.
12mo, pp. 144. Philadelphia, 1920 (P. Blakiston’s Son & Co.).
—This little book from England, in its second edition, gives a
very clear and impressive account of the exceedingly important
application of foreign substances for the purpose of facilitating
chemical reactions. There is a good introductory chapter deal-
ing with general principles, then the industrial applications of
catalysis are well discussed in connection with sulphuric acid and
ehlorine manufacture, the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, the
hydrogenation of oils, and many other processes. There are
given many references to the literature. Et. Iu. W..

d. American Lubricants; by L. B. LooKHART. 8vo, pp. 341.
Easton, Pa., 1920 (The Chemical Publishing Company ).—This is
the second edition, revised and enlarged, of a bock designed par-
ticularly as an aid to the user of lubricants. The refining of
petroleum is described, the theories of friction and lubrication
are satisfactorily discussed, the applications of lubricants in
many special cases are taken up, the physical and chemical test-
ing of lubricants are described, and many specifications are given.
The subject is very well and thoroughly treated. H. L. W.

6. Fuel Oil in Industry; by STEPHEN O. ANDROS. 8vo, pp.
244. Chicago, 1920 (The Shaw Publishing Company) .—This
book gives a good account of an important subject. The applica-
tion of fuel oil in various industries is described, many useful
tables and interesting statistics are presented, and these are 107
illustrations, imcluding diagrams of apparatus and many repro-
ductions of excellent photographs. The book is to be highly
recommended to those interested in the subject. H. L. W.

7. Spectra of Isotopes—Previous investigations by spectro-
scopic methods have indicated that the wave length of the bright-
est line A = 4058A of ordinary lead differs by a small fraction of
a unit from that of lead of radioactive origin, but the amount was

90 Scientific Intelligence.

too near the limit of detection by this method to make the result
very certain. T. R. Merron has now developed a new method in
which a ring system of interference fringes is photographed on a
plate so that they may be measured by a micrometer. In order
to take account of variations in the diameter of the rings which
would result from changes of temperature in the interferometer,
or a Shift in the position of the source of the light due to wander-
ing of the are which was used, the lead under study was alloyed
with cadmium. In this way a comparison system of fringes was
recorded which would indicate any variation in the difference of
path between different plates whether due to temperature changes
or alteration of the are, and serve to correct the other lines. In
carrying out the observations, if two specimens of lead emitted
different wave lengths it could be noted what fraction of the dis-
tance between fringes any fringe was displaced. The sensitive-
ness of the apparatus may be judged from the alteration of the
wave length which was necessary to shift the pattern by a whole
fringe. This difference of wave length amounted to 0.084A in
the lead line A = 4058A and 0.146A in the thallium line A=
5350A. Three specimens of lead were examined: (1) a pure
sample of ordinary lead; (2) lead extracted from Joachimsthal
pitchblende residues; (3) lead extracted from Ceylon thorite.
The author’s conclusions may be thus stated for the line A =
4058A :

X (lead from pitchblende)— A (ordinary lead) =
0050A + .000TA
dX (ordinary lead)— A (thorite lead) = .0022A + .0008A

which indicates that these substances are arranged in the order
of their atomic weights. Further experiments were made on
thallium using the line A = 5350A, which indicated that

r (ordinary thallium)— d (thallium from pitchblende) =
.0055A = .0010A.

The result for thallium does not command quite the weight of
those for lead for it was not possible to isolate the pitchblende
specimen, but it does seem to indicate that the thallium of pitch-
blende is an isotope of greater atomic weight than ordinary thal-
lium.—Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 96, 388, 1920. F. E. B.

8. Magnetic Susceptibilities of Low Order-—In carrying out
the new magnetic survey of the British Isles some instrument was
required capable of measuring the susceptibilities of various rock
specimens. This need was met by the apparatus devised by
ERNEST WILSON, in which the pull exerted by the magnetic field
of a specially designed electromagnet on the specimen was bal-
anced against the torsion of a phosphor bronze strip.

After a careful determination of the instrumental constant the
author measured the susceptibilities of a considerable variety of
rocks either worked into the form of a rod or after they had been

Chemistry and Physics. 91

powdered and closely packed in a glass tube. Particular atten-
tion was devoted to different varieties of mica, tourmaline, and
some of the aluminum alloys.—Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 96, 429,
1920. F. E. B.

9. The Airplane; by Freperick Berpreuu. Pp. VIII, 257.
New York, 1920 (D. Van Nostrand Company; $3.00 net).—
This volume is a development from the author’s experience in
preparing courses for Schools of Military Aeronautics, and is
in fact an extension of his previous works entitled Airplane
Characteristics, and The Air Propeller. It may be described as
a reasonably complete text of airplane performance, with suf-
ficient theory to guide the experimenter and designer and to pro-
vide the general reader, whose aim is educational or scientific,
with an accurate statement of how sustentation and stability of
flight are secured.

The mathematics of the book does not go beyond the simple
algebraic equations of mechanics which involve the forces of
weight and fluid resistance, restoring couples, and applied power.
The complex and more or less obscure relations between the vari-
ables, or their dependence upon empirical constants (parameters )
are clearly illustrated by a large number of diagrams.

Six of the chapters, which treat of, sustentation, wing and
parasite resistance, thrust and power, have been previously pub-
lished. in the books above named. The seven new chapters dis-
cuss the more general topics of airplane performance at different
altitudes, longitudinal, lateral, and directional stability, climb-
ing, gliding, and structural features connected with the number
of planes, the keel, the rudder, and the controls.

Among the men in this country who have attempted to de-
velop the physical principles involved in flying and sought to
codify them for the benefit of science Professor BEDELL holds a
prominent place, and his success in presenting them will be
recognized by the reader of this book. It is provided with a
elossary of the terminology of aviation and an excellent index but
the draughtsmanship and reproduction of the figures is unworthy
of the publishers. A conspicuous lack is the absence of any
reference to the literature of aviation either American or for-
elen. Hy eHenBe

10. A Field and Laboratory Guide in Physical Nature Study ;
by Exuiot R. Downinc. Pp. 109. Chicago, 1920 (University of
Chicago Press).—This is a loose leaf text- and note-book for use
in teacher training classes and normal schools. Its aim is to
bring the pupil into contact with elementary scientific facts and
phenomena and present them in such form that they will suggest
problems inviting further study. One chapter treats of common
rocks and minerals and. their classification into various categories.
Another suggests simple and interesting observations to be made
upon the constellations or the sun and moon. The nine remain-
ing chapters of the work are devoted to the construction of vari-

92 Scientific Intelligence.

ous kinds of apparatus which are virtually toys in their simplicity
but illustrate in an interesting way many fundamental physical
principles. Elementary science teachers should find this a val-
uable source book for the preparation of their lessons.

a 2

11, Annumre pour l’An 1920; pp. VIII, 708, Appendices
A.27, B.64, C.70. Paris 1920 (Gauthier-Villars et Cie.).—This
annual publication of the Bureau des Longitudes has appeared
without interruption since 1796. In all volumes of the series the
- material is arranged under five grand divisions with the following
captions: The Calendar, The Earth, Astronomy, Weights and
Measures. The fifth division alternates between two headings.
In the even years it includes Physical and Chemical data and in
the odd years it is devoted to geographical statistics and tables of
annuities, of interest, and of the expectation of life.

Chapters 1 and 3 contain extended ephemerides of the sun,
moon, planets and stars for the meridian of Paris, tide tables, and
a discussion of various calendars. A complete almanach for
1921 is added in .a supplement. Chapter 2 shows the form,
dimensions and density of the earth, together with tables of the
acceleration of weight and the constants of terrestrial magnetism.
Chapter 4 exhibits the various systems of weights and measures
in their relation to the metric system, and the monetary systems
of the world. Chapter 5 supplies a great variety of physical and
chemical constants which cannot be briefly summarized. The
leading tables deal with density, expansion, wave lengths, heats
of combination and atomic weights.

Appendix A is an article on the prediction of swell, that is,
the propagation of waves which persist after the wind has fallen.
Appendix B discusses a new system of legal units. Appendix CO
contains a carefully arranged index which also carries references
to the most important tables published in the five preceding
volumes.

This book cannot fail to be a valuable addition to any reference
library. F, E, B.

Il. Gronoey. |

1. Der Stidrand der Puna de Atacama (NW-Argentinien).
Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss des Andinen Gebirgstypus und zu der
Frage der Gebirgsbildung; von Prof. Dr. WautTHEer PENCK,
Abhandl. Sachs. Akad. Wiss. math-phys. Klasse, 37, 1920, 420
pages, with a bibliography of 148 titles, 33 small but excellent
photographs on 9 plates, 18 cross-sections, and a large folded
map, 1:200,000, covering an area of 100 by 125 kil. with sketched
contours at 100-meter intervals and geological colors distinguish-
ing 52 formations._-The young author of this study, the son of
Prof. Albr. Penck of Berlin, has won his spurs by painstaking
exploration in northwestern Argentina as assistant on the geolog-

Geology. 93

ical survey of that country during two years preceding the Great
War. The report appears to have been written in Constanti-
nople, as the author was professor in a university temporarily
established there by the Germans during the war, and the preface
is dated in that city in the summer of 1918. He is now professor
of geology in the University of Leipzig. The text opens with a
geographical description of a group of Andine ranges which
enclose the bolson, or intermont basin, of Fiambala in the province
of Catamarea. Two chapters then treat the rocks of the region
in order of age; a fourth chapter discusses Andine structure;
a fifth takes up the structural deformation of the region and its
vuleanism, and a sixth treats the morphological evolution of the
highland margin. Studies of mountain structure and origin
have often been made elsewhere; but it is rare to find so careful
an account of the origin and form of an intermont basin as is
here given. W. M. D.
2. Der Selpausselka; von lL. LetviskA. Fennia, 40, 1920.
389 pages, many maps and profiles, and 148 half-page photo-
plates.—This elaborate monograph, the product of ten years of
field-work on the two parallel morainic belts that traverse south-
ern Finland, is to be highly commended for its truly scientific
method. It first describes the features of each ridge with much
care giving many references to profiles, large-scale detailed maps,
and photo-plates; then generalizes the features thus described ;
and finally presents a critical inquiry into the origin of the belts
and their relation to the sea in which the proglacial land area was
submerged as the ice sheet withdrew. The chief conclusion is
that the local plateaus, narrow ridges, or groups of hills, of
which the belts are composed, were formed largely by the out-
wash of many small streams during pauses in the retreat of the
ice sheet. W. M. D.
3d. De marine Kridtaflejringer t Vestgrdnland og deres Fauna;
by J.P. J. Ravn. Meddelelser om Gronland, vol. 56, pt. 9, pp. 3138-
366, pl. 5-9, 1918.—This important paper, unfortunately in Dan-
ish, is the result of a critical study of the Cretaceous marine in-
vertebrates from western Greenland. Fifty-four species are
described. Fourteen of these are new and are referred to the
genera Pecten, Lucina, Modiolaria (?), Limopsis, Axinus, Denta-
hum, Cadulus, Margarita (?), Atlanta, Bulla and Cyclichna.
Ravn comes to substantially the same results as de Loriol, whose
study of this fauna was published by Heer in 1882, and followed
by Stanton in working over the material collected by White and
Schuchert in that region. Ravn considers the Patoot fauna as
corresponding to that of the Fox Hiils of the western States. He
is inclined to also refer the Ata fauna (Atane beds) to our
Montana Group, but states that the evidence is not so good as in
the case of the Patoot fauna. All are regarded as of Senonian
age. Unfortunately only 31 of the 54 species are well preserved
and capable of accurate identification, and he states that there is

94 Scientific Intelligence.

probably a mixing of levels and possibly also of Museum labels.
Thirteen of the Greenland forms are considered to be identical
with Pierre and Fox Hills species, and only three—an Acton
and two Foraminifera, are common to the Atlantic Coastal Plain
Cretaceous. Either this resemblance to our Western Interior
Cretaceous and lack of similarity to the Coastal Plain Cretaceous
is more apparent than real, or else some links in the chain of dis-
tribution should eventually turn up somewhere in the Arctie Ar-
chipelago. It may well be that a seaway extended westward
from Disko Island instead of there having been any connection
with the Atlantic, as has usually been supposed. The large num-
ber of West Greenland land plants found in our Coastal Plain
Cretaceous may be considered as pointing in the same direction.

The present paper does not, unfortunately, settle the vexed
question of age. Heer described four large fossil floras from that
region: the Kome, Atane, Patoot and Atanekerdluk which he
correlated respectively with the Urgonian, Cenomanian, Senonian,
and old Miocene. The reviewer has regarded these floras as Bar-
remian-Aptian, Turonian, Senonian, and upper Hocene or lower
Oligocene respectively. All of these floras suffer from the un-
certainties of mixed collections and over elaboration. There
seems to be a relatively large number of species through the
whole Cretaceous part of the section, which it seems emphasizes
the failure to solve the local stratigraphy, although the presence
of at least four different floras stands out clearly through this
mist of uncertainty. Occurring as these plants do near the
theoretical center of radiation of the flowering plants, this ques-
tion of their true age is of the greatest importance. It is clearly
worth the trouble and expense of field work in the region and its
elucidation might well have added some luster to the almost total
lack of scientific results of Peary’s many expeditions.

E. W. B.

4. Illinois State Geological Survey, Frank W. DEWotr,
Chief.—The following Bulletins have recently been issued : Num-
ber 34 on the Artesian Waters of Northeastern Illinois, by Caru
B. ANDERSON. This is a volume of 326 pages with 4 plates and 3
diagrams in addition to a number of tables.

Number 36 (pp. 188 with 9 plates) is the Year Book for 1916
and contains the administrative report for the year ending June
30, 1917, by the Chief Geologist; also papers on the mineral re-
sources of the State by N. O. Barrerr; the clay deposits near
Mountain Glen, Union Co., by Sruart Sr. Cuair, and on the
structure of the La Salle anticline by GitBert H. Capy.

0. Bulletins of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences —
Volume XII, recently received, is devoted to a Catalogue of the
Fossil Fishes in the museum of the Buffalo Society, by L. Hussa-
Kor and W. L. Bryanr. The volume includes about 200 pages
and 70 excellent plates, with numerous text figures. The col-
lection is chiefly from the Devonian of western New York, and is

Geology. 95

the largest that has ever been brought together from this source.
A species of peculiar interest is named Ptyctodus howlandi in
recognition of help and encouragement given, during the prepar-
ation of this important work, by Mr. Henry R. Howland of the
Buffalo Museum.

Number I of Volume XIII (pp. 23 with 18 piates), is on the
‘‘Strueture of Eusthenopteron’’; by W. L. Bryant.

6. Guide to the Mineral Collections in the Illinois State Mu-

seum; by A. R. Crook. Pp. 294, with 31 plates and 236 text
figures —This is an interesting account of the Collections in the
State Museum, numbering nearly 1300 specimens. Numerous
illustrations are given, those in half-tone and in color being par-
ticularly noteworthy. The volume will be useful not only to
those visiting the Museum, but also because of the fullness of its
general descriptions to students of minerology.

III. MisceLtyANeous ScrentIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
CHARLES D. Waucort, for the year ending June 30, 1920—The
Secretary states that the total funds of the Institution now
amount to $1,083,000 and. that the income available for the year
was $174,000. Notwithstanding the special funds that have been
added since the original gift from James Smithson in 1826, the
income at present is quite too small to permit of the work being
carried on as liberally as formerly, because of the greatly in-
creased costs. However, the researches and explorations for the
year have been very varied in subject and locality, not the least
important being the work of the Secretary himself in the Cana-
dian Rocky Mountains. It is interesting to note that the
National Gallery of Arts is in future to be a separate unit under
the Institution with Mr. W. H. Holmes as Director. The build-
ing, provided by the $1,000,000 given by Mr. Charles L. Freer of
Detroit, is now nearly completed and practically ready for the
installation of the collections. It is much to be regretted that
Mr. Freer did not live to see his generous gift to the Nation put
in permanent form. The International Exchange Service has
increased largely, the number of packages handled during the
year being nearly 370,000, weighing about 500,000 pounds. AI-
though several countries are not included in the exchange list,
the total number exceeds that of 1914 by over 27,000. The
National Museum has acquired about 217,000 specimens, nearly
half of these being in zoology. The Museum is now in charge of
Mr. W. deC. Ravenel. Mr. Abbot, director of the Astrophysical
Observatory, notes the practical completion of volume IV of the
Annals. He also mentions the fact that the results for the solar
variation for 1917 and 1918 obtained at Mt. Wilson and at
Calama, Chile, 4,000 miles apart, agreed very closely. Through

96 Scientific Intelligence.

the generosity of Mr. John A. Roebling, funds have been provided
for the removal of the Chile Station to a mountain above its for-
mer location, thus giving a clear atmosphere, and, in addition, for
a building on the Harqua Hala Mts. in Arizona.

Separate volumes, received recently, are the following:

Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution for the year ending June 30, 1918. Pp. 612, with 54
plates. The report of the Secretary, herein contained, has been
already noticed.

Report on the Progress and Condition of the United States
National Museum for the year ending June 30, 1919. Pp. 211,
with 7 plates.

Several Bulletins of the Bureau of American Hthnology.

2. Publications of the Allegheny Observatory of the Uniwer-
sity of Pittsburgh; FRANK SCHLESINGER, director.—Publica-
tions recently received are as follows: Nos. 2-5 of volume 4
(1919) containing photographic determinations of the parallaxes
of 135 stars with the Thaw refractor (185 stars for the entire
volume). Also Nos. 1-5 of volume 5 on the same subject. Nos.
1-3 of volume 6 are on the following subjects: the irregularities
in refraction (1); the effect of atmospheric dispersion on photo-
graphs taken with the Thaw telescope (2); solar and terrestrial
absorption in the sun’s spectrum from 6500 A to 9000 A (3).

OBITUARY.

Dr. Max Marevues, formerly of the Austrian Meteorological
Service, died on October 4 at the age of sixty-four years.

Dr. Kart HERMANN StRUVE, in 1895 made professor of astron-
omy at Konigsberg and later director of the Berlin-Babelsberg ob-
servatory, died on August 12 at the age of sixty-six years.

PROFESSOR YVES DELAGE, the eminent French zoologist, died on
October 8 at the age of sixty-six years.

'ARD’S Narre Sie ESTABLISHMENT
aA Supply-House for Scientific Material.

be z 4 “Founded 1862. Incorporated 1890.
Sale : A few of our recent circulars in the various
WN Ge) departments:

* e at Geology: J-32. Descriptive Catalogue of a Petrographic Col-

ae _ jection of American Rocks. J-188 and supplement.

25 oe Sn ae Price-List of Rocks.

Fins Mineralogy: J-220. Collections. J-225, Minerals by Weight.

¢. . J-224. Autumnal Announcements.

eas Paleontology: J-201. Evolution of the Horse. J-199. Palz-
Bee. ozoic index fossils. J-115. Colleciions of Fossils.
ae Entomology: J-33. Supplies. J-229. Life Histories. J-230.
Live Pupe.
Zoology: J-223. Material for dissection. J-207. Dissections
of Typical Animals, etc. J-38. Models.
Microscope Slides: J- 189. Slides of Parasites, J-29. Cata-
logue of Slides.
Taxidermy: J-22. North American Birdskins. Z-31. General
Taxidermy.
ee Human Anatomy: J-37, Skeletons & Models.
General ; J-228. List of Circulars & Catalogues.

Ward’s Natural Science Establishment
84-102 College Ave., Rochester, N. Y., U.S. A.

“SCIENTIA”

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC SYNTHESIS. Issued monthly (each
number consisting of 100 to 120 pages). Editor: EUGENIO RIGNANO.

This is the only review which has a really international collaboration; which is
of world-wide circulation and occupies itself with the synthesis and unification of
knowledge, in the history of the sciences, mathematics, astronomy, geology, physics,
chemistry, biology, psychology and sociology.

This Review studies all the most important questions—demographic, ethnographic,
economic, financial, juridical, historical, political—raised, by the world war.

It has published articles by Messrs,: Abbot =Arrhenius -Ashley = Bayliss - Beichman-=
Bigourdan = Bohlin - Bohn= Bonnesen - Borel = Bouty = Bragg - Bruni = Burdick = Carver =
Caullery = Chamberlin = Charlier = Claparede = Clark = Costantin - Crommelin = Crowter =
Darwin = Delage = De Vries = Durkheim = Eddington = Edgeworth = Emery = Enriques =
Fabry - Findlay - Fisher = Fowler = Golgi =- Gregory = Harper = Hartog = Heiberg - Hinks-
Hopkins-Inigues-Innes-Janet-Kaptein-Kaye-Kidd-Langevin-Lebedew-Lloyd Morgan =
Lodge = Loisy = Lorentz = Loria -Lowell - MacBride = Meillet =Moret-Muir=Peano =Picard =
Poincare - Puiseux = Rabaud = Rey Pastor = Righi-Rignano=Russell-Rutherford-Sagnac =
Sarton= Schiaparelli= Scott = See - Sherrington = Soddy = Starling - Svyedberg = Thomson =
1 ed sted ak =-Volterra-Webb-Weiss = Zeeman-Zeuthen and more than a hundred
others.

** SCIENTIA’’ publishes its articles in the language of its authors, and joins to the
principal text a supplement containing the French translations of all the articles that
are not in French. (Wriie for a Specimen Number to the General Secretary of
“Scientia”, Milan.) Annual subscription: 38 sh., or 9.50 dollars post free.

Office : 43 Foro Bonaparte, Milan, Italy..

Publishers: WILLIAMS & NORGATE-London: FELIX ALCAN -Paris
: - NICOLA ZANICHELLI, Bologna.

é

“Art. VI. ~Popocatepetl again in Activity; by Fi Warr. cae ,
Se

Art. IJ.—Note on es from Vesuviar ‘ine Et
; S. Wasuineton and H. EK. Merwin ........,
| Pate ee
riage

Art. I1J.—Chionophila Benth., a Morpholowicat at iy; by
Tuxo. Horm. (With 15 figures drawn from na ature ie ‘
the author) 0.7.54... RAR Cen eee =

Arr. IV. —Geology of the Muddy Mowataie: Nevada; witl
a Section to the Grand Wash Cliffs in Western Asizon
by C. R. LoneweErt eee een eee ee beeen eae”

Arr. V.—The Stanley Shale of Oklahoma; by C. Ww. Hoxsss

nn

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. < ~

Chemistry and Physics—A Revision of the Atomic Weight of Alnmininn, 7
T. W. RicHarps and H. KreperKa: The Chemists’ Year Book, 1§
F, W. Arack, 88.—Dictionary of Explosives, A. MARSHALL: Catal: ah
and its Industrial Applications, E. ort American Lubricants, L, |
LockHarT; Fuel Oil in Industry, O. ANDROS: Spectra of Tsoton
T. R. Merton, 89.—Magnetic St cventibilities of Low Order, 90.—
Airplane, F. Bepeni: A “Field and Laboratory Guide in Physical: Natnte ;
Study, E. R. DownineG, 91.—Annuaire pour An 1920, 92. :

od

wade tia Siidrand der Puna de Atacama (NW- Argentinien) ; Ein ve Si
zur Kenntniss des Andinen Gebirgstypus und za “der Frage der Gebirgs- | r
bildung, W. Pencx, $2.—Der Selpausselka, L, LeriviskKA: De marine |
K ridtaflejringer, J. P. J. Ravn, 93.—Illinois State Geologieal Survey, F.
W. DeWorr: Bulletins of the Buffalo Society of Nataral Sciences; eee
Guide to the Mineral Collections in the Illinois State Museum, A. a.
CROOK, 99.

eye}
+ fe

Miscellaneous Scientifie Intelligence—Report of the Secretary of the Smithson-
ian Institution. C. D. Watcort, for the year ending June 30, 1920, 95,—
Publications of the Allegheny Observatory of the University of Pittsburgh, :
F’, SCHLESINGER, 96,

Obituary—M. Marevurnes: K. H. Struve: Y. DevaGe, 96.

.

ls” A TEN VOLUME INDEX

to volumes 41 to 50 will be ready in January

Price $2.00 in advance; edition small; order early!

See . : ees oe
popu 1991 Lae

| Borros: EDWARD S. DANA.

: _ assocrats EDITORS

:

oe i. RANSOME AND WILLIAM BOWIE, |

or Wasuineron. | |

‘EF I FTH SERIES

VOL. ‘I-{WHOLE NUMBER, CCI]. |

= No, 2—FEBRUARY, 1921. |

: eH os _ WITH PLATES I-IV. - |
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. | é
1921. ee

3 "Six Sellars per vear, in advance. $6.40 to countries in the
to Canada. Single numbers 50 Gel No. 271, one dollar.

ELLSWORTH HUNTINGTON ~ a

Research Associate in Geography, Yale University —

> ie = Tas

AND

SUMNER W. CUSHING

Late Head of the Department of Geography, State Normal School, Salem, Mass. —

Published, December oe

This i ig an interesting geography, ee it deals with people,
their homes, habits, characters and occupations. '

It is a practical geography, because it directs attention to vine
commercial possibilities of various regions; that is to say, to. their
wealth and wants.

It is a truly edweational geography, because its problems call i i

for an unusual amount of thought and activity on the per of ‘the ;
pupil. aw
__ 430 pages. 6 by 9. Profusely illustrated with 118 figures, |
including many photographs. Bound in cloth. Price $3.50,
postpaid.

Have a copy sent for 10 days’ Free Examination. Write to-day. |

~
&

JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.
432 Fourth Avenue, New York
London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.

Canada:
Renouf Publishing Co.

AJS-2-21

THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

[FIFTH SERIES.]

Arr. VIL—The Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur, Nodo-
saurus textilis Marsh; by RicHarp Swann LULL.
With Plates I to LV.

[Contributions from the Othniel Charles Marsh Publication Fund, Peabody
Museum, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.]

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Introduction.
History of discovery.
Extent of material.
Original description.
Morphology.
Endoskeleton.
Pre-sacral vertebre and ribs.
Pelvis.
Caudal vertebre.
Fore limb.
Hind limb.
Exoskeleton.
Armor.
Taxonomy and relationships.
Family characteristics.
Re-definition of Nodosaurus Marsh.
Relationships with other genera.

INTRODUCTION.

The ‘‘paleontologic revival’’ at Yale has as its first
fruits the naming and description of new species out of
old specimens in the Marsh Collection, some of which
have awaited recognition for nearly half a century since
they were exhumed. Incidentally there remains the
other task of redescribing, in the light of further prepar-
ation and of greater opportunity for comparative study,
such type material as had already had the scientific recog-
nition of the master. Of such is the type of Nodosaurus,
the importance of which is manifest when it is realized
that it is not only a generic and specific type, but that of

Am. Jour. Sct.—FirtH Series, Vou. I, No. 2.—FEBRuARY, 1921.

98 R. 8S. Lull—Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur,

the family of American plated dinosaurs, and was, more-
over, essentially the first of these remarkable reptiles to
be described in American literature of science. The
preparation of the skeleton has been an arduous task, as it
was sent in from the field in the form of shattered, bone-
containing fragments of one or more great concretions.
The only possible mode of procedure was to fit together
these fragments and then, after pouring plaster into
every bone impression in the rock where the osseous
tissue had been eroded away, to hew the matrix from both
the contained bone and the plaster continuation thereof.
In this way, through weeks of patient toil, the creature
has been revealed, and while by no means complete, will
enhance very materially our present knowledge of these
forms. Stegosaurus, although difficult to understand, is
of course well known, owing to the researches of
Marsh, Gilmore, and the writer, but it represents an
aberrant side branch of the Stegosauria, and is early
extinct (Morrison time), while Nodosaurus and its allies
are in many respects more conservative and trace their
lineage from the Lower Jurassic Scelidosaurus to Anky-
losaurus of the Lance—almost the entire length of
recorded predentate dinosaurian history.

Aiding in the work of preparation were F. W. Darby,
a preparator of high skill and long service, Edward L.
Troxell, associate on the research staff of the Peabody
Museum, and others. I am also indebted to W. D. Mat-
thew and Barnum Brown of the American Museum of
Natural History for photographs and the privilege of
studying the Ankylosaurus specimens collected by the
latter; to Charles W. Gilmore of the United States
National Museum for photographs and criticism; and to
our lamented colleague, S. W. Williston, for the loan of
the type specimen of Stegopelta. Mr. Kirkham of Yale
aided in certain interpretations for which my knowledge
was insufficient, while Professor Schuchert and Miss
LeVene have as usual given their very real aid to the
undertaking.

History of discovery——When the veteran collector,
William H. Reed, was working for Professor Marsh in
1881, searching for mammals and reptiles in the Morrison
strata on the western slope of Como Bluff, Wyoming, he
happened to discover the dinosaur which Marsh later
deseribed as Nodosaurus teatilis. The specimen was
found about 114 miles east and south of the famous

Nodosaurus teaxtilis Marsh. 99

Quarry 13 which was so highly productive of dinosaurian
life (Gilmore 1914, pp. 2-24), and as it lay on the easterly
slope of the Como anticline was therefore considerably
above the Morrison stratigraphically. The label bears
the statement ‘‘400 feet above the Dacota sandstone’’ 1n
Professor Marsh’s handwriting, while Reed’s letter of
July 17, 1881, says: ‘‘I found a saurian today in the
Cretaceous between the Dacota rocks and the shale above
them.’’ This would bring it within the limit of the
Benton sands and therefore in marine deposits, a not
infrequent occurrence with the plated dinosaurs. The
specimen lay in one or more concretions of dense bluish
limestone which is extremely difficult to distinguish in
some instances from the bone itself. The material was
collected in fragments and its reconstruction has been
a three-dimensional puzzle of great difficulty, especially
as all of the pieces are evidently not preserved. Reed
himself says in a letter dated July 12, 1882: ‘‘It is not
very good and all in concretions so I could make no
diagram of it.’’

Extent of Material—The material as now prepared
(1920) consists, first, of the pelvis, including the armored-
over sacrum with the well preserved ilia attached. What
appear to be the spinal ends of the scapule are also
present, together with a detached mass containing
portions of at least three imperfect vertebre with their
attached ribs and overlying armor. Yet another large
piece contains a number of ribs with the highly nodular
overlying armor. There is, however, no present connec-
tion between this and the other masses. Thirteen caudal
vertebre are also present. Of the appendicular skeleton,
one approximately complete left femur is preserved, and
parts of the other, the left tibia, and part of the fibula, a
considerable portion of the right tibia, together with an
almost complete left hind foot. Of the fore limbs,
fragments of the humeri are present, together with the
incomplete left radius and ulna, and portions of the
fore foot. There are also a number of detached dermal
elements. — 7

The specimen bears the catalogue number 1815, 1815a,
and 1815b Y. P. M., but there is no reason to suppose it
to be other than one individual, and the number 1815 only
will be used hereafter.

Original description—Marsh (1889, p. 175) thus
describes the animal:

100 =R. 8. Lull—Cretaceous Armored Dimosaur,

‘‘ Another new member of the Stegosauria, from a lower hori-
zon [than the Denver beds] in the Cretaceous, was discovered
several years since, in Wyoming, and is now in the Yale
Museum. The skull is not known, but various portions of the
skeleton. were secured. One characteristic feature in this genus
is the dermal armor, which appears to have been more complete
than in any of the American forms hitherto found. This armor
covered the sides closely, and was supported by the ribs, which
were especially strengthened to maintain it. In the present
specimen, portions of it were found in position. It was regularly
arranged in a series of rounded knobs in rows, and these protu-
berances have suggested the generic name.

‘‘Near the head, the dermal ossifications were quite small,
and those preserved are quadrangular in form, and arranged
in rows. The external surface is peculiarly marked by a texture
that appears interwoven, like a coarse cloth. This has suggested
the specific name, and is well shown in the cut below [our Fig. 1].

‘“The fore limbs are especially massive and powerful, and are
much like those of the Jurassic Stegosaurus. There were five
well-developed digits in the manus [see below], and their
terminal phalanges are more narrow than usual in this group.
The ribs are T-shaped in transverse section, and thus especially
adapted to support the armor over them [see, however, below].
The caudal vertebre are more elongate than those of Stegosaurus,
and the middle caudals have a median groove on- the lower
surface of the centrum.

‘“The animal when alive was about 30 feet in length. The
known remains are from the middle Cretaceous of Wyoming.”’

This description was repeated almost verbatim in
Dinosaurs of North America, 1896, p. 225, pl. 75, fig. 5,
as Professor Marsh did not extend his study of the form.
He prefixed the family designation Nodosauride at
the beginning of this reprinted description, but without
definition. In 1895 (p. 497), however, he thus defines it:

‘‘Family Nodosauridea. Heavy dermal armor. Bones solid.
Fore limbs large; feet ungulate.

““Genus Nodosaurus. Cretaceous America.’’

This is also repeated verbatim in Dinosaurs of North
America, p. 243.
MORPHOLOGY.
EXNDOSKELETON.
Pre-sacral vertebre and ribs.
(PIT; figs: 37 tex tie)

One mass of matrix contains two nearly complete and
apparently ankylosed vertebre, with the attached ribs

Nodosaurus teatilis Marsh. 101

of the left side and portions of the vertebre preceding
and following. They seem to pertain to, or to be
somewhat posterior to, the mid-dorsal region. The mass
also contains the antero-posterior calcified tendons lying
on either side of the spinous process, and the overlying
armor of the left side. The vertebre themselves resem-
ble those of Stegosaurus somewhat, but differ in that they
do not show the extreme exaggeration of the elevation of
the neural arch. They are in this respect more nearly
of the proportions of Polacanthus and Struthosaurus,
in that the diapophyses originate slightly below the
zygapophyses, although distally they rise above them.
In so far as the centra are preserved, either in bone or
by matrix impression, they are quite stegosaur-like.
Laterally the centra show a distinct concavity as in
Stegosaurus, but there is nothing comparable to a
pleurocele. The neural arch is robust, as are the

i I.
ia 1G iy
A Ves

Fic. 1.—Dermal tar ossicles of Nodosaurus textilis. After Marsh.
Natural size.

fee a eplyecs, to which a portion of the postzygapo-
physes of the preceding vertebra, together with the
spinous process, are so firmly united, in part by matrix,
that the line of demarcation is nearly invisible. The
diapophyses are curved on their external margin and are
firmly ankylosed with the superior surface of the capit-
ulum of the rib, as in Ankylosaurus; the two elements
are clearly separated, however, by a deep groove. So
far as one can see, the low tuberculum of the rib seems
to be free from the diapophysis, but the space between
is filled with an apparent matrix which is with great
difficulty, and not always with certainty, distinguishable
from bone. The neural canal is oval in section, with
the apex uppermost, and is of considerable size.

The ankylosed left rib abuts against the neural arch,
the facet being elliptical and elongated vertically. The
rib has a sigmoid curve, being ventrally convex to the
level of the tuberculum and thence concave. Beyond
the tuberculum it is distinctly T-shaped in cross-section,

102 -R. S. Lull—Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur,

giving thus a broad bearing surface for the armor,
although, as has been shown (Gilmore, p. 64), this type of
rib is not confined exclusively to the armored forms.
The lateral expansion of the rib begins as a low ridge
about midway between the capitulum and tubereulum.
The prezygapophyses overhang the centrum forward to
a marked degree. The spinous process is thin, but has
a marked fore and aft extent, with a straight superior
margin. ‘This may be seen from above where the armor
is broken away, and exhibits little if any lateral expan-
sion, being simply a thin plate of bone, narrowing slightly
toward its posterior end. The spinous process over-
hangs the postzygapophyses, so that while obscured by
matrix, its outline must have approximated that shown
in the figure (text fig. 2). The outline of the bone seems
to have resembled quite closely that of Ankylosaurus as
figured by Brown (1908, fig. 11); it is also suggestive of
Stegosaurus, but without the exaggerated heightening of
the neural arch of the latter. Calcified tendons are
present, lying close to and on either side of the spinous
process. Those present diverge somewhat posteriorly.
They are heavy and quite rib-like in appearance, except
for their orientation and lack of curvature.

Measurements of Pre-sacral Vertebre.

mm.
Beneth over allt) 2) tat eee 130
Heteht-oversall; "est: “, , sae 220
Centram): lenetar? (20) ue eee 88
Neural canal: wadth:. -osse ich ae 13.5+
‘Width aeross: pedicels! 2s. 2eo-ieses 56
Width across prezygapophyses .... 68
Width across diapophyses ......... 152
Spinous process, length of summit.. 66
Calcitfied tendon: width..22 os... 485 14
Caleiied. tendon, «depth. 255 =... ee 15.8

Pelvis.
(Pig) Li TET}

Sacrum.—The sacrum of Nodosaurus consists of three
sacral vertebre in the primary sacrum, and, as preserved,
of at least four coalesced presacrals (sacro-lumbars) and
two sacro-caudals, making a total of nine vertebre in the
entire syn-sacrum complex. The centra are so firmly

Nodosaurus teatilis Marsh. 103

coossified that the line of demarcation between the
successive vertebre is practically obliterated; there is
generally not even the usual dilatation at the articular
ends of the centra to betray their limitations. Ventrally
they are characterized by a median longitudinal groove,
which is continued throughout the entire known series
of caudal vertebra as well. The anterior centra (sacro-
Iumbars) are relatively long and slender, broadening
posteriorly. The three primary sacrals bear heavy
sacral ribs, the rounded lower margins of which are at
the same level as that of the centra from which they
arise. The expanded ends of the sacral ribs abut against

~~

emma
-- -

Fig. 2.—Dorsal vertebra of Nodosaurus textilis. A, left lateral, B, an-
terior aspect. One-fifth natural size. b, actual bone of centrum; ¢, cen-
trum; cp, costal (armor) plate; d, diapophysis; icp, intercostal plate
(seen beyond the costals) ; m, matrix impression of centrum; po, postzyga-
pophysis; pr, prezygapophysis; r, rib; s, spinous process; 7, longitudinal
tendon.

the inner wall of the acetabulum, and the first two are
more massive than the third. Dorsally- these ribs are
continuous with the diapophysial lamina, of which the
horizontal upper plate passes into the surface of the
ilium as seen from above (pl. Il). The ribs borne on
the four presacral elements are comparable except for
their much greater slenderness. There is, as with the
true sacrals, an expanded horizontal diapophysial
lamina, especially near the vertebra and beneath the
overlying armor. This arises, as does the rib, from the
neural arch. Beneath this lamina, and united with it,
without line of demarcation, lies the slender rib, the
expanded horizontal portion extending at first entirely

104. R. S. Lull—Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur,

behind the rib, so that the section of the bone at this point ©
is roughly L-shaped. Further out, the rib becomes T-
shaped in section, as its upper surface extends in front
as well as behind. In the last pair of these ribs the
vertical portion becomes practically obsolete at mid-
length, and the bone becomes a thin blade-lke expansion
which merges into the thin inner margin of the ilium just
in front of the acetabulum. This rib is clearly visible
in plate II, and resembles the diapophyses of the three
following sacral vertebre very closely when viewed from
above. The three anterior pairs of ribs were not visible
from above, except for a fragmentary impression of one
(pl. Il), as they had been broken away beyond the

Fic. 3.—Caudal vertebre of Nodosaurus textilis. Right lateral aspect.
One-fifth natural size. Nos. 9 and 10, 16 and 17, 23 and 24, in contact in
matrix. 5;

preserved limitations of the sacral armor. It was only
upon preparing the ventral side that they became evident
(pl. III). The spinous processes of the entire syn-
sacrum are coalesced into a continuous vertical plate
of bone, the summit of which is visible at intervals in
plate II, s, where the armor is lacking.

In the sacro-caudals, the first pair of ribs are typically
T-shaped in section and extend, as do the second pair,
outward and somewhat backward. The first pair evidently
abutted against the posterior portion of the ilium, as a
slight depression exists in about the right place. The
restoration of the rib has been made accordingly. The
presacral ribs probably extended to the ilium, as in
Polacanthus and in the pelvis of Ankylosaurus on exhibi-
tion in the American Museum of Natural History, and

Nodosaurus teatilis Marsh. 105

they have been thus restored (pl. II). The neural canal
shows a sacral dilatation reaching an apparent maximum
at the beginning of the primary sacrum, but it has by no
means the exaggerated development shown in Stego-
SQUrUS.

Ilia—Both ilia are imperfect, but in a measure
supplement each other, so that except for the outline of
the anterior portion, especially its forward limitation
and its inner margin, the shape was probably as shown
in plates IL and III. The ilia he largely in the horizontal
plane except anteriorly and toward their outer margin,
the iliac crest, where they curve downward. Dorsally
their inner margin is continuous with the sacral diapo-
physes, which become more broadly wedge-shaped
posteriorly and have their apex directly inward. The
posterior extremity of the ilum is thickened, convex
below, with a corresponding although much less
pronounced concavity above. The remainder of the
upper surface is relatively smooth, first concave and then
convex from the rear forward. ‘There are, however, well
defined blood-vessel impressions indicating a close-fitting
corneous investment, but no trace of overlying armor
comparable to that over the sacrum. The iliac crest or
margin is somewhat undulating and in places is thick-
ened and rugose for muscle or tendinous attachment.

Ventrally, the ilia show three rounded ridges diverging
from the acetabulum, flanked by four concavities of
varying extent, of which the greatest les beneath the
whole anterior portion of the ilium. Behind this hes the
lateral depression just without and almost confluent with
the acetabulum. This receives the great trochanter of
the femur. The acetabulum is large, almost perfectly
hemispherical, and was bounded in front by a well
developed pubic peduncle, the entire height of which is
not preserved. The ischiatic peduncle was much lower
and less well defined, but it also is ill preserved; it had,
however, a rugose surface (pl. IJI,z). The inner margin
of the acetabulum was well developed and buttressed by
the three sacral ribs.

Sacral armor (see also page 120.)—The dermal armor
over the pelvis, unlike that of either Polacanthus or
Stegopelta, seems to have been confined to the sacral
region only, although it probably in part overlay the inner
margins of the ilia, and with them formed what Wieland
has called the lumbar-hip carapace. In both Polacanthus

106 =R. S. Lull—Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur,

and Stegopelta the armor was continuous over and
closely united with the ilia as well. The limitations of
the elements which formed the sacral armor in Nodo-
saurus are very indistinct, but in so far as they can be
identified are hexagonal. One near the anterior end of
the pelvis, clearly shown in the photograph (pl. Il), and
susceptible of measurements, is 13.5 mm. in its greatest
(transverse) diameter by about 75 mm. antero-poste-
riorly. This plate has a depressed superior ‘surface,
whereas that which adjoins its forward outer margin
shows a distinct but low nodule (see below).

Measurements of Pelvis.

mm

Dorsal aspect: ?
Length of sacral armor ‘preserved .... x... .» eet 820
Breadth of sacral armor,preéserved << ...... .008-.eeeee 3295
Breadth ‘of ‘sacral armor,.est.... "0. b. > a ee 487
Breadth: ef pelvis’ io. fee OPEL 8 oe ae 1273
Length of restored right ilium:

Between perpendiculars 312000 a ee 930
Overseurve y viv. ib. 98201. O10 LOG .9 1100

Width of right ilium to notch between diap. I and IL. 337
Length - over,.dciapopltyses csc? .hjekinct 4 eee 320
Breadth. of SpitLOUs -PEOCESSES.. .<,~is\i.0:4 «+. eye 20

Ventral aspect:
Length of nine coalesced centra as preserved ........ 730
Centrum’ 11, ‘width, anterior €nd .. i)... 2... S22 meee 4
Centrime ny, width. “center... So. . 1.0
Ant.-post: diameter, diapopiiysis .. 0... ,. >: eee 43
Height of vertebra TE about 8052! 0). 00 | eee 120
Height of ilium at pubic peduncle, est................ 185
Acetabulum, dengeth 230% Al id CLR 14
Acetabulum,; breadth: -.h.ic.ced. aw. LaLa eee 17

Comparison with other genera.—A very close resem-
blance exists between this pelvis and that of Polacanthus
(cf. Hulke 1887, pl. 9), which is of course especially in
evidence when the latter is viewed from below. Pola-
canthus shows the same characters in the centra,—slender
anteriorly with very vague demarcation between the
successive vertebre. Hulke indicates five sacrals, the
anterior one bearing light but transversely expanded ribs,
as in that which I have called the last sacro-lumbar. He
shows in sacrals 2 to 4 bones comparable in their
development to the true sacrals of Nodosaurus. His

Nodosaurus textiis Marsh. 107

sacral 5 corresponds to my first sacro-caudal and shows
a rib which is nearly as robust as that of sacral 4 and
which runs nearly parallel with it and is coalesced with
the posterior portion of the ilium. Another vertebral
centrum which is partially detached Hulke calls a caudal;
in Nodosaurus the equivalent of this is coossified with the
rest and forms the second sacro-caudal. In front of
sacral 1 of Hulke there are five pairs of slender, rather
irregular ribs apparently partially attached to the over-
lying armor. Ina later figure by Seeley (1892, fig. 1) these
are shown as lying above the ilia but beneath the armor.
There is no evidence that this is true in Nodosaurus, for,

Fie. 4.—Right radius and ulna of Nodosaurus textilis. Inner oblique as-
pect. r, radius; wu, ulna. One-eighth natural size.

as Lydekker (1892, p. 85) remarked, the position of the
ium of Polacanthus internal to the ribs is a character
found elsewhere only in adult tortoises, in which it is
probably due to the impact of the shield on the ribs,
thus rendering it impossible for another bone to grow
_between them, a condition which would not occur in
Nodosaurus because of the lateral limitations of the
sacral shield.

The pelvis of Nodosaurus differs from those of both
Polacanthus and Stegopelta in the absence of dermal
armor from above the ilia. In both genera mentioned,
the armor is firmly coalesced with the ilia, although in
the character of the sacral armor Stegopelta is nearer
its contemporary Nodosaurus than is Polacanthus.

108 R. 8S. Lull—Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur,

Caudal Vertebre
CPLA. figs Sy temetie. 73)

Thirteen caudal vertebre are present, together with
impressions in the matrix and fragments of at least four
more. The vertebre seem to be fairly representative of
the entire series, as there are seven apparently proximal
ones, two from near the middle of the tail, two from the
posterior two thirds, and two from near the distal end.

Judging from the character of the sacrum, with its

Fig. 5.—Left femur of Nodosaurus textilis. A, anterior, B, external,
C, posterior aspect. n, notch. One-eighth natural size.

small centra and low spines, there are no caudals which
correspond to the short, high-spined, large-centrum,
anterior caudals of Stegosaurus in form. The corre-
spondence is, on the other hand, more with the anterior
caudals of Scelidosaurus. The numbering of the caudals
in the following description is arbitrary and merely
approximate.

Caudal 4 (pl. I, fig. 5; text fig. 3).—This bone is well
preserved, having the entire neural arch and spine,
overlain on the left with dermal bones. While both
diapophyses are absent, the impression of that of the left

Nodosaurus teatilis Marsh. 109

side is still to be seen in the matrix, and from it that of
the right has been restored. The centrum is roughly
eylindrical and the length is somewhat less than its
greatest diameter. Ventrally it 1s characterized by a
shallow longitudinal groove which Marsh mentions in his
original description, and there is evidence of at least one
chevron facet at its posterior end. Laterally there is
no trace of pleurocele, and the diapophysis arises from
a little above the middle of the bone. The diapophysis
is light, and curves somewhat toward the rear. Below
the diapophysis, the surface of the centrum is somewhat
concave, with evidence of a faintly impressed vertical
groove. The anterior -face is practically plane, the
posterior slightly concave.

The pedicels are of considerable antero-posterior
length, which somewhat exceeds half the length of the
centrum. The pedicels are simple, being unsupported
by buttresses or lamine. The spinous process is thin
but expanded fore and aft, so that its total length is
nearly as great as is that of the entire centrum. The.
summit merges into a layer of irregular dermal bones
which extend in a horizontal manner from the left side;
on the right they are not preserved. ‘The zygapophyses
are simple, those in front looking inward and upward,
while those in the rear look downward and outward. A
slight fore-and-aft lamina—horizontal lamina—connects
the zygapophyses on either side with each other; above
these the face of the spinous process is for the most part
coneave. The neural canal is oval in section, with the
apex uppermost, and is of considerable size, as the
measurements show. The ventral median groove and
the character of the low spinous process are the most
distinctive features of this bone.

Caudals 9 and 10 (fig. 3).—These were in contact in
the matrix and except for their processes are very well
preserved. No. 10 is a little the wider. The anterior
face of the centrum shows a slight dorso-ventral
convexity, and the posterior face is correspondingly but
somewhat more markedly concave. Transversely, each
face is flat. The ventral groove is apparently deeper
than in caudal 4 and the posterior chevron facets are
especially marked. The better preservation of the bone
surface leads to the supposition that these and other
distinctions from caudal 4 are more apparent than real.
The diapophyses are not preserved, but their bases are

110 R. 8. Lull—Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur,

situated somewhat higher on the centrum than in No. 4
and apparently the processes themselves were lghter.
The same shallow vertical groove is discernible on the
centra, and the surface of the latter is slightly rugose
toward the articular faces, especially ventrally. A
slight fore-and-aft ridge runs from the hinder margin
forward about two thirds the length of the bone above
the diapophysis. |

Caudals 16 and 17 (fig. 3)—These vertebre were also
in contact, and No. 16 particularly is very well preserved.
It also has numerous small dermal ossicles associated
with it, together with an oval armor plate (see below).

Fig. 6.—Left tibia and fibula of Nodosaurus textilis. A, anterior, B, pos-
terior, C, external aspect. a, coalesced astragalus; c, caleaneum; f, fibula;
t, tibia. One-eighth natural size.

Caudal 16 is relatively longer and slenderer of centrum
than are caudals 4 to 10, implying a gap of perhaps five
vertebre between it and the tenth. The articular faces of
the centrum are essentially plane and the centrum itself
begins to exhibit the distinct longitudinal ridges seen
in Nos. 23 and 24. Diapophyses are still present and arise
about the middle of the bone. The spinous process is
strong and prolonged fore and aft, the postzygapophyses
merging into the posterior angle of the spine. MHori-
zontal lamine are faint, but distinct. Both zygapophyses
overhang the centrum.

Caudals 23 and 24 (fig. 3).—These are again in contact,
with an estimated omission of perhaps six vertebre
between them and No. 17. Here the diapophyses are

Nodosaurus teatilis | Marsh. 111

lacking, but longitudinal ridges give the centra almost
a fluted appearance. The ventral grooves are especially
marked. The neural arch and spinous process, propor-
tionally to the centrum, are much as in Nos. 16 and 17.
The superior margin of the spinous process is curved, in
contrast to the straight margins which have characterized
those before.

Caudal 31 (pl. IV, fig. 1; text fig. 3)—This bone is
markedly different from its predecessors in the lack of
fore-and-aft ridges on the centrum, and in the character
of the zygapophyses. The prezygapophyses are short,
not extending to the end of the centrum, while the post-
zygapophyses are very long, ‘with an extremely long
articular facet. There is no upward extension of the
spinous process above the zygapophysial level, unless a
small rounded eminence over the prezygapophyses
represents it.

Caudal 34 (fig. 3).—This caudal is imperfect but is
curiously abnormal in that the very narrow ventral
groove lies well toward the left side of the rather
broadened lower aspect of the bone. Otherwise the bone
shows no marked distinctions from caudal 31, except
that the centrum is not apparently prolonged in front
of the pedicel to the extent that it is in the latter.

Measurements of Caudal Vertebre.

4 17 24 31

mm mm mm mm
Length over all, over zygapophyses....... 86.5 69 87*
USL EUNN EV Gh 7 | a eer ee 114 (ioe 53.5 43
Pem@mubiMenoth oo. ee es 65.5 73.5 62.5 57
Sonmum, ant. tice; height oo... 5....2.... 64 OUP ase OOo 24
Sesateumpant. tace, width ......0...5.... 68 55 40 x
Centrum, ant. face, circumference ........ 210 Gamat
Centrum, post. face, height .............. 66 52.5 35.5 23
Genirum, post. face, width ............-. 69.4 54.2 43.5 31
Centrum, post. face, circumference ....... 215 LOOM Se 3 54 9
Neural canal, ant. end, height ........... 23 13 5
Neural canal, ant. end, width ............ 12.5 9.5
Madi aeross:pedicels .i2 52... co.) e. 30
Width across prezygapophyses ........... 39
Width across postzygapophyses ......... af 13
Spinous process, length, summit ......... 64.5

Index, centrum, length to height, ant. face. 1.0234 VAs a2 2.376
* Postzygapophysis prolonged.

Fore Inmb.

Scapula (fig. 7).—Both scapule are represented by
fragments which unfortunately do not supplement one
another, as they all pertain to the extremity of the blade.

BR. DS: Lull—Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur,

112

‘qoos G SyoUq-PlUr 04 FY STOY
{ (goog Og ‘oyeUTyse YSaVPT) JOO FLT “Arn WO ‘qooz pl ‘Savpnotpuedsod useayzod YYSuET popVUITysHE “oZIS [BANZVU Yyanoz-A7UIMY IUC
‘OS10} OY} JO F[VY [es1op 911JUS OY} AAO AB[TUIIS Ayqvumnsord svm nq “PLVMIOF IOYZANF WloTF OUlVo Ayqeqord towae FO ssvuM OY, “Sotdos
[esiop oy} JNoysnoayy yonut Area Jou PrIp Ajqeqoad oy ynq ‘painssv you st sjeaoeserd oy} zo uorisod oyy, ‘quosoad ATpenzow ouog
peddyg ‘sninvsojiygup pue sninpsopyarg Woo yod astmorduios & [NYG ‘sdouajs snunvsobaigy Worz Ayaed squiy e107 “ejndevos
pue ‘sqrr ‘erqoyroA [erovsord oY} TOF sninysophiywup JO WOTPIOSoL 8, UMOLA uodn poseq ‘snrinpsopony JO wWoryetoysoy—) “SIL

a

Ba EPI
“ASN
a

Nodosaurus teaxtilis Marsh. 113

The largest fragment belongs to the right scapula, and is
massive, with a curved extremity. The lateral margins
are roughly parallel and the bone is not only curved in
two dimensions but twisted as well, as though it fitted
closely over the curved ribs. It resembles, in so far as
a comparison can be made, that of Ankylosaurus (Brown,
1908, fig. 15), but has about three fourths the dimensions
of the latter.

Measurements of Scapula.

mm.
Niue CXUMEMILY Wyo s ee ee 172.5
1 TNIL CCAT SS SY ites Wn ote a ieee ga ie nena SPAN ES 33

Max. thickness of fragment ........ 49.5

Humerus.—Several fragments which are believed to
pertain to the humerus are present, but are inconclusive
and not worthy of description. They do, however, give
a check on relative proportions (see restoration, fig. 7).

Radius and ulna (pl. IV, figs. 2, 3; text fig. 4) —The
proximal ends of the right radius and ulna, and a portion
of the left ulna, are present and are typically stegosaurian
or ceratopsian and totally unlike those of any other
dinosaurian group. The olecranon process is very
massive and extends considerably beyond the humeral
articulation. The humeral facet, however, covers about
half of its anterior face. The radial facet is a clearly
defined depression and gives the bone a triangular cross-
section at that point, with two hollow faces. The
articular face, as with the femur and tibia, had a
smoother, more finished appearance than in the Stego-
saurus specimens I have seen. Proximally and exter-
nally the grain of the bone is coarse.

The radius shows an ovate cross-section in the shaft,
but is somewhat more irregular in outline at the expanded
proximal end. The proximal face bears a circular
Saucer-shaped depression, whereas in Stegosaurus such
a depression is barely discernible. The difference may
be due to the relatively thick articular cartilage in the
latter as compared with that of Nodosaurus, as indicated
by the rugose character of the articular ends in Stego-
saurus. Aside from this and certain proportional distine-
tions, the resemblance of Nodosaurus to Stegosaurus in
these elements is quite marked. The elbow must have been
very readily flexed and carried in a partially bent

Am. JOUR. saree Ore SERIES, Vou. I, No. 2.—FErsruary, 1921.

~

114 R. S. Lull—Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur,

position. The character of the proximal radial facet
would indicate a rotatory movement as well, but whether
the distal end of the ulna would bear this out is of course
impossible to ascertain from the present material. The
insertion of the biceps muscle on the radius is clearly
indicated. 7

Manus.—Marsh speaks of the manus in some detail;
I find, however, but few bones which through a process
of elimination may have pertained to the manus, as the
remainder seem to be those of the nearly complete pes.
There are two complete metacarpals, apparently the
second and fourth, and fragments of one, probably the
third, as it was in contact with the second. Some of the
scattered phalangeal elements may also be of the hand
but they are difficult to place. If these bones really
pertain to the hand, they are exceptionally long, as the
entire ones, though more slender, are fully equal in this
dimension to their apparent equivalents in the pes,
differing in this regard from Stegosaurus, but if Baron
Nopesa’s restoration (1905, pl. 12) be correct, resembling
the proportions of the Wealden Polacanthus, which in
many respects is similar to the form under discussion
(see under generic comparisons, infra).

Metacarpal III has a subtriangular proximal face with
a rounded rugose area on the outer side. Distally the
articular end is semi-cylindrical, dilating somewhat
externally. The mid-shaft section is subtriangular, with
rounded faces. The shaft bears two low tuberosities on
the posterior oblique face. Metacarpal IV is somewhat
more slender and has a short proximal phalanx in
articulation therewith. An ungual is also present, and
while its form may be somewhat attenuated, due to
erosion of its lateral margins, it seems to have been much
more claw-like than were those of the pes.

Measurements of Metacarpals.

mm
Metacarpal II
Lene.” over; alleen cial at. tact alee 125.6
Max. diameter, proximal end .......... 57.6
Max. diameter, distal end ....... og ae 65
Max: diameter, mid-shatt...........2.5 oe 38.3
Wensth*otven tire. dieit,. wasn. <n ee ea. 245

Metacarpal IV
genet over all Fes, ee es ae eae 123

Nodosaurus teatilis Marsh. 115

Hind Limb.

The limb-bones of the type specimen of Nodosaurus
differ decidedly from those of Stegosawrus or Hoplito-
saurus in the smoothly rounded character of the articular
ends, which in the latter genera are rugose, indicating
articular cartilages of considerable thickness. The carti-
lage in Nodosaurus was doubtless relatively considerably
reduced. On the other hand, the surface grain is more
distinct in Nodosaurus, giving a fibrous character to the
bone which seems to be unique. These features, together
with the extreme ankylosis of tibia and astragalus (see
below), are interpreted as indications of the advanced
age of the individual, in which the articular cartilages
would become more perfectly ossified and the bony tissue
of the limb bones might in a sense invade the tendinous
muscular attachments as well. (See pl. IV, figs. 4, 5.)

Femur (pl. IV, fig. 4; text fig. 5).—The left femur is
complete as to length and well preserved, although
portions are missing, notably in the region of the several
trochanters, the extent of which can not, therefore, be
ascertained. The bone is less straight than in Stego-
saurus, and in its degree of curvature resembles more
nearly that of Hoplitosaurus (Gilmore 1914, fig. 69),
especially when comparison is made with the actual bone
(U. S. N. M. No. 4752). In Mr. Gilmore’s figure (fig.
69, 3) the lower curve of the shaft has been exaggerated
to correct for crushing, giving a decided S-shaped outline
to the bone when viewed from the side. Thus the knee
of Nodosaurus must have been habitually partially flexed,
giving a very different appearance to the limb from that
of the mounted Stegosaurus ungulatus at Yale (Lull 1910,
pl. U1 and fig. 2). The surface of the shaft in the Nodo-
saurus femur also agrees with Hoplitosaurus rather
than Stegosaurus in that the limitations of the muscle
areas are clearly defined by well developed ridges,
whereas in Stegosaurus the surface is relatively smooth.
The great trochanter is missing, but the preserved
outline of the summit of the bone seems to indicate that
it was more prominent than in either Hoplitosaurus or —
Stegosaurus, as figure 5 shows.

While the fourth trochanter is missing from the bone,
there is no reason to suppose that it was more than a
mere roughened area for the insertion of the caudo-
femoral muscle. This is in keeping with the strictly
quadrupedal gait of the animal. The anterior aspect

116 «=R. 8. Lull—Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur,

exhibits a number of the ridge-enclosed muscle areas
mentioned above. One ridge arises from the region of
the great trochanter and descends somewhat obliquely
two thirds the length of the bone. It is separated
externally by a wide, shallow, oblique groove from a
second muscular area on the antero-external face of the
bone. The internal condyle is the larger of the two when
viewed from the rear. In front they are more nearly
equal and the inner one is defined by a narrow curved
groove which arises on the inner face of the femoral
shaft and runs obliquely down between the condyles. Pos-
teriorly the external condyle, as in Hoplitosaurus, while
having a somewhat greater fore-and-aft diameter than
the internal one, is nevertheless very much narrower,
especially toward the distal end of the bone, thus forming
a deep vertical notch between the external surface of the.
condyle and the remainder of the articular surface (see
fig. 0 B and C, n). Above the condyles the shaft bears
a rather deep ovoid depression, above which the surface
of the bone exhibits an interwoven fibrous surface
resembling the textile character of the dermal ossicles
which suggested the specific name of the animal. A cross-
section of the mid-shaft has a somewhat trihedral form,
being flattened on the posterior aspect. :

Tibia. (pl. IV, fig. 5; text fig. 6).—The left tibia is
approximately entire, although the two halves were-not
together nor were there definite ‘‘contacts’’ between
them. The bone may therefore have been somewhat
longer originally, but could not have been shorter. The
distal half of the right tibia is also present, together with
a portion of the proximal articular extremity. There is
a chance for error in the orientation of proximal and
distal halves, but the surfaces curve into one another
fairly, so that the error is probably not great. As
restored, the long axes of the articular ends make a
greater angle with each other than in Stegosaurus, and
the curvature of the bone is somewhat greater. Proxi-
mally, the bone is expanded and narrows rather rapidly
into the shaft, to expand again distally. The distal
extremity is more flattened in one diameter (antero-
posterior) than is the proximal, and the astragalus is so
closely ankylosed with the bone as to be almost undis-
cernible, forming a smoothly rounded though somewhat
pitted articular face (see above). In Stegosaurus the
astragalus, while coalescing with the tibia with age, is

Nodosaurus teatilts Marsh. tle

very distinct in all specimens known tome. The surface
of the tibial shaft is less characteristic than that of the
femur, and in this regard is more Stegosaurus-like.
Whether the caleaneum was present or not I can not be
sure, but a detached concavo-convex bone may repre-
sent it.

Fibula (pl. IV, fig. 5; text fig. 6).—The proximal end
of the fibula is present, as indicated in the figures, but
while held in position by the matrix, it had evidently
shifted somewhat downward. The impression of the
distal end is also preserved in the matrix, but is quite
evidently out of position, having shifted inward upon the
face of the tibia away from the regular fibula facet, which
is a clearly defined flattened area. The fibula seems to
have been relatively more robust than in Stegosaurus,
especially in its antero-posteriorly expanded proximal
end.

Measurements of Limb Bones.

Ratios
Th 2 3 4. 5 Cols.
mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. land5d
Femur:
JG) a 975 1080 1200 495 593 1.644

Max. breadth, prox. end.. 266 283 329 190 LSOu ATT
Max. breadth, dist. end.. 251 276 263 170 230* 1.091

Man. width, shaft...:.:. 114 145 147 65 93 225
PeVPeahG TAUO: ..2. 055... 1.357
‘Tibia:
(Ce 630 643 696 454 1.385
Max. width, prox. end... 247 265 275 182 1.356
Max. width, dist. end.... 238 245 So ars ON,
Mimedian,, shat. +%'.,.).!.i. 79 85 98 61 1.295
AVETASE TAtiO’.. .. 0+. ies
aiatio, fem.: tib., length....1.548 1.679 . 1.724 ar bUOre: 42184

1 = Stegosaurus stenops, Y. P. M. 1856. Femur and tibia may represent
different individuals.

2— 8S. stenops, U. S. N. M. 4934, right.

3=S8. ungulatus, U. S. N. M. 6646.

4 — Hoplitosaurus marshi, U. 8. N. M. 4752.

5 = Nodosaurus, Y. P. M. 1815.

* Estimated.

Pes (fig. 7).—A partially complete left hind foot has
been assembled from the material pertaining to this
specimen and proves to be strikingly suggestive of that
of Monoclonius (Brown 1917, pl. 12, E. G.). There are
four well developed digits, digit I, while shorter, being
fully as robust as the others. The proximal surface of
metatarsal II is concave, that of the others convex.

118 Rk. 8. Lull—Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur,

Metatarsal IT has also the greatest proximal area. Some
question may exist as to the position of the phalanges,
but some were in contact, and of these there can be no
question. Digit I is correct throughout, of II the asso-
ciated ungual is doubtful, of III there is little question,
but IV is incomplete. The metatarsals are narrow in
mid-length, with dilated extremities, and the unguals are
broad and hoof-like. The articular ends of the bones are
relatively smooth, as with the limb bones, but here the
distinction from Stegosaurus stenops (Y. P. M. 1856) is
less marked, as the proportion of articular cartilage must.
have been relatively small in either case.

Measurements of Pes.

mm
Metatarsal Th leneth-::) 0, . vee 22. oe eat
Rutire first digit, length .. 02:0. 0) Rae 210
Metatarsal IL, leneth od: iy. oe ee 125
Metatarsal II, max. diameter, proximal end... 73
Metatarsal II, max. diameter, distal end ..... A.
Metatarsal II, max. diameter, mid-shaft ..... 42.5
Hutire, second. digit, length, . ......:.0ce eee 240
Metatarsal TUT, Weneth: cst. .. 22°) i epee 130
Emture-third digit, length .::..... ees 290
Metatarsal. TVi lenethi ... .*... Sop . . cee 124

EXOSKELETON.
Armor.

General character.--Marsh’s description of the armor of
Nodosaurus defines two types of elements, the one regu-
larly arranged in a series of rounded knobs in rows which
suggested the generic name, the other consisting of
dermal ossifications placed near the head (italics mine).
These were described as quite small, quadrangular,
arranged in rows, with their external surface peculiarly
marked by a texture that appears interwoven, like a
coarse cloth. This has suggested the specific name and
is well shown in the only figure Marsh published to repre-
sent the animal (our fig. 1). His reference of these
elements to a position near the head is not founded upon
observed fact, as no trace of the head and neck of the
animal is present, but was probably reasoned from
analogy, as small rounded seutes have been found in situ
near the head of Stegosaurus. As a matter of fact, the.
two sorts of dermal elements were contiguous, and in

Nodosaurus teatilis Marsh. 119

certain portions of the body, as over the ribs, the one
series in part overlay the other. What they really repre-
‘sent was suggested by Wieland (1911, 1912), although
not for Nodosaurus specifically. They are ossifications
of the two—the outer and the nether—dermogene layers,
the larger nodular plates being derived from the outer
and the lesser from the nether. Wiedersheim (1907, p.
25) states:

‘‘In the derm [of reptiles], a superficial and a deeper layer
may be distinguished. The latter is composed mainly of strong
‘bundles of connective tissue fibres which as a rule cross one
another at right angles, as in fishes and amphibians.’’

This would account for the textile character of the
smaller subdermal (nether-layer) ossicles which are
merely ossifications or calcifications of this fibrillar
connective tissue. Marsh’s statement that the interwoven
strie are on the external surface is true, but they are
just as visible on the internal surface and there is reason
to believe that in the figured specimen the inner and not
the outer aspect is exposed, as armor plates of the dermal
(outer dermogene) layer le contiguous to the surface
which is embedded in the matrix. Another fragment
shows the relative position of the two armor layers very
clearly. The ossicles of the subdermal layer average
some 16 mm. square, though varying in length. Their
thickness averages about 3 mm. (see fig. 1).

Dorsal armor.—One mass of matrix contains a group
of five or six ribs (pl. 1, fig. 3) overlain in part by the
armor.. The ribs themselves have shifted somewhat from
their position during life, so that at least three of them
converge distally (r, 7). These three are mainly matrix
impressions, with very little actual bone remaining, and
here the armor is lacking. The other ribs are covered
with the typical nodular armor of the outer dermal layer,
and here again two sorts of scutes are discernible, for
the larger nodular scutes are intercostal (icp) in position
as preserved and are separated one row from another
by a series of smaller rectangular scutes (cp), the surface
of which is approximately plane except for the rugosity
of the entire outer dermal series. The rows of smaller
rectangular scutes are costal in that they approximately
overlie the broadened outer surface of the ribs, although
sometimes shifted slightly post mortem. The smaller
scutes average 25x28 mm. in size. They are not every-
where distinct, but were probably pretty regularly dis-

120 R. §. Lull—Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur,

tributed throughout this mid-torso region of the body.
The nodular intercostals average about 80X55 mm. in
size, the greatest diameter lying parallel with the ribs.
The nodules are well rounded eminences, elliptical in see-
tion, and rising some 15+ mm. above the general level of
the seute. The nodular scutes thus form regular trans-
verse rows across the creature’s back. They seem to have
formed longitudinal rows as well, as in the crocodiles, and
at least nine such longitudinal rows existed on either side
of the midline, probably more in this region of the body
(see restoration, fig. 7). Toward the distal ends of the.
ribs, which are, however, not complete, the scutes of the
subdermal layer become visible and one can view their
passage dorsally beneath the dermal scutes (sd). The
scutes give an impression of crowding in the longitudinal
axis of the body, as though the force that tended to
converge the ribs distally had also wrinkled the skin. It
would seem, therefore, as though, as in the alligator, the
nodular (or keeled) scutes are dorsal, the flanks and
belly being protected by smaller elements. The homology
is not, however, precise, for in the crocodile the subdermal
armor is lacking and the lateral and ventral protective
elements are entirely cutaneous. In Nodosaurus a cuta-
neous investiture was of course present, but seems to
have been in a larger degree supported by osseous dermal
and subdermal scutes.

In the group of vertebre described above, the proximal
ends of the ribs only are preserved. They bear compar-
able dermal scutes similarly arranged, with, however, no
trace of the subdermal elements. Over the vertebre
themselves the nodular scutes are larger, somewhat
hexagonal, although irregularly so, averaging 8086 mm.
in size, with the greatest diameter fore and aft. There
is no median row, single as in the turtle, but two, one on
either side of the spinous processes, form the neural
series (pl. I, fig. 1, np).

Sacral armor.—On the sacrum the armor plates are
very obscurely defined, but are in the main hexagonal,
although very irregular in outline, the two neural rows
being continuous with those just mentioned. Whether
they were separated during life by the now visible
summits of the spinous processes is not clear. The armor,
as has been said, did not form a complete shield as in
Polacanthus, but was confined to a longitudinal belt
overlapping only the sacral diapophyses and not the ilia.

Nodosaurus teatilis Marsh. 121

Deep blood-vessel impressions on the superior inner
portion of each ilium, which appear somewhat abruptly
along a definite line, seem to indicate that beyond that
line the dermal armor ceased and the cutaneous invest-
ment was closely applied to the surface of the ila
themselves (see above, page 105, and pl. IL). Thus the
latter formed an endoskeletal continuation of the median
dermal carapace. The actual dermal scutes are not
preserved for the full width of their former extent (see
pl. IT). The nodular prominences over the sacrum are
almost obsolete, increasing apparently in height forward
toward the dorsal region and laterally in that region from
the neural series outward. There is no preserved trace
of subdermal ossicles in the pelvic region of Nodosaurus.

The evidence afforded by Nodosaurus emphasizes
Wieland’s statements concerning the dinosaur-turtle
analogy. In the crocodile-like reptiles, the outer dermo-
gene-producing layer only is present; the turtles had
originally both outer and nether dermogene layers. The
latter early tended to strengthen and use the under layer
only. The dinosaurs developed both body and cranial
armature in both upper and nether dermogene layers.
The latter, Wieland thinks, gave rise to the huge plate
roofing the entire skull in Ankylosaurus and ‘the hip
armature of Polacanthus. However the greater portion
of the Polacanthus carapace may have originated, the
occasional keeled plates which arise above the level of
the main structure seem to be homologous with the
nodular scutes of Nodosaurus and thus to be, like those
of the crocodiles, of outer dermal origin. Thus the
dinosaurs, as Wieland says, instead of eventually
confining extensive dermal development to but a single
nethér layer, covering the body region only as in the
turtles, tended to develop both the nether and outer
layers in body or skull, or both.

1Seutes from Deinosuchus hatcheri, a Judith River crocodile, described
and figured by Holland (Ann. Carnegie Mus., 6, 291, 1909) ‘‘show on the
under surface numerous fine straight lines decussating with each other at
an angle of about 45°, indicating the structure of the dermal tissues in
which they were embedded and to which they adhered.’’ Sir Richard Owen
(Rept. British Assoc. 1841, p. 71) calls attention to a similar feature in
‘the scutes of Goniopholis crassidens Owen. The figure (fig. 10) published by
Holland shows a very distinct layer, in part broken away from the overlying
cancellous bone, which bears the intersecting lines. This would seem to
indicate that the scute as a whole is of dual origin, derived in part from
the outer dermal and in part from the subdermal layers.

122 R. 8. Lull—Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur,

Keeled plate-——One keeled plate free from its attach-
ment is associated with the Nodosaurus specimen (pl. I,
fig. 4). It is similar to those of Ankylosaurus, Hoplito-
saurus (Gilmore 1914, fig. 70), and Hierosaurus (Wieland |
1909, fig. 5), and measures 143 mm. long by 99 mm. wide
and 27 mm. high. This plate was one of a pair from the
left side of the body, and probably came from near the
base of the tail. It is almost the counterpart in size and
appearance of the Hverosaurus element shown by
Wieland in his figure 5, except that in the Nodosaurus
plate the keel is lower, due in part to its having been
broken away.

Caudal plate-—Y et another plate of a similar character,
except that it rises to a point at one end instead of
bearing a keel, is associated in an inverted position with
caudal 17 and must have formed one of a row which lay
on either side of the mid-line along the dorsal surface of
the tail. The under surface is concave, especially under
the above-mentioned point. Above, it is pitted and also
bears vascular grooves. Subdermal ossicles apparently
underlay it, as they now lie between it and the spinous
process of the caudal.

Measurements of Caudal Plate.

mm
1 T2016 Ae eee eee ae fa) 77
a) 213 gl ie peace aria ie scceeh. 59
TCIONG, Geet 2 eee. co eee 19.5

Spime-like plate-——This element, while incomplete, is
very suggestive of the dermal plates of Hoplitosaurus as
figured by Gilmore on his plate 30, and also that of
Hierosaurus shown by Wieland on his figures 3 and 3a
(1909). Similar plates are also associated with Pola-
canthus and gave the reptile its generic name. Nopesa
(1905, pl. 12) figures such elements along the presacral
vertebre, a row on either side. In Nodosaurus, this
element is large, with a somewhat elliptical base and two
sides concave in their vertical diameter and convex fore
and aft. The basal portion is ill preserved, but was in
part at any rate highly rugose. The lateral faces
resemble the limb bones in their surface texture, but were
impressed with shallow vaseular grooves. The size is
greater by far than that of the plate of Hierosaurus and.
its fore-and-aft diameter exceeds that of Hoplitosaurus.

Nodosaurus textilts Marsh. 123

Dimensions are minimum and were probably exceeded
in the perfect bone.

Measurements of Spine-like Plate.

mm
Preserved leneth ........... ih Gike “as 240
eeesetMeme WIM sac seta. Ges nk Seis oe 110
ERESerVCd pWeTeNT wack sel ke 8s 135
Patmiaves: herht, Ca. 2b ise. see. 250

Mr. Gilmore’s statement that ‘‘these skin ossifications
in Hoplitosaurus present far more variety of form than
do those obtained with the remains of any ae
dinosaur known at the present time”’ (1914, p. 120) n
longer holds, as Nodosaurus rivals it completely. They
may, however, be congeneric (see below).

TAXONOMY AND RELATIONSHIPS.

Superorder Dinosauria Owen.
Order Ornithischia Seeley—Predentata Marsh.
Suborder Stegosauria Marsh. Plated dinosaurs.
Family Nodosauride Marsh 1890.

Family characteristics —Quadrupedal dinosaurs with
heavy dermal armor, vertebre somewhat proccelous or
amphiplatyan, with low neural arches, presacrals tending
to ankylose with each other and with the ribs. Ilia
broadened horizontally. Pelvis and posterior presacrals
united with the overlying armor to form a carapace;
limbs massive, fore limbs relatively large, digits five in
manus and four in pes, terminating in broad unguals.
Distinguished from the Stegosauride principally in that
the latter have upstanding armor plates and caudal
spines.

Genera: Nodosaurus and Stegopelta, Benton, Creta-
ceous; Hoplitosaurus, Dakota; Hierosaurus, Niobrara;
Ankylosaurus, Edmonton and Lance. Also a close ally,
if not actually included in the family, Polacanthus, of the
Kuropean Wealden.

Re-defimtion of Nodosaurus Marsh.—Armor consisting
of nodule-bearing plates, intercostals, separated over the
torso by rows of smaller costal plates, armor of pelvis
apparently hmited to sacral region, not extending over
the ilia. Oval keeled and spined plates, as well as

124. R. 8. Lull—Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur,

subdermal ossicles, the last bearing a characteristic textile
appearance, also present. Skull and neck region unknown.

Relationships with other genera.—This genus was first
described in 1889 and therefore takes priority over every
other genus of plated dinosaurs in North America, save
only the aberrant Stegosaurus, to which it is but remotely
related. As the type is now made known as fully as may
be, it must be the point of departure for all subsequent
description of the related genera. Of these, Hierosaurus
Wieland shows no point of generic distinction, as the
common elements of each specimen are nearly identical.
The latter genus is founded on very uncharacteristic
material and is of questionable generic differentiation;
specifically the form H. sternbergz is doubtless distinct.

Hoplitosaurus Lucas again is based upon insufficient
material for absolute distinction from Nodosaurus, as in
the armor the elements common to both types are
essentially similar. The femora differ mainly in the form
of the great trochanter, but as this is somewhat conjec-
tural in Nodosaurus, there may not be even here a very
marked distinction. Nodosaurus textilis and Hoplito-
saurus marshi, while very nearly the same size, are again
surely specifically distinct, and possibly generically,
although closely related.

Stegopelta Williston differs from Nodosaurus in its
much smaller size, but especially in the development of
the armor over the ilia, in which there is so close a union
that the two are inseparable. The armor consists of
closely united but clearly defined hexagonal plates, each
with a low eminence which is, however, occasionally
almost obliterated by a more or less circular and irregu-
larly placed depression which may have been the seat of
a spine-like element. In the character of these iliac
armor plates Stegopelta seems to be unique.

With Ankylosaurus Brown, on the other hand, a very
close relationship apparently existed, some of the
evidence for which I am not at liberty to publish through
courtesy to Mr. Barnum Brown, whose discovery of this
interesting type gives him prior descriptive rights.
There are, however, certain characters which render them
generically distinct, but I see no reason for excluding
Nodosaurus from the direct ancestry of Ankylosaurus,
nor the latter from the family Nodosauride, the deserip-
tion of which preceded that of the Ankylosauride of
Brown by nearly a score of years. Brown says (1908,
pe Io ,

Nodosaurus textilis Marsh. 125

‘“‘The fragmentary skull of Stereocephalus Lambe does not
show generic distinctions from the present specimen [type of
Ankylosaurus magniventris Brown], as far as can be judged
from the figures and description, but it is much smaller, and
apparently the plates are not as symmetrical. It was found in
the Belly River beds of Canada, an earlier horizon than the Hell
Creek [Lance] beds, and is probably ancestral to Ankylosaurus.”’

To what extent Brown will revise this opinion in the
light of his recently discovered ankylosaur material from
the Edmonton series, one can not say, nor is it possible
to compare Stereocephalus with Nodosaurus, as homol-
ogous elements are as yet unannounced. The same may
be said of Paleoscincus Leidy.

Of the Old World forms, Polacanthus, with its very.
perfect lumbar-hip carapace, is clearly the most sugges-
tive of Nodosaurus, possibly because of the fine preser-
vation of the most characteristic element, the pelvis.
The latter, seen from below, has been very useful in the
reconstruction and interpretation of that of Nodosaurus,
but the very perfection and extent of the armor, covering
as it does the entire posterior presacral and pelvic
regions, so that the outline of the ilia is scarcely percep-
tible, is a marked distinction from the condition of armor
development found in Nodosaurus. Polacanthus in this
regard is more suggestive of Stegopelta than of Nodo-
saurus. It is undoubtedly of the same lineage as the
American forms, but probably not directly ancestral to
Nodosaurus, unless there has been a secondary reduction
of the hip armature in the latter.

REFERENCES.

Brown, Barnum. 1908. The Ankylosauride, a new family. of armored
dinosaurs from the Upper Cretaceous. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
vol. 24, 187-201, figs. 1-20.

—1917. Monoclonius, a Cretaceous horned dinosaur. Amer. Mus. Jour.,
17, 135-140, 4 pls.

Gilmore, C. W. 1914. Osteology of the armored Dinosauria in the United
States National Museum, with special reference to the genus Stego-
saurus. U.S. Nat. Mus., Bull. 89.

Hulke, J. W. 1881. Polacanthus foxii, a large undescribed dinosaur from

_ the Wealden formation in the Isle of Wight. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soe.
London, 172, 653-662, pls. 70-76.

—1887. Supplemental note on Polacanthus foxii, describing the dorsal
shield and some parts of the endoskeleton, imperfectly known in 1881.
Ibid., 187 B, 169-172, pls. 8, 9.

Luli, R. S. 1910. Stegosaurus ungulatus Marsh, recently mounted at the
Peabody Museum of Yale University. This Journal (4), 30, 361-377 :
pl. 2, figs. 1-10.

Lydekker, Richard. In Seeley 1892, p. 85.

126 6. 8. Lull—Cretaceous Armored Dinosaur,

Marsh, O. C. 1889. Notice of gigantic horned Dinosauria from the Creta-
ceous. This Journal (3), 38, 173-175, 1 fig.

—1895. On the affinities and classification of the dinosaurian reptiles.
Ibid. (3), 50, 483-498.

Moodie, R. L. 1911. An armored dinosaur [Stegopelta] from the Upper
Cretaceous of Wyoming. Kansas Univ. Sci. Bull., vol. 5, 257-273, pls.
55-59, 1 text fig.

Nopesa, F. 1905. British dinosaurs: Polacanthus. Geol. Mag., dec. 5, vol.
2, 241-250, figs. 1-8.

Seeley, H. G. 1892. On the os pubis of Polacanthus foru. Quart. Jour.
Geol. Soc., London, 48, 81-85, fig. 1.

Wiedersheim, R. 1907. Comparative anatomy, 3d ed.

Wieland, G. R. 1909. A new armored saurian [Hierosaurus sternbergi]
from the Niobrara. This Journal (4), 27, 250-252, figs. 1-7a. |
—1911. Notes on the armored Dinosauria. Ibid. (4), 31, 112-124, figs.

1-6.
—1912. Note on the dinosaur-turtle analogy, Science, n. s., 36, 287-288.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES I TO IV.

Pl. I.—Nodosaurus textilis. Holotype. Cat. No. 1815, Y. P. M. Fig. 1,
dorsal vertebre and armor, superior aspect. Fig. 2, oblique lateral aspect
of the same. Both X about 2/9. Fig. 3, complex of ribs and dorsal armor,

“auperior aspect; proximal end to the right; x about 1/6. Fig. 4, keeled
armor plate, external aspect; > about 2/9. Fig. 5, ca. caudal 4, right as-
pect; XX about 2/9.

a, armor; 0b, actual bone of centrum; c, centrum; cp, costal armor
plates; icp, intercostal plate; m, matrix impression of centrum; np, neural
plate; pr, prezygapophysis; r, rib; s, spinous process summit; sd, sub-
dermal scutes; t, transverse process; ten, tendon; and dotted line,
restoration.

Pl. II.—Pelvis of Nodosaurus textilis. Holotype. Cat. No. 1815, Y. P. M.
Dorsal aspect, showing overlying sacral armor. x 1/8. d, diapophysial
lamina; up, neural armor plate; r, rib impression; s, summit of spinous

rocess.
4 Pl, IJI.—Pelvis of Nodosaurus textilis. Holotype. Cat. No. 1815, Y. P.
M. Ventral aspect. 1/8. a, acetabulum; 1, ischiatic peduncle; p, pubic
peduncle; r, rib impression; sr, sacral rib.

Pl. IV.—Nodosaurus textilis. Holotype. Cat. No. 1815, Y. P. M.
about 1/6. Fig. 1, posterior caudal (31), right aspect. Fig. 2, right ulna,
oblique inner view. Fig. 3, right radius. Fig. 4, left femur, anterior aspect.
Fig. 5, left tibia and pr oximal portion of fibula.

yi Ic Syms 2k aie
». Jour. Sci., Vol. |, February, 1921

LN acecys—-Acotoved Dinosaur.
1 V+

armor

‘
np, neural

F ie sd, sub-
nud dotted line,

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. |, February, 1921. Plate |.

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. |, February, 1921. Plate Il.

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. |, February, 1921. Plate Ill.

Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. |, February, 1921. Plate IV.

R. W. G. Wyckoff—Theory of Space Groups. 327

Arr. VIIL—An Outline of the Application of the
Theory of Space Groups to the Study of the Struc-
ture of Crystals; by Ratpu W. G. Wycxkorr.

The theory of space groups’ defines all of the ways of
symmetrically arranging points in _ space. It thus

supplies the basis upon which an entirely general method
for the study of the structures of crystals can be built.
Such a method has been in the course of development for
several years; in its earlier stages it was used by Nishi-
kawa in studying spinel? and other erystals, and has
been employed by the writer* for the last three years.
It has now reached a degree of completeness such as to
be generally applicable to the problem of determining
complicated structures of crystals.* A large amount of
material, which is for the present purposes quite extran-
eous, is involved in the development of the theory of space
groups. ‘The present paper is an attempt to present only
those details which are required in order that the results
of this theory may be immediately applicable to the deter-
mination of the structure of crystals. It has been
written with special reference to the accompanying deter-
mination of the structure of magnesium oxide.?
_ Entirely independently of this development, various
authors® have commented upon the connection between
the space groups and the structures of crystals as deduced
from their effects upon X-rays. Niggli has recently
made quite an extended application to the determination
of crystal structures.”

The great advantage in using space groups lies in the

1L. Sohncke, Entwickelung einer Theorie der Krystallstruktur (1879); E.
Federov, Z. Kryst., 24, 209, 1895; A. Schoénflies, Krystallsysteme und Krys-
talistruktur, 1891; W. Barlow, Z. Kryst., 23, 1, 1894. Federov’s work ap-
peared in Russian before any of the other contributions. The last three
studies are compared by H. Hilton, Mathematical Crystallography, 1903.

28. Nishikawa, Proc. Tokyo Math. Phys. Soc., 8, 199, 1915.

® Ralph W. G. Wyckoff, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 42, 1100, 1920; Phys. Rev.,
(2), 16, 149, 1920; this Journal, 50, 317, 1920.

*A more orderly discussion of the entire method will probably appear
shortly in book form.

° Ralph W. G. Wyckoff. See the following article.

*Such as A. Schonflies, Z. Kryst., 54, 545, 1915; A. Johnsen, Physik. Z.,
16, 269, 1915.

7P. Niggli, Geometrische Krystallographie des Discontinuums, 1919. His
development is not, however, entirely complete, and is carried out from a
point of view which does not seem to be the simplest and best for the deter-
mination of the structure of crystals.

128 R. W. G. Wyckoff—Theory of Space Groups

fact that if in a particular case the number of molecules
associated with the unit of structure® and the symmetry
are known, all of the possible atomic arrangements can
be written down and considered in the hight of further
X-ray measurements. It can then be told, with a given
amount of experimental data, whether the particular

structure under examination can or can not be uniquely
defined. |

The Theory of Space Groups.®

The geometrical theory of space groups can be
developed in the following way. If all of the nm opera-
tions of symmetry that are characteristic of some one of
the thirty-two classes of crystal symmetry are made to
operate upon a point in space, ” points will result which
are all crystallographically equivalent. The equivalent
powmts arising from the operations of symmetry of one
of the crystal classes, or these operations themselves,
can be taken to define one of the thirty-two point groups.
To take a simple example: the holohedry of the mono-
clinic system possesses two elements of symmetry, a 180°
axis which will be taken to coincide with the Z-axis and a
plane of symmetry at right angles to this axis (the XY
plane). If these two elements of symmetry are caused
to operate upon any point in space, three other erystallo-
graphically equivalent points will result. The four
Symmetry operations are (using Schonflies”° notation) :

ils A (7), he A (7) Si where

_1 (the identity) may be thought of as a rotation of 2 7,

A (7) is a rotation of angle 7,

S;, is a mirroring against the horizontal (XY) plane and the product
A (7)S, is the combination of the rotation A(z) and the mirroring
S,. land A(z) correspond to the operation of the 180° axis, S,
and A ()S, are mirrorings of 1 and A, in the XY-plane. In
figure l.where Z is the 180° axis and XY the mirroring plane,

* This, of course, can be told from X-ray spectroscopy.

°In deseriptive crystallography we are accustomed to consider- the ele-
ments of symmetry—axes, planes and centers—to be of chief importance.
For studying the internal structure of crystals, at least, it is much better to
think of particular grouping of points (or atoms) as characterizing the dif-
ferent classes of symmetry. The elements of symmetry of these various
arrangements then become interesting, but for most purposes unnecessary
and complicating, details. Those who are well versed in the more customary
crystallography are asked to read the following discussion from this other
point of view, forgetting for the time being all associations with planes, axes
and the like, except as they may be introduced into the argument.

* A. Schonflies, op. cit. :

to Study of the Structure of Crystals. 129

P is any point ayz. ‘The other equivalent points P, (wyz), P?
(wyz) and P, (xyz) result from P by the forenamed operations”
Similarly the equivalent points of each of the other thirty-one
point groups can be obtained from their characteristics of sym
metry. The five point groups having cubic symmetry are

; e ; No. of Equiva-
esc. Sch6nflies, ee Soe le Groth lent Pouits®
Pentagonal
eet) Metartohedry Tetartohedral 4 aocahedral 12
Paramorphic
¢ r : ar ibe x ‘ahedral 2A
ores, hemihedry Pyritohedral Dyakistetrahedi
imorphie
Rane el Ue aed Tetrahedral Hexakistetrahedral 24
Enantimorphic Pentagonal |
20 hemihedry Plagiohedral i .ositetrahedral a4
O;,, Holohedry Normal Hexakisoctahedral 48

An extended arrangement of points in space which will
have the symmetry of one of the crystal classes can be
obtained by arranging these point groups according to
some regular pattern which will itself have the total
symmetry of the crystal system; such an extended
arrangement of points in space is a space group. All of
the centers of the point groups arranged according to
one of these regular patterns are points of what is termed
a space lattice. Fourteen space lattices have been shown
‘to be erystallographically possible: one underlying all
triclinic crystals, two possible monoclinic lattices, four
orthorhombic, two tetragonal, two hexagonal, and three
eubic. If the principal axes of symmetry of the lattice
are taken as coordinate axes, each lattice can be defined
by giving the translations along these axes which, applied
to one point of the lattice, will give every other. The
three cubic lattices are

xX is written for -x, ete.

“ Unless otherwise noted, the notation that will be used is precisely that
of Schonflies. Point groups are designated by capital letters, either alone or

with subscripted numerals and elevated small letters. A particular case, to
be discussed in detail shortly, will perhaps make the reason for this notation

clear. The holohedry of the monoclinic system (ob) is one of the cyclic

groups, its principal axis of symmetry is two-fold and it has a horizontal
plane of symmetry. In other words, the capital letter refers to the type of
group, the numeral to the nature of the principal axis, and the small letter
(except 7 for inversion) to the position of the principal plane of symmetry.
In an analogous fashion the space groups that are isomorphous with this
point group are written Co,!, Con?, and so on.

Am. Jour. Sct.—Firra Series, Vor. J, No. 2.—Frespruary, 1921.

130 R. W. G. Wyckoffi—Theory of Space Groups

Name Symbol Translations

1. Simple cubic Ve + Mats, EN2Ty, pt.
where 7, tT, = 7; mM length and are translations along the axis
of the subscript ; m, m, and p are any integers or zero. When
i — 1 — pp — the translations are primitive translations and locate
the adjacent points of the lattice.

2. Body-centered cubic, T.” 27,5 273.277; Tx; Ty, m. (Emme)
3. Face-centered cubic IT’ 7s, Ty3 Ty, 723 Tz, Tx- (primitive).

As an example of the space and analytical represen-
tation of a space group, a simple group having the
symmetry of the holohedry of the monoclinie system
(designated C,.1) will be considered. The point group
has already been described as having the following
equivalent points:

LYZ, LYZ, LYZ, “Ly .
The lattice underlying this space group is the simple monoclinic
lattice (I’,,) having the primitive translations 27,, 27,, 27,. This
space group is obtained by placing the point group OC}, un-
changed, at each point of the lattice. If we choose some point
of the lattice, O of figure 3, as the origin, then the coordinates of
the points of the group about A, which is the lattice point ob-
tained by the primitive tr anslation 27,, are (from the same origin):

~ |

a atx, Y, *;3 QT<— wy y; @5 2T<— ©, Y; Zs @ + 2x, Ys A
In a similar way the coordinates of equivalent points about neigh-

boring points of the lattice, and in general about any point of the -
space group C,,', are given by one of the following sets:

Cab 2M Te, Yaa T,, 2ae BO see

eit —e, 22 Ty — Ys ee eeee

Se OM Tig WO AID Teg =

LEAN Tx, Y + 2N Try top Tze where
m

nm, and p are any whole numbers, including zero.

y) y)

The 230 space groups, which are all of the possible ways
of arranging points in space so that the resulting whole
will have crystallographic symmetry, can be obtained in
part by distributing the point groups themselves
according to the lattices of corresponding symmetry; the
rest by distributing in a similar manner groups of points
which are developed with the aid of such elements of
symmetry as ‘‘elide planes’’ or ‘‘serew axes.’

Tivery crystal considered as an orderly arrangement

* According to the notation of Schénflies the composite translation Raving
the components rx, Ty, 7z is represented by rx + Ty + 72.

to Study of the Structure of Crystals. ifou

of atoms must correspond with some space group and
may be thought of as resulting from the regular arrange-
ment in space of a large number of small groupings of
atoms, all alike in size and shape. These small groupings,
which we shall call for convenience ‘‘crystal molecules,’’
ean be built up by the superposition of several sets of
equivalent pots, which, then, repeat themselves
according to some one of the fourteen space lattices.
For instance, consider the compound AB. If the atom

0

Fie. 1.—The monoclinic point group C2) (holohedry). P (a yz), P (vy Zz);

P,,(@yz), andP, ,, (@ y 2) are equivalent points.

A occurs at the point (ayz) it must also appear at each
one of the other n-1 equivalent points of that group. The
atoms of B must occupy other 1 points in space, one of
which will be (% y, 4). Hither of these groups of equi-
valent points, when repeated according to a suitable lat-
tice, would form a space group; taken together, these
groups of equivalent points define a crystal molecule.
Such crystal molecules, when placed at the points of a
lattice, yield a structure which represents the positions of
the atoms in a crystal.

There is a slightly different and, for the determination
of crystal structure, perhaps more usable way of looking

132 R. W. G. Wyckoff—Theory of Space Groups

at the space groups and at the structure of crystals. A
erystal, or the space grouping, may be divided into units
of structure, unit parallelopipeds, which are all alike and
similarly oriented, by planes passing through the prin-
cipal directions of symmetry (fig. 2) parallel to the axes
of coordinates. Thus, if the crystal is monoclinic, it
would be divisible into monoclinic prisms; if it is eubie,
the units are cubes, and so on. The planes bounding
these units pass through points of the lattice and the

Fie. 2.—A portion from a space lattice. The black circles represent points
of the lattice. OA, OB, and OC are translations of + 27x, + 27y, and + 27,
respectively. OADBGCFE is the unit prism.

resulting unit will contain anywhere from one to four
‘‘erystal molecules’? depending upon the nature of the
lattice. In figure 3 the monoclinic prism OAFCGBDE
is a unit of structure of the space group C,n'. The
eight points of the lattice at the eight corners of the unit
prism together contrive to place within it a single crystal
molecule.'*

“This statement may be more readily seen on considering the following.
Jf an atom of the crystal molecule which surrounds O (figure 3) lies inside
of the unit it is impossible that the corresponding point of any other crystal
molecule of the lattice can lie within this prism. Also the crystal molecules
lying about the other seven corners of the unit will furnish within the unit

the points corresponding to those about O which lie outside of the unit:
Thus one crystal molecule is contained within the unit of structure.

%
7
|

Study of the Structure of Crystals. 133

The unit corresponding to the first cubic lattice is a
simple cube with points of the lattice at its corners. The
center of the single crystal molecule may be taken at
O, the origin (fieure nee ine unit of structure for
the body-centered cubie lattice (T.") is a eube having
points of the lattice at its corners and center. It thus
contains two crystal molecules, one having its center at
the origin O, (000) and the other at the point Pete
Ti) fiz. 4c. The face-centered unit (I) with points
of the lattice at the corners and the centers of the faces
of the unit cube, has four crystal molecules associated
with it. Their centers are at the origin O, (000) and
Fuaesicepoinis (0, 7, 7); P(t, Ty, 0), P (7, 0, 72); fig. 4d.

This kind of a unit wherewith the crystal can be built
up by simple translation of the unit involving only one
coordinate axis at a time, is desired for the present
purposes because calculations of relative spacings of
like planes and of interference effects from different
planes can be made upon it as typical of the crystal as a
whole.

It is, then, essential to be able to write down the posi-
tions of all the atoms which he within the unit prism.
This can be done readily if the nature of the space group
is known. If the unit is a simple prism having a single
erystal molecule associated with it, then the atoms in the
unit, of which the center of this molecule is a corner,
can be represented by the coordinates of the atoms in the
crystal molecule.'°

The coordinates of the equivalent points in a unit prism
for the space group Cyn, may consequently be written as

LY 2; LYZ, LY2, ry2.
Tf the unit has » crystal molecules associated with it, then
of course it will contain » groups of equivalent points,
that is, ~ X p equivalent points, if p is the number of
equivalent points of the underlying point group. In the
case of the space group C1.” which is formed by placing a
group of points having the symmetry of the point group
C" (holohedry of the “monoglinie system) at each point
of the second monoclinic lattice (symbol I%.), the

* This will be clear if it is remembered that since neighboring points of
the lattice are all alike, corresponding points of neighboring crystal mole-
cules are identical. This leads to the fact that a translation along the X-axis
of -% is equal to the translation?7,—7; likewise —y=27,—y, and—z=2r,—2
where y and 2 are translations along the Y- and Z-axes.

134 R. W. G. Wyckoff—Theory of Space Groups

unit prism will contain the following equivalent positions.
The unit of groups having this lattice, with the primitive
translations 27x ; Ty, Tj; Ty,—7z, 18 best considered as a
prism, two of whose sides are centered (figure 4a). There
are then two crystal molecules in the unit. The coordi-
nates of the equivalent positions are those of the
equivalent points about a corner of the lattice (the origin)
and those of the crystal molecule about a lattice point
which is at the center of a side. Thus since the coordi-
nates of this second lattice point are 0, ty, 7, the equiv-
alent positions within the unit prism are:

“Ye 5 Lye ; LYS y LYZ

Uy Ty Ys Tet 2; Ly Ty Y, Tz+2y Ly Ty — Y, Tz — Sy Wey hy ais 9 i

The positions of the equivalent points in the unit of
structure can be obtained in a similar manner for any
space group.

The Significance of the Space Groups i the Study of
the Structure of Crystals—If an atom occurs at a
general position x, y, 2 within the unit of structure, then
in order that the conditions of symmetry may be fulfilled
there must be as many more atoms of the same kind in the
unit prism as there are equivalent points. For instance
in the case of the holohedry of the cubic system the unit
cube of a space group having the simple cubic lattice
((.) as a basis has 48 equivalent positions contained
within it; the unit cell of a space group having the
face-centered lattice (I.’) with four points of the
lattice (erystal molecules) associated with it, has 192
equivalent positions. In the first of these two cases, if
an atom, say an oxygen atom, has a general position
(xyz) within the cube, then there must be 47 other oxygen
atoms of the same sort within the unit; or in the latter
case there would have to be 191 other similar oxygen
atoms.

In actual practice, for the present, we are dealing with
simple compounds having relatively few atoms in the
chemical molecule; X-ray spectrum measurements seem
to indicate at the same time that only a small number of
chemical molecules are associated with the unit cell.
Consequently but few atoms of the same kind (less than
the number of general equivalent positions) occur within
the unit and, as a result, these atoms must take up special

to Study of the Structure of Crystals. 135

positions such that two or more of the general equivalent
points have the same position. If, for instance, the
coordinates of a point in the unit are such that it les in
a plane of symmetry or on a trigonal axis, two or, in the
second case, three sets of coordinates of the most
generally placed equivalent points will coincide. In the
case of the space group C,,' (fig. 3) if 2 is made equal
to 7, that is, to one half of the height of the unit prism,
then the four equivalent points of the unit occupy two
equivalent positions (M coincides with M” and M’ with

Fic. 3.—A portion of the monoclinic space group Con!. The point group OC,"
is placed at the points of the monoclinic lattice T,, as at points A, A,, B, C,
ete. OADBGUFE is the unit of structure. M (x yz), M' (@# = BD — & = 2rx

—x =a: CS AD =H =2n = 7 = OF Za). WE’ (Ge sy) nel Me” eg a are
the equivalent points within the unit.

M’'’). Again sodium chloride crystallizes in the holo-
hedry of the cubic system. Since there are as many as
192 equivalent positions within the unit cube, there would
in the most-general case be as many as 192 sodium atoms
and an equal number of chlorine atoms in the unit, if all
the sodium atoms are alike and if all the chlorine atoms
are also alike. X-ray spectrum measurements, however,
seem to indicate that but four chemical molecules are
associated in this case with the unit cell. If this is true,
then, the sodium atoms and the chlorine atoms must

136 R. W. G. Wyckoff—Theory of Space Groups

occupy such special positions that the 192 equivalent
points reduce to four.

It is thus seen that with compounds which erystallize .
in the systems of higher symmetry, these special positions
become of the utmost importance. A knowledge of ail
of these special cases is highly desirable as an aid in
determining the structure of crystals. Nigegli'® records
the simpler cases."

' Fie. 4 (A).—The side-centered monoclinic unit of structure, Tn’. O (000)
and P (0, 7;, 72) are taken as the two points associated with the unit.

Fic. 4 (B).—The simple cubic unit of structure, [.. O (000) may be taken as
the single point of the lattice associated with the unit cube.

Fic. 4(C).—The body-centered unit of structure, T,.". O (000) and P , , , (tx,
Ty, Tz) are the lattice points associated with the cube.

Fic. 4 (D).—The face-centered unit of structure, T.’. O (000), P (0, Ty, 7,),
P (tx, Ty, 0) and P | , (rx, 0, ty) are the lattice points associated with the unit.

/

Beh INplexedlil, Oe Cu

Tn the course of the development of a generally useful method for study-
ing crystals, the writer has been engaged for some time in working out all
of these special cases and expects to be able to present them in the near
future. Some of the results to be given in the following paper are based
upon this work.

to Study of the Structure of Crystals. Le

The positions of the atoms in the crystal molecule are
defined by having as many groups of equivalent points
associated with each point of the lattice as there are kinds
of erystallographically different atoms in the unit. This
number will be as great as, and may be greater than, the
number of different kinds of atoms in the chemical
molecule. For instance, in the case of ealcite'® the posi-
tions of the carbon atoms must be assigned to at least one
set of equivalent points, the positions of the calcium
atoms to another set and the oxygen atoms to still
another. With two chemical molecules associated with
the unit cell, it might be conceivable for the two carbon
atoms and the two calcium atoms to be alike and for all
six of the oxygen atoms to be crystallographiecally alike,
for four of them to be alike and two different,’® or that
there should be three sets of two like atoms or two sets
of three that are alike. There might thus be as many as
seven different groups of points associated with each unit
of calcite.

The manner of obtaining, with the aid of the theory of
space groups, all of the crystallographically possible ways
of arranging the atoms of a compound in the fundamental
unit has been illustrated in detail in dealing with calcite.
So detailed an application of the theory to the case of
magnesium oxide, which follows, is not possible here
because of the large number of space groups that must
be considered.

Summary.

Such details of the theory of space groups as are of
importance in the application of this theory to the deter-
mination of the structure of crystals are briefly con-
sidered. Point groups, space lattices and space groups
are illustrated by simple examples. The relations be-
tween space groups and crystals is discussed and those
modifications in the results of the theory of space groups
that are required in order that it may serve as the basis
for a general method for the study of the structure of
erystals, are indicated.

Geophysical Laboratory,
Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Washington, D. C.
October, 1920.

* Ralph W. G. Wyckoff, this Journal, (4) 50, 317, 1920.
“Some of these possibilities are actually ruled out by considerations of
symmetry.

138 Wyckoff—Crystal Structure of Magnesium Oxide.

Arr. LX.—The Crystal Structure of Magnesium Oxide;
by Ratexa W. G. Wyckorr.

Previous measurements on powdered magnesium
oxide! have led to the conelusion that this compound has
the same crystal structure as sodium chloride. Such a

Fig. 1. The Laue photograph obtained by passing the X-rays in a direc-
tion roughly normal to the (100) face of magnesium oxide.

study did not, however, furnish a unique solution. The
following determination is based upon the general method
for studying the structures of crystals which has been
developed from the theory of space groups and which
is given in a very general form in the preceding article.”
In the case of a cubic crystal there is no uncertainty
as to the choice of those coordinate axes which will give
the simplest unit of structure. The number of chemical

*'W. P. Davey and E. O. Hoffman, Phys. Rev., (2), 15, 333, 1920.
* Ralph W. G. Wyckoff, see the preceding article in this number.

>

Wyckoff—Crystal Structure of Magneswum Oxide. 139

molecules associated with the unit cube of magnesium
oxide was found in the usual manner from the density
and a spectrum measurement from a principal face.

n°® ( 2 sin 6

1710

) Me where
rv jon

m = the number of molecules of MgO in the unit cube,
n = the order of the refiection,
dX = the wave length of the reflected X-rays,
6 = the angle of the reflection,
p = the density of MgO,
M = the weight of one molecule of MgO.

FIGURE 2.

<A— nsSmaae—

Magnesium oxide crystallizes in the cubic system.
From the meager data at hand, its symmetry seems to be
holohedral; but for completeness any one of the five
classes will be considered as possible. The number of

moe as—_re0nz= >

140 Wyckof—Crystal Structure of Magnesium Oxide.

chemical molecules that it is possible to place in the unit
cell is limited by the symmetry of the crystal. In the
case of the normal cubic symmetry (holohedry)~ the
greatest number of equivalent points (and equivalent
atoms) to be expected in a unit cell is 192, since there are
48 equivalent points in the corresponding point group
and there may be four points of the lattice associated with
the unit of structure. Fewer than this number of mole-
cules in the unit will result from atoms taking up special
positions so that two or more of the equivalent positions
coincide, and will consequently be whole numbers obtained
by dividing 192 by two, three, or four, or by products

FIGURE 3.

—200

‘— 400

of two, three, or four, into themselves or each other.’
: eran (a : :
Possible values of the ratio ay, are listed in the following
Iv
table:

* The holohedral structure contains p!anes of s mmetry and two-, three-,
and four-fold axes of symmetry. If a special position lies in a plane of sym-
metry, or on a two-fold axis, the number of equivalent positions will be re-
duced to one-half; if it lies on a three- or a four-fold axis, three or four
equivalent points will occupy the same position.

COV!

Ho

Wyckoff—Crystal Structure of Magnesium Oxide, 141

eee. 13) 4) 9G 8 12 516 924.082) 48). 64-96 192
Mee
Sp 2 ee a ee
eee tk tp OR = oe
Petes 858 4 gk $e Se

Measurements from the (100) face of magnesium
oxide, using the L-series lines of tungsten, gave a value
3

for = of 1.99. The unit cell must therefore contain

either four or thirty-two chemical molecules of magne-
sium oxide.*

Assuming that n=4—(1) All four of the oxygen
atoms and of the magnesium atoms may be equivalent;
(2) conceivably there might be two sets of two equiva-
lent atoms; (3) three atoms might be alike and one
different; or (4) two alike and the other two different
one from the other. There seems to be no reason why
either of the last two should be possible physically, but
the second might be realized if magnesium oxide were
polymerized into (MgO), molecules in the erystal. All
four possibilities will, however, be considered.

(1) If all four atoms of the same kind are equivalent,
all of the space groups of the cubic system will reduce to
the following arrangements:

(gy Me. 000; 322,-204, 223
COM OOO ae 2) ae dy. 9 4 ee
O: $44, 04%, £04, 240.

These arrangements are obtained from the space groups
O*® and O* and consequently exhibit enantiomorphic
hemihedry.

(c) M

DEON O 2 se 0).
O-0205— 470:0,20 30, 4

? 4 Be

bole BR
Nie Wie
. .

(c) can be obtained from space groups of each of the five
classes of cubic symmetry.

“If the crystal had tetartohedral symmetry, then the second possibility
could be definitely eliminated.

142 Wyckoff—Crystal Structure of Magnesium Oxide.

(2) Mg: 000, $4

OF" Ae ee

(d) results from groups having tetartohedral and tetra-
hedral symmetry.

(e)Mg: uuu, uuu, UUU UUYU.~
O: BUY, 000, 6 Ub; foe

This arrangement also possesses either tetartohedral
or tetrahedral symmetry.

(f) Me: wuu; wtt,4—u, wu; up utt, t—y;
een
v5 U+5,5— 8,0; 0, eee
‘ are a. Ope > z-
(f) has tetartohedral symmetry.

There are no space groups which can be specialized to
give four sets of two like atoms and consequently (2) is

impossible. Fora similar reason (4) must be eliminated.
There are two ways of meeting (3):

(Oe)

ne eC wW

(g) Mg: 000; and$40, 4

yO, Os.

O: 44; anddodd, $00, OF 0.

(A) Mos 55 3; and >> 0, 3-05.) Uae
0:00 0; and 0074, $00; 02

(g) is seen to be identical in position with (¢c). Both
(g) and (h) can be derived from groups of any class of
symmetry.

Assuming that n—=32.—There seems to be no method
of deciding between the two possible values of except
one of trial. There are three different ways of arranging
thirty-two molecules of magnesium oxide in the unit cell
if all of the magnesium atoms are alike and if all of the
oxygen atoms are also alike. If some of the chemically
like atoms are assumed to be different crystallographi-
cally, as was just done when » was treated as equal to
four, so large a number of possibilities arises that it is
not feasible to consider each one in detail. Such arrange-
ments are, however, highly improbable. The possible
arrangements corresponding to (1) are as follows:

Wyckof—Crystal Structure of Magnesium Oaide. 143

(i) Me: £22, 223, 2285, 228 £58, 43, 45%, 443
SES oC Fh fel Tee) te PS STD fe} SMSO SH teh eT) teh, teil fehb) oe (ey Mettsiey, Ms) SoS 18) 185
i Ge Te ie Ba SB i ea Ue ne cg = a La a

Seceeo Ses ss 6) Bo 8 6 6) 8 6 89 6 BS be Bo & & >

a mee Seo) eae 8 Be ease Be tI

Sea ee o> S68 6 6 ft Se > fh tS fsToy ty teh teh) eet

Pee Stents Se 15 8 sale) 5 Bere el 6 8
PECecoMmc sco ces Bis 6) 86 626-6, G8 Bio 8 6-8"
Quran homies oa Ss 5 5 At ir 8 8 BOT bes

> $88 SSS SES. FES SEB SES FES FES
Pen Tl Seton Ns Ae yr 5 ele Riana) 3s

SES SSS SES FES CES FEB FES SES
Peat seine oa Te 8S. PS) He aoa ay ray

SSS S88 SSE FEB FES SSS BB BSB
ea em te, Ge 5 Ste oT hie a 8 Be 7

SoG) 6 6 69 G6 & 6 6 67 6 6 8) 6 6 &> G6 8 SS 8 6 B-

This arrangement is a special case of the space group

Q 8
(7) Mg: uuu; utd, UTS, Us UTS, U, UTS; U, +4, U+9;

wuu; utd, t—u, u; utd, u, 4—u; u, 4—u, $—U;
uuu; 4—u, uti, us SU, U5 —U; u, utd, t-Uu;
uuu; 4—u, t—u, u; 4—U, eae ry ut.
“uuu; +—u, 4-4, Uh, Fs a, $—U, +—U;
uuu; u--d, d—u, wu; utd, u, utt; wu, 4—u, utss
“uuu: t—u, u+4, u; 4—u, u, ut+4; UL, utd, uts;

“sw
no | ed
7
toe

~~

Gs
So

ae imal i idayreen alee lager yin ;
Ue ty apo WIS Ua aon Uy oe RCC

O: vvv,; and 3l other positions as with Mg. wu and
v can have any values from zero to unity. This arrange-
ment can be obtained from either the holohedry or from
any of the classes of the hemihedry.

(aj Mienw wm, u--5, u, ut; +—uU, _—U, JU; F—U, 4—U, 2—U;

= AL — C Ales a 1. Sie 1 S36
Ut, UL», Uo —U; 4, U4, Ua; ¢—U, Ut, ute;

Le
2
$—u; wth, $—% wth; wth, dw, wt;

/ 1Re-;
UuUU; $—U, U,
DBs ek, wd, gw,
1 A OCs ee yee a) Siu yon We Sieh She AO
Ute, Us, U; U, spa US Ras ay Se Us ee tO Se ee

wie we

it Ae eae : le yo aoe 3 aa cay) pee 3 Bic
ete ts, 5, FU; ZU, U8, Ua; gy UR, UTE;
iL
2

Ler I qe ae She iyi ais toy a a ee
ZU, UKs, 3 —U, UTZ, UTS, FY, UTE;
peel UF 5 Urner Uae as a; U4, U-+- 2, a

~
Gs
~

O: vvv; and 3l other positions as with Mg. wu and v
again can have any values from zero to unity. This
arrangement can be obtained from any but the itetarto-
hedral and tetrahedral classes.

It would obviously be of considerable advantage to
know to which class of crystal symmetry magnesium oxide
should be assigned. There is, however, a certain amount

144 Wyckoff—Crystal Structure of Magnesium Oxide.

of doubt concerning the exact connection between the
degree of symmetry as exhibited by the external form and
especially by the etch figures and the internal arrange-
ment of atoms. In the present instance there is no
reason for believing that magnesium oxide is not holo-
hedral. If this is true and if » really equals four, then
its structure must be assigned to arrangement (c), or of
course (g), on the basis of symmetry considerations
alone. On account of the possible uncertainty, however,
concerning the class of crystal symmetry to which
magnesium oxide should be assigned, not only the holo-

FIGURE 4.

hedral arrangements but all of those exhibiting cubic
symmetry will be compared with experiment.

The following experimental data are available for dis-
tinguishing between the possible structures for magne-
sium oxide. The results from the powder photographs?
are said to be in entire agreement with the ‘‘sodium chlor-
ide arrangement’’ (c). Besides the reflection from the
(100) face which was used in finding the amount of mass
associated with the unit cube, a series of Laue photo-
graphs with the rays normal to the (100) face and
inclined as small angles to this normal, was prepared.
These photographs (fig. 1), some of which are the
results of very long exposures and were prepared in order
to give faint reflections a chance to register, were studied

°'W. P. Davey and E. O. Hoffman, op. cit. |

Wyckof—Crystal Structure of Magnesium Oaide. 145

in the usual fashion. A typical curve obtained by
plotting the estimated intensities of reflection of the
planes appearing in a single photograph against the wave
lengths they are reflecting, is shown in figure 2. The
important characteristics of these photographs are illus-
trated by the graph: no planes are found which give any
first order reflection except those, all of whose indices are
odd; and the second order reflections of planes giving
both first and second order reflections are by far the
stronger.

The interference effects to be expected from each of
the possible arrangements of atoms can be calculated.
The spacing between like planes in a simple cubic
arrangement of points is

a

—————————
(RAST AET

a= the length of the side of the unit cube which can be
told from the spectrum measurements and d—the
spacing between like planes whose Miller indices are h,k,].
The intensity of reflection from any plane (hkl) in the n™
order can be written in the usual manner.

Intensity of ) [A’+- B*],
Where A and B are cosine and sine terms to be evaluated
in the ree eases; the form of the function of the
spacing, f ( = ), need not be assumed for the present

purpose.

Possible arrangement (a).

It can be shown that this does not represent the struc-
ture of magnesium oxide because, while in the Laue
photographs the only planes giving reflections in the first
order have indices that are all of them odd, this grouping
should give good reflections with planes whose indices are
also two odd and one even.

Possible arrangement (0).

This can be eliminated for the same reason.

* Ralph W. G. Wyckoff, This Journal (IV) 50, 317 (1920).
Am. Jour. pore SERIES, VOL, I, No, 2.—FEBRuUARY, 1921.

146 Wyckoff—Crystal Structure of Magneswm Oxide.

Possible arrangement (c).

A=Mg {1-+cosrn (h+k)+ceosarn (h+1)+cos rn (k+1)}
+0 {cosrnl+tcosank+cosrnh-+cos rn (h+k+4/)}.
B= 0. Mg and O represent the scattering powers of magnesium
and of oxygen respectively.
In case h, hk, and J are all odd:
When n=1, A=4Mg—40; when n=2, A=4Me+40.
In case the indices are two of them odd and one even:
When n=1, A=0; when n=2, A=4Me+40.
In case the indices are two even and one odd:

When n=1, A=0; when n=2, A=4Me+40.

The results from the arrangement, which is the
‘‘sodium chloride arrangement,’’ are seen to be in
complete agreement with the experimental data as
obtained from the Laue photographs and illustrated in
figure 6. |

Possible arrangement (d).

The calculations show that this arrangement also would
have first order reflections only from planes with indices
that are all odd. The second of such planes is in this
case weaker than the first—a fact which is contrary to
the experiment. Grouping (d) consequently must be
ruled out of consideration.

Possible arrangement (eé).

This and the next arrangement, (f), are most simply
tested by comparison with the spacing measurements
from simple faces (the results to be obtained with the
spectrometer or by photographing the spectra). Trial
was made by seeing whether values of uw and v could be
chosen so as to give results which would be in close
agreement with those from (c). The reflections ‘to be
obtained from the (110) faces serve to eliminate (e).
According to the experimental results—from the spectrum
measurements and presumably also from the powder
photographs—the intensity of the first order reflection
from (110) is zero or practically zero. If uw and v are
the variable parameters for magnesium and for oxygen
respectively, then the calculated first order from (110)
may be represented by:

A=Mg{2+2cos4au}+ O §2+2cos47v}.

Wyckoff—Crystal Structure of Magnesium Oaide. 147

At only one pair of values, u and v equalling 14 and %4,
does A become zero. In this particular case the grouping
is that of (c). If, however, w and v had values close to,
but not equalling 14 and 34, the reflections from such an
arrangement would be, with the present methods, indis-
tinguishable from those from (c). It is nevertheless
not probable as the structure of magnesium oxide since
this compound appears to exhibit a higher degree of
symmetry than that shown by (e).

Possible arrangement (f).
Plane (100) |
A=Me{ 2cos2 7 nu+2cos2 7 n(u-+4) } 0 }2cos2 mnvV-+ 2co0sr rN
(v+4)}.
In the first order this becomes
A=0 and B=0 for all values of wu and v.
Plane (110)
When n=1,
A=Me{cos4 7 u-+cos r(1—4u)} +0{cos4 rv+eosr(1—40)},
=0( for all values of «and v.. B=0.
Plane (111)
When n=1,
A=Meg}cos67u +38 cos2 ru} +O {cos6 7 v-+3cos2 7 v}.

This term has in general a value other than zero and
will be large or small depending upon the particular
values chosen for u and v. Consequently especially with
the present lack of quantitative knowledge about
scattering, little difficulty would be experienced in
accommodating a structure of this type, differing more or
less from-(c) according to the particular hypotheses
regarding the amount of scattering, to the spectrometer
measurements from these three faces. Use must there-
fore be made of the results from the Laue photographs.
The A term for the amplitude of the reflection in the first
order for planes having one odd and two even indices is
as follows:

A=Mg {cos2ru(2m+2m,+2m,+1)—cos2ru(2m—2%m,—2%m,+1)
+ cos2ru (2m, —2m— 2m, — 1) — cos2ru(2m, —2m, —2%m—1)}
+O {a similar term in v}, where m, m,, and m, are

integers.
For the present qualitative purpose the B term need
not be considered. It is seen that there will usually be a

148 Wyckoff—Crystal Structure of Magnesium Omde.

reflection from such a plane unless uw and v have values
such that the arrangement becomes identical with (c).
If, however, wu and v have values close to, but not equalling
the coordinate positions of (c), then the intensity of
reflection in this type of plane would be small enough to
escape detection with the insensitive methods of obser-
vation that are now available. There is, consequently,
no way to rule this arrangement completely out of consid-
eration. It is, however, improbable because magnesium
oxide itself gives no indications of tetartohedral sym-
metry.
Possible arrangement (gq).

Since the positions of the atoms are the same as in the
case of (c), it also fits the X-ray data.

Possible arrangement (h).

The reflections from planes all of whose indices are
odd and from those having one even and two odd indices
as calculated from this grouping are in agreement with
the experimental results. The amplitude of the reflection
in the first order for the planes having one odd and two
even indices is not, however, equal to zero for this
arrangement.

A=20 —2Mg, B=0.

Since no such planes are found in the first order region
from the Laue photographs, this grouping may be
eliminated.

Possible arrangement (1).

If the origin is moved to the point (1414 1%), this
arrangement is seen to be identical in the present instance
with (c).

Possible arrangement (j).

Writing a=h+k+1, b=h—k—1, c=k—h—l, d=l—h—k, then

A =M¢g!} 2cosrrnua-+ 2cos2rnub+ 2cos2rnuc+ 2cos2rnud
+2cos2 rn [wa+4 (A+4)] +2c0s2 an [ub+4 (h-+4&)]
TP 2cos2 rn [we-+4 (h+4)] +2cos2 an [ud+4 (h+4)]
+2c0s2 rn [wa+4 (A+1)] +2cos2 rn [ub+4 (A+ 7)]
+ 2eos2 rn [wc+4 (h+/)] +2cos2 rn [ud+4 (A+1)]
+2c0s2 rn |ua-+4 (k+7)] +2cos2 rn [ub+4 (k+7)]
+2cos2 mn [uc+4 (A+1)] +2cos2 rn [ud+4 (k+1)]
+O {a similar term in v}.
B=0 in the cases to be considered.

Wyckoff—Crystal Structure of Magnesium Omide. 149

With thirty-two molecules associated with the unit
cube, the first reflections observed from the (100) and
(110) faces correspond with the fourth order. Third
order reflections from planes having indices that are all
odd are found in the Laue photographs.

Plane 100:
A=Mg‘16cos2 7 nw-+16cos2 rn (u+4)}+0 term.
AO =Mg! 32 cos4 7 w}-+0 {32 cos4 rv} =0 when w=4,v =F.
Plane 110: :
A=M¢e'!8cos2 7 nuw+8-+8cos2 zn (u+4)+8cos 7 2} +O term.
Ree = Meg {16-+cos4 rw} +0{16+cos4 7 v}.
This term also equals zero when w=4, and v=#.
Plane 111: | x
A=Me{8cos6 7 nu+ 24cos2 mu} +O {a similar term in v}.

The problem in this case is to determine whether there
are values for uw and v such that A, for n—1 and n= 2,
is practically zero; the intensity of reflection when n= 3
must be appreciably less than when n= 4. An approxti-
mate solution can be given graphically; a more exact one
could, however, only be made if quantitative measure-
ments of scattering were available. The intensity of
reflection (or the amplitude) for all values of uw and v
when n has a particular value can be represented by a
three dimensional figure. Certain ‘‘iso-w’s’’ of such a
figure obtained when n —1 are given in figure 3.

The curves enclosing region n=1 of figure 4 are
obtained by plotting those values of wu and v which give a
certain small amplitude (as may be determined with the
aid of figure 3) on either side of zero (arbitrarily chosen
for this representation as +50 and -50). All points
lying within this region then will satisfy the experimental
requirement that no first order is observable. The
regions 2 == 2 similarly enclose all values of w and v for
which the second order will be negligible. The condition
that the amplitude shall be very large in the fourth order
is fulfilled within the areas defined by the curves n —4.
These three conditions are satisfied only in the regions
about w= 4 or 4 andv—/J, or 3%. It will be observed
that when u = 14 and v — 34 the arrangement is identical
with that of (c) ; small deviations from these values could
not, however, be detected by the experimental means

150 Wyckof—Crystal Structure of Magneswum Oxide.

available. The arrangement that would result if uw and v
were both nearly equal to 14 (or 34) is scarcely feasible
from a physical standpoint. Thus (7) furnishes a
possible arrangement for the atoms in magnesium oxide.

Possible arrangement (k).
This must be treated in a similar fashion to the
preceding. Thus the reflection term from the cue)
face is

A=Mg¢g}8cos2 «nu +8cos + n (1+2u)+8cos an ($—2u)
+8cosrn ($+2u)}+O {a similar term in vy.
iD) |
When n — 1, 2 and 3, A=0 for all values of wu and v.

Plane (110).

A= Mg! ‘8+ 8cos4 7 nu+8cos rn-+8cos rn (1—4u)}
10! ‘a similar term in v}.
B=0.
When »=1 or 3, A=0.
Kornnw—2e
A=Meg{16+cos8 ru} + 0{16+16cos8 7 v}.
Plane (111).

A=M¢g{4cos6 7 nu +1 2cos2 x nu +12sin2 rie anu
+ Oa similar term in v}.

B=——A. For the present qualitative uses it may,
therefore, be neglected.

It can be shown by a treatment similar to that applied
to (7) that when uw, — 1% and u, —5% (for these particular
values of uw, the thirty-two equivalent positions each
reduce to sixteen) and v=‘, there is complete agree-
ment with experiment. Except for the fact that the
element whose parameters are represented by u, and wu,
will be of two sorts (all of the atoms of the other kind
will be alike), this particular arrangement is simply a
twice-scale (c) grouping. If, however, u and wv had
values close to 14 and %, the differences in the reflections
would be so slight as to escape detection. Arrangement
(kK) thus becomes a possibility.

Grouping (c), the ‘‘sodium chloride arrangement’’
has now been shown to be the only sample structure which
explains the experimental data, if the arrangement of the
atoms in magnesium oxide is really holohedral. The
tetartohedral grouping (f), however, can be made to fit

Wyckoff—Crystal Structure of Magneswwm Oxide. 151

the observations for certain values of its parameters
u and v. Of the various ways having thirty-two mole-
cules in the unit cube, both (j) and (%) are possible. All
three of the structures with variable parameters, however,
are in agreement with experiment only when u and v have
such values that the resulting arrangements approximate
very closely to the ‘‘sodium chloride’’ grouping.

The nature of the forces between the atoms of magnesium oxide.

Magnesium oxide has just been shown to have probably
the same structure as rock salt, (c). Some information
concerning the possible nature of the binding forces
between its atoms in the light of the existing ideas on the
forces of chemical combination can be obtained from its
analogies with sodium chloride and the other alkali
halides.

Two kinds of unions between atoms can be explained
by the present knowledge of the structure of atoms.’ (1)
The ‘‘electro-negative’’ atoms of a compound may be
able to abstract electrons from the ‘‘positive’’ atoms so
that the compound becomes an aggregate of charged
atoms held together chiefly by the electrostatic attrac-
tions between them. Or (2) if extremely electropositive
atoms are not involved in the combination, all of the atoms
in the compound may strive, without complete success,
to acquire electrons in the somewhat inexplicable, but
clearly real, attempt to close their clusters of eight
outside electrons. Hlectrons are thus in some way held
in common by two atoms—a second sort of bonding which
ean be called a valency bonding. |

Partly because of their crystal structures the alkali
halides are commonly supposed to be compounds
exhibiting the first kind of combination.2 In sodium
chloride each atom, according to arrangement (c), is
equally distant from six atoms of the other sort and thus
there seems to be no connection between what is commonly
called the valence, in the chemical sense, of the atoms,
and their locations in space.

Similarly the crystal structure of magnesium oxide
seems to point to the fact that the oxygen atoms have
been able to remove completely the two outside electrons

"Ralph W. G. Wyckoff, J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 9, 565, 1919.
* J. Stark, Prinzipien der Atomdynamik, III, p. 193.

152 Wyckof—Crystal Structure of Magnesium Oxide.

of magnesium so that the compound is an aggregate of
doubly charged oxygen and magnesium ‘‘ions.’’

The writer wishes to express his thanks to C. J. Ksanda
for assistance in carrying out parts of this determination.

Summary.

An attempt has been made using Laue photographs and
X-ray spectrum measurements to get a wnique solution
for the crystal structure of magnesium oxide. If it
possesses holohedral symmetry then the only simple
structure which is possible is the ‘‘sodium chloride
arrangement,’’ (c). Certain cases of grouping, showing
tetartohedral symmetry and of the more complicated
holohedral arrangements, (7) and (k), each with thirty-
two molecules associated with the unit, are in agreement
with the existing experiments. These other possibilities,
however, differ but slightly from the ‘‘sodium chloride
arrangement,’’ and can not be positively treated by the
experimental facilities now available.

Geophysical Laboratory,
Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Washington, D. C.
October, 1920.

Bell—Formations of Horton-Windsor District. 153

Art. X.—The Mississippian Formations of the Horton-
Windsor District, Nova Scotia; by Wautnr A. BELL.

INTRODUCTION.

The paleontological writings of Sir William Dawson
early determined the Horton-Windsor district as the type
area for two Mississippian series of formations, the Hor-
ton and the Windsor. Later controversies that arose be-
tween paleontologists on the one hand, and structural
stratigraphers on the other, involved the correlation of
the older or Horton formation, a circumstance that lends
additional interest to the Mississippian stratigraphy of
this district.

Previous work.—Among the previous workers who
have written on the geology are such famous names as Sir
William Logan, Sir Charles Lyell, and Sir J. W. Dawson.
Logan visited the area in 1841, fresh from his geological
studies in South Wales, where he had so ably established
the true nature of Stigmarian underclays. His discovery
in the Horton formation of amphibian footprints (Hy-
lopus logan Dawson), in conjunction with the coal-meas-
ure appearance of the Horton strata and of the contained
flora, led him to consider these beds of Coal Measures age.
The gypsiferous or Windsor series was recognized as
stratigraphically younger, and fossils gathered at Wind-
sor and submitted to De Verneuil, Keyserling, and Mur-
chison were first regarded as Permian in age. This
correlation, however, was doubted by Sir Charles Lyell as
long ago as 1848, and he was the first to assign both the
Windsor and Horton beds to the lower Carboniferous, a
conclusion soon corroborated by Sir Wiliam Dawson.
For the next fifty years Dawson contributed various
papers dealing with the flora, fauna, and stratigraphical
relations of these Mississippian rocks. His observations
and conclusions are admirably presented in the various
editions of his ‘‘ Acadian Geology.’’

_ Later references to the correlation of the Mississippian
formations are made by David White, R. Kidston, A.
Smith Woodward, L. M. Lambe, H. M. Ami, Charles
Schuchert, and J. W. Beede. White (1901) assigned the
Horton a Kinderhookian age, with a partial equivalence

1Published by permission of the Director of the Geological Survey of
Canada.

154 W. A. Bell—Mississippian Formations of

to the Pocono. The fauna of the Windsor series was con-
sidered by both Schuchert (1910) and Beede (1911) to
- have mainly a Kinderhookian aspect, but certain of the
limestones were assigned by Schuchert to the Keokuk or
to a somewhat higher horizon.

Scope of the present paper.—The present paper is con-
cerned primarily with conclusions reached after a detailed »
study of the field relations and of the faunas of the marine
Windsor series, begun in 1912. As considerable interest,
however, attaches to the earlier Mississippian formations,
on account of their terrestrial fluvial origin, a brief de-
scription of them is included. These formations, the
Horton and the Cheverie, comprise what has formerly
been known as the Horton series.

The treatment of the faunas of the Windsor series
necessitated the description of more than sixty new spe-
cies, and the report dealing with these faunas as a whole
will be published at a future date by the Geological Sur-
vey of Canada. Where new species are mentioned in the
present paper, use is made of manuscript names that are
subject to revision. 7

Acknowledgments.—The field work of the present
study, which was completed in 1914, was rendered possi-
ble by the aid and encouragement extended by the Direc-
tor and Directing Geologist of the Geological Survey of
Canada. The preparation of the manuscript has been
done in the laboratories of the Peabody Museum of Yale
University, and the writer is particularly indebted to Pro-
fessor Charles Schuchert of that institution, from whose
suggestions the work was originally projected, for con-
stant supervision and inspiration. As Professor Schu-
chert is personally acquainted with the field, the value of
his criticism was greatly enhanced, while ie Peabody
Museum collection of Windsor fossils gathered by him
was generously placed at the writer’s disposal.

Thanks are also due to Mr. J. E. Hyde, of Western Re-
serve University, Ohio, for suggestions made in the field.

Although the work was interrupted by the war, the
writer was privileged, when in England, to study the col-
lections of Avonian fossils of the late A. Vaughan, that
are preserved in the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, and
the many courtesies extended him by Professor J. H.
Marr, of Cambridge University, are held in grateful re-
membrance.

the Horton-Windsor District, N. 8. ahs

Particular pleasure was derived, and benefit received,
from direct field observations on the rocks and contained
faunas of Lower Carboniferous age in the vicinity of Set-
tle, Yorkshire, and in Westmoreland, under the able guid-
ance of Professor E. J. Garwood, of University College,
London, who at the sacrifice of his own pressing affairs
cordially exerted himself in the writer’s behalf.

Location—The town of Windsor lies on the estuary of
the Avon river some 35 miles in a direct line northwest of
Halifax. The district under discussion embraces land
with an areal extent of 240 square miles on either side of
the estuary and facing north on Minas basin, the south-
ernmost prolongation of the headwaters of the Bay of
Fundy. Communications are readily effected with Hali-
fax, Yarmouth, and St. John by means of the Canadian
Pacific Railway.

GENERAL GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS.

Pre-Mississippian lmstory.—The Mississippian rocks in
the district form an undulating lowland with elevations of
less than 250 feet, margined on the west and south by an
upland of older crystalline rocks that is peneplaned at an
elevation of about 500 feet. The sediments of the upland
are intensely folded and regionally metamorphosed, with
a cleavage at a high angle to the south, and are intruded
by an unaltered batholithic mass of coarse, porphyritie,
biotite granodiorite. The altered strata are chiefly dark
green, pyritized, banded slates, belonging to the gold-
bearing or Meguma series of Nova Scotia, generally ac-
cepted as of late Proterozoic or Algonkian age, associated
south of the Gaspereau valley with a marginal strip of
slates and argillites of Niagaran age which have yielded
Dictyonema retiforme (Hall). The contact between the
two slate formations in the Windsor district 1s the result
of pre-Mississippian faulting, with upthrow on the south,
but farther to the west in the Kentville district, a larger
mass of Silurian rock is said to follow the Precambrian
slates without angular discordance.

The orogenic disturbance, with granitic intrusion as an
end phase, that produced the folding and regional meta-
morphism of these rocks, affected elsewhere sediments of
Oriskany age and represents the outstanding historic
event of the whole region. It was named many years ago

156 W. A. Bell—Mississippian Formations of

by H. S. Williams the Acadian orogeny. Although this
disturbance must have resulted in a constructional topog-
raphy of high relief, the basal Mississippian contact in
the Windsor district indicates that these mountains were
worn down to peneplanation prior to early Mississippian
times. Not only do the basal Horton sediments of Kin-
derhookian age truncate at a flat angle both slates and
granite, but there is evidence of pre-Mississippian weath-
ering in the oxidized nature of the slates and in the dis-
integrated condition of the granite for several feet be-
neath the contact.

Structure and physiography.—The slopes that connect
the lowland with the upland are everywhere steep. In
the western margin of the district there is a rise of sev-
eral hundred feet within half a mile, while the ascent in
the south is still more abrupt. The latter was determined
to be the erosional expression of a fault, here named the
Butler Hill fault, that has a stratigraphic throw in the
district in the neighborhood of 2,000 feet. As a result,
hard crystalline rocks on the south are brought up against
very soft rocks of the Windsor series of upper Mississip-
pian age. This fault that margins the Windsor lowland
in the south was traced for several miles northeastwards
beyond the confines of the district. The border of upland
and lowland in the west does not show a response to fault-
ing, but is a sinuous one determined by post-Mississippian
folding that has affected the crystalline floor as well.
The present main streams, e. g., Gaspereau river, Half-
way river, Mill branch and West branch, all of which are
tributaries of the Avon river, are located in synclinal val-
leys that are underlain by Mississippian rocks, whilst the
divides between these streams are in the nature of pro-
jecting ‘‘capes’’ from the upland developed on the older
crystalline rocks. This relation has given rise to the
erroneous impression current in the literature that the
margin of lowland and upland is an inheritance from an
old Carboniferous shore-lne.

The lowland of the Windsor district is underlain by
rocks of so soft a nature and is so maturely dissected by
the Avon river and its tributaries that it is not known to
what extent its formation is due to marine planation on
the one hand or to subaerial denudation on the other. At
present, the lower reaches of the rivers are submerged
and an estuarine cycle is in process. Tides of 20-30 feet
mean range have resulted, and that these are effective

the Horton-Windsor District, N. 8. Poe
agents of erosion is evident from the maintenance and

rapid undercutting of cliffs. It is only in favored locali-
ties, such as over alluvial flats bordering the upper limits

THASSIC

as

ne

PS dred
&=

SUHGA

Ke-Cauntna?

CGrarire

Ld -

A
v
v

Fic. 1. Geological map of Horton-Windsor district. Scale 4 miles — 1 inch.

of tidal action, that extensive aggradation has taken
place, with the formation of estuarine plains such as that
of Grand Pré in the north of the district, the historic
ground of the early French settlers.

158 W.-A. Bell—Mississippian Formations of

The basal Mississippian sediments belonging to the
Horton formation that flank the upland in the west have
suffered practically no folding beyond the broad flexures
already noted. ‘To the northeast, however, where higher
and better laminated strata of the Horton outcrop along
Minas basin, they are affected by numerous minor asym-
metrical folds and corrugations which have their axial
planes inclined to the northwest.

The very soft strata of the Windsor series are charac-
terized by numerous small flexures and are broken by
many faults that are mainly thrust slips consequent upon
stretching of the limbs of the folds. In general, these slip
planes dip steeply southwards, and where closely spaced,
the strata have isoclinal dips and are locally overturned.
Such a complex structure, combined with the presence of
thick zones of gypsum and very poor exposures, renders
the interpretation of the stratigraphic sequence exceed-
ingly difficult. The stratigraphic throws along the slips
vary from several tens to several hundreds of feet. .

The northward dip of the axial planes of the folds in the
northern part of the district is believed to be due to the in-
fluence of the resistant crystalline mass of the Cobequids
north of Minas basin, which bulwark is expressed topo-
graphically at the present time by the narrow upland
known as the Cobequid mountains.

Post-Mississippian history—The Windsor series of
late Mississippian age is the last sedimentary record of
marine transgression within the Maritime Provinces
prior to the Champlain epoch. The folding that affected
the Mississippian rocks took place before the close of mid-
Pennsylvanian (Westphalian) time, with the balance of
evidence in favor of an early Westphalian orogeny.
Rocks of Pennsylvanian age have been entirely removed
by erosion from this district, with the exception of a-very
small patch of sandstone that may represent a faulted
inlier. The district was once more reduced to peneplana-
tion before the deposition of the semi-arid terrestrial de-
posits of Newark age (early upper Triassic).

STRATIGRAPHY AND CORRELATION.

Mississippian sequence.—In descending order the suc-
cession of Mississippian formations is as follows:

the Horton-Windsor District, N. 8S. 159

Tennesseean (Chesterian equivalent).

Mummedsor series (MATING) ..0. 2... 2.664 ceo = 1100’+-
Disconformity.

Tennesseean (Meramecian equivalent).
Cheverie formation (terrestrial)........... 600-800’ max.

Characterized by Estheria dawson Jones and Lea
salteriana (Jones & Kirkby).
Disconformity.
Waverlian (Kinderhookian equivalent). ,
Horton formation (terrestrial)......... 2800-8400’+ max.
Characterized by Anewmites acadicus
Dawson and Lepidodendron corrugatum.
Dawson.
Unconformity.
Silurian and Precambrian slates and Devonian granodiorite.

Horton Formation.

_ Description.—Broadly the Horton may be divided into
a basal feldspathic arenaceous member (650-2,000 feet
thick) which carries rare faunal remains, and an upper ar-
gillo-arenaceous shale member (300-1,400 feet thick) with
abundant Ostracoda and fish scales at various horizons.
The feldspathic sediments at the base flank the bordering
upland with a present mean dip of the warped contact
surface of about 12°. The composition of the immediate
contact beds is in direct relation to that of the underly-
ing rock. Where the latter is slate, for example, the low-
ermost Horton bed of several feet thickness is a compost
or agglomerate consisting of angular to subrounded frag-
ments of the underlying rock embedded in a paste of the
same material with but occasional pebbles from more
distant localities. Above this thin sheet of basal agglom-
erate the stream-deposited feldspathic grits and arena-
ceous shales so characteristic of the Horton were laid
down. The grits, in which the grain of the matrix ranges
from 7 mm. downwards, consist of transparent angular
quartz, rounded flakes of dark slate, kaolinite and mus-
covite. Conglomeratic basal beds carry in addition peb-
bles of vein quartz, quartzite, or slate. The coarser beds
are heavily cross-bedded, whilst the slates are typically
marked by ripples predominantly of the current type.
The peculiarity of the succeeding beds lies in the
presence of frequent zones of laminated, siliceous, and
argillaceous shales, with which are commonly associated
ironstone concretions, abundant spheroidal calcareous
concretions, and occasional thin argillaceous limestones

160 W. A. Bell—Mississippian Formations of

with a cone-in-cone structure. Certain beds in these zones
are abundantly rich in leperditioid and beyrichioid ostra-
cods, Spirorbis, and the scattered scales and dermal
bones of paleoniscid fishes. The ostracod beds are of a
more argillaceous character, and are more restricted in
their vertical distribution, being mainly confined to the
middle part of the Horton.

The higher beds of the upper Horton comprise a thick
accumulation of finely siliceous shales associated with
thick interzones of non-laminated, or but poorly lami-
nated, argillo-arenaceous deposits that break with a char-
acteristic hackly fracture, and that weather frequently to
variegated light greenish and buff-yellow colors. An ex-
traordinary feature presented by these beds on their
exposed bedding surfaces is a polygonal system of crack-
ing that might readily be mistaken for true sun-cracking.
Careful inspection, however, reveals the presence of car-
bonaceous traces of a dichotomously branching system of
rootlets, and not uncommon association with casts of up-
right tree stems, denoting clearly that they are fossil
soils. Itis these early soil zones that lend to the deposit
its greatest interest. Although they may be observed
in their best development in the upper Horton (they are
particularly well displayed along the Cambridge shore),
their occurrence is widespread both vertically and later-
ally, and they are eminently characteristic of the whole
deposit. In several hundred feet of strata in the upper
Horton, fifty-six well marked soil zones were noted, of
which seven had associated with them abundant upright
tree stems. Additional soils and upright stems were
present in the ostracod-bearing division below. The
abundance of these upright stems in the horizons in which
they occur is evident from the fact that ninety-six were
counted in a plot 150 X15 feet. The stems are small,
rarely exceeding 11 inches in diameter, and usually not
more than a foot of the height can be traced. As regards
the rootlets in the soil zones, their casts and imprints are
indistinguishable from the rootlets of Stigmaria ficoides
of the Coal Measures. It is a striking fact, however,
that no creeping ‘‘rhizomes’’ comparable to Stigmaria
were found anywhere in the Horton formation, while sev-
eral upright stems had directly attached to them rootlet-
like appendages that branched dichotomously. The ab-
sence in the Horton of true Sigillaria and the association

the Horton-Windsor District, N. 8. 161

of these stems with the ubiquitous drift of Lepido-
dendron corrugatum Dawson suggest the strong proba-
bility that the upright stems belong to this species. An
absence of horizontally spreading Stigmaria is in agree-
ment with the arenaceous character of the Horton soils
and absence of carbonaceous seams, which point rather to
good drainage and lack of permanent swampy conditions
before burial.

Throughout the formation, broken plant material is
common. Larger recognizable fragments are almost ex-
clusively cortical imprints of Lepidodendron corrugatum |
Dawson or of the broken foliage and rachises of the pteri-
dosperms Anewmnites acudicus Dawson, two species repre-
sented by close allies in the American Pocono. In the
upper beds, large megaspores (Spongites glaber Dawson)
1-2 mm. in diameter are very abundant at certain horizons.
A single specimen of Asterocalamites cf. scrobiculatus
Schlotheim was found as a stray fragment, presumably
from the upper Horton.

In the restricted fauna the following ostracods are most
characteristic: Jonesina nova-scolica (Jones), a beyri-
chioid allied to Beyrichia colliculus Eichwald; Kirkbyina
acadica n. sp., a larger and more quadrate form than K.
reticosa (Jones & Kirkby); K. cf. scotoburdigalensis
(Jones & Kirkby) ; Carboma cf. pungens Jones & Kirkby. *

The fish scales of most common occurrence are assigned
to the genus Elonichthys, differing from E. brown ( Jack-
son) from the Albert series of New Brunswick, in the
possession of nonserrate margins. Maxille of Rhadi-
michthys are not uncommon. Rarer remains are jaws
and teeth of Strepsodus, and selachian spines of the gen-
era Stethacanthus and Ctenacanthus.

Depositional environment.—Marine conditions are ex-
cluded as inconsistent with a widespread extension of
rootlets and plant stems 7m situ, an exclusion corroborated
by the textural features of the deposits. General uni-
formity of deposition, carbon content, absence or rarity
of desiccation cracking, ferrous condition of the iron con-
tent, etc., testify to pluvial conditions. Among the pos-
sible terrestrial deposits, a fluviatile accumulation under
humid climatic conditions is postulated as most consis-
tent with all the facts. The laminated ostracod-bearing
shales may represent temporary lacustrine deposits on
the river plain. While the presence of the beyrichioid

Am. Jour. Sct.—Firts Series, Vou. I, No. 2.—Frsrvuary, 1921.
11

162. W. A. Bell—Mississippian Formations of

Jonesina seems unfavorable to a fluvial or lacustrine
origin of the particular sediments in which it is found,
the remaining evidence is so overwhelmingly in favor of a
terrestrial deposition that it is believed a fresh-water
adaptation of this genus must be accepted.

The accumulation and preservation of several thousand
feet of terrestrial sediments characterized by abundant
soil levels calls for a differential subsidence of the basin
of deposition. Two convergent lines of evidence fix the
source of material in nearby upland masses lying in a
. general southwesterly direction. Primarily, the com-
position of the sediments points unequivocally to the belt
of Devonian granites and Precambrian slates and arkosic
quartzites of the Meguma series, which outcrop at present
for 120 miles to the southwest before they sink beneath
the Atlantic. The second line of evidence is presented
by the alignment of the current ripples. By plotting the
results of many observations, the mean trends indicate
the dominance of currents from the southwest.

Correlation.—The plant evidence has been effectively
summarized by David White, who correlates the Horton
with part of the Pocono, assigning to it a Kinderhookian
age. The fish genera Elomchthys and Rhadimchthys
establish the Carboniferous age of the deposits, whilst
the ostracods have their nearest allies in the Lower Car-
boniferous of Europe. |

Upper contact.—Although the Cheverie formation suc-
ceeds the Horton without angular discordance, a marked
disconformity is inferred. There is a distinct climatic
break and the thick clastic beds at the base of the Cheverie
suggest also a marked uplift of the headwater region that
was undergoing erosion. Moreover, local mountain-
making movements at this time are indicated by heavy
conglomerates of Cheverie age in the Moncton area, New
Brunswick.

Cheverie Formation.

Description.—The Cheverie formation attains a maxi-
mum thickness in the district of from 600 to 800 feet.
The basal 300 feet is dominantly made up of gray arkose
grits with a subordinate amount of chocolate argillo-
arenaceous shale and occasional beds of micaceo-arena-
ceous shale of a greenish black color. The arkose consists
of angular fragments of transparent quartz up to 10
mm. diameter, with angular fragments of feldspar of

the Horton-Windsor District, N. 8S. 163

like dimension. Biotite mica, little altered, is commonly
present in flakes up to 3 mm., and may be in excess of
muscovite. The binding material is largely kaolinite
which renders the arkose friable. Slate particles are of
minor importance. The upper strata of the formation
are dominantly purple-red argillo-arenaceous shale with
occasional thin zones of greenish micaceous shale or
slate-grey argillaceous E’stheria-bearing shales. These
dark shales yield likewise a few plant remains and rare
specimens of Leaia. The red shales are commonly non-
laminated, weather in a hackly manner, and frequently
contain small irregular concretionary calcareous nodules.

The phenomena of current ripples and cross-bedding
are as widespread in the Cheverie as in the Hor-
ton. Channeling of the grit beds into underlying
shales is a marked feature, and frequently large torn
angular remnants of shale are included in the arkose.
Sun-cracking has been observed in several instances,
although the exposures are unsuitable for observa-
tions of this nature. Striking features of this crack-
ing are the sandy nature of the beds in which it occurs,
the relatively great width of the fissures, the coarse
infilline, and the fact that the cracked beds have imaces of
rootlets zm situ and represent old soils.

Biologically the features presented are a repetition of
those of the Horton formation, but are here in a more
restricted development consequent to a more advanced
degree of subaerial exposure. Rootlets in situ are com-
mon throughout all the argillo-arenaceous non-laminated
shales, notwithstanding the fact that the strata are now
dominantly red and practically devoid of other organic
remains. ‘The traces of rootlets are, however, less fre-
quent than in the Horton formation, and are most com-
monly represented by slight color distinctions, with traces
of carbon of rare occurrence. At times the oxidation of
the carbon took place at the expense of oxygen combined
with the iron, giving rise to grey contact zones. Upright
stems were observed in one instance in a purple-red shale
in which thirty-three stems were counted in a plot 29 X
146 feet. The drift flora is practically restricted to occa-
sional thin seams of dark shale, but the flora so far
gathered is of too fragmentary a nature for reliable
specific identification. It appears to be more varied than
that of the Horton, with sphenopterid types dominant.

164 W. A. Bell—Mississippian Formations of

In addition to Estherra dawsom Jones, which is common,
there is a Leaia of rarer occurrence, a very significant
fact, as Leaia elsewhere in America is eminently charac-
teristic of the Pennsylvanian.

Depositional environment.—The same features that
denoted a fluvial environment in the case of the Horton
are here repeated, some of them in accentuated forms.
Thus channeling, sun-cracking, fresh feldspars, little
altered biotite, oxidized iron content, etc., are dominant
properties of the Cheverie that givea ‘unity to the deposit —
and differentiate the formation as a whole from the un-
derlying one. As the material itself has been derived
from the same general land mass that supplied the Hor-
ton detritus, it is reasonable to attribute climatic influ-
ence as the main control of the chemical and textural
features of the sediments. Tumultuous current action at
recurrent intervals in the basal arkose mass, in conjunc-
tion with the presence of soil beds at like intervals, would
call for rhythmic pronounced accessions of water flow
and a sufficiently high level of the ground water in the
river flats during the intervals to favor a vegetable
growth. Froma “study of present-day climates, it would
seem necessary to postulate a warm temperate semi-arid
type to fulfill all the requirements. _That extreme arid
conditions were wanting is evidenced by the absence of
pebbles. The presence of nodules of reddish calcium
carbonate in the red soil beds of the upper part of the
formation suggests homology with the ‘‘kankar’’ in the
alluvium of the Indo-Gangetic plain.

Correlation.—The _ stratigraphical position of the
Cheverie formation between the Horton below of Kinder-
hookian age and the Windsor series above of Chesterian
age does not closely define its position in the Mississip-
pian. It is the addition of an eremopterid flora and the
distinct climatic break that have led to the inclusion of
the Cheverie in the lower Tennesseean rather than in the
Osagian. The break between the two terrestrial forma-
tions, the Horton and the Cheverie, is believed to be
greater than that between the terrestrial Cheverie and
the marine Windsor.

Windsor Series.

Description.—The Windsor series comprises a well de-
fined unit of marine deposits laid down under peculiar

the Horton-Windsor District, N. S. 165

environmental conditions. There are three and probably
four zones of calcium sulphate deposits (gypsum and an-
hydrite), averaging roughly 50 feet each, separated by
varying amounts of brick-red argillaceous shale and fos-
siliferous limestone with subordinate thin dolomitic
sandy shales, odlites, and calcareous algal bands. In
amount, the gypsum and anhydrite may make up some 10
per cent of the total estimated thickness of 1100 feet, with
red shale 50 per cent and calcareous beds 40 per cent.
Estimates of the thicknesses of this series, however, must
be considered as but very rough approximations, owing
to the poorness and isolated nature of the exposures, and
to the presence of numerous fault slips of which mention
has been made. The sequence of faunal zones presented
here is necessarily dependent on the writer’s interpreta-
tion of the structure, and is not advanced as an estab-
lished fact. Better and less broken sections may be found
elsewhere in the province that will necessitate a consider-
able revision of the following succession. ‘The sequence
as given below is radically different from that presented
by Hartt (1867) and in Dawson’s ‘‘ Acadian Geology.”’

Upper Windsor or Martima zone. Characterized by
Martima opertacosta n. sp.
Subzone D. Characterized by Canina dawsoni (Lambe) 460’
Subzone C. Characterized by Dibunophyllum lambei n.-
Sree Sy ax awoke sit aye desw'e oc s #0 eens
Lower Windsor or Composita zone. Characterized by
Composita dawson, (Hall & Clarke).
Subzone B. Characterized by Diodoceras avonense
ree eer Rene ne isc ae BS PERO as 265 =
Subzone A. Basal limestone and Sanguinolites phase.. 95’

The Windsor beds disconformably overlie the Cheverie
formation. The basal member is a fine calcareous quartz-
ite whose upper surface is locally marked by interior
molds of the valves of a Sanguinolites. Commonly both
valves are attached and flatly opened. A thin conglom-
eratic development with limestone pebbles, probably of an
intraformational character, follows the basal arenaceous
bed, and is succeeded by platy brecciated limestone which
carries calcite vugs and occasional nodules of pyrolusite
and manganite of secondary origin. This manganiferous
mineralization is of such widespread occurrence at this
horizon that it is probable that the manganese content
was originally disseminated in the limestone at the time

166 W. A. Bell—Mississippian Formations of

of deposition. The subzone terminates with a thick band
of anhydrite and gypsum.

Subzone B is characterized by the presence of two
limestones that are extremely fossiliferous, and as they
outerop in the vicinity of the town of Windsor, they afford
a rich collecting ground. The lower or Maxner lumestone
is about 80 feet in thickness, the upper or Miller limestone
about 35 feet, the two being separated by a second band
of gypsum. The fauna is common to the two limestones,
but the association is somewhat different. The Maxner
limestone is characterized particularly by the abundance
of Diodoceras avonense in its upper portion and by the
great profusion of individuals of species of Dielasma and
Composita in which the brachidia are excellently pre-
served within the hollow interiors. The Miller limestone
is characterized by an abundance of Aviculopectens, bry-
ozoans, and productids.

Subzone C is best exposed on the Avon estuary at Wind-
sor in the neighborhood of the bridges. The section, how-
ever, is broken by a number of important faults. The
lower part of the subzone has frequent oolitic, algal, and
sandy dolomitic beds that are sparingly fossiliferous, but
in the upper part some 20 feet of platy blue limestone fur-
nishes abundant Martimia and Productus.

Subzone D has a thick gypsum member at its base, in
which are a number of thin calcareous seams crowded
with ostracods and with the foraminifer Nodosinella.

The upper beds are best exposed at the mouth of Kennet-

cook river, where 100 feet of thinly bedded blue-grey
limestones carry a fauna which is more normally marine
than any which preceded it. Cup corals become abund-
ant here for the first time, there is a greater variety of
brachiopods, and the molluses are mainly confined to the
Bellerophontide. ;

The following generalized lithological section illus-
trates the rhythmic recurrence of mud deposition with
chemical and organic deposits:

1D. Kennetcook limestone). . 1.662. 2. 2 100’+-
Gypsum and anhydrite with Nodosinella bands.
Red shale, ete.
CG. Avon. River -limestone «.ji.. 2u24/scgee- he 2 45’
Gypsum? and red shale.
Dolomitic and calcareous shales and sandstones,
odlites, algal and Modiola bands. ;
B,. Miller limestone. 2.0. 2032 ss Se. ee aor

————————

the Horton-Windsor District, N. 8. 167

Gypsum, anhydrite, and red shale.

eh PUM GEOG. ee xs 5 owen eo wx nts bene es 80’
Gypsum, anhydrite, and red shale.

A. Basal limestone, conglomerate, and quartzite.

Environmental factors—As interbedded chemical de-
posits and red argillaceous shales form so prominent a
feature throughout the Windsor series, it is evident that
the biotic conditions were decidedly abnormal, a funda-
mental fact that must be borne in mind in comparative
studies with other faunas. The most significant factors
of the Windsor seas were shallow waters, probable high
temperatures, and varying salinities, culminating at in-
tervals in conditions intolerable to a bottom life. These
unfavorable conditions were not confined to local pools,
but were of widespread extent in the Windsor basin.

The shallow-water conditions that prevailed were
doubtless maintained by progressive subsidence in a
manner analogous to the previous differential movements
that controlled the terrestrial deposition in the basin. A
‘‘barrier’’ of some sort certainly existed against free
communication with the outer sea, and it was more prob-
ably a tectonic upwarp due to the same differential move-
ments than a depositional sand or gravel bar or a current
barrier established by differential salinites or by con-
trolling winds alone. The Windsor sea, moreover, was of
a geosynclinal Paleozoic type and not a shelf sea in the
nature of the present Rann of Cutch. There is, further-
more, no evidence at hand for complete isolation, and the
‘‘breaks’’ in the sequence are in the nature of diastems or
minor disconformities. Stages of extreme shallowness
took place in the middle of the epoch, as attested by dolo-
mitic sands, algal bands, oolites, Modiola bands, etce.,
which beds are characterized by peculiarly restricted
faunules, whilst the nearest approach to normal marine
conditions was reached in the late life of the sea.

Desiccation rarely proceeded beyond the precipitation
of gypsum or anhydrite, but this alone would demand,
since there were no marked volume contractions, a sur-
face inflow from the outer sea of four to nine times the
volume of water in the basin under conditions in which
the evaporation would approximately balance the acces-
sions.

The times of gypsum or anhydrite deposition were not
the only ones that prohibited the establishment of an

168 W. A. Bell—Mississippian Formations of

ee

Fic. 2. Hypothetical extension of Sea in Lower Windsor time.

the Horton-Windsor District, N. 8. 169

indigenous fauna, as red shales make up nearly one half
of the total mass of the sediments, and so far as known
are barren of fossils. In this case the extreme muddi-
ness of the waters, combined with probable high tempera-
tures (warm seas at this time are indicated by abundant
reef corals in western Hurope), was equally deleterious
to animal life.

Faunal selection. Unfavorable biotic conditions would
affect various organisms differentially. They would be
particularly prohibitory to the establishment of certain
groups of greater sensibility, such as the corals, and it is
not surprising that colonial corals have not been found
in the Windsor deposits and that cup corals are very
meagrely represented and gain only a temporary footing
in the more normal marine waters of late Windsor time.
An analysis of the Windsor fauna shows that of 104
species belonging to 63 genera, 48 species representing
22 genera are brachiopods, and 36 species representing
25 genera are molluscs. The fauna, therefore, as deter-
mined by the physical environment is essentially a mollus-
can-brachiopod one.

The composition of a faunal assemblage, however, is
dependent not only on the direct environmental factor but
on the available routes of migration. While the Windsor
faunas show very little in common with the Mississippian
faunas of interior America, there are clear affinities with
the faunas that inhabited the seas of western Europe at
this time. Accordingly, absentees in the Windsor faunas
may likewise be absent or illy represented in the Avonian
(Lower Carboniferous) faunas of the North Atlantic
province with which direct migratory relations were
established. This factor alone might account for the
meagre representation of crinoids as mere stem frag-
ments, for the absence of blastoids, and of such special-
ized bryozoans as Archimedes and Lyropora.

Correlation with the Viséen.—In correlating the Wind-
sor faunas it is natural to turn in the first place to their
nearest allies, the Lower Carboniferous faunas of western
Europe. To the Belgian geologists, who were among the
first to illustrate these faunas, we are indebted for the
recognition of two major faunal divisions, the Tournai-
sien below and the Viséen above, corresponding approx-
imately to the Waverlian and Tennesseean, respectively,
of the American sequence. In recent years, British pal-
eontologists, led and inspired by the admirable studies of

170 =9W. A. Bell—Mississippian Formations of

A. Vaughan, have worked out in great detail the faunal
sequence in their Lower Carboniferous or Avonian rocks
(Vaughan 1905, 1915; Garwood 1912; Dixon 1911).
While opinions differ as to the placement of the division
line between the Tournaisien and Viséen, there is general
agreement as to the faunal successions throughout the
British and Belgian field. The northern part of the
British Isles, however, is characterized by an arenaceous
or abnormally marine facies and much remains yet to be
done on the correlation of the beds that make up the Cal-
ciferous and Limestone series of Scotland. The latter
facies is rich in the Mollusca as contrasted to the coral-
brachiopod faunas of the caleareous or ‘‘ Mountain lime-
stone’’ facies.

In comparing the Windsor faunas with the Avonian
faunas of England, the affinities are seen to lie with the
upper Avonian or Viséen rather than with the lower
Avonian or Tournaisien. The presence in the lower
Windsor zone of abundant Composita of the “‘ficoides’’
form, associated with Productus of the type of cora and
corrugato-hemisphericus, is in striking conformity with
the faunal assemblage in the middle Viséen (S,) of the
Avonian sequence. Of the Mollusca, which dominate the
lowest fauna at Windsor, there are species identical with
or closely allied to species from the Lower Limestone
series of Scotland, or from the Redesdale limestone of
Northumberland, both of which are well up in the Viséen.
Thus, Sanguinolites parvus n. sp. is probably synonymous
with S. striatogranulatus Hinde from the Redesdale;
specimens of S. tricostatus identical with Portlock’s spe-
cies from the Redesdale limestone occur at Windsor ; Lith-
odomus lingualiformis n. sp. is very close to L. lingualis
Phillips from the Viséen of Castleton; Murchisoma com-
pacta is identical with M. compacta Donald from the
Upper Limestone series of Dalry, Scotland.

The upper or Martimia zone at Windsor is character-
ized by the entrance of a clisiophyllid cup coral belonging
to the genus Dibunophyllum, which is an early form of
the type of Dibunophyllum aff. ¥ Vaughan, as well as by
the abundant occurrence of Martina of the M. glabra
form type. Both of these genera are characteristic
Viséen genera, and Dibunophyllum especially has been
found a good index to the upper Viséen of England. The
following species from the upper limestone of Windsor
afford additional links on which a correlation of the

the Horton-Windsor District, N. 8S. hel

Windsor Martinia zone with the lower part of the Dibuno-
phyllum zone is based.

Zaphrentis minas Dawson is distinctly of the type of
Z. enniskillent Edwards & Haime. In England this
group ranges from the upper Tournaisien to the upper
Dibunophyllum zone, but is especially characteristic of
the Viséen.

Lophophyllum avonense n. sp. In Wurope, Lophophyl-
lum attains its maximum in strata of upper Viséen age,
or in beds immediately succeeding, although it is found
sparingly in the upper portion of the Tournaisien.

Tabulipora acadica n. sp. is a dendroid trepostomatous
bryozoan that is very abundant near the base of the Ken-
netcook limestone. It is characterized by the thinness
of the peripheral zooecial walls, which nevertheless show
a distinct moniliform structure. Tabulipora is essen-
tially a Viséen genus, and 7. tenwmuralis Lee from the
Eelwell limestone, Lowick (=D,?), agrees with the
Windsor species in the tenuity of its walls.

Avoma spimfercardinata n. sp. is very close to Pro-
ductus longispinus Sowerby.

Chonetes politus, the only Chonetes yet gathered from
the Windsor beds, is identical in all respects with
McCoy’s species from the base of the Lower Limestone
series of Scotland.

Spirifer bisulcatiformis n. sp. is indistinguishable from
S. bisulcatus var. oystermouthensis Vaughan from
D.-D, Gower (Dixon 1911). The bisulcatus type of
Spirifer occurs rarely in the middle Avonian but has its
maximum in the upper Viséen.

Martima opertacosta n. sp. This species lacks dental
plates and has the shell structure of a true Martinia.

Phallipsia howi Billings. This species has been corre-
lated by Vogdes with P. meramecensis Shumard, on the
evidence of pygidia only. Several cranidia, however,
found by the writer, one of which is still attached in a
erushed rolled specimen, determine the Windsor species
to belong to the gens of P. eichwaldi Fischer, which occurs
in the Lower and Upper Limestones of Scotland and at
Bolland, Yorkshire.

Allorisma sulcatiforme n. sp. 1s perhaps identical with
A. sulcatum Fleming from the Redesdale limestone and
the Limestone series of Scotland.

Aviculopecten dissimilis Fleming, from the Limestone
series of Scotland and from the Four Laws limestone of

172, =W. A. Bell—Mississippian Formations of

Northumberland, occurs in the upper Limestone of Wind-
sor.

Correlation with the American Tennesseean.—The dis-
similarity of the Windsor faunas to those of like age in
the Mississippian basins of America was early noted by
Dawson and subsequently confirmed by Schuchert and
Beede. Dawson, moreover, clearly perceived their
European alliances and attributed their isolation from
the western faunas to the existence of an Appalachian
mountain barrier. The difficulties of correlating a fauna
which is dominantly a molluscan one are well exemplified
by the fact that Beede, who described faunas of this age
from the Magdalen islands, was impressed with the De-
vonian or early Mississippian aspect of some of the pel-
ecypods, whilst earlier paleontologists, e. g., Meek and
Newberry, emphasized their Permian appearance. In
the present correlation, reliance is placed rather on the
occurrence of several brachiopods and bryozoans that
either hold a limited range in, or make a definite entry
into, the Mississippi Valley basin.

In the upper Windsor zone, several species belonging
to Martima, Composita, and Productus present evidence
of an age synchronous with some part of the Chesterian
group. Martina opertacosta n. sp. is a form closely
allied to M. contracta (Meek & Worthen). Composita
obligata n.sp., common in, and characteristic of, the upper
Windsor limestones, is so close to C. subquadrata (Hall),
a characteristic Chesterian species, that it may well be
specifically identical. Productus (Avoma) multiplex-
septum n. sp. is likewise probably specifically equivalent
to P. parvus (Meek & Worthen) from the Ste. Genevieve
and Chesterian groups. ‘Thus there is direct evidence of
Chesterian affinities. Indirectly; the same conclusion is
reached, as the fauna of the upper zone at Windsor cor-
relates with that of a lower Dibunophyllum age in the
European time-scale.

The lower fauna at Windsor, while it likewise indicates
Chesterian affinities, is seemingly an earlier expression
and may be in part equivalent to the Ste. Genevieve. The
Compositas, which are extraordinarily abundant in indi-
vidual representation, belong mainly to two species of
European stock, and while the productids of the cora and
semireticulatus types are too plastic for correlation pur-
poses, they likewise are closer to the European species.
The occurrence in the fauna of a true Diaphragmus is the

the Horton-Windsor District, N.S. 173

most suggestive character, as this genus makes its first
appearance in the Ste. Genevieve and the D. montesane
Ulrich (1917) is close to the Windsor D. tenuicostiformis
Beede. The bryozoans afford additional evidence in their
Chesterian affinities. Thus Batostomella ealis (Daw-
son) and B. cf. abrupta Ulrich are two species, associated
in abundance in the Miller limestone, that are almost in-
distinguishable in their external and internal characters
from B. spinulosa and B. abrupta Ulrich. The fenestel-
lid of most common occurrence, Fenestella lyella Dawson,
reveals close analogies with F. elevatipora Ulrich, while
Septopora parva n. sp. has the small delicate zooarium of
S. delicatula Ulrich associated with a like arrangement
of accessory pores on the reverse surface. It is con-
cluded that the Chesterian affinities of this lower Wind-
sor fauna are too strong to assign to it as low a position
as the St. Louis, and it is provisionally referred to the
Ste. Genevieve.

Climatic correlation—The semi-aridity characteristic
of Tennesseean time in Nova Scotia during the deposition
of the Cheverie and Windsor formations is in agreement
with conditions of semi-aridity in Pennsylvania during
Mauch Chunk time and in Michigan during the deposition
of the Michigan series.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Beede, J. W.—1911.—The Carbonic fauna of the Magdalen islands. New
York State Mus., Bull. 149, 156-186.

Dawson, J. W.—1855 —Acadian geology, Ist ed.; 2d ed., 1868; 3d ed., 1878;
4th ed., 1891.

Dixon, E. E. L.—1911.—The Carboniferous succession in Gower (Glamor-
ganshire) with notes on its fauna and conditions of deposition.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., London, 67, 477-567, 4 pls.

Garwood, E. §.—1912.—The Lower Carboniferous succession in the north-
west of England. Ibid., 78, 449-586, 13 pls.

Hartt, C. F.—1867.—On a sub-division of the Acadian Carboniferous lime-
stone with a description of a section across these rocks at Windsor,
Nova Scotia. Can. Nat., new ser., 3, 212-224.

Schuchert, Charles.—1910.—Paleogeography of North America. Bull. Geol.
Soc. America, 20, 551.

Ulrich, E. O.—1917.—The formations of the Chester series in western Ken-
tucky and their correlates elsewhere. Kentucky Geol. Surv. and
U.S. Geol. Surv. (joint pub.).

a Arthur.—1905.—The paleontological sequence in the Carboniferous
limestone of the Bristol area. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., London,
61, 181-307, 3 pls.

— 1915.—Correlation of Dinantian and Avonian. Ibid., 71, 1-52, 7 pls.

White, David—1901.—Some paleobotanical aspects of the upper Paleozoic
in Nova Scotia. Can. Ree. Sci., 8, 273-274.

— 1913.—Excursion in eastern Quebec and the Maritime Provinces:
the Horton flora. 12th Internat. Geol. Congress, Guide Book No.
1 (issued by the Geological Survey of Canada), 144-146.

174 J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

Arr. XI.—Relation of Subjacent Igneous Invasion to
Regional Metamorphism; by JosePH BaRRELL.
(Continued from page 19)

PART II. METAMORPHIC AND METASOMATIC RELA-
TIONS OF OROGENIC BATHOLITHS.

HEATING AND CRYSTALLIZING EFFECTS OF MAGMAS.

If subjacent magmas are a primary factor for the pro-
duction of regional metamorphism, they must act through
their heat and emanations. Their magmas, on their
initial rise in undifferentiated form, appear to possess a
heat of not less than 1200° C., but the final erystalliza-
tion of granite takes place at temperatures below
870° CG. and above 575° C. This degree of cooling must
oceupy a long time, and as the bodies of molten rock are
vast, there is sufficient heat passing out to raise the cover
rocks to a highly abnormal temperature. The curves of
temperature and their relation to time, as based on the
laws of conduction, can not give definite information, since
the heat transfer into the cover rocks is doubtless largely
by gaseous transfer, in advance of conduction.1+- Gaseous
transfer could, if sufficiently rapid and prolonged, heat
the entire cover to that thermal curve dependent upon
the adiabatic expansion and reactions of the gases. Dif-
ferentiation, by which granites are derived as a final
stage from antecedent more basic magmas, implies a low ©
viscosity in all of the earlier stages of magmatic rise.
It seems probable that there is saturation with gas under
pressures of 1000 atmospheres or more, and at tempera-
tures of the initial intrusions. The great portion of the
cover can then be heated up to temperatures at which
garnet, staurolite, sillimanite, feldspar, muscovite, and
hornblende can crystallize. The temperature conditions
for anamorphism may be brought comparatively near
to the surface. Above this will be a zone of hydrothermal
alteration.

CHEMICAL OR MreTASOMATIC EFFECTS OF EMANATIONS.

The study of metamorphic formations shows that ex-
cept for the elimination of volatile constituents the bulk

14[The mechanism of this advance transfer of gaseous solutions has been
outlined by C. N. Fenner, Jour. Geology, 22, 594 and 694, 1914.] :

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. aie

of the rocks retain rather closely their original composi-
tion. Upon entering a rock formation, the passing
emanations seem to establish rather quickly a chemical
equilibrium, and thence to carry forward a heating and
erystallizing effect. But although this is true in a large
way, it is far from being a universal principle. There
is more or less transfer of magmatic material into the

wall rocks, and reaction with them, with resulting meta-

somatism: amphibolite, garnet, and albite, as well as
other minerals, may be largely developed as a result.
The acidic magmas are much more important in this
respect than the basic, but wide individual variation is
to be observed.

It is thought that the emanations from the same magma
at different stages are of highly different character. The
first gases are probably eliminated by supersaturation
before any crystallization. They include especially the
volatile constituents, chlorine, fluorine, boron, and water,
but most of the non-volatile oxides remain behind in
mutual solution. Another stage seems to carry off chiefly
silica and iron, and a following stage is rich in water-
vapor holding in solution the quartz and feldspar which
make the pegmatites.

The metasomatic zone is to be expected, and is in fact
found, on the inner side of the metamorphic zone, devel-
oping in sequence following the first or metamorphic
recrystallization. It is apt to be very irregular in
boundary, following the zones of easiest passage through
the rocks. In very deep-seated masses, as in the Gren-
ville limestones involved in Laurentian granite, the result
is very much more pervasive than in more shallow zones.
Surrounding plateau batholiths (those intruded without
relation to orogenic pressures and rock mashing), lime-
stones offer the most favorable channels for the exten-
sion of the metasomatic zone, since they are subject to
volume changes, shattering, and ready chemical altera-
tion. Where non-uniform mountain-making pressures
have operated, however, giving rise to foliated struc-
tures,'° the schists become the most favorable channels
for conducting away the solutions and an intimate inter-
foliation of country rock and magma may result, known

* [See John Johnston and Paul Niggli, The general principles underlying
metamorphic processes, Jour. Geology, 21, 599, 1913. This paper calls atten-
tion to the fact that non-uniform compression has a much more important
metamorphic effect than uniform pressure. |

176 «J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

as the lit-par-lit structure. (For further discussion, see
Part, P11)

PREVENTION OF DEEP PENETRATION OF METEORIC WATERS.

In the discussion of the anamorphism of the rocks of
northwestern Connecticut, it developed that there is evi-
dence, in the addition of tourmaline and silicates, that
rising waters were active, but no conclusive evidence has
been presented that the waters were of magmatic origin.
The relative place which meteoric and magmatic waters
hold in carrying forward the work of metamorphism is a
long debated question. In contact metamorphism, it is
now held by the majority of workers that magmatic
waters are the controlling factor, but meteoric waters of
vadose or connate origin are still commonly regarded as
the agents active in regional metamorphism.

It was formerly an accepted part of geologic theory
that the mechanism of volcanoes involved a free down-
ward percolation of sea waters. The Daubrée experi-
ment, showing the capillary passage of water through a
porous sandstone against pressure and into a steam-
filled chamber, was thought to support the view. The
diffusion of water under great pressure through the
intermolecular pores of glass and metals has also been
held to be supporting evidence.

The conditions of the Daubrée experiment do not
apply, however, to the vast thickness of non-porous
crystalline rocks. The diffusion of water through glass
and metals is effective only under an enormously steep
pressure-gradient which has no direct relation to the high
pressures but low pressure-gradient of the earth’s
interior. Igneous rocks come from depths below the
zone of sedimentary rocks and the emanations show com-
positional characters in the possession of abundant
carbon gases, fluorine, and boron, which indicate a lack
of relationship to downward percolations. Lastly, and
perhaps most conclusively, mining operations show the
zone of meteoric waters to be relatively shallow, confined
in definite zones to porous or fissured rocks, and ‘the rocks
below to be dry. Soluble constituents such as salt and
gypsum, if in rocks well below base-level, are permanently
preserved from solution and show the absence of per-
vasive circulating waters.

These reasons have caused the majority of geologists
to look upon gases or fluids which carry forward the

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. vy:

work of contact metamorphism and of primary ore depo-
sition as juvenile in origin—making their way for the
first time toward the surface of the earth.

The waters which serve as the agents for the recrystal-
lization taking place in the anamorphism of sedimentary
formations must be, however, in part original occlusions ;
yet it is doubtful if they alone are competent to serve as
agents for the development of schists and gneisses. The
changes from mud to shale, from shale to slate and thence
to schist show a progressive elimination of the water
both of composition and occlusion. <A later coarse-
grained crystallization, especially if accompanied by
fluorinization, suggests the added agency of magmatic
waters.

But waters arising from magmas bring with them the
hydrostatic pressure of the greater depths, diminished
by their own weight and the frictional resistances to flow.
They thus have an excess pressure above the rocks
around them, which is the hydraulic force impelling to
further movement. In so far as the specific gravities are
concerned, if the water at the point of its elimination
has the same pressure as the surrounding rocks, due to
- the depth of cover, then the excess pressure in the fluid
tends to increase with vertical distance above the magma.
The viscous resistances to flow tend, on the other hand,
to reduce the pressure-difference. This excess pressure
is favored by the rise of gases through channels rather
than by diffusion through rock, since the viscous resist-
ances are thereby reduced. . From the walls of such
channels, diffusion and flow into smaller cracks causes
a permeation of the adjacent rocks. Meteoric waters,
_ on the other hand, when flowing downward in channels,

possess a less hydrostatic pressure than exists in the
surrounding rocks, because the two are in equilibrium at
the surface and the column of water weighs less than
the column of rock. Their permeating power is conse-
quently diminished and in this respect, as well as because
of their lower temperatures, they stand in direct contrast
to magmatic emanations. Where whole formations of
rocks show, then, that they were permeated through and
through with water and carbon dioxide when deep below
the surface, there are reasons for regarding such waters
as of magmatic origin. Examples are seen in chlorite,
serpentine and tale rocks, especially when these are
derived from igneous masses, for they may contain over

AM. JOUR. Rea e Seriges, Vou. I, No. 2.—FrEsruary, 1921.

178 J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

10 per cent by weight of combined water which was not
in them at their origin and must have been supplied on
a large scale and with a penetrative power which carried
it to all parts of the rock mass when undergoing altera
tion. !

DEVELOPMENT OF ANHYDROUS OR HypRoUS SILICATES.

In his classic work on metamorphism, Van Hise devel-
oped as an important subject that of changes of volume.
But he placed the emphasis upon meteoric waters as the
especial crystallizing agent of all anamorphic as well as
katamorphic changes. On that basis, and on the assump-
tion that water and.gases could freely escape, the pres-
sure resulting from depth was shown to tend toward the
elimination of both occluded and combined water. The
evidence shows this to be really effective in the diagenesis
of the sedimentary rocks, resulting in a partial dehydra-
tion of kaolin and opal, and often in a complete
dehydration of ferric oxide.

Let us look, however, at the pressure effects of deep-
seated magmatic waters. They are driven into the rocks
by the excess pressure from below. A complete escape
above is slow and difficult because of the non-porous and
unfissured state of the rocks at great depths. A. C.
Lane!® has shown that under such circumstances the
gases may be able to rend the rocks and create a condi-
tion of the zone of fracture deep within the zone of flow.
In so far, however, as the water as gas or liquid is under
greater pressure-than the surrounding rocks, it will tend
to enter into the form of hydrates, since the hydrated
minerals in general occupy less volume than the equiv-
alent anhydrous minerals plus the water in uncombined
form. For magmatic waters, therefore, there is opposi-
tion between the factors of temperature and pressure.
Hydration will, consequently, take place at distinctly
higher temperatures than for circulating waters of
surface origin.

The importance of this principle can be illustrated by a
numerical example based on the extreme or limiting
supposition that the water and gases involved as chemical
constituents in the reaction can not escape but require
space for their existence in the same measure as do the
solid constituents. Assume that the density of the water

16 Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 5, 259-280, 1894.

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. 179

remains at unity, since increase of pressure tends to
increase its density, and increase of temperature tends
to decrease it. As the conditions of volume must vary
greatly, there is no need here of attempting refinements
of calculation.

For computing the density of carbon dioxide or other
gases, assume that the physical conditions are those of
the critical pressure and temperature of water, 195
atmospheres and 370° C., since this pressure is reached
at a depth of about half a mile, and the temperature
is one at which hydrates retain much of their water of
chemical combination, even under the absence of external
-pressures as at the surface of the earth. Under these
conditions, water also is a gas and incapable of con-
densing other gases within it. For these conditions the
density of carbon dioxide was computed according to
Van der Waal’s equation :17

(p+) (v-D)=RT

In this
p = pressure in atmospheres — 195
v =1 when pis l
R = 0.003,66
T — absolute temperature
a = 0.009,131 constant for carbon dioxide
b= 0.002.427 — ** e e oS

The density of carbon dioxide (for p—195 and T=
310 + 273) is 0.172 of the density of liquid water (at
gang 'I'——4 -+- 273).

Consider the change of biotite to serpentine. As col-
lateral products Van Hise gives kaolin and gibbsite
according to the following equation:

6KH Me, Al,Si,O,, + 18H,0 + 300, = 40,Mg¢,Si,0, +
5H,Al,8i,0, + 2Al (OH), + 3K,CO,

It is of course possible that sericite might form to
some degree in place of kaolin, gibbsite, and potassium
carbonate. The equation will, however, illustrate the
problem.

The volume equation as given by Van Hise!® does not
figure in the water and carbonic acid and assumes the
elimination of the potassium carbonate in solution. The

% Walker’s Introduction to Physical Chemistry, pp. 94-97.
*C. R. Van Hise, U. S. Geol. Survey, Mon. 47, p. 378, 1904.

180 J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

reaction shows by this hydration an increase in volume
of 14.3 per cent.

The writer has recalculated this equation, first taking ©
in the water as part of the volume with density =1, but
not regarding the 3CO, or 3K,CO,. Instead of an expan-
sion, the result showed a shrinkage consequent upon
hydration amounting to 17 per cent. Second, as an
extreme condition, the 3CO, and 3K,CO, were also figured
in, the CO, being assigned a density of 0.17 and the
density of solid K,CO, in the absence of any statement
in Watt’s Dictionary of Chemistry being arbitrarily
assumed as 2.0. This now showed a shrinkage due to
hydration and carbonation amounting to 39 per cent.
No value is to be attached to this particular equation or
to these exact figures, but they serve to strikingly illus-
trate the principle under discussion.

The rocks are never so impervious as to effectively
retain all the magmatic emanations so that that extreme
assumption is farther from the truth than the other
assumption that the fluids and gases do not enter in any
measure into the volume equation. For magmatic
emanations the truth must he between.

The alteration of basic igneous rocks into amphibolites
implies, then, very high temperatures in order that dis-
sociation due to temperature may be stronger than the
hydration favored by the retention of vapors. The
alteration into chlorite and serpentine rocks may also go
on at temperatures only less high, provided that they are
pervaded under high pressures by abundant magmatic
waters. These minerals lose all their water of crystal-
lization only at red heat, about 700° to 900° C., even in
the absence of pressure. It would seem, therefore, as if
under conditions where water was freely supplied from
below and could only escape more slowly above, hydra-
tion could go forward at temperatures approaching red
heat, distinctly above the critical temperature of water.
The curve of relations between temperature and pressure
which control this reaction may possibly be determined
by laboratory experiment and is a matter of importance
for the interpretations of the conditions of meta-
morphism.

In the light of this reasoning, it appears probable that
the regional alteration of the Keewatin lavas into green-
stone schists is a mark of pervasive magmatic waters
emanating from the Laurentian granites below.

Invasion to Regional Metamorplhism. 181

The question is logically raised, why, after the gas
pressure has fallen, does not dehydration proceed so as to
nullify the previous action? ‘To some degree it may,
but a mineral species can exist in a wider range of envi-
ronment than that which determined its production. The
chlorite schists are especially associated with regional
mashing and this was without doubt a factor in their
genesis. Furthermore, although the excess of gases dis-
appears, the non-porous nature of the rocks does not
favor further elimination.

SILICATION IN RELATION TO IGNEOUS INTRUSION.

Geologic observation shows that blocks of marble may
be immersed in abyssal magmas and not suffer dissocia-
tion of the carbonic acid at the magmatic temperatures
and pressures. Such alterations to silicates as occur
are the result of reaction with the silica and other oxides
which are present, either in the original sediment or
carried in from the magma. The experimental work that
has been done on the relations of temperature and pres-
sure to the dissociation of calcium carbonate has been
reviewed by Konigsberger,'® and on account of the wide
range of pressures represented in the experimental data, ©
he selects the work of Riesenfeld?® for extrapolation;
there is, however, a considerable disagreement of
authorities, and the figures may be only approximate.
The table is of sufficient interest to be given here.

Temperature Pressure
Centigrade Atmospheres

910 1
1000 +
1100 20
1200 170
1300 2600
1400. 80,000

The dissociation curve supplements the evidence of
wollastonite as a contact mineral which cannot exist
above 1150° C. in showing that the inclusions of marble
have never been heated to a temperature as high as
1300° C., since this would require a depth to prevent
dissociation greater than that given by the geologic
evidence.

a Konigsberger, N. Jahrb. f. Min., pee Beilage Bd. 32, p. 124, 1911.
*° EH. H. Riesenfeld, Jour. Chim. Phys., 561, 1909.

182. J. Barrell-——Relations of Subjacent Igneous

The pressure and temperature relations which control
the mutual displacing power of CO, and SiO, form a
problem somewhat analogous to, and yet different from,
that discussed for hydration and dehydration. It has
recently been discussed with the aid of a diagram by
Goldschmidt,” who bases his law upon the curve of vapor
tension of calcium carbonate. He does not, however, take
up the aspect more especially developed here—the in-
crease in the vapor pressure of carbon dioxide which
would be due to magmatic emanation coming in from
below and without free escape above. By raising the
vapor pressure, the formation of carbonates is theo-
retically favored. . Nevertheless, in the case of such
hydrated rocks as serpentines and chlorite schists, the
carbonates are of secondary importance and consist of
intermixed calcite. This is true notwithstanding the
added fact that carbonates possess in general smaller
molecular volume than the corresponding silicates.?? It
would appear, therefore, that such carbonates as form
are largely eliminated because of the possibilities of the
slow escape of the gases and the solubility of the car-
bonates in water with abundant carbonic acid. It would
appear further, however, that where such hydrous sili-
cates as serpentine, tale, chlorite, sericite, kaolin, epidote,
and zeolites are formed, either carbon dioxide was only
sparingly present in the hydrating waters or else carbon.
dioxide can not displace silica from any oxides except
lime and soda and in part potassa at those temperatures.
where hydration goes on to a greater or less extent, and
especially hydration by magmatic waters. Jonigsberger
mentions further that in water solution at 260° C. silica
displaces carbonic acid from lime. This laboratory ev1-
dence, as well as the mineral relations just cited, appears.
to show that silica displaces carbon dioxide at tempera-
tures well below those determined by Goldschmidt by

VV. M. Goldschmidt, Die Gesetze der Gesteinsmetamorphose mit Beispielen
aus der Geologie des siidlichen Norwegens, 1912.

» The reaction is also discussed by Johnston and Niggli in their paper
on the principles underlying metamorphic processes (Jour. Geology, 21, 481-
516, 588-624, 1913). In most of their discussion they assume that CO, may
escape as produced. They find that temperature is much more important in
determining the direction of the reaction than pressure. However, ‘‘it is
true that pressure is required in order to retain the volatile components.’’
They further emphasize the important distinction between uniform and non-
uniform pressure, and show on pages 614-615 that stress or non-uniform
pressure will cause reactions between carbonates and silica with the devel-
opment of CO, to a much greater extent than would be likely in the absence
of stress. ]

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. 183

means of the tension curve. Chemical affinity, revers-
ible with change of temperature, is the controlling con-
dition. The temperature limit is sufficiently low so that
notwithstanding the abundant presence and high pres-
sure of carbon dioxide in the contact zone, silication is
the characteristic process. Only on the outer borders
does the reaction become reversed.

RELATION oF MAGMATIC GASES 'TO ATMOSPIIERE AND OCEAN.

It is held by many geologists at the present time that
the gaseous and liquid envelopes of the earth are to be
looked upon as the differentiated and unconsolidated
residues of the igneous rocks. Most commonly, however,
they are regarded as having had approximately their
present volume since the closing of the formative stages
of the earth. The emphasis which is here placed, how-
ever, upon the great volumes of gas liberated in igneous
invasion, and the very considerable extent of post-
Cambrian batholithic invasion only partially revealed by
erosion, suggests that the atmosphere and ocean may
have received notable additions since the beginning of
the Laurentian, and appreciable additions even since the
beginning of the Paleozoic. ‘To make a guess in order
to give concreteness to this statement: it seems not im-
probable that the ocean waters may have increased 25
or 50 per cent in volume since the beginning of the
Kkeewatin lava flows, and 5 to 10 per cent since the.
beginning of the Paleozoic. The nitrogen of the air has
perhaps increased equally, with the result that the atmos-
phere may now be of a very different constitution than
in the earliest geologic ages.

LIMITED DEPTH OF THE ZONE OF ANAMORPHISM AND Rock FLow:

The earth’s crust, when under tangential compression,
must yield along its zones of greatest weakness. Where
geosynclines have permitted the accumulation of sedi-
ments, these may reach to depths as great as six or
eight miles.. The deeper parts must become condensed,
cemented, and hardened; not softened into a sub-moun-
tain liquid as was postulated by an older theory. But the
shales remain weak and the horizontal bedding is a struc-
tural weakness even in the rocks of strongest inherent
composition. Geosynclines, then, even without the influ-
ence of subjacent igneous action, are zones of weakness.

184 J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

There is, however, another way in which the crust may
be weakened which seems to the writer to be equally im-
portant: the weakening from below by the rise along
axial zones of orogenic batholiths. Not only is the outer
crust dissevered from the inner portion, but the latter
may be temporarily destroyed to an unknown degree.
The batholithic covers are of irregular form and poorly
adapted to resist stresses. It would appear that the ris-
ing heated emanations carry high temperatures with them
far upward in the crust. The conditions for anamorphic
recrystallization may thus be carried to within a mile or
two of the surface. The crumpled and foliated struc-
tures of the zone of flow and the recrystallization of the
rocks may thus not necessarily be restricted to profound
depths in the crust.

Van Hise located the top of the zone of rock flowage as
probably at a depth of five to seven miles, but recognized
that it must vary widely with variation in the controlling
conditions and would be of least depth for the argillites.
F. D. Adams has shown experimentally, however, that
cubic compression greatly increased the strength of rocks,
and that small cavities could remain open at tempera-
tures and pressures such as are found at depths of eleven
miles and more in the crust. On the other hand, in east-
ern Massachusetts, Carboniferous sediments are trans-
formed into schists and sandstone beds are transformed
to quartzites; yet these sediments are, so far as
known, parts of the last formations deposited before the
occurrence of the orogenic revolution which led to their
metamorphism. It is not likely that they have ever been
profoundly buried, a depth of a mile or at most two miles
being the greatest probable depth which can be assumed.
In other regions, suggestions of similarly shallow bathol-
ithic intrusion are to be found,”* but the generality of this
conclusion is founded upon another line of evidence. -

It has been shown by various authors that the soda de-
rived from the weathering of plagioclase feldspar is car-
ried to the sea, and except for the insignificant amounts
precipitated in salt deposits or held in sediments as con-
nate waters, it must have accumulated through geological
time. But the volume of the sea and its chemical compo-
sition are known with fair accuracy. Therefore the vol-
ume of the average igneous rock needed to supply the
sodium becomes determinable. Allowing one third of the

3 J. Barrell, U. S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 57, p. 166, 1907.

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. 185

sodium to be retained in the sediments in insoluble form,
as shown by their average composition, the salt of the sea
requires the erosion of a shell of igneous rock 2,200 feet
thick enveloping the globe. If the erosion be regarded as
restricted to the continents, and their area be taken as 28
per cent of the area of the earth, the equation would re-
quire the erosion of 7,900 feet of rock. ‘The actual aver-
age erosion from the present land areas has probably
been between these two figures, since ancient lands such
as Appalachia, which have supplied much sediment, are
now in part submerged.

The erosion, however, has been very unequally distrib-
uted. No igneous rock has been removed from the broad
interior of the United States since pre-Cambrian times,
and the same is true of other wide areas. Therefore
there is room for the removal of many miles of igneous
rock from mountain axes, not counting the erosion and
_re-erosion of the sedimentary formations. But allow for
the demands of Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic erosion
of igneous rocks, and the balance left to be assigned to
pre-Cambrian erosion is materially reduced. Under the
most favorable assumptions it can hardly be much over a
_ mile in thickness, and if allowances are made for later
continental fragmentation, it may not be much over half
a mile.

Now the metamorphism of the basement complex is
universal, and the batholithic exposures cover enormous
areas. From such regions the older lavas have been re-
moved, and erosion has bitten deeply into the underlying
granites. But how deeply? For any particular region
it may be five miles, ten miles, or even more, but consider-
ing the limitations placed by the salt in the sea, it would
seem conclusive that the average erosion which has ex-
posed the Archean zone of anamorphism and rock flow
has not been more than a mile. Even the metasediments
of the ancient cover are counted into this estimate, for
although their removal would not add a fresh supply of
salt, their original formation had given it, and by just so
-. much had diminished the measure of. later erosion. It
would appear fairly certain that the profound metamor-
phism of the Archean complex does not imply the neces-
sity of formation beneath from five to ten miles of cover.

This line of evidence, although indirect, is perhaps one
of the strongest of many which go to show that the con-
ditions of regional metamorphism are bound up with

186 J. Barrell—Subjacent Igneous Invasions.

batholithic invasion. How, then, shall the geologie evi-
dence be reconciled with the laboratory demonstrations
of Adams? This is not a conflict between facts and an
imperfect theory, but rather between two categories of
facts. Experimental work as conducted by Adams re-
quires temperatures and pressures for rock flowage far in
excess of the conditions implied by the geologic evidence.
It is the business of theory to explain the paradox.

The theory of rock flowage, in the form stated by Van
Hise, calls for an intermediate level. What adjustments
of this theory are needed to bring harmony between it and
the apparently diverging facts? It appears that the most
probable solution may be found by invoking the high tem-
peratures and abundant erystallizers which must be
present in batholithic roofs.2* Let crustal compression
operate at the same time and stress-differences arise
through the crust. But the molecules under strain are
more soluble, energy is released by their solution, and
they are precipitated free from strain. The energy
absorbed in deformation is transformed into heat and
assists further in the process of recrystallization.

The phenomenon of rock granulation is suggestive of
a very considerable depth of cover, yet even for this the
geologic evidence does not support the view that any such
profound depth is necessary as the laboratory work of
Adams would seem to imply. It occurs especially in the
granite gneisses, massive and resistant formations. In
part it seems to be related to a last stage in crystallization
accompanied by movements in a very viscous magma.
The granulation of phenocrysts in rhyolite surface flows
offers a suggestion of the process. In part the presence
of foliation at right angles to the pressure may prevent
shearing on major diagonal thrust planes and compel
each layer to yield independently by intramineral shear.

(To be continued)

"Daly has presented, in a paper on metamorphism in volume 28 of the
Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, a similar argument that the
depth of pre-Cambrian metamorphism was not great; he suggests that it
is to be explained by a steeper thermal gradient in the early history of the
earth. This is one factor in the present suggestion, the other being emana-
tions from the same magma that produced the steeper thermal gradient.

E. Bose—Pernuan of Coahuila, N. Mex. 187

Art. XII.—On the Perman of Coahuila, Northern Mex-
ico; by Emit Boss.

In 1913, Doctor Erich Haarmann published his dis-
covery of marine Permian beds in northern Mexico.!
This discovery was rather surprising, as everywhere in
northern central Mexico the lowest exposed rocks had
seemed to be of the Upper Jurassic. Furthermore, there
did not appear to be any indications of large dislocations,
which alone could apparently be the explanation of an
exposure of lower beds, as the Jura-Cretaceous series
seemed to be uninterrupted at every point of this region
where the geology was known. Haarmann on a very
rapid journey found the Permian beds on the Hacienda
de las Delicias, 68 kilometers north of San Pedro de las
Colonias, at the foot of the high Sierra del Sobaco, in the
southern part of the state of Coahuila. The geographic
position of these Paleozoic beds made the occurrence still
more surprising, since a little south of San Pedro the
Upper Jurassic is exposed in many places (Concepcion
del Oro, Mazapil, Sierra de Ramirez, San Juan de Guada-
lupe, ete.). Moreover, west of San Pedro de las Colonias,
the same conditions had been observed at San Pedro del
Gallo, Durango, and as it is well known that the Jura-
Cretaceous series exists in many parts of eastern Chi-
huahua, it therefore seemed very improbable that any
Paleozoic rocks were exposed in this region. On the
other hand, the discovery could scarcely be doubted,
especially since Haack published? an account of the little
fauna of Permian age collected by Haarmann.

Haarmann distinguished two different Paleozoic for-
mations at Las Delicias. He considered as the older one
a series of at least 2000 meters thickness, the lower por-
tion of which is largely voleanic in nature and consists
mainly of pebbles and cemented sands; upward the
pebbles grow smaller and decrease in quantity; thick
beds of sands derived from volcanic rocks predominate
and might at first view be taken for weathered volcanics;
still higher follow dark to black marly shales and marls,
which contain geodes and beds of dark limestone. Haar-

* Hrich Haarmann, Geologische Streifziige in Coahuila. Zs. deutsch. geol.
Ges., 65, 1913, Monatsberichte.

? Wilhelm Haack, Ueber eine marine Permfauna aus Nordmexico nebst
Bemerkungen ueber Devon daselbst. Zs. deutsch. geol. Ges., 66, 1914.

is8 E. Boise—Permian of Coahuila, N. Mez.

mann called this series the Delicias beds and considered
it as pre-Permian, stating that remains of coral reefs
were lying unconformably on the Delicias beds in several
places, and that this higher series consists of a yellowish
gray, solid, massive limestone, especially well exposed at
the Pichagua. The limestone contains the faunule
described by Haack, composed of the following species:
Cyathaxona girtyt Haack, C. sp., Cladopora spinulata
Girty, Streptorhynchus(?) sp. 1, S.(?) sp. 2, Richthofema
permiana Shumard, Spiriferina haarmanm Haack, VS.
hilt Girty, Hustedia meekana Shumard, Dielasmina
guadalupensis Girty, Dielasma cf. biplex Waagen.

Haack also found fossils in rocks of the Delicias beds.
One of these he considered to be Gypidula aff. pseudo-
galeata, and others are a goniatite apparently related to
Sporadoceras, and a tabulate coral nearly related to
Alveolites goldfussi Billings. In thin slides remains of
Foraminifera were seen. Relying on his determinations
of the few fossils gathered from the Delicias beds, Haack
referred the latter to the Devonian, but thought that beds
of other age might be contained in the same series.

From the very beginning, it was evident that the dis-
covery of Haarmann was of the greatest importance for
either the tectonics or the stratigraphy of northern Mex-
ico. I therefore had a great desire to visit the locality
myself and to study the relations between the Permian
and the younger rocks, as well as that between the Per-
mian and the supposed Devonian. Unfortunately, for
many years the Hacienda de las Delicias has been the seat
‘of revolutionary chiefs and a visit to it was practically im-
possible. However, when political conditions in that part
of the country improved, during the early part of the
summer of 1920, I made two trips to the Hacienda de
las Delicias and made the field studies above outlined.
Of my results, which differ somewhat from those of
Haarmann and Haack, the following statement gives a
preliminary account.

My first visit was to the limestone cliff known as the
Pichagua, lying about 15 kilometers north of the hacienda
buildings and in the foothills of the Sierra del Sobaco. I
collected the fauna described by Haack, and other forms,
and soon gained the impression that the Pichagua cliff
was nothing other than a lenticular thickening of a lime-
stone bed intercalated in the Delicias series. A second
visit confirmed me in this belief; I followed this limestone

E. Bose—Permian of Coahwmla, N. Mex. 189

toward a small creek, where it could be easily observed
that it was normally lying between the sandy and shaly
beds of the Delicias formation. I then resolved to study
the relation between the cliffs and the Delicias beds in
another portion of the valley where I could also find
sufficient drinking water, and where the Delicias beds are
much better exposed than in the Arroyo de Wenceslao,
This place is a few kilometers farther south, near the
Noria de Malascachas, where a well dug in the Delicias
beds contains plenty of good water, a rather scarce
~ commodity in this region.

Here the Delicias beds compose the lower half of the
Sierra del Sobaco and show in several places cliffs of dark
limestone. I tried to make a cross-section and to collect
as many fossils as possible. |

A little east of Noria de Malascachas the Delicias beds
are cut off by a north-south fault which toward the east
brings the series into contact with a block of Cretaceous
limestone. The lowest portion of the Delicias exposed
here consists mainly of dark, thin-bedded or laminated
clays, alternating with thin to thick beds of greenish to
yellowish sandstone, mostly of igneous detritals. Some-
times the clays contain concretions of dark limestone with
scattering remains of undeterminable brachiopods, and
often Fusulina. The beds show a strong dip (45° and
more) toward the west. These rocks continue for about
150 to 200 meters higher stratigraphically; then the sand-
stone becomes coarser and passes into a conglomerate,
mainly of igneous material, the pebbles being large and
well rounded. Upward in the conglomerate occur eal-
careous concretions which also pass into the dark clay
and a few meters higher consolidate into a bed of lime-
stone. This forms-a small cliff on the crest of a spur of
the mountain but continues in the creeks on both sides
of the spur, without any interruption, as a solid bed of
dark limestone, becoming somewhat thinner with distance
from the lenticular swelling of the cliff. Higher strati-
eraphically the bed of limestone dissolves into a great
number of rounded blocks. These apparently are only
concretions imbedded in dark clay, and about half a meter
above the solid bed of limestone the dark clay predomi-
nates, reproducing here, as elsewhere, intercalated beds
of greenish sandstone. There can be no doubt that the
limestone is interbedded in the clay, sandstones, and
conglomerates of the Delicias beds, and that the little cliff

190 E. Bose—Permian of Coahuila, N. Mez.

is only a local and lenticular swelling of the limestone, as
the fossils both in the cliff and in the intercalated bed of
limestone are the same. I have called this place Malas-
cachas No. 1. The limestone is full of fossils nearly
everywhere, and I could distinguish the following forms:
Fusulina elongata, Composita cf. subpolita, Spuriferina,
Productus, Martima, Enteletes, and Camarophoria aff.
mutabis.

The fossils are well preserved; the limestones at times
are wholly made up of F'usulina, and the most common
forms of brachiopods are a rather large Enteletes and a
Composita.

About 20 meters higher stratigraphically occurs an-
other caleareous bed intercalated in the dark clays and
sandstones. It does not form a cliff here, but continues
with about the same thickness in the creeks on both sides
of the spur. This upper limestone is not as massive as
the lower one and is rather more thin-bedded or lami-
nated and somewhat marly, in such a manner that in
places the fossils weather out free and can be picked up
loose. Some of the thin layers are made up of Fusulina,
while others are composed entirely of brachiopods. The
fossils are somewhat crushed, but I could distinguish the
following forms in this locality, which I call Malaseachas
No. 2: Fusulina elongata, Productus aff. gratiosus, P.
sp., Spirifer aff. fasciger, Composita cf. subpolita,
Hustedia aff. meekana, Dielasma, Uncimulus, and
Lyttoma.

The next portion of the rock section is mostly com-
posed of dark clays alternating with greenish and brown-
ish sandstones, but part of it is not very well exposed.
About 200 meters stratigraphically above the last locality
the sandstones again dominate, showing here a yellow
to brown or even reddish color. Interbedded in them
occur zones of coarse conglomerate containing concre-
tions of limestone, while in other places a similar dark
limestone forms beds in the sandstone. I call this locality
Malaseachas No. 3, and from it I got the following forms:
Waagenoceras dieneri, Stacheoceras sp. nov., Martima,
Reticuliar (?), Composita cf. subpolita, Hustedia aft.
meekana, Richthofenia cf. uddent, Myalina aff. permiana,
corals and gastropods.

The ammonoids are very well preserved, and both
forms show the suture lines clearly and are easily deter-
mined. The brachiopods are somewhat crushed, but

E. Bose—Permian of Coahuila, N. Mez. 191

probably can be determined specifically. The Stache-
oceras belongs to the group with numerous saddles,
and resembles forms from the Sosio beds of Sicily. Of
Richthofenia I found only one specimen, but the other
brachiopods are numerous. The small Myalina is very
common.

From this level upward in the series clays and sand-
stones predominate; but about 50 meters higher we find
a zone of imperfectly bedded dark gray limestone con-
taining silicified fossils, mainly those described by Haack
from the Pichagua cliff. Then follows more dark clay
and sandstone, and finally a bed of dark limestone with
fossils, only about half a meter thick. Above comes more
dark clay and some sandstone and then a mass of partly
well bedded dark gray siliceous limestone at least 20
meters thick. I call this locality Malascachas No. 4. The
limestone here contains a great number of silicified
fossils, most of which belong to Richthofenia ef.
permana, and can be collected by the hundreds. There
are also corals, and Composita aff. subpolita, Uncinulus,
and other brachiopods, as well as Bryozoa. As in all the
lower beds, we lkewise frequently find here crinoid
_ stems, some of rather large diameter.

In its upper portion the limestone dissolves into
blocks and concretions imbedded in dark clay, then fol-
lows more dark clay for about 20 meters, and this in turn
is covered by a green sandstone of igneous detritals.

This sandstone is unconformably overlain by light
colored hard limestone containing oysters and, a little
higher up, Orbitolina texana. The limestone is medium
bedded and has a thickness of about 50 meters; in its
upper portion it passes into dark dolomites and light
colored thick bedded limestones alternating with beds of
white gypsum. The dolomite frequently contains in the
lower portion beds composed of Monopleura and higher
occur thick beds of light colored or reddish limestone
almost entirely composed of medium-sized Caprina or
related genera. Then follows the main mass of the
middle Cretaceous limestone composing the upper portion
of the Sierra del Sobaco.

The gypsum band of the Cretaceous is extremely char-
acteristic and can be distinguished from afar. It forms
a light-colored band along the whole Sierra del Sobaco,
and where the large north and south fault cuts the beds,
we see one whitish zone of gypsum high in the mountains

192 E. Bose—Pernuian of Coahuila, N. Mex.

and a second lower one a little above the plain of the
valley; the latter always lies about 50 meters above the
limit between the more strongly inclined Permian and
the less inclined Cretaceous. I first noticed this gypsum
bed immediately above the Hacienda de las Delicias
buildings and could follow it all through the range, but
it also exists east of the broad valley of Las Delicias and
in the lower portion of the Sierra del Venado.

The conditions described above show clearly that the
Pichagua limestone and the Delicias beds are both of the
same age and represent a portion of the lower Permian
(Permo-Carboniferous). The occurrence of Waageno-
ceras dieneri Bose proves that these beds correspond to
a rather high horizon of the lower Permian, the zone of
Waagenoceras or the Word formation of the Glass
Mountains and the Delaware beds of the Guadalupian in
the Delaware Mountains of Texas. I have found the
same Stacheoceras sp. nov. or a very nearly related form
in a collection of fossils from the Delaware beds made
by Charles L. Baker in the hills south of Guadalupe
Point in northwestern Texas. There is, however, a pos-
sibility that the lower portion of the Delicias beds
corresponds to the Leonard formation of the Glass
Mountains, but this can not be established as yet, since
no Perrintes has been found in it; the frequency of
Fusulina elongata makes it appear rather probable that
this part also belongs to the zone of Waagenoceras.

All the other fossils confirm our determination, espe-
cially the well preserved and very common Fusulina
elongata. I have found this form not only in the section
above Malascachas, but practically everywhere in the
black limestones of the Delicias beds, from the Canon
Angosto to the slope of the Sierra del Sobaco above the
Pichagua cliff. |

The higher limestones of the Delicias beds, which in
general are less dark and much more siliceous than the
lower ones, often contain great quantities of crinoid
stems; near the Puertecito (in the sunken block east of
the great fault) there are even actual crinoid limestones
which rarely show any other fossils.

The Delicias beds do not contain any Devonian species,
as Haack supposed. If the determinations of this author
are correct, he must have had some Devonian forms in a
pebble out of the conglomerates, but as he says expressly
that his Gypidula aff. pseudogaleata occurs in the ecal-

E. Bose—Permian of Coahuila, N. Mex. 193

careous cement of the conglomerate, I fear that he must
have confounded some other brachiopod with Gypidula;
unfortunately he does not give a figure of this specimen.
Our faunas are so rich in specimens and so evenly dis-
tributed over practically the whole thickness of the
Delicias beds, that there does not remain the slightest
doubt about the age of the entire series.

The petrographical character of the Lower Permian of
the Sierra del Sobaco is entirely different from anything
of the same age which I have seen in the Trans-Pecos
region of Texas or in New Mexico. The upper limestone
containing Richthofenia and those of the Pichagua eliff,
as well as others in the higher portion of the Delicias
beds, resemble to a certain degree the Word limestone of
the Glass Mountains, but the former are much more
irregular in distribution and far less in thickness. The
sandstones and conglomerates composed of igneous
detritals are different from anything I have seen in
Texas or New Mexico. I may also mention that near the
buildings of Las Delicias the Cretaceous rests on an in-
trusive mass of Paleozoic age, showing an abraded
surface and belonging either to the Permian or to a series
immediately below this formation. The intrusive is of
syenitic character. It is certainly not a post-Paleozoic
intrusion, as it is overlain by a green sandstone composed
of its material, about one or two meters thick, and in no
place intrudes farther into this sandstone or the Creta-
ceous limestone. These conditions are very well exposed
at and between the two springs which flow down to the
hacienda.

Notwithstanding these marked petrographical differ-
ences, the Permian of Las Delicias 1s most probably a
continuation of the Texas Permian, as is shown by the
character of the fossils.

Our section shows also the reason why the Paleozoic
rocks appear here on the surface of the Mesa Central.
The whole of the Trias-Jura-Neocomian is missing; we
have here probably the southernmost part of the large
Trias-Jura continent of Texas and New Mexico. The
Aptian, represented by the limestone and gypsum zone
with Monopleura and Orbitolina texana, rests uncon-
formably on the Lower Permian; the beds of the older
formation also show a much stronger dip than those of
the Cretaceous, and the strike is somewhat different.
The Trias-Jura continent did not extend much farther

Am. Jour. Sci.—FourtH Srries, Vou. I, No. 2,—FEsruary, 1921.

194 E. Bose—Perman of Coahwla, N. Mea.

south, because south of the depression between Torreon
and Saltillo we find again the uninterrupted Jura-
Cretaceous series. The probable west and east limits of
this continent will be discussed at another time.

I have tried to find the continuation of the Permian
farther north, and for this purpose have crossed the
desert between Cuatro Ciénegas and Sierra Mojada, but
have failed to find it there, as everything is covered by
middle and upper Cretaceous. Of course, there is a
possibility that Paleozoic rocks may be exposed farther
north.

With our conclusion that the Delicias beds and the
Pichagua limestone are of the same age, there arises the
question which of the two names should persist. J think
that it would be best to retain the name Delicias, not as
a denomination of a horizon but as that of a facies.. We
can not very well take the name of a small cliff of lime-
stone for this important series, but had better apply the
name of the hacienda in the territory of which le all of
the beds described.

Monterey, Nuevo Leon, Mexico, August, 1920.

O. Holtedahl—Permian of England. 195

Arr. XIITI.—On the Occurrence of Structures like Wal-
cott’s Algonkian Alge in the Permian of England; by
Oxuar HouTEDAHL. |

During his studies on the Paleozoic rocks of Finmarken
and Bear Island, the writer became acquainted with the
peculiar organism-like structures in dolomites and lhme-
stone which American paleontologists have generally
referred to Cryptozoon. In a summary of my strati-
graphical results in Finmarken published in this
Journal in 1919, the opinion was stated that the Crypto-
zoon ‘‘species,’’ such as Gymnosolen ramsayi described

Fic. 1.—Four-fifths nat. size. Compare with Newlandia frondosa Wal-
cott.

by Steinmann from northern Russia, can not be regarded
as real fossils which deserve generic and specific names,
but rather that this type of sedimentary rock must be
considered to represent ‘‘a chemical precipitation, one,
however, that probably came into existence through the
organic processes of living organisms.’’ Accordingly,
as a general term for these structures, which appear to
be genetically related to oolites, it was proposed that we
should use Kalkowsky’s name stromatolites.

As to the kind of organisms which may have played a
part in the process by which the stromatolite lamin were
precipitated, I mentioned, among others, the cells of blue-
green alge described by Walcott from Camasia spongiosa

Vol. 47, p. 96.

196 O. Holtedahl—Structures like Walcott’s

in his widely known paper on the ‘‘ Pre-Cambrian Algon-
kian algal flora.’’? Besides the species of Collenia, which
certainly also represent only variations of the stroma-
tolite structure, Walcott described a great number of
‘‘species’’ of algee whose beautiful structure and great
geologic age have caused no little sensation among geolo-
gists. From the Newland limestone of the Belt series are
described no fewer than six new genera, Newlandia,

Fig. 2.—Two-thirds nat. size. Compare with Newlandia frondosa Wal-
cott.

Camasia, Weedia, Kinneyia, Greysonia, Copperia, the
first mentioned with four, the rest with only one species.

Recently I happened to see several of these types of
structures in the Permian limestones of England and
should like to draw the attention of American geologists
to their occurrence. During a very short stay in New-
castle-upon-T'yne in June 1920, my friend Leonard
Hawkes, of Armstrong College, who knew of my interest
in these peculiar sedimentary structures, arranged an
excursion to the Permian magnesian limestone of the
Durham district in order to have me see its so-called

2C. D. Walcott, Smithson. Mise. Coll., 64, No. 2, 1914.

ce

Algonkian Alge in Permian of England. 197

coneretionary limestones. I was fortunate in having as
a guide Doctor D. Woolacott, who has studied the district
in great detail and published several important papers
on its stratigraphy and tectonics. We visited especially
the extensive Fulwell quarries, where the coneretionary
structures are seen in wonderful variation. Here there
are coneretions of the more ordinary sort, e.g., the
‘‘cannon ball’’ and the ‘‘botryoidal’’ types, along with a
great display of other more cellular structures, and

Fig. 3.—Three-fourths nat. size. Compare with Newlandia frondosa
Walcott.

among these I recognized at once several types which
struck me as being identical with those shown by Walcott
in ue splendid illustrations accompanying the paper
cited.

The many curious structures of these Permian lime-
stones were described in 1835 by Sedewick,? whose very
detailed and accurate descriptions give a clear account of
the great variety of these stromatolite structures in the
Permian limestone of eastern England. His illustrations,

° A. Sedgwick, Trans. Geol. Soc., London, 2d ser., 3, 37-124.

198 O. Holtedahl—Structures like Walcott’s

on the other hand, give no very distinct idea of their
character. In 1891, Garwood published a paper entitled
‘‘On the origin and mode of formation of the concretions
in the magnesian limestones of Durham,’” treating,
however, mainly concretions of the more ordinary types,
some of which are depicted. In the British Association
report for 1900, Abbott has an abstract of a paper on
these concretionary types, and two years later another
very short abstract.’ Trechmann in 1914 writes on
‘““The hthology and composition of Durham magnesian
limestones’’ and in an earlier paper has remarks on the
concretionary structures.° Other very important contri-
butions are Woolacott’s papers of 1912 and 1919."

Fic. 4.—Four-fifths nat. size. Compare with Greysonia basaltica Walcott.

The purpose of the present article is not to give a
detailed deseription of the Durham coneretions, since
such may be found in the papers above mentioned, and
since a full description with necessary illustrations will,
it is to be hoped, soon appear from the English investi-
gators, but rather to draw attention to the resemblance
of some of these Permian concretionary structures to
those of the Algonkian Newland limestone, and to illus-
trate this likeness by photographs of specimens which
were collected during the excursion and kindly sent to
Kristiania by Mr. Hawkes.

*H. J. Garwood, Geol. Mag., dec. 3, vol. 8, 434-440.

°G. Abbott, Rept. British Assoc. Adv. Sci., for 1900, pp. 737-739; Quart.
Jour. Geol. Soe., London, 59, 51, 1903.

°C. T. Trechmann, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., London, 70, 232-265, 1914;
Ibid., 69, 184-218, 1913.

7D. Woolacott, Proc. Univ. Durham Phil. Soce., 4, 241, 1912; Geol. Mag.,
dec. 6, 6, 452, 1919.

Algonkian Alge mm Permian of England. 199

Structure of the Newlandia type.—Walecott’s diagnosis
of Newlandia is (p. 104): ‘‘ More or less irregular semi-
spherical or frondike forms built up of concentric,
subparallel, subequidistant thin layers that may be con-
nected by very irregular, broken partitions.’’ By com-
paring my figure 1 with Walcott’s plate 6, especially
figure 2 (of N. frondosa), the strikingly similar features
will be seen. This lkeness is still greater between my
figure 2 and Walecott’s plate 7, figures 1 and 2, where the

Fig. 5.—Same specimen as in fig. 4. Vertical section through tubes.

concentric lamine are less strongly and less regularly
curved. My figure 3 shows a structure similar to his
figure 1 of the same plate, yet with somewhat thinner and
regularly spherical lamine. A small ball-like specimen
in my collection, 6 em. in diameter, shows a concentric
structure with the same very slight thickness of the
lamine as in Walcott’s illustrations of N. lamellosa,
plate 10, figures land2. There is no doubt that the same
structure can easily be found in larger masses, giving a
picture like those of Walcott.

Structure of the Greysoma type.—Waleott’s diagnosis
of Greysonia (p. 108) reads as follows: ‘‘Irregular,
eylindrical or tubular growth with relatively thin walls
except at the union of three or more tubes, where the
walls are thickened ... The tubes are large, irregularly
rhomboidal or pentagonal in section with the interior now
filled in with a dark bluish-grey limestone. The walls

200 O. Holtedahl—Structures like Walcott’s

or partitions represent the deposit made by the alge and
are now a buff-colored and grey magnesian limestone.
The ends of a group of the tubes filled in with the lime-
stone appear like a group of miniature basaltic columns,
and the base or lower side of the same tubes has irregu-
larly oval and round, concentrically marked forms that
appear to be the filling of the ends of the tubes ... The
walls are arranged in echelon and the fillings break out as
plates of columns.’’

Fic. 6.—Three-fifths nat. size.

As to the mode of growth, Walcott states: ‘‘As far as
indicated by the specimens collected by Mr. M. Collen the
cellular structure grew with the tubes more or less paral-
lel to the bottom and in some instances upright or at right
angles to the bottom.’’ Corresponding to this type we
have the ‘‘irregular cylindrical or conical pillars’’ of
Sedgwick and the ‘‘basaltiform’’ type of Abbott. I have
a specimen of this type and it is shown in figures 4 and 5.
The likeness between figure 4 and Walcott’s cross-
sections of G. basaltica (pl. 17, fig. 2; pl. 18, fess 12s
very striking indeed. In the Fulwell quarries the tubes
also occur at very different angles. Walceott’s genus
Copperia likewise belongs to this type of structure.

As to Camasia, I have no specimen that can be directly
compared with those of C. spongiosa figured by Walcott.
It should not be difficult, however, to find this type in the
Fulwell quarries if it were looked for especially. In

Algonkian Alge m Permian of England. 201

places the specimen shown in my figure 3 shows a similar
spongoid surface to that of Walcott’s plate 12, figures
1 and 2, and another specimen in my collection has a
distinet tubular type; the one of which a section is illus-
trated in figure 8 resembles considerably the C. spongiosa
of Walcott’s plate 9, figure 2.

It seems to me unlikely that anyone who compares the
illustrations here mentioned will doubt that the structures
from the Newland limestone of western America and

Fic. 7—Showing the vertical tubes strongly; seven-eighths nat. size.

those from the Permian limestone of England are iden-
tical in general character, or that they must have had a
similar origin.

It can not be said, because these structures which
Walcott has described as pre-Cambrian alge are also
found in the English Permian, that this argues against
their being of direct or indirect organic origin. On the
contrary, we may well expect similar structures also to
occur in post-Algonkian formations, and Walcott directs
attention to this possibility, since the blue-green alge
still are active as precipitators of lime. However, there
are other facts that oppose rather strongly the mode
of formation which he has assumed. Personally, I was in
the quarries only a couple of hours, and therefore do not
feel competent to go fully into the very complicated
question of how these very remarkable structures were
formed. It is evident, however, from what has been
written about them by the English workers, that all who
have studied these structures regard them as not having

202 O. Holtedahl—Structures like Walcott’s

been formed primarily, on the sea-bottom, but secondarily,
through alterations in the rock.

Sedgwick holds that the particles of the rock, ‘‘after
deposition, seem to have undergone great internal move-
ments,—to have run into lumps and masses more or less
crystalline,’’ ete. And he states concerning some plates
of the rocks which assume a discoidal form ‘‘and at first
sight might be mistaken for large Nummulites’’ (ef. the
plate-like Newlandia frondosa, Waleott’s plate 6, figures
1-3): ‘‘That these changes took place after the deposi-

Wy
HA i,

qu tp

ANT Uy, “ij

suidh sagt hing Pan AT)
MUTE Nh LEM LT

nit

\

Fig. 8—Above, one of the Fulwell quarry structures. Below, a laminated
fibrous crystalline aragonite. Both natural size.

tion of the rock, is rendered probable by the additional
fact, that the laminations of the beds may be often
observed to pass (without any deviation) through the
various subordinate concretionary masses.’’ Another
fact that indicates the secondary origin is that ‘‘the same
bed which in one end of a quarry is homogeneous, in the
other is almost made of these singular coneretions.’’* It
is also evident that Abbott and Trechmann regard the
structures as secondary, and Woolacott states in 1919:°
‘*As Sedgwick pointed out in 1835, the concretions were
formed after deposition, and I have shown that they must
have been mainly produced before the folding and dislo-
cation of the strata took place.’’ Again he says: ‘‘The

Op. ‘Cit. Po oes 05 ol

"Op. Cit. Pp. 405.

Algonkian Alge im Permian of England. 203

coneretionary limestones were originally dolomitic lime-
stones, and there can be little doubt that these rocks were
impregnated with sulphates and that the solution of these
brought the bed into a condition which gave the concre-
tionary forces full play; and further it would seem
highly probable that the complicated structures occurring
in these rocks were mainly produced when the beds were
saturated in solutions of calcium sulphate containing
colloidal organic matter. It is the presence of this latter
matter that causes the spheroidal condition.’’!°

From a study of the few specimens at hand, the inor-
ganic and secondary character of the structures seems
also to be evident. What is observed at once, both in the
field and in the literature, is that there generally is in
these structures every transition between the various
types, and that hence they can not well have the value of
‘‘oenera’’ and ‘‘species.’’ Abbott, who speaks of the
‘‘hundred or more patterns met with,’’ ike Woolacott,
distinguishes several main types (Abbott’s honeycomb
and coralloid; Woolacott’s spherical and cellular), and
these again each divide into minor varieties, but that
is all that can be done with them. We may find any
sort of variation and transition. As Sedgwick says,
there is no end to the modifications. The thickness
of the lamine varies, and the distinctness of the
radiating structure as well. In figure 6 very different
characters can be seen in this one specimen. In the
lower part, only the concentric lamine are seen, while
in the upper left-hand part, radially arranged tubes
are very distinct. These tubes or rods come into
existence by more or less conspicuous thickening of
the concentric lamine at regular intervals. The tubes
ean also be very slender, and the concentric lamine
only slightly indicated, as in figures 7 and 8 (top).

One feature that does not vary, however, is the arrange-
ment of these radiating rods or indications of rods
vertical to the concentric lamine. Where the lamination
curves, the directions of rods change correspondingly.
In the upper part of the specimen illustrated in figures
4 and 5, the tubes are straight and parallel, and here we
find a totally regular lamination, with the lamine in a

* The possibility of a primary deposition has, however, been mentioned
by Jukes-Browne (Geol. Mag., 1891, p. 528), and B. A. Green has suggested
(see Woolacott 1912, p. 270) that the rock was originally a tufaceous
deposit, the concretions being in part due to irregular precipitation, and in
part to later rearrangement.

204 Oe Holtedahl—Structures like Walcott’s

plane and quite parallel. This lamination is, however,
of another type than the more coarse irregular one which
is seen in the lower part of the same specimen. This
exceedingly fine lamination seems, to judge from the
pieces at hand, to be secondary in relation to the coarser
one. A similar lamination can also be observed in figure
6, cutting through the coarser structure. A fine lamina-
tion that might correspond to the one seen in my figure
6 seems also to cross the coarser structure of the Newlan-
dia frondosa in the specimen depicted in Walcott’s plate
6, figure 3. This lamination probably corresponds to the
‘‘bands’’ of Abbott (1900), which, as he says, ‘‘run
across the beds at various angles.’’ He states further that
‘the rods invariably start from the last-mentioned bands,
and may be seen at every angle.’’

The regular, ‘‘basaltic’’ tubes, the Greysoma structure,
thus are connected with one type of lamination, the more
irregular radiating rods or indications of rods of the
Newlandia structure with another, and as both types of
lamine are seen crossing each other, they can not well
both represent a primary structure, coming into existence
at the time of deposition. Even without this crossing,
one would judge that a structure like that shown in figure
4 is too geometrically regular to have anything to do with
organic deposition. Walcott also remarks (p. 109)
concerning the Greysonia that ‘‘it is difficult to conceive
of the tubular structure of Greysonia as a deposit made
by alge, but with the example of the varied forms of
recent deposits made by the blue-green alge (Cyanophy-
cee) and the other fossil forms described in this paper
we are prepared to consider Greysonia as of algal origin.’’

As far as can be judged from my specimens, the
coarser Newlandia structure cannot be of organic origin.
An individual like the one in figure 3 shows so great a
regularity that only one of two conclusions can be drawn:
either it represents a true organic skeleton, like that of a
huge Nummulites or Receptaculites, or it must be wholly
of inorganic origin. The recent ‘‘lake balls’’ that Walcott
figures have no regular radiating structure at all, nor
should such a structure be expected in a deposit of that
character. That we have a true skeleton no one assumes;
on the other hand, the regular spherical lamine of figure
3S may in other specimens be quite irregularly undulating,
as in figure 6, or practically straight, as in figure 5, lower
part. To judge from the specimens figured, without
taking into account the general view of the structures in

Algonkian Alge in Permian of England. 205

the rock, the only possible explanation other than that
the structures are due to secondary ‘‘concretionary’’
changes in the sedimentary mass, 1s that we have here
structures that might be compared to stromatolites and
oolites—primary deposits, yet not of a character that
would justify the introducing of generic and specific
names. Yet there are fundamental differences between
oolites and the specimens shown in figures 1 and 3, and
between stromatolites and specimens like those in figures
2,5, and 6. First among these differences is the great
thickness of the laminz when compared to the delicate
laminations of oolites and stromatolites (the corre-
sponding hot-spring and ‘‘sinter’’ calcareous deposits
included) ; another is the very considerable dimensions of
the spherical bodies here shown, a parallel to which is
not known from recent deposits. In addition, we see that
the spherical bodies often pass with their lamination into
each other, as may very distinctly be seen in parts of the
specimen depicted in figure 3, and even more so on the
other side of the specimen. The spheres are parts of a
large coherent mass. This feature contrasts decidedly
with the ordinary oolitic structure, but is not infrequently
seen in typical concretions, e. g., in chert nodules where
the lamine may be arranged around different centers,
yet the outer lamine of one sphere pass into the corre-
sponding ones of the neighboring spheres.

In the botryoidal concretions so common in the Fulwell
quarries, we have great clusters of coherent spheres that
suggest a somewhat similar mode of formation. A most
important feature of difference is the existence of a some-
times extremely strongly marked radiating element in the
Permian structures; a similar type of radiating rods is
not known in stromatolites and oolites. When there is a
radiating structure in oolites, it is due to crystal fibres,
while the rods of the structures here figured are made up
of fine-grained—sometimes extremely fine-grained—lime-
stone. We may have tube-like structures in the stromato-
lites, indeed these are very typical, but these tubes are,
when the rock is in an unchanged condition, not at all of a
similar regular type."!

Thus, judging from the general characters of the speci-

™ How a secondary chemical change of the rocks tends toward giving a
more regular, geometrically arranged pattern is illustrated in the regularity
of the silicified tubes in the stromatolite layer from the Alten district
figured in my article on Finmarken of 1919 (p. 93), when compared with
the figure on page 91 of the same paper whch shows the typical irregularly
tubular stromatolite structure of an unaltered dolomite.

206 O. Holtedahl—Permian of England.

mens illustrated in this paper, we are brought to think
of all these structures, as do the English geologists, as
being formed secondarily by very important radical
internal changes in the rocks. It has also been pointed
out by several of these investigators—and I wish to
emphasize this fact—that some of the characters of these
structures suggest those developed by crystallization
processes. Abbott (1900) points out the likeness of the
‘‘lines’’ and ‘‘planes’’ in the coneretionary beds to the
‘lines which shoot across congealing water.’’ I might
mention especially that the regular right-angle relation
between the direction of the concentric and vertical
element of the structures seems to be of a similar char-
acter to the right-angle relation so commonly seen
between the direction of the crystal fibres and the
concentric lamin in a laminated crystalline rock, taking
as an example a piece of laminated, fibrous, crystalline
aragonite like the one the structure of which is indicated
in the lower drawing of figure 8, or the well known
radiating fibres of calcite (or pyrite which by metasomatic
change has taken the place of calcite) in an ordinary lime
concretion.
That the changes in these rocks in general have been
ereat can not well be doubted, and this fact is certainly
proved by the Knglish investigators. Yet it is in the
residual material of a rock with a cellular structure
similar to that which is so common in the Durham
lhmestone that the extremely delicate chains of cells
representing parts of blue-green alge were observed.
In sections of specimens of Gallatinia pertexta, a ‘‘spe-
cies’? which, as emphasized also by Walcott, is certainly
very septaria-like, are reported minute remains of
bacteria. This fact may not seem to harmonize very
well with the idea of great internal changes in the
rock, but we have only to consider how very delicate
structures are often preserved in concretions of lime or
of silica, where a transportation of mineral matter has
also taken place, to realize that the secondary character
of the rock and the occurrence of minute cells of plants
are not mutually exclusive phenomena. The discovery
of alge and bacteria in pre-Cambrian strata, reported by
Walcott, has therefore lost none of its importance, even
if it should be found that these organisms are not respon-
sible for the many curious structures found in the Algon-
kian Newland limestone. ;

University, Kristiania, October, 1920.

Chemistry and Physics. 207

Seen NETH Le INT ELLIG ENCE.

T. CHemistry AND Puysics.

1. Perchloric Acid as a Dehydrating Agent in the Determina-
tion of Silica—H. H. Wiuarp and W. E. Coxe, of the Univer-
sity of Michigan, have found that the use of perchloric acid gives
‘marked advantages over the usual methods for this very
frequently required analytical determination. The dihydrate
of perchloric acid, HC10,.2H,0, boils at 203°C, and at this tem-
perature is a powerful dehydrating agent. Nearly all its salts
are soluble in the strong acid and in water, presenting in this
respect a great advantage over sulphuric acid for this purpose.
The pure acid has been on the market for some time, and
although still rather expensive it could be made more cheaply
if there were sufficient demand for it.

The method as applied consists in dissolving the metal or
silicate in hydrochloric or nitric acid, adding perchloric acid,
or dissolving directly in perehloric acid, evaporating to dense
fumes of the latter, boiling gently, in a covered beaker to avoid
undue waste of the acid, for 15 or 20 minutes to dehydrate the
silica, cooling and diluting with water. All salts are instantly
soluble and the -silica is filtered off and determined as usual.
It contains less impurity than when separated by the usual
methods. Moreover the silica remaining in solution is much less
than in the usual method of evaporation to dryness and treat-
ment with hydrochloric acid, so that except for the most accurate
work it can be neglected. The operation is simple and rapid.
Test analyses made by the authors upon very pure quartz sand
(after fusion with sodium carbonate), upon cements, limestones,
samples of willemite, irons, steels, aluminium and nickel gave
very good results. It seems probable that this new method will
find extensive application, both in scientific and technical analy-
sis.—Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 42, 2208. H. L. W.

2. The Chemistry and Crystallography of Some Fluorides of
Cobalt, Nickel, Manganese and Copper—lIt is sometimes desir-
able, perhaps, to call attention to a chemical article for the pur-
pose of showing that it is unsatisfactorily presented. Such
appears to be the case in this article by FLoyp H. EpmMistTrer
and Hermon C. Cooper, which takes up about 15 pages of an

important chemical journal. They have described the acid
fluorides

CoF,.5HF.6H,0
NiF,.5HF.6H,0
MnF,5HF.6

and CuF,.5HF.6

208 Scientific Intelligence.

Upon reading this article one would suppose that these com-
pounds were new ones, and of a new type. The authors refer
to some work by Bohm in 1905 upon acid fluorides of cobalt,
nickel and copper, and say, ‘‘The formulas assigned by Bohm
to these fluorides are of a strongly acid type.’’ Nothing further
is said about Bohm’s formulas, but upon consulting Bohm’s
article it appears that he described, besides others, the salts

GmbH RoE. O.
Ni) oH .GH,O:
and CoF’,.5HF.6H,0,

two of which are identical with those of Edmister and Cooper,
while the other one varies by only a single molecule of water.
Bohm described also the crystalline form of all of these salts.
There is no doubt that Edmister and Cooper should have
mentioned Bohm’s results.—Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 42, 2419.
ia Beaute "ss
3. Notes on Chemical Research, by W. P. DrEAPER. 12mo,
pp. 195. Philadelphia, 1920 (P. Blakiston’s Son & Co.).—This
book from England now appears in a considerably enlarged
second edition. It gives a general discussion of chemical
investigations, and is intended particularly for the use of young
chemists who are engaged or about to be engaged in industrial
work. The book is an interesting one and it gives much useful
information and advice. Many will not agree with the
opinion of the author that a post-graduate course of research
work in college is of doubtful advantage to the industrial
research chemist, but very probably this opinion is the correct
one in connection with most of the chemical manufactures in
England. The view is expressed that it is seldom that a man
can combine the experience and qualifications of a first-class
chemist and of an engineer; hence the combination of the two
professions in the ‘‘so-called chemical engineer’’ is not approved
of. H. L. -W.
4. Hlementary Chemistry for Coat-mining Students; by UL.
T. O'SHEA. 12mo, pp. 319. London, 1920 (Longmans, Green
and Co. Price, New York, $3).—This book has been prepared
for the use of a special class of students, for whom the ordinary
text book of chemistry is not well adapted, since it contains
much that is unnecessary for them to study, and since much
that it is desirable for them to know is not found in it. It
appears that the book is a very satisfactory one for its purpose.
It presents clearly the fundamental principles of the science,
it discusses particularly the elements occurring in coal, while
special attention is paid to the explosive, suffocating and poison-
ous gases that may occur in coal mines. The chemistry and
technology of coal and coke and the by-products are well
presented, while the discussions of explosives and explosions of

Chemistry and Physics. 209

gases and coal dust are particularly good. On account of its
excellent special features the book should be of interest to
many who are not directly connected with coal mining.

Ei. Wi

5. Creative Chemistry, by Epwin E. Stosson. 12mo, pp.
311. New York, 1920 (The Century Co.).—This book gives an
account of recent achievements in the chemical industries in a
popular and very forcible style. The subjects treated include
explosives, artificial fertilizers, coal-tar colors, synthetic per-
fumes and flavors, cellulose, synthetic plastics, rubber, sugar,
corn products, fats and oils, fumes for warfare, electric furnace
products, and metals and alloys. There are many excellent
illustrations, and an extensive list of references for reading 1s
appended. The book is an excellent one for the general reader,
and it appears to be well adapted to arouse the interest and
inerease the knowledge of chemical students. H. L. W.

6. The Thermionic Vacuum Tube; by H. J. VAN DER BIJL.
Pp. xix, 391. New York 1920 (McGraw-Hill Book Co.).—No
physical discovery or development of the last decade can
compare in importance with the vacuum tube, which certainly
ranks with the telephone, and possibly with the dynamo in its
value to our social economy. It is the fruitage of the patient
labors of two generations of scientists, and the principles of its
operation cannot be comprehended in any engineering rule of
thumb. The student who seeks to master its operation will
have need of a thorough preparation in physics and mathema-
ties.

The use of the vacuum tube was greatly stimulated by the
war and while much that was then discovered has possibly not
yet been released, the present treatise is easily the foremost
presentation of its theory and applications which has yet
appeared. Chapters I, II, Il], and V treat of the nature of
electrons, their release from bodies and the phenomena of ioniza-
tion. Chapter IV details the characteristics of various tubes,
a technical term meaning the functional relation between the
variables of the tube. Chapter VI explains the use of the
tube as a “‘valve’’ or rectifier. Chapter VII treats the three
electrode tube or audion as amplifier. Chapter VIII is devoted
to the tube as generator of electric oscillations. Chapter IX
explains the modulation and detection of currents, and Chapter
X discusses the function of the tube in a variety of other appli-
cations. :

This exposition of the author carries especial weight because
he oceupied for some time the position of research physicist with
the American Telephone and Telegraph Company and with The
Western Electric Company. F. E. B.

7. Ou en est La Météorologie; by ALPHONSE BrErRGET. Pp.
vu, 300. Paris, 1920 (Gauthier-Villars et Cie).—This is one of
a series of a dozen or more projected volumes (Collection des
Mises au Point), aiming to give a compendious presentation of

Am. Jour. Sct.— FirtTH Series, Vou. I, No. 2.—Frspruary, 1921.

210 Scientific Intelligence.

the present attainment in various branches of science. It con-
tains a general account of the composition of the atmosphere;
a study of its various properties and phenomena and an explan-
ation of the principles of weather prediction. It is obviously
a book of information for the interested reader rather than a
treatise for the more serious student. F. E. B.

8. Etude sur Le Systéme Solare; by\P. Reynaup. Pp. xiv,
82. Paris, 1919 (Gauthier-Villars et Cie).—Volumes of obser-
tions upon physical and astronomical phenomena are added to
our collections each year, but in spite of all the material little
progress is being made in coordinating it and deducing the laws
which govern the phenomena. The first statement of a law
will usually appear in some empirical relation. There was a
time when Kepler’s Laws and Mendeleeff’s Periodic Law were
simply empirical. The former have now a sound dynamical
basis, and the latter is fast developing from the theory of atomic
structure. The study of Dr. Reynaud is a commendable attempt
to discover whether any relation can be found to describe the
location of the planets in the solar system and the disposition
of the satellites about a planet. Bode’s law, despite its suecess-
ful prediction of the orbits of the asteroids and Uranus, could
not survive its failure in the case of Neptune, and has been
relegated to the mathematical curiosities. Reynaud considers
that since the evolution of any planet and its satellites has
followed the same laws as the evolution of the solar system
there must be some analogy in the spacing of the members of
the system, and he works out some rather striking relations or
at least coincidences. By arranging the planets in two groups,
between which the asteroids form the dividing line, it may be
seen that the distances from the sun in the first group fall
approximately into the suite 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 while those of the
second have 30 times the same numbers except that the place 1
is vacant in the first series and the place 30 X 8 in the second, or
we may assign to these places the hypothetical planets Vulcan
and Pluto. Now by introducing L = 26.25 million kilometers,
the lower limit for any possible planet, and D = 1.41 the specific
gravity of the sun, our author finds that the distance of any
planet may be expressed by a formula of the form L D™ where
m takes on integral values. The success of such a formulation
may best be judged by the following table in which the distances
are in million kilometers:

Calculated Observed
26.25 x 1.41 === Mee) Vulean ?
AG 2a aah ad)? =) 252, Mercury perihelion 46.0
26:25 x1 (1.41) * = 104 Venus nS 107
26:25 5614.) > == "146 Earth i 147
26320 x4 GeAl)® (== 206 Mars re 206
26.25 x (1.41) = 410 Asteroids 411

Chemistry and Physics. 911

Ameo x(l41)4° = 815 Jupiter aphelion 815
Bia (l4) 2? == 1621 Saturn a 1508
Pe x C4) **== $222 Uranus ts 3006
26.25 x (1.41) = 4543 Neptune ‘ 4542
26.25 x (1.41)** = 6407 Pluto ?

The perihelion distances have been quoted for the inferior
planets and the aphelion distances for the superior, on the
assumption that since the mass of Jupiter so far exceeds that of
any other planet it would influence the distances in khese
directions.

If it is surprising that this relation fits the planetary distances
so well, it is not less so that the author is able to apply a
similar formula to the satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus
with nearly the same success. As he remarks, ‘“‘if this law had
been established in 1891 it would have been possible to have
predicted with a high degree of precision the position of the
Sth, 7th, 8th, and 9th Satellites of Jupiter.’’ Fulfillment of
prediction would have given great weight to a hypothetical law,
and it is a field that is still open for there are several vacant
places in Reynaud’s tables. He has also developed curious
relations between the densities, the rotations and the inferior
limit of satellites but whether his formula is an approximate rep-
resentation of the progressive condensation of the solar nebula or
not, can hardly be answered until we have a better dynamical
theory of the evolution of a planetary system. F, E. B.

9. The National Physical Laboratory; Report for the Year
1919. Pp. 151 with 37 figures. London 1920 (His Majesty’s
Stationery Office)—A perusal of this report will leave the
impression that not all the consequences of the war are malign.
That critical period set on foot a great train of investigations
in the domain of physics, many of which promise a fruitful
harvest for the arts of peace. It is not possible to present any
resumé of such a report, but opening it casually one may find
illustrations of the kind of thing just mentioned.

P. 35. A eatalytic lamp in which the combustion of gasoline
proceeds without the production of flame. The products of
combustion and the hot air may be utilized on aeromotor- or
other engines as such lamps may be inserted under the hood
without danger of fire.

P. 60. The invention of a soft valve containing a silver
anode amalgamated with mercury. When used as a receiver for
loud wireless signals the illumination of the vapor due to colli-
sions makes it possible to read. signals by visual observation
of the tube.

P. 126. A successful study has been made of the alloys of
aluminum with copper and zine, with iron and silicon, and
with magnesium and silicon. Tests have been made of their
fitness for general castings; for working parts at high tempera-
tures, e.g. pistons of aero-engines; for wrought material for

912 Scientific Intelligence.

the structural parts of aeroplanes; for very thin sheets to serve

as a strong and non-inflammable covering for aeroplane wings.
A considerable section of the report is devoted to gauge

testing by means of optical projectors. Po EoeB.

Il. Grotogy anp MINERALOGY.

1. The Geology of Anglesey; by Epwarp GREENLY. Vols.
I and II, pp. 980, with 60 plates in the text, 17 folding plates,
and 346 text figures. - Memoir of /the Geological Survey of Great
Britain, 1919.—These two handsome volumes, excellently illus-
trated and well bound, embody the results of the author’s work
on the geology of Anglesey during a period of twenty-four years.
Greenly resigned from the Geological Survey in 1895, but, within .
a few weeks after his resignation, he began a detailed study of
Anglesey, being irresistibly drawn to this task by the fascination
of the crystalline schists. In appreciative recognition of his
work the Geological Society of London has lately awarded him
the Lyell medal.

Volume I deals with the Mona Complex, as the metamorphic
rocks of Anglesey are termed. They have long been of chief
interest in the geology of the island. They embrace an area of
200 square miles and are by far the largest area of metamorphic
rocks in southern Britain. They are of Pre-Cambrian age and
are 20,000 feet thick, exclusive of the gneisses upon which the
other members of the Complex are supposed to he unconform-
ably. The Mona Complex lends itself particularly well to a study
of the relation of the degree of metamorphism to the tectonics.
The author has been able to recognize three different successions
in the Complex: a stratigraphic, a tectonic, and a metamorphic.
The rocks have been folded into three master primary recumbent
folds, the horizontal amplitude of which is as much as 60 miles.
Superimposed on the primary folds are secondary and subordi-
nate folds, probably due to the same dynamic impulse that pro-
duced the major folding. The regional metamorphism of the
Mona Complex is of dynamic origin, and is ascribed to the super-
imposed foldings. The three primary recumbent folds, piled one
on the other, constitute three tectonic horizons, within each of
which the intensity of metamorphism progressively decreases
upward. Thus, a waxing and waning of metamorphism is
repeated thrice hypsometrically. The author explains this
remarkable sequence by the fact that although metamorphism is
a function of depth, it is a function of the thickness of the cover
that was present at the time it was developing, not of the cover
that may have been imposed after it had developed. Metamor-
phism may develop in a higher fold without appreciably intensi-
fying the crystalline condition of a subjacent fold. For the con-
version of the energy of folding into the molecular energy neces-
sary to effect metamorphism can take place only at the actual.
locus of folding, and the underlying fold was therefore metamor-
phically inert, dead, when the next recumbent fold was rolled
over it.

Geology and Mineralogy. 913

Volume II deals mainly with the rocks younger than the Mona
Complex. The Ordovician rocks are the next most important
after those of the Complex. They are described in detail, as are
also the later Paleozoic rocks, the Pleistocene glaciation, the
origin of the land forms, and the economic resources. Under the
latter is described, so far as present conditions allow, the old
copper mine of Parys Mountain, once the most productive cop-
per mine of Europe, which still yields annually a modest amount
of copper, cbtained, however, from the cupriferous waters that
flow from the old, caved-in workings. AD@OLPH KNOPF.

2. Abriss der Allgemeinen und Stratigraphischen Geologre ;
by Emanvuen Kayser. 2d revised edition. Pp. vill, 460, 212
text figs., 54 plates of fossils, 1 large geologic map, Stuttgart
(Ferdinand Enke), 1920.—Professor Kayser, formerly of the
University of Marburg, and now at Munich, is the author of the
widely used ‘‘ Allgemeine Geologie,’’? and ‘‘Geologische Forma-
tionskunde.’’ These books have become too detailed for under-
eraduates, and in the present ‘‘Abriss,’’ now in its second ed1-
tion, he has presented the earth sciences for this class of students.
Less than one-half of the text (195 pages) is devoted to physical |
_ geology, while the greater part (224 pages) deals with historical
geology. We see therefore that in Germany historical geology is
held to be equally as important as dynamic and structural geol-
ogy, a viewpoint far less popular in this country. The book has
an excellent geologic map of central Hurope, and is a good volume
for American teachers to have on their shelves. Gist

3. The Geology and Mineral Resources of Bexar County; by
E. H. Senuarps. Univ. of Texas Bull., No. 1932, pp. 169, 1 pl.,
1 map, 6 text figs., 1919 (1920).—This report treats at length of
the geologic and economic resources of the Lower and Upper
Cretaceous and Cenozoic formations, having together a thickness
of over 4,800 feet. They rest upon ancient schists. The out-
crops of the formations are mapped. Gast

4. The Geology of Tarrant County; by W. M. Winton and
Woe) Aspens. Univ: of Texas Bull., Ne. 1931, pp. 122, 6 pls., 2
maps, 6 text. figs., 1919 (1920).—Here is described and mapped
the geology of the Fort Worth area, the surface strata being in
the main of the Lower Cretaceous. The various formations are
discussed in considerable detail, with lists of their characteristic
fossils. — Chis:

5. Mineralogy: an Introduction to the Study of Minerals
and Crysials;-by EK. H. Kraus and W. F. Hunt. Pp. 561, 696
figs. in the text. McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1920.—This latest addi-
tion to the list of elementary mineralogies has many features that
will commend it to the instructor of mineralogy. It covers all
the different branches of the field, is concise and well written,
and on the whole is unusually well illustrated. A novel and
attractive feature is the inclusion of a number of photographs
of eminent mineralogists with added brief biographical state-
ments. These serve to give an historical perspective to the sub-
ject that is as pleasing as it is unusual.

214 Scientific Intellugence.

It is to be questioned if it is worth while to include in an
elementary book a brief and therefore necessarily unsatisfactory
treatment of the difficult subject of the optical properties of
crystals. The determinative tables which are based upon the
physical properties of minerals seem to be unnecessarily bulky
and consequently difficult to use. Ww. E. F.

6. The Ore Deposits of Utah; by B.S. Butusr, G. F. Lougu-
Lin, V. C. Herkes and Others. U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Paper
111, 1920. Pp. 672, 74 figs., 57 pls——This is the second profes-
sional paper to appear detailing the geology and ore deposits of
a single state. In 1910 a similar report on New Mexico was pub-
lished and reports dealing with other states are in preparation.
While a large part of the material in the present volume has
been previously published in other reports, the gathering of it
together in a condensed form into a single volume and including
with it a general study of the ore deposits of the state makes it a
most valuable addition to the literature of economic geology.
From this study of the state as a whole has come the following
important generalization.

The value of an ore deposit found in connection with an
igneous stock will be largely determined by the amount of erosion
the stock has undergone. Deposits around the apex of stocks are
larger and more valuable than those located at greater depths in
and around the stock. Consequently stocks that have been least
eroded will be more favorable as locations of ore deposits. The
amount of erosion of a given stock can be estimated from the
chemical character of the igneous rocks exposed. The lower
portion of the stock is uniformly more siliceous, the character of
the rock changing from monzonite and diorite at the apex to
granodiorite and granite at greater depths. | W..E. F.

OBITUARY.

Dr. Henry A. Bumsteap, professor of physics and director of
the Sloane Physical Laboratory at Yale University, and for the
past half-year on leave from the University as Chairman of the
National Research Council of Washington, D. C., died suddenly
on the train on the night of December 31 while returning to
Washington from Chicago. A notice is deferred until a later
number.

Sir WILLIAM DE WIVELESLIE ABNEY, the gifted English astron-
omer, died on December 2 at the age of seventy-seven years.

PERCIVAL SPENCER UMFREVILLE died at Harpenden, England,
at the age of sixty-two years. His chief work was in physical
chemistry, dealing with the phenomena concerned in the forma-
tion and solution of salts.

WiuuiAM ArrHur Howarp, research fellow in the Imperial
College of Science and Technology, died suddenly as the result of
a laboratory accident on December 6 at the age of twenty-six
years.

Dr. Yves Denace, professor of zoology in the University of
Paris, died recently at the age of sixty-six years.

=

f (aro's aay ATURAL BS cence ESTABLISHMENT

A Supply-House for Sclonuire Material.
Founded 1862. a Incorporated 1890.

A few of our recent circulars in the various
. departments:

Geology: J-32. Descriptive Catalogue of a Petrographic Col-
lection of American Rocks. J-188 and supplement.
_ Price-List of Rocks.
Mineralogy : J-220. Collections. J-225. Minerals by Weight.
. J-224. Autumnal Announcements.
Paleontology: J-201. Evolution of the Horse. J-199. Palw-
ozoic index fossils. J-115. Colleciions of Fossils.
Entomology: J-33. Supplies. J-229. Life Histories. J-230.
‘Live Pupe.
Zoology: J-223. Material for dissection. J-207, Dissections
of Typical Animals, etc. J-38. Models.
Microscope Slides: J-189. Slides of Parasites. J-29. Cata-
logue of Slides.
Jaxidermy: J-22. North American Birdskins. Z-31. General
Taxidermy. #
Humen Anatomy: J-37. Skeletons & Models.
General: J-228. List of Circulars & Catalogues.

Ward’s Natural Science Establishment
84-102 College Ave., Rochester, N. Y., U.S. A.

“SCIENTIA”

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC SYNTHESIS. Jsswed monthly (each

* number consisting of 100 to 120 pages). Editor: EUGENIO RIGNANO.

This its the only review which has a really international collaboration ; which is
of world-wide circulation and occupies itself with the synthesis and unification of
Knowledge, in the history of the sciences, mathematics, astronomy, geology, physics,
chemistry, biology, psychology and sociology.

This Review studies all the most important questions—demographic, ethnographic,
economic, financial, juridical, historical, politicali—raised, by the world war.

Tt has published articles by Messrs.; Abbot =Arrhenius -Ashley = Bayliss - Beichman-=
Bigourdan = Bohlin = Bohn= Bonnesen = Borel = Bouty = Bragg = Bruni = Burdick = Carver -=
Caullery = Chamberlin = Charlier = Claparede = Clark = Costantin - Crommelin = Crowter =

[ Darwin = Delage = De Vries = Durkheim = Eddington = Edgeworth - Emery = Enriques =

Fabry = Findlay = Fisher = Fowler = Golgi = Gregory = Harper = Hartog = Heiberg - Hinks-
Hopkins-Inigues-Innes-Janet-Kaptein-Kaye-Kidd-Lan gevin-Lebedew-Lloyd Morgan-=
Lodge = Loisy =- Lorentz = Loria -Lowell - MacBride = Meillet =-Moret-Muir-Peano -Picard =
Poincare - Puiseux - Rabaud = Rey Pastor = Righi-Rignano-Russell-Rutherford-Sagnac =
Sarton= Schiaparelli= Scott = See = Sherrington = Soddy = Starling = Svedberg = Thomson =
Thorndike=-Turner -Volterra=Webb-Weiss = Zeeman-Zeuthen and more than a hundred
others.

** SCIENTIA’’ publishes its articles in the language of its authors, and joins to the
principal text a supplement containing the French translations of all the articles that
are not in Freneh. (Write for a Specimen Number to the General Secretary of
“Seientia”’, Milan.) Annual subscription: 40 sh., or 10 dollars post free.

Office : 43 Foro Bonaparte, Milan, Italy.

Publishers: WILLIAMS & NORGATE-London; FELIX ALCAN -Paris
NICOLA ZANICHELLI-Bologna; WILLIAMS &
WILKINS CO-Baltimore.

ee ee

textilis Marsh ; by RS) Luin With Plates I to Iv

Art. VIII.—Outline of the Application of the Theory of Spe
Groups to the Study of the Structure of Peyetatss by R

3 WG Werde om ooo ren aigee Yeh ont eget
% soe Art. [X.—Crystal Structure of Masecent Oxide; wy
Pen G. Wxexorr.. oct oe, gee es

ae Arr, XI. fe ase of Souci Igneous. infusion to ‘ee
ora gional Metamorphism (continued); by J. Barrenn.... a

Art. XIT.—Permian of Coahuila, Northern Mexico; by EL
Bad ieabkes ian ees ee ae sg Oe ae - eae

Art. XIII. EH sarerdbce of Structures like Walcott’s Ae . ae
kian Algw in the Bos mian of England; by O. HorEepan

es

$e
cae

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, : ee, aoe

| | Chemistry and Physics—Perchlorie Acid asa Dehydrating Agent in the Deter- /
mination of Silica, H. H. Winnarp and W. &. Coxu: Chemistry ‘and |
ese Crystallography of Some Fluorides of Cobalt, Nickel, Manganese ey
tag Copper, F. H. Epmister and H. C. Cooper, 207. ‘_Notes on Chemical Re-—
search, W. P. DREAPER: Elementary Chemistry for Coal-mining Students ; ee
Eyvt. ‘O'SHEA, 208.—Creative Chemistry, E. E. Stosson: Ot en est La |
Météorologie, A. BencEr, 209. — Etude sur Le Systéme Solaire, P. REYNAUD,
210.—The National Phy sical Laboratory, Report for the Year 1919, 21. “

Allgemeinen und Stratigrapbischen Geologie, E. KAYSER: es oi,

Mineral Resources of Bexar Co.. Texas, E. H. SELLARDS: Geology of Tarrant —

County, W. M. Winton and W. S. ADKINS : Mineralogy, an Introduction ‘|

i the Study of Minerals and Crystals, E. H. Kraus and W. F. be i
18.—Ore Deposits of Utah, B. S. BUTLER, 214.

| Geology and Mineralogy—Geology of Anglesey, EH’ GREENLY, 212. nen ers
|

Obituary—H. A. BumstEap: W. DEW, ABney: P. S. ee Wo Ae
Howarp: Y. DELAGE, 214. z Ae

THE

¥
|
a.
4
6
1B”
\
i

| sourwaL or science. | —

Evrror: EDWARD S. DANA. ee a

ASSOCIATE EDITORS be 2

p

| Prowsssons WILLIAM M. DAVIS ann REGINALD A. DALY, | | Se

ie oF CAMBRIDGE, 4

ee Joe HORACE L. WELLS, CHARLES SCHUCHERT, ;
‘ _ HERBERT E. GREGORY, WESLEY R. COE anp

Me _ FREDERICK E. BEACH, or New Haven, ay)

SS _Proressor EDWARD W. BERRY, or Battimore, : m

‘Drs. FREDERICK L. RANSOME ann WILLIAM BOWIE, | ;
OF WASHINGTON.

FIFTH SERIES
VOL. I-[WHOLE NUMBER, CCI]. | Bt
No. 3—MARCH, 1921. ae

NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.

dae! Wee

THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 128 TEMPLE STREET,

shed monthly. Six dollars per year, in advance. $6.40 to countries in the -
ion ; $6.25 to Canada. Single numbers 50 cents; No. 271, one dollar.
d-class ees at the Post Office at New Haven, Conn., under the Act

Uy :
if ea
s
* = FF saat
xe 6 el Pe, acy
=. Sag ee

‘THE CHEMICAL a
OF ROCKS |

By Henry S..Washington, Ph.D.

A SELECTION of practical methods for the chemical analysis of silicate || —
rocks, and especially those of igneous origin. The new edition hasbeen |} —
thoroughly revised and considerably enlarged. The various procedures are || _
so described that they may be readily carried out by one working in a laboratory Wes

that is not provided with all possible facilities. Se

‘Chemical Analysis of Rocks” has 271 pages, 6 by 9 inches, — its price is
$2.50 postpaid.

ROCKS AND ROCK-MINERALS

A Manual of the Elements of Petrology Without the Use of the ||
Microscope. a eee
By the late Louis V. Pirsson.

CONCISE and practical treatise which handles the rocks and rock-minerals
A entirely from the megascopic standpoint. It meets the wants of many
who have to consider rocks from the scientific or practical point of view and
who are not in a position to use the microscopic methods.
Field geologists, engineers, chemists, miners, - ete., will find this book a
particularly handy work of reference.

‘‘Rocks and Rock-Minerals” has 414 pages, 5 by 74 inches — 74 figures,
36 full-page plates, $3.50 postpaid.

Let us send you these valuable books for Free Examination

Write TO-DAY

JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.
432 Fourth Avenue, New York
London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.

Canada:
Renouf Publishing Co.

AJ8-3-21

THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Pirie Ss heh Es’: | aye

Art. XIV.—John Day Promerycochen, with Descrip-
tions of Five New Species and One New Subgenus; by
Matcotat RuTHERFORD THORPE.

[Contributions from the Othniel Charles Marsh Publication Fund, Peabody
Museum, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. |

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Introduction.
Geological sketch.
Geographic distribution of species.
Description of species.
Promerycocherus superbus (Leidy). P. inflatus, sp. nov.

P. chelydra (Cope). P. marsh, sp. nov.

P. macrostegus (Cope). P. microcephalus, sp. nov.

P. leidyi (Bettany). Desmatocherus curvidens, subgen.
P. lulli, sp. nov. et sp. nov.

P. latidens, sp. nov.
Synopsis of John Day species.

INTRODUCTION.

One of the most remarkable features of the specimens
of the John Day genus Promerycocherus in the Marsh
Collection is the unusual variation shown in the tooth
structure. Styles are developed on the molar teeth, both
from the cingulum and from the cone itself, with such
frequency that they become of no value for specific deter-
minations. The metastyles of M® exhibit great variation
in size and in robustness, as well as in the degree of
inward rotation. Likewise, there is variation in the pro-
portions of size between the superior molars in different
individuals. It is interesting to note in this connection
‘that the paratype of Merycocherus proprius Leidy' has

. 1 Joseph Leidy, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia (2), 7, 110, 380, pl. 10,
fig. 5, 1869. This paratype is No. 445, U. S. National Museum, and was:
found near Ft. Laramie, Wyo.

Am. Jour. Sci.—FirtuH Srertgs, Vou. I, No. 3.—Marcg, 1921.

216 M. R. Thorpe—John Day Promerycocheri,

a small style developed from the hypocone, of which it
is an integral part. |

There is also great variation in the size, shape, and
curvature of the zygomatic process, including the malar
below the orbit. These variations do not correlate with
the size of the canine, and do not appear to be a sexual
character, as Scott? pointed out, and as studies of the
present material likewise show. The development of the
zygoma in this group is so remarkable as well as unusual
that it must possess considerable significance. The chief
function was apparently to furnish sufficient surface for
attachment for the powerful muscles necessary in the
mastication of the coarse food upon which these animals
subsisted. It has been suggested that these processes
may indicate the presence of some external embellishment,
as for example, the excrescences on the African wart-hog.

There is likewise a very marked variation in the various
skull elements, while the various parts of the skeleton
have changed but very little, except in size, from those of
the earlier EKporeodons. ‘This variation is due, probably,
to some external causes which are reflected in the skull,
where the greatest evolution is localized in all of-the
genera of the Oreodontide (Merycoidodontide). The
John Day representatives of the genus Promerycocherus
became extinct, so far as now known, with the close of the
Oligocene. To what causes these variations and extinc-
tion are due, is not clear. Possibly a changing climate
with its concomitant floral changes was responsible, or a
different environment caused by the former habitat
becoming uninhabitable through the influx of poisonous
gases, or ash falls occurring with sufficient frequency and
volume to render the area barren and devoid of life.
Racial old age or emigration may have been contributing
factors. The chief consideration is that this group of
large animals became extinct and that, before extinction,
they had begun to vary to a great degree. Many other
eroups also became extinct in this basin with the end of
Oligocene times, such as Eporeodon, Agriocherus, Meso-
hippus, Protapirus, Elotherium, and many of the carni-
vores and rodents.

In connection with the present study of Promeryco- °
cherus, the writer wishes to express his appreciation of
the courtesy shown him by Messrs. Matthew and Granger,

*'W. B. Scott, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., 17, 151, 1893.

with Descriptions of New Species. 917

of the American Museum of Natural History, in allowing
him to measure and study the Cope types of this genus.
The illustrations of the new species were made by Mr.
Rudolf Weber.

GEOLOGICAL SKETCH.

In view of the fact that the specimens of fossil verte-
brates in the Marsh Collection, from the John Day forma-
tion, obtained approximately fifty years ago, are now
being intensively studied and described, it is interesting
to note that Professor Marsh wrote the earliest general
discussion of the geology of this basin of deposition, and
that he first proposed the name, John Day, for these
deposits. This name has become firmly established in
geologic nomenclature in spite of the many substitutes
which have been proposed.

In 1875,? Marsh wrote:

‘‘The Blue Mountains formed the eastern and southern shores
of this lake, but its other limits are difficult to ascertain, as this
whole country has since been deeply buried by successive outflows
of voleanic rocks. It is only where the latter have been washed
away that the lake deposits can be examined. The discovery and
first explorations in this basin were made by Rev. Thomas Con-
don, the present state geologist of Oregon. The typical localities
of this Miocene basin are along the John Day River, and this
name may very properly be used to designate the lake-basin.
The strata in this basin are more or less inclined, and of great
thickness. One section, near the John Day River, examined by
the writer in 1871, and again in 1873, seems to indicate a thickness
of not less than 5,000 feet. The upper beds alone of this series
correspond to the deposits in the White River basin. The lower
portion also is clearly Miocene, as shown by its vertebrate fauna,
which differs in many respects from that above. Beneath these
strata are seen, at a few localities, the Eocene beds containing
fossil plants, mentioned above. They are more highly inclined
than the Miocene beds, and some of them show that they have
been subjected to heat. The inferior strata elsewhere are Meso-
zoic, and apparently Cretaceous. Above the Miocene strata, Plio-
ae beds are seen in a few places, but the basalt covers nearly
a se zh

This basalt is the Columbia lava flow which delimits
the upward range of the John Day. The estimate of
0,000 feet, made above, seems somewhat excessive,
although southerly at Logan Butte the strata exceed

*O. C. Marsh, this Journal (2), 9, 52.

218 M. R. Thorpe—John Day Promerycochert,

4,000 feet, while north of the mountains in the fossil
localities, Merriam+ considers that the John Day does not
exceed a thickness of much over 2,000 feet.

The John Day formation is divided into three levels,
designated as lower, middle, and upper. Paleontologi-
cally, the lower has no designation, but the middle is
termed the Diceratheruwwm zone (Wortman), and the
upper the Promerycocherus zone (formerly Meryco-
cherus). The writer considers the designation of the
middle zone a misnomer.

Lower John Day.—This division of the John Day is
practically barren of fossils. it hes unconformably°
upon the Upper EHocene Clarno formation, and consists
of red, white, and green tufaceous shales. Collier,®
however, says it overlies the Clarno ‘‘with apparent
conformity.’’ This division is between 200 and 300 feet
thick and the shale is soft and easily eroded. ‘The char-
acteristic erosion topography consists of low rounded
mud-covered domes. Collier’ considers these beds of
possible Kocene age, to be regarded as part of the Clarno.

Middle John Dar y.—This division is characterized by
drab and bluish green andesitic tuffs, ranging in thickness
from 500 feet at Turtle Cove to 1,000 feet at Bridge
Creek. Thin rhyolitic flows are interbedded in the strata.
Erosion sometimes produces rounded hills, but more
often steep pinnacles and cliffs. Layers of nodules are
common and characteristic, in contrast to both the lower
and upper divisions. This middle division has furnished
the greater number of fossils. The structure shows
some tilting and deformation of the strata but not to as
great a degree as the lower division.

Upper John Day—The upper John Day, 300 to 400
feet thick, is composed chiefly of buff colored tuffs or ash
deposits, often overlain by sand and gravels at the top.
Erosion produces steep cliffs and bluffs.

At Bridge Creek and Turtle Cove the whole section of
the John Day is exposed, while at Clarno the lower and
middle beds are well shown. Along Haystack Valley,
chiefly upper, but some middle strata are exposed. The

4J. C. Merriam, Univ. Calif., Bull. Dept. Geology, vol. 2, 293, 1901.

ir ee ear and W. J. Sinclair, Univ. Calif., Bull. Dept. Geology, vol.
e J. Collier, Min. Res. of Oregon, Oregon Bur. Mines and Geology, 1,

13, ein
7 Op. cit., p. 14,

with Descriptions of New Species. 219

lower division is apparently the most disturbed, while
the middle and upper are but slightly folded, faulted, and
tilted in different localities. The mode of deposition of
the John Day is still an open question, but in general, the
sediments were probably laid down chiefly by zolian, but
partly by fluviatile agencies, and not wholly by lacustrine
as many writers formerly supposed. Whether the ash
was poured out in great volume from neighboring vents or
whether it was gradually blown into the atmosphere can
not be definitely decided at present. If the former, it
must have caused the death of great numbers of indivi-
duals, and the fact that many specimens of Eporeodon
and Promerycocherus with milk dentition are represented
in the collection may have some bearing on the question,
which further studies may help to solve.

The geology of the North Fork of the John Day River
is but little known, although it is one of the critical areas
of this basin. Geologically, it is important as showing
a divergence from the typical John Day formation as
elsewhere exposed, in that it exhibits red beds at or near
the top. At all other localities in this area, the red beds
are apparently confined to the lower John Day. At least
one fossil horizon is dark chocolate in color of matrix.
Other geologic peculiarities exist in this locality, which
are not pertinent to so brief a discussion as this one. On
the whole, these beds are probably mainly upper John
Day with perhaps some exposures of the middle. Paleon-
tologically, the North Fork fauna is different from that of
the rest of the basin. Two of the new species herein
deseribed were found in this area. Cope indicated this
faunal distinction in 1884, and the material of other
groups in the Marsh Collection, in so far as it has been
worked up and studied, points to the same conclusion.
For the present it will be necessary to forego any positive
statements regarding either the age or the geologic
sequence of this locality, but it is evident that the geology
and fauna are both largely distinct in the North Fork
region from those of the rest of the basin.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES.

The majority of the specimens of Promerycocherus in
the Marsh Collection bear accurate field labels, but there
are a few of doubtful locality, although from the matrix,
and from the letters of the field men, which state where

220 M. R. Thorpe—John Day Promerycocher,

they were collecting at definite periods, this doubt seems
very nearly to vanish. The geographic distribution of
the various species may be tabulated as follows:

N. Fork
Bridge Turtle Haystack Clarno John Day
Creek Cove Valley Bottom Rivert

Pesuperhus (4.3 028 eae a: 20+7* 342 a |

POGUE, Gee cee pes om mens |e RF 1

PY ACCT OSNCOUS. debs: nt ella 3 14+2 1+8

PCT OUUS. Ws See ae oe 1

Pehelyara Veritas O+1 141

Phil Msp. Meret 1

P. microcephalus, n. sp... O+1

Po marsh nad spy oaks oe 1

Platidenscnspe <iaeee 1

Desmatocherus curvidens, +i CR
subgen. et sp. nov...... . 1

* The second figure refers to specimens of doubtful locality.
t Fifteen miles above junction with main stream.

Up to the present, it has been considered that Promery-
cocherus was limited to the upper John Day, but if it is
assumed that the green matrix is confined to the middle,
and the gray and buff to the upper horizon, then, using
70 specimens in this collection as a basis, it is found that
approximately 14 per cent were collected in green strata
and hence belong to the middle John Day. The remain-
der, 86 per cent, were enclosed in gray or buff matrix,
with the exception of two specimens showing brown coun-
try rock. The species having representatives formerly
enclosed in matrix bearing an undoubted green color are
as follows: P. leidyi,1; P. macrostegus, 3; P. superbus,
Dae a Pe, Le er ocephalus, 1; and Desmatocherus
cur videns, Ae

In regard to individual age, again using these 70 speci-
mens as a basis, 11.5 per cent have milk dentition, 75 per
cent are fully adult and about middle-aged, while 11 per
cent are post-mature and the remainder very old.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.
Promerycocherus superbus (Leidy).

Synonyms: Oreodon superbus Leidy, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Phila., 22, 111-112, 1870; EHporeodon superbus Marsh, this Jour.
(3), 9, 250, 1875; Eucrotaphus superbus Cope, Bull. U. 8. Geol.

with Descriptions of New Species. 291

Surv. Terr., vol. 5,59, 1880; Merycochawrus superbus Cope, Proc.
Amer. Philos. Soc., 21, 521-523, 1884; Promerycocherus super-
bus Douglass, this Jour. (4), 11, 82, 1901; Paracotylops super-
bus Matthew in Merriam, Univ. Calif., Bull. Dept. Geology, vol.
2, 296, 1901; Merycocherus temporalis Bettany, Quart. Jour.
Geol. Soc., London, 32, 269-272, pl. 17, 1876.

Cotypes: No. 516, Condon Collection, Univ. of Oregon; Cat.
Nos. 10151, 10152, 10153, 10967, 10968, Yo Poe EA eeom:
Upper Oligocene (upper John Day), Bridge Creek, John Day
River, Oregon.

History.—Since this species has been subjected to so
many changes in its classification, it is pertinent briefly to
review its history. The attention of paleontologists was
first directed to Oregon in 1870, when Leidy reported on
a collection of vertebrate fossils sent to the Smithsonian
Institution by the Rev. Thomas Condon, of Dalles City,
Oregon. These fossils were collected by Mr. Condon in
the valley of Bridge Creek, John Day River, Oregon.
Most of these specimens belonged, Leidy said,
‘Capparently to a species of Oreodon, larger than any previously
discovered and equalling in size Merycocherus proprwus.
Indeed, so far as we are familiar with the skull of both, the two
are so nearly alike that one may be regarded as only a variety of
the other, or at most both may be viewed as distinct species of
the same genus. I am, however, disposed to view one as the
offspring, by selection, of the other, and regard them as corre-
sponding species of two genera which existed in different times
or localities.’’

The characters of the species, as outlined in this report,
are as follows: Form and constitution of cranium same
as in Oreodon culbertsonu; large inflated bulle; face
rather more abruptly narrowed in advance of the orbits
than in Oreodon major, but not to the same degree as in
Merycocherus proprius; infra-orbital arch 114 inches
deep; orbits small; lacrymal fossa shallow, as in Oreodon
gracilis; infra-orbital foramen above P*; jaws not so
robust as in M. proprius, and bone less thick; length of
skull, 14 inches; crown of inferior canine (P,) one inch
wide ‘antero-posteriorly, and the three succeeding premo-
lars oceupy 2 1/3 inches.

In 1871,° Leidy briefly re-described this species, adding
that the canines and premolars are proportionately wider
and thinner than in the Badlands Oreodon. Up to 1873,
there had been no published illustrations of the species,

§ Joseph Leidy, 2d (4th) Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Survey Terr., 346-347.

222 M. R. Thorpe—John Day Promerycochen,

but during the year Leidy’s ‘‘ Contributions to the Extinet
Vertebrate Fauna of the Western Territories’’ was
issued, which contained a lateral view of the skull, and
tooth, jaw, and skull parts. In this reference Leidy notes
that ‘‘in most of the specimens the temporal surface
slopes from the sagittal crest with a slight sigmoid
curve’’; the course of the squamous suture is followed
by a pair of grooves, one in front and the other behind,
the former being the more prominent. The bulle are
ovoidal, with the antero-posterior diameter the greater,
and they extend from the paramastoid process to the
middle line of the glenoid articular surface, and project
below it for half their length..

Marsh placed this species under the genus Eporeodon,
_which he established in 1875. He based this classification
on the presence of large bulle and on the large size of the
animal. The name was again changed in 1879 by Cope,
who placed it under Hucrotaphus, without stating his
reasons therefor, while in 1884 he placed it under the
genus Merycocherus Leidy. In his key to the species,
he laid emphasis on the position of the infra-orbital
foramen; expansion of the posterior part of the zygoma;
moderate posterior production of the palate; head elon-
gated; and otic bulle large and compressed. Douglass
was the first to propose a division of the forms of Mery-
cocherus. He referred M. leidyi, chelydra, macrostegus,
and montanus to the new genus Promerycocherus, which
he proposed, with P. superbus (Leidy) as the type; while
he left M. proprius, rusticus, laticeps, compressidens,
altiramus, and madisonus under Merycocherus. Mat-
thew had also definitely determined that many forms,
not similar to the type of Merycocherus, had been placed
in that genus. He proposed to refer some of the species
to a new genus, Paracotylops, with P. superbus (Leidy)
as the type.

Additional characters——From the many specimens
in the Marsh Collection, it is possible to expand the knowl-
edge of this species. The superior molars are internally
surrounded by a well developed cingulum. The metastyle
is large and robust. It forms an abrupt angle with the
hypocone and is situated almost in an antero-posterior
line with the paracone. The premolars are normally
spaced, as are the incisors. The incisive foramina are
roughly right-triangular, with the apex posteriorly di-

with Descriptions of New Species. 223

.rected, and the longest leg lying close to and parallel with

the sagittal plane. The inferior view shows a rather
abrupt anterior termination of the malar portion of the
zygoma above the middle of M?. The basicranial axis
is not steep. The bulle are large, ovoidal, and extend
downward below the glenoid tubercles, which are com-
pressed antero-posteriorly and stout.

The basicranial foramina resemble those of Eporeodon,
rather than Oreodon (Merycoidodon). The condylar
foramen is normal and separated from the foramen
lacerum posterius by a ridge from the paroccipital pro-
cess. This latter foramen is relatively much larger
than in Oreodon (Merycoidodon). The foramen lacerum
medium is also large and occupies a position corre-
sponding to that in Eporeodon. The foramen ovale is
large and oval-shaped. It is located much farther anter-
iorly to the bulle than in Oreodon (Merycoidodon). But
one specimen, No. 10154, of this collection shows a fora-
men rotundum, and in this one it is so small that it could
not have been functional, and I consider it justifiable to
consider that this foramen is not present in the John Day
Promerycocheri, any more than itis in Hporeodon. The
paramastoid processes are broad and plate-like. The
canine is flat posteriorly and rounded anteriorly, but that
of P. macrostegus 1s more oblong-square, with the long
diameter transverse to the sagittal plane.

The orbits are nearly round. The lacrymal fosse are
usually very shallow and wide, although confined to the
lacrymal bone. This is, however, subject to slight varia-
tion. The malar beneath the orbit is very nearly flat,
while beneath the lacrymal fossa it is concave and then
convex from above downward. The depth below the
orbit varies from 35 to43 mm. ‘The anterior ridge of the
zygoma is prolonged forward and upward in the maxillary
beyond the infra-orbital foramen, which is above P*. The
posterior or squamous portion of the zygoma does not
rise as high as the sagittal crest, and its general form,
ineluding the postorbital bridge, is that of a fairly wide
U. The external edge is not so heavy nor so rugose as
is that of P. macrostegus. The superior surface of the
skull slopes more steeply from the sagittal crest than in
the latter species. The posterior half of the lacrymal
fossa is sometimes quite rugose; the anterior very
smooth. The nasals extend up to a point on the sagittal

224 M. R. Thorpe—John Day Promerycocheri,

plane slightly behind the anterior orbital margins. The
supra-orbital grooves are well marked. The frontals
are roughly diamond-shaped. The nasals are prolonged |
to a point nearly above the incisors. From the palate to
the top of the nasal ridge at the third premolar is 62 mm.
measured in the sagittal plane, and the height from the
posterior nares to the frontal measured in the same plane
at right angles to the palate is 83 mm. The transverse
crests are farther apart than in P. macrostegus. No.
10978 has partly milk dentition which, in part, shows the
order of succession of permanent dentition to be M', M?,
M?, P*, P?, and’ P?. P, C, and the incisorseare jeemen
away so that the determination of their order can not be
made from the specimen. The mandible is of about
uniform depth beneath the tooth-row. The postero-infer-
ior part of the symphysis les below the interval between
P, and P,. These premolars are slightly crowded and
placed obliquely. The mental foramen below P, is very
large, while the one beneath the interval between P, and
P, is comparatively small. The maximum length of the
ramus is 231 mm. The masseteric fossa is deep and its
inferior border does not extend below a posterior pro-
longation of the alveolar border. The sacrum of No.
10991 consists of three ankylosed vertebre with parts of
both ilia attached. The fourth sacral was formerly
present. The length of the ankylosed vertebre is 82 mm.,
and the transverse diameter of sacral | is 124 mm. The
dorsal spines are not large. The maximum length of the
centra of the last lumbar is 35 mm., while the transverse
processes are about the same length. The height of the
neural canal is 18 mm. No. 10989 consists in part of a
nearly complete left ilium, acetabulum, and ischium,
with a right acetabulum, and part of the pubis. This
pelvis does not differ in essential respects from that of the
John Day Eporeodon, except in size. The length from
the anterior margin of the acetabulum to the end of the
ilium is approximately 132 mm. The diameter of the
acetabulum is 40 mm. The maximum diameter across
the pelvis, measured from the external edges at the aceta-
buli, is approximately 157 mm. The pubic symphysis
is not less than 60 mm., and may have been somewhat
more. The length of the ischium is 79 mm., exclusive of
the tip. This pelvis belonged to an old adult. No. 10983
has accessory styles on M*. The left style is an integral

with Descriptions of New Species. 225

part of the hypocone, termed an hypostyle, whereas the
right style is developed from the cingulum alone. Both
have an average diameter of over 5 mm.

In the list of synonyms, Merycocherus temporalis
Bettany is intentionally placed at the end, partly not to
break the continuity of the P. superbus series, and partly
because it was considered as a distinct species until Cope
wrote in 1884: ‘‘I cannot detect any difference between
the specimen described by Mr. Bettany as the type of his
M.temporalis, and those of the M. superbus in my posses-
sion.’’ There are some minor differences between the
type of this species and P. superbus, but they are too
unimportant, in the writer’s opinion, to consider of speci-
fic value, especially when this group shows so much
variation. It would be exceedingly difficult to find any
two specimens in the group between which many minor
differences, at least, could not be detected.

Promerycocherus chelydra (Cope).

Holotype, Cat. No. 7480, Cope Collection, A. M.N. H. Upper
Oligocene (upper John Day), Bridge Creek, John Day River,
Oregon. Figured by Peterson, Ann. Carnegie Mus., 9, pl. 41,
nee ted pl. 42, fic. 1, 1914.

Specific characters Maximum width of skull anterior
to glenoid articular surface, and equal to distance from
paroccipital process to canine; posterior angle of zygoma
rises nearly to level of sagittal crest; bulle do not extend
anterior to postglenoid processes; palate moderately
produced; supra-occipital bone presents a wide, flat
convexity above foramen magnum; superior molars lack
an internal cingulum; bulle normally small and subconi-
eal; infra-orbital foramen above P*.

Two skulls in the Marsh Collection, Nos. 10962 and
10979, show the characters of this species quite well. In
general proportions and appearance they differ not a
great deal from P. superbus, except in the much greater
bizygomatic diameter of the former. The internal cingu-
lum is discontinuous, but is especially well developed on
the posterior side of the protocones of M?. The metastyle
occupies the same relative position as in P. superbus.

Cope’ wrote that ‘‘a line drawn through the postglenoid
and paroccipital processes makes an angle of 90° with the

*Proc. Amer. Philos. Soe., 21, 523, 1884.

226 M. R. Thorpe—John Day Promerycocher,

middle line, as in M. superbus.’’ This statement is in
error, and should read 60°, the angle of both P. superbus
and P. chelydra. The lacrymal fossa is well marked, but
not deep. The orbits are more oblique than in P. super-
bus, and their vertical diameter exceeds the transverse.
The malar is wide and flat. The squamous part of the
zygoma is very heavy and massive, and the inferior
surface as wide as in any John Day form in the genus.
In our specimens the bulle are slightly larger than in
the type, extending to, but not below, the inferior surface
of the postglenoid tubercle. This latter process has nearly
the same transverse as antero-posterior dimension, with
the former slightly the greater. The incisive foramina
are large and approach close to the base of the canines.
These foramina are wider than long, in which they differ
from those in both P. superbus and P. macrostegus. ‘The
sagittal crest is thick and high.

Measurements of Holotype.

mm.
Total length ‘of skull, approx....°. °. 2... i2) .2e eer 342
Bipostglenoid: diameter .2..5...005 2.6.2) eee eee $27
Bizygomatic diameter <2... 00. 46.4). ops ee 3.3 20
Length of superior molar Series ......5.2:) J 0025) eee 70
Length of superior premolar series ................000: 62
Length of superior dental series, inc. canine............. 157
Depth of malar below middle of orbit. .... 0.5.22 eee 36
Max. width of Cranium o.0.<.. o..< 50.0. 2: « Qe ee 82
Diameter of postorbital constriction ..................- 59
Max. height of zygoma above glenoid surface............ 85
Width of frontals above middle of orbits. ...:22. 2 eee 94.5
Width of face at infra-orbital foramina ..:./)..2 eee 70

Promerycocharus macrostegus (Cope).

Holotype, Cat. No. 7444, Cope Collection, A. M. N. H. Upper
Oligocene (upper John Day), Bridge Creek, John Day River,
Oregon. Supplementary data from Cat. Nos. 10955 and 10957,
Y. P.M. Figured by Scott, Morph. Jahrb., 16, pl. 14, figs. 8, 9,
1890.

Specific characters.—Infra-orbital foramen above inter-
val between M! and P*; squamous part of zygoma much
expanded, edge truncated; malar robust; palate much
produced posteriorly; width of skull equal to length from
condyles to P*; maxillary produced anteriorly; frontal
plane transverse, diamond-shaped; bulle small, conical,

with Descriptions of New Species. 227

and delimited between anterior and posterior borders of
postglenoid process; lacrymal fossa small but well devel-
oped; orbits very high; skull longer than P. superbus;
very strong convexity above foramen magnum.

This species is not so robust as either P. chelydra or
P. latidens. The face is strongly convex above the infra-
orbital foramen, due to an upward-sloping ridge from the
anterior zygomatic pedicle to the nasals. The orbits are
directed but very slightly upward. The orbit is deeper
than wide. The posterior part of the zygoma rises to the
plane of the summit of the sagittal crest, which is not
true of any other species. Its apex is above the external
base of the postglenoid process. The prominence of the
ridge along the parieto-squamosal suture is very variable,
although it is a constant feature in all genera of the
Oreodontide (Merycoidodontide). The marked convex-
ity above the foramen magnum is separated from the
posterior temporal angles by well defined lateral fossa,
which, however, are much smaller and less deep than in
P. latidens. The mastoid and paroccipital processes do
not close the auricular fossa below, but do approach close
to the postglenoid tubercle, which is wide and robust and
its height and thickness are equal. The bulle are the
smallest known in the genus. The palate is concave
between the first true molars, while it is flat between the
premolars. The infra-orbital foramen is large. The
incisive foramina are large and oval-shaped, whereas in
P. chelydra they are triangular.

The inferior edge of the ramus is straight below the
tooth-row, except for the symphysial tuberosity, which,
instead of being an individual peculiarity as Cope sug-
gested, is found in all of the species of this genus. It is,
however, subject to much variation in its development.
The coronoid process is small and everted. The anterior
inner edge encloses an elongate, well defined fossa. The
masseteric fossa in the type is fairly shallow, although
this appears to be a variable character. The premolars
are large and the first three are two-rooted, while P' is
separated by a marked diastema on either side, the
greater being between it and the canine. The molars
lack the internal cingula. PP. is rudimental in that it has
a prominent internal vertical ridge. The true canine is
very wide. The incisive alveolar border overhangs a
symphysial coneavity. The lower incisors are crowded
and overlap each other and the true canine.

2238 M. R. Thorpe—John Day Promerycochen,

Measurements of Holotype.

mm.
Total length of skull} approxi-gieg» . <2). «. ce ee 380
Bipostglenoid diameter). 6% sie ee dss co 2 a 133
Bizy gomatic- diameter os... ae se pele aces jo: «=r 246
Length of superior molar series .52-... ..-.» .. «sea 81
Length of superior premolar series .......... suse ee 90.5
Length of superior dental series, inc. canine............. 179.5
Depth of malar below middle of orbit: ..-.. 2.7222 2e eee 38.9
Max. width of crantum |... 00.509. 022904 +3 94
Diameter of ‘postorbital constriction +: .<.. . 2 62.4
Max. height of zygoma above glenoid surface............ ‘ct
Width of frontals.above middle of orbit...< ... 2-23. 110.6
Width of face at.infra-orbital foramina .... 1.9255 85
Length. of inferior molar series... ...... »,...+.<. eee 86.5
Length of mferior premolar series ...... =...) eee 17.9
Depth of ramus from condyle to angle. ... 2. aes eae 133
Length of ramus from condyle to angle... 52. eee 276

Promerycocherus leidyi (Bettany).

Holotype in Woodwardian Museum, Cambridge. Upper Oli-
gocene (upper John Day), Bridge Creek, John Day River,
Oregon. Figured by Bettany, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., London,
32, pl. 18, 1876.

Specific characters.—Lacrymal fossa conical and deep;
prominent lacrymal tubercle on anterior orbital margin; —
infra-orbital arch shghtly deeper than in P. superbus, and
from above downward presents first a convexity, secondly
a broad groove, and thirdly another convexity; orbit
nearly circular, more vertically placed and directed more
outwardly than in P. superbus; postglenoid processes
much less broad and proportionally deeper than in
P. superbus; an angle of 45° is formed between the
median line and a line passing through the postglenoid
and paroccipital processes; length of skull about 12
inches; palate moderately produced; bulle large,- oval,
and extend below level of postglenoid process; anterior
part of squamosal juts out from malar below postorbital
bridge.

Cope,’ in deseribing P. leidyi, said that ‘‘a line drawn
through the postglenoid and paroccipital processes makes
(an angle of) 90° with the middle line’’ in this species.
The angle in our specimens, as well as in the type accord-
ing to Bettany, is 45°.

Op? eit; poe:

with Descriptions of New Species. 229

In many respects this species is similar to P. superbus,
except for smaller proportions. The incisive foramina
are very nearly semi-circular, approach very close to the
incisive alveoli, are large, and separated from each other
by a very narrow strip of bone on each side of the sagittal
plane. The basicranial axis is moderately steep, but
much less so than in P. macrostegus. The occiput above
the foramen magnum is strongly convex and the trans-
verse crests are very close together. The overhang of the
occiput is considerable. The molars have an internal
eingulum. The skull is low and the cranium fairly wide.
The zygomata rise to the top of the brain cavity, which
is surmounted by a high narrow sagittal crest. The fron-
tals are flat between the orbits. The side of the face is
- prominently divided by the upward convexity from the
anterior zygomatic -pedicle. The zygomata form a wide
shallow U with the posterior crest turning backward
internally and overhanging a position posterior to the
postglenoid process. The lateral fossa above the condyle
is quite shallow. The orbits are small and round and
situated very high. The incisors are small.

Measurements.
Cat. No. 10960
Holotype Wop:
mm. mm.
Meare SISIEE ek ee ce wes 330 ook
Half width across frontal surface......... 54 54
Max. diameter from sagittal plane to ex-

See MUTE 5 Scr es) 5 ovale ae os « ow cas we 83* 94
Max diameter of brain case. :..........3.. 13 73
Width between external surfaces of post-

E.SLILES 2. DE ee ee 114 114
epi ot malar below orbit.............. 40 38
ecneal diameter of orbit...0......% ...s... 46 38
Transverse diameter of orbit............. 35
Length of superior dental series, inc. canine 156
Length of superior premolar series ....... 47.5
Length of superior molar series.......... 76
Heneth of last-molar.......... wee: es. 38 35
eCMEN KE, TAMUS. .. loos. ks oe ee 254

* Approximate.

Specimen No. 10965, of the Marsh Collection, possesses
complete mandibular rami with teeth except incisors.

230 MM. R. Thorpe—John Day Promerycocheri,

The total length is 250 mm. The masseteric fossa is
quite deep and oval-shaped. The condyle and coronoid
are of about equal height. The length of the inferior mo-
lar series is 77 mm. and that of the premolars, including
the canine, 68 mm. The depth from the condyle to the
angle is 1388 mm. Specimen No. 10994, from Bridge
Creek, has a very heavy outer margin on the squamous
portion of the zygoma, and the bulle do not extend below
the postglenoid. No. 10966, from Clarno Bottom, and No.
10956, from Haystack Valley, are both slightly different
from the type. The latter is apparently older strati-
graphically than the majority of the specimens of this
genus.

i

i fill
inp) :

fis

Sill Si \
q “ll AAS

ee
a

SSS

|

(Wee

Fic. 1.—Promerycocherus lulli, sp. noy. Holotype. Cat. No. 10234,
Y. P.M. A, right lateral view of skull and jaw; B, right half, superior
view. < 4.

with Descriptions of New Species. 931

Promerycocherus lulli, sp. nov.
Chics. 1A, B.)

Holotype, Cat. No. 10234, Y. P. M. Turtle Cove, John Day River, Oregon.
Upper Oligocene (middle John Day).

Specific characters—lLacrymal fosse very deep and
large; skull long and slender; face narrow; orbits look
chiefly outward, but slightly forward and not upward;
infra-orbital foramina small and located above P*; sagit-
tal crest very high and thin above posterior part of cran-
ium, posteriorly curving over along the transverse crests,
which are thin and close together; malar below orbit
very thin but wide, posterior part of zygoma vertical,
with crest rising nearly to the level of the squamous
suture, and outer border rounded; masseteric fosse
shallow; face deep; muzzle square; inferior incisors
erowded; bulle large, extending to level of postglenoid
processes; paramastoid and postglenoid processes very
nearly close auricular fossa below; zygomatic arches
originate above anterior portion of M?, with convexity
extending forward for short distance; cranium parallel-
sided up to squamous suture, in front of which is marked
eroove; occiput above foramen magnum very narrow and
convex, with exceedingly deep lateral fosse.

The skull, jaws, and cervieals are still united by matrix.
The species is named in honor of Professor Richard

Swann Lull.

Measurements of Holotype. ith
OI. LEUSD CIO Soils hese ele eel ee a et 378
ErnpOameemon QUATICLER = oe coc ees ce De we ee eee 97
LES E\LIELSY SI CURIS We) ae ae ee 195
Maxediameter of postelenoid. process... .. 0.5.5.6. 005 6. 27
ee em ONG MM OMES sy 6 Leica. oh wk gale obre Gojoe ke 71
Bema rotismpcrior MOlar Series... 6... ck ee 85
Reneth oreuperior premolar Series.:...........-....--- 76
Length of superior dental series, inc. canine............. 186
Benin of malar below middie of orbit......2........... 51
Prem NEIO: CIamMmnMye. 5 Pk. oe keel wel ot 65
Miramieter of postorbital constriction.”..0................ all
Max. height of zygoma above glenoid surface............ 58
Nadie of fronial above middle of orbit................. 100*
Boisiiot skull above parapetot M?....3........6 06065. 109
Nvidthyot face atintra-orbital foramina................. 65
Depth of paramastoids below postglenoid process........ 29.5
mererh ol interior molar Series -.......2.-....0++e0eee es 88
Mensih of inferior premolar series.............2..6034- 84
wien of ramus trom condyle to angle... 2.0... 0.0000... 139
. SLEVL Gene S 2.82 oO ie ee toe ean ni ar 290

* Approximate.
Am. Jour. copra SERIES, Vou. I, No. 3.—Marcu, 1921.
1 .

232 M. R. Thorpe—John Day Promerycochert,

Promerycocherus latidens, sp. nov.
(Fies. 2 A, B, C.)
Holotype, Cat. No. 10961, Y. P. M. Upper Oligocene (upper John Day),

North Fork, John Day River, 15 miles from its junction with the main
stream, Oregon.

Specific characters.—Great bizygomatic diameter ; malar
very wide below orbit; lacrymal fosse well marked;

Fic. 2 A.

GO
at nme” UY \

/ Yr ee

\\\ NN
ie

\\
Y
\

Ly

== BENT
ae 3
< Ne

VE

Wy
Nee

‘

UN
AN
"9 )
O

Wied chats = NSF
\ \Y) Sees =
\)

i)

\\\\ \N\W \ WW NX COUN Wy Dill |
Nl Gist Le

aw

vy INS — ge Lg
ait

Ky Y

NN AN \\\ \\\
\ ae
i il ‘i \\ a \

\\

LE =. a i

\
%.

Aa

Wes Saat A

ANTM
bs - i

Q = SSS
>. A ss BS
BAN A SS y
RAS (lie S
fi DBC... -

idl DP See)
Sill S Zz

iil | , On ms id =

Fie. 2.—Promerycocherus latidens, sp. nov. Holotype. Cat. No. 10961,

Y. P.M. A, right lateral view of skull; B, left half, inferior view; C, right
half, superior view. « 4. ;

with Descriptions of New Species. 933

vertical diameter of orbits slightly greater than trans-
verse; zygomatic arch shallow V-shaped; infra-orbital
foramen above P?; bulle relatively small, and triangular
in basal outline; palate moderately produced poster-
iorly; no internal cingulum on superior molars.

The specimen selected as the type consists of a skull of
which the portion anterior to P! is broken away. The
teeth are much worn and the sutures nearly obliterated,
due to old age. The skull is, however, remarkably well
preserved. :

This species resembles P. chelydra in its great width.
The total skull length is slightly greater than that of
P. macrostegus, or approximately 385 mm., while the
bizygomatic diameter is 278 mm., or more than 13 per cent
greater than in that species. The malar below the orbit
is flat and directed somewhat obliquely outward and
downward. Its width in P. macrostegus is 38.5 mm.;
in P. chelydra, 40 mm.; in P. superbus, 38 mm.; and in
P. latidens, 58 mm. The malar of P. chelydra is gently
concave, while the lacrymal fosse are less deep and
smaller than in the latter species. The orbits look chiefly
outward and but little forward or upward, thus differing
from the position of those in P. chelydra, where they are
even more oblique than in P. superbus.

The anterior part of the squamosal is inserted into the
malar below the posterior half of the orbit, whereas in
P. chelydra it is not protuberant below the orbit. The
apex of the squamosal portion of the zygoma is much
below the level of the sagittal crest, but in P. chelydra it
is nearly on a level with the crest. This posterior section
rises much less vertically than in P. macrostegus, but the
outer edge is rounder and heavier than in the last named
species. ‘he inferior edge of the malar below the orbit
is thickened, quite rugose, and offset from the alveolar
parapet a distance of 24 mm.; that of P. chelydra is thin
and slightly convex downward. From below the post-
orbital bridge to the glenoid process, the malar forms
a Sharp ridge, more pronounced than in any other John
Day form. It is continued as a ridge of the maxillary
to opposite the middle of the second molar, and thence
forward as a convexity, dividing the side of the face into
two concave portions. The postorbital bridge is wider
and heavier than in P. macrostegus.

The cranium is wide and the sagittal crest high and

234 M. R. Thorpe—John Day Promerycochert,

prominent. The inferior surfaces of the bulle are deeply
pitted. These bulle are proportionally small and com-
pressed; in P. macrostegus they are the smallest in the
genus and are cone-shaped, while in P. latidens they —
extend from the anterior third of the paroccipital process
to a line passing through the middle of the glenoid arti-
cular surface, but in P. chelydra they are small and sub-
conical. The bulle extend as far as, but not below, the
inferior edge of the postglenoid, in which they differ from
those both in the last named species and in P. macros-
tegus. 'The surface of the glenoid articulation is 70 mm.
in length, while in the latter species, one of the longest
of the genus, it is somewhat less than 60 mm.

The occiput is much more overhanging and the trans-
verse crests spread much farther apart than in P. macros-
tegus. The height of the occiput above the base of the
occipital condyles is 110 mm. in the latter species and 120
mm. in P. latidens. There is a very strong convexity above
the foramen magnum, as in P. macrostegus, whereas
in P. chelydra the convexity 1s wide and shallow. This
convexity is separated from the posterior temporal angles
by very deep lateral fosse. The coossified mastoid and
paramastoid processes do not close the auricular fossa
below in P. macrostegus, but in this species they come
extremely close to the postglenoid, although not actually
forming a contact. The paramastoids are triangular
shaped and robust; not nearly so slender as in P. macros-
tegus. They abut directly against the bulle.

Measurements of Holotype.

mm.
Total length of skull, approx. ...: ‘ou? kde eee Fee e 385
Bipostelenoid diameter ......)....5.0. 2 «se 143.5
Bizygomatic. diameter. .0..3....0.. 2) ee a 274
Length of ‘superior molar series... ...2....2. poe 79
Length of superior premolar series. :.......)2 2 eee 69.5
Max. width of :cranium 70.0 4.2.47 4). 2 eee 113.5
Diameter of postorbital constriction........... Peng ee be 72.3
Max. height of zygoma above glenoid surface............ 65.7
Width of frontal above middie of orbit 1.) ...... 53 eee 121.5
Width of face at infra-orbital foramina................. 87
Distance from M* to posterior margin of occipital condyles

In median plane .. es)... ob... a ee 148

Ant.-post.,diameter of M°..%.... 2s. ae 36

with Descriptions of New Species. 235

The palatal vault is wide and up-arched, with the dental
parapet projecting well below. The concavity in P.
macrostegus and in P. chelydra is greater. The width of
the palate at the hypocone of M* is 64 mm.; at P*, 55 mm.
The metastyle of M? is very robust and the tooth as a
whole is more like that of P. superbus than of P. macros-
tegus. The triturating surface of M' is completely
obliterated, although this has been brought about in a
somewhat different manner than in Merycocherus. The
muzzle is compressed, being 81 mm. in depth at P*. The

posterior nares are very large and the basicranial axis
is steep.

j

»

3
if

A \\ ah —
LN, qf)

= al
ce WAN Nee
Pier

RAN

Fic. 3.—Promerycocherus inflatus, sp. nov. Holotype. Cat. No. 10233,
Y. P.M. Right lateral view of skull. x %4.

Promerycocherus wmflatus, sp. Nov.
(Fe. 3.)

Holotype, Cat. No. 10233, Y. P. M. Upper Oligocene (upper John Day),
Bridge Creek, John Day River, Oregon.

Specific characters.——Skull very robust and massive;
incisive foramina large, close together, and approach near
to incisive alveolar border; bulle robust and rotund,
extending shghtly below postglenoid process; internal
cingula on molar teeth; squamous portion of zygomatic
arch very light proportionally, its posterior ascending
section rising not above the middle of the orbit, but the
malar section is wide and very robust, originating
above the anterior part of M’, and continuing forward
as a convexity which occupies nearly the whole side
of the face; lacrymal fosse very shallow; cranium
very wide and low; frontals very wide and flat;
orbits look somewhat upward and forward, but chiefly
outward; sagittal crest long and thin; palate wide;

236 M. R. Thorpe—John Day Promerycocher,

postglenoid processes relatively small; palate moder-
ately produced; wide interval between paroccipital and
postglenoid processes; infra-orbital foramen above P*-
M! interval; exceedingly heavy metastyle on M?.

The type consists of a skull only. It is peculiar in
that the bone of all parts of the skull is slightly spread
apart and the interstices filled with matrix.

Measurements of Holotype.

mm.
Total length of skull, approx. :.....:.... 25S 400
Bipostglenotd diameter ................ 4 170
Bizygomatie diameter ....0.. i025...) 5. 2 eer 254
Length of superior molar series. ....:..--.. 22 e een eee 94.3
Length of superior premolar series. ..-....:. +s 78.5
Length of superior dental series, Inc. canine............. 200
Depth of malar below middle of orbit. ....2. 22.2 aeeeee 49.7
Width-of palate at: P* ...... 2. Ls.) ecu. ol ee 78
Width of palate at protocone of M°...... 7:74. =) eeeeeee 69
Max, width of cranium ...............:0 le. a 138
Diameter of postorbital constriction. ...%...; {92 .0-eeee 82
Max. height of zygoma above glenoid surface............ 58
Width of frontal above middle of orbits... . 23. . 140*
Width of face at infra-orbital foramina .....°. eae 130

* Approximate.

Promerycocherus marsht, sp. nov.
(Fias. 4 A, B.)

Holotype, Cat. No. 10999, Y. P. M. Upper Oligocene (upper John Day),
Haystack Valley, John Day River, Oregon.

Specific characters.—Malar below orbit very wide and
heavy; orbits small; lacrymal fosse deep; zygoma very
heavy; nasals project to a point above the anterior
portion of the canines; infra-orbital foramen above P*;
masseteric fosse very deep; face narrowed in advance
of the orbits more than in any other species; frontals
flat and decurved above orbits; temporal ridges have
their junction above a line through postglenoid processes,
which is more posterior than in any other species of the
genus; incisive foramina large and separated by a trian-
gular wedge of the palate, the apex of which is close to
the incisor border. In all the other species, the proximal
sides of the foramina are parallel to the sagittal plane,
instead of being markedly oblique as here.

The holotype consists of the skull and jaws of a fully
adult animal, as well as the atlas, axis, five cervicals, two

with Descriptions of New Species. 237

dorsals, and the proximal parts of the first three ribs
articulated and partly enclosed by matrix. The skull and
jaws, which have not been separated, show a similarity to
P. macrostegus, but the differences are too great and too
important to identify it with that species. The skull is

Fie. 4 A.
(MI NNR = SS RAGGGR
A SS Sc SSS SERA 1 S
ZEN Va EAN VES Wye SS p \ \\ W SQ SSS
RES “_=AX\yMk; \\ SASHES

GH
Gy
Hy

Y]

. RN!
ah 45) il]
Bn el
SS
SS

S=——

a. ‘ ‘Teel SG

—~ —S 7. lA NNNNRRIN A We NeRR

Ji fs XY WQGES ily nul Uti \ Wy \ \ fi IN \

dy We i A i {i a i | nh ‘\ ¥
AY ‘9 AWN it i

>

HH em “All NaS
2 jl me” THE iy == \\\\e AN ww
Pg Tara lll, {2 eR i AAW aati i \
PRCT De catntll \ \ at \ \\

Fie. 4.—Promerycocherus marshi, sp. nov. Holotype. Cat. No. 10999,
Y. P. M. A, right lateral view of skull and jaw; B, right half, superior
view. x 4.

shghtly longer and much more robust than in the latter.
In this specimen the orbits are not so high, are smaller,
and more nearly round; malar is much wider and heavier ;
infra-orbital foramen smaller; nasals project farther
forward; face much deeper above the premolars; mandi-
bles heavier and masseteric fossa very much deeper;
incisive foramina much closer together, larger, of differ-

238 M. R. Thorpe—John Day Promerycocheri,

ent shape, and approach much more closely to the incisor
border; sagittal crest very much shorter; greater con-
vexity above foramen magnum, and lateral fosse deeper;
zygomatic crest not so high and the outer margin of the
process less robust; face not so clearly divided by the
convex prolongation of the zygoma. Width of the malar
below the orbit, 53 mm.; in P. macrostegus, 38 mm.; in
P. chelydra, 40 mm.; and in P. latidens, 58 mm.

The specific name is given in honor of Professor O. C.

Marsh. :
Measurements of Holotype..

mm
Length of skull, approx. +2. 407.0. ee 380-385
Bipostglenoid diameter °...°... 2... .....:.5 .e 136
Bizygomatic diameter ......... hee ess see 244
Length of superior molar series. ... />.. . 0 ee 85
Length of superior premolar series .......0003 05a eee 76
Length of superior dental series, ine. canine............ 186
Max. width of erdnium %.:.. 4 J s...2.. <3. 116
Max. width of postorbital constriction. ... .) ea) eee 68
Max. height of zygoma above glenoid surface............ 69
Width of frontals above middle of orbits. ... 2 J. 111
Height of skull above parapet of M®..... 270.7252 rth
Width of face at infra-orbital foramina. . 2222 ate Se
Length ‘of masals....... ss oe coats by ants 166
Depth of paramastoids below inferior edge of postglenoids. 36
Distance from nasion to junction of temporal ridges...... 138
Length of mferior-molariseries «..........0) eee 92
Length. of inferior premolar series .........4..) 05s eeee 81.5
Length of inferior dental series, inc. canine............ 135
Depth of ramus from condyle: to angle... 24.) 146
Leneth of ramus: 25... 23.0. - 260.0 1.8 re 294
Max. width of atlas-..i2.3. 00.0. 0.27. 126
Length of centrum of axis, exe. of odontoid process...... 52
Length of centrum of third cervical..../2s- 223 eee 32
Height of third: cervical, exc. of spime...... 2 eee 52
Length of centrum of fourth cervical. :+2) jae 34
Lengthy of centrum, of fifth cervieal -2) 27 eee oD
Length of centrum of sixth cervical ..:. 22.2.2 33
Length of centrum of seventh cervical ............... 33
Length of centrum of first/dorsal J...) 2) =e 33
Length ‘of centrum’. of ‘second dorsal “.../...2 eee 33
Length of centrum or third dorsal”... ).).2. 2 aeeeeee 35
Width of spine at top of neural arch, fifth cervical .... 12.7
Width of spine at top of neural arch, sixth cervical ... 18
Width of spine at top of neural arch, seventh cervical.. 18
Width of spine at top of neural arch, first:dorsal...... 29.5

Width of spine at top of neural arch, second dorsal ... 26.5
Width of spine at top of neural arch, third dorsal .... 24.8

with Descriptions of New Species. 239

Promerycocherus microcephalus, sp. nov.
(Fies. 5 A, B.)

Holotype, Cat. No. 10998, Y. P. M. Upper Oligocene (middle John Day),
Turtle Cove, John Day River, Oregon.

Specific characters —Skull long and narrow; frontals
markedly decurved above orbits; extremely small brain

nace Gy va\e

A
NAN \s
\\W \

TRIG Sy 1B

i a> \
} {

f=
Ss =

mn Ais ag) | \ ~

Yi WZ UP WN
.. Ns es

Fig. 5—Promerycocherus microcephalus, sp. nov. Holotype. Cat. No.

10998, Y. P.M. A, left lateral view of skull and jaw; B, left half, superior

\ \ \ \ ep nit C77)
\ ch \Y SNR ae i ll
= aN emma i
view. about 1/3.

chamber; high narrow sagittal crest; frontal ridges
continued separate and nearly parallel to a position above
the condyles before their junction; squamous portion of

240 M. R. Thorpe—John Day Promerycochert,

zygoma extends but slightly above squamous suture;
malar below orbit very wide and heavy, with its inferior
edge strongly convex downward; nasals extend nearly
to incisive alveoli; lacrymal fossa well marked, moder-
ately deep; orbit triangular, with apex downward and
forward; very deep lateral fosse above condyles; no
internal cingulum on molars; bulle large and extending
below postglenoid processes; infra-orbital foramen above
P4

This peculiar specimen consists of a skull, somewhat
laterally compressed, but well preserved except for the
portion anterior to P', which is broken away. The left
mandible is complete except for the canine and incisors,
which are missing. The right ramus has P,, P;, Pu, M,.,
and parts of M, and Mj. The upper contour of the skull
is nearly straight, the anterior portion of the nasals being
nearly as high as the sagittal crest. ‘The squamous
portion of the zygoma 1S neither heavy nor rugose as in
P. macrostegus, and its upper part curves str ongly back-
ward. The side of the face is divided by the convexity
from the anterior zygomatic pedicle, with concavities
above and below. The canine convexity is prominent.

Measurements of Holotype.

mm.
Total length. of skalloso...200. Jb. 2 ee 340*
Bipostglenoid diameter). 05... 0.2 yee 104
Bizygomatic diameter .....0.0....5.% 0.5 > ) arr 154
Length of superior-molar series... 40... =. eee 81.7
Length of superior premolar’series 32. - 2. me eee 68
Depth of malar below middle of orb. t Lae as eee eee 49
Max: width of cranium. 45. i. 8 ies os 2 eee D9
Diameter of postorbital constriction. ..\.2. 2) eee - 38
Max. height of zygoma above glenoid surface............ aD*
Width of frontals above middle of orbits: 2.722. 25-- eee 95
Height of skull above. parapet of Me...) 2752 eeee eee 106
Width ef tace-atmira-orbital foramina 22s. 2.2 67
Length of nasal: homes: ess 4.0... Pisa ee eee 145
Leneth of imferior molar seriés .i 4.2... 22) eee 82
Leneth of inferior premolar’series? = > 22-2. = ae 13
Depth of ramus from condyle to aneles.3.- 2. - =. see 137.5
Leneth: of ramus: ...: 2. ae eee eee 200"

* Approximate.

with Descriptions of New Species. 241

Desmatocherus" curvidens, subgen. et sp. nov.
(Fies. 6 A, B.)

Holotype, Cat. No. 10997, Y. P. M. Upper Oligocene (middle John Day),

North Fork, John Day River, 15 miles above junction with the main stream,
Oregon.

- Specific characters.—Small size; infra-orbital foramen
above posterior part of P?; bulle compressed, not extend-
ing below postglenoid process; steep basicranial axis;
P, and P, crowded, unreduced; inferior border of ramus
turns sharply downward below anterior part of M,;

KG Or eA

By y
¢ a 7 LTA Wy y
ry. AN oo ae" Ny
DGS TN
SW SH 9

ice

Fic. 6 B.
LU
C/// Yr.
RB’ Ah Pein WY fyyyypuyys WW \ AZ Vij ZEAY, Y

Fie. 6.—Desmatocherus curvidens, subgen. et sp.nov. Holotype. Cat. No.

10997, Y. P.M. A, left lateral view of skull and jaw; B, left half, inferior
view. >< about 3/8.

* déoua, bond, + yoipos, hog, in allusion to its being the link between
Eporeodon and Promerycocherus.

242 .M. R. Thorpe—John Day Promerycocheri,

zygomatic arch narrow immediately in advance of the
glenoid process, continuing forward and upward in a
strong convexity on the side of face, more as in Eporeodon
than in Promerycocherus; lacrymal fosse deep but
small; depth of malar below orbit, 29 mm.; hypocone of
M, noticeably smaller than protocone; internal cingulum
on superior molars but faintly developed; transverse
crests near together; very strong convexity above fora-
men magnum; crest of zygoma low and directly above
glenoid process. Shape of the canine more like that of a
carnivore than an herbivore. }
The holotype, consisting of the skull and jaws, appears
to be one of the earliest Promerycocheri, and apparently
connects the Eporeodons with this genus. The total
length of the skull is but about 30 mm. longer than the
largest Hporeodon. It differs, however, from Hporeodon
in the followimg features: (1) the postglenoid processes
are robust and prominent; (2) the bulle are large and
laterally compressed, but less prominent than the post-
glenoid processes, whereas in Hporeodon the bulle are
very large and the postglenoids always relatively very
small; (3) the condyles are heavier, of different shape,
and more widely separated at the basion; (4) in Epore-é
odon the highest point of the zygoma is near the middle
of the temporal fossa, but in this species, the squamous
part trends upward, as in the other Promerycocheri,
above or just in advance of the glenoid articular surface;
(5) the infra-orbital foramen is above the posterior part
of P*?, while in Eporeodon it is normally above the anter-
ior part of P*, and in the other species of Promerycoche-
rus, either above P* or above the interval between P* and
M'; (6) the basicranial axis is steep, a condition fre-
quently found in Promerycocherus, but not in Eporeodon.
This species resembles Eporeodon in that (1) the metas-

tyle of M?® is not rotated as far inward as is usual in
Promerycocherus, but has more the position found in
the other genus; (2) the hypocone of M? is smaller than
the protocone, whereas in the other species they are
normally nearly equal in size; (3) its size is close to
that of the larger Eporeodons; (4) the inferior border of
the ramus does not so closely parallel the alveolar border
as in the latter genus (in Promerycocherus the inferior
border projects downward toward the angle gradually,
beginning beneath the posterior portion of M?); (5) the.

=

with Descriptions of New Species. 243

anterior part of the zygoma is neither wide nor robust,
but has much the shape found in HE poreodon; (6) from the
matrix and other factors it is very probably a middle
John Day form, this horizon having produced the greatest
number and variety of species of Eporeodon.

Measurements of Holotype. mm.
Teeniath Gi skulls condyles: to prosthion! ines 6). 75.08... . 279
Bipostglenoid dienieter: + (a) een ere oes 95
SLES? 227 TU Oe ONO Re Gee 153
Beaciaot superior molar series |.....6. /. 40. eee vole oe 68
Meme ot superior premolar SeLIES: . 2). 2... eee eee ee ay)
Length of superior dental series, inc. canine ............ 146
Ree remmmaeaN Ca HMO CH ANATUMNMs. 52 cia. 5 coej-n «a:e.e) eco (a do ap eie eee eee o's 70
Max. height of zygoma above glenoid surface............ 46
Midtmor trontals above middle of orbits.:.....4:...7.%. 76
Hemeimon miberior molar Series... 6... ee 73
fencer mierior premolar SCVIES . .... 2... ee ee wie 62
Peemmeraranias below Mi ia.. Sele eai cure e ee wea: 38

SYNOPSIS OF CHARACTERS OF JOHN Day SPECIES OF
PROMERYCOCH@RUS.

.1. Infra-orbital foramen above middle of P*; palate
moderately produced posteriorly.

Orbits small, nearly round; internal cingulum on
superior molars; skull elongated; bulle large;
lacrymal fossa very shallow; incisive foramina
right-triangular, with longest leg along sagittal
TDS see ne ae ae ee P. superbus.

No internal cingulum on superior molars; greatest
bizygomatic diameter anterior to glenoid process;
bulle small, subconical; incisive foramina wider
than long and close to base of canines .P. chelydra.

Orbits nearly circular; internal cingulum on superior
molars; lacrymal fossa conical, deep; incisive
foramina nearly semicircular and close to incisor
margin; bulle large; smaller than P. superbus

MI ee tebe ce Ak sl se Yoria Sone. «00 P. lerdyt.

Orbits looking outward, not upward; lacrymal
fossa very deep, large; skull long, slender; sagit-
tal crest exceedingly high and thin; bulle large,
compressed; occiput above foramen magnum very
eG ONAMIRCOMVEX .).. sc bc aes ene we es P.. vath.

Orbits looking chiefly outward; lacrymal fosse well .

244 M. R. Thorpe—John Day Promerycochert.

marked; greatest bizygomatic diameter of any

John Day species of the genus; great depth of
malar below orbit; zygoma V-shaped; no internal
cingulum on superior molars .......... P. latidens.
Orbits small, nearly cireular, very short sagittal
crest; malar wide; lacrymal fossa deep; face
narrow; incisive foramina large, set obliquely

from sagittal plane; skull large, massive ........

«Seba Wie Tov s PEM Die hie Ree ee P. marsha.

Skull long, narrow; extremely small brain chamber ;
very high narrow sagittal crest; frontals separate,
parallel to a point above condyles before junction ;
malar wide; no internal cingulum on superior
molars; bulle large; lacrymal fosse moderately

GEC acute as Hee Aye ke eee P. microcephalus.

2. Infra-orbital foramen above interval between M? and
P4

Orbits very high; palate much produced posteriorly ;
no internal cingulum on superior molars; bulle
small, conical; lacrymal fossa small; skull longer
than in P. superbus; incisive foramina large, oval-
SHATIOE |. iecedsehac tire artis ale ence ee ree P. macrostegus.

Orbits small, looking chiefly outward; palate moder-
ately produced; internal cingulum on superior
molars; lacrymal fosse very shallow; malar very
wide; squamous part of zygoma weak, not rising
above middle of orbit; bulle rotund ...P. anflatus.

3. Infra-orbital foramen above posterior half of P?.

Small size; basicranial axis steep; lacrymal fossx
deep, small; internal cingulum on superior molars
but faintly developed; crest of zygomatic arch low;
true Promerycocherus, but close to EHporeodon
Eeigiigt eile eee nese ected Desmatocherus curvidens.

4

Dake—E pisodes in Rocky Mountan Orogeny. 245

Art. XV.—E pisodes in Rocky Mountain Orogeny; by C.
L. Daxs, Missouri School of Mines.

In a recent article in the Journal of Geology, Dr. Cham-
berlin calls attention to the dual nature of the Rocky
Mountain or Laramide revolution, in which ‘‘at least two
distinct periods of folding have been distinguished.’’ He
also notes that similar conditions obtain in southwestern
Wyoming. The present writer is in possession of con-
firmatory evidence, from northwestern Wyoming, show-
ing distinctly more than one episode of disastrophism in
the locality between Cody and Yellowstone Park. The
facts upon which this statement is based have in part
-been presented by the writer in a previous paper.? The
facts already made public, together with those not hereto-
fore published, may be briefly summed up as follows.

In See. 21, T. 52 N., R. 104 W., south of Morris Post
Office, occur nearly flat-lying outcrops of pebbly sand-
stone interbedded with red and gray shales, provisionally
assigned to the Fort Union(?) as that term is used by
Hewett, in the Shoshone River Section.2~ The pebbles in
these beds are abundant and average one-fourth to one-
half inch in diameter but reach a maximum of over two
inches. They are well rounded and include red granite,
basalt, brown quartzite, sandstone, black chert, brown
chert, and shale. The red granite is wholly similar to
that found in the pre-Cambrian of the region, and the
cherts can be duplicated in the Carboniferous rocks. No
granites are known in this locality younger than pre-Cam-
brian, and no source for the cherts more recent than the
Kimbar (Pennsylvanian). 'The quartzite is comparable to
the Quadrant (Tensleep) quartzite (Pennsylvanian) ex-
posed fifteen or twenty miles north of here. Hewett,* in
the Shoshone River Section, found cherts with Pennsyl-
vanian faunas in apparently equivalent beds of Fort
Union age; also pebbles of pink granite in the same beds.
The pebbly sandstone rests on beds of Cody (Colorado-
Montana) age, and the presence of pebbles of pre-Cam-

*Chamberlin, Rollin T.; The Building of the Colorado Rockies, Jour.
Geol., XXVII (1919), pp. "151-164 and 225-251.
<The Hart Mountain Overthrust and Associated Structures in Park
pete Wyoming,’’ Jour. Geol., 26, pp. 45-55, 1918.
* Hewett, D. F.; The Shoshone River Section, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin
541, pp. 89-113.
* Hewett, op. cit., p. 105.

246 Dake—Episodes in Rocky Mountan Orogeny.

brian granite included in the conglomerate involves the
erosion of part of the Cody (probably 1000 feet or more),
the Frontier (500 ft.), the Mowry and Thermopolis (900
ft.), the Cloverly (100 ft.), the Morrison (500 ft.), the
Sundance (500 ft.), the Chugwater (700 ft.), the Embar
(100 ft.), the Tensleep (100 ft.), the Amsden (200 ft.), the
Madison (1000 ft.), the Bighorn (300 ft.), and the Dead-
wood (800 ft.), all of which are known in the section within
ten miles of this point. This indicates a minimum total of
at least 6,000 feet of sediments; probably much more if
the equivalent of the Mesa Verde, Meteetsee, and Ilo
(Lance) were at one time present, as they presumably
were, in the time before the pebbly sandstone was laid
down. At least they are known to underlie the Fort
Union in the Shoshone River section, just east of Cody.
Including these formations and assigning to them the
thicknesses known to occur within a few miles of this
locality (the Shoshone River Section) would bring the
grand total up to at least 11,000 feet.

The removal of so great a thickness of beds by erosion,
in the interval before the laying down of the pebbly beds,
necessitates pronounced uplift of the region, and quite
probably involves the formation and truncation of sharp
folds. If more evidence is needed for this first phase of
the diastrophism, it is to be found in Sec. 34, T’. 50 N.,
R. 102 W., on the divide between Sage and Meteetsee
Creeks, where similar pebbly sandstones rest with slight
but distinct discordance.on Cody shales, the divergence in
dips being perhaps as great as ten degrees. The pebbly
sandstones in this latter locality are not continuous in out-
crop with those of the former area, but there can be little
doubt that they belong to the same formation. Still fur-
ther confirmation is probably to be found in Sections 11
and 12, T. 50 N., R.105 W., where similar pebbly sand-
stones rest, at nearly uniform elevation, in successive con-
tact against Cody, Frontier, and Thermopolis beds. The
area was not studied in detail, and the relations could con-
ceivably be those of faulting, but it is more than probable
that the situation represents unconformity, in which the
older beds occur in a truncated fold, buried by the pebbly
sandstone. Thus it seems probable that the first episode
of the diastrophism was marked not alone by broad uplift
and erosion but also by considerable folding, with accom-
panying truncation of the folds.

Dake—E pisodes mm Rocky Mountan Orogeny. 247

It might be noted here that Fisher® mentions and illus-
trates marked angular unconformity between the Wa-
satch and Laramie, near Hart Mountain, north of Cody,
but that he does not recognize Fort Union in his sequence,
where Hewett later differentiated it,—so that it is not
possible to say whether or not the Fort Union is involved
in this angular unconformity, as he describes it.

Hewett and Lupton® describe the Fort Union as over-
lapping with angular unconformity from Lance (Ilo) onto
Meteetsee, in other portions of the Big Horn Basin,
clearly indicating pre-Fort Union folding and erosion.

The second episode of deformation followed the deposi-
tion of the pebbly (Fort Union ?) sandstone. Near the
Middle Palatte Ranch, on Greybull River, in the W. 1%
Township 48 N., Range 103 W., is a marked anticline, in
which the pebbly sandstone above mentioned partakes of
the folding, with dips up to 15 or 20 degrees, on the east
flank of the fold. Similarly, Hewett’ reports the Fort
Union to be dipping about 37° in the Shoshone River Sec-
tion, and Hewett and Lupton® refer to the Fort Union
beds as being involved in the folding.

One of the most interesting features of this, or probably
of a still later episode of deformation is the association,
with the folding, of enormous overthrust faults. In the
locality first described, Sec. 21, T. 52 N., R. 104 W., and at
numerous nearby points, the large fault known as the
Hart Mountain Overthrust, has shoved Madison (Missis-
sippian) limestone out over the pebbly beds here referred
to as Fort Union(?). As the writer has already pointed
out,’ the Madison is not actually seen to rest on the sand-
stone, but at many points the sandstone occurs near the
foot of bold Madison searps. If the beds had been laid
down against these cliffs, after faulting, they should con-
tain an abundance of pebbles and bowlders of the lime-
stone, such as now strew these slopes. Very careful
search fails to reveal any such pebbles, even where the
beds lie in closest proximity to the Madison scarps; and
this fact alone constitutes practically positive proof that

°Fisher, C. A.; .Geology and Water Resources of the Big Horn Basin,
U. 8. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper No. 53, pl. X, and p. 37.

° Hewett, D. F., and Lupton, C. T.; Anticlines in the Southern Part of
the Big Horn Basin, Wyoming, U. 8. Geol. Survey, Bulletin 656, pp. 28-29.

(Hewett, D. E.: op. cit., p. 110.

“Hewett, D. F., and Lupton, T. C.; loc. cit.
* Jour. of Geol., 26, pp. 53-54, 1918.

Am. Jour. Sct.— FirtH Srrizs, Vou. I, No. 3.—Maren, 1921.
17

248 Dake—Episodes mm Rocky Mountain Orogeny.

the sandstones pass under the Madison rather than lap
against the fault scarp.

It is definitely established, then, that there were, in this
region, at least two well-marked episodes of deformation,
one being pre-Fort Union(?), as the term is here used, and
the other post-Fort Union (?). Plate VIB of the report
of Hewett and Lupton!’® shows Fort Union beds, them-
selves dipping at notable angles, resting with plainly vis-
ible discordance on more steeply dipping Lance (Ilo)
beds, and constitutes a decidedly graphic representation
of the facts.

The dating of the above episodes depends upon the cor-
rect correlation of the beds involved. The latest beds dis-
turbed by the first deformation, in the area studied, are
Cody shales, the upper members of which are probably
Pierre. Farther east, Mesa Verde, Meteetsee, and Ilo
(Lance) are probably also involved. This makes the first
disturbance post-Cody, probably post-Lance. And it was
closed, or at least in quiescence, before the pebbly beds
were laid down. The utmost importance, then, attaches
to the age of these pebbly beds.

The writer has already given his evidence™ for believ-
ing that they are the Fort Union of Hewett’s Shoshone
River Section. This, together with some additional evi-
dence, is here summed up briefly. The formation de-
scribed consists of buff to bright yellow sandstone, in
beds two to twenty feet thick, alternating with shaly
members which are dominantly gray, but which contain
occasional red layers. The sandstones are prominently
and intricately crossbedded, and carry many large sand-
stone concretions of a darker color (brown to gray) very
resistant to weathering, which protrude from the surface
of outcrops and at many places lie strewn abundantly
over the surface of the ground. At many points, and in
several beds, the sandstones are distinctly conglomeratie,
the pebbles consisting of red granite and pegmatite, .
basalt, brown quartzite, sandstone, black and brown chert,
and shale. They are well-rounded, and average from one-
fourth to one-half inch, but in rare cases exceed two
inches. Thin seams of ignite were noted at various hori-
zons, and one workable seam of coal was noted, from

* Hewett, D. F., and Lupton, I. €.; loc: cit:
Dake, ©. ti loescit:

Dake—E pisodes in Rocky Mountain Orogeny. 249

which there was a small local production. No identifiable
fossils, plant or animal, were found.

These beds were mapped by Hague’? as Pierre and I'ox
Hills, and are probably the same beds mentioned in one
paper by Hewett'® as ‘‘Tertiary sandstones and shales
probably of Wasatch age.’’ At this point they were
probably not carefully examined by Hewett. Several
facts seem to favor the correlation of these beds with the
Fort Union of Hewett’s Shoshone River Section, rather
than with Wasatch.

The pebbles of these beds are significant. Hewett,'* in
describing the Gebo, Meteetsee, and Ilo formations, men-
tions no conglomeratic material whatever. In the de-
seriptions of the equivalent Mesa Verde (Gebo), Meteet-
see, and Lance (Ilo), Hewett and Lupton" similarly make
no mention whatever of pebbles, though both papers
describe the Fort Union as characteristically pebbly, and
both mention the occurrence of red granite, quartzite, and
Carboniferous cherts among the pebbles. This situation
would lead to the conclusion that the pebbly beds of the
present paper are far more likely to be the equivalent of
Fort Union than of older beds.

Similarly neither of the reports cited describes red clay
in beds of Mesa Verde (Gebo), Meteetsee, or Lance (Ilo)
age, though both mention its presence in the Fort Union,
a fact that would relate the red-clay-bearing pebbly sand-
stones to the Fort Union, rather than to older beds.

The angular unconformity at the base of the pebbly
sandstones finds its counterpart in the angular uncon-
formity described by Hewett and Lupton'® at the base of
the Fort Union, and tends to confirm the above conclu-
sions. The statement, also made by Hewett and Lupton,
that the Fort Union carries coal in the west side of the
Big Horn Basin, is further favorable to such a correla-
tion, especially in view of the fact that they report the
Wasatch non-coal-bearing in the Big Horn Basin.

The considerably folded condition of these beds also
fits with the folding known in the Fort Union, while it is

“ Hague, Arnold; Absaroka Folio, U. S. Geol. Survey, Folio 52.

* Hewett, D. F.; Sulphur Deposits in Park County, Wyoming, U. S. Geol.
Survey, Bulletin 450, p. 478.

“ Hewett, D. F.; The Shoshone River Section, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bul-
letin 541.

* Hewett, D. F., and Lupton, T. C.; op. cit. pp. 26-28.

%* Hewett, D. F., and Lupton, T. C.; op. cit., p. 28.

250 Dake—Episodes mn Rocky Mountmn Orogeny.

not characteristic of Wasatch. Nevertheless it must be
remembered that both red clay beds, and conglomeratic
beds, of similar character, are known in the Wasatch for-
mation.

The large concretions noted so abundantly in these
pebbly sandstones are apparently not described by either
Hewett or Hewett and Lupton, in the above papers.
Fisher!’ mentions similar concretions in the Laramie
(which formation, as he used the term, includes present
Mesa Verde, Meteetsee, and Lance), but does not indicate
their horizon. The writer noted concretions of the same
sort at two horizons in Fisher’s Laramie, one near the
base, probably in what is now mapped as Gebo or Mesa
Verde, the other near the top, in pebbly beds quite cer-
tainly corresponding with the Fort Union. .These obser-
vations were made on Frost Ridge and west into the val-
ley of Sage Creek. Similar concretions are described
from the Dakota sandstone near Minneapolis, Kansas.1®

Lloyd and Hares?® also report abundant concretions
from the Fox Hills, also from the Lance formation, in
South Dakota. According to Wegemann,” one of the
most characteristic features of the Lance formation in the
Powder River Basin is the presence of ‘‘large round con-

cretionary masses that weather from the sandstone beds. -

These masses resemble great bowlders, and some of them
are as much as 10 or 15 feet in diameter.’’ In plate
XXII A, of the above quoted paper, are shown several
such concretions, and it must be admitted that from the
photographs they closely resemble those found by the
writer. While they point to possible correlation with the
Lance, their evidence is probably offset by the other evi-
dence cited, and by the occurrence of similar concretions
at several different horizons.

In view of the above facts, the writer is reasonably con-
vineed of the equivalence of the pebbly sandstones of this
paper with the generally recognized Fort Union of the
Big Horn Basin, as described by Hewett and Lupton,
though this does not by any means make certain their

“ Wisher, C. Avs, op.eit., peli.

*8 Chamberlin, T. C., and Salisbury, R. D.; Geology, vol. II, p. 147.

” Lloyd, E. R., and Hares, C. J.; The Cannonball Marine Member of the
Lance Formation, Jour. Geol., 23, pp. 523-547, 1915.

20 Wegemann, C. H.; Wasatch Fossils in So-Called Fort Union Beds of

the Powder River Basin, Wyoming, U. S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 108 D,
1918.

Dake—E pisodes in Rocky Mountain Orogeny. 251

identity with the type Fort Union. Itis also by no means
fmally proved that the beds are not Wasatch, though the
writer believes that their interpretation as Fort Union(?)
is the more reasonable.

In addition to the data above presented, attention
should also be called to the following facts. Hewett,”
in his discussion of the Fort Union, notes that the lowest
conglomerates of the group carry no igneous material.
It is only near the middle of the formation that granite
pebbles begin to be noted, and in the upper part is abun-
dant red clay. The presence of red clay beds and granite
pebbles in the pebbly beds studied by the writer would
tend to suggest that they represent the upper, rather
than the lower part of the Fort Union. The fact that the
granite pebbles occur only in the middle and upper part
of the sandstone probably indicates that the granite had
not yet been uncovered by erosion, in early Fort Union
time, and may quite probably be taken to mean that uphft
was still progressing, and hence accelerating erosion,
while the lower Fort Union was still in process of being
deposited.

It seems clearly established, then; by the above facts,
that there were in northwestern Wyoming two distinct
episodes of Rocky Mountain deformation, both of which
were post-Lance, as the Lance formation is differentiated
in the latest reports on that region. The first is post-
Lance, and pre-Fort Union(?), the second post-Fort
Union(?), and clearly pre-Wasatch, since Hewett and
Lupton? indicate widespread unconformity at the base of
the Wasatch, ‘‘commonly recognizable by discordance in
dip.’’

A late epoch of deformation includes the thrusting of
great blocks of Mississippian limestone many miles out
over the Fort Union(?) pebbly sandstones. According
to recent work by Hewett? this thrusting is post-Bridger,
since on McCulloch Peaks he finds Madison (Mississip-
pian) limestone resting on beds of undoubted Bridger age.
The major thrust plane has been notably warped; but this
warping may have occurred as the faulting was going on.
After the faulting, the fault blocks were deeply trenched
by erosion, before the epoch of vuleanicity that buried the

* Hewett, D. F.; op. cit., pp. 104-106.
” Hewett, D. F., and Lupton, C. T.; op. cit., pp, 29-30.
** Hewett, D. F.; in a recent paper before the Geol. Soc. of Washington.

252 Dake—Episodes in Rocky Mountan Orogeny.

whole deeply under the Early Basic Breccia, believed by
Hague? to be Neocene in age. The writer has found sev-
eral clear cases of the lava and breccia overlapping the
deeply eroded fault plane, from Mississippian above onto
Cretaceous below. The fault, then, is post-Bridger and
pre-Early Basic Breccia.

It is interesting in this connection to note that the Ban-
nock overthrust®® is known to pass beneath the Almy con-
gelomerate said to be of Wasatch(?) age. Veatch, quoting
Knowlton, however, says of the Almy,?® ‘‘If correctly
determined, the age should be Fort Union or near it.’’
This would make the Bannock fault pre-Fort Union,
whereas the Hart Mountain thrust is post-Bridger.

This, then, would appear to add to the post-Lanece and
pre-Fort Union folding, and to the post-Fort Union and
pre-Wasatch deformation, a third episode, the post-
Bridger and pre-Karly Basic Breccia overthrusting.

Since in the region of the Big Horn Basin, these epi-
sodes are repeatedly shown in a single section, or at least
in a very limited locality, this distinct nature does not
depend for proof upon distant correlation. When one
tries, however, to correlate these episodes with those of
other localtities, the problem becomes vastly more compli-
cated.

The first episode noted by Chamberlin?’ in Colorado
is post-Montana and pre-Arapahoe. He does not state
definitely that this disturbance involved more than uplift
and erosion, but by inference he carries the impression
that it is to be correlated with profound folding and fault-
ing in Wyoming. If, as he states, the pre-Arapahoe in-
terval involves the removal of 14,000 feet of sediments, it
seems certain that folding, of at least moderate intensity,
must be assumed, since broad uplift of the general on
to such an extent is har dly to be considered.

Now it is a well-known fact that the Arapahoe pede of
the Denver Basin are rather generally correlated with the
Lance of the type area. Further, the three episodes of
diastrophism noted in Wyoming are post-Lance, as that

term is used by Lupton and by Hewett in the Big Horn |

7 Hague, Arnold, Absaroka Folio, U. S. Geol. Survey, Folio 52.

> Richards, R. W., and Mansfield, G. R.; The Bannock Overthrust, Jour.
Geol., 20, pp. 681-709, 1912.

7° Geology and Geography of part of Southwestern Wyoming, U. S. Geol.
Survey, Prof. Paper 56, p. 90.

77 Chamberlain, R. T.; op. cit., p. 153.

i i A ne

Dake—E pisodes in Rocky Mountain Orogeny. 258

Basin. This then forces us to one of three conclusions.
Hither (1) the first phase of the Rocky Mountain folding
in Colorado is actually earlier than any of those described
in Wyoming, being actually pre-Lance while they are post-
Lance; or (2) the Arapahoe is not the true equivalent of
the Lance of the type locality; or else (3) the so-called
Lance of the Big Horn Basin is not the exact equivalent of
the original Lance. ‘The writer has been unable to find the
necessary data for a solution of this threefold possibility.
We should probably hesitate before postulating another
_ period of folding in Rocky Mountain orogeny, especially
in view of the uncertain state of the Fort Union-Lance-
Laramie correlation. There are those who believe that
diastrophic evidence will be the final criterion in settling
this problem. It is admitted that diastrophism is a valua-
ble aid in correlation, but before it can be used in settling
this problem, we must know quite beyond doubt whether
or not there are more than three episodes in the orogeny
of the Rocky Mountains, and unless evidences of a fourth
can be found in the same restricted area where the three
have already been proved, it seems to the writer that to
make a final determination must rest on other methods of
correlating the strata involved, across wide intervening
areas.

In this connection it is pertinent to inquire into the
relations of the Lance to the underlying beds in the type
area and in the Big Horn Basin, to discover whether there
is at its base any break comparable to that reported below
the base of the Arapahoe beds of Colorado.

Wegemann,** in the Powder River Basin of eastern
Wyoming, described the Lance formation as carrying a
few thin coal seams and many notable concretions, and as
being without evidences of unconformity at either base or
top, but describes unconformity between the Fort Union
and Wasatch.

According to Knowlton,”* in Carbon County, Wyoming,
the ‘‘upper Laramie’’ (Lance) rests on the lower Laramie
with ‘‘distinect change in the dip, apparently a slight
change in the strike, and a marked change in the lithology
between the lower and upper beds.’’ ‘‘Not only are the
beds * * * above more than 6000 feet of ‘Laramie’ rocks

* Wegemann, C. H.; loe. cit.

” Knowlton, F. H.; Further Data on the Stratigraphic Position of the
Lance Formation (Ceratops Beds), Jour. Geol., 19, pp. 358-376, 1911.

254 Dake—Episodes mn Rocky Mountain Orogeny.

* * * but also they are separated from the ‘Laramie’
(‘Lower Laramie’) by an unconformity, which, according
to Veatch, is profound and has involved the removal of
perhaps as much as 20,000 feet of sediments.’’ He also
says that the Lance is ‘‘stratigraphically, structurally,
and paleontologically inseparable from the Fort Union.”’
This latter statement will certainly not hold for the Lance
and Fort Union, as those terms are used in the Big Horn
Basin by Lupton and Hewett.

Concerning an area between Cheyenne River and Can-
nonball River, Knowlton further says, ‘‘ Above the Fox
Hills, but as will be shown later, with the intervention in
places of a distinct unconformity, comes the Lance forma-
tion, above which, but without unconformity or other
observed break, is the acknowledged Fort Union.’’ Stat-
ing the proposition more generally, he says of the rela-
tions of the Lance to the Fort Union, ‘‘There is yet to be
observed a single locality at which unconformable rela-
tions have even been suspected.’’ This also is contrary

to the Big Horn Basin conditions. There, Hewett and

Lupton*® call attention to angular unconformity between
Lance and Fort Union, but mention no unconformity at
all at the base of the Lance. Similarly, Hewett*! fails to
mention any unconformity at the base of his Ilo (Lance)
formation.

The data presented above favor the conclusion that the
Lance and Arapahoe beds are correctly correlated and
that there is a true pre-Lance epoch of deformation in
both the Eastern Wyoming-Western Dakota area and in
Colorado. What then is the answer to the apparent ex-
ception in the Big Horn Basin, where all the epochs of
folding appear to be post-Lance? We can probably not
answer that question, until the correlation between the
Big Horn Basin and the type Lance is more thoroughly
worked out.

Incidentally it may here be noted that the occurrence of
a typically marine Fox Hills fauna in undoubted Lance
beds®? tends to tie the Lance more closely with marine
Cretaceous than with the terrestrial Tertiary beds.

%° Hewett, D. F., and Lupton, C. T.; loc. cit.

31 Hewett, D. F.; loc. cit.
2 Lloyd, E. R., and Hares, C. J.; loc. cit.

J. Barrell—Subjacent Igneous Invasion. 255

Arr. XVI.—Relations of Subjacent Igneous Invasion to
Regional Metamorphism; by JosePH BaRRELL.

(Continued from page 186.) ,

PART III. INTERPRETATION OF DYNAMO-METAMOR-
PHIC FEATURES IN THE ROOFS OF BATH-
OLITHS IN MOUNTAIN PROVINCES.

PRELIMINARY STATEMENT.

This article has reached the point where it appears that
batholithic invasion is to be looked upon as one of two
major factors in the control of the phenomena of dynamo-
metamorphism, the other being crustal deformation.
The following part will consequently be a study of
significant features and their interpretation as phenom-
ena of magmatic injection, chemical alteration, and
lateral compression of batholithic roofs.

FEATURES PRODUCED BY MOVEMENTS OF SOLUTIONS AND SELECTIVE
CRYSTALLIZATION.

Where blocks of biotite granite gneiss are inclosed in a
coarse granite, it may frequently be observed that a con-
centration of biotite from the surrounding magma has
taken place within and around such fragments. Pegma-
titic seams in banded gneisses usually show no change at
the margins, but may sometimes be seen to have a biotite
lining which slightly permeates the walls and gives
sharper definition to the seams. This tendency for bio-
tite to separate by selective crystallization from highly
_aqueous solutions of magma is to be related with that nor-
mal sequence of crystallization in magmas whereby the
black bisilicates, associated with smaller amounts of other
minerals, crystallize out early, followed by the crystalliza-
tion of plagioclases, then orthoclase, then orthoclase and
quartz; each phase overlapping the adjacent ones. Now
if the magma is rising through the foliated structure of a
root and especially if the amount of water is large, so that
the crystals of any one generation are but a small part of
the magma, the result is a vertical separation of the
magma by fractional crystallization. The biotite will be
strained out in one place and erystallize against biotite.
Quartz and feldspar will rise higher and crystallize as
pegmatite free from biotite. Where the magma rises
through a foliated country rock, it should lead to a pro-
nounced banding in composition, giving banded gneisses.

256 J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

It is in this way, by the movement of solutions along
foliation planes, rather than by a mere recrystallization in
place, that marked lamellar segregation of minerals in
eneisses is most readily explained. Let a massive gran-
ite yield to lateral pressure by granulation or recrystalli-
zation: the minerals are broken down and reconstructed,
but in this reconstruction lamineze of quartz and feldspar
tend to alternate with those of mica. Mere molecular
diffusion and erystallinic attraction would tend to build up
individual minerals elongated in the plane at right angles
to compression, but would tend to reconstruct the miner-
als about each dominating nucleus without extending one
kind of mineral into continuous sheets. This kind of
massive gneiss is fairly common in those types where
granulation has exceeded recrystallization as the agent of
deformation, in other words, where regional compression
has been strong and crystallizing solutions scanty.

Where, however, the solvents are more abundant, move-
ment would take place readily along the foliation direc-
tion, very slowly across it, the biotite would be pro-
gressively concentrated into layers, the quartz and feld-
spar would tend to be carried farther along the planes
and have the relations of intercrystallized lamine. If
the solvents rise far and are concentrated into thicker
sheets, it is a form of pegmatization carried on not as a
result of a primary crystallization of magma, but as a
result of rock-mashing in the presence of rising solutions.
Pegmatization, as Van Hise has noted, may occur in
association with formations which show no relationship
to igneous intrusion. In granite gneisses which show a
pegmatitic texture, as in the Hoadley Point, Connecticut, -
eneiss, the bands of quartz and porphyritic feldspar may
be an inch across and separated by continuous sheets
of biotite.

In gneisses whose lamellar character is due to mashing
and recrystallization, the emphasis is put here not merely
upon the presence of crystallizers, but upon their passage.
The crystallizers are to be interpreted as the rising
emanations from deeper seated sources.

DEVELOPMENT OF Lit-PAR-Lit STRUCTURE BY FORCE OF CRYSTAL-
LIZATION.

Int-par-lit injection is that form of magmatic intrusion
which takes place where the magma has soaked into a
highly foliated roof rock and has resulted in all grada-

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. 257

tions of composition from unaltered country rock to pure
igneous rock. The penetration of the magma has not
been accomplished by the massive invasion of appreciable
viscous fluids, but is more suggestive of capillary action
and intererystallization. The thinnest of parallel mica
lamine may be traced throughout their length without
showing such crumpling as even the inertia of the least
viscous fluid would have given them if the invading
magma had all been fluid. From sheets of magma and
of schist which are only of crystal thickness, all grada-
tions in width may be traced into wide bands of country
rock or equally wide dikes of pegmatite or granite. The
phenomena are extensively displayed in Connecticut, and
the writer is more particularly familiar with the large
field of mixed rock known as the Waterbury gneiss,
extending through western Connecticut from Torrington
to Derby. Doctor G. O. Smith and the writer studied
this area in 1906, and came to the conclusion that the
best way for making field maps was, knowing the pure
types of cover rock and granite, to estimate for each
outerop the ratio of the two. This would give data for
deciding where, and on what basis, formation boundaries
should be drawn.

[Doctor Fenner” has described the same features in
an independent study of the highlands of New Jersey.
He clearly shows that the hydrous magmatic emanations
or differentiates may precede the magma Irt-par-lit by
penetrating small pores where their lower viscosity allows
them much more rapid movement than the main magma.
This penetration of solutions makes the rock more like
magma in composition, as well as conducting magmatic
heat in advance of the magmatic invasion, until finally,
if the magma advances, it reaches a rock so modified that
one would expect it to be readily assimilated. ]

The great bursting power of freezing water is well
known, even when acting between surfaces such as joint
planes, which permit free ingress and egress to the water.
Becker and Day”® have discussed this power as exhibited
by other crystals. The phenomena of feldspathization, as
shown in lit-par-lit structure, suggest that for such mixed
gneisses this factor should be elevated to a first place. <A
solution permeates and passes through a foliated rock.
The temperature falls as the solutions flow outward. The

* C. N. Fenner, Jour. Geology, 22, 594 and 694, 1914.
*G. F. Becker and A. L. Day, Jour. Geology, 24, 313-333, 1916.

258 J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

saturation point is passed and crystallization begins on
particular foliation planes. Mica has mostly been left
behind in the magma, so the growth is principally by the
addition of quartz and feldspar. The continuation of
growth requires the pressing apart of the walls of each
lamina by the force of the growing crystals. Uneven-
ness of erystal growth keeps the whole in a suff-
ciently porous condition to permit the passage of more
fluid. The expansion on many planes requires some mass
movement of the rock, resorption elsewhere, condensa-
tion, mashing, or crumpling. A slight accession of heat
and gases or pressure in one locality will turn erystalli-
zation into solution and resorption, permitting more
readily the expansion of other and adjacent parts by
intererystallization. Rock flowage under such conditions
must be relatively easy, since the whole is within the
temperature range of crystallization and slight changes
of equilibrium will turn the balance from one side of the
equation to the other. The chief loss of energy is that
carried off by the solutions whose continuous passage is
needed to maintain the critical conditions.

The different minerals are doubtless quite differently
susceptible to stress-differences. Although under nor-
mal conditions of great pressure but no stress-differences,
the micas crystallize before quartz and feldspar, if
stress-differences become great, then recrystallization
of mica appears to proceed more readily than that of
feldspar and quartz. The pressing apart of the magma
walls may thus result in a schistosity imposed while the
intererystallization is still going forward. The process
of infiltration proceeds until any degree of granitization
has taken place.

The process is not marked by the development of vein
structure; rather each minute seam is like a pegmatite
or granite in texture. The crystallization is, therefore,
not so much against the walls as in between the walls.
As long as the solutions are passing, they are impelled
by the greater pressures of the magma below, and the
excess pressure over that of the surrounding country
rock at any place is expressed by the hydrostatic head
needed for overcoming the frictional resistances to flow.
This hydrostatic head is an essential factor, for it means
that the fluid can support the pressure of the growing
crystals and these do not need to resist porosity by
mutual pressure at their points of contact. A pegmatite

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. 259

vein may therefore hold a porous texture and yet be
solid during the time of growth, in much the same way as
a porous sandstone may be strong and yet serve as a
passage for circulating waters. The difference, however,
is that the hydrostatic head of the meteoric waters 1s
less than that of the sandstone, with the result that the
recrystallization of the sandstone eliminates the porosity
and develops a quartzite. In the pegmatite, on the
contrary, the porosity would be maintained as long as the
country rock could yield before an excess of hydrostatic
head from the magmatic emanations. The last stages in
the development of the crystallization would be a final
elimination of the porosity. It would seem that this
is a rather fundamental theoretic principle whose
existence it is necessary to postulate in order to obtain a
workable understanding of the phenomena of regional
eranitization as shown by lit-par-lit structure.

DEVELOPMENT OF BANDED ORTHOGNEISSES AS A RESULT OF SuC-
CESSIVE INJECTIONS.

The foliation of the granite gneisses was once looked
upon as an evidence of sedimentary origin. With the
recognition of their igneous nature and the evidences of
later mashing, a contrary interpretation very generally
came in, regarding the foliation as wholly due to rock
flowage in the solid state. Observations began to multi-
ply, however, which showed that a very appreciable
portion of gneisses owed their parallel structure to
flowage while in the fluid or partly fluid state—the
protoclastic structure of primary gneisses. This is
contrasted with what Becke called the crystalloblastic
structure—that developed by rock flowage—in the true
compression gneisses. Adams especially has shown the
importance of deformation during erystallization for the
Laurentian gneisses, and Leith in his Structural Geology
calls attention to the dominance of protoclastic gneisses.

It is desired here to emphasize a somewhat different
phase of the subject which may be called intermittent
injection and crystallization in batholithic roofs. It
seems to be associated especially with regions under
differential crustal compression, and gives banded ortho-
eneisses.2" It may grade from the previously described

* [The nomenclature of the gneisses is in danger of confusion. It is well,
following Van Hise, to make the term gneiss one of purely structural sig-
- nificance. Rosenbusch includes in the main division gneisses of igneous

260 J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

phenomenon of lit-par-lit structure into successive intru-
sions of granite sheets within the country rocks, but
reaches typical expression within the marginal igneous
portion of the batholith. The injecting material changes
slowly by differentiation during the process from basic
to acid. The changing composition during the progress
of this action gives a conspicuously banded character to
the gneiss on both a large and small scale. The oldest
stages are dark amphibolites or diorite gneisses, the
youngest are fine-grained white granites. The age rela-
tions are definitely determinable because the younger
phases in places cut across the older, but more especially
because regional mashing is nearly always intermittent
with the pulsations of injection and the successive stages
show less and less of deformation. This is a topic of
sufficient importance, however, to merit treatment under
a separate heading.

REJUVENESCENT AND DECADENT STAGES OF INJECTION.

The border phenomena which we study about batholiths
are mainly representative of the decadent stages of
igneous activity. An analogy with the phenomena of
glaciation may make this clearer. We know practically
nothing of the duration or oscillation of those stages
which preceded the culmination of the first great ice
sheet. Other ice sheets may have formed, advanced, and
retreated, yet if they did not reach the maximum limits,
the later glacial invasions may have obliterated their
record. The waning of the last continental glacier left

origin, calling them orthogneisses; those of sedimentary origin, para-
gneisses; leaving the term metagneisses for those showing definite charac-
teristics of neither.

Of the orthogneisses, the protoclastie or primary gneisses may be attrib-
uted to slight movement before crystals were abundant enough to greatly
deform each other. The orthogneisses just referred to in the text are the
result of successive or intermittent injection, the earlier material having
developed by mashing a structure that guides the later injection in parallel
planes. Mashing alone may develop from an igneous rock a erystalloblastiec
orthogneiss. It is even possible that a mashed igneous rock may be injected
it-par-lit or by pegmatites, yielding (it-par-lit orthogneisses and ortho-
gneisses with banding of biotite and pegmatite.

Paragneisses may be crystalloblastic gneisses, but are probably in more
cases developed by pegmatitic or lit-par-lit additions.

Injection gneisses include both ortho- and paragneisses, and the injection
may be lit-par-lit, pegmatitic, or more normal magmatic injection.

The terms here outlined are selected from Rosenbusch, Leith’s Structural
Geology, Leith and Mead’s Metamorphism, and Miller’s paper on the classi-
fication of metamorphic rocks in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of
America, volume 28, page 451, 1917.]

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. 261

a series of retreatal moraines and outwash plains which
mark glacial retreat, not glacial advance. Ld sa

We must then seek to analyze in the batholithic border
phenomena what belongs to the advance and what to the
retreat of the magmatic state.

Daly?’ has presented the evidence to show that the
gabbros have intrusive habits as laccoliths or sills, bodies
with floors, whereas the great granite bodies show no
evidence of floors. The magma on its first rise is ande-
sitic or basaltic in composition, and shows a greater power
of penetrating the crust, giving dominant extrusives ;
the acidic phase of the magma differentiates later and
gives dominantly subjacent bodies. The oldest batho-
lithic phases are commonly a monzonite or diorite, the
gabbro reaching beyond only in occasional intrusive
bodies. The advance of the batholith is, then, especially
during the existence of the magma before it has become
highly differentiated.

The differentiation and intrusion of later more acidic
bodies are phenomena of the waning stage. ‘There are
evidences that granitic magmas pass through a stage of
high viscosity .before becoming crystalline. In this
stage, when affected by crust movements, they assume
fluidal structures, granulate their feldspars, and shatter
the solid inclusions within them. These phenomena are
clearly features of decadence in magmatic invasion. If
the feldspathic infiltration of wall rocks is correctly
interpreted as a phenomenon of intererystallization, this,
analogous to the outwash plains in front of a glacier,
may be both an antecedent and succedent feature, but the
difference is that in the advancing stage of magmatic
invasion, precipitation in an outer border must turn to
solution as the magma advances and hotter gases are
poured into the walls. The highly insinuating gases are
the advance agents and more normal magma follows in
the wider channels. A network of sheets rises into the
cover, it is dissevered into large fragments. In some
cases, especially those in Finland which Sederholm has
described, the sediments fade into the magma in place
and a new composite magma arises. This border
assimilation, however, as Daly has well shown,?? must in
the nature of things be a limited process, and observation
here confirms the theory in showing that the batholithic

*“Igneous Rocks and their Origin, 1914.
Soop. cit-. Chap. XL,

262 J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

masses show no or almost no kinship in chemical composi-
tion with the surrounding walls. Such assimilation as
does take place must normally be abyssal, as the result
of the subsidence of blocks cut free by the roof dikes,
the process which Daly has named stoping. Daly,
however, puts the emphasis of stoping on marginal
shattering and brecciation into fragments up to 10 meters
in diameter. The writer, on the other hand, looks upon
this as chiefly a decadent feature of magmatic action,
and regards the cutting free of large roof blocks by
intersecting dikes and sheets of high fluidity as the chief
feature which marks magmatic advance by stoping.

The next point to be noted is that the batholiths quite
commonly reach their farthest limit before marked
differentiation begins to set in, as shown by the dioritic
rims chilled against their borders. Quite often, however,
the later granites break through to higher levels in the
crust, but such are often intrusive bodies, as great sheets,
dikes, or chonoliths, rather than broad batholiths. The
mode of batholithic rise at great depths can not be known
by direct observation, and what is here considered deals
only with the phenomena exposed by erosion. The roofs
of batholiths are greatly deformed, showing especially
domal and quaquaversal forms. This of course permits
ereater upwellings of the magma, is distinct from stop-
ing, and simulates the results of laccolithic intrusion.

How is the integrity of the roof preserved? In regions
of orogenic batholiths it would seem that a potent factor
must be the advance granitization in the cover. The
rising gases carry magma with them to the cooler regions
and ‘will seek the stretching zones of the cover. Here
they precipitate their burden and pass on. Dikes
intruded high into the cover likewise will become chilled
and their flow tends to become checked as by the coagula-
tion of the blood ina wound. The precipitation of quartz
and feldspar by these means may go on to a large extent
and permit of adjustments of the cover to the hydraulic
and hydrostatic forces imposed from below. From time
to time come into operation also extraneous thrusting |
forces, controlling the orogenic nature and modifying the
results which would be given by the rise and cooling of
the magma alone.

In these relations of batholiths to covers, there is much
which is unknown, but the purpose here is not to follow

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. 263

out this line of research; but on the contrary merely to
show that the metamorphic phenomena associated with
the roofs of orogenic batholiths, in order to be understood,
must be analyzed into the two phases of the rise and
decadence of magmas.

ALTERNATION OF INJECTION AND MASHING.

This phenomenon may be made more impressive by the
description of certain specific formations rather than
by dealing wholly in general statements. The writer has
studied these relations especially in the Laurentian
Becket gneiss of southwestern Massachusetts and in
various Paleozoic batholiths and intrusions in Connec-
ticut. |

The Becket gneiss has been described by Hmerson,*°
but the following statements are planned to bring out in
brief form those features significant under the present
topic. The dominant phase is a biotite granite gneiss,
almost massive in some localities, in others strongly
banded. The gneissoid phases of this rock show consid-
erable granulation and only a moderate amount of
recrystallization. On a fresh fracture the rock shows
a grain like granulated sugar, and the biotite is scattered
with a pepper and salt effect, not markedly segregated
into planes. On cliff faces the biotite weathers out, the
surface becomes white and siliceous and gives rise to
the name of white gneiss. The banding is probably
mostly due to non-uniform compression and flowage
during erystallization, though considerable granulation
after complete solidification seems to have occurred.

From this rather uniform facies of the gneiss there are
passages into areas of highly variable banding, the
banding being of all scales of magnitude from a few inches
to hundreds of feet. The bands consist of amphibolites,
hornblende, diorite gneisses, biotite granite gneisses,
acidic granites, and pegmatites. The hornblende layers
im many instances are intimately associated with bands
of pegmatite and aplite, feathering into the acidic
material and swelling into lenses in a way to show that
the two were simultaneous differentiates rising through
the foliated rock and crystallizing separately from an
aqueous solution. The amphibolite, often developed as
a ribbon gneiss, is most abundant in contact zones against

* B. K. Emerson, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 159, 1899.

AM. JouR. Sc1.—FirtH SeErigs, Vou. I, No. 3.—Marcu, 1921,
18

264 J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

and in the included metasediments, and as such zones has
been described by Emerson as the Lee gneiss. He
considers that both differentiation and some solution of
sediments have occurred, but rather broad areas of these
rocks are found without visible relations to contact rocks.
The relations, however, all permit these amphibolitic
ribbon gneisses to be looked upon as roof rocks to the
Laurentian batholith. They belong in general to an early
stage, they average more basic, corresponding to the
marginal basic facies so common in batholiths, and they
show intermittent injection. The presence of much
water-vapor 1s the natural explanation of many of the
associated features.

Cutting the foliated and granulated biotite gneisses
and amphibolites are younger bodies of massive granite
which range from biotite granites to aplites and pegma-
tites. Dikes of these aré well displayed in the railroad
cut at West Norfolk, Connecticut. These intrusions are
later than the regional metamorphism. It is possible that
they might be much later, but their associations in the
Becket areas, their acidic character, and the analogy
with the other localities to be described suggest that they
are more probably parts of the same igneous eyele, that
the regional metamorphism proceeded during the same
period, but had spent its force before the last intrusion of
granites.

The Paleozoic batholiths of Connecticut are much more
satisfactory for study, since their structural relations
with their roofs are widely revealed.*! The outerops of
the batholiths are elongate or rounded forms. Around
the margins many show a basic border rich in hornblende
and biotite. As in the Becket gneiss, the basic border
shows a highly variable and banded character. A very
considerable degree of mashing is to be observed, as
shown by the degree of crumpling of the oldest tross-
cutting pegmatites. The oldest gneisses are biotite
granite in composition, and the gneissice structure is well
developed. The basic border is a differentiation phase
of these, as shown by the uniformity with which it
constitutes the mar gin and intrudes the surrounding
sediments. ‘The pegmatites in this zone are of two ages,

** For detailed descriptions of the Connecticut formations, seé W. N. Rice
and H. E. Gregory, Manual of the geology of Connecticut, Conn. Geol. Nat.

Hist. Survey, Bull. 6, 1906. Also T. N. Dale and H. E. Gregory, The gran-
ites of Connecticut, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 484, 1911.

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. 265

the earlier showing much mashing, the later showing little
or no deformation. On the west side of the Connecticut,
the biotite granites and granodiorites occupy large areas,
are distinctly gneissoid, and are intruded by the white
Thomaston granites. These are almost free of dark
minerals, are fine-grained, and only slightly gneissoid.
They form some fairly large bodies, but most of them
form thick dikes or sheets rather than great batholiths.
On the east side of the Triassic valley, the red biotite
Branford or Stony Creek granite is younger than the
biotite granite gneisses. An excellent exposure in the
railroad cut east of Stony Creek shows how it has
shattered and intruded the older gneiss. In the vicinity
of the Stony Creek quarries, blocks of the older rock from
one or two feet up to many feet in diameter are suspended
in the younger granite. The latter shows marked
schlieren and pegmatitic structures, but here is almost
unerushed. Toward Leete Island, however, the younger
eranite passes into a coarse banded gneiss with marked
pegmatitic habit. Large porphyritic crystals of feldspar
have developed between the biotite lamina, and the whole
is suggestive of strong deformation during and following
the period of primary crystallization. Aplite dikes cut
the coarse gneiss but have themselves been affected by
the pegmatization. [Farther east in Connecticut, Dale has
described the dikes of commercial granite which cut the
older gneissoid granites and states that the latter are in
general younger than the gneisses intruded into the
sediments. It is possible that the granites in the east are
of different age from those in the west, but within each
province the evidence shows a genetic relationship
between the sequence of intrusives. This evidence is
found in the space relations and in the chemical relation-
ships. The older magmas were of the composition of
biotite granites or granodiorites, and developed basic
borders with pneumatolitic structures. Within these
masses the younger granites were commonly restricted.
If the latter belonged to a wholly different cycle of
_ igneous activity, they would not be expected to show this
Space relation but would be as likely to break across the
old margins and into the surrounding rocks. The compo-
sition also follows the usual law of differentiation and
points to the younger granites being the last phase in the
differentiation of the same magmas. The date of most

266 J. Barrell—Relations of Subjacent Igneous

of this igneous activity would seem to be late Carbon-
iferous, as the sediments of the latter age in Rhode Island

and Massachusetts have been intruded and metamor-

phosed. Warren and Powers”? hold, however, that some
of the eastern Massachusetts granites belong to the
Devonian orogenic movement.

The relation between the different intrusives and the
stages in regional metamorphism in eastern Connecticut

has been well presented by Loughlin.** Here the intru- —

sion of a gabbro laccolith preceded the regional metamor-
phism, since the blocks of wall rock included within the
resistant gabbro show as angular blocky fragments of
hornfels, whereas the adjoining country rock is now
highly fohated. The granite of the same area appears
to have been intruded in association with the regional
mashing and to have completely crystallized before it
ceased. The alaskite, the youngest rock, completed its
crystallization after the closing of the period of -rock
mashing.

The conclusion of first importance which a statement of
these relations leads up to is that the regional metamor-
phism is intimately related to the batholithic intrusion.
Deformation and metamorphism of the sediments began
before the intrusion of the granites, but had not begun
before the intrusion of the Preston gabbro. It ceased be-
fore the last upbreaks of the acidic phases of the magma.
This conclusion apples to all southern New England
and apparently much the same relationship between intru-
sion and metamorphism existed in the Laurentian
invasion.

Furthermore, both igneous activity and crust move-
ments are known to be of a periodic character. The
suggestions of this study are that in regional metamor-
phism there is a certain intimate rhythm between the two.
The phenomena of injection and mashing are alternating
phases in a general period of intrusion and metamor-
phism. When the pressures in the upper part of the
magma come to exceed the lateral pressure on the cover
rocks, the advance gases, insinuating themselves on
foliation planes, widen them out and permit the ascent of
the regional magma. This favors mashing of the
adjacent region. But when the yielding of adjacent
parts of the crust concentrates the lateral compressive

2 Personal communication.
*G. F. Loughlin, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 492, 1912.

—— er

— eae |. on

|
.
|
|

Invasion to Regional Metamorphism. 267

forces once more upon this region, it is still heated
to near the temperature of crystallization; rock mashing
and recrystallization take place in it. The development
of differentiation to its final stages gives an acidic
magma in the upper part of the reservoir. The es-
cape of the gases in whose presence only this magma
can remain molten hastens the crystallization to great
depth. The crust is once more strengthened, rock
mashing becomes ineffective, the period of orogenic
activity as marked by igneous intrusion and dynamo-
metamorphism has come to a close. :

268 W. H. Twenhofel and W. H. Conine—The

Arr. XVII.—The Post-Glacial Terraces of Anticosti
Island; by W. H. Twennoren and W. H. Conte.

Introduction.

Detailed description of the terraces.
The sea-level terrace.

The terraces above sea-level.

Origin of the terraces.

Time of origin of the terraces.
Glaciation of the island.
Champlain submergence.
Deposits of post-Champlain time.
Age of the river valleys.
Conclusions as to time of origin.

Correlation with terraces elsewhere.

INTRODUCTION.

There are probably no more impressive features in the
physiography of Anticosti Island than its terraces. Like
stairways for giants, they begin at the level of the sea—
possibly below sea-level—and continue into the interior as
far as the eye is able to follow. The highest measured
exceeds 400 feet. The cliffs or steep slopes which front
them vary greatly both in height and in extent. In places
a terrace may have a width of a mile or more; in other
places it narrows to disappearance, with its cliff or front
slope merging with the cliff or front slope of one of those
above. The places of greatest width are about the inden-
tations of the coast; the places of least width are on the
salients. | :

Anticosti Island is a cuesta with the escarpment facing
north, the dip slope facing to the south. The northern
channel occupies the inner lowland. The trend of the
island is not parallel to the structure nor is the strike of
the strata identical with the trend of the island. Pro-
gressively younger strata are met in proceeding eastward
along the north side, progressively older strata in going
westward and eastward from Southwest Point along the
south side.

The asymmetry of the island’s surface with respect to
its north and south slopes is reflected in its terraces.
On the south side, some of them are several miles wide,
and to reach the summit of the highest, it is necessary, in
most places, to go somewhere near the middle of the
island. On the north side, the highest observed terrace
may be reached in many places within a couple of miles

Post-Glacial Terraces of Anticosts Island. 269

of the sea and there are a few places where it is within a
mile. The greater width of the terraces on the south
slope lessens the impression they make and, except where
a high headland reaches the sea, not more than three or
four may be seen in most localities; on the north side, on
the other hand, the terraces can not fail to attract the
attention of even the most casual observer and there are
many places where more than a half-dozen may be seen.

At the time of the.senior writer’s first visit to Anticosti
in 1908, the terraces were noted—it would have been im-
possible not to have seen them—and a few estimates were
made as to their number and heights. On the second visit
in 1919, a consistent effort was made to obtain exact data
relating to them and Mr. Conine was instructed to give all
the time at his disposaito this end. In addition, measure-
ments were made at many places by the senior writer and
other members of his party. The result is that elevations
and width of terraces have been obtained at several dozen
localities of which only a few are shown in the diagrams.
Measurements were ordinarily made by hand leveling and
pacing, but in a very few instances heights and widths
were estimated. Wherever possible, the nature of the
materials on the surfaces of the terraces was determined.
This could only be done, however, on the edges of cliffs
and about the roots of upturned trees, neither of which is
everywhere present.

Collection of data relating to the terraces is simple, but
not always easy; nor are the results obtained altogether
accurate. As soon as one leaves the beach, he finds him-
self in an almost impenetrable forest through which he
rarely can see more than a couple of hundred feet at most.
The problem for most of the terraces was confined to the
obtaining of their heights and widths at localities which
appeared likely to give the most accurate results. Ex-
cept for the lowest terrace, little effort was made toward
correlation, as this is impossible except by the actual
walking out on each terrace entirely around the island,
and to do this for each one, or for any one, was out of
the question.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE TERRACES.

The sea-level terraces.—The lowest exposed terrace of
Anticosti is the one whose width is at present being ex-

270 ~=W. H. Twenhofel and W. H. Conine—The

tended by the work of the waves. This is known as the
‘‘reef’’ by the people of the island and by the sailors of
the Gulf. Its presence is a menace to navigation and it
renders many parts of the coast of Anticosti inaccessible
from the sea except to the smallest of boats. Its width
varies from nothing to about three miles, the greatest
width being on the south side at the mouth of Dauphine
River, but it is almost everywhere present to some degree
except in those bays which have barrier beaches about
their heads as is the case at the mouths of Jupiter River,
Salmon River, Fox River, ete. On the south side there
are not many places where the reef does not have a
width of at least an eighth of a mile, and a quarter- toa
half-mile width is an extremely common occurrence. On
the north side the reef is less marked than on the south,
but even there it is commonly from a sixteenth to an
eighth of a mile wide.

The reef shows little other than barnacle- and seaweed-
covered rocks. Pebbles are generally wanting except at
the shore, where they are apt to be in quantity unless the
rock of the coast is composed of material from which they
could not readily be derived. Were the shells and sea-
weeds removed from the reef, there would be little or
nothing present to show that it is of wave-cut origin;
morever, it is probable that if the waves should cut en-
tirely across the island so as to develop a reef over the
entire extent of its present area, there would be no con-
glomerate to show the wave-cut origin, and, were the reef
then submerged, there would be no basement conglomer-
ate to mark the unconformity, but sands and muds would
rest directly across the truncated edges of the limestones,
shales, and sandstones which constitute the rocks of the
island.

The terraces above sea-level. = he terraces above sea-
level are tabulated in the list which follows. It is proba-
ble that the elevations which are given contain some error
for all terraces above the eighth, this being a necessary
consequence of the method of measurement and the con-
ditions under which measurements were made. Another
factor introducing an error is the fact that every terrace
is covered with vegetable mould and peat of which the
thickness was not always determinable. So far as possi-
ble, however, an estimate has been made and a deinen
allowed therefor.

Post-Glacial Terraces of Anticosti Island.

271

Terraces whose elevations are considered most accur-

ate are designated by an asterisk.

Those which have

been observed in the greatest number of places are the 1st,
2nd, 3rd, 6th, 7th, and 10th. For statement of elevation

at the various localities, the reader
diagram (fig. 1).

should consult the

The 5 to 6-foot terrace has been seen at hundreds of
localities and in many places it is fronted by a littoral
barrier which in some instances is 12 to 15 feet above tide-

fp ee aekze

JSR ae Bee Z oe
a a ents

a teseoeet eager? oemeeraeat
eee

anon ae

Ee
S222 =

ie J VS BEE sees
[LUCE CR EREEE RSREZSRES
CES 2 SS ESSE sae

Ee see elkee

cp pot

i= EY
‘228 SE See a
= eel ee Sere
ee Sl eras

PE ee
i= == 655 ase

Fic. 1.—Profiles of terraces at various localities.

ees PA
SESSS050G) GESERY Sn) = Gnne scaeanl
SrliSeS EeSsS =

lesen
2 PSS re Ss Sae= Ley sell =e2ee
ee eee ae EVES anaes =

Eee eee ia
Eeeo-SaSne Fame ssEer rege

See CREE
G S00 SOUGnoes Ween
zoe ee Reese ae BEBE

Each vertical space

equals 25 feet, each horizontal 25 feet.

1, 5-6 feet*;
About 51 feet*;
feet; 11, 105 feet; 12,
feet; 15, 145-150 feet;
feet; 19, 344 feet;

level, thus attesting
tions of the coast.

Peel O Ess 5
7, 60-65 feet*;

20, 380 feet;

3, 20 feet*; 4, About 29 feet;
8, 74 feet; 9, 85 feet*;
115 feet; 138, About 120 feet;
16, About 180 feet; 17, 210 feet;
21, 409 feet;

5, 40 feet*; 6,
10, About 95
14, About 130
18, About 300
22, 442 feet.

to the power of the waves on those por-
This terrace is ordinarily not of great

width, but it is commonly a hundred or more feet wide and
there are places where it approaches a width of a half-

mile.

On its landward margin there are not uncommonly

hooded or overhanging cliffs at the feet of which are talus
slopes related to the cliffs in the manner shown in figure 2,
which represents the elevated cliff between West Point

272 W. H. Twenhofel and W. H. Conine—The

and English Head. On the apices of most of the head-
lands, this terrace is cut away, but on their sides there are
talus heaps overhung by the cliff, and these rest on the
top of the terrace. It is probably the most continuous
terrace of the island.

The 10 to 13-foot terrace is that on which most of the
moorland of the south shore is built, and its present vary-
ing height (16-17 feet) is largely due to the differential
accumulation of peat on the top. Over extensive
stretches of the south coast this terrace is several miles
wide and it is probably the widest of the island. A 20-
foot terrace has been observed in many places, and also

s,5,8

= Zr RS. = Sy,
US E} 2a
ae a GIS ‘ :
as Ee SS GAs Aaags SS SSSSS
TORII BERG WEL hen 0 S60 SSSR

Fic. 2.—Diagram of the ‘‘reef’’ and the first and a higher terrace be-
“tween West Point and English Bay. The top of the barrier is about 10
feet above high tide-level. The upper terrace is about 40 feet high. The
truncated strata beneath the barrier make the floor of the lowest terrace
above sea-level:

varies in height due to differential accumulation of peat.
The very high terraces are among those best shown and
they are also quite wide. (Qn the north side they are gen-
erally fronted by a very steep slope, for instance, Macasty
Mountain is faced by a slope difficult to climb—landslides
having oceurred upon it—and its summit is very flat and
carries gravel resembling that existing on the present
beach. The terrace here is 409 feet above sea-level.
The land above the 442-foot:-terrace, the highest meas-
ured, is also very flat and of terrace-like aspect. Taking
observations as to heights and widths on these higher
areas was, however, so difficult that none was attempted,
as it was clear that any data that could be obtained would.

Post-Glacial Terraces of Anticosti Island. 278

contain so much error as to be of little value. Gravel
which appears to be of beach origin lies on this higher
land wherever it has been seen.

ORIGIN OF THE TERRACES.

In essentially every locality the terraces truncate the
structure. On the north side the outer margins are cut
on older rock than the inner margins and eastward they
truneate younger rock than westward; exactly opposite
conditions, however, obtain on the south side. They are
eut indiscriminately over weak and strong beds. These
facts eliminate any possibility that the terraces may be of
structural origin.

Most and probably all of the terraces bear gravel which
is of beach origin and such gravel has been observed on
the highest measured terrace. Bowlder beaches or lines
have not been seen, but such are not likely to be present,
as bowlders are not common on the present coast. Such
gravel as has been observed is like that of the present
coast except that on the higher and older terraces it is
more or less roughened by solution. Shell-bored rocks
have been found up to at least 85 feet above sea-level in
the region between Ellis Bay and English Bay. Dr.
Joseph Schmidt, who lived on the island for many years,
considered that ‘‘marine water had covered the whole of
the island within the late geologic past.’”!

Most of the terraces and probably all of them are
fronted at some places by steep cliffs or slopes, and where
the cliffs are well preserved, they are such as could have
been developed only by the waves. Such cliffs of course
are most common in connection with the lower terraces.
These facts are considered proof that the terraces were
eut by the waves. The fact that gravel of beach origin
has not been found everywhere can not be adduced as an
objection, as it does not occur everywhere on the present
beach, the major portion of the reef being without it.

TIME OF ORIGIN OF THE TERRACES.

In this connection it is necessary to consider the glacia-
tion of the island, the Champlain submergence, the depos-
its of post-Champlain time, and the age of the river val-
leys. The facts developed from the examination of these

* Joseph Schmidt, Monographie de L’Ile d’Anticosti, Paris, 1904, p. 94.
Free translation.

274 W. H. Twenhofel and W. H. Conmne—The

features and events will furnish data from which to draw
a conclusion relating to the time of terrace development.

Glaciation of the 1sland.—During the Ice Age, glaciers
which originated in Labrador covered the island,? as is
proved by the abundant presence of glacial erraties rang-
ing in size up tomany tons. Many of these are composed
of labradorite, which could hardly have originated else-
where than on Labrador. ‘Till appears to be rather rare.
At many points about the shores and along the rivers are
stratified deposits of sand, gravel and clay, such having
been observed up to elevations of 100 feet above sea-level
in the cliffs of the shore. Unstratified glacial gravel was
seen in the bed of the Vaurial River up to 12 miles from
the sea at an elevation of 322 feet (stadia measurement).
Striated and soled pebbles are extremely common in these
deposits. Except for such of them as are unstratified
they are not of the time of the Ice Age so far as deposition
is concerned.

On the Vaurial River, glacial striae were seen on the
limestone in place, the direction being S. 24° W. and the
elevation 35 feet (stadia measurement). Glacial strize
were also seen at Cormorant Point in two places, at one of
which they have the direction S. 20° W., and at the other
S. 3° W. Schmidt has noted the occurrence of strie at
Cape River which have a direction from northeast to
southwest.2 These facts are sufficient to prove that the
Pleistocene glaciers covered the island. They seem to
have in no way modified the terraces, and the latter there-
fore appear to be younger than Pleistocene glaciation.

The Champlain submergence.—Clays and sands con-
taining an abundance of Saxicava rugosa and Mya trun-
cata have been observed at Ellis Bay at an elevation of
about 20 feet above sea-level, and have also been seen at
Otter River and Jupiter River, at the latter place being
estimated to be 30 to 40 feet above sea-level. On the
north side they are known to be present on the brook
which empties into Little Macasty Bay, and it is probable
that similar clays and sands occur at many other places.
It is obvious that these deposits were made at a higher
stage of sea-level than the present one. They are trun-
cated by all the terraces up to the height of their occur-

>T. C. Chamberlin’s map of the great Ice Age shows the island to
have escaped glaciation.
* Joseph Schmidt, op. cit., p. 89.

Post-Glacial Terraces of Anticosti Island. = 275

rence, proving that these terraces have been formed since
Champlain time.

Deposits of post-Champlain tume.—At many points
along the coast are the stratified sands and gravels to
which reference has been made. At Southwest Point
these deposits are truncated by the 65-foot terrace, at
Caplin River an 85-foot terrace is cut across them, and
at Cape Ann the 74-foot terrace does the truncating. At
the last named place the many shells of Mytilus edulis and
Mya arenaria occurring throughout the deposit—species
now living in abundance along some portions of the shores
of the island—show that these deposits are of an age
younger than those laid down during the Champlain sub-
mergence. The highest point where these gravels have
been observed is about 100 feet, and every terrace up to
the height of their observed occurrence passes from them
to bed rock without appreciable break in flatness.

Age of the rier valleys —The river valleys are of two
distinct types. Nearly all the smaller streams flow in
rock-floored, narrow valleys and the greater portion of
these reach the sea over rapids or a fall, the streams not
being able to cut. downward as rapidly as the sea cuts
landward. Other streams have wide valleys and flow
over floors of gravel and sand, attesting to the presence of
an older valley floor beneath. The latter type is illus-
trated by parts of the Caplin, Vaurial, Jupiter, Fox,
Otter, and Salmon River valleys, which are in that stage
of the erosion cycle verging very closely on maturity.
The Caplin River has a broad flood-plain for such a small
stream and as a general rule the valley slopes are gentle.
Near the mouth, however, the valley narrows and the
stream flows to the sea between high cliffs, which are com-
posed of bed rock, but behind which there are cliffs com-
posed of glacial and stratified gravel. This suggests that
the stream has made a new entrance to the sea, and as the
shore to the west consists cf gravel cliffs for fully a half
mile it is probable that the older valley lies hidden there.
These older valleys are of pre-glacial origin, as shown by
their aspect of maturity, the glacial deposits which are in
them, and the glacial striz which have been seen on the
Cape and Vaurial rivers. As no Tertiary deposits have
been seen in any of them, it is assumed that this region
was as high in pre-Glacial time as it is at present, with
the probability that it was somewhat higher. The

276 W. H. Twenhofel and W. H. Conne—The

streams of the first group are probably in large part post-
Glacial.

Conclusions as to the teme of formation of the terraces.
—The terraces are shown along the valley walls of each
type of stream, but are not present on every stream, par-
ticularly those of youthful appearance. Many are known
to truncate Glacial and post-Glacial deposits, and beach
eravels have been seen on essentially every one of them.
Since the island was glaciated, the glaciers would have re-
moved the gravels, but might also have carried others
upward from the beach. Till is generally absent, but its
removal could have been most extensively and completely
accomplished by beach washing. The age of the lower
terraces 1s unquestionably determined. If the higher ter-
races be Tertiary, they would appear to be older than the
larger river valleys, but they are shown on the sides of
most of the latter, and are therefore subsequent. The
facts lead to the conclusion that all of the terraces are
post-Glacial.

The question may be approached from another angle.
How long a time would be required to cut these terraces?
How long a time is required to cut a terrace a mile wide on
the rocks of the island? Wave erosion on Anticosti ap-
pears to be very rapid. The rock as an average is not
particularly strong, is much jointed, and there is much
frost wedging. At Heath Point, Mr. Christopher Hubert,
the light keeper, pointed out a road which had been moved
twice between 1909 and 1919, and the rock at that place, if
anything, is somewhat more resistant than the average.
The estimated width eroded in the ten years is 20 feet, or
a mile in a little over 2500 years, and at this rate, to cut
the present sea-level terrace at its greatest width would
have required about 7500 years. As the average width
of this terrace is not much more than a mile, it may be
assumed that about 3000 years were required for its devel-
opment. On the south side of the island the gradient of
the surface is gentle, and the surface low, so that in the
cutting of any one of the terraces the quantity of material
to be eroded and transported was not great, thus permit-
ting the terraces to develop to great width. On the north
side, erosion is just as easy, but the elevation above sea-
level is so much greater that a move of one foot inland
required the removal of from five to forty times as much
material as is the case for a movement inland of the same

Post-Glacial Terraces of Anticosti Island. = 217

amount. on the south side. A longer time would, there-
fore, be required to cut an equal width of terrace on that
side, hence their lesser width. Such was the case in the
development of every one of the terraces, with the possible
exception of the highest, which probably began to develop
when no high land existed. If each uplift meant the
development on the south side of a terrace with an aver-
age width of one mile—probably a far too large assump-
tion, as many of them are known to have reached a width
of only a fraction of that figure—the time for the develop-
ment of the twenty-three terraces would have required
as a Maximum not above 70,000 years. This approaches
the estimate of time which has elapsed since the Ice Age.

There is still another line of evidence which has not been
mentioned. Onthe Mingan Islands to the north are many
rocks which were called ‘‘flower-pot’’ rocks by Richard-
son.* These are stacks which were developed by the
waves, and all of them are at elevations the highest of
which probably does not exceed 50 feet. On the top of
West Cliff there is also a stack-like structure at a height of
a little more than 400 feet above sea-level. Had this
structure been there in Glacial time, with its present size,
it would most certainly have been shoved away, unless the
glaciers did not rise to this height, a possibility which the
bowlders lying at elevations almost as high strongly
negate.

All lines of evidence hence converge to the conclusion
that the terraces were developed in post-Glacial time.

If the terraces are of the age inferred, it follows that
there has been a negative movement of the strand-line
exceeding 400 feet since the period of glaciation. The
existence of the terraces shows that the periods of uplift
have been separated by times of relative stability. The
hooded cliffs and the ‘‘flower-pot’’ rocks in the Mingan
Islands to the north show that the last uplifts have been
comparatively recent, otherwise these features would
have been obliterated under the strong frost action which
prevails on these islands and on Anticosti. Anticosti is
said by the people of the island to be rising at present, as
they tell of harbors being no longer accessible to boats
which thirty years ago found easy entrance. Mr. Alfred
Malouin, who has lived on the island for around forty

4 James Richardson, Geol. Survey, Canada, Rept. of Progress for the years
1853-1858, p. 242, 1857.

278 Twenhofel and Conine—Post-Glacial Terraces.

years, states that he is confident that there are parts now
above water which were submerged when he first came.

CORRELATION WITH TERRACES ELSEWHERE.

It is extremely difficult to correlate any of the terraces
of the island with those of other parts of the St. Lawrence.

One may be certain that a terrace of the same time of
development is present on both the south and the north
sides of the Gulf, but to state the identity in time of devel-
opment needs far more work than has yet been accom-
plished. Goldthwait® has described a 20-foot terrace and
sea-cliff about the lower St. Lawrence, and perhaps the
20-foot terrace of Anticosti is its correlative.

At Ottawa, Johnston® has described old shore-lines up
to about 690 feet sea-level—more than 200 feet higher than
the highest terrace of Anticosti—and has found stratified
clays with fossils up to 510 feet. Many beaches are
present and some of these must certainly correlate with
those of Anticosti, but it is altogether impossible to state
which are synchronous.

University of Wisconsin, Madison.

° J. W. Goldthwait, this Journal (4), 32, 291-317, 1917. ;
°W. A. Johnston, Geol. Survey, Canada, Mus. Bull. No. 24, 6, 1916.

Chemistry and Physics. 279

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. CHemistry AND Puysics.

1. The Devitrification of Glass—It has been found by ALBERT
F. O. Germann that the well known peculiar behavior of many
samples of old glass upon heating before the flame is a surface
phenomenon, and that such glass can be restored to a workable
condition by simply washing it with dilute hydrofluoric acid in
order to remove a thin film of the surface. This observation is an
important one, as it gives a method for utilizing old glass and for
repairing old glass apparatus. It is the author’s opinion that this
surface change is due to the absorption of moisture, but the mat-
ter does not appear to be perfectly simple, because it is mentioned
that a tube which devitrified badly at first showed no tendency to
behave in this way after having been exposed casually to labor-
atory fumes for more than six months. Perhaps the absorption
of carbon dioxide takes part in the devitrification since this might
be removed by the action of acid fumes. H. L. W.

2. A Substitute for Thoulet’s Solution—A. TuHreu and
L. Srort mention the employment of heavy solutions for the
determination of the density of solids, by floating and sinking,
some of which solutions are mixtures of organic liquids and others
are aqueous solutions. Among the latter the best known are
potassium mercuric iodide (Thoulet) and barium mercuric iodide
(Rohrbach). For organic compounds the aqueous solutions are
practically the only ones employed, and for most of these solu-
tions of calcium chloride with a specific gravity up to 1.4 answer
the purpose, but the authors had occasion to use a heavier aque-
ous solution and found that lead perchlorate gave solutions up to
a density of 2.6. It is more agreeable to use than the mercuric
solutions, the solution is mobile and it does not attack the skin
to the shehtest degree. It can be prepared cheaply by saturating
commercial perchloric acid with lead carbonate and evaporating
to saturation. This solution is evidently a very satisfactory one
for use with many. organic compounds, but unfortunately it
could be used only with the hghter minerals, since its maximum
density is slightly below that of quartz—Berichte, 53, 2003.

H. L. W.

3. Priestley in America, 1794-1804; by Epaar F. Smita.
12mo, pp. 173. . Philadelphia, 1920 (P. Blakiston’s Son & Co.) .—
Professor Smith, in writing several recent books, has rendered
valuable service to the early history of chemistry in America, and
now he has increased this service by presenting the little book
under consideration. From contemporary newspapers, docu-
ments and books, he has found much interesting information con-
cerning the life and activities during his exile in America of this
noted discoverer of oxygen. It appears that Priestley’s activi-

Am. Jour, Sci.—Firts Seriss, Vou. I, No. 3.—Marcgu, 1921.
9

280 Scientific Intelligence.

ties in Pennsylvania were largely connected with philosophical
and religious work, but nevertheless he did a considerable amount
of laboratory work and wrote frequently in favor of the phlogis-
tic theory, to which, as is well known, he adhered to the end of his
life, although his own discovery of oxygen had paved the way
long before for the modern views of oxidation. The book pre-
sents the subject very well, and is to be recommended to those who
are interested in the history of chemistry. It mentions some
important incidents, such as the acquaintance of Priestley with
George Washington, and an invitation to him by the latter to visit
his home at Mount Vernon. H. L. W.

4. Introduction to General Chemistry; by H. Copaux.
Translated by Henry LEFFMANN. 12mo, pp. 195. Philadel-
phia, 1920 (P. Blakiston’s Son & Co.).—This is a clear and con-
cise exposition of the principles of modern chemistry as recognized
today by the leaders of the science. It should be a valuable guide
to those who wish to obtain a clear view of the subject. Besides
presenting the older fundamental laws and theories of chemistry.
the book discusses the more modern topics, such as radioactivity,
the structure of the atom, the phase rule, ete. A short appendix,
dealing with hydrogen-ion concentration, has been contributed
by the translator. Hi, Bea.

5. A Text-Book of Organic Chemistry; by E. DEBARRY Bar-
NETT. 8vo, pp. 380. Philadelphia, 1920 (P. Blakiston’s Son
and Co.) —In this text- book from England the author has
described the important classes of compounds both aliphatic and
aromatic. He has generalized, however, wherever possible and
has thus avoided the introduction of much specific descriptive
detail, which is always troublesome to the beginner. General
theories have been grouped under one heading in order that they
may be more readily referred to when occasion requires. Several
pages have been devoted to a description of the original literature
and its use. This is indeed worthy of mention since the use of
the journals is an essential part of every organic chemist’s train-
ing and attention should be paid as soon as possible to this phase
of the student’s work. The book gives a very favorable impres-
sion, but unfortunately many errors. in typing have escaped the
notice of the proof readers. J. J. DONLEAVY.

6. Comparison between wave lengths of solar and of terres-
ivity theory of Einstein offers a prediction
that the wave length of light emitted by an element upon the sun
should be about two parts in a million longer than that of the
same element upon the earth. Such indications of a difference as
have hitherto been published have not been accepted as altogether
valid. A recent determination by A. PEror justifies the existence
of a real difference. His investigation was made upon the sec-
ond head of the cyanogen band, 4216, which is particularly favor-
able for observation on account of its isolation in the solar spec-
trum. Its wave length was taken as 4197 A, and the measure-
ments made by a spectroscopic interferometer.

Chemistry and Physics. 281

As the vapors producing the absorption appear to occur in the
more elevated regions of the solar atmosphere they must be
regarded as subject to a relatively low pressure. M. PERoT
accordingly used as his comparison source a carbon are under a
pressure between 22.5 and 30 millimeters of mercury. As the
result of his investigation he states that he was able to determine
that the difference sought lay between 2.2 and 1.6 parts in a mil-
lion, an interval which contains the Einstein number.—Bull. Soc.
Fr. de Phys., 147, Dec., 1920.

7. The Imaginary in Geometry; by J.L.S.Harron. Pp. VI,
215. Cambridge, 1920 (Cambridge University Press)—The
author’s purpose is to develop a generalized conception of geom-
etry and of space in which each of the three coordinates is
regarded as a complex quantity of the form x-+ 12’, y+’,
z+’. By adding to the axioms of real geometry, but employ-
ing its principles and methods, the well known theorems of plane
and projective geometry, of trigonometry, and of the conic and
conicoid are extended and generalized. It is a book for geometri-
cians only. F. E. B.

8. The Principles of the Phase Theory; by Doueuas A. Cutb-
BENS. Pp. xx, 382, 198 figures. London, 1920 (Macmillan &
Co.).—This book on heterogeneous equilibria does not attempt to
give a general survey of the whole field. It deals exclusively
with systems which contain no vapor phase, the so-called ‘‘con-
-densed systems,’’ with the further limitations that only one

liquid phase may be present and no solid solutions. Moreover, the
practical illustrations considered are all cases of equilibrium
between water and salts, though the theoretical principles
involved are, of course, applicable to all condensed systems.

Even with these limitations, the field to be covered is a large
one, but they make it possible for the author to deal quite briefly
with binary systems, and to devote the major part of the book to
the more complicated and less familiar systems of three, four and
five components. A final chapter deals with graphical methods
for determining, from the compositions of the phases present at
an invariant point, what reactions may occur there.

The book is good both in plan and execution. There is no
conspicuous originality in treatment, but in a field so well devel-
oped it could hardly be expected. The author’s style is clear, and
the systematic and exceptionally thorough way in which the
behavior of each different type of system of a given group is
discussed before taking up conerete cases, is worthy of special
mention. As the treatment is non-mathematical the book should
be suitable for the use of readers who are unfamiliar with the
subject. RevGee Vis OM

9. Lessons wn Mechanics; by WiwisAm S. FRANKLIN and
Barry MacNurr. Pp. XI, 221. Bethlehem, Pa., 1919 (Frank-
lin and Charles).—This and the two companion volumes to be
mentioned later have been prepared to meet the needs of the two
year schedule in elementary physics which has recently been

282 Scientific Intelligence.

adopted in some technical schools in which it is no longer possible
to base the teaching of physics upon the mathematical courses to
the extent that may have been done heretofore. As might be
expected, these text books are strongly stamped with the individ-
uality of the author—or authors—even to the appearance of the
pages, on which varying degrees of emphasis are marked by seven
or eight different fonts of type, fortississumo being indicated by
10-point bold face capitals. More important than the superficial
appearance of the text is the purpose of the authors toward the
teaching of physics. In this volume they express the opinion
that the function of physics teachers is to aid in the important
and difficult matter of mathematical training and accordingly the
calculus methods are introduced from the beginning without pre-
suming previous knowledge of these powerful mathematical
methods on the part of the student. |

The form of presentation is intended to facilitate class room
work. Each topic is introduced with a definite statement, or
definition, of the physical meaning of the idea propounded, and
so developed as to lead to illustrative numerical problems which
are very numerous. Descriptive material has been reduced to a
minimum. The figures are well conceived but too sketchy—one
might even say scratchy. The chapter headings run through the
gamut of Statics, Motion of Translation, Motion of Rotation,
Hydrostaties, Hydraulics, Elasticity, and Waves in Elastic Bodies.
Three appendices are devoted to Measurements, to Errors, and
to Equations of analogous form in Translation, Rotation and Elec-
tricity. Controversial subjects are not avoided but as might be
anticipated the bull is taken by the horns. To help the student
through the slough of gravitational and absolute units the pound
mass is denominated the sugar-pound and the pound force is dis-
tinguished as the pull-pound or when occurring alone as ‘‘pound’’
in quotation marks. The unit of mass in the gravitational sys-
tem is always taken as the slug which is the attraction of the
earth upon the mass divided by the acceleration of weight.

As far as it is possible for a book to do it the student who has
worked through these lessons in mechanics should have been
helped to form sound concepts of the physical ideas, to give clear
interpretations of mathematical symbols, and to state results free
from confusion in the units. EY EB

10. Lessons in Electricity and Magnetism; by Wiis S.
FRANKLIN and Barry MacNuttr. Pp. XIV, 254. Bethlehem,
Pa., 1919 (Franklin and Charles).—This is the second volume
of the series mentioned above and might be called ‘‘Things which
the beginner in electrical engineering should know.’’ The mode
of presentation is peculiar, being developed from the standpoint
of electro-mechanics, i. e. instead of starting with the relatively
simpler phenomena and proceeding to the more complex, the
authors purposely ignore the nature of everything, and postulate
the existence of magnets, and of electric currents with the Joule,

Chemistry and Physics. 283

the Faraday and the Oersted effects. This method seems to have
the purpose not of making the fundamental principles clear so
much as to lead by the shortest step from experimental facts to
the mathematical statement of relations between certain quanti-
ties as measured in the electromagnetic system of units. Thus
for example, assuming Joule’s law, namely that the rate of gen-
eration of heat in a wire is proportional to the square of the
current, the resistance R is introduced as a constant of propor-
tionality. As a sequence electromotive force is defined as the
rate at which a generator does work per ampere of current. Such
a statement reminds one of the definition of force as the space
rate of variation of the energy in a field, and though all of these
definitions are mathematically correct, few physics teachers
would regard them as very helpful to a beginner.

After the first four chapters which treat of electric currents,
two are devoted to electrostatics and one to electron theory. Four
appendices discuss the Magnetism of Iron, Alternating Currents,
Electrical Measurements, and Corresponding Equations.

F, B. B.

11. Die Stellung der Relatwititstheore m der gerstigen
Entwicklung der Menschheit; by JosEPpH PETzotpT. Dresden,
Sibyllen-Verlag, 1921, 125 pp.—This account of the relativity
principle is written in popular form and without the use of
mathematical symbols. The author is particularly interested in
_ the philosophic aspects of the theory, and devotes half the book to
the historical development of the ideas underlying Ejinstein’s
theories. The account of the Michelson-Morley experiment is
followed by a discussion of the special theory of relativity. The
treatment of Hinstein’s theory of gravitation, however, seems too
brief to give the reader an adequate idea of the significance of
this important advance in mathematical physics. i. P.

Il. Groroey.

1. The Earth’s Axes and Triangulation; by J. DE GRAAFF
Hunter. Professional Paper No. 16, Survey of India. Pp. 217;
and with six charts and appendix. Dehra Dun, 1918——\This
book contains results of a research by J. DE GRAAFF HUNTER,
Mathematical Adviser to the Survey of India, which he conducted
with a view to developing methods by which the triangulation of
India, which was originally computed on the obsolete Everest
spheroid, might be referred to what Hunter calls the Helmert
spheroid.

The Everest spheroid was adopted for the triangulation of
India many years ago and, as in nearly all countries, the officials
responsible for the triangulation have hesitated to make a change
to.a spheroid that is much nearer the truth, but in most cases
such a change has been made. In the United States, Bessel’s

284 Scientific Intelligence.

spheroid had been in use by the Coast and Geodetie Survey for a
number of years but this was found to be quite far from the truth
after Clarke had carried on his investigations for the determina-
tion of the figure of the earth. After that the Coast and Geodetic
Survey adopted the Clarke spheroid of 1866 as its reference
spheroid and it is believed that this spheroid is so near the truth
that, for all scientific and geodetic purposes, it need never be
changed, in so far as the triangulation of the United States is
concerned. Undoubtedly the Helmert spheroid, which will be
adopted by the Trigonometric Survey of India, will meet the
needs of India for all time.

Hunter has chapters in his book on the various phases of the
change of a triangulation system from one spheroid to another.
This includes an interesting statement on the adjustment of trian-
gulation and a chapter on the probable errors of triangulation
before and after adjustment. There are included in the publica-
tion data for the 108 gravity stations which had been established
in India prior to the appearance of this book. The data include
the gravity anomalies based on the three generally used methods
of reduction, namely, the free air, the Bouguer and the isostatic
hypotheses. These data, with regard to gravity stations, are
duplicates of the same material appearing in Professional Paper
No. 15, of the Trigonometrical Survey of India.

The last chapter of the book contains a discussion of the. data
relative to deflections of the plumb line and the values of the
intensity of gravity at stations established in Turkestan by Rus-
sian observers. It is interesting to note on the chart which accom-
panies the report the relation of the deflections of the vertical to
the topography of the area covered by the stations and to their
north and south. There is a station close to the southern margin
of the valley near the foot of high mountains with a deflection to
the southward of 49.4. To the north of the valley and just to
the south of a range of mountains is a station with a deflection of
the vertical to the northward of 26”.9. The relative station error
between these two stations is 76”.3, while their difference in lati-
tude is only about 65 miles. This is quite a remarkable case and
shows the impossibility of having only astronomic observations
for the control of surveys and maps. If surveys had been made
and maps based on each of these astronomic stations, when the
two surveys were joined there would be an overlap, in position,
on the resulting maps of about 114 miles. This is one of the
strong arguments in favor of having an area covered by con-
tinuous triangulation, as has been done in most of the countries of
the world.

The gravity anomalies shown on the Turkestan map have not
been reduced by the isostatic method. It is hoped that this may
be accomplished at an early date for there has always been great
interest attached to the condition of isostasy in Asia, outside. of
India where much data are available, and here is an opportunity
of throwing some light on this important question. W. B.

Geology. 285

2. Investigations of Isostasy in Himalayan and Neighbouring
Regions; by Colonel Sir 8. G. Burrarp, 88 pp., 2 plates, appen-
dixes 1 and 2, and map of India. Professional Paper No. 17,
Survey of India, Dehra Dun, India, 1918.—This is a welcome
report from India on the subject of isostasy. For many years
there has been some doubt in the minds of geodesists and geolo-
gists in India as to whether isostasy is as nearly perfect in India
as it has been found to be in the United States. The present
report seems to eliminate all doubt on this matter. The author
states that ‘‘In the last few monhs, while making experimental
ealeulations I was led to the conclusion that the evidence which
we have regarded as unfavourable to the theory of isostasy may
be found to prove an unexpected support for it.’’

The author reviews the opinions of various investigators in the
subject of isostasy in India and the results of their work. He
pays particular attention to the geodetic observations in the form
of values of the intensity of the force of gravity at stations on
the Gangetic plain and near it and deflections of the vertical at
stations in various parts of India. The gravity values over the
Gangetic plain have shown anomalies (difference between the
observed and the computed values of gravity) which in nearly all
eases are too light. This fact was the principal reason for the
conclusion that the Gangetic plain was under compensated, that
is that the material in the column under this area has less mass
than normal.

Colonel Burrard, in this publication, accepts the opinion of
William Bowie, of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, in regard
to the possiblities of an area of recent geologic formation having
negative gravity anomalies being in an isostatic condition. He
quotes the following from Special Publication No. 40 of the
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, entitled ‘‘ Investigations of
Gravity and Isostasy’’:

_ “*Yn India there is a broad belt for recent geologic material
running approximately east and west at the foot of the Himalaya
Mountains. The stations on the recent formation, which no
doubt is largely due to the deposition of materials eroded from
the mountains, have in general negative anomalies. It is impos-
sible that the addition of materials could make the pressure less
than normal on the surface at the depth of compensation. We
may therefore conclude that isostatic adjustment probably fol-
lows the deposition of materials and that the negative anomaly is
probably due to the lighter materials in the upper crust.”’

Following this quotation from Bowie’s publication, Burrard
writes:

‘“In consequence of Bowie’s contention that the negative anom-
alies are evidence of the isostatic compensation of the Gangetic
trough, I have lately made a series of calculations to test the cor-
rectness of this view. Although in the past I had never been
able to perceive any strong geodetic evidence either for or against
the isostatic compensation of the trough, I am now of the opinion

286 Scientific Intellugence.

that Bowie’s contention is probably correct; for reasons which
I will subsequently explain, I consider that the evidence available
favours the view that the Gangetic deposits are compensated.’’

Burrard stated that in 1912 he put forward for the considera-
tion of geologists the suggestion that a rift had opened in the crust
at the foot of the Himalayas and had formed the Gangetic trough
and that it had been filled by abnormally light material. Bowie,
on the other hand, stated that the evidence at hand made it possi-
ble to account for the gravity anomalies on the Cenozoic forma-
tion in the affected area.

Burrard makes a number of computations, the results of which
are given in this publication, showing the effect of the excess and
deficiency of density that occur in different geologic formations
extending below sea level. In his computations he assumes that
the light rock deposits of Gangetic troughs are isostatically com-
pensated and he examines whether the observed geodetic results
support this assumption or not. After making his computation,
Burrard concludes that the geodetic evidence in India supports
the view that the Gangetic trough is isostatically compensated.
This is a confirmation of the views held by geodesists in America
that probably all parts of the earth would be found, after investi-
gation, to be in the same state of isostatic compensation that we
have in this country. An appendix to the report gives details in
regard to the computation of the depth of the Cenozoic formation °
at the various gravity stations that would be necessary to account
for the anomalies.

The reviewer commends this report to the careful attention of
gseophysicists and geologists as it is certain that the data furnished
by the geodesists in their investigations should be carefully con-
sidered in formulating theories as to the crustal movements of
the earth. Ww. B.

3. Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey.
Three Bulletins have recently been issued by the State Geologi-
eal and Natural History Survey. These are: Bulletin 29, The —
Quaternary Geology of the New Haven Region; by FREEMAN
Warp. 78 pp., 17 figs., 9 pls., 1920.—On the basis of two seasons’
field work, Dr. Ward has prepared a detailed account of the
glacial features about New Haven, with especial attention .to the
source, composition, and manner of deposition of the till, stratified
drift, and clays. Evidence is presented of two advances of the
ice but no deposits or erosion features indicating an interglacial
epoch were found. The glacial history of the New Haven region
is similar to that of other parts of the Connecticut coast but
unlike that of the central West. Dr. Ward’s paper will therefore
find a place in comparative studies.

Bulletin 30, Drainage Modtfications and Glaciation in the Dan-
bury Region, Connecticut; by Ruru Sawyer Harvey. 59 pp.
d pls., 10 figs., 1920.—Detailed study of Rocky River, Umpog
Brook, and of the reversed Still River, supplemented by an exam-

Geology. 287

ination of the structural features and glacial deposits of the Dan-
bury region, has demonstrated that ‘‘the lower Housatonic has
always maintained its course diagonal to the strike of formations
and that differential erosion which reaches its maximum expres-
sion in limestone areas is responsible for the impression that the
Still River lowland and other valleys west of the Housatonic may
once have been occupied by the later stream’’—a conclusion
opposed to the views of Hobbs (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 13, pp.
17-26, 1901) and of Crosby (Tech. Quart., vol. 13, p. 120, 1900).
The paper by Dr. Harvey has much more than local interest for
the physiographic history of the region which includes the Housa-
tonic, the Croton, and the Saugatuck drainage systems involves
the interpretation of the topographic features of southern New
England.

Bulletin 31. A Check-List of Connecticut Insects; by W. E.
Britton. 397 pp., 1920. The collections of Connecticut insects
at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station are the most
important in existence. Dr. W. E. Britton has listed these col-
lections in systematic order, following a plan which will make
this bulletin an indispensable handbook for professional entomol-
ogists and for amateurs interested in the insect life of their home
region. The list includes 6,781 species and varieties grouped in
2,946 genera and 333 families. Hy E.G.

4. The Erosional History of the Driftless Area; by ARTHUR
C. TrowBrRIpGE. University of [owa, Studies in Natural History,
Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 127, figs. 35, 1921.—The contribution of Pro-
fessor Trowbridge to the knowledge of the unglaciated ‘‘island’’
surrounded by glacial drift and lying at the junction of the
States of Illinois, lowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota is interesting
in method and conclusions. Part I is an analytical discussion
of the principles of multiple erosion cycles in which the value of
“sets of evidences’’ is emphasized. ‘‘The total number of dis-
tinguishable cycles is the number of sets of evidences plus one.’’
In Part I, the author applies his principles in writing the physi-
ographic history of the ‘‘driftless area’’ as a whole after detailed
study of its parts. The events are: formation at the close of the
Paleozoic era of an anticline, the south limb of which was a mono-
elinorium; making of the Dodgeville plain or peneplain in late
Tertiary time; followed by an uplift of about 180 feet; making
of the Lancaster peneplain in pre-Kansan Pleistocene; uplift of
600 feet Inaugurating a third cycle of erosion which with various
episodes continues to the present.

Dd. Geological Survey of Western Australia; A. Gipp Marr-
LAND, Government Geologist—The Annual Progress Report
of the Western Australia Geological Survey for 1919 (48 pp.,
1 map) is chiefly a record of reconnaisance in areas from
which minerals of economic value have been reported. Sum-
mary reports are given for the goldfields on Coolgardie, Yal-
goo, Yilgarn, Mont Margaret, Murchison, including the newly

288 Scientific Intellugence.

discovered lodes at Wallangie, and on the valuable deposits of
residual clays at Bolgart and Clackline. Along the Ponton
streamway, Mr. Talbot found bowlders which are believed to have
been carried inland by icebergs after the manner of those in the
Wilkensen Range (Bulletin 75). Publications for the year
include: Bulletin 77. Sources of Industrial Potash in Western
Australia: E. S. Suwpson, I. H. Boas, and T. BuatcHrForp.
Bulletin 82. The Magnesite Deposits of Bulong: F. R. Freupr-
MANN. Memoir No.1. The Western Australian Mining Hand-
book, which is being issued in sections as they are received from
the Printing Office. Twenty-one chapters, chiefly description of
mineral deposits, have been received. Papers on petrology, pros-
pecting and similar topics are also included in these separate
chapters. H. E. G.

6. Tenth Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of
Mines, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1920; FREDERICK G.
CoTtTrELL, Director. Pp. 149 with 3 plates and: 2 text figures.—
The most important accomplishment of the year has been the
completion and dedication of the station and central laboratories
of the Bureau at Pittsburgh. This gives it an adequate estab-
lishment and headquarters for field and investigative work. The
special work carried through is connected with the transition
from war to peace conditions. The study of accidents and rescue
in mines with the health of the miners is one to which the Bureau
has always devoted much attention. During the year, 10,177
miners were trained in first aid and rescue work and assistance
was rendered in 27 mine accidents. The activities of the Bureau
are so varied and comprehensive that it is only possible to briefly
allude to them in the present place. 5

It is a matter of regret that Dr. Cottrell has been compelled to
withdraw as director to take up his duties as chairman of the
Division of Chemistry and Chemical Technology of the National
Research Council. Dr. Cottrell recommends as his successor
H. Foster Bain of California, who during the war served as
assistant director.

III. Misce,ruAnerovus Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.

1. The System of Animate Nature; by J. ARTHUR THOMSON.
Two vols.; vol. 1, The Realm of Organisms as it is, pp. xi, 347;
vol. 2, The Evolution of the Realm of Organisms, pp. v, 353-687.
New York, 1920 (Henry Holt & Co.).—These volumes comprise
the Gifford lectures, twenty in number, delivered in the Univer-
sity of St. Andrews in 1915 and 1916. In them the reader will
find a broad and sympathetic survey of the entire field of biology,
leading from the unfathomed universe to the psychical, ethical,
and spiritual nature of man.

Every one of the outstanding generalizations in modern biology
is examined in a critical but kindly spirit and brought into har-
mony with the rest of the system of animate nature. The author

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. 289

shows how some of the most divergent and apparently irreconcila-
ble theories of vital processes, which have so often led to bitter
controversies, may be harmonized without injustice to either side.
This attitude is well illustrated in the discussion of the age-long
controversy as to whether the living world is ruled by mechan-
istic or vitalistic forces, for the author’s conclusion (p. 133) 1s
that ‘‘Our study has led us away from the view that there is only
one science of nature, consisting of precise chemico-physical
descriptions which have been, or are in process of being, summed
up in mechanical or mathematical terms. As it seems to us, there
is greater utility and accuracy in frankly recognising successive
orders of facts, each with its dominant categories. There is the
domain of the inorganic, the physico-chemical order, where
mechanism perhaps has it all its own way. There is the realm of
organisms, the biological order, where mechanism is checkmated
by organism. There is the kingdom of man, the social order,
where mechanism is transcended and personality reigns.’’

The first volume, of ten lectures, treats of the living world as
it exists today, including the activities of the living substance, the
behavior of animals, the problem of body and mind, the fact of
beauty, aesthetic emotion, the issues of life, the tactics of animate
nature, adaptiveness and purposiveness. In the second volume
the evidence as to the origin and evolution of organisms is pre-
sented, with particular reference to man. Five of these lectures
deal with variation, evolution, and heredity; the others with the
evolution of mind and mind in evolution, phylogeny of man, dis-
harmonies, parasitism, senescence, death, control of life, healing
power of nature, the moral and aesthetic development i in man and
the religious interpretation of nature.

This work will take a leading place among the few books which
will give the general reader an intimate, yet sufficiently broad,
view of the greatest problems of life and lead him toward a sym-
pathetic understanding of his own relation to the universe.

WwW. RoC.

2. Mechanismus und Physiologie der Geschlechtsbestimmung ;
von RicHarp GotpscHmipr. Pp. viii, 251, with 113 figures.
Berlin, 1920 (Gebriider Borntraeger) —The elucidation of the
Sex- determining mechanism forms one of the most important
biological contributions of the present century. Since it has
been “shown that the differences which distinguish the sexes in
man, animals, and plants are normally dependent upon a definite
chromosomal complex in the fertilized egg, it is of importance to
understand the means by which these sexuai characteristics
become stamped upon the body.

The author presents experimental evidence to show that in
some animals, at least, every fertilized egg possesses both of the
alternative sex factors, the predominating activity of one pro-
ducing the male sex and that of the other the female. These
factors are of the nature of enzymes associated with the so-called
sex chromosomes. Hach of them, male and female determining,

290 | Scientific Intelligence.

is necessary for a reaction the products of which are the internal
secretions (hormones) of sexual differentiation. Goldschmidt’s
theory of this antagonistic hormone, or endocrine, action is,
briefly, that if the potency of the male differentiating hormone
exceeds that of the female activator by a certain amount the indi-
vidual develops the sexual characteristics of the male, and vice
versa. An approach to equality of hormone potency results in
sterile, intersexual (hermaphroditic) individuals. He shows
from experimental data that by mating animals selected for a
particular sex potency any desired preponderance of either sex
or of exclusively intersexual offspring can thus be obtained.

The book contains an excellent summary of our present know!l-
edge of the sex-determining mechanism and its action in the
various groups of animals. Ww. R. C.

3. Biology, General and Medical; by JoseEPH McFARLAND.
Fourth edition, thoroughly revised; 473 pages, with 151 illustra-
tions. Philadelphia and London, 1920 (W. B. Saunders Co.).—
The wide usefulness of this college text-book, in which the general
principles of both plant and animal biology are correlated with
such more distinctly human applications as blood-relationship,
infection, immunity, parasitism, inheritance, mutilation, regen-
eration, grafting and senescence, is shown by the fact that three
complete editions have been exhausted in the ten years since the
book first appeared. This, fourth, edition has received such
revision aS was necessary to keep the work in line with recent
discoveries. Ww. R. C.

4. An Introduction to the Study of Cytology; by L. Don-
CASTER. Pp. xiv, 230, with 24 plates and 31 text-figures. Cam-
bridge, 1920 (University Press).—Inasmuch as all biological .
phenomena are dependent upon the activities of the individual
eell, or cells, of which the various organisms are composed, the
search for an explanation of any of these phenomena leads
directly to the study of the cell. In the past few years the dis-
coveries in this field have been so numerous and so important
that the subject of Cytology is now recognized as a special science
and as one of the most important branches of biology. The phe-
nomena of heredity, of development, of sex determination,
growth, metabolism, reproduction, disease and death can, in
many cases, be associated with certain of the wonderful mechan-
isms of the cells. The determination of the sex of an individual,
for example, appears to depend upon the presence or absence
in the fertilized egg of a particular one of the many chromosomes.
In fact, many of the hereditary characteristics in various groups
of organisms have been shown to be the result of the actions of
genes situated in more or less definitely localized portions of the
individual chromosomes. Only from the study of such eell
mechanisms do the observed facts of heredity become intelligible.

The general structure and activities of each of the numerous
organs of the cell are described in this book and the function of
each of the cell mechanisms are explained as fully as is possible in

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. 291

a limited space and in the present state of our knowledge. In all
eases the bearing of the cytological facts on problems of general
biological interest is emphasized. The chapters on natural and
artificial parthenogenesis, sex determination, germ-cell determin-
ants, development and heredity show not only how these phe-
nomena are associated with definite cell organs, but also how little
is yet known of the many subtle problems involved. The evi-
dence on which the author’s conclusions are based is supported
by excellent reproductions of the figures of the original investiga-
tors. W. R. C.

5. A Laboratory Maiual of Invertebrate Zoology ; by GILMAN
A. Drew. Third edition, revised; pp. ix, 229. Philadelphia .
and London, 1920 (W. B. Saunders Co.).—This well-seasoned
work is the outcome of the experience in teaching large classes at
the Marine Biological Laboratory for many years. It represents
the combined efforts of a number of instructors, for the original
manual has been modified from time to time and new topics added
until the present edition contains carefully prepared and really
usable directions for the laboratory study of nearly a hundred
different animals, embracing all the invertebrate phyla.

With so large a number of types for selection, the book can be
adapted to the needs of both extensive and briefer courses in any
part of the country simply by omitting those forms which are
unavailable or thought to be less essential for study. WwW. RB. C.

6. Considérations sur l’Etre Vivant: premiere partie, Résumé
Préliminaire de la Constitution de l’Orthobionte; par CHARLES
JANET. Pp. 80, with 1 plate. Beauvais, 1920 (A. Dumontier) — ~
This is a brief summary of the hypotheses relating to the origin
of life and the phylogenetic evolution of the primitive living sub-
stance into the various groups of plants on the one hand and into
the metazoa on the other as indicated by their reproductive pro-
cesses. The ingenious schematic diagrams make the author’s
conclusions easy of comprehension. We B.C:

7. Collection les Maitres de la Pensée Scientifique; publiés par
les soins de M. Sotovrne. Paris, 1920 (Gauthier-Villars et Cie).
—The object of these publications is to make available in inex-
pensive form (about 3 frances) the classic works on which the
various sciences are founded. The list will include the most
famous productions of all times and of all countries, those orig-
inally written in other languages to be faithfully translated into
French. A brief biograhical notice accompanies each work.

Two of the volumes already issued are reprints of Spallanzani’s
Observations et Expériences faites sur les Animalcules des Infu-
sions from the Geneva edition of 1786. A third includes the
Lavoisier’s classic Memoires sur la respiration et la transpiration
des Anmmaux (1777). “W. R. C.

8. Practical Bacteriology, Blood Work and Animal Parasitol-
ogy. Sixth Edition; by E. R. Stirr. Pp. xi, 633. Philadel-
phia, 1920 (P. Blakiston’s Son & Co.) —This is a manual for
laboratory workers which has proved its usefulness in five pre-

299 Scientific Intelligence.

ceding popular editions. There is a modicum of descriptive text
to enable the investigator to proceed with intelligent appreciation
in the application of the methods described to practical problems
of diagnosis. The book is somewhat unique in respect to the
systematic manner in which the uses of laboratory clinical diag-
nosis are presented and also in the large number of data on
‘‘normals’’ which serve as a basis for comparison. Perhaps
the book can best be described as a compact, compendious well
illustrated vade mecum for those who have occasion to apply
either chemical, bacteriological or microscopic technique as diag-
nostic aids. L. B. M.

9. Memoirs of the Bernice Pauchi Bishop Museum of Poly-
nesian Ethnology and Natural History. Volume VI, No.3. 4to,
pp. 359-546.—Fornander collection of Hawaiian antiquities and
folklore; by ABRAHAM FoRNANDER, with translations by THoMAsS
G. THRUM.

10. New Geography, Book I; by ALEXIS EVERETT FRyE. Pp.
viii, 264. Boston, 1920 (Ginn & Co.).—This publication, from the
Frye Atwood Geographical Series, is much to be commended
for the variety and attractive character of the subject matter as
well as for its ample illustrations which include 539 text figures
as also a series of geographic and other plates. It differs
from the dry publications of an earlier period in style as well as
in subject matter and cannot fail to be interesting and instructive
to the youthful generation for which it is prepared. Dr. Atwood
of Harvard University has lent his assistance and many of the
- excellent pictures included have already appeared in the National
Geographic Magazine. There is also a supplement giving the
population of the principal cities, relief maps and other matters
of interest.

11. Memovrrs of the Queenland Museum, Hesper A. LONGMAN,
Director, Volume 7, Part I, Brisbane.—This issue contains papers
on several natural history subjects. One of these is a continua-
tion of the edible Fishes of Queensland by J. Douauas O«ILBy.
Two papers are devoted to Queensland flies, one by T. H. JoHn-
ston and M. J. Bancrorr; another by C. P. ALEXANDER. The
occurrence of the little Penquin is noted by the Director, H. A.
LONGMAN. }

12, Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Instt-
tute, Wellington, N. Z. Volume 52 (new series).—This embraces
044 pages with a large number of plates and text figures. The
field covered includes anthropology, botany, chemistry, geology,
and zoology, and many of the papers merit an individual notice
which is here impossible.

13. The National Academy of Scrences—The Annual Meet-
ing of the National Academy of Sciences will be held at the
United States National Museum, Natural History Building, April
25 to 27, 1921. Several features of unusual interest are
promised. The Prince of Monaco, who is to receive the Agassiz
Medal, will give an address on Monday evening, April 25, on his
long continued and highly valued researches in oceanography.

On another occasion Dr. W. S. Adams, of Pasadena, will speak of

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. 293

his many years of investigation whereby for the first time the
spectrum classification, distances, absolute magnitudes, velocities,
and directions of motion in space of nearly 2,000 stars are fully
known, so that a new far-reaching view of the arrangement of
the stellar system appears.

A large attendance is anticipated and the Home Secretary,
Dr. C. G. Abbot, has already called for a list of papers, from
those of 10 minutes in length to others embracing 15 to 30
minutes.

14. Observatory Publications—Recent acquisitions include
the following :

The Annual Report of the Naval Observatory for the fiscal year
1920.—This forms appendix No. II to the annual report of the
Chief of the Bureau of Navigation.

Washburn Observatory of the University of Wisconsin, volume
13, part 1; by Aupert S. Furint, Astronomer.——This important
work contains meridian observations for stellar parallax, from
1898 to 1905. These were conducted by the method of meridian
transits similar to those of volume 11 of the observatory, with
some minor changes in conditions. Twelve students were
employed in the computations, chiefly graduates and under-
sraduates. The list of stars observed extends from —35 degrees
in declination to the Pole.

Leander McCormick Observatory of the Unwersity of Vur-
gimia, volume IJI—Parallaxes of 260 Stars, by S. A. MircHE.u.

Publications of the Yerkes Observatory, volume IV, part I11.—
Parallaxes of fifty-two stars; by Grorces VAN BIESBROECK and
Mrs. HANNAH STEELE PETTIT.

Contributions from the Princeton Unwersity Observatory,
No. 5—Photometric researches: the eclipsing variable, U Cephei;
by RayMonp SmiTH DuGAN.

15. <A Laboratory Manual of Anthropometry; by Harris H.
Wier, professor of zoology at Smith College, Northampton,
Mass. Pp. 200, 48 illustrations. Philadelphia, 1920 (P. Blakis-
ton’s Sons & Co.).—In order that the records of each observer
may be readily made use of by every other observer, it is 1mpera-
tive that series of measures be uniform and be taken in uniform
ways. The matter of unification was first placed upon an inter-
national basis by the International Congress of Anthropologists
held at Monacoin 1906. The unification process was carried still
further at the Geneva Congress in 1912. There remain for con-
sideration at some future Congress the general skeletal measures,
exclusive of the cranium and lower jaw.

The work of the special International Commissions of the two
Congresses rightly forms the basis of Wilder’s Laboratory Man-
ual. However his statement on page vi of the preface, that the
periodicals in which the reports of the labors of the two Com-
missions “‘appeared were exclusively European’’ is incorrect;
for report from the reviewer’s pen of the work accomplished at
Geneva appeared both in the American Anthropologist and in
Science for the year 1912.

294 Scientific Intelligence.

To the measures accepted by international agreement, the
author adds a convenient and useful list of general skeletal meas-
ures, as well as angles and indices. No mention is made of the ~
spheno-maxillary angle, which might well find a place even in an
abridged manual. His enumeration of instruments and descrip-
tion of the manner in which they are employed are done with a
thorough knowledge of the difficulties which beset the beginner.
The pages devoted to simple biometric methods were written for
the benefit of the student, whose chief interest is in morphological
relations, and whose mathematical ability and traming are not
sufficient to enable him to follow abstruse biometric methods.

To the laboratory student of the subject, Wilder’s Manual is
recommended for its lucidity and conciseness, as well as for the
author’s ability to transmit a maximum amount of his own per-
vading enthusiasm for the subject by means of the printed page.
For good measure, two instructive appendices are added: A,
Measures of Skulls of 93 Indians from Southern New England ;
B, Bodily Measures of 100 Female College Students.

Yale University. GEORGE GRANT MAcCurpyY.

OBITUARY.

Dr. Wiuuiim T. Sepewick, professor of biology and public
health at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, authority
on biology and sanitation, and for a time president of the Ameri-
can Health Association, died suddenly on January 26. He was
born in West Hartford, Conn., in 1855, was graduated from Shef-
field Scientific School in 1877, and received the degree of Ph.D.
from Johns Hopkins in 1881. Among his many activities he was
curator of the Lowell Institute, Boston, 1897; he was also a mem-
ber of the advisory board Hygienic Laboratory, United States
Public Health Service, 1902, and at one time president of the
Boston Civil Service Reform Association.

He was a man of charming personality and the value of his
services to this country from east to west, particularly in biology
and sanitation, can hardly be overestimated.

Sir Lazarus FuercHer, the distinguished English mineral-
ogist, died in January in his sixty-seventh year. In addition to
his many and important contributions to his department of
science he was the keeper of the mineral department of the
British Museum for some forty years; in this connection he had
the responsibility for the removal and installation of the collec-
tions from their early home at Bloomsbury to the new Museum
of Natural History in South Kensington.

Dr. Lincotn Ware Rippie, assistant professor of cryptogamic
botany and associate curator of the Farlow Herbarium, died at
Cambridge on January 16 in his forty-first year.

Dr. ALEXANDER MurrHeEap, the British physicist, died on
December 13 at the age of seventy-two years.

FrépERIC Houssay, professor of zoology at the Sorbonne since
1904, and dean in 1919, died recently in Paris.

~

Varp’s Natura Science E'stTaBlisHMent
A Supply-House for Scientific Material. a
Founded 1862. Incorporated 1890. : a

A few of our recent circulars in the various
departments:
Geology: J-52. Descriptive Catalogue of a Petrographie Col-

lection of American Rocks. J-188 and supplement.
Price-List of Rocks.

ge Mineralogy: J-220. Collections. J-225. Minerals by Weight.
Be. J-224, Autumnal Announcements.
ae Paleontology: J-201. Evolution of the Horse. J-199. Palex-
ae - ozoic index fossils. J-115. Colleciions of Fossils,
a Entomology: J-33. Supplies. J-229. Life Histories. J-230.
Be Live Pupez.
es _ Zoology: J-223. Material for dissection. J-207. Dissections a
Es of Typical Animals, etc. J-38. Models. oe
| te . Microscope Slides: J-189. Slides of Parasites. J-29. Cata- ee
a logue of Slides. tee
ie Taxidermy: J-22. North American Birdskins. Z-31. General es
a Taxidermy.

Human Anatomy: J-387, Skeletons & Models.
General: J-228. List of Circulars & Catalogues.

Wards Natural Science Establishment
84-102 College Ave., Rochester, N. Y., U.S. A.

“SCIENTIA”

Fe

Pod a

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC SYNTHESIS. Jssuwed monthly (each
. number consisting of 100 to 120 pages). Editor: EUGENIO RIGNANO.
a This is the only review which has a really international collaboration ; which is
= 3 of world-wide circulation and occupies itself with the synthesis and unification of
me _knowledge, in the history of the sciences, mathematics, astronomy, geolegy, physics,
a chemistry, biology, psychology and sociology.
4 This Review studies all the most important questions—demographic, ethnographic,
ee economic, financial, juridical, historical, political—raised, by the world war.
a It has published articles by Messrs.: Abbot=Arrhenius -Ashley = Bayliss - Beichman=
me Bigourdan = Bohlin - Bohn= Bonnesen = Borel = Bouty = Bragg - Bruni = Burdick = Carver =
f of Caullery - Chamberlin - Charlier = Claparede - Clark = Costantin - Crommelin = Crowter =

Kd Darwin = Delage = De Vries - Durkheim = Eddington = Edgeworth - Emery = Enriques -

a Fabry = Findlay = Fisher = Fowler = Golgi =- Gregory = Harper = Hartog = Heiberg - Hinks -

4 Hopkins-Inigues-Innes-Janet-Kaptein-Kaye-Kidd-Langevin-Lebedew-Lloyd Morgan =

: ee Lodge = Loisy - Lorentz = Loria -Lowell - MacBride = Meillet =-Moret-Muir-Peano =Picard = . rP.
Poincare - Puiseux = Rabaud = Rey Pastor - Righi-Rignano-Russell-Rutherford-Sagnac = |

_ Sarton= Schiaparelli- Scott = See - Sherrington = Soddy - Starling = Svedberg - Thomson -
Thorndike-Turner -Volterra-Webb -Weiss - Zeeman-Zeuthen and more than a hundred
others.

**SCIENTIA’’ publishes its articles in the language of its authors, and joins to the
principal text a supplement containing the French translations of all the articles that
_ are not in French. (Write for a Specimen Number to the General Secretary of ;
_ “Scientia”, Milan.) Annual subscription: 40sh., or 10 dollars post free. :

Office : 43 Foro Bonaparte, Milan, Italy-

| Publishers: WILLIAMS & NORGATE-London; FELIX ALCAN -Patis
NICOLA ZANICHELLI-Bologna; WILLIAMS &
WILKINS CO-Baltimore.

Arr. XIV.—John Day Fe eas: with Descripat
. of Five New see and One New Bae by us |
PHORPE 5 6.4.5 Sees | pics: ane os es Seen”

Art. XV.—Episodes in Rocky Mountain Orogeny; by ©. rs oe
Dane SS ae Roos aes ose

ae

+

Arr. XVI.—Relations of Subjacent Igneous Invasion to Re-
gional Metamorphism (concluded); by J. BarRRELu.... +

Arr, XVII.—The Post-Glacial Terraces of Anticosti Island; Pee
by W. H. TWENHOFEL and W. H. Conine 0 de aig gee : 2

_ ’ Foe yi
; ot 4

~ SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics—Devitrification of Glass, A. F. O. Guewanw: 7A Substi-.
tute for Thoulet’s Solution, A. Ture and L. Stouu : Priestley in America, | | —
he Na K. F. Situ, 279.—Introduction to General Chemistry (H. :
Copaux), H. Lerrmann: A Text-Book of Organie Chemistry, E. DeB.
BaARNBE?T : Comparison between wave lengths of solar and of terrestrial | J
origin, A. Perot, 280.—The cag aA in Geometry, J. L. S. Harron: | J |
The Principles of the Phase Theory, D. A. CLIBBENS : Lessons in Mechanics, ne >
W.S. FRANKLIN and B, MacNotr, 281. —Lessons in Electricity and th
netism, W. S. FRANKLIN and B. MaoNovrr, 282.—Die Stellung- derielaties. j
oe in der geistigen Entwicklung der Menschheit, J. PETZOLDT,
283. ° Sea ie

Geology—The Earth’s Axes and Triangulation, J. p— G. Hunter, Dares vk! bs
tigations of Isostasy in Himalayan and Neighbouring Regions, S. G. Bur-
RARD, 285.—Connecticut Geoicgical and Natural History Survey, F. WARD,
ete. , 286. —The Erosional History of the Driftless Area, A. C, TROWBRIDGE: |
Geological Survey of Western Australia, A. G. MarTLanpD, 287.—Tenth
Annual Report of the Director of the Bureau of Mines, for the nee year
ending June 30, 1920, F. G. CorrrE.u, 288.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—The System of Animate Nateiees J. AS
THomson, 288.—Mechanismus und Physiologie der Gescblechtbestim.
mung, R. GoupscHMIpT, 289.—Biology, General and Medical, J. McFar-—
LAND: An Introduction to the Study of Cytology, L. DONCASTER, 290.— ie
A Laboratory Manual of Invertebrate Zoology, G. A. DREW: Considéra-
tions sur l’tre Vivant, C. Janet: Collection les Maitres de la Pensée
Scientifique : Practical Bacteriology, Blood Work and Animal Parasitol- —
ogy, E. R. Stirt, 291.—Memoirs of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum of | '
Polynesian Ethnology and Natural History, A. FORNANDER: New Geo- me
eraphy, Book I, A. E. Frym: Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, H. A.
LONGMAN : Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand institute, aa
Wellington, N. Z. : The National Academy of Sciences, 292. —Observatory *
Publications: A Laboratory Manual of Anthropometry, H, H. Wi~pmr, 293. —

: i.

ey ee a mises
PAT EERE

4

as. 4, pet ee
ae re hase
hi, eet
i x Eee
AN plier a
x, $ d

_ Obituary—W. T. SepGwick: L. FLETCHER: L. W. RIDDLE : A. pe gui
F. Hovssay, 294.

Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in 1818.

THE APR 31

a “AMERICAN
| JOURNAL. OF SCIENCE.

Epiror: EDWARD S. DANA.

“onal pf 189

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

| i -Prorsssons WILLIAM M. DAVIS anp REGINALD A. DALY,
OF CAMBRIDGE,

> Paornson HORACE L. WELLS, CHARLES SCHUCHERT,
| HERBERT E. GREGORY, WESLEY R. COR ano.
_ FREDERICK E. BEACH, or New HAVEN,

v Wr os EDWARD W. BERRY, OF Barimore,
Drs. FREDERICK L. RANSOME anp WILLIAM BOWIE,
OF WASHINGTON.

FIFTH SERIES
VOL. I—-[WHOLE NUMBER, CCI].
No. 4 APRIL 1921.

- NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.
- £92 Ee:

+

| THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 123 TEMPLE STREET.

‘Published monthly. Six dollars per year, in advance. $6.40 to countries in the
ste Union ; ; $6. ath to Canada. Single numbers 30 cents; No. 271, one dollar.

By H. Ries, Ph.D., erie of Economic Geology in Comell U
~ and Thomas L. Watson, Ph.D., Professor of Economie ;
Geology in the University of ee Rss

engineering work,

This volume is more than a condensation and simnpplidibadadee of the. a
larger book, ‘‘ Engineering Geology,” in fact, it has involved a complete r
writing of many parts of that book and the amplification of others. i a

362 pages, 54 by 84, 252 figures. (In Press, Ready Mey ae

Also by H. Ries and others |

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY. Second Higgins 4 s
By H. Ries, Ph.D., and Thomas L. Watson, Ph.D, ee
722 pages, 6 by 9—249 figures, 104 plates. Cloth, $5.00 posta Fain

Economic Grotocy. Fourth Edition, Revised & Enlarge

By H. Ries, Ph.D.
856 pages, 6 me 9—291 figures, 75 Bie 00 postpaid

Cuays,. THEIR Grernewtes, PROPERTIES AND bee :
By H. Ries, Ph.D. i
554 pages 6 by 9-112 figures, 44 plates—$5.00 pontnan ss

-Hisrory or tHE Cray-Workine Ix DUSTRY OF THE «Uaioe Snares,
By H. Ries, Ph.D., and Henry Leighton, A. B.
217 pages, 6 by 9--illustrated—$2,50 postpaid.

Let us send you any Wiley Books for Free Examination.

JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.
432 Fourth Avenue, New York
London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.

Canada:
Renouf Publishing Co.

aye-4-21 0

THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

PER Sk RITES. |

-+0e¢ ————

Arr. XVIII.—Determinate Orbital Stability: its Mechan-
ism and some of its Functions m Celestial Mechan-
ics; by Frank BurstEy Tayuor.

CoNTENTS.

Introduction.

The three kinds of equilibrium.

Equilibrium and orbital stability.

The mechanism of determinate orbital stability.

Some functions of determinate orbital stability in celestial mechanics.

Introduction.

The subject to be considered in this paper is the stabil-
ity of the Moon’s revolution around the Earth, with
special reference to the quality of that stability, whether
it be determinate or wmdeterminate in a sense defined
below. I have not as yet seen any writing in which the
quality of the stability of the Moon’s revolution is con-
sidered from the point of view here presented. Present
and recent textbooks and treatises discuss the motion of
the Moon and the perturbing action of the Sun’s attrac-
tion, but they seldom mention stability as such, and do
not discuss its quality.

The Three Kinds of Equilibrium.

Before beginning the discussion of the quality of the
Moon’s stability, it is necessary to take note of certain
theoretical considerations which have an important
bearing on this subject.

The general definition of the word ‘‘equilibrium’’ is
given as ‘‘equipoise; the state of being equally balanced;
a Situation of a body in which the forces acting on it

Am. Jour. Sct.—FIFTH SERIES, Vou. I, No. 4.—Aprin, 1921.

re eee EERE

296 F. B. Taylor—Determinate Orbital Stability:

balance one another.’’ Then continuing by way of elab-
oration and further definition, three kinds of equilibrium
are defined as follows:

‘‘When a body, being slightly moved out of its position, always
tends to return to its position, the latter is said to be one of stable
equilibrium; when a body, on the contrary, once moved, however
shghtly, from the position of equilibrium, tends to depart from it
more and more, like a needle balanced on its point, its position is
said to be one of wnstable equilibrium; and when a body, being
moved more or less from its position of equilibrium, will rest in
any of the positions in which it is placed, and is indifferent to any —
particular position, its equilibrium is said to be neutral or indif-
ferent.’’

A needle balanced on its point is a typical illustration
of an unstable equilibrium. A billiard ball of homogen-
eous composition and density, resting on the smooth
surface of a billiard table, is in equilibrium. If it be
moved to any other place on the table it will rest there in
its new position just as well as in its first position, and it
has no tendency to return to its first position. This is
a typical illustration of neutral or indifferent equilibrium.
A weight freely suspended by a cord from a fixed point
hangs toward the center of the Earth, and is in equilib-
rium. If it be pushed aside in any direction it will
oscillate for a time, but will always return at last to its
original position as the only place where it can find equil-
ibrium. Thus, every force or impulse which disturbs the
suspended weight from its original position brings into
action another force which causes it to return to that
position. This device is called a pendulum, and is a typi-
cal illustration of stable equilibrium.

The distinctions between these three kinds or qualities
of equilibrium are useful in connection with the present
paper, because, theoretically, they may be taken to repre-
sent corresponding types of stability in orbital revolu-
tion, and hence furnish a convenient basis for a
determination of the quality of the stability of the Moon’s
revolution around the Harth.

*From the Century Dictionary. This definition was chosen rather than
one from a textbook of physics or dynamics mainly because it suited the
present purpose better than any found in such sources. In his ‘‘ Physies,’’
(advanced course), 1892, page 79. Prof. G. F. Barker defines Statics as
‘“that branch of Dynamies which investigates the action of force in main-
taining bodies in equilibrium. ’ ... ‘Matter in motion is in equilibrium
when ‘its acceleration is zero.’’ Referring to the equilibrium of floating

bodies on pages 160 and 161, Barker defines the three kinds and gives them
the same meanings as are given above.

Mechanism and Functions m Celestial Mechanics. 297

Equilibrium and Orbital Stability.

In the Century Dictionary, the word ‘‘stability’’ is
defined as ‘‘The state or property of being stable or firm;
strength to stand and resist overthrow or change; stable-
ness; firmness; as, the stability of a building, of a
government, or of a system.”’

Stability is not synonymous with equilibrium, and yet,
theoretically, there are three kinds or qualities of sta-
bility, as applied to the Moon’s revolution around the
Earth, which correspond closely with the three kinds of
equilibrium defined above. The Moon’s revolution is
commonly regarded as stable, because the forces which
act upon the Moon appear to be, on the whole, balanced
against each other. This is a fair primary assumption
and seems forced upon us by the relatively long record of
observations of the Moon, covering the entire period of
human history. It is hardly possibly to determine from
a study of the Moon’s observed motion alone, what kind
of equilibrium characterizes its present revolution. It is
therefore necessary to enquire more narrowly into the
theoretical relations of the forces involved, before the kind
of equilibrium can be determined.

The quality of equilibrium is revealed to the best advant-
age, it seems to me, by considering the action of the
forces in an Imaginary case in which the Moon is sup-
posed to revolve in some other orbit than its present
one, either at a less or a greater distance from the Earth,
and comparing the action of the forces in this case with
their action in its present orbit. By this method we may
be able to determine what kind of equilibrium charac-
terizes the Moon’s present revolution, and to what quality
of stability this kind of equilibrium corresponds.

If, for example, the relation of the forces affecting its
revolution is such that the least departure of the Moon
from its present orbit brings into action a force which
causes it to depart still more widely from its orbit and,
finally, to leave it never to return, then the Moon’s equilib-
rium is unstable. The corresponding relation described
in simple terms of stability would be ‘‘unstable stability”’ ;
but these words form a contradiction in terms. The rela-
tion in this case is better defined as instability. Sta-
bility of this kind, however, is manifestly imvossible as
the basic principle of stable revolution. For this discus-
sion, therefore, instability has no value, except as a

298 FF. B. Taylor—Determinate Orbital Stability:

theoretical concept, and may therefore be dismissed
without further remark.

With instability eliminated, only two kinds of equilib-
rium remain which may be used in determining the
quality of the Moon’s stability. If the relation of the
forces affecting the Moon’s revolution is such that a
departure of the Moon from its present orbit, either. to
an orbit situated nearer to the Earth or to one farther
out, brings into action no force which tends to make it
unstable in its new position, so that it is a matter of
indifference at what distance the Moon’s orbit is from the
Karth, its revolution being just as stable at one distance
as at another, then the Moon’s equilibrium is neutral or
indifferent. The corresponding type of stability might,
of course, be called neutral or indifferent stability; but
a better term is available. From the fact that the action
of the forces in this case sets no particular place or dis-
tance from the Earth for stable revolution on the part of
the Moon, but, within certain relatively wide limits, allows
revolution to be equally stable at any distance, this kind
of stability may be appropriately called indeterminate
stability. :

If, on the other hand, the relation of the forces affecting
the Moon’s revolution is such that every departure of the
Moon from its present orbit, either toward a smaller orbit
nearer to the Earth or toward one larger and farther out,
brings into action a force which tends to drive the Moon
back to its present orbit, as the only place in which the
forces balance each other and produce equilibrium, then
the Moon’s equilibrium is stable. The corresponding
expression in simple terms of stability would be ‘‘stable
stability ;’? but this expression is objectionable, because
it is plainly tautological. In fact, the adjective ‘‘stable”’
can not be happily applied to the term stability, either in
a positive or a negative sense. From the fact that, under
given conditions, the forces in this case fix one particular
place for stable revolution on the part of the Moon, ata
distance from the Earth which is definitely determinate
and ealeculable, this kind of stability may be appropriately
ealled determinate stability.

If the Moon’s stability in its present orbit is determin-
ate in this sense, then so long as the present fundamental
conditions of its revolution remain unchanged, it can not
have stability in any other orbit, either nearer to or

Mechanism and Functions wm Celestial Mechanics. 299

farther from the Earth. The essential conditions are:
The mass of the Earth, the mass of the Sun, and the dis-
tance of the Earth from the Sun. With these elements
given, the place of the Moon’s stable orbit of revolution
is at a definite, determinate distance from the Harth. In
terms of determinate stability, this means that if the
Moon were started toward the tangent at a distance, say,
of 60,000 miles from the Earth and with velocity appro-
priate to circular revolution under the EKarth’s power of
attraction at that distance, it would not be stable in that
orbit, but would be gradually driven out to its present
orbit at 240,000 miles, where its revolution would become
stable. On the other hand, if the Moon were started
toward the tangent at a distance, say, of 480,000 miles,
with velocity appropriate to circular revolution under the
EKarth’s power of attraction at that distance, it would not
be stable in that orbit, but would be gradually driven
in to its present orbit at 240,000 miles, as the only possi-
ble orbit for stable revolution under the existing values
of the fundamental conditions.

In contrast with this quality of stability, that quality
which corresponds to a neutral or indifferent equilibrium
has been characterized above as indeterminate. In this
case the relation of the forces which make for equilibrium
is such that, under present conditions, the Moon’s revolu-
tion would, within relatively wide limits, be stable in any
orbit around the Karth in which it happened to be started.
For example, it would be just as stable in an orbit at
60,000 miles from the Karth or in one at 480,000 miles, as
in its present orbit at 240,000 miles.

From these considerations we see that stability in the
abstract is open to the same theoretical distinctions of
kind or quality as those which apply to the abstract idea
of equilibrium; and further, that the concepts of the three
kinds of equilibrium upon which the three abstract quali-
ties of stability are based are general principles and are
so simple and elemental that their validity will hardly
be questioned. It seems certain, therefore, that these
abstract distinctions are applicable to the concrete case
of the Moon’s stability in its revolution around the Earth.
Hence, no matter what the particular mechanism of the
Moon’s stability may be, it must fall under one or the
other of the two possible kinds of stability defined above—
instability, corresponding to an unstable equilibrium,

300 F. B. Taylor—Determinate Orbital Stability:

being eliminated. So strong are the grounds for this
conclusion that it may be affirmed positively that no third
alternative exists; the Moon’s stability must be either
determinate or indeterminate.

The Mechanism of Determinate Orbital Stability.

In discussing the Moon’s motion and stability, it is
desirable for the present purpose to do it in the simplest
possible way. Let it be supposed that both the Earth
and the Moon revolve in circular orbits around their
primaries, and that the plane of the Moon’s geocentric
orbit 1s coincident with the ecliptic. Then, while the
Moon revolves in a circle around the Earth, the Karth
itself revolves in a circle around the Sun, so that the
Moon’s true path around the Sun is an epicycle. Plotted
in a diagram, this path is a wavy line passing alternately
inside and outside of the Karth’s orbit, and crossing it
twice in each period. The assumption of these simplified
conditions will in no way invalidate the conclusions
reached.

Upon careful examination, it was found that the
Newtonian or current analysis of the Moon’s motion does
not show the Moon’s orbital stability to be determinate ;
in fact, it shows stability to be imdeternunate. It was
necessary, therefore, to devise some other method of
analysis. The method employed here has grown natur-
ally out of the study of determinate stability and the
elements which enter into it, and, in general outline, it is
believed to be the best if not the only method by which
the mechanism can be correctly analyzed. This method
proceeds by a direct analysis of the forces of the epicycle,
1. e., by a direct study of the forces which affect the Moon
as it moves along its epicyclic path around the Sun, and
avoids the customary assumptions of the Newtonian
analysis by which the heliocentric motion of the Harth-
Moon system is transferred to the Sun regarded as a
distant satellite, and by which the motions of the Moon
and the Sun are referred to the Earth as to a relative
center. (See ‘‘Outlines of Astronomy.’’ By Sir John
Herschel. Edition of 1876, page 415, section (610).)

For every possible circular orbit around the HKarth,
there is, theoretically, a corresponding epicycle, and since
in each ease the geocentric circle is simply the epicycle
with the heliocentric motion eliminated, the values for

Mechanism and Functions in Celestial Mechanics. 301

geocentric velocity and radius in the two forms are always
exactly the same. Supposing the Moon to revolve around
the Earth in the direct order, or from west to east, the
several forces affecting it are most simply related at the
point of opposition, being there compounded, and hence at
their maximum values, the only important exception
being the Sun’s angular pull when the Moon is in quadra-
tures. This force, in effect, augmenting the Harth’s
attraction for the Moon, is at its maximum in quadratures
and disappears in syzygies. I have therefore confined
discussion mainly to the forces as they appear in opposi-
tion.

On account of differences of distance, the Moon at the
point of opposition in every possible epicycle is acted
upon by different values of attraction both on the part
of the HKarth and the Sun. On this account the Moon has
in every separate epicycle a different velocity and curva-
ture, not only with respect to the Earth, but also with
respect to the Sun. From this fact the so-called centri-
fugal force which depends upon velocity and curvature

(abstract formula —) has a different value at the point

of opposition in every separate epicycle, not only with
respect to the Karth, but with respect to the Sun also.
With changes of the Moon’s orbital distance from the
Harth, the attractions of the Earth and the Sun vary at
different rates, and in order to maintain stable revolution,
the Moon must obey the forces of both bodies. Such a
relation suggests the possibility of adjustment lke that
required theoretically for determinate stability.

Suppose the Moon were started to revolve around the
Earth in an orbit at a distance, say, of 60,000 miles, its
motion being toward the tangent and at the precise veloc-
ity appropriate to circular revolution around the Harth
under its power of attraction at that distance. Under the
law of velocities in circular orbits (velocities in circular
orbits vary inversely as the square root of the distances),
the Moon’s velocity around the Karth at that distance
would be twice what it is now, or about one mile per
second, and its periodic time or month would be one-
eighth of the present month. The epicyche path with
reference to the Sun would, of course, be very different
from the Moon’s present epicycle. The Moon’s velocity
with respect to the Sun would be about 1914 miles per

302. F. B. Taylor—Determinate Orbital Stability:

second in opposition, its present velocity at that point
being 19 miles per second, and the curvature of the
Moon’s path with respect to the Sun would also be sharper
than now in opposition. The Sun’s attraction would also
be shghtly stronger on account of a reduction of distance
amounting to about 1/500th.

Conversely, if the Moon were started in perfectly
adjusted revolution in an orbit, say, 480,000 miles from
the Karth its velocity of revolution around the EKarth
would be slightly less, and its periodic time longer, pro-
ducing, of course, a very different epicycle from the pres-
ent one, its curves being longer and more gentle. With
respect to the Sun, the Moon’s velocity would be slightly
less than now in opposition, and the curvature of its path
less sharp. The Sun’s attraction would also be slightly
weaker on account of the greater distance. The masses
of the Sun and the Earth and the Earth’s distance from
the Sun remaining the same as now, would the Moon’s
revolution be stable in either of these orbits?

If stability is indeterminate the Moon’s revolution
would be as stable in one of these orbits as in another,
for the distance of the orbit from the Earth would be a
matter of indifference. But if stability is determinate,
then the Moon’s revolution would not be stable in either
the smaller or the larger of these orbits, or, in fact, in any
orbit other than the one in which it now revolves at a
distance of 240,000 miles.

It seems clear that in the case of a body having free
motion in space, like the Moon, stability can be made
determinate in the sense defined above only through the
action of opposing forces related to each other in such a
way that every departure of the Moon from its present
orbit immediately brings into action a force that tends
to drive it gradually back to that orbit, as the only place
in which the opposing forces are in equilibrium. -This
kind of action is characteristic of a differential relation
of forces. The principle of differential action of forces
is common in many branches of mechanics, in electrical
science, ete., and there is no apparent reason why it may
not play an important part in celestial mechanics. We
may therefore assume, tentatively, that the place of the
Moon’s stable orbit is controlled by an automatic differen-
tial mechanism—a natural one; and the only forces
available with which to produce a differential adjustment

Mechanism and Functions in Celestial Mechanics. 3038

are gravity and inertia, the centripetal and the so-called
centrifugal forces. Supposing stability to be determin-
ate, it is fair to assume, experimentally, that the Moon’s
present distance from the Karth is maintained at 240,000
miles by a differential adjustment in which the centripetal
and centrifugal forces are, on the whole, exactly balanced
against each other.

At the point of opposition in the epicyele, the Harth and
the Sun pull together and pull the Moon toward the Sun,
so that the combined centripetal forces are at the moment
at their maximum value, and are, in effect, heliocentric
forces. 'The velocity and curvature of the Moon’s motion
with reference to the Sun are also at their greatest value
at this same moment, and the inertia with which the
Moon resists the deflecting force of the combined attrac-
tions naturally produces a like increase of centrifugal
force. The combined centrifugal forces are, therefore,
at their maximum value at the same moment, and since
they are merely responsive forces brought into existence
by the action of the heliocentric centripetal forces, their
action must vary in the same order and concurrently with
those forces. At 240,000 miles the forces are, on the whole,
exactly balanced against each other and stability is
assured. In an orbit at 60,000 miles, both the centripetal
and centrifugal forces would be largely increased. But
would they be increased by exactly the same amounts, and
would they show the same balanced relation that they
show in the present stable orbit at 240,000 miles? One can
imagine a case in which the Moon might be made to con-
tract its orbit gradually from its present place to an orbit
at 60,000 miles. We should then see the two forces just
mentioned increasing gradually from their present values
to the greater values they would have in the smaller orbit.
Would the two forces increase at precisely the same rate,
or would they increase at slightly different rates? This,
it seems to me, is the vital point in the problem of stabil-
ity. Up to the present time it seems to have been assumed
by every one that these forces must always vary at pre-
cisely the same rate; but is there any inherent reason
why this shouldbe so? And if they do not increase at the
same rate which one increases at the higher rate?

If the two forees in the differential mechanism
increased at precisely the same rate there would be no
reason why the Moon should be unstable in the smaller

304. F. B. Taylor—Determinate Orbital Stability:

orbit. It would, in fact, be just as stable at 60,000
miles as at 240,000 miles. If the centripetal element
increased at a slightly higher rate than the centrifugal,
then the Moon in the smaller orbit would be unstable, for
it would constantly tend to draw in nearer and nearer to
the Harth, and would have no tendency to return to its
present orbit. Clearly, this would be unstable equilib-
rium, corresponding to unstable revolution or instability.
But if, on the other hand, the centrifugal force increased
at a slightly higher rate than the centripetal the Moon
would tend to expand its orbit from its place at 60,000
miles, and would gradually move out to its present orbit,
where its revolution would be stable. This would be stable
equilibrium, corresponding to determinate stability, and
would be attained and maintained by a true differential
adjustment of centripetal and centrifugal forces.

The same goal is reached if we consider the Moon’s
revolution in a larger orbit than the present. In this case
both forces would decrease as the Moon, under our exper!-
mental hypothesis, gradually expanded its orbit to a more
distant place. Here again, if both forces decreased at
precisely the same rate there would be no cause for insta-
bility, because the Moon would be as stable at 480,000
miles as in its present orbit. If the centripetal force
decreased at the higher rate the Moon would go on
expanding its orbit indefinitely, and would never return
to its present orbit—plainly, instability. But if the
centrifugal force decreased at the higher rate the
centripetal force would become dominant, and would
cause the Moon to contract its orbit back to its present
place. Thus, from both directions—from a_ larger
orbit as well as from a smaller one—the differential
action of the forces would drive the Moon back to its pres-
ent place, as the only place where its revolution would be
stable under the present values of the fundamental condi-
tions. These theoretical considerations show that a
differential mechanism, like that here described, will make
stability determinate, provided that in changes of the dis-
tance of the Moon’s orbit from the Earth, the centrifugal
factor varies at a slightly higher rate then the centripetal.

We have now reached a point from which we can see
more clearly the basic conditions of determinate stability.
These conditions grow out of the relation of the Moon to
the attractions of the Sun and the Earth, and depend

Mechanism and Functions in Celestial Mechanics. 305

upon the fact that the powers of attraction of the two
larger bodies vary at different rates with changes in the
distance of the Moon’s orbit from the Earth. This
relation makes possible the differential adjustment be-
tween the centripetal and centrifugal forces which gives
stability its determinate character.

The Moon obeys the attracting powers of both the Sun
and the Earth coincidently or in one and the same motion,
and if stability is to be maintained the Moon must not
fall out of adjustment in the least degree with the attrac-
tion of either one of the other bodies, except to such an
extent and in such a manner, that the maladjustment to
that body will be perfectly compensated by the attraction
of the other body. In any orbit in which this compensa-
tion fails, stability cannot exist.

The Sun has a certain power over the Moon, depending
upon the Moon’s distance. The changes in this power
with changes in the Moon’s distance may, perhaps, be
more easily percieved by supposing the Earth to be
absent, the Moon revolving alone as a planet. Let the
Moon be supposed to revolve around the Sun in a circular
orbit concentric with the Karth’s orbit, but at a distance
240,000 miles farther out. The Sun now causes the Earth
to fall from the tangent 0.119ths of an inch in one second
of time, and its power over the Moon 240,000 miles farther
out is 1/90th less. Hence, the Moon would fall a slightly
smaller distance from the tangent in one second, and its
velocity and the curvature of its motion would be slightly
less than those of the EKarth in its orbit. In other concen-
tric circular, orbits nearer to the Karth’s orbit, the velocity
and curvature of the Moon’s motion would be shghtly
greater, but in all of them it would be less than those of
the Earth, because the Moon’s distance from the Sun in
- opposition would always be somewhat greater than that
of the Harth. Thus, the Sun’s increase of power over
the Moon, as the Moon revolved in orbits nearer to the
Harth, would be gradual and relatively small. The
amount of increase is absolutely fixed by the law of gravi-
tation, and we see, therefore, that the Sun has no reserve
power by which it can increase its hold on the Moon in
order to compensate a maladjustment to the Earth.

On the other hand, the distance of the Moon from the
Earth being so much less than that of the Earth from the
Sun, the Earth’s power over the Moon increases at a rela-

306 =F. B. Taylor—Determimate Orbital Stability:

tively high rate as the Moon revolves in orbits nearer and
nearer to the Harth. At 240,000 miles the Earth pulls
the Moon from the tangent 0.0535ths of an inch in one
second of time. In an orbit 60,000 miles from the Earth,
the Karth’s power over the Moon is sixteen times as great,
and the Moon would fall from the tangent 0.856ths of an
inch in one second. In an orbit 15,000 miles from the
Earth (1/16th of the Moon’s present distance), the
Karth’s power over the Moon would be 256 times as great
as it is now, and the Moon would fall from the tangent
13.696ths inches in one second of time; and in orbits
nearer to the Karth these numbers would be still greater.
Thus, as the Moon moves in orbits nearer to the Harth,
the EKarth’s power over the Moon increases at a much
higher rate than the Sun’s power. Stability, and the
possible limitations of stability under such conditions,
seem to me to present a real problem.

The Earth’s velocity of motion around the Sun is now
about 1814 miles per second, and the Moon’s velocity
around the Earth is slightly more than half a mile per
second. Thus, at the point of opposition in the epicycle,
the Moon’s velocity with reference to the Sun is now
about 19 miles per second, and stability is maintained with
this excess of heliocentric velocity as one of its conditions.
In an orbit at 60,000 miles, the Moon’s heliocentric veloc-
ity in opposition would be about 1914 miles per second,
and in an orbit at 15,000 miles, it would be about 2114
miles per second. Along with this increase of velocity,
there would also be a relatively rapid increase of heliocen-
tric curvature in that part of the epicycle, due to the
greater fall in one second of time from the tangent. The
amount of increase in the Karth’s power over the Moon, as
the Moon revolves around the Earth in smaller and
smaller orbits, is absolutely fixed by the law of gravita-
tion, and we see, therefore that the Harth has no reserve
power by which it can increase its hold upon the Moon in
order to compensate a maladjustment to the Sun. In an
orbit of 60,000 miles radius, the Moon in obeying the
Earth’s attraction would move too fast in opposition for
the Sun to do its part in holding the Moon to the curve
of the epicycle. But if the Sun fails the Karth must also
let go. This means a gradual expansion of the geocentric
orbit and of the epicycle, and this expansion would con-
tinue until the Moon reached its present place, where the
forces would come to a differential balance.

Mechanism and Functions in Celestial Mechanics. 307

Having the higher rate of increase of power over the
Moon, the EKarth’s influence is the chief variable. The
Sun’s power forms a relatively even and less variable
background upon which the Earth compels the Moon to
revolve in epicycles of greater or smaller radius, as tem-
porary influences or hypothetical conditions may require,
until, at a certain determinate orbital distance a differen-
tial adjustment is attained and stability is established.
In a geometrical diagram, the relation of the centripetal
and centrifugal forces may be shown by two gently curved
lines. At the point marking the Moon’s present distance
from the Harth, the two lines would intersect, on account
of the different rates of variation of the forces they repre-
sent, and this point would mark the place of the differen-
tial balance of forces and the distance of the determinate
orbit of stability from the Earth. Nearer to the Earth,
and also farther away, the lines would gradually diverge
and would indicate conditions of instability, with the
centrifugal forces slightly the stronger in orbits nearer
to the Earth, and the centripetal forces slightly the
stronger in orbits farther out.

This, as I see it, is the mechanism of determinate
stability. Whether this principle is true or not depends
mainly, in the first instance, upon what it explains or
seems to explain—how many important things, how
wide a range of phenomena—and later, upon what
results are attained by mathematical treatment. Being
unable to offer mathematical proofs, my method has been
to proceed by assumption. ‘Taking the principle of deter-
minate stability as here set out to be true, I proceeded to
explore the fertile fields of astronomy, more particularly
that of the Planetary system. It is a well established
principle in modern science that a hypothesis which
explains things in a reasonable and plausible way is
worthy of at least temporary consideration, and that one
which explains not only the things which it was intended
to explain, but also many other things which were not
contemplated at the time it was formed, carries with it
a strong presumption that it is true or comes sufficiently
near to the truth to warrant further study and investiga-
tion. For first proofs, which, it seems to me, ought to
be regarded as justifying further research, I can only
call attention to the many remarkable correspondences
of phenomena with expectation based on this hypothesis,
and to the beauty, harmony, and wide unity of the pheno-

308 F. B. Taylor—Determinate Orbital Stability:

mena of the Planetary system, including its structure and
its growth, when interpreted in the light of this principle.

Some Functions of determinate Orbital Stability m Celestial
Mechanics.

1. The place of the determinate orbit of stability now
occupied by the Moon depends upon the masses of the
- Sun and the Harth, and the distance of the EKarth from the
Sun. A change in the value of one or more of these basic
conditions would necessarily change the value of some of
the factors entering into determinate stability, and would
change accordingly the distance of the determinate orbit
from the Earth. For example, an increase in the Karth’s
mass, other conditions remaining the same, would set the
determinate orbit farther out from the Earth, while a
decrease would set it in nearer. Changes in the Karth’s
distance from the Sun would produce similar effects
upon the place of the determinate orbit. Thus, if the
Earth, with its present mass, were revolving in the
present orbit of Mars the place of the determinate orbit
would be much nearer to the Earth. Mars is both smaller
in mass and farther out from the Sun than the Earth,
and as a consequence its two moons are remarkable for
their nearness to their primary. This phenomenon has
been something of a puzzle to astronomers and mathema-
ticilans ever since these moons were discovered, but it
needs no other explanation. Phobos, the inner of the
two moons, is now in the orbit of determinate stability
for Mars. <A change in the Sun’s mass, other conditions
remaining the same, would have similar effects, but this
is not important for our present purpose.

2. Mathematicians have found that each planet is
surrounded by a belt or zone of space in which the attrac-
tion of the planet is dominant over that of the Sun. ~ This |
space is called thé planet’s sphere of control. A theoreti-
cal outer limit to this sphere has been defined, but an inner
limit has not been suggested. However, since the Moon
revolves in the theoretical determinate orbit for a satellite
of the Earth, and would not be stable in any other orbit
nearer to the Earth, it is plain that the Moon’s present
orbit marks the inner limit of stable revolution. In an
earlier publication,? I have called the space between

2'The Planetary System. Published privately in 1903. Chapter X; The
satellite zone; pages 131-141.

Mechanism and Functions in Celestial Mechanics. 309

these limits the satellite zone. Within this zone a planet
may have satellites in stable revolution, but they cannot
be stable either inside of its inner limit or outside of its
outer limit. This fixing of an inner limit to the satellite
zone is the first and one of the most important applica-
tions of the principle of determinate stability to the
phenomena of the Planetary system. It applies, of
course, not to the Harth-Moon system alone, but to all of
the planets. In the case of those planets which have
satellites, the inner satellite in each system occupies the
determinate orbit of stability for that system, and marks
the inner limit of its satellite zone. Having no satellites,
the determinate orbits of Venus and Mercury are not
thus marked, but their places can be calculated. In the
cases of Uranus and Neptune, it seems certain that their
inner satellites have not yet been discovered.

o. It is a corollary to the principle of determinate
stability that the original action of the forces which make
for stability tends to reduce high eccentricities and incli-
nations of plane to a lower order, and finally to a near-
circular state in a plane near to the ecliptic. For example,
the determinate orbit of stability for the Earth being
what it now is (corresponding to the Moon’s present mean
circular orbit around the Earth), we may illustrate by
supposing the eccentricity of the Moon’s orbit to be much
ereater than it really is, perigee being considerably
farther inside, and apogee much farther outside of the
present mean circular orbit than they now are. When the
Moon is outside of the determinate orbit, the forces
which make stability determinate tend to drive it grad-
ually in, and when it is inside the same forces tend to drive
it gradually out; but the forces act with more power in
the latter situation than in the former. Thus, eccentric
orbits tend to be reduced in both parts, with the result
that any very eccentric or much inclined orbit is gradually
wound down to one of less eccentricity and less inclination,
and this change is the direct result of the action of the
primary forces which enter into the mechanism of deter-
minate stability.

4. It is a further corollary of the principle of deter-
minate stability that planets may acquire satellites by the
direct capture and retention of wandering planetoid
bodies. If the Earth were now without a satellite it
would carry its satellite zone just the same, spread like

310 F. B. Taylor—Determinate Orbital Stability:

an imaginary net ready to catch anything that came along,
and if some wandering planetoid (cometary nucleus),
revolving around the Sun in a more eccentric orbit than
that of the Karth, and with its aphelion close to the
HKarth’s orbit, were overtaken by the Earth it might pass
close enough to be strongly perturbed, and in so doing, it
might enter the satellite zone and be unable to escape, be-
ing retained thereafter as a permanent satellite. This, on
the present hypothesis, is the method of origin of all
satellites.*

5). But in order to understand how systems holding
more than one satellite may grow, it is necessary to
consider another corollary. Ina case like the Karth-Moon
system in which the planet already has one established
and well-regulated satellite, a second satellite may be
acquired and installed (if the satellite zone is wide
enough), in precisely the same manner as the first one,
except that during the process, the previously established
or first satellite is gradually driven out to a more distant
orbit, where, at the end of the process, if finds stable
revolution as the second satellite of the system. The
winding down of the orbit of the newly captured member,
and its installation in the determinate orbit as the nearest
satellite takes place concurrently with the expansion of
the orbit of the first satellite and its installation in a
larger orbit as the second satellite.

It is practically impossible for the second satellite to be
inducted directly into stable revolution in an orbit outside
of the previously established. member, for this would
require at the outset a very small degree of eccentricity
and of inclination of plane, in combination with just
the right velocity and direction of motion—adjustments

° A capture hypothesis in some respects resembling that set forth here and
in my earlier writings is put forth with considerable elaborateness and with
mathematical treatment by T. J. J. See in his ‘‘ Researches on the Evolu-
tion of the Stellar Systems;’’ part II, ‘‘The Capture Theory,’’ 1910.
See’s hypothesis differs fundamentally from mine in the fact that he makes
no mention nor any use of the principle of determinate orbital stability.
From my point of view, the winding down of the orbit of a planetoid during
capture and installation is accomplished through the forces which make
stability determinate, as stated above. See appears to rely wholly upon a
resisting medium in space for the winding down of orbits. For this reason,
he finds no determinate place for the orbit of the new satellite, nor any law
of growth for satellite systems. An inner limit to the satellite zone can
hardly be established by a resisting medium alone, nor can it furnish a
principle of adjustment for the second and later satellies of a growing sys-
tem. In See’s hypothesis, the later satellites are simply ‘‘taken on,’’ appar-
ently in random fashion. No details of the process are given.

Mechanism and Functions in Celestial Mechanics. 311

much too nice to be the normal result of the capture
of wandering planetoids which must necessarily enter
the system in a random fashion, and almost always with
relatively high eccentricity and inclination. Instead, the
newly captured planetoid would normally revolve at first
in a relatively eccentric and highly inclined orbit not
systematically adjusted to the pre-existing system, gener-
ally having’ perigee inside, and apogee far outside of the
determinate orbit. Its orbit would resemble that of a
comet more nearly than that of a planet or an established
satellite.

6. With the principle of determinate stability in hand,
the mechanism of the expansion of the orbit of the pre-
viously established satellite falls smoothly into place as
an indispensable part of the larger mechanism. We have
seen that if the Harth’s mass were greater than it is the
determinate orbit would be farther out from the Earth
than the Moon’s present orbit. Hence, any increase of
a planet’s mass, or any change that produces an equiva-
lent effect, even rf only temporary in rts action, tends to
drive the previously established inner satellite out to a
ereater distance from its primary. This means that if
any planetoid body, say with mass like that of an average
satellite, should pass between the Harth and the Moon it
would have the effect of temporarily increasing the mass
of the EHarth, and under the action of the forces which
enter into determinate stability, would give the Moon a
slight impulse to move out to a greater distance from the
Karth. Even if each impulse be very minute and its
effect only temporary, yet each such encounter would
repeat the impulse, and thousands of successive impulses
would cause the Moon to gradually expand its orbit; and
this would continue until the Moon reached a larger orbit
in which the impulses of expansion found an exact balance
against the normal tendency of the Moon to return to its
first position at the determinate orbit. Thus, supposing
for the moment that the Earth could hold two satellites
in stable revolution, the inner or nearer one, under the
law of determinate stability, would revolve in the Moon’s
present orbit at 240,000 miles, while the outer or second
satellite would revolve in a larger orbit situated at a
determinate distance outside of the Moon’s orbit. Ata
certain distance from the Moon’s orbit, the impulses of
expansion would have a continuing value just sufficient

Am. Jour. Scol.—FirtH Series, Vou. I, No. 4.—APpRIL, 1921.

2

312 F. B. Taylor—Determinate Orbital Stability:

to counteract the normal tendency of this satellite to
contract its orbit to the determinate orbit. After the
mass of the planet and its distance from the Sun, the
fixing of the distance of the orbit of stability for the
second satellite appears to depend mainly upon the rela-
tion of the periodic times—the commensurabilities, or
rather, the particular phase of the incommensurabilities
—of the two satellites. Within rather wide limits,
the result appears to be independent of their masses,
for large and small satellites revolve in adjacent orbits
and obey the law without notable deviation.

7. The third, fourth, and later satellites of the larger
systems are captured and installed in precisely the same
way, and the spacing of their orbits,-and their stabilities
in them, are dependent upon the same mechanism as that
just described for the second satellite. Thus, the third
satellite depends upon the supporting perturbations of
the second, the fourth depends on the third, and so on.
Under the law of determinate stability, a new member
may be acquired only by entering the space between the
primary and the first or nearest established satellite, and
then gradually driving all of the previously established
members out to larger orbits, while it winds its own orbit
down and finally settles itself in the first or determinate
orbit. The space between the primary and the deter-
minate orbit is in some sense like a vortex whirl (not a
vortex ring, but a whirl), and the process of capture by
this method may therefore be called vortex capture.
Satellite systems grow by a process of vortex capture and
orbital expansion.

8.: By a simple and direct analogy, all of these principles
and explanations may be applied to the Planetary system
itself. It has the same dependence throughout on the
law of determinate stability, has the same structure, and
has grown by the same process as the imaginary satellite
system just described. All of the great features and
characteristics of the Planetary system come under the
pervasive power of the principle of determinate stability,
and are explained by it. .

9. In the Planetary system, the space between Mercury
and the Sun is the vortex through which all newly cap-
tured planetoids must make their entrance in order to
become planets. Mercury is now oscillating around the
determinate orbit, which corresponds to its mean circular

Mechanism and Functions wm Celestial Mechanics. 313

orbit, and in its relatively high eccentricity and inclination
of plane, still carries marks of its newness as a planet.
It has not yet become fully settled. Some of its peculiari-
ties of motion are probably due to the action of the unbal-
anced forces which affect it when it is farthest inside or
farthest outside of its mean circular orbit, and may not
require EKinstein’s new theory to explain them.

Is it not clear that the mechanism of the adjustment
and stability of the second satellite, as outlined above,
discloses, in reality, a basis for determining the physical
explanation of the Law of Titius (Bode’s Law), in accor-
dance with which the planets are set at certain orderly
intervals of distance from the Sun? This law has always
been a subject for mere ridicule. It is usually passed
over in one sentence as ‘‘a so-called law.’’ But under
the principle of determinate stability, it is the capstone
of the structure, the final completing law of systematic
organization. We see its physical basis more clearly in
the satellite systems, where the scale of each system is
fixed by the mass of the primary, and the intensity of each
system by the mass of the Sun and by the distance of the
primary from the Sun. If Jupiter’s mass were one-fourth
of what it is its satellites would be nearer to it, and they
would be more closely spaced, a more compact system.
On the other hand, if Jupiter revolved in the Karth’s orbit
it is doubtful whether it could retain even one satellite,
because the determinate orbit would be so far out. The
failure of the Law of Titius in the case of Neptune is of
no vital importance. ‘The delicate forces revealed in this
law grow excessively weak at that great distance, and it
is not surprising that perfection of adjustment fails. The
remarkable unimportance of mass in the planets as com-
pared with commensurabilities in the operation of this
law is shown by the fact that little Mars and the thinly
scattered ring of tiny planetoids, though somewhat per-
turbed, hold their appointed places in close proximity
to the mighty Jupiter.

10. The satellite zones of the planets are naturally
widest far from the Sun, and the forces that hold the outer
satelites of the outer planets are exceedingly weak.
Nearer the Sun, the limits of the zones draw together,
the inner moving out, and the outer in. This is clearly
shown if all the planets be supposed to have the same
-mass. The Earth’s zone is narrow, but that of Venus is

314 EF. B. Taylor—Determinate Orbital Stability.

still narrower, too narrow probably for the capture of a
satellite, the normal eccentricity of newly captured bodies
being too great to be held in so narrow a space. Venus
could probably hold a well settled satellite if the high
eccentricity of the early stages of capture could be
avoided. Mercury presents a paradox, for the limits of
its satellite zone probably pass each other, the outer limit
being inside of the inner limit; so it can have no satellite.
Space forbids any discussion here of the significance
of the other great features of the Planetary system—
the giant planets, the planetoid ring, Saturn’s rings,
axial rotation, the meaning of the order of these features
in the system, and the simple way in which all of them
unite in confirming the theory of the growth of the system
by vortex capture and orbital expansion. But it is not
necessary to dwell further on these things here, for in
other writings I have already discussed all of them, the
most extended discussion being in the small volume
referred to above, entitled ‘‘The Planetary System.’’”

Fort Wayne, Ind., December 28, 1920.

*<<The Planetary System: A Study of Its Structure and Growth.’’- Pub-
lished by the author at Fort Wayne, Ind., and by C. D. Cazenove & Son,
London, in 1903; 268 pages. The discussion of determinate stability is
presented in more succinct form and probably more clearly in the present
paper, but the laws of satellite systems, and the process of their growth are
more fully set forth in Part I of the book. The application of the principle
of determinate stability in explanation of the great features and character-
istics of the Planetary system are more fully set out in Part II of the book
than elsewhere. Many things are presented which are necessarily omitted
from the present paper, and some of them give strong support to the present
hypothesis. A pamphlet of 40 pages epitomizing the same theme was printed
privately in 1898 under the title, ‘‘An Endogenous Planetary System.’’
This was a sort of caveat on the idea, and only a few copies were sent out.
An earlier attempt at printing was made in 1891, when 144 pages were
printed. But this effort was premature, and the printing was never com-
pleted. In all of these papers, the subject was treated by the synthetic or
deductive method. In another paper prépared recently, under the title
‘*The Growth of the Planetary System as Revealed in Its Vestiges,’’ I have
endeavored to interpret the features by the analytic or inductive method.
By a study of the significance and relations of the facts alone, an effort is
made to discover by what process the system has grown. Preconceived
theories are avoided as far as possible. No mention is made of determinate
stability, except for the purpose of reference in a footnote at the end of the

paper.

A. P. Coleman—Paleobotany, ete. S15

Arr. XIX.—Paleobotany and the Earth’s Early History;
by A. P. Coteman.

Dr. Knowlton’s paper on the ‘‘Evolution of Geologic
Climates,’’ read last winter before the Paleontological
Society, is full of interest to the ordinary geologist from
its comprehensive summing up of the ancient history of
land plants, such as only a master of the subject could
have produced. Part I of his paper rouses enthusiasm
with its splendid array of forests, mostly tropical, from
all parts of the world, culminating in the rich Hocene
flora. His account of the vegetation of the past confirms
and heightens the impression left by paleozoology that
during the greater part of the world’s history tempera-
tures have been genial even in the far north and far
south where frigid climates now reign. Dr. Knowlton
suggests that not alone were the temperatures of past
ages warm, but that generally the climates were moist
with hothouse conditions and with no seasonal changes
until the latest periods. Annual rings are rarely found
in the trees and only once before the Pleistocene is a
period of severe cold admitted, in the early Permian time
of glaciation, and then the cold period ‘‘was probably of
short duration,’?’ and did not affect North America,
Europe, or Northern Asia.

Throughout this rapid outline of the successive floras
of the past there are few references to periods of cold or
of drought in the world’s history, and these are mini-
mized, thus preparing the reader for Part II of the paper,
in which Marsden Manson’s theory of the earth’s ancient
climates as controlled by the earth’s interior heat is ad-
vocated. |

A paleobotanist naturally lays stress on the equable
warmth and moisture of the earth’s ancient climates,
since the plants themselves thrive best under such condi-
tions. In times of great drought or of extreme cold, such
as existed during eras of great land emergence, plants are
absent or rare and the chances of their preservation are
poor, so that the paleobotanist finds little or no evidence
of such severities of climate. The mild and moist
periods are tremendously emphasized and the relatively
short intervening periods of drought and cold are slurred
over or entirely unrecorded by Paleobotany. It is not
surprising, then, that the evidence of great cold and of

316 A. P. Coleman—Paleobotany and the

aridity during several periods of the earth’s history
should make little impression on a paleobotanist.

To the physical geologist this bias towards one type of
evidence, mainly biological, seems unjustified. The phys-
ical proofs of comparatively short but tremendously im-
portant times of climatic stress seem overwhelming and
completely cut the ground from under the Nebular Hy-
pothesis as advocated by Manson.

It seems to the present writer that Dr. Knowlton has
entirely underestimated the importance of ancient ex-
tremes of climate, and it is proposed to recall briefly the
salient points which oppose the Mansonian theory. For
this purpose one may consider especially three lines of
evidence, those indicating desert conditions, those proy-
ing seasonal variations and, above all, the prevalence of
ice ages at various times in the past.

Neither times of drought nor changes of seasons nor
extensive sheets of ice on low ground are compatible with
a warm earth covered with impenetrable clouds and thus
sereened from the influence of the sun.

Evidences of aridity.

Dr. Knowlton objects to the inference that red rocks
imply desert conditions, and in this he is justified to the
extent that red rocks may be formed from red materials
under all climates; but to deny that there were deserts in.
the Triassic or Permian or Silurian is to ignore all
the known evidence; and to dispute the formation of salt
and gypsum beds by evaporation in times of dry heat
without suggesting any other mode of forming such de-
posits is surely unwarranted. When one adds to this evi-
dence of evaporation on a large scale the desert sand-
stones containing wind-carved dreikanters, the playa de-
posits and the sun-cracked surfaces of mud preserved at
various ages reaching back to the pre-Cambrian, one finds
it difficult to believe in a warmly humid world enveloped
in rain clouds that never parted to let in the sun until the
Pleistocene.

Evidences of seasonal changes.

Dr. Knowlton’s references to the annual rings of forest
trees show that at least some seasonal change from warm
to cold or from wet to dry occurred in the Pennsylvanian,
the early Permian, the Jurassic and the Cretaceous. He
does not explain how this can be reconciled with the uni-

Earth’s Early History. 317

form and steady supply of heat from the earth’s interior
under the assumed screen of clouds. Another type of
evidence, the regular banding of clays with finer and
coarser layers, the ‘‘annual rings’’ of the rocks, he leaves
as doubtful. In this, I believe, no physical geologist will
agree with him. The banding of Pleistocene clays, counted
by De Geer up to 12,000 annual layers in Sweden, was un-
doubtedly due to seasonal changes, summer and winter ;
and there are many instances of precisely similar banding
in older rocks, sometimes associated with undoubted
elacial deposits, but sometimes unconnected with known
tillites. An excellent summing up of the evidence for
seasonal banding of slates of various ages is given by
Sayles, whose attention was directed to the subject by the
occurrence of well banded slates with the Squantum tillite
of Carboniferous age! Where sought for, such banded
rocks are usually found with the tillite of an ice age, ex-
actly as the Pleistocene banded clays are connected with
the bowlder clay of the latest glacial time. Stssmilch and
David describe great thicknesses of them in connection
with the wonderful Australian glacial and interglacial de-
posits of late Carboniferous and early .Permian times.
At Seaham, New South Wales, for instance, such banded
beds are held to indicate 3,000 years of deposit in a glacial
lake. Their figures and descriptions leave no doubt as to
the origin of the shales, since they are entirely similar to
the banded clays (varve clays) of the Pleistocene. Sim-
ilar banded slates, sometimes enclosing ice-rafted bowl-
ders, are found with the Cobalt tillite, of Huronian age;
and no doubt other examples of the sort will be found
when geologists have their attention directed to the sub-
ject in glacial deposits of other ages and in other parts of
the world. ? 3

It may be looked on as proved, then, that the year had
warm and cold seasons in the late Carboniferous and
Permo-Carboniferous; and also in the Huronian glacial
times.

If this is true of the regularly banded sediments oc-
eurring with tillites, there is reason to believe that similar
banded sediments no tknown to be-associated with bowlder
clay, had a corresponding origin. Sayles would even
make the banding evidence of glaciation.

*R. W. Sayles, Seasonal Deposition in Aqueo-glacial Sediments, Mem.

Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard, vol. 43, No. 1, 1919.
* Proce. Roy. Soc., New South Wales, 53, 270, 1919-20.

318 A. P. Coleman—Paleobotany and the

One important example of ancient banded rocks of this
kind has received little attention and may be referred to
specially here. The middle member of the Sudbury
Series, called the McKim Graywacke, consists of thin lay-
ers of interbanded graywacke and slate, 1. e., of coarser
and finer particles, usually from half an inch to two or
three inches in thickness. The banding has not been con-
nected with glacial materials. As the beds are 4,000 feet
thick, they indicate alternating conditions of deposit last-
ing thousands of years; and no theory of formation which
does not include seasonal times of flood and slack water of
great regularity is admissible.

These very ancient banded rocks of Canada have a
parallel in the banded Bothnian rocks of Finland as
described by Sederholm, who believes them to have been
formed, if not ina glacial period, at least in a cold climate.

It is evident that the testimony of the world’s banded
slates of different ages, reaching back almost to the ear-
hest times, must be taken seriously into account in all
speculations as to the beginnings of geology. —

Ice Ages.

The most impressive of all the proofs of severe ancient
climates incompatible with any theory of an earth con-

tinuously cooling down until the Pleistocene to to be found

in the ice ages of the far past. Whatever theory one ad-
vocates as to the cause of ice ages, it is evident that the
presence of vreat ice sheets on low ground in several con-
tinents at once during Permo-Carboniferous times cannot
be reconciled with a mild and equable climate due to the
unexhausted internal heat of the earth. The presence of
great ice sheets in Australia, South Africa, South Amer-
ica and India, as admitted by Knowlton himself, is fatal
to the theory he advocates, and no suggestion that the
period of cold was short affects the conclusion. While
these continents were heavily glaciated, in places close to
sea-level, as shown by associated marine beds, North
America was frost-touched near Boston and in the Yukon
region, and both France and Germany have glacial depos-
its that seem to be of the same age; so that all the conti-
nents were affected. Stissmilech and David’s proof of
three repetitions of ice invasion in New South Wales,
with long intervals between them, demonstrates that gla-
cial conditions were very long continued, though broken
by interglacial intervals of moderate temperatures.

Earth’s Early History. 319

The Permo-Carboniferous glaciation was so much
longer and more severe than that of the Pleistocene that
all the climatic features of the latest glacial time must be
assumed to have been far surpassed in intensity in the
late Paleozoic. The supposed mantle of clouds and the
warm earth beneath completely disappear, and with them
departs the Nebular theory, unless the whole process of
cooling was complete before the end of the Carboniferous.

As one goes backward in geological time the evidence
for ice ages naturally grows more fragmentary; but the
proofs of a late pre-Cambrian or early Cambrian glacial
period affecting large parts of Australia and South
Africa, and touching also Europe, Asia, and North
America, seem sufficient to infer conditions more severe
than those of the Pleistocene. The Lower Huronian ice
age, shown certainly and widely in northern Ontario, may
have had a much ereater extension, reaching the United
States, Finland and India; and there are still older bowl-
der conglomerates, in the Timiskaming, Doré and Seine
Series of North America, and in Finland, that suggest ice
action, though the final proofs of ice work, such as
striated stones, etc., have not yet been found because of
the mountain-building changes these rocks have under-
gone.

As suggested by the present writer in a presidential ad-
dress on ‘‘Dry Land in Geology’’ (G. 8. A., 1916), there
is no convineing evidence afforded by Geology to show
that the earth was ever hot. The earliest known rocks
were water formed, proving a temperature not higher
than the boiling point at the very beginning of the acces-
sible record of Geology; and the next later formations in-
elude rocks formed under the influence of seasonal
changes and of ice sheets.

The usually genial earth, clothed during much of its
later history with rich forests, even to the poles, has under-
gone erises of severe climate from time to time since the
beginning. These short periods of stress have probably
been more effective in the rapid development of the
world’s inhabitants than all the long, warm and hazy
periods which intervened.

University of Toronto.

320. CC. Schuchert—Evolution of Geologic Climates.

Art. XX.—Evolution of Geologic Clumates; by CHARLES
ScHUCHERT.

Under the above title, F. H. Knowlton has written a
most interesting paper,' the thesis of which is the follow-
ing:

‘‘Relative uniformity, mildness, and comparative equability of
climate, accompanied by high humidity, have prevailed over the
greater part of the earth, extending to, or into, polar circles, dur-
ing the greater part of geologic time—sinee, at least, the Middle

Paleozoic. This is the regular, the ordinary, the normal condi-
tien Gpe OL).

In another place we read:

‘By many it is thought that one of the strongest arguments
against a gradually cooling globe and a humid, non-zonally dis-
posed climate in the ages before the Pleistocene is the discovery of
evidences of glacial action practically throughout the entire geo-
logic column. Hardly less than a dozen of these are now known,
ranging in age from Huronian to Eocene. It seems to be a very
general assumption by those who hold this view that these evi-
dences of glacial activities are to be classed as ice ages, largely
comparable in effect and extent to the Pleistocene refrigeration,
but as a matter of fact only three are apparently of a magnitude
to warrant such designation. These are the Huronian glaciation,
that of the ‘Permo-Carboniferous,’ and that of the Pleistocene.
The others, so far as available data go, appear to be explainable
as more or less local manifestations that had no widespread effect
on, for instance, ocean temperatures, distribution of life, et cet-
era. They might well have been of the type of ordinary moun-
tain glaciers, due entirely to local elevation and precipitation”’
(pp. 547-548).

And again:

‘*Tf the sun had been the principal source of heat in pre-Pleis-
tocene time, terrestrial temperatures would of necessity have been
disposed in zones, whereas the whole trend of this paper has been
the presentation of proof that these temperatures were distinctly
non-zonal. Therefore it seems to follow that the sun—at least
the present small-angle sun—could not have been the sole or even
the principal source of heat that warmed the early oceans’’ (p.
D47). 7

Doctor Knowlton naturally lays greatest stress in his
conclusions upon the paleobotanic evidence, because it is
this knowledge that he and his associates at Washington

1 Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 30, 499-565, 1919.

— — —

C. Schuchert—Evolution of Geologic Climates. 321

have so well in hand. However, that not all of his col-
leagues are in harmony with his views is shown by the
following quotation from Wieland :*

‘“Does not a larger part of the Jurassic Ginkgo record also in-
dicate wide climatic variation, second only in extent to that of the
time of the Glossopteris flora? Would it not be singular if plant
evidence remained wholly at variance from that of the insects and
invertebrates, indicating climatic cooling in the late Trias and
early Jura, not local in character?’’ And A. G. Nathorst is
quoted by Wieland as saying that ‘‘during the time when the
Ginkgophytes and Cycadophytes dominated, many of them must
have adapted themselves for living in cold climates also. Of this
I have not the least doubt.’’

Knowlton knows that certain invertebrate evidence
which he quotes from the writer and to which Wieland in
the above quotation refers, indicates that toward the end
of Triassic time and early in the Jurassic there were win-
ters, about as they are now, in the latitudes of England to
South Germany. In this connection it may be well to
quote from still another paleontologist. Ulrich says:

‘*Doubtless even in’ the Paleozoic there were times of relative
frigidity—when some of the higher parts of the marginal lands
were ice-covered, in some instances attaining locally to glacial
conditions. Here and there regular tillites are indicated, nota-
bly, as recently brought out by Dr. Edwin Kirk, in the Silurian
deposits along the coast of Alaska.’’

A careful reading of Knowlton’s paper leaves the
writer with the impression that the former holds that, ex-
cept for the early Huronian, early Permian, and world-
wide Pleistocene glacial times, the earth has been with-
out temperature zones and large arid tracts, and that in
general humidity has prevailed. Any paleontologist who
is familiar with the climatic aspects of fossils will proba-
bly have to agree with Knowlton that the biotic evidence,
and chiefly that of the floras, does in general bear out his
conclusion that ‘‘climatic zoning such as we have had
since the beginning of the Pleistocene did not obtain in
the geologic ages prior to the Pleistocene.’’ But what
Knowlton actually holds is that there was ‘‘a non-zonal
arrangement [of climate] prior to the Pleistocene”’’ (p.
041), and that the temperature of the oceans was every-
where the same and without ‘‘ wide-spread. effect on the
distribution of life’’ (p. 548).

7G. R. Wieland, Amer. Jour. Botany, 7, 154, 1920.
°K. O. Ulrich, Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 10, 67, 1920.

322 ©. Schuchert—Evolution of Geologie Climates.

What Knowlton sees so well are the wide-spread fossil
floras that usually occur in the middle portion of the geo-
logic periods when the transgressions of the warm-water
oceans over the continents are greatest; in other words,
those times when the lands are smallest and are dom-
inated by insular and therefore equable climates due to
the wide-spread and warm oceanic waters. But what
were the climatic conditions during the early and late
parts of the many periods when the continents were larg-
est, highest, and most arid? And it is at some of these
times when the local or the widely spread tillites were
forming!

That the oceanic waters were not everywhere and dur-
ing most of geologic time equably warm is attested by the
varied life distribution seen in the large colonial foramin-
ifers, stony corals, shelled cephalopods, and thick-shelled
bivalves (chiefly the cemented forms) and gastropods.
We see some or all of these groups of animals common in
the far north and even in arctic waters during the Silu-
rian, Devonian, Pennsylvanian, and Jurassic, but at
other times they are either greatly reduced in variety in
these regions or almost or completely absent. Take the
Cretaceous foraminifers, sponges, corals, and rudistids,
and the late (but not latest) Hocene nummulids, and see
how they drop out of the record as one proceeds toward
the Arctic. In India, nummulites attain to a diameter of
eight inches, but in Japan they are all small, and north
of Japan there are none of them at all. Moreover,
the giants of any stock are rarely seen in far northern
waters. These things can only mean temperature dif-
ferences, and that the northern waters were frequently
under 65° F. And if the oceanic waters were thus vari-
able in temperature from time to time and from place to
place, we may conclude that the chmates of the lands were
also varied and had zonal belts. :

On the other hand, when the lands are largest and the
marine faunas localized in small sea-ways not widely ac-
cessible to the paleontologist, where are the cosmopolitan
faunas and the large forms, and where is the variety and
abundance of foraminifers, corals, bryozoa, cemented and
-thick-shelled molluses, and shelled cephalopods? Ex-
ceptions there are, of course, but in general the restricted
formations have small faunas and small species that are
more or less unrelated to one another. In other words,
we have here the stress-assemblages in which a prolifera-.

CG. Schuchert—Evolution of Geologic Climates. 323

tion of species and genera is beginning, along with the in-
troduction of biotic lines that are to lead to the terminal
giants. It is true that in these stress-faunas some of the
handicaps of the environment are due to physical causes
other than temperature, and yet the chief deterrent seem-
ingly was the lack of the proper warmth. What kills off
the giants? In some eases it is old age within the stock,
but in many others it apparently is change in the environ-
ment, the deciding factor in which appears to be temper-
ature.

The evaluation of sediments for climatic purposes has
not yet gone very far, nevertheless it is well known that
limestones are far more readily deposited by the life of
the warm waters than by those of cold ones. The great
limestone-making areas of to-day are in the warm waters.
Moreover it ought to be well known that the greatest
amount of limestones, and especially of magnesian lime-
stones and dolomites, does not occur in polar lands but
rather in the temperate and subtropical ones. At times
they are of extremely wide geographic distribution, as are
the magnesian limestones and dolomites of the Ozarkian
and early Ordovician, and those of the middle Silurian,
middle Devonian, and middle and late Pennsylvanian—
times when the earth’s climates are recognized by general
agreement as mild throughout most of the northern hem-
isphere. Why is it that pure limestones and dolomites
are less prevalent at other times during the Paleozoic and
even within the latitude of the United States? -In some
eases it is undoubtedly because of the too great preva-
lence of muds and highlands, but in others it appears to
be due to a temperature condition.

In 1918, Blackwelder published a short but very striking
paper entitled ‘‘The climatic history of Alaska from a
new viewpoint.’’* The viewpoint is that of the sediments,
and one is impressed with the abundance he records of
sombre and dark colors, muddy sandstones, and silts,
and undecomposed mineral clastics, the scarcity of lime-
stones, and the almost total absence of red colors. From
the evidence recited Blackwelder concludes:

‘“The combined evidence strongly suggests that the cool, moist
climate of modern Alaska,—oscillating now and then toward the
glacial Arctic condition on the one hand and toward the moist

temperate on the other,—has been persistent, with but few real
interruptions, throughout the known geologic history of Alaska.’

* Eliot Blackwelder, Trans. Illinois Acad. Sci., 10, 275-280.

324 OC. Schuchert—Evolution of Geologic Clumates.

When zoo-paleontologists have more clearly evaluated
the climatic significance of the varied geographic marine
faunas known to them, and geologists have learned the
temperature import of the great variability in marine
sediments, the conclusion will all the more certainly be
drawn that the earth throughout the geologic ages has
been subject to climatic variation. These variations will
be seen to be slightest, indeed very slight, during the mid-
dle parts of the geologic periods when the world has
almost no temperature belts; and variably greatest during
their earliest and latest parts, when more or less marked
climatic zones and even glacial climates were developed.
To-day the variation on land between the tropics and the
poles is roughly between 110° and —60° F., in the oceans
between 85° and 31° KF. In the geologic past the tempera-
ture for the greater parts of the periods of the oceans
probably was most often between 85° and 55° F.., while on
land it may have varied between 90° and 0° F. At rare
intervals the extremes were undoubtedly as great as they
are to-day. The conclusion is therefore attained that
throughout its history the earth has had temperature
zones, varying from an intensity as marked as that of to-
day to almost complete absence so that the greater part of
the earth had an almost uniformly mild climate, without
winters.

E. L. Troxell—American Bothriodonts. 325

Arr XXL—The American Bothriodonts; by Epwarp
: L. TRoxE...

[Contributions from the Othniel Charles Marsh Publication Fund, Peabody
Museum, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. |

INTRODUCTION.

Seldom do we find instances of genera that have been
so variously arranged and classified, or a synonymy and
precedence that have been more discussed than those of
the group of extinct artiodactyls which constitute a part
of the Anthracotherine, including the well known names:
Ancodus Pomel, Bothriodon Aymard, Elomeryx Marsh,
Heptacodon Marsh, Hyopotamus Owen, and Octacodon
Marsh. In the present study it has been necessary to use
our own American generic names, adding one new one,
in order to bring out the distinctions, from the Huropean
forms, which exist in every case; but one can not resist the
impulse to attempt to settle the Old World difficulties,
and matters of synonymy are no exception.

Bothriodon (Ancodus, Hyopotamus).—The generic
name Ancodus Pomel was made in June 1847, that of
Hyopotamus Owen! in November of the same year. For
years it was supposed that Bothriodon Aymard was made
in 1848, until Miss Lucy P. Bush? set forth a very clear
explanation of the matter, backed up by evidence to show
that Aymard’s publication was not of 1848 as appears
on the cover, but of 1846, thus giving his genus the
priority. A difficulty raised by Peterson* about the page
reference in Aymard’s paper to a publication by Pomel
dated December 21, 1846, may be explained in one of two
ways: first, Aymard’s paper came out during the last
nine days of December, 1846; or second, Aymard had
access to the printer’s proof of the other paper before
December 21. The latter explanation is the more plaus-
ible, because the two authors, Pomel and Aymard, appear
to have been working in entire harmony.

Because of these circumstances, it seems necessary

*W. D. Matthew (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 26, 6, 1909) states that
this genus is preoccupied by Hyopotamus Kaup 1844, a genus of supposed
Hippopotamide not now recognized.

*L. P. Bush, this Journal (4), 16, 98, 1903.

#0. A. Peterson, Mem. Carnegie Mus., vol. 4, No. 3, p. 43, 1909. Peterson

here erroneously states that Pomel’s article in the Bulletin de la Société

Géologique came out late in 1847. The article itself bears the date of
December 21, 1846.

326 E. L. Troxell—American Bothriodonts.

to re-adopt the name Bothriodon Aymard (syn. Ancodus
Pomel, Hyopotamus Owen) in agreement with Professor
Marsh and Miss Bush. Nor is it a misfortune to follow
Aymard in this respect, for it is to him we have to turn
for the early descriptions of this group of the anthraco-
theres. Kowalevsky* says in 1874:

‘‘The priority . . . is claimed by Pomel . . . but as he neither
gave a good description ... , nor illustrated his short notices
by figures, no paleontologist has accepted this name, and it may
be considered extinct.”’

He therefore proceeds to use the name Hyopotamus
instead.

Filhol,® although he continues to use the term Ancodus,
yet agrees that we owe it to the researches of Aymard
alone, carried on so long at Ronzon, that we have the
necessary material to trace the group completely.

Relationship to foreign types.—lt is not profitable at
this time and in such a paper as this, to go deeply into
the study of the Old World faunas. JKowalevsky,°® after
comparing the British specimens of Hyopotamus with
those of Bothriodon (Ancodus) of the continent, says
that he can find no noteworthy distinctions. But in the
seemingly great variety of Huropean forms, it is evident
that no one genus can be so broad as to include all the
species, and one is led to believe that a careful study would
establish the authentic separation of Bothriodon and
Hyopotamus at least, and might even create the need for
additional genera. In fact, there seems to be nearly as
much difference between H. bovinus Owen and H. vectia-
nus Owen as there is between the latter and some species
of Elomeryx, and doubt lingers as to whether even the two
English forms should be included under the same head.

DESCRIPTION OF GENERA.

Anthracothertum Cuvier.—The distinctions between
certain New and Old World forms are listed under the
deseription of 4’pinacodon, gen. nov., later. The differ-
entiation of Anthracotherium, A. magnum Cuvier, may
here be briefly set forth: It is a very large animal
ranging in size to a half larger than our American forms,
as shown by De Blainville. P? has a heavy deuterocone

*'W. Kowalevsky, Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 163, 22.

*H. Filhol, Ann. Sei. Géol., 12, art. 3, 191, 1881.
“Ops Clb, Ds ize.

E. L. Troxell—American Bothriodonts. 327

like that of P* and on the lower jaw there is a tubercle
under P, like those of the entelodonts. In few respects
does this genus resemble even the Old World bothrio-
donts, and it is widely different from those of the western
hemisphere.

Heptacodon Marsh.
(Hie. £.)
Gencholotype, H. curtus Marsh. Upper Oligocene (Protoceras beds),
Phinney, South Dakota.

The original description of H. curtus is as follows :7

‘“A very perfect last upper molar, which may be taken as the
type, is shown natural size in the accompanying figures. Its
crown is composed of the same main elements as in the corre-
sponding tooth of Hyopotamus, but all the five cusps are much

Qe py
Sy Uy,

eb 7
Fie. 1.—Heptacodon curtus Marsh. Holotype. Cat. No. 11803, Y. P. M.
Crown, side, and front views of M*. After Marsh. Nat. size.

less elevated. In addition, the basal ridge of the outer margin is
swollen into two high pointed cusps, making seven in all, and this
has suggested the generic name.

‘‘Of the outer cusps, or buttresses, the anterior one is the
larger, and is situated well forward and partly outside of the main
body of the crown. The antero-median cusp is well developed,
triangular in outline, and situated somewhat in advance of the
other two anterior cusps. ... The two interior cones are con-
nected near their margins by a low ridge, and their summits are
joined by a high outward-curved ridge, which extends nearly to
the centre of the crown. The crown itself is very short, consid-
erably shorter than in the molars of Hyopotamus.

““The animal thus indicated, which may be called Heptacodon
curtus, was somewhat larger than a sheep. The known remains
are from the upper Miocene of South Dakota.’’

This specimen, probably the second upper molar (see
fig. 1), as shown by wear on the posterior side, is markedly
distinct from any other specimen at hand and bears

70. C. Marsh, This Journal (3), 47, 409, 1894.

Am. Jour. Sci.—FirtH SErigs, Vou. I, No. 4.—Aprit, 1921.

328 E. L. Troxell—American Bothriodonts.

little resemblance to Anthracotherium magnum Cuvier,
in form or size. Briefly its distinctive features are as
follows: absence of cingulum except on the anterior
side; the bases of the proto- and hypocone equal; these
two cones joined by two ridges inclosing a deep short
segment of the transverse groove; the proto-conule
weak; the para- and metacones most prominent of all
the moderate cones; ridges from them joining one from
the mesostyle to form a Y as in Octacodon; the para-
style very prominent, with a sharp cusp, and widely
separated from the mesostyle; the metastyle almost
obsolete. The dimensions are: antero-posterior, 19.5
mm. on outer border, and transverse, 21.5 mm. on eg
side.

Octacodon Marsh.

This genus, having for its genoholotype O. valens
Marsh, should also include, it seems, Heptacodon gibbi-
ceps Marsh and Anthracotherwum karense Osborn and
Wortman,° for reasons set forth on the following pages.
All are of the Protoceras beds and all conform in impor-
tant details to the genoholotype.

Octacodon valens Marsh.
(Fic. 2.)

Holotype, Cat. No. 11860, Y. P. M. Upper Oligocene (Protoceras beds),
Hermosa, South Dakota.

The type specimen consists of the third upper molar
(see fig. 2) and an incisor, and was described by Marsh as
follows :°

‘‘The tooth represented... may be regarded as the type of the
present genus and species. It is the last upper molar of the right
side, and is in fine preservation. The slight wear of the tooth
shows that the animal was adult. There are five main cusps in
the crown, two on the posterior half, and three on the anterior, the
antero-median cusp being the smallest. On the outer margin of
the tooth are three prominent buttresses with conical summits,
making in all eight prominences on the crown, which feature has
suggested the generic name.

8H. F. Osborn and J. L. Wortman, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 6, 221-
223, 1894. The referred specimen of these authors, 4. curtwm (Marsh), No.
1039 American Museum Collection, can not be considered the same as Hep-
tacodon curtis Marsh (see Heptacodon above), but should in all probability
be placed with Octacodon, cf. O. gibbiceps, in spite of its earlier age.

°O. C. Marsh, This Journal (3), 48, 92, 1894.

E. L. Troxell—American Bothriodonts. 329

‘‘The three conical buttresses on the outer border of this tooth,
all strongly developed, will serve to distinguish it from the cor-
responding molar of Hyopotamus, which in several respects it
resembles. In that genus, the main cusps are much more ele-
vated. Heptacodon, perhaps an allied form, has a similar but-
tress at the anterior angle, but none at the posterior. An upper
incisor found with the present tooth, and doubtless pertaining to
the same individual, has a very short, compressed crown, with a
strong inner basal ridge, making the inner face deeply concave.’’

The low cusps, absence of cingula excepting a weak one
anteriorly, the prominence of the three styles, and
especially the para- and mesostyles, the shallowness of the
transverse valley which ends between the para- and
metacone, the distinct ridge from the cusp of the meso-
style forming a Y with ridges from the para- and meta-

Fie. 2.—Octacodon valens Marsh. Holotype. Cat. No. 11860, Y. P. M.
Crown view of M*®. After Marsh. Nat. size.

cones, the short antero-posterior and the great transverse
diameter anterior, and the general smoothness, are all
features which separate the species from those of any
other genus.

Octacodon gibbiceps (Marsh).
(Fie. 3.)

Holotype, Cat. No. 10194, Y. P. M. Upper Oligocene (Protoceras beds),
Hermosa, South Dakota.

The original description, under Heptacodon, is in part
as follows :1°-

; Lie facial portion of this skull is strongly rounded above,
especially in the frontal region, and this has suggested the speci-
fic name. The orbits are large, and not closed behind, although
limited posteriorly by strong processes above and below. ‘There
is no antorbital depression, and the lachrymal foramen is inside

* OQ. C. Marsh, This Journal (3), 48, 175-176, 1894.

330 E. L. Troxell—American Bothriodonts.

the orbit. The nasals are elongate, narrow in front, and widely
expanded behind where they join the frontals. They touch the
lachrymals, thus separating the maxillaries from the frontals.

‘‘There were in all forty-four teeth. Three incisors were pres-
ent on each side above, and there is a diastema behind the last
one. The upper canine was large, and directed well forward and
outward. There is no diastema behind the canine, and the four
premolars form with the true molars a continuous series. The
first and second premolars are secant, the third is subtriangular
in outline, while the fourth has its crown composed of one ex-
ternal cusp and one internal cone. ;

‘‘The posterior nares open opposite the middle of the last
upper molars. The anterior palatine foramina appear to be con-
fluent, forming together a heart-shaped aperture, which may in
part be due to injury.’’

Fig. 3.—Octacodon gibbiceps (Marsh). Holotype. Cat. No. 10194,
Y. P.M. Palatal view of skull. 1/3.

In so far as M® of this specimen (see fig. 3) has iow
cusps, weak cingula, general smoothness, failure of
transverse valley to cut into the mesostyle—showing a
ridge instead, a great anterior diameter, and especially
by its general contour, it is seen to'be very closely related
to the type of Octacodon Marsh, to the exclusion of
other genera.

The differences are minor, comparatively, but are suf-
ficient to distinguish the two species: of O. gibbiceps we
note the weaker styles without sharp separation, the faint
cingulum both outside and back of the hypocone, the
less deep valleys, and the strong ridge from hypocone to
the center of the tooth.

E. L. Troxell—American Bothriodonts. 331

Other features, shown by this completer skull, will
serve to establish the genus more broadly. M? is nearly
equal to M* and has the same form; M? is slightly
smaller; the cusps of P* are not tall but the deuterocone
is broad at the base, the anterior and posterior sides of
the tooth are symmetrical; P* is very broad anteriorly and
squared, and the inner shelf is weak; a strong postero-
exterior fold constitutes the tritocone; P? is oblong due
to the very wide anterior edge and the absence of an inner
shelf or deuterocone. ‘The absence of diastemata around
P!, the shorter, broader face, and the position of the
posterior nares opposite M* are very distinctive of the
species and probably of the genus.

Elomeryx Marsh.
(Fie. 4.)
Genoholotype, EZ. armatus (Marsh). Upper Oligocene (Protoceras beds),
Hermosa, South Dakota.
The species L’. armatus Marsh was first described under
Heptacodon Marsh as follows :1

‘““Fieure 2 [our fig. 4] . .. represents natural size the last
right upper molar of another large ungulate mammal, the exact

Fic. 4.—Elomeryx armatus Marsh. Holotype. Cat. No. 10176, Y. P. M.
Crown view of upper molars and premolars. 1/3.

affinities of which can not now be determined. This tooth is con-
siderably worn, showing that it belonged to an old animal. The
remaining molars and part of the premolars m the same series
are preserved, and with them a very large canine still in position
in the jaw. All are worn, but otherwise in good preservation.
The tooth figured has a crown composed of five main cusps, the
antero-median being the smallest. The outer buttresses are of
moderate size, and there is none at the posterior angle. The
enamel of this tooth and of all the series is rugose. The true
molars differ greatly in size, the first being quite small, the sec-
ond intermediate, and the last equal in bulk to the two others.

‘“The last premolar has one outer and one inner cusp. The
next tooth in front is larger, and. has a triangular crown, and the
next is close to it. The canine is very large, dependent, and oval
in section. Behind it is a long diastema.”’

% 0. C. Marsh, This Journal (3), 48, 93, 1894.

332

E. L. Troxell—American Bothriodonts.

Later!” there was made a new genus Hlomery2, and the
description of the species was thus amplified from skulls
in the collection (Cat. Nos. 10177 and 10195) :

‘‘The specimen described .. .

as Heptacodon armatus proves

on examination to belong to a distinct genus, which may be called
: Some of the main characters are as follows :—
The skull is elongate, with the facial part quite narrow. The

Hlomery2.

frontal region between the orbits is flat or even concave.

The

orbits are very small, and not closed behind. There is.no lachry-

mal fossa.
broad.

The anterior narial opening is large, and the snout

‘“‘There are the usual forty-four teeth. The upper incisors

diverge, and have short, compressed crowns.
is very large and dependent.

The upper canine

It is oval in outline near its base,

but compressed below, with a serrated posterior edge; a feature

not before observed in ungulate mammals.
tema behind the canine.

series. ...

There is a long dias-

The premolars and molars form a close

‘‘The posterior nares are placed well behind the molar series,

much as in existing swine.
long paroccipital.
and the other, a larger one.

There is a postglenoid process, and a
The type species has a small auditorial bulla,
The zygomatic arch is slender, and

curved well outward. The temporal fosse are large, and sep-

arated above by a narrow sagittal crest.

The brain was -well

developed. The type specimen of FE. armatus indicates an animal
about the size of a large deer.’’

Additional characters of the type of E. armatus are
‘here given in contrast to another specimen made the
type of a new subspecies on a later page.

Character

E. armatus armatus
Cat. No. 10176

| E. armatus angustus
Cat. No. 10393

P® diameters
P* diameters

form, ant.

M* cingulum
parastyle

M? cingulum
(internal)

parastyle
M*® cingulum

styles

Int. basal ridge.

16 & 19 mm., wide
20 * 15 mm.

Convex, inner half oval

Internal basal cusp

Cingulum on base of hypocone |

Moderate, weak groove pos-
terior

hypocone smooth

<4] Weak
‘Int. basal ridge.

Proto- and
hypocone smooth

Not prominent

Proto- and

14.5 < 20.5 mm., narrow
20.5 x 15 mm.

Concave, anterior and poste-
rior sides parallel

_Encircles hypocone, broken
on protocone

‘Very large and prominent
| indentation posterior

Encircles hypocone, broken
on protocone

Marked by strong groove

Extends onto and around
hypocone, broken on proto-
cone

All large, prominent, and
well separated by grooves

0. C. Marsh, This Journal (3), 48, 176-177, 1894.

E. L. Troxell—American Bothriodonts. 333

In the large number of skulls in the Marsh Collection
the genus Elomeryx shows the-greatest variation, includ-
ing a specimen of E. brachystylus Osborn and Wortman
(Cat. No. 10387, Y. P. M.). The canine has lengths of
from 10 mm. to 45mm. One has a choice of calling this
a sex feature or of considering the specimens as widely
separated and distinct; the former seems more probably
correct. The postcanine diastema varies from 20 mm.
to 35 mm. and its length bears no relation to the size of
the canine. The second premolars may vary from 9.5
to 13.5 mm. in width, the lengths are constantly around
16 or 17 mm. As already shown, the third premolars
have various lengths and widths and many differences
in the nature of the triangular crown.

Other eccentricities are shown in the table above. A
‘rather important feature, characteristic of neither of
these specimens, is the position of the cingulum running
up the side of the hypocone; in the types just compared,
the cingulum either ends abruptly (E. armatus), or is
continuous around the base of the cone. There is great
diversity to be seen in the form of the styles, especially
the metastyle, and in the depth of the notches separating
them.

Minor skull variations affect the width, pointedness
and curvature of the postglenoid processes, the form and
separation of the occipital condyles, the groove on the
ventral side and other cranial features.

The extreme position of the posterior nares set far
behind the molars, the elongation of the cranial portion
of the skull, and the development of the wide shelf of bone
immediately behind the last molar seem to depend on old
age; but we have to look to the immature animal for the
greatly inflated auditory bulle.

In only one instance in the collection are there found
the complete lower jaws belonging to a skull. This is
a slender animal with canines less than 10 mm. in their
longest diameter, the symphysis being weak and the whole
structure light. This specimen (Cat. No. 10391, Y. P.
M.) has a particular value in the study of the wear of the
teeth, for we find the upper P* quite unworn, while the
P? and M' on either side have lost nearly all the enamel
from the crowns. The consequence is that in the lower
jaw M, and the posterior half of P, are worn down in a
deep transverse groove.

The teeth are so short crowned and so little protected

384 Bods. Troxell—American Bothriodonts.

by enamel that, once the wearing starts, the tooth goes”
rapidly, allowing the one opposing to remain practically
uneroded.

Elomeryx armatus angustus, subsp. nov.
(Fie. 5.)

Holotype, Cat. No. 10393, Y. P. M. Upper Oligocene (Protoceras beds),
Hermosa, South Dakota.

This new subspecies may be distinguished by the moder-
ately long postcanine diastema, 25 mm.; the very narrow
P?, 9:5 X 16> mm., and: P*, 14.5 < 20.9 - mime eee
moderate proportions, concave anteriorly, and has a
shallow, narrow longitudinal groove. On the molars the
cingula surround the hypocones and, except for slight
breaks, the protocones. The styles on the outer sides of
the molars are well marked by deep indentations and on
M® all are prominent. The transverse valley curves
backward strongly and ends in a narrow angle on the
mesostyle. |

The postglenoid process is rather narrow, pointed, and
does not curve strongly forward. The occipital condyles
are not wide nor thick, but the median ventral groove is
broad. The moderate otic bull and the little worn teeth
show an animal just reaching maturity.

This specimen differs from the type of EF. mitis'® in
that the latter has no cingula on the internal slopes of
the hypocone and protocone and also has a weaker, more
pointed parastyle with a single groove and no secondary
cusp on its posterior side.

Ai pinacodon,'* gen. nov.

A name is proposed at this time for a genus to include
those American forms widely separated from Elomeryz,
Octacodon, and Heptacodon Marsh, and may inelude
Hyopotamus americanus Leidy 1856, H. deflectus Marsh
joa (the genoholotype), and Ancodon rostratus Seott

D.
These constitute a group of bothriodonts of a much

“The main feature on which this species was made—its smaller size—was
chosen as a result of a misinterpretation on the part of Professor Marsh.
His so-called first molar is the last deciduous tooth, as proved by the pres-
ence of P* underneath it. Therefore the last tooth present is M? and is
found to be as large as that of the genoholotype. It is worth noting that
the last milk tooth is molariform in every respect.

“ Aimevés, high; dxy, point; ddovs, tooth.

E. L. Troxell—American Bothriodonts. 335

earlier age than the genera from the Protoceras beds
(Elomeryx, Octacodon, Heptacodon). A’ pinacodon rost-

ANN
AS

= 4m
S TWIN ea Sonne
oS N/a
ra ‘G ss
A F kT aN|\| =
4 LN AS) Sea
GN N OU se ATS
SENG rN, SE EY
& \ Y BY
ah

Z hg ek
(ga:

Fic. 5.—Elomeryx armatus angustus, subsp. nov. Holotype. Cat. No.
10393, Y. P. M. Palatal view of skull. 1/3.

ratus (Scott) comes from the Metamynodon sandstones
(lower Oreodon beds) ;'° A. deflectus (Marsh) from the

* Hyopotamus americanus, referred specimen, is also from the Metamyno-
don stratum. See Osborn and Wortman, op. cit., p. 220.

336 E. L. Troxell—American Bothriodonts.

Titanotherium beds near Deadwood, South Dakota; and
A. americanus (Leidy), as reported by Hayden, was found
in association with Zitanotherwwm remains. The age of
the genus, therefore, is near the border line of the Middle
and Lower Oligocene.

Generic characters.—Of the foreign types A’pinacodon
resembles most Hyopotamus (H. bovinus Owen), but from
this it can be distinguished by the curved transverse
groove and the resulting decrease in size of the hypocone,
by the closer grouping of the cusps transversely, by the
narrower mesostyle, and by the greater relative length
of the molars antero-posteriorly. H. vectianus Owen

Fie. 6.—Aipinacodon deflectus (Marsh). Holotype. Cat. No. 11802,
Y. P. M. Crown view of upper molars and premolars. 1/3. |

resembles Hlomeryx in some respects more closely than
it does the new genus.

As compared to Bothriodon Aymard, one has difficulty
in finding the resemblances; these distinctions, however,
may be noted: the unreduced premolars, and absence of
diastema behind P?, the curved transverse valleys of the
molars, their narrower outer borders, the grouped cusps,
the rougher character with an abundance of tubercles and
cingula, the less elongated muzzle, the less forward
position of the posterior nares, the more completely
inclosed orbit, and the narrow supra-occipital of Ai pina-
codon.

As distinct from EHlomeryz,® the upper molar teeth
have squared outer edges, the styles are more nearly
equal, the cusps are tall and sharp, the deuterocone of P*
is a cone, not a crescent, the teeth are all much more
rugose, with numerous cusps and cingula, P is generally

**See under Octacodon and Heptacodon the distinctions of Apinacodon
from these genera.

E. L. Troxell—American Bothriodonts. 337

absent, a long diastema separates C' from P?, the pos-
terior nares are far forward, and the skull is narrow.

Ai pinacodon deflectus (Marsh).
(Fies. 6, 7.)

Holotype, Cat. No. 11802, Y. P. M. Oligocene (Titanotherium beds),
near Deadwood, South Dakota.

This species,!7 made by Marsh in 1890,'* can now be

Re Ke
S aA i
DAL TR wil

Fic. 7—Zpinacodon deflectus (Marsh). Holotype. Cat. No. 11802,
Y. P.M. A, crown view of lower molars and premolars. B, top and side
view of lower canine. X 1/3.

more clearly defined. As contrasted with A. americanus
(Leidy), one sees on M®* that the transverse groove ends
im a square, is not pointed between the para- and meta-
cones, and the edge is crenulated or cleft deeply; the
cingulum on the posterior side of the hypocone is faint
or absent, while the main posterior cingulum is continuous
with the ridge from its apex; an internal basal cusp or
cingulum appears on the hypocone and strong ridges also
from the protocone descend into the valley. The proto-
cone is not conical but is selenodont due to its heavy
ridges; the protoconule is near the protocone.

Carrying this contrast with A. americanus to the second
molar, we find in A. deflectus the very strong internal
basal cingulum extending quite around the hypocone; on
the right M? the protocone and hypocone are joined by a
strong ridge and on this tooth there is a wide groove
between the meso- and metastyles. P* is a heavy tooth
with strong cingula and styles; the cingulum, which is
posterior, leads around the deuterocone and not onto it,
leaving the latter truly a cone, round in cross-section.

*“ From the meagre description of A. rostratus (Scott) (Journ. Acad. Nat.
Scei., Phila., 9, appendix, p. 536, 1894), these distinguishing features may be
noted: P* of this species has a cingulum upon the inner side of the crown
and the buttresses or styles are less conspicuous. The molar length is equal
to that of A. deflectus, 71 or 72 mm. A close comparison of the types of
these two species is not practicable at this time, but additional points should
be had of A. rostratus in order to separate it clearly from A. deflectus.

#*%Q. C. Marsh, This Journal (3), 39, 525, 1890.

338 E. L. Troxell—American Bothriodonts.

This cingulum is broken on the inner surface. P®* is very
rugose, with a strong external cingulum leading to the
well marked tritocone and forming a double ridge
anteriorly on the protocone.

A. deflectus can be further characterized, in general, by
the form of P? with its external cingulum, small cuspid
dueterocone, and its rounded anterior and pointed pos-
terior ends; by the boldness of the teeth in the manner
in which the cusps and cingular ridges stand out; by the
position of the posterior nares situated just back of the
molars; by the long diastema in front of P? and the
probable absence of P?. |

Very extensive lateral crushing has taken place in this
type specimen but it is evident that the skull was very nar-
row originally; across between the orbits the distance is
scarcely more than 70 mm. The otic bulle are elongated
antero-posteriorly; the occipital condyles are light, and
the supra-occipital is narrow (22 mm.). The face is bent
down strongly on the basicranial axis. The paroccipitals
form peculiar, strong ridges outside the paramastoid
processes; the slender processes are near the condyles
and join the bulle at their bases. The sutures between
the frontals and parietals are not marked by ridges.
Marsh has pointed out that the postorbital processes are
long and more nearly close the orbit behind than is usual.

The lower jaws of A. deflectus (fig. 7) are most inter-
esting in the number of small tubercles and interrupted
cingula around and between the lobes of the teeth. The
purpose of these seems to be to retard the movement of
food when the long points of the superior molars press
down between the lobes.

On the inner side of the talonid of M, is a cingulum
made up of a series of cusps; the talonid itself is a single
isolated pointed cone. ‘Two exterior basal tubercles lie
between the talonid and hypoconid; they appear less
conspicuously between the protoconid and hypoconid.
Small roughened areas break the transverse valleys and
unite adjacent lobes in each case, while a strong cingulum
hes anteriorly on the tooth.

P, likewise has an irregular lot of tubercles forming
the heel and has sharp ridges running to the point of the
protoconid; ‘only the outer side of this cone is smooth.
The paraconid marks the beginning of the sharp ridge to
the central cone. The tooth measures 21.3 13.7 mm.

P, is narrow with two straight ridges running to the

E. L. Troxell—American Bothriodonts. 339

tip of the protoconid. On each side of the posterior ridge
are depressions bounded below by the basal cingulum.
The diameters are 20 X 9mm. P, is not preserved, but
the two rootlets indicate its small narrow form. P, was
entirely lacking, or was set near the canine in front of a
long diastema, as is indicated by other specimens at hand.

The canine (fig. 7 B) has a very unusual form, which
may be considered a flattened cone, with three strong
ridges from the front, inner and back sides joining at the
apex. Its diameters are 14.6 and 12 mm., the enameled
crown being 22 mm. long.

SUMMARY.

The weight vf the evidence seems to show that
Aymard’s genus Bothriodon precedes Ancodus Pomel and
Hyopotamus Owen in spite of statements to the contrary.

Our American species, distinct from HKuropean forms
of this group, may be placed under the following gen-
era: Aipimacodon, Elomeryx, Heptacodon, and Octaco-
don. The first of these is new and is made to include
A. deflectus (Marsh), A. americanus (Leidy), and A.
ree aus (Scott), species commonly classed under Anco-

US.

One new subspecies is here described under the name
Elomeryx armatus angustus, and the very complete skull
is figured.

3840 H. L. Troxell—Paleolagus, an Extinct Hare.

Art. XXII.—Paleolagus, an Extinct Hare; Wy EDWARD
LL. TROXELL.

[Contributions from the Othniel Charles Marsh Publication Fund, Pea-
body Museum, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. |]

Among the many skeletons of the smaller mammals in
the Yale Fossil Vertebrate Collection there are numerous
specimens of the fossil rabbits and hares, some of which
comprise unusually complete skulls, limbs, and_vertebre.
Two distinct species of the genus Paleolagus Cope were
secured by Professor Marsh in the early days of verte-
brate exploration, one of them the smaller P. haydem,
which varies considerably in size and age characters and
may be considered to include specimens of the subspecies
P. agapetillus, very small, and of P. intermedius, moder-
ately large. Distinct from it and widely separated is a.
larger species apparently closely allied to P. turgidus.

There is a most remarkable similarity between the
Recent hares and rabbits, and their ancestors in the
Oligocene. They evidently became adapted early to an

Fic. 1.—Paleolagus hayden. Cat. No. 10356, Y. P. M. Side view of
skull and jaws. Nat. size. -

environment vale relative to its great diversity, has
changed but little in the long lapse of time. Since their
habitat and habits have been identified with swamps,
plains, mountains—in fact, every conceivable condition
—no barriers seem to check them; and because of their
wide freedom and constant intermixing, they have
changed but little since the time of Palgolagus in the
Oligocene.

Generic characters.—As early as 1869 Joseph Leidy'
drew attention to the distinction between the Recent and
Oligocene forms as shown by the three and two lobes of

* J. Leidy, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. (2), 7, 331-334. .

E. L. Troxell—Paleolagus, an Extinct Hare. 341

P,. Cope,? Forsyth-Major,? Matthew,* and others have
since pointed out additional differences: Paleolagus
shows well developed postfrontal processes, the basicran-
ial angle very small, the brain relatively small and flat,
a less deep infolding of enamel on the internal side of the
upper molars, and the presence of a crescentic lake. In
all the Oligocene species the permanent lower teeth, when
little worn, show a small third lobe arising on the poster-
ior side of the second lobe near its summit; this, however,
soon disappears. It is an interesting fact that the two
lobes of the lower teeth are sometimes united only by
cement, having no enamel connection whatever (fig. 20).
In the young, the anterior lobe of P, is a distinct, nearly
isolated cone, but later the indentations, especially that

EKUYG:
nee

n

oem a) |

Fig. 2.—Paleolagus haydeni. Cat. No, 10304, Y. P. M. Palatal view of
skull, to show small posterior nares, Pn, and anterior palatine foramina, ~
Apf. Nat. size.

on the inner side, disappear, leaving the tooth as a single
column with a shallow groove down the outer side. The
anterior lobes take on two distinct types in the specimens
at hand, 1. e., that of a cylinder, round, or flattened and
oval in cross-section. :

Forsyth-Major has pointed out that the anterior teeth,
both above and below, are more complicated than those
posterior; this, he says, is due to the loss of the first and
second molars of ancestral forms, thus throwing the addi-
tional burden on the anterior, terminal members of the
series. It is characteristic of the genus Paleolagus that
the posterior lobe of each lower tooth, after P., should be
smaller than the anterior one.

Additional features—In comparing the fossil and
Recent skulls (see figs. 1-3) of the family Leporide in
the Marsh Collection, the following points have been
noted.

*E. D. Cope, Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey Terr., 3, 870, 888, 1884.

°C. J. Forsyth-Major, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (2), 7, 463-487, 1899.
*W. D. Matthew, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 16, 306-308, 1902.

342 EF. L. Troxell—Paleolagus, an Extinct Hare.

Paleolagus. Lepus.
Palatine fissure opposite P?. Same position.
Palatine fissure very narrow. Very wide.
Posterior nares very narrow. Very wide.
Posterior nares opposite M?. Opposite P*.

Palatal length ant.-post. 8 mm. 5 mm. on a much larger skull.

Upper tooth series with curved Series with straight outer bor-
outer border due to small P? der.
M?.

P? narrow anterior and M? nar- P?:* wide teeth, also M?.
row posterior. .

M, grooved on both sides. M, grooved exterior.

Angle of ramus with narrow ex- Angle very wide ant.-post.
tension. -

Body of ramus deeper and Body of ramus slender.
wider. ;

Incisors begin under M, in thick- Incisors begin anterior to P3.
ened ramus.

Diastema relatively short. Diastema long.

Anterior to malar, no pit. Malar with foramen.

On outer side, a fossa. On outer side, sometimes a
foramen.

Fic. 3—Lepus. Cat. No. 01370, Y. P. M. Diagram of palatal view of
skull. Posterior nares, Pn; anterior palatine foramina, Apf. Nat. size.

Other seemingly important features which have come
out in the course of this study are: the presence of a
coronoid process on the jaw; the straight, much narrower
ilium; the acetabular notch (which becomes a foramen in
the hare) ; the thin, erect tubercle just in front of the ace-
tabulum for the origin of the rectus femoris (later
becomes flattened and oval in outline); the narrow head
of the femur (contrasted to the broad one in Lepus, with
the larger trochanters and the additional sharp edge
extending distally), and the more prominent but more
simple and restricted minor trochanter; all are to be seen
in Paleolagus.

E. L. Troxell—Paleolagus, an Extinct Hare. 848

The fibula is fused to the shaft of the tibia in its distal
half in a manner identical in both forms, showing the
already progressive character in the Oligocene, or else
the conservatism of the Recent, or both. The blade of
the ilium is very straight and narrow in Paleolagus,
especially at the sacral suture. The scar of this suture
is V-shaped, and longer than wide. In the Recent form,
this suture is U-shaped, wider than long, and beyond it
there is a roughened area for tendinous attachment.

Concerning the loss of the coronoid’ in later genera-
tions, it is apparent that along with the deepening of the
jaw and the lengthening of the ramus, the temporal
insertion on this process becomes weaker and weaker until
now the anterior border of the ascending ramus, a double
edge presenting a broad grooved surface, is reduced to a
straight line. Furthermore, it is suggested that the
lateral movement of the rabbit’s jaw is brought about by

@ ( : ("
Fic. 4—Paleolagus turgidus. Cat. No. 10306, Y. P. M. Crown view of
upper molars and premolars, P* lost. ™ 2.

muscles attached to the angle and to places other than on
the coronoid process, and that the broad incisors of the
modern Lepus may also be correlated with an orthal
movement of the jaws.

Matthew has pointed out that the head in Paleéolagus
is carried low, with the nose extended forward, as a result
of the small basicranial angle; this is in contrast to Le-
pus, where the head is bent more strongly downward,
showing, he says, an adaptation to a running habit. In
harmony with this it is interesting to note that the large
posterior nares of Lepus (fig. 3) and their position far
forward, mentioned in the table of characters, are appar-
ently a readjustment to facilitate breathing by shortening
and enlarging the air passage. And so the whole struc-
ture of the Recent genus: the form of the femur, the

* The presence or absence of this process is not entirely uniform in the
Recent hares. L. americanus, the so-called varying hare, has a very thin
bone extending forward from the antero-external edge of the ascending

ramus, which does not appear in certain rabbits. This may be a vestige of
the coronoid process.

Am. Jour. Sci.—Firts Series, Vou. I, No. 4.—APRIL, 1921.
23

344 H. L. Troxell—Paleolagus, an Extinct Hare.

additional tubercles, the bending down of the face, and the
nature of the air passage, all contribute to a cursorial
adaptation.
Paleolagus turgidus Cope.
Fies. 4-8.

The largest species of Oligocene rabbit is represented
in the collection by several specimens consisting mostly
of parts of mandibular rami. One specimen, the right
maxillary (fig. 4), contains the complete tooth series
save P?. Except for the very large size, the most striking
thing about this species is probably the great width of the

-Wie)d: Fic: 6;

Fic. 5.—Paleolagus turgidus. Cat. No. 12069, Y. P. M. Crown view of
lower teeth. 2.

Fic. 6.—Paleolagus turgidus. Cat. No. 12068, Y. P. M. Crown view of
lower teeth, M; lacking. » 2.

enamel bands, covering all sides of the upper molars but
the outer ones. Compared to most specimens of P. hay-
dem, they are much wider relatively as well as actually.

In this particular specimen the enamel pattern is simple
and it is evident that the teeth are much worn. They are
- short compared to what they must have been originally;
the interior folds are entirely obliterated, and they have
lost almost all trace of the crescents.

Fie. 7. Fie. 8.

(SUN? NANSO

Fic. 7.—Paleolagus sp.? ef. P. turgidus. Cat. No. 12073, Y. P. M.
Crown view of lower molars of young individual. » 2.

Fig. 8.—Paleolagus sp.? cf. P. turgidus. Cat. No. 12066, Y. P. M.
Lower teeth of young individual. » 2.

In the mandible the enamel is continuous around the
teeth, but in the late stages of wear it may disappear on
the inner side. The incisor root has its beginning below
M,, as shown by the inflated region near the ventral
border of the ramus.

The specimen. shown in figure 5, a lower jaw, corre-

E. L. Troxell—Palaolagus, an Extinct Hare. 345

sponds most closely to the large maxillary just described ;
the large size of the three teeth remaining, P;., M,, and
the heavy bands of enamel appear to be typical of P. tur-
gidus. Figure 6 shows a similar type of dentition, but of
a smaller animal. In both of these, one sees the cylin-
drical form of P, with its smoothly infolded enamel and
the lobes of the molariform teeth entirely separated
except for a narrow bridge of enamel continuous with the
inner border.

Two specimens, shown in figures 7 and 8, are of uncer-
tain identification—may, in fact, represent a new species
of rabbit—but because the evidence is not conclusive, and
further because they are large, they are grouped with
P. turgidus. The first, much younger and smaller, has
a more complex folding of the enamel of P;. Both show
the more pointed, conical form of this tooth unworn, the
intricate enamel foldings on the anterior side of the
second lobe of M,, the third small lobe posterior on the
three intermediate teeth, and the apparent separation of
their main lobes—all characters of youth.

This very large species exceeds in size the largest
modern hare in the Museum Osteological Collection, one
_ whose skull measures 91 mm. in length.

Paleolagus hayden Cope.
Fies. 1, 2, 9-20.

Several views are here shown (figs. 9-16) illustrating
the results of wear and also some slight individual varia-
tions, in different specimens of P. hayden Cope. In this
species the upper jaw has three deciduous premolars, in
the lower there are two.

The first specimen (fig. 9) shows the deciduous teeth,
three in number, slightly worn, standing alongside the
true molars. Molar 1 is somewhat worn, but 2 and 3 are
entirely untouched. The specimen shown in figure 10 has
lost the milk teeth with the exception of a small fragment
of Dp'. P? is coming in beneath it. P** are fully cut,
but unworn. -M? is well worn, M? not enough to obliterate
the irregular outer enamel folds, M? is still unworn.

Specimen No. 10374 (fig. 11), partly due to wear, partly
to individual variation, shows a greater complication of
enamel. The technique of drawing the P* gives the out-
line of enamel areas rather than the full enamel band.
The right maxillary (fig. 12) shows the first and last of
the series of teeth but little worn; P** M!? have worn to

346 EH. L. Troxell—Paleolagus, an Extinct Hare.

the condition most commonly seen in the species. The
next specimen shows the unique double loop on the inter-
nal fold of P® (fig. 13).

Figures 14 and 15 show about the same state of wear;
the latter is the more advanced, for M' has lost the
erescent and P® the antero- exterior fold which had been
confluent with its crescent. In the specimen shown in
figure 16, one should note the various results of wear:
Pe becomes much larger as the conical end disappears;
P? is at its maximum width transverse; P* has lost its
crescent; the inner fold of M’ is isolated to form a long

Fic. 9—16.

Se age
ah ff GUS
EG = AUG

aay

RW HIG

Fic. 9.—Paleolagus haydeni. Cat. No. 12080, Y. P. M. Upper milk and
true molars. 2.

Fie. 10. —Paleolagus haydeni. Cat. No. 12081, Y. P.M. Upper teeth of
young individual.

Fie. 11.— Paleolagus haydeni. Cat. No. 10374, Y. P. M. Upper dentition
(except M*) of young individual. » 2.

Fie. 12.—Paleolagus haydeni. Cat. No. 10369, Y. P. M. Somewhat worn
upper dentition. » 2.

Fies. 13-16.—Paleolagus haydeni, Cat. Nos. 12082, 10377, 12084, and
12083, Y. P. M. To show successively advancing stages of wear a reduc-
tion of lakes of upper molars and premolars. » 2.

slender lake; M? shows the last sign of the crescent,
while M® is reduced essentially to a simple cylinder.

Other stages might be illustrated to show the final
elimination of all the foldings inside the outer boundary
of the tooth.

In the following four views (figs. 17-20), of various
subspecies of P. haydeni, three show the milk teeth beside
the first true molar. In the first specimen (fig. 17) Dp,
shows the prominent cusps and deep infoldings which are:
already much subdued in the next specimen (fig. 18);

E. L. Troxell—Paleolagus, an Extinct Hare. 347

the first milk tooth partakes of the character of the third
lower premolar in Lepus, in having three lobes, but the
marks of these lobes do not go beyond half the length of
the short-crowned teeth. The second deciduous tooth of
this specimen, also short-crowned, shows the distinct,

Fie. 17. Fic. 18.

La = GI pes
labia.

Fic. 17.—Paleolagus haydeni agapetillus. Cat. No. 12076, Y. P. M.
Upper and side view of mandible, with deciduous premolars and first true
molar. 2.

Fie. 18.—Paleolagus hayden. Cat. No. 12071, Y. P. M. Upper and
outer side views of mandible, with two deciduous and three permanent
teeth. >< 2.

small, posterior lobe which is prophetic of the true molars.
The interesting first molar will be discussed below.
Specimen No. 12071 (fig. 18) shows the first milk tooth
with the most of the inner folds eliminated by wear. All
track is lost of the posterior or third lobe in the second

Fic. 19. Fie. 20.

ra Cam

Fic. 19.—Paleolagus haydeni agapetillus. Cat. No. 12077, Y. P. M.
Crown view of ramus of mandible. A very small subspecies. 2.

Fic. 20—Paleolagus haydeni. Cat. No. 12075, Y. P. M. Top and side
views of lower jaw, showing deciduous premolars, Dp;.;, and anterior half of
first true molar, M,. » 2.

milk tooth. Both M,., have the small third lobes; this
cusp in the unworn M, is separated from the larger lobe,
but M, illustrates well how it becomes attached after only
a little wear.

Another specimen (fig. 19) consists of the right ramus
of a very small individual, probably the typical P. agape-

348 EH. L. Troxell—Paleolagus, an Extinct Hare.

tillus. Note the very deep indentations in P;, the wide ©
separations of the lobes of each P,M,.. and also the
antero-posterior extension of M,. |

The very young individual illustrated in figure 20 not
only shows the two milk teeth well preserved, but also the
anterior half of the first molar pushing up just behind.
This portion of molar in its unbroken enamel demon-
strates the fact that the two parts of the tooth are simply
cemented together, having no intimate connection.

Interpretation of milk dentition—The question arises
often as to what relation the milk teeth bear to the perma-
nent teeth both (1) of the time, (2) of the descendants,
and (3) of the ancestors. The three lobes of the first
deciduous lower tooth seem to be prophetic of Lepus,
the modern representative of the race; sometimes the
second deciduous tooth shows the features of the tooth to
follow in its place, having the small posterior cone in
addition to the two main lobes; but sometimes the teeth
are patterned in retrospect.

Probably the most interesting comparison may be made
between M, of specimen No. 12076 (fig. 17), with its many
cusps, and the permanent short-crowned molar of Jctops.
The arrangement of the cusps of the talonid or posterior
lobe, the transverse arrangement of the anterior half of
the tooth, and the low area between the lobes, in Pale@o-
lagus having three tubercles, seem to link this specimen
up with the insectivores. Of course the teeth of the latter
are much more primitive in their brachyodonty, and they
differ in having an additional cusp in front of the large
double-cusped anterior lobe.

SuMMARY.

It is difficult to draw the dividing line between the
Oligocene species of Paleolagus except for P. haydeni
and P. turgidus. P. agapetillus and P. intermedius are
apparently distinguishable from P. haydeni on the basis
of size alone, and are here ‘considered as subspecies.
Although there is a very great resemblance between the
Oligocene forms and the Recent ones, yet there are strik-
ing differences, and most of those of the skeleton may be
ascribed to a cursorial adaptation in the Recent form,
Lepus; in this connection the position and size of the
nares are of especial importance.

A number of views of the teeth are given to illustrate
variations, mostly due to age, and to publish for the first
time detailed drawings of the milk dentition.

A. C. Lane—White Mountain Physiography. 349

Arr. XXITI.—White Mountain Physiography; by ALFRED
C. Lane.

Recent reprints by Goldthwait! and Lobeck*, taken with
me on a week’s tramp from Lake Kezar over Baldface
and through the Carter Notch to Mount Madison, thence
along the Presidential Range to the Crawford Notch,
thence by train to Lake Winnepesaukee, with a day or two
there, added much to the pleasure of the trip, and made
it of greater profit geologically than previous visits to
the White Mountains. Coming home and comparing
them with Barrell’s recent papers as edited by Dr. H. H.
Robinson,’ his earlier papers,‘ Fairchild’s work,’ and the
older work of Woodward,® Daly,’ and Wright,$ I have
been led to certain thoughts that are perhaps worth
brief record, even though I have no great critical disa-
ereement, nor any mass of new fact to add. For even
in the case of scientific testimony, it is well to have con-
firmation by the mouth of more than one witness.

Goldthwait seems to me without doubt right in his
recognition of glacial cirques that antedate the culmi-
nation of the ice age, when the summit of Mount Wash-
ington was overridden. Not only are there the evidences
of the glaciated rims of the cirques, as given by him, but
it seems to me natural that the local glaciers which,
working backward, carved these amphitheaters, should
have been the forerunners of the great ice sheet. During
a time of increasing glaciation in advance of the main
sheet, actively eroding glaciers would naturally form
around high peaks. Afterward, during the time of
wasting away and recession, as in the recession of a
river flood, deposition rather than erosion is the order of
the day. As the climate grew milder and the ice front
retreated from Long Island and Cape Cod, the ice level

1J, W. Goldthwait, this Journal (4), 35, 1-19, 19138, and 37, 451, 465,
cea Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 27, 263-294, 1916; see also Ibid., 31, 112,

* A. K. Lobeck, Geog. Rev., Jan. 1917, 54-70.

* Joseph Barrell, this Journal (4), 49, especially pp. 407-428, 1920.

* Joseph Barell, Proc. and Coll., Wyoming Hist. and Geol. Soc., 12, 25-54,
1912; Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 24, 696, 1913, with the discussions by John-
son and Davis; this Journal (4), 40, 1, 1915.

°H. L. Fairchild, Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 29, 209, 1918.

°R. S. Woodward, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 48, 1888.

*R. A. Daly, Jour. Geology, 13, 105, 1905.
*F., E. Wright, Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 21, 717-730, 1910.

350 A. C. Lane—WIute Mountain Physiography.

must have gone down as well as back, and as the peaks
of the White Mountains emerged as nunataks, the White
Mountain massif must have been a pretty effective
obstacle to vigorous advance. At the same time the
disposal of a great ice sheet needs a milder climate than
that in which one would just appear. Thus we should
not then expect any local centers of glaciation, especially
when, as we shall see, the mountains were nearly a
thousand feet lower than at present.

If, then, we state the history of the accordant levels in
the terms of Daly, the story would seem to run as
follows:

Toward the close of the Paleozoic, the Appalachian
revolution, beginning in the Pennsylvanian, produced
ereat folding and an invasion of the Paleozoic sediments
by granites until they were altered so as to be nearly as
resistant to erosion as granites. Devonian black shales
were converted into chiastolite schists such as we find on
the Osgood trail of Mount Madison. Any accordant
levels produced by the ‘‘limiting strength”’ and ‘‘isostatic
adjustment’’ of this time were far above the present, not
less than 2000 feet above the top of Mount Washington.

All the points ‘‘above the timber line,’’ however,
passed into a zone of relatively vigorous erosion, and
may have been attacked by Permian glaciation. This
attack would be especially strong on the unmetamor-
phosed rocks and there would be a tendency to wear
down the ranges to a ‘‘rough accordance.’’ When
erosion reached the deeper metamorphosed layer, it
would, as Daly says, go on more slowly. It seems to me
that I saw such a disproportionate abundance of porphy-
ritic marginal facies of granites, and of fibrolite, chias-
tolite, and tourmaline contact minerals, as to suggest that
erosion had not gone far below the ‘‘level of metamor-
phism’’ which, as Daly points out (op. cit., p. 116), may
be much less uneven than the folding surface.

I think there are still traces of the folds in the
topography, of a synclinal from Littleton to Hanover,
and a shallower one, higher up on the general bulge, from
Goshen to Kearsarge, while the Presidential Range is
the stump of an anticlinal, left probably not as the relic
of an upfold, but as a more granitized and resistant core.
The long ridges of Jura or Allegheny type are gone, and
the very bottoms of the folds were higher than Mount
Jxearsarge. But it looks as though the top of the meta-.

A. GC. Lane—White Mountain Physiography. 351

morphosed zone was not much higher. Thus, during the
Mesozoic, when erosion went on with little local differen-
tial uplift or disturbance when the sea rose (Barrell says
to 2450 feet A. T.), the Paleozoic White Mountains were
reduced to ridges in hard rocks, well below timber line,
in fact, not much over 4000 feet above the level of the
Cretaceous sea. If we go back into the mountains and
look, not for the heights of the old surface, but for the
lower parts as near as possible to the old sea-level line,
low gaps and necks not likely to have suffered much since,
we find, besides some ‘‘shoulders”’ or ‘‘lawns’’ between
5000 and 4000 feet, of which I shall write later, many on
Cutter’s 1918 map of the Appalachian Mountain Club
not far from 3000 feet. I had picked out Maple Moun-
tains, 2635 feet A. T. (44° 10’ Lat., 71° 17’ Long.) as
representing the lowland near Mount Washington, and
was pleased to find that it checks quite well with Barrell’s
2450-foot ‘‘Becket terrace’’ of the Cretaceous. A lot
of points rise only a short distance above this one ( Mitten,
Pine Peak, and Mount Little Wildcat, Rockybranch
Ridge Stairs, Crawford, Parker, Black, Saunders). It
would not be hard to imagine lower levels, but the
independent coincidence of my judgment with Barrell’s
figure gives me some confidence.

But how about the ‘‘lawns’’ and shoulders of the
‘¢ Alpine garden’’ which Goldthwait takes to be remnants
of an old grade? I should explain them thus. The
Cretaceous 4000-foot ridges were not above timber line,
but the elevations of the Tertiary carried them above
timber line, and the parts projecting were subject to more
rapid erosion. When they got high enough, and the
climate rigorous enough, glaciers occupied the ravines
and carved the cirques, while all during the times of
elevation the rivers were busy cutting down to lower
grades. I think cirques occur lower than Goldthwait is
inclined to allow, for North and South Baldface and
Hagle Crag seem to surround a well-marked cirque
extending from 3000 to 2000 feet.

Finally, the advancing ice sheet swathed all the lower
parts of the mountains in ice, and put a stop to the local
carving, did some polishing, but little additional heavy
cutting. It seems to me that the ice surface must have
been for a long time at level; this ‘‘lawn,’’ now between
4800 and 5500 feet, did not check the wasting by avalanche
of the nunataks above, but started to produce that ac-

352 A. OC. Lane—White Mountain Physiography.

cordant level which F. E. Wright has emphasized in his
Iceland studies, and to which Daly refers (op. cit., p. 119).
This stage of the ice top must surely have occurred during
the waxing and waning stages of the Wisconsin, but it is
easy also to imagine that when the ice moved out in
earlier parts of the ice age from the Keewatin and
Patricia centers, it reached the White Mountains, but did
not altogether bury them, especially if they stood higher. |

De Geer finds a relatively long halt in the recession of
the ice in Scandinavia, and the level of the ice cap top at
such a time may be registered in the ‘‘lawn”’ level.

Thus, while it may be well to suspend judgment, as
Goldthwait does, I am inclined to agree with Lobeck that
these are not remnants of the ‘‘ New England peneplane”’
but of an ‘‘accordant level’’ produced as deseribed by
Daly and Wright. There ought to be remnants of such
a level. The ‘‘Felsenmeer’’ which Daly has emphasized
as characteristic is well marked on all the peaks, and
even the lower till is largely of angular blocks which I
can easiest conceive of as the result of avalanches from
nunataks on to the old ice surface, which have been
allowed to settle gently without being compacted as the
-ice sheet wasted away.

Wright’s study of the cycle of ice sheet erosion is well
worthy of careful consideration.

But while I agree with Lobeck that the ‘‘ New England
peneplane,’’ as commonly understood, ‘‘ends abruptly
at the foot of the White Mountains,’’ where its elevation
is about 1000 feet A. T. and it shows even better in the
field than in his photographs, I agree with Barrell that
it is a plain of marine denudation. The notch in the hills
is distinct and like a sea-cliff, and most so where they
faced the broad Atlantic. I should interpret it as
probably corresponding to Barrell’s ‘‘ Litchfield terrace”’
of the Pliocene, which on this projecting salient had cut
so far back as in general to pass and obliterate the earlier
and higher ‘‘Goshen’’ and ‘‘Cornwall’’ terraces, and in
some places the higher ‘‘Canaan”’ and ‘‘ Becket’’ terraces.
In fact, the Tertiary elevations were slow enough or
lasted long enough to pretty well dissect the 2600-foot
peneplane, and so far as one can tell after the glacial
filling that followed, to adjust the rivers at least to the
1000-foot level. Barrell has two or three terraces of
Tertiary time below the Litchfield, but to find traces of

A. C. Lane—White Mountain Physiography. 358

these, if they exist, is no matter of a week’s glance, for
they are obscured by the levels of glacial outwash
deposition studied by Fairchild.

The series of late Tertiary and early Pleistocene
elevations, coupled with climatic changes, brought on the
ice age and the enswathement by an ice cap. The
tendency of an ice cap 10,000 feet thick extending from
Labrador, that is, with a radius of 9°, would be by gravity
to draw the water to it, so that if stagnant and full of
crevasses connecting with the sea, the sea-level would be
395 feet higher at the center, and 240 feet at the margin,’
than were there no ice there. If we found no sea-level
next the old ice front as high as this above the present
sea-level, it might well be taken to indicate depression of
the White Mountain region since the ice left it. On the
other hand, if we suppose a certain amount of compres-
sion and isostatic adjustment of the crust under the ice
load, and that readjustment took place as the ice melted,
it is easy to account for any signs of depression and
elevation of the sea-level up to one third of the thickness
of the assumed ice sheet. If, then, we suppose an ice
sheet up to the level of the Boott Spur, say 5300 feet
5% A. T., it would have a thickness above the present
surface of some 2700 feet, and could account for a deep
sea-level in its crevasses and in front of it some 900 feet
above the present sea-level. This would be the lower
limit of the earliest and widest post-glacial valley erosion,
the limit up to which esker delta levels would build, and
toward which valley train deposits should be abundant.
It is, I think, the level followed by Fairchild, and given by
him as 725 feet A. T. at Bartletts on the Saco River, 800
feet at Goshen on the Androscoggin. Barrell has two
Phocene terraces, the ‘‘Prospect’’ at 940 feet, and the
“‘Towantic’’ at 740 feet, that may easily blend with it in
broad landscape views, but should pass under the glacial
eo not over, and would be likely to have a different

ilt.

It must not be forgotten that here, as in Michigan, a
plane connecting the various marine levels close to the
ice front at different stages of the ice front by no means
represents the water level at any one time. The
disturbing effect of the ice on the water-level retired with
the ice front, in part simultaneously, in part shortly after,

* Using Woodward’s formula 64 and 67 of Bull. 48, with 6 = 9°.

354 A. C. Lane—Wiute Mountain Physiography.

so that lines of simultaneous water-level (niveau—equipo-
tential lines) will feather out as they go north. If,
however, the Boott Spur and the other ‘‘lawns’’ mark a
period of relative permanence in the ice, a pause in retreat
or re-advance, then the niveau line corresponding thereto
might be extra well marked. The sea-level for the
725-foot terrace at Bartletts could not have been much
below this datum, (for it is less than 20 miles of wide
valley until it opens out on the old shore-line.) Thence
the sea-level drawn toward the ice at the time sloped off a
little, and if the sea-bottom rose rapidly as the pressure
of the ice was removed, so that they had already begun to
rise, then present traces of that level should slope even
more away from the mountains. ‘The sea-bottom terrace
would slope still more. Thus, well developed post-glacial
terraces should slope more than the earlier ones, to which
Barrell gave a slope of 7 feet to the mile. Thus, the
sea-bottom terrace corresponding to the Bartlett 725-foot
level might well be under the 575-foot level, the 600 feet
so prominent around Lake Winnepesaukee. But I did
not try to disentangle the lower levels on which Gold-
thwait is now at work. When to the shifting volume of
water in the ocean and the gravitative effect of the ice,
which we know must have had an effect, is added the
compressive effect of an ice sheet of which we do not
know the thickness or the effect, only a very careful study
of the results may perhaps give us a clue to the efficient
causes. But it does seem worth mentioning that an ice
sheet which was just thick enough by its swathing effect to
produce the high-level ‘‘lawns’’ like Boott Spur, was
probably also competent to produce just such a depression
as we find indicated by the highest post-glacial sea-levels
around the southeast flank of the mountains.

eee ee Se ee ee

OO —— = — oe

N. E. A. Hinds—An Alkali Gneiss 355

Arr. XXIV.—An Alkali Gneiss from the Pre-Cambrian of
New Jersey; by Norman Hi. A. Hips.

Introduction.
Geology.
Petrography.
Megascopic
Microscopic.
Chemical composition.
Relations of the Van Nest Gap gneiss to the Byram gneiss.
Origin of the Byram gneiss.
General relations.
Summary.

Introduction.

The rarity of foliated alkali igneous rocks of primary
origin is well known to petrographers. A few occur-
rences have been cited by Rosenbusch' and Washington’s”
latest compilation of rock analyses has added new types,
but, as compared with the known volume of alkali igneous
rocks, their metamorphic equivalents have been found on
an extremely small scale. This paper adds a further
example in the form of an alkali quartz-syenite gneiss
from the pre-Cambrian complex of New Jersey. The
rock was collected by Dr. J. E. Wolff from a tunnel cut
through Van Nest Gap, near the town of Oxford Furnace,
in the west central part of New Jersey, for the Delaware,
Lackawanna, and Western Railroad.

The writer wishes to express his thanks to Dr. Wolff
for many helpful suggestions in the preparation of this
paper, and for the chemical analyses which he kindly
made.

Geology.

Peering to Wolff and Brooks,? the pre-Cambrian
series in New Jersey occupies a highland belt ‘‘about 20
miles wide, which runs across the State, and continues
northeastward into New York and southwestward into
Pennsylvania. With the exception of a few longitudinal
valleys, in which the younger Paleozoic rocks occur, the

ner iedab: H., Elemente der Gesteinslehre, 1910, p. 620.

2 Washington, H. S., Chemical analyses of igneous rocks: U.S. Geol. Sur-
vey, Prof. Paper 99, 1917.

> Wolff, J. E., and Brooks, A. H. The age of the Franklin white limestone

of Sussex County, New Jersey, U.S. Geol. Survey, 18th Ann. Rept., Pt. IT,
p- 431, 1898.

356 N. HE. A. Hinds—An Alkali Gneiss

whole area is occupied chiefly by gneisses, representing
in general a few recurring lithological types.’’

The Pre-Cambrian of this region is composed of a
series of metamorphosed sedimentary and igneous rocks,
with certain additional elements of doubtful affiliations.
The sedimentary foliates, of which the Franklin limestone
is the most important, include coarsely crystalline lime-
stone, marble, quartzite, conglomerate, breccia, slate, and
schists and gneisses of various types. The orthogneisses
are divisible into three groups, the Pochuck, the Losee,
and the Byram. Associated with these rocks are many
non-foliated granitic and pegmatitic intrusions.

The exact geological relations of the Van Nest Gap
gneiss are unknown, but, as will be shown later, its chem1-
cal and lithological characters very closely resembles
those of certain phases of the Byram gneiss, and, for
this reason, the rock is tentatively assigned to that group.

Spencer‘ states that the Byram gneiss includes ‘‘several
varieties of granitoid gneiss which are lithologically
related by the presence of potash-bearing feldspars
among their principal mineral components. As thus
defined, the formation includes the ‘‘ Hamburg’’, ‘‘Sand
Pond’’, and ‘‘Edison’’ gneisses, which were separately
mapped by Wolff in the Franklin Furnace district; the
‘‘Oxford type’’ of gneiss, described by Nason; and the
eneissoid granite of Breakneck Mountain on the Hudson,
described by Merrill.’’

The relations of the Byram gneiss to the other members
of the Pre-Cambrian in this region are rather obscure.
It is reasonably certain that the contacts with the
Franklin limestone and with the Pochuck gneiss are intru-
sive; hence these two members are older than the Byram
phase. The Losee and Byram gneisses appear to be
‘approximately contemporaneous. ’’

Petrography.

Megascopic.—The Van Nest Gap gneiss is a rather
coarse, even-grained rock of dark grayish-green color,
and of fresh, unweathered appearance. It exhibits a
roughly parallel linear structure, due to the partial segre-
gation of the hornblende into pencil-like stringers. Sur-

*Spencer, A. C., et al., U. S. Geol. Survey Atlas, Franklin Furnace Folio
161, 1908.

from the Pre-Cambrian of New Jersey. Sol

faces of the rock at right angles to this structure are quite
even-grained.

Of the visible minerals, feldspar and hornblende pre-
dominate, while quartz and magnetite appear very spar-
ingly. The feldspar is grayish-green in color, and
possesses good and rather highly lustrous cleavage faces.
The hornblende occurs in grains of various sizes, with
large individuals the more common. The hornblende
pencils, mentioned above, constitute the most striking
feature of the rock. The quartz is light gray and glassy.
A few small grains of magnetite are visible. The light
constituents make up about 80 per cent of the rock.

Microscopic.—Microsecopic examination shows the
eneiss to be composed of plagioclase, microcline-micro-
perthite, hornblende, microcline, and quartz, named in the
order of their importance; and very subordinate amounts
of accessory magnetite, biotite, zircon, and apatite. Mica-
ceous and chloritic decomposition products occur to a
limited extent. The texture is hypidiomorphic, medium
to coarse granular. Evidences of pressure are rare,
though certain of the feldspars show shghtly curved
twinning lamelle, and both the quartz and the feldspar
exhibit faint strain shadows.

Feldspars.—Ot the feldspars, plagioclase and microper-
thite each compose about one-third of the rock, while
microcline is much less abundant. The feldspars are
quite clear, except for small stringers of micaceous
decomposition products which have developed along the
cleavage cracks. |

Plagioclase occurs in large anhedral grains. The
maximum extinction angle perpendicular to M(010) is
9°, hence the mineral is an oligoclase having a composition
between Ab,,An,, and Ab,,An;,. Microperthite occurs
in coarse, interrupted intergrowths of microcline and
albite, which are present.in about equal amounts. The
microperthite individuals are much larger than those of
any of the other constituents. Microcline is abundant in
small areas. Much of it presents clear and distinctive
cross-hatched twinning. Orthoclase is not present in the
Van Nest Gap rock although it is commonly found in the
Byram gneisses.

Hornblende.—This mineral is the most abundant dark
constituent. The grains vary in size; the larger are
irregular, while many of the smaller individuals show

358 N. HE. A. Hinds—An Alkali Gneiss.

well developed crystal outlines. The hornblende is
imperfectly segregated into pencil-like areas, and hence
is responsible for the gneissic structure of the rock. The
grains in these segregation-areas have their long axes
roughly parallel, although a rather wide diversity of
direction exists.

The hornblende is generally fresh, except for the
development of small amounts of greenish decomposition
products along cleavage cracks. ‘The sections are brown-
ish-green, and are strongly pleochroic; Y = dark brown-
ish-green to greenish-brown; X = light brownish-green ;
Z == deep yellowish-brown; and Z> Y>X; Y is nearly
—Z. The pleochroism is similar to that of a section of
barkevikite from the type locality in Norway. Sections
near (010) give 12 ¢ to Z.

An analysis of the mineral by Dr. J. E. Wolff is given
below. Analyses of two other hornblendes, also by Dr.
Wolff from the Byram gneiss of Hamburg Mountain and
of Waywayanda Mountain, near the northern border of
New Jersey, are included in the table. Analyses 2 and
3 are incomplete, but they will serve to show the simi-
larity of the hornblendes in rather widely separated
exposures of this group of rocks. :

TABLE I.
L 2 3
SHS Ol. Oe MA Ee 39.10 38.78 34.38) -
IE NSU OEY Ta 7:61 8.72 13.39
Bias O peer aerie kee Siw he O22, ALG
MeQust 4a beaten 2 25.49 28.08 26.72
Miah! rat eben aes 0.58 3.80
OEY G1) Serer ee eae 8.99 9.98 9.26
Nas) tee kee ee. L538 ee bak
Og athe: bas ee 2.02 . 3.8) 1.87
OOS an yee. ener 2.88 ie bad oe
EEO Ee, SARL ANT e 0.34 in ae Mises
PHO . Ta S301. AO 2NS rag & ie
Minn@) 23 erased 0.56 0.69 0.45

99.60 93.61 97.57

Spares. sees 3.440 3.436 3.434
1. Hornblende from alkali quartz-syenite gneiss. Van Nest
Gap, N. J.

2. Hornblende from Byram gneiss. Hamburg Mountain,
N. J.
3. Hornblende from Byram gneiss. Waywayanda Mountain,

from the Pre-Cambrian of New Jersey. 359

The mineral is an iron-rich hornblende related to barke-
vikite, though it has a higher iron and a lower alkali
content than does typical barkevikite.

Quartz. Quartz occurs sparingly in grains of medium
size. |

Accessories —The accessories, magnetite, biotite, zir-
con, and apatite, are very subordinate in amount. Mag-
netite is present in large, irregular grains. Biotite
occurs in a few ragged individuals, commonly associated
with the hornblende. In such eases, the longer axes of
the biotite grains are parallel to those of the hornblende.
~The biotite is brown in color, and exhibits strong pleo-
chroism from hght yellow through brownish-yellow to
deep reddish-brown. Zircon is represented by numerous,
small, prismatic sections, frequently showing perfect
pyramidal terminations. Many larger basal sections are
also present. The apatite individuals are of medium size,
and have rounded or elliptical outlines. Most of the
apatite and zircon is found in the pencils of hornblende.

Chemical composition.

The analysis of the rock, which was made by Dr. Wolff,
is given on page 363. The rock is an akerose of the rang
monzonase, order germanare, with the following norm:

amar Zie ec en oh 5.94
enn OGlase te wes tees os 24.46
Jo 1. DT ys Pe rte Se le ae ee 44,54
PRMONUNG eS acts Se. fe 10.01
Varro se fe. ee w te os fe: 0.37
PARI Ge Tc Mega nies Cebit 0.34
Blimeninet at mn tse. se 5 1.22
MA OME TEs co So ar a. 2.18
1 DUCT GS 0 (EN, a eR, ie bey SFOS
Ebypersiwene. “8g. ks. 0.99

98.34

The mode of the rock, determined by the Rosiwal
method, is given below. The calculation of the mode
from the chemical analysis gave results which checked
very closely with these figures. The rock may be classed
as an alkali quartz-syenite gneiss.

Am. Jour. aimee SERIES, Vou. I, No. 4.—Apnrit, 1921.

360 N. E. A. Hinds—An Alkalt Gneiss

Plagioclaseenyeee wir at 2 & 32.64
Microperiiabes ates. :i<- 6s 30.45
Witeroc imesh os oo: 19.25
CVU ET Ze Fe eee cw se is 16 os t.J3
THornblenter. aplenaenae Boe: Torte
PTO ae eRe toes cece 0.74
Masnetite temes ss.) 2.5 2.15
Apatite Mime eee eh SEE 0.42
PALGHOA) BBO. 6.3 aes Sa Lr 0.58

09"

The position of the rock in the new quantitative miner- ~
alogical classification, proposed by Johannsen,® is in
Class 2, Order 2, Family 9 (Granodiorite).

The specific gravity of the Van Nest Gap gneiss is
2.841. As calculated from the norm, according to the
method recently suggested by Iddings,® the value is
2.803. The difference between the two results is due to
the fact that the hornblende has a higher specific gravity
than its two normative equivalents, diopside and hyper-
sthene, which Iddings gives as 3.28 and 3.33, respectively.

Relations of the Van Nest Gap gneiss to the Byram gneiss.

Bayley’ has described the Byram series as ineluding a
number of granitoid gneisses lithologically related by the
presence of potash feldspar as one of the chief mineral
components. This feldspar may be either orthoclase or
microcline, the latter occurring to the exclusion of the
former in the Van Nest Gap rock. The first main type of
the Byram gneiss is a dark-gray, moderately coarse-
grained rock, composed essentially of microperthite,
microcline, orthoclase, quartz, hornblende, or a little
pyroxene, magnetite, and occasionally biotite. Oligoclase
is usually subordinate, but may equal the other feldspars,
as inthe caseinhand. Fresh rock of the second principal
variety is pink, light-gray or white in color, and differs
from Type I in the presence of much more quartz and in
the paucity of the dark constituents.

The following table shows the close mineralogical

> Johannsen, A., A quantitative mineralogical classification of igneous
rocks, Jour. Geol., vol. 28, pp. 38-60, 158-177, 1920.

®*Tddings, J. P., Relative densities of igenous rocks calculated from their

norms, this Journal, vol. 49, pp. 363-366, 1920.
* Bayley, W. S., U. S. Geol. Survey Atlas, Passaic Folio 158, 1908.

from the Pre-Cambrian of New Jersey. 361

relation between the Van Nest Gap rock (Column 1) and
an average of four specimens of the dark-colored Byram
gneiss (Column 2). Column 3 gives the average mineral
composition of three varieties of the light-colored mem-
ber of this series, in which the proportions of the compo-
nent minerals are seen to be notably different. The only |
available chemical analysis of the Byram gneiss is of a
light-colored variety. As contrasted with the composi-
tion of the Van Nest Gap rock, which is typical of the
darker phase, the high percentage of silica and the lower
iron content are the outstanding features.

TaBLE II.
1 2 3

UE MMR I a ost naps St obs ovo) oe 9 7.93 10.50 27.33
(DD LLD TSS eS eee 4 acne ae 1.25 0.66
“LEC LE EDS ag a RUGS ae ener eae Pett PAS Pee 52.00
MMBERERTESRI THC 00S thos st ais here woes sce 30.43 49.00 10.33
Meimetase 8 se vile eae eee ae 32.64 16:25 10.33
Puanmmonde s:. te ee ieee Lelia 8.50 0.50
Papen et at. SS az ihe 0.50 Ad bee!
JS cue () SUR RE ee ee ee 0.74 Eas 1.33
Accessories (magnetite, apatite, zircon,

RARER ED at stresses ylafcheiea 6 asend ad» 3.15 2.19 2.83

O92 91s <b00:00 99.98

1. Alkali quartz-syenite gneiss. Van Nest Gap, N. J.
2 and 3. A. C. Spencer et al., U. S. Geol. Survey Atlas,
Franklin Furnace folio, 161, p. 5, 1908.

Origin of the Byram gneiss.

According to Bayley,’ the Losee, Byram, and the
greater portion of the Pochuck gneisses are considered
to be shghtly foliated igneous rocks which have been
intruded into a preexisting and now highly foliated pre-
Cambrian sedimentary terrane. ‘‘The linear structure
of the gneisses is regarded as the direct result of flowage
of the viscous magma and of the crystallization of some
of the minerals of the rocks under the influence of strains
produced by flowage.’’ The gneissoid structure is not
due to later metamorphic effects which the region has
undergone during the progress of various orogenic move-
ments.

8 Bayley, W. S., Iron mines and mining in New Jersey; New Jersey Geol.
Survey, vol. VII, p. 126, 1910.

362 N. EF. A. Hinds—An Alkali Gneiss

General relations.

The rarity of the primary alkaline orthogneisses has
been alluded to briefly in an earlier part of this paper.
Rosenbusch® says that rocks of this type in the form of
quartz-bearing arfvedsonite gneisses were first recorded
in the vicinity of Cervadaes, 8 kilometers north of Campo
Major, in the province of Alemtejo, Portugal. This
region has also yielded other varieties, including a quartz-
poor arfvedsonite gneiss and a nepheline-aegirine gneiss.
An alkaline gneiss, similar to the first-mentioned rock
from Cervadaes except that riebeckite and aegirine
replace arfvedsonite, has been recorded from Old Ped-
roso, 51.5 kilometers to the northeast of the above locality.
Rosenbusch also cites arfvedsonite gneisses from near
Vigo, Spain, and from near Baependy in the State of
Minas Graes, Brazil; an alkaline gneiss with riebeckite
and aegirine from near Gloggnitz, Austria; and an
umptekite gneiss (astochite gneiss) from West Green-
land. Cushing?® has described an augite syenite gneiss
from Loon Lake, New York, which is rich in the alkalies,
due apparently to the abundance of orthoclase and albite.
This rock closely resembles certain of the alkali syenites
from Mt. Ascutney. The recent compilation of rock
analyses by Washington" has added still other types,—a
canadite gneiss from Sweden (Quensel); a nepheline
syenite gneiss from Madagascar (Lacroix); two gneis-
soid alkali syenites from Gellivare, Sweden (Hogbom) ;
and an aegirite-riebeckite gneiss from Ross-shire, Scot-
land (Flett). The Van Nest Gap rock adds another
example to this meager list.

From his discussion of these rocks, Rosenbusch*?
concludes (translated) that ‘‘alkali granites, alkali syen-
ites, and nepheline syenites are known in the form of
erystalline schists in the basement complex, and it may
be expected that further investigations will bring to light
- monzonitic and essexitic types.’’ From this summary it
is evident that the foliated equivalents of the alkaline
igneous rocks are decidedly unusual types, especially

° Rosenbusch, H., Elemente der Gesteinslehre, 1910, p. 620.

7? Cushing, H. P.; Augite-syenite gneiss from near Loon Lake, New York,.
Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. 10, pp. 177-192, 1899.

4 Washington, H. S.; Chemical analyses of Igneous Rocks, U. S. Geol.

Survey, Prof. Paper 99, 1917.
Op. cit.,p. 622.

from the Pre-Cambrian of New Jersey. 363

when the widespread occurrence of the alkaline rocks is
considered.

Table III gives the analyses of a number of these alka-
line orthogneisses. The examples cited belong to the
alkali granites, the alkali syenites, and the nepheline
syenites, the last named being the most numerous. The
Van Nest Gap rock belongs to the alkali syenites.

TaBLE III.

1 Dy = 4 5 6 i 8
eee te . -61.18 65.88 59.52 75.90 63.26 56.44 55.99 63.45
/24 5 6 as iegene 16.86 16.03 21.24 11.89 14.84 20-52 20.18 18.31
De 0 Sea 1.95 2.56 2.71 2.68 2.39 he 4.19 0.42
GO (ck. 4.74 1.84 0.48 1.59 1.54 4.51 osa0 3.56
MeO... . 0.60 0.29 0.12 0.42 4,22 0.28 0.33 0.35
OO OE ea 2.91 0.25 0.48 0.20 161 123 2.29 2.93
dU 9} eaea Doe 7.44 LOZ 4.68 9.32 9.01 6.89 5.06
tS ee 4,12 4.66 3.92 3.83 0.70 4.80 5.59 Spas
H.O — 0.85 0.34 0.50 tr ; 1.66 0.75 0.43
H.O — 0.04 0.02 Ane tr a 0.12 hptote
GhTG Se aaa 0.61 tr tr tr tr O12 0.07
MimG@Qy re on 0.06 ee tr tr tr 0.06
OT yates: 0.15 snes oe Wit:
Ol Oe Saree aere ena
ot © eee 0.16 0.45

S956) “99:76 ~99:90° 10119) 99.54 7100.66 99.84 99°73

1. Alkali quartz-syenite gneiss (akerose). Wan Nest Gap, N. Y. Dr.
J. E. Wolff, analyst.

2. Arfvedsonite gneiss, Cervadaes, Alemtejo, Portugal. H. Rosenbusch,
Elemente der Gesteinslehre, p. 620.

3. Aegirine-nepheline gneiss. From near locality ‘‘2’’. Ibid.

4. Riebeckite gneiss. Near Gloggnitz Austria. Ibid.

5. Umptekite gneiss (astochite gneiss). West Greenland, Ibid. ‘

6. Canadite gneiss (miaskose). Lille Elringe, Almunge, Sweden. P. Quen-
sel, Bull. Geol. Inst. Upsala, vol. 12, p. 190, 1914.

7. Nepheline-syenite gneiss (viezzenose). Makarainga, Madagascar.
A. Lacroix, Comptes Rendus, vol. 155, p. 1125, 1913.

8. Augite-syenite gneiss (akerite). Loon Lake, N. Y. H. P. Cushing,
Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. 10, 179-192, 1899.

Summary.

1. An alkaline gneiss from the pre-Cambrian of New
Jersey is described with regard to its megascopic and
microscopic characters.

2. Chemical analysis shows this rock to be an alkaline
quartz syenite gneiss belonging to the subrang akerose,
in the norm classification, and to the family granodiorite,
in the quantitative mineralogical classification of Johann-
sen.

364 N. HE. A. Hinds—An Alkali Gneiss.

3. While the exact geological relations of the Van Nest
Gap rock are unknown, its chemical composition. place it
with the dark colored variety of the Byram member of the
New Jersey pre-Cambrian gneisses.

4. The Byram gneiss is considered to be an igneous rock
in which foliation developed in the magma during the
process of crystallization.

). Alkaline gneisses from other localities are cited,
and the searcity of this type of foliates is emphasized.

Mineralogical Laboratory,
Harvard University.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE

I. Cuemistry AND Puysics.

1. The Double Decomposition of Salts in Connection with the
Phase Rule—Two or three years ago it was announced by
ETIENNE RENGADE that in accordance with the phase rule a small
quantity of water acting upon an excess of two salts with four
different radicals or ions would necessarily cause the appearance
in the solid condition of a third salt, one of the two other possible
combinations of the ions. In contradiction to this statement
Ravenau has recently stated that a mixture of NaNO, and NH,Cl
could exist without decomposition in the presence of a small
quantity of water. Rengade has now shown, however, that this
statement is incorrect, for he has found, both by microscopic
examination and by analysis of the products of the treatment,
that crystals of NaCl are formed in this case. He has found
. that NH,NO, and NaCl give NH,Cl as the third solid product, so
that there are at ordinary temperature two ternary mixtures
containing these four ions:

NaNO, + NH,Cl + NaCl
and NH,NO, + NaCl + NH,Cl.

He states that these can exist without change in contact with a
small quantity of water, and that every other mixture of two,
three or four of the salts containing the four ions will decompose,
giving, according to their proportions, one or the other of the
triple mixtures.

Rengade admits, however, that it is possible for two salts with
different ions to remain in equilibrium without the formation of
a third salt in the solid state. This is the case when the two salts
are considerably less soluble than those formed by double decom-.
position. Consequently it is to be observed that his: original

Chemistry and Physics. 365

statement is incorrect, but he maintains that the exceptions to it
are fully in accord with the phase rule—Comptes Rendus,
172, 60. | H. T.. We

2. A Comparison of the Atonuc Weights of Terrestrial and
Meteoric Nickel—About ten years ago it was shown by Baxter
and Thorwaldsen that the atomic weight of meteoric iron is
identical with that of terrestrial iron within the limits of experi-
mental error. In view of the recent interest in isotopic elements,
such as ordinary lead and the kinds of lead produced by radioac-
tion transformations, G. P. BAxTEer and L. W. Parsons have com-
pared the atomic weights of terrestrial and meteoric nickel.
They have very carefully prepared nickel oxide, NiO, from the
two sources, the meteoric nickel having been obtained wholly from
the Cumpas meteorite found in 1903 near Cumpas, Senora,
Mexico. They analyzed the samples of oxide by reduction when
heated in hydrogen, and having made corrections for the minute
amounts of occluded nitrogen and oxygen contained in the
products, they found as averages 58.70 for the atomic weight of
the terrestrial nickel and 58.68 for that of the meteoric nickel,
where the difference is within the limits of experimental error.
There is no evidence from these results, therefore, that there is
any isotopic difference between the two kinds of nickel—Jour.
Amer. Chem. Soc., 48, 507. H. L. W.

3. General and Industrial Organic Chemistry; by Errore
Moinari. Translated from the Third Enlarged and Revised
Italian Edition by THomas H. Pore. Part I. Large 8vo, pp.
456. Philadelphia, 1921 (P. Blakiston’s Son & Co. Price $8.00
net).—Two English editions of the inorganic part of this treatise
have already received very favorable comment in this depart-
ment of the Journal, and it is evident that the excellent and
unusual features of that portion of the work are well shown in
the volume under consideration. The author has aimed to bring
about a reform in- chemical instruction by strongly emphasizing
the practical applications of the science in connection with the
study of the theory. It appears that the plan offers great advan-
tages in arousing the interest of the student and in training him
well for a career in industrial work. Aside from its use as a
text book, the work is a valuable one for reading and reference
in connection with industrial processes and statistics of costs and
production.

This first section of the organic part of the work deals chiefly
with the aliphatic compounds, but it does not inelude the carbo-
hydrates, nor does it describe the soap-making industry. Among
the industries rather extensively treated here are those of petro-
leum, illuminating gas, explosives, and alcohol together with alco-
holic beverages. The last subject is extensively treated, but
there is a long foot-note giving strong arguments in favor of
alcoholic abstinence. HL. W:

4. A Treatise on Chemistry, by Rosco— and ScHORLEMMER.
Vol. J, The Non-Metallic Elements. 8vo, pp. 968. Fifth Edi-

366 Scientific Intelligence.

tion, Completely Revised, by J. C. Cary. London, 1920 (Mae-
millan and Co., Limited).—It is a pleasure to welcome a new
edition of this important work which has served many of our
older chemists since their younger days as a valuable source of
reading and reference, for the first edition appeared in 1877.
The beautiful portrait of John Dalton, the frontispiece, as well
as many other illustrations are very familiar, having been
retained in all the editions; but while the present editor, as he
says, has ‘‘reverently preserved the general character and style of
the book,’’ it appears to have been very well brought to the
present time. There have been many additions to our knowledge
of the non-metallic elements and a gain of 199 pages in the size of
the book since the time of the first appearance of this volume, but
it is found that the present edition is only thirteen pages larger
than the last one of 1911. The book is so well known that fur-
ther comments upon its character and excellence seem to be
unnecessary. H. L. W.
5. Musical Sands—Czxctu Carus-WILson has been interested
in musical sands for a long time and has published several com-

munications on the subject. He distinguishes two types of these -

sands according to the place of their occurrence: 1°, Desert
sands such as are found at Jebel Nagous in the desert of Mt. Sinai

and 2° Beach sand, of which the earliest recorded example was |

found on the Island of Eigg. The phenomenon reported in the
first kind is as follows: When a disturbance was started in the
upper layers on a slope the loose sand thus set in motion rolled
down in widening lines like the spread of ripples from a disturb-
ance cn the surface of water. This was accompanied by a fluc-
tuating musical sound described as partaking of the character of
the note of a mellow church bell and sometimes it was lke that of
a stringed instrument.

The beach sands on the other hand are said to emit a staccato
note under a footfall or when struck with a plunger of wood or
brass. The author thinks that these notes are produced by the
intermittent slipping and rubbing between clean and well
rounded grains of quartz of nearly uniform size, free from rough-
ness, sharp angularities, or adherent matter; apparently having
in mind the stuttering motion of slate pencil upon a school slate,
or the similar effect in the case of the wetted finger when rubbed
on the edge of atumbler. The vibrations thus started in the sand,
or in the striking body, are ultimately elevated into a musical
note. In support of this view Mr. Wilson has shown that the
highly musical Eigge sand may be rendered mute by adding a cer-
tain quantity of dust or angular grains, and on the contrary,
certain sands which were not previously musical may be made to
emit notes after eliminating dust or angular grains.

The author’s experiments were made only on beach sands and
consisted chiefly in striking a sample of sand contained in a
receptacle such as a porcelain cup which was found to be most

suitable. The musical sound emitted depended upon the nature ©

SS ee ee ee eS ee a

Chemistry and Physics. 367

and the size of the striking body or plunger, which would indicate
that the latter acted as a resonator in compressural vibration,
taking up the vibrations started by the rubbing grains. In cups
of other materials, such as a paste-board box, a flower pot, or a
rubber vessel, the sand was mute. Although this point was not
mentioned it might be surmised that the porcelain was most suit-
able because its glazed surface more nearly approximated that
of quartz than the other surfaces.

The author has no theory to offer in explanation of the origin
of the note in the motion of desert sands and it js difficult to see
how the granules should possess a period of vibration slow enough
to account for the pitch of the sound observed.

A possible explanation may be found in the idea suggested by
Osborne Reynolds (Phil. Mag. 20, 469, 1885) that a mass of
erains in coming to rest will take up an arrangement of minimum
volume. When, however, they are disturbed the group may pass
through many successive minima of volume and if these minima
occur at approximately constant intervals of time the accompany-
ing change of volume might conceivably transmit a periodic com-
pression to the surrounding air and thus produce a musical
sound.—Discovery 5, 156, 1920.

6. The Electric Furnace; by HENRI Moissan. Pp. xvi, 3138.
Easton, Pa., 1920 (The Chemical Publishing Co.).—This is a
second edition of the translation of the author’s Le Four Elec-
trique, Paris, 1897, the first edition having appeared in 1904.
No attempt has been made to add in any way to the text of the
original French edition. The work is divided into four rather
long chapters which deal respectively with the description of
Different Models of Furnaces, the Various Modifications of Car-
bon, the preparation of ten Elements in the Electric Furnace such
as chromium, manganese, tungsten, vanadium, silicon, aluminum,
etc.. and finally with the preparation of Carbides, Silicides,
Borides, Phosphides, Arsenides, and Sulphides.

The work of Moissan is too well known to call for any review.
It is the purpose of the publishers to make these classic researches
available for all who may wish them. The illustrations of the
French text have been reproduced in a manner which may be
sufficient for the purpose but nevertheless with the loss of all the
artistic value of the originals.

7. Lessons in Heat; by WiuuiAmM 8. FRANKLIN and BARRY
MacNutt. Pp. xi, 147. Bethlehem, Pa., 1920 (Franklin and
Charles ).—This is the third volume of the authors’ Lesson Series.
The philosophical ideas which underle the Theory of Heat, such
as temperature, quantity of heat, and entropy, are admittedly
difficult to grasp and to formulate. The authors’ main effort has
been to connect up actual things and conditions with the mathe-
matical symbols and this attempt to state the physical essence of
thermodynamic principles has been commendably suecessful.
The six chapters take up in succession Thermometry, Calorimetry,
Changes of State, Heat Transfer, Properties of Gases and the

368 Scientific Intelligence.

Thermodynamic Laws. While the book is free of the engineer- |

ing slant of the preceding volume on Electricity it lays an exeel-
lent foundation for Heat Engineering. F. E. B.

8. Matter and Motion; by J. CuERK MAxwELL. Pp. x, 163.
London, 1920 (Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge) .—
The present interest in the foundations of Mechanics makes this
an opportune time for a new printing of Maxwell’s well known
little treatise on the principles of dynamics. It is edited by Sir
Joseph Larmor who has added notes, a chapter on the Equations
of Mition of a Connected System from the author’s Hlectricity
and Magnetism, and two appendices. The first of these treats
of the Relativity of the Forces of Nature. The editor’s discus-
sion of the Einstein theory is given from a refreshingly detached
point of view compared to the dogmatism of its avowed protag-
onists.

The second appendix develops the wider aspects of the Prinei-
ple of Least Action. The book is further enriched by the repro-
duction of a hitherto unpublished portrait of Maxwell.

Pe

9. Mechanical Sciences Tripos; Pp. 57. Cambridge, 1920
(Cambridge University Press).—A pamphlet containing reprints
of the papers set in Applied Mechanics, Heat and Heat Engines,
Theory of Structures, and Electricity, during the years 1912,
1913, 1914, 1915, and 1919. They contain a mine of suggestions
for teachers who may desire to test the proficiency of honor
students. “P. EOB,

10. A Text Book of Physics; by W. Watson. Pp. xxvi, 976.
London, 1920 (Longmans,
Physics in English such as are available in German or in French
do not exist, but that there is a considerable demand for a full
one volume text is evidenced by the issue of a seventh edition of
Watson’s Physics. Notices of the second and the fifth editions
have already appear — in this Journal (see 9, 296, 1900 and 35,
104, 1913).

After the death of the author in war service, the revision was
entrusted to H. Moss, lecturer in Physics at The Imperial College
of Science and Technology of London, who has corrected the
values of the more important physical constants, and supplied
material for some of the lacunae which existed in the earlier edi-
T10ons.

The new matter amounts to twenty-three pages distributed over
thirty or more topics, among which may be noted: the McCleod
gauge, Moduli of Elasticity, Callendar’s constant pressure air
thermometer and the constant flow calorimeter, sound ranging,
the interferometer, the echelon grating, Gauss’s theorem, Kirch-
hoff’s laws, the d’Arsonval galvanometer, parallel connection of
condensers, AS Os equations, and reflections of X-rays.

A conspicuous omission is any reference to crystal detectors,

or to the thermionic vacuum tube. Possibly room should also.

have been found for the resolving power of a prism. The book

MR es aa ee Poe he oF | Lise a ee ae Tae eT

Geology. 869

as a whole is to be commended as one which not only the student
but any reader would be glad to possess. F, E. B.

Il. GroLoey.

1. The Crinoidea Flexibilia; by FRANK Sprincer. Smith-
sonian Institution Pub. No. 2501, two vols., text and plates, 486
pp.. 79 pls., 51 text figs., 1920—In these two grand volumes we
have the results of a long labor of love by an able lawyer, a work
made possible largely through his own financial resources and
paleontologic ability, though he works at Washington in a most
stimulating environment and in an institution that will always
fully appreciate the gift of his great collections. The printing
and paper of the monograph are of the best and the heliotype
plates well reproduce the very beautiful and accurate drawings of
Mr. Georg Liljevall, of Stockholm, and Mr. K. M. Chapman, of
Sante Fe.

Wherever ecrinoids occur, there the author, or others for him,

have gone and labored long to get these usually rare fossils.
These co-workers he loves as much as his adopted children, the
Echinoderma, and on pages 8 to 15 and in places throughout the
text he writes feelingly and interestingly of their help and talent.
The volumes are dedicated to the man who started him on his
eareer in paleontology, Charles Wachsmuth, ‘‘collaborator and
friend of early years.’’

It is interesting to note that the Silurian of Decatur County,
western Tennessee, has yielded as great a variety of crinoids as
that of the Swedish island of Gotland, and that they exhibit ‘‘in
some respects a remarkable parallelism with the Gotland fauna,”’
while the Laurel limestone of Indiana bears a similar striking
resemblance (p. 15). Both American areas got their faunas
through what is now the Gulf of Mexico embayment.

While the author’s method of study is in the main morphologic,
yet the fossil forms are also studied in the light of the recent
erinoids. He tells us that of living forms there are now described
567, with about 50 new ones to be defined, and that the U. S.
National Museum has no fewer than about 350 species represented.
by 5,387 specimens. This great collection of recent crinoids has
been built up largely by Doctor Austin H. Clark, with the back-
ing of Mr. Springer. Close attention is also given to the onto-
genetic stages in living genera, and many of these stages (in 5
genera) are figured from drawings by H. E. Wilson on the three
first plates. In Comactinia meridionalis from off Yucatan there
is retained a longer series of development stages than is commonly
present, and the study of this species leads the author to conclude
that there is “‘in the ontogeny of this living crinoid an unusually
close recapitulation of the phylogenetic history of some of the
Paleozoie groups of the class’’ (86). The Taxocrinidae ‘‘repre-
sent the true Flexibilia type,’’ and are ‘‘comparable to stages in
the ontogeny of living crinoids’’ (96).

370. Scientific Intelligence.

On pages 402-403 is described a remarkable case of ‘‘recupera-
tion,’’ where a specimen of TJazocrinus collettt regenerated an
entire crown from the infrabasals and one basal, indicating that
‘“the seat of vitality was lodged low down within the infrabasals.’’

For twenty years, Springer has been gathering Crinoidea Flex-
ibilia and now he presents all the morphologic and geologic detail
of the 176 known species (54 new) in 31 genera (4 are new, but
Springer is the author of 13). Of these, 109 are American, the
remainder European. They begin in the Ordovician with 2
forms, differentiate quickly in the Silurian, where 71 are known,
34 occur in the Devonian, 68 in the Mississippian, and the order
dies out in the early Pennsylvanian, where but a single species
is known. Besides, the author treats in the same detail 6 other
genera (Incertae sedis) that have been referred on insufficient
grounds to the Flexibilia, one of which is the curious Edriocrinus
with 9 species (4 new) that are attached by the calyx to foreign
objects, in this suggesting the recent Holopus.

The author’s principle of classification is morphologic and not
phylogenetic, and the order Flexibilia is said to be ‘‘an offshoot
from the dicyclic Inadunata. . . through the non-pinnulate
Dendrocrinidae’’ (88). This took place early in the middle Ordo-
vician, in fact, it was at this time that most of the ordinal differen-
tiation of the crinoids from the cystids occurred. Springer says:

‘‘Thus it seems that at this very early stage in the geological
scale we have forms exhibiting variously intermingled characters
of the larger divisions of the crinoids, with some of the essential
eystid structure more or less impressed upon one of them; and
that these represent relatively recent departures from the common
ancestral type, tending in different degrees toward the lines
of evolution which produced the several orders of the crinoids.
In Protaxocrinus the Flexible characters were already well estab-
shed; in Cupullocrinus and Reteocrinus the tendency was
toward the Inadunata and Camerata respectively, while still com-
plicated by other characters; while in Cleiocrinus the strong
survival of cystid characters prevented the establishment of a
distinct evolutionary line in either of the crinoidal orders’’ (91).

Springer maintains that with our present knowledge crinoids
are best classified into four orders, as follows: (1) Inadunata,
having generalized forms ranging from the Ordovician to Recent ;
(2) Flexibilia, having more or less specialized Paleozoic genera;
(3) Camerata, with highly specialized forms; and (4) Articu-
lata, the latest derived crinoids, beginning in the Jurassic and
extending into Recent times.

We congratulate Doctor Springer on the completion of this
monumental work, one of the best paleontologic monographs yet
published in America, and we look forward with much espe
tion to the several other works he announces.

2. The Dunkard Series of Ohio; by C. R. STAUFFER ee C. cA
ScHROYER. Geol. Survey Ohio, 4th ser., Bull. 22, 116 fgape lial,

1 map, 1920.—In this very detailed account of the stratigraphy of

“a
tl lit ct.

Geology. i

the terminal deposits of the Paleozoic of Ohio, the Upper Barren
of the older reports, known since 1891 as the Dunkard series, 1s
placed at the bottom of the Permian system, in conformity with
general usage. There is no general break between the Pennsyl-
vanian and Permian. The series has a distribution in Penn-
sylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio of about 8,000 square miles; in
the last-named state it is now known to cover about 1,213 square
miles to the north and west of the Ohio River from Wheeling to
Pomeroy. The thickness in Ohio is about 600 feet, in Pennsyl-
vania from 900 to 1,000 feet, but originally the Dunkard must
have been considerably thicker. It consists in the main of sandy
shales, interspersed with more or less persistent sandstones (about
9, having variable thicknesses that at times attain to about 35
feet), with impure limestones (5, usually thin but locally up to
16 feet thick), and with thin coals (6, only one thick enough to
mine, but that one 5 to 7 feet thick in places). In this way the
series 1s divided into 22 named zones.

In Ohio, the sandstones of the Dunkard are sometimes conglom-
eratic and sun-cracked, more often the quartz is sharp in grain,
_ eross-bedded, rippled, and nearly always micaceous; in Pennsyl-
vania, they are more or less feldspathic. The shales are red in the
upper part and in places the whole series is of the same color ;
locally occur selenite crystals or traces of gypsum. The lime-
stones are more or less muddy and probably all of fresh-water
origin, since the only unmistakable marine fossil is Lingula per-
miand, n. sp., a small form restricted to a black shale associated
with one of the coal beds. Even though all the invertebrates are
deseribed as new species, and most of them referred to marine
genera, they are thought to be probably forms living in fresh
water or on the land. All are small, and most of them exceed-
ingly so. They include 4 bivalves, 3 gastropods, Spirorbis, and
ostracods. In addition, there are fish scales and ganoid teeth, at
least one large dorsal shark spine, the dorsal spine of a reptile
(Edaphosaurus), and coprolites. At the base of the Dunkard
oceurs the Cassville shale, which in West Virginia has yielded
a Permian flora of 107 species, and a number of cockroach wings;
in Ohio, however, only 21 plant species have been noted.

The reviewer gets the impression from the book that the climate
of Dunkard time was still warm, though tending to become more
and more arid, that the gradually subsiding coastal swamp area
of the Dunkard lay near sea-level, and that but rarely did the sea
back water far into the region of this earliest of Permian deposi-
tions. The report is especially valuable for any one who wishes to
dig out the environmental conditions of the time through the
detailed presentation of the many local exposures. CaS:

3d. The Stratigraphy and Paleontology of Toronto and Vicin-
ity, Part I, The Pelecypoda; by Beatrice HELEN Strewart.
Twenty-ninth Ann. Rept., Ontario Dept. Mines, pp. 1-59, 5 pls.,
1920.—It is interesting to note the revival of interest in the local
paleontology of the strata about Toronto. It is proposed first to

372 Scientific Intelligence.

describe the later Ordovician faunas and then modernize the cor-
relation in accordance with the sequences elsewhere. In Part I
are described 59 species of bivalves, of which 53 are specifically
determined, and 11 are new. Case

4. Notes on the Geology and Oil Possibilities of the northern
Diablo Plateau in Texas; by J. W. Breve. Univ. of Texas Bull.
No. 1852, 40 pp., 7 pls. (1 geol. map), 2 text figs., 1918 (1920) .—
This report is valuable not only for what it describes, as indicated
in the title, but for the discovery it records of a Chester fauna
(the Helms group of strata, 400-600 feet thick) beneath the Penn-
sylvanian-Permian. There is also a very valuable correlation
table synchronizing the various areas of the late Paleozoic forma-
tions of Texas with those of Oklahoma and Kansas. The strati-
graphy of Texas is advancing with leaps and bounds, and the
State Survey is to be congratulated on the rapid progress made.

C0
5. The Weno and Pawpaw Formations of the Texas Comanch-
ean; by W. S. ApKINS, and On a new Ammomnie Fauna of the
Lower Turonian of Mexico; by Emin Bose. Univ. of Texas Bull.
No. 1856, 257 pp. (quarto), 20 pls:, 20 text figs., 1918 (1920),—— —
In the first part of this memoir are described the two formations
named in the title, and their distribution is traced throughout
the state. Their faunas consist of 69 forms, of which 51 are
named specifically. ‘Of new species there are 29. Of ammonites
there are more forms than is usual in the Lower Cretaceous of
America. The second part of the memoir describes an interesting
but small assemblage of invertebrates, chiefly ammonites, that
occurs near the base of the American Upper Cretaceous in north-
ern Mexico. Of species studied there are 21, but only 8 are speci-
fically determined, 7 of these being new. The affinities of these
forms are clearly with those of the Mediterranean Turonian.

Gi%:

6. Fossil Corals from Central America, Cuba, and Porto Rio,
with an account of the American Tertiary, Pleistocene, and
Recent Coral Reefs; by THomMAs WAYLAND VauGHAN. U. S.
Nat. Mus., Bull. 108, pp. 189-524, pls. 68-152, 1919—AIn this
memoir is painstakingly brought together all that is known of
the Cenozoic corals within the area of the Caribbean Sea and the
Gulf of Mexico. There are about 142 forms, 78 of which arenew,
and they are divided among 40 genera. It is quite evident that
it is now very difficult to identify either recent or fossil corals,
since their classification is dependent upon constantly changing
calcareous structures. The coral animals are very sensitive to
their environment, and this must be known in order to classify
them expertly.

In stratigraphy, the author does not rely on single forms
for age determinations, but whenever possible, on a combina-
tion of associated forms. In this connection he directs atten-
tion to the 54 forms of corals living within one half mile of
each other on Cocos-Keeling islands in the lagoon (23), in the ©

Geology. B13

‘barrier pools and on the barrier flats (20), and on the exposed
reef (16). Of these only 5 are common to two and 1 to three of
the habitats. We therefore see here that the percentage method
of correlating an assemblage of fossil forms can have no value in
determining the ages of the various ancient faunas.

On pages 238-332 are presented the ‘‘Conditions under which
the West Indian, Central American, and Floridian coral reefs
have formed, and their bearing on theories of coral-reef forma-
tion.’ Some of the author’s conclusions are striking, as, for
instance, that the great majority of offshore reefs, recent and
Cenozoic, ‘‘are superposed on antecedent flattish basements or
platforms’’ and that they have started to grow upon them ‘*fol-
lowing considerable submergence . . . almost certainly due to
differential crustal movement.’’ ‘‘None of the American plat-
forms were formed by infilling [of living corals] behind a bar-
rier.’’ The inner flat-bottom shallow seas of atolls are not due
to submarine solution by sea water; they are antecedent bot-
toms on which constructional rings of organic material have
grown upward.

‘““The Darwin-Dana hypothesis, in my opinion, is correct as
regards the formation of offshore reefs during and after submer-
gence; but as regards the formation of a prism of reef material,
the upper surface of which forms a flat behind the barrier, their
theory is wrong for every area on which we have definite informa-
fAON Ty 3. c,

‘‘Semper, Alexander Agassiz, and others, who have maintained
that barrier coral reefs have formed in areas of uplift, are correct,
if the sum total of the movements since some date back in Ter-
tiary time be considered, and their observations and deductions
are valuable in that they emphasize these facts; but they are in —
error in that they failed to take into account that in many areas
there is mcontrovertible evidence showing submergence of the
basements of the now-living reefs. .. .

“Sir John Murray invented a very stimulating hypothesis,
and correctly emphasized the necessity of taking submarine plan-
ation into account in studies of the basements of coral reefs.

‘“‘Daly did not originate the Glacial-control theory of coral
reefs, but he is its principal exponent. The following ascer-
tained relations of living offshore coral reefs conform to the
demands of this hypothesis: (a) They are superposed on ante-
cedent basement flats; (b) the amount of recent submergence,
between 30 and slightly more than 20 fathoms, without deducting
the amount of Recent up-building of the sea bottom, which prob-
ably is as much as a few fathoms, is of the order of magnitude
expected from deglaciation; (c) the rate of growth of corals is
known to be of such an order of magnitude as to account for the
thickness of any known living coral reef by the growth of coral-
reef organism since the disappearance of the last great continental
glaciers.’’ (326-328). Cas

1. Studies in Mimor Folds; by CHartes E. Decker. Pp.

374 Scientific Intellugence.

89, 3 pls., 44 text figs. Chicago (University of Chicago Press),

1920.—In this work are described and illustrated a great many
minor folds, some of which are associated with thrust-faults,
occurring in the neutral area of the United States~neutral so far
as major folding is concerned—and more especially in the region
south of Lake Erie. Then are considered the various causes that
develop folds and faults, resulting in the conclusion that ‘‘ All of
the larger and intermediate folds, and many of the smaller ones,
are thought to be due to widespread tangential stresses in the

rocks’’ (68). ‘‘The minor folds present most of the types com-
mon in major ones, though typical closed and recumbent folds
are absent. ... Most of the folds and faults are the result of

widespread lateral compressive stresses; a few of the folds are
pre-Pleistocene, possibly Permian or later, a few very small ones
are Pleistocene, but most of them are post-glacial, and a number
are post-terrace’’ (81-82). 6.8.

8. ILrthologic Subsurface Correlation in the ‘‘Bend Series’’
of North-Central Texas; by Marcus I. GoupmMan. U. S. Geol.
Survey, Prof. Paper 129-A, pp. 1-22, pl. 1, fig. 2,19202=tine
short but striking paper blazes out a new line of research in the
study of buried sediments such as are so abundantly revealed in
deep-well drilling for petroleum. The great value of autoch-
thonous glauconite and phosphate as guides to ascertaining breaks
in sedimentation is here made plain, and a scientific method for
subsurface correlations in stratigraphy as well. The paper
should be studied by all students of stratigraphy. ; Coe.

9. The Hadrosaur Edmontosaurus from the Upper Cretaceous
of Alberta; by LAWRENCE M. Lampe. Geol. Survey Canada, Mem.
120, 79 pp., 39 text figs., 1920.—This beautifully illustrated essay
from the pen of the late vertebrate paleontologist of the Geologi-
cal Survey of Canada is in many ways one of the most ambitious
papers which its author ever undertook. In it Lambe discusses
the extent of his material, and, under the head of ‘‘Osteology,’’
the detailed structure of the skull, mandible, the endocranial cast
(brain), vertebrae, ribs, and fore limbs. He then defines the
genus and species of which these specimens are the type, and
passes to a discussion of the family of unarmored plant-feeding
dinosaurs, the Hadrosauride, of which so many new forms have
recently come to light as a result of the explorations carried on
under the auspices of the Canadian Geological Survey and of
the American Museum of Natural History. Lambe divides the
family into three subfamilies, two of which were proposed by
Barnum Brown of the American Museum. To these, the Tracho-
dontine and Saurolophine, Lambe adds a third, the Stephano-
saurine. A table of comparisons with the older term Hadro-
saurine, substituted for Brown’s Trachodontine, makes the
division clear, amplified by figures of the several types of skull.
This admirable work serves to emphasize yet further the irrepar-
able loss which American paleontology has suffered in the
untimely death of its talented author. Beye.

Geology. 375

10. The Nomenclature of Petrology; by ArtHur HouMEs.
Pp. 284 (16mo). London, 1920 (Thomas Murby and Co.) .—
This excellent booklet is in the main a dictionary of petrologic
terms. It defines about 1,300 names, giving the prevailing usage
of each term, the original author and the date of its first use,
and for the rock names the type localities. References are given
for many terms, so that the subject matter can readily be traced
to original sources. Appendices include not only French and
German petrographic terms, briefly defined in English, but also
the many Greek and Latin words whose roots enter into the
nomenclature of petrology. The volume can be commended.as
filling a real want. ADOLPH KNOPF.

III. MisceL.LAneous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.

1. Carnegie Institution of Washington; Ropert 8. Woop-
WARD, President. Year Book No. 19,1920. Pp. xii, 424; illus-
trated. Washington, January, 1921 (published by the Institu-
tion).—This nineteenth Year Book of the Carnegie Institution,
for 1920, is of particular interest because of the fact that the
president, who has guided the affairs of the Institution so wisely
for many years, announces his retirement, and that his place is to
be taken by Dr. John C. Merriam, formerly of the University of
California and elected to this new position on May 25, 1920.
Other important personal changes have arisen through the death
of the trustee, Mr. Henry L. Higginson, and of two associate
investigators, William Churchill and Harmon N. Morse. To
each of them, the President refers with keen appreciation of their
life’s work.

On the financial side, it is to be noted that of the total appro-
priations of $1,554, 000. 00, $927, 000.00 has gone to the twelve
large grants; $173, 000.00 to minor grants; $250,000 has been
placed in the reserve fund, and the balance has been expended for
publications, administration, and insurance and pension funds.
The publications of the year include 22 volumes of 3,840 octavo
and 3,710 quarto pages; 16 additional volumes are now in press.
The total number of volumes issued since 1902 is 424, embracing
- nearly 119,000 pages of printed matter. The president’ S report
1S followed by the statements of the departments by their respec-
tive directors, each giving the results of work accomplished and
all of so much value, that it is not possible to go into detail.
Perhaps the reader will turn with special interest to Dr. Mac-
Dougall’s account of the work of the Botanical Research Labor-
atory at Tucson and at Carmel, California; that of Dr. Street
on embryology; of Dr. Davenport on experimental.evolution; of
Dr. Mayor, on marine biology, at Tortugas, Florida; of Dr.
Hale, at the Mount Wilson Observatory; of Dr. Bauer on terres-
trial magnetism. In connection with the last-named, it is inter-
esting to note the recent statement in ‘‘Science’’ that the magnetic
survey yacht, Carnegie, arrived in San Francisco on February

Am. Jour. Sci.—FiIrtTH Series, Vou. I, No. 4.—APpRIL, 1921.
oh

376 Scientific Intelligence.

19th, 1921, whence she will continue the cruise begun in October,
1919, having an aggregate length of 62,000 nautical miles. She
is expected to return via the Panama Canal to Washington in
October of the present year (1921). Dr. Day, in speaking of the
work of the Geophysical Laboratory, gives interesting details in
regard to the researches made into the various processes of making
optical glass, called for by the demands of the war. Twenty
papers on this subject were published during 1919; ten more
in 1920, and still others are in preparation. When complete, the
connection with this subject, as a manufacturing process, will
cease. Dr. Day also mentions the work done on lines developed
by W. H. and W. L. Bragg in locating the atoms of simple erystals
by electrical means. Papers on this subject, by Dr. Wyckoff of
the laboratory, will be found in the pages of this Journal, Novem-
ber, 1920, p. 317 and February, 1921, p. 188. An account is
also given of the investigations of the gaseous emanations in con-
nection with the Katmai Crater in Alaska, and other similar
topics. The high cost of materials and labor have been keenly

felt by the Institution, in all its lines, but its efficiency in publi-

cation and research has not been perceptibly impaired.

Recent publications of the Carnegie Institution are the follow-
ing (continued from vol. 50, p. 473) :

No. 212. The Echinoderm Fauna of Torres Strait: its eom-
position and origin; by Huperr LyMAN CLARK. Quarto, pp.
vul, 223; 38 plates. Department of Marine Biology, ALFRED G.
Mayor, director.

No. 274. Contributions to Embryology. Volume XI, papers
49 to 55 by different authors. Quarto, pp. 170; 15 plates, 12
text figures.

No. 292. Root development in the Grassland Formation. A
correlation of the root systems of native vegetation and crop
plants; by Joun E. Weaver. Pp. 151; 238 plates, 39 text
figures. . .

No. 300. Grammar and Lau language, Solomon Islands; by
Wauter G. Ivens. Pp. 64; 3 plates.

No. 301. The North American species of Drosophila; by
A. H. Sturtevant. Pp. iv, 150; 3 plates, 49 text figures.

No. 302. Metabolism and growth from birth to puberty; by
Francis G. Benepict and Frirz B. Tansor. Pp. vi, 213; 55 text
figures.

2. Collected Fruits of Occult Teaching; by A. P. SrInNnert,
Pp. 307. Philadelphia, 1920 (J. B. Lippincott Co.).

Spiritualism—Its Present Day Meaning: A Symposium;
edited by Huntiy Carter. Pp. 287, with 6 illustrations. Phil-
adelphia, 1920 (J. B. Lippincott Co.).

The attitude of mind of one, who has been trained in physical
science, towards the theories and reputed facts of what is known
somewhat vaguely as Spiritualism, obviously depends upon what
may be called his individual personal equation. It is probably
more difficult for the physical student to feel in sympathy with

~~ eo

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. B77

the writings of those interested in this line of thought than for
others whose reading and investigations lie in different lines.
The unexpected developments in physics the past two decades,
however, are certainly such as to show that human knowledge
has by no means reached its limits, particularly in directions not
at once obvious to the senses. An intelligent person, therefore,
should first of all be interested in what is being discussed and
keep himself informed; he should be broad-minded in his atti-
tude to the subject, and he should be in sympathy with genuine
research in the psychical field.

The two volumes, the titles of which are given above, present
the whole subject of occult teaching and spiritualism very thor-
oughly and from many different standpoints. Dr. Sinnett has
already published two earlier books entitled ‘‘The Occult
World’’ and ‘‘Esoteric Buddhism.’’ His present work is well
worthy of careful reading, even if his conclusions are not always
accepted by those to whom theosophy does not make a strong
appeal. The opening chapter discusses this world’s place in the
Universe. Others consider ‘‘future life—and lives’’; ‘‘religion
under repair’’; theosophy from various points of view, and
‘‘the borderland of science’’ including astronomy (overt and
oceult) and ‘‘meta-science’’ with the problems of atoms and
ether. Something of the author’s point of view may be gathered
from the opening sentences of a chapter on ‘‘Our visits to this
World,’’ which are quoted here. The author says:

““The materialist who regards human life as beginning in the
cradle and ending in the grave is at all events consistent, though
he insults Divine intelligence. But people who shrink from
belheving in final extinction, and nevertheless regard each new
life as a fresh beginning, insult human understanding.’’

The second volume is a symposium containing chapters of very
varying length written by between fifty and sixty authors, half
of whom are specially noted on the cover page. The reader will
find the subject of spiritualism looked at from many angles, in
some cases directly opposed to each other. As the editor states,
‘‘a body of contributors whom I will call converts to spiritualism
are perfectly satisfied that a great and good thing is happening.
Another body who are not converted are uneasy lest a very bad
thing is happening. But neither know what is really happening.
For the moment all is conjecture.’’ He also adds his conviction
that ‘‘the general conclusion of the symposium is that the
civilized human race are standing unconsciously within the
threshold of a new era of the discovery and utilization of the
miraculous powers in man. At the same time, the conditions of
existence are so changing that the human mind is being trans-
formed, and in such a manner that history will not repeat itself
as it has the reputation of doing. In short, mankind for the
first time in their history are about to realize their potential Self.’’
The interest of the work is increased by a number of illustrations
of spirit photographs which are certainly interesting whatever
conclusion one may draw from them.

378 Scientific Intelligence.

The questions sent to the contributors invited opinion on the
coming of the new ‘‘psyche,’’; its influence, material or spir-.
itual; its trial by experts; and its utilization. The papers are
grouped in two parts, the first treating of religion, philosophical
and theoretical; then practical. The second part deals with
science. Dr. Grenfell, in his brief note on ‘‘the moral sanction,”’
well says that the subject should be handled ‘‘with open mind,
with great caution, and rock bottom common sense.’’

3. Types of Mental Deficiency; by Martin W. Barr, M.D.,
and EK. F. Matonry, A.B. Pp. 179. Philadelphia, 1921 (P.
Blakiston’s Son and Company).—The leading author of this
book some years ago wrote a standard treatise on Mental Defee-
tives. He has had such extensive experience in the subject as
chief physician of the Pennsylvania Training School for Fee-
_bleminded Children at Elwyn, Penna., that any work of his
merits careful consideration.

The present volume is in the nature of a clinical album, con-
taining as it does 188 half-tone illustrations of ali types of defec-
tives ranging from the lowest grade idiots to dementia praecox
patients. These half tones are moderately clear. The accom-
panying descriptions are very informal, often containing facts
which have no particular clinical significance. The very infor-
mality and unpretentiousness of the treatment, however, impart
to the book a readable quality. We know of no more convenient
way in which the general reader could ‘visit’ an institution and
see all of the most interest and significant cases with running
comments by the superintendent. Dr. Barr follows his old edu-
cational classification of mental defectives. He refuses to adopt
the term Moron but employs instead the term ‘‘backward’’ and
nowhere does he mention the name of Alfred Binet. No mental
measurements of the cases are reported. The references to their
vocational capacity, however, are interesting and suggestive.

ARNOLD GESELL.

4. Practical Bank Operation; prepared by L. H. LANGston.
In two volumes: vol. I, pp. xxv, 370; vol. II, pp. 373-718. New
York, 1921 (The Donald Press Company; price $8).—Practical
Bank Operation has been admirably prepared by Mr. Langston
under the direction of the Educational Committee of the National
City Bank and is unique in this respect, that, while all ordinary
functions of banks in general are stated and then in detail,
described, there is nothing theoretical about it. Every operation
described is taken, so to speak, from real life. It is the way
that particular operation is handled today by one particular
bank, a bank m many ways representative of the best in banking
practice, for magnitude of business done, variety of services
rendered, and efficiency in performance. The purpose of the
book in fact is to show how a particular institution performs the
functions enumerated. This institution being the largest of its
kind, of necessity, has a highly organized department for prac-
tically every banking function, so that the small provincial bank ~

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. 379

with a million or so of resources could by no means be laid out
according to this elaborate plan, in fact the house could scarcely
store the forms. But for any banker whose institution is large
enough to require eight or ten separate departments, the book 1s
full of meat. The arrangement of subjects is orderly and pro-
eressive and the treatment clear enough to furnish a good work-
ing basis for the remodeling of such a bank’s system of business.

The book is an admirable text book for students of finance
because the facts given are real ones and the operations deseribed
are actually in practice today in one of the best organized banks
in the world. A farmer may be cynical of the ‘‘college profes-
sor’’ preaching with great confidence on the best methods of
agriculture; he calls it book learnin’, not practical. No such
eriticism applies to Mr. Langston’s production.

The chapters on paying and receiving operations are worth the
price of the book to any ambitious teller who thirsts for knowl-
edge and proficiency and therefore advancement. More than
that, any head of departments might well spend his time on the
chapters touching his field, and then pass on the knowledge to his
own heutenants. Not many banks will derive practical benefit
from the whole book because not many banks have occasion to
perform such a multitude of functions. One bank’s business is
in the collection field, another specializes in foreign trade and
exchange, another in farm credit, one is in a manufacturing cen-
ter, another in a farming area, ete.

The banker himself will read with interest and profit perhaps
one-half of the subject matter; the other half will be but the
recital of organization and administration, containing nothing
new for him, but the layman will skip but little.

Trust functions are treated briefly but readably, colored some-
what by New York laws and practice and by the very newness of
the change by which National banks are now permitted to enlarge
their fields and enter the intricate ramifications and byways of
fiduciary business.

All in all Practical Bank Operations is an invaluable addition
to banking literature. It is put together in an orderly way.
The operations are thoroughly and clearly described, the charts
and forms are many and helpful, and the whole is presented in
good readable English. The man who reads these chapters and
then is unable to give you a pretty good definition of a bank, is
a hopeless case. DEAN B. LYMAN.

65. First Pan Pacific Scientific Conference, Honolulu, Hawan,
Aug. 20-1920. Part I, Organization, Proceedings, Resolutions.
Pp. 46, Nov. 1920.—This report tells what was done by the one
hundred delegates (fifty from Hawaii) to the Conference, regard-
ing the scientific problems connected with the Pacific Ocean. A
sketch of the organization is given, followed by the proceedings
of the general sessions and the sections, and then by the resolu-
tions adopted. It is the hope of the Pan Pacifie Union to repeat
these congresses every three years, and the personal contact of so

380 Scientific Intelligence.

many delegates will do much to stimulate efforts toward a solu-
tion of the problems discussed. ee

6. The Origin of Man and of his Superstitions ; by CARVETH
Reap. Pp. vi, 350. Cambridge University Press, 1920.—It is a
large and complex problem that Professor Carveth Read would
solve in this volume. There was a time toward the last third of
the Oligocene epoch, some 2,000,000 to 3,500,000 years ago, when
some Primate with wolfish instincts organized a hunting pack of
his own kind. The venture was successful. It afforded a mixed
and continuous diet ; it also developed leadership and the oppor-
tunity to translate individual experience into group experience.
The effect became cumulative until a point was reached where
the individuals of the Primate pack outclassed all other Primates
and became Man.

The last eight of the ten chapters are devoted to the origin of
Man’s superstitions, which appear to follow from the author’s
conception of Man’s origin. GEORGE GRANT MAC CURDY.

OBITUARY.

Dr. SHERBURNE WesLey Burnuam, the astronomer, died on
March 11 in his eighty-third year. He was early connected with
the Dearborn Observatory, Chicago; later at the Washburn
Observatory at Madison, Wisconsin; the Lick Observatory in
California; and finally at the Yerkes Observatory of the Chicago
University. He was an active observer and is credited with
having discovered nearly 1,300 double stars, the subject in which
he was particularly interested.

Dr. CuartEs Henry FERNALD, professor of zoology and
entomology at the Massachusetts Agricultural College from 1886
to 1910, died on February 22 in his eighty-third year.

Proressor Irving ANGELL Freup, head of the department of
biology in Clark University since 1918, died on February 14.

Dr. FREDERICK JAMES VOLNEY SKIFF, for many years the able
director of the Field Museum of Natural History, died on Feb-
ruary 24 at the age of sixty-nine years.

Dr. ALFRED GaprieL Naruorst, the distinquished Swedish
geologist and paleobotanist, died at Stockholm on J anuary 20 in
his seventy-first year. j

Proressor T. MryaKe, the eminent zoologist of the Imperial
University of Tokyo, died on February 2. His contributions to
Science were largely in the department of entomology.

Dr. JoHN Cannetu Carn, the English chemist died on J anuary
31 at the age of forty-nine. He was particuarly interested in
dye stuffs and allied subjects to which he made numerous con-
tributions.

Dr. Cart Toupt, professor of anatomy at the university in
Vienna, died recently at the age of eighty years.

Fairs

A eayiie uae for Scientific Material.
"Founded 1862," Incorporated 1890.

*

ae few of our recent Rp calacs in the various
departments:

Geology: J-32. Descriptive Catalogue of a Petrographic Col-
lection of American Rocks. J-188 and supplement.
Price-List of Rocks.

Mineralogy: J-220. Collections. J-225. Minerals by Weight.
J-224. Autumnal Announcements.

Paleontology: J-201. Evolution of the Horse. J-199. Pale-
ozoic index fossils. J-115. .Colleciions of Fossils.

Entomology: J-38. Supplies. J-229. Life Histories. J-230.
Live Pupe. _

Zoology: J-2238. Material for dissection. J-207. Dissections
of Typical Animals, ete. J-388. Models.

Microscope Slides: J- 189. Slides of Parasites: J-29. Cata-
logue of Slides.

Taxidermy: J-22. North American Risdon Z-31. General
Taxidermy.

Human Anatomy: J-387. Skeletons & Models.

General: J-228. List of Circulars & Catalogues.

are S Natural Science Establishment
84-102 College Ave., Rochester, N. Y., U.S. A.

“SCIENTIA”

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC SYNTHESIS. Issued monthly (each
number consisting of 100 to 120 pages). Editor: EUGENIO RIGNANO.

This is the only review which has a really international collaboration ; which is
_of world-wide circulation and occupies itself with the synthesis and unification of
knowledge, in the history of the sciences, mathematics, astronomy, geology, physics,
chemistry, biology, psychology and sociology.

_ This Review studies all the most important questions—demographic, ethnographic,
economic, financial, juridical, historical, political—raised, by the world war.

It has published articles by Messrs.: Abbot=Arrhenius -Ashley - Bayliss - Beichman-
Bigourdan - Bohlin - Bohn-= Bonnesen - Borel = Bouty - Bragg - Bruni = Burdick = Carver -
Caullery = Chamberlin - Charlier = Claparede = Clark = Costantin - Crommelin = Crowter =
Darwin = Delage = De Vries = Durkheim = Eddington = Edgeworth = Emery = Enriques =
Fabry = Findlay = Fisher = Fowler = Golgi = Gregory = Harper = Hartog = Heiberg - Hinks-
Hopkins-Inigues-Innes-Janet-Kaptein-Kaye-Kidd-Langevin-Lebedew-Lloyd Morgan =
Lodge = Loisy = Lorentz = Loria -Lowell = MacBride = Meillet =-Moret-Muir-Peano =Picard =
Poincare = Puiseux = Rabaud =- Rey Pastor = Righi=Rignano-Russell-Rutherford-Sagnac =
Sarton= Schiaparelli= Scott = See - Sherrington = Soddy = Starling = Svedberg = Thomson =
Thorndike-Turner -Volterra-Webb -Weiss - Zeeman-Zeuthen and more than a hundred
others.

‘* SCIENTIA’’ publishes its articles in the language of its authors, and joins to the
principal text a supplement -.containing the French translations of all the articles that ~
are not in French. (Write for a Specimen Number to the General Secretary of
“Scientia”, Milan.) Annual subscription: 40 sh., or 10 dolars post free.

Office : 43 Foro Bonaparte, Milan, Italy.

_ Publishers: WILLIAMS & NORGATE-London; FELIX ALCAN -Paris
NICOLA ZANICHELLI-Bologna; WILLIAMS &
WILKINS CO-Baltimore.

=. £

Anr. XVIII. ale 5 ate Orbital Stability: its Me
and some of its Functions in Celestial Mechanics;
B. TAYLOR. .3% 6: oo eee. ae

Arr. XIX.—Paleobotany and the Earth’s =
by A eee DS ee ees

coe XXIL —Palolagus, an Extinct. Te by
PRORME? cio: seers een pe f a

Arr. XXIII.—White Mountain Physiography;, by J
Lae ots ys ee Shoe ain't pin oie Oe ee

ArT. X XIV.—An ‘Areal Gneiss. from the Pre. Cambrin ‘
New Jersey; by N. E. A. Hinps.. ae

SCIE NTIFIC INTELLIGEN CE.

Chemistry and Physics—The Double Decomposition of Salts ir in

the Phase Rule, E. Rancapr, 364.—A Comparison of the A

ip of Terrestrial and Meteoric Nickel, G. P. Baxter and L,
a, General.and Industrial Organic Chemistry ‘(F. Molinari), °

sc 365.— A Treatise on Chemistry, Roscoz and SCHORLEMMER : Musi

C. Carus-Witson, 366.—The Electric Furnace, H. Morssan:. |

Heat, W. S. FRANKLIN and B. McNott, 367. — Matter and

ee MAXWELL: Mechanical Sciences Tripos: A Text tas of

ae Watson, 368. - our

Geology—Crinoidea Flexibilia, F. SPRINGER, 369. = Dike Series
STAUFFER and SCHROYER, 371,—The Stratigraphy and Paleont
Toronto and Vicinity, Part I, The Pelecypoda, B. H. STEWART |
the Geology and Oil Possibilities of the northern Diablo Plateau
J. W. Breve: The Weno and Pawpaw Formations of the Texas
ean, W.S ADKINS, and On a new Ammonite Fauna of the Lower 4
jan ‘of Mexico, E. Bos : Fossil Corals from Central America, '
Porto Rico, with an account of the American Tertiary, Pleistocen
Recent Coral Reefs, T. W. VaucHan, 372.—Studies in Minor Fold:
E. Decker: Lithologic Subsurface Correlation in the “‘ Bend eri
North-Central Texas, M. I. Gotpman: The Hadrosaar Edmont
from the Upper Cretaceous of Alberta, L. M. Lampe, 374.—The
clature of Petrology, A. HoLmEs, 375.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Carnegie Institution of Washington, R ‘
S. WoopwarpD, 375.—Collected Fruits of Occult Teaching, A. P. Sinnetr
Spiritualism—lIts Present Day Meaning, a Symposium, H. Carter, 376.
Types of Mental Deficiency, M. W. Barr and E. F. MAtLongy: Pract
Bank Operation, L. H. Laneston, 378.—First Pan Pacific Scientific Con-
ference, Honolulu, Hawaii, Aug. 20, 1920, Part I, Organization, Proceed
ings, Resolutions, 379. —The Origin of Man and of his Bebo Cc
READ, 350.

i | Obituary—S. W. Burnuam: C. H. Fernatp: I. A. Frevp: F. J, v. SKIFF :
A. G. Natuorst: T. MIYAKE: a. G, Cain: C. To.pt, 380752 5

ibrary, U.

Nat. Museum. . Tie Go Go aa Sana es

Established by BENJAMIN SILLIMAN in ‘1818.
bir MAY - 3

~ N
Or 14]

ati Muse’

THE penchbadee

AMERICAN
J OURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Epitror: EDWARD S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

PROFESSORS WILLIAM M. DAVIS anp REGINALD A. DALY,
oF CAMBRIDGE,

Proressors HORACE L. WELLS, CHARLES SCHUCHERT, |
HERBERT E. GREGORY, WESLEY R. COE anp
FREDERICK E. BEACH, or New Haven,

Ee nuances EDWARD W. BERRY, or Battimors,
Drs. FREDERICK L. RANSOME anp WILLIAM poses,
OF WASHINGTON.

— }

- ‘ ™ F " ae - OY Ss
. ‘ iit rs i : ; : 5 ee
5 Nene Bese Pike, S/iaeiie a ci" aes a) Rte A et ed eas Ag? eg o © 6a, Loe ee cae cy
eB te Saat a Mic ete) bea ieee ; ; Cn > mt ee eR Nee cee
‘ - J iat 4 ’ ic
» . ¥

Wig? i
RAR

a

FIFTH SERIES

heh

S oy -
“he ROeRY,

VOL. I—[WHOLE NUMBER, CCI).
| No. 5—MAY, 1921.

eh
ae

analy

- NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.

THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 123 TEMPLE STREET.

|
|
1921.

Published monthly, Six doilars per year, in advance. $6.40 to countries in the
Postal Union; $6.25 to Canada. Single numbers 50 cents; No. 271, one dollar.
‘Entered as second-class matter at the Post Office at New Haven, Conn., under the Act

as
oa
wh i
—<
BC

a

Field Mapping - <6r Oil Geolog st

By ©. A. Warner

Field Geologist for the Empire Gas & Fuel C Co., ae
Bartlesville, Oklahoma. som

A handbook of practical field methods of value to those aocideee re have ©
had little experience with the methods commonly used in examining a territ yr
not yet drilled. Mp ee:
. einer s ‘‘ Field Mapping” has 143 pages, 4} by 7 inehea—88 fignise ee

is flexibly bound.

(Ready May 15th)

REDWAY’ S:
Handbook of Meteorology —

By Jacques W. Repway ie oa
Fellow, American Meteorological Society. "aad ae Ss

A manual for cooperative observers and students in meteorology and aeronau-
ties. Part I is a synopsis of the general principles of meteorology,—Part II —
is descriptive of the instruments used in meteorology,—the Appendix contains —
useful conversion tables and matter which is not covered specifically bys in
Circulars of Instruction published by the U. S. Weather Bureau.

6 by 9—illustrated—cloth-bound. 2

(Ready June rst) SF oe XS :

UNDERHILL’S Be |
Mineral Land Surveying ~

By James Unperurt1, Ph.D.
Mining Engineer, ;
In this Third Edition several additions have been made, especially in tee
treatment of the direct solar observation. The specimen field notes have een

entirely rewritten and represent present-day practice. :
41 by 7 inches—illustrated—fiexibly bound. Fotis

(Ready June Ist)

Enter your order TO=DAY for Free Examination copies _

JOHN WILEY & SONS, Ine.

432 Fourth Avenue, New York
London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.

Canada:
Renouf Publishing Co.

“THE

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

LP SERIES...

CE od

Art. XXV.—Post-Glacial Warping of Newfoundland
and Nova Scotia; by Rectnatp A. Dary, Harvard
University. |

CONTENTS.

Introduction.

Methods of determining amount of emergence.

Observed amounts of emergence.

Conditions at St. John’s, Newfoundland.

Glacial striae in Newfoundland and southeastern Labrador.

Weakness of glaciation in eastern Newfoundland.

Recent drowning of southern Newfoundland and of southern Nova Scotia.
Causes of the drowning.

Introduction.—The sensitiveness of the earth’s crust
to widely distributed loads seems to be proved by the
systematic behavior of the crust after the partial or
complete melting of large ice-caps. In every case the
unloading has been followed by the uplift of the central
part of the deglaciated surface. Examples are seen in
Scandinavia, the British Isles, northeastern North Amer-
ica, British Columbia, Greenland, Spitzbergen, and Ant-
arctica. For dynamical geology the physical meaning
of the law is even more important than the discovery of
the fact. Glacial loading of the crust and its unloading
by deglaciation are analogous to actual experiments in
testing the kind of response made by the material of the
earth’s interior to slowly applied stresses. The study of
post-Glacial warping in the formerly glaciated regions
has, therefore, significance for geodynamics in general.
Explanation of the warping involves questions as to com-
pressibility, elasticity of form, and the kinds of viscosity
characterizing the inner shells of the earth. In particu-
lar, the relative importance of viscous flow and of elastic
after-working should, if possible, be determined in the

Am. Jour. Sct.—FirtH Series, Vou. I, No. 5.—May, 1921.

4

382 R. A. Daly—Post-Glacial Warping of

case of the post-Glacial warping here considered. The
writer spent the season of 1920 in the effort to add to the
field data necessary for profitable attack on the difficult
problem. Among the regions where special investigation
has long been needed is Newfoundland. The observa-
tions there made have been quite insufficient for the
mapping of the isobases or lines of equal uplift in post-
Glacial time. Accordingly, strategic points along the
Newfoundland coast were selected for study, in the hope
that the essential data for this area could be secured and
compared with the measurements already in hand for
northeastern Labrador and for the Nova Scotia-New
Kngland coast.' Some time was also given to shore
studies in Nova Scotia, where the zero isobase has yet
to be definitely located and where the phenomena outside
the upwarped area are particularly of importance for the
geophysical interpretation of the post-Glacial deforma-
tion. ia

In 1900 the writer found what appeared to be good
proof of post-Glacial uplift at St. John’s, Newfoundland.”
The amount of elevation then measured—more than
000 feet—was too large to be readily understood if -the
upwarping were either isostatic or purely elastic, but the
record seemed advisable. For twenty years the writer
has been suspicious of this result and a principal object
of the 1920 field-work was to become better acquainted
with the local facts at St. John’s. The doubt was well
justified, the post-Glacial uplift at that point now proving,
practically beyond question, to be zero. One purpose of
the present note is to advertise the mistake.

It is a pleasure to record the courtesy of the New-
foundland Department of Mines and Agriculture, who
supplied maps and reports used during the investigation.

Methods of Determining Amount of Emergence.—As
a rule the same method was employed as that which in
1900 proved successful along 600 miles of the Labrador
coast. At each locality appropriate headlands were
examined for evidences of wave-washing. On the well-
exposed shores of both Labrador and Newfoundland, the
ower limit of unwashed glacial drift could usually be
located with considerable accuracy. Allowing for surf-

1For a bibliography of the subject, see H. L. Fairchild, Bull. Geol. Soc.

America, vol. 29, p. 229, 1918.
?R. A. Daly, Bull. Museum Comp. Zool., vol. 38, p. 257, 1902.

Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. 383
~
fling, the highest strand was thus determined in the
coastal belts. Of course raised beaches, sea-cliffs,
sea-chasms, and fossiliferous beds were recorded
and served as corroborative checks. Additional confi-
dence in the value of the ‘‘washed’’ surfaces, as indicating
the maximum reach of the waves, was attained when the
successive determinations of emergence were found to
be systematically related: the trace of the highest shore-
line rising or falling along the coast at rates of the same
order as those proved in northwestern Kurope, New Eneg-
land, New York State, and farther west inside the margin
of the glaciated area. Lack of time forbade thorough
search for fossils in the many elevated beaches and clay
benches. Only one discovery of the kind can be recorded;
between Benoit’s Cove and Curling, in the Bay of Islands,
fragments of Pecten islandicus® were discovered in bedded
clays about 75 feet above high-water mark, and a settler
stated that he has found similar shells in the clays of the
same slope at least 50 feet higher up.

Observed Amounts of Emergence.—Further study of
the power of Atlantic storm-waves makes it probable that
a few of the 1900 measurements for points in the highest
shore-line are a little too high. This is particularly true
of the estimates for Cape Rouge and Kirpon Island,
Newfoundland, where the highest strand is respectively
not much above the contours of 450 feet and 425 feet,
instead of 505 feet and 450+ feet, as concluded in 1900.+
On the other hand, the values given in 1900 for the points
on the Labrador coast do not seem to need essential
change.

The following table gives the elevations of the highest
shore-line at points examined in 1920. The heights were
determined by the use of two aneroids and of the heights
marked on the Admiralty charts. The figures given are
only approximate, but in each case the error is believed
to be less than 5 per cent. The table also includes the
revised figures for Cape Rouge and Kirpon Island, which
were not revisited. Shoal Harbor is situated at the head
_* Species kindly determined by Mr. R. V. Chamberlin of Harvard Univer-
we The height at which a breaker may be effective in washing off erratics
from a glaciated ledge partly depends on the general slope, especially the
seaward slope, of the ledge. The failure to allow sufficiently for this con-

dition of wave-action, during the 1900 reconnaissance, has prompted the
change in the estimates for Cape Rouge and Kirpon Island.

384 R. A. Daly—Post-Glacial Warping of

of a long fiord and this inland locality is not well adapted
for the use of the main criterion of maximum emergence; —
the suggestion of uplift was found in the existence of well-
defined, 70-foot benches of bedded, tenacious clays over-
lain by sand—apparently deposited in the fiord waters.
No fossils were discovered, however, and the figure given
for Shoal Harbor remains doubtful.

Elevations of the Highest Shore-Line above Mean Sea-level.

Locality Number on Map. Feet. Meters.
Newfoundland, West Coast: |
EO Pont-anx-Basquesten 2107.2 tek se 0 0
2 Little River Railway Station....... 0 0
3 Stephenville Head ......... fice le 40 + 12+
A. CST AL es ew, sk ee 160 49
‘TFs B10 dual cal 6/2 8 ce eaRen eRe rim ices aca ER yey ont 290 88
Newfoundland, East Coast:
6 St. John’s and Conception Bay..... 0 0
T Cape Bona vishies\ 0: ects omelet e 0 0
| 8: Sod Eka Gree es Noite ee geen 70( 2) 21(4)]
9 SBakwood) tec istae Ss er ees ea 170 eas Da
10). shewesmorten Aue collet eter a ae 190 58
ike; og Divalkimea fetes kien te} -nareeewninte oe 240 73
Ty Care: Taney asus eect ties ploitt bryeatek ca 450 ca 137
13 ON ASAT er, ice eS ea 425 ea 130
Labrador (Strait of Belle Isle) :
Wy ABSA POMAEIERS cus ns. neve onerous ca 360 ca 110
a Pleasures mer imOn 1c 5c crane ee ca 360 ca 110
ii Chateantarbor ‘aie. cer. eso Moe 400 122
nT Red bay. Bre Ble dn Side Teer etek 420 128
LSi West: Modiste. sioner 8 wae 500 152
LD! Sy Moorhead bth. Gee Seer eek ee 500 ++ 152 +

Between Bonne Bay and the Strait of Belle Isle, a
distance of 140 miles, the Newfoundland coast shows
throughout abundant evidence of emergence, to the extent
of at least 200 feet, and the uplift probably ranges between
500 and 450 feet. However, actual measurements of total
uplift can there be made only at points several miles
inland, where the land first becomes high enough. On
account of the dense forest and lack of roads, this long
stretch could not be properly studied in the available time.
Similarly, time was lacking for the filling of the gaps
between Bonavista and Twillingate and between Twillin-
gate and Cape Rouge.

The general result is fairly definite. The zero isobase

Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. 385

crosses the west coast of Newfoundland in Bay St. Geroge,
probably near Robinson’s Head, 20 miles southwest of
Stephenville. It crosses the east coast not far from the
axis of Bonavista Bay. Its course inside the island is
unknown. If the Shoal Harbor bench represents emer-
gence, the zero isobase is rather sharply curved to the
southward. To the northward of the zero isobase New-
foundland has been tilted to the south-southeast since its
ice-cap melted. The maximum uplift is at the north end
of the island, probably opposite Forteau, and is of the
order of 500 feet. The average slope of the former level
marked by the highest shore-line measures about 2.5 feet
to the mile, or 1 in 2100. De Geer’s conjecture as to the
general type of deformation in Newfoundland is, there-
fore, in principle justified, though: he placed the zero
isobase too far south.® The isobases east of the Gulf
of St. Lawrence tend to run concentrically around the
Labrador center of glaciation. It is possible that New-
foundland has been faintly domed or arched and that
the final mapping of the isobases will indicate the second-
ary influence of the independent ice-cap of Newfoundland
on the character of the post-Glacial warping.

Conditions at St. John’s, Newfoundland.—Fairchild has
hypothetically drafted the isobases in the island on the
assumption that the St. John’s region was uplifted more
than 500 feet, as the present writer concluded in 1900.
The seriousness of this error warrants a brief statement
of the facts. On the return journey from the Labrador
coast in 1900, a few free hours were permitted at the city,
time enough for climbing Signal Hill on the north side of
the harbor. The massive, heavily striated ledges of
quartzitic sandstones were found to be free from erratics
and other glacial drift except beach-hke accumulations
of bowlders in the hollows of this extensive, rocky hill.
The general surface is thus bowlderless up to the summit,
5908 feet above sea. Across the harbor the ledges are
thickly dotted with bowlders above the level of 575 feet.
The conditions were apparently similar to those on the
Labrador coast, where, allowing for surf-fling, the bowl-
der limit gave unequivocally the heights of the highest
shore-line; in 1900 important emergence at St. John’s
seemed clear. The locality was revisited last summer,
after the proofs of no post-Glacial emergence at Cape

*G. De Geer, Proce. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 25, p. 454, map, 1892.

386 R. A. Daly—Post-Glacial Warping of

Bonavista and in the Conception Bay region had been
obtained. Also near Signal Hill itself evidence was
secured that this area had not risen, though the field notes
of twenty years before were seen to be essentially correct,
so far as the observations themselves are concerned. A
full explanation of the peculiar conditions on Signal Hill
is not easy to find. In part it may he in the artificial
removal of the erratics from the general surface of the
hill, which was long fortified.

Glacial Strie in Newfoundland and Southeastern Lab-
rador.—Comparatively few records of the directions of
glacial movement in this region have been published;
those made in 1920, few as they are, seem worthy of note.
In the following list they are indicated by locality names
which correspond to‘numbers entered on the map.

Range of Directions. Mean Direction.

] Port-aux-Basques:...h. . 2% S.20°—40° W. S.30°W.
3: Stephenvillen. ar. cneek. §.65°—80°W. S215" Ws
Three males avest Of Sia). 0 seeder, S.85°W.
As Crate Ne hd a ue a 5S 'seete S.85°W.—N.70°W. N.85°W.
GO Se Sims eis st ee ne § S.85°—90° E. Due E. -
Si sled), FRarbor oo acne et eee Due E.
TO": SHEMMS PORTS eit as soe ee) Sate wee Nib? WwW,
20° SRIGWEE Ss OOVe 25 Sere Ee ski eae §.09° W.
2 rie aye. tees See Re a 5.55 °—65° W. S.60°W.
Iv Red Bay iGiabrador) iin \i4.0k aa S.20°W.
18 West Modiste (Labrador). ........ S.15°W.

The directions of striation shown on the map without
locality numbers are taken from the new (1919) geological
map of Newfoundland, edited by the late J. P. Howley
and published by the Department of Mines and Agricul-
ture at St. John’s; and from Plate 13 of the writer’s
1900 paper.

So far as they go, these observations corroborate the
now rather common ‘assumption of glacialists, that New-
foundland had its own ice-cap or group of ice-caps, with
centrifugal flow for the island in general. The flow of the
latest glacial cover in the extreme north was, however,
influenced by the trough of Belle Isle Strait, where the
direction was southwesterly.

Weakness of Glaciation in Eastern Newfoundland.—On
Bonavista peninsula and in the Lewisporte-Twillingate
district, glacial drift is abundant, but in each case its .

Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. 387

material was chiefly derived from the local formations.
Far-travelled erraties are relatively rare. Beneath the
drift one sees, at many sections, weathered rock grading
upward into the drift, with generally no semblance of a
moutonnéed surface, though the fresh rocks are strong

1I5(360) 52°
a
Ae 0)
13 (425)
: le(450) 5/°
re)
50-
1240) bs
5(290)4 wry!
: lOS0)78
3A(IGO) 9(/70) Ye erry AQ
3440) NEWFOUNDLAND —2 7470)
iy 83(707)& 3°
2 (0)
1 (0) fs 620)
Y a
E 59° 58; Sra hASsish SO nr o4 53°

Fic. 1.—Illustrating post-Glacial warping of Newfoundland. Localities
shown by dots and numbers; figures in brackets represent uplift in feet;
broken lines near localities 2 and 7 represent approximate position of the
zero isobase; glacial strize shown by arrows.

and well adapted for striation and.polishing. If the
eastern coastal belt was covered by continuous ice of the
Wisconsin stage, the thickness of the cap was probably
less than the contemporaneous ice on Quebec or New

388 Ri. 3A: Daly—Post-Glacial Warping of

England. Incomplete as this field evidence is, it suggests
a reason why the post-Glacial deformation of Newfound-
land has been more controlled by the adjacent, masterful
cap centering in (Quebec than by its own load of ice; such
a relation would be cesta on the recoil theory of the
deformation.

Recent Drowning of araiioe rh Newfoundland and of
Southern Nova Scotia.—Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, clearly
les outside of the area uplifted since the Glacial period.
The zero isobase cuts across the shore somewhere between
that point and Digby, where the uplift has been about
40 feet. A visit to Pictou Landing on Northumberland
Strait showed that this locality hes south of the zero
isobase.° The 1920 observations thus confirm the essen-
tial accuracy of De Geer’s map, published in 1892. With
the exception of a small area in the northwest, Nova
Scotia has not been. uplifted since the latest driftsheet
was deposited. On the contrary, post-Glacial drowning
is manifest all along the coast from Yarmouth to Hali-
fax, and at Sydney. The same process has apparently
affected most, if not all, of Cape Breton Island, and also
the Newfoundland shore south of the zero isobase.

Causes of the Drowning.—The positive movement of
the sea-level is in part referable to its general rise as the
Pleistocene land-ice melted. If the rise of the glaciated
tract north of the zero isobase was largely an elastic
reaction of the earth, additional drowning outside the
zero isobase is to be credited to gravitational disturbance.
Under the weight of the ice-cap the material of the earth’s
interior was condensed. Hach radial element was com-
pressed with consequent lowering of its center of gravity.
The observed lag in uplift imples that this condition
existed for some time after the ice melted away. The
horizontal component of the mass attraction exerted by
the radial element on the ocean water was less before
the elastic upheaval than after that upheaval. The mass
of the element was not changed by its expansion, but the
distribution of the mass was changed. The fraction of

°W. H. Twenhofel (this Journal, vol. 28, p. 147, 1909) found raised
beaches, at altitudes above sea of about 25, 75, and 125 feet, in the shore-
belt only 25 miles east. of Pictou Landing. The present writer had no
opportunity of visiting Twenhofel’s locality (Arisaig). Since the latest
drift-cover around Pictou has evidently not been washed by the sea, it is
not easy to understand Twenhofel’s results, except on the assumption that
the Arisaig benches antedate the last glaciation.

Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. 389

the element measured by the amount of post-Glacial
uplift was, during the application of the ice-load and the
subsequent lag, represented by subsurface matter com-
pressively condensed by the load. If the earth’s compres-
sibility varies according to the law deduced from seismo-
grams, the center of oravity of the excess mass thus
developed i in depth may have been many hundreds of kilo-
meters below the surface. The horizontal component of
the attraction exerted by the element, at the earth’s
surface, would therefore be less than that exerted by the
same mass when expanded because of unloading. A mod-
erate rise of sea-level near and within the glaciated area
should be expected.?

Drowning in the belt outside the zero isobase may also
result from the isostatic restoration of crustal equilibrium
after unloading. Jamieson, Munthe, Barrell, and the
writer have found some evidence that the weight of an
ice-cap produces a centrifugal, viscous flow of subcrustal
material and consequent low bulges along the margin of
the glaciated tract. After the melting of the ice a return
viscous flow toward the center of the glaciated tract should
be expected. Barrell pointed out that, during the process
of attaining final equilibrium, the crust underlying the
marginal bulge should be lifted somewhat too high; and
that, after the central region had nearly reached ‘its final
position, the bulge would slowly subside. Any coastal
part of this belt would undergo progressive drowning
for some time after the pur ely elastic deformation was
completed.

Thus, in the-marginal belt the shore contour at sea-level
would be first affected by the return of water to the sea,
a process accompanied by an immediate elastic uplift of
the glaciated tract, with concomitant effect on mass attrac-
tion; then by the delayed uplift due to elastic after-
working and by accompanying viscous inflow, with further
change in mass attraction; lastly, by slow subsidence in
the bulged, marginal belt, entailing a positive movement
of the sea in any coastal part of that belt. This third
cause of drowning would persist long after the action of

‘Cf. J. H. Pratt, The Figure of the Earth, 4th ed., London, 1871, p. 214;
G. H. Darwin, Scientific Papers, Cambridge, England, 1910, vol. 3, p. 29.

*T. F. Jamieson, Geol. Mag., vol. 9, p. 461, 1882; H. Munthe, Geol.
Foren. Stockholm Forhandl., vol. 32, 1910—reprinted as Guide-book No. 25,
Cong. Géol. Internat., Stockholm, 1910; J. Barrell, this Journal, vol. 40,
p- 13,1915; RK. A. Daly, Bull. Geol. Soc. Ameriea, vol. 31, 1920, p. 303

390 R. A. Daly—Post-Glacial Warping of

the other causes had ceased to be important, and it would
not be surprising if the third cause is still locally at work.

The available evidence appears to warrant belief that
the deformation of the earth’s crust under glacial loads
has been chiefly elastic. Assuming the largest probable
volume for the marginal bulge around the composite
North American ice-cap, computation seems to show the
purely elastic deformation to have been from five to ten
times greater than the deformation caused by viscous out-
flow. The very recent drowning of the marginal belt
would therefore be quite moderate—in the regions here
considered probably not surpassing a few tens of meters,
even though the marginal bulge may have had a maximum
height of 200 meters.

The testing of this theoretical set of deductions by field
observations involves close dating of the submergence
so clearly manifest in the coast region southwest of Bos-
ton and again along the southern shores of Nova Scotia
and Newfoundland. In a case of this kind close dating
is notoriously difficult, and the writer has been able to add
few objective facts relevant to the date of drowning
along the coasts studied in 1920. It is certain that the
rise of sea-level is there very recent; the waves have not
yet had time to cut wide benches in the little-resistant
glacial drift which mantles most of Nova Scotia‘and cer-
tain stretches of the sea-front in southern Newfoundland.

On the other hand, tide-gauge records for eastern
Canada, published by Dr. W. Bell Dawson, Superinten-
dent of Tidal Surveys (Ottawa, 1917), show no measura-
ble sinking of the land at Halifax, Charlottetown, and St.
Paul Island (Cabot Strait) during periods of from 6 to
18 years. The New England coast seems to have been
sensibly stable for at least one hundred years. Shimer
describes proofs of submergence of the coast region at
Boston within a period of 3000 years. He writes: ‘‘The
remnants of the fish-weir, excavated on Boylston Street,
give evidence of man in the Back Bay region of Boston,
probably 2000 to 3000 years ago. He built this weir dur-
ing a climatic period as warm as off the Virginia coast
at present, and upon a sinking coast. Since its erection
the region has sunk sixteen or eighteen feet and suffered
a refrigeration to its present climate.’ Certain facts
suggest the necessity of postulating a recent, negative,

°H. W. Shimer, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, vol. 53, p. 462, 1918.

Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. 391

eustatic shift of ocean-level to the extent of about 6 meters
(20 feet).!° The shift is tentatively placed in late Neo-
lithic times. The complete failure of the corresponding
bench to appear in southern Nova Scotia and southern
Newfoundland suggests that the local drowning pro-
eressed after the eustatic shift of sea-level took place,
that is, within the last three or four thousand years. Bar-
rell’s reasoning on the march of events during isostatic
adjustment following the melting of an ice-cap would
agree with this suggestion. The warping of the ‘‘25-foot”’
post-Glacial bench of the British Isles and the drowning
of Neolithic deposits outside the zero isobase in England
and Denmark may conceivably be explained in the same
way, if the local British and Scandinavian ice-caps caused
deformation like that connected with the Labrador ice-
eap.!! If, in each of the three regions, the local sinking
occurred during post-Neolithic time, none of the regions
would be likely to give convincing evidence of an earlier
eustatic change of sea-level. On the other hand, strand-
marks, corresponding to the higher position of sea-level
in the glaciated area well inside the zero isobase, should
not have been greatly disturbed during the final collapse
of the marginal bulge. ‘he remarkable low bench along
the shore of the St. Lawrence estuary is a case in point.

The various facts and suggestions noted in the last
few paragraphs suffice to show that the character and
exact dating of the deformation in the marginal belt
represent a delicate problem, which for geodynamics has
searcely less importance than a similar understanding
of the uplift in the central area of a vanished ice-cap.
Because of their specially favorable relations to the zero
isobase and to the level-marking ocean, Nova Scotia and
Newfoundland seem to be among the best of all the
large areas in which to seek compelling evidence as to
what really happened in the marginal belt.

RR. A. Daly, Geol. Mag., vol. 57, p. 246, 1920. At many well exposed
headlands of Newfoundland the nearly or quite vertical sea-cliffs were seen
to be continued under low-tide level from one-half fathom to two fathoms or
a little deeper. This prolongation of the cliff below sea-level is the result of
marine erosion and does not mean so much‘sinking of the land. The princi-
ple illustrated is important in connection with the problem of locating former
sea-level from elevated rock-benches. At exposed places the bench levels are
likely to be three to twelve or more feet below the high-tide level ruling at
the time when the benches were cut.

4 Cf. W. B. Wright, Geol. Mag., vol. 57, p. 382, 383, 1920.

392 R. S. Lulli—New Camels wm

Arr. XXVI.—New Camels in the Marsh Collection; by
RicHarp 8. LuLt.

[Contributions from the Othniel Charles Marsh Publication Fund, Peabody
Museum, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. |

The Oligocene camels in the Marsh Collection consist
of a number of skulls and other skeletal material. Those
from the White River Oreodon beds are clearly referable
to three of the known species of Poébrotherwwm and add
nothing to our knowledge of these forms. From the Pro-
toceras beds, on the other hand, comes one apparently new
species, while from the upper John Day are several speci-
mens worthy of deseription.

Pseudolabis (Paralabis) matthewi, subgen. et sp. nov.
(Fig. 1.)

Holotype, Cat. No. 10167, Y. P. M. Upper Oligocene (Protoceras beds),
Sturgis, South Dakota.

The type material consists of a poorly piekemaee skull
with the third incisor and a complete series of cheek teeth.

Distinctwe characters.—Size somewhat larger than
Poebrotherium labiatum. Skull mutilated so that few
characters are observable. Auditory bulle less rounded
than are those of Poébrotherium, although fully as large.
Tympanohyal recess more widely open ‘and inner poste-
rior lobe thus narrower, more as in the later camels. Rear
of orbit not preserved, but zygomatic arch and adjacent
bones are rather heavy, so that its closure is probable.
Infra-orbital foramen above P+, palatal foramina oppo-
site the posterior half of P®.

Dental formula: I?', Ct, Pt, M?.. Alveol tories yaa:
preserved, [* caniniform, recurved, probably equal to, if
not exceeding, the canine in size. Canine lacking, alveo-
lus elliptical, separated from I* by a short diastema. P!'
double-rooted, crown not preserved, larger than P?, and
separated from the adjacent teeth by diastemata, of which
the anterior one is nearly two times the oreater. Pet te
M® form a compact series, the crowns of medium height.
Molars with prominent parastyle, mesostvle, and external
ribs, no internal basal pillars present. P* with internal
cingulum, and P* with an accessory internal crest con-
necting the crescent with the rear of the tooth, suggestive

the Marsh Collection. 393

of the double internal crescent described by Matthew in
Pseudolabis dakotensis, although by no means so well
developed. |

Compared with its contemporary from the Protoceras
beds, Pseudolabis dakotensis, the present species resem-
bles the latter in the comparable cranial details, the rela-
tive spacing of the anterior teeth, the character of the
third and fourth premolars, and in the actual size of M*.
It differs from Matthew’s form in the smaller size, more
attenuated muzzle, relatively larger C' and I’, and rela-

: = \ Wn MA Win

-- eee aw Nn
a PF FY

ye Wey WY

“ ipa
=i
1

|
t

10167. TYPE
We niear a:

Fig. 1—Pseudolabis (Paralabis) matthewi, subgen. et sp. nov. Holotype.
Palatal aspect. A little less than one half nat. size.

tively much smaller premolars, as the table of measure-
ments shows. The presence of the mesostyle, absent in
the molars of P. dakotensis, is also very distinctive.
Some of these distinctions, as, for instance, the relatively
smaller canine and I° in P. dakotensis, might be sexual,
were their possessor not a considerably larger animal.
The presence of the mesostyle and the relatively more
elongate muzzle and smaller premolars of the new form
are both progressive characters which its contemporary
lacks, showing the two to be divergent species, as the time
and space limitations render the derivation of one from
the other impossible. The gap so formed between them
is certainly of subgeneric and possibly of generic rank.
The present form differs from Poébrothervum in the
larger size, the character of the auditory bulle, the more
prominent mesostyles, the relatively larger and more
eaniniform J?, and the more attenuated muzzle, with, as
a consequence, the longer diastemata, especially between
the canine and P?. Whether or not the rear of the orbit
would prove a contrasting character can not be shown in
the present specimen. In the type of Pseudolabis dako-

394 R. S. Lull—New Camels m

tensis the closure of the orbit is a notable distinction from
Poébrotherium. The present form is referred to the
genus Pseudolabis, subgenus Paralabis, subgen. noy., and
the specific name is given in recognition of the very high
attainment of Doctor W. D. Matthew as a leader in pal-
eontologic research.

Measurements.
Y. P. M. 10167 A. M. N. H. 9807
P.matthewi Ratio P. dakotensis

mm. mm.
ene the? to cond yle~ eee... 219.0

TP tO IES een ee eee 122.0 0.88 138.5
GPO VEDA y OF WR a Pes eer 108.4

Pia ME? Ak oe See eee 69.5 0.83 83.7
T?) and.post, diameters: en ae ad
12) Neneh: Of crow Sista a 14.5
Diastennds leo Wein setscte ase ea SIRS
Gt: Jength ‘of “alveolus 0. 5.5% (24
Diastenia, Ciutork eee roe ee 15.5
Diastemas PP tosh? ...:. Veneta 10.0
j Bre ai ed 2 RR 8.0
DE as Hubs et. ORBEA ee ee 9%
ee SL ie Nee Nene eras ao

EUG ee a ee se Oe cor ene ee 43.5 0/906" > easy
Vie ee ee Bia ee ee 12.5
IVES Scie ee Paeieha eke Coenhe een 17.0

JOHN Day CAMELS.

Of the four species of camels which have been described
from Oregon, two, Paratylopus (Gomphotherwum) stern-
bergt (Cope) and P. (G.) cameloides (Wortman), come
from the John Day horizon, while the two others, Miolabis
transmontanus (Cope) and Procamelus altus Marsh, are
from newer rocks. The Yale collection includes the type
of the last-named species, while of John Day material
there are at least six specimens, some of which pertain to
Paratylopus cameloides, the others being evidently new.
P.(G.) sternbergi, which comes from an older horizon, is
apparently not represented at Yale.

Paratylopus (Gomphotherium) cameloides (Wortman).
(Figs. 2-4.)

Type material contained in the American Museum of

Natural History, as follows: Cat. No. 8179, holotype,

the Marsh Collection. 395

mandibular ramus; Cat. No. 7915, paratype, upper denti-
tion; Cat. No. 7912, paratype, almost complete fore limb,
as well as several other fragments. Type locality, the
Cove, John Day basin, Oregon. Type level, upper John
Day (Promerycocherus beds), uppermost levels, several
hundred feet above that of P. (G.) sternberg.

The association of this material under one species is
open to question. The mandible, No. 8179, which is the
first mentioned type, and therefore the holotype, is dis-
tinguished by increased size over that of P. sternbergi,
as well as by the absence of diastema between the lower
canine and outer incisor. The Yale specimen, Cat. No.
10921, comes from the type locality, and in so far as it is
preserved, agrees in detail with the type. It consists
of a muzzle, both upper and lower incisors, still embedded
in the matrix, together with the lower canines, P, of the
right side, and a detached fragment of the right ramus
containing P,, M,,.. Fragments of the superior molars,
premolars and canine are also present. There is no
difference in size, except that in the type, P, is somewhat
smaller and P, of the latter bears a small posterior cusp
on the external face which is lacking in the Yale specimen.
The teeth of the upper series (No. 7915, A. M. N. H.) are
too large, especially the premolars and first molar. The
ratios of Wortman’s own measurements show the discrep-
ancy at once, thus:

P. stern- P. came-
berg Ratio loides
mm. mm.

> Geneth of woper molars and P **....... 60 0.72 83
Benethror lower molars and P,. ........ 65 0.67 a

as the two series of sternbergi belong to the same indi-
vidual.

Thus, the upper dentition: of No. 7915, A. M. N. H.,
paratype, pertains to a somewhat larger and more conser-
vative, although contemporaneous, specimen (see below).

Cat. No. 10090, Y. P. M., is also probably to be referred
to Paratylopus cameloides, although an immature indi-
vidual. This specimen, consisting of a skull and jaws
collected by L. S. Davis in 1876 in the John Day valley,
Oregon, is from the same horizon as the type. It consists
of the skull from the middle of the orbits forward, the
hinder part not being preserved. The milk dentition is
present except for the upper median incisors. M, is not

396 R. S: Lull—New Camels m

erupted, M? was not in use although fully visible in the
jaw, and both upper and lower third molars are not
formed. | | is

Distinctwe characters——Skull small, very slender,
muzzle elongated. Facial vacuity apparently present.
Deep depression on either side of face in maxillary, the
pre-orbital pit, preceded by a slight swelling, the infra-
orbital foramen over P*. Premaxillaries very delicate,
extending back to above P? and forming an extensive
union with the nasals.

Upper. deciduous incisors small, somewhat spatulate,
and spaced. Deciduous canine isolated by long diaste-
mata. The small, apparently permanent first premolar is

10090, Y. P.M.

Fie. 2.—Paratylopus cameloides (Wortman). Juvenile. Skull and jaws,
right aspect. >< 3/5.

also isolated, its crown not fully erupted; itis triangular,
trenchant, and apparently double-rooted. Dp? to M?
form a continuous series with prominent external styles
and buttresses, especially upon the molars. Dp simple,
laterally compressed, with one prominent cusp, flanked
anteriorly by a lesser one, externally supported by a
buttress. Dp? elongate, irregularly triangular, with one
anterior and two posterior crescents. Dp*t molariform,
with a small internal pillar and prominent mesostyle.
Molars tending toward hypsodonty, M1 with small inter-
nal pillar and strong parastyle, mesostyle, and .external
buttresses.

The apparently deciduous inferior incisors and canine
form a continuous series without diastema, are spatulate
and procumbent. Canine incisiform, somewhat smaller -

the Marsh Collection. 397

than incisors. P, apparently permanent, partly erupted,
but unused, compressed, trenchant. Dp,, present. Dp,
three-lobed, otherwise molariform. M, the only erupted
molar.

Ramus very slender, gracefully curved, symphysis long.
Mental foramen of left side just below anterior margin
of P,. This form differs from Poébrotherium chiefly in
the great elongation and attenuation of the muzzle, giving
an actually greater antero-posterior dimension to the
premaxillaries and a relatively slenderer jaw and longer
symphysis. The lack of caniniform teeth is evidently
due, in part at least, to the permanent ones not having
erupted, and the diastemata are relatively much greater.
While the nasals are not preserved throughout their
entire length, it is doubtful whether they ever extended

oe 70090, Y. P.M.

Tes
g S
Ss } AC)

=
BRS Cae :

RING s Re
\\ he 3

Rl,
\ < oe ANNAN —

on

Fic. 3—Paratylopus cameloides (Wortman). Juvenile.. Palatal aspect
of skull. x 3/5.

so near the tip of the muzzle as in Poébrotherwm,
although their relative extent, as compared with the
maxillaries, was similar.

The lower jaw, on the other hand, has very much the
contour of the type of Paratylopus cameloides, with which
it also agrees in the lack of diastemata between the lower
incisor and canine teeth. The position of the mental
foramen also is in practical agreement, although it varies
in the two rami of the jaw, extending further back on the
right side. The size of the permanent molars approxi-
mately corresponds.

Two other specimens may be referred to Paratylopus
camiecroides. ‘hese are, first, Cat, No. 10917, Y. P. M.,
collected by William Day in 1875 from the upper John
Day beds at the Cove, John Day River, Oregon, and con-
sisting of the superior maxillary, containing the dentition
from the canine back, except that the crowns of P?* are
broken away. Thisis an old animal, with Mt worn almost

Am. Jour. Sci.—FirtH Series, Vou. I, No. 5.—May, 1921.

2

398 _ Rk. S. Lull—New Camels in

to the roots. The proximal portion of a left metatarsal
is also present. There is, however, no direct evidence
that the two bones pertain to the same individual.

The second specimen is Cat. No. 10922, Y. P. M., col-
lected in 1875 by L. 8. Davis from the same level in Hay-
stack valley 10 miles below the Cove on the John Day
River. It consists of a right mandible, dorsal centra,
astragalus, and both femora and tibie, all four incomplete
as to their shaft.

Distinctive characters—Canine caniniform, sharply
recurved, the section ovate. P! two-rooted, separated
from the preceding and following teeth by extensive

—s ~ Wy AF mM
/ gh ¥F wy a <d

Wisin ie |
& Ss ee pp

LK a
LULDD 97/1) merle Uff ~
He HE

; 10917, Y. P.M.
Fic. 4.—Paratylopus cameloides (Wortman). Crown view. X 3/5.

diastemata, of which the posterior one is somewhat the
longer. Crown compressed, rounded by wear, with a
distinct posterior cutting edge. P* sub-triangular, exter-
nal buttress inconspicuous. M! characterless through
wear, markedly smaller than the succeeding molars. M7?
and M? with well developed mesostyles, external but-
tresses, and rather pronounced internal basal pillars. On
M! the internal style may have been present, but if so, has
been worn away. Enamel of teeth rugose. Muzzle
rather slender. Marked depression above and behind P?.
Infra-orbital foramen above posterior margin of P*.
Palatine foramina not preserved.

Compared with the type lower jaw of P. cameloides,
there is a close agreement, as the molar teeth fit accur-
ately. There is in the type, however, no trace of external
basal pillar corresponding to the internal basal pillars in
the present specimen, but this has been shown to be an
inconstant feature within a species.t The teeth in the
type also appear more hypsodont, but the Yale specimen
shows a much greater degree of wear. With the referred
superior dentition (No. 7915, A. M. N. H.), however, there

1 See R. S. Lull, this Journal (4), 50, 104, 1920.

the Marsh Collection. 399

is more discrepancy, as the first molar and premolars are
relatively markedly smaller, as compared with molars
2 and 3 of the upper series, thus indicating a greater
degree of evolutionary advance.

Measurements.

mm.
Esra PME by VIE: (rp f Sine Shy e cha je we've sie see ele oes See tet 78.5
Ste (GG TE ee i ee eee ree ee ae 16.0
(SUAS TESA eS ne a ae er 20.0
RPP ROCCO IANO ON 0. acho 5 6 os sin sa ee ee eyes ee age wpe ee 11.0
PeeGMGVen Se GiaMNOLGR vii. . 52 yes ee ce ee ee et eee 10.0
iL APG OSMONAIMGLOL (2 occ ole ee ee helen See 13.0
eNeaia MOS LAM OLOT oo. ooo. ae wie bo eeke wba were ai ale els 17.3
maMaVenSe GIAMElEE 2... ce tle ee eee eae GS
PROS u CTAMELOT 6. 4 2. Soke ik wei hd oes ee oe ee 20.0
Wimamameverse- GIaAMeter |. cs Genie ce ee cise cd ew es 17.4

The proximal third of a left metatarsal is associated
with the jaw and is coossified by the plantar (palmar of
Peterson) processes. It corresponds in every way with
the jaw, but may not pertain to the same individual,
as the same lot contained non-camel material as well.
The component elements are very closely applied, so
much so that were it notfor a film of matrix between
their approximated surfaces, they would appear to be
coossified throughout. This very close approximation,
together with the final fusion of the plantar processes,?
is probably due to the age of the individual. It is in
agreement with Oxydactylus (see below).

Measurements of cannon-bone.

mm.
PetmreMeaIL MMA MNUNND toes Ooi tai sitet! rch aria “af allel a avid loo nelle? etid 20.9
ANL.-post. diameter over plantar processes. ................- 24.4
Wadehotshatt, 50 mm. below summit 2..0...0000... 000: 15.6

Specimen No. 10922, Y. P. M., consists of a right man-
dible, the teeth of which show fair correspondence with
those of the upper jaw. One abnormal peculiarity, how-
ever, 1S a supernumerary P,, the presence of which pre-
vents an accurate fit with an upper jaw, No. 10917, as the
smaller forward tooth interferes with P!. Both first
lower premolars are double-rooted, with trenchant

*In the type of Paratylopus sternbergi (Cope) in the American Museum
the plantar processes are entirely separated throughout.

400 R. S. Lull—New Camels in

crowns, and are preceded and followed by diastemata of
less extent than in the upper jaw. No other peculiarities
are to be noted, except that there is a low basal pillar
between the two outer crescents of M, corresponding to
those between the inner crescents of M? and M?. The
character of the enamel corresponds to that of the upper
dentition. The jaw is slender, with a nearly straight
inferior margin, except toward the symphysis, where it
is deflected downward. The mental foramen lies beneath
the anterior P,. The preserved portions of the limb
bones and dorsal centra show nothing distinctive.

Measurements of lower jaw No. 10922.

mm.
Length, P,.to M,........ ele oo ese as: See er 85.0
First ‘P,,;: ant.-post. length ..............2. 5.8
Second P.;: ant.+post.leneth } i. .: ..:.a¢ ie ee Caf
Diastema, iP, to Pps is.) ced iodine dew). AO 12.3
Py, leneth 2 eased /c.. ai ersateanericnts 2) He aes 9.2
Pigg MCT rota yin sn ee vad Fs yee Sakapeapels pares > rie ee SE
M,,. length, amt.-post. (x... n+ «miss «le + 3s 4. 15.5
M.,,.. Gratisverse diameter « ..... . 52's ¢ 5.0.05. .0e. eee 10.6
MM, ant.-post.. diameter ~..... 0... ..s.. «cscs ce ee
M:, transverse diameter... 2. os. 0 sc ee 10.0
Depth of jaw at P,., diastema ....... see. ee 14.4
Depth of jaw outside beneath ant. part M, .............. 24.5
Thickness of jaw ‘beneath ant: part M, 0:2... .92 eee 13.0

Paratylopus wortmant, sp. nov.
(Fig. 5.)

Holotype, Cat. No. 10884, Y. P. M. Upper Oligocene (upper John Day),
Haystack valley, John Day River, Oregon.

The material upon which this new species is based
consists of the anterior part of the upper jaws, four
cervical vertebra, humeri, ulno-radius, carpalia, metacar-
palia, distal ends of both femora, proximal end of a tibia,
and portions of both metatarsals. The premaxillaries
are preserved, together with the maxillaries back as far
as the root of the left P?. .

Distinctive characters.—The incisors were all present,
I? being the largest, caniniform, and separated by a long
diastema from the true canine tooth. In P. cameloides,
this diastema must have been very short, as there is none.

the Marsh Collection. 401

between inferior I, and C,. The caniniform I? of the
present form would seem to imply such an inferior dias-
tema as in Oxydactylus. The canine is a well developed
recurved cone. P! is two-rooted, compressed laterally,
crown not preserved, but apparently less caniniform,
separated from the adjacent teeth by diastemata of
somewhat similar extent. The premaxillaries are pro-
longed backward, forming a premaxillo-nasal contact of
considerable extent.

7
10884, TYPE

owe AW NRA

Fic. 5.—Paratylopus wortmani, sp. nov. Holotype. Right lateral aspect
of muzzle. Nat. size.

Measurements.
mm.
PMG WOSGIAIMCHEL 6c 8 6-5 55 as vg sass on eos wove es lee 7.0
I Paitomsuerse OUAMELCE 7.0... elo k stele hole Sle oh ale 5.0
Omaiie WOst.cjuameter at DASE. si .)5 226 25 0b a oe ee ee ees 9.3
“LSPS VEIOSTEON GUTH CAS 002 a 6.8
Lame POSPalamMeter OL TOOLS ..5. 5.06.6 ees e bk ee ee lal!
Eemimansverse diameter Of KOOTS :. cee bel Be
_JLasitenmna, WAC Oe sek Saas ee wr cn rR WH Ae Taha Ac Siar 2i a ae 12.0
i meriiee O Sb een neers hh em, ee See hs che etc ihe «a 17.4
1 ERGTNG, PEA Ei 5 sa eae ADRS ONE Re ee ae nO 22.4

Of cervical vertebra, there are present the atlas, and an
entire cervical V, to which are articulated nearly half each
of cervieals IV and VI. These bones, while somewhat
more primitive, resemble those of Oxydactylus longipes
Peterson, although differing in dimensions, as the compar-
ative measurements show.

402 R. S. Lull—New Camels im

Measurements.
Cat. No.10884 Ratio O.longipes
Y. Pi Mz

mm. mm,
Greatest length of atlas ........... 64.5 0.806 80
Greatest breadth of atlas .......... 58 0.773 75
Greatest length, cervical V ......... 114 0.674 169
Length of centrum, cervical V ...... an 0.647 150

The ratios show somewhat slenderer bones in No. 10884,
together with a relatively long atlas.

The humerus differs from that of O. longipes in the
form of the trochlea, which shows a greater obliquity
in the latter. The proximal end is not preserved, and
herein our John Day form resembles Wortman’s figure
of P. cameloides paratype, No. 7912, A. M. N. H. (see
above). In some respects the trochlea suggests the one,
in others, the other. Judging from the figure, there is
a close agreement with cameloides in size.

The right ulno-radius is essentially complete, lacking
only a very small portion of the distal articulation, which

is supplied by its mate. The fusion between the two
- bones is so complete that the line of demarcation between
them is practically obsolete except at the distal end. The
element resembles very closely that figured by Wortman
for P. cameloides, from which it differs chiefly in apparent
dimensions as taken from the figure. From Ozydac-
tylus, it differs in the greater distinctness of the distal
end of the fibula and in certain minor details of the proxt-
mal end. :

Measurements.

No. Oxydac
P. camel- 10884 tylus
oides Ratio Y. P.M. Ratio longipes
mm. - mm. mm.
Humerus; Venieth*. 43. A Sei RA ODF) WA) Say 0.68 345
transverse diameter, mid-shaft ... Af
transverse diameter, distal end ... 38
Ulnozradiislenethi=ses . eoe ns. sie 285* 1.07 305 0.69 440
WACTH,<pROxcemd: 2s) 25 hace. © Bd 34 0.72 47
Wicbh: dash. CNG). < ete 4 ahaa eta 35.9
width; “muid-shatt:? 2 t-. qu lees 23 0.66 35
* From Wortman’s figure.
+ Estimated.

The metacarpus resembles that of Oxydactylus, except
in the apparent degree of development of the vestigial
metacarpals IJ and V, which Peterson speaks of as small, -

the Marsh Collection. 403

flat, rugose ossicles, on the sides of the functional third
and fourth metacarpals. Metacarpal Il was apparently
free, as there is a distinct facet on the outer posterior
corner of metacarpal [II contiguous to, but beneath, the
trapezoid facet. Metacarpal V, on the other hand, is
represented by a small rugose knob thoroughly coalesced
with metacarpal IV. Herein, as with the cervicals, the
form under consideration is simply more primitive than is
Oxydactylus. No mention of these details is made by
Wortman, who merely figures the anterior metapodials
and records their length. There is no trace of codssifica-
tion of the metacarpals, but their flat, somewhat rugose
surfaces were closely applied.

Measurements.
P. camel- No. 10884 O. lon-
oides Ratio Y:P.M. Ratio gipes
mm. mm. mm.
Metacarpals:
LolP Ds Loa SS Re es re ae 228 0.964 220 0.638 345
Breadth, combined, at mid-shaft 21* 1.00 21 O:637, 433%
Pmerdih Prox, nd ........... 28-57 _ 1202, 29.5 0.638 46.2*
Breadth, dist. end, mep. III ... 16.8* 0.905 LD-24, MOROGOs 23
Breadth, dist. end, mcp.IV .... 16.2% 0.969 LOT eH | OLGSS 4) 25
AMR ers obra joy oat rap hie: one aslo 0 0.972 0.651
Femur:
Trans. diameter, dist. end ...... 44.6 0.666 67
Diameter, mid-shaft ........... 22 0.733 30
Tibia:
Max. ant.-post. diameter, prox.
SU Le 2 er 61 0.726 84
Transverse diameter, prox. end. 48:0 > 0.690" ="70

* From the illustrations.

The phalanges again are comparable to those of Oay-
dactylus, the ungual being compressed and deer-like.

Measurements.
Cat. No 10885
YEE VE: Ratio O.longipes
Savers mm.
Length of prox. phalanx ........ 46 0.836 D9
Length of median phalanx ...... 22.2, 0.793 28
Henetiokunonialrr 220 855.4 2.62. 18.5 0.740 25

Specimen No. 10884, Y. P. M., is distinct from either
Paratylopus sternbergt or cameloides, chiefly by its larger
size, the robustness of the caniniform teeth, and the length
of diastema between I? and C!. It is not clear, however,

404 R. S. Lulli—New Camels.

that it is distinct from the paratypes of the cameloides
description, especially the upper dentition (No. 7915,
A. M. N. H.). It seems fitting, therefore, to name it in
honor of Doctor Jacob L. Wortman, the describer of
P. cameloides, who for a time rendered so eminent a
service to the science of vertebrate paleontology.
Peterson,’? speaking of Oxydactylus, says this phylum
appears to be divergent from that of the true camels and
that we are at present able to trace it with some certainty
to the genus Protomeryx of the Upper Oligocene. Mat-
thew,* however, restricts the use of the term Protomeryx
to the two species P. halli Leidy and P. campester Mat-
thew, and uses the new subgeneric term Paratylopus to
include what were originally described as Gomphother-
wm sternbergt (Cope) and G. cameloides Wortman,
together with his new species prumevus, which he makes
the type of Paratylopus. His derivation of Oxydactylus
is from Paratylopus through Miolabis, the restricted
Protomeryx being in the direct line of camel evolution
and leading to Protolabis and Procamelus. As Peterson
considers Protomeryx to be a synonym for Gomphoides
(preoccupied), it is probable that he and Matthew are
referring to the same group under different names, and
hence their statements agree. The Yale material thus
briefly described certainly bears this out, as it differs from
the later Oxydactylus mainly in its greater primitiveness. ~

*O. A. Peterson, Ann. Carnegie Mus., 2, 472, 1904. —
‘WwW. D. Matthew, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 20, 211-215, 1904.

M. R. Thorpe—Leptauchema, ete. 405

Arr. XXVII.—Leptauchenia Leidy and Cyclopidius
(Pithecistes) Cope, with descriptions of new and little
known forms in the Marsh Collection; by Maucotm
RuTHERFORD THORPE.

| [Contributions from the Othniel Charles Marsh Publication Fund, Peabody
Museum, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. |

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Introduction.

Description of species.
Leptauchenia decora Leidy.
L. ef. decora.

L. major Leidy.
L. nitida Leidy.
Cyclopidius Cope.
Pithecistes Cope.
C. lullianus, sp. nov.
Chelonocephalus schucherti, sabgen. et sp. nov.
References.

INTRODUCTION.

The genera Leptauchenia and Cyclopidius are the most
peculiar of all the Oreodontide. Pithecistes Cope is
considered identical with Cyclopidius. The first genus
is fairly well known, the whole skeleton of L. decora
having been mounted, but not as yet fully described.
Cyclopidius is known only from skulls and jaws.

Leptauchenma decora was apparently the most numer-
ous, Judging from the number of individuals represented
in the Marsh and other collections. | :

The taxonomy of these genera will be discussed in a
later paper where the Oreodontide as a family are con-
sidered. It is sufficient to remark here that they repre-
sent the climax of at least a part of this family, which
began in the Eocene, reached its greatest development
in the Oligocene, and became extinct through these and
other highly specialized and peculiar forms in the Mio-
cene or early Pliocene. Leptauchenia represents an
earlier geologic epoch than does Cyclopidius (Pithecis-
tes), the latter also showing more marked peculiarities.

The material in the Yale Museum serves admirably to
amplify our knowledge of these genera, both in the
description of referred specimens and of new species.
The excellent illustrations were made by R. Weber.

406 M. R. Thorpe—Leptauchenia Leidy and.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.
Leptauchema decora Leidy 1856.

This species is represented in the Marsh Collection by
more than forty individuals. Apparently the elements
of the skull which were most resistant to destruction were |
the rami and maxille with molars. Specimens of this
species have been found on the North Platte River, at
Crow Buttes, Fort Mitchell, Lawrence’s Fork, Court
House Rock, Scott’s Bluff, Omaha Creek, Rattlesnake
Butte (near Chadron), and many from Pumpkin Creek—
all in Nebraska; and one specimen from Spring Creek,
near Camp Baker, Montana, collected by Edward 8. Dana
and George Bird Grinnell. The description is taken
from various individuals, but especially from Cat. Nos.
10119 and 10121. }

Specific Characters—The skull is somewhat smaller
than that of Oreodon gracilis, and broader, shorter, and
lower. The lacrymal fossa is small and shallow, and the
infra-orbital foramen is above the middle of P*. The
malar is remarkably robust. The bulle are much inflated
and oval in outline. The palate is nearly flat, while the
palatonarial border is opposite the posterior margin of
M?. The orbits are large, oval-shaped antero-posteriorly,
and look chiefly outward; the facial vacuities are large
and extend somewhat posterior to the anterior orbital
border; the ramus is similar to that of Oreodon, except
that the posterior area is of greater proportionate width
and depth; the masseteric fossa is large and relatively
deep; the inferior border is straight; the auditory
meatus is large, situated a little in advance of and well.
above the line of the occipital condyles; the paramastoids
are plate-like, are in contact with the bulle, and extend
downward but slightly below the inferior border of the
bulle. The dentition shows the full number of teeth
common to Oreodon, that is, forty-four. Both molar-
premolar series are crowded and the latter somewhat
reduced. The molars are more nearly uniform in size
reduction from M* to M'. These teeth are very hypso-
dont and the external styles are very well developed.

Cyclopidius (Pithecistes) Cope, etc. 407

Measurements.

(Cat. No. 10121, Y. P. M., unless otherwise indicated. )

mm.
Skull, length, occip. condyle to canine inc., approx. ...... 107
Bizygomatic diam., APPYOX. «0.1... ee eee eee eee eee ees 74
Diam. of postorbital OMG LOM (52. Sys Ais etcue ae sper sy ooh oteyels 20.5
Vier width of braim-case ;.. <2. 2)... nee hes 34.5
Tullis GROSS GOR APES "be 3h Cae i Pera gM a 27
Mardtn between middle of orbits... 26.65... seen 38
Ant -post. diam. of facial vacuity, approx. ..-........ 30
Pemmepost, diam. or bulla (Cat. No. 10120). 2... oo 21
Piiamoverse diam. of bulla (Cat. No 10120) 270.520... 18.5
Depth of malar below middle of orbit ............... 14
Depth of paramastoids below inferior border of audi- .
OMT MMNG CH GULON EL NALA ching Shae: aheh ihe Ig fay lava’ ofall V1 26
iranmic depth, coronoid toangle 2 ....6. 0... jee ee te DD
Ae oriabme me omy IVE cacti bis wis gun's lacperzca tyele al wid la} os jener ene i Stet 18
Total length, approx. ..... SAAR Saori OTD Aeon ete Sree Sa 90
SMe OmmnmOlAreseries, leMOth voi... 5c 6 oes 5.0 she syece a) owe 28.5
Superior premolar series, length (Cat. No. 10120) ...... 17-20
Inferior molar series, length (Cat. No. 12668) .......... 32

Inferior premolar series, with P,, length (Cat. No. 12668) 20.5

Leptauchema ct. decora Leidy.

A skull with jaws attached, not readily identifiable with
any of the three described species of this genus, was
collected in 1914 by John T. Doneghy, Jr., at Rattlesnake
Butte, about 6 miles southwest of Chadron, Nebraska.
This skull is that of an immature individual, in which
neither superior nor inferior third molar is erupted. It
was found in the Lower Miocene beds, and I believe
represents a form intermediate in size between L. decora
and L. major.

This specimen, Cat. No. 12221, Y. P. M., 1s exceedingly
well preserved, with the exception of the superior part
of the muzzle in advance of the orbits, including the
superior incisor border. ‘The chief characters may be set
forth briefly. The total length of the skull is approxi-
mately that of LZ. decora, but in the fully adult form it
must have been somewhat longer. The sagittal crest
is Short and has a nearly straight contour. From the
junction of the temporal ridges, the upper contour
descends steeply to the tip of the nasals, giving an anthro-
poid appearance from a lateral view. ‘T'he orbits are
small and look chiefly upward and outward, in which

408 M. R. Thorpe—Leptauchenia Leidy and

respect it is more like L. major, although this feature is
more pronounced than in the latter species. The bregma,
the junction of the sagittal and coronal sutures, is situated
considerably farther in advance of the junction of the
temporal ridges than in L. decora and holds more nearly
the position seen in L. nitida. In L. major the bregma is
located at the junction of the temporal ridges. The malar
below the orbit is more robust and deeper in this subma-
ture specimen than ina fully adult L. decora. The infra-
orbital foramen is above the interval between P? and P?®.
The bulle are of different shape than in any other species
of the genus, but whether this is due to adolescence or not
I have no way of determining at present. In outline, they
are roughly circular and much inflated. They are pro-
portionally as large as in L. mtida, and absolutely larger
than in L. decora. They are farther apart, however, than
in L. mtida, and their internal faces do not parallel each
other vertically as in the latter species. The paramas-
toids are broad above and extend downward and consider-
ably outward below the inferior edge of the bulla, with
which they are in contact for a part of their course. I
fail to find this outward direction in the Yale specimens
of the three species, in all of which they extend nearly
directly downward. The outline of the facial vacuities
is partially destroyed, but they were evidently relatively
large.

The ramus is quite robust for a submature animal. The
inferior border is very gently curved as in L. decora, and
does not turn downward at the angle asin L. major. The
coronoid process extends but shghtly above the condyle,
more as in L. major, and its superior edge does not curve
backward, so pronounced a feature in L. decora, but not
in L. major. I can not determine this character in L.
nitida. The masseteric fossa is unusually deep, and the
ramus very robust below the molar series. With respect
to the occipital condyles, the external auditory meatus is
situated much farther back than in L. wtida, but approxi-
mately as in L. major and L. decora, although relatively a
little higher.

Measurements.
mm.
Skull, length, occip. condyles to canine ine. ............. 103
Bizygomatic dam. . 2. sec aes + oe sag crs ce ee 82

Diam. of postorbital constriction’... <-.... 245 eee 22.0

Cyclopidius (Pithecistes) Cope, ete. 409

epee Ge Or Mratminease, sss 2 co dc hk I, RD Dats Al
enamibove ba eee Se ee. eka. Paes oe 31
Mire between middle of orbits 2... 25.5.0: .6.55 bene 37
Depth of malar below middle of orbits ............... 15
Depth of paramastoid below inferior border of auditory
ee a A I Sh ls Sad 5) « “aie 6) o, esat ene, aun: Bh 29
IRE OCS CIPRIANO E0 OUI NIE Ie eae DP ar 23.0
Pee werccrovaiic Ol WUMlae om. pe wee ee ks ees ee eS 22h
Eampsrdepin. coronord to angle... ...... 622.222 es ee eee 60
1 RTP OSLO RUS ee cl raha i a a ne 23
Poaieneth from amcisoryborder: .icc..i4s. 5... eke 92
Mesos Me lensth ....... = os ede ohade hg en a aE Be mee or 24
muperior premolar series, length 0.0... 0. 0.66 ee eee 28
RMMMPBRORI UE LCM 0 5.2 Sitio) alice ep Sachs cssee pel ibG ope eke dogs 23
imrerior premolar series, with P,, leneth..........00.3.. 24

Leptauchena major Leidy 1856.

This species is represented in the Marsh Collection

at Yale by a very well preserved skull with jaws, Cat. No.
10118, Y. P. M., as well as by other more or less fragmen-
tary material, yielding data which have heretofore been
undescribed.

Specific Characters.—The skull is intermediate in size
between that of Oreodon culbertsonu and O. gracilis. The
upper skull contour shows a steep forward declivity from
the junction of the temporal ridges to the tip of the nasal
bones, which les above the line of the canines. The
infra-orbital foramen is above the posterior part of P®.
The nasals are very narrow; the forehead is shghtly ele-
vated in the median plane and somewhat concave between
that and the supra-orbital margins. The skull is
depressed, especially in advance of the orbits. The
temporal ridges diverge much more rapidly and widely
than in Oreodon. The facial vacuities are large and
extend posteriorly nearly to a line through the middle
of the orbits. The muzzle is marked by a prominent ridge
from the infra-orbital arch to the anterior end of the
nasals. The palate is nearly flat. The bulle are very
much inflated and extend somewhat forward of the glenoid
articular surface. The paroccipitals are broad, but
tapering posteriorly and ending slightly below the infe-
rior border of the bulle. The latter are rather more
roughly triangular, than oval, in outline, with the base
posteriorly located. »

The rami resemble those of Oreodon more closely than

410 M. R. Thorpe—Leptauchenia Leidy and

do those of either L. decora or L. nitida. They are robust,
nearly straight below the dental series, with a distinct
downward trend at the angle. They are wide and moder-
ately heavy below the coronoid and condyle.

The molar teeth are characterized by very heavy exter-
nal styles, heavier than in any other of the species of this
genus, and likewise heavier than in Merychyus.

Measurements.
(Caio. Ue Yo si
mm.
Skull, length, occip. condyles to canines, inc., approx. .... 139
Bizygomatic diam., approx: ©: 2.25.5: 1. 2... ee eee 100
Diam. of postorbital: constriction: .').... 2205 See 22.3
Max. diam..of brain-caser. J... sb... 126. eee At
Widthvabove P22. fs O28 a ae ee 31
Width: between, middle of ‘orbits’ ..,........<. .>» se. ene 46
Ant.-post. diam, of facial vaenity.......% .Gisc60s sake 34
Depth of malar below middle of orbits ............ Se cae eg
Depth of paramastoid below inferior border of auditory
WHCAGUS soe ese sip ele oie sins a,e we oye coe W See ean op ple
Ant-post:.diam.’ of bulla, ... -20..)...7.5..0 oe 21
Pransversevdiam. or pillars. Cue oT ae 18.5
Ramus,’ depth, coronord ‘tovangle:. ) OOP eee is FeO
Depth below Ms inG wis ol. Garston ee ce Ce 25
Total leneth from! imeisor;border 5.:24-04 \ nails eee 113
Superior molar series, length :)..... 0. 566.5 «56 se 40
Superior premolar series, leneth,...... ..... ..-.« s«. a eee 30
Inferior molar series, lengiM iyi. lose. scp 2: «se areiee ete 44
Inferior premolar series, with P,, length .. ~..... 0 ase —O4

Leptauchema mtida Leidy 1869.

This comparatively rare and little known species is
represented in the Marsh Collection by several specimens
collected on Pumpkin Creek, along White River, at Scott’s
Bluff, and near Fort Mitchell—all in Nebraska. Two
skulls represent immature individuals, one of which is
extremely delicate and fragile, with even the lower incis-
ors preserved. Another skull, Cat. No. 10122, is that
of a fully mature individual, and is remarkably well
preserved. It lacks both rami and the incisor border,
together with part of the zygomata.

Specific Characters—This species is the smallest
known in the genus. The muzzle is short and pointed;
facial vacuities are smaller absolutely than in L. decora,

Cyclopidiwus (Pithecistes) Cope, etc. 411

their posterior termination being but slightly back of the
line of the anterior orbital margins; the forehead is
shghtly elevated along the sagittal plane and more
prominently at the supra-orbital borders; the infra-
orbital foramen is above the posterior edge of P?; the
face in advance of the orbits is quite narrow; the bulle
are very much inflated; the palate is nearly flat; the
glenoid articular surface is much more convex downward
than in Oreodon; there is a marked fossa at the anterior
base of the postglenoid tubercle; this latter process is
small and is composed apparently half of the squamosal
and half of the tympanic bone, the dividing line in No.
10122 being a transverse vertical plane; the superior
skull contour is a nearly straight gentle slope from the
summit of the inion to the tip of the nasals; the bulle
are so greatly inflated that they are separated by an
interval ‘only 2 mm. in diameter; the frontals are
produced between the nasal bones, which end in a wedge
in the frontals.

The superior molars differ from those of the other
species in that the size reduction from M®* to M' is much
greater, the antero-posterior diameter of M' being less
than one half that of M*®. The hypocone of M? is quite
small, while the metastyle is relatively large and promi-
nent. The metacone is rotated inward more strongly
than in L. decora or L. major. The premolars have .a
decided backward slope from root to crown, which does
not occur in the Yale specimens of either of the other
species.

Although No. 10122 is a robust specimen, I am inclined
to believe that Leidy did not accurately estimate the
length of the superior molars. He stated it to be 20 mm.,
and yet the length of M' plus M? in the type specimen is
13 mm. M® is lacking in the type. In all of the Yale
specimens, the antero-posterior diameter of M? is more
than 10 mm.

Measurements.
(Cat No 10122) Your. M)

3 mm.

Skull, length from occip. condyles to canines, inc. ........ 95
TG CDE AO TEN DL ty ale coe ae ee 65
Diamor postoubrmakyeonstriction! .:.). 6cses. culls sees 21

iti viG ih oi Wrema-Caseuay -. ii. bea 2 oot clesectny ee eet 36

412 M. R. Thorpe—Leptauchema Leidy and

mm
Width above:E™ ...: <2. SeURR ee So: ¢2 24
Width. between middle of orbits <2... ./... bs seca 30
Ant.-post diam. of facial vactity, approx... ... acer 21
Ant<post., diam,, of bulla nce soph. «,-\-% 55> im pee 2d
Transverse diam. of bully. 20. si. s. - - otic ee 19
Depth of malar below muddle of orbit ./.... i. 7a. 12.5
Superior dental series with canime, length... 2. eee 51
Superior molar’ series, Tenens > o... 221 os >. 32 25
Superior premolar series) length ...../.... -2 a eee 20

Cyclopidius Cope 1878.

The generic distinctions between Leptauchema and
Cyclopidius are by no means clearly marked. Cope
defined Cyclopidius as being ‘‘Leptauchema without
superior incisor teeth.’’ As we now know the genus,
this is an inconstant character. Some of the species had
one or two superior incisors, and it is not unlikely that
all of them possessed two. These, however, may have
been, and probably were, in many cases very small and
perhaps vestigial, so that they were easily lost or de-
stroyed during the process of fossilization. The inferior
incisors were likewise two in number. If we assume for
the present at least that Cyclopidius had but two incisors
in each tooth row, then we have the most marked generic
distinction between this genus and Leptauchenia, which
has the full complement of forty-four teeth.

Cyclopidius is found in a higher horizon than Lep-
tauchema, the latter being Upper Oligocene to Lower
Miocene and the former being restricted to the Middle
Miocene.

In general, it seems that Cyclopidius possesses, in an
exaggerated form, the various peculiarities of Leptau-
chema. The nasal vacuities are larger; the frontals are
narrower and form but very little of the cranial roof;
the zygomata are much heavier and more widespread;
the cranium is very much narrower and smaller; the
nasals are narrow bands which expand shghtly at their
junction with the premaxillaries; the external styles of
the superior molars are more prominent; the inferior
caniniform premolar is somewhat reduced, and, in size,
more nearly approximates that of the true canine; the
external auditory meatus is somewhat more posteriorly
placed; the rami have become more robust and much
heavier posteriorly, and the whole skull foreshortened |
_and much more brachycephalic.

Gudonnins (Pithecistes) Cope, etc. 413

Pithecistes was established by Cope on a lower jaw im
which, he said, P, and all of the incisors except I, had

been lost. Likewise the true canine was no longer incisi-
form, but had again become caniniform. These characters
were shown only i in the type species, P. brevifacies, which
was a very old individual. In 1899 Matthew showed
that this genus was not valid. He wrote (p. 73):

‘‘Careful comparison and more complete removal of the matrix
show that: (1) the alveoli of two small incisors are present on
each side; (2) the canine, mistaken by Cope for an incisor, is
present. and worn to a stump ; ; (3) the first premolar, mistaken
for canine by Cope, is present and caniniform; (4) there are no
distinctions whatsoever from Cyclopidius simus except those due
to age of the individual. Pithecistes decedens is the permanent
and P. heterodon probably. the milk dentition of a smaller species
- of Cyclopidius; both are founded on upper teeth.’’

I do not think it possible that in this family any form
will be found in which P, has been lost and the true infe-
‘rior canine become caniniform. This caniniform. pre-
molar has developed far in excess of the other premolars,
and at the expense of the true canine, in all of the pre-
ceding genera of the Oreodontide. It is possible, how-
ever, that a form may be found without any incisors,
either superior or inferior, a condition which has occurred
in other groups.

Cyclopidius lullianus, sp. nov.
(Figs. 1-3.)

Holotype, Cat. No. 10117, Y. P. M. Spanish Mines, Wyoming. Lower
Miocene (lower Harrison beds).

The type material consists of a skull and jaws, excel-
lently preserved with the exception of the left zygoma
and a portion of the left side of the cranium. It was
collected in 1908 by Professor Richard 8. Lull, after
whom the species is named.

Specific Characters—This is the largest species of the
genus, and shows remarkably well the generic characters.
Its specific peculiarities are very marked. The skull
length is approximately that of a small Oreodon culbert-
sonm. The muzzle is short, and the zygomata much
expanded. The nasal bones are very narrow, expanding
anteriorly at the junction with the premaxillaries, which
are small. The facial vacuities are very large. A
shallow forward-facing depression represents the lacry-

Am. Jour. So1.—Firtx Sertizs, Vou. I, No. 5.—May, 1921.
28

414 M. R. Thorpe—Leptauchena Leidy and

FZ
//

;
pi
a H Bl
rr S UP: li
4

WY
td

ith i

j }

Hel

MW | \)\
(Ih i
VV ||

i, PO
Fm Ali Li ta!
s ~ 4 ! Y
| {\ - 4
= —<——S lis, ‘|
iF, , | H
u Ni 1

oe
—————

/O117, TYPE
YAP. oe
Fig. 1—Cyclopidius lullianus, sp. nov. Holotype. Lateral view of skull
and jaw. ‘Two-thirds nat. size.

hy

Bs

PARA ™\\\\

YD
ZZ WwW 4
\ WY) 2 YE
ra Li wr KS iy
Y/,

i}

. WH

E

| 4
Ss) :

/O/17, TYPE
Y. P.M.

Fig. 2.—Cyclopidius lullianus, sp. nov. Holotype. One half superior view
of skull. Two-thirds nat. size.

JOI7, TYPE
Y. P. M.,
Fig. 3.—Cyclopidius lullianus, sp. nov. Holotype.
muzzle. Two-thirds nat. size.

Anterior view of

Cyclopidius (Pithecistes) Cope, etc. 415

mal fossa. The infra-orbital foramen is single and
located above the middle of P®. The frontals are much
reduced and very narrow. <A rather shallow but well
marked depression separates the median sagittal ridge
from the slightly elevated supra-orbital borders. The
malar part of the zygoma is exceedingly thick and deep,
while the squamosal portion is comparatively weak,
except for the great expansion above the glenoid articu-
lar surface. The brain-case is relatively very small.

_ The rami are massive, deep, and heavy. The inferior
border is much thickened and, below the anterior molar
series, there is an osseous tubercle on each ramus. The
position of this small tubercle is suggestive of that in
the entelodonts, except that in the latter the size is very
much greater. There are but two incisors in both dental
series. This species is nearest to C. brevifacies Cope,
but larger, and shows marked differences.

Measurements of Holotype.

7 mm.
Skull, length, occip. condyles to prosthion, inc. ........ ays TAS
reper nC CTA ee ho od os ahead» oo oie 104.5
Diammenr postorbital constrictions... 0... 2... 24
mo wiaremmetani Ot brain-Case.f 21) 0. hs. Gece cs eee he 46
(ETDs DOSES | BM I GP ete: AUT ace A eo 40
Madin between middle of orbits’.....20 0 ow Ok. 60
Depth of malar below middle of orbits .............. 28
eerie POSt. diam, Of facial VACUILIES s. 6. vac Sele ton AT
Ramus, total length ...... icy 5S ae area Bae ere rela, Bt) My ilaul
Were COFOTIOIG 10), aMeeT ss bs lk 88
Men Melo w At ees Oca Clie See ae tals 39.0
Bitoni MelOwaVs ce aS ee ele cl eee eae 16.2
Superior dental series, with canine, length .............. 78.2
plmemor molar series, lenoth (22... 6s sok oe ose oe 44.9
Supemion premolar series, leneth .2 0.00... 0% os. nce ce: 30.5
itterior dentalyseries: with P., leneth -.......0.0..20... 70.5
tisemiommolarceries, lenoth -..2.....-05.. 002.0500 40.5
Interior premolar series, with Pj, lencth ............... 21.9

Chelonocephalus schucherti, subgen. et sp. nov.
(Figs. 4-6.)

Holotype, Cat. No. 10123, Y. P. M. Middle Mio Badla
Hermosa, South Dakota. ; : cene, Badlands, near

The type material, which was collected in 1894 by EE oR
Wells, consists of a well preserved skull, lacking the

416 M. R. Thorpe—Leptauchema Leidy and

occipital condyles and the incisor border. The individual
is felly adult. The specific name is given in honor of
Professor Charles Schuchert as a token of appreciation
of his generosity to the Division of Vertebrate Paleon-
tology, in the apportionment of funds.

This species resembles Cyclopidwus decedens (C. heter-
odon) in two characters. Both species are smaller than
C. sumus, and both have the same antero-posterior diame-
ter of P+, but not the same transverse diameter. All the
species of Cyclopidws are considerably larger than this
and smaller than Cyclopidius lullianus, sp. nov. From
other dimensions of C. decedens, it is apparent that this

iN
(Ci
S

iC e
ce i fi a

lt
Lit aa
C-_—, :

\'

40723, TYPE
Y. P.M.

Fig. 4.—Chelonocephalus schucherti, subgen. et sp. nov. Holotype. Lat-
eral view of skull. Nat. size.

new species is not only smaller, but differently propor-
tioned. |

Distinctive Characters——Great relative bizygomatic
diameter, giving the skull a strong brachycephalic appear-
ance. In fact, it is roughly cireular in outline, superfi-
cially resembling that of the Chelonia. The zygomata
are relatively heavy, although not very thick except near
and at their origin above M? and the anterior part of M?.
The orbits look outward and upward. The sagittal crest
is long and high, while the brain-case is relatively large.
The sagittal crest is marked by a foramen produced by a
spreading of the parietal bones, about on a line above the
paramastoids. The frontals are narrow and the facial
vacuities large. The basicranial area is foreshortened, |

Cyclopidius (Pithecistes) Cope, ete. 417

so that the much inflated bulle he below a part of the glen-
oid articular surface, and their anterior border is in
advance of the glenoid surface. The small postglenoid

10123, TYPE
Y.P.M

Ny

Sy qr j

ci AY :
if : \ ]
ig of il a . |
MN a
eG o lly
(st : . h e ~ Ai o y io,

AQ = Mena
fa ae ‘i oF a — a SSS \

i CRY
ce 2 y a a f CS << y

i Ne

Fig. 5.—Chelonocephalus schucherti, subgen. et. sp. nov. Holotype. Su-
perior view. Nat. size.

10/23, TYPE

. oe <

Sip; ‘ow fas Hay |: S Z 3
If ll ao Fo “n, BH 1) AA >
“Mi LEY Tate la 4, iy Le 7 . = ——= ==
Pes ils : mu Med. My: a : if NG, 2 N
Re wl Hy Mi Ay) NZ A fe S CGA
R 3 )

Fig. 6.—\Chelonocephalus schucherti, subgen. et sp. nov. Holotype. One
half palatal view. Nat. size.

processes are thin and plate-like, situated almost directly
above the posterior margin of the bulle. The bulle are
oval in outline, with their long diameter directed forward
and inward ata shght angle. This foreshortening of the

a

418 M. R. Thorpe—Leptauchema Leidy and

basicranial area is not known to me to occur so distinetly
in any species of Cyclopidiws where the skull characters
have been described. The palatonarial border is opposite
the posterior lobe of M?. In Cyclopidius emydinus it is
nearly halfway between the glenoid articular surface and
M*. The palate is shghtly concave.

The transverse diameter of the posterior lobe of M2? is
but a trifle greater than that of P*. The tooth rows are
not parallel, as in Oreodon and most of the genera of this
family, but converge anteriorly. The canine is situated
inwardly of the line of the tooth row and is nearly circular
in section, being of somewhat greater diameter at the
internal face. As stated above, the incisor border is
missing, but the amount of space available for incisors
was not more than would accommodate two unless they
were extremely small. However, I am inclined to believe
that it had but two of these teeth. |

The infra-orbital foramen is single and above the inter-
val between P* and P*. The external auditory meatus
is directed more posteriorly than outwardly, and situated
posterior to a line above the paramastoid process.

Measurements of Holotype.

“mm.
Skull, length, occip. condyles to canine ine., approx. ...... 93
Bizygomatice diame fe... 0s... sos os ee 82
Diam. of pastorbutal) constriction. ....<. . 5... 17

Max: "width of Draim-case. Sors.... 0... ace ee 39.0
Width abovest=>.....:.. “Sno a. 2 26
‘Width between middle of orbits ts. .032 .. ..... eee 33

Depth of malar below middle of orbits ............... 14.7
Ant:-post. diam: of ‘bulla: >: us.is oe i) ke ee 22

Urausyerse-dram: of bulla .y*s.< te. ete eee 19:5
Dental;series, with eanine, lengthy... 2... Ae ee 53

Molartsertes; lenoth. 2... .. eee ee oe 28.5
Premolar ‘Series, length .....0ck~. .. 1... 20

References.
Cope, E. D. 1878A. New artiodactyles of the upper Tertiary. Amer.

Nat., 12, 58.

— 1878B. Descriptions of new Vertebrata from the upper Tertiary forma-
tions of the West. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 17, 219-231.

1884. Synopsis of the species of Oreodontide. Thid., 21, 503-572.

Leidy, J. 1856A. Notices of remains of extinct Mammalia, discovered
by Dr. F. V. Hayden in Nebraska Territory. Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sei. Phila., 8, 88-90.

—- pove Notice: of some remains of extinct vertebrated animals. Ibid.,

Cyclopidius (Pithecistes) Cope, ete. 419

Leidy, J. 1858. Notice of remains of extinct Vertebrata, from the v,
of the Niobrara River. Ibid., 10, 20-29. ‘

— 1869. The extinct mammalian fauna of Dakota and Nebraska. Jour.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. (2), 7, 1-472.

Loomis, F. B. 1920. On Ticholeptus rusticus and the genera of Oreodon-
tide. This Journal (4), 50, 281-292.

Matthew, W. D. 1899. A provisional classification of the fresh-water
Tertiary of the West. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 12, 19-75.

— 1909. Faunal lists of the Tertiary Mammalia of the West. U.S. Geol.
Survey, Bull. 361, 91-120.

Scott, W. B. 1890. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Oreodontide. Morpholog.
Jahrbuch, 16, 319-395.

— 1893. The mammals of the Deep River beds. Amer. Nat., 27, 659-662.

— 1895. The Mammalia of the Deep River beds. Trans. Amer. Philos.
Soc., 18, 55-185.

— 1899. The selenodont.artiodactyls of the Uinta Eocene. Trans. Wagner
Pree, Inst. Sci., Phila., 6, 1-121.

Sinclair, W. J. 1910. The restored skeleton of Leptauchenia decora. Proc.
Amer. Philos. Soc., 49, 196-199.

420 ¢.W. Berry—Potamogeton from Upper Cretaceous.

Art. XX VITI—A Potamogeton from the Upper Creta-
ceous; by Epwarp W. Berry.

Since in some eases it is not practicable to determine
fossil foliar remains conclusively, those cases in which
this is possible merit emphasis lest they be buried in large
systematic works on paleobotany and thus run the risk
of escaping the attention of botanists and those authors
who speculate on the existing distribution of plants while
ignoring that of their ancestors.

The conclusive characters of the Potamogeton
described in the present note merit calling attention to
it in advance of my account of the associated flora, which
may be long delayed. Relics of aquatic vegetation are
generally much less durable than those of terrestrial
forms and hence there is a relative paucity of such types
in the geological record. Circumstantial evidence, as for
example the delicate dental armature of Trachodon and
other herbivorous dinosaurs, seemingly demands a soft
plant food such as is furnished by aquatic plants, but the
paleobotanist has but little to offer to the zoologist in
answer to questions of this sort.

There is then a special interest attaching to aquatic
fossil plants. In the very large American Upper Creta-
ceous floras the bulk of the fossils represent conifers
and dicotyledonous leaves. Monocotyledons, aside from
palms, are exceedingly rare, and this is usually considered
as due to the imperfection of the record rather than as an
actual portrayal of the true facts.

That the secondarily acquired aquatic adaptation in the
angiosperms had already progressed a _ considerable
distance before the close of the Upper Cretaceous is
indicated by a number of rare forms found in deposits of
estuary or lagoonal muds toward the upper part of the
Mississippi embayment in Ripley time. These comprise
the species of Potamogeton described below: A second
species of Potamogeton, as yet undescribed since 1t may
represent the submerged leaves of the former: a form
referred to the genus Alismaphyllum: another that
suggests the existing genus Hydrilla of the family
Hydrocharitaceae: and a fifth of unknown identity, which
is believed to have had the form and habit of Vallisneria,
and to belong also to the Hydrocharitacee.

The new species of Potamogeton may be described as
follows:

E.W. Berry—Potamogeton from Upper Cretaceous. +21

Potamogeton perry? sp. nov.

Leaves of relatively large size, elliptical to oblanceolate
in general outline; with a rounded or emarginate apex
and an abruptly or gradually narrowed base, decurrent
on the broad flat petiole. Leaf substance thin, but firm
and not membranous. Length ranging from 7 ecm. to
10 em. Maximum width ranging from 1.8 em. to 2.6 cm.

Se

————_—
—=_

Fics. 1-3.—Potamogeton perryi. Natural size.

Petiole broad and thin, 1.5 em. in length and about 3 mm.
in width, slightly curved, made up of a row of parallel
vascular bundles. Midvein similar to the petiole, i. e.
broad and flat, not prominent, becoming much attenuated
distad by the divergence of vascular bundles. Secon-
daries thin, immersed in the leaf substance, three or more
acrodrome pairs, connected by thin oblique veinlets.

429 E. W. Berry—Potamogeton from Upper Cretaceous.

Named for the collector, Mr. E. S. Perry, who obtained
it at the Perry Place in Henry County, Tennessee, from
beds of Ripley age.

This is an exceedingly well-marked species and so
modern in its facies as to be distinguished with difficulty
from numerous existing species, such as the Huropean
Potamogeton rufescens, or the North American Potamo-
geton nuttallu, alpinus, lonchitis, and lucens. Two of
these latter are also Old World forms, namely P. alpinus
Balbis, and P. lucens Linné, and it is these two that are
most similar to the fossil, particularly in the shortening
of the petiole. Both are ’ prevailingly pond rather than
stream forms, and range on this continent from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Canada to Florida and
Mexico in the case of P. lucens, although P. alpinus does
not go so far to the southward.

Characteristic Cretaceous forms of Potamogeton are
rare, and it would seem to be something more than a
coincidence that several well-marked species appear in the
geological record at about the same time in rather widely
separated regions. These are, in addition to the present
form, Potamogeton cretaceous Heer! from the Patoot
beds of western Greenland—a form very similar to
P. perryt; Potamogeton mddendorfensis Berry? from
the Middendorf arkose member of the Black Creek
formation in South Carolina; and Potamogeton ripley-
ensis' Berry? from the Ripley formation in western
Tennessee. |

Strangely enough the genus has not been authentically
determined from Europe in strata earlier than the
Oligocene, although allied forms occur in the Eocene of
France. Nor are there any pre-Miocene records from
Asia, the last due no doubt to the scarcity of known earlier
plant beds on the latter continent.

There are upward of two score described fossil species,
which are not uncommon throughout the Tertiary of the
Northern Hemisphere. Many still existing species,
represented by both leaves and fruits, appear in the
Pleistocene records.

The existing species number more than three score, and
they are present in both tropical and temperate regions,
but are more varied in the latter. Most of the species

+ Heer, O., Fl. Foss. Arct., vol. 7, .p: 19, pl. 55, figs. 23, 24,)1883.
2 Berry, E. Wey Was: Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 84, p. 27 pl. 4, fig. 6, 1914,
In MS.

E. W. Berry—Potamogeton from Upper Cretaceous. +23

have an eee! and many a cosmopolitan range. ‘Thus
Potamogeton pei -foliatus Linné extends over more than
twenty degrees of latitude in North America and is found
also in Europe and Asia.

All of the wide ranging forms extend into both high
and low latitudes whereas species of restricted range are
commonly confined to warm regions. Climate is less of
a factor in aquatic than in terrestrial vegetation, but in
spite of this it would appear that the glaciation of the
Pleistocene in the lands of the Northern Hemisphere was
one of the factors in extending the range of the present
wide ranging forms, and that these are geologically older
than those species of restricted range.

The Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, Md.

Arr. XXI1X.— Additional Notes on the Crystallography
and Composition of Boulangerite; by Haru V. SHan-
NON.*

Existing knowledge of the crystal form of boulangerite
rests almost entirely upon the work of Sjogren? upon
material from Sala, Sweden, which showed the composi-
tion of this mineral to be different from the formula
usually given and endeavored to show its relation, both
chemical and crystallographic, to diaphorite. The present
writer has recently published a paper on the chemical
composition of this mineral with 8 new analyses made
upon material from various localities which apparently
confirm Sjogren’s conclusions relative to its composition.?
Additional study of one of the specimens analyzed has -
shown the presence of measurable crystals which have
been made the subject of the following notes. The exact
history of the specimen is somewhat uncertain but it is
known to be from the Wood River district in Blaine
County, Idaho and it is probably from the Independence
mine. An analysis of the material is given in the publi-
cation above cited. The crystals occur as small rosettes

1Published by permission of the Secretary of the Sr itnson an Institution.

2 Geol. Foren. Forhandl., 19, 153-67, 1897.
’ProcsU. S: Nat... Mius: 58. 589- 598, 1920.

494 EL. V. Shannon—Notes on Boulangerite.

associated with pyrite and drusy quartz along a rift in
a mass of white vein quartz containing disseminated
pyrite crystals and fibrous masses of boulangerite. They
reach a maximum length of about 1 millimeter, and are
highly polished with metallic luster and light lead-gray
color. They are all tabular parallel to the front pinacoid
a(100) and seem to possess a distinct cleavage parallel to
this plane. Several of the crystals were detached from
the matrix and measured with a Goldschmidt 2-circle
goniometer. |

The crystals are all similar in habit, the dominant forms
being the macropinacoid a(100), the prism (120) and the
pyramid 2(124) while several other prismatic forms occur
as narrow faces, the form and habit of the crystals being
illustrated in fig. 1. The prism zone is strongly striated
vertically.

The angles measured were found not to be in entire
agreement with those given for the same forms by Sjogren
and a question arose as to the advisability of substituting
new axial values for this mineral. To this end the descrip-
tion of the mineral from the Swedish occurrence was
carefully considered. The crystals from Sala, which
seem to have been very minute, were obtained by dissolv-
ing the carbonate gangue with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Although Sjogren states that the forms in the prism
zone gave quite good angles, the crystals are said to have
been strongly striated vertically and it seems probable
that the quality of this zone on the present writer’s crys-
tals was fully as good as that on the crystal examined by
Sjogren. He states clearly that the measurements
recorded in his table were made on one and the same
erystal on which the only terminal face was found, the
dome w(012), upon which he bases his value for the ¢ axis.
This yielded only one measurement which was so poor
as to be searce usable at all. Five crystals from the Idaho
occurrence were measured and on each of these the prism
n(120) and the pyramid 2(124) were present as distinct
faces yielding good signals although the angles measured
varied somewhat. By weighting each angular measure-
ment according to quality the following average is
obtained for the form (120):

© (120)\. hens p — 90°00"
while the pyramid 2(124) gives the following average
angles: |
2 (194). ee aay p == 25°48’

E. V. Shannon—Notes on Boulangerite. 425

Since the latter form yielded the better reflections its
angles were taken as fundamental for calculating the
crystallographic constants yielding the following:

a = .5038 log a = 9.70226 log p, = 10.13386 p, = 1.3620
ce = .6862 log ¢ = 9.83645 log q,= 9.83645 q. = .6862

The axial ratios thus derived may be compared with
those given for boulangerite by Sjogren and those of
diaphorite as follows:

Gis Ors. 1 4G
Bowlangerite (new): .s--.-..-- OAS) let) 6862
Boulangerite (Sjogren) ....... DoAde? ks hb 4S
Pir MOme sy. 2. 04g sti 3). 85 4919 : 1: .7345

The crystals from Idaho show a well-defined cleavage
parallel to a(100) while Sjogren does not mention any
such cleavage in the material from Sala nor is such a pina-
coidal cleavage given for diaphorite. The forms
observed on the crystals from Idaho are given with their
calculated and measured angles in the following table:

Forms and angles of boulangerite from Idaho.

Measured Calculated

Letter Miller @ 0 od p
a 100 = =90°00’ - 90°00’ 90-00". 90500"
ie A650) 58°15’ - 90°00 Meee 2-90-00.
n nay 445k BOP 00" AAPA + 90-00!
g Iehiasto2) «90208 sor o4* 90-00)
ph BAO 27? 50 5. 90F 00! 26°22 (790500?
k #30 2132383 90700" her abi iuit SOF OOF
r mT lex + 90°00! To-do ki 3 90°00?
t Sloe. woe 4gee. 90°00" 80°28’ 90°00’
feed. oo LI 90°00" 39004: - 90700!
Z Ae, 4A aT 25°48" 442A 25,48)

| Sjogren sought to show that boulangerite was the lead
extreme of a series having the general composition
expressed by the formula 5(Pb, Ag.)S.2Sb.8, which is
the formula which has been accepted for some years for
diaphorite.. Ina recent paper Wherry and Foshag* have
recognized the fact that lead and silver are not isomor-
phous in minerals of this type but that, when these bases
of unlike valence occur in the same mineral, their ratio to
each other is constant, the compound being essentially
a double salt. This principle is futher discussed in a

* Wherry, E. T., and Foshag, W. F., Classification of the sulphosalt min-
erals, Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 11, pp. 1-8, Jan., 1921.

496 E. V. Shannon—Notes on Boulangerite.

paper by Foshag which is now in press. The formula
assigned to diaphorite by these authors in 4PbS.3Ag,.S.
38b.8, or with the ratio RS: Sb.S, 7:3. When this
result was first submitted to the writer’s attention it was
thought possible that boulangerite might also have these
ratios, the difference being small. The ete a to
satisfy the two formulas are as follows:

| 5PbS.28b.8, 7TPbS.3Sb,83.
Whende(Pb): *. Seep cteree oe 59.41% 54.01%
Antimony (Sb) ..... Eon A 2onle 26.87
Sulphur (S)seiwckeiets 18.87 TOM

An examination of the analyses published by the writer
in the paper above cited shows that most of them agree
most nearly with the first formula although one or two
approach the second. The analysis of material from the
specimen. bearing the crystals here described agrees very
closely with the 5:2 ratios which may not be significant
as the analysis was made upon the fibrous portion of the
specimen, the crystals not being sufficient in amount for
analysis. The problem of determining the correct compo-
sition of boulangerite now seems further complicated by
the probable existence of a lead sulphantimonite having
7:3 ratios. It is obvious that very exact analytical work
on material of undoubted purity will be necessary to
distinguish between these two compounds. Existing
knowledge of the minerals diaphorite and boulangerite
appears to indicate that they have different ratios of base
to acid and hence fall in different groups, the crystallo-
graphic similarity being accidental and not significant.
Any evidence as to the crystal form or physical proper-
ties of minerals of this general composition should be
carefully recorded as such data may ultimately lead to
the differentiation of two or more species.

H. N. Eaton—Oriskany Sandstone Faunule. 427

Art. XXX.—The Oriskany Sandstone Faunule at Oris-
kany Falls, New York; by Harry N. Haron.

During the course of faunal studies of the Oriskany of

central New York it seemed advisable to visit the type.

locality at Oriskany Falls whence the formational name
was derived. As the result of several days’ collecting in
July, 1919 a faunule was found which is probably repre-
sentative, and is enumerated below.

Extent and Stratigraphy.

The sandstone outcrops in a bold ledge on the hillside
on the northern outskirts of the village of Oriskany Falls
at an elevation of about 1080 feet. This hill is a plateau
spur pointed southward, broadening out to the north in
the southern part of Oneida County; bounded on the
east by the valley of Oriskany Creek, and on the west by
the valley of Sconondoa Creek. The outcrop is nearly
unbroken for a mile northward of the village in the Oris-
kany Creek valley, and thence northward there are no
further exposures owing to the drift cover. On the
western side of the hill it can be traced by a line of
bowlders, rising gradually to an altitude of 1260 feet to a
point about 134 miles north of the village of Augusta, in
harmony with the gentle southerly dip of the region.
On account of the drift cover, the northern boundary of
the formation is uncertain, but probably does not lie more
than 314 miles north of Oriskany Falls. The greatest
breadth east and west is about 134 miles.

The thickness was given by Vanuxem? as ‘‘about twenty

feet,’’ but Brigham’s® estimate of ‘‘about ten feet’’ is
more in accord with the writer’s measurements. Van-
uxem’s error was a natural one to make at the outcrop
nearest the village, as at this place a row of large sand-
stone blocks has been plucked away from the parent ledge
and moved a few feet downward so as to give the forma-
tion a double apparent thickness.

The Oriskany sandstone at this locality lies directly
upon the Helderberg limestone,—or Manlius according

*The above paper was read before Section HE, A. A. A. S., at St. Louis,
Dee. 30,1919. An abstract was published in Science, new ser., 51, 493, 1920.

*L. Vanuxem, Third Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey, Third Dist. N. Y., p. 273,
1839. |

° A. P. Brigham, The Geology of Oneida County, Oneida Hist. Soc., Trans.,
1887-1889, p. 109, 1889.

428 H. N. Eaton—Oriskany Sandstone Faunule.

to Clarke,*—and is overlain by the Onondaga limestone.
The friable nature of the rock is well known. The upper
surface is more quartzitic and darker in color than the
lower portions. Dr. Clarke® noted the abrupt transition
here from the underlying limestone to the superjacent
Oriskany sandstone, and spoke of its extent as follows:

‘“ All calcareous beds are here wanting... This quality of
rock does not occur in any of the eastward exposures of the Oris-
kany from Albany County to the New Jersey line except for an
occasional thin streak without fossils. From Oriskany Falls
westward no calcareous beds appear except toward the top of the
deposit as the sedimentation grades into that of the Onondaga
limestone above. .. . |

‘‘The character of the Oriskany deposit in New York from
Schoharie County westward may be regarded in a general way as
a series of arenaceous lenses (in strike section) connected by thin
sheets of quartzitic sandstone. The outcrops at Oriskany Falls
and Yawger’s woods are such lenticular masses.’’

Fauna.

Vanuxem® lists four common Oriskany brachiopods as
numerous in the lower part, and figures another brachio-
pod, also mentioning the. occurrence of a pelecypod.
Brigham‘ mentions Spirifer arenosus (Conrad) and Rens-
seleria ovoides (Haton) as being abundant. Both
authors note the occurrence of the fossils as interior
casts. Clarke® lists Chonostrophia complanata (Hall),
although this species was not found by the writer. The
following is the list of species disclosed by the present
study:

Spirifer arenosus (Conrad), S. murchisoni Castelnau, Rens-
selaerva ovoides (Eaton), R. ovoides (Eaton), var. nov.?, Hip-
parionyx proximus Vanuxem, Meristella lata (Hall), M. laevis
(Vanuxem), Hatonia peculiaris (Conrad), Centronella glans-
fagea (Hall), Leptostrophia ( Stropheodonta) magnifica (Hall) 2,
Rhipidomella emarginata (Hall), Megalanteris ovalis Hall ?,
Modiomorpha sp. undet., Actinopteria sp. undet., and Diaphoros-
toma ventricosum (Conrad).

Rensseleria ovoides is a common fossil in the main
outcrops and boulders. The possible new variety of this

*J. M. Clarke, The Oriskany Fauna of Becraft Mountain, Columbia
County, N. Y., N. Y. State Museum, Memoir No. 3, p. 78, 1900.

Op. cits p: 78.

*L. Vanuxem, Geol. N. Y., part 3, Survey Third Dist., pp. 123-125, 1842.

“Opi Cit. wip: 109.

=] Op. ceil. jas a 8.

H. N. Eaton—Oriskany Sandstone Faunule. 429

species has been previously found by the writer at
Yawger’s Woods, near Union Springs, New York, and its
description will be published later. The shell shows
possible resorption on the free margin, and is abbreviated
accordingly. This fossil is quite similar in appearance
to Meristella lata and may have been confused with the
latter form by Vanuxem.’ It is the most abundant form.

Spirifer arenosus is very abundant, occurring with
shell marking's preserved and also as interior casts.

Spirifer murchisoni is less common than S. arenosus.

Hipparionyx proximus is not common, and occurs near
the top of the formation where the rock is quartzitic, the
rotund dorsal valve usually being preserved.

Centronella and Rhipidomella are rare.

The identifications of Leptostroplia and Megalanteris
are doubtful and in each case rest upon the interpretation
of single specimens.

It is interesting to note that few, if any, of the type
specimens of the Oriskany fauna in the state museum at
Albany are from Oriskany Falls, showing in what hght
esteem the early collectors held the Oriskany Falls
occurrence.

Correlation.

While correlations may be premature due to the paucity
of species, certain comparisons may be of value. Meri-
stella levis is an Helderbergian and Lower Oriskany
form. Centronella glansfagea is common in the Upper
Oriskany and occurs in the Onondaga. It is also plentiful
at Yawger’s Woods, near Union Springs. Rhipidomella
emarginata is known in the Helderbergian but has not
been reported previously from the Oriskany. (This last
statement is based on the probability of R. emarginata
being a separate and distinct species, as distinguished by
the Maryland Survey, and not merely a variety of R.
oblata.)

Of the ten species identified beyond doubt, 80 per cent
is found in Schuchert’s'® list of Lower Oriskany species,
and an equal-number appears in his Upper Oriskany list.
Dr. Schuchert"™ regarded the faunule as of Upper Oris-
kany age from the small assemblage of fossils reported

* Op. cit., p. 125, 1842.

“ C. Schuchert, Lower Devonic Aspect of the Lower Helderberg and Oris-

kany Formations, Bull., Geol. Soc. America, 11, 292-296, 1900.
+ Op. Gii.. DSO.

Am. Jour. Sci.—Firta Series, Vou. I, No. 5.—May, 1921.
29

430 H. N. Eaton—Oriskany Sandstone Faunule.

by Vanuxem. Stauffer’s'!? list of the Oriskany fossils of
Ontario contains 70 per cent. The writer has found all
of them at Yawger’s Woods.

Acknowledgments.

Dr. G. D. Harris of Cornell University and Prof. E. R.
Smith of Oberlin College assisted in identification of
species, and Prof. H. O..Whitnall of Colgate University
supplied field data in connection with the preparation of
the foregoing paper. Dr. J. M. Clarke has kindly read
the manuscript. Acknowledgment of this he freely
given, is hereby gratefully made.

Department of Geology,
Syracuse University.

“C, R. Stauffer, The Devonian of Southwestern Ontario, Geol. Survey
Canada, Mem. 34, 249-251, 1915.

N. E. Stevens—Petrified Palms. 431

Arr. XX XI.—Two Petrified Palms from Interior North
America; by Net HK. Stevens.

The discovery of calcified palm trunks in the upper
Pierre Cretaceous of South Dakota was announced in
1903 by Wieland. The discovery of any plants with
structure conserved in marine horizons is notable. More-
over palm wood of undoubted Cretaceous age has been
reported only a few times in North America, and with the
exception of Palmoxylon Clifwoodensis Berry” the spe-
cies are all from more recent horizons than the Pierre. An
uncommon interest, however, attaches to these Pierre
palms because of association in a remarkable assemblage
of land and marine forms. In a paper discussing the
marine turtle Archelon Wieland says:

With Archelon ischyros and Marshu there occurs in the upper-
most 100 feet of the Fort Pierre (No. 4 Upper Cretaceous), as
developed on the Cheyenne River, a series of immediately asso-
ciated forms of more than ordinary interest. In the first place, I
have obtained in this same horizon well preserved toe bones of a
Dinosaurian nearly of the form and nearly as large as those of
Claosaurus annectens, which I shall figure later as Claosaurus (?)
affims sp. nov. And presumably from the same drift from a not
far distant shore, I secured an exquisitely preserved new species
of Palm stem, later to be described as Palmoxylon cheyennense.

Secondly, associated with these land forms are numerous
[Plesiosaurs|, a shark (a broad-toothed Lamma), a fish allied to
Beryz, a Saurocephalodont, and the following invertebrates,—
Nautilus De Kayi (very abundant in the matrix of one of the
large turtle skeletons), Placenticeras placenta, Scaphites nodosus,
Emperoceras Beecheri Hyatt, Baculites ovatus and compressus
Say, Callista Deweyi M. and H., Inoceramus, etc., ete.

Regarding the discovery and age of the petrified palm
trunks, Wieland, the only person who has thus far
observed them afield, makes the further statement for
publication here:

The great turtles, the Dinosaur, Plesiosaurs, the invertebrates —
and the palms, could, in fact, be observed within a radius of one
mile. The palms are found on both sides of the South Fork of
the Cheyenne where the Oligocene overlap is most deeply cut,
to the east of the Black Hills, in the region of the cafon-like
‘‘draws’’ of the bad lands, know as the ‘‘Quinn,’’ ‘‘Battle
Creek,’’ and the ‘‘Corral Draw.’’ They have been found four

* Wieland, G. R., this Journal (4) vol. 15, pp. 211-216. 1903.
* Berry, E. W., this Journal (4) vol. 41, pp. 193-197. 1916.

439 N. E. Stevens—Petrified Palms.

times, and always in surroundings indicating the Pierre. From
at least one occurrence of these palm stems it was evident that
transportation for a long distance from the overlying Oligocene
was not possible. I hold them as certainly Cretaceous.

The sections of palm wood cut by Wieland at the time
of his original publication were in 1920 turned over to
me for further study, and from them the accompanying
figures have been made.

For convenience in comparison there is included in the
present paper a description of a species of palm wood
from the lower portion of the Denver formation (Hocene).
The specimen upon which this species is based forms
part of a large collection of Palmoxylon material obtained
by Dr. George L. Cannon of Denver, and with other repre-
sentative material from the same collection has been
presented by him to the Yale Museum. Dr. Cannon’s
collection of petrified palm stems is the most notable thus
far brought together in North America and deserves full
monographic treatment. The sections of the Denver
palm were prepared at the U. S. National Museum
through the courtesy of Dr. George P. Merrill.

Palmoxylon cheyennense Wieland

The palm stems of the Cheyenne have not been traced
back to material im situ thus far. So that only the eroded
stem centers are at hand. These are found as more or
less spindle-shaped forms several feet in length by four
or five inches in diameter. Being calcified, the sections
must be ground with some care.

Structure—Although the preservation is so excellent,
and the sections carefully made, the wood of P. cheyen-
nense appears dense in cross section. This is due to the
large size and relatively compact arrangement of the
fibrovascular bundles (cf. figs. 1 and 2), to the presence —
of numerous bast strands between these bundles, and to
the absence of large intercellular spaces among the cells
of the fundamental tissue.

The cells of the fundamental tissue present no unusual
features. They are variable in size and shape, and are
closely packed, with few or no intercellular spaces. No
pitting is evident in their walls. and there are no specially
thickened or differentiated cells. The auxiliary scleren-
chyvma bundles, rather regularly scattered among the ~

N. E. Stevens—Petrified Palms. 433

fibrovascular bundlés, are usually about 50 » to 75 » in
diameter, and show from 15 to 30 cells in cross section.
Fibrovascular bundles.—The fibrovascular bundles are
rather close together, in the sections examined, and vary
from about 20 per sq. cm. to about 35 per sq. em. (cf. figs.
1 and 2). The bundles themselves are rather large,
usually measuring at least 1 mm in shortest diameter, by
1 to 1.5 mm in longest diameter, as compared, for example,
with .6 to .75 mm. by 1 mm. in P. anchorus Stevens of the
New Jersey Cretaceous, and .6 mm. by 1 mm. in P. Cliff-

Fig. 1—P. cheyennense, outline showing relative size and arrangement
of the fibrovascular bundles in the interior portion of the stem. X 5.

Fig. 2.—P. cheyennense, outline showing relative size and arrangement
of the bundles in the outer portion of the stem. X 5.

woodensis Berry. In the material studied the bundles
were chiefly of the ‘‘longitudinal’’ type, that is, typical
upright stem bundles with two, or sometimes three large
vessels, .133 mm. to .055 mm. in diameter (fig. 3). In the
phloem, which is preserved in a few of the bundles, twelve
to twenty sieve tubes may be distinguished. The scleren-
chyma portions, which are composed of typical bast fibres
closely appressed, vary in shape but are predominantly
ovoid and rather regular in outline. As is best shown in
longitudinal section (fig. 5) a band of sclerenchyma fibers
occurs on the side of the vessels opposite the phloem.
This is the so called posterior sclerenchymous arch of
Stenzel.®

On one slide, that from which figure 2 was made, there
occur nine or ten bundles of the type shown in figs. 4, 6,
and 7. These are obviously either the ‘‘Ubergangs-

* Stenzel, K. G., Fossile Palmenholzer, Beitrage zur Palaontologie und

Geologie Osterreich—Ungarns und des Orients, Band XVI, Heft IV, p. 1-182,
1904.

434 N. E. Stevens—Petrified Palms.

Fig. 3.—P. cheyennense, a longitudinal bundle showing three large vessels.
This bundle is slightly smaller than many of those shown in the sections,
and the phloem is well preserved. A single bast strand is also shown. X 45.

Fig. 4—P. cheyennense, a transition bundle. X 40.

N. E. Stevens—Petrified Palms. 435

biindel’’ or the ‘‘ Kveuzungsbundel’’ of Stenzel. It is not
always easy to decide in which class a given section of
a bundle should be placed; nor is the distinction of great
importance, since the two names are used to designate
merely different regions of the same bundle. The ‘‘tran-
sition bundle’’ is simply the longitudinal bundle as it
turns outward. toward a leaf, while the ‘‘transverse
bundle’’ (which might well be called ‘‘oblique’’) is the
continuation of the transition bundle out toward a leaf.

!

MM)

Caailin

Le iA Ke

PANN
wt

the
Vy)
ot

Nvtyt

VNC
‘

Vyylyt
aids

Nata
Whe

Yaa

Fig. 5.—P. cheyennense, longitudinal section of a fibrovascular bundle,
showing (left to right) parenchymatous cells of fundamental tissue, scler-
enchyma (the posterior sclerenchymous arch), two vessels, phloen region (not
preserved), a portion of the main bast region, and more fundamental tissue.
X 45.

“Probably the section shown in fig. + most nearly exempli-
fies Stenzel’s description of a transition bundle, and figs.
6 and 7 the oblique bundle.

One curious bundle was found, fig. 8, which might be
interpreted as a chance union of two bundles, or possibly
as a branching longitudinal bundle.

Fungus hyphe.— Fungus hyphe are apparently com-
mon in petrified palm woods. Berry has described two

436 N. E. Stevens—Petrified Palms.

species? (Peronosporoides palmi and Cladosporttes oligo-
caenicum) in Palmoxylon cellulosum JKnowlton. The
writer found fungus hyphe in Palmoxylon anchorus® and
published some notes as to the apparent effect of the
fungus on the wood. Hyphe are also abundant in certain
parts of both species discussed in this paper. In P.

ogo:

‘]

a

SR
‘

2.

Figs. 6 and 7.—P. cheyennense, oblique bundles. X 45.

cheyennense occur hyphe of two distinct types. Some
are fine and without evident septations; others, much

* Berry, E. W., Remarkable Fossil Fungi. Mycologia 8, pp. 73-78. 1916.
° Stevens, N. E., this Journal (4), vol. 34, pp. 421-436, 1912.

N. E. Stevens—Petrified Palms. 437

larger, sometimes as much as 16 » in diameter, are septate,
and have taken on a dark color. From fig. 9 it is evident

i?
‘o
i

2,
r)
S
“ene
SS,
38
[)
oC.
)

B
2

SAL y
‘ aA] 2
EF
SS
oC
(=)
oY,
&,

oer
SS3
5%
2]

A so la a)

Be @
3 C3
E580 KS
ge
i Ee Sea ae

< 2, = SP £9
< ag St
ey SCR
\ SSSR Kf

9

‘I

e

Es

LAY

Bus

0
ee
Ih
Phy)
<<

Fig. 8.—P. cheyennense, double bundle. X 45.

Fig. 9.—Fungus hypha in P. cheyennense, the hypha apparently penetrates
to, but not into, the bast cells. X 80.

that these larger hyphe grow for considerable distances
within the parenchymatous cells of the fundamental

438 N. HE. Stevens—Petrified Palms.

tissue, though able to penetrate the walls of those cells.
Fig. 10 shows the constriction in a hypha where it passes
through the wall of a host cell, a condition which has often
been observed and figured from living material. |
As in other fossil palm woods the hypheze are most
abundant in the cells of the fundamental tissue and in the
vascular elements, particularly the phloem, of the fibro-
vascular bundles. No hyphe appear in or among. the
bast cells although repeatedly occurring in close proximity
to them, fig. 9. That the fundamental tissue should be

Fig. 10.—Photomicrograph of fungus hypa penetrating wall of cell of
P. cheyennense.

attacked by the fungus while the bast regions of the
bundles remain unchanged is quite in accord with the
present action of fungi on the palms. In partly rotted
palm logs recently noted in Southern California the
fundamental tissue was almost entirely broken down, yet
the bast portions of the bundles were tough and morpho-
logically apparently unchanged. This close resemblance
of fossil and modern fungi in method of attack on the
host may well be considered as indicating that the environ-
ment of a fungus growing inside the stem of a palm was
relatively the same ten million years ago as it is today.

N. E. Stevens—Petrified Palms. 439

Description of Species.
Palmoxylon cheyennense Wieland.

Locality,—Pierre, Upper Cretaceous, near the Cheyenne River south of
mouth of Battle Creek, South Dakota.

Type in Yale Museum. |

Fibrovascular bundles more numerous near the peri-
phery of the stem (about 35 per. sq. cm.) than inter-

nally (about 20 per sq. cm.), about 1 mm. in shortest
diameter by 1 to 1.5 in longest diameter, somewhat varia-
ble in size and shape, chiefly regular in outline. ‘‘Pos-
terior sclerenchymous arch’’ present. Auxiliary scleren-
chyma bundles numerous. Fundamental tissue of stem
without intercellular spaces or conspicuously thickened

ee ee we ee eee i ae ee ww =

Fig. 11—Palmozylon cannoni, outline showing relative size and arrange-
ment of the fibrovascular bundles of the stem. X 5.

or pitted cells. The bast portion of the fibrovascular
bundles much larger than the vascular portion.

The Denver Specimen.

The palm wood here selected for comparison with
P. cheyennense oceurs as a silicified black mass from near
the base of a large stem. In general appearance this
black and dense specimen suggests some meteorite of a
hundred or more pounds. The structure appears in
remarkable detail, only the phloem (which indeed may
have been destroyed before silicification) failing of pre-
servation.

In contrast to P. cheyennense the wood of the Denver
specimen has the fibrovascular bundles rather widely
separated, (fig. 11) only about ten per sq. em. Typical
longitudinal bundles (fig. 12) measure from .8 to 1. mm.
by .9 to 1. mm. in diameter and contain characteristically
two large thick walled vessels, usually from .166 to .100
mm. in diameter. The sclerenchyma portion is rounded

E. Stevens—Petrified Palms.

Ns

440)

cannon, typical longitudinal bundle showing two large
X45.

12.—P.

Fig
vessels.

The phloem was not preserved.

transition bundle showing two large and several

S
L106
S =

S
b4
Rik
|
=
ine) oI
a iv 2
0)
mite -
on—
i —
py
[=|
Lee!
MN

N. FE. Stevens—Petrified Palms. 44]

in eross section and flattened where it joins the vascular
portion. The phloem elements were nowhere preserved.
Most of the bundles in the sections so far cut are of transi-
tion regions, one of which is shown in fig. 13.

The fundamental tissue of this species is rather special-
ized. Like that of P. celluloswm JXnowlton it has large
intercellular spaces (fig. 15) but scattered among the
typical parenchymatous cells, usually in groups of three
to ten, are much thicker ‘‘stone’’ cells (fig. 14). These

Fig. 14.—P. cannoni, portion of the fundamental tissue which contains
many stone ecells (thick walled) among the typical parenchymatous cells
(thinner walled) ; several intercellular spaces are also shown. X 45.

Fig. 15.—P. cannoni, portion of the fundamental tissue close to that
shown in figure 14, but containing no stone cells. In this figure the cells are
outlined in stipple so that the large intercellular spaces are readily distin-
guished. X 45.

stone cells vary considerably in size, in number associated
ina single group, and thickness of walls, while some seem
to be pitted.

Of hitherto described species the one under considera-
tion seems most closely to resemble P. remotum Stenzel
from the Oligocene® near Washington, Mississippi. Like

* Berry, E. W. The Flora of the Catahoula Sandstone, in Shorter contri-

butions to general geology. U.S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 98., pp. 227
to 252, 1917.

449 N..E. Stevens—Petrified Palms.

P. remotum its vascular bundles are scattered, rather
rounded in outline, and the fundamental tissue contains
thick walled cells (dark colored in the fossil material).
These thick walled cells of the fundamental tissue differ
markedly from the similarly placed ‘‘dark cells’’ distin-
guished by Stenzel (3, p. 197) in P. porosum and P. remo-
twm in that they usually occur in groups, have larger cell
cavities, and are variable in size and shape. The stone
cells thus constitute a good diagnostic character of the
species (fig. 16.).

The present species of silicified palm wood can appro-
priately be named only after its finder, Dr. George L.
Cannon, who has done so much to advance the knowledge
of both the fossils and the geology of the Denver region.

Fig. 16.—P. cannoni, stone cells showing their varying size and wall
thickness. One cell shows pits in the lower wall. X 80.

Description of Species.
Palmoxylon cannon, sp. nov.

Locality—Lower portion of the Denver formation (Eocene) western
suburbs of Denver, Colorado.

Type (portion of specimen and the type sections) in
Yale museum.

Fibrovascular bundles scattered, usually about 10 per
sq. cm., .8 to 1. mm. in diameter. Bast region rounded
in outline, flattened where it joins the vascular portion.
No marked difference in size, shape or arrangement of
fibrovascular bundles in different parts of the specimen.
No auxiliary sclerenchyma bundles. Fundamental tissue
composed of irregular, rather thin walled cells, with large
intercellular spaces, and also beset by groups of thicker
walled ‘‘stone’’ cells varying greatly in size, thickness
of wall, and number of cells to the group. Stone cell
groups usually measure from .1 to .3 mm. in diameter.

N. EL. Stevens—Petrified Palms. 443

Classification.

In the present state of knowledge regarding the anat-
omy of fossil, and living, palms the investigator may
well adopt the system used by Stenzel (8) which is the
result of the most extensive study of the anatomy of
fossil palms yet published. Like all artificial systems it
presents some difficulties in application. For example,
when the writer deseribed P. anchorus he was inclined to
place it in Stenzel’s class C, ‘‘ Kokos-like stems,’’ because
no marked difference in size, shape or arrangement of the
inner and outer bundles was detected. The bundles in
this species are, however, much too far apart to agree with
the ‘‘IXokos-lke stems.’’ Again, P. anchorus might well
be placed in the subdivision Lacunosa of Stenzel’s group
Complanata, which includes species with the fibrovascular
bundles separated from one another by more than one
diameter. But so doing involves the assumption that in
the extreme outer portion of the stem, lacking in the
specimen, the fibrovascular bundles were close together,
this being a distinguishing character of Stenzel’s Class B.
‘*Corypha-like stems. ’’

The two species considered here fit easily into Stenzel’s
scheme. In P. cheyennense both peripheral and more
central bundles have the sclerenchyma portion much
larger than the vascular portion, which together with the
fact that the central bundles are more widely separated
than the peripheral places it among the ‘‘Corypha-like
stems.’’ The shape of the sclerenchyma portion, which
is flattened where it joins the vascular portion, places it
in Group IV, ‘‘Complanata,’’ and the close arrangement
of its fibrovascular bundles and its dense fundamental
tissue indicate that it belongs to the sub-group ‘‘Solida.”’

P. cannom also apparently belongs to the group ‘‘Com-
planata’’ but to the sub-group ‘‘Lacunosa’’ because the
fibrovascular bundles are more than one diameter apart,
and the fundamental tissue has large intercellular spaces.
Among species belonging to this sub-group it most nearly
resembles P. remotum in the arrangement of its fibrovas-
cular bundles and in the presence of thick walled cells
scattered among the cells of the fundamental tissue. The
vascular portion of the bundle in P. remotum is, however,
much larger as compared to the sclerenchyma portion,
than in P. cannont.

Bureau of Plant Industry,
Washington, D. C.

444. W. F. Foshag—Isomorphic Relations of the

Arr. XXXII.—The Isomorphic Relations of the Sulpho-
salts of Lead and Copper; by Wruutam F.. FosHae.!

The sulphosalt minerals are chiefly compounds of lead,
silver and copper with sulphur and antimony, arsenic and
bismuth. Rarely iron, zine, mereury, thallium and man-
ganese enter into the composition of these minerals to
any considerable extent, while selenium and tellurium
may replace some of the sulphur. In these compounds
sulphur, selenium and tellurium are strictly isomorphous,
as are also antimony, arsenic and bismuth. A critical
survey of all reliable data, however, indicates that the
lead, and silver and copper are not isomorphous and that
the formation of mixed crystals does not take place. This
fact does not seem to have been generally recognized and
our standard text-books contain formulas of the
type (Pb,Ag.);Sb,8,, (diaphorite) and (Cu,Pb),Sb.S,
(bournonite). We find, where the analyses are reliable,
that the silver minerals, pyrargyrite, stephanite, etc., are
remarkably free of lead and that the lead mimerals rathite,
sartorite, ete. are free of copper and silver. H. Rose was
the first to state this fact. He says,” ‘‘I have never seen
lead sulphide occurring together with the other metallic
sulphides except copper sulphide and sometimes with
iron sulphide, which, however, are in such small amounts
that they do not appear to belong to the compound. The
compounds that do not contain lead sulphide are com-
pletely free of lead even when they are surrounded by
galena or the crystals rest upon galena.”’

These deductions of Rose seem to have received little
attention other than occasional denial in the early litera-
ture. We shall see that his generalization is correct
except for a certain type of compound. :

In order to determine whether there is considerable
miscibility between lead on the one hand and silver and
copper on the other the writer undertook to collect a
number of analyses of the sulphosalts, noting the kind
of material upon which the analyses were made. Unfor- |
tunately the descriptions of the material analyzed were in |

1 Published by permission of the Director of the Smithsonian Institution.

2Ueber die in der Natur vorkommenden nicht oxydirten Verbindungen
des Antimons und des Arseniks, Pogg. Ann., 15, p. 469.

Sulphosalts of Lead, Silver and Copper. 445

almost all cases hardly adequate to determine how free
of admixture the particular sample was. Only in a few
cases were any mineralographic examinations attempted
and these invariably showed small amounts of admixture
even where crystals were used. In many cases copper
and silver have not been determined in lead salts or lead
sought for in copper or silver salts. The sums, however,
indicate that their amounts, if present at all, are negli-
gible. Because of this unsatisfactory character of the
analyses they are not included here and only the general
results will be noted. Of 32 analyses of lead minerals,
made mainly upon crystallized material and embracing all!
the species, none showed a copper or silver content of over
1 percent and in most cases hardly more that 0.5 percent.
Of 21 copper salts only one showed a percentage of more
than 1 percent of lead. Of the silver salts two analyses
from the same locality made upon ‘‘excellent’’ material
showed over 1 percent of lead. ‘Twenty-three showed less
than 1 percent or none at all. These analyses were picked
only to the extent that the material was crystallized or
apparently homogenous as far as determinable.

It is evident that the miscibility between lead on the one
hand and silver and copper on the other is very slight
if it takes place at all. Itis difficult to determine from the
existing analyses whether the small amounts of lead, or
of the silver and copper, are due to slight miscibility or
to admixture. Since mineralographic examination has
shown the presence of foreign material even in the best
erystallized samples it is safe to assume that the small
percent of these constituents are foreign to the mineral
proper.

We have another type of compound in which lead, silver
and copper do occur together in considerable amounts.
These include such minerals as diaphorite, bournonite,
freieslebenite, ete. A survey of the analyses of these
minerals shows them to have a remarkably constant com-
position. They are in fact double salts. In some cases
the minerals have been recognized as double salts, in
some this has been suggested, but in a large number of
cases they are regarded as isomorphous mixtures. In
all eases the ratios of the constituent sulphides to each
other are simple and definite. These minerals are as
follows:

Am. Jour. Sci.—FirtH Series, Vou. I, No. 5.—May, 1921.
30

446 W. F. Foshag—Relations of Sulphosalts.

AmPoritel,.. 9142 Ee. AgPbSb.S8, Ag.S:2PbS:38b.8,
Milaskarter chet doo see Ag,Pb Bi,S, Ag.S:PbS:2Bi,8,
Selirmerites seen jee Ag,PbBi,S, 2A¢.8:-PbS-2Bi,8,
Owyheeite ws tye se dies'c Ag.Pb.Sb,9,; Ag,S-5PbS-38b,8,
Brongniardtite ..... Ag.Pb Sb.S, ~ Ag .S:-PbS:Sb.S,
Schapbachite ....... Ag, PbBi,S, Ag.S:PbS:Bi,8,
Freieslebenite..... -, Ag,Pb,Sb,8, 3Ag,95:-4PbS- 38b, S;
Diapnorite set. fe Ag,Pb,Sb,8, 3Ag,S-4Pb8-38b, g.
Selioniannte 4). 2545.5 CuPbAss, Cu,S:2PbS8- As. 8,
Bowrnenitey geal o2 CuPbSbS8, Cu,S:2PbS:Sb, S.
Arvkaniben Sit. Sie: 23 CuPbBis, Cu,S:2PbS-Bi,S,

The above formulas show the simple ratios of the
constituent sulphides. This, together with the constancy
of composition, even in specimens from widely differing
localities and occurrences, places these minerals definitely
as double salts.

There are no simple silver analogues of the lead salts.
Where a silver-bearing mineral falls into a group with a
number of lead minerals it is one of the double compounds
given above.* In the case of the copper salts there are a
few cases in which they are similar to the lead salts in
type of compound but there seems to be evidence that they
also are not isomorphous.

The conclusions arrived at from a critical survey of
the best analytical data are: (1) that lead on the one hand
and silver and copper on the other hand are not isomor-
phous and that they do not form mixed crystals; (2) that
the silver-lead or the copper-lead sulphosalts are double
salts. |

*See Wherry and Foshag, A new Classification of the sulfo-salt Minerals,
Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 11, 1, 1921.

W. A. Johnston—Calcareous Sandstone. 447

Arr. XXXIII.—The Occurrence of Calcareous Sand-
stone in the Recent Delta of Fraser River, British Col-
umbia, Canada ; by W. A. JoHNSTON.

The occurrence of calcareous sandstone, which is appar-
ently forming in the Recent delta of Fraser river, British
Columbia, was brought to the attention of the Geological
Survey, Canada, by samples sent in by Mr. W. P. Gross,
Engineer of the Department of Public Works, in charge of
dredging on Fraser river. The occurrence was examined
during the course of an investigation, made during parts
of 1919 and 1920, of the characteristics of Fraser river
and its delta, and, because of its rarity and unusual char-
acter, is here described.

The Recent or modern delta of the Fraser river is
building out into fairly deep water in the Strait of Geor-
gia. The delta extends inland for 19 miles and across
its seaward front is 14 miles wide. The surface of the
delta is practically all below the level of high tide, and
the delta land high enough to be reclaimed is diked. Sand
_banks, exposed in large part at low tide but completely.
submerged at high tide, form the seaward part of the
delta and extend on an average 4 to 5 miles from the
higher delta land. A number of distributaries flow
through the delta, the main Fraser flowing the central
part, the North Arm along the northern side of the delta,
and in the southern part a number of smaller outlet
channels occur.

The caleareous sandstone occurs in the sand banks in
. the seaward part of the delta. It was dredged by the
Government dredge near the inner end of the entrance
of the North Arm of the Fraser, where a bar was cut
through and large quantities of the material thrown out.
It was also dredged by the Government dredge and by
the writer in the main channel of the river in its seaward
part, and by the writer in the seaward part of the old
channel of the river south of the present main channel.
It is known to the fishermen, who refer to it as ‘‘clinkers’’
and state that it frequently fouls their nets in the channels
on the sand banks both north and south of the main outlet
channel of the river. It probably does not form in the
river channels but in the sand banks, and occurs in loose
masses in the channels because of erosion of the sand

* Published by permission of the Director of the Geological Survey,
Canada.

44.8 W. A. Johnston—Calcareous Sandstone.

banks and shifting of the river channels; for the material
dredged from the bottom of the river is usually water-
worn, whereas that dredged from the sand banks is not,

and the currents in the channels are too strong to permit.

of formation of the material. A careful search of the
sand banks exposed at low tide failed to reveal any of the
sandstone in place. It probably, therefore, forms below
the level of low tide but at a depth of only a few feet
below that level. It can not possibly be derived from
erosion of older formations for no such deposits are
being eroded by the river, and it occurs in the seaward
part of the Recent delta to which no material larger than
fine gravel is being transported by the river.

The specimens of the material obtained show that it
consists in part of sandstone of which the cementing
material is calcium carbonate, in part of sandy or silty
and shelly limestone, and in part of concretionary lime-
stone. A partial analysis of one sample of the material,
made by Mr. R. D. McLellan of the Department of Mines,
Canada, gave the following results:

AKG GAR STA AER: is OATS iad cate E Bt Bobet 42.01 per cent.
BesOe FA Use se Io), SIC eS ee 7.42 ‘*
eu) Sues ie eked. hs SENS ao AER 36.04:0°9 as
COST iAe cecal iy. hk 2 PO SEIEE woh 14:40) Sry
EE OR. ae APs 28s Veo. 8 Sisise Set 0:02 4
BOI, ebigt > Saas le he ee. Tee 99.89 per cent.

The material of this specimen is composed of sand,
grains cemented together by calcium carbonate, which

constitutes 50 per cent of the rock. The proportion of ~

lime varies considerably in different specimens, the con-
eretion-like specimens being largely composed of lime;
others are composed largely of shells with a mixture of
sand and silt cemented by lime. The material is largely
calcareous sandstone. It occurs as irregularly shaped
masses which are quite consolidated when brought out
of the water. Marine shells partly dissolved and frag-
ments of wood only slightly altered are nearly always
associated with the occurrences and usually form parts of
the material. In the vicinity, where the material occurs
there is usually an escape of gas which is inflammable and
is probably marsh gas. During the freshet stage. of the
river, (May, June, and July,) the sand banks are covered

for the greater part of the time by fresh river water. ©

During the low-water stage sea-water covers the banks

CU

W. A. Johnston—Calcareous Sandstone. A49

most of the time. At certain stages of the river, particu-
larly during the times intermediate between high and low-
water stages of the river, there are daily oscillations of
sea-water and river-water over the banks, because of the
tides. During the greater part of the year, therefore,
the sand banks are saturated with sea-water and during
the freshet months they are saturated with river-water.
The river-water during the freshet is 2 to 4 degrees C.
warmer than the sea-water. The temperature of the
river-water during the freshet months varies from 12
degrees C. in May to 18 degrees C. in July or August.
The temperature of the surface sea-water in the Strait
of Georgia, near the mouth of the river, varies from 12
to 14 degrees C.; at a depth of 25 feet it is 10 to 11 degrees
C. and at depths of 50 to 100 feet, 9 to 10 degrees C.

The mode of formation of the calcareous material as
suggested by the mode of occurrence and the conditions
under which it occurs is as follows: The hme which forms
a considerable part of the material is probably derived
from the shells, for the shells are partly dissolved, they
usually form part of the material, and the river-water
does not contain an excess of lime, the average of 22
analyses made by the Department of Mines showing
only 11.85 parts per million of calcium. The analyses
were made from composite samples of the river-water
taken tri-weekly at New Westminster for the period of
one year from May 5, 1919, to May 5, 1920. The sea-
water, which contains much less lime than the river-water |
and is probably rendered acid by the gas formed from the
decay of the wood, tends to dissolve the shells. The
river-water, which displaces or mixes with the sea-water
in the sand banks, tends to cause deposition of the bicar-
bonate of lime in solution because of the higher tempera-
ture and higher lime content of the river-water. The
shells are partly aragonitic in character and hence are
readily dissolved. ‘The lime is deposited as calcium car-
bonate and is not readily redissolved. There is thus a
mass action in the direction of deposition of the lime.

The occurrence is an unusual one and differs from the
well-known ‘‘stone or rock reefs’’ in that the material is
formed below the permanent water level. It shows that,
in exceptional circumstances such as obtain in the seaward
part of the Fraser delta, lithification, to some extent, of
the sediments and the formation of sandy and shelly
limestone and concretionary limestone may take place
below the permanent water level.

450 W. A. Johnston—Delta of Fraser River.

Arr. XXXIV.—The Age of the Recent Delta of Fraser
Rwer, British Columbia, Canada;' by W. A. JoHNsTON.

One of the problems studied in connection with an
investigation of the characteristics of Fraser river, Brit-
ish Columbia, by the Geological Survey, Canada, in ¢o-
operation with the Department of Public Works, in 1919
and 1920, was the question of the age or time which has
elapsed during the period of formation of the Recent
or modern delta of the Fraser. This is of interest not
only in itself, but because there has been much dispute
in recent years as to whether uplift has continued into
Recent time; in regions such as the Fraser Delta region
where post-glacial uplift is known to have taken place.

The Recent, or modern, delta of Fraser river, British
Columbia, is for the most part sharply delimited from the
raised delta and marine deposits formed during the period
of uplift of the land at the close of the Pleistocene. The
surface of the Recent delta is all, except in a few places
where the surface of peat bogs is a few feet above the
general level, below the level of high tide; and the delta
land high enough to be reclaimed is diked to exelude the
flood-tidal and freshet waters. The head of the Recent
delta, as defined by the point where the first distributary
is given off, is at the city of New Westminster, 19 miles
upstream or east from the seaward front of the delta in
the Strait of Georgia. At New Westminster the river
is confined between drift ridges or upland areas, which
rise 200 to 300 feet above the river; and the river has
occupied the valley between these ridges throughout the
time of formation of the Recent delta. The upland
area south of the river marks the inner edge of the delta,
and extends from a point on the river 3%4 miles below
New Westminster nearly straight south to Boundary
Bay. The delta is bounded on the north by the highland
area extending from New Westminster nearly west to
Point Grey. In its seaward part on the south side it is
interrupted by the highland area of Point Roberts, an
island-like drift hill which has been joined to the mainland
by the construction of the delta. Above New Westmin-
ster there is a large area extending from the south side

1 Published by permission of the Director of the Geological Survey,
Canada.

W. A. Johnston—Delta of Fraser River. 451

of Fraser river north to Pitt lake, the surface of which is
largely below the level of high tide and, therefore, may
be in part considered as belonging to the Recent delta
of the Fraser. A considerable part of the filling of this
area, however, is stratified clay deposited during the
period of uplift of the land, and parts of the delta area
above New Westminster are a few feet above sea-level.
It is probable, therefore, that the great part of the delta
deposits of the Fraser, above New Westminster, were
formed during the period of uplift following the final
retreat of the Pleistocene glaciers from this region,
and that the great part of the delta deposits below New
Westminster have been formed during Recent time when
the sea and land had their present relationship or very
nearly so.

The delta is building out into fairly deep water in the
strait of Georgia, and in structure presents the forms
characteristic of a high-grade delta. The fore-set beds
are well developed and extend from the 3-fathom line to
about the 30-fathom line, and have an average dip of about
10 degrees. Below the 30-fathom lne the beds slope
more gradually seaward, the 100-fathom line being
reached at from 1 to 2 miles from the outer edge of the
sand banks, which form the seaward part of the delta.
The sand banks are in large part exposed at low tide and
extend seaward on an average of 4 to 5 miles from the
higher delta land which is diked. The delta is building
out into fairly deep water in spite of the facts that: the
river is tidal for a considerable distance above its mouth,
with a mean tidal range of 6.4 feet and a maximum range
of 15 feet at its mouth, and that the seaward front of the
delta is swept by fairly strong tidal currents. The
out-building occurs because of the dominance of the river
eurrents over the tidal currents. The flood-tidal currents
in the strait of Georgia run north and are the dominant
tidal currents. ‘They have the effect of giving the larger
part of the subaqueous front of the delta a smooth, curved
outline lacking the finger-lke projections characteristic
of many deltas. The steep under-water face of the delta
is a characteristic feature and extends along the whole of
the seaward front of the delta from the highland area of
Point Grey on the north to the highland area of Point
Roberts on the south, a distance of 14 miles.

The thickness of the Recent delta is known approxi-

452 W. A. Johnston—Delta of Fraser Rwer.

mately at one point by a well boring at Steveston on
Fraser river, 5% miles upstream from the seaward front
of the delta. The man who drilled the well stated that
sand was passed through for a depth of 700 feet from the
surface, a bowlder 10 feet in diameter was penetrated at
710 feet, and the first stratum of hard shale was encoun-
tered at 860 feet. The Recent delta is probably, there-
fore at least 700 feet thick at this point.

An estimate of the yearly rate of seaward advance of
the delta for the past 60 years has been made by Mr. W.
H. Boyd, Chief Topographer of the Geological Survey
Branch, Department of Mines, Canada, by a comparison
of the soundings made in 1859 and shown on the 1860
chart with those made in 1919 by the Hydrographic Sur-
vey of Canada. The advance seaward of the bottom of
the steep under-water face of the delta, which is marked
approximately by the 30-fathom line, was determined by
a comparison of soundings made in 1859 with those made
in 1919. The rate of advance thus determined was taken
as the rate of advance of the delta. The results showed
that there has been no advance in the southern (one-third)
part of the delta front, the reason for this being that the
flood-tidal current sweeps this part of the delta and com-
paratively little sediment has been delivered by the river
to this part. In the central part, for a distance of 4%
miles, the rate of advance is considerable, the average of
all the rates of advance, as determined at different points,
being 26 feet a year. "At one point the rate of advance
was found to be 50.6 feet a year. The rate of advance
at this point, however, is pr obably representative of only
a very small part of the delta front. Disearding it, the
average rate of advance a year of the central part of the
delta is 20 feet per year. The northern (one-third) part
of the delta front has also advanced because the entrance
of the North Arm of the Fraser is in this part of the
delta and the flood-tidal currents tend to carry northward
part of the sediment brought down by the main Fraser.
The average rate of advance of the northern part of the
delta is probably about half that of the central part but
is not definitely known because of the lack of sufficient
soundings for purposes of comparison. The average
rate of advance of the delta as a whole is probably, there- 7
fore, about 10 feet a year.

The age of the Recent delta may be approximately —

W. A. Johnston—Delta of Fraser River. 453

determined by assuming that the rate of seaward advance
of the delta as determined for the past 60 years has been
uniform during the time of formation of the delta, and
dividing the rate into the distance of advance of the
delta. The average distance from the inner edge of the
delta along the highland below New Westminster to the
seaward front of the delta is about 80,000 feet. Dividing
this by 10 feet gives 8,000 years as the age of the Recent
delta. It is possible, however, that the rate of advance
has varied in the past and that part of the delta above
New Westminster was formed in Recent time. Hence
these figures have little absolute value, but they seem to
show, nevertheless, that the relationship of sea and land
in the Fraser delta region has been nearly if not quite
stable for several thousand years and that the last uplift
of the land or lowering of sea-level took place probably
not more than 10,000 to 12,000 years ago.

The writer is indebted to the late Commander Mus-
grove of the Department of the Naval Service of Canada,
under whose direction the soundings in the strait of
Georgia were made in 1919, for records of the soundings;
and to Mr. W. H. Boyd, Chief Topographer of the Geolo-
gical Survey, Canada, who correlated the soundings in
1859 and in 1919 and determined the rate of advance of the
delta.

SC hE NSD EOIN RELY G-EN CB:
J. Cyemistry Anp Puysics.

1. The Separation of Gallium from Indium and Zinc by Frac-
tional Crystallization of the Cesium-Galluum Alwm.—The sep-
aration of gallium and indium by this method was briefly
described by Uhler and Browning in this Journal in 1916 (42,
389). This method has now been studied ,quantitatively by
Puiuie EK. BRowNING and LYMAN EH. Porter. Starting with 7.5 g.
of mixed hydroxides containing 26.5 parts of gallium oxide to
73.5 parts of indium oxide, they dissolved this in sulphuric acid,
added a little more than the theoretical amount of cesium sul-
phate, neutralized most of the free acid with sodium hydroxide,
ad then crystallized from a volume of 250 cc. The first crop
gave a product with 85.1 parts of gallium oxide to 14.9 parts of

454 Scientific Intelligence.

indium oxide. After five recrystallizations, the erystals at the
least soluble end consisted of pure cexsium-gallium sulphate,
while the fifth mother-liquor contained gallium and indium oxides
in the ratio of 0.6 to 99.4.

It was found that when 1 g. of pure cesium-gallium alum was
mixed with 0.2 2. of zine oxide dissolved in sulphuric acid and
with 0.1 of cesium sulphate a single erystaliization gave a
product with 98 parts of gallium oxide to 2 of zine oxide, while a
recrystallization of this gave a crop in which zine could not be
detected. The results show that the method is an excellent one
for the purpose.—Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 48, 126. A. L. W.

2. <A Text-Book of Practical Chemistry; by G. F. Hoop and
J. A. CARPENTER. Large 8vo, pp. 527. Philadelphia, 1921 (P.
Blakiston’s Son & Co. Price, $5.00 net).—This is intended to be
a reference book for students in connection with experimental
laboratory courses. It embraces inorganic preparations, quali-
tative analysis, quantitative analysis, organic preparations,
organic analysis, and physical chemistry, and in each of these
main sections there is a careful classification of the matter pre-
sented, so that by means of suitable chapter-headings easy refer-
ence is assured.

The book gives a favorable impression as a very useful one for
students and teachers in laboratory courses, for it gives a vast
amount of accurate information in regard to laboratory experi-
ments in various courses of study. Naturally there are differ-
ences of opinion in regard to the best methods of procedure in
certain operations. For instance, this book states that it is unde-
sirable to use the Gooch crucibles for precipitates that have to be
ignited, it recommends the use of gentle suction only in employ-
ing it, and it advises the introduction of a perforated porcelain
filter plate between two layers of asbestos when preparing it for
filtration; whereas, there is no doubt that precipitates may be
ignited to redness in the Gooch crucible with the most satisfactory
results, that strong suction is desirable to prevent the displace-
ment and running through of the asbestos, and that the filter
plate is superfluous when strong suction is used. In view of these
facts it appears that some, at least, of the British chemists are
not taking full advantage of the important American device, the
Gooch crucible. :

A good feature of the book is the introduction at the end of
each main section of references to the literature of the subject,
such as monographs and text-books. H. L. W.

3. A Dictionary of Chemical Solubilities, Inorganic; by
ARTHUR MESSINGER CoMEY and DorotHy A. HAHN. 8vo, pp.
1141. New York, 1921 (The Macmillan Company).—This work
is to be welcomed as an exceedingly important addition to chemi-
cal books of reference. The first edition, by Dr. Comey alone,
appeared 23 years ago, and much material has accumulated since
that time, as is shown by the fact that this second edition has
more than twice as many pages as the earlier one.

Chemistry and Physics. 455

Comey’s dictionary gives full quantitative data regarding the
solubility of inorganic substances, as well as the specific gravities
of solutions in many cases, but the unique feature of the work
is the fact that it attempts to mention and give the formula of
every inorganic compound that has been analyzed. This last fea-
ture gives the book a particular importance and usefulness as a
book of reference, for it affords an alphabetically arranged list of
all the inorganic compounds with references to the original liter-
ature. In many eases little is known about the solubility of the
compounds, but even the statements given in such cases, showing
that they are soluble or insoluble in water, soluble or insoluble in
certain acids, decomposed by water, ete., are frequently very use-
ful items of information to chemists.

Comey’s dictionary is based in plan upon that of Professor
Storer, published in 1864, which some of our older chemists
remember as an interesting and important source of reference
before the time of the appearance of the more modern work under
consideration.

The great amount of labor involved in the preparation of this
dictionary deserves much praise, and it appears that the effort
was well worth while in producing a book of such usefulness.

H. L. W.

4. Inorganic Chemistry for Schools and Colleges; by JAMES
Lewis Howe. 8vo, pp. 448. Easton, Pa., 1920 (The Chemical
Publishing Co.).—This text-book now appears in its revised sec-
ond edition, thirteen years after its first publication. In the
presentation of the subject much attention is paid to the Periodic
Law. For instance, separate chapters are devoted to the ele-
ments, the hydrides, the halides, etc., in each case with arrange-
ments according to the periodic groups. There are undoubtedly
some advantages in this plan, but it brings the descriptions of
the metals and their various compounds into several different
parts of the book.

The book presents the fundamental principles and facts of
chemistry very clearly. and it is admitted that there is much
intentional repetition in order to facilitate thorough teaching.
The practical applications of chemistry are rather fully treated
and at the end of the book three is an excellent chapter on metal-
lurgy.

A course of simple but instructive laboratory experiments is
oiven by means of concise directions in small print at the bottoms
of the appropriate pages.

The author states that he has made no attempt to incorporate
many of the recent advances in chemistry into his elementary
book, but, nevertheless, in view of its importance in connection
with the atomic theory, it is somewhat unexpected to find no ref-
erence to radioactivity when radium is mentioned and to find
niton omitted from the periodic table. H. L. W.

5. Luminous phenomena in the Lilienfeld tube—The pecu-
harity of the Lilienfeld X-ray tube is that the electrons emitted

456 Scientific Intelligence.

from the hot filament after passing through a small hole in the
main cathode are accelerated in a strong field and may be brought
to a very sharp focus on the target which is inclined at an angle
of 45° to the path of the beam.

The authors of this paper, J. E. LinIeENFELD and F. RorTuHsEr,
report the formation of a luminous ring of light, biue-gray in
color, and of elliptical form, just at or above the surface of the
anticathode. The size of the ellipse increases with higher poten-
tial discharges but remains similar in form. Examined with a
polariscope the light is almost completely plane-polarized with
the electric vector parallel to the line of intersection of the plane
of symmetry of the tube with the surface of the target.

The spectrum was similar to that which would have resulted
from a high temperature but with limits dependent somewhat
upon the conditions of excitation of the tube. The intensity of
the short wave end compared to the long wave end was so very
much greater than with ordinary light sources as to imply an
exceedingly high temperature. It is their idea that the radiation
arises in an electron layer just at the front of the anticathode,
which is excited by the cathode rays and that the connection
between this layer and the electrons lying a littie deeper in the
plate is so close that the visible spectrum probably passes over
uninterruptedly into the continuous Roentgen spectrum. The
paper is illustrated with photographs of the spot and its spec-
trum together with comparison spectra from helium and a metal
filament.—Phys. Ztschr. 21, 249, 1920. ‘F. EL B.

6. Observations on Soaring Flight —Although the exact nature
of soaring flight still remains an unexplained preblem of physics
a summary of observations by Dr. E. H. HANKIN extending over
a period of ten years and recently communicated to the Cam-
bridge Philosophical Society is deserving of attention. The obser-
vations were carried on in a tropical country where the meteor-
ological conditions are more stable than in temperate latitudes,
and were made not only upon birds, but also upon dragon flies
and flying fishes.

The two points of novelty in the author’s view are, (1), that
the wing sections of the best soaring birds and in. the soaring
dragon flies are characterized by transverse ridges projecting on
the under side of the wing. A similar feature is significantly
present in the puttung, a form of Indian kite which flies vertically
over its string; (2), that the slow soaring flight in all three classes
of animals is seeminely dependent upon the presence of sunshine,
while fast soaring fight is always dependent upon the presence
of wind.

That soaring flight is not due to undiscovered wing movements
is a conclusion drawn from the means used to brake the flight in
the case of dragon flies and of flying fishes. Arguments are pre-
sented that soaring flight is neither due to lateral gusts of wind,
to ascending currents nor to turbulencies whose presence. could

* :
aes eT are eee eT

Chemistry. and Physics. 7 457

be detected by the motion of small masses of discrete cloud mate-
rial, the behavior of numerous floating seeds, or small floating
feathers.

It is the author’s conclusion that since the most attentive
observation has failed to suggest a solution of the problem,
the only hopeful method of attack is by way of direct experi-
mental investigation. A list of twelve articles detailing the
author’s observations is appended to the communication—Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc. 20, 227, 1920. F. BE. B.

7. Elementary Calculus ; by Wituiam F. Oscoop. Pp. ix,
924. New York, 1921 (The Macmillan Co.).—A new text on
Elementary Differential Caleulus which aspires to attention in
this well-occupied field should present some special claim to recog-
nition: The author’s aim to present the subject with emphasis on
the ideas and methods of the calculus and their use in solving
problems in physics and geometry, is well maintained. The
tendency of the student to regard differentiation as a mechanical
process whereby an answer is to be obtained is strongly depre-
cated and the illustrative examples are so selected that Wey
should seem to him as of interest and value.

More than usual pains has been taken to make the logic rigor-
ous, which will doubtless appeal to the mathematicians. On the
other hand the illustrations used are so concrete and physical
that they afford the very kind of mathematical training which
the physics teacher desires his students to have had.

Of the eight chapters, one describes the character of the simple
functions, and five are devoted to the manner and result of their
differentiation. Chapter II discusses the application of deriva-
tions to curves, to maxima and minima, to velocity and to rates.
- Chapter VII is the most unusual in a book of this scope. In it
is presented a valuable discussion of the methods of graphical
solution and approximation for numerical equations which do not
come under the standard rules of algebra and trigonometry.

It is a book which merits the attention of teachers of Freshman
courses in colleges and technical schools. BH Be

8. Space, Time and Gravitation; by A. S. Eppineron. Pp.
vu, 218.° Cambridge, 1920 (Cambridge University Press).—
The author is one of the most prominent of the English pro-
tagonists of the relativity theory. The purpose of the book
is to expound the theory and its implications without the
use of much technical mathematics, but with strong empha-
sis upon the rightness of the author’s view. The polemical
character of the book is evident in the introductory chapter which
is cast into the form of a dialogue between a physicist, a mathe-
matician, and a relativist, in which the physicist becomes some-
what involved in a metaphysical fog.

The first three chapters are devoted to the Fitz-Gerald con-
traction and the geometry of the space-time manifold. The next
three chapters show how on the equivalence theory all the forces

458 Scientific Intelligence.

of nature might be merged into the spacial relations. The five
succeeding chapters discuss some of the consequences of the theory
and their experimental investigation. The twelfth and final
chapter gives some of the author’s speculations upon the nature of
things which seem to be summed up in the concluding paragraph
which reads: ‘‘ We have found a strange foot-print on the shores
of the unknown. We have devised profound theories one after
the other to account for its origin. At last we have succeeded in ~
reconstructing the creature that made the foot-print. And Lo!
it is our own.’’

The book will give the reader a good idea of the Hinstein
theory and how it has led to the prediction of three exceedingly
minute quantities, namely, the secular motion of the perihelion
of Mercury, the deviation of ray of light passing close to the sun,
and the change in frequency of radiation in an intense gravita-
tional field, for all of which evidence is now supposed to have
been found. On the other hand the book seems, at least to one
reader, too dogmatic in its presumption that the physical world
is but the stuff of our consciousness and that physical phenomena
are due to the oddities of space. The attitude of the physicist in
general is a little more tolerant. He is content to specify such
postulates or abstractions from the complex world of reality as
are sufficient for the set of problems in hand and later if experi-
ment shows that these are too limited he is frankly willing to
extend them. For example, the ordinary problems of hydro-
dynamics are well enough discussed on the assumption of a con-
tinuum, but he does not feel that he must be held to this assump-
tion when treating of the chemical properties of water or of the
radiations from the hydrogen atom. Similarly if it should
appear that time does not run on at a uniform rate, or that it 1s
desirable to assume that it is discrete in structure, possessing
something like the quantum in energy, doubtless the physicist will
be ready to adopt the new hypothesis, only he will insist that it
corresponds to something real in nature.

While there is no doubt that the interlacing of space and time
into a differential quadratic affords a valuable technique for the
solution of problems in electrodynamics, the question whether a
whole philosophy of nature based on an absolute velocity, as of
light, will win universal acceptance, must still be considered an
open one.

The reader who may care for a more open-minded discussion
of the subject will be interested to read the article on Gravitation
and Inght by Sir Joseph Larmor in the Proceedings of the Cam-
bridge Philosophical Society, 19, 324, 1920. POWER,

9. The Principle of Relatwity; by H. Witpon Carr. Pp.
vii, 163. London, 1920 (Macmillan and Co.).—This little book
on the philosophical aspects of relativity is the outcome of a
course of lectures on ‘‘ Historical Theories of Space, Time and
Movement’’ delivered by the author at Kings College last year.

Geology. 459

The major portion of the book is taken up with a discussion of
the speculations of the metaphysicians on the meaning of move-
ment from the days of Zeno and Aristotle down to recent times.
Although the author’s treatment is historical in the main, he fails
to give Lorentz and Larmor the great credit which they deserve
for the theoretical development whose only logical outcome was
Einstein’s principle of relativity. The author has a chapter
entitled ‘‘In what Sense is the Universe Infinite,’ but he does
not mention Einstein’s and De Sitter’s interesting speculations
on a re-entrant universe. The book is of more interest to pro-
fessional philosophers than to physicists or mathematicians.
L. P.

hie <G ronoey.-

1. Zur Alteren Geschichte des Diskontinwmtatsproblems in der
Biogeographie; by Nis von Horsten. Zoolog. Annalen, 7, 197-
353, 1916—This essay on the theories of the variable distribution
of plants and animals is limited to the living world, and does not
consider the life of the past ages. The presentation is clearly and
interestingly written by a biologist along historical lines. It
begins with the theories of the Greeks as set forth by Hippocrates
and Aristotle, who thought the distribution to be due to differ-
ences in the local climates, and follows the more essential ideas
down to the present time. For a while the church stimulated this
research because of the riddle of the wide distribution and varia-
bility of man, but in the end it fought the conclusions of the
naturalists.

Modern views began with the discovery of America, with its
plants and animals which are different from those of Europe.
Some continued to explain this difference by special local crea-
tions, and in fact Louis Agassiz (1850-1859) held to the creation
theory to the end of his life. Buffon (1749-1756) is sometimes
regarded as the originator of modern views m regard to bio-
geography. The way was further indicated by Cuvier (1815),
Lyell (1830-1833), Heer (1845), and Forbes (1846), and modern-
ized by Hooker, De Candolle, Darwin, and Wailace. Now we
know that the organisms are where they are because of local
genetic developments out of antecedent stocks, conditioned by
their variable dispersion and evolution along varying routes of
travel and climate, and that this variation was brought about in
the main by the geologic changes in the configuration of the land
surfaces and their oceanic boundaries. C. 8.

2. Kecent Molluscs of the Gulf of Mexico and Pleistocene and
Pliocene Species from the Gulf States. Part I: Pelecypoda; by
CartoTta J. Maury. Bull. Amer. Paleontology, vol. 8, No. 34,
113 pp., 1 pl., 1920.—This is an annotated bibliography, with
synonyms, of 345 forms of pelecypods, as limited by the title,
along with their distribution and occurrence in the Gulf coast
area. Only one new species is described. C28:

460 Scientific Intelligence.

3. Brachiopoda Triadica; by C. Diener. Fossilium Cata-
logus, 1: Animalia, Pars 10, pp. 109, Berlin (W. Junk), 1920.—
This catalogue cites the bibliography of all the known Triassic
brachiopods, which are divided as follows: Inarticulata, 3
genera, 26 species; Strophomenacea, 2 genera, 10 species; Spiri-
feracea, 12 genera, 260 species; Rhynchonellacea, 5 genera, 184.
species; Terebratulacea, 8 genera, 146 species; total, 30 genera,
626 species. TF ive-sixths of the forms are restricted to the alpine-
mediterranean province; 19 occur in Germany, 77 in the Him-
alayan area, 14 are boreal, and only 4 andine. G. 8

4. Cephalopoda Dibranchiata; by EK. v. BuLtow-TRUMMER.
Fossilium Catalogus, 1: Animalia, Pars 11, pp. 313, Berlin (W.
Junk), 1920.—In this work is brought together all the literature
treating of the fossil dibranchiate cephalopods. It has taken the
author more than two years to prepare the manuscript, and all
paleontologists should be thankful that the work has been done
once for always. Thirteen genera are restricted to the Cenozoic,
and fifty-eight to the Mesozoic. 0.8.

0. Coalin Great Britain; by Waucort Gipson. Pp. viii, 311,
8 pls., 50 text figs. London (Edward Arnold), 1920.—The
author, after thirty years’ experience in the coal fields, presents
here a condensed but readable account of the geology of the coal of
the late Paleozoic formations, mainly for mining engineers, mine
owners, and mining students of Great Britain. The book should
be interesting, however, to mining geologists in other countries.
The first eight chapters are introductory to the geology of coal,
- and describe the nature, formation, origin, distribution, and some-
thing of the included fossils as zonal indices, together with chap-
ters on prospecting and boring and on the stratigraphy of the
exposed and concealed coal fields. The remaining fifteen chap-
ters treat of the widely distributed coal fields of England, Wales,
Scotland, and Ireland.

‘The distribution of coal according to quantity has been esti-
mated for each continent, and is as follows in millions of tons:
HKurope, 789,090; Asia, 1,279,586; Oceania, 170,408; Africa,
97,839; America, 5,111,528. According to the class of coal, the
world’s estimated supply of anthracite coal is 496,846; of bitumi-
nous coal, 3,902,944 ; of sub-bituminous and brown coal, 7,397,553
millions of tons. In these estimates no allowance has been made
for coal not mineable or for loss in mining’’ (p. 32). (or

6. A Monograph of the British Ordovician and Silurian Bel-
lerophontacea, Part 1; by F. R. CowrPer Reep. Paleontographi-
cal Soc., pp. 1-48, pls. 1-8, 1920.—In this interesting but uncom-
pleted study of British Bellerophon-like gastropods are described
and illustrated the species of the following genera: Sinwites (syn.
Protowarthia), 15 forms (9 new); Sinuwitopsis, 1 n. sp.; Oxydis-
cus, 5(2); Cyrtolites, 5(4); Isospira, 1 n. sp.; Bucamella,
2(1); Bucania, 4(3); Kokenospira, 10(7); Tetranota, 4(3) ;
Conradella, 4(3) ; Temnodiscus, 2 n. spp.

Zoology and Botany. 461

The author arranges the genera in three groups: (1) Integri-
dorsata (without median slit, band, or row of perforations; (2)
Fissidorsata (with fissure); and (3) Terebridorsata (with
median perforations). cls:

7. West Virginia Geological Survey; I. C. Wurts, State Geol-
ogist.—Another of the valuable detailed County reports of the
West Virginia Geological Survey has appeared. This is devoted
to Webster County and the author is Davin B. Recer. It
embraces xiv, 671 pages with 35 plates and 24 text figures. There
is also a series of topographic and geologic maps in a separate
ease. Webster County contains the northwest extension of the
famous New River Coal Group, as also the Kanawha Group and
the lower members of the Allegheny Series in its northern por-
tion. The price, including case of maps, delivery charges paid by
the Survey, is $3.00; in combination with other volumes of the
Survey, a special rate is made. Extra copies of topographic map
cost 75 cents; of the geologic map, $1.00. The Survey may be
addressed at Morgantown, W. Va. (P. O. Box 848.)

III. Zoorogy anp Borany.

1. Sanitary Entomology: The Entomology of Disease,
Hygiene, and Sanitation; edited by Wiuuiam DwiGcHt PIERCE.
Pp. xxvi, 518, with 28 plates and 88 text-figures. Boston, 1921
(Richard G. Badger; price $10).—Just at this time, when there
is such fear that the insect-borne diseases now raging in central
and eastern Europe may become established in America, this
untechnical treatise on the relations of insects and disease in all
parts of the world is most opportune. The book is the outcome
of a series of studies prepared by ten specialists for the training
of a large number of people for any service which might be
required in combating disease-carrying insects during the war.
This information is of no less importance, however, in the pre-
vention of disease now that peace between so many of the nations
has been officially declared, for the louse and other insects con-
tinue their daily additions to the millions of deaths for which
they have been responsible during the past few years.

The treatment of the subject is entirely untechnical, so that any
intelligent person, without previous knowledge of biology, can
learn the essential facts about the various ways in which insects
transmit the germs of diseases both to man and domesticated
animals and the practical methods by which these diseases can be
prevented or eradicated. The control of all kinds of insect pests
in dwellings, farm-yards, packing houses and communities is also
given in detail, with recipes for remedial treatment.

The book includes not only the insects but also the mites and
ticks, for the latter rival the insects in the transmission of dis-
eases of domesticated animals, as well as by causing injuries by

Am. Jour. Sanat: Serizs, Vou. I, No 5.—May, 1921.
ll ;

462 Scientific Intelligence.

their parasitic habits. Simple directions are given for distin-
guishing the injurious from the harmless species of the various
groups, for the protection of man and each of his domesticated
animals from the former, and for the treatment of persons or
animals suffering from these parasites. ;

The book will not only serve as a guide to the study of insects
in relation to disease, but it is the most useful handbook available
for the sanitary officer, health inspector, nurse, and physician
in their professional duties. W. E

2. Embryology of the Chick; by BRADLEY M. Parren. Pp. ix,
167, with 182 figures.—Philadelphia, 1920(P. Blakiston’s Son and
Co.).—This little book consists of an untechnical description of
the development of the chick during the first four days of incuba-
tion, during which period the principal organ-systems of the body
are established. As it is designed particularly for the beginner
in the study of embryology, all unessential details have been
omitted and the discussion limited to the fundamental processes
involved. The well-executed and fully labelled diagrams make
as easy as possible the student’s path through one of the most
difficult, although one of the most fascinating, fields of biology.

We te,

3. University of Iowa Studies in Natural History: The Bar-
bados-Antigua Expedition; by C. C. Nurrine. Pp. 274, with
D0 plates. Iowa City, 1919 (published by the University ).—This
is a delightful narrative of a collecting trip to the West Indies by
a party of teachers and advanced students from the zoological
department of the University of Iowa. The werk of the party
from day to day and the discoveries of strange forms of marine
life which were made, as well as descriptions of the islands them-
selves, their natural resources, and the life of their human inhabi-
tants, are recorded in a vivid style which bears witness not only to
the enthusiasm and skill of the author but also to the charms of
these wonderful tropical islands. In addition to the delightful
story of the expedition, the book is a real contribution to science,
for there are several chapters of zoological notes, recording obser-
vations on the habits of the terrestrial and marine animals of the
region. W. R. C.

4. The Origin and Development of the Nervous System
from a Physiological Viewpowmt; by CHARLES MANNING CHILD.
Pp. xvii, 296, with 70 text-figures. Chicago, 1921 (The Univer-
sity of Chicago Press).—The author here applies to the develop-
ment of the nervous system his theory of axial gradients of
susceptibility. He shows that both the protoplasm and the
organism exhibit an ‘‘organismic pattern’’ of physiological
eradients, the evolutionary development of which leads in the
higher animals to the complex excitation-transmission relations of
the nervous system; that is, “‘from the simple physiological
eradient to the ego.’’ With the support of extensive experi-
mental evidence and a consideration -of all groups of organisms .

Zoology and Botany. 463

the author concludes ‘‘that in the excitatory relation between
protoplasm and the external world and the effects of such excita-
tion on protoplasm we have an adequate physiological basis for
organismic pattern and for the physiological continuity of devel-
opment.”’ W. R. C.
5. Lhe Cactacew: Descriptions and Illustrations of Plants of
the Cactus Family; by N. li. Brrrron and J. N. Rose. Volume
II, pp. vii, 239, with 40 plates (32 colored) and 304 text-figures.
Washington, 1920 (Carnegie Institution, Publication 248, Vol-
ume I1).—The second volume of this important work fully main-
tains the high standard set for it by the first (see this Journal,
49, 222). Of the eight subtribes into which the authors divide
the very large tribe Cerex, only the first two, the Cereane and
the Hylocereanz, are here discussed. The Cereane are erect
or bushy cacti and include 138 species divided into 58 genera;
the Hylocereane are vine-like cacti and include 49 species divided
into 9 genera. Of the genera recognized 18 are monotypic, 22
of the others have 10 species or less, while the following genera
are represented by more than 15 species apiece: Cereus, Cephalo-
cereus, Lamaireocereus, Trichocereus, Harrisia, Hylocereus and
Selenicereus. The new genera proposed number 19, of which
eleven are monotypic; the new species proposed number 48.
Perhaps the most striking of all the species described is the
giant cactus, Carnegiea gigantea, of Arizona and the adjacent
parts of California and Mexico. This remarkable plant with its
erect columnar trunk sometimes attains a height of 12 meters
and a diameter of over half a meter. Other interesting and
attractive cacti are the night-blooming cereuses, of which Hylo-
cereus undatus is the best known. Some of the most beautiful of
the colored plates, all of which were executed by Miss M. E.
Eaton, represent the large and showy flowers of this and similar
species. A. W. E.
6. Phytoplankton of the inland lakes of Wisconsin. Part I.
Myxophycew, Phaeophycee, Heterokontew, and Chlorophycee
excluswe of the Desmidiacee; by GILBERT MorcaNn SmitH. Pp.
243, 51 plates. Madison, Wisconsin, 1920 (Wisconsin Geologi-
eal and Natural History Survey, Bulletin No. 57).—The numer-
ous lakes of Wisconsin have afforded an exceedingly favorable
field for the study of our fresh water plankton, and Professor
Smith’s volume is an important addition to our scanty knowledge
of the subject. Over two hundred lakes were investigated, the
plankton being collected by means of nets with very fine meshes.
After a very useful key to the genera, based on vegetative char-
acters, the species observed are fully described, together with the
genera and higher groups under which they are distributed.
Wherever necessary, specified keys to species, genera or other
groups are included. In all 227 species are recognized, 54 belong-
ing to the Myxophycee (or blue green alg), 18 to the Phaeophy-
cee (or brown algx), 10 to the Heterokontex, and the remainder

464 Scientific Intelligence.

to the Chlorophycee (or green alge). The 51 plates illustrate
every species and variety observed and are to be commended for
their accuracy and beauty. Several of the forms are here figured
for the first time, but even where earlier figures have been pub-
lished these have often appeared in scattered papers difficult of
access. It is therefore a great satisfaction to have these new
figures gathered together in a single work. A. W. E.
7. An Introduction to Bacterial Diseases in Plants; by ERwWIN
F. SmirH. Pp. xxx, 688, with frontispiece and 453 illustrations.
Philadelphia and Iondon, 1920 (W. B. Saunders Company) .—
The rapid advances made in the important field of bacterial plant
diseases are intimately associated with the investigations of
Dr. Smith. The present volume will therefore be most welcome,
not only to plant pathologists but to botanists in general. The
material presented is divided into five parts. The first deals
with the more general features of bacterial diseases, the following
subjects being among those discussed: distribution among the
families of flowering plants, period of greatest susceptibility,
method of infection, morphological and cultural features of the
bacteria, reactions of the host plant. The second part takes up
in detail the methods of research. The third, which occupies 340
pages, gives full descriptions of fourteen important bacferial
diseases of economic plants, each being accompanied by references
to the literature. The fourth part suggests subjects for special
study, discusses the formation of tumors in plants, and gives an
account of teratosis in the absence of both tumors and parasites,
using for illustration the remarkable Begonia phyllomaniaca.
The concluding part contains excellent advice to the botanist and
especially to the plant pathologist regarding research work and
matters pertaining to it either directly or indirectly. The book
is profusely illustrated, many of the figures being photomicro-
eraphs of diseased plant tissues, reproduced by fine half tones.
I
8. Text-book of Pastoral and Agricultural Botany, for the
Study of the Injurious and Useful Plants of Country and Farm;
by JoHN W. HARSHBERGER Pp. xiii, ae with 121 text-figures.
Philadelphia, 1920 (P. Blakiston’s Son & Co.).—For the past
twenty-five years the author has given a course in botany to a
class of veterinary students, and the present volume is based
upon this course. As might be expected some of the topics
treated do not find a place in the usual text-books of botany.
This is particularly true of the first nine chapters, in which
poisonous plants are discussed, not only from the standpoint of
their botanical features but also from the standpoint of the
various symptoms which they produce in poisoned animals. The
remaining chapters deal with important food plants, with soil-
nitrogen, with weeds, and with agricultural seeds. A full bibli-
ography is given at the close of each chapter, and directions for
laboratory work are interspersed throughout. A. W. E.

Zoology and Botany. 465

9. Heredity and Evolution in Plants; by C. Stuart GAGER,
Director of the Brooklyn Botanic Garden. Pp. v, 265, with 112
text-figures. Philadelphia, 1920 (P. Blakiston’s Son & Co.).
—The author here gives us a revision of certain chapters in
his Fundamentals of Botany, published in 1916. These chapters
furnished a concise but very clear treatment of the various
theories connected with the heredity and evolution of plants,
strong emphasis being laid upon recent experimental methods
of investigation. Two chapters, not in the earlier work, deal
with geographical distribution of plants and with the great
taxonomic groups into which plants have been divided. A val-
uable bibliography concludes the volume. A. W. E.

10. Diseases of Economic Plants; by F. Li. STEVENS and J. G.
HA; revised edition by F. L. Stevens. Pp. vu, 507, with 237
text-figures. New York, 1921 (The Macmillan Company ).—The
first edition of the present work was published in 1910. The
revised edition is designed to meet the special needs of college
students, and a part of the revision consists in the rearrange-
ment of the subject matter. Many diseases of major importance,
however, have come into prominence during the past ten years
and deseriptions of these naturally find a place in the new
volume. There are likewise a number of new illustrations, and
certain modifications of treatment are recommended. With but
few exceptions the diseases discussed are these caused by fungous
parasites. AL We Hi:

11. The Nature-Study of Plants in Theory and Practice for
the Hobby-Botanist; by THomMAS ALFRED Dymes. Pp. xviu, 173,
with frontispiece, 5 plates and 51 text-figures. London, 1920
(Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge).—The subject-
matter of this attractive little book is divided into two parts, the.
first entitled ‘‘Theory’’ and the second ‘‘Practice.’’ In the first
part the scope of nature-study is defined, and the various ‘‘fac-
tors of life’’ are discussed with reference to the ‘‘life and preser-
vation of the individual’’ and also with reference to the ‘‘pres-
ervation of the race.’’ In the second part a common British
plant, the Herb Robert (which is likewise common in North
America), is thoroughly considered in its numerous aspects, the
life-history being followed step by step from the germination of
seed to the dispersal of the ripened fruitlets. The intensive
study of a single species, which is here recommended, meets the
approval of Professor F. E. Weiss, of Manchester, who has sup-
plied an introductory note to the volume. A. W. E.

12. The-Chemstry of Plant Infe; by Roscoz W. THATCHER.
(MeGraw-Hill Book Co.), New York. Pp. xi, 268.—This is a
text-book of biochemistry written for the use of students of bot-
any and drawing its illustrations from the facts and problems of
the plant kingdom. The volume presupposes training in inor-
ganic and organic chemistry on the part of the reader. It deals
with composition rather than the dynamics of living matter, but

466 Scientific Intelligence.

its chemistry is of the up-to-date variety. Something of this
sort—a-diminutive Czapek—has long been needed for the use of
those workers in biochemistry who are interested primarily in
plant rather than animal tissues. L. B. M.

TV. Miscettangous Sctentiric INTELLIGENCE,

1. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teach-
ing. Summary of Fifteenth Annual Report of the President,
Henry 8. PrircHert, and Treasurer, RopErt A. FRANKS. Pp.
vi, 171. New York, 1920 (522 Fifth Avenue).—The total
resources of the Carnegie Foundation now amount to $24,628,000,
of which $15,192,000 belong to the permanent general endowment,
$7,571,000 to a reserve fund to be spent in the retirement (during
the next sixty years) of teachers now in associated institutions,
$1,250,000 to the endowment of the Division of Educational
i eee and $390,000 to a reserve fund to be expended in aiding
universities and colleges to adopt the new plan of contractual
annuities.

During the fifteen years of its existence the Foundation has
dicniibaced nearly $8,000,000 in retiring allowances and pen-
sions to 909 persons. Of this Harvard “has received $625,000,
Yale, $548,000, and Columbia, $464,000. Sixteen other universi-
ties have each received between one and two hundred thousand
dollars each. The remainder has gone to eighty different insti-
tutions. There are now operative 356 retiring allowances and
199 widows’ pensions, entailing an annual expenditure of $870,-
670. The average retiring allowance paid is $1,568.

During the past year three institutions, Bryn Mawr College,
Queen’s University, and Whitman College, were added to the
list ef associated institutions, and twelve institutions, in addition
to the twenty-nine that had already done so, formally adopted
the new plan of contractual annuities—The Teachers Insurance
and Annuity Association of America, established by the Founda-
tion to provide insurance and annuity protection for college
teachers without overhead charges, has written 653 insurance
policies covering $3,356,747 of insurance and 554 annuity con-
tracts providing $624,398 annual income at retirement. The
special features of the new retiring allowance system of Harvard
University are discussed at some length. By this plan each
teacher appointed for more than one year is required to contrib-
ute 10 per cent of his annual salary to a fund which is to be
invested by the Corporation and to be used, together with its
accumulations, to purchase at his retirement an annuity in some
company approved by the Corporation. The general subject of
pension legislation is also treated in detail as in earlier reports,
and many points open to criticism are pointed out. Attention is
called to the fourteenth bulletin on the training of teachers for
public schools (see vol. 50, p. 171); also to a third bulletin on
legal education soon to appear.

2. National Academy of Scrences—The annual meeting of

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. 467

the National Academy of Sciences will be held at the Natural
History building, U. S. National Museum, in Washington on
April 25, 26, and 27. The preliminary program of scientific ses-
sions gives a list of 33 papers to be presented. It is also
announced that an address will be delivered Monday evening by
Albert I, Prince of Monaco, Agassiz medalist, in the auditorium
of the U. S. National Museum. A reception follows the address.

3. Science News Bulletin.—The establishment of an organiza-
tion for the purpose of familiarizing the general reading public
with the progress of scientific research has been recently estab-
lished in connection with the National Research Council. The
new organization, to be known as ‘‘Science Service’’ has been
substantially endowed and is chartered as a non-profit-making
ecorporaion. Its control is vested in a board of Trustees com-
posed of ten scientists and five journalists. The National Acad-
emy of Sciences, the American Association for the Advancement
of Science and the National Research Council each elects three
trustees.

The personnel of the first board of trustees is announced as
follows: A. A. Noyes, R. A. Millikan, John C. Merriam, D. T.
MacDougal, George I. Moore, J. McKeen Cattell, George E. Hale,
Vernon Kellogg, R. M. Yerkes, E. W. Scripps, R. P. Scripps,
W. E. Ritter, William Allen White, Chester H. Rowell, Edwin
FE. Gay.

The charter of the new organization is a wide one, authorizing
Science Service to employ newspapers, periodicals, books, lec-
tures, conferences, motion pictures and any similar educational
agencies in the distribution of scientific information. Edwin E.
Slosson is to be the editor of Science Service. The policy of the
Service is to be one of cooperation rather than competition with
existing press associations, news agencies and syndicates. It will
aim to supply accurate and interesting articles on all branches
of science and technology at the lowest possible cost. Offices have
been opened in the National Research Council Building, 1701
Massachusetts Avenue, Washington.

4. French-English Medical Dictionary; by ALFRED GORDON.
Pp. 161 (P. Blakiston’s Son & Co.) Philadelphia.—The reerudes-
cence of interest in French medical literature is one of the
by-products of the World War. It lends timeliness to the pub-
lication of glossaries of scientific expressions, particularly in
those fields, like medicine, where progress has been rapid and the
technical vocabulary has been expanded by the addition of many
new words. Gordon’s dictionary is compact and easily used.
One is surprised by an occasional omission such as that of ‘‘ana-
phylaxie,’’ a preeminently French contribution to science, not
to mention missing up-to-date expressions like ‘‘vitamine’’ and
‘““opsonine.’? The book has an excellent simple scheme for aiding
in the correct pronunciation of each French word. L. B. M.

). Laboratory Manual for the Detection of Poisons and Pow-
erful Drugs; fifth American edition; by WILHELM AUTENRIETH

468 : Scientific Intelligence.

and WinuiamM H. Warren. Pp. xv, 342. Philadelphia (P. Blak-
iston’s Sons & Co.).—There are all too few dependable manuals
of toxicology published in the English language. Among them
the translated. edition of Autenrieth’s well known ‘‘ Auffindung
der Gifte’’ has attained a’deserved popularity. The present
book is essentially lke the fourth American edition, the only
change of importance being the introduction of tests for wood
aleohol by the translator, Dr. Warren. ets Cg vb:

6. An Introduction to Chemical Pharmacology; by Hucu
McGuigan. Pp. xii,.418. Philadelphia (P. Blakiston’s Son &
Co.).—This is different from any book which we ean recall, bear-
ing the title of Pharmacology. It is essentially a very compact

compendium of facts derived for the most part from organic

chemistry and biochemistry and classified according to a chemist’s
scheme. Indeed it is almost cyclopedic in character. It is well
enough to recognize the current popularity of the chemical view-
point in the biological sciences; but chemical classification, strue-
tural formulas, and tests for the identification of drugs are only
a part of the equipment needed by the student to realize the
‘‘reactions of living matter brought about by drugs.’’ The selec-
tion of topics seems almost too comprehensive. Why, for exam-
ple, should a ‘‘Method for Preparing Pectin’’ be incorporated
in a book for students of pharmacology? Numerous topics, par-
ticularly such as deal with the metabolism of foods, also seem
out of place in such a volume which can at most supplement, not
replace, the conventinal textbooks on the action of drugs.
- iL, B. M.

7. New York State Income Tax Procedure, 1921; by RoBERT

H. Montcomery. Pp. ix, 682. New York, 1921. Montgomery’s

Tax Procedure, 1921, volume III (The Ronald Press Company; -

price $5, in cloth).—Mr. Montgomery’s New York State Income
Tax Procedure, 1921, is an outgrowth and amplification of that
portion of his 1920 edition of Income Tax Procedure in which he
discussed the differences between the New York State procedure
and the Federal income tax procedure. He deals at length with
the New York personal income tax and more briefly with the New
York franchise tax on corporations.. Several appendices are
also included, and of considerable value. One of these contains
a set of the various forms as at present used, filled in in some
instanees so as to serve as illustrations, and another contains
the opinions handed down by the courts in various cases which
have come before them with reference to New York income tax
matters.

The book should prove of great: assistance to those who have
to prepare returns either for individuals or for corporations
under the present New York laws. In dealing in quite limited
space with any such complex subject there must of necessity be
many questions left unanswered and many topics only super-
ficially discussed, but considering the space at the author’s dis-
posal, he covers the subject quite fully. 5D; we

|

aed

Pol fied tee

Ae is) 1

a

ay

+ ee Cane
ah, Bis —E

0 ale ew re ee rar ae }
TS Pee Goce Re es
: ? in “edly EN se & ae” no *y

= Se:

Man Ss N ATURAL ‘SCIENCE ESTABLISHMENT

a Supply-House for Scientific Material.
"Founded 1862. - Incorporated 1890.

A few of our recent eirculars in the various
departments:

Geology: J-32. Descriptive Catalogue of a Petrographice Col-
lection of American Rocks. J-188 and supplement.
Price-List of Rocks.

‘Mineralogy : J-220. Collections. J-225, Minerals by Weight.

-J-224,. Autumnal Announcements.

‘Paleontology: J-201. Evolution of the Horse. J-199. Pale-
ozoic index fossils. J-115. Collections of Fossils.

Entomology: J-33. Supplies. J-229. Life Histories. J-230.
Live Pupe.

Zoology: J-223. Material for dissection. J-207. Dissections
of Typical Animals, ete. J-38. Models.

Microscope Slides: J-189. Slides of Parasites. J-29. Cata-
logue of Slides.

Jaxidermy : J-22, North American Birdskins. Z-31. General
Taxidermy.

Human Anatomy: J-37. Skeletons & Models.

General: J-228. List of Circulars & Catalogues.

Wards Natural Science Establishment
: 84-102 College Ave., Rochester, N. Y., U.S, A.

“SCIENTIA”

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC SYNTHESIS, Issued monthly (each

number consisting of 100 to 120 pages). Editor: EUGENIO RIGNANO,

This_is the only review which has a really international collaboration; which is

‘of world-wide circulation and occupies itself with the synthesis and unification of
knowledge, in the history of the sciences, mathematics, astronomy, geology, physics,

chemistry, biology, psychology and sociology.

This Review studies all the most important questions—demographic, ethnographic,
economic, financial, juridical, historical, political—raised, by the world war.

It has published articles by Messrs.: Abbot=Arrhenius -Ashley = Bayliss = Beichman-=
Bigourdan = Bohlin - Bohn- Bonnesen = Borel = Bouty = Bragg - Bruni = Burdick - Carver -
Caullery = Chamberlin - Charlier = Claparede = Clark = Costantin - Crommelin = Crowter=
Darwin - Delage = De Vries - Durkheim = Eddington = Edgeworth - Emery = Enriques -

Fabry - Findlay = Fisher = Fowler = Golgi = Gregory = Harper = Hartog = Heiberg - Hinks=
_ Hopkins-Inigues-Innes-Janet-Kaptein-Kaye-Kidd-Langevin-Lebedew-Lloyd Morgan-=

Lodge = Loisy - Lorentz - Loria -Lowell - MacBride - Meillet =Moret-Muir-Peano -Picard -
Poincare = Puiseux = Rabaud = Rey Pastor = Righi-Rignano-Russell-Rutherford-Sagnac=
Sarton = Schiaparelfi- Scott = See = Sherrington = Soddy = Starling - Svedberg = Thomson =

oes Thorndike-Turner =Volterra=Webb-=Weiss = Zeeman-Zeuthen and more than a hundred
é others.

** SCIENTIA”’ publishes its articles in the language of its authors, and joins to the
principal text a supplement containing the French translations of all’the articles that
are not in French. (Write for a Specimen Number to the General Secretary of
“Scientia’’, Milan.) Annual subscription : 40 sh,, or 10 dollars post free.

: Office : 43 Foro cg aaah. Milan, Italy.

Publishers: WILLIAMS & NORGATE-London; FELIX ALCAN - Paris
~ NICOLA ZANICHELLI-Bologna; WILLIAMS &
WILKINS CO-Baltimore.

Art. XXV.—Post-Glacial weeiae of “Newfound
Nova Scotia: by ht, Age Ges z
Arr. XXVI.—New Camels in the Marsh Collection;
S.. LL ees. os See, eee eee te
Arr. XX VII.—Leptauchenia Leidy and Cyclopidius f
cistes) Cope, etc.; by M. R. Tuorre...... |
Art. XXVIII.—A Potamogeton from the Upper Cret a
by, EW. BERRY yp ecige ges. oS sep
Art. XXIX.—Additional Notes on the Crystallograp
Composition of Boulangerite; by E. V. SHannon..
Arr. XXX.—The Oriskany Sandstone Faunule at Os

Falls, New York; by H. N. Eaton....... an
ART. XXXL —Two Petrified Palms from Interior |
America; by N. E. SrevEns 2.00. 0..02. 498

Art, XXXII.—The Isomorphic Relations of the Suly
of Lead, Silver and Copper ; by W. F. Fosnage..
ART. XXXII. —The Occurrence of Calcareous Sands
in aie Recent Delta of Fraser River, British Cole 0

Canada, by W.-A. JOHNSTON . >. i)... ase alee

ART. XXXIV. —The Age of the Recent Delta of Fras 6 | f
River, British Columbia, Canada; by W. A. Jone 450 |

mee

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE

Chemistry and Physics—Separation of Gallium from Indium and dake ty Fike oh :
tional Crystallization of the Cesium-Gallium Alum, P. E. BROWNING and | J
E. Porter, 453.—Text-Book of Practical Chemistry, G. F. Hoop and J. A. m5
CARPENTER : Dictionary of Chemical Solubilities, Inorganic, M. Sone eo
and D. A. Haun, 454.—Inorganie Chemistry for Schools and- eges, J. |
L. Hower: Luminous phenomena i in the Lilienfeld tube, J. E. LimisnreLp |
and F: RorHer, 455.—Observations ov. Soaring Flight, E. H. “Hankin, aye
456. _Flementary Celeulus, W. F. Oscoop: Space, Time.and Gravitation .
A. 8. Eppineton, 457.— Principle of Relativity, H. W. Carr, 458. Ber i
Geology—Zur Alteren Geschichte des Diskontinuitatsproblems in der Biogeo- LES
graphie, N. v. Horsten: Recent Molluscs of Gulf of Mexico, ete J.
Maury, 459.—Brachiopoda Trisdica, C. Dinner : Cephalopoda Dibranch-
iata, E. v. BULow-TRUMMER: Coal in Great Britain, W. Gipson: Mono- t.
graph of the British Ordovician and Silurian Belierophontacea, F, Rk CL
Reep, 460.—West Virginia Geological Survey, I. C. Wuire, 461. -
Zoology and Botany —Sanitary Entomology, W. D. Pierce, 461. —Embryology of Ra
Chick: B. M. Parren: University of lowa Studies in Natural History, Cz ©.” \ hem
Nuttine: Origin and Development of Nervous System, C. M. Curxp, 462. — |
The Cactacexe, N. L, Brrrron and J. N. Roser: Phytoplankton of the inland
lakes of Wisconsin, G. M. Smitu, 463.—Introduction to Bacterial Diseases ©
in Plants, E. F. Smita: Text book of Pastoral and Agricultural gh vay
Js W. HARSHBERGER, 464,—Heredity and kvolution in Plants, C. S.
GaceErR: Diseases of Economie Plants, F. L. Stevens: Nature-Study of '
Plants, T, A. Dymes: Chemistry of Plant Life, R. W. THarcHer, 460.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence— Annual Report Carnegie Foundation, —
H. S. PritcaeTr and R. A. Franks: National Academy of Seiences,
466.—Science News Bulletin: French-English Medical Dictionary: Labora-—
tory Manual for Detection of Poisons and Powerful Drugs, 467.—Intro
duction to Chemical Pharmacology: New York State Income ~ Tax ig ee,
Procedure, 1921, 468. eee Ss

Nat. Vluseum. —

JAMIN srr in 1818.

9)

| Epiror: EDWARD Ss. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

sons WILLIAM M. DAVIS AND REGINALD A. DALY,
: OF CAMBRIDGE,

"BERBERT E. GREGORY, WESLEY R. COE anp
: _ FREDERICK E. BEACH, or New HAVEN,

z icin EDWARD W. BERRY, oF rpeeee &
FREDERICK L. RANSOME anp WILLIAM BOWIE,
* or WASHINGTON.

ss FIFTH SERIES
VOL. I-{[WHOLE NUMBER, CCT],
No. 6—JUNE, 1921.

<3 NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.

Pee sk

THE rorne, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR CO., PRINTERS, 123 TEMPLE STREET,

nthiy. Six dea per year, in advance. $6.40 to span trae in “thie Bee
6.25. > C ada, atthe Bost Ot 50. cents; No. 271, one dollar.

bien of Bagineering ¢
ae H. Rims, Ph.D., and "Tuomas = we 8

etc., which every engineer is Peete: certain to snconmitere
365 pages, 54 by 84—252 git SE eto $3.75 postpaid. “eed

Field Mapping for for Oil Geologists -

By C. A. WARNER
Field Geologist —

Every geologist connected with the oil industry will find this back an invalas

able reference work, for constant use. A general Te ones of the mor

detailed work in any particular area.
143 pages, 4} by 7—38 figures—flexible binding, $2.50 clita

Handbook of Meteorology
A Manual for Students |
By Jacques W. Repway, F.R.G.S.
(Ready late in June)
Prepared by a cooperative observer of the United States Weather Bureau,

for the use of cooperative observers and students in meteorology and aero- |}

nautics.
294 pages, 54 by 84—profusely illustrated—cloth.

Mineral Land Surveying
Third Edition
By James Unpreruttz, Ph.D.
Mining Engineer.
(Ready late in June)
This book describes the methods used at the present time in ese survey of

\

mineral lands in the western portion of the United States. The new edition || —

has been brought up to date.
41 by 7—illustrated—flexible binding.

We are always glad to send copies of any of our books
for Free Examination on request.

JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.

432 Fourth Avenue, New York
London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.

Canada:
Renouf Publishing Co.

AJS-6-21

HENRY ANDREWS BUMSTEAD

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF

[FiIf#@a SERIES. ]

OO

HENRY ANDREWS BUMSTEAD.

Henry Andrews Bumstead was born in Pekin, Illinois,
on March 12th, 1870. His father was Samuel Josiah
Bumstead, a physician of local prominence, and his
mother, Sarah Ellen Seiwell. His early education was
obtained at the Decatur, Illinois, High School, from which
he went to Johns Hopkins in 1887, expecting to study
medicine. There he came under the influence of Rowland,
who stimulated the interest in physics which he had
already shown. After receiving his B.A. degree in 1891,
he remained in Baltimore for two years as an assistant
in the physics laboratory. In 1895 he was brought to Yale
as an instructor by Professor Hastings. He continued
his study of physics in the Yale graduate school, and
obtained his doctor’s degree in 1897. In 1900 he was
promoted to an assistant professorship, and six years
later he became Professor of Physics in Yale College and
Director of the Sloane Laboratory. The year before
receiving his doctor’s degree he married Luetta Ullrich, of
Decatur, Illinois, who survives him.

Professor Bumstead’s thesis for the doctor’s degree,
which does not seem to have been published, contains a
critical survey of electrodynamic theories in-vogue at the
time at which it was written. He states in the introduc-
tion that his object is ‘‘to set forth the true position of the
experiments of Hertz in the history of the development of
our knowledge of electricity; and to trace, in some
measure, the influence of Helmholtz in the establishment
of the true theory of electrodynamics,—an influence which
was second only to that of Maxwell.’’ After an analysis of
Ampere’s and Grassmann’s theories, he makes a critical
comparison of the potential theories developed by Neu-

Am. Jour. Sci.—FirtH Sertes, Vou. I, No. 6.—June, 1921.
32

470 Henry Andrews Bumstead.

mann, Weber, and Helmholtz. The very general form of
Helmholtz’s theory appealed to him greatly, and he takes
delight in showing how it contains as special cases most
of the other theories proposed, including Maxwell’s for-
mulation of the results of Faraday’s researches. Helm-
holtz’s attempts to discriminate experimentally between
various somewhat discordant view-points did not seem
to him very conclusive, but his admiration for Hertz’s
genius knew no bounds. He lays particular emphasis on
Hertz’s zeal in following up every unexplained phe-
nomenon to its source, mentioning in particular the
discovery of the effect of ultra-violet light on the conduc-
tivity of the spark gap. His point of view throughout is
that of the older British school of physicists, and it is
evident that at this date the ‘‘ether’’ was very real to
him.

During the five years following the completion of his
doctor’s thesis, Professor Bumstead’s heavy teaching
schedule left him little time for research. His interest
in electrodynamics, however, was always keen, and in
1902 he published a short paper in which he showed how
Maxwell’s equations completely accounted for an anomaly
in connection with reflection of electric waves which had
been causing considerable discussion among experimen-
talists. If standing waves are set up on a pair of parallel
guide wires terminating in a conducting plane at right
angles to their length, the node in electric intensity found
at the end of the wires is at a distance from the nearest
node on the wire agreeing with the distances between
other adjacent nodes. If, however, the conducting plane
is removed, the loop to be expected at the free end of the
wires is found to be at a distance from the nearest node
somewhat less than a quarter wave-length. Bumstead
showed that the introduction of a fictitious magnetic
conductivity into Maxwell’s equations established a close
correspondence between this case and the well-understood
arrangement in which the ends of the parallel conductors
are united by a short connecting wire.

The year following the appearance of this paper, there
fell on him the sad duty of writing the obituary of his
friend and teacher, J. Willard Gibbs. His interest in
and knowledge of mathematical physics enabled him to
prepare an appreciation of the great physicist which could
have been equalled by few of his conteniporaries. Shortly

Henry Andrews Bumstead. 471

after, he edited, in collaboration with Dr. Van Name,
Gibbs’ collected works.

Bumstead’s interest was greatly excited by J. J. Thom-
son’s investigations of the properties of cathode rays and
it was largely through his efforts that the successor of
Maxwell and Rayleigh was persuaded to come to Yale
to deliver the first Silliman lectures in May, 1903. While
in New Haven Professor Thomson told him of the work
being done at the Cavendish Laboratory on a radioactive
gas found in water coming from deep levels, and sug-
gested work of a similar nature at New Haven. This
Bumstead carried out with the help of L. P. Wheeler.
They found evidences of radioactivity not only in the gas
driven off from water obtained from a well 1500 feet deep
near New Milford, Conn., but also in that boiled off from
surface water drawn from one of the New Haven city |
reservoirs. A comparison of the rate of decay of the
soil-water gas with that of radium emanation showed the
two to be identical. The rate of diffusion of the emana-
tion through a porous plate was determined, and found
to be about four times that of carbon dioxide. This led
to an atomic weight of 180, which was, perhaps, the most
reliable value which had been obtained up to that time,
and, considering the difficulties of the experiment, sur-
prisingly close to the value accepted today.

The winter 1904-5 Bumstead spent in Kingland carrying
on experimental work in the Cavendish Laboratory.
This year’s work led to the publication of two papers, of
which the second, on the heating effects produced by
Rontgen rays in metals, excited a great deal of interest.
This investigation was undertaken at the time when the
attention of the whole world was focused on the brilliant
researches of Rutherford on atomic disintegration.
Physicists were particularly interested in investigating
the possibility of hastening radioactive disintegration by
suitable external conditions, and in searching for new
sources of radioactivity. However, every effort to
control the rate of decay seemed to be in vain. From the
lowest to the highest extremes of temperature, under all
conditions of electromagnetic excitation, radioactive
transformation went on at the same invariable rate.
Bumstead’s investigation consisted in measuring the heat
produced in lead and zine when Rontgen rays are equally
absorbed in the two metals. His experiments seemed to
lead to the very surprising result that heat developed in

ts

472 Henry Andrews Bumstead.

lead is approximately double that produced in zinc. The
only plausible explanation was that the rays effected a
disintegration of the lead atoms through which they
passed, liberating energy which was then converted into
heat. This result, if true, would have constituted the
first successful attempt to effect an artificial disintegra-
tion of the atom. Unfortunately, however, the subse-
quent work of Angerer and of Bumstead himself failed to
confirm the results of the earlier experiment. By
varying the conditions of the experiment Bumstead
was able to show that the differential effect observed in
the first instance was due to faulty heat-insulation of the
metals under investigation.

In the meantime Bumstead had returned to New Haven
to succeed Professor A. W. Wright as Professor of
Physies in Yale College and Director of the Sloane Labor-
atory. He soon realized the inadeauacy of the old
Physies Laboratory, and it was largely as a result of his
efforts that Wiliam D. Sloane and Henry T. Sloane of
New York were persuaded to give to the University and
to endow generously the present commodious building.
All those who have benefited by the facilities and conve-
niences of the new laboratory are under a great debt of
eratitude to Professor Bumstead for his many months of
painstaking planning and careful supervision of the erec-
tion of the building. In this new laboratory were housed -
together, for the first time, both undergraduate depart-
ments of study in a single subject This union was the
forerunner of the departmentalization which has been so
prominent a feature of the recent University reorgani-
zation.

In 1905 appeared Einstein’s epoch-making paper on the
principle of relativity. Always interested in electromag-
netic theories, Bumstead’s mind was greatly stimulated
by the new principle. ‘In 1908 he published a critical
comparison of the view-points of Hinstein and Lorentz,
and devised elegant methods of deducing some of the
consequences of the theory. In particular, mention should
be made of his derivation of the ratio of longitudinal to
trausverse mass from a simple consideration of the period
of a moving torsion pendulum. In this paper he made
some attempt to extend Hinstein’s method to gravita-
tional problems, and pointed out clearly the fallacy of the
oft-repeated assertion that a finite velocity of propagation

Henry Andrews Bumstead. 473

of gravitational force should produce a first order pertur-
bation in planetary orbits.

While Bumstead was greatly impressed by the beauty
and symmetry of EHinstein’s theory, the ether had such a
real significance to him that he was never able to accept
completely the view-point of the relativist. Furthermore,
he doubted the value of the new principle in opening up
unexplored fields of research. To him it seemed like a
closed system, perfect but infertile. Hence Hinstein’s
ultimate success in generalizing the principle, so as to
make possible the application of the equivalence hypoth-
esis to gravitational fields, appealed te him all the more
as a great work of genius.

In 1911 Bumstead turned his attention to a study of the
delta rays emitted by metals under the influence of alpha
rays, which he continued for the three following years.
Delta rays—so named by J. J. Thomson—are the slow-
moving electrons detached from metailic atoms by the
impact of the more massive alpha particles. The ioniza-
tion curves obtained by Bumstead show all the character-
istics of the Bragg curves for gases, but unlike the latter,
the curves for different metals have very closely the same
form. This led him to suspect that the delta rays come
from a gas absorbed on the metal surface. An investiga-
tion of the velocities of the particles constituting the
rays revealed the fact that some of them have velocities
corresponding to a potential difference as great as 2000
volts. These swifter rays seem to be the primary result
of impact of alpha rays, and to give rise to secondary
slow-moving electrons when they collide with other atoms.
The result of this experiment suggested to him that fast-
moving: electrons may also be produced when gaseous
molecules are struck by alpha particles. To investigate
this matter, he obtained from England an expansion
apparatus made after C. T. R. Wilson’s design. This
apparatus he modified so as to enable him to work in
hydrogen at a pressure of 100 mm., and with it he obtained
a number of photographs of alpha ray tracks, which
showed very clearly electronic trails radiating from the
eolumn. These trails are undoubtedly due to swift delta:
rays.

In addition to the papers published under his own name,
Professor Bumstead supplied the underlying ideas and
much of the motive force responsible for the great

474 Henry Andrews Bumstead.

majority of doctors’ theses in physics coming from Yale
during the last fifteen years. He was always generous
in giving his time and ideas to others, and never asked
the students who worked under him to share with him the
eredit of authorship.

Recognition of his ability as a scientist has come from
many sources. Long a member of the American Physical.
Society, he has been its president and an editor of its
organ of publication, the Physical Review. As Vice
President of the American Association for the Advanee-
ment of Science, he delivered the annual address at the
meeting in Pittsburgh in December 1917, choosing for his
title ‘‘Present Tendencies in Theoretical Physics.’’ In
1913 he was elected a member of the National Academy of
Sciences, the highest honor which can come to any scien-
tist from an American institution. He was a fellow of
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a
member of the American Philosophical Society and of the
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. The Univer-
sity of Toronto conferred on him the honorary degree of
Doctor of Science the June preceding his death.

Not only was Bumstead’s advice always in demand on
the part of his scientific confréres, but it was frequently
sought by those whose chief interests lay along the lnes
of the so-called humanities. As an example may be cited
Henry Adams’ request for a critical opinion of those
chapters of ‘‘The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma’’
which contained the author’s bold excursion on the scien-
tific method. Bumstead pointed out the dimensional
difficulties involved in applying the ‘‘law of squares’’ to
historical phases, and repeated his criticism to Brooks
Adams when the latter was preparing his brother’s manu-
seript for publication. In this instance, however, science
lost that history might be justified.

With the entrance of the United States into the World
War, Bumstead placed all his time and ability at the
service of his country. He was a member of the national
committee appointed to examine the merits of proposed
anti-submarine devices, and he took an active interest in

the experimental development of such devices which was

carried on at New London. In February, 1918, he went
to London as Scientific Attaché of the American Hmbassy.
There his tact and wide acquaintance among men of
science in Great Britain enabled him to perform a service

Henry Andrews Bumstead. 475

of inestimable value as a clearing house for scientific infor-
mation. War today is dependent on science in a degree
never known before, and innumerable researches have to
be carried on with expedition and without unnecessary
duplication. Hence the vital importance to each country
of prompt and accurate information regarding the work
already completed by its allies.

On his return to New Haven a few months after the
Armistice, Bumstead found the University in the midst
of reorganization. His remarkable power of coordi-
nating the divergent view-points of others and his
excellent judgment made him much in demand as a
member of the committees which were moulding the
future Yale. He gave freely of his time and his strength,
in spite of his desire for the opportunity to devote himself
to a life of quiet study and research. Finally came the
eall to succeed Dr. Angelil—Yale’s president-elect—as
chairman of the National Research Council. The occu-
pant of this position is changed annually, so his accept-
ance would necessitate only a single year’s leave of
_absence from Yale, and he did not feel justified in refusing
the opportunity of a wider service. His executive ability
and power of drawing the best out of others made his
success in his new position a certainty.

He was not, however, destined to live out his term of
office. The day after Christmas, 1920, he took train for
Chicago to attend the annual meeting of the American
Physical Society. To his many friends who talked with
him there, he appeared to be at the height of mental and
bodily vigor. On Wednesday evening of this week he
attended a meeting of a committee of which the writer
happens to be a member, and contributed his keen analysis
to the discussion until almost midnight. Friday he
started: on the return trip to Washington. Saturday
morning he was found lifeless in his berth.

Professor Bumstead’s power as a teacher was even
greater than his ability as a scientist. Since the death
of Professor Gibbs, his courses in Electrodynamies and
Electromagnetic Theory of Light have been the inspira-
tion of the graduate work in physics at Yale. He has
never been too busy or too hurried to spend an hour
discussing a knotty problem with a member of his class.
Not only has he given freely of his time, but on occasion
he has even extended financial aid to needy graduate
students. His illuminating discussions at the meetings

476 Henry Andrews Bumstead.

of the Physics Club were eagerly looked forward to by
both students and colleagues.

Eminent as a scientist, inspiring as a teacher, he was
peerless as a man. Always cheerful and ready to lend

a helping hand to others, he was loved alike by students,

colleagues, and everyone who had the good fortune to come
in contact with him. His high ideals, in human relation-
ship as well as in scientific attainment, have had a
profound influence in moulding the characters of the
young men whom he has trained. His body may turn to
dust, but his soul lives on in the hearts and minds of those
who have been left behind to carry on his work.

LeicH Pace.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.

A Comparison of Electrodynamic Theories. (Not published.) 1897.

On the Reflection of Electric Waves at the Free End of a Parallel Wire
System, this Journal, 14, 359, 1902.

Obituary of J osiah Willard Gibbs, ibid., 16, 187 , 1903, and Introduction to
““Scientifie Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, ”’ Longmans & Co., 1906.

Note on a Radio-active Gas in Surface Water (with L. P. Wheeler), this
Journal, 16, 328, 1903.

On the Properties of a Radio-active Gas found in the Soil and Water near
New Haven (with L. P. Wheeler), this Journal, 17, 97, 1904.

On the Variation of Entropy as treated by Pr of. Willard Gibbs, Phil. Mag. -
7, 8, 1904.

Atmospheric Radio-activity, this Journal, 18, 1, 1904; and Phys. Zeit., 5,
504, 1904.

Excited Activity due to y Rays, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., 13, 125, 1905.

The Heating Effects produced by Réntgen Rays in Different Metals, and
their Relation to the Question of Changes in the Atom, this Journal, 21, 1,
1906; Phil. Mag., 11, 292, 1906; Le Radium, 3, 40, .1906.

On the Heating Effects produced by Rontgen Rays in Lead and Zine, this
Journal, 25, 299, 1908; Phil. Mag., 15, 432, 1908.

Bemerkung zu der Abhandlung des Hrn. Angerer, Ann. d. Phys., 25, 152,
1908.

Applications of the Lorentz-FitzGerald Hypothesis to Dynamical and
Gravitational Problems, this Journal, 26, 493, 1908.

On the Emission of Electrons by Metals under the Influence of Alpha
Rays, this Journal, 32, 403, 1911; Phil. Mag., 22, 907, 1911.

On the Emission of Electrons by Metals under the Influence of Alpha
Rays (with A. G. MeGougan), this Journal, 34, 309, 1912; Phil. Mag: 24,
462, 1912.

A New Radiation from Polonium (with A. G. McGougan), Phys. Rev., 34,
234, 1912.

On the Velocities of Delta Rays, this Journal, 36, 91, 1913; Phil. Mag., 26,
aa, LOLS.

On the Ionization of Gases by Alpha Rays, Phys. Rev., 8, 715, 1916.

Present Tendencies in Theoretical Physics, Science, 47, 51, 1916.

History of Physics, Scientific Monthly, 4, 289, 1921.

—2 ee

M. R. Thorpe—New Fossil Carnwora. ATT

Arr. XXXV.—Two New Fossil Carmwvora; by Matcoum
RutTHERFORD THORPE.

[Contributions from the Othniel Charles Marsh Publication Fund, Peabody
Museum, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. ]

Plhiocyon marsha, gen. et sp. nov.
(Fies. 1-3.)

Holotype, Cat. No. 10043, Y. P. M. Right lower jaw. Pliocene (Rat-
tlesnake), near Cottonwood, John Day Valley, Oregon. Collected in 1874
by L. S. Davis.

Distinctive characters.—Dental formula I,, C,, P., M2;
ramus long and slender; angle heavy and rugose; P,
small and adjacent to C; P, with prominent posterior
tubercle and heel; M, very large, with robust protoconid,
prominent metaconid, and low hypoconid medially
situated on the talonid; paraconid large and high. M,
long and stout, gradually decreasing posteriorly in width;
symphysis short; canines close together ; mental foramen
beneath anterior root of P, and another below the anterior
part of the diastema behind P,; I, in front of C; nearest
part of C alveolus but 4 mm. from symphysis.

Dimensions.
mm
iamus, leneth, C alveolus to condyle, ine................ 125
Tooth row, length, C alveolus to M, alveolus, inc......... 79
eS OM OTN ee Ge ee wien ew wa ieee ve oe Vee tae)
en er er re he 22,9
Width ....... hor iogasen ety kd: SRE Rae Orgs te We ir a A aAnaraE Re Aer 10
on SSL GUID Ra ee ee en ee eae ee ee 13:8
“ACID: paged AM A Rea ans ee CA enp ue sr ef en tae gee 8
eee ose rm Ost, Ciameter sci 6. fk ulek e bees le je chs Hes5)
Mieamcwverse; Giameber sisi peu. wts . oti o Pore ee S 8
Pepimor ramus below protoconid of M, ......0...0..... 26
Depth of ramus below middle of Pm diastema............ 20.5

Geologic horizon.—This specimen was collected about a
mile west of Cottonwood, on the East Fork of the John
Day River. The enclosing matrix was soft tuff, lying
between the basal conglomerate and the capping rim rock
of rhyolite, about 3 feet below the lower edge of the latter
according to a letter written to Professor Mar sh by L. S.
Davis, dated Camp Watson, March 15,1874. This forma-
tion is the Rattlesnake of Merriam, and is of middle

478 M. R. Thorpe—New Fossil Carnivora.

Pliocene age. The bone varies in color from hght grey
to slate, while the teeth are dark blue.

Relationships—No specimen comparable to this has
been described or reported from North America. In fact,
it resembles more closely Sumocyon primigenius Roth and
Wagner than any other form, a fact first recognized by
Professor Lull. Simocyon primigenus is Lower Pliocene
in age, and comes from the Pikermi beds, near Athens,
Greece.

This European species differs from Plhocyon marsha
in having (1) but one lower premolar, P,; (2) a longer
and more robust ramus; (3) three incisors; (4) a much
wider canine with nearly the same antero-posterior
diameter; (9) a greater distance between canines; (6)
anterior mental foramen below the middle of the dias-

. ~

WS, IAN . \ \\
~~ \

Fie. 1—Pliocyon marshi, gen. et sp. nov. Holotype. External lateral
view. 4/5.

tema anterior to P,; (7) internal, mandibular fora-
men much lower and farther from M,; (8) a longer
symphysis; (9) a much greater outward curvature of the
ramus; (10) a much greater degree of outward trend
below the tooth row; .and several other less important
differences. |

Pliocyon marsh differs from Simocyon diaphorus
Kaup, on the other hand, in having (1) no P, and P,; (2)
a smaller and lower metaconid on M,, and a larger hypo-
conid; (3) a much shallower cleft between the para- and
protoconid of M,; (4) a longer and higher P,, but with
less prominent basal heel; (5) M, placed nearly level with
respect to the tooth row, instead of rising steeply poste-
riorly; (6) a shorter horizontal ramus; (7) anterior
mental foramina closer together, with the anterior one
higher; and (8) a somewhat shorter but wider M,. —

a: TSS ee ee

ie | | 3

M. R. Thorpe—New Fossil Carmvora. 479

The two species, 8S. prinigenius and S. diaphorus, are
so unlike that I doubt the validity of this classification.
In fact, it seems that Pliocyon marsh is closer to S. primi-
genius than is 8. diaphorus, but I do not believe that this
new form should be considered as a species of Simocyon.
Pliocyon is of later age than S. prumigenius, but in some

LOOL3 VIVRE oa) P: Mi

Fig. 2.—Pliocyon marsh, gen. et sp. nov. Holotype. Internal lateral
view. 4/5.

respects it seems to show less advanced characters. Both
were brachycephalic forms and had, of course, reached
a high degree of specialization. The exact. taxonomic
position of the new North American form can not be
determined on the presence of this one ramus. Appar-
ently, however, we can safely conclude that Pliocyon is the
New World representative of the Pikermi Simocyon.

LO OFS IPE We Ze AE

WX ay

Oligobunis Cope.

When Cope described this genus in 1881, he considered
it ancestral to Icticyon Lund, and as allied to the Canide.
The type,- O. crassivultus, is from the John Day beds.
In 1907 Matthew reéxamined the type and referred it to
the Mustelide. ;

The dental formula is I$, C1, P*=*, Mz. Cope did not
know of the existence of M? and used its supposed absence
in part as a generic distinction from Icticyon. The type,

480 M. R. Thorpe—New Fossil Carnwora.

No. 6903, A. M. N. H., consists of the anterior half of a
skull with rami, about the size of Taxidea americana.
The muzzle is short and stout, lacking the constriction
anterior to P*, common to the Canide. The zygomatic
fossa is short; the orbits small, and the infra-orbital fora-
men above the interval between P® and P*.

The rami are robust, with deep masseteric fosse. The
condyles are on a line with M,, while the coronoid is
wide and high. The canine is stout, and the premolars
short and massive. FP?! is very small; P? but slightly
ovate; P*? somewhat obliquely placed; P* large, with a
well developed deuterocone, and the blades separated by
a distinct notch. Matthew says of M! (p. 193) that it
‘is reduced antero-posteriorly and much extended trans-
versely, the paracone nearly median, metacone vestigial
and parastyle much extended, protocone compressed, and,
as in all primitive Mustelines, it lacks the broad flange
characteristic of the modern Mustelide.’’ M? is small
and oval.

The inferior premolars are slightly spaced and P, is
very diminutive. M, has a rather large heel and a well
developed metaconid, while M, is small and oval, with
the meta- and hypoconid of nearly equal height.

Oligobums darbyt, sp. nov.
(Figs. 4, 5.)

Holotype, Cat. No. 10272, Y. P. M. Skull and jaws. Lower Miocene
(Monroe Creek beds—lower Harrison), Pine Ridge, 12 miles north of Har-
rison, Sioux Co., Nebraska, on the Warbonnet ranch, in See. 2, T 32 N., R
56 W. Collected in 1914 by Mr. Fred Darby, after whom the species is
named.

Specific characters.—The skull is approximately the
same size as that of Icticyon venaticus, the South Amer-
ican bush dog (Goldman 1920, p. 149), or considerably
smaller than that of O. crassivultus. It is strongly doli-
chocephalic, with a very short muzzle. There is a large
infra-orbital foramen above the posterior margin of P®,
the superior contour slopes gently both ways from the
Junction of the temporal ridges, the length of the zygo-
matic fossa is equivalent to about one third of the total
skull length, the sagittal crest is barely marked, and the
zygomatic arches are very slender.

The cranial and basicranial areas of this genus have
been unknown heretofore. The bulle are partly broken

M. R. Thorpe—New Fossil Carnwora. 481

away, although there is sufficient evidence to show that
they were moderately inflated and oval in outline. The
foramina correspond very closely in position to those of
Megalictis ferox Matthew (1907, p. 197). The condylar
foramen is exceedingly small; the foramen lacerum pos-
terius and the carotid canal are not clearly defined but
they were located internally and about medially of the
bulle; the stylomastoid foramen is rather large and the
postglenoid foramen small, this latter lying about midway
between the external auditory meatus and the base of the
postglenoid process; the foramen ovale is moderately
large and located internally from about on a line with the
postglenoid tubercle; the foramen lacerum medius is
likewise large and situated antero-internally from the

10272 TYPE
Y. P.M.

Fic. 4.—Oligobunis darbyi, sp. nov. Holotype. Right lateral view.
Nat. size.

bulla. The external auditory meatus is quite large and
directed forward. The postglenoid process is wide and
its lower extremity internally curves downward and for- °
ward to a marked degree. The mastoid process is robust
and heavy, directed much more outward than downward,
while the paramastoid is situated considerably more
posteriorly and extends somewhat backward but chiefly
downward. The basicranial axis is nearly straight; the
pterygoid processes are thin and quite prominent, while
the palate was undoubtedly nearly flat.

The canines are stout and of median length. P! is
small and has no diastema on either side. The other

489 M. R. Thorpe—New Fossil Carnwora.

teeth are not distinctive, except M?, which is very small,
oval, and situated about medially with respect to M?.
The inferior canine is recurved and the tooth row is
continuous, with no diastemata. The ramus is slender;
masseteric fossa very deep and large; angle prominent;
and coronoid wide, thin, and high. The condyle is
situated on a line with the dental series. There are three
mental foramina in the same horizontal line.

Pa

Vik
if i
GZ
SS Cd ie; ,
y
Ye YY f
SANS Yi

=

\ irik

7) Im LAO

Fic. 5.—Oligobunis darbyi, sp. nov. Holotype. Inferior view, right half
of skull. Nat. size.

Dimensions.

mm
Skull, length, occip. condyles to canine, ine............... 96
Bigygomatic diameter: ik... a. « od +s ek 6 AT
Diameter, post-orbital constriction .......4:. 0. 39oe0eoe eee
Superior dental serres}ine.-C, Jeneth?. "2... : a 40
Superior molar series leneth=:.... .... 0.3.54. one 8.2
Superior premolar series Jeneth |... o.-. + .1. eee 25.2
Ramus, length, ime.-canime... .0.2 <2. 0. . «40 6 oe 66
Depth, coronoid to-angle..2.. 2.6. on... . 2. re 28.9
Depth*below middilecof Masti: 2. ...04 2.2 13
Inferior molar’series, lenvth........ 52.2.2... 15
lviferior preniolar series, length: 2... 5..21).. 2 eee 21.5

In so far as comparable parts are present of both the
type of the genus, O. crassivultus Cope, and O. darbyi,
sp. nov., the latter differs chiefly in (1) smaller size, (2)
much greater degree of dolichocephaly, (3) a continuous
inferior and superior tooth row, (4) larger size of infra-
orbital foramen, (5) different size and shape of masseteric
fossa, (6) different proportions of anterior zygomatic
pedicle, (7) much less prominent angle of ramus, (8) con-
siderably smaller deuterocone of P*, and (9) different
geographical locality and geological horizon. Many
minor differences may also be noted.

The new species differs from the type of O. lepidus

M. R. Thorpe—New Fossil Carnivora. 483

Matthew, No. 12865, A. M. N. H., in (1) larger size and
(2) different proportions. The paratypes of the latter
species, Nos. 12866 and 12867, are figured, but not the
type. In comparison with the paratypes, O. darby, sp.
nov., differs in (1) somewhat larger size, (2) possession
of P', (3) greater crowding of the premolars, (4) much
larger size of P,, (5) smaller size and different shape of
M?, (6) less curvature of the inferior tooth row, (7)
greater degree of recurving of C,, (8) straighter inferior
outline of the ramus, and (9) greater depth of ramus
below the tooth row.

These paratypes Matthew designated in his table of
measurements as a new variety, robustior, although I
think that additional material would elevate them to the
rank of a new species, more advanced in development
than any of the others. Another paratype of the same
species, No. 12868, may well be a male of O. lepidus, as it
agrees with the type except in being of larger size.

REFERENCES.

De Blainville, M. H.-M. D. 1839-1864. Ostéographie. Paris. (Subursus,
pl. 14.)

Cope, EH. D. 1884. The Vertebrata of the Tertiary formations of the
West. Book I. Rept. U. 8. Geol. Survey Terr., 3, 939-942.

Goldman, E. A. 1920. Mammals of Panama. Smithson. Misc. Colls., 69,
INO 5, 149, pl. 31, figs..1, la.

Kaup, J. 1832. Vier neue Arten urweltlicher Raubthiere, ete. Archiv fiir
Mineralogie, Geognosie, ete., 5, 150-152, pl. 2, figs. 1, 2. Berlin.

Matthew, W. D. 1907. A Lower Miocene fauna from South Dakota. Bull.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 23, 169-219.

Merriam, J. C. 1903. The Pliocene and Quaternary Canide. Univ. Cali-
fornia, Bull. Dept. Geology, vol. 3, 277-290.

Merriam, J. C., and Sinclair, W. J. 1907. Tertiary faunas of the John
Day region. Ibid., vol. 5, 171-205.

Roth, J., and Wagner, A. 1854. Die fossilen Knocheniiberreste von Pikermi
in Griechenland. Abhandl. math.-phys. Cl. d. k. Bayerischen Akad. d.
Wiss., 7, pt. 2, 389-392, pl. 8, figs. 1, 2. Munich.

Trouessart, HE. L. 1897. Catalogus mammalium, 291. Berlin.

Wortman, J. L., and Matthew, W. D. 1899. The ancestry of certain mem-
bers of the Canide, the Viverride, and Procyonide. Bull. Amer. Mus.
Nat. Hist., vol. 12, 109-138.

sels A. von. 1891-1893. Paleozoologie. Handb. d. Pal., 4, 634, fig.

484 W. Mason—New Harmomc Analyzer.

Arr. XXXVI—A New Harmonic Analyzer; by WARREN
Mason.

Since Fourier first published his ‘‘Theory Analytique
de la Chaleur,’’ there have been a number ¢ * machines
called harmonic analyzers invented for the purpose of
evaluating his integrals mechanically. Some of these |
have been in use’ for over a hundred years, so the only
reason for describing another one would be that it is
simpler to make or more accurate than other machines.
The instrument described in this paper has about the same
degree of accuracy as any except the Henrici analyzer,
but its main point of interest is that it can be made by
anyone without the use of complicated machinery.

A periodic curve can be represented by a series of the
kind

y= A+A, sina+B, cosa+ A, sin2a+ B,costa+..

where A is a constant equal to the algebraic sum of the
area of the two loops forming one wave length, and A,,
B,, A, B,, ete., constants denoting the maximum heights
. of the respective harmonics. Fourier has shown that the
value of any constant A, is given by the integral :

il 27 :
A, = = y sinna da,
TJ 0

while the value of the constant B,, is given by

1 2m
BS y cosnada.
7 Jo

As in the case of most harmonic analyzers, this machine
evaluates the above integrals by tracing an area propor-
tional to the value of the expression. Therefore we may
at once write

Ge Ne (1)

where A is the equivalent area referred to above, and K
a constant of proportionality. Substituting the integrals
for the above terms, we have

7a ees ! ! ! it ont :
oy (Ye Yada 22 J. y sinnada., Gay:
Tit 7 eJ0

x,and y in the following equations refer to the coordinates
of the wave form with reference to axes at the origin of,
_and along the axis of, the wave form, while a’, y’, which

W. Mason—New Harmonic Analyzer. 485

are the coordinates of the derived area, refer to the same
axes. All machines of this type have a definite wave
length to analyze, which we will designate by the letter
h. a, then in terms of h and a, is

t¢ a.

Substituting this value of ain equation (2), the expression
becomes

2 ‘ 2 PR aia, &
fe (y, — y,') dz’ = — : y sin eae da. (4)
eid h @) h

BiG. cle

Frame work

Straight Edge.

Differentiating this equation to get rid of the limits

Ky = y,\da = y sin P de. (5)

The machine by which we propose to evaluate the
Fourier integrals consists of a framework, an arm, a
curve, and a straight edge. The framework is an L-
shaped piece of wood or metal, grooved on the bottom to
allow a zylonite eurve to slip into place when the frame-
work is placed over it. Lugs placed in the framework

AM. Jour. Sci.—Firta Series, Vou. I, No. 6.—June, 1921.

486 W. Mason—New Harmomec Analyzer.

fit into holes on the curve and hold it in place. A series
of transparent zylonite pieces, one for each sine or cosine
harmonic, on which particular curves have been engraved,
are the instrument curves referred to. An arm, made
partly of metal, and partly of a zylonite strip on which a
straight line has been engraved, is fastened to the frame-
work by means of a pivot O. Fig. 1 illustrates this
construction. At the end of this arm a small hole P is
bored, in which either a pencil point or the tracing point of
a planimeter may be placed. A straight edge fastened
to the board on the axis of integration, which is always

IG aoe

the Y axis if the curve extends along the X axis, serves
as a guide for the machine. The essential operation con-
sists in tracing the wave form to be analyzed with -the
intersection of the arm and the instrument curve, and at
the same time drawing the derived area by means of a
pencil point placed in the tracing point of the analyzer.
It can be seen from fig. 2, that any ordinate of the wave
form is exactly reproduced in the derived area, for when
x is constant, the arm is fixed, and draws one ordinate as
long as the other. Therefore, since (y,/-y,’/)=y m
equation (9), these factors can be cancelled out leaving
the equation

W. Mason—New Harmome Analyzer. 487

ee ere ;
K dz' = —sin dee. (6)
h h

Integrating this we have
ZN 2 ("

in if
K 2 = — cos + C.,
N74 h

From fig. 2 is can be seen that when

1
a == Oo ae == 0, SO (=

aS

Substituting this value for C in equation (7)

Rh he. if = l= oe EES (8)

n 7 KK

This equation merely states that if the instrument
curve is so constructed that the abscisse of the tracing
point and the abscisse of the curve satisfy equation (8),
the tracing point of the instrument will draw an area
proportional to the constant desired. To obtain this
curve we will refer again to fig. 1. 1s the angle the arm
makes with a horizontal line, L the distance between the
pivot and the tracing point, H the distance of the pivot
above the axis of integration of the machine, X, Y, the
coordinates of the curve with reference to an axis along
the axis of integration of the machine, and to one perpen-
dicular to it through the point O, and X’, Y’, the coordi-
nates of the tracing point with reference to the same axes.
It will be noticed that X and x are measured from the
same axis and when the machine is in operation have
simultaneous values; the same may also be said of X’
and 2. No similar relations exist between Y and y or
Y’ and y’, but as these terms do not appear in the essential
poet. this does not matter. From the figure

sins? = pas and Y = ee
Soles tan 6
Since from equation (8)
Penis ae ota Cs Ca
iG) KONE. @ ie are (i= cos or)

by assuming values of # or X, Y can be calculated and the
curve fully determined.

The only point not determined is what value to use for
Kk. The smaller this value becomes, the smaller the abso-
Inte error will be, so it will pay us to use as small a value

438 W. Mason—New Harmome Analyzer.

as possible. From practical considerations this value

willbe K = aa for any smaller value than this will cause

the curve to extend outside of the tracing point. H is
taken as 3/2 h, for if it is taken any smaller, the results
will not be very accurate, while if taken much larger, the
machine tends to become unwieldy.

A cosine curve may be obtained in a similar manner,
going through the same set of equations and replacing
the sin by the cosin.

TG,

Se
X ~
PN
S Se
S periva .
— ~
NArea s
\ SN

XN OS

XN ’]

ees ees oo ——— «- ee ey

If only the odd harmonies are to be found, then it is
necessary to analyze only one loop of the wave form.
The integral to be evaluated is

2 Ta
eles y sinna da,
7/0

and if this is substituted in equation (1), a similar set of
instrument curves may be found for this type of machine.
As only one loop has to be analyzed, the instrument will
be only half as large.

As stated before, the essential operation consists in
tracing the wave form with the intersection of the arm
and instrument curve, while at the same time the derived
area is drawn by the tracing point. It should be espe-

W. Mason—New Harmomec Analyzer. 489

cially noticed that the axis of the wave form must be
traced as well as the wave form itself, for otherwise no
closed area would be obtained. The derived area will
consist of a number of loops, the number depending on
the harmonic analyzed for, and the size and shape of the
wave form. Fig. 3 shows a sample wave form and
derived area for the first sin harmonic. Every time the

lines cross over the sign of the area changes. On all

MiGs A.

_ Se ee
feet

ee

Wave length of analyzer in inches

Values Of 772

Numbers On curves indicate order - of harmonic.

polar or rolling planimeter positive area is that area
which is measured in a clockwise direction, while if the
direction of rotation is reversed, the value recorded has
anegative sign. This fact can be utilized in the summing’
up of the positive and negative areas at one reading, for
if the tracing point of the planimeter follows the tracing
point of the “analyzer i in the exact path traced by it, the
tracing point of the planimeter will go around the positive

loops in one direction and the negative loops in another.

490 W. Mason—New Harmonic Analyzer.

For this reason it is not necessary to draw out the equiva-
lent area, but only necessary to place the tracing point of
the planimeter in the tracing point of the analyzer, trace
the figure, and read the planimeter directly. As the first
sin or cosin loops will always be positive in area unless
the ordinates themselves are negative, the tracing point
of the planimeter should start at the end of this first loop,
and follow the upper side around the successive loops back
to the starting point. The arrows in fig. 3 illustrate
this principle as applied to a derived area from a first
sin harmonic analyzer. The sign of the resulting reading
will tell whether the harmonic is positive or negative.
The absolute error measured in inches of result for
any harmonic of this machine is given by the formula

fe
h

where B is the maximum ordinate of the wave form to be
analyzed, and h the wave length of the analyzer. Fig. 4
shows a comparison of the errors for the analyzer and for
a computation method, using as a basis of comparison a
constant ordinate wave form, which is nearly the only
form in which errors by a computation method can be
directly calculated. The lines on the figure represent
conditions of equal accuracy. MW in the figure repre-
sents the number of ordinates per wave length used in
calculating the constants, while h represents the wave
lengths of the analyzer used. This figure shows that
the analyzer is more accurate, especially for the higher
harmonics.

Lawrence, Kansas.

Hewett and Shannon—Orientite. 491

Arr. XXX VII.—Orientite, a new hydrous Silicate of Man-
ganese and Calcium from Cuba; by D. F. Hewsrr?
and Hart V. SHANNON.®

CoNTENTS.

Introduction.

parte E.
Mode of Occurrence.
Associated Minerals.
Paragenesis.
Genesis.

Part If.
Crystallography: General character; habits; combinations; forms and

angles.
Physical properties: color; cleavage; hardness; specific gravity.
Optical properties.
Composition and chemical properties: analyses; pyrognostics.
Relations to other minerals.
The amorphous material.

Introduction.

Introduction.—In the course of the examination of some
manganese deposits in Oriente Province, Cuba, during
Mareh and April, 1920, a erystallized silicate of manga-
nese and calcium was discovered by D. F. Hewett. After
preliminary tests, specimens were sent to H. V. Shannon,
who determined that the mineral was a hydrous silicate
of manganese and calcium and represented a new species.
In the following statement, the crystallographic, optical
and chemical studies have been made by Shannon and
those with reference to mode of occurrence and genesis
by Hewett.

As the mineral is known to occur in two localities in
Oriente Province, where many manganese deposits are
found,* and it may be widespread in the region, it is appro-
priate that the geographic relation be perpetuated in the
name orientite.

Part T.

Mode of Occurrence.—The province of Oriente roughly
coincides with a broad structural trough in the rocks,

* Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey
and the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

* Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey.

* Assistant Curator, Department of Geology, U. S. National Museum.

* Hayes, C. W., Vaughan, T. W., Spencer, A. C., Report on a geological
reconnaissance of Cuba made under direction of Gen. Leonard Wood, 1901.

Burchard, E. F., Manganese-Ore Deposits in Cuba, Trans. Am. Inst. Min.
& Met. Eng., vol. 63, p- 51-104, 1920.

A92 Hewett and Shannon—Orientite, a new

which pitches to the west. The southern limit of the
trough is the igneous complex of the Sierra Maestra; the
northern limit is a group of low ranges near the north
coast, largely made up of serpentine. The trough com-
prises a great thickness, possibly 8,000 to 10,000 feet, of
bedded voleanic breccias, and tuffs with andesite and
latite flows, and limestone. On the southern limb of the
trough tuffs, breccias and flows constitute more than 95
per cent of the lower 2,000 or 3,000 feet but the proportion
of limestone is larger than that of the igneous rocks in the
upper 2,000 feet or more. The lower course of the Cauto
River approximately follows the trough. The manganese
deposits occur over a wide stratigraphic range in the
middle part of the section, to which an upper Kocene age
has been tentatively assigned.

The minerals of the manganese deposits of Cuba, in
order of abundance, are psilomelane, both hard and soft
varieties, manganite, pyrolusite, wad, neotocite and
orientite.

The accessory minerals include ‘‘bayate’’ or ferrugi-
nous jasper, glauconite (?), barite, quartz, calcite and
several zeolites. Although a few bodies of manganese
oxides occur in limestone or the clay resulting from its
decay, most of them replace fine tuff or volcanic ash.
They assume many forms, dependent upon local structural
features.

Orientite was first found in a group of deposits on the
Costa, Manuel and Vicente claims, 6 miles south of Buey-
cito and 20 miles southwest of Bayamo. Later it was
found in material from the Santa Rosa prospect, near
Banes, north of Antilla. An amorphous hydrous silicate
of manganese which is probably neotocite, was found in
material from the Abundancia mine at Manganeso.
Material encountered in several other deposits (Isabelita,
Ponupo, Llave) indicates that neotocite, and possibly
orientite, was once present but has been destroyed by
weathering. Neither mineral was definitely recognized,
however, in the Jutinicum, Dos Bocas and Baire districts,
which were also examined.

Orientite was first recognized as minute reddish-brown
crystals that lined drusy cavities in Open Cut No. 8 on the
Costa claim, and similar material was later found at many
other open cuts on the Costa, Manuel and Vicente claims.
Later, when thin sections of material from other openings
were studied, it was found that orientite was widespread,

Hydrous Silicate of Manganese and Calcium, 498

even where it could not be distinguished in hand
specimens. .

The Costa, Manuel and Vicente claims,’ aggregating
403 hectares (995 acres), cover an area of alternating
bedded tuffs and breccias of latitic andesitic type, latite
flows and thin limestones. These rocks dip northward at
10° to 15° and are broken by two systems of faults.
Several andesite dikes occur in faults. The fine tuffs
that have been studied under the microscope contain
oligoclase, orthoclase, diopside, hornblende, and rock frag-
ments which are largely glass, here and there reddish in
color, due to included ferric oxide orains and containing
laths of feldspar. The matrix of the tuffs contains class
which is generally altered near the ore bodies. The ore-
bodies of these claims contain psilomelane, manganite,
pyrolusite and orientite and are wholly in the fine tufts.
Where coarse breccias are adjacent to ore- bodies, some
manganese oxides may occur in the fine matrix of the
breccias. The manganese oxides and silicate were depos-
ited in the tuffs largely by replacing the glassy portion of
the rock fragments.

Associated Minerals.—Psilomelane is present in most
of the deposits and both the variety, harder as well as
that softer than a steel knife, were recognized. It forms
fibrous masses that commonly range from 1 to 50 mm. in
maximum size. Some plumose aggregates having similar
associations are probably manganite. Commonly, these
masses occur in layers roughly parallel to layers of tuff;
in some places they are sporadically distributed through
relatively unaltered tufts. The available thin sections of
the larger masses indicate that the manganese minerals
have locally completely replaced all of the minerals and
rock fragments that previously were present, feldspar,
diopside and glass. In some sections of material that
shows disseminated minute particles of psilomelane,
largely found on the borders of the deposits, the manga-
nese minerals fill the space between the residual feldspar
grains, which clearly have survived the process of replace-
ment. In other thin sections, there are minute opaque
grains in the erystals and other particles of orientite
(fig. 1) that are probably psilomelane. Psilomelane and
the plumose manganite were clearly the first minerals to
be deposited in the tuffs. Veinlets of orientite in fig. 2

° Burehard, HE. F., loc. cit., p. 80.

494 Hewett and Shannon—Orientite, a new

fill cracks that cut across plumose manganite and are
clearly later than that mineral.
In some places manganite forms plumose aggregates

wy a
1, os
eck *. :
i . g _
_> = % ;
. ~
YS) 2 3
+ Sk aS
- +
*

x
Pee pees gS

Fic. 1.—Black, manganese oxide (psilomelane?); gray, erystals (0),
orientite; white (c), calcite. < 25 diameters. oan

Oxides form nuclei in orientite; druses are filled with calcite. Mottled
appearance of orientite is due to its high index of refraction.

Open cut. No. 20, Costa Claim, 6 miles south of Bueycito, Oriente, Cuba.

that have associations similar to psilomelane and is there-
fore probably contemporaneous with it. It also forms
short wedge-shaped prisms 1 to 2 mm. long, which occur

Fig. 2.—Black, plumose aggregates of manganite (?); gray (0), orien-
tite; white (op), opal (?); white (s), open space. » 6 diameters.

Veinlets of orientite cut and are later than the aggregates of manganite.

Open cut No. 8, Costa Claim, 6 miles south of Bueycito, Oriente, Cuba.

Hydrous Silicate of Manganese and Calcium. 495

in druses, and fills veinlets which commonly rest upon or
eut the psilomelane and orientite, and is, therefore, later
than these minerals. It has been impossible to accurately
discriminate between manganite and pyrolusite; the
hardness of the crystals corresponds with that of manga-
nite, and water was given off when numerous specimens
were heated in a closed tube. On the other hand, it is
possible to sort out from the material from most of the
deposits, a portion that contains considerable crystalline
material, which is shown by analysis to contain 90 to 92
per cent MnO,, and is therefore undoubtedly pyrolusite.®
Wad is sparingly distributed in the deposits. but appears
to be a product of recent weathering.

Orientite assumes several forms, depending apparently
on whether it is abundant or scarce. Where it is abun-
dant in the Bueycito region, myriads of small reddish-
brown prismatic crystals cover drusy cavities (fig. 1) in
psilomelane. Some specimens that appear to be made up
largely of psilomelane, are shown by thin sections and
polished surfaces to be an intricate mixture of psilome-
lane and orientite (fig. 2). In such mixtures, the orientite
erains are made up of aggregates of minute tabular
erystals. Hlsewhere in the neighborhood there are large
bodies of tuffs that appear to be impregnated with disse-
minated psilomelane and contain 5 to 20 per cent manga-
nese. A number of thin sections of such material shows
that orientite is universally associated with the manga-
nese oxide, but like it forms small grains in the matrix of
the tuff, or replaces the glass of the rock fragments,
leaving the included feldspars unaltered (fig. 3). Some
sections in which the feldspars are quite fresh, show
diopside erystals which are surrounded by a border of
orientite. Such relations suggest that the diopside is
more readily replaced than the feldspar.

Several thin sections of material from the Bueycito
region show orientite pseudomorphs of foraminifera
imbedded in manganese oxide (psilomelane ?) (fig. 4.).
It would appear that this selective replacement of the
foraminifera by the silicate of manganese and calcium is
due to the high calcium content of the fossils.

An amorphous silicate (neotocite ? see p. 492) is present
in material from Vicente Open Cut No. 15 near Bueycito,
from the Abundancia Mine near Manganeso, and the

* Watson, T. L., Pyrolusite in Virginia, Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 8, p-
550-560, 1918.

4.96 Hewett and Shannon—Orientite, a new

Santa Rosa prospect near Banes. Thin sections of
material from the Vicente claim show irregular areas of

Fig. 3—Black, manganese oxide; dark gray (0), orientite; light gray
(p), plagioclase crystals; white (s), open space. >< 25 diameters.

The alignment of the fresh plagioclase laths in the grains of orientite
indicates flow structure in original glass, now replaced by orientite.

Open cut No. 8, Costa Claim, 6 miles south of Bueycito, Oriente, Cuba.

a clear light brown amorphous mineral in which there are
minute rosettes of orientite crystals. It was first thought
that the amorphous mineral was a variety of orientite, but

Fic. 4.—Black, manganese oxide; gray (0), orientite pseudomorphs of
foraminifera; white (s), open space. < 25 diameters.

Foraminifera (calcite) replaced by orientite; remainder of rock largely
replaced by manganese oxide.

Open cut No. 8, Costa Claim, 6 miles south of Bueycito, Oriente, Cuba.

Hydrous Silicate of Manganese and Calcium. 497

the analyses which follow show that although it is a
hydrous silicate of manganese, it is deficient in lime, if
indeed lime is a part of it. Its relation to the oxides,
bayate, and orientite, indicates that 1t was deposited
essentially contemporaneously with orientite.

Zeolites are present at many openings on the Costa,
Manuel, and Vicente claims near Bueycito, but are not
conspicuous in several other localities that were exam-
ined. The commonest zeolite near Bueycito is stilbite
which generally fills veinlets that cut the mineralized
tuffs. Analcite in crystals up to 1 em. in diameter, chaba-
zite in rhombohedrons up to 5 mm. in diameter and lau-
montite in bundles of lath-shaped crystals, cover drusy
cavities at a number of localities. These four zeolites
uniformly appear to be deposited later than orientite and
the manganese oxides.

Quartz occurs in druses, here and there as doubly ter-
minated dark gray erystals. The color is due to included
minute grains of manganese oxide and here, at least,
appears to have been deposited contemporaneous with and
later than the oxides. Its relation to the zeolites has not
been determined. On the other hand, ‘‘bayate,’’ a
brownish jasper or chalcedony which is made up of minute
spherulites and is almost universally abundant near every
manganese deposit in Cuba, appears to be earlier than or
contemporaneous with the manganese oxides.’ <A clear
hmpid amorphous mineral that is probably opal is present
in some thin sections. It appears to have been deposited
after the oxides of manganese and orientite, but its rela-
tion to calcite and the zeolites is not clear.

Barite occurs in the deposits as radiating aggregates
of thin tabular crystals intimately associated with orien-
tite, and as clusters of tabular crystals in druses in man-
ganese oxides. Most of it appears to have been deposited
contemporaneously with orientite.

Glauconite (?) is intimately associated with bayate in
most deposits. It forms thin fibrous green films on the
borders of the bayate masses generally adjacent to the
unaltered tuffs and most remote from the bodies of man-
ganese oxide and orientite. The identification of the
mineral near Bueycito is based wholly on the index of
refraction (1.61) and the birefringence.

Materials having the same properties and associations
was collected by Burchard in several districts in Cuba.’

‘ Burchard, E. F., loe. cit., p. 58-60.
* Burchard, E. F., loc. cit., p. 89.

498 Hewett and Shannon—Orientite, a new

Calcite is present in many deposits near Bueycito, and
uniformly is the latest mineral. It occurs as short
, secalenohedrons terminated by flat rhombohedrons which
line drusy cavities and commonly rest upon one of the
zeolites. Ilsewhere it fills the space remaining after the
other minerals were deposited (fig. 1).

it should be noted that in the Bueycito region orientite
and the other silicates susceptible of decomposition by
weathering are uncommonly fresh and that the ordinary
products of weathering characteristic of residual deposits,
wad, variegated clays, ete., are practically absent. In
general the rocks adjacent to the bodies of manganese
oxide and orientite are quite fresh. Burchard, however,
has described’ several deposits, such as those near Palma-
rito, where manganese oxides are imbedded in clays
that lie in solution cavities in limestone.

Summary of Paragenesis.—In the Bueycito region, the
several minerals that make up the manganese deposits
have been deposited by the replacement of latite tufts.
Here and there, in parts of some of the richer deposits,
the tuffs have been completely replaced and no traces of
the original minerals remain. In some of the poorer
deposits however, and on the borders of all of the
deposits, replacement has been selective; the fine matrix
of the tuffs in general is replaced by oxides of manganese
and the glassy fragments and calcareous fossils are
replaced by orientite. The feldspars resist replacement
in this zone.

From the study of thin sections and polished opaque
oe the following tentative order of genesis is indi-
cated:

Beginning of End of
deposition deposition

Bayate $$

Glauconite — ——_-—

Psilomelane

Manganite (plumose) ——

Barite —

Orientite ee

Manganite (prisms) ; =

Quartz

Zeolites

Calcite

* Burchard, E. F., loc. cit., p. 25.

Hydrous Silicate of Manganese and Calcium. 499

Genesis.—It is not possible at this time to present all
of the geologic data that bear upon the genesis of the
deposits in which orientite is persistently present. It
may be only briefly stated that the intimate association
of the manganese oxides and orientite with zeolites and
quartz, apparently without a pronounced interruption of
the process of deposition, indicates that the first group
have the same mode of origin as that commonly ascribed
to the second, 7. e., deposition by warm hypogene waters.
It should be noted that this is essentially the mode of
erigin suggested by Spencer in 1902,'° although the
evidence apears to be more conclusive at this time.

oe

A. (Ge
IPI By Gene from Cuba.

Part II.

Crystallography.—Orientite crystallizes in the ortho-
rhombic system. It oceurs as granular masses, as rosettes
of radiating prismatic blades, ‘and as distinct crystals
making up drusy crusts. The crystals are small, the
largest not exceeding 1 mm. in length and the average
being very much less - than this. There are two pr incipal
habits which grade into each other. Crystals of the most

” Hayes, C. W., Vaughan, T. W., and Speneer, A: C., loc. Git PaOoe

500 Hewett and Shannon—Orientite, a new

common habit are prismatic with the length 11% to 4 times
the diameter. These show only the basal pinacoid ¢ (001),
the brachypinacoid 0(010), and the unit prism m(110).
The prism and brachypinacoid are about equally devel-
oped so that the crystals appear very much hke hexagonal
prisms (fig. 5,B). The second habit has the same simple
combination but the crystals are distinctly tabular parallel
to the pinacoid 0(010) with the length 114 to 2 times the
breadth (fig. 5, A). The larger crystals are often compo-
site being made up of smaller individuals in parallel posi-
tion. ‘The faces of all crystals large enough for gonio-
metric measurement are imperfect, the prism faces being
striated horizontally and more or less bulged while the
base is usually somewhat concave. The only crystal
found which was not terminated by the base alone was
very minute and as shown in fig. 5 C was tabular parallel
to b(010) and was terminated by forms which, by their
zonal relations, were identified as y(011), e(102) and
2(112). This crystal could not be measured on the goni-
ometer and the only angular value obtained was measured
under the microscope. This was the angle e(102):
En 102) === 61." 00! on,
e (102) = 90°00' p =30°00’

The value given for the c axis, based, as it is, upon this
measurement alone, is obviously only an approximation.
The mean of 9 good measurements on crystals of the
simpler types gave as the angle for the prism:

Me AVLO) (dh == 56°06.) p= so ean
or m(110): m”(110) = 67°48. From the abowe angles
the following constants are derived:

6120 —.p, = 11780 “log! p., = Gaaiainies
eOUG O ie (Olio Noes a 9.89851

These values give the following theoretical angles for the
forms observed:

a
Cc

| Il
III

forms, Goldschmidt Symbols, and calculated angles
of orientite

L° tter Miller Gdt. symbol d p
b 010 Or co 0°00’ 90°00’
E OO1 0) 0°00’ 0°00'
m 110 20 56°06' 90°00'
€ 102 +0 90°00' 30°30’
y Oll Om 0200) 38°22.
Zz el 4 56-060 Sar ee

—

Hydrous Silicate of Manganese and Calcwm. 501

Physical properties Single crystals of orientite are
transparent except where clouded by disseminated oxides.
The crystalline druses are bright and sparkling and are
light brown in color when the crystals are free from
impurities. In the majority of specimens, however, the
erystals themselves contain more or less finely divided -
black impurity and consequently range from dark brown
to almost black in color. The crystalline-granular mas-
sive material is dark brown in color with pitchy to dull
luster. The luster of the crystals is more or less resinous.
Occasionally they are iridescent to submetallic or metallic
in luster due to very thin exterior coatings of a steel-gray
manganese oxide. The powder is hight hair-brown and
the streak slightly darker. The mineral shows a very
imperfect cleavage parallel to m(110) and probably also
a still less perfect cleavage parallel to c(001). It is brittle
with a hardness of 4.5-5. The mean of four closely
agreeing determinations of the specific gravity 1s 3.00.

Optical properties: Orientite is biaxial positive with
the optic plane parallel to c(001). The optical orienta-
tion is:

Xie 6 eC Lib
Crystals of the tabular or type 2 habit lie on the face of
b(010) and yield a symmetrical interference figure indi-
cating that the obtuse bisectrix is perpendicular to this

-plane or that the acute bisectrix is perpendicular to

a(100). Type 1 erystals often rest on a face of m(110)
and then yield a figure showing a perfectly centered optic
axis indicating that the optic axes coincide with the
normals to the prism faces; therefore 2V —67°; 2K
(caleulated) —156°. The pleochroism is marked: X, red
brown; Y, yellow; Z, brownish yellow. Absorption
X>Z>Y. The dispersion is pronounced but owing to the
large value of 2K the bars of the optic axis are so straight
that the direction of curvature is difficult to distinguish.
So far as could be determined the dispersion is p<v. The
indices of refraction are high while the birefringence is
moderate. The values for the indices of refraction and
the birefringence are as follows:
o=1.758 B==1.776 y=1.795 y—a—=.037 all +1.005

Composition and chenucal properties Crystallized
orientite is unattacked by cold dilute hydrochloric acid
but is readily soluble in hot hydrochloric acid with evolu-

Am. Jour. Sci.—FirtH Series, Vou. I, No. 6.—Junz, 1921.
34

502 Hewett and Shannon—Orientite, a new

tion of chlorine and separation of flocculent silica. It is
practically insoluble in concentrated nitric acid but is
partly decomposed by boiling with moderately concen-
trated sulphuric acid and yields a rose-purple solution
which becomes brown on dilution, precipitating brown
manganic hydroxide.

Material for analysis was selected with extreme care
as it was necessary to avoid, so far as possible, included
calcite and manganese oxides and also those portions of
the drusy crusts which bore superficial coatings of oxides
or of the colorless transparent opaline material. The
best specimens consisted of cellular masses made up of
thin ribs coated on both sides with drusy crystals. Such
masses were crushed and the purest grains and agegre-
gates of crystals were selected by hand under a high-
power binocular microscope. In many cases the thicker
ribs have a medial line of gray oxide and the groups of
crystals are often grown around a nucleus of opaque steel-
gray oxide as shown in the photomicrograph (fig. 1).
It was possible to recognize these areas of oxide under
the binocular microscope and to avoid them. The selected
samples were ground for analysis but, when examined
optically, they presented a rather unsatisfactory appear-
ance as many of the grains were more or less dusted with
what appeared to be a black opaque pigment of oxide.
The dark material appears to be an exceedingly fine dust
and many of the clear brown crystals have a central
nucleus of the dust-like material, the opaque core locally
having exactly the same form as the exterior of the
crystal. The samples on which the analyses given in
columns 1 and 2 below were made contained more or less
of this opaque material in from 10 to 20 per cent of the
grains. As treatment with heavy solutions and with an
electromagnet failed to effect any further purification of
the mineral, the muddy and the transparent grains have
practically identical specific gravity and magnetic attrac-
tibility. During microscopic examination of sample 2 it
was noted that the muddy impurity was practically
confined to the larger grains while the smaller grains were
mostly clear and transparent. Accordingly the finer
material was separated by livigation with water and the
product thus obtained showed very little of the opaque
impurity. An analysis of this last portion is given in
column 3 below. As will be seen, the analyses show but

Hydrous Silicate of Manganese and Calcium. 503

little variation which can be ascribed to the dust-hke
material and it seems probable that, despite its conspic-
uous appearance under the microscope, this 1s exceed-
ingly tenuous and of practically negligible mass. It is
believed that no appreciable amount of extraneous
manganese oxide was included in any of the samples
analyzed. 7

The results obtained upon analysis of the three separate
samples are given in the following table. Standard
analytical methods were used; the state of oxidation of
the manganese was determined by collecting, in potassium
iodide solution, the chlorine evolved upon solution of the
mineral in hydrochloric acid and titrating the liberated
iodine with standard sodium thiosulphate solution.

Analyses of crystalline orventite.

Constituent i 2 3 Average
SO) ate 32.97 ale? 33.05 32.48
2 Uh See 2.05 1203 AY 1.08
12 Oo 0) all eee asa en 36 1.62 ED) 1.56
On) a ree 29.93 28.60 alee 29.92
Or OL, 3.39 Eo 3 PAlk Beal
(OE Oe ala elke ar 22.04. 21.90 23.47 2247
1:71. Se trace trace trace trace
GOD SE ea trace oes aa ae trace
ee tOoC.«.). : 03 ate 04 03
HO 110°C. ... 8.48 faa Tag 7.93
(Ol 3 Ai als ee ane trace Bere alee trace

CUA Ie eee 100.25 100.25 98.74

The excess of oxygen shown in each analysis indicates
that essentially all of the manganese is in the manganic
state; the average column of the above table with the
excess oxygen united with an equivalent amount of MnO
to form Mn,0O, yields ratios as follows:

Ratios of orientite.

SO i ha eer 5386 53.86 1.02 x5
EOS RUS EN. 0108)
Pe OPN! fiestas is 0098+ 22.48 1.05 x 2
Mik Obayee kes jaaai | 2044|
Minn Oj, ssht to eh 0130 41.36 9Tx4
CONC: gee ean 4006

PEO pace ae 4402 44,02 1.04.x 4

504 Hewett and Shannon—Orientite, a new

The formula derived from the final column of ratios is
then:

4C0a0.2Mn,0,.58i0,4H,0.
This may be expressed as a hydrous orthosilicate thus:

Ca,Mn,(Si0,),.4H,0.
The water is not given off much below a red heat and in
this it behaves like constitutional water and it is perhaps
possible to regard it as such. This may be done by
making half of the water acid and half basic, the formula
then being written:
H,Ca,(MnOH) ,(Si0,);.

The condensed percentages of the average column of ana-

lytical figures are compared with the theoretical composi-
tion required to satisfy this formula as follows:

Average Theory

per cent. per cent.

CAO vey rns 22.47 2Ou.o4 24.56
MinO) aigid oh 92
re Oper 1.08

Hes ane yao 1.56 34.91 34.56

Mn,0, . 2DD7

<) Cae ee 32.48 33.00

EO ea a hg 7.93 7.88

Petals coe 98.71 100.00

The agreement is satisfactorily close, especially when the
difficulty of securing pure material is considered.
Pyrognostics.—The mineral yields neutral water in the
closed tube with or without decrepitation. The roasted
and dehydrated material is brownish-black in color with
a brownish-black streak and is opaque under the micro-
scope. In the forceps before the blast the mineral fuses
readily with pronounced intumescence to a blebby black
glass. It reacts for manganese with the fluxes.
Relationships.—A search of the literature has revealed
no mineral to which orientite is closely related. The only
other mineral which contains manganic manganese in
similar ratio.is kentrolite which is similar erystallograph-
ically and the possibility of including the new mineral
in the kentrolite group has been carefully considered.
The similarity is shown by the following comparison:

Hydrous Silicate of Manganese and Calcwum. 505

Kentrolite Melanotekite Orientite
Form orthorhombic orthorhombic orthorhombic
Habit short prismatic short prismatic short prismatic
a .6334 .6338 .6720
Cc 8830 AB Parl .7916

Orientite differs from this group chemically by having a
higher silica ratio as well as in its content of water. The
degree of chemical similarity to the members of the ken-
trolite group may be shown by comparing the formulas
thus:

4Pb0.2Mn,0,.4S8i0, Kentrolite
4Pb0.2Fe,0,.4810.. Melanotekite
4Ca0.2Mn,0,.5810,.4H,0. Orientite

Setting aside the excess of silica and writing all the water
as basic these minerals may be compared as follows:

Ca, (Mn(OH),).S8i,0,.164810, Orientite. -
Eby Cin) ,Si,0-. Kentrolite.

The excess of silica precludes the inclusion of the mineral
in this group, however, there being no sufficient evidence
for regarding such an amount (514%) as other than
essential. The formulas of the minerals of the kentrolite
eroup have, however, been derived from analyses made
upon small amounts of material of doubtful purity and
their accuracy has been questioned. It is possible that
new analyses of these minerals might show them to be
more closely related to orientite.

The amorphous material—The amorphous material
is all very impure from the presence of various included
substances, chiefly black opaque grains of manganese
oxide. It was so obviously impossible to learn much from
analyses made upon this impure material that it was not
examined in any great detail. The mineral varies from
light to dark brown in the hand specimen, the variation
being caused by varying amounts of included impurities.
The purest grains are clear dark brown in color, having
much the color of the erystalline-granular orientite. The
luster is resinous and the mineral greatly resembles
common brown opal. The powder and streak are pale
brown. ‘The material is very brittle and has a conchoidal
fracture. The specific gravity is about 2.5 and the hard-

506 Hewett and Shannon—Orientite.

ness is 2.5. Under the microscope the powder is in part
composed of a clear light-brown isotropic material the
mean index of refraction of which is 1.55. In selecting
material for analysis it was possible to avoid silica which
oceurs along cracks but the analyzed powder showed a
large proportion of black opaque oxide as well as a consid-
erable proportion of a fine-grained crystalline mineral
thought to be orientite. The analysis gave the following
results: |

Analysis of amorphous material.

OE 8 ieee Pak ete SO ply ee MGR ee OR 4.36
i al @ he ee en RAE NAA 20.91
Ne ee clas tii aoe aoe cane nee 2boe
Fe, 0, (SATO; )y eens Gey os La ee 4.50
Si, ot Sasha aikslaekcl a eae alee Bu om as er 23.76
H,O SE TOG. BIEL LG CEL Us ee 8.20
HO! SOs Oy 6iey A Noe a ee 15.60
Pusolable te sco oe 5 eels ee eee 1.24

ANSE 2" CW) Sane Ae DE a REEDS tate ye . 99.88

The material is a typical colloid and the water content
is extremely variable, a considerable portion being lost
over sulphuric acid in a desiccator. The above analysis
may be interpreted as an orientite in which the lime has
been replaced largely by manganous oxide. This leaves
a considerable excess of both manganous and manganic
oxides together with the large excess of loosely held
water. Ifthe lime be deducted as orientite and the triva-
lent bases be set aside, the remaining constituents give the
ratios of neotocite. In view of the colloid nature of the
substance as well as its manifest impurity it appears best
to avoid further discussion of the analysis at this time.

s

W. H. Hobbs—Post-glacial Faulting. 507

Art. XXXVIII.—Post-glacial Faulting wm the French
River District of Ontario; by Wituiam Herpert
Hoss.

In the early fall of 1919 the writer made a canoe journey
in.the French River district of Ontario, where he had occa-
sion to note an importance of post-glacial faulting quite
beyond anything which he had seen described in print.
Among the geologists who have given some attention
to this subject are Woodworth! and Matthew.’

The district under consideration is one of very pro-
nounced glacial erosion by the combined processes of

Fic. 1.—Polished surface on gneiss. French river district.

plucking and abrasion. Every shore of the channels and
every island is modeled into drumlinoid forms and the
glistening surface of the rock betrays no trace of weather-
ing (fig. 1). Rarely is there found sufficient cover for
the use of tent-pegs about camp, and the forest trees must
often gain their foothold in the crevices of the rock.
Planings and scorings, as well as the glorified roches

* J. B. Woodworth, Post-Glacial Faults of Eastern New York, New York
State Museum, Bull. 107, pp. 14-28, 1907.

*G. F. Matthew, Movements of the Earth’s Crust at St. John, N. B. in
Post-Glacial Time, Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. New Brunswick, no. 12, 1894, pp.
205.) (See also the author’s ‘‘Harthquakes,’’ Appleton, 1907, pp. 219-
225.

508 W. H. Hobbs—Post-glacial Faulting.

moutonnées which are everywhere, tell the same tale of
the tremendous grinding efficiency of the continental
elacier which first advanced and later retreated across
this region.

The pattern of the channels whose rectilinear elements
are so clearly revealed by the drainage map and to which
the writer has already called attention,? is reproduced
on a smaller scale in the individual zigzags of the canoe
routes. Some of the fractures which have exercised the
control would appear to be pre-glacial, for the glacial
modelling of the surface extends down to and beneath the
water surface; but in other cases movement along these

Fig. 2.—Post-glacial fault in gneiss. French river district.

fractures has been subsequent to the retreat of the gla-
cier from the district, and escarpments are found on which
no trace of the elsewhere dominant glacial polishing and
scoring is to be seen. Such escarpments generally run
closely parallel to the stream channels and rise to esti-
mated heights in some instances in excess of one
hundred feet. Distinct rifts have also been noticed and
in such cases the channel is bordered on opposite banks
by parallel escarpments. <A fault of this sort 1s shown in
fig. 2 and a larger one lined by high escarpments
extends for more thana mile. In such cases I have found
* Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 22, p. 151, fig. 26, 1911.

W. H. Hobbs—Post-glacial Faulting. 509

no evidence of the weathered or. eroded dikes to which
Bell ascribed the rectilinear channels of this region and
of many other parts of Canada, and in connection with
which he has assumed such an exceptional amount of
weathering and subsequent glacial erosion.*

University of Michigan,
February 8, 1921.

*Robert Bell, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 5, pp. 364-366, 1894.

Arr. XXXIX.—A Note on the Cernaysian Mammal
Fauna; by W. D. Matrtruew.

M. Teilhard de Chardin is the author of an admirable
revision of the Carnivora of the Quercy Phosphorites of
France. He has recently been engaged upon a revision of
the Cernaysian fauna, the oldest Tertiary mammals of
Europe, and has just published! a brief note of his pre-
liminary conclusions, especially as to the correlation
of the fauna. The following translation of his observa-
tions may be of interest to American paleontologists:

‘The revision of the Victor Lemoine collections pre-
served in the Paris Museum, researches in various
museums in France and abroad and excavations made at
Cernay-les-Reims, have led me to a better understanding
of the evolution of the Lower Kocene mammal faunas of
Europe.

““1. Age of the Cernaysian Fauna. The Cernaysian
fauna belongs not at the base nor in the middle (as has
sometimes been supposed) but at the extreme summit
of the Paleocene. The study of the Multituberculates,
the Oxyclenide (Arctocyonides), the Cheiromyide (Ples-
sadapis tricuspidens Gerv.), ete., that it contains, shows
that the conglomerate of Cernay (and with it, probably,
all our Thanetian) correspond exactly to the ‘Tiffany
beds’ of New Mexico, a formation interealated between
the upper Torrejon and the Wasatch. Plesiadapis
tricuspidens, notably, may be specifically identical with
Nothodectes gidleyi Matthew of the Tiffany beds. The
Cernaysian fauna differs principally from that of the

+Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci.\ France, 1920, seance de 6 Dec., pp. 1161-2.

510 W. D. Matthew—Cernaysian Mammal Fauna.

Tiffany beds by the dominance of very modernized
Condylarthra, Pleuraspidotherium and Orthaspido-
thertum, which may be related to the Meniscotheriide of
Cope.. Meniscotherium does not appear in America until
the Wasatch.

‘2. Distinctness of the Sparnacian fauna. Although
it must be placed at the summit of the Paleocene, the
Cernaysian fauna remains absolutely distinct from the
Sparnacian fauna. The latter, characterized by the
association Coryphodon-Hyracotherwm-Paramys, and by
species of the Plesiadapis daubrei group, appear sud-
denly, as a unit, with the Meudon conglomerate. The
same faunal association also appears in the fiuviatile
Landenian of Belgium (Coryphodon-Hyracothertum-Par-
amys), and in the London Clay of Sheppey (AHyraco-
thervum Plesiadapis = Platycher ops Charlesworth). It
exists, mixed with elements of later geologic age, in the
Agéian of Lemoine (Hyrac otherium — Lophiodocheer Us,
Paramys = Decticadapis, Plesiadapis). Typical Phenaco-
dus 1s found in France and in Belgium. In sum, the
Sparnacian fauna appears as suddenly in Europe as the
Wasatch fauna in America, and like the latter, it is char-
acterized by the arrival of Perissodactyls and Rodents.
But while in America undoubted Primates and Artiodac-
tyls are found from the beginning of the Wasatch, these
two groups are not recognized in EKurope until the begin-
ning of the Cuisian.

‘<3. Eaistence of a Cuisian fauna distinct from .the
Sparnacian. Separated from the Sparnacian elements
which were improperly associated with it, the Agéian
fauna is composed of Primates (Protoadapis), of Artio-
dactyls with very simple upper molars (Protodichobune
Lem. analogous with Diacodexis=Trigonolestes Cope of
the Wasatch), of Perissodactyls (Parapachynolophus
Lem.), clearly distinct from Hyracotherwum, and. of
Lophicdonts. These forms, obtained at an exact geolo-
gical level (the Teredina sands), represent the Cuisian
fauna properly so-called. This is then characterized by
the appearance of Primates and Artiodactyls and by a
particular stage in the evolution of the Perissodactyls.

‘‘4. Persistence up to the Ludian [Upper Hocene] of a
fauna of Sparnacian and of American affinities. The
study of the Mammalia, especially the ungulates, proves
that a separation between Europe and America took

W. D. Matthew—Cernaysian Mammal Fauna, 511

place at the end of the Lower Kocene and that it endured
up to the Oligocene. It is therefore more remarkable
under these circumstances to encounter in the Quercy
Phosphorites (especially at Memerlein, Dep’t Lot) a
small fauna of clearly American affinities. This fauna,
which can be fixed as of Bartonian or Lower Ludian age
by the occurrence of the same forms in the stratified
sequence (Hordwell, Huzet, Bouxviller), includes, besides
a Sparnacian genus Protoadapis already noticed by Steh-
lin, the adaptive Creodont genera Miacis and Vwerravus,
Chiromyide (two species of Necrosorex Filh.), and Tar-
siids (Pseudoloris, Stehl.), all quite nearly related to
Miacis, Viverravus, Apatemys and the Anaptomorphids
of the American Middle EKocene. So close a resemblance
between [these types of! the Bartonian of Kurope and the
Bridger of America proves that long after the separation
of the two continents a common residual fauna, mixed
with new elements proper to each region, was able to
maintain itself and continued to evolve along parallel
lines, on the two sides of the ocean.

‘“‘The Tarsiids of the Phosphorites, of which I have at
hand unpublished specimens showing the upper dentition
and the bones of the face, are remarkable as showing a
closer resemblance to the living Tarsier than any known
fossil form.”’

The principal collection of the Cernaysian fauna,
including the fossils obtained and described by Lemoine
in 1878-18938, and important later collections undescribed,
are in the Muséum de Paléontologie in Paris, and Pére
Teilhard’s revision was undertaken at the instance of the
Director, Prof. Marcellin Boule. On a recent visit to
the Paris Museum the writer had the privilege of examin-
ing this unique collection, and was much impressed both
with the interest of the fauna and with the admirable
thoroughness and insight of Pére Teilhard’s studies upon
it. The Tiffany fauna to which he compares the Cernay-
sian has been only in small part described, but it appears
probable that his conclusions will be confirmed by the
more complete comparisons to be made later.

512 Scientific Intelligence.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGHLNG

I. Grotogy anp MINERALOGY.

1. The Appendages, Anatomy, and Relationships of Trilobites ;
by Percy E. Raymonp. Mem. Connecticut Acad. Arts and Sci.,
vol. 7, 169 pages (quarto), 11 pls., 46 text figs., 1920.—The sud-
den death of Professor C. E. Beecher in 1904 left unfinished his
studies of the ventral anatomy of trilobites, and it is fitting that
one of his students, Professor Raymond, of Harvard, should take
up the work and bring it to a successful conclusion. The splendid
memoir which results, dedicated to Beecher and having a portrait
of him as its frontispiece, contains many of his drawings and
photographs illustrating the ventral anatomy of the trilobites,
here reproduced for the first time.

The memoir consists of four parts. In Part I are described in
detail the ventral appendages of nine American genera: Neolenus,
Isotelus, Ptychoparia, Kootenia, Ceraurus, Calymene, Acidaspis,
Cryptolithus, and Triarthrus. Excellent pen and ink restorations
are presented of Neolenus, Isotelus, Triarthrus, Ceraurus, and
Cryptolithus. With the exception of the antennules in all of the
genera, and the caudal cerci known only in Neolenus, all the
appendages are biramous. These rami always consist of endop-
odites and exopodites, and the author sees no other appendages
like those deseribed by Walcott in Neolenus and Calymene. The
inner appendages (endopodites) functioned as locomotory organs,
either for crawling, swimming, or burrowing, the particular
method varying with the species. Doctor Raymond considers the
exopodites to have functioned primarily as gills, and only second-
arily as swimming organs, and suggests that where the pygidium
is large, it served as aswimming organ. He agrees with Beecher
in the latter’s homology of the cephalic appendages with those of
the higher Crustacea, the first pair of biramous appendages being
homologous with the antenne, and the other three pairs repre-
senting the mandibles and the first and second pairs of maxille.

In Part II are considered the internal structures and habits of
trilobites. Except for the eyes, data are rather scanty. The
- intestinal cavity is thought to have been enlarged beneath the
elabella and thence to have passed straight backward beneath
the middle lobe of the test. Muscles, nervous system, various
glands, heart, ete., are discussed to the extent the structures are
known... The ‘‘median-ocellus’’ or ‘‘dorsal organ’’ of the
glabella of many trilobites is interpreted as the point of attach-
ment of a ligament supporting the heart. The habits of life are
considered with respect to locomotion, food, and feeding, and it is
found that in maturity trilobites were adapted to planktonic,
nectonic, and benthonie environments, according to species. It .
is suggested that in the early stages of their racial history the
trilobites were carnivorous, but that even before Middle Cam-

Geology and Mineralogy. 513

brian time some had become vegetable feeders and that in the late
Cambrian most of them appear to have become omnivorous. A
few may have been mud eaters.

Part III discusses the relations of trilobites to the other groups
of the Arthropoda, and the conclusion is reached that the trilo-
bites are the most primitive members of the phylum and either
directly or indirectly ancestral to all the other orders. The ances-
tor of the trilobites is thought to have been a ‘‘soft bodied, free
swimming, flat, blind or nearly blind animal of few segments,”’
and Naraoia compacta Walcott is suggested as the most primi-
tive of all known trilobites and hence closest to the ancestral
stock. A diagram showing the interrelationships, time of origin,
and duration of the Arthropoda is given in figure 41 on page
150. Among the striking phylogenetic conclusions are: (1) that
the insects probably had their origin in the trilobites, though not
directly, but through some tracheate stock which was directly
ancestral to the diplopods and chilopods as well; (2) that the
diplopods, chilopods, and the higher Crustacea had their origin in
the trilobites back of the Cambrian; (3) that the arachnids,
eurypterids, and horseshoe crabs arose in the xenopods (a new
subclass of Crustacea), and that this stock also developed out of
the trilobites in pre-Cambrian times; (4) that the copepods had
their origin in the most primitive of trilobites (Hypoparia),
independently from the rest of the higher Crustacea; (5) that
the Arthropoda ‘‘constitute a natural monophyletic group,’’ of

- which the Trilobita are the ancestral, oldest known stock; and

—

(6) that the appendages of all other arthropod lines ‘‘could have
been derived from those of trilobites.’’

Part IV gives descriptions of the appendages of individual
te, of Triarthrus becki Green and Cryptolithus tesselatus

reen.

An excellent bibliography and an historical review of the
investigations relating to trilobite appendages are other parts of
the work. The forty-six text figures serve their purpose well,
and there are in addition eleven plates, of which ten show photo-
graphs or drawings made by Professor Beecher or under his
direction. On Plate 11 is given an excellent restoration of
Ceraurus pleurexanthemus, drawn by Doctor Elvira Wood.

W. H. TWENHOFEL.

2. The Geology of Hardin County, and the Adjoining Part of
Pope County; by Stuart WELLER, with the collaboration of
CHARLES Burts, L. W. Currier, and R. D. Satispury. Illinois
Geol. Survey, Bull. 41, pp. 416, 11 pls., 30 text figs., 1920.—In
this very detailed county report are described the Devonian, Mis-
sissipplan, and Pennsylvanian formations, which together have
a thickness of over 3,500 feet. The book is particularly valuable
because of the detailed description of the Mississippian sequence.
The region has been bowed up into an immense dome, then broken
mto a complex series of blocks and intruded by dikes, sills, and

514 Scientific Intelligence.

plugs that are rich in the ores of fluorspar, lead, and zine, the
distribution, occurrence, and origin of which are discussed by
Currier. The general geography is treated by Salisbury.

The most interesting portions are those dealing with structural
geology (Part II), stratigraphic geology (Part [iI), and paleon-
tology (Part VI), all by Weller and Butts. The Mississippian is
divided into a ‘‘Lower’’ series embracing the Kinderhook, Osage,
Meramec, and Ste. Genevieve, and an ‘‘Upper’’ for the various
members of the Chester, but both are regarded as of one period.
The well known differences of opinion between Weller and Ulrich
regarding the sequence and correlations of the various Chester
members are clearly stated by the former. Only the fossils which
are more important stratigraphically are described and han
photographically.

3. Devonian Floras, a study of the Origin of Coenmingae by
K. A. NEWELL ARBER. Pp. 100, 47 figs. and portrait. Cam-
bridge (University Press) 1921.—It would be manifestly unfair
to a friend who has gone to criticise a work left as a first draft by
the author. It seems to the reviewer, however, that the ‘‘ critical
review’’ of Devonian floras is so incomplete as to be of little value
as a work of reference, and that it would have been kinder to
Arber’s memory to have left at least this part of the work unpub-
lished.

Arber considers that the Devonian floras represent an earlier,
which he calls the Psilophyton flora, and a later, which he ealls the
Archeopteris flora. Psilophyton itself is regarded as identical
with the petrified remains described as Rhynia, and these along
with Arthrostigma, Pseudosporochnus, Thursophyton, ete., are
considered as Thallophytes which, anatomically, stand half way
between existing Thallophyta and vascular plants. These are the
Procormophytes and are not reduced Cormophytes or in any way
related to the existing Psilotales, but represent part of the ances-
tral stock of the unrelated phylae Sphenopsida, Pteropsida and
Lycopsida, or what I would call the Arthrophyta, Pteridophyta
and Lepidophyta. That is to say, the Sphenophyllum-Calamite-
Equisetum phylum, the Lepidodendron-Sigillaria-Lycopod phy-
lum, and the Fern phylum along with higher derivatives, are of
independent origin from an algal ancestry. Arber contends that
the modern Psilotales are also of algal origin but at a much later
geological period and independently, as also are the Bryophyta.
Most botanists will agree to the algal ancestry of the so-called
vascular plants as there is really no alternative. That they are
as polyphyletic as Arber thought is extremely doubtful, although
this is the position taken by Church in his recent speculation on
the subject.

Both Arber and Chureh are influenced by the tradition of
primitive oceans on a cooling globe, which may or may not have
been true. In any event it should be remembered that the dura-
tion of time since the earth first became suitable as an abode for

Geology and Mineralogy. 515

terrestrial life probably reached as far back beyond the oldest
known land flora of the Devonian as the interval that has since
elapsed and there would have been ample time to have developed
the anatomical features of Rhynia by reduction, as seems to have
been the actual case in the Psilotales. Serious doubts as to the
primitiveness of these types arise when the Cordaitalean woods of
the Devonian, which are ignored by Arber, are considered. The
Archeopteris flora is regarded by Arber as truly pteridophytic
and ancestral to that of the Lower Carboniferous.

Morphologists will be interested in the unfinished outline of
the evolution of the stele sketched in Chapter 7, the stages of
which are set forth as—first, a single protoxylem group formed
by the simultaneous modification of a set of procambial elements,
which took place independently in the main axis and branches:
second, the substitution of continuous for purely initial trans-
formation, resulting in protoxylem and xylem: third, the forma-
tion of a secondary cambium and secondary wood. E. W. B.

4. Le Platine et les Gites platiniféres de l’Oural et du Monde;
Louis Duparo and MareurritE-N. TrKONOWITCH. Quarto. 542
pp., 96 figs., 11 pls. and an atlas with 5 maps and 8 pls. 1920.—
Professor Dupare with various assistants has been studying the
platinum deposits of the Ural Mts. and elsewhere for the past
twenty years. The partial results of these researches have been
published from time to time in various papers and books. In the
present work all this material has been gathered together in an
exhaustive monograph.

The study of the geology of the platinum districts shows that
the mother-rock of the platinum is primarily dunite and to a
much less extent pyroxenite. In the Ural Mts. the platinum-bear-
ing rocks have segregated from the original magma in such a
way that the center of the mass is now a dunite which is sur-
rounded by a belt of pyroxenite and the whole enclosed by exten-
sive areas of gabbro. The latter rock is practically free from
platinum, however. While the book is chiefly concerned with the
deposits of the Ural region a chapter is devoted to platinum
occurrences elsewhere. The book includes also chapters on the
mining methods, metallurgy and uses of the metal. W. E. F.

dD. Hlemente der physikalischen und chemischen Krystallogra-
pluie; by Paut GrotH. Pp. 363, 4 pls., 962 fies. in text and 25
stereoscopic charts. Berlin, 1920.—This is a book which treats
the various phases of the subject from the standpoint of the chem-
ist. In the chapter on crystals, for instance, the illustrations are
all taken from the products of the chemical laboratory. The
book is profusely illustrated, for the most part by small but well
reproduced figures. The book would have been considered a
notable achievement if published under normal conditions and
under the present circumstnaces it becomes doubly remarkable.

W. E. F.

6. Crystallography. A Series of Nets for the construction of

516 Scientific Intelligence.

Models illustrative of the simple Crystalline Forms; by JAmEs B.
JorpAN. London, 1921 (Thomas Murby and Co.).—This con-
sists of a series of charts giving in outline form figures from
which models of various simple crystals may be produced by
folding. Considering the difficulty and expense involved in
acquiring wooden crystal models at the present time pasteboard
models made in this way might prove very useful. W. E. F.

7. New Mineral Names; by W. E. Forp (communicated—con-
tinued from vol. 49, pp. 452-453, June 1920) :—

Armangite. G. Aminorr and R. Mavuzenius. Geol. For.
Forh. 42, 3801, 1920. Hexagonal-rhombohedral. c = 1.3116.
Prismatic habit. H.=4. G.= 4.23. Poor cleavage {| ¢ (0001).
Color black. Streak brown. Optically —. Indices very high.
Comp.—Mn,(AsO,).,. Found in a coarse crystalline mixture of
calcite and barite from Langban, Sweden.

Brannerite. FE. L. Hess and R. C. Weis. Jour. Frankl.
Inst., 189, 225, 1920. In rough prismatic erystals. Also granu-
lar. Color black with brownish yellow coating due to alteration.
Streak, dark greenish brown. Opaque. Conchoidal fracture.

= 45.. G.= 45-54. n=2.30. - Radioactive: Comp. —A
metatitanate, essentially (UO,Ti0,UO,)TiO,. Found in gold
placers in Stanley Basin, Idaho. Named after Dr. John C.
Branner.

Cesarolite. H. BurtcEnspacn and C. Gmuet, { Ann. Soe. Geol.
Belg.|, Amer. Min., 5, 211, 1920. In cellular masses. Color
steel-gray. H.= 4.5. G.=— 5.29. Comp.—aA manganate of lead,
H,PbMn,O,. Occurs with galena at Sidi-Amer-ben-Salem, Tunis.
Named after Prof. G. Cesaro.

Dixenite. G. Fuinx, Geol. For. Forh., 42, 486, 1920. Hex-
agonal. As ager egations of thin folia, often radiating and some-
times in globular masses. H. = 3-4. Basal cleavage. Color
nearly black but red by transmitted light. Luster resinous to
metallic. Uniaxial, +. n=1.96. Comp.—MnSi0,.2Mn,(OH) ~
AsO,. Found associated with hematite, dolomite, and serpentine
at Langban, Sweden. Named from 8 two and ێvos stranger in
allusion to the unusual association of 8i0, and As,O,.

Flagstafite. F.N. Gump, Amer. Min., 5, 139, 1920. Ortho-
rhombic. a:b :¢— 1.2366 :1:0.5957. In minute prismatic
crystals. Colorless and transparent. 7” == ol G@s-—9 092—.
Comp.—C,,H,,0,. Melts at 100°C. Very soluble in warm alco-
hol and recrystallizes on cooling. Found in the eracks of buried
tree trunks near Flagstaff, Arizona.

Higginsite. CHARLES PanacHe and E. V. SHaAnnon. Amer.
Min., 5, 155, 1920. Orthorhombiec. a :b :c = 0.6242 :1 : 0.7940.
In small prismatic erystals with pyramid and dome terminations.
eS oniGy = er ay 1.745. Ax. pl. || (010). Marked
pleochroism, X = green, = yellow-green, Z= blue-green.
Comp.—An arsenate of copper and calcium, CuCa(OH) AsO,.
Fusible at 3, coloring the flame at first pale blue and then blue-

Geology and Mineralogy. 517

green. Soluble in acids. Found at the Higgins Mine, Bisbee,
Arizona, associated with manganese oxides.

Hydroclinohumite. Titanhydroclinohumite. IF’. ZAMBONINI,
Bull. Soe. Min., 42, 250, 1919. The material previously called
titanolivine from the Ala valley, Piedmont, Italy, is shown to be
a titaniferous variety of clinohumite in which the fluorine is
almost entirely replaced by hydroxyl. 1.3 per cent of beryllium
oxide is also present in the mineral.

Kreuzbergite. H. LausManN and H. Sternmetz. Zs. Kr.,
55, 441, 1920. Orthorhombic. a:b :c = 0.3938 :1: 0.5621.
Pyramidal. Color white to yellow. Basal cleavage. G. = 2.139.
m=1.62. Ax. pl. || (001). 2V=90° approx. Optically —.
Comp.—An aluminium phosphate with Fe, Mn, H,O. Found in
pegmatite associated with other phosphates at the Kreuzberg,
Pleystein, Bavaria.

Meta-torbernite I. A. F. Auirmonp, Min. Mag., 19, 48, 1920.
The first dehydration product, known as meta-torbernite I, is
shown to exist in the natural material called torbernite from Gun-
melgcean Cornwall. G. = 3.68. o= 1.623. «= 1.625.. Comp.—
CmGw@.).(PO,);.8H,0.-

Phosphoferrite. H. LAUBMANN and H. Stetnmetz. Zs. Kr.,
55, 569, 1920. Crystalline masses. Poor cleavage. Splintery
to conchoidal fracture. Greasy luster. Color white with pale
yetvowwor. ereen, tints. -H.= 34... G:— 3.165. Biaxial, ---
Comp.—Ferrous phosphate with small amounts of MnO, CaO,
MgO, H.O. In pegmatite at Habendorf, Bavaria.

Phosphophyllite. H. LausmMann and H. Sreinmetz. Zs. .
fae, 205, 1920. Monoclinic. «a:b :¢ = 1.0381 :1 : 1.7487.
B= 89° 22’. Tabular parallel to a(100) or prismatic. Twin-
ning on base common. Colorless to pale bluish green. Trans-
parent. Vitreous. Perfect cleavage || c(001), good || a(100)
poem ot) = 3400 )G. = 3.081. w= 1.65.- Ax. 'pl.'||
6(010). Optically —, 2K = 75°. Comp.—3R,P,0,.2Al(OH)SO,.
9H,0; R=Fe, Ca, Ba, Mg, K,,Mn. Associated with triplite
in pegmatite at Habendorf, Bavaria.

Plazolite. W. F. FosHac. Amer. Min., 5, 183, 1920. Iso-
metric. In minute dodecahedrons. H.=6.5. G.=3.13.. Col-
orless to light yellow. Vitreous to almost adamantine luster.
m=1.71. Comp—3Ca0.Al,0,;.2(Si0,,CO,).2H,O. Found in
an altered pegmatite in the limestone quarry at Crestmore, Cal.

Trigonite. G. Fuink. Geol. For. Forh., 42, 436, 1920. Mono-
clinie-clinohedral. a:b :c = 1.03395 :1 : 1.65897. B= 91° 31’.
In small wedge-shaped crystals. H.= 2-3. Cleavage || (010)

perfect ; less perfect || (101). Color sulphur-yellow to
brownish. Subtransparent: Luster vitreous to adamantine.
a—2.08. y=2.16.. Ax. pl. || (010). Comp—Pb,MnH

(AsO,),. Found at Langban, Sweden, implated on dolomite.
Names from rtpipwvos triangle, in allusion to its crystal shape.
Ultrabasite. V. Rosicky and J. Srerpa. Zs. Kr., 55, 430-439,

Am. Jour. Sci.—Firtu Srriss, Vou. I, No. 6.—Junz, 1921.
35

518 Scientific Intellugence.

1920. Orthorhombic. a:b :c—0.988 :1 :1 :1.462. Columnar habit.
Prism zone vertically striated. Color, gray-black, Streak black.
H.=5. G.=6.026. Comp.—l1Ag,8.28PbS.2Sb,8,.38GeS,. Found
on specimens collected at Freiberg in 1829 and 1833. Named
because of its highly basic character.

Vonsenite. A. S. Haxuz, Amer. Min., 5, 141, 1920. In pris-
matic erystals without terminations. Either orthorhombic or
monoclinic. a:b —=0.7558:1. Color black. Streak brownish
black. Brittle. H.—5. G.=4.2. Comp. —Similar to ludwig-
ite with a greater amount of ferrous iron; 3(Fe,Mg)0.B,0,+-
Feo. Fe,O,. Fusible at 3 to a black magnetic lobule. Soluble
in acids. From Riverside, Cal. Named from its discoverer, M.
Vonsen.

Xanthoxenite. H. LauBpMANN and H. Sternmerz. Zs. Kr.,
55, 579, 1920. Monoclinic. In thin ‘plates: ~Yellow olor:
Strongly pleochroic. 2H —115°, approx. G. = 2.844. Comp.
—Hssentially a hydrous ferric phosphate with FeO, MnO, CaO,
MgO, Al,O,. Found with dufrenite, cacoxenite and other phos-
phates at quartz quarry, Hiihnerkobel, Rabenstein, Bavaria.
Named from Greek for yellow and because of relation to
cacoxenite.

‘IL. Miusce,LLtAneovus Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.

1. National Academy of Sciences. or the recent meeting of
the National Academy (see p. 466) R. A. Millikan was elected
foreign secretary to succeed George = ‘Hale, resigned; also
George E. Hale and Raymond Pearl were made members of the
Council.

The new members elected are as follows: F. M. Chapman, of
the American Museum of Natural History; W. LeRoy Emmet, of
the General Electric Company, Schenectady; W. D. Harkins, of
the University of Chicago; Ales Hr dlicka, of ther Uiss: National
Museum, Washington ; ae EK. Kennelly, of Harvard University ;
W. G. MacCallum, of the Johns Hopkins Medical School; D. C.
Miller, of the Case School of Applied Sciences, Cleveland; G. A.
Miller, of the University of Illinois; B: L. Robinson, of Harvard
University; V. M. Slipher, of the Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff,
Arizona; L. B. Stillwell, New York City; D. D. Van Slyke, of the
Rockefeller Institute, New York City; T. W. Vaughan, of the U.
S. National Museum, Washington; H.S. Washington, of the Geo-
physical Laboratory, Washington; R. S. Woodworth, of Colum-
bia University.

William Bateson, director of the John Innes Horticultural
Institution, Merton Park, Surrey, England; and C. Hijkman, of
the University of Utrecht, were elected foreign associates.

2. The Principles of Immunology; by Howarp T. KARSNER
and Enrique HK. Ecker. Philadelphia. Pp. xvii, 309. (J. B.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence. 519

Lippincott Company. Price $5.00).—The subject of immunity
has as yet only comparatively few years of scientific study to its
eredit. Much of our knowledge regarding infection and resist-
ance to disease is in a state of flux, the generalizations being
modified frequently with the advent of new information from the
laboratory and the clinic. At astage such as this a concise guide
to the newest contributions—a readable review which is some-
thing more than a compilation of experiments or a series of
abstracts—is eminently desirable. This new volume seems to
serve well the purpose of introducing beginners in its field to the
achievements and problems of immunology which are now-a-days
written in a language that only the specially tutored can grasp.
The reviewers predict a large usefulness for the book.
| L. B. M.

3. Microbiology: third edition; edited by CHARLES EH. MAr-
SHALL. Pp. xxvill, 1043. Philadelphia (P. Blakiston’s Son &
Co. Price $4.00 net).—This book represents contributions by
25 well-known workers in the domain of bacteriology and related
subjects under the editorship of Director Charles E. Marshall of
the Massachusetts Agricultural College. The fact that it has
already passed through two earlier editions attests its popularity
as a textbook and volume for handy reference. Compilations pre-
pared jointly by many writers are only rarely satisfactory to a
eritical reviewer. They often lack symmetry in treatment and
continuity in argument or exposition. Whatever shortcomings
Marshall’s Microbiology may have in this respect are counterbal-
anced by the expert opinions of the various contributors. The
range of topics is large, dealing not merely with the morphology
of microorganisms, but also with their physiology and the role
which they may play in relation to human, animal and plant
welfare. L. B. M.

4. Bibliotheca Zoologica II. Verzeichnis der Schriften ueber
Zoologie welche in den periodischen Werken enthalten und vom
Jahre 1861-1880 selbsténdig erschienen sind; bearbeitet von Dr.
O. TascHENBERG. Lieferungen 21 to 23. Leipzig, 1921 (Wil-
helm Engelmann) .—The nineteenth part of the great work edited
by Dr. Taschenberg was issued in 1913 (see this Journal, vol. 35,
pp. 558, 559). Part 20 has been published but has not as yet
been received; presumably it was lost in the mails during the
early part of the war. The three parts now in hand embrace
signatures 755 to 784, or pages 60783 to 6312, all belonging to the
supplements of the original work. The second half of the sey-
enth volume includes signatures 745 to 777, pp. 5515 to 6256;
it bears the dates 1913 to 1921.

It is gratifyimg that a work so important to all zoologists and
so comprehensive in character should have been carried on to
this point and be now approaching completion. The brief intro-
duction of the editor to this seventh volume expresses feelings
which must be shared by all loyal workers in zoological science
to whatever country they may belong.

520 Scientific Intellugence.

5. Flora of Glacier National Park, Montana; by Pauw C.
STANDLEY. Part 5 of volume 22 of Contributions from the U. S.
National Herbarium, pp. 235-438, plates 33-52 and index (U.S.
National Museum).—The many visitors to the Glacier National
Park will be grateful to the author for making accessible to them
this work on the varied flora of the Park.

6. The Topographical Survey of the United States—A very
important bill has recently been brought before Congress calling
for the completion within twenty years of a general utility topo-.
graphical survey of the territory of the United States. The bill
provides for the utilization of the services and facilities of such
agency or agencies of the Government as now exist, or may here-
after be created, and the allotment of funds to them from the
appropriation here authorized, or from such appropriation or |
appropriations as may hereafter be made.

The sum of $37,200,000 is authorized to be appropriated for
the purposes named; the amounts available being specifically
given for the twenty years from that ending June 30,1923. It is
greatly to be hoped that this bill may be promptly enacted.

7. Report of the Inbrarian of Congress, HERBERT PUTNAM,
for the year ending June 30, 1920.—Much interesting informa-
tion is given in this report. The Library contained on the date
named upward of 2,831,000 books and pamphlets, in addition to
the manuscripts, maps and charts, music and prints. Many
important additions of special character, war material and others
are enumerated.

8. The Maine Naturalist: Journal of the Knox Academy
of Arts and Sciences on the Fauna, Flora and Geology of Maine. —
Vol. I, No. 1. Pp. 1 to 40; six plates. Thomaston, April 25,
1921.—This new periodical, to be issued April and October 1st,
at the annual cost of one dollar, will be welcomed by all who
know the varied interests of Maine in natural history; it is
edited by A. H. Norton of Portland and Prof. A. O. Gross of
Brunswick. This first number contains eleven papers.

OBITUARY.

PROFESSOR GEORGE FREDERICK WRIGHT died at his home in Ober-
lin, Ohio, on April 20 at the age of eighty-three years. Hé was
early interested in glacial phenomena and published many papers
upon these subjects. His best known book is his “‘Ice Age in
America and its bearings on the Antiquity of Man’’ (see (3)
vol. 38, p. 412, 1889 of this Journal; this work went through five
editions. Other important books are: ‘‘Man and the Glacial
Period’’ (1892); ‘‘ Asiatic Russia’’ in two volumes (1902) ;
‘Origin and Antiquity of Man’’ (1912); ‘‘Story of My Life and
Work’’ (1916). Professor Wright was an editor of the Biblio-
theca Sacra beginning with 1884, and in addition to his glacial
studies, he was the author of numerous papers and volumes on
various religious subjects. His life was long, active and useful. ©

INDEX TO VOLUME I.*

Academy, National, meeting at
Washington, 292, 467, 518.

Airplane, Bedell, 91.

Allegheny Observatory, publica-

tions, 96.
Andros, S. O., Fuel Oil in Industry,
8

QO.
Anglesey, geology, Greenly, 212.
Animate Nature, Thomson, 288.
Annuarie for 1920, 92.
Anthropometry, Wilder, 203.
Anticosti Island, post-glacial ter-
races, Twenhofel and Conine, 268.
Arber, E, A. N., Devonian Floras,
514.
Atacama, Puna de, Sudrand der,
Penck, 92.
Autenrieth, W.,
Poisons, 467.

Detection of

B

Bacteriology, Stitt, 201.

Bank Operation, Langston, 378.

Barbados-Antigua Expedition, Nut-
ting, 462.

Barnett, E. de B., Chemistry, 280.

Beau M. W., Mental Deficiency,
370.

Barrell, J., regional metamorphism
and subjacent igneous invasion,
I, 174, 255.

Batholiths in mountain provinces,
Barrell, 255; relations ‘of oro-
genic, Barrell, 174.

Bedell, F., Airplane, oI.

Bell, W. A., formations of Horton-
Windsor District, Nova Scotia,
53.

Berry, E. W., Potamogeton from
the Upper Cretaceous, 420.

Bibliotheca Zoologica, ‘Taschen-
berg, 510.

Biogeographie, von Hofsten, 459.

‘Biology, McFarland, 290.

Bishop Museum, Honolulu, 292.

Bose E., Permian of Coahuila, New
Mexico, 187.

BOTANY.

Botany, Agricultural,
berger, 464.

Cactacez, Britton and Rose, 463.

Chionophila Benth., Holm, 31.

Flora of Glacier National Park,
Standley, 520.

Harsh-

* This Index contains the general heads,

Phytoplankton of Wisconsin
Lakes, Smith, 463.
Plant Life,.Chemistry, Thatcher,
465.
Plants, Bacterial Diseases, Smith,
464. .
— Economic, Diseases, Stevens
_and Hall, 465.
— Evolution, Gager, 463.
— Nature-Study, Dymes, 465.
Bothriodonts, American, Troxell,
325.
Britton, N: W., Cactacez, 463.
Bumstead, H. A., obituary notice
by Leigh Page, 460.

Cc

Calcareous sandstone, Fraser River,
Canada, Johnston, 447.

Calculus, Osgood, 457:

Camels, new fossil, Lull, 302.

Carnegie Foundation, Fifteenth
annual Report, 466.

— Institution, Year Book, No. Io,
375:

Carnivora, two new fossil, Thorpe,
477.

Carpenter, J. A., Chemistry, 454.

Carr, H. W., Relativity, 458.

Carter, H., Spiritualism, 376.

Catalysis, Jobling, 80.

Cernasian mammal, Fauna, Mat-
thew, 509.

Chemical Pharmacology, McGui-
gan, 468.

— Research, Dreaper, 208.

— Solubilities, Dictionary, Comey
and Hahn, 454.

Chemistry, Roscoe and Schorlem-
mer, 365.

— for Coal-mining

O’Shea, 208.

Creative, Slosson, 2009.
General, Copaux, 280.
Inorganic, Howe, 455.
Organic, Barnett, 280;

nari, 365.

— Practical, Hood and Carpenter,
454.

CHEMISTRY.

Aluminium, atomic weight, Rich-
ards and Krepelka, 88.

Fluorides of cobalt, nickel, etc.,
Edmister and Cooper, 207.

Students,

Moli-

Botany, CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, MINERALS,

OsiTuary; under each the titles of Articles referring thereto are included.

522 INDEX. °
Gallium, separation, Brown- 1D
ing and Porter, 453.
Glass, devitrification, Germann, leet ory ee Oriskany sandstone
279.
Nickel, atomic weights, Baxter Ecker, E. E., Immunology, 518.

and Parsons, 365.

Perchloric acid in determination
of silica, Willard and Coke,
207.

Salts, decomposition and phase
rule, Rengade, 364. |

Silica, determination, Willard.
and Coke, 207.

Sulphosalts of lead and copper,
Foshag, 444.

Thoulet’s Solution, substitute
for, Thiel and Stoll, 279.

Chemists Year Book, 1920, Atack,
88

Child, C. M., Development of the
Nervous System, 462.

Clibbens, D. A., Phase Theory, 281.

Climates, Evolution, Schuchert,
320.

Coal in Great Britain, Gibson, 460. |

Coleman, A. P., Paleobotany and
the Earth’s history, 315.

Comey, A. M., Dictionary of Chem-
ical Solubilities, 454.

Congress, Library, report, 520.

Conine, W. H., post-glacial terraces
of Anticosti Island, 268.

Connecticut, Geol. Survey, 286.

Copaux, H., Chemistry, 280.

Crystal structure of magnesium
oxide, Wyckoff, 138.

Crystallography, Groth, 515;
dainiss 1a

Crystals, space groups and struc-
ture of, Wyckoff, 127.

Cytology, Doncaster, 290.

Jor-

D

Dake, C. J., Rocky Mountain oro-
geny, 245.

Daly, R. A., post-glacial warping of

_ Newfoundland, etc., 381.
Decker, C.;E., Minor Folds, 373.

Devonian Floras, Arber, 514.

Dinosaur, Cretaceous armored,
Tullo7.

Doncaster, L., Cytology, 290.

Downing, E. R., Physical Nature.
Study, 91.
Dreaper,

W. P., Chemical Research,
208. |
Drew, G., Zoology, 201. |
Duparc, L., Platinum Deposits of

the Ural Mts., irr
Dymes, T. A., Nature-Study of
Plants, 465.

Eddington, Relativity, 457.

Electric Furnace, Moissan, 367.
Electricity and Magnetism, Frank-

lin and McNutt, 281.
Embryology of the Chick, Patten,

462.
Entomology, Sanitary, Pierce, 461.

Explosives, Dictionary, Marshall,
8o.
F
Flight, observations on soaring,
Hankin, 456.

Flora, Glacier Nat. Park, 520.

Folds, minor, Decker, 373.

Foshag, W. F., sulphosalts of lead
and copper, 444.

Ford, W. E., mineral names, 516.

Franklin, W. S., Electricity and
Magnetism, 281; Mechanics, 281;
Heat, 307:

Fraser River, Canada, calcareous
sandstone, Johnston, 447; age of
delta, Johnston, 450.

|Frye, A. E., Geography, 2092.

G
Gager, C. S., Evolution in Plants,
463.
Geography, Frye, 202.
Geologic Climates,
Schuchert, 320.

GEOLOGICAL REPORTS.

Connecticut, bulletins, 286.
Illinois, 94, 513.
India, 283, 285.
Great Britain, Memoir, on An-
glesey, Greenly, 212.
Western Australia, 287.
West Virginia, 461.
Geologie, Kayser, 213.

GEOLOGY.

Bellerophontacea, British Ordo-
vician, etc., Reed, 460.
Bothriodonts, Troxell, 325.

Evolution,

Brachiopoda Triadica, Diener,
460.
Cephalopoda Dibranchiata,_ v.

Bulow-Trummer, 460.

Climates, Evolution, Schuchert,
320.
Corals, ‘fossil, ~) trom, (Ceniteal

America, etc., Vaughan, 372.
Cormophyta, Origin, Arber, 514.
Cretaceous, Upper, Potamogeton, ~

Berry, 420.

INDEX. 523

Crinoidea flexibilia, Springer,| Geschlechtsbestimmung, Gold-

369. schmidt, 280.
Cyclopidius Cope, Thorpe, 405. | Gibson, W., Coal in Great Britain,
Devonian Floras; Arber, 514. | 460.
Diablo Plateau, Texas, geology Glacier Nat. Park, Flora, 520.

and oil, Beede, 272. Gneiss, alkali, from New Jersey,
Pinosaur, .Cretaceous,..armored,| | Hinds, 355.

Mel OF. Gordon, A., French-English Medi-
Dunkard Series of Ohio, Stauffer! cal Dictionary, 467.

and Schroyer, 370. | Greenland, Cretaceous Inverte-
Earth’s axes and triangulation,| brates, Ravn, 93.

Hunter, 283. | Groth, P., Krystallographie, 515.
Edmontosaurus, Lambe, 374. |
Erosional history of the driftless |

area, Trowbridge, 287. | H

Faulting, post-glacial, in the _Hahn, D. A., Dictionary of Chemi-
French River district, Ontario, ¢a]l Solubilities, 454.

Hobbs, 507. Hall, J. G., Diseases of Economic
Felds, minor, studies in, Decker, ee 465.
373. Harmonic Analyser, New, Mason,
Fossils, Catalogues, Diener, 460. Aen 5 es ae :
Von Bulow-Trummer, 460. | Harshberger, J. W., Botany, 464.
Huronian, Lower, of Mexico, Hatton, J. L. §., The Imaginary in
Bose, 372. Geometry, 281.
Isostasy in the Himalayan Heat, Lessons in, Franklin and
region, Burrard, 285. McNutt, 367.
Leptauchenia Leidy, Thorpe, 405. Hewett, D. F., orientite from Cuba,
Mammal fauna, Cernasian, Mat- I.
thew, 509. | Hinds, N. E. A., alkali gneiss from

Metamorphism, _ regional and New Jersey, 355.
ioneous invasion, Barrell, 1, ‘Hobbs, W. H., Post-glacial faulting

174, 255. | in the French River district,
Mississippian formations, Nova Ontario, 507.

Scotia, Bell, 153: ‘Holm, di Chionophila, Benthiyo31.
Molluscs, recent, of Gulf of Mex- Holmes, A., Nomenclature of

ico, Maury, 459. | Petrology, 375.

pecay, Mis eee geology, | |Holtedahl, O., Permian of England,
igus textilis Marsh, Lull, | “gq atttctres on Met ales Shaler on
ere obunis darbyi, Thorpe, 477. oe ASA.
Oriskany sandstone, faunule, | Howe ie i, Chemistry ge,

Eaton, 427. | : ,
Paleolagus, Troxell, 340. TEES W. F., Mineralogy, 213.

elas, Stevens, A431.
Pelecypoda of Toronto, Sreant | if

371. : ‘Illinois Geol. Survey, 94, 513.

Pliocyon marshi, Thorpe, 477. | State Museum, Mineral Collec-
Post-glacial warping of New-

tions, 95.
foundland, etc., Daly, 381. _|Immunology, Karsner and Ecker,
Promerycocherus, Thorpe, 215. 518

Selpausselka, Finland, Leiviska, | Tadia Survey of, Hunter, 283.

93. i Burrard, 285.
Stanley shale of Oklahoma, Isotopes, Spectra, Merton, 80.
Honess, 63.

Terraces of Anticosti, Twenhofel J

and Conine, 268. Jobli a Gllysiedso
2 _. | Jobling, E., Catalysis, 8o.
Texas Comanchean, Adkins, 372. Johnston, W. A., Fraser River cal-
Trilobites, Raymond, 512. careous, sandstone, Canada, 447,
Geometry, The Imaginary in, Hal-|; age of delta, 450.
ton, 281. Jordan, J. B., Crystallography, 515.

54

INDEX.
K Mechanics, Franklin and McNutt,
281.
Karsner, H. T., Immunology, 518.| Mental - Deficiency, Barr and

Kayser, E., Geologie, 213.
Kraus, E. H., Mineralogy, 213.
Krystallographie, Groth, 515.

L

Lane, A. C., White
physiography, 349.
nr L. H., Bank Operation,

370.
Leander McCormick Observatory,

Mountain

293.
Leiviska, L., der Selpausselka, 93.
Library of Congress, 520.
Lilienfeld tube, Lilienfeld
Rother, 456.
Lockhart, L.
cants, 8o.
Longwell, C. R., geology of the
Muddy Mts., Nevada, 30.
Lubricants, Lockhart, 8o.

and

B., American Lubri-

ail, A Si. Cretaceous armored
Dinosaur, Nodosaurus textilis
Marsh, 97; New Camels in the|

Marsh Collection, 392.

M

Magnetic susceptibilities of low
order, Wilson, 90.

Magnesium oxide, crystal structure,
Wyckoff, 138.

Maine Naturalist, 520.

Maloney, E. F., Mental Deficiency, |

370.
Man, Origin, Read, 380.

Marsh Col lections of Vertebrates, |
Thorpe, 215, 405, |

Lull, 97, 392;
477; Troxell, 325, 340.

Marshall, A., Dictionary of Explo-.

sives, 80.
Marshall, E. E., Microbiology, 510. |
Mason, W., new harmonic analy-
zer, 484.
Matter and Motion,
Matthew, W. D., Cernaysian Mam-
mal fauna, 509.

Maxwell, J. C., Matter and Motion, |

368.

McFarland, J., Biology, 290.

McGuigan, H., Chemical Pharma-
cology, 468.

McNutt, B., Electricity and Magne-
tism, 281; Mechanics, 281; Heat,
367.

Medical Dictionary,
lish, Gordon, 467.

French-Eng-

Maxwell, 368. |

Maloney, 378.
Merwin, H. E., augite from Vesu-
vius and Etna, 2e:
Metamorphism, regional, relations
of igneous invasion, Barrell, 1,
174, 255.
Météorologie, Berget, 200.
Microbiology, Marshall, 519.
Minerology, Kraus and Hunt, 213.

MINERALS.

Armangite, Sweden, 516.
Augite from Etna and Vesuvius,
20.
Brannerite, Idaho, 516.
Boulangerite, Sweden, 423.
Cesarolite, Tunis, 516.
Dixenite, Sweden, 516.
Flagstaffite, Arizona, 516.
Higginsite, Arizona, 516.
Hydroclinohumite, 517.
Kreuzbergite, Bavaria, 517.
Meta-torbernite, 517.
Orientite from Cuba, 491.
Phosphoferrite, Bavaria, 517.
Phosphophyllite, Bavaria, 517.
Platinum, Urals, etc., 515.
Plazolite, California, 517.
Trigonite, Sweden, 517.
Ultrabasite, STZ.
Vonsenite, California, 518.
Xanthoxenite, 518.

“Mines, U. S. Bureau of, 288.

| Moissan, H., Electric Furnace, 367.

‘Molinari, E., Chemistry, 365.

Montgomery, R. H., New York
State Income Tax, 468.

N

|National Physical

| _ British, seport, 2ir
Nature Study, Physical, ‘Dew:
gl.

Nervous System, Child, 462.

|Nevada, Muddy Mts., geology,

| Longwell, 39.

Newfoundland, etc.,
Warping, Daly, 381.

New Mexico, Permian, Bose, 187.

New York State Income Tax,
Montgomery, 468.

New Zealand Institute, 292.

Nova Scotia, formations of Hor-
ton-Windsor districts, Bell, 153.

Nutting, C. C., Barbados-Antigua
Expedition, 462.

ap Bee

post-glacial

INDEX.

OBITUARY.

Abney, Sir W. de W., 214.
Bumstead, H. A., 214.
Burnham, S. W., 380.
aim. J. C;, 380.
Delage, Y., 96, 214.
Rernald, CC. H., 380.
Field, I. A., 380.
Fletcher, L., 204.
Houssay, F., 2094.
Howard, W. A., 214.
Margules, M., 96.
Miyake, T., 380.
Muirhead, A., 2094.
Nathorst, A. G., 380.
Riddle, L. W., 294.
Sedgwick, W. T.,. 204.
Slit J iV", 380.
Sisuve, K. H., 06.
Moldt<C., 380.
Wautrevyille,: P. S.,. 214.
iWwrekt, G. F.,°520.

Observatory, Allegheny, publica-
tions, 96; Leander McCormick,
Boge) Ecimceton,.203; U. S.. Naval,
aaa ev ashiburn, 203; Yerkes,
203.

Occult Teaching, Sinnett, 376.

Ohio, Dunkard Series, Stauffer and
Schroyer, 370.

Oil, Fuel, in Industry, Andros, 89.

— in Texas, Beede, 372.

Oklahoma, Stanley shale, Honess,

63.

Ore deposits, Utah, Butler, Lough-
iateeteal. 214.

Oriskany sandstone faunule, Eaton,
427.

Orogeny, Rocky Mountain, Dake,

245.
Osgood, W. F., Calculus, 457.
O’Shea, L. T., Chemistry, 208.

P

Pacific Scientific Conference, 1920,
379.

Page, L., obituary notice of H. A.
Bumstead, 460.

Paleolagus, an extinct hare, Trox-
ell, 340.

Paleobotany, Coleman, 315.

Palms, petrified, North American,
Stevens, 431.

Patten, B. M., Embryology of the
Chick, 462.

Penck, W., Sudrand der Puna de
Atacama, 02.

- Permian of Coahuila, New Mexico,
Bose, 187. :

— of England, structures in, Holte-

dahl, 195.

525
Petrology, Nomenclature, Holmes,

375-

Phase rule and decomposition of
salts, Rengade, 364.

— Theory, Clibbens, 281.

Physics, Watson, 368.

Pierce, W. D., Sanitary Entomo-
logy, 461.

Platinum Deposits of the Ural Mts.,
Duparc, 515.

Poisons, etc. Detection, Autenrieth

and Warten, A467, ;

Popocatepetl, in activity, Waitz,
81

Potamogeton from Upper Creta-
ceous, Berry, 420.
Princeton Observatory, 293.

Priestley in America, 1794-1804,
Smith, 279.
Promerycocheeri, John Day,
Thorpe, 205.
Q
Queensland Museum, 202.
R

Ravn, J: P. J., Cretaceous Inverte-
brates of Greenland, 93.

Raymond, P. E., Trilobites, 512.

Read, C., Origin of Man, 380.

Reynaud, P., Systéme Solaire, 210.

Relativity, Eddington, 457; Carr,
458; Petzoldt, 283.

Rocky Mountain Orogeny, Dake,
245.

Roscoe, Chemistry, 365.

Rose, J. W., Cactacez, 463.

S)

Sands, musical, Wilson, 366.

Schorlemmer, Chemistry, 365.

Schuchert, C., Evolution of Geolo-
gic. Climates, 320.

Science News Bulletin, 467.

Shannon, E. V., boulangerite, 423;
orientite from Cuba, 4oI.

|Sinnett, A. P., Occult Teaching,

376.
Slosson, E. E., Chemistry, 200.
Smith, E. F., Priestley in America,
1794-1804, 279.
Erwin F., Bacterial Diseases of
Plants, 464.
Smithsonian Institution, report, 95.
Solar System, Reynaud, 210.
Spiritualism, Carter, 376.
Springer, F., Crinoidea flexibilia,
360.

| Stability, orbital, Taylor, 295.

Stevens, F. L., Diseases of Econo-
mie, Plants; . 465.

526 ; INDEX,

|
Stevens, N. E., petrified palms of Van der Bijl, H. J.. Thermioni |

North America, 431. Vacuum Tube, 209.
Stitt, E. R,, Bacteriology, 201: Von Hofsten, N., Biogeographie,
450.
ale
Taylor, F. B., determinate orbital | Ww
stability, 295. w ite PLE Ss
Taschenberg, Bibl. Zoologica, 519,| Vaitz, P., Popocatepe oa

: tivity, 8r.
Terraces, post-glacial, Anticosti | ,,,2¢
Is., Twenhofe] and Conine, 268. arren, W. H., Detection of Poi-

T Pee aa sons, 467.
Texas, “Bend Series, Goldman, | yy eabuce Observatory, pie:

374. . ;
— Bexar hee eeolonia: jiegees Meh ck from
213° arrant Co., Winton an ‘Wat WW: Paes : 68
Adkins, 213. We Son, We. YSICS, 300.
, : ave lengths, comparison of solar
Bete ne Chemistry of and terrestrial, Perot, 280.
; J: o fom ta i
Thomson, J. A., System of Animate libre of Hardin Co.,
Nature, 288. 2 ae ee

Thorpe, M. be Gs Tey Beamer iane Australia Geol. Survey,
cochceri, descriptions of new sia .
Cyclopidias ‘gos eaten 204 | Wate Mee
Cyclopidius, 405; two new fossil ~ Biyetogtaphy, * Lang
Carnivora, 477. Willer H. H., Anthr try, 2
Tapase nial Survey ‘of the 3 ey ETS opometry, 293.

atic Sie. ho, | Wisconsin Lakes, Phytoplankton,
Sap hea | _ Smith, 463.
ae hetee Stratigraphy, ere, STEW | Wig R. Wi Gata groups
Aroxell, Bao).. American Bothrio- | oe “ctructere Tae aes
donts, g2s: Paleolagus, an/| . ping ®
extinct hare, 340. | oxide, 138,
Twenhofel, W., H., post-glacial |
terraces of Anticosti Island, 268: xX

notice of Raymond’s Trilobites, | X-Ray tube, Lilienfeld and Rother,
512. |

United States Bureau of Mines,

288. Y
— Naval Observatory, 203.
— Topographical Survey, 520. | Yerkes Observatory, 203.

Ural Mts,, Platinum, Dupare, 515.
Utah, ore deposits, 214, Z

Vv | Zoologica, Bibliotheca, II., Tasch-
Vacuum Tube, Thermionic, Van | _ enberg, Sig

der Bij, 200. Zoology, Invertebrate, Drew, 201.

New, Rare and Fine Minerals

Plancheite, Belgian Congo; pale blue radiations,
with showy Dioptase, $2.00 to $6.00.

Spangolite, Bisbee ; one of the rarest copper minerals,
$3.00 to $5.00.

Higginsite, Bisbee ; a new copper-calcium arsenate
of bright green color; 25c. to $12.50.

Vonsenite, California ; a new iron silicate in attract-
lve masses, 25c. to $3.00.

Cosalite, Temiskaming District ; excellent masses,
$3.00 to $8.00.

Vashegyite, Nevada: banded with green opal ; $1.00
to $35.00.

Cyprine, Franklin, N. J.; very beautiful specimens
of rich blue color, $1.00 to $5.00.

Skutterudite, Cobalt ; exceedingly brilliant little
crystals on rock ; $2.50 to $8.00

Quisqueite, Peru; a rare and remarkable mineral ;
lustrous nodules, by far the finest ever in stock ; $1.00
to $6.00.

Zircon, Queensland; blue, gem crystals $1.50 to
$3.00 ; also exquisitely beautiful cut gems at $6.00
per carat.

Plan to visit Rochester this summer. We will
show you thousands of superb specimens.

WARD'S NATURAL SCIENCE ESTABLISHMENT

DEPARTMENT OF MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY

84-102 College Avenue, Rochester, New York

Pe Mites vee: “aa

“OP, Se ae

2" } . ; Ee al
| . Fon riie sa elec “ae
i ; unt is ay a g ‘ eee es ee
ae Ge Ke 2 aan se SPS BT x vie ike mig , ne

LP ; i : a7, hae beat | ba iia és ie

4’. -
a ¢ Vhs ; >
tak Wy Gs} e “fj ah WR» ins ¥ t

A SappiycHouns for Bcioutific Material.

a “Founded 1862. Incorporated 1890.
Ziel san | 1s. ENE ce

Es ere ;

a AS few of our cevent circulars in the various
ieee departments:

fer SSB Geology: J-32. Descriptive Catalogue of a Petrographic Col-

lection of American Rocks. J-188 and supplement.
Price-List of Rocks.
“Mineralogy: J-220. Collections. J-225. Minerals by Weight.
J-224. Autumnal Announcements.
mtology: J-201. Evolution of the Horse. J-199. Pale-
woie index fossils. J-115. Colleciions of Fossils.
nology: J-33. Supplies. J-229. Life Histories. J-230. +
ive Pupe.
ty: J-223. Material for dissection. J-207. Dissections
ie ot Typical Animals, etc. J-38. Models.
Microscope Slides: J-189. Slides of Parasites. J-29. Cata-
logue of Slides.
Taxidermy: J-22. North American Birdskins. Z-31. General
Taxidermy.
Human Anatomy: J-37. Skeletons & Models.
General: J-228. List of Circulars & Catalogues.

Wards Natural Science Establishment
84-102 College Ave., Rochester, N. Y., U.S. A.

ae

Sgr Peay
ay

ae. Hees.
ici cite

Ke PART,
a

RET Glen’

" - a

: 4 fad ae
sae

&SCIENTIA”

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC SYNTHESIS. Issued monthly (each
number consisting of 100 to 120 pages). Editor: EUGENIO RIGNANO. |

This is the only review which has a really international collaboration ; which is
of world-wide circulation and occupies itself with the synthesis and unification of
knowledge, in the history of the sciences, mathematics, astronomy, geology, physics,
chemistry, biology, psychology and sociology.

a This Review studies all the most important questions—demographic, ethnographic,
i ae economic, financial, juridical, historical, political—raised, by the world war.

It has published articles by Messrs.: Abbot =Arrhenius -Ashley = Bayliss - Beichman-

_. Bigourdan - Bohlin - Bohn= Bonnesen = Borel = Bouty = Bragg = Bruni = Burdick = Carver=

Caullery - Chamberlin - Charlier = Claparede = Clark = Costantin - Crommelin = Crowter =

% Darwin = Delage - De Vries = Durkheim = Eddington = Edgeworth - Emery = Enriques =

os Fabry = Findlay = Fisher = Fowler = Golgi = Gregory = Harper = Hartog = Heiberg - Hinks =

; Hopkins-Inigues-Innes-Janet-Kaptein-Kaye-Kidd-Langevin-Lebedew-Lloyd Morgan-=
Lodge = Loisy = Lorentz = Loria =Lowell = MacBride = Meillet =Moret-Muir-Peano =Picard =

Btn hey hh ate ee

is Poincare - Puiseux = Rabaud = Rey Pastor = Righi-Rignano-Russell-Rutherford-Sagnac =

a Sarton-= Schiaparelli- Scott = See = Sherrington = Soddy = Starling = Svedberg = Thomson =
Thorndike-Turner -Volterra-Webb-Weiss - Zeeman-Zeuthen and more than a hundred
others. .

**SCIENTIA”’ publishes its articles in the language of its authors, and joins to the
principal text a supplement containing the French translations ofall the articles that
are nof in French. (Write for a Specimen Number to the General Secretary of
“Scientia’’, Milan.) Annual subscription : 40 sh., or 10 doljars post free.

Office : 43 Foro Bonaparte, Milan, Italy.

Publishers: WILLIAMS & NORGATE - London; FELIX ALCAN -Paris
NICOLA ZANICHELLI-Bologna; WILLIAMS &
WILKINS .CO-Baltimore.

“at

CONTENTS, —

(with Frontispiece Es
—Two New Fossil Carn

ivora ; }y

ie

hydrous Silie
3. by De ee

Tench eB: Sos Za eet a

—A Note on the Cernaysian Mamma] Fauna
- Marrnzyw .... sei

by W. D

ei
\ teed ©) Slee @ Wie ce a a
cree. RN

LER, etc., 513.—Devon

ormophyta, E. A, N. ARBOR, 514,
et les Gites platinifares de |

3 Names, W. E. Forp, 516.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelli
ples of Immunology, H. T. Karsn
C. E. Marswatt : Bibliotheca Zo
of Glacier Nationa] Park, Monta
Survey of the United States:
Putnam, for the yea

Obituar

ER and E. E. Ecker, 518.—Mieroh
clogica II, O, T

na, P. ©. Stanpury : The Topo PE |
Report of the Librarian of Congress, H, |
‘ending June 30, 1920. The Maine Naturalist, 520, as
y—G. F, WRIGHT, 520.

Inpex, 521,

Feces fez <

“ i
>
ox

©
Rss

mle 5 \
ates oS ay
55 ; =

ye é

ts,

> = 4
=

eaeeee—

‘

: ace ail

Ty
Pat
air

Ban BANC,
2 a

a
O
e)
ae

ee

—4

ie Me
Ts

Nee
ay
Z

i
“ssh ns ss
Dery

™

“a

x
HOE S..
Tye

=;
es

WA ee
ee , ie
Ki

3 "| SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES
AIO
3 9088 01298 6048